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THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

POWELL AND LEALAND'S NEWLY CONSTRUCTED MICROSCOPE.

THE

MICROSCOPIC MISCELLANY ;

SELECTIONS

FROM THE

MICROSCOPIC JOURNAL,

CONTAINING

THE MOST RECENT FACTS, AND IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES IN HUMAN AND

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY, PATHOLOGY,

MEDICINE, ETC., DEVELOPED BY BRITISH AND FOREIGN

MICROSCOPICAL OBSERVERS.

With Illustrative Diagrams, by Joseph Dinkel.

EDITED BY

DANIEL COOPEB,

ASSISTANT-SURGEON TO THE SEVENTEENTH LANCERS. FORMERLY IN THE ZOOLOGICAL
DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, ETC., ETC.

LONDON :— MDCCCXLVIL

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, ESQ.,

F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.G.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,

KEEPER OF THE ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM,
ETC., ETC.,

ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,

AS A HUMBLE THOUGH GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT FOR MANY ACTS OF

FRIENDSHIP AND KINDNESS RECEIVED AT HIS HANDS AND IN

CONSIDERATION ALSO OF HIS HIGH ATTAINMENTS

AS A NATURALIST,

BY HIS LATE ASSISTANT IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM,

THE EDITOR.

ADDRESS.

THE MICROSCOPIC JOURNAL having now passed twelve
months of its existence, the EDITOR, at the suggestion of many
of the Subscribers, has resolved on doubling the number of its
pages, which will, he trusts, in future enable him to cater to
the tastes of the several classes of his readers with more advan-
tage than he has been able hitherto to do. The various Scien-
ces, now in a measure dependent on the employment of the
Microscope for their elucidation, have become so numerous,
that it is difficult at times to know how much of one, or how
much of another to cull from the multifarious British and
Foreign Journals, and Transactions of Societies continually on
our table ; and while the most important and interesting articles
have received early insertion, those of comparatively less inte-
rest have obtained a place later in the day, owing to the hitherto
limited extent of our pages. As this inconvenience will for the
future be in a great measure obviated, we wish it to be gene-
rally understood that our pages will constantly be open to the
insertion of all communications of standard merit, whether pub-
lished at home or abroad, with the object of placing in the
hands of the Microscopic Observer, all the important facts

Vlll ADDRESS.

which are scattered throughout numerous works and Proceed-
ings of British and Foreign Societies, with a view to render
the MICROSCOPIC JOURNAL a monthly periodical of importance
and reference to every explorer and lover of Science throughout
Great Britain. To accomplish this end, the EDITOR respect-
fully solicits a continuation of that support and assistance he
has hitherto received from his Correspondents.

CHATHAM,

22nd January, 1842.

G5

XV. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BLOOD DISCS AND THEIR CONTENTS.*

By John Quekett, Esq., M.R.C.S., $c.

THE author, after briefly alluding to the great importance of the blood
in the animal economy, and to the erroneous opinions which had been
entertained respecting its globules or discs, then proceeded to state,
that in his frequent examinations of the blood of the human subject, he
has often been attracted by the curiously corrugated or mulberry-like
appearance which many of the discs presented, and at first he at-
tributed this change in form to the salt and water which had been used
to dilute them with, previous to examination. The fluid consisted of
five grains of salt to an ounce of water ; whenever this was added to
recent blood, the discs very soon assumed this mulberry-like character.
The first effect produced on the addition of the saline solution was that
of the discs becoming stellate; little points appeared first on their
edges, and subsequently on their flattened surfaces as well, and after a
time these points become rounded, and eventually each disc assumed
a mulberry -like appearance, which gave him the idea of their contain-
ing small globules or granules in their interior, as ultimately proved to
be the case. On one occasion, whilst examining some blood which had
been diluted with salt and water, and having been prevented from
watching it for a few minutes, he was surprised at the great number of
small granules which had made their appearance during this interval,
which led him to 'suppose, that these granules might have escaped from
some of the red discs, and therefore watched to ascertain whether such was
the case. After viewing them for some minutes, he distinctly saw for the
first time, one or two of these little bodies escape suddenly from the in-
terior of one of the discs, and this soon after was followed by a second,
then a third, and so on, until six or seven had escaped. Numerous
opportunities having since offered of verifying these observations, it has
been found that from most of the discs six or seven of these little gra-
nules escape, some being emitted suddenly from the parent disc, whilst
others merely make their escape at the edge, and there remain, giving
the disc a beaded margin, whilst those, on the contrary, which were
projected to some little distance from the parent, moved about the field

* Read before the Medico-Chirurgical Society of London, March 23rd, 1841, and
abstracted by the author.

VOL. I. F

66 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BLOOD DISCS.

of view as if they were animated, which fact will be again alluded to.
It was subsequently found, that those discs which had given off these
little granules from their interior, disappeared from the field of view,
not suddenly bursting, but gradually getting more and more transpa-
rent, till no trace whatever of them was to be seen which was attri-
buted to the solvent power of the salt and water.

Having proceeded thus far in his observations on the blood diluted
with salt and water, his next endeavour was to prove whether these
changes in any way depended upon the saline solution, and whether
the same phenomena would occur in blood fresh drawn from the body,
having no other fluid for the red discs to float in than its own liquor
sanguinis : accordingly, some blood was taken from a small incision in
his arm, and placed on a glass, and covered lightly with a thin piece
of mica. At first no trace of spinous discs was to be observed ; but
after a few minutes they sprang up in all parts of the field of view, but
their surfaces were not so much corrugated as when the saline solution
was used, neither did the change from the ordinary disc to the spinous
one go on so rapidly ; but all the other phenomena were precisely simi-
lar to those which took place in the blood treated with salt and water.

By access to the splendid library of the Royal College of Surgeons,
he has been enabled to ascertain what had been done by others ;
and it is curious to remark, how beautifully some of the observa-
tions of the oldest examiners of the blood can be confirmed and
explained by what he has himself witnessed ; and he likewise
has found, that many things known and described by them, have
been entirely overlooked by writers of modern date. Leuwenhoeck
states, that each disc was composed of six smaller ones. Hew-
son knew that the discs sometimes assumed a mulberry character,
and that the discs of the blood of the eel would sometimes split and
allow the nucleus to escape ; but he attributed these changes to putre-
faction, and states, that human blood discs will become corrugated, and
appear like mulberries when putrid serum is added to them. From this
time down to within the last two or three years, these appearances have
been nearly overlooked. Professor Schultz must have witnessed the
escape of the granules from the red discs, but calls them air bubbles ;
he states, that the powerful contraction of the vesicular membrane,
excited by the salt and water, caused the elastic fluid contained in the
vesicles to be pressed out, and to escape in the form of air-bubbles,- — his
idea being, that a gas was contained in the interior of the vesicle around
the nucleus. It has been stated in the preceding part of this paper,
that some of the little granules, after their escape from the parent,

ORSERVATIONS ON THE BLOOD DISCS. 67

would take on a molecular movement. This fact must also have been
noticed by Majendie, for in his Lectures on the Blood, published in the
Lancet for 1838-39, he states, " that when blood was kept for 24 or 36
hours, the discs became puckered up, and besides this, a number of Vi-
briones or Monades appeared at the same time in the serum, which devour
the red globules." Others have made mention of the corrugated discs,
and of the little granules ; but all have singularly failed in ascertaining
their nature or their source ; they have been described by authors
under the names of lymph, chyle, and fibrin globules. Besides these
and the red discs, other bodies are seen in the blood, which are much
larger than the ordinary discs, and have been described by some ob-
servers as pus globules ; whether so or not, they give off granules from
their interior, but without becoming first spinous, like the red discs.
The changes described have been found to take place more rapidly in
the blood of some individuals than in that of others, and in the same
individual at different times, the best subjects being those of an inflam-
matory habit of body. There is one essential thing to be borne in
mind, which is, that the blood must not have been suffered to coagulate
before examination ; when this has commenced, and the discs have be-
come aggregated together like piles of money, the changes before des-
cribed will not take place. From the repeated observations of the author
he arrives at the following conclusions : — That each red particle of
human blood is a flattened circular disc, consisting of an outer mem-
brane or envelope, with a thick gelatiniform fluid in its interior, which,
under certain circumstances hereafter to be noticed, is capable of be-
coming granular, and of escaping from the envelope in the form of
small globules, the general number being about six or seven for each
disc : also, that the discs may present either a bi-convex or bi-concave
figure, of which the latter form is by far the most numerous, which is
in a great measure dependant upon the quantity of the gelatiniform
fluid which they contain in their interior. The existence of a nucleus,
as described by Hewson, Miiller, and other observers, he has entirely
failed in making out. At present he declines stating what he has ascer-
tained these little granules (so often spoken of ) to be ; these, together
with the important part they play in some of the effects of inflamma-
tion, as well as some other properties of the blood, will form the subject
of another paper, which he hopes shortly to lay before the Society.

F 2

68

NOTICE OF THE RESULT OF AN EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION MADR
REGARDING EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. *

By F. Schulze of Berlin.

SINCE the question respecting generatio aquivoca has attracted the
attention of naturalists, the developement of living organisms has
never been observed in vessels from which all air had been expelled by
boiling, and which had been hermetically sealed. The access of air
has been regarded as a necessary condition for the primary formation
of Infusoria from decomposing organic matter, so that the mere circum-
stance of covering an infusion with a stratum of oil, removed that
condition. But the question still remained undecided, — If the access of
atmospheric air, light, and heat to infundirten substances included of
itself all the conditions for the primary formation of animal or of vege-
table organisms ? And, in this point of view new direct experiments
were considered to be very desirable. The difficulty to be overcome,
consisted in the necessity of being assured, first, that at the beginning
of the experiments there was no animal germ capable of developement
in the infusion ; and secondly, that the air admitted contained nothing
of the kind.

I filled a glass flask half full of distilled water, in which I mixed
various animal and vegetable substances ; I then closed it with a good
cork, through which I passed two glass tubes bent at right angles, the
whole being air-tight. It was next placed in a sand-bath, and heated
until the water boiled violently, and thus all parts had reached a tem-
perature of 21 2 F. While the watery vapour was escaping by the
glass tubes, I fastened at each end an apparatus which chemists employ
for collecting carbonic acid ; that to the left was filled with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, and the other with a solution of potash. By
means of the boiling heat everything living, and all germs in the flask
or in the tubes, were destroyed, and all access was cut off by the
sulphuric acid on the one side, and by the potash on the other. I placed
this easily-moved apparatus before my window, were it was exposed to
the action of light* and also, as I performed my experiments during the
summer, to that of heat. At the same time I placed near it an open
vessel with the same substances that had been introduced into the flask,
and also after having subjected them to a boiling temperature. In
order now to renew constantly the air within the flask, I sucked with my
mouth, several times a day, the open end of the apparatus filled with

* From Jameson's Journal, Vol. 23.

ON THE VASCULAR TISSUE OF PLANTS. 69

solution of potash ; by which process the air entered my mouth from
the flask through the caustic liquid, and the atmospheric air from with-
out entered the flask through the sulphuric acid. The air was of
course not at all altered in its composition by passing through the
sulphuric acid in the flask, but if sufficient time was allowed for the
passage, all the portions of living matter, or of matter capable of
becoming animated, were taken up by the sulphuric acid and destroyed.
From the 28th of May till the beginning of August, I continued un-
interruptedly the renewal of the air in the flask, without being able,
by the aid of the microscope, to perceive any living animal or vegetable
substance, although during the whole of the time I made my observa-
tions almost daily on the edge of the liquid ; and when at last I se-
parated the different parts of the apparatus, I could not find in the
whole liquid the slightest trace of infusoria, of confervse, or of mould.
But all the three presented themselves in great abundance a few days
after I had left the flask standing open. The vessel which I placed
near the apparatus contained on the following day Vibriones and
Monades, to which were soon added larger Polygastric Infusoria, and
afterwards Rotatoria.

XVII. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VASCULAR TISSUE OF PLANTS.*

By E. J. Quekett, Esq. F.L.S., %c.

IN these observations it was shown that the membranous tube which
forms the parietes of vessels, originates from a cytoblast or nucleus, in
a manner similar to that described by Schleiden, in the formation of
ordinary cells of a plant, from which, at first, it is difficult to recognise
them ; but in a short period they assume the usual elongated cylindrical
form, and the cytoblast becomes absorbed.

Immediately after this state, and before the fibre becomes deposited,
the contents of the young vessel, which appear to be gelatinous, be-
come charged with innumerable granules, so small as not to allow light
to be transmitted through them — looking as blackish dots, and just
visible under very high magnifying powers. These granules possess
the motion known as " active molecules," and after a short time, when
they have become a little enlarged, they begin to adhere to the

Abstract of a paper read before the Microscopical Society of London, February

19th, 1840.

70 ON THE VASCULAR TISSUE OF PLANTS.

inner surface of the cylindrical cell containing them ; and it appears
that this direction can be in most instances resolved into the spiral form,
even in those vessels in which when the fibre is perfect that form is lost
from changes that have occurred since the primary deposit of the
granules.*

The singular law of the spiral arrangement of the granules was
mentioned as deserving some attention, being sometimes arranged in the
direction of a right-handed screw — in other cases in the opposite man-
ner ; sometimes in a single screw — in others as a compound one ; many
fibres running to constitute the helix. It was considered not improba-
ble that these granules possessed certain polarities, and that also the
usual continued passage of electrical currents through the axis and
branches of a plant may possess the power of determining the linear
and spiral order of floating granules, somewhat as the electrifying of
the particles of gold-leaf mixed with water causes them to assume a
linear condition ; but there can be no doubt that much in this matter is
effected by the agency of the vital powers of the cell itself, controlled
by the influence of the plant.

It had been conjectured by Schleiden (whose observations the paper
was intended in a great measure to confirm) that a current existed
between the gelatinous contents of the vessel and its wall, which pre-
ceded the formation of the fibre within, and gave to it the direction it
afterwards took. This opinion was shewn to be not altogether correct,
by the fact that the granules become separately attached to the inside
of the vessel without any discernible distance from each other, begin-
ning first at one end and proceeding gradually to the other ; occasion-
ally a vessel being found, in which part had the granules laid down in
the spiral direction, and the other as yet without any adhering to the
membrane, — the fibre elongating like a root by the materials for its
increase being added always to the growing point.

The granules so attached, becoming nourished by the contents of the
vessel, have the moniliform appearance they first present in a short

* The author, at the period of reading this paper, had examined several specimens
of plants in which it appeared that the spiral form was not peculiar to all, and that
the granules were sometimes deposited at the commencement in the manner in which
the fibre was found ultimately to obtain. This induced him to mention in the
original paper, that each vessel had a peculiar arrangement of the granules for
itself; but subsequent observations have led him to believe, that the spiral form
more or less perfect is the type of all, which opinion is entertained by other vege-
table anatomists.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF MACULA LUTEA. 71

period obliterated, and the fibre thereby obtaining a clear border which
completes its development.

This act is one which is believed to be met with in all vessels at their
origin, but is frequently modified in certain vessels afterwards — viz., in
the annular vessel, according to Mohl, the rings of fibre in this vessel
are formed by the union of one coil or coils of the fibre, in its early
condition, and afterwards separating from the others, or adhering and
becoming perfect rings in the interior of the vessel. In the reticulated,
on various portions of the original spiral fibre, a granule becomes en-
larged in the line, and forms the starting point for a branch of fibre,
which connects the turns of the spiral together, in various portions, and
in various directions. In the dotted and scalariform vessels, the fibres
become so connected as to leave meshes or portions of the membranous
wall of the vessel without any deposit within — and this spot so left,
constitutes the dot in the former, and the linear marking seen on the
walls of the latter. This dot is plain in all such kind of vessels, ex-
cepting those found in woody Exogens, where it possesses (from some
slight difference of structure) a central mark, making it analogous to
that on the woody tissue of coniferous plants, with which the author
thought it identical in structure, and probably in function, but only of
a smaller size.

The paper was illustrated with numerous diagrams representing the
successive stages of the minute process described.

XVIII. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE MACULA LUTEA OF THE HUMAN

EYE.*

By Dr. Grube of Konigsberg.

THE yellow spot in the human eye is situated on that precise point of
the retina which answers to the posterior point of the axis of the eye,
and is, therefore, the only part of the retina in which the eye perceives
with perfect distinctness (in direct vision) the figures represented on it ;
since the remaining surface serves, as is well known, only for very im-
perfect (indirect} vision. Of the structure of this yellow portion,
which is so much more delicate than the rest of the retina, that, from
its susceptibility of injury, it was for a long time conceived to be per-
forated, I have no precise knowledge. I have often examined it in the

From Miiller's Archiv. fur Anatomie und Physiologic, Heft 1, p. 38, 1840.
Translated by Mr. G. F. Richardson

72 ON THE STRUCTURE OF MUCULA LUTEA.

most fresh state I could select, with a power of three hundred linear,
but could never arrive at a satisfactory result ; and, indeed, I usually
found the structure of the retina in the human eye, to be far less dis-
tinctly recognizable than in the eyes of animals recently killed. This
indistinctness of the objects I conceived to be attributable to the de-
composition which so speedily attacks the eye, since, in animals also
which have been two days dead, the structure of the retina is no longer
distinctly to be seen. The eye is decidedly that part of the body in
which traces of incipient decomposition first display themselves ; the
cornea in a few hours after death acquires a folded aspect, and the eye
appears as if it had lost a great part of its humidity.

I recently had the opportunity, through the kindness of the Counsellor
of Medicine, von Treyden, to examine the eye of a man who had died
a few hours before of rupture of the spleen; — the results of this in-
vestigation were so decisive as to afford me the greatest possible sur-
prise.

The retina adhered SQ firmly to the vitreous humour, that it was
impossible to separate at least the greater portion of the latter, except
by actual cutting with scissors ; while, it is well known that soon after
death a fluid usually collects between the retina and the hyaloid
membrane, which renders the removal of the vitreous humour from the
retina extremely easy. It was already perceptible to the naked eye,
that the place of the yellow spot arose in a conical form, considerably
above the surface of the retina. The size of this elevation I was unable
to measure distinctly. I was, however, enabled, with a magnifying
power of three hundred linear, to perform one entire turn of the
screw of the micrometer, in order alternately to bring into focus the
highest point of the yellow spot, and the surface of the retina lying
beneath it.

With the view of preserving the object as entire as possible, I did not
compress it strongly, but placed over it a very thin plate of glass a
quarter of an inch in size, in order to level the conical elevation. The
appearance which the yellow spot now presented most nearly resembled
the shagreen formerly used by stationers for the covers of cases, &c.
Elongated, rounded particles, gradually tapering towards the middle, and
about one-fourth or one-fifth the size of particles of marrow (markkor-
perchen), arranged themselves together with great regularity on the
remainder of the surface of the retina. They proceeded like radii
towards the periphery of the yellow spot, became larger at that point,
but less distant in their outline, and with them were associated the
marrow-like particles of the remainder of the retina, in "radual transi-

HINTS TO MICROSCOPISTS. 73

tion. This point of transition (the circumference of the yellow spot)
was not circular, but the marrow-like globules radiated rather farther in
a star-like form at single points, which were not situated at regularly
recurring distances. A complete measurement I was unable to effect.

I had the opportunity of submitting this observation to the Physician
General, Dr. Linden, who expressed himself perfectly assured of its
correctness. It appears to me to be so far important that it affords the
means of a simple and mechanical explanation of the phenomenon, that
a portion only of the retina, namely, that which answers to the poste-
rior part of the axis of the eye, possesses the power of distinct vision.

to

II. ON THE CULTIVATION OF VALISNEUIA, CHARA, ETC., FOR

MICROSCOPIC PURPOSES.*

By Cornelius Varley, Esq.

I OFFER the following remarks as the result of my experience to those
microscopists desirous of preserving the different Charas, Valisneria,
and Hydrocharis, or Frog bit ; in all of which the circulation may be
well observed.

In cultivating these plants, it is only requisite to take notice of the
circumstances under which Chara naturally thrives, and to imitate them
as nearly as practicable.

Firstly. The Chara tribe is most abundant in still waters or ponds
that never become quite dry ; if found in running water, it is mostly
met with out of the current, in holes or side bays, where the stream has
little effect, and never on any prominence exposed to the current. If
the Chara could bear a current, its fruit would mostly be carried on and
be deposited in holes ; but it sends out from its various joints very fine
long roots into the water, and these would by agitation be destroyed,
and then the plant decays ; for although it may grow long before roots
are formed, yet when they are produced, their destruction involves the
death of the plant. In order, therefore, to preserve Chara, every care
must be taken to imitate the stillness of the water, by never shaking or
suddenly turning the vessel. It is also important that the Chara should
be disturbed as little as possible, and, if requisite, it must be done in the

* In a letter to the Editor.

74 HINTS TO MICROSCOPISTS.

most gentle manner, as, for instance, in cutting off a specimen, or
causing it to descend in order to keep the summit of the plant below
the surface of the water.

Secondly. Imitate the freshness of the water, by having an extent of
surface, which it is requisite to skim frequently, or suffer it to overflow
by the addition of more water. These precautions being attended to,
a clear bright surface is kept. It is also desireable to change a small
portion of the water ; but this should be done without agitation. The
best vessels for cultivating this plant in, are either wide pans, holding
three or four gallons, or glass jars a foot or more high ; into these the
Chara may be placed, either with clean water alone, or a little earth
may be sprinkled over it, so as to keep it at the bottom, or the bottom
may be covered one inch with closely pressed mould, in order that the
water may be put in without disturbing it. On this lay the Chara,
with a little earth over the lower ends, to fix it. By causing the water
to overflow is the readiest way to skim the surface, though dipping out
gently will do ; but in all cases of pouring in water, hold something,
such as a saucer or flat piece of wood, to receive the pouring, and make
it spread instead of allowing it to descend at once on the surface. Pans
in the open air, nearly full of water, will be kept in order by the wind
and rain, only taking care to supply the deficiency, (the effect of eva-
poration) and to change some of the water, if it be considered neces-
sary. The vessels kept in-doors have a film which is always forming
on the water, and which requires to be frequently removed.

Thirdly. Imitate the equal temperature of its native holes, by sinking
the pan a little within the earth ; but, during frosty weather, keep the
pan in-doors, and at the lower part of the house, as this situation is
generally the most uniform in its temperature.

The Chara will live in any temperature above freezing, and grows
quicker as the warmth increases ; but above the earth, as outside of a
first-floor window, it will not bear the daily difference between the mid-
day sun and the cold of sun-rising.

The glass jars I keep within the house, as nearly uniform in warmth
as convenient.

Similar care is requisite for Valisneria, but the warmest and most
equal temperature is better suited to this plant. It should be planted
in the middle of the jar in about two inches deep of mould, which has
been closely pressed ; over this, place two or three handful of leaves,
then gently fill the jar with water. When the water requires to be
changed, a small portion is sufficient to change at a time. It appears
to thrive in proportion to the frequency of the changing of the water,

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 75

taking care that the water added rather increases the temperature than
lowers it.

The natural habitat of the Frog-bit is on the surface of ponds and
ditches ; in the autumn its seeds fall, and become buried in the mud at
the bottom during the winter ; in the spring these plants rise to the sur-
face, produce flowers, and grow to their full size during summer. In
order to keep them for microscopic purposes, large pans, with earth at
the bottom, will preserve them through the winter ; and if left out of
doors during the cold months, the pans should be sunk into the ground
to preserve the buds from the extreme cold.

anfc $flbgtract3 from dforngn 3fountal3.
[From Oken'slsis, 1839.]

Mandl has discovered a new spermatic animalcule in man. It has a
knot-like ganglion behind the head, while others seem to resemble the
spermatic animalcules of the mouse. The seminal fluid was probably
vitiated by indisposition.

Doyere observes as follows on an animalcule found in the sand pro-
cured from gutters in the roofs of houses, forwarded to him by
Schulze : — It is not Macrobiotus hufelandi, though in some particulars
it much resembles that animalcule ; he however considers it to be the
same in more advanced age, and to be identical with Spallanzani's Tardi-
gradus, not so long but thicker than Macrobiotus (280,012 mill, meter) ;
it has a somewhat substantial and red-brown skin, and a head with two
obvious pairs of appendages like antennae. The body consists of four
rings, each having a pair of feet attached, and three rings, with a pair
of long threads or spines on the upper ring. The feet are jointed, and
have four equal claws — not two divided ones like Macrobiotus. The
proboscis is protrusible, and consists of three portions ; the points of
the jaws are not bent but straight.

Among the same sand were many smaller individuals of Macrobiotus,
probably younger ones ; they had only three claws on the feet, of which
two were simple and one divided. This is probably the Trionychium
of Ehrenberg.

Turpin states that in the yeast of beer the so-termed slime actually
consists of small Fungi, in a state of vegetation, including Mycoderma
(Hygocrocis) cerevisice, Torula cerevisite. Fermentation is a kind of
vegetation of these plants in water. *

Morren on the structure of Agaricus epixylon : — The colouring matter
presents characters different from those of the flowering plants. There
is no skin on the covering of the Fungi. The tissue is similar to that
of flesh, and consists of a net of long transparent vessels, which, on

* A translation of Turpin's paper will be inserted entire in a future number. — ED.

76 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS

the whole, appear altogether of a full blue colour, but under the micro-
scope present only here and there blue globules, ^-^th of a millimetre
in size. They are not altered by death. The fungi cannot, therefore,
be reckoned among cellular plants.

In Agaricus epixylon there are no single cells. The tissue consists
of anastomosing vessels, commonly furcated, occasionally three cor-
nered— sometimes jointed, with young branches proceeding from the
joints. The tubes are often united by a cross band like the letter H.
The vasa laticifera most nearly resemble these. This structure is
common to all Fungi. Thus it is a regular branched vascular structure.

The vasa laticifera are simple elementary organs which form together
the circulating apparatus of plants. The tissue of the Fungi is dis-
tinguished by the felt-like structure, and by the want of circulation, at
least during great part of their existence, as well as by the minute
globules in the fluid. This last fact is characteristic of the Fungi.

Milne Edwards on the Breathing Organs of Oniscus and Tylos. — In
the latter of these, the large transverse foleaceous appendages of the
abdominal feet, have on the lower side a series of eight or nine air-holes,
through which the air passes into as many small organs of breathing,
which lie in the long foleaceous vesicles, the surface of which is full of
tubular and ramose elongations. These float in the chyle of the animal,
and assume an intermediate form between the respiratory organs of the
spider and the air-tubes of the carp. In Oniscus and Porcellio, the ante-
rior leaves of the first two pair of abdominal feet, have several irregular
apertures beneath the hinder margin, observed by Latreille, respecting
which Edwards has shown, that the air penetrates through them to a
branched organ in the interior of the appendage, as in Tylos. A clas-
sification of the Crustacea, founded on their respiratory organs, would,
therefore, not be natural.

[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1840.]

Stiebel on Lysogonium tcenioides. — This creature, found by Stiebel in
the deposit of certain mineral springs, is thus described by him : — It
appears under the microscope as a very long articulated body, enveloped
by a mucoid or transparent covering, the articulated portions being con-
nected together by a straight band or muscle running along on both
sides. Each portion is divided by a transverse canal, running between
and below the mucoid envelope, and which has a small opening close
to the straight muscle before-mentioned. The extremities of the body
are oval-shaped, and the creatures are aggregated in bundles, ad-
hering together by means of a sort of slime. Sometimes one of the
bodies projects beyond the mass, or moves in an oscillating manner. At
its anterior extremity (which contains less granular matter), a distinct
articulated head is seen, having a dark notch laterally, which is the
mouth ; this opening, when viewed dorsally, as it were, appears trian-
gular, and from which a proboscis is sometimes seen to emerge. A deli-
cate triangular appendage or feeler, is seen projecting on each side (or

FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 77

even two on each side), especially on the smaller creatures, which con-
sist of only one or two articulated pieces. The proboscis is provided
with muscles, proceeding from the main lateral ones, and both at the
anterior and posterior extremities of the body, placed upon small pedi-
cels, to which a delicate black nerve is seen running, black eyes are visi-
ble. Each articulated portion is round, and provided with a black,
often zig-zag formed nervous fibre, and contains vesicles and granules
of various sizes. A black stomach and delicate intestine is also to be
found. Propagation is effected by self- division or separation of the ar-
ticulated portions.

Nasse on the Nerves of Frogs — The appearance of the nerves of
a frog, which had been kept for a whole year without nourish-
ment, and in which emaciation was considerable, was quite normal.
The fibres of the ischiatic gave, as the ratio of thirty-six measurements,
0,000367". In a healthy frog, the ratio of thirty measurements of the
fibre of the ischiatic, was 0,000374".

Fricke has observed species of Acephalocystus in the bones of the
Pelvis of a man sixty years of age. Estlin species of Cysticcecus
between the conjunctival and sclerotic coats of a girl six years old ; and
Gervais makes mention of an Echinococcus being found in a Simia.

Gliige has examined, microscopically, ramollissement of the brain.
According to him, in that kind of ramollissement where the softened
portion is devoid of colour, and which is comparatively rare, the
primitive nervous fibres are broken up, and contain sometimes a small
quantity of pus, and fewer of the small bodies or granules which are
observed in the red softening. These last are considered by Gliige as
analogous to what he calls his globules of inflammation ; whilst Valen-
tin looks upon them as approaching to the particles of the general
pigment of the body, though, nevertheless, differing from them.
According to Gliige they can be demonstrated within the capillary ves-
sels of the substance of the brain itself. Extravasation of blood may
cause, ramollissement in two ways, — first, in a purely mechanical
manner, and secondly, by the absorption of its coloured serum.

[From the Revue Zoologique, 1840.]

Bourjot on the Structure of the Eye of Hirudineae. — At the Philomatic
Society of Paris, 26th March, 1840, M. Bourjot endeavoured to prove
that the structure of the eye in Hirudinese, is complete, inasmuch as it
consists of a choroid coat and a perfectly round crystalline lens, as is
the case in all animals which live in water. Thus, contrary to the
opinion of M. de Blainville, and the doubt expressed by M. Moquin-
Tendon, in the Monograph of Hirudinese, M. Bourjot establishes, that
the eyes of the common Nephelis, and of Clepsina punctata, which ap-
proaches near to Planaria, and with greater reason to the higher order
Hirudinese, have eyes appropriately adapted for vision. — p. 120.

78 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

Milne Edwards on the Spcrmatophora of Cephalopods. — The sperma-
tophora are bodies discovered by Swammerdam and Needman in the
male organs of Cephalopods, and which, when they are removed from
the membranous pouch where they are arranged side by side, exercise
some degree of motion, change their form and soon burst. M. M. Ed-
wards and Peters have observed them in several Cephalopods, and give,
as the result of their researches on these singular bodies filled with
spermatic animalcules, that they are instruments of fecundation of a
new description altogether, having their analogues in the fecundating
corpuscules of the grains of the pollen of plants, which burst when
they come in contact with the female organ (stigma) of the flower. —
p. 153.

Guillot on the Acephalocysts of the human body. — At the Philomatic
Society of Paris, June 13, 1840, M. Natalis Guillot, made known the
results of his observations on these bodies. He explained the develop-
ment of vessels on their walls, their communication with the neigh-
bouring parts, and the transformation of the Acephalocysts, into true
cysts, provided with vascular parietes. — p. 180.

Laurent's researches on Spongilla fluviatilis . — -At the Philomatic Society
of Paris, June 19, 1840, he endeavoured to prove that four kinds of repro-
ductive organs existed in this species, viz. : — 1. Oviform bodies, already
known, ejecting a glutinous substance they contain, and in which no
silicious spicula are found at the moment of expulsion from the egg. —
2. Gemmiform bodies, very imperfectly known in Spongilla, called by
Dr. Grant ovules (in sponges) which, at the moment they detach them-
selves from the tissue of the parent to float about, have silicious spi-
cula in a part of their substance. — 3. Proteiform bodies, which detach
themselves from young Spongillae, a few days after they have become
fixed, and after having slowly moved for an indefinite period, fix and
become developed. These bodies never contain silicious spicula at the
moment of separation from the young parent. — 4. Tuberculiform bodies,
which may be seen to shoot out from different points of Spongilla,
and die without producing either of the three above-named reproduc-
tive bodies. At the period they are given off, they never contain sili-
cious spicula. These four reproductive organs of Spongilla are, how-
ever, reducible to three principal kinds, known by the names of eggs
(oviform bodies), gemma (gemmiform bodies, which are ultimately free
gemmae, and tuberculiform bodies regarded as fixed gemmae), and lastly
fragments or the proteiform bodies which naturally separate from the
parent. — p. 190.

M. C.Mylius on Uric Acid in the Excrement of Snails. — M. C. Mylius
of Berlin has discovered, that the excrement of snails always contains
uric acid. According to his experiments, this acid is secreted in a solid
form by a glandular organ, situated directly beneath the shell, forming,
without doubt, the urinary organ. This matter, which is of a white
colour, is easily seen in the transparent skin. To collect it, cut the
organ, and the matter escapes, which partakes of the consistence of
paste or bouillie. When it is collected from a number of snails, agitate

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 79

it in water ; this separates the albumen, while the uric acid is deposi-
ted, presenting, not a crystalline form, but a soft powder, like that of
Lycopodium. The granules of this powder present, under the micro-
scope, a spherical, transparent, and variable size, the largest measuring
0.00014", the smallest 0.00006", and the mean 0.00010" of an inch.
A grain and three quarter of uric acid may be obtained from a common
snail.

Mylius has met with this acid in Helix nemoralis and H. hortensis,
but has never been able to meet with it in the genera Lymneus and Pla-
norbis. |The acid is neither combined with ammonia or any other alkali,
but is secreted in a state of purity by the secreting organ. — January,
1841.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

May 27th, 1841. — Professor Owen, F.R.S., SfC. President, in the Chair.

After the preliminary business of the meeting, the Secretary proceeded
to read a paper from Dr. Haro of Metz, being " Observations on the
production of Infusoria ;" but as the author did not appear to be aware
of what had previously been done by other philosophers connected with
the history of the subject, we content ourselves with giving only the con-
clusions arrived at by the author, viz. — 1. That the air is not in all cases
the vehicle of the germs of true animalcules. 2. That substances in a
state of putrefaction, only contain animalcules when in contact with
other substances in which they already exist, and that they are not
developed, except under certain circumstances. 3. That decomposition
of organic matter only gives birth to rudimentary species, Vibriones and
Monades, which, generally speaking, are not animals ; and that if true
animalcules can be observed in them, these can only be regarded as
larvae deposited in their substance by minute insects flying in the air,
such as occur in the vibrios of paste and vinegar ; that, consequently,
there is not here any spontaneous generation, properly so called.
Finally, that all other particles are rudimentary crystalline atoms, which
are detached from organized bodies under decomposition, and are put in
motion by electrical forces, until the aggregation of the molecules con-
stitutes them solid bodies, under the form of the crystals which the
substance affects to which they belong.

The most important fact detailed by Dr. Haro was, as Dr. Arthur
Farre observed, the test for discovering the presence of albumen and
fibrin, should it prove on repetition to be correct. Dr. H. states, that
when albumen is subjected to decomposition in water Monades are pro-
duced ; and, on the contrary, when fibrin is so treated, Vibriones are the
animalcules met with in the fluid.

Professor Owen also made some remarks on the communication, in
which he stated that the author could not have been acquainted with
the previous researches of Professors Ehrenberg, Schultz, &c., and that

80 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

the question involved the animality of Monades and Vibriones, bearing
more particularly on the question of spontaneous generation as restricted
to Entozoa and Animalculse.

The meeting then resolved into the conversazione and examination of
objects.

jftcmorantta.

Mandl on the Relations which exist between Blood, Pus, Mucus, and
Epidermis. — The general conclusions arrived at by the author in his
memoir read before the Socitie Medicale d' Emulation, June 3rd, 1840,
are as follows : — 1 . The fibrinous globules of the blood, the globules
of mucus, and those of pus, are identical. 2. All the globules are
the product of the coagulation of the fibrin in the serum, which has
transuded through the walls of the blood-vessels. 3. The liquid in
which the globules swim constitutes the difference between pus and
mucus. 4. If the fibrinous globules remain fixed to the surface of the
membrane, where they are secreted, they become the nuclei of epider-
moid cellules, which constitute the elements of the epidermis. 5. If,
on the contrary, the fibrinous globules remain free on the surface of the
membrane, they are expelled by the organism, and form an element of
pus and mucus. 6. These two elements are simply filtered blood ;
that is to say, they contain all the elements of the blood, except the
globules; the serum at the same time undergoing chemical altera-
tions.— Gaz. Med. de Paris, July 1840, in Brit, and For. Med. Rev.
Jan. 1841.

Locality for Crateriumpyriforme. — This beautiful microscopic Fungus,
which was first noticed by Mr. C. G. White on flint stones in an old
gravel pit at Old Ford, near Bow, Middlesex, is now to be found most
abundantly on the gravel pebbles on the banks of the South West-
India Dock, and no doubt in other localities at this season. They are
not restricted to pebbles only, nor found on every stone, but appear
chiefly on the Southwestern aspect. — Edward Stock, Poplar, June 15,
1841.

Death of M. Turpin. — It is with much regret we record the death of
this distinguished microscopic observer and draughtsman. His remains
are deposited in Fere la Chaise, Paris. In a future number we intend
inserting an abstract of his researches, and further details connected
with the life of this illustrious observer.

81

XIX. NOTICE OF THE ANIMALCULES OF THE RED SNOW.*

By Dr. C. Vogt.

THE researches of Mr. Shuttle worth, published in the Bibl. Univ. 1840,
on the colouring matter of red snow, show, that the red-coloured snow
of our Alps is not solely vegetable, but that it contains a great number
of animals. But the observations of this botanist, although very exact,
have not since been repeated a sufficient number of times, nor in a suf-
ficient number of localities, to view them otherwise than the first steps
towards facts, which throw a new light on the study of the microscopic
Fauna. A number of details remained for further investigation, and as
M. Agassiz made a prolonged visit at the glacier of the Aar, we took with
us Ehrenberg's great work on Infusoria, and two microscopes, with a view
to study the red snow in a fresh state, and to compare the same from
different localities, wherever it was to be met with. The results we
have obtained are by no means unimportant, as regards the new and
curious forms that we have discovered, and the observations we have
made on their mode of life, and the facts connected with the develop-
ment and reproduction of these extraordinary beings, of which their
presence in the midst of the eternal snow is in some manner a dementi
given to the general ideas which are admitted on the conditions of the
existence of organic beings. The circumstance which surprised us
more than all, was the diversity of form exhibited by individuals col-
lected from various localities. It is probable that each station possesses
beings proper to it, associated with a certain number of other types
more generally distributed.

The red snow was found this year (August 1 840) in great abundance
on the glaciers which descend in the valley of the Aar. We also ob-
served it at the extremity of the glacier of Oberaar, on the glacier of
Finsteraar, on the plains of snow which border the west flank of Siedel-
horn, and in numerous points of the lower glacier of the Aar, between
others near to that of Abshwung, in the neighbourhood of the hotel of
Neuchatelois, near the crystal grottoes, on the lower glacier of Grin-
delwald, &c. The following are the organisms which we met with in
these situations : —

1. The Infusoria called Astasia nivalis by Shuttle worth, see the 3rd

* From the Bibl. Univ. de Geneve, 21st May, 1841.
VOL. I. G

82 OF THE ANIMALCULES OF THE RED SNOW.

fig. in his plate. It is easily distinguished by its pyriform shape, and
the rapidity of its movements. With the exception of the very small
white vesicles, situated in the interior of the body, which look like
stomachs, Shuttleworth has not given a description of the structure of the
animalcule. Numerous observations have satisfied me, that it is enve-
loped in a carapace which encases the whole, and is only open at the
anterior extremity. This opening is furnished with numerous small cilia,
serving both as organs of locomotion and prehension. It is doubtless
at this point that the mouth is situated, the position of which is indi-
cated by an orange- coloured tint, which is clearer than the rest of the
animal. The presence of the carapace together with the cilia, are cha-
racters which do not allow this animal to be placed with Astasia, as
Shuttleworth has done ; on the contrary, it ought to be placed in the
family Peridinia, which Ehrenberg thus characterizes : Animal distinctly,
or to all appearance polygastric, without intestinal canal, having a cara-
pace, with hairs or cilia scattered over the body, or on the carapace, often
in the form of a girdle or crown, provided with a single aperture in the
carapace, and furnished with vibratile organs. It ought, otherwise, to be
regarded as the type of a new genus, characterized by the absence of a
groove in the carapace, and also that the stiff hairs are replaced by soft
cilia, which is not found in any other genus of the family.

2. The Gyges Sanguineus of Shuttleworth, see his fig. 4. I will add, to
complete the description given to this animal by the author, that I have
frequently noticed, in those individuals in motion (Shuttleworth could
only have seen dead individuals), the orange- coloured organs occupied
the space between the carapace and the body, and which I believe to
be the retractile lips (levres.J The animal moves slowly, although di-
rected in every case. But that which distinguishes it above all, is its
mode of reproduction ; it gives off from several parts of its body small
transparent buds, apparently vesicular, and for the most part filled with
a grenue substance. As they enlarge, they are detached more or less
from the body of the animal ; sometimes two bodies of equal size, of
which one is red and carapaced, and the other quite colourless, adhere
by a very narrow point of attachment. By degrees this bud completely
detaches itself from the parent body, and appears under the form of a
colourless infusory animal, such as Shuttleworth has represented in his
7th and 8th fig., which approaches to Pandorina hyalina Ehr. I could
not discover in these offsets anything beyond that which Mr. S. has
already seen ; they are perfectly motionless ; their contents apparently
grenue, become coloured by degrees from green to yellow, orange,
and even a deep red, whilst the covering remains colourless, and is

OF THE ANIMALCULES OF THK RED SNOW. 83

converted into a carapace. It is at this point only that the motions of the
animal become visible. I had the good fortune to observe, and to be
able to make drawings of the various grades of this mode of reproduc-
tion, and I am convinced that this animal, far from belonging to the
genus Gyges, on the contrary, ought not only to be looked upon as the
type of a new genus, but still further, to constitute a family, on account
of its very peculiar mode of reproduction and development.

3. I place in the genus Gyges of Ehrenberg another infusoria, of an
equally remarkable form, which does not appear to have been observed
by Mr. Shuttleworth. In the red snow may be occasionally seen
globular organisms, containing in their interior from two to five indivi-
duals, enclosed in a carapace apparently of a vitreous character. The
colour of these animals, thus living in the same case, is of a dark red ;
they frequently adhere one to the other, and arrange themselves in the
form of a cross ; they are also frequently separate. The small indivi-
duals, probably the young, were of a clear yellow hue ; I could not ob-
serve the slightest motion in them.

4. An infusoria of the family of Bacillaria. It is very abundant in
the red snow, and is the smallest of all the kinds I have met with. We
frequently saw two of them adhering together, and ready to separate.
Their colour is yellowish brown. With the exception of a few bright
spots in their interior, I could not distinguish their structure, neither
could I detect the slightest motion.

5. A species of Aretiscon, having two hooks to the feet. This ani-
mal, known under the name of Macrobiotus, has usually the intestine
filled with several organisms met with in the red snow, and is that
which gives it a red hue, whilst its natural colour is a light brown.

6. The most interesting animal of the red snow is a Rotifer, a variety
of Philodina roseola Ehr. We met with it abundantly in the snow of
the lower glacier.of the Aar. Having remarked that the ovary was of
a much deeper colour than the other parts of the body, I directed my
attention especially to this organ, and I was not long before I perceived
eggs in different periods of development. The young eggs were per-
fectly round, and of a deep red hue, absolutely similar to the globules of
Protococcus, described and figured by Shuttleworth, in his fig. 2. I also
found eggs with a thin transparent covering, furnished on all sides with
small pointed projections. After a time others were also observed, of a
larger size, but similar in form to those figured by Ehrenberg, and ready
to be deposited. The great similarity of the immature eggs with the
globules of Protococcus figured by Shuttleworth, attracted our atten-
tion, so much so, that at the moment the idea suggested itself, that these

G 2

84

OF THE ANIMALCULES OF THE RED SNOW.

globules were generated by the Philodina, and are to be found in the
glandular appendages of the intestines. To assure myself of this, I fed
some Philodinas with indigo, and by this I distinctly ascertained that the
globules in question were situated exterior to the intestinal canal. But
as very many of these same globules were found isolated in the snow, it
became a matter of doubt whether those were the eggs of Philodina, or
really those of Protococcus. I soon found the solution of this problem,
by observing one of the Philodinas in the act of voiding the eggs ; from
that time it was evident that these animals do not always deposit eggs
fully formed, but that they give out occasionally some not perfectly de-
veloped, and these are doubtless the globules, which, up to the present
time, having been considered as those of Protococcus, are really animal
organisms, the eggs of Philodina. When they are of a rosaceous tinge,
I look upon them as winter-eggs, analogous to those of many of the Ro-
tiferse, which Ehrenberg has figured at their full development. I after-
wards met with these several forms of eggs together with the Philodina,
in the crevices of a polished rock below the glacier of Rosenlain, in the
vicinity of Guttannen, and even on the borders of the lake of Neuchatel,
where the Philodina roseola with coloured eyes is very abundant.

After what has"1 been stated, if
there really exists Protococcus inde-
pendently of these eggs (which does
not appear to me likely, at least
in the red snow of the Alps), it must
prove that their identity is such,
as to be mistaken the one for the
other. Future researches may pro-
bably elucidate their distinguishing
characters ; for M. Joli, in his work
on the salt-water ditches of the south
of France, regards equally as Infusoria,
those microscopic bodies which Turpin
determined as belonging to the genus
Protococcus.

In theaccompanyingfigure, 1 , the Phi-
lodina rosea * of the red snow, with the
different forms of its eggs, is seen mag-
nified 360 diameters. The animal is

* The animal is here represented only one half the size as in the original plate,—
the eggs are the full size.

OF THE ANIMALCULES OF THE RED SNOW. 85

seen from above, the body extended as in the ordinary act of progression on
the bottom or side of the vessel in which it is kept. The three principal
regions of the body are very distinct : 1 . The head and neck, with the
different organs of sense, and the commencement of the digestive sys-
tem ; 2. The trunk, which is nearly cylindrical, and is enveloped in a
furrowed cutaneous carapace ; 3. The articulated feet.

The anterior extremity, with its cilia, is expanded as in the act of
touching ; the rotatory organs are contracted : a little posterior to these
may be seen in the median line, the respiratory tube, which is equally
contracted, when spread out, it is much longer, and is furnished at its
extremity with stiff cilia. Behind this tube the eyes are met with,
which are obliquely placed ; they are colourless in the variety from the
Alps, whilst they are red or yellow in the common variety. Next comes
the pharynx, with its two teeth, from whence the intestinal canal pro-
ceeds, which, in the figure given by Dr. Vogt, is of a blue colour, the
animal having been fed on indigo. The intestinal appendages are distin-
guished from the ovary by their intense red colour. The foot, capable of
expansion and contraction, is also seen. It is composed of seven rings ;
the fifth and sixth are armed with two points, the seventh is furnished
with two claws, very much analogous to the posterior feet of the Che-
nilles. On either side of the body may be seen, in four different places,
the organs which Ehrenberg described as vibratile branchiae, but which
in reality are nothing more than enlargements of two lateral vessels given
off from the respiratory tube, and furnished with cilia. Similar vibra-
tile enlargements are seen at the union of the neck with the body, in
two situations in the middle of the body, and one at the side of the
anus. The head and neck, as well as the feet, may be withdrawn into
the coriaceous carapace of the body, which is susceptible of considerable
dilatation and contraction. Fig. 2 represents those imperfectly deve-
loped eggs which have been mistaken for Protococcus. Fig. 4 shows
the form of the winter-eggs not developed, with the covering in the
form of a rosette ; both the one and the other are met with in red snow.
Fig. 3 represents an accumulation of the ordinary eggs of Philodina,
collected from the crevices of the polished surface below the glacier of
Rosenlain ; the number is by no means limited.

The red snow of the upper glacier of the Aar and that of Siedel-
horn, furnished us with Philodinas and eggs of different forms, similar
to Protococcus. The lower glacier, and that of Finsteraar, presented
us with all the organisms noticed in this communication.

86

XX. — EHRKNBERG'S CONCLUSIONS ON THE ORGANIC COMPOSITION

OP CHALK AND CHALK MARL.*

1. MANY, and probably all, White Chalk Rocks are the produce of
microscopic coral animalcules, which are mostly quite invisible to the
naked eye, possessing calcareous shells of -^ to -^^ line in magnitude,
and of which much more than one million are well preserved in
each cubic inch, that is, much more than ten millions in one pound of
chalk, f

2. The Chalk Marls of the Mediterranean Basin are the produce of
microscopic Infusoria, possessing silicious shells or cases, mostly quite
invisible to the naked eye, intermingled with a small proportion of the
calcareous animalcules of the chalk.

3. The peculiar state of aggregation in White Chalk does not arise
from a precipitate of lime previously held in solution in the water of
the sea, nor is it the result of the accumulation of the small animal-
cules, but it proceeds from a disintegration of the assembled microsco-
pic organisms into much minuter organic calcareous particles ; the re-
union of which into regular, elliptical, granular laminse, is caused by a
peculiar crystalloid process, which may be compared to crystallization,
but is of a coarser nature, and essentially different from it. The best
writing chalk is that in which this process has been developed to the
greatest extent.

4. The compact limestone rocks, which bound the Nile in the whole
of Upper Egypt, and extend far into the Sahara or Desert, being nei-
ther white nor of a staining quality, as well as the West Asiatic com-
pact limestone rocks in the north of Arabia, are, in the mass, composed
of the coral animalcules of the European Chalk. This affords a new
insight into the ancient history of the formation of Lybia from Syene

* Extracted from Mr. Weaver's View of Ehrenberg's Observations on this subject
in the Annals of Natural History for June, 1841, p. 305.

f It is to be understood that I speak only of such Polythalamia as are well pre-
served, wholly disregarding their fragments. Of the well preserved there are con-
tained in one-fourth part of a cubic line, or in one-twelfth of a grain of chalk, fre-
quently 150 to 200 in number, equal to 600 — 800 in each cubic line, or 1800 — 2400
in each grain, and from 1,036,000 to 1,382,000 in each cubic inch ; and hence in
one pound of chalk the number far exceeds ten millions.

The larger Polythalamia and Bryozoa of the Chalk are best obtained from the sedi-
ment produced by brushing the chalk under water ; the entirely microscopic forms
remain long suspended in water.

ON THE ORGANIC COMPOSITION OF CHALK. 87

to the Atlas, and of Arabia from Sinai to Lebanon, thus opening a large
field to organic distribution.

5. Many of the chalk-like formations bordering on the Mediterranean
in Sicily, Barbary, and Greece, really belong to the period of the Euro-
pean chalk-formation, as proved by their organic contents, although
commonly held to be different from the chalk, and considered as ter-
tiary. *

6. The chalk-beds of the south of Europe, around the basin of the
Mediterranean, are distinguished from those of the north and east of
Europe, by numerous well-preserved chalk animalcules, and less
numerous inorganic lamina? ; while in the north and east of Europe
these relations are reversed, f

7. In the south of Europe the beds of marl which alternate with the
chalk, consist of silicious shells of Infusoria, and flints are wanting ;
while in the north of Europe beds of flint alternate with the chalk, and
marls with Infusoria are wanting. This exchange of character tends to
explain the peculiar relation of flint to chalk, indicating that the pulve-
rulent silicious particles of Infusoria have been converted into compact
nodules of flint.

8. It has been lately remarked, that the chalk which contains flint is
deficient in numerous silicious Infusoria, when compared with the Bilin
slaty Tripel, or polishing slate (Polirschiefer}, containing semi-opal ;
but this deficiency now disappears, and a rich substitute takes its place,
the Infusoria in the north of Europe having been employed in the for-
mation of flints ; while in the south, remaining unchanged, they are
preserved in the Infusoria marls.

9. The chalk animalcules most resemble those of the sea-sand and
the Miliolites, which, up to the present day, have been ranged among
the Molluscs with the Cephalopods ; but neither of these are either
Cephalopods or Molluscs, nor even Infusoria, as asserted by a late ob-
server ; but they are Bryozoa, animals of Moss-corals, which are most
nearly related to Flustra and Eschara.

10. The sea downs of some, and probably of most coasts, are still in

* In Sicily, however, there occur many breccias of chalk, which have suffered a
subsequent change, and may be referred to the tertiary epoch.

f Thus in the white and yellow soft writing chalk of the north of Europe, the in-
organic crystalloid portions sometimes equal, or rather exceed in mass the organic
remains ; but in the south of Europe, in Sicily, these organisms, with their frag-
ments, are greatly predominant, consisting, as it appears, exclusively ot well pre-
served Polythalamia.

88 ON THE ORGANIC COMPOSITION OF CHALK.

course of formation by living Bryozoa, which, though very small, resem-
bling grains of sand, are yet, for the most part, larger than the chalk
animalcules, and a large proportion of the sand of the Lybian Desert
has been proved to consist of such grains. It is only in Nubia above
Syene that the desert sand becomes a pure detritus of granite. *

1 1 . In the various countries of the earth in which occur white and
earth)', as well as coloured and compact rocks, composed of microscopic
calcareous animalcules, the genera and species of these animalcules
present so striking an agreement with those of the white chalk of
Riigen, that they may well be deemed characteristic of one and the
same period of geological formation. It cannot be asserted for a cer-
tainty, that the same forms have been observed anywhere else.

12. In the beds adjacent to, and more ancient than the chalk,
namely, in those of the Oolite and Jura limestone formation, we have
also clear evidence of the existence of other microscopic Polythalamia.
These, however, are such as have not hitherto been found anywhere in
the chalk.

13. The early assertion that all limestone was the produce of
animals,f though resting on no sufficient foundation, and therefore
justly held in slight regard by modern geologists, yet now deserves
every attention, since it clearly appears that a limestone formation
widely extended on the surface of the earth is composed of microscopic
animals, visibly converted in a gradual manner into inorganic chalk and
compact limestone. If similar phenomena appear also in the Jura
limestone formation, and should become still further confirmed, these
considerations (combined with the long-known existence of coarser
corals and shells in both formations), tend to show how necessary it is,
when examining the composition of any considerable portion of the
solid mass of the earth, to strengthen our natural senses by artificial
means, in order to obtain a distinct knowledge of the extent to which
organic life may have contributed to its production.

14. The extreme minuteness of the chalk animalcules is strikingly
proved by this, that even in the finest levigated whiting, multitudes
of them are still present, and may be applied, without suffering change,
to the most varied technical purposes ; thus in the chalk coating
given to painted chambers, paper, or even glazed visiting cards (when
not coated with white lead alone), may be seen a pretty mosaic of well-

* On these very interesting and not easily-developed relations, I hope, at a future
day, to be able to make a more special communication,
t By Linnaeus in 1745 and 1748, and Buffon in 1749.

MEMOIR OF THE LATE FRANCIS BAUER. 89

preserved Moss- coral animalcules, but which are invisible to the naked
eye ; and thus our natural vision receives from such a surface the im-
pression of the purest white, little dreaming that it contains the bodies
of millions of self-existing beings, of varied and beautiful forms, more
or less closely crowded together, as in Plate IV. of Ehrenberg's work,
where the subjects are magnified 300 times.

XXI. MEMOIR OF THE LATE FRANCIS BAUER, ESQ., F.R.S., ETC.

AT the Anniversary Meeting of the Linnsean Society on the 24th of
May 1841, the Bishop of Norwich, President, alluded, among others,
to the death of this distinguished Microscopic Observer, an account of
which we extract from the Proceedings of that Society : —

FRANCIS BAUER was born at Feldsberg, in Austria, October 4th, 1758.
His father, who held an appointment as painter to Prince Lichtenstein,
died while he was yet a boy, and the care of his education devolved
upon his mother. So early was his talent for botanical drawing mani-
fested, that the first published production of his pencil, a figure of
Anemone pratensis, L., is appended to a dissertation by Storck, " de
Usu Pulsatillse nigricantis," which bears date in 1771.

In 1788 he came to England, in company with the younger Jacquin,
and after visiting his brother Ferdinand, who was then engaged in
completing the beautiful series of drawings, since published in the
" Flora Graeca," was about to proceed to Paris. But the liberal pro-
posals made to him by Sir Joseph Banks on the eve of his intended
departure, diverted him from this resolution, and induced him to remain
in England, and to take up his residence in the neighbourhood of the
Royal Garden at Kew, in which village he continued to dwell until the
termination of his life.

It was the opinion of Sir Joseph Banks, that a botanic garden was
incomplete without a draughtsman permanently attached to it, and he
accordingly, with the sanction of his Majesty, fixed Mr. Bauer in that
capacity at Kew, himself defraying the salary during his own life, and
providing by his will for its continuance to the termination of that of
Mr. Bauer. In fulfilment of this engagement with Sir Joseph, Mr.
Bauer made numerous drawings and sketches of the plants of the
garden, which are now preserved in the British Museum. A selection
from his drawings was published in 1796, under the title of " Delinea-
tions of Exotick Plants cultivated in the Royal Garden at Kew," and
this was intended to be continued annually : but no more than three

90 MEMOIR OF THE LATE FRANCIS BAUER.

parts, consisting wholly of Heaths, and containing thirty plates, were
published.

In the early part of 1801, Mr. Bauer made for Mr. Brown, who had
then been for some years engaged in a particular study of the Ferns,
drawings of many genera of that family which Mr. Brown regarded as
new. His drawings of Woodsia, made some years afterwards, were
published in the llth volume of our Transations, in illustration of Mr.
Brown's paper on that genus. At a later period he again directed his
attention to that tribe of plants, his labours in which have within these
few years been given to the world in Sir William Jackson Hooker's
" Genera of Ferns." The 13th volume of the Linnsean Transactions is
enriched with his elaborate drawings, accompanying Mr. Brown's
memoir on Rafflesia ; and the part published last year contains a
paper by Mr. Bauer " On the Ergot of Rye," from materials collected
between the years 1805 and 1809.

The plate which accompanies the last-mentioned paper is derived
from drawings which form part of an extensive series in the British
Museum, illustrative of the structure of the grain, the germination,
growth and development of wheat, and the diseases of that and other
Cerealia. This admirable series of drawings constitutes perhaps the
most splendid and important monument of Mr. Bauer's extraordinary
talents as an artist and skill in microscopic investigation. The subject was
suggested to him by Sir Joseph Banks, who was engaged in an inquiry
into the disease of Corn known under the name of " Blight," and the part
of Mr. Bauer's drawings which relates to that disease was published in
illustration of Sir Joseph's memoir on the subject, and has been several
times reprinted with it. Mr. Bauer has himself given, in the volume
of the " Philosophical Transactions" for 1823, an account of his obser-
vations on the Vibrio Tritici of Gleichen, with the figures relating to
them ; and another small portion of his illustrations of the Diseases of
Corn, has since been published by him in the " Penny Magazine" for
1833. His figures of a somewhat analogous subject, the Apple-blight,
and the insect producing it, accompany Sir Joseph Banks's Memoir on
the Introduction of that Disease into England, in the 2nd volume of
the " Transactions of the Horticultural Society."

Before the close of the last century, Mr. Bauer commenced a series
of drawings of Orchidece, and of the details of their remarkable struc-
ture, to which he continued to add, as opportunities offered, nearly to
the termination of his life. A selection from these, which form one
of the most beautiful and extensive series of his botanical drawings,
was lithographed and published by Professor Lindley between the

MEMOIR OF THE LATE FRANCIS BAUER. 91

years 1830 arid 1838, under the title of " Illustrations of Orchidaceous
Plants."

His other published botanical works are : 1 . The first part, published
in 1818, of " Strelitzia Depicta," a work intended to comprise figures
of all the known species of that magnificent genus ; 2. " Microscopical
Observations on the Red Snow" brought from the Arctic Regions by
Captain Ross, the globules contained in which, by some regarded as
an Alga, he described in the 7th volume of the " Quarterly Journal "
of the Royal Institution, as a species of Uredo ; 3. " Some Experi-
ments on the Fungi which constitute the colouring matter of the Red
Snow," published in the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1820; and,
4. The Plates to the Botanical Appendix to Captain Parry's first
Voyage of Discovery, published in 1S21. One of the last productions
of his pencil, illustrating the structure of a plant growing at Kew,
which produces perfect seeds without any apparent action of pollen,
will appear in the forthcoming part of the Linnsean Transactions.

In the year 1816, he commenced lending the assistance of his pencil
to the late Sir Everard Home, in the various anatomical and physiolo-
gical investigations in which that distinguished anatomist was engaged;
and in the course of ten or twelve years furnished, in illustration of his
numerous papers in the " Philosophical Transactions," upwards of 120
plates, which were afterwards reprinted with Sir Everard's " Lectures
on Comparative Anatomy." These plates, which form together the
most extensive series of his published works, embraced a great variety
of important subjects, chiefly in microscopic anatomy, and afford abun-
dant evidence of his powers of observation and skill in depicting the
most difficult objects.

It is this rare, and previously almost unexampled union of the ob-
server and the artist, that has placed Mr. Bauer foremost in the first
rank of scientific draughtsmen. His paintings, as the more finished of
his productions may well be termed, are no less perfect as models of
artistic skill and effect, than as representations of natural objects. Of
all his predecessors, Ehret alone approaches him in these particulars ;
among his contemporaries, none but his brother Ferdinand can be re-
garded as his equal.

Mr. Bauer became a Fellow of the Linnsean Society in 1804, and of
the Royal Society in 1820. He died at his residence on Kew- Green
on the llth of December last, in the 83rd year of his age; and was
buried in the churchyard of that parish on the 16th of the same
month.

92

anil gbsltractsj from dfamgn
[From Muller's Archives.']

On the Microscopic Constituents of Milk. — Professor Nasse, of Mar-
burg, after a careful microscopic examination of milk from pregnant
and suckling women, as well as from a cow and a bitch, and a compa-
rison of his results with those of Donne and other preceding observers,
says, that the following may be enumerated as the microscopic consti-
tuents of the normal secretion of the mammary gland : — 1. The smooth,
homogeneous, transparent oil-globules, to which, in addition to the
common milk-globules, belong also the fine, scarcely- measurable par-
ticles and the larger drops of oil which swim on the top of the milk ;
2. The cream-globules, which are distinguished from the oil-globules
by their opacity, and their facette-like aspect ; 3. The granulated yel-
low corpuscles; 4. The lamella of epithelium; 5. The more or less
turbid medium, in which the four preceding kinds of corpuscles are sus-
pended.

The first, the common milk-globules, are composed entirely of fatty
matter, which dissolves completely and rapidly in ether. No membrane
can be seen investing them. In the first nine days after delivery, the
largest globules measure -^Q- of a line in diameter ; afterwards they are
as much as -^Q, but many are found of a much smaller size, and through
all periods of lactation, the microscope, as well as other means of exa-
mination, show that the proportion of oil-globules in the milk varies
greatly in different persons and under different circumstances.

In woman's milk perfectly fresh and warm, no other globules than these
are sometimes found ; but as soon as the milk has stood for some time
exposed to the air, other corpuscles are discernible in it, which are dis-
tinguished from the preceding by a greater definiteness, a less degree of
polish, and an appeance of facettes. In size they are nearly similar to
the oil-globules, but if the milk be examined some time after it is drawn,
a number are found much larger ; -^ of a line, or even more, in diame-
ter. They are not so easily soluble in ether as the common milk-
globules ; they do not break up in drying, but they become clearer ;
acetic acid and ammonia have no influence upon them ; they diminish
for a time when the milk is boiled, but they re-appear gradually as it
cools again ; when left at rest they collect on the surface and form the
cream ; they easily stick together, arid butter is formed when they are
collected in one homogeneous mass. It is evident that they acquire
their peculiar characters after they are drawn from the gland-ducts ; for
the author, as he watched them on the field of the microscope, could
see individual globules which were originally clear, becoming on a
sudden quite dark, and assuming the several characters of the cream-
globules.

The yellow granulated corpuscles are almost peculiar to the colos-
trum ; after the first few days from delivery, they cease to occur in the
milk, and they disappear from it earlier in those who have borne chil-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 93

dren than in priraiparae. They are not all spherical, the majority are
flat. Their diameter is at most from -^^ *° TTRF °f a ^me > some are
found measuring ^ in length, and -Jj in breadth. They consist of
small clear globules of fatty matter, which are connected together by a
firm cement, which is unalterable by either ammonia or concentrated
acetic acid, or by boiling. When the milk is left at rest, these globules
collect on its surface ; and when they exist in considerable numbers,
render it unfit for making butter. The author believes that they are
not, like the preceding globules, formed by the action of the air, but
that they are produced by the secreting surface of the gland-ducts, and
are analogous to the mucous-cells which are cast off from the surfaces
of many mucous membranes, and to which they are in many respecfs
similar.— HeftlH.p. 258, 1840, Transt. in Brit. 8r For.Med.Rev. 1841.

[From Guerin's Revue Zoologique.~\

Dujardin on Sponge. — If a small portion of a living sponge be placed
between two pieces of glass under the microscope, the living substance
is observed grouped in irregular roundish masses, enclosing green or
variously-coloured granules, according to the species under examination.
These irregular masses appear at first sight motionless ; but by care-
fully adjusting the light (eclairage), on the margin of these roundish
diaphanous bodies a change in form is apparent at every moment ; these
isolated portions not unfrequently, by the tearing of the mass into pieces
of from y^Q- to 2ij-Q of a millimetre, move slowly in the liquid, and fix
themselves on the glass by means of their mobile and diaphanous ex-
pansions, like the true Amibes. These isolated portions might be con-
sidered as simple green globules filled with granules, if care be not
taken to view, by the aid of refraction, the borders of their expansions.
Such are the facts observed by Dujardin in Spongia panicea and in Cli-
one celata on the coast of Manche, and in the Spongilla from the Orne
and environs of Paris, since the year 1835. — 1838, p. 67.

M. Poiselulle is of opinion, that in those tegumentary parts of the
body of man constantly and habitually uncovered, such as the face, neck,
hands, &c., and which are consequently subjected to a medium tempera-
ture, the capillary vessels are of a much larger size than those situated
in the other parts of the skin, which conclusion he arrives at from the cir-
cumstance of the capillary vessels circulating blood increasing in volume
when the temperature is lowered to the medium in which they are placed.

M. Philippe Pacini of Pistoie, read a memoir at the Scientific Con-
gress of Pisa, on a new organ discovered by him in the human subject.
It consists of ovoid corpuscles, or small white opalescent globules, about
two millimetres in size, which exist in considerable number in the sub-
cutaneous cellular tissue of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet
in man.

Humboldt's Natural Wadding or Flannel. — This substance has been
found in great quantity on the surface of the earth, in Silesia, after an
inundation of the Oder ; it is composed of a filamentous tissue of Con-
ferva rivularis, and fifteen different species of Infusoria, with silicious
Carapaces.

94 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

Beauperthuy and Adet de Roseville addressed some observations at
the sitting of the Academy of Science, Paris (19th March 1838),
tending to prove that putrid decomposition is preceded by the develop-
ment of microscopic animalcules ; these are first of the genus Monas,
and ultimately become Vibriones, which multiply with considerable
rapidity.

[From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Jan. 1840.]

M. P. Gervais on several Species of the Order Acaridte. — In this
paper two new species, (with figures), are added to the genus Scirus, viz.
S. obisium, which is very small, not exceeding one- third of a millimetre
in length, devoid of eyes, bright orange colour, and nearly transparent,
&c. The other, S. hexopthalamus, having six eyes of a carmine colour ;
larger than the preceding ; of an uniform orange colour. They were
both found near Paris.

A species of the genus Dermanyssus, named from being met with on
Pipistrella, D. Pipistrella, is also figured. Its length is about one milli-
metre, and is much smaller than the genus Caris. He has also figured,
for comparison, Psoroptes equi, Sarcoptes hominis, and S. dromedarii ;
the latter was obtained from the scaly crust of a dromedary recently
sent from Africa to the Jardin-du-Roi. No resemblance is to be per-
ceived between that of the camel and the horse ; whilst the first, on
the contrary, so closely resembles that of man, that it may be mistaken
for it if not examined with care ; and it may be supposed, that it is to
this similarity of structure that it passes from the animal to which it is
peculiar, and lodges itself, with the greatest ease, conveying the disease
from the one to the other. On careful examination, however, under high
powers, M. Gervais considers that sufficient characters may be found
to entitle it to the place of a species. In this paper the differential cha-
racters are given in detail ; it is accompanied with a beautiful plate,
on which seven species of the order are delineated.

Duvernoy on some points in the structure of Limulus, with a more par-
ticular description of their branchite. — This memoir, which is of some
length, enters into the historical, descriptive, and theoretical parts of
the subject.

Lallemand's paper on the origin and mode of development of Zoos-
perms, is inserted entire, for an abstract of which see p. 59 of this
Journal. In some remarks which precede the paper, he states, that a
single drop of fluid is sufficient for a perfect observation, a larger quan-
tity being inconvenient. It is requisite to press the small piece of thin
glass which covers it, to stop the currents of air there established, and
to cause the bubbles of air to disappear which are there found imprisoned.
Although the two glasses appear to touch, the Zoosperms move in the
intervals with great freedom, as long as they have the power, and the
evaporation has not proceeded to a too great extent ; should this take
place, a drop of water added, for some time prolongs their move-
ments.

95

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

June 24th, 1841. — Professor Owen, F.R.S., 8fC. President, in the Chair.

After the usual business had been completed, the Chairman stated,
that the Council had given orders for three of the most perfect micro-
scopes that can be constructed. They had therefore requested
Messrs. Hugh Powell, Andrew Ross, and James Smith, each to furnish
a standard instrument, made according to their own peculiar views.
The meeting was also informed, that owing to professional duties, Dr.
Arthur Farre had that evening resigned the office of Secretary, which
he had so well filled since the establishment of the Society. A vote of
thanks was proposed to Dr. A. Farre by Mr. George Jackson, for his
assiduity and attention to the affairs of the Institution, which was
seconded by Mr. Edwards, and carried unanimously.

The Secretary read an abstract of Dr. Haro's paper, read at the last
meeting (seep. 79), which was again brought before the Society with a
view to discussion.

Mr. E. J. Quekett made some remarks, and exhibited specimens of
water obtained from the London Docks, which attracted his attention
on account of its blood-red colour; which Mr. Q. finds, on examination,
to be owing to the presence of a multitude of small Entomostracous
animals, of the genus Monoculos ; in the interior of the individuals of
which a bright red spot was observed. They occur in vast numbers, at
certain seasons only, such as in warm and very tranquil weather, and
usually form about one- sixth of the bulk of the water. The common
people call it spawn.

Mr. Cornelius Varley stated, that he had brought for exhibition spe-
cimens of Nitella in fructification (both the globule and the seed.) They
were not quite ripe, but when they arrive at that state, he expects to
meet with the same moving particles which he some years since pointed
out in Char a.

The meeting then resolved into the usual conversazione and exami-
nation of objects.

Red and Green Snow. — In the 44th No. of Taylor's " Annals and
Magazine of Natural History," is the translation of a paper from Wieg-
mann's Archiv. (Heft. I. 1840), entitled, "On Red and Green Snow,
by the late Prof. Meyen ;" from which we learn, that M. Ch. Martius,
who twice accompanied the French expedition to Spitzbergen, is of
opinion, that the colouring matter of red snow, Protococcus nivalis, and
of green snow, P. viridis, " are one and the same plant, only in dif-
ferent stages of development." — Prof. Meyen, however, considers it to
be still a question, whether the colours of the snow are really produced
by different states of the same species ; but he has no doubt but that
the so-called Protococci belong, not to the vegetable, but to the animal

96 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

kingdom, being true Infusoria; that P. viridis is identical with Ehren-
berg's Euglenia viridis, and P. nival is with his Euglenia sanguined, (the
Enchelides sanguinea and Pulvisculus of authors) ; that these Enchelides
" exhibit at times a perfectly motionless state, in which they appear
spherical ;" and that in this state they have been described as Proto-
cocci ; that, "it is these spherical, reposing animalcules, which often
appear in incredible numbers, and, surrounded with a kind of slime,
form more or less thick skins, which frequently cover the bottoms of
shallow standing waters ;" and it is in consequence of observing that
these animalcules, after long remaining in this passive and inert state,
occasionally resume their activity, that so many philosophers have
spoken of a metamorphosis of Infusoria into plants, and vice versd. —
Newman's Phytologist, July, 1841.

Oberhausers New Microscope. — Through the kindness of Dr. Andrew
Ure, we were favoured with a sight of the newly constructed Microscope,
invented by M. Oberhauser, optician of Paris, during his recent visit to
London. We do not pretend to give any description of the peculiarities
of its construction. It enables, however, the observer to see an object
the size of a half-crown piece at one time, and possesses the advantage of
not reversing it. The facilities which it affords to the dissector from the
above improvement are equally important. On inquiry, we were in-
formed, that the price is as near as possible £10, and facilities will shortly
be afforded of purchasing them in this country. It is much to be de-
sired that some optician, resident in the metropolis, would import the
various simple improvements in Microscopes which are continually being
made in Germany and France, as many of them are exceedingly good,
and of a price more within the latitude of the humbler scientific inquirer.
Whoever should undertake this, we promise him every support. — Editor.

Mode of obtaining the Wheel Animalcule, (Vorticella rotatoria.} — In all
the old books, and in many modern works, directions are given to seek
for this interesting animalcule in leaden gutters, when wanted for the
microscope ; but I never could find them in such situations, and have
not been without them, in one half-pint mug, for the last seven years.
My method of raising and preserving this species is the following : —
Early in the spring I fill a three gallon jug with pure rain-water, (not
butt- water, because it contains the larvae of the gnat tribe.) This quan-
tity more than suffices to fill a half- pint mug, and to keep it at the same
level during the season. I then tie up a small portion of hay, about the
size of the smallest joint of the little finger, trimming it so that it may
not occupy too much room in the mug, and place it in the water ; or
about the same quantity of green sage leaves, also tied and trimmed.
About every ten days I remove the decayed portion (with a piece of
wire) and substitute a fresh supply. A much greater number of wheel
animalcules are raised by the sage leaves ; but I have sometimes been
obliged to discontinue the use of it, on account of its producing mouldi-
ness. I take them out with an ear-picker, scraping up the sides of the
mug near the surface, (including the dirt which adheres to them, by the
tail), or under the hay and sage. — /. Ford. Chelsea College, June 25,
1841.

113

XXV. — ON THE SILICIOUS BODIES OF THE CHALK, GREENSANDS,
AND OOLITES.

By J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.G.S.
[Continued from page 103.]

THE perpendicular and oblique veins of flint, found in the chalk cliffs
between Brighton and Rottingdean, and described by Dr. Mantell, pre-
sent precisely the same internal characters as the tabular flint and the
common tuberous nodules. The external characters are also similar to
those of the tabular flint. If we observe these veins in situ, we shall
frequently perceive, that the whole of their substance is not of uniform
density, but that there are often, near the middle of the vein, parts
where the two interior surfaces have not united, and that the spaces are
generally filled with chalk. If this chalk be carefully removed or dis-
solved by diluted muriatic acid, the internal surfaces present the same
appearances which have been described as characterizing the exterior of
the ordinary flint nodule ; and the aspect of the whole is precisely such
as we should expect to find, if the two sides of a fissure in a rock were
covered by our common fresh-water sponge, or one of similar habits ;
and the two outer surfaces had been built towards each other, and had
joined in some parts, while in others they had approached, but had not
united. The sides of these flint veins are not studded with numerous
species of Foraminiferce, like the under surface of the tabular flint, but
from the position in which the flint veins have been built, it is a natural
consequence that this should not be the case.

Having thus satisfied myself that the common tuberous flints, the
horizontal tabular flints, and those forming perpendicular or oblique
veins, were all produced by the same agency ; and having observed the
frequent occurrence of the partial imbedment of shells and other extra-
neous bodies, I was naturally led to infer, that in all probability the
interior casts of Echinites and similar bodies, which are frequently
found to be filled with flint, were also produced by the same agency ;
I therefore procured numerous specimens of silicified Echinodermata,
and their examination strongly corroborated this supposition. Some of
them were not entirely filled with flint ; in one case a small portion only
was silicious, in others two-thirds or three-fourths of their interior were
so occupied, while the remaining space was filled with chalk. Upon
clearing away the chalk from this part of the specimen, the flint never

VOL. I. 1

114 ON THE SILICIOUS BODIES OF CHALK, ETC.

presented an even surface, such as would have been produced had a
portion of fluid matter entered though the ambulacra and subsided, as
water or any similar liquid would have done ; but, on the contrary, the
surface was always undulated, and frequently projected considerably
above the surrounding parts, more especially near the side of the shell,
against which it was frequently built in semi -cones or columns, and in
the space thus unoccupied by the flint there was always included one or
both of the large orifices of the shell. The undulated surface of the
flint thus concealed within the Echinite, presents exactly the same orga-
nic characters which are observed on the flint nodules. Most fre-
quently the Echinite is filled with the flint ; and the animal having thus
built its prison full, has usually perished from want of sustenance ; at
other times it has survived this incarceration, and has grown out of one
or both of the great orifices of the shell, and has then, in some cases,
increased to a very considerable extent. On the exposed surface of the
whole of these, whether it be only to the extent of a slight convex pro-
jection from the orifice of the Echinite, or to a considerable mass,
an accordance will be found with the organic characters before des-
cribed.

If some of the specimens of Galerites and Spatangus, which are filled
with flint, be placed in diluted muriatic acid, and the whole of the shell
be removed, the appearance presented by the silicious casts will still fur-
ther corroborate the opinion of their spongeous origin. Occasionally it
will be found, that the ambulacral orifices of the shell have been filled
with fine threads of silex, and that these are based upon the cast ; but
more frequently we shall find, that opposite to each of these numerous
minute orifices, there is a small but deep depression, the interior of
which presents the usual characteristic surface observed on all flints,
and the minute tubuli will be seen as boldly projecting at the bottom
and round these small excavations, as upon any of the exposed surfaces
of the flint." In these cases the ambulacral orifices of the shell have
evidently been used by the sponge as so many inlets to admit the
streams of water which were necessary to its existence ; and the depres-
sions thus produced directly beneath them, were clearly intended as a
means of facilitating this operation. Cn the surface of the cast, in the
immediate neighbourhood of the two large orifices of the shell, there is
frequently a series of channels, which have evidently been left by the
sponge for the same purpose as the depressions opposite the ambulacral
pores, and the bottoms and sides of these channels exhibit the sponge
tubuli in a like manner.

ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EIIRENBERG. 115

It frequently occurs in the Echinitcs which are filled with flint, that
portions of the shell have been replaced or infiltrated with silex. In
all these cases that I have seen, the silex presents a stalactitical or chal-
cedonic form, and never exhibits the spongeous texture. Very fre-
quently, however, thin laminae of spongeous texture are found to have
been built between the plates of the Echinite, where they have happened
not to have been quite in contact ; and in these laminae the tubuli are
as beautifully distinct as in the most favourable portions of the mass of
the cast. If the surface of the cast be microscopically examined, we
shall frequently observe that the flint has not been in such a state of
contact with the shell as a cast from a fluid material would be supposed
to present ; for although the boundary of each plate is well marked, the
areas of their impressions exhibit such a view of the tubuli of the
sponge as we might naturally expect to find where numerous minute
tubes have been built against a flat or slightly concave surface. Some-
times the sponge has grown round the interior of the shell, and has
left a hollow near its centre ; and occasionally the sponge appears closely
approximating, yet not quite adhering, to the inner surface of the Echi-
nite. In these cases, a thin film of chalcedony is frequently spread
over the organized surface of the sponge, which, in a specimen in my
possession, is in several places to be seen through small breaks in the
film.

(To be continued.}

XXVI. AN ABSTRACT OF THE " INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN" OF

EHRENBERG. No. 2.

By W. Hughes Wiltshire, M.D.,M.B.S., Physician to the
Fore Street Dispensary, #c.

THE Infusoria are divided by Ehrenberg into two great classes, Poly-
gastrica and Rotatoria. The Polygastrica are characterised by having
their intestinal canal provided with numerous digestive sacs, or stomachs,
and by their non-possession of a true rotatory apparatus. The Rotatoria
are distinguished by their intestinal canal being simple, and by their pos-
session of peculiar ciliated organs, by means of which they perform
certain rotatory movements. The following are the characters of the
Class Polygastrica, to which is added a Synoptical Table of the Fa-
milies.

i2

116 ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENBERG

I.—POLYGASTRICA.

Invertebral animals having no pulsating vessels ; the intestinal canal
provided with numerous globular digestive
sacs, or stomachs ; motion performed by
pediform processes (very often vibrating),
no true articulated feet being present ;
hermaphroditic. Form of body indefinite,
from its property of increasing by gemmae
and spontaneous self- division.

Self-division perfect (Illoricated MONADINA.

g | ( Loricated. CRYPTOMONADINA

o .

Body devoid of I A ^^t^J ( VOLVOCINA.

§ appendages j Self-division imperfect I

io •« (no pediform / or incomplete J VIBRIONIA.

processes) (hence clustering)

Gymnica. \ CLOSTERINA

fllloricated ASTASIJEA.

o Form of bodyJ

( varying. (Loricated DINOBRYINA

*j g" Illoricated AMCEB^A.

o 3 /

Pediform Pro- C A compound pediform process from ) ARCELLINA

cesses.varyingJ I one aperture

Pseudopoda. \ Loricated \ A simple pediform process from one) BACILLARIA

or each aperture J

( Illoricated CYCLIDINA.

Hairy. I

Epitricha. (Loricated PERIDIN^EA.

_, fllloricated ... VORTICELLIA.
i Having but one orifice both for the reception and J

a discharge of nutritious matter. -Anojnsthia. |Loricated ... QPHRYDNINA.

| Having an anal and an oral orifice, one at f Illoricated ENCHELIA.

each extremity. — Enantiotreta.

^Loricated COLEPINA.

1 1 (Mouth furnished with a pro- j TRACHELINA.

/ Orifices not terminal nloricated j OOSC1S ; tai1 not Present »
(oblique or varying) -| (Mouth anterior, tail present ... OPHRYOCERCINA

Allotreta.

VLoricated ASPIDISCINA.

/ ( Locomotive organs — Cilii COLPODEA.

Orifices Illoricated j

ventral. v Locomotive organs — various OXYTRICHINA.

Catotreta.

VLoricated EUPLOTA.

ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENBERG.

117

FAMILY I. — MONADINA.

Polygastric animalcules having no distinct intestinal canal, lorica, or
appendages ; body uniform and constant in shape, dividing by sponta-
neous self-division not only into two portions, but by cross division into
four or more.

All self-moving little bodies discoverable in water by
the aid of the microscope, destitute of feet, hairs, bristles,
or other external appendages ; possessing no special ge-
latinous, membranous, or hard covering, like a lorica, but
provided with internal digestive sacs, or stomachs, with-
out a distinct intestinal canal uniting them together ;
not clustering in a chain, but sometimes appearing
as if double, from the constriction of self- division, or
from decussating constrictions, as if composed of four portions, or
even-looking, like a mulberry ; and whose globose, oval, or elongated
bodies, during rest or motion, show no voluntary change of form :
belong to the family Monadina. The following is a Synoptical Table
of the Genera.

Eye not
present

Solitary

( Proboscis one or two MICROGLENA.

/ f / (Solitary MONAS.

!?«•*•* v\f\4-

(voluntarily UVELLA.

Aggregated-!

v through self-division POLYTOMA.

Lip not ( J

present

"* i

Eye presents v Probiscides many PHACELOMONAS.

\Aggregated GLENOMORUM.

Rolling Doxococcus.

^ Lip present CHILOMONAS.

Tail present BODO.

118

XXVII. ON THE STRUCTURE AND USES OF THE STOMATA.*

By Thomas Williams, M.B., M.R.C.S., Lecturer on Forensic
Medicine, #c.

THE ultimate organization and functions of the Stomata of Plants have
long formed the subject of hypothesis and dispute among high autho-
rities in vegetable physiology.

The best informed of the earlier observers regarded them as folli-
cular pouches of the epidermis, through which the aqueous portions of
the elaborated sap were exhaled. In his more recent work, it is stated
by De Candolle, that they constitute the spaces where the spiral vessels
end, and through which the latter obtain their supply of air ; and hence
has probably originated the title of " breathing holes," under which
they are popularly known. By many modern botanists, they are de-
scribed as definitely organized openings leading into cavities which
freely communicate with the spaces between the cells of the paren-
chyma. There are not wanting others, by whom the patulous state of
the stomata has been denied, who consider them to be closed by a mem-
brane, described as a continuation of the epidermis, and which from its
delicacy and transparency is invisible under ordinary circumstances. The
mode adopted by the Rev. Mr. Reade to render evident this pellicle under
the microscope, consists in charring the leaf to be examined, between two
pieces of glass. Anxious to determine practically the relative merits of
these conflicting observations, I submitted the leaves and green parts
of several plants to this charring process ; and unquestionably succeeded
in rendering appreciable, in many instances, the existence of a pellicle
over the stomata. But in order to be certain that this membrane was
not the result of heat employed in preparing the leaf, of which I had
some suspicion, I contrived a modification of the process suggested by
the Rev. Mr. Reade. After having determined, by repeated observa-
tion, that some of the stomata in the spatha of the garden rhubarb
appeared open, it was immersed in warm water, after which air was
gradually forced into the parenchymatous interspaces, under the receiver
of an air-pump, — the success of the injection being indicated by the ex-
trication of minute bubbles of air from the inferior surface of the leaf.
The escape of the air was evidently made through the stomatal orifices

* Read at the Microscopical Society of London, August 18, 1841, and communi-
cated to that Society by the Editor.

STRUCTURE AND USES OF THE STOMATA. 119

— this, at least, is the probable inference — and if admitted, a proof is
afforded of the open condition of the stomata. The injected leaf was
then carbonized between plates of glass, and again examined with refe-
rence to the condition of the stomata. Surprise was excited when,
notwithstanding the proof of the patency, as presented by the escape
of the infused air, a pellicle over the stomata, darkened by the charring
as in the uninjected leaf, was observed under the microscope. This
similarity of result, obtained by processes of experiment essentially dif-
ferent, establishes the correctness of my former suspicion, that the
membrane is generated in the preparation of the leaf. Nor is this cir-
cumstance difficult of explanation, since in all plants a gummy sub-
stance, called by the Germans Phycomater or organic mucus, covers the
surface and even the cells of the stomata and parenchyma ; constituting,
according to the more recent observations of Schwann, the materials out
of which cells are originally formed. In reference to the stomatal
pellicle, therefore, in the lamina of a fully developed leaf, the explana-
tion is most probable which supposes that the air which, always in
minute quantities, occupies the intercellular spaces, dilating under the
heat of charring, acquires force enough to carry before it a bubble
of this mucous substance, the summit of which becomes carbonised
when brought into contact with the heated glass. By adhering to the
margins of the aperture, it thus presents the appearance of continuity
with the surrounding epidermis. In the examination of stomata
generally, however, it should be remembered, that in some species
of plants this mucous covering assumes the form of a universal cuticle,
and by its induration over the stomata forms a distinct unorganised
membrane.

After having multiplied to a few additional instances the observations,
of which the results are just stated, it became evident that the stoma-
tal organs, even in a limited portion of cuticle, exhibited different cha-
racters. By carefully detaching the epidermis from the stem of the
Tradescantia, the stomata could be distinguished in a perforate condi-
tion, without any variation either in the figure or diameter of the orifices.
In making, however, a comparative examination of portions of cuticle
stripped from the inferior surface of a maturely formed leaf at the base,
and from a small expanding bud at the summit of the stalk, differences in
the form of the stomatal organs were again recognised. It was not
until my examinations had been extended to several other plants, that I
associated these varieties with differences in the age of the leaf from
which the cuticle was taken for inspection. On the young and old
leaves of the Anchusa angustifolia, and still more strikingly (if the

I
120 STRUCTURE AND USES OF THE STOMATA. ,

cuticle, which is dense, be shaved off with a sharp, thin scalpel) on the
^buds and expanded leaves of the Ficus elastica, when contrastively
.examined, the following distinctive features can be readily determined.
Previously charred, the cuticle from the younger leaves will present
stomata, which consist of two or more elliptically disposed vesicles,
enclosing apparently a membrane, darkened by the charring, which can
be distinctly observed to be bisected by a diaphanous line longitudi-
nally traversing the oval space of the stoma. These appearances can
likewise be distinguished in the wwcharred cuticle, with the difference,
however, that the membrane here appears more like flattened cells,
studded in their interior with granules of chlorophylle, which impart to
the oval space a shaded or dark character ; and this latter circumstance
explains away the error of the idea which some microscopists have
entertained, that the dark appearance is caused by the presence of air
in the cavity beneath. In the epidermis of the -older leaves, on the
contrary, charred or uncharred, unequivocal perforations can be dis-
covered bounded by transparent vesicles. Between these two extremes
of the foetal and adult formations, numerous intermediate conditions
are presented. The transparent line, which I have satisfied myself to be
a fissural aperture between the two apposed, darkened vesicles, with
advancing development, acquires greater breadth, until ultimately it
assumes the character of an oval orifice. By comparing the stomates
on the bases and apices of the leaves of the Hyacinthus orientalis, the
distinctions here indicated may be conclusively determined. Subse-
quently to the settlements of these points, my attention was directed to
the observations of M. Hugo Mohl* on the development of these organs,
in which allusion is made to the views of M. Mirbel. f While no
positive statement is made in regard to the persistent condition of the
stomata, it may be obviously seen that the account which is here pre-
sented, derives confirmation from their labours. These observers
conducted their examinations upon the leaves of the Marchantia poly-
morpha, stalks of Gourds, and on the cuticle covering the articulations
of Tygnema. Although their opinions are somewhat different, they
agree upon the principle, that the orifices of these organs result from
the graduated separation of the vesicles, which are nothing more than
ordinary epidermoid cells, modified into a specific form. These facts,
then, obviously point to the general inference, that the normal condition
of the stomata is that of complete perforation, and that when the ap-

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1840, p. 222.
t Comptes Rendus, Tom. iii., p. 568.

f STRUCTURE AND USES OF THE STOMAT^. 121

pearance of an overlying membrane, without a central chink, is remarked,
its adventitious formation may be inferred.

Whatever may be the difficulty of circumscribing into a definite
function, the process of respiration in vegetables, physiologists can no
longer doubt the tendency of facts in relation to the use of the sto-
mata. It suggested itself to me, that if some expedient were contrived
to suspend the functions of the stomata, a sort of negative or patholo-
gical evidence might be obtained in regard to their uses. The most
effectual means, after some trials, were found in common varnish. If the
superior surface of an aquatic leaf, to which it is known the stomata
are confined, be well coated with varnish, after the lapse of a few days a
distended, unhealthy, and aetiolated state will supervene. Under the con-
ditions of this experiment, it is evident that two important consequences
follow : — That, firstly, the process of exhalation is rendered impracti-
cable by the impervious coating, inducing thus an undue retention of
water in the Parenchymatous cells ; and that, secondly, since the
decomponent agency of the light continues, the liberated oxygen is
equally retained, and, if the diseased appearance of the leaf be admitted
as criterion, proves deleterious to its organism. Time and opportunity
have not allowed me to correct and multiply these observations.
So far as my acquaintance with botanical literature extends, I am not
aware that this mode of experimenting upon the stomata has been anti-
cipated. From various physiological considerations, the accuracy of the
analogy cannot be doubted, which makes the stoma to the pneumatic
or respiratory system of the plant, what the spiracle is to the tracheal
apparatus of the insect. Although the former description of M. De
Candolle, that the spiral-vessels communicated by open mouths with
the stomatal cavities, has been denied by high authorities in modern
phytology, from the experiments of Dutrochet, Dumas* and Dr.
Boucherie, it is obvious that the spiral-vessels derive their supply of
atmospheric air by means of the stomata. In the leaf of the Holly, which,
upon maceration, separates into two layers, I have satisfied myself that the
spiral-vessels accompany only the excurrent woody fibres, and are there-
fore confined to the upper lamina of the leaf. A parallel to this ar-
rangement is found in the structure of some insects, in which the tra-
cheal tubes follow only the centrifugal currents of blood. In the
Holly, therefore, the communication with the stomata at the inferior
surface, can only be indirectly through the intercellular passages.

Comptes Rendus de TAcademie des Sciences, 1840.

122

extracts; anfc 8fo$tract$ from dforticjn SfountaR
[From the Annales des Sciences NaturellesJ]

C. Montague on the Nucleus of Sphterophoron. — The apothecium of
this genus of Lichens is at first only an elliptical expansion of the ex-
tremity of a division of the plant. If, in this state, a longitudinal sec-
tion be made, the cavity will be found to be occupied by the nucleus,
which is of a diagonal form. This circumstance is owing to a hemis-
pherical projection of the medullary or central layer of the thallus, repre-
senting a kind of torus, from all parts of which, tubes, bearing sporidia
or thecse, diverge. The upper part of the sporangium is already filled
with this scobiform substance altogether different from the sporidia,
the colour of which is of a beautiful blue or transparent indigo,
but which appears very black when in a mass ; the thecae and spo-
ridia are tinted of a like shade, but for the most part paler. By
degrees the cavity enlarges, not only by the increase of the extremity of
the branch, but still more by the insensible depression of the internal
projection formed by the medullary layer of the thallus.

The nucleus contained in the apothecium differs but little from that
of other Lichens. It is composed of straightened filaments, pressed one
against the other, exactly as in the proligerous plate of a Lecidea, and
united together by the intervention of a mucilaginous substance, a ready
absorbent of water. These tubular filaments, closed at their free extremi-
ties, have absolutely the form of asci or utricules of a Peziza. They are
linear, obtuse at the summit, and contracted into a short pedicel at their
base, which appears to be the continuation of the filaments of the me-
dullary layer. In their young state, they are perfectly transparent, and
contain an opaline moisture (humeur) in which appear hereafter trans-
parent globules. They are only to be seen by readjusting the focus of
the microscope. In a short time these filaments, which can only be
considered as true thecee, take on a bluish tint, becoming more intense
by age, preserve always the sky blue colour when viewed by transmit-
ted light.

The sporidise become also more and more apparent in the thecse : whe-
ther globular or oblong, they are arranged in a single row. At length,
the theca is about to burst ; they remain free, and mix with the mass of
black dust, from which they are 'nevertheless distinct, and which is very
difficult, at least for Dr. Montagne, to determine the origin, for it exists
from the very first formation of the apothecium.

The theca is from five to six hundredths of a millimetre in length,
by a two-hundredth in diameter. The sporidia, which are quite sphe-
rical, or rather longer than they are wide, acquire, when free, about the
yi^th of a millimetre in diameter. The sporidia are surrounded by a
transparent expansion (limbe) and are, like the thecae, of a blue colour.
—March 1841,;?. 149.

Agassiz on the Structure of the Scales of Fish. — M. Mandl considers
that I am mistaken in affirming, that the scales are composed of super-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 123

posed plates ; he asserts, on the contrary, that they are formed of juxta-
posed cellules. He endeavours to show it in the scales of Locha ; and
yet, in the same fish, I have succeeded in separating the plates, as they
grow one upon the other ; and in numerous transverse sections of dif-
ferent scales, I have seen, with a power of 250 diameters, the super-
position of these plates throughout the whole thickness of the scales ;
I have even published a figure of a similar section of the scale of Salmo
Trutta, in my Histoire Naturelle des poissons d'eau douce.

Mandl further affirms, that the diverging traces on the surface of
the scales, which I have described as furrows, are true canals. I can
scarcely imagine that Mandl has mistaken the middle tubes of the scales
of the lateral line (which ramify occasionally at their posterior extre-
mity) with the furrows of their surface ; this would be imputing to him
too gross an error ; nevertheless, I cannot see (entrevis) any other ex-
planation to that which he advances ; but that which I can positively
affirm is, other scales never have canals in their surface, but furrows,
compressed from above, which are prolonged to the margin of the supe-
rior layer of growth to the edge of the next inferior layer, as is
evidently seen in all transverse sections that can be made in any scale
offering similar traces.

Mandl is of opinion, that the toothings on the posterior border of
pectinated scales are not notches of the borders of the plates, but true
teeth, having a root enveloped in a sac. It is quite sufficient to examine
the scales of Sciena, which Mandl cites as an example, in adjusting suc-
cessively the scale by the focus of the microscope, to be convinced that
all this apparent dental apparatus depends on optical illusions, resulting
from the difference of thickness of these dentations at their base and at
their point ; and that in truth, the points which tooth the posterior
border of the scales of fish, which I call Ctenoidce, are simply the result
of notches, more or less deep at the border, and not detached
teeth.

Lastly, Mandl appears to be unacquainted with the existence of ena-
melled scales, which differ materially in their structure from those of
ordinary fish, and are found in an order, of which the greater num-
ber of species are extinct, and to which I have given the name of
Garoidse. To these, and other remarks, M. Agassiz concludes, from
his new observations, that the description he has given on a former occa-
sion is exact, and that the manner in which M. Mandl examined the samef
is erroneous in every respect.

To this Mandl replies in a succeeding Memoir, that : — 1 . The parts
of the scales which I call teeth, are not, as M. Agassiz observes, the
result of an optical illusion ; I can show their existence to the Commis-
sion.— 2. The canals, of which I have spoken assuming different forms,
do not exist, according to M. Agassiz : the Commission may convince
themselves that they really do exist. — 3. I have nowhere stated the
opinion attributed to me by M. Agassiz, that the scales are formed of
juxtaposed cellules ; I have, on the contrary, shown the presence of two
different lamella; I speak, as may be seen in the analysis of my
memoir inserted in the Comptes Rendus of the sitting of the 24th June,
1839, of superposed lamella in an inferior fibrous layer, and of cellules

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

only in the lines which are found on the surface of the superior layer of
the scale. M. Agassiz has then fallen into a great error relative to the
manner in which I examined the structure of the scales. — January, 1840,
p. 58, 62.

[From the Comptes Rendus.~]

Infusoria of Rock Salt. — M. Marcel de Serres communicated a note
on the subject of the observations which he is making along with M.
Joly. In the specimens of rock salt of a tolerably decided greenish
colour, brought from Cardona (Spain), the Infusoria appear more rare,
of a smaller size, and less distinct than in the specimens of a red co-
lour before examined.

This, says M. Marcel de Serres, finds an explanation in M. Joly's
previous observations on the change of tint, which the Infusoria that
colour our salt marshes undergo by age. These animalcules, which are
white at their birth, become green in their middle age, and do not till
their adult age take the purple tint which makes them so remarkable.
In general, the green Infusoria are not so often seen as the red in salt
marshes, which seems to indicate that these monades remain but a short
time in their middle state.

We have found the same Infusoria in the Argilo- calcareous marls,
which are found at Cardona beneath the rock salt. In this locality they
have their beautiful purple tint, but they are in too small numbers
to communicate it to the mass of marl, which is of a greyish hue. This
fact also proves, that in the ancient world, as in the present, the ani-
malcules were precipitated after death to the bottom of the waters in
which they had previously lived. — March 16, 1840.

Theory of Digestion, $c. — The Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles
Lettres at Brussels, offers a prize for the best essay on this subject ;
embracing, more particularly, a microscopic examination of the chyme,
and to determine the relation which subsists between the parts com-
posing the chyme and certain aliments; such as albumen, gelatine,
milk, and its products, &c.

The prize offered by the Academy, is a gold medal of the value of
600 francs. It is requisite that the memoir be legibly written in Latin,
French, or Flemish, and that it be forwarded, free of expense, before the
1st of February 1842, to M. Quetelet, Perpetual Secretary to the
Academy.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

August l8th.—R. H. Solly, Esq., F.R.S. #c., in the Chair.

A PAPER was read by Mr. John Quekett, ' On the Anatomy of four
species of Entozoa of the genus Strongylus, from the Delphinus Pho-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 125

ccena, or Common Porpoise.' The subjects of the present communica-
tion, with one exception, were found in the lungs of the porpoise. Two
of them have been long known, and described by Rudolphi, Klein, and
others, under the names of Stronyylus inflexus and S. minor, whilst a
third, from the circumstance of its being found in company with the
S. inflexus, has, by many observers, and by Rudolphi particularly, been
considered as a younger specimen of that species ; and the fourth ap-
pears hitherto either to have escaped notice, or else to have been con-
founded with the last. The author's examinations of this Entozoon
lead him to consider it as a distinct species, and from certain peculi-
arities he has named it S. invaginatus. The largest mentioned was S.
inflexus ; this species occurred most abundantly in the bronchial tubes,
and in such numbers as almost to close them up, but many specimens
were found in the right ventricle and auricle of the heart, and in the
principal blood-vessels of the lungs as well. The average length of the
male is about seven inches, whilst that of the female is nine inches.
Our space will not allow us to enter into the minute anatomical details,
which will doubtless be published elsewhere. The next species was
found in common with the last, being twisted together in a knot around
them, both in the bronchial tubes and blood-vessels ; it has been noticed
as the young of S. inflexus, but on comparison the author finds that the
difference between the two is so marked, as to leave no doubt of their
being distinct species. Kuhn has described it as S. convolutus. The
third species is the smallest of the whole, and from this circumstance
has been named S. minor (Quekett). It occurred in the venous sinusses
of the heart, and in the cavity of the tympanum, and from living in
blood they were of a reddish hue. The fourth species was found on the
surface of the lung of a porpoise, the pleuritic investment of which
was raised into little tubercles about the size of a small pea ; and on
cutting into one of them five very long and slender white worms were
drawn out, one being much shorter than the rest, which was subse-
quently ascertained to be the male. On tearing a portion of the lung
a vast number of these cysts were found imbedded in its substance,
and in each one there were several worms coiled up in a very small
compass ; the cysts could be readily torn away quite entire from the sur-
rounding tissue with the worms in them. After describing and detail-
ing the structure of the male and female of each of the species above
noticed, the author concluded the paper with alluding to some
curious facts which present themselves for consideration. Entozoa,
from the time of their first discovery to the present day, have exhibited
more astonishing and wonderful phenomena than any other tribe of
animated beings, and perhaps, throughout the whole kingdom of nature,
no class has been so frequently the subject of opposite opinions, and on
the matter of their generation we are now nearly as much in the dark
as ever. In the various specimens mentioned above, there is, however,
the startling truth of one and the same species of Entozoon living in
such opposite media, viz., in blood and in air ; for it has been above
stated that S. inflexus was found in the bronchial tubes in the principal
blood-vessels of the lung, even in the heart itself, in the venous sinusses at
the base of the brain, and the cavity of the tympanum were literally

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

clogged with the S. minor. Now it cannot but be imagined that any
animal so infested must, as a necessary consequence, have both the
functions of respiration and circulation greatly impeded. Three por-
poises examined by the author within the last three months have all had
Entozoa, and these were all taken in the Thames ; and the author con-
siders it probable that this may be the reason of their leaving the ocean
and running up the rivers at particular seasons of the year, and it
would be curious to ascertain whether those taken at sea about the same
period were so infested. The author considers also that some light
may be thrown on the occurrence of Entozoa in particular parts of an
animal, when they have been actually found living in the blood ; and it
may also be now readily imagined how the young, when emitted from
the parent, can be transported to all parts of the body by means of the
circulation, and analogy would lead to the conclusion that the blood of
other animals may contain Entozoa as well as that of the porpoise.
Another curious circumstance connected with these Strongyli is, that all
the specimens of the four species are nearly uniform in their size ; no
young ones having been met with amongst them ; these probably are
yet to be found in other parts of the body, where the scrutinizing eye
of the anatomist has as yet failed in detecting them. The paper was
accompanied with drawings, showing the anatomical details described
by Mr. J. Quekett.

A communication was then read from Dr. Thomas Williams, in which
it was shown, that under natural circumstances the stomata are openings
unclosed by membrane, as it was attempted to prove by the experiments
of the Rev. Mr. Reade. This paper is inserted entire at page 118 of
the present number.

Mr. Andrew Ross exhibited to the meeting his " Educational Micro-
scope," an account of which was given at page 1 1 1 of our last number.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

August oth, 1841. — Sir Henry Marsh in the Chair.

THE minutes of the last meeting having been read, the Secretary informed
the Society, that he had received a letter from Mr. Bergin, one of the
members, in which he requested him to read before the present meeting,
some notes relative to a curious animal, which had lately fallen under
his notice for the first time. The notes were accompanied by four or
five pen-and-ink etchings.

Mr. Bergin's communication was then read by Dr. Hill. In it he
directed the attention of the Society to the beautiful though compli-
cated organization of a small animal, which he believed to be a hiru-
dina, though he was unable to give it a name, or to say to what species
it belonged. He had found it in some water taken from a ditch in the
Phoenix Park. One of the most striking peculiarities of this animal
was the mode of its carrying its young ; they were ten or twelve in
number, and were attached by one extremity to the lower surface of
the posterior third of the body of the parent animal; each pos-

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 127

sessed considerable extensile and retractile powers, and the whole pre-
sented much the appearance of a cluster of the tentaculse of a polyp.
The author described minutely the internal organization, mode of pro-
gression, and other peculiarities of the animal, and strongly recom-
mended the members of the Society to make search for additional spe-
cimens, assuring them that they would be amply repaid by an inspec-
tion of this very curious and interesting creature.

Mr. Calwell exhibited a specimen of the animal described by Mr.
Bergin, prepared in balsam : he stated, that he had more than once met
with it, but was unacquainted with its name and history.

Dr. Hill mentioned, that a few days since, a specimen of the same
animal had been given him, which was obtained from a pond in the
county of Meath ; and that, being unacquainted with it, he had for-
warded it to Mr. Bergin, who happened to be engaged at the very time
in inquiries relative to the same creature.

Dr. Hill then read a brief notice of some peculiar appearances exhi-
bited at this season of the year by diseased wheat, when examined
under the microscope.

Micrometers. — For the sake of those of our readers interested in the
use of these instruments, we find in the Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale
des Naturalistes de Moscou, No. 3, Annfo 1837, a paper by Professor
Alexandre Fischer, " On the advantages of Micrometers in the Focus
of the Eye Piece of Compound Microscopes, and on the mode of placing
them ;" but as our space does not allow us to enter into the details and
formulae, which occupy twenty-six pages, we must rest satisfied with
referring only to the above quotation.

On Microscopic Vegetable Skeletons found in Peat, near Gainsborough,
by Mr. Binney, of Manchester. — Mr. Bowman read a paper at the last
meeting of the British Association on some skeletons of fossil vege-
tables, found by Mr. Binney, in the shape of a white impalpable powder,
under a peat-bog near Gainsborough, occupying a stratum of four to
six inches in thickness, and covering an area of several acres. It re-
mained unchanged by sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and by
heat, and was concluded to be pure silica, in a state of extremely
minute subdivision. On submitting it to the highest power of the
compound microscope, it was found to consist of a mass of transparent
squares and parallelograms, of different relative proportions, whose
edges were perfectly sharp and smooth, and the areas often traced with
very delicate parallel lines. On comparing these with the forms of
some existing Conferva of the tribe Diatomacete, which are parasitical
on other Algce both marine and fresh water, but so minute as to be
individually invisible to the naked eye, the resemblance was found to be
so strong as to leave no doubt of their close alliance, if not perfect
identity. Mr. Bowman considers them to be the counterparts of the

128 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

fossil Infusoria of Ehrenberg, and occupying the same place in the
vegetable kingdom as those do in the animal. — Ninth Report Brit.
Assoc. 1840.

Are the Closteria Animals or Plants ? — Ehrenberg enumerates the
following reasons for considering the Closteria as belonging to the ani-
mal kingdom. They enjoy voluntary motion, they have apertures at
their extremities, they have projecting permanent organs near the aper-
tures, which are constantly in motion, and they increase by horizontal
spontaneous division. Dr. Meyen, who was of the opposite opinion,
mentions, as the most important observations in favour of their vege-
table nature, that their structure is exactly similar to that of the Con-
ferva: their formation of seed, and the development of this seed, is
like that of the Conferva. The occurrence, moreover, of amylum in
the interior of the Closteria, with \vhich they are frequently nearly
filled, is a striking proof of their being plants ; they have no feet.
What Ehrenberg regards as such, are molecules, having a spontaneous
motion, which occur in great number in Clos. Trabecula, and quite fill
a canal the whole length of the plant. Their function is difficult to
determine, but they also occur in very many Conferva, and may perhaps
be compared with the Spermatozoa of plants. — Ann. Nat. Hist. Vol.
7F.ji.-7L

Griffiths on Ephedra. — He is of opinion, that the ovulum is. as
described by Mr. Brown, naked. The first species referred to had a very
silicious stem, without stomata, unless certain discs blocked up with
some hard matter (silex ?) are to be so considered ; this he believes
to be the correct view, inasmuch as the other species, which has no
silicious deposit, has stomata of the ordinary structure arranged in a
similar manner. — Proc. Linn. Soc. 1841.

Diameter of the Globules of Human Blood. — For the sake of reference,
we insert the measurements of the globules of the human blood, given
by various observers : —

Hodgkin .......................................... 30100 of an inch.

Jurine, in a 2nd measurement

Bauer .......................... ................... TTOO

Wollaston

Kater
Ditto
Prevost and Dumas

The thickness of the particles, which is perhaps not so uniform as
the diameter of the discs, is on an average to this latter dimension, as
1 to 45. — Hodgkin and Lister's Micros. Observ. on the Blood, $c., Phil.
Mag. Vol. II, p. 133.

145

XXXI. OBSERVATIONS ON PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING

ANIMALS.

By George Busk, Esq., Surgeon to the Hospital Ship,
Dreadnought, #c.

THE occurrence of parasitical growths, or of organized productions,
having a close analogy with some forms of cryptogamic vegetation,
upon the surfaces or within the substance of living animals, and in
many instances constituting the cause of disease, is a subject of con-
siderable importance in pathology ; and although it would be out of
place in these pages to enter into the pathological relations of these
affections, yet as the microscope has been the means by which the few
facts as yet ascertained in this matter have been brought to light, it
may not, perhaps, be deemed irrelevant to the object of the MICRO-
SCOPIC JOURNAL, to admit a short statement of what has been observed,
and thus to bring into one point of view, and attract the attention of
microscopists, to a probably not unfertile field of investigation.

1. On the 28th of August, 1832, Mr. Owen read some notes before
the Zoological Society on the anatomy of the Flamingo, (Phcenicopterus
ruberj, in the lungs of which bird he found numerous tubercles and
vomicse, the inner surface of which latter was covered with a greenish
vegetable mould or mucor. Mr. Owen presumed that the growths had
taken place during the life of the animal, and thence concluded that
internal parasites are not derived exclusively from the animal kingdom,
but that there are Entophyta as well as Entozoa*

2. In the year 1835 a disease to which silkworms are subject, known
under the name of Muscardine, was first described byM.Bassi of Lodi, and
M. Balsamo, a botanist of Milan. They ascertained that this disease was
owing to the growth, on or within the body of the caterpillar, of a cryp-
togamic vegetation. M. Audouin, in 1836 and 1837, in a paper en-
titled " Anatomical and Physiological Researches on the contagious
disease which attacks silk-worms, and which is designated under the
name of Muscardine," 'f described a series of experiments on the chry-
salis of Bombyx Mori thus affected, and which he had received from
M. Bassi. He was able to follow in detail the transformation of the

* Philosophical Magazine, 1833. New Series, Vol. II, Page 71.
f Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Vol. VIII, New Series, Page 229, PI. 10, 11.

VOL. I. L

146 PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING ANIMALS.

fatty tissue of the insect into radicles (thallus) of the cryptogamic vege-
tation, to which he gave the name of Botrytis Bassiana.* (PI. 1. fig. 4.)

3. The next observation is that of M. Des Longchamps,t in a paper
" On the habits of the Eider duck (Anas mollissimaj" , in which he de-
scribes the occurrence of layers of mouldiness developed during life, on
the internal surface of the aerial cavities of one of these birds, which he
examined on the 2nd July, 1840, while yet warm. This vegetation
occurred in the form of flakes or layers, deposited in great numbers on
the walls of these cavities. Most of these plates, or layers, were cir-
cular, and they varied in size from two or three millimetres to several
centimetres. The small bronchial tubes were covered with them in
great abundance. Two kinds of these plates or flakes were observed.
Beneath the larger ones the membrane upon which they were situated
was uniformly reddened and thickened ; beneath the smaller ones, to-
wards the centre, a vascular net work was seen, surrounded by a zone,
in which the vascularity was less distinct, and beyond this zone the
vascularity was again increased, but in less degree than in the centre.
The colour of the smaller flakes was a dirty white ; the larger ones
were also white, but greenish in the centre. The border of the larger
flakes was irregular, which irregularity evidently resulted from their
being formed by the confluence of several adjoining smaller flakes.
Examined under the microscope, this mouldiness appeared to be com-
posed of transparent non- articulated filaments (Plate l,fig. 3), slightly,
if at all branched, and intermixed like the fibres of felt. These fila-
ments, imbedded in a layer of albumen, were in parts scarcely the y^-Q-th
of a millimetre in diameter. M. D. further observed numerous ovoid
or globular vesicles in the felt-like mass, of the same diameter as the
filaments, which vesicles he looked upon as sporules. These growths
appeared to have no immediate connexion with the living tissue.

4. A mouldiness of a different kind was also observed by MM.
Rousseau and SerrurierJ, which they describe as being found not unfre-
quently in pigeons and fowls, particularly in cold and humid situations,
or in rainy seasons. These observers found it in the body of a male

* For further observations on this disease, vide a paper by M. Johanny, Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, Vol. XI, Page 65, 80 ; and one by M. Crivelli, in Schlec-
tendahl's Linnaea, 118, 123; and byM. Bonafous, L'Institut, No. CCLXXIX, Page
154 ; and Henle's Pathologisch. Untersuchung.

f Annales des Sciences Naturelles, June 1841, Page 371.
t Comptes Rendus, 1841.

PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING ANIMALS. 147

parroquet, which died of a tubercular disease, in a sort of false mem-
brane between the intestines and vertebral column, which membrane
was covered with a greenish pulverulent mouldiness, so light, and so
little adherent, that it could be blown off as a fine powder. They fur-
ther state, that a similar affection has been noticed by them in animals
of other classes, as in Cervus Axis, and Testudo Indica.

5. In 1839, M. Schoenlein* announced the fact of the existence of
Mycodermata in the crusts of Tinea favosa. Priority, however, in this
observation, is claimed by M. Remak,f who says that he made it as far
back as 1836, when he stated that Tinea favosa consisted of fungoid
filaments. J

On the announcement of Schcenlein's experiments in 1 839, they were
repeated by MM. Fuchs and Langenbeck, at Gottingen, who sup-
posed that they proved the existence of mucores, not only in the
crusts of true Tinea (Porrigo favosa and P. lupinosaj, but also in the ma-
jority of eruptions belonging to what they term cutaneous scrofula, for
instance, in the crusts of Impetigo scrofulosa, and in those of serpiginous
ulcers. These researches are published by M. Fuchs, in his Compte
Rendu the Polyclinique of Gottingen, in the Ann. Hanov. de M.
Holscher, Cahier de 1840, and still later in the first volume of his
Trait e des maladies de la peau, Gottingen, 1840.

Latterly, however, a much fuller and more correct description of this
disease has been given by M. Gruby, of Vienna,§ who states that the
crusts of Tinea favosa contain, or in fact are made up of aggregated
Mycodermata. This growth consists of numerous corpuscles, rounded
or oblong, the longitudinal diameter of which is from about the -j^o-th
to the y^-oth of a millim, and the transverse from the -^-oth to the
TXoth. They are transparent, with a defined border, and smooth sur-
face ; colourless, or slightly yellow, and homogeneous. The corpuscles
are either separate, or, by their apposition end to end, constitute beaded
or articulated filaments, which are simply cylindrical or branched, ac-
cording to the part of the crust in which they are found. Besides these
beaded filaments, other much smaller branched filaments are to be
observed, which are furnished at certain distances with partitions (cloi -
sons vegetales), and thus represent oblong cells, in which are found
very minute round, transparent molecules, as exhibited by the figures in
the accompanying plate. Occasionally, some granules are found ad-

* Miiller's Archives. f Medicinisch. Zeitung, No. XVI, Page 73, 74.

J Valentin's Repertorium, 1841. § Comptes Rendus, 1841.

148

PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING ANIMALS.

herent to these filaments, similar to the spores of Torula olivacea,
and T. sacchari* The form of these filaments, is considered by M.

Portion of Epidermis.

TcToo-

of an inch each.

Gruby a sufficient proof of their vegetable character, and according to
M. Brogniart they belong to the group of My coder mata.

Each crust of Tinea is described by M. Gruby to consist of two
envelopes, formed by the cuticle, and an aggregation of Mycodermata,
which are enclosed within them like fruit in their pericarps. The
crusts are placed on the surface of the true skin, and the Mycodermata
are developed among the cells of the epidermis.

The external disc of the capsule, which at the commencement is not
perforated, becomes open in the centre by a small hole, whose borders
are elevated, by the continual development of the Mycodermata. This
opening enlarges by degrees, and there is thus formed in the centre a

* Icones fungorum hucusque cognitorum. A. C. J. Corda, Pragae, 1837, 1840.

[The above figures, copied from the drawings of Mr. G. Busk, are engraved on
copper, by Mr. J. Shury, Jun., of 13, Charterhouse Street. We were desirous of
giving the process a trial, as it appeared to us peculiarly applicable to the illustra-
tion of such structural subjects. Here is the result ; we leave our readers to form
their own opinions as to its merits or demerits. — Editor.']

PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING ANIMALS. 149

whitish excavation, whilst the borders remain of a yellowish colour.
Simultaneously with the enlargement of the opening, the Mycodermata
protrude, and are developed like a fungus, and finally the borders dis-
appear ; the stems of the Mycodermata are prolonged, and the sporules
shoot out vigorously, more in the centre than at the periphery. From
this mode of growth, the form of the crust becomes quite altered, it
being, when completely developed, convex, instead of concave on the
outer surface.

M. Gruby practised inoculation with the contents of these crusts upon
thirty Phanerogamous plants (but succeeded only once) ; on twenty-four
silk-worms ; four birds ; eight mammals ; and six reptiles, without any
result. Similar inoculation in the arm of himself four times, and of
another individual once, was followed also by no result, except in one
instance, when a little inflammation ensued. Consequently, out of
seventy-seven inoculations, one successful result only was obtained,
and that on a Phanerogamous plant ; a strange fact, as is truly ob-
served by M. Gruby.

At pages 24 and 1 39 of this Journal will be found notices of various
other observations of parasitical growths on animal bodies ; but these
my limits will not allow me farther to detail. In the present number,
(p. 155) also, is an account of similar vegetation on the ova of fishes,
to which it proves highly destructive.

On the 1st of March 1841, Mr. Westwood exhibited at the Entomo-
logical Society, dried specimens of Chinese larvae, from the back of the neck
of each of which a slender Fungus, twice as large as the body of the insect,
had been produced. The vegetation was stated to be analogous to
some on larvae from New Zealand, and is named Clavaria Entomorhiza*
M. Corda gives the figure of a Coleopterous insect f covered with
Penidllium Fieberi ; and a similar instance of the growth of a minute
Conferva upon the body of a Dytiscus marginalis, occurred a short time
since to my observation. This insect was kept in a glass vessel, in
which were growing some plants of Valisneria spiralis, the leaves of
which were much infested with the Conferva. The beetle was killed,
apparently by the growth of the Conferva among the branched hairs,
with which its spiracula are furnished internally. \ (PI. I. Fig. 1.)

* Annals of Natural History for November 1841.

f Pentatoma prasina, Op. cit. PI. xi.

I [We are informed by Mr. J. T. Cooper, that he has frequently removed from the
gills of gold fish, kept in a cistern in his garden, a quantity of Confervas, the rapid
growth of which over the whole surface of their bodies, in every instance caused
death.— Editor.']

150 PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING ANIMALS.

These are the principal facts which I have been able to collect on this
subject ; for it is scarcely worth while to refer to the vague speculations
of M. Meynier of Orleans, whose assertion of the analogy of warts and
similar growths, with Fungi of the order Gymnospermia ; of Lepra and
Psoriasis with Lichens and Mosses ; and of pulmonary tubercle with
Lycoperdon, may, I think, justly be considered more the fruit of a heated
imagination than of sure observation. The Mucores observed by Langen-
beckin the body of a person dead of typhus, had certainly no connection
with that disease ; and, as for the opinion, that hospital gangrene is
dependent on the presence of a fungoid growth, I am unable to refer to
the authority, upon which such a doubtful statement is founded.

The above briefly recited facts are far too few in number, and not
sufficiently precise, to allow of any general deductions of importance to
be drawn from them ; but it appears clear,

1 . — That parasitical growths occur in nearly all classes of the animal
kingdom.

2. That these growths arise usually on the surfaces of animal organs,
and are sometimes prolonged thence into the textures of the part.

3. That they have in several instances been ascertained to constitute
the cause of disease and death ; and that the disease thus produced has
been found in some cases to be contagious.

4. That they are probably of two kinds, the one peculiar to animal
bodies, and the other consisting of these Cryptogamic vegetations, which
readily sprout up under favourable circumstances, on almost any inani-
mate substance.

To the former kind may be referred the Muscardine of the silk- worm
and Mycoderm of Tinea ; and to the latter, most of the other growths
above alluded to.*

The vegetable nature of these growths does not in all cases appear
so clear as might be supposed. In some of the instances cited above,
there can be no doubt on the matter ; but in others, and especially that
of the Mycoderm, constituting the crusts of Tinea, it is allowable to
doubt whether the growth may not be more properly referred to the
animal kingdom. In fact, it would appear, from the chemical consti-

* With the exception of the Parroquet, whose case is related by M. Rousseau
and M. Serrurier, in which, in the account given by these observers, the seat of
the parasitic growth is by no means clearly defined, it would appear that these
parasitic growths have nearly all had some relation to the air passages, and in this
point of view it is interesting to refer to the account of Chrysomyza Abietis, at
p. 155 of this Journal.

PARASITICAL GROWTHS ON LIVING AXIMALS. 151

tuents of these crusts, impossible to hesitate in ascribing their contents
to that division of animated nature ; for according to the analysis of
Thenard, they contain

70 Albumen.
17 Gelatine.
5 Phosphate of lime.
8 Water and loss.

100

a composition certainly more animal than vegetable. With regard to
this, also, it is interesting to refer to the paper of M. J. B. Desmazieres,*
in which the genus Mycoderma, founded by Persoon in 1822, is for the
first time accurately described and figured. He describes five species
occurring in various vegetable infusions. The marked similarity of the
figures of some of these species, with the Mycoderm of Tinea, is suffi-
ciently curious, viz. those of M. glutinis farinula and M. cerevisice, or
those occurring in flour-paste or sour beer (PI. I, fig. 2). M. D., whose
paper is well worthy of perusal, considers, from his having observed
the globules of the Mycodermata occasionally in active motion, that
they are of animal nature, and gives the following definition of the genus :
— MYCODERMA. — Desmaz. Ann. Sc. Nat. Tom. X. \e Ser. p. 59. — " Ani-
malcula monadina simplicissima, hyalina, gelatinosa, minutissima, prae-
dita locomobilitate plusminusve manifesta ; inter se ab uno extremo ad
alterius extremum ordine longo cohserentia, sive in statu primordiali,
sive post elongationem plus minusve notabilem ; efformantia hac ad-
junctione fila inertia, hyalina, creberrima, ramosa, moniliformia, vel
dissepimentis conspicua, fere semper incumbentia liquoribus, vel sub-
stantiis humidis in quibus nascuntur et ubi, per eorum implicationem,
constituunt pelliculam plus minusve spissam. Generatio per gemmas
interiores."

The resemblance in figure, however, of this parasite to various
growths, in all probability vegetable, is equally striking, if we do not
consider that all growths composed of distinct rounded cells, whether
of animal or vegetable nature, will necessarily much resemble each
other. For instances of this resemblance, it is only necessary to refer
generally to the plates in M. Corda's work.f and particularly to the
figures of Gonatorhodon speciosa ; the extreme filaments of Stysanus

* " Recherches Microscopiques et Physiologiques sur le genus Mycoderme." —
Annales des Sciences Naturelles,/Tom. X. le. Ser. 1826.

t Pracht- Flora Europaeischer Schimmelbildungen, Leipzig, 1839.

152 ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENBEKG.

Caput Medusae ; Torula Tritici ; Torula olivacea ; Torula frutigena ;
and several others.

The description of the Mycoderm of Tinea, by M. Gruby, above re-
ferred to, so accurately corresponds with the observations I have myself
been enabled to make very lately, that I have thought the addition of a
few figures of the appearance presented by this parasitic growth under
the microscope (see Figures, p. 148), would be sufficient to prove the
truth of the position, that the disease does in reality consist of such a
growth, and that this growth corresponds in every respect with the
characters of Persoon's genus, Mycoderma. I have not, however, been
able to perceive any movement in the globules themselves, as appears
by M. Desmazieres' observations, to have been the case in other species
of this genus. There is, however, always to be observed in the fluid
with which the Mycodermata may be mixed, a great number of actively
moving molecules or minute Infusoria.

This Mycoderm is readily seen by placing a fragment of a crust of
Porrigo, moistened with water, between two glasses. The younger
crusts present many of the small branched filaments and separate cor-
puscles ; the larger crusts contain more of the beaded filaments, and in
all, the Mycodermata are found mixed with epidermis scales.

XXXII. AN ABSTRACT OF THE " INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN" OF

EHRENBERG. No. 4.

By W. Hughes Wiltshire, M.D.,M.B.S., Physician to the
Fore Street Dispensary, #c.

Genus — Doxococcus.

EYE, projecting lip, and tail not present; position of oral aperture
varying with respect to the direction towards which the animalcule is
swimming ; motion rolling, similar to the clusters of UVELLA ; spon-
taneous self-division simple, perfect, or none. In other respects they
resemble the Monades.

Four species are known : one is of a brick-red colour, another of an
obscure green, a third whitish with green spots, and the fourth is
colourless.

Genus — CHILOMONAS.

Eye and tail not present ; projecting lip present ; mouth lateral or
oblique, provided with cilia (?) or with a very delicate filiform proboscis
(double ?) ; spontaneous self-division perfect, or none.

ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIKRCHEN OF EHRENBERG. 153

The members of this genus are well characterised by the oblique
position of the oral aperture with respect to the longitudinal axis of
the body, and by the presence of the protuberant lip. The creatures
move in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the body.

Three species are known : two are devoid of colour, and the remain-
ing one is of a pale yellow hue.

Genus — BODO.

Eye and projecting lip not present ; tail present ; mouth terminal ;
spontaneous self-division simple, perfect, and bipartite, or none.

The presence of a caudal appendage sufficiently characterises the
species of the present genus. It may be remarked, however, that the
solitary individuals sometimes cluster voluntarily, forming mulberry or
grape-like masses.

Eight species are known : one is of a green colour, the rest are
colourless.*

Bodo socialis is one of the Infusoria most frequently met with in
stagnant spring water, and vegetable infusions. Three other species
are parasites.

FAMILY \\.-CRYPTOMONADINA.

Poly gastric animalcules provided with a hard or soft lorica, and in
other respects possessing all the characters of MONADINA, or, at least,
not possessing any of the characters of other tribes of Infusoria : spon-
taneous self- division simple, perfect, or none.

All self-moving, free, and minute mi-
croscopic organisms, possessing the
characters of the tribe MONADINA, or
not presenting those of any other fa-
mily, and not enclosed in a general or
common envelope, but in consequence
of their self- division being perfect, or
absent altogether, are free and solitary,
and separately enclosed in a special ge-
latinous, membraneous, or hardened
lorica, belong to the family CRYPTO -

Prorocentrum.
MONADINA.

154 ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRKNBERG.

The following is a Synoptical Table of the Genera : —

Organ of

sight
not present

/Form short; self-division longitudinal ( c
Lorica or wanting

obtuse and -I

smooth Form elongated, tortuous ; self-divi- ( QPHIDOMONAS,
sion transverse 1

Lorica acuminated anteriorly PROROCENTRUM.

f Lorica, with a neck or narrowed orifice LAGENELLA.

sieht (Loricawitfi- Lorica an open shield, or scutellate ... CRYPTOGLENA.

\ out a neck
Present !or narrowed!

orifice ( Lorica a closed case, or urceolate TRACHELOMONAS.

Genus — CRYPTOMONAS.

Eye not present ; anterior extremity obtuse ; form short, not fili-
form or elongated ; spontaneous self-division longitudinal, or none.

The species of this genus are like those of CHILOMONAS ; but the
latter are destitute of a lorica.

Seven species are known : five are of a green colour, the remaining
one is brown.

Genus — OPHIDOMONAS.

Eye not present ; lorica obtuse glabrous ; form elongated, or filiform ;
spontaneous self-division transverse.

One species is alone described : this is of a brown colour.

Genus — PROROCENTRUM.

Eye not present ; lorica glabrous, terminating anteriorly in a point.
One species is known : this is of a yellow, waxy hue, and is one of
the phosphorescent Infusoria met with in luminous sea- water.

Genus — LAGENELLA.

Eye present ; lorica rostrate, or with a neck, or narrowed orifice.
One species is known : this is of a beautiful green colour.

Genus — CRYPTOGLENA.

Eye present ; lorica open like a buckler, and rolled in at the edges
(scutellate); not rostrate or necked.

Three species are known : these are of a green colour. One is found
in water when of a temperature near the freezing point.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 155

Genus — TRACHELOMONAS.

Eye present ; lorica a closed case, or urceolate, not rostrate, or pro-
vided with a neck.

Three species are known : two are of a green, one of a dark brown
colour.

(Sfytractsl arrtJ &fjgtract2( from

[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1 84 1 .]

Unger on Chrysomyza Abietis. — Under the name of Chrysomyza
Abietis is described by Unger, in F. J. F. Meyen's Jahresbericht, &c.,
for 1839, a peculiar exanthem of the Fir. He states, that the
leaves assume a yellowish red colour, owing to the presence of Dro-
minent, linear, rusty brown spots, without being themselves otherwise
swollen. The yellow colour is more or less diffused on the upper side
of the leaf ; but on the under side, besides this diffused colour, there
are found one or more rusty brown spots, placed in a double row on the
sides of the projecting leaf-veins. The situation of these spots corre-
sponds, nearly always, with that of the Stomata. In the young state
they are more opaque, and become when older more transparent, and
more denned. The degeneration consists in a multitude of elongated
vesicles, which are confined in a mucoid matrix containing granules,
sometimes coloured, and sometimes colourless. This matrix forms an
outer covering to the vesicles, and gives them occasionally a varicose
appearance. They contain a yellowish grumous matter. The colour is
not dissipated by boiling in alcohol. The disease commences in the
stomata, which, in place of the air, contain a granular, mucous, at first
uncoloured substance, which rapidly increases, becomes coloured in
parts, and flocculent particles are formed in it. The vesicles appear,
and it finally bursts through the cuticle. The course of the complete
development of the disease lasts above a year. — Abridged, p. 92.

Valentin on Achy la prolifera. — With reference to Achy la prolifera,
Valentin remarks, that this mouldiness, or colourless Conferva, very
often recurs under favourable circumstances in animals. When occur-
ring on the ova of fishes, it constitutes a very powerful preventive to
their development, and its progress is so rapid that a single egg infected
with it, will in a very short time infest many hundreds, and thus
destroy them. He has ascertained, also, the same thing with regard to
the ova of Alytes obstetricans . Its action upon the eggs of mollusca
appears to be slower, which has been already remarked by Laurent. —
(Rep. V, p. 44.J Valentin observed it, at all events, in a state of active
growth for several days upon the ova of (probably) Limnceus stagnalis,
during which period the embryo was in lively motion, and which did
not die till later. In fishes, also, as the Cyprinus nasus, when kept in
narrow vessels, and the water not quite sweet, he observed the same fun-

156 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

gus on all parts which might be abraded, as, for instance, the head and
the tail.— p. 58.

[From the Comptes Rendus, 1841.]

On a new Process for Anatomical Injections* — M. Doyere, in a letter
addressed to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, July 12, 1841, gives the
following account : — I have employed for nearly two years, a very simple
process for obtaining fine injections. This process, which I believe
likely to render some service to the anatomy of structure, and probably
also to pathological anatomy, essentially consists in causing to enter
in the same vessels, within a certain interval of time, two finely fil-
tered saline solutions, which, by double decomposition, give an
abundant and opaque precipitate. This succession of two injections,
is that which distinguishes my process from many others tried without
success to obtain the injection of the capillary system by the same
principle. I inject the second solution, as soon as the first has passed
from the arterial system into the venous and lymphatic systems.

I have tried on animals a great number of insoluble salts, with a view
to determine those which would give the most satisfactory results. I
prefer to all others the chromate of lead. I first inject the chromate of
potass, and am convinced that the order of injection is a point not to be
neglected. A blue colour may be obtained by the precipitation of
Prussian blue ; brilliant red by iodide of mercury ; white by the car-
bonate or sulphate of lead. The first has better succeeded with me than
the carbonates and sulphates of lime and baryta.

The advantages which this process appears to me to possess over
those in use, are above all to shorten the process of making fine injec-
tions, and to supersede any other preparation. It may be used with equal
advantage cold or hot, in general or partial injection ; the materials
employed are unalterable, and may be consequently always ready. I
will add, that the most minute injections required only a pressure which
was evidently less than that of the heart's action. M. Poiseuille, to
whom I made the process known several months since, in order that he
might make use of it in his particular researches, has constructed an
instrument by the assistance of which he can inject either liquid with
that degree of pressure he considers proper.

By the assistance of this process, I have more than once succeeded
injecting by the femoral artery in a single operation, and in a few
minutes, the capillaries of the muscular system in an entire animal,
the adipose and cellular systems of the white and grey matter of the

* Although the priority of discovering this process, and publishing the same, are
decidedly due to M. Doyere, yet we must here state, that we have for upwards of
twelve months seen injections of the corpuscles and Haversian canals in bone,
the tubes on the fibre of some sponges, &c., similarly prepared by our esteemed
correspondent Mr. George Busk, Surgeon to the Hospital Ship, Dreadnought.
We can vouch for his not being acquainted with M. Doyere's process, the account
of which bears date July 12, 1841. — Editor.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 157

brain, of the conjunctiva, of all mucous membranes, intestinal villosi-
ties, &c. The capillaries thus injected by the chromate of lead are
more filled, especially after drying, than by the injections of size, but less
than by those of varnish (vernis) ; there also remains some doubt in my
mind relative to the actual diameter of the latter canals. Those which
run parallel to each primitive muscular fasciculus, to the number of four
or six, appeared to me to possess, in the dog, ^^th or ^-oth of a milli-
metre ; but it is possible that their dimensions had been reduced by the
action of one or the other of the two solutions employed, or that they
had not been sufficiently filled. I am now engaged in determining the
relation which exists between the size of injected vessels, and their size
during life.

Bowman on the Contraction of Voluntary Muscles. — At the sitting of
the Academy of Sciences, 27th September, 1841, Mr. J. E. Bowman,
Demonstrator of Anatomy, King's College, London, stated, that he had
sufficiently proved, that contraction never takes place in the whole
length of a primitive fasciculus at the same instant, but that even the
most violent contraction consists of partial contractions, which change
their place with an inconceivable quickness.

Researches on the Reddening of Waters, and their Oxygenation by Ani-
malcules and Alga. — MM. C. and A. Morren are of opinion that the
oxygen of the air in water varies in quantity at different hours of the
day. For example : in very sultry (insolation) days, the quan-
tity of oxygen in the morning is 24 parts in 100 ; at mid-day, 48 parts
in 100; and at five o'clock, from 60 to even 61 parts in 100. This
effect is in relation with the respiration of animalcules, and aquatic
Algse. Among the bodies which produce this effect, there is an ani-
malcule which the authors have made their particular study, and to
which the name of Discerea purpurea has been given. It is one of a
number which colour water red. The same authors have further ex-
amined the phenomenon attendant on the red colour of waters, and
have enumerated forty- two plants and animals which redden liquids.
They have particularly noticed the Monas vinosa of Ehrenberg, the
Monas rosear the Trachelemonas volvocina, the Euglena sanguinea, the
H&matococcus, and the Tessararthra, of which they have given mono-
graphs. According to these observers, the famed Protococcus nivalis of
the snow is an animal. — 30^ August, 1841.

M. Soleil presented a Microscope of M. Donne, to which he had
added an Adjusting Screw, rendering it much more handy and useful.
— July 19, 1841.

Laurent on colouring Hydra. — He has succeeded in colouring the
Hydra blue, white, and red, by feeding them with indigo, chalk, or car-
mine ; but he remarked that the eggs did not partake of the colouring,
although the parent acquired a very vivid tint. — Guerin's Rev. Zool.,
June 1841, p. 204.

Turpin on the Acarus of Pears. — Under the epidermis of the fruit of

158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIKTY OF LONDON.

some pears, Turpin once found a great number of the genus Acarus, of
an oval shape, furnished with claws close to the beak, and four poste-
rior filaments, presenting nothing very remarkable except four articu-
lated legs, terminated by a single slightly-arched nail. The young
individuals, after molting, assume their eight legs. — Mem. de I'Acad.
Instit. Paris, 1840, p. 56.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

October 20th, 1841 .—Prof. R. Owen, F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

MR. THOMPSON, of Belfast, forwarded some Fossil Infusoria from earth,
obtained at Cork.

Mr. J. Quekett read a paper " On the minute structure of Bat's Hair."
After alluding to the views entertained by Hunter, Mandl, Busk, and
others, as to the formation and mode of growth of hairs generally,
the author stated that his attention was directed to those of the bat tribe,
in consequence of having on more than one occasion used a knife to
separate them from the skin ; on subsequent examination it was
seen that the curious markings on their surfaces, which render these
hairs so interesting, were destroyed in some parts, but were still present
in others. By repeating the scraping process, it was found that minute
scale-like bodies were detached, which were not unlike in shape the scales
on the wing of a butterfly, but were very much smaller, and presented
no trace of striae on their surfaces; it was on the arrangement of
the scales, and on their being more prominent in some species than in
others, that the beautiful appearance of bat's hair depended. The
scales might be procured either by scraping the hair with a knife, in a
direction from the apex towards the root, or more easily by pressing
them between glasses previously moistened by the breath. Many of
them appeared to terminate in a quill, like that observed on the butter-
fly's scale ; some few were flat, whilst others were curved so as to fit
the shaft of the hair, and presented a serrated edge. The scales were
absent near the bulb, but abounded in all parts of the shaft situated
above the skin ; and when removed from many of the larger hairs, the
fibrous nature of the shaft, and its cellular interior were well displayed.
Mr. Quekett spoke of the hair of an Indian bat, of which a small por-
tion had been given him by Mr. Powell, in which, without any prepara-
tion, the scales could be beautifully seen, both detached and still adhe-
rent to the shaft ; and he was led, from repeated observation, to consider
a bat's hair as composed of a shaft invested with scales, which are de-
veloped to a greater or less degree, and vary in the mode of their
arrangement in the different species of these animals ; and concluded by
stating, that bats resembled quadrupeds principally in their mode of
reproduction, and birds in their mode of progression, but resembled
both in the structure of their hair.

Mr. Bowerbank called the attention of the meeting to a source of
fallacy he had detected in using strong solutions of salt and water, for

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN. 159

the preparation and preservation of animal tissues for microscopic pur-
poses. He stated that he had recently been much occupied with
observing the animal of the stony corals, which is exceedingly simple
in its structure ; and that he had observed numerous fasciculi, or net-
works of apparently small vessels in its structure, which had led him
at first sight to arrive at conclusions as regards their formation. By
accident he found that this network of apparent minute vessels, was
due to the development of a Confervoid vegetable in the brine, of ex-
treme delicacy.

Some discussion ensued on this subject, in which Mr. Owen and Mr.
D. Cooper took part.

Mr. George Busk exhibited, after the meeting, a species of the genus
Acarus, obtained from a pustule on a sailor's leg, which appeared to be
a new species. The disease was contracted at Sierra Leone, by wear-
ing the shoes of a West Indian. The matter was referred for further
investigation.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

October 1th, 1841. — Sir Henry Marsh in the Chair.

THE minutes of the last meeting having been read,

Mr. Bergin moved, and Mr. Callwell seconded, that the first Thurs-
day in November be considered the Anniversary of this Society ; when
a report from the Secretary of the proceedings of the year, and from
the Treasurer as to the funds, shall be presented, and the officers for the
ensuing year be elected. Agreed to.

Mr. Yeates presented the description of his Modified Compressor, an
account of which will be given in a future number.

Mr. Moore presented a species of Alga, which he believes to be un-
described.

Mr. Ball exhibited some portions of mud, lining the valves of a dead
specimen of Cyther&a Chione, taken up at Plymouth, July 1841, which
contained a number of remarkable forms, accompanied by rough
sketches of them.

The Right Honourable the Bishop of Meath was proposed by Sir H.
Marsh, seconded by Dr. Croker, and admitted a member of the Society.

Notes on the Plants (?) exhibited at the meeting of the Microscopical
Society of Dublin, on Thursday, 7th October, 1841, by Mr. D.Moore,
were then read.

Potysiphonia fibrittosa (?) if not, new to our marine Flora. The
microscope showed the ultimate ramuli of this beautiful species, beset
with fibrillse in a remarkable degree ; the main filaments many- striated,
and both kinds of fructification perfect. The specimens, which were
collected at Malahide, are much smaller in all their parts than English
specimens of P. fibrillosa, and further disagree in general appearance
from them.

Gomphonema ampullacea. Greville. — This singular substance has
twice occurred to Mr. Moore in great abundance ; once in the North,
and again in the West of Ireland. It appears to be in perfection from
July to September.

160 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

Gomphonema paradoxa. Greville. — Frequent on the Irish coasts.

Isthmia obliquata (Diatoma obliquetum, Lyngbye). This beautiful
object occurs abundantly in one or two places in the North of Ireland,
but is very local. It is in perfection in July and August.

Fragilaria pertinalis. Lyngbye, — Collected in the county West-
meath, on Belvidere Lake, adhering to aquatic grasses in August.

Licmophora flabellata. Agardh. — This, when well displayed, is one
of the most beautiful microscopic objects in the whole order of Algse
(Agardh), or Infusoria (Ehrenberg).

Diatoma fasciculatum. Agardh. — Frequent on the Irish coast : at-
tached to other Algae.

Topping's Objects illustrative of the Process of Felting. — We have
recently received from Mr. C. M. Topping (whom we had occasion to
recommend to the attention of microscopists at page 16 of our Journal)
a set of twelve slides, containing the hairs of various animals, the fur or
wool of which is used for felting. The objects are numbered according
to their tendency to felt, and, independent of their being generally in-
teresting as objects of structural beauty, they are the more so to those
particularly interested in the subject as a branch of manufacture. We
recommend the set to all classes of observers.

We observe that Mr. Topping uses strips of mahogany veneer, (in-
stead of slips of glass) with a hole bored through the centre for the
glass to fix the object upon. This is a decided improvement over the
old plan. — Editor.

Organic Beings in Mineral Waters. — Dr. Lankaster communicated
some additional observations on the existence of organic beings in mi-
neral waters (Athen. No. 674). He had found the Conferva nivea of
Dillwyn in the sulphur spring on the Water of Leith, near Edinburgh.
He had also found it in the wells of Moffat in Dumfriesshire, Gillesland in
Northumberland, and Middleton and Croft in Yorkshire. At Moffat he
found great quantities of the substance called glairine, and was con-
vinced of its organic nature. At Moffat also he found a pink deposit
in the drains outside the wells, and, on submitting it to the action of the
microscope, he found that it was produced by an animalcule, but much
smaller in size than those which produced the coloured sediments of
Harrowgate and Askern. It had the characters of a Monas, and was not
more than 15^00 of an inch in diameter. — Athenaum, Aug. 7, 1841.

Insects voided with Urine. — The specimens kindly forwarded us by
Dr. R. S. Hopper, of Leeds, which are stated to have escaped in large
quantities per urethram from a female, appear to belong to the larva of a
Dipterous insect of the genus Stratiomis (Westw. Classif. Vol. II, p. 551).
The specimens are referred for further investigation. — Editor.

161

XXXIII. DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE SPECIES OF SPONGE, CONTAINING

SOME NEW FORMS OF ORGANIZATION.*

By J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.G.S.

THE first specimen described in this communication, \\3LS-dHalichondria,
which the author has named //. Johnstoniana, in honour of Dr. John-
ston of Berwick-upon-Tweed. The sponge is sessile, massive, and has a
smooth encrusted surface, of a dark iron-grey colour ; the interior is of
a dull yellow colour, and much resembles the crumb of bread. This
sponge is remarkable for the great variety in the forms of the silicious
spicula, of which the author described three distinct kinds, each of
which is characteristic of a separate part of the animal : — 1st. Those of
the skeleton, which are mostly simple and slightly curved, having hemi-
spherical terminations ; they are occasionally tri- radiate or multi- radiate,
and frequently branched. 2nd. Those of the interstitial fleshy matter
of the sponge ; these are minute stellate bodies, having their rays atten-
uating regularly to their apices, the number of the rays varying from
three to ten or twelve. 3rd. The spicula of the crust or surface of
the sponge ; they are very minute and somewhat fusiform, terminate
abruptly, and have their surfaces regularly tuberculated. The author
also described a fine vascular tissue, which he observed on the surface
of the great excurrent canals. The gemmules are oval bodies, having a
silicious crust, which is filled with minute spicula. This species was
found attached to the Thatcher Rock, near Torquay, Devonshire.

The second sponge described belonged to the new genus Duseideia,
proposed to be established by Dr. Johnston in his " History of British
Sponges."

This species was sent from Sydney, Australia, by Rupert Kirk, Esq.,
after whom it is named, D. Kirkii. It is sessile, massive, and some-
what compressed. The skeleton is coarsely fibrous, and coralloid in
appearance, having numerous grains of sand separately imbedded in its
substance. The grains are not imbedded in the fibre from pressure
through the external surface, but they occupy its very centre ; each
grain being separately encrusted by the cartilaginous matter of the
skeleton, and the whole being surrounded by a thick coating of the same
substance. The author described at length the mode in which this

* Abstract of a paper read at the Microscopical Society of London, Nov. 24th,
1841. Communicated by the Author.
VOL. I. M

162 ON THE CHOKING UP OF HARBOUHS.

curious structure appears to have been built up, and illustrated his des-
criptions by highly magnified drawings of the manner in which the
grains are arranged in the fibrous skeleton. Spicula were of rare oc-
currence in this specimen ; when observed, they were embedded in the
external coating of the cartilaginous fibres ; they are short, and com-
paratively thick in proportion to their length, decreasing very slightly
from the middle to near the points, and are terminated acutely, but
somewhat abruptly.

The third species is the Spongia fragilis of Montagu, or Duseideia
fragilis of Dr. Johnston's manuscript.

It is massive, variable in form, of a dull ochreous yellow colour, and
has the surface asperated by the projection of fibres, which contain nu-
merous grains of sand, embedded in a manner similar to those described
in treating of the last species. There are also other fibres, which are
tubular in their structure, containing few or no grains of sand, but an
abundance of spicula, remarkable for their great variety in form and
size. No spicula were found in the fleshy matter of the sponge, but a
considerable number of round or oval bodies were observed, which
presented every appearance of being cytoblasts.

The author concluded his paper by some observations on the present
state of our knowledge of the structure of the Spongiada, and noticed
certain changes that will become necessary in their systematical arrange •
ment, when our information regarding their structure is more matured.

Drawings of the species described, and the various forms of spicula
contained in their structures, illustrated the paper.

XXXIV. OBSERVATIONS UPON THE IMPORTANT PART WHICH MICRO-
SCOPIC ORGANISMS PLAY IN THE CHOKING UP OF THE HARBOURS
OF WISMAR AND PILLAU J ALSO IN THE FORMATION OF THE MUD
WHICH IS DEPOSITED IN THE BED OF THE ELBE, AT CUXHAVEN,
AND UPON THE AGENCY OF SIMILAR PHENOMENA IN THE FORMA-
TION OF THE BED OF THE NILE, AT DONGOLA, IN NUBIA, AND IN
THE DELTA OF EGYPT.*

By M. Ehrenlerg.

DURING the course of the year 1839, M. Ehrenberg made special re-
searches upon the form of the mud- banks in the harbour of Wismar in

* Report of a memoir read to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in March 1841,
extracted from Professor Jameson's Edinb. New Phil. Journ., Oct. 1841, p. 386.

ON THE CHOKING UP OF HARBOURS. 163

the Baltic, and arrived at the following result, which he communicated to
the Societ^ des Amis des Sciences Naturelles, on the 18th of February,
1840; namely, that from -^th to £th of the mass of deposited mud
consisted partly of living Infusoria, and partly of the empty shells of
siliciously enveloped and dead Infusoria. Last year, 1840, he repeated
these researches, and obtained a precisely similar result.

In the harbour of Wismar, according to the documents which were
officially communicated by M. Rose, it appears that every week 36 lasts
of this mud are deposited, every last weighing 6000 Ibs. ; so that it may
be deduced, after seven and a half months of observation, that there is
an annual deposit of 1080 lasts, or of 32,400 metrical cwts., or of 6480
cubic metres. For a century, and probably more, matters have pro-
ceeded in this way without interruption ; so that during the last hun-
dred years, there have been deposited by the running waters at Wismar,
108,000 lasts, equal to 3,240,000 cwts., or 648,000 cubic metres of this
mud. Hence, then, supposing, which is very nearly correct, that ^th
of this mass consists of visible organic matter, there have been deposited
at Wismar, during the last century, of these microscopic silicious orga-
nisms, 64,800 cubic metres, or annually 648 cubic metres, which, when
dry, cannot constitute more than ^th, and probably not more than
Jg-th, or even less of the total weight.

The results which have been obtained at Wismar in the year 1840,
suggested the idea to M. Hagen, to make similar experiments upon the
deposits at Pillau, and to communicate his observations. The speci-
mens of the deposits which he transmitted to M. Ehrenberg, are still
richer in organized beings than those of Wismar. They often consti-
tute, according to the result of forty experiments made upon different
samples, one-fourth, and sometimes even a half of the entire volume.
Hence it will follow, that at Pillau, also, there are annually separated
from the running waters, from 7200 to 14,000 cubic metres of pure
microscopic organisms, which in the course of a century would supply,
in this place alone, a deposit of from 720,000 to 1,140,000 cubic me-
tres of Infusory-rock or Tripoli- stone.

Both at Wismar and Pillau there are to be met with in the organized
materials, some forms which are entirely new, and others which belong
to the waters of the ocean. As it regards the last-named harbour,
which is in the channel called Pillau-Haffe, the north wind often causes
the sea- water to flow into the river.

M. Ehrenberg also alludes to the researches he made concerning the
muddy deposits of the river Elbe at Cuxhaven, and which were submitted
to the attention of the Berlin Academy in the year 1839. These muddy

M 2

164 ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENBERG.

deposits also appeared to be composed, to the extent of nearly half
their volume, partly of Infusoria with silicious heads, and partly of
Polythalamia with calcareous heads.

To these observations M. Ehrenberg now adds the results of his
recent observations upon the mud of the Nile, the deposit of which has,
from the remotest period, attracted the attention of the curious. He
has purposely compared with this mud, African deposits procured from
Daebbe and Ambukohl, in Dongola : from Tangeur, in Nubia ; from
Thebes and Gyzeh, in Upper Egypt : from Boulak, near Cahira ; and
from Damietta, in Lower Egypt. He has also in his possession speci-
mens of the ancient deposits of the Nile, which M. Parthey and Lieu-
tenant-General Minutoli brought to Berlin. In all these specimens he
has found that the Sponges, the Silicious Infusoria, and, especially
from the neighbourhood of Damietta, the calcareous Polythalamia of
the arable districts on the margin of the Nile, existed in such vast abun-
dance, that without going the length of asserting that they absolutely
predominate, still it is a fact, that there is not a particle of this soil of
the size of half a pin's head in which, making no allowance for the che-
mical changes which may have taken place, there was not one, and
frequently many of these animals.

We may now, therefore, safely affirm, that the deposits in harbours,
and even the accumulation and the extraordinary fertility of the mud of
the Nile, and probably of all other river deposits, proceed not solely
from the gradual destruction and mechanical transport of one portion
of solid soil to the formation of another, no more than they are solely
the product of the vegetation of plants ; but, on the contrary, that they
result from the immensely rapid agency, hitherto scarcely recognized as
vital, of animal organisms, which are undiscernible to the naked eye,
but whose quantitative and natural limits must henceforward be inquired
into, and which, from this time, must be considered as possessing a very
important influence upon these natural phenomena.

XXXV. AN ABSTRACT OF THE " INFUSIONSTKIERCHEN" OF

EHRENBERG. No. 5.

By W. Hughes Wiltshire. M.D.,M.B.S., Physician to the
Fore Street Dispensary, &c.

FAMILY III.— VOLVOCINA.

POLYGASTRIC animalcules having a uniform body destitute of true ap-

ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENBERG.

165

pendages or members, provided with an envelope or lorica, dividing by
spontaneous self-division into numerous individuals within the ex-
tensile lorica, and hence assuming a polypoid appearance. Lorica
at length bursting, and allowing the several animalcules to disperse
when they have arrived at the due degree of maturity.

The following is a Synoptical Table of the Genera : —

Vibratile proboscis ) -,

Organ of

sight

not

present

Organ of

sight
present

Caudal
appendage

not
present

Lorica
single

Lorica
roundish

not present

Vibratile proboscis I PANDORINA
present )

Lorica tabulated or compressed GONIUM.

Lorica double SYNCRYPTA.

\Caudalappendagepresent SYNURA.

Self-division /Caudal appendage present UROGLENA

equal and perfect

(forming no •] Caudal (Proboscis single ... ETTDORINA.

secondary polypoid appendage
rnassps"! ' nnt. nrpspn

masses)

not present ^ Proboscis double... CHLAMIDOMONAS.

Self-division unequal ( Proboscis single -. SPHAEROSIRA.

(forming secondary j
polypoid masses) I Proboscis double VOLVOX .

Genus — GYGES.

Eye and tail not present ; lorica single, urceolate, subglobose ; crea-
ture destitute of a vibratile filiform proboscis.

Only two species are described; the several creatures within the
common envelope being of a green colour.

Genus — PANDORINA.

Eye and tail not present ; lorica single, urceolate, subglobose ; crea-
ture provided with a vibratile filiform proboscis. From the peculiar
mode of self-division, the polypoid-like mass has somewhat the form of
a mulberry.

Species two : one is green, the other colourless.

166 ABSTRACT OF THE INFUSIONSTHIERCHEN OF EHRENJBERG.

Genus — GONIUH.

Eye and tail not present ; lorica single, developing by spontaneous
self-division, in flattened, tabelliform, and square polypoid masses.

Five species are known : four have green animalcules within the
transparent general lorica, the other is colourless.

Genus — SYNCRYPTA.

Eye and tail not present ; lorica double — clustering Cryptomonades
enclosed \vithin a common envelope.

Only one species is described : this is of a green colour.

Genus — SYNURA.

Eye not present ; tail present, attached to the base of the lorica or
to the centre of the polypoid mass.
Species one : of a yellow colour.

Genus — UROGLENA.

Eye and tail present ; division of corpuscles simple and uniform.

After self-division has taken place once within the general lorica, the
creatures resulting from such division do not divide into secondary
polypoid masses.

Species one : creatures of a yellowish colour, with a red eye.

Genus — EUDORINA.

Tail not present ; eye and filiform proboscis present ; division of cor-
puscles simple and uniform.

Species one : of a yellow colour, and has a red eye.

Genus — CHLAMIDOMONAS.

Tail not present ; eye present ; filiform proboscis, double ; division
of corpuscles simple and uniform.

Species one : corpuscles green, with a red eye.

Genus — SPHAEROSIRA.

Tail not present ; eye present ; filiform proboscis simple ; division
of corpuscles compound and unequal.

After general self-division has taken place within the common enve-
lope, the creatures resulting from such division again divide, forming
secondary clusters.

Species one : of a pale green colour ; the eye is red.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 167

Genus — VOLVOX.

Tail absent ; eye present ; filiform
proboscis double; division of cor-
puscles compound and unequal.

Three species have been describ •
ed : all of a green colour.

anil ^tracts from dfomgn

[From Valentin s Repertorium, 1841.]

Swlibe upon the Development of Boletus destructor.* — It first ap-
pears, according to him, as a fugitive growth (auflug) of a dirty green
colour, consisting of fine, simple, microscopical filaments, somewhat
transparent, and covered with minute, round, greenish germ -globules,
and in this respect resembles the Dematium virescens (Pers.) This fu-
gitive growth is converted afterwards into fine cobweb-like threads, in-
terwoven with thicker branched filaments of a yellowish colour. Under
the microscope both sorts of filaments appear colourless, exceedingly
transparent and curved. One portion of them lies closely together, and
they become glued in their position by a yellow resinous substance.
The yellow branched filaments become gradually thicker, and at last
assume the form of a rhizoma, with a brownish rind and transparent in
the centre. The fibres in the latter resemble the colourless one above
described. Those of the rind are more slender, less transparent, of
a dark brown colour, and interwoven. The outer extremities of the
rhizoma-like body, consist of very fine filaments, which have some re-
semblance to Oscillatoria punctata. In spring and summer, and especi-
ally in a moist atmosphere, they become, as it were, woven into a dry
silky texture, on which the germ powder is again formed, whence a new
growth of the Fungus commences. — p. 81, 82.

Mohl on the Colouring of Vegetable Membranes by Iodine. — From the
numerous experiments of Mohl, which are recorded in the Flora, a uni-
versal Botanical Journal by Hoppe and Fiirnrohr, and of which an
abstract, too long for our limits, is given in Valentin's Repertorium
1841, it would appear, that colours varying from brown to blue, may
be produced in all vegetable membranes, when placed in a condition to
absorb a large quantity of Iodine. A yellowish or brown colour is
caused by the application of the Iodine in a state of vapour, and a violet
or blue by very concentrated solutions. He further concludes, that the
reception of Iodine, and consequently the colouring, is in proportion to
the consistence of the membrane. The weaker and softer, and more
absorbent membranes, being the more ready to assume the blue colour.
Schleiden agrees with these statements, and concludes, as was already

* Schlechtendahl's Linnrca, p. 194—200.

168 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

proved by his own and Vogel's experiments upon Amyloid, that Iodine
is not a special re-agent for starch only, and that generally the blue
colouring has no connection with chemical combination. He, however,
is not disposed to allow, that only the consistence of part of the mem-
brane regulates the absorbing power.

Crystals and other Inorganic Deposits in Plants. — The greater num-
ber of the white points visible on the outer integument of the bulb of
Muscari comosum, consist, according to Goeppert, of larger cells, which
are aggregations of four-sided prismatic crystals, placed nearly parallel
to each other, and pointed at both ends. Payer also (Froriep's Notizen.
No. 335, p. 65-68), has examined a number of these deposits in plants;
as, for instance, in the leaf-stalks of several species of Ficus, Parietaria
officinalis, &c., Urtica nivea, and Forskalea tenacissima. Others more
cylindrical, in Celtis Australia, and C. Missisipiensis, and those in the
leaves of Morus nigra, M. alba, and M. multicaulis. They are found
at the base of the hairs in Broussonetia papyri/era, and Humulus Lupulus,
and Cannabis sativa,a.nd are peculiarly remarkable in the leaves of Cono-
cephalus Naucleiflorus. A single large leaf of the Broussonetia papyri-
fera contains 134,000 of these concretions. Carbonate of lime is fre-
quently met with in these deposits, between the cells of the parenchyma
of the leaves, or their ribs, in the ducts of the leaf-stalk and its base.
It is present in these situations, even in leaves of so acid a juice, that
this would necessarily dissolve the carbonate of lime, were they in
contact. Oxalate of lime, which is usually distributed in the leaves of
plants, appears, as in the stems of Cactus, in transparent aggregated
crystals, in the form of spheroids covered with points, and enclosed in a
membrane, and sometimes also as octahedral or octangular prisms.
Raphides consist of an investing membrane filled with oxalate of lime.
Silex incrusts many vegetable membranes, and is seen also in the shape
of orbicular concretions.

Link on the Structure of Coal*— Link (Froriep's Notizen, No. 320,
p. 117-81) has established from comparative microscopical researches,
that the greater part of coal originates not from mineralized stems, but
from the peat or turf of the ancient world. — p. 79.

References to recent Foreign Works on the lower Cryptogamia. — For
foreign information about the lower Cryptogamia, we refer our readers
to: —

TURPIN. — Journal de Tlnstitut. No. 328, p. 126, " On the Penicil-
liam Biottii, a species of Mould which is formed in solu-
tions of Dextrine."

AMID i. — Atti della prima ricenione degli scientziati Italiani tenuta in
Pisa nell, Ottobre de 1839, Pisa, p. 157, "On the
Uredo Rosa;."

* We are informed by Mr. Robert Warrington, that from frequent observation
of the extensive peat districts in Scotland and the north of England, he has long en-
tertained the opinion, that the coal formation has originated from this source, which
the investigations of M. Link fully confirm. — Editor.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 169

GOPPERT. — Uebersicht der arbeiten, &c., der schlesischen gesellschaft
&c. fur 1840, Breslau 1841, " On the structure of Piso-
lithus arenarius."

KORBER. — Id. p. 95, 99, " Upon the relation of the Gonidia with
the Soredia of lichens."

[From Mutters Archives, 1841.]

On the circulation in the Infusoria. — Dr. Erol of Munich, in a letter
to Professor Miiller, says, " I have now very often seen and shown to
my friends about here a kind of circulation in the Infusoria, a pheno-
menon so remarkable that I cannot but wonder that it is not mentioned
by any microscopic observer. I find it most distinctly in the Bursaria
vernalis, whose abdomen, you know, appears to be quite full of green
globules. Of these globules, those which lie near the periphery of the
animal are incessantly moving, whether the animal itself be still or not,
in an elliptic current upwards and downwards. In this current three
or four globules always lie close by one another, and move together with
the stream. It has no relation whatever to the vivid ciliary motion
that is constantly going on at the outer surface." — Heft. 3, 1841.

On the Development of the Hair. By Dr. G. Simon of Berlin. — All
the investigations into this subject, which are possessed of any real va-
lue, are comparatively recent. For most that is important, we are
indebted to the researches of Heusinger, Gurlb, Henle, Mandl, Busk, and
Bidder ; but many points have been still left undetermined, to some of
which Dr. Simon has directed his attention.

Heusinger has stated that a black discolouration of the skin precedes
the formation of the hair. Simon found this substantiated by the ap-
pearance of the skin in the embryos of the pig, and ascertained, as
Heusinger had done before him, that this colour is produced by small
black granules, which lie very close together. In some embryos this
was not perceptible, while in others part of the skin was white, part
discoloured. This difference of colour was owing to the presence of
white corpuscules in the place of the dark granules. These bodies are
formed of small sacs, running from the epidermis in a very oblique
direction into the corium, which begin with a narrow neck, and termi-
nate in a rounded pouch. They are in hair follicles, and are formed a
considerable time before any hair can be observed in them. The only
difference between the white and the dark follicle is, that the walls of
latter, in addition to being formed of a granular matter, are furnished
with a layer of pigment cells.

At the bottom of the hair sacs of some embryos six inches long, a
dark mass was seen, perfectly distinct from the lining of pigment, and
closely resembling in form the root of the young hairs. This mass too,
was observed in some sacs unfurnished with pigment cells, and was
composed of rounded granules in close apposition with each other, and
very similar to the pigment cells in the rete malpighii of the human
skin. Another circumstance, too, which renders it extremely probable

170 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

that this is the root of the young hair, is, that in no follicle containing
pigment cells, was the mere point of a hair ever found, but the young
hair always appeared complete, though very small. In those sacs which
were not lined with dark pigment cells, the hair had the appearance of
terminating in very minute fibres, but this was without doubt owing
to the transparency of the cells of which the root of the hair is com-
posed. Henle and Bidder's opinion, that the hair is formed from the
cells at the bottom of the hair sac, is very probable, but most likely,
the nuclei of the cells undergo the transformation into the fibres of the
hair, and not the cells themselves, as Bidder imagined.

After the hairs have acquired such a length as not to be capable of
being contained in the sac, they become bent into loops in such a man-
ner, that while the point and root of the hair are near each other, at
the bottom of the sack, the top projects out of the cavity. This condi-
tion of the hair existed in embryos seven or eight inches long ; in others
from eight to twelve inches in length, the points of the hairs, and part
of their shaft projected from the sac, but were covered by a membrane
which invests the whole foetus, and which was imagined by Isben to be
a prolongation of the amnion. To this notion, notwithstanding some
difficulties which oppose its adoption, Dr. Simon inclines.

In addition to the true sac, all the hairs of the embryo of the swine
have a second investment contained within it, and analogous to that
part which Henle termed the sheath of the root, in his description of
human hair. This sheath is perceptible in hairs which are still entirely
contained within the follicle, when it presents the appearance of a
transparent line on either side of the hair. In no instance, however,
were any traces of this sheath perceptible before the hair was formed.
The sebaceous follicles connected with the hair sac, exist before the
formation of the hair. They differ in structure from the sebaceous fol-
licles in the full-grown pig, and consist of an elongated pouch, appa-
rently divided into compartments by transverse lines, and occupying the
upper part of the hair sac. One end of this pouch terminates close
under the opening of the hair sac by a conical or elongated point, and
its lower extremity is composed of an appendix of round granules bear-
ing some resemblance to a bunch of grapes. When the hair follicle
contains a young hair, this appendix is frequently divided by it into two
lateral lobes, which project beyond the borders of the hair follicle on
either side. Each of these lobes, which still retains the appearance of
being composed of rounded granules, continues connected with the
pouch, either immediately, or by means of a delicate prolongation, di-
vided, like the pouch itself, into transverse compartments. Whether
these sebaceous glands undergo subsequent metamorphoses, by which
they are brought to resemble the condition of those parts in the adult
animal, or whether new follicles are formed when the foetal hairs drop
out, and the bristles begin to be developed, has not yet been ascertained.

Dr. Simon confirms the opinion that a distinct cortical and medul-
lary substance exists in the hair ; though when the hairs are black, the
cortical substance presents as dark a colour as the medullary matter.
He instituted experiments on the human hair to disprove Mandl's recent

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 171

assertion, that the tips of the hair are capable of being more or less
perfectly reproduced ; and lastly, by examining the development of the
hairs in the embryos of the dog and calf, he has ascertained that his
observations on the pig hold good with reference to other animals. —
Heft. 4. Transl. in Lond. and E din. Med. Journ. 1841,

[From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1841.]

Lallemand on detecting Spermatic Animalcules. — M. Lallemand enters
at some length into the pathological conditions connected with the
evolution of spermatic animalcules in man, and points out the mode by
which they may be detected under a variety of circumstances, a few
abstract notices of which we subjoin : — After every discharge of the
fluid, there remains always sufficient in the urethra for microscopic ex-
amination, a single drop of which affords myriads of animalcules in
active motion ; and as the fluid evaporates from between the plates of
glass, the addition of water of the temperature of the body, renders
their movements more free. M. L. also finds that the animalcules are
always found in a living state in the urethra, some time after the act of
coition ; and recommends that the first drop of urine should be collected
on a piece of glass, in order to view them in the best manner, as the
warmth and dilution of the secretion by the urine, favour much the
rapidity of their motions. The fluid so obtained is frequently mixed
with mucus, prostratic fluid, and portions of epithelium. This test has
been found of considerable importance to the physician,

Out of thirty-three subjects which M. L. examined after death, he
only met with two cases in which he could detect the spermatic animal-
cules in the gland ; the one died subsequent to a fall on the previous
day, and the other of acute gastro-enteritis.

The microscope affords a very ready method of determining the nature
of secretions from the urethra, though they become dried on linen.
If a spot be supposed to be that of semen, and if it contained at the
time of its emission spermatic animalcules, by moistening the same with
water they are found to regain their former or original state, even after
some years, and to possess the aspect and odour characteristic of the
secretion. They may also be detected in urine, when the semen is
voided with that fluid ; in such cases they are to be found at the
bottom of the vessel in which their presence is supposed, and if any
mucus be present, on the surface of that substance.

[Those of our readers who may be further interested in this sub-
ject, are referred to the original memoir of M. Lallemand, as given
in full in the January and February numbers for the present year.]

Glilge's method of detecting Urea in the Blood, after the removal of the
Kidneys. — By the aid of the microscope, this observer can detect the
presence of urea in the blood ; for, says he, " Urea in its pure and crys-
tallized state, forms fine needle-shaped, shining, or very slender quadri-
lateral prisms. After the kidneys were removed from rabbits, I ex-

172 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

amined the blood, having allowed it to rest for some hours, by the
aid of a power of 255 times ; and even twenty hours after extirpation,
the blood presented the two forms of crystallization of which I have spoken."
In order to avoid every kind of error, experiments were instituted, and
the results were always the same. — Bull. Acad. Sc. and Belles Lettr^s,
Brux. 1839, Part I. p. 302

Horkel read a paper at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Ber-
lin, 17th May, 1841, "On the Microscopic Investigations made by
Franciso Stelluti, in the beginning of the Seventeenth Century." This
communication is not yet published by the Academy.

Apparatus for viewing the Circulation of the Blood in a very simple and
ready manner, adapted for Public Lectures. — This apparatus is composed
of a small box enclosing a frog, the tongue of which is easily placed
for viewing the circulation of the blood, in the arteries, veins, capil-
laries, and even in the interior of the follicles. A compound lens is
adapted to this box, opposite to a hole which allows the direct light of
the sky, or that of a wax candle, according to circumstances, to fall
upon it. A low power is sufficient to see the circulation of the blood
in the interior of the tongue drawn out of the mouth of the animal,
and spread like a membrane. One of these apparatusses presented to
the Academy, was constructed by M. George Oberhauser ; the other
by M. Soleil, optician, after the pattern of M. Donne. — Comptes Ren-
dus, 1841, p. 799.

The employment of the Microscope in Medical Studies ; a Lecture intro-
ductory to a course of Histiology. By John Hughes Bennett, M. D.,
Lecturer on Clinical Medicine, $c., Edinburgh. Edinburgh : Machlach-
lan & Co. London: S. Highley. Dublin: Fannin & Co. 1841.
8vo. Pamphlet, pp. 27.

THE time has at length arrived, when it has been deemed expedient
to institute a Class in Edinburgh, for instructing the rising members of
the profession in the manipulation of the Microscope. This really be-
comes daily the more necessary, seeing that the scientific practitioners
throughout Europe, are resorting at length to this means, with such
acknowledged advantage and success. Dr. Bennett has passed some
considerable time with Continental Microscopic Observers, and is fully
competent to the difficult task he has engaged in, and in which we
heartily wish him every success. It will be a matter of surprise to us, if
the London Medical Schools do not appoint Professors for the same
purpose ; and this appears really the more looked for and demanded,
seeing that the many sources of error which creep into the experiments
made by the tyro, are too apt to cause him hastily to publish results,
and thus render more confusion in the science than is necessary, which
a few hints from one experienced in making such observations would

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 173

tend to obviate, and direct him in the proper path. Indeed, it is some-
what surprising, that the Senate of the University of London, many of
whom have distinguished themselves as Microscopic observers, and have
gained their laurels by the use of the instrument, have not made it requi-
site for students in human, vegetable, and comparative anatomy and
physiology, to attend at least one course, even were it to consist only
of twelve lectures on the Microscope. Such a proceeding in the Metro-
polis would materially lead to the most beneficial results, as it would
create a desire for investigation among students and professors, who
for the most part are ignorant of the actual appearance and nature of
the structures, of which in theory they may be so well versed. The
time is, we feel convinced, not far distant, when the Microscope will be
considered as essential as the scalpel in the hand of the anatomist.

Dr. Bennett, in the pamphlet before us, has taken every pains to
detail the ignorance which prevails among those who are fully con-
versant with book-knowledge, and the inspection of plates of structure,
but who are entirely unacquainted with the objects themselves, and cites
examples in substantiation of his assertions. He then enters, in a very
general and popular manner, on the history and importance of micro-
scopic investigations in the study of anatomy, physiology, pathology,
and the practice of the profession; in which he gives an excellent
though very general summary of the existing state of Microscopic
Science in these departments.

To those interested in such details, we strongly recommend the per-
usal of this pamphlet, and again express our wish, that the laudable
object Dr. Bennett has commenced, in the establishing of a Class for
Microscopic research in Edinburgh, may be attended with that success
it so richly deserves.

The Principles of Botany, Structural, Functional, and Systematic. By
W.Hughes Willshire, M.D., Edinburgh, M.B.S., Lecturer on Botany
at the Charing Cross Hospital, #c. London : S. Highley, Fleet St.
12mo., woodcuts, pp. 233.

THE work before us has been written with a view to supply a defi-
ciency existing in treatises of Botany, for the student in medicine, and
graduate of the University. Its title conveys its objects very precisely.
The structural portion is replete with the most recent important infor-
mation to the time of its publication, embracing the views of late pro-
mulgated by the German and French authors, given in a condensed and
abstract form. As a consequence of the manner in which the struc-
tural portion is treated, the author's views of the physiology of plants
deserve equal notice, and exhibit his intimate acquaintance with the sub-
ject. The systematic arrangement is essentially natural.

An abstract account is given of all those orders, under which the
officinal plants are arranged, together with a list of those admitted in the
London Pharmacopeia ; the general properties of each order are given
in a very general though condensed form, sufficient, however, to convey

174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

the principle (which is all that is aimed at) of so important a branch of
the subject.

From the reasonable price at which this summary of the existing
state of Botanical Science is published, and the really excellent descrip-
tion of its matter, we must admit, the medical student has at length
been supplied with all that can be desired.

The Entomologist. Conducted by Edward Newman, F.L.S. London :
John Van Voorst, Paternoster- row. 1841.

THIS was the first of the Monthly Journals which appeared of the size
and price of our own, and is devoted to the comprehensive Science of
Entomology. We regret there have not as yet occurred in its pages
any original observations on the structure of insects which we could
notice ; it is chiefly confined to the description of species, and the record
of notes connected with the capture of insects, and for these particulars
recommends itself particularly to the attention of practical men.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

November 24th, 1841.— N. B. Ward, Esq., F.L.S., Treasurer, in the

Chair.

DR. HASTINGS was elected a member.

A paper was read from the Rev. J. B. Reade, entitled " A Postscript
to the Rev. J. B. Reade's paper ' On the process of Charring Vegetable
Tissue, as applied to the Stomata in the Epidermis of Garden Rhu-
barb/ " in which the author, after alluding to the experiments of Dr.
Williams, as communicated to the Society, in August last (see the whole
paper, p. 118), which appeared to lead to the conclusion that the pro-
cess of charring was of very doubtful efficacy in determining delicate
structure, and that the overlying membrane in stomata was really
nothing more than an inspissation of organic mucus, raised by heat
into contact with the glass, and by the pressure extending as a car-
bonised pellicle from one edge of the aperture to the other. With
reference to the point in dispute, the author forwarded with the com-
munication a portion of cuticle, which, after being immersed in alcohol,
distilled water, and dilute hydrochloric acid, was, when perfectly dry,
examined by a high power, and the membrane distinctly seen ; it was
more evident after the process of charring, and which process was so
conducted as to obviate all error arising from pressure. The tissue was
placed on a slip of glass, and submitted to the action of heat without
being covered by another slip. Thus, both the supposed sources of
error were avoided ; the one by the previous removal of organic mucus,
and the other by a different manipulation. The paper was accompanied
with sketches of the stomata, by Mr. Lens Aldous, the power employed
being about 2000 linear. The author concluded by stating, that Dr.

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 175

Williams, after seeing the membrane under this power, immediately ap-
proved of the process which rendered it so distinctly visible.

Mr. J. S. Bowerbank then read a paper, being "Descriptions of
three species of Sponge, containing some new forms of organization,"
a full abstract of which will be found at page 161 of this Journal.
This paper led to much discussion, in which the Author, the Chairman,
Mr. Dalrymple, Dr. Willshire, and others, took part.

On the table was the Microscope which the Council ordered for
the Society from Mr. James Smith. This instrument possesses many
modifications and improvements, both in the construction of its frame-
work and appurtenances, and in its optical parts. We hope to be able
at some future opportunity to give them in detail.

JKemorantta.

David Don on a peculiar kind of Organs existing in the Pitcher of
Nepenthes distillatoria. — These organs the late Professor Don named
" clathrophores ;" they occupy the lower half of the inside of the pitcher,
and have been described by Treviranus, Meyen, and Korthals. Doubts
still exist as to their precise function ; but it appeared to him probable
either that they are the mouths by which the fluid is poured out into the
pitcher, or that they are connected with the function of respiration.

The cuticle of the upper surface of the expanded part of the petiole
of Nepenthes distillatoria is described as destitute of stomata ; that of
the under surface, as being furnished with numerous oval, or nearly
orbicular stomata, composed of two semicircular cellules with rectili-
near faces. That of the outer surface of the pitcher is also without
stomata, but covered, especially in the young state, with long subulate
hairs, frequently dichotomous, or furnished with a spur-like process at
their base. The outer surface of the operculum is sparingly furnished
with stomata, and clothed with hairs which are frequently branched
and fasciculate ; the inner has no stomata, but is furnished with clathro-
phores and clothed with hairs, which are often fasciculate, but mostly
simple.

In Sarracenia purpurea the cuticle of the pitchers is described as
consisting of sinuously-lobed and somewhat stelliform cellules, with
numerous small, oval, closed stomata. The fibrous bundles are stated
to be composed entirely of long pleurenchyma, the parenchyma adja-
cent to which consists of beautiful spiral cellules. The hairs of the
inner surface of the operculum are simple, hollow, reflexed, subulate,
and marked with numerous longitudinal parallel lines or striae ; they
proceed from a somewhat elevated base. In the pitchers of Cephalotus
the stomata are large, oval, and closed ; the spiral vessels smaller than
in Nepenthes, and containing only a single fibre ; and the hairs which
form the fringed border are simple, obtuse, and transparent. — Proc.
Linn. Soc. 1840.

176

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

Organic Composition of Chalk and Chalk Marl. — The following Table,
taken from Mr. Weaver's View of " Ehrenberg's Observations on the
Organic Composition of Chalk and Chalk Marl," in Taylor's Annals of
Nat. Hist, for June, 1841, p. 311, exhibits the number of Species of
Infusoria, Polythalamia, &c., met with in the specimens examined by
Ehrenberg : —

Species of
Calcareous
Polythalamia.

SPECIES OF

Silicious
in Chalk.

INFUSORIA.

Soft-shelled
in Flint.

Species of
Silicious
Plants.

The Chalk of
Puskary contains

6

7
6
6
7
9
9

7
2
5
3

8
6

6

1

3
1

5
4
2

Infusoria

4
1
2
1

es of Num-
)f which is

Riigen

Jutland... . .

Gravesend .

Brighton . .

Menden . .

Cattelica

Silicious

27
18
8
9

f Contai
/ mulites,
I one inch

The Chalk Marl of
Caltasinetta

Oran ,

Zante

ning 4 speci
the largest (
in diameter

The Compact Chalk of
Ee'vot

Arabia .

The Nwnmulite Lime-
stone of

The Pyramids of Geza . . .

Death of Mr. David Don. — It is with much regret we announce the
decease of this talented and much respected Botanist and observer,
which took place on the 7th of December, 1841, at ten minutes to
One, A.M., at the apartments of the Linnsean Society, Soho Square.
His remains are deposited in the Kensall Green Cemetry.

177

XXXVI. DESCRIPTION OF MESSRS. POWELL AND LEALAND's* NEWLY-
CONSTRUCTED ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPE.

THE daily acknowledged advantages arising to every branch of Natural
Science from the use of the microscope, have induced us to present,
after some years' experience, an instrument modified to the present im-
provements, and more within the reach of scientific observers, than
that we have of late constructed, a full account of which, and figures of
the one made for the Microscopical Society of London, will be given in
a future number of this Journal.

In the following description almost every portion of the instrument
is alluded to, and figures of the different parts appended ; and it has
been our object to give every individual credit for his improvements,
where at least we consider them of such importance as to be placed on
record.

The points most deserving of attention are the following : — The
double pillar, as first made by Mr. George Jackson, which possesses
the advantage of being lighter, and distributes the weight more equally
upon the foot. We have also introduced a circular motion to turn
the body off the stage to examine the object, and to change the object-
glass to prevent it from falling upon the object. The stage is made
larger and stronger than in former microscopes of this size, and the
pinion and screw are of the same diameter as in the larger instrument,
above alluded to. This description of stage was first constructed by
Mr. Turrell. There are, however, two or three other improvements
and modifications, such as the method for adjusting the object-glass
to compensate for the thickness of the glass covering the object, &c.,
which will be found in the description of the Society's microscope.

FIG. 1. The Microscope in the position for general use. — The figure
forms the frontispiece of this volume. As the most convenient method
of using the instrument is in this position, it will be necessary after
taking it out of the case, to turn it by means of the pillars on its

*Mr. Lealand, Mr. Powell's brother-in-law, has for some years been engaged with
him in the object-glass and optical department, and is now publicly a partner with
Mr. Powell.— Editor.

VOL. I. N

178 POWELL AND LEALAND*S MICROSCOPE.

moveable foot, in order that the principal weight may be over one of
the feet. When the person using it is standing, and the body of the
Microscope perpendicular, it is then firmest as taken from the case.

A. The coarse adjustment for the body, which rests on two rollers,
and is moved by a rack and pinion.

B. The fine adjustment, which is a screw with a cone, against which
there is a spring pressing against the cradle, which carries the com-
pound body.

C. Milled head, which moves the stage to the right and left.

D. Heads that move the stage at right angles to the other. (C) — There
is one head on each side of the stage to this motion, in order that both
hands may be employed at the same time, one on C, and the other on the
opposite side, when a rotatory movement is required to search for ani-
malcules, or other objects. When the two screws, C and D, are used
together, a diagonal motion, and when separate, motions at right angles
with each other are obtained.

E. Arm for holding the stops, F F F, which are used
when viewing opaque objects. — To place them for use,
push down the mirror G to the extremity of the stem ;
put the stop into the spring-hole, turn it into the centre
of the stage, and raise it as high as the slide on which
the object is placed will admit of.

G. Mirror for illuminating objects. — When the concave side is used
it should be raised nearly to the stem, in order that the rays of light
proceeding from it may reach the object before crossing, for by this
means the most intense light is obtained. It is invariably used for
opaque objects, together with the Lieberkulm. At night it will be
necessary to use the larger condensing lens, which should be placed at
about its focal distance from the lamp, with its convex side to the mir-
ror, and adjusted till the rays of light fill it.

H. Spring-piece for holding the slides on the stage. — The most con-
venient mode of placing them is, to push up the spring-piece sufficiently
high to allow the slide to go on the stage, and then compress it until it
holds it. Any number of slides of the same width may then, after it
has been set, be put in without that trouble. Should the slides be very
wide, in order to have the whole range of the stage, it will be necessary
to observe if the centre of the slide corresponds with the line on the
centre of the stage ; if not it must be altered until it does.

FIG. 2. Achromatic Condenser. — This is adapted under the stage. It

POWELL AND LKALAND S MICROSCOPE.

179

will be observed there are two notches in the plate, capable of admitting

the two springs on the condenser ; put it in, and turn

it till the milled head is in the best position for use ;

bring your object into focus, and adjust the condenser

till you see distinctly the image of the lamp, or the

frame of the window, if by daylight ; and then you

may be assured the most intense light is obtained, which

is not always desirable. The light is lessened or

diminished by turning back the condensing lens, by

means of the milled head.

Fig. 2.

FIG. 3. Micrometer for measuring objects. — The upper part of the
stage is taken out of the plate, put into the micro-
meter, and the whole put again on to the stage. To
measure an object, observe that the micrometer
stands at nought ; then adjust one edge of the 9b-
ject till it comes in contact with the web in the eye-
piece, by the milled head C ; then adjust it across
by the head of the micrometer D, when the number
of revolutions and points may be taken.

FIG. 4. Plate on which
Frogs or Fish are tied to
examine the circulation of
blood in the vessels.

FIG. 5, Large Stage, used
when the Frog Plate is used.
— To examine the circula-
tion of the blood in the web of
the foot of the frog, or the tail of
a fish, it must first be enclosed in
the bag ; then fastened on the plate
by the holes in either side of it ;
then tie some thread to about four
of its toes, and spread the web out
by fastening the ends through the holes in the plate.

Fig. 6.

FIG. 6. Phial holder for viewing Chara, %c. while in a living state. —
It is adapted to go in the plate of the stage, and is put in after taking
the upper part of the stage oft*.

N 2

180

POWELL AND LEALAND S MICROSCOPE.

FIG. 7. Small Condensing Lens for viewing opaque objects by direct light,

/^•^~~:^. ^e stem of which goes into the

| r~] /fc==gfa=r3 hole (I).— The larger lens should

M x^rix ^rst be made to throw as intense

—\ff a light as possible on the objects,

Fig.7. and the small one should inter-

cept the rays at about two inches from the object. When the large lens
only is used, which is the case when viewing opaque objects by daylight,
it should be placed at about three inches from the object, with its plane
side towards it : this produces light intense enough for many objects,
without the smaller one ; but when that is used, the
plane side of the large lens should then be towards the
lamp.

FIG. 8. Diaphramfor cutting off extraneous light when
viewing minute transparent objects. — It is adapted under
the stage, in the same manner as the achromatic condenser.
FIG. 9. Diaphram of French construction. — Which is used in front
of the lamp, to cut off extraneous light,
and intercept the rays before they reach
the mirror. It goes into the stem of
the large condensing lens, which is
easily drawn out, and the diaphram
substituted. It should be placed at about
eight inches from the mirror, and if an
image of the aperture is obtained in the
body, but a small portion of the field of
view will be illuminated. The size will
depend upon which aperture is used, and
the relative distances of the mirror from
the object, and the diaphram from the
mirror ; it is useful, when any very deli-
cate structure is to be observed, as the
darkness around the object renders the markings more distinct.

Adjusting Object-glasses. — These are made to adjust, in order that they
may be as perfect for viewing objects covered with glass, as those that are
not. As it is of material consequence that the object-glass should ad-
just to suit the various thicknesses of glass that are used, and as it is
impossible to measure accurately the thickness, the best method to adjust
the object-glass is this : — Place it at the point for viewing objects un-
covered, which will be known by observing that the circular line under
the word uncovered corresponds with the fixed line ; or, the more ready

CRYSTALS OF CARBONATE OF LIME IN THE EGG-SHELL OF REPTILES. 181

way is, to adjust it down as far as it will allow, as we always make them
to stop at the corrected point. Bring the object into focus by the ad-
justment of the body, then adjust the object-glass till the upper surface
of the glass which covers the object is in focus ; this can very readily be
done while the person is observing, by taking between the finger and
thumb the milling on the object-glass, and turning it to the left ; then
bring the object again into focus by the body, and the adjustment is
perfect. For the principle of this important method of correcting object-
glasses for looking through glass, we are indebted to Mr. Andrew Ross.

FIG. 10. Steel Disc, by which Drawings are
made. — To use it, place the body of the Micro-
scope horizontally, take the cap off the eye-piece,
push on the disk to the line marked upon the
long eye-piece, and adjust it till the arm is hori- ]0

zontal.

FIGS. 11 & 12. Prisms for polarizing or
decomposing the Light. — One (Fig. 11) is
adapted under the stage, in the same manner
as the achromatic condenser, the other in
the body of the Microscope, the draw of the
body is taken out, and the prism screwed
in, and the draw replaced. The polariza-
tion of light can be seen by turning round
the draw in the body, or the prism under Fig. 12.
the stage : the latter is generally preferred
Fig. ii. as being the most easy.

[The price of the Instrument above described varies from forty to
sixty guineas, depending upon the number of powers and apparatus
attached thereto ; a very complete Microscope, however, of this kind
may be obtained for about forty-five guineas. — Editor, .]

XXXVII. ON THE EXISTENCE OF CRYSTALS OF CARBONATE OF

LIME IN THE EGG-SHELL OF THE ALLIGATOR.

By Dr. Henry Johnston, of Shrewsbury.

IN the September number of this Journal (p. 108), it is stated, on the
authority of M. Turpin, that the particles of carbonate of lime which
give substance to the shells of birds and reptiles, are deposited in con-
fusion, molecule by molecule, and not in a crystalline form, as occurs in
the eggs of Cryptella and Helices.

182 CRYSTALS OK CARBONATE OF LIME IN THE EGG-SHELL OF REPTILES.

I am unable, at present, to obtain access to the original paper of M.
Turpin, and therefore, to ascertain whether he examined particularly the
egg-shell of the alligator ; but I infer that, as one of the reptiles, his
observation equally applies to that animal.

Some eggs of the alligator having recently been given to me, I was
curious to examine the structure of the shell, and I was much surprised,
knowing what M. Turpin had written on the subject, to detect in them,
what appeared to me, decided indications of a crystalline arrangement.

The egg-shell of the alligator consists of two layers. The inner is
thin and flexible, not at all crystalline, and indeed seems to be merely
the inner membrane dried.

The outer layer is thicker and stronger than the former. Its exterior
is smooth, and its interior studded with minute eminences, visible to the
naked eye. These appearances may be seen in the following manner :

1 . If the light be allowed to fall obliquely on the thin broken edge
of this layer, minute shining points, or facets, are seen here and there,
with the assistance of a single lens of low power,* or, still better, with
the higher power of a compound microscope.

2. When viewed as an opaque object, with an achromatic power of
about fifty linear, the inner surface is seen to consist of an irregular
semi-transparent mass, having quite a crystalline appearance, although
no regularly formed crystals can be perceived. Among the minute
eminences above mentioned, many slender white fibres are seen, look-
ing much like acicular crystals, but which are not, I think, really such.

3. The crystalline structure is best seen, by carefully crushing a por-
tion of the outer layer in a mortar, and then examining the powder as
an opaque object, on a dark ground, with a power of about fifty linear,
or more. The particles are clear and transparent, almost like crystal ;
they are not amorphous, but have a great tendency to break into more
or less regular fragments, bounded often by straight lines, and the frac-
tures are clear and shining.

Although I have not been able to discover the regular rhomboidal
crystals which M. Turpin has elsewhere detected : yet, I think it is
proved by these observations, that the substance of the egg-shell here
spoken of consists of particles of carbonate of lime, so disposed as to
form not an amorphous mass, but a crystalline structure, such as we see
in loaf-sugar, white marble, &c. The inside shell is almost entirely
animal matter, and leaves but little residuum when burnt upon platinum.

It is with the greatest diffidence that I advance an opinion in any

* A Coddrington lens of thirty linear.

HINTS TO MICROSCOPISTS. 183

way contrary to the conclusions of M. Turpin, I am however induced to
communicate these few remarks, in order to draw the attention of Eng-
lish microscopists to the subject.

to

III. ON PRESERVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR MOUNTING ANIMAL STRUC-

I TURES.

By Daniel Cooper, Esq., Surgeon, fyc.

Goadby's Fluid for mounting Animal Tissues. — Mr. Goadby, whose
name is familiar to most of our readers, has lately received a gold medal,
from the Society of Arts, for his fluid-preparation for preserving animal
structures, and thus supplying at once a ready, cheap, and effectual
means to the microscopist of mounting animal structures with the
greatest possible ease and security, and affording the anatomist and
physiologist that which has been for so long a time a great desidera-
tum. The following is the receipt for making Mr. Goadby's fluid : —

4 Ounces of Bay Salt.

2 of Alum.

4 Grains of Corrosive Sublimate.

2 Quarts of Boiling Water.

These ingredients are to be well stirred, and the solution finely filtered.

Preparations immersed in this fluid are reported to keep their colour
well, even those possessing a very delicate rose tint. I have examined
the blood- corpuscles, and various other normal and abnormal secretions,
which had been preserved for upwards of a fortnight in it, without suf-
fering any material alteration either as regards their form or colour. This
solution is also applicable for preserving zoological objects generally.
When mounting objects for the microscope, provided they are not
thick, place a few drops of this fluid upon a piece of glass, on which the
object has been previously put, and cover it with a portion of thin glass,
wipe at the moment all the superfluous moisture from the edges of the
surrounding glass, and by means of a brush apply japanner's gold
size, so as to cover the upper and under glass to the extent of the
eighth or sixth of an inch all round. By adopting this means, the
fluid in which the object is placed is prevented from evaporating, and
exercises its preservative influence over the enclosed object.

The Gannal process for preserving animal structures from decomposi-
tion, consists in injecting with, or immersing objects in, a solution of

184 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

the super-acetate of alumina. There is, however, the same objection,
though to a greater extent, to the use of this fluid as to the salt water.

ud. mixture of salt and water was* first recommended by Dr. Cook for
the same purpose, and has been known for more than twenty years.
There is a serious objection to the use of this solution for microsco-
pic preparations, owing to the development of a Confervoid vegetable,
as noticed by Mr. Bowerbank, at p. 159.

Mr. J. T. Cooper some years since made some experiments wjth a
view to determine the best fluid for preserving vegetable coloured tis-
sues, such as some of the smaller Fungi, and found that salt and water,
to which acetic acid had been added, answered extremely well for this
purpose. This solution might probably answer for mounting dissec-
tions of vegetable structures.

Kreosote and oil of copal, with the above, have likewise been tried,
but have not been generally used, probably on account of the difficulty
of obtaining the former free from colour, and the expense of both, com-
pared to the simple ones above described.

antf ^flbatracts from dfawjjn journals.
[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1841.]

Will on the Compound Eyes of Insects and Crustacea. — Some excellent
researches, illustrated by good figures, have been published on this
subject, by Will of Leipsig. The author found the investigation
more convenient in subjects prepared in spirit than in fresh ones. The
facets of the cornea are hexangular in all insects, but in Crustacea
sometimes quadrangular, sometimes hexangular; quadrangular in
Palcemon serratus, Galathea strigosa, Astacus fluviatilis and marinus,
Palinurus locusta and Pasiphtea squinado ; hexangular in Squilla mantis,
Pagurus bernhardus, Portunus pubes and Ilia nucleus. The two eyes
occasionally vary in size. In the Libellula the facets in the upper
part of the eye are at least one-third larger than the rest. In the
Gryllotalpa vulgaris, those on the border of the cornea are about one-
third smaller than the others. The cornea is made up of prisms, or
truncated pyramids, corresponding in number to that of the facets.
Each pyramid presents, on a vertical section, oblique striae, usually more
than five, probably the edges of horny plates placed upon one another.
In Ranatra linearis, Naucoris cimicoides, Cicada orni, Tabanus bovinus,
there are found external and internal layers ; the former transparent, the
latter less so. The surfaces of both extremities of the corneal pyra-
mids are always convex, or at most level, but never concave. In Gala-
thea strigosa, Paloemon serratus, Astacus fluviatilis, and other Crustacea,
the external extremities of these pyramids are very slightly convex, the
internal even. In Cetonia aurata, Melolontha vulgaris, M. fullo, Calo-
soma sycophanta, Dytiscus marginalis, Staphlylinus erythropterus and

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 185

Gryllotalpa vulgaris, both ends are convex ; the internal, however, much
more so than the outer. In Locusta viridissima both are very slightly
convex. In Mantis religiosa almost even. In Vespa crabro, Apis melli-
fica and Bombus, convex, the inner most so. In ^Eschna grandis, Agrion
virgo, Libellula depressa, slightly convex, the inner being much so. In
Cicada orni, slightly convex, the inner strongly so. In Cossus Ligni-
perda, Sphinx Atropos, Pontia Brassier, Vanessa Urticte, Musca domestica,
and Tabanus bovinus, slightly convex, the outer appearing more so. In
Apis mellifica and Vanessa Urticee, between the facets are observed
simple hairs, which extend to the inner surface of the cornea, and are
placed irregularly. In Vespa crabro, on the inner surface of the cornea,
at the border of the facets, are formed short, rounded striae, probably
indentations. The number of facets in each eye are in Galathea strigosa
5400; mMelolontha vulgaris 6300 ; in M.fullo 9400; in Calosoma
sycophanta 4030 ; in Locusta viridissima 2000 ; in Bombus 4000 ; in
jEschna, grandis 10,000; in Cicada orni 11,600; in Cossus ligniperda
8 ICO; in Sphinx Atropos 12,400; in Vanessa Urtic<e45QO; in Musca
domestica 4900, &c., &c. — (To be continued, as soon as the next Part
comes to hand.}

New form of vessels in Plants. — Under the name of Dichotomous
vessels are described by Calamai (Annales des Sciences Natur., Vol.
XIV, p. 317) certain constantly forked vessels in plants, which are pro-
bably identical with the so-called Latex vessels. — p. 75.

33 tblta graphical

Illustrations of Arts and Manufactures. By Arthur Aikin, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., &c., late Secretary to the Society of Arts, London. J. Van
Voorst, 1840. 12mo, pp. 372.

THE materials this interesting little work contains, have been selected
from a series of papers read before the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce in London, by the much esteemed
and respected Secretary, Mr. Arthur Aikin, who for twenty-four years
held that office, and communicated many important papers, from which
the work under notice has been written.

The subjects treated of are : — 1, Pottery; 2, On Limestone and Cal-
careous Cements. 3, On Gypsum and its Uses. 4, On Furs and the
Fur Trade. 5, On Felting and Hat-making. 6, On Bone. 7, On
Horn, Tortoiseshell, and Whalebone. 8, The Antiquarian History of
Iron. 9, The Metallurgical History of Iron. 10, On Engraving and
Etching. 11, On Paper.

Of this list, there is one article which is interesting to the Microsco-
pic observer, viz. the chapter on Felting. The various hairs used for
this purpose are neatly figured from drawings made by Mr. Cornelius
Varley. The micrometric measurements are added to the interesting
matter which accompanies each figure, and adds very much to the ge-
neral value of the work.

186 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

A special work on the Arts and Manufactures has long been a desi-
deratum : this, Mr. Aikin has supplied so far as the extent of the pre-
sent volume will allow. We can but speak in its praise, both as
regards the style in which it is written, the manner in which it is got
up, and the delicacy of the illustrations.

The Literary and Scientific Register for 1842. By J. W. G. Gutch,

Surgeon, #c. London : Suttaby & Co., pp. 120.

THIS work, bound as a pocket-book, contains, in a condensed form, a
variety of practical information in astronomy, botany, chemistry, medi-
cine, meteorology, zoology, and science in general, and blank ruled
pages for a Meteorological Register. As a compendium for general
reference on scientific subjects, it is deserving a place in the pocket of
scientific men.

Hair of the Moose-Deer. — In plate I. of the present volume, is a dia-
gram representing the appearance of transverse and longitudinal sections
of the hair of the Moose-Deer, forwarded by Mr. G. Busk ; in them
the external fibrous sheath, the regular cells, and the internal enlarged
cells, which open into each other, may be well seen. This figure will
be again alluded to, when Mr. Busk's notes and series of illustrations
of the hairs of numerous animals are inserted. — Editor.

Gill's Notice of a similar Growth on the dead Larva of a Gnat, to that
recorded by Dr. Stilling on living Frogs. — In reference to the case men-
tioned, at p. 139 of our Journal, by Dr. Stilling, " On the formation of
Contagious Conferva (?) on living Frogs," we beg to state, that on
referring to the Technological Repository, Vol. V., 1829, a similar
growth is described and figured by Mr. Thomas Gill, -which occurred
on the body of a dead larva of a gnat. We extract the description, as
given by this observer, for comparison : — " The production of transpa-
rent tubes, filled at their ends with small spherical bodies, was apparent ;
which tubes burst as the water gradually dried up, and these sphe-
rical bodies swam about in all directions in a lively manner, the ends of
the tubes generally remaining empty, and quite pellucid ; orifices or
openings at their ends, through which the spherical bodies had been
protruded, being also visible ; the extremities of others were filled with
these spherical bodies. Others of the tubes also ramified and divided
themselves into branches, proceeding from the main stems." The
rapid growth of these filaments is particularly referred to by Mr. Gill.
He further adds (Vol. IV. p. 331), that the rudiments of these tubes
were found adherent to those very recently dead, so that they seem to
prey upon them in the manner of other parasites ; and instantly upon
their death, to commence their work of decomposition. — Editor.

Erratum. — At page 148, for " Scale 8JOQ of an inch," read 3^0 of an inch.

Mucrcscopic JbicrnaL. Pi. /. Tbl. 1.

Spiraculum* of Dytiscus.

Sections of the Near of ike Moose Deer.

of ' .Eider Duck.

D.C.dfl.

.

Microscopic J'oumtd . PL /. Vr7 . ?

New Substance orv the lEanan.-

'

/. & ?. Blood, Discs of diren
3. & A. DC. Do. Mmi .

fi?©

s

H.C.del.

65

X. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A NEW ACARUS (?) FROM A PUSTULE

IN A SAILOR'S FOOT.

By George Busk, Esq., Surgeon to the Hospital Ship,
Dreadnought, 8fC.

THE figure of this Acarus, given in Plate IV., Div. 7., was found beneath
the cuticle of the sole of the foot of a negro, under the following cir-
cumstances: — He was admitted into the Seaman's Hospital Ship
last autumn, with large sores of a very peculiar character, and confined
to the soles of the feet. On examining the secretion of these sores,
the insect was found, but dead, and apparently partially crushed, as
represented in the plate. It appeared that the disease was caused by its
burrowing immediately beneath the thick cuticle, which thus became
irregularly detached, being, as it were, undermined by galleries branch-
ing in all directions. The disease was attributed to the wearing of a
pair of shoes which had been lent to another negro, whose feet had
been similarly affected for nearly a year, and who wore the shoes thus
lent for a day or two. The negro so under my care was a native of,
and canie from, the West Indies, and was not aware that a disease like his
was ever known to occur there; but the negro to whom he had lent the
shoes came from Sierra Leone ; and this circumstance is very remarkable
in conjunction with the fact, that in some water brought by Dr. Stanger
from the river Sinoe on the coast of Africa, one nearly perfect specimen,
and fragments of others very similar, if not of this identical Acarus were
found, rendering it probable that the first man contracted the disease un-
der which he had laboured so long, from some external source. It may
not be, perhaps, improbably supposed, that the insect may eventually
prove to be the parasite of some aquatic bird, or other animal frequent-
ing watery places. The remains are too imperfect to allow of an exact
description being given; but from all the comparison and inquiry I
have been able to make from those best informed in these matters, it
would appear that this Acarus will form a distinct genus from those
hitherto described, and that it would be placed near the genera Sar cop-
ies and Hypopus. A not very dissimilar parasite has been found lately
by Mr. J. Quekett, beneath the skin of some bird, I believe an aquatic
one, and this will render the supposition I have hinted at the more
probable.

[We are informed by Staff Assistant- Surgeon P. D. Murray, that at

VOL. II. F

66 ON A PECULIAR SUBSTANCE OCCURRING ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

Sierra Leone there is a native pustular disease called craw-craw, which
is a species of itch breaking into open sores, and very troublesome to
cure. May not the above insect be the cause of this intractable local
disease, in the same manner as the Acarus is of the common itch ? —
Editor.']

XI. ON A PECULIAR SUBSTANCE OCCURRING ON THE HUMAN TEETH.

By Frederick Buehlmann, Candidate of Medicine, Berne.

IN investigating the so-termed molecules of saliva of Henle, I was struck
by a peculiar kind of thread-like bodies placed on a granular mass which
displays itself, mixed with the epithelium of the mouth, and with tartar,
in great abundance on the teeth. I am not aware that any one, with
the exception of Leuwenhoeck (Opp. omnia Lugd. Batav., 1722,
Tom. II, p. 40), had ever mentioned them; I was therefore induced to
examine them with the more attention, and discovered as follows.

There exist on the teeth of all adults, especially on those on which
deposits of tartar occur, or which have a tendency to form such depo-
sits, forms which consist of a great number of thread-like bodies, and
which occur of three different kinds.

1. There are on a granular yellow substance of circular or elongated
form, beautiful fibres, which sprout from this parent substance like plants
from a bulb. This elegant form is the rarest. I have however observed
it several times, and Professor Valentin has also convinced himself of
its existence. The vessels occur in the form of tufts, presenting the
most beautiful curves.

2. The fibres appear singly, scattered and often broken amid the
epithelium, the tartar, and the adhering slime of the teeth.

3. Entire masses are observed of fibres which wind irregularly, and
are surrounded by the yellow granular mass, which are perfectly identi-
cal with those described as No. 1. The first of these forms is the most
beautiful, and possibly the primitive. It has on its first appearance some
similarity with the spermatic animalcules which are sometimes observed
of a tuft -like form, or with certain appearances of mould in the animal
kingdom. The vessels have a breadth of about 0.0000 6 -8th of a Paris
inch, and a length, which, as will be seen from the accompanying figures,
is extremely variable. They possess at the basis the breadth cited above,
preserve this breadth till about the middle, and diminishing thence,

ON A PECULIAR SUBSTANCE OCCURRING ON THE HUMAN TEETH. 67

terminate in a point. They are smooth, of a yellowish white, somewhat
transparent, are elegantly curved or wavy ; or, when they occur in the
second form, are occasionally quite straight, and apparently stiff. Their
elasticity however admits of no doubt, as in moving the plates of glass,
they frequently turned and moved in various directions. Professor Va-
lentin believes also that their surface is not granular, and their margin
not varicose ; although it sometimes had that appearance, as small mole-
cules attached themselves to the surface, which did not belong to the
constituent, but to the adhering portions of the form, as was plainly
observable if the object was well in focus. Professor Gerber, however,
has observed both these peculiarities. Farther and more complete inves-
tigations will probably decide this point. I never saw these fibres rup-
tured, yet broken parts are occasionally to be seen in the second form.
Single fragments of these fibres, which are cylindrical and have a broad
end on each side, may be perceived. The point of fracture is straight,
and exhibits no protruding portions. As regards the occurrence of these
forms, I have found that they exist only on the teeth, but not on the
slime ; that they occur both in young and old individuals, but more fre-
quently and more abundantly in the case of older persons, who usually
pay less attention to their teeth, which on this account are coated with
slime and tartar. They then display themselves chiefly in the form of
Nos. 2 and 3 equally on all the teeth. I have looked for them on my
own teeth, after having first very carefully cleaned them with a brush,
and have found them again. They are most numerous when a portion
of slime lies between the teeth, and particularly towards the bases of the
last teeth, As regards their chemical composition, I can only state at
present, that acids leave this peculiar substance totally unaltered, or at
most, only render it somewhat more transparent. The strongest nitric,
sulphuric, or muriatic acids do not dissolve it. The most concentrated
solution of caustic alkali produces no alteration of form. If consumed
on a plate of glass, in a platinum crucible, the surrounding mass is
changed into carbon, but these fibres remain unaltered. This however
is only to be observed as regards those which exist on the margin of the
blackened mass ; the others, though certainly not consumed, are mecha-
nically inclosed in the black substance, and therefore cannot be discerned
with the microscope.

I beg to submit this sketch as a mere preliminary notice on the sub-
ject, in order that other and more competent observers may devote their
attention to these objects, hoping myself to be able to communicate
more complete information at a future period.

F2

68 ON INFUSORIA IN THE MUD OF RIVERS, ETC.

Finally, that this substance does not belong to the enamel of the
teeth, will be readily perceived by every one who has inspected the
enamel itself.*

Explanation of the Figures, Plate 2, Division 1.

Figs. 1, 3, & 4, Show the thread-like bodies as described under No. 1.

Fig. 2. Second form of the thread-like bodies, separated, and with a portion of

epithelium.
Fig. 5. Third form of the thread-like bodies, surrounded by the granular mass, in

which the fibres are sometimes very distinct.
Fig. 6. Single fibres of the thread-like bodies, some entire, and others probably

broken.
Figs. 2 & 6, Are drawn under higher magnifying powers than the other figures.

XII. OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE SOURCE AND EXTENT OF

INFUSORIA IN THE MUD OF RIVERS, ETC.f

By T. F. Bergin, Esq., of Dublin.

EHRENBERG, who has already reaped such abundant laurels by the appli-
cation of the Microscope to the Arcana of Nature, has, during the last
year made another very important communication to the Berlin Academy,
a translation of which by Mr. Weaver, has recently appeared in
Jameson's Philosophical Journal, and of which I observe an abstract in
the Microscopic Journal, Vol. I. p. 162.

I refer to his Observations on the important part which Microscopic
Organisms play in Choking up certain Harbours.

Having made the truly wonderful discovery, now so familiar to every
microscopist, that extensive apparent mineral beds, and, in some in-
stances, almost mountain ranges, are composed almost exclusively of the
silicious or calcareous shells of animalcules, so minute, as not merely to
be invisible to the naked eye, but even to require high magnifying powers
to establish their existence, he was naturally led to inquire whether
similar causes were still in operation, and has arrived at the conclusion
that a very large proportion of the mud banks deposited by certain rivers
flowing into harbours, consists of these organisms in the living state.
In fact, a moderate estimate, b ised upon microscopic examination of the

* From Miiller's Archiv. 1840.

f Read before the Microscopical Society of Dublin, January 1842, and communi-
cated by the Author.

ON INFUSORIA IN THE MUD OF RIVEES, ETC. G9

deposits at Wismar, Pillau, Cuxhaven, the Nile, and some other similar
situations, shows that these organic forms amount to proportions
varying from ^th to ^-th of the whole deposit, or that the animal
deposition within harbours, in some cases where circumstances admitted
of an approximate measurement, amounts to many thousand cvvts.
annually. Such an announcement as this naturally excites the attention
of every microscopist, and leads him to see whether such results are
produced by all rivers, and if riot, to ascertain, if possible, the cause of
difference ; and it is not altogether unimportant to place on record every
fact, no matter how slight, bearing on so interesting a subject.

The only opportunity for observation which I have heretofore had, is
as to the deposits of our own river, the Liffey. These, we know, are
very great in quantity, so much so as to entail a serious expense on the
curators of the navigation 'in maintaining dredging machines, for the
purpose of preventing their accumulation to an injurious extent. The
result of somewhat extended and very careful examination of these
deposits during the last month (Dec. 1841) is, that they do not at all
agree in character with those of the Elbe, and other rivers examined by
Ehrenberg. I find but very few specimens indeed of a few species of
Navicula, such as N. striatula, N. Hippocampus, N. sigma, N. viridis,
and some few others, and heretofore I have found but one solitary Poly-
thalamous shell ; in fact the organic forms do not constitute 10100th
part of the mass.

Receiving then the announcement of Ehrenberg with all the confi-
dence which any observation of that eminent man deserves, we are
naturally led to inquire, Whence this remarkable difference ?

The rivers, the deposits of which he has examined, flow for an im-
mense distance through flat alluvial districts. The Liffey, and its tribu-
tary, the Dodder, both have their sources in the granitic mountains of
the County of Wicklow, and within a very few miles reach the sea ; in
fact the waters of these rivers can be but a few hours in passing from
their source to the sea, and a small portion only of their limited course
is through alluvium ; and to this, J conceive, may be attributed the re-
markable difference. In the case of the long and slow rivers, the germs
of these minute beings, received most probably from the drainage of
the lands through which they flow, have time to attain maturity, and to
increase and multiply ; whereas, in the shorter and more rapid streams
this cannot be.

It would be very interesting to examine the deposits of our great
river, the Shannon, flowing as it does through almost the whole length
of our Island, and, now sluggishly, now rapidly, through every variety

70 ON THE STINGING ORGANS OF MEDUSA.

of soil. I hope some of our associates will do so, and let us know the
result.

After having detailed his observations, to which I have referred,
Ehrenberg adds that the extraordinary fertility produced by the mud
deposited on the arable lands by the overflowing of the Nile, and of
some other rivers, probably proceeds, not merely from the mechanical
transport of soil, but from the vast mass of animal matters (the inhabit-
ants of these minute shells) thus spread over the surface of the land.

The deposits of the river Dodder to a certain extent corroborate this
view, as I know that the stuff spread over the adjoining lands, when-
ever it overflows its banks, produces an effect very far from fertilizing.

The notice which our friend Mr. Ball lately gave of the variety of
organic forms which he observed in a morsel of mud from Plymouth
Sound, bears on this point, as the rivers falling into that Sound, the
Plym, the Tamar, the Tavy, and some others, all flow slowly and for a
considerable distance through rich alluvial districts. It would also be
interesting to examine the deposits of the Severn, the Dee, the Mersey,
and as many other rivers as possible.

The subject is, possibly, not devoid of economic interest. Irrigation
has frequently been resorted to for the improvement of land, but with
very different results. It may be that in this discovery of Ehrenberg
is to be found the explanation of these differences ; and it is probably
not too much to say, that an a priori examination of the mud of every
river might enable the agriculturist to say whether he would derive
benefit or the reverse by suffering its waters to overflow his ground.

XIII. ON THE SUPPOSED STINGING ORGANS OF MEDUSA, AND THE

OCCURRENCE OF PECULIAR STRUCTURES IN INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,
WHICH SEEM TO CONSTITUTE A NEW CLASS OF ORGANS.*

By Professor Rudolph Wagner of Getting en.

IT is well known that it has not yet been ascertained whether the sting-
ing or burning power of Medusa, is to be ascribed to a corrosive liquid,
or to a mechanical injury. I think my investigations enable us to ap-
proach more nearly the decision of this question.

The origin of the stinging is, at all events, to be sought for in the

* From the Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1841, Translated in Professor Jameson's
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for January 1842.

ON THE STINGING ORGANS OF MEDUSAE. 71

external surface of the skin of the Medusa. I have observed in a very
beautiful and distinct manner the structure in the Pelagia noctiluca*
The outer skin is in that species of a beautiful brownish violet and
reddish colour on the convex discoid surface, on the exterior arched
edge of the arms, and on the lobes of the rim (Randlappen.) This varie-
gated membrane is easily separated, especially over the greater part of
the convex surface of the disc, and then there appears the homogeneous
jelly-like substance which constitutes the real body of the animal.
Where the red spots occur, we find, after the skin is detached, round
elevations or inequalities, like warts.

By the assistance of a low magnifying power, the red spots appear
like collections of very small red grains of pigment, in whose vicinity the
whole body is covered by that kind of epithelium called a Pflasterepi-
thelium, consisting of larger and smaller cells, which contain distinct
nuclei. It is an epideimis analogous to that of the frogs and many
other animals. The accumulations of pigment occur especially on the
above-mentioned arched inequalities which arise above the surface, and
have a substratum of muscular fibres.

Between the red grains of pigment are to be observed round balls
or bubbles, out of which frequently, by the aid of a strong magnify-
ing power (for this whole organization can only be recognised through
the microscope), fine threads are seen to project. The largest of these
balls present themselves as firm well-filled capsules of •— -^-th part of a
line in size, in which lies internally a spirally rolled- up thread, which
often comes out of itself, but always does so on the application of a
slight pressure. This thread then appears as a whip-like appendage to
the capsule, and has a very elegant outline. It is difficult to form an
idea of its structure : sometimes it seems as if it had a canal. When
the capsule is closed, while the thread is still rolled up in it, we per-
ceive an inequality to which the thread, when opened up, is attached,
as if to a stalk; when stretched out, the fine thread is a line long.

These hair or thread capsules are very loosely attached, and easily
fall, and are rubbed off along with the slime, when the Medusa loses its
skin ; they are found in quantity, as are also the threads themselves, in
what is termed the stinging slime of the Medusas, (which is nothing else
but the cast off epithelium), as is easily ascertained when these animals
are kept in vessels. With more difficulty there are loosened smaller,
long- shaped, clear little capsules, from 3-5-0 th to z^th of a line in size,

The examination was made at Nice and Villafranca in the autumn of 1839.

72 ON THE STINGING ORGANS OF MEDUSAE.

V

which are partially covered with fine short little hairs, or whip-shaped
appendages. If we compare the reserve teeth of crocodiles, sharks,
and poisonous serpents, we cannot help considering these little capsules
as reserve cells, when the larger ones are lost.

Such individual little organs also exist beyond the spots, and extend
to the inner rim of the arms, and to the under surface of the disc, where
they cease. At the rim of the disc there hang between every two
lobed (RandlappenJ , alternating with the crystalline bodies of the edge
(Randkopern or CrystalldrusenJ , fine long cylindrical threads of a violet
colour. These are covered with shining hairs, and present a cylindri-
cal epithelium, which rests on the muscular fibres ; these threads are
covered with numerous parcels of small stinging capsules.

It is known that the slightest touch of a Medusa causes a percepti-
ble burning sensation, and I, together with several pupils who accom-
panied me in my travels, experienced it in bathing. This ensues more
feebly or more strongly, according to the vigour of the animal. Medusa
only sting at parts of their bodies where the epidermis is preserved.
We never experienced the sensation when we came in contact with
portions in which the epidermis had been removed ; a circumstance
which happens frequently in living animals. If we place a separated
portion of a Medusa, with its epidermis side on the bare skin, or if we
rub off a little epidermis and apply it to the skin, a burning sensation
is felt after a period of from a few seconds to a minute ; after five
minutes a slight redness appeared in my case, and then a simple lentil-
shaped elevation, more frequently three or four, near one another.
Medusa swimming in the sea act much more strongly, and even the
eruptive appearances called Quaddeln are produced, as in the case of
Essera or Urticaria. The pain soon ceases. It lasted half a day with
one of the party, Dr. Will, and after eight days, a redness was still
perceptible.

The internal substance of the body (the so-termed jelly of the
Medusa) never stings, nor does the inner surface of the cavity of the
stomach, nor the inner surface of the arms, where the pigment spots,
the capsules, and the hairs are wanting. At the parts of the skin on
which I allowed myself to be stung, I always found separated capsules
and hairs. It is well known that all Medusa do not sting ; and, for
example, I found no power of this kind in the Cassiopea ; a microsco-
pic investigation proved the absence of those capsules and hairs over
the whole surface of the disc. On the other hand, an Oceania (allied
to the Cacuminatd) stings, but only with the edge threads, and in a
much smaller degree than the Pelagia. An examination showed the

ON THE BLOOD -DISCS OF SIREN LACERTINA. 73

existence of capsules, but of a lengthened shape, with fine long threads.
But these organs were much smaller and finer ; they had a remarkable
resemblance to the structures I described formerly as Spermatozoa of
the Actinia. A new investigation of the Actinite, as, for example, of
the Actinia cereus, convinced me that those structures formerly described
as Spermatozoa are nothing else but stinging threads of the Medusa ;
they stand closely studded round the feelers or arms, and on the exte-
rior surface. The threads project from long-shaped capsules, with
that remarkable movement which I have elsewhere described, and
which I found again precisely as formerly. The same organs, but only
in a different form, occur again in Polypi, as Ehrenberg and Dr. Erdl
(one of my companions) found in the Hydra ; and the latter discovered
them also in Veretillum.

It is probable that the stinging has a mechanical and chemical
origin ; just as in the majority of what are termed poison-organs, we
find a liquid which collects in a little bladder or capsule, and an appa-
ratus capable of doing injury. So it is also with many stinging plants,
as the Loasete, in which fine sharp hairs convey a juice, where circula-
tion can be so beautifully observed.

More extended researches regarding these structures, provisionally
considered as stinging organs, will make known much that is remarkable
in reference to their occurrence, arrangement, structure, and move-
ments, and will display great riches in respect to phenomena of organi-
zation. .•

XIV. ON THE BLOOD-DISCS OF SIREN LACERTINA.*

By Professor Owen, F.R.S., #c.

AMONG the important generalizations which the numerous observations
of recent microscopical anatomists have enabled the physiologist to
establish, respecting the form and size of the blood-discs in different
classes of animals, the most interesting seems to be that which Pro-
fessor Wagner has enunciated respecting the relation of the magnitude
of the blood- disc to the persistence of the branchial apparatus in the
Batrachian order of Reptiles, on the occasion of his description of the
blood- discs of the Proteus anguinus.

* Extracted from the Penny Cyclopedia, Art. Siren, Sept. 25th, 1841.

74 ON THE BLOOD-DISCS OF SIREN LACERTINA.

The absolute size of these particles in that perennibranchiate reptile,
in which they may be distinguished by the naked eye, renders them
peculiarly adapted for minute investigations into the structure of the
nucleus and capsule of the blood-disc ; but the value of the relation
between their size and the persistency of the external gills, must
depend upon the correspondence of other perennibranchiate reptiles
with the Proteus in this respect. The superior size of the blood-
discs of the newts to those of the land salamanders and tailless Ba-
trachians has been confirmed by Professor Van der Hoeven's obser-
vations on the blood-discs of the gigantic newt of Japan, (Sieboldtia,
Salamandridae, Vol. xx, p.p. 331, 332), of which a fine specimen has
been for several years kept at Leyden ; and I have been able to add
another instance to the still greater relative size of the blood discs in the
perennibranchiate reptiles, by the examination of those of the largest
existing species of that family, the Siren lacertina, of wrhich a specimen,
twenty inches in length, is now (Oct. loth, 1841) living at the Zoolo-
gical Gardens. The blood was obtained from one of the external gills,
and immediately subjected to examination. The blood-discs presented
the eliptical form which hitherto, without exception, has been found to
prevail among the air-breathing oviparous vertebrated animals ; the
ellipse was not quite regular in all the blood-discs ; several were sub-
ovate, a few slightly reniform and thicker at the more convex side ; all
were as compressed or disc-shaped, as in other Batrachians, with the
nucleus slightly projecting from each of the flattened surfaces.

The nucleus did not partake in the same degree with these varieties
of form, but maintained a more regular elliptical form ; the varieties
in question appearing to depend on pressure acting upon the capsule
and the coloured fluid surrounding the nucleus. Yet when the ellipse
of the blood-disc was, as it happened in a few cases to be, longer and
narrower than the average, the form of the nucleus presented a similar
modification of size.

The following is a table of the averages of many admeasurements of
these blood-discs, made with one of Powell's screw micrometers : —

Long diameter zi~otn °f an English inch.

Short diameter -8Toth to ¥T<)th

Long diameter of the nucleus 10100th "

Short diameter of ditto W^oth

Thickness of ditto arVo1^1 "

(As viewed edgeways covered by the capsule.)

The nucleus was circumscribed by a double line, the outer one more

ON THE BLOOD-DISCS OF SIREN LACERTINA. 75

regular than the inner one, which appeared crenated. This appearance
was due to the structure of the nucleus, or the contents of the nucle-
olar capsule, which was indicated by the outer line. These contents
consisted, in every blood-disc examined, of a number of moderately
bright spherical nucleoli sufficiently distinct to be counted, when viewed
by a Powell's -^th ^ncn objective, with the eye-piece magnifying 700
linear diameters ; the ordinary number of nucleoli seen in one plane or
focus being from twenty to thirty ; the total number was of course
much greater. The facility, as well as certainty of the demonstration
of such a structure in a good microscope of the present day, will be
readily admitted, when it is remembered, that the nucleus of the blood-
disc of the Siren is three times the size of the entire human blood-
disc. These tuberculate nuclei, when removed from the capsule, were
colourless ; the component granules or cells have a high refractive
power ; viewed in situ, they present a tinge of colour lighter than that
of the surrounding fluid interposed between the nucleus and the
capsule.

The external capsule of the blood- disc is smooth, moderately resist-
ing, elastic, as was easily seen by the flattening of the parts of two
blood- discs that might come in contact, and the recovery of form when
they were floated apart.

As the fluid contents of the blood-disc in part evaporated during the
process of desiccation, the capsule fell into folds in the interspace be-
tween the nucleus and the outer contour, these folds generally taking
the direction of straight lines, three to seven in number, radiating from
the nucleus.

Explanation of the Figures, Plate I., Division 2.

Blood-discs of Man and Siren, drawn by the Camera lucida, under a magnifying
power of 700 linear dimensions. '

3, Human blood-discs. 4, Ditto, viewed edgewise. (The upper portion of this
figure has been drawn too wide ; it should be the same as the lower part, 2, Siren's
blood-disc. 1, Ditto, viewed edgewise, a, Folds of external capsule, produced
by desiccation, b, c, Nucleoli; the capsule of the nucleus, seen enclosing the
nucleoli.

76

to PUcroSfoptetS. — No. IV.

XV. PRACTICAL POINTS CONNECTED WITH ILLUMINATION, ETC.

By Daniel Cooper, Surgeon, SfC.

Lamps for Microscopic Purposes. — There is perhaps no greater diffi-
culty the Microscopist has to contend with in his evening examinations
than the obtaining a certain and sure light. It is a general opinion
that there is none so certain, and can be equally relied upon, as the ordi-
nary Argand lamp, well trimmed, and burning the very best sperm oil.
But as the price of sperm oil is high, expedients have been resorted to
out of number to burn vegetable oils of a much lower price, with the
same advantage. Lamps trimmed with these oils, require either con-
stant use, or being constantly and regularly cleaned ; otherwise the oil
becomes thick, clogs up the tube which conveys it from the reservoir,
and the cotton becomes in like manner clogged, so that all capillary
action becomes arrested, and it requires changing nearly every time that
it is used, provided it is not constantly burned, and even then it becomes
necessary to clear the tube occasionally. For the purpose of ensuring
as complete combustion of these cheap oils as it is possible to obtain,
many plans have been devised. Those most deserving of attention are,
the Patent Oxydator, invented by Mr. Young, and the means devised by
our correspondent Mr. George Gwilt, at page 56 of the first volume.
Of these two contrivances that of Mr. Gwilt is considered preferable to
the Patent Oxydator, as in case of the glass being broken it is the more
readily obtained and renewed. The expense is much about the same.

Asa portable means of illumination for microscopic purposes, and
which may be readily carried in the pocket without the slightest incon-
venience, is the Portable Candle Lamp, first made by Mr. George Jack-
son; it burns the candles manufactured by Molyneux and Co., which
require no snuffing; these lamps may be obtained of Mr. Ross, Optician,
Regent Circus, for six or seven shillings.

The light of coal gas answers admirably where it can be conveniently
made use of. In those houses where gas is laid on to the sitting-rooms,
as to chandeliers, a flexible tube may be readily adjusted to one of the
pipes, which will convey the gas to a moveable gas lamp on the table
beneath, as first done by Mr. George Lowe.

In cases where neither oil or gas illumination can be obtained, a por-
tion of a wax candle in a low candlestick is to be preferred to a number

HINTS TO MICROSCOPISTS. 77

of candles placed however close to each other. In the absence of wax,
composition, and then mould candles, should be sought for ; the great
disadvantage, however, of candle illumination, is the unsteadiness of
the flame, from draughts and other causes.

Shades for Argand Lamps. — When these are made of metal, they
become very hot, and radiate so much heat, as in many instances, when
a brilliant illumination is required, and the lamp is placed near to the
instrument, to produce considerable inconvenience to the observer. To
obviate this, Mr. Nasmyth first used a double metal shade, the internal
one being about a quarter of an inch less in diameter than the external ;
by this contrivance a current of cold air is constantly passing between
the two, and keeps the outer one cool. These shades are best made
with a double chimney, so as to encircle the lamp glass and to pass rather
above it. This is a great addition to the ordinary shades for lamps.

If it be desired to illuminate the room generally, as well as the instru-
ment, the paper shades answer best, such as are recommended by Mr.

Gwilt, and made in the following manner : —

/^ ->. " Take half a sheet of good foolscap paper, and

<^ \ strike thereon two semicircles, as in the diagram,

r f~\— — 4 the longest diameter being thirteen inches, and the

shorter one four inches, fitting and adapting it
to the skeleton sliding frame, as the case may require, and then
glueing or pasting the superfluous edges together. When once pro-
perly fitted, another pattern may (previously to the glueing of the
edges) be traced out and kept at hand, from which any number may
at any time be drawn, and a new shade made when wanted, in less
than ten minutes. To get rid of the penumbral shadow, lower it
down until it becomes almost wholly dissipated. These shades are
much less fatiguing to the eye than the contrast occasioned by an
opaque body in juxtaposition with a bright light, and they also diffuse
a more subdued but useful light around the appartment." — (Vol. I.
p. 58.)

Illumination by Reflection. — Mr. G. Jackson, to whom microscopists
are much indebted for various simple improvements in the construction
of the instrument, employs a plano-convex lens of about two inches in
diameter, and of four and a half inches focus, silvered on the plane side,
and backed with a plate of brass or other metal, to fix a pin in its
centre for the purpose of applying it to the microscope. This lens,
when so treated, becomes a reflector of about two and a quarter inches

78 HINTS TO MICROSCOPISTS.

focus, and forms one of the best instruments that can be desired for
throwing light upon an object viewed as opaque.

Mr. George Gwilt was the first to use the polished silver concave
reflector for viewing opaque objects in the manner in which Mr.
James Smith, under Mr. Gwilt's directions, fitted one to his micro-
scope ; it is the most simple and effective means yet devised, and the
expense but little. Such a mode of illumination is preferable to
that of the Lieberkuhn for more reasons than one. The first and
very essential is, the not being obliged to cut up objects into pieces, as
small or smaller than the stop, but the whole wing of a butterfly may
be mounted, and every part of it easily seen. By this mode of illumi-
nation, also, a greater effect of light and shade can be thrown upon the
object, so as to define many objects, such as the markings on the
scales of moths, &c. ; the disadvantage of the Lieberkuhn being, that
the light is thrown too perpendicularly, and this effect is in a measure
lost.

Glass for mounting objects. — The best glass for mounting objects upon
is what is termed the best flatted crown, which is sold by the super-
ficial square foot. Messrs. Chater and Haywood of Thames Street
always keep a stock, and will accommodate microscopists.

The very thin glass is to be obtained of Mr. Drake, Jermyn Street,
St. James's, who has for some time turned his attention to the subject,
and has manufactured an article the y^th of an inch in thickness,
which may be obtained for three shillings and sixpence per ounce. The
thicker kind, ^-th of an inch, may be had much cheaper.

Mica, or Talc (as it was formerly called) is now almost entirely super-
seded by the introduction of thin glass ; it is very readily scratched,
and is seldom obtained free from cracks. Those in the habit of mount-
ing objects, never recommend the use of this substance for covering
objects, when the thin glass can be obtained.

Cutting Glass. — Two kinds of diamonds are used by microscopists for
this purpose. For cutting ordinary crown, or plate-glass, the common
glazier's diamond is generally employed ; but for the very thin glass
this instrument is by no means adapted. For this purpose a good
writing diamond is requisite, which should be brought to a very fine
scratching point only. To cut the discs of thin glass for covering ob-
jects, strike a circle of the required dimensions on a piece of card-board,
and cut it out with a penknife. Place this pattern over the glass, and
pass the writing diamond around the edge of the circle, until it has
scratched it. A mere scratch is sufficient to enable the operator easily

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES. 79

to remove the surrounding portions. This is said to be Mr. C. M.
Topping's plan.

Diamonds of good quality for these purposes may be obtained from Mr.
Ellis, Goswell Street Road. The price of a good cutting diamond,
for ordinary purposes, is about fourteen shillings, that of a scratching
one, a guinea.

The Microscopical Society of London possesses a machine for cutting
glass for slides of any desired size, which may be made use of by its
members, on application to the Secretary. Mr. Drake of Jermyn
Street is also in possession of a similar instrument, and supplies strips
of glass to order.

XVI. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.*

By Professor Muller.

MODERN Vegetable Physiologists have for some time arrived at the result
that the different tissues of plants, such as cellular tissue, woody fibre,
ducts, and spiral vessels, are all originally developed from cells. The
mode of formation of these cells has been explained by Schleiden.t He
has shown that they are produced from the " nuclei " of Robert Brown,
and hence he calls these bodies " cytoblasts" [KVTOQ a cell, pXaaroQ a
germen] . The cy toblast is generally of a yellowish colour, and inter-
nally of a granular structure. In its interior Schleiden has detected a
second nucleus (nucleolus), called by him the nucleus corpuscle, which
sometimes resembles a mere spot, at other times a hollow globule. The
cytoblasts are developed in a mass of mucous granules contained within
previously existing cells. As soon as they have attained their full size,
a delicate transparent vesicle rises upon the surface of each. This is
the young cell, which at first bears the same relation to the flat nucleus
as the watch-glass bears to a watch. When the cell has increased in
size, the cytoblast appears merely as a solid body included in the wall of
the cell. The layer which now covers the cytoblast on the side towards
the interior of the cell is extremely delicate — indeed, seldom to be recog-
nized by the eye — and it soon becomes wholly absorbed, while the cyto-
blast itself disappears at the same time. The newly developed cells lie
free in the cavity of the parent cell, and, as they grow and exert reci-
procal pressure against each other, assume the polyhedral form.

* From Miiller's Elements of Physiology, translated by Dr. Baly, p. 1641.
f Miiller's Archives, 1838, p. 137.

80 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

The following are the more important discoveries of Schwann,* res-
pecting the cells of animals, and the agreement of animals and plants
in their ultimate structure.

In the chorda dorsalis, the cellular structure of which I had myself
pointed out long since, Schwann first discovered the nuclei or cytoblasts.
Each cell of the chorda dorsalis of Pelobates fuscus has its disc-like
cytoblast lying at the inner surface of the wall of the cell ; and in this
nucleus there is seen one, rarely two or three, clearly defined spots. In
the cavity of the cells young cells are developed, as in plants.

Cartilages also are, according to Schwann's observations, composed
entirely of cells, when first formed. The cartilaginous branchial rays
of fishes at their apex are composed of small polyhedral cells, lying in
close contact with each other, and having very thin walls. These cells
have rounded granular nuclei. Towards the middle of the branchial
ray, the septa between the cavities of the different cells formed by their
walls, gradually become thicker. Nearer to the root or base of the
branchial ray, the walls of the contiguous cells can no longer be distin-
guished from each other, and the mass appears to be formed of a homo-
geneous substance containing small cavities ; but around some of the
cavities a circular line can be distinguished, which indicates the boun-
dary of the wall of the cell, and proves that the whole mass is not
formed by the thickened walls of the cells, but that a real intercellular
substance also exists. Even while the walls of the cells are still in
contact with each other this intercellular substance is present, at
that time appearing here and there like a triangular space between three
contiguous cells. In this form of cartilage the process of development
consists partly in the thickening of the walls of the cells, and partly in
the production of an intercellular substance. In higher vertebrate
animals the thickening of the walls of the cells is not observed, and
the principal mass of the future cartilage appears to be formed by the
intercellular substance, in which the cells, with the younger cells within
them, are included. The development of cells in the manner of the
cells of plants, has been observed by Schwann in the branchial cartilages
of Pelobates fuscus, in which some cells contain mere nuclei ; others,
nuclei with small cells developed upon them, and scarcely larger than
themselves ; others, again, larger fully formed cells. So that here all

* Froriep's Notizen, 1838, Nos. 91, 102, 112. Schwann Microscopische Unter-
suchungen iiber die Ueber-einstimmung in der Structur und dem Wachsthum der
Thiere und Pflanzen, Berlin, 1838. [A review of this work, with a copious abstract
of its contents, is contained in the 9th volume of the British and Foreign Medical
Review.]

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES. 81

the stages of the development of a cell are present. The process of the
development of cartilage seems to be independent of blood-vessels, and
to be wholly analogous to the process of growth in vegetable tissues :
how the canals radiating from the corpuscles of ossified bone are deve-
loped is not known. Two hypotheses are proposed by Schwann. If
the osseous corpuscles are the cavities of cells, the thickened walls of
which have coalesced with each other and with the intercellular sub-
stance, so as to form the mass of the cartilage of the bone, then the
radiating canaliculi may be regarded as canals extending from the cavi-
ties of the cells through their thickened walls, and would be analogous
to the pore-like canals of some vegetable cells. But if the osseous
corpuscles are the cells themselves, and not merely their cavities, the
whole substance between the corpuscles being intercellular substance ;
in this case the canaliculi will probably be radiating prolongations of
the cells extending into the intercellular substance. According to the
latter view, which Schwann regards as the more probable, the canaliculi
would correspond to the processes given off from some cells of plants.

Besides the formation of young cells in the cavities of previously
existing cells, Schwann has observed their development in the exterior
of other cells in a structureless substance, the cytoblastema. In this
case, also, the nucleus generally appears to be first formed, and the
cell to be afterwards developed around it. In many animal tissues, the
new cells are formed on the exterior of the earlier cells. In the one
case the cytoblastema exists in the interior of the cells already existing;
in the other it is external to them.

Schwann arranges the tissues of the animal organism, according to
the mode of their development, in five classes : —

I. Isolated independent cells, which either float free in a fluid, or
if deposited, in contact with each other, are still unconnected and
moveable.

II. Independent cells, arranged so as to form a continuous mem-
brane.

III. Tissues formed of cells, the walls of which have coalesced, while
their cavities remain distinct.

IV. Fibre cells. — Cells which have become elongated in different
directions, and resolved into bundles of fibres.

V. Cells, both the walls and the cavities of which have coalesced,
so as to form tubes.

To the first class belong the corpuscles of the blood. The vesicular
nature of these bodies was observed by C. H. Schultz. Their nucleus,

VOL. II. G

82 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

as Schwann remarks, remains attached to the inner surface of their
membranous parietes, when they are rendered turgid by the action of
water. The red colouring matter of the corpuscles is to be regarded as
the contents of the cells. The lymph corpuscles, the globules of mucus,
and those of pus, belong to the same class. They are all nucleated
cells.

To the second class belong the horny tissues, the pigment membranes,
and the tissue of the crystalline lens.

1 . Epithelium. — Generally composed of round cells, to the inner surface
of whose parietes a nucleus containing one or two nuclei is attached.
When united into a membrane, they are polyhedral. In the epithelium
of the skin of a frog, Schwann saw two nuclei in one cell, and also a
nucleated epithelium cell within another larger cell ; a fact which Henle
has not observed in Mammalia. The epithelium cells, at first globular,
undergo modifications of form in one or two directions. Either they
acquire the form of perpendicular cylinders, as in the epithelium of the
intestinal mucous membrane, described by Henle ; or they become flat-
tened into laminae, which have the nucleus in the middle of one surface,
and which sometimes are elongated or riband- shaped, as in the epithe-
lium of blood-vessels according to Henle. In the latter case, it is ob-
served, that the young cells are found beneath the older ones, and are
at first globular, but become more and more flattened as they approach
the free surface of the epithelium.

2. Pigment cells. — These have a nucleus at one part of their parietes,
which produces the well-known white spot in the middle of some pig-
ment cells. The nucleus has usually one or two nucleoli. Many pig-
ment cells in the progress of their growth, send out hollow fibre-like
processes in different directions, so as to become stellate cells.

3. Nails. — The nail of a fully developed human foetus consists of
laminae lying horizontally one upon the other. These laminae become
less and less distinct at the inferior surface of the nail, in proportion as
the part examined is nearer to the root of the nail which is inserted
into the fold of the skin of the finger ; and the posterior half of this
portion of the nail presents nothing of a laminated structure, but con-
sists merely of polyhedral cells, with distinct nuclei. Laminae of the
nail treated with acetic acid, separate into scales, in which an indistinct
nucleus can in very rare cases be observed. The polyhedral cells of
the root of the nail must become flattened into these scales, and the
nail ought consequently to become thinner towards its free margin.
This is probably prevented by the formation of laminae of epithelium,

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 83

at the under surface of the nail. The horny tissue of the hoofs of
animals, also consists in the foetus entirely of cells.

4. Feathers. — The medullary substance of feathers is composed of
polyhedral cells. In the young feather, a nucleus is visible in the wall
of each of these cells. The cells are developed around small nuclei,
which lie in great number in a finely granular matter. This formation
of new cells takes place, not in old parent cells, but near the surface of
the vascular matrix of the feather, which affords the cytoblastema.
Some of the nuclei contain nucleoli. The fibres of the cortical part of
the shaft of the feather are produced from large band-like epithelium
cells, which contain nuclei and nucleoli. These cells become resolved
into several fibres, while all trace of the cell disappears. The barbs
of the feathers are themselves miniature feathers ; the secondary shafts
have the same structure as the main shaft, while the secondary barbs
or barbules in their turn consist at first of nucleated cells applied to
each other by their edges.

5. The Crystalline lens. — The fibres of the crystalline lens are developed
from the cells first observed by Werneck. In the lens of a chick after
eight days' incubation there are as yet no fibres, but merely pale round
cells, some of which contain a nucleus. In lenses further developed,
some of the larger cells contain one or two smaller cells in their inte-
rior. In embryo pigs, measuring three and a half inches in length,
the greater part of the fibres of the lens is already perfect ; but a part
is still not completely formed ; and there are besides many round
cells which are about to undergo their metamorphosis. The perfect
fibres compose a nucleus in the centre of the lens. The next fibres
are seen to be tabular prolongations of globular cells. The dentated
orders of these cells, like those of some vegetable cells, are formed sub-
sequently,

(To be continued.)

<£;tract0 antf &b3tractg from dfamgn Staurnal*.

[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1841.]

Decaisne on the Structural development of the Generative System of
Viscum album. — The male flowers may be detected almost a year before
anthesis. At first the anthers are only distinguishable from the adjacent
green periantheal expansions by their want of colour, they being other-
wise composed of the same kind of cells. At a later period numerous
spaces, filled with a mucous fluid, are seen, from which mucus other
cells, larger than the adjacent ones, and kept together by a transparent

G 2

84 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FORFIGN JOURNALS.

substance, are formed ; these latter cells represent the mother-cells in
which the pollen is generated. Besides these the antheroid mass has at
this time two descriptions of cells ; on one side the primordial colourless
cells; on the other, grey or yellow cells, generally provided with a nu-
cleus. The mother-cells soon become dark, as they fill with numerous
granules, in which one or two granular nuclei appear. These granules
coalesce in the centre of the cell, so that a transparent space is left
around them ; they then disappear, leaving the nuclei in the centre.
These nuclei are separated from each other at first by a fluid, which
afterwards becomes firm, forming distinct walls between them, during
this time also the walls of the mother- cells have been getting thicker ;
the nuclei continue to increase in size, become of a spherical form, and
are surrounded with a yellowish mamellated case ; as the walls of the
mother cells and the separating membranes disappear, they become free,
and produce perfect granules of pollen. No spiral cells or fibrous struc-
ture are developed in the endothecium. In the female flower, three
months after impregnation, the nucleus first appears as a very small
conical body, lying at the bottom of the ovarial cavity, accompanied by
one or two small club-shaped filaments, which are abortive nuclei. The
nucleus grows very rapidly, and has at its point a small spot indicating
the embryo, which is developed like the embryo of other dicotyledons,
there being, however, no quintine or embryo-sac. The only covering is
the remains of the nucleus or nuclear-sac, which increases in size, be-
comes firmer, and forms a green- coloured perisperm.

Mohl on the Structure of the Stem of Isoetes lacustris. — Whilst the
upper flattened leaf-covered surface of the spheroidal or bulb-like stem
presents nothing peculiar in appearance, the under one is seen to be
traversed by a furrow or slit, which extends to both sides, and as high
up as the insertion of the leaves ; so that the stem consists of two
spherical or bulb-like masses, connected by a commissure. The radicles
which are found in this furrow are not developed like those of other
abbreviated stems (bulbs, premorse roots, stems of other cryptogamia
and monocotyledons) in regular succession, so that the radicles seated
on the lowest portion are the oldest, but the new ones break through
the whole length of the furrow in its deepest part, they are therefore
placed in a semilunar manner, the points of the figure which they repre-
sent pointing to the insertion of the leaves. Probably every year the
stem loses an external coat, whilst a new layer is formed in the centre.
From the very minute woody system of the stem, a great quantity of
delicate unbranched and non-anastomosing vascular bundles are found
radiating. From the upper ones there proceeds an arched bundle, both
to the upper and under surface of each leaf ; from the lower there
passes a bundle to each radicular filament. The whole white mass of
the spherical stem consists of parenchymatous cells arranged in rows
parallel with the vascular bundles, filled with amylum, arid between
which run large intercellular passages. The external cells lie more
parallel with the surface of the sphere, contain very little, or even no
amylum, and form a peculiar, though not very distinctly defined layer,

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 85

from which the barky covering of the radicles is formed. This layer
fills the base of the deep indenting furrow. In the cells of the dead
layer, the amylum disappears, and a brown colour is produced. The
small central woody system is composed of short, roundish, spiral, and
annular cells with larger intercellular spaces and passages, amongst
which only a few plain cells, having thin walls, are distributed. The
radiating vascular bundles consist of delicate annular and spiral vessels,
and a few elongated cells having delicate walls ; at the junction of
them with the woody system, the vessels become shortly articulated.

On Entozoa and Parasites. — (Reference to the following, p. 239, et seq.
Valentin's Repertorium, 1841.) Nivet on Cysticerci. Hdring on a case
of Cysticercus cellulosa in the conjunctiva of a girl seven years of age.
Michea on two cases of Acephalocysts in the brain. Cruiveilhier on Ace-
phalocysts of the liver, and especially of the spleen. Weitenkampf on
the passage of Blasenschwanzen (?) with the urine. Wymann on Filaria
in the bronchi of a sheep. Lee on Filaria papillosa in the anterior
chamber of the eye of the horse. Mailer on Distoma in the hol-
low of the spinal marrow of the Foetus. Mtesson on a worm found in
the bubo of a woman thirty- six years of age. Skripitzin on Pulexpene-
trans. Brunzlow on the Acarus of the Itch.

Will on the Compound Eyes of Insects and Crustacea. (Continued from
page 185, Vol. 7.) — Behind the cornea is a layer of minute conical or
pyramidal- shaped crystalline bodies, one of which is placed behind each
corneal facet, in such a direction that its acuminated extremity points
to the interior of the eye. Connected with this extremity is a nervous
fibril given off by the optic ganglia, which spreads itself out in a cup-
shaped manner, surrounds the whole of the crystalline body, with the
exception of its base, and then either immediately passes to the edges
of the facets of the cornea, or to a thin membrane between the crystal-
line bodies and the cornea. A great deal of pigment is found between
the crystalline bodies, especially near their points. No trachea could
be discovered in the layer of pigment. Amongst the Crustacea, Paleemon
serratus has four-cornered facets and crystalline bodies. The latter,
when pressed, divide longitudinally into four portions, the places of
separation being indicated in the perfect bodies by the presence of lon-
gitudinal lines. Between the cornea and the convex bases of the crys-
talline bodies, is a transparent layer, provided with pigment, and of the
thickness of y^j-oth to -fotin. of a line. This layer can easily be separated
from the bodies just alluded to, and behind which latter is a soft cylin-
drical mass of about half their length, which envelopes their posterior
quarter in a cup-like manner. The whole mass is very thickly studded
with dark pigment. To each crystalline body runs a cylindrical cord,
given off by the ganglia of the optic nerves, and which consists of a
tube enveloped in a sheath to the point where this cord separates from
the ganglion ; the sheath is constricted and surrounded with a great
quantity of pigment. From the transparent masses behind the crys-
talline bodies, a bason-shaped expansion arises, which reaches anteri-

86 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

orly to the facets. Galathea strigosa, Astacus fluviatilis, and Astacus
marinus, shew the same structure. In Galathea, the substance between
the cornea and crystalline bodies is thinner, and the masses appended
to the posterior portions of the latter are shorter than ordinary.
In Astacus fluviatilis, a delicate margin exists around the crystalline
bodies, and no tube could be discovered within the nervous cord. In
Astacus marinus, the transparent masses behind the bodies are very
long ; whilst in Pasiphcea squinado and Palinurus locusta, none could be
found. In Squilla mantis, the nervous fibril has a brown coloured
sheath, and is dilated anteriorly. In all the Coleoptera which were
examined, as in Melol&ntha vulgaris, M. fullo, Dytiscus marginalis,
Staphylinus erythropterus, Calosoma sycophanta, and Cetonia aurata, the
crystalline bodies are conical, and appear, with the exception of Cetonia
aurata, to lie immediately upon the cornea. The transparent masses
behind these bodies are also wanting. By gentle pressure, the crystalline
cones split into an indefinite number of prisms, and have a narrow
margin, which is probably caused by the presence of an envelope or
case. In Melolontha vulgaris, Cetonia aurata, and Calosoma sycophanta,
at the points, a small granule was seen, which probably belongs to the
optic nerves. The nervous fibril is thicker (in Cetonia aurata, three or
four times thicker) at the place where it is given off by the ganglia
than the rest of the nervous cord ; and in this species the bason-shaped
expansion before alluded to, reaches to the facets, and the cones are
surrounded with much pigment. In the Orthoptora the crystalline
bodies are also conical, and the optic nerve has a dark tube in the cen-
tre. The pigment, like in the Coleoptera, leaves round openings in the
cornea, free of any. In Gryllotalpa, the crystalline bodies imbedded in
the dark-brown pigment are very small ; and in Locusta viridissima,
their basal surfaces have an hexagonal-form, with blunt points, and the
nervous fibril has a clear tube within it. Mantis religiosa has very long
hexangular crystalline bodies immediately beneath the cornea and very
closely packed together, their points alone being provided with pig-
ment ; the bason- shaped expansion of the nervous fibril, which latter
possesses a sheath and clear tube, is green. In the Hymenoptera,
Vespa crabro has a thin transparant membrane next the cornea, which has
divisions equal in number to the facets of the cornea, and which keeps
the crystalline bodies connected together when separated from this lat-
ter covering. The bases of these conical bodies are placed in hexagonal
divisions of bright yellow pigment. The comparatively very thick but
uniformly cylindrical nervous fibril has everywhere dark pigment, and
is provided with a delicate and clear tube ; the latter, with the pig-
ment belonging to it, ceases at the point of the cone. The inner tube
surrounds the cone in a bason-like manner. Apis mellijica has also
short conical bodies, with slightly convex bases enveloped in dark red
pigment ; its nervous fibre is similar to that of Vespa. Bombus is the
same.

(To be continued.}

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 87

[From Mullers Archives, 1841.]

Valentin on an Entozoon in the Blood of Salmo fario. — In the
blood obtained from the commencement of the abdominal aorta, in a
specimen of Salmo fario, some dark globules, similar to the round cells
of pigment were observed amongst the proper blood-globules. They
moved actively, generally tremulously, but yet were distinctly locomotive.
After regarding them some time, a transparent tail was observed late-
rally. Gradually an animal, elongated in form, disenveloped itself,
which moved about actively and constantly. Its motion was produced by
means of from one to three variable and semi-lateral apendages, by which
it rolled in a circular direction. The anterior and posterior portions of
the creature were bright and transparent, the medial contained numerous
dark granules, probably molecules of pigment derived from the material
it had eaten. When the creature was rolled up, it appeared as if these
molecules were enveloped in a sort of case derived from the body, which
was transparent, and at length club-shaped. Fig. a, (PI. III. Div. 4.)
represents the primary globule seen ; Figs, b, c, d, various conditions of
the globule, showing the tail unrolling ; e, a globule, in which the mole-
cules appear as if enclosed in special portions of the body, which become
club-shaped ; /, this club-shaped receptacle ideally represented ; g to m,
different forms of fully developed animals, and which no doubt belong
to the old genus Proteus, or the new genus Amoeba of Ehrenberg. It
is probably a new species, as it does not agree with any already des-
cribed and drawn by the last-mentioned author. Of its internal and
delicate organization, nothing with certainty could be made out, as it
only measured from 0.0003 to 0.0005 parts of an inch long.

Sometimes it appeared to have a round aperture anteriorly, and the
tail striated, as is represented at k. The variable appendages or projec-
tions always appeared under the microscope, to be as they are drawn,
on the right side. Perhaps the club-shaped receptacles before alluded
to, were of the same or similar proportions. It was at first a matter of
doubt whether this creature really belonged to the blood, and the whole
fish was therefore examined ; but no where else could it be detected ;
not a trace of this Infusorial Entozoon could elsewhere be found, save
in the favourite place of microscopic intestinal worms, the fourth ven-
tricle, in which was discovered a single specimen. On the other hand,
they were so plentiful in the blood, that a single drop always contained
one, often ten, and sometimes more. In the effused blood they remained
alive between 16 and 18 hours. This fluid itself presented otherwise
nothing abnormal, and which fact deserves to be borne in mind. Ascaris
obtuso-candata zeder was found in abundance in this Salmo, but no
other intestinal worm. — Heft. 5, 1841.

[From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1841.]

Desmazieres on Microthyrium Microscopicum. — This minute and very
curious production (Lichen) grows on the upper surface of dry and half

88 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

decomposed leaves of the Chesnut. M. Roberge, to whom I am in-
debted for a sufficient number of specimens to illustrate my work on
Cryptogamia, observed it also on the leaves of the oak. It is scattered
or arranged in groups, and at those parts where several meet together,
they appear of a greyish-brown colour, while the rest of the leaf is of a
reddish tint. On these irregular and more or less extensive patches, a
lens brings into view small discs or perithecia, depressed in the centre,
where a small elevation is to be observed. These discs, of which the
diameter scarcely attains ^-th of a millimetre, are blackish, slightly shi-
ning, of a leaden hue, especially around the papilla, or elevation. They
are readily and easily detached entire from their support, and, submitted
to the microscope, they are found to be composed of a very delicate
semi-diaphanous membrane, furnished with a network of opaque fibrillae,
radiating from the centre to the circumference, and traversed by other
fibrillae, crossing them exactly similar to the delicate tissue in the spider's
web ; in the centre is also found an opening, which corresponds to the
elevation above alluded to. Beneath this small membraniform disc the
thecse are found, which are fixed, concealed, and circularly arranged,
their base corresponding to the opening of the disc. These thecse, de-
void of paraphysa, are in a mass, and sometimes in a slight degree
swollen towards the middle of their length, which does not exceed the
^•th of a millimetre. The enclosed sporidia are oblong, slightly fusiform,
straight or a little curved, about -g^th of a millimetre in length, and
furnished with three sufficiently distinct divisions.

The characters of this new genus and species, as given by Desma-
zieres, are : —

MICROTHYRIUM. Desm. Perithecium simplex, superficial, membra-
naceum, adpressum, scutiforme, centre perforatum, obtegens ascos fixos
subclavatos.

M. microscopicum. Desm. PI. Crypt. e"dit. 1, No. 1092 ; edit. 2,
No. 492. — M. epiphyllum ; maculis magnis, irregularibus, fusco-cineras-
centibus; peritheciis sparsis, minutissimis, tenuissimis, nigris, subni-
tidis, papillatis ; ascis clavatis ; sporidiis septatis, oblongis, subfusifor-
mibus.

Habitat. — In foliis exsiccatis Fagi, Castanese et Quercus. Autumno.
— March, p. 138.

Explanation of the Figures.

PLATE III, Div. 2, Fig. 1. a, Membraneous Perithecium of Microthyrium micro-
scopicum, seen with a power of 260 diameters, b, Vertical Section, c, Thecae, con-
cealed and arranged in a circular manner beneath the perithecium. d, Oblong fusi-
form sporidia, usually furnished with three rather distinct divisions.

Desmazieres on the differential characters of Sphceria insidiosa and S.
caulium. — These two Lichens are so nearly allied in external characters,
as to render it almost impossible to decide upon each species without
the aid of microscopic investigation. The differences detailed by Des-
mazieres are the following : — The membrane of the theca of our Sphce-
ria insidiosa is so thin and transparent, that no idea would be entertained
of its existence, were it not for the sporidia it contains. These spori-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 89

dia, of an olive colour, are oblong, above g^th of a millimetre, slightly
curved, and provided with from 3 to 5 partitions, obtuse at their extre-
mities, where a filiform, transparent, short and sharp appendage may be
seen. — The theca of Sphceria caulium, on the contrary, is longer and
very apparent ; its sporidia, of a pale greenish colour, measure aVth of
a millimetre ; they are slightly curved, provided with from 5 to 7
partitions, and pointed at the extremities, to which no appendage is
attached. — March, p. 145.

Explanation of the Figures.

PLATE III. Div. 3. a, Thecsa and sporidia of Sphceria caulium magnified 500 times.
b, Thecae and sporidia of S. insidiosa, magnified likewise 500 times.

Montagne on the use of the Compressor in the examination of Lichens. —
As an essential desideratum to a good achromatic microscope, I will
mention the instrument called Compressorium, brought to perfection by
M. Schiek of Berlin. I cannot too strongly recommend its employ-
ment to those who are occupied with researches on the structure of cer-
tain parts of Cryptogamic plants, and in particular, the thecae of Lichens.
It would be almost impossible, without its assistance, to verify the facts
I have recorded. — March, p. 147.

Dufour on Anatomical and Physiological studies of a species of Musca,
with the view of illustrating the History of Metamorphoses, and the Pre-
tended Circulation of Insects. — This paper is one of some length ; but the
author, from his dissections, experiments, and reasonings, concludes,
that the existence of an aeriferous vascular system adapted to convey the
physiological benefits of respiration to all the organs and tissues, is in-
compatible with the presence of a circulating humour. He is satisfied
that the latter does not exist in insects provided with tracheae, and that
the organ which has been supposed to perform this function, is merely
rudimentary, bearing some resemblance to the heart of the Arachnides ;
in fact, an obsolete heart, an organ deprived of every well- determined
physiological attribute, and perhaps a mere elementary tissue. — July,
1841,^.5.

[From the Comptes Rendus, 1841.]

Biot on Achromatic Lenses with multiple Glasses in the Eye-piece. — This
communication, which is here only given in abstract, relates especially
to Telescopes, and is only quoted in this place, as a reference for opti-
cians, and those interested in instruments used for astronomical pur-
poses.— 6th Dec. 1841, p. 1039.

Joly on Isaura cyclado'ides. — The author at the termination of his
Memoir arrives at the following results: — 1, The Isaura cyclado'ides
constitutes a new genus of the Crustacea Branchiopoda, near to Apus,
Limnadus, and Cyzicus of M. Audouin ; — 2, In form, structure, and mode

90 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

of growth of its shell, this genus constitutes a natural connecting link of
the Crustacea with the Acephalous Mollusca; in the rest of its struc-
ture, it is related to the Cirrhipeda, which come after the Crustacea. —
3, The Isaura cycladoides does not acquire its bivalve shell or definitive
form until after a series of changes, during which it assumes succes-
sively the form of Artemia, Branchipus, and still more Apus in a young
state ; then, that of Daphnia, Lynda, Cypris, Limnadus, and Cyzicus
arrived at the adult state ; — 4, Although this Branchiopod undergoes
very frequent changes, its shell, far from being caducous, as that of all
other Crustaceans with a bivalve shell, remains during the entire life of
the animal, and resembles also in this particular the coverings of the
Mollusca ; — 5, It enlarges in the same manner as the nacreous portion
of the shell of the Malacozoaires, viz., by the addition of successive
larger, and more internal layers, the thickened margins of which form
at its external surface true striated marks of growth ; — 6, These layers
may be readily separated from each other after a period of 24 hours'
maceration in caustic potass ; — 7, The Isaura cycladoides is provided with
separate sexes. The male is at once distinguished from the female by
the presence of two pairs of appendages, situated in front of the abdo-
minal feet, and furnished at their free extremities with a kind of three-
fingered apparatus (griffes}, especially adapted to retain the female
during copulation ; — 8, This animal habitually swims on the abdomen,
that is to say, the reverse of other Branchiopodous Crustaceans, and
particularly Apus and Limnadus, to both of which it is nearly allied ; —
9, Its eggs, similar to those of Apus, Limnadus, and Branchipus, appear
to possess the power of supporting desiccation for a long period, with-
out in the meantime losing the power of germination. — 6th Dec. 1841,
p. 1068.

Brogniart presented to the Academy, in the name of the author,
M. H. R. Gdppert, a Memoir on the Anatomical Structure of Conifers.
—6th Dec. 1841, p. 1071.

Great Prize in Physical Sciences — Proposed in the year 1837 for
1839, and submitted again for 1843. The Academy proposed as the
subject of the Great Prize in Physical Sciences, at the Public Sitting in
1839, the following question : —

" Determine, by precise experiment, what is the succession of che-
mical, physical, and organic changes which take place in the egg during
the development of the foetus in Birds and Batrachians.

" The candidates are required to render an account of the relations of
the egg with the natural milieu ambiant ; and to examine, by direct ex-
periment, the influence of artificial changes on the temperature and che-
mical composition of this milieu."

" Within the last few years, several observers have directed attention
to, and produced some profound researches on the development of the
chick in the egg ; and have extended their inquiries to the develop-
ment of the foetus in other oviparous animals. Generally speaking,
their examinations have principally been conducted in an anatomical

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 91

point of view. Some, however, have considered the numerous che-
mical questions full of interest which this examination is capable of
resolving.

" Thus, supposing the chemical analysis of the egg be made at the
moment when it is laid, with a view to examine the elements which it
absorbs from the air, or evolves during the period of its development —
when the losses and absorptions of water which it sustains have been
determined, and when the whole of the necessary elements have been
reunited — required the consideration of the chemical processes employed
by nature for the conversion of the materials of the egg into the very
different products composing the young animal.

" In applying to the consideration of this question the actual method
of organic analysis, the degree of precision which they have arrived at
must be given.

" But, if it be possible, it is desirable to confirm, by ordinary che-
mical means, the accounts given of the changes which take place in
the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote ; and of those
relating to the changes of the mineral products which enter into the
composition of the egg ; and further, on the other hand, to examine
alterations not less important, and capable only of being brought to
light by the assistance of the microscope.

" The Academy desire that, far from endeavouring to confirm, in the
several parts of the egg, the presence of the immediate principles which
analysis furnishes, the authors should direct all their efforts, with the
assistance of the microscope, to the state in which these immediate
principles are there met with.

" Results of a most interesting and important character are antici-
pated from this chemical and microscopical examination of the pheno-
mena of the production or development of organs.

" Independent of the study of the development of the foetus in these
normal conditions, it is requisite to record the changes that the mo-
difications of temperature, or the nature of the medium in which this
development is effected produce. The candidates are further required
to investigate the incubation of the eggs of birds in several gases ; and
in the case of Batrachians, their development in water more or less
impregnated with salts, and more or less aerated.

" The prize awarded will be a gold medal of the value of Three Thou-
sand Francs. The memoirs must be forwarded to the Secretary of the
Academy before the first of April, 1843. It is requisite for the authors
to write their names in a sealed packet, which will not be opened until
the Prize Memoir is decided upon." — 28th Dec. 1841, p. 1181.

Coste on Fresh-water Polypi. — The researches of the author on these
animals are of the greatest importance ; inasmuch as, after having
entered upon the complicated organization of the various species of
Polypi, the general binary disposition of their organs, the position
of their nervous system, and after considering, also, that they have
mouths, in many respects analogous to those of the Mollusca, and that,
like them, they produce the envelope which protects them ; and when

92 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

to these are added certain special facts which the Cristatella present, as,
for example, having a foot which is everywhere contractile, and their
secreting, like the Gasteropoda, a copious viscid matter ; we shall be led
not only to associate them with the class of the Mollusca, but likewise
to introduce along with them all the animals which are farther down in
the scale. Before, however, maintaining this as an irrefragably esta-
blished fact, we shall request another opportunity of explaining some
additional results.

[From Annals of Natural History, April 1842.]

Mr. Ralfs on four new Species of Desmidium. — Mr. Ralfs observes
that this natural genus is not well defined, either in Agardh's Conspec-
tus criticus Diatomacearum, or in any of our British works. Its best
distinctive characters seem to consist in the crenated appearance of its
filaments, which is least evident in D. mucosum. These filaments,
which are generally twisted in a regular manner, are of a pale green
colour, simple, fragile, short and straight. The species are found during
a great part of the year, in clear shallow pools, or in old peat bogs ; the
filaments being scattered in loose bundles in the water, or forming a
thin gelatinous fleece at the bottom of the pool. The species ascer-
tained by Mr. Ralfs are named by him D. cylindricum, mucosum, Swart-
zii, and Borreri. (Report of Botanical Society of Edinburgh.}

[However indefinitely characterised may be this Genus in Agardh
and our British works, we think it perfectly satisfactorily determined in
the great work of Ehrenberg, in which it will also be seen that Desmi-
dium Swartzii was determined forty years ago, and that D. cylindricum,
first observed by Greville in 1827, more properly belongs to the genus
Arthrodesmus.]

Mr. Yarrell on Mucor observed by Col. Montagu growing in the Air
Cells of a Bird. — In addition to the instances quoted in the 8th volume
of the Annals, page 229, of the growth of cryptogamous plants in the
bronchial tube of a Flamingo, and on the internal surface of the air cells
of an Eider duck, Mr. Yarrell refers to another example mentioned by
Col. Montagu, who says, " The cause of death appeared to be in the
lungs and in the membrane that separates them from the other viscera ;
this last was much thickened, and all the cavity within was covered with
mucor or blue mould. It is a most curious circumstance to find this
vegetable production growing within a living animal, and shows that
where air is pervious, mould will be found to obtain, if it meets with
sufficient moisture and a place congenial to vegetation. Now the fact
is that the part on which this vegetable was growing was decayed, and
had no longer in itself a living principle ; the dead part, therefore, became
the proper pabulum of the invisible seeds of the mucor transmitted by
the air in respiration. It wrould indeed be impossible for such to vege-
tate in a living body, being incompatible with vitality, and we may be
assured that decay must take place before the minute vegetable can
make a lodgement to aid in the great change of decomposition."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 93

Ruckland on Fossil Remains of Minute Organisms. — Mr. Tennant has
informed me, that a microscopic examination of the Stonesfield slate by
Mr. Darker, and of other oolites, has recently shown them to be crowded
with remains of organized bodies, invisible to the naked eye. I learn
also from Mr. Tennant, that abundant microscopic organic remains have
recently been discovered in thin slices of certain beds of carboniferous
limestone from Derbyshire : similar results may shortly be expected
from a microscopic examination of the chert of the same formation.
We must not, however, be tempted by these discoveries to rush suddenly
to the rash and unwarranted conclusion, that all limestone and all silex
is of organic origin. It has not yet been shown, that the granules
resembling the roe of fishes, which give character to the oolitic forma-
tion, and abound occasionally in limestone of the triopic carboniferous and
Silurian series, have any necessary connexion with organic bodies. We
may, with Ehrenberg, admit and admire the extent of microscopic cham-
bered cells and Infusoria which he has shown so largely to pervade the
chalk and other calcareous and silicious formations, without claiming an
exclusively animal origin for the native substance of all rocks in which
lime or silex is the principal ingredient. — (From Dr. Buckland's Address
to the Geological Society.}

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

March 1 6th, 1841. — Professor Lindley in the Chair.

MR. EDWIN J. QUEKETT made some observations upon a peculiar woody
tissue which he had detected in a specimen of Coal. The method
adopted in the present instance to discover the structure, was by taking
from the specimen, which exhibited a surface like charcoal on one of
its sides, some minute scrapings, by the aid of a sharp knife, and im-
mersing them in Canada Balsam. By this means the woody fibres be-
came more or less separated, and certain of these fibres then appeared
as if containing some resinous matter, which had preserved their
original character, appearing perfect as in recent wood. The structure
of the woody fibres was evidently that of the coniferous character;
where there are more than one row of dots on each fibre, these dots
appeared to be formed by two spirals wound in the interior in different
directions, the turns of each connected at intervals by longitudinal
bands, thereby leaving a transparent space by such arrangement.

Mr. Quekett also exhibited a silicified specimen of coniferous wood
(said to be from Greenland), which presented the like structure. No-
thing analogous, he believed, had hitherto been detected in recent woods.

Mr. Busk exhibited some parasitic insects which he had received from
South America : they were sent to him in a letter, and were still alive.
They are said to be highly injurious to horned cattle, not only producing
destructive skin diseases, but often occasioning caries and necrosis of
the bones, by their burrowing into the joints.

94 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

December 2, 1841. — Mr. Bergin in the Chair.

The Secretary having read the minutes of the former meeting, various
matters of private business were brought before the Society.

Mr. Allman presented specimens of Trichina spiralis, a rare and re-
markable Entozoon found in human muscle : the muscle was a portion
of the Pectoralis major of a man who had died of fever. Mr. Bergin
mentioned a statement made by Mr. J. Quekett, that Porpoises taken in
estuaries and rivers abound in parasites, and supposed that they might
have been driven to the shallows in order to get rid of them ; a few
days since, however, he had procured a porpoise, captured in the open
bay of Dublin, and found its bronchial tubes filled with specimens of
Strongylus.*

January 6, 1842. — T. F. Bergin, Esq., in the Chair.

After the transaction of private business, Mr. Mackay laid before the
Society a specimen of Equisetum elongatum new to the British Flora : —
discovered in Colin- Glen, near Belfast, by Mr. Whitlaw, and figured by
Schlechtendahl from the Cape of Good Hope.

Mr. Yeates presented to the Society a Microscope Case, containing
several instruments necessary in microscopic investigations.

Mr. Bergin read some notes on Ehrenberg's late interesting commu-
nication to the Berlin Academy, on the important part which microscopic
organization plays in the choking up of certain harbours. f (Seep. 68.)

Mr. Callwell presented specimens, prepared in balsam, of Trichina
spiralis separated from the muscle that had contained them.

Mr. Andrews exhibited specimens of Plumularia cristata from Kerry
County in the west of Ireland.

On the occurrence of Tricocephalus Ajfinis in the Tonsil of a Man. —
At a post-mortem examination of James Flack, of the 75th Regiment,
at the Army General Hospital. Fort Pitt, Chatham, one specimen of
this Entozoon was found imbedded on cutting into the left tonsil, which
was considerably enlarged and in a gangrenous sloughy condition. This
species, first described bjrRudolphi, has not, according to this observer,
been hitherto discovered in the human subject. On submitting the
specimen to examination under the Microscope, it was found to be a
female. It is preserved in the Museum of Fort Pitt. — Editor.

Distinguishing character of Alga and Animalcules. — The active motions
and contractions in plants and their parts, especially in Alga, ought not

* See Mr. Quekett's remarks, Vol. I, p. 125 of this Journal.

t Ehrenberg's communication will be found in the Microscopic Journal, Vol. I, p. 162.

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 95

to give rise to the supposition of an animal nature, even when they are
called infusorial or animal motions. Internal nutritive organs, and a
definite oval aperture for the reception of solid substances, which may
be demonstrated, distinguish the apparently most simple animal from
plants. Ehrenberg has never seen, in his numerous experiments, the
motive Algse seeds take up the smallest quantity of solid nutriment ;
and thus the fruit strewing Alga may be distinguished from the Monades
which swarm round it in the same manner, as the tree from the bird.
— Ehrenberg in Poggendorff's Annalen. Taylor s Sclent. Mem. Vol. I.
p. 566.

Gulliver on the Ova of the Distoma Hepaticum. — The physiology of
the common Liver Fluke is extremely interesting, on account of the
connection which this parasite has with a very frequent and fatal dis-
ease of that useful animal, the sheep. " If we obtain," says Mr. G.,
" from the bile-ducts of the sheep, some of the larger ova of the Ento-
zoon, and subject them to careful examination, it will be found that the
cyst of the ovum presents a very clear outline, the continuity of which
is uninterrupted, except at one end, where a well-marked operculum
may be seen. The size of these ova differs considerably ; their average
length is about -^th of an inch, and their breadth 4^th. The inte-
rior of the cyst is occupied by granular matter, often contained within
secondary and more delicate cysts or cellules, generally of a circular
figure, and occasionally having within them a third still smaller cyst.
The diameter of the latter is about 4-^00*11 of an inch, and of the secon-
dary cysts TsVoth of an inch is a common size, although their magni-
tude is very variable. The granules within the cells or cysts also differ
much in size, but they are very commonly about g^oth of an inch in
diameter. When the ova of the Distoma are compressed forcibly, the
operculum is lifted up or even separated entirely, and the granular
matter extruded, with its containing cells or cysts generally broken.
The operculum does not appear to exist in the smaller and immature
ova. Whether what is commonly called the ovum of the Entozoon, may
may not be a cyst containing numerous ova within it, and furnished
with an operculum, to allow of their extrusion when mature, and fit
for propagation, appears to Mr. G. to be an interesting question. At
all events, it should be ascertained if the cysts be discharged with the
dung of the diseased sheep, whether the granules have escaped or not ;
and whether they are to be found in the pasturage of those localities,
where the Entozoon is sometimes known to be propagated so quickly
as soon to infect entire flocks of sheep. Mr. G. could never see any
thing like a small fluke in the outer cyst, at any period of its growth,
although the operculum was often observed just ready to open and give
exit to its contents, as above described. The granules may possibly be
regarded as yolk- globules, in which case Mr. G. apprehends the nume-
rous secondary cysts, or cells, must be considered as so many different
yolks."— Proc. Zool.Soc. Lond., March 10th, 1840.

Broderip and Brewster on the Structure and Optical Characters of
Bulinus velatus, and other Land- Shells, collected by Mr. Cuming. — In a

96 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

great number of the beautiful land-shells of the Philippine Islands, col-
lected by Mr. Cuming, the pattern, upon immersion in water or other
fluid, becomes entirely obliterated till evaporation restores the colours
to all their pristine brilliancy. In this species, the very reverse is the
result of the immersion. The external whitish porous epidermis which
veils the shell when dry, suffers the bright colours to shine out when
immersed in water. B. velatus is described above, as it appears on im-
mersion, and before it becomes dry ; but in the latter state the beauties
of the shell are shrouded, and the colour of the sutural bands, peeping
out between interstices in the epidermis, gives to these bands a monili-
form appearance. Mr. Broderip forwarded to Sir D. Brewster, four or
five species of those land-shells, from which the pattern disappears upon
immersion ; but he has not as yet forwarded to him any upon which
the colours come out when so treated. The following is an extract
from Sir D. Brewster's letter on the subject : — " The disappearance of
the white pattern by immersion in water, or any other evaporable fluid,
and its subsequent re-appearance when the shell is dry, are phenomena
perfectly analogous to those of hydrophanous opal, tabasheer, and other
porous substances. The phenomenon in land- shells is still more
beautiful when we examine them by transmitted light. The pattern,
which is white by reflected light, is dark by transmitted light, and vice
versa. This is particularly beautiful in the Helix pulcherrima, where
the ground of the white pattern is almost black by reflected light, and
of a light reddish colour by transmitted light, the pattern which is white
by reflection having a dark red colour by transmitted light. In all these
shells the difference of structure by which the pattern is produced, does
not exist in the shell, but in the epidermis, and hence the pattern may
be wholly obliterated by removing the epidermis. It appears to me,
from very careful observations, that the epidermis consists of two layers,
and that it is only the upper layer which is porous whenever the pattern
is white. These white or porous portions of the epidermis differ from
the other parts of the upper layer only in having been deprived of, or
in never having possessed, the element which gives transparency to the
membrane, in the same manner as hydrophanous opal has become white,
from the expulsion of its water of crystallization. When the shell is
immersed in water or any other fluid, the fluid enters the pores of the
white epidermis, and having nearly the same refractive power as the
epidermis, no light is reflected at the separating surface of the water and
the pores which contain it, so that the light passes through the mem-
brane, which thus loses its white appearance. When the water escapes
from the pores by evaporation, or is driven from them by heat, the
membrane again reflects white light from the numerous surfaces of its
pores.

" As the colouring matter resides in the shell itself, its peculiar co-
lour is seen through the epidermis as distinctly where it is porous as
where it is not porous, when the porous portion has been rendered
transparent by the absorption of a fluid.

"If we apply oil or varnish to the white pattern, we may obliterate
it permanently, or we may change it into a pattern entirely different
from the original one." — Proc. ZooL Soc. Land., Feb. 9th, 1841.

Jcwncd. Vol.Il, /'/..

129

XXII. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF FATTY DEGK-

NERATION OF THE LIVER.*

By William Bowman, Esq., F.R.S., Demonstrator of Anatomy in King's
College, London ; and Assistant Surgeon to King's College Hospital.

FATTY degeneration of the liver is found almost exclusively in phthi-
sical subjects. Louis met with it in forty out of one hundred and
twenty cases. The organ is always enlarged in a degree proportioned,
cceteris paribus, to the quantity of fat it contains. It is altered to a buff
colour, resembling that of fallen leaves. In consistence it is nearly na-
tural ; and when sliced the knife is rendered greasy, and minute glo-
bules of fat appear, mingled with the blood. It has also an unctuous
feel, greases paper, and readily inflames. This deposit of fat is never
collected into masses, but is equally diffused throughout the whole
viscus. It is remarkable that it occasions no obstruction to the portal
circulation, as is clear, from its being always unattended with ascites.
It never, indeed, gives rise to any symptoms (beyond those of mere en-
largement) from which its existence might be suspected during life.
Thus much is already known of the disease.

In examining under the microscope, a short time since, a specimen of
this disease, taken from the body of a patient of Dr. Budd, in the
King's College Hospital, I observed an interesting fact, denoting the
seat of the fatty accumulation, which, with Dr. Budd's concurrence, I
am desirous of communicating.

To make clear my meaning, I shall premise a very few words on the
minute structure of the lobules of the liver. Mr. Kiernan has well
described the vascular element of these minute representatives of the
organ. It consists of a capillary plexus intervening between the portal
and hepatic veins. The diameter of the capillaries in this plexus is
very large, being nearly twice that of a blood globule ; while the di-
ameter of the capillaries in most other textures is the same as that of
the blood globule, and in some (as muscle) even less, so that the blood
globules only pass along by undergoing elongation. This large size of
the capillaries of the liver, probably, has reference to the deficiency of
propelling power in the portal circulation. This portal hepatic plexus
may be termed solid, as it is extended in all directions, and presents

* From the Lancet of January 22nd, 1842.
VOL. n. K

130 ON FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE LIVER.

areolae of nearly the same dimensions in whatever plane it is cut. These
areolae are in general not larger than the diameter of the vessels which
form them, so that a well injected specimen might appear to be compo-
sed of little else than vessels.

In the interstices of this capillary plexus lies the secreting portion of
the bile-ducts. If a thin section of an uninjected lobule be examined
with a sufficient magnifying power, it is seen to be almost entirely made
up of small, irregular, angular particles, each containing a circular or
oval nucleus, within which is a minute point or two, the nucleolus.
These particles have a determinate outline, are of some thickness, and
possess a fine granular aspect. They also contain (which is very re-
markable,) one, two, or more globules of fatty matter, irregularly placed,
and of somewhat variable bulk, though usually about the size of those
represented from the healthy human liver, at Plate III, Div. 6, A.

We owe the first good description of these nucleated particles to
Henle,* who (with Purkinje and Schwann) believes that they correspond
with the epithelium found in all other true glands, and that they are the
proper glandular element, to which the secretion is due. No one who
has extensively examined the minute structure of glands, can well be of
a different opinion, though it must be allowed that we are still ignorant
of the precise anatomy of the ultimate ramifications of the biliary ducts.
The oily globules found in the nucleated particles, appear to have spe-
cial reference to the chemical nature of the secretion, which contains a
large quantity of highly carbonized matters, that are to be regarded,
according to Dr. Prout, as modifications of the oleaginous principle.
The nucleated particles of the sebaceous glands also contain fat, and in
this respect offer a striking analogy with those of the liver.

The microscope at once reveals the seat of the fatty deposit in the
diseased state of the organ. Instead of containing a few minute scat-
tered globules, the nucleated particles are gorged with large masses of it,
which greatly augment their bulk, and more or less obscure their nuclei.
(See PI. Ill, Div. 6, B.)

This simple description developes the whole anatomical condition of
the disease, as well as explains its rougher characters, the bulk, the
colour, and the freedom of the circulation. The particles, lying in the
interstices of the capillary plexus, enlarge slowly and equably, in such

* They have also been examined by other Foreign Anatomists, as well as British.
Mr. Erasmus Wilson discovered them in 1838, in the liver of the cat, when as yet
the works of Henle were unknown in this country.

ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS. 131

a manner, as to exert no injurious pressure on the vessels, while their
new contents impart that peculiar hue which characterizes the disease.

It also throws no little light on the nature and source of the disease.
It seems to show that the fat is an increase of a normal constituent, and
not a formation altogether unnatural in kind ; thus distinguishing it
from the fatty degenerations of other tissues, where fat is deposited in
situations from which it is naturally absent. It likewise indicates an
increased activity in the secreting action of the liver, for a considerable
period before death, though why the accumulation of fat should occur
within nucleated particles does not so clearly appear. To explain that
fully, will require a more complete knowledge than we yet possess of
the chemical affinities at play within these small laboratories of nature.

I cannot conclude without remarking, that the fact which has been
detailed, is an admirable example of the kind and degree of insight into
pathological changes, which the microscope is caleulated to afford. It
is happily unnecessary, in the present day, to come forward as the ad-
vocate of this invaluable instrument as an aid to the study of disease.
The fact is also of uncommon interest, as an illustration of the strict
subordination of the study of pathology, as well as that of minute anat-
omy and minute chemistry, as to semeiology and that coarse inspection
of morbid changes, which has too long usurped the name of morbid
anatomy.

Explanation of the Figures, Plate III, Div. 6.

A. — Nucleated particles from the healthy human liver.

B. — The same, from the liver affected with fatty degeneration.

a, a. — Nuclei. b, b. — Nucleoli. c, c, c. — Fatty globules.

XXIII. FARTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS

AND HARBOURS, BY MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS.*

By M. Ehrenberg.

SPECIMENS had been received from M. Hagen of the masses which had
been removed from the harbour of the Oder at Swinemiinde, and from
that of the Vistula at Dantzic. The masses which had been removed
at Swinemunde, amounted in 1839, to 2,592,000; and in 1840, to
1,728,000 cubic feet (German).

Abstract of the Paper read before the Berlin Academy, 10th June, 1841.

132 ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS.

According to microscopical analysis, the mud of the harbour itself
contained from ± to *- of its volume of distinguishable organic bodies.
The sand taken from the navigable water outside of the harbour, ap-
peared to be principally granitic quicksand.

The masses also deposited by the Vistula at Dantzic, and of which
four specimens were sent, taken from the bed of the river, at various
distances from the sea, according to a plan of the localities, were, indeed
not so rich in microscopic organisms as those from Pillau, Cuxhaven,
and Swinemiinde, but as those from Wismar, on account of the great
admixture of river sand, furnished only from about y^th to £th of their
volume of organic remains.

Marine forms, however, were found, at the point highest up the river,
and marked No. 4, and from this locality also, was furnished the ma-
terial least mixed with sand (Flugsand), and which was the richest in
Infusoria.

Moreover the report, which was given in March of the results of in-
vestigation of the deposits of the Nile in Egypt and Nubia, in part fur-
nished by the examination by Dr. Hemprich, on the small portions of
earth adherent to plants collected in those countries, and the prospect
thus opened of the possibility of readily arriving at a knowledge of
these forms, from other and very distant parts of the earth, in a similar
way, had prompted Professor Kunth, in the most liberal manner to fur-
nish for microscopical examination, portions of earth which were adhe-
rent to some of the exotic plants in his rich herbarium. These mate-
rials were a portion of marine Conferva from the Falkland Isles, sent
by M. Lesson ; two specimens of Brazilian bog-earth (von Sellowschen
Grasern) ; a similar one from Peru, a portion of Conferva from the
Sandwich Islands, and from the Marian Isles, both sent thence by M.
Gaudichaud. All these materials, were respectively, as clearly from the
places indicated, as the plants to which they were still attached.

Finally the author had received, by the kindness of the worthy tra-
veller in Iceland, Dr. Thienemann of Dresden, at his request specimens
of earth from Iceland, Labrador, and Spitzbergen. As the chief part of
these materials thus belong to the American hemisphere, their investi-
gation forms especially an addition to the " report, &c.," furnished on
the 25th of March.*

From the examination in this way of the above mentioned particles,
often extremely small, or scarcely a line in thickness from those distant

* Vide Ehrenberg's remarks, Vol. II., p. 26, of this Journal.

ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS. 133

countries, the following results, as to the extent of animalcular life have
been obtained."

In the Malvinas or Falkland Islands the following 30 species of mi-
croscopic organisms still exist ; —

1. Achnanthes pachypus 17. Grammatophora oceanica.

2. Actinocyclus senarius. *18. stricta.

*3. Amphora navicularis. 19. Navicula amphioxys.

*4. Arthrodesmus Taenia. 20. aspera.

5. Cocconeis placentula. 21. Didymus?

6. scutellum. *22. Lyra.

7. Cocconema Lunula ? *23. peregrina.

8. Eunotia Faba. 24. viridis.

9. amphioxys. *25. Surirella? australis.

1 0. biceps.

11. Fragilaria constrict a. 26. Spongia acicularis.

12. rhabdosoma. 27. capitata.

*13. Trachea. 28. Clavus.

14. Ventriculus. 29.

15. Gomphonema clavatum. 30. aspera.

16. minutissimum.

Out of all this number of forms, there are only seven new species, (*)
which had not already been met with elsewhere. As a whole the forms
belong to already known genera. Most of them are as yet only known
as marine, and from this, it may with greater probability be concluded,
that the whole of them are so. Several species belong to those, which
assist in the formation of the chalk marl in the south of Europe.

For the Brazils, twelve still living species, from alluvial deposits are
added to the nine already stated to have been met with in the edible
clay of the Amazons, furnished by M. Martius, viz : —

*1. Arcellaecornis. 8. Synedra Ulna.

2. Gallionella distans ?

3. Himantidium Arcus. 9. Lithodontium Bursa.

4. Navicula viridis. 10. Lithostylidium Serra.

5. amphioxys. *11. articulatum.

*6. microstauron. *12. Lithodermatium macrodon.

7. Surirella oblonga ?

* The new species, which as far as is yet known are characteristic of the countries,
are marked with an asterisk.

134 ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS.

There are among these, two new forms of Infusoria ; but besides and
accompanying them, silicious parts of phanerogamous plants, probably
grasses, and of Equisetacece, are worth remarking. It would seem pro-
per to distinguish such fragments with generic names in separate lists,
in order they should not be disregarded ; since it is not easy to deter-
mine to what plants they might belong. The silicious, marginal serra-
tures of grasses are found plentifully under the silicious shields of the
Infusoria. These will be named Lithodontium (Thylacium). The serra-
ted, silicious fibres of the elongated cells of grasses, which are not
immediately the epidermis, will be named Lithostylidium, and the sili-
cious epidermis of the Equisetacece, Lithodermatium.

By this means, such botanical forms, which are frequently very dis-
tinct and characteristic, and hitherto unremarked, can be retained and
compared by the microscope, without loading systematic Botany with
misapplied names, by groundless guesses at their origin.

From Peru, besides the five species of marine Infusoria already noticed,
as yet only four, from the interior are known, viz. : — Eunotia Zebra,
Fragilaria ?, Navicula viridis, Spongilla lacustris, of which no form can
with certainty be indicated as new.

The addition to the fauna of Iceland, afforded by the materials col-
lected by Dr. Thienemann is especially interesting. He has furnished
marine Conferva? from the coast, and peat from Husavic. The peat is
very rich in silicious Infusoria, although it is a good, in fact the best,
combustible material in the island. It contains not fewer than the fol-
lowing thirty- six species : —

1. Amphiprora navicularis. 16. Gallionella distans.

2. Amphora libyca. 17. crenulata.

3. • hyalina. 18. Gomphonema acuminatum.

4. Arcella hyalina. 19. Americanum.

*5. Coccone'is borealis. 20. longiceps.

*6. — — longa. 21. truncatum.

7. Cocconema asperum. 22. Navicula amphioxys.

8. Eunotia amphioxys. *23. cequaUs.

9 bidens. 24. amphisb&na.

10. Diodon. 25. gastrum.

11. - — • granulata. 26. - - leyumen.

12. • gibba. *27. — — liostauron.

13. prterupta. 28. microstauron.

14. - • Zebrina. 29. - - nobilis.

15. Fragilaria striolata ? 30. • — phccniccnteron.

ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS. 135

3 1 . Navicula viridis.

32. Synedra Ulna. 34. Thylacium semiorbiculare.

33. Tabellaria trinodis. *35. Lithostylidium polyedrum.

36. pupula.

Of Icelandic marine Infusoria, procured from Algae, sent by Dr. Thie-
nemann, the following twelve species, still living, are found there, viz. :

1. Cocconeis scutellum. 7. Navicula asper a.

2. Denticella ? aurita. 8. gracilis ?

3. Echinella ? Podosphenia ? 9. Podoslra moniliformis.

4. Gomphonema clavatum. *10. Striatella Thienemanni.
5. minutissimum. 11. arcuata.

*6. Grammatophora islandica. 12. Synedra fasciculata ?

Among the fossil forms of the peat, are five new and peculiar ones,
and two among^the marine Infusoria. In the whole number of forty-
eight Icelandic Infusoria, there is no new genus ; but it is worth while
to remark the occurrence, together with the serrated Eunotise of Sweden,
Finland, and North America, which are characteristic of the North, —
of Podosira moniliforms, which is elsewhere met with only in Peru.
V Equally interesting is the microscopic fauna of Labrador, which enu-
merates fifty-one living species, found in the earth, contained among the
roots of some mosses. The following forms are found near Okok in
Labrador : —

1. Amphora Ubyca. 17. Eunotia Faba.
*2. Arcella disphcera. 18. hexaodon.

3. hyalina. 19. monodon.

4. Cocconema asperum. 20. prterupta.

5. gracile. 21. septena.

*6. Lunula. 22. tetraodon.

7. tenue. 23. triodon.

8. Closlerium striolatum ? 24. Fragilaria binodis.
*9. Difflugia lagena. 25. Himantidium Arcus.

10. — oblong a ? 26. gracile.

11. Eunotia amphioxys. 27. Navicula amphioxys.

12. - — biceps. 28. aspera.

13. bidens. 29. ceratogramma.

14. Camelus. 30. • - ceratostigma.

15. - - Diodon. 31. - crucigera.

16. diadcma. 32. — dicephala.

136 ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS.

33. Navicula dilatata. *43. Navicula semen.

34. gibba. 44. silicnla.

35. gracilis. 45. viridis.

36. intequalis. 46. Striatella arcuata.

*37. — - — isotauron. 47. Synedra Ulna.

38. Legumen. 48. Tabellaria trinodis.

*39. leptogongyla. 49. gastrum.

40. microstauron. 50. biceps.

*41. • pachyptera.

*42. scalaris. 51. Lythostylidium rude.

There are eleven peculiar species in Labrador, but no new genus
among them.

From this list is afforded the very important result, that the northern
Eunotia, which are here as elsewhere in northern countries, very nume-
rous, occur in this locality with living Closterice, and such Difflugia,
which are not preserved in the fossil state. Hitherto they were only
known as fossil ; and only one species, near Saltzburgh, has as yet been
observed in the living state. They consequently appear to be forms
peculiar solely to Northern climes, and will probably be found here and
there in the Alps.

On this account, especially, was a small specimen of marine mud,
from the bottom of the sea near Spitzbergen, examined with greater
care and precaution. There were found in it nine species of the smallest
organisms, among abundant clay ? particles. Three Infusoria with si-
licious shields, one Spongia or Spongilla, and four or five species of cal-
careous Polythalamia : —

1. Coscinodiscus patina ? 5. Triloculina trigonula.

2. Navicula aspera. *6. Nonionina arctica.

3. Synedra Ulna. *7. Rotalia borealis.

*8. Uvigerina ? borealis.

4. Spongia acicularis. *9. Serpula ? discus.

Four of the Polythalamia, are hitherto undescribed. From the in-
vestigation of the former twenty-four American localities, which was
presented to the Academy in March, there was afforded the sum of two-
hundred and fourteen species of the smallest organisms, of which seventy-
one were peculiar to America, ninety-four living, and one hundred and
twenty fossil.

The six localities now adduced, which are in great measure new, and em-
bracing half the globe, contain one hundred and fifty-four forms, of which
one hundred and sixteen are living, thirty-eight fossil, and thirty-one

ON THE FILLING UP OF RIVER-BEDS AND HARBOURS.

137

new ; consequently the number of species peculiar to America, amounts
to one hundred and two ; of those known as common to America and
the Islands, to two hundred and forty-five ; and of those known to be
yet living there to two hundred and ten.

Besides this we are now able to determine the thirty-nine following
species from materials collected in the Sandwich Islands : —

1. Amphiprora navicularis.

2. Cocconeis placentula.

3. Cocconema fusidium.

4. Difflugia hyalina.

5. Eunotia amphioxys.
6. bicornis.

7. Cocconema.

8. gibba.

9. pr (erupt a.

10. Fragilaria striolata.

*11. lamella.

12. trachea.

13. diopthalma.

14. Gallionella distans.

15. Gomphonema augur.

16. clavatum.

17 longiceps.

18. rotundatum.

22. Navicula curvula.
*23. • distauridium.

24. gibba.

25. gracilis.

*26. insularis.

27. pusilla.

28. sigma.

29. viridis.

30. Podosphenia cuneata ?

31. Staurosira construens.

32. Synedra scalaris.
*33. Tabellaria platysoma.

34. rhabdosoma.

35. Lithodontium bicorne.

36. Lythostylidium rude.

37. Spongilla acicularis.

*38. Rotalia punctata.

*39. Nodosaria punctata.

19. Himantidium Arcus.

20. Navicula amphisbtena.
21. cerate-stigma.

Of these thirty-four belong to the silicious Infusoria ; three are si-
licious particles of plants ; and two are calcareous Polythalamia. From
the two latter forms the mass is distinctly indicated to be of marine
origin. Six species are peculiar ; all belong to known genera.

Finally there is a small fauna of the Marian Islands, in which may
be reckoned thirteen species : —

1 . Cocconema fusidium .

2. Fragilaria diopthalma.

3. rhabdosoma.

4. Gomphonema Augur.

5. . clavatum.

6. longiceps.

7. Himantidium Arcus.

8. Navicula pusilla.

9. Navicula viridis.

*10. Tetragramma libycum.

1 1 . Spongia acicularis.

*12. Amphidiscus.

13. Rotalia globulosa.

138 CONTRIBUTIONS TO VEGETABLE EMBRYOLOGY.

This small number contains two new species, and the Rotalia of the
chalk, the lower shell of which is here abundant, indicates the marine
or brackish origin of these animalculse. Moreover the occurrence here
of Tetragramma Libycum, is remarkable, as being a form which a short
time since was met with in saliferous earth brought from Siwa, in the
Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, and at one time was found nowhere else.

As a general result of these researches, the following may be pro-
posed : —

1 . There are in Iceland as in North America, useful beds of good
peat, consisting, in great part, even to as much as the ± of their bulk,
besides vegetable remains, of dead microscopic animalcules — whilst the
most common European good kinds of peat, although Infusoria when
sought for are rarely found wanting in them, have not hitherto been
found to contain them in the same proportion.

2. There is a minute organic invisible life diffused entirely through
those parts of the soil rich in humus ; but sandy situations of the
earth's surface from near the South to the neighbourhood of the North
Poles, and the bottom of the sea near the North Pole, are also filled
with similar organic forms.

3. It is possible according to the method of research pursued by the
author, to render evident the forms in which this life occurs, from the
smallest particles of earth adhering to the plants in Herbaria, or to
bodies of any kind ; and to determine much further than has yet been
done, with ease and scientific certainty, a more or less numerous fauna
of microscopic organisms, from all parts of the earth.

XXIV. CONTRIBUTIONS TO VEGETABLE EMBRYOLOGY, FROM OBSER-
VATIONS ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO IN
TROP.EOLUM MAJUS.*

By Herbert Giraud, M.D.

AFTER referring to the researches of MM. Schleiden, Wydler, Mirbel
and Spach, and A. St. Hilaire, on this important point, Dr. Giraud
states that he was induced to select Tropceolum as the subject of his
own observations on account of its solitary ovula, and their compara-

* Abstract of a Paper read before the Linneean Society, February 1st, 1842, and
published in the Proceedings of that body.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO VEGETABLE EMBRYOLOGY. 139

tively large size, which render the individuals of this family, as well as
the allied Geraniaceee, peculiarly fitted for the purpose. He arranges
his observations under seven general heads corresponding with as many
progressive periods in the growth of the female organs, and extending
from the completion of the anatropous development of the ovule to the
perfect formation of the embryo ; or from the commencement of the
expansion of the bud to the complete formation of the fruit. The re-
sults are collected from a great number of dissections.

In the first period, or just before the expansion of the bud, a longi-
tudinal section of the carpellum from its dorsum towards the axis of the
pistillum, dividing the ovule, shows the latter to have completed its
anatropous development. A portion of rather firm and dense cellular
tissue enclosing a bundle of vessels descends from the placenta and in
apposition with it to form the raphe, and terminates in the base of
the "ovule. The nucleus has only one integument, at the apex of
which is the exostome or micropyle, opening close by and to the out-
side of the point of attachment ; and the conducting tissue of the
style may be traced into the carpellary cavity as far as the exostome.

In the second period, during which the expansion of the bud and the
dehiscence of the anthers commence, and therefore before impregnation,
a small elliptical cavity makes its appearance near the apex of the nu-
cleus, having a delicate lining membrane formed by the walls of the
surrounding cells : this cavity is the embryo-sac, and a minute canal
may be traced leading from it to the exostome. The apex of the
embryo- sac encloses at this period a quantity of organizable mucilage
containing many minute bodies having the appearance and character of
cytoblasts.

In the third period, the apex of the nucleus and of its integument
becomes slightly inclined towards the placenta. The embryo-sac is
much enlarged and lengthened; its mucilage has disappeared and
given place to an elongated diaphanous utricle (utricule primordiale,
Mirbel; vfaicule embryonnaire, Meyen; extr£mit& antfrieure du boyau
pollinique, Schleiden ;) containing a quantity of globular matter or cy-
toblasts. This primary utricule is developed wholly within the embryo-
sac, from which it is obviously distinct.

The fourth period occurs after impregnation. The pollen tubes do
not extend into the carpellary cavity ; but the fovilla with its granules
is found abundantly in the passage leading from the style to the exos-
tome. With the increased development of the embryo- sac, the primary
utricule elongates and becomes distinctly cellular by the development of
minute cells in its interior, while at the extremity next the base of the

140 CONTRIBUTIONS TO VEGETABLE EMBRYOLOGY.

nucleus it is terminated by a spherical mass consisting of globular cells.
The primary utricle at this period assumes the character of the suspen-
sor (Mirbel), and its spherical extremity constitutes the first trace of
the embryo.

In the fifth period the apex of the nucleus and of its integument be-
comes more inclined towards the placenta ; the spherical extremity of
the suspensor enlarges, and it becomes more evident that it constitutes
the rudimental embryo. In the mean time the suspensor has become
lengthened by an increase in the number of its cells ; and its upper ex-
tremity is found to be protruded through the apex of the embryo- sac,
the apex of the nucleus and the micropyle. From this extremity there
is a considerable development of cells, many of which hang loosely in
the passage leading to the conducting tissue of the style, while the rest
unite in forming a process which passes down the outer side of the
ovulum within the carpellary cavity. This process is composed of from
nine to twelve rows of cells, and its extremity resembles in appearance
and in the anatomical condition of its cells the spongiole of a root.
By a slight traction of this cellular process the suspensor with the em-
bryo may be withdrawn from the embryo- sac through the exostome,
thus proving the continuity of the process with the suspensor, and
through it with the embryo itself.

During the sixth period the suspensor becomes more attenuated ; and
the cellular process has reached the base of the ovulum, the cells of its
extremity abounding with cytoblasts, which prove that it is still pro-
gressing in development. The embryo also increases in size, and two
lateral processes are observed, which evidently form the first traces of
the cotyledons.

In the seventh period all distinction between the nucleus and its in-
tegument ceases, and they form a single envelope enclosing the embryo-
sac ; the cellular process has become so much developed, that its ex-
tremity has passed round the base of the ovulum and is directed
towards the placenta; and the lateral processes of the embryo have
become distinct fleshy cotyledons, enclosing both the radicle and plu-
mule in corresponding depressions of their opposed surfaces. The
subsequent changes consist chiefly in the great development of the
cotyledons, which ultimately occupy the entire cavity of the nucleus,
filling the space usually taken up by albumen.

From these observations Dr. Giraud deduces the following inferences :
— The formation of the embryo-sac and the development of cytoblasts
within it having been shown to take place at a period prior to impreg-
nation, and even the primary utricle itself making its appearance before

GULLIVER ON THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. 141

the emission of the pollen from the anther, and before the expansion of
the stigma, the origin of the primary utricle cannot be referred to the
influence of impregnation, nor can it have been derived from the pollen
tube pressing before it a fold of the embryo-sac.

The primary utricle at its first formation being quite distinct from the
embryo-sac, even at its apex (although brought into contact with it at
a subsequent period, and ultimately penetrating it), cannot result from
a depression or involution of the embryo- sac, as is maintained by M.
Brongniart.

The pollen tubes (which after impregnation may be traced in the con-
ducting tissue of the style) never reaching the micropyle, but pollen
granules being found in abundance in the channel leading to it, and
being doubtless brought into contact with the outer surface of the em-
bryo-sac through the exostome ; and the first trace of the embryo ap-
pearing at this time in the formation of the spherical body at the inferior
extremity of the primary utricle — Dr. Giraud is led to conclude that
the origin of this simple spherical body results from a peculiar process
of nutrition, determined by the material or dynamic influence of the
fovilla, conveyed through the medium of the primary utricle or sus-
pensor.

The paper was accompanied by a series of drawings representing the
ovulum of TropcBolum in the several stages of development described.

XXV. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMALS.*

By George Gulliver, F.R.S., &c.

As minute anatomy is now become more generally interesting than for-
merly, and begins to assume the character of an extensive and compa-
ratively accurate science, so as to give a new complexion to some of the
most important questions in physiology and pathology, and to enable us
to submit many old doctrines to a more exact scrutiny than most of our
classical anatomists had the means of employing, it appears to me that
considerable advantage might arise if different independent observers
would more frequently publish a brief yet clear account of the results
of their inquiries. Hence I propose to communicate occasionally to the
Philosophical Magazine, a series of short notes on the ultimate structure
of various animal tissues and on the elementary forms which occur in
the fluids, taking the discriptions in all cases from my own observations,
and frequently illustrating them with wood-cuts. It will thus be at-

* From the Philosophical Magazine, June, 1842.

142 GULLIVER ON THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMALS.

tempted to give either a more precise account than we yet possess of
some of the healthy and diseased parts of man and the lower animals,
to present certain particulars of structure in novel physiological rela-
tions, or to record facts which may appear to have escaped the attention
of previous observers : in short, to contribute summary and plain notes
concerning numerous detached anatomical points which may perhaps be
treated of as profitably in this manner as by set dissertations.

ON THE LYMPH-GLOBULES OF BIRDS.

It is well known that the blood of the vertebrate animals contains,
besides the numberless red discs, a few pale globules which have very
commonly been regarded as those of lymph. In birds, however, the
globules which constitute the greater part of the juice of the lymphatic
glands are generally rather smaller than the pale globules of the blood ;
and, as I have noticed in the Appendix to Gerber's Anatomy, the same
fact is observable in the mammalia. Yet the descriptions given since
Hewson's time of the lymph- globules of birds have always been drawn
from the pale globules of their blood.

The distinguished inquirer just mentioned, states that the particles of
the fluid of the lymphatic glands of birds are oval, like the nuclei of
their blood- corpuscles. In the Philosophical Magazine for February
1840, I gave an account of the lymph-globules of the Musk Deer, from
which it appears that these scarcely differ in size from those of man,
notwithstanding the blood-discs of this little ruminant are the smallest
at present known ; and although the Camelidae have oval blood-corpus-
cles, I found that the globules of the thymus, of the lymphatic glands,
and of the pus of these animals, had the usual circular figure, and
nearly the same size as the corresponding globules in other mammalia.*
It was to be expected, therefore, that the lymph-globules of birds would
possess a similar form, and this I have lately ascertained to be the case.

The lymph- globules of birds are commonly rather smaller than those
of mammalia, yet this difference of size is not observable to the same
degree in the pale globules of the blood of these two classes. The ac-
count of the chemical characters of the lymph-globules of mammalia,
as given in the Appendix to Gerber's Anatomy, is generally applicable
to the corresponding globules of birds. Professor Wagner observes,
that the chemical properties of the pale globules of the blood and the
nuclei of the blood-discs of birds and reptiles are identical. This ap-
pears to be true in most respects ; but in certain experiments the two

* See Medico-Chir. Trans., vol. xxiii; and Lancet, 1840-41, vol ii, p. 101 .

GULLIVER ON THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. 143

kinds of particles seem to me to be differently affected under precisely
the same treatment. Thus the nucleus of the blood-corpuscle is not so
prone to change in drying as the lymph-globule. The former, whether
exposed in recent blood by acids, or in dry blood by the moisture of the
breath, may be quickly dried, and the form of the nucleus thus com-
pletely preserved, on the slip of glass used to make the observation ;
while the lymph-globule after similar treatment, and even if dried with-
out any addition, becomes either faint, tumid, or misshapen. Certain
saline solutions too, which, in a few hours, either injure the shape of
the lymph-globules or render them almost invisible, do not act so re-
markably on the nuclei of the blood- discs.

The pale globules noticed in this paper are those well-known white
and slightly granular corpuscles which are generally seen at once very
plainly in the blood, as they appear, under certain adjustments of the
object-glass, with a distinct and dark circumference. But there are
other pale particles in the blood. Some of these are isolated, and agree
in all respects with the globules of the lymphatic juices, being smaller,
often rather fainter and with a less definite contour than the pale glo-
bules first mentioned. In the blood after death there is also frequently
observable small shapeless white fragments consisting of circular or
oval granules hardly as large, seldom larger, than the globules of the
lymphatic fluid ; and minute oil-like particles are often seen in the frag-
ments. In birds this granular matter often exactly resembles in struc-
ture the colourless fibrine, obtained from their blood by washing it in a
linen bag, and the granules are frequently just like the nuclei of the
blood- discs. The white granular matter is often abundant when the
pale globules are either difficult to be found or entirely absent.

The following measurements of the lymph-globules are expressed in
fractions of an English inch ; the common sizes are first noted, then
a space is left, after which the measurements of the small and large
globules are given ; and lastly, beneath the lines, the mean size de-
duced from the whole observations : —

1. Pigeon (Columba Lima, var.

Briss.)

1-6000
1-5333

1-7110
1-3800

1-5274

2. Song Thrush (Turdus musi-
cus, Linn.)

1-6000
1-4800

1-8000
1-3500

1-5090

144

GULLIVER ON THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMALS.

3. Common Fowl (Gallus do- \

mesticus, Briss.)

1-6400
1-6000

1-8000
1-3200

1-5261

4. White Owl (Strix flammea,

Linn.)

1-6000
1-4800

1-7110
1-4000

1-5227

5. Young Heron, half- grown

(Ardea cinerea, Lath.)

1-5672

1-6400
1-4000

1-5150

6. Rook, (Corvus frugilegus,

Linn.)

1-5333

1-6400
1-4000

1-5053

7. Jackdaw (Corvus Monedula,

Linn.)

1-6000

1-8000
1-3555

1-5238

8. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris,

Linn.)

1-5600

1-7110
1-3800

1-5152

9. Jay (Garrulus glandarius,

Flem.)

1-6000
1-4000
1-3600

1-6400
1-3200

1-4414

10. Magpie (Corvus Pica, Linn.)

1-6000
1-5333
1-4800

1-6400
1-3555

1-5001

Pale globules of the blood.

1-4000
1-3200

1-5333
1-2666

1-3555

1 1 . Greenfinch (Fringilla Chlo-
ris, Temm.)

1-6000
1-4800

1-6400
1-3555

1-4924

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 145

12. House Sparrow (Fringilla
domestica, Linn.)

1-6000
1-4570

1-6400
1-3200

1-4682

13. Yellow Bunting (Emberiza
Citrinella, Linn.)

1-5333
1-4572

1-6400
1-3200

1-4572

These measurements, excepting No. 5, were obtained from the par-
ticles of adult birds at different seasons. The lymph- globules in most
of the above-named species, do not differ much in magnitude ; and it is
possible that further observations may show as much variety in the size
of the globules of any one bird, especially if examined at different pe-
riods and compared in growing and mature specimens. In a few in-
stances from one to five of the globules were seen to be inclosed with
granular matter in a cell, the diameter of the latter varying from
l-2600th to 1-1 114th of an inch. If the lymph-globule be regarded
as a cell-nucleus, of course the smaller rounded particles which it fre*
quently contains will be nucleoli. Sometimes from two to six of these
may be observed in one lymph-globule, in which case they are very mi-
nute ; and it is not unusual to see a single central and larger nucleolus
varying from a quarter to half the size of the lymph-globule.

anfc ^Dbgtracttf from
[From Schlechtendal's Linnaa, 1842.]

Mohl on the Structure of the Punctated Vessels of Plants. (Continued
from p. 122.) — Under these circumstances the question arises, — Shall
we consider all the before mentioned forms of vascular tissue as true
punctated vessels, or shall we thus alone regard those which possess on
all sides dots surrounded with a circle, looking upon the others as mixed
vessels ; or rather, ought we to make new and special divisions of vege-
table ducts in order to embrace the different varieties and appropriate to
them names ? The first proposition appears to be the best ; for on the
one hand they have a common character in the possession of a dot sur-
rounded with a circle, and which easily distinguishes them from other
vessels, and on the other hand the presence of which is on the whole
corelated to a dicotyledonous embryo. [After alluding to reasons why
the other propositions should not be followed, the author thus proceeds.]

Iii order to investigate the nature of the punctations, the best plant
to examine is Cassyta glabella, as in this they are very large. In this

VOL. II. L

146 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

plant with delicate transverse or longitudinal sections, it is easily seen
that the circle of the dot proceeds from a hollow or excavation between
the contiguous parietes of the vessels ; and the dot, or point, itself is a
canal having a tender membrane at its outer end running from the in-
terior of the vessel towards this hollow.

[The author then alludes to varieties resulting from pressure, different
appearances of the canal and circle resulting from different sections, &c.]
Besides these dots which have a circle, there are others as we have be-
fore remarked, met with in a great many plants which are devoid of it.
A due examination, especially with transverse or oblique sections of the
vessels, shows that between these dots and adjacent lying organs there
is no hollow or excavation, but that the dot is formed by a simple gap
or chasm of the secondary layer of the tube, and therefore completely
simulates the dots of parenchymatous cells, and of reticulated and sca-
lariform ducts.

In punctated vessels septa may be found under two forms. A greater
portion of the original partition, having a round hole in its centre, re-
mains, or else the partition is broken through by several contiguous
transverse spaces, so that they appear like the walls of scalariform
ducts. The former kind may be found in Gassy ta glabella, &c. ; the
latter in Ilex aquifolium, &c.

Concerning the development of these vessels we may remark, that in
their earlier period of evolution they appear like the other vessels, as
rows of large cell-like completely closed tubes, the membrane of which
is thin and homogenous and each contains a nucleus. Afterwards a
delicate fibrous net is observed on their walls, especially on those which
lie next to other vessels. Their further development shows that this
net does not depend upon secondary fibres on the inner surface of the
wall of the vessel, but that the meshes of the net answer to the after
circles of the dots and to indicate the hollows or excavations which lie
between the vessels, and that the distinct fibres which surround the
meshes are formed through the position of the vascular parieties which
remain in connection with adjacent organs.

[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1841.]

Van Beneden on Alcyonella. — The author remarks that in the same
polypoid aggregation both male and female animals exist. The testi-
cles of the former, like the ovaria of the latter, are placed behind the
stomach. The seminal animalcules leave the testicles and spread them-
selves through the interior of the Polyps. The number of males is far
less than that of the females. In the interior of the body a circulation
is carried on by means of the motion of cilia. The skin, as also the
external surface of the intestines are apparently provided with cilia.
At the base of the tentacules appears a row of openings for the entrance
of water into the interior of the body. The nervous system is appa-
rently composed alone of a single ganglion placed above the oesophagus.
The young creatures live in a free and isolated state, have a very rapid

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 147

motion produced by cilia, and simulate Planaria ; in this condition they
may also be found within the Polyps, and it was remarked in the exam-
ples under observation, that every two were enveloped in a sort of case.
Several Polyps contained as many as six intestinal worms around the
canal.

Rathke on Actinia plumosa. — Milk-white mucoid filaments were ob-
served to pass out of the tegumentary pores, which glistened, moved
sometimes for a long period in a circle, and contained crystals and gra-
nular mucus.

Kobelt on Trichina spiralis. — This parasite was found in all the trans-
versely striated muscles, except of the heart and the small muscles of
the ear, in a dropsical man of weak intellect, and of seventy-three years
of age. None were found in other organs. Generally each cyst con-
tained one worm, more rarely two, and very seldom three, and but
rarely they possessed none. Bischoff submitted the worm to microsco-
pic examination ; according to him it lies always in a double cyst. The
external one is of a citron shape, the internal is oval and does not pro-
ceed into the poles or ends of the external covering. In other respects
the coverings are close together. The poles of the outer cyst, which
is g^th of an inch long, and -^jth broad, are filled with small dark gra-
nules possessing a particular motion when free. The inner cyst mea-
sures yyth of an inch, and contains a more or less granular mucoid
fluid, which is sometimes clear at others not ; in the latter case the
worm cannot be observed. The walls of both cysts are composed of a
firm homogenous slightly granular texture. The worm lies rolled up
in a spiral manner, is from aVth to -^th of an inch long, and from TTotn
to -g-^th broad, it continues alive very long, even in decomposing mus-
cles. In the cyst it remains quiet, but out of it, in water it unrolls and
rolls itself up again. An oral and caudal aperture were not to be seen.
The tubular intestine appears to commence at the blunter or head-like
extremity with a narrow oesophagus, in the larger portion of the body
to occupy the whole space and have constrictions at intervals, whilst
inferiorly it is more tubular and runs in a zigzag direction. It contains
a granular mass, and moves rythmically backwards and forwards. Often
a small dark spot is observed at the interior portion of the body, this
which is granular is the ovarium. Sometimes after pressure a tube is
discernable which perhaps is an oviduct. In the middle of the body
runs a longitudinal stripe, either a vessel or a nerve. The following
characters of the genus and species is given by the author : —

Trichina. — Animal pellucidum, filiforme, utrinque, postice magis, quam
antrorsum adtenuatum ; ore et ano discrete dubis, tubo intestinali et
ovario instructum. In vescia duplici externa dura et elastica contenens
alteram, in qua entozoon plerumque solitarium.

T. Spiralis T. minutissima spiraliter, raro flexuose incurva, capite
obtusa, collo nudo, cauda adtenuata, obtusa. Vesica externa elliptica,
extremitatibus plerumque adtenuatis interna ovalis.

[In our next number will be found some critical remarks of Valentin
upon the above.]

148 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

[From the Medicinische Zeitung, 1842.]

Simon on the presence of living Animals in the Tubercles of Acne punc-
tata. — It is generally believed that the tubercles of Acne punctata have
their seat in the sebaceous crypts of the skin, but according to M. Simon,
they more particularly effect the piliferous bulbs. He is led to this
opinion from the fact of hairs being often present in the matter squeezed
from them, even as many as fourteen having been observed.

Another peculiarity not less interesting is the existence of living ani-
mals in the same matter. These microscopic animalcules (of which
our author has examined as many as forty individuals) have ordinarily
a length of -^-^th to -g^th of a line, and a breadth of -a-^Q-th. At the
anterior portion of the body four pairs of feet, each foot having three
articulations, are seen, the first articulations being provided with three
delicate uncini. On the posterior portion of the head exists two bi-ar-
ticulate mobile organs, between which is a sucker having two bristles.
The posterior portion of the body is ordinarily very much elongated,
and rounded at its termination, whilst in a few instances it is shorter and
ending in a point.

According to the entomologists of Berlin, these creatures are Acari
in the primary period of their development. The presence of them ac-
cording to M. Simon, is not always constant in the disease under dis-
cussion.

In order to examine them, the matter prepared from the tubercles
must be spread out by compression between two plates of glass, but in
doing so care must be taken that the animals are not crushed, and the
better to prevent which is, to place two delicate stripes of caoutchouc
between the plates near their edge. In this manner they may be pre-
served alive several hours in a drop of oil, and their movements studied
by aid of the microscope. — No. 9.

[From the Journal de Pharmacia et de Chimie.~\

Soubeiran and Henry on the adulteration of Milk. — It has lately been
widely promulgated that a new method of adulterating milk has been
adopted by adding to it, after the cream has been removed, a certain
quantity of the brain of the calf or sheep. This was afterwards de-
nied by the paper that at first announced it, but failed to quiet a great
portion of the population of Paris, as the use of milk is almost univer-
sal. It was therefore necessary to destroy this false impression, and
became urgent to find out means for the detection of the adulteration,
supposing that it was effected in a single instance. In a memoir on
this subject, read at the Academy Royal of Medicine by Gaultier de
Claubry, several characters were given, derived from the physical pro-
perties of adulterated milk, compared with those of unadulterated liquid,
as seen under the microscope as well as from analytical inquiry.
Charged conjointly with Rocheux to make a report on the subject, we
have been able to establish the exactitude of the greater portion of the
assertion of G. de. Claubry, but at the same time it has been very evi-
dent to us that the procedures offer in their execution some difficulties,

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 149

when we take into consideration that a microscope is not always at
hand, and that every body is not familiar with difficult and complicated
chemical manipulations.

When the brainy matter of the sheep or calf is added, either directly
to the milk, or in emulsion with water in the proportion of 5 per cent the
physical properties of the milk, its odour, savour, colour and density, are
not so notably altered as to allow the adulteration to be at once per-
ceived, and which is therefore happily without danger as respects the
animal economy. But seen by the aid of a good microscope, under an
amplification of from 300 to 500 diameter, fragments of tubes, of torn
rugose membrane, sometimes even sanguiferous vessels are observed by
the side of the ordinary milk globules, the former being very different
from the yellowish amorphous masses presented by milk after it has
been boiled, or from that which is mingled with colostrum shortly after
an animal has given birth.

Nevertheless it must be owned that these characters are not always
so evident, and further the illusions which the microscope presents to
those not very familiar with its employment are so frequent, that ob-
servers may be very easily led into error. We therefore prefer having
recourse to a method founded on the property which the oleo phos-
phoric acid possesses, — and which as shown by Fremy exists in the
brain — of changing under the influence of acidulated water, into oleine
and phosphoric acid.

[From the Pharmaceutical Journal.]

Pereira on the Structure of Amylaceous Matters. — Several feculent
amylaceous or starchy substances are extensively used as food and me-
dicine, and for other purposes. In commerce the cheaper are sometimes
substituted for the more costly kinds, but the microscope offers a ready
means of distinguishing the fraud. Particles of starch are organized
substances. Their size is subject to considerable variation. The tous
les mois obtained from a species of Canna has the largest sized particles ;
the Portland arrow-root from Arum maculatum, a very small particle.
The shapes are also different ; some are circular as wheat starch ; others
are elliptical or ovate as tous les mois ; some are mullar shaped as Tapiti
arrow-root, Brazilian arrow-root, and Tapioca. All have on some part of
their surface a small circular spot called the hilum, and present an ap-
pearance of rings or rugce, which depend on the concentric layers of
which each grain is composed.

[From the Comptes Rendus, 1842.]

Grubys Anatomical Researches on a Cryytogamic plant constituting the
true Muguet* of Children. — The greater number of pathologists consi-
der the pseudo-membranous production in muguet a consequence on idio-

* Muguet a pellicular disease occurring in the mouths of children.

150 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

pathic inflammation ; others, on the contrary, affirm that the inflamma-
tion is of a symptomatic character. Opinions are also divided in respect
to the transmission of this disease : some contending for its contagious
nature, whilst others firmly deny that it is so.

Muguet shows itself under the form of white patches covering the
entire mucous membrane of the mouth, and extending sometimes to the
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and small intestines. At its commence-
ment the disease is characterised by small conical whitish elevations, of
0.25 of a millimeter in diameter, dispersed over the buccal mucous mem-
brane ; these elevations, in a short time, continue to enlarge, and extend
rapidly under the form of a false membrane firmly adhering to the sub-
jacent tissue, having a thickness of from two to three millimetres, and
covering sometimes the whole extent of the digestive canal.

A portion of this substance on being submitted to the microscope,
shows that it is solely composed of a mass of cryptogamic plants. In
order to study the characters of these vegetables, and perceive their re-
lations to the tissue on which they grow, it is necessary to examine one
of the isolated cones to be found towards the onset of the disease.
Each of these cones is composed of a multitude of individuals provided
with rootlets, ramifications, and sporules.

The rootlets are implanted in the cellules of the epithelium ; they
are cylindrical, transparent, about the T^th °f a millimetre in diame-
ter ; in being developed they perforate the entire series of cellules com-
posing the epithelium, to arrive at the free surface of the mucous mem-
brane.

The stems growing from the surface of the epithelium are equally
transparent, divided at different distances by partitions, and enclosing
corpuscules in their interior ; they are cylindrical, straight, of a ^th of
a millimetre long, and x^-th °f a millimetre in breadth : the stems di-
vide into branches or ramifications, which subdividing bifurcate at an
acute angle. These ramifications are composed of very distinct oblong
cellules, enclosing one, two, or three, round and transparent nuclei ;
their lateral parietes present here and there sporules, and their extre-
mities particularly, a very great number. The diameter of these spo-
rules is from the airo^1 to tne siroth °f a niillimetre.

These Cryptogamic plants bear a great analogy to the Sporotrichium,
described by several botanists.

As they are very fragile, they become detached by the movements of
the organs of the mouth, and mixing with the food, are carried into the
digestive canal where they frequently germinate and cover a considerable
surface ; children in whom the extension of this disease is great, fall
into a state of marasmus, and generally sink under it. As we have
constantly met in this white substance of muguet nothing more but ve-
getables and cells of epithelium, and no product of inflammation, we
consider it fair to conclude that this disease is produced entirely by the
growth of a cryptogamic plant on living mucous membrane.

These low vegetable forms offer a great analogy to the Mycodermata*
of Tinea favosa; but they differ in the following characters : —

* See the figures and Mr. Busk's " Observations on Parasitical Growths on living
animals." Microscopic Journal, Vol I, p. 148.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 151

1. The Mycodermata of Tinea favosa are contained in proper cap-
sules ; the Cryptogamia of Muguet, on the contrary, 'are developed
on the surface of the epithelium, and not in capsules.

2. In the Mycodermata the moniliform ramifications are transformed
into sporules, whilst in the Muguet the sporules are developed on the
sides of the ramifications.

3. The cellules of Mycodermata are not well developed and do not
present internal nuclei ; on the contrary those of Muguet have very dis-
tinct nuclei.

4. The ramifications of Mycodermata are curved, whilst those of Mu-
guet are rectilinear.

5. The ramifications of Mycodermata do not possess cellules at the
point where they are given off from the stem,, whilst those of Muguet
present them.

Exposed to atmospheric air, the cryptogamia became dry, their cel-
lules become slightly rugose and more transparent ; in drying them
with the epithelium in which they were developed, the rootlets can be
followed to their very extremities ; in water they swell ; in milk they
may be preserved as in water, without becoming more developed ; by
maceration in water they do not alter ; after the death of the individual
these vegetables do not undergo any change until the period when In-
fusoria become developed and destroy them by degrees. — 3rd May.

Le'veille on the genus Sclerotium. — In this memoir the author enume-
rates the great number of species that have been comprised in the genus
Sclerotium, and shows that this supposed genus is formed of individuals
of a different nature which ought not to be found united.

The genus Sclerotium may be divided into four sections. The first
comprehends those pathological alterations produced by insects or parasi-
tic Fungi ; the second, Fungi in the act of growth or arrested in their
development ; the third, species belonging to other genera which have
served to form new ones ; and the fourth, species nothing else whatever
but varieties.

In considering the place in Mycological classifications, which Sclero-
tium ought to occupy, he shows by observations that it is decidedly mis-
placed, because it forms imperfect beings, mere sketches of vegetation,
presenting no trace of organs of fructification, and which in spite of
that, under the influence of given circumstances, vegetates afresh and
produces perfect Fungi. — Thus the Sclerotium fungorum gives birth to
the Agaricus parasi ticus, the Sclerotium lacunosum to Agaricus racemosus,
Sclerotium pus tula to Peziza Candolleana, Sclerotium durum to Botrytis
cinerea, &c. These facts established upon a large number of observations,
are in a measure verified by other similar^ ones taken from Rumphius,
Micheli, Tode, Corda, &c.

He at length compares Sclerotium to other equally barren modifica-
tions of the fungoid tissue, and he endeavours to show that these pro-
ductions are only forms of mycelium or the primitive element of Fungi

152 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

caused by the situation in which they are developed and by the excess
or the want of action of air, light, humidity, and temperature.

He distinguishes four forms of Mycelium : —

L The Filamentous or Nematoid Mycelium, composed of white or
coloured chambered filaments, anastomozing with each other; these
form the genera Athelia, Hupha, Himantia, &c.

2. The Membranous or Hymenoid ; exhibiting membranes of a greater
or less degree of thickness known by the names of Racodlum and
Xylostroma.

3. The Tuberculous or Scleroid, the principal subject of this me-
moir.

4. The Pulpy or Malacoid, which is fleshy, soft, and found in the
genera Phlebomorpha and Mesenterica.

The following are the conclusions to which he arrives : — The greater
number of Fungi proceed from a Mycelium which appears to be a par-
ticular kind of vegetation or evolution of spores. This Mycelium pre-
sents itself under four principal forms ; it is often long lived, and vitality
can be suspended in it for a greater or less time, and made to appear
under the influence of favourable circumstances. Endowed with this
power, it is manifest, nature has reserved it as a means of reproduction
and preservation of the species.

The genus Sclerotium is but one of these forms ; it ought not there-
fore to be considered a genus. It is the same with Acrospermum, Rhi-
zoctonia, Fibrillaria, Himantia, Athelia , Hypha, Rhizomorpha, Mesente-
rica, &c.

All Fungi, and every myceloid tissue, under whatever aspect it pre-
sents, are but individuals either in the act of growth or arrested in their
development.

These productions are far from being perfectly known. The time has
not yet arrived to efface them from the history of Fungi ; on the con-
trary, they merit more than ever the attention of Botanists because they
are natural experiments of which unexpected results may be obtained
on the reproduction of Fungi. — 21st March, 1842.

[From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1841.]

Milne Edwards on the existence of Sexes in JEquorea violacea. — In this
species, as in others of the same genus, hitherto described by zoologists,
there is to be found at the inferior surface of this animal of the family
of Medusa, called Cryptocarpia, a number of membranous lamellae, ar-
ranged in a radiated manner around the stomach, and corresponding to
the canals described as passing from that viscus to the border of the
expansion (ombrelle) ; they occupy however only about three quarters
of their length, as they do not commence immediately at the margin of
the mouth, and terminate at a sufficiently distinct distance from the
border of the expansion (ombrelle). Two of these lamellae are sus-
pended in a parallel manner below, each of these tubes similar to a
riband folded upon itself, as would make it appear double. Seventy-
four of these double radiated lamellae may consequently be counted,

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 153

which are free at their inferior margin, and plaited on either side ; a
great number of oblique striae may also be seen, of a violet colour, and
on submitting them to the microscope, M. Edwards is convinced they
constitute the sexual apparatus of these Acalephee. Thus, in some he
has met with granules having all the appearance of ovules, and in ano-
ther individual, where these bodies did not appear the same, he saw a
multitude of zoosperms escape, which were extremely lively, and ana-
logous in their form and movements to the spermatic animalcules of the
Aureliadse, and various other Mollusca. It therefore appears evident
these lamellae are either ovaries or testicles, according to the individuals
examined, and that in relation to the reproductive organs, the jEquoridece
differ from the ordinary Medusa, not because they are deficient of a
special generative apparatus, or that it is concealed, but solely by the
external position and arrangement of the sexual organs; among the
Acalepha named Phenerocarpia, these organs are deeply imbedded among
the roots of the prolongation of the mouth, and enter into the compo-
sition of the walls of the stomach ; whilst among the jEquorida, which
have received the name of Cryptogamia, these very organs are altogether
distinct from the central digestive cavity, and freely float at the external
part under the inferior surface of the expansion (ombrelle). — October,
p. 198.

Milne Edwards on the Microscopic Examination of the Tissue of some
Acalepha. — In his description of Beroe Forskalia, it is stated, that on
subjecting the tissue of Acalephce to the microscope, a multitude of
extremely delicate filaments may be seen crossing each other in various
directions, and which might possibly be of a muscular nature. There
also exists(?) near the surface of the body, an immense number of pyriform
corpuscles terminated by a sort of tail, very slender and very much resem-
bling those covering the skin of certain Medusa, whose office is probably
that of secreting organs. M. Edwards imagines these small glands might
be the source of that phosphorescence so well known in the genus
Beroe ; but on carefully examining this luminosity it appeared to pro-
ceed principally from the vicinity of the ciliated margins, whilst it is
in the interval comprised between these margins that the pyriform
granules are found. The light given out by these animals, had been
noticed by Forskal and more recently by Rolando ; it is of a greenish
hue, and is sometimes very vivid ; to cause the animal to emit it, excite
the same by mechanical irritation; but when the discharges rapidly
succeed each other, their intensity becomes very much diminished. —
October, p. 215.

Eschricht on the Diceras rude of Rudolphi. — Several of these Ento-
zoa were voided by the little girl of M. Grove, physician at Raenne in
the island of Bornholm, some months since, and sent to Professor Esch-
richt for examination. He considers it to be truly one of the Entozoa,
which may be or not adapted to Rudolphi's system, and describes it as
being in every respect analogous to that described by Sultzer of Stras-

154 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

burgh in 1801, and by Dr. Lesauvage of Caen in 1818 (Bulletin de la
Facult^ de Medicine de Paris, torn, vi, p. 115). How is it, asks the
author, that this worm, found but twice in large quantity, has not been
met with more frequent, viz., near to Strasburgh in 1801, and on the
Island of Bornholm in 1841 ? It is this which* is very difficult to ex-
plain, especially by myself and others, who do not advocate spontaneous
generation. — December, p. 355.

Necrology.— In the December number of the Annales for the year
1841, will be found the biography of the late JEAN VICTOR AUDOUIN, and
discourses on this much lamented and distinguished naturalist, by M.M.
Serres, Chevreul, Milne Edwards, and Blanchard ; to which is appended
a chronological list of the zoological writings of this respected observer.

M. Edwards has also detected in the interior of Stephanomia prolifera,
with the assistance of a powerful microscope, an innumerable quantity
of very active white corpuscles of a pyriform shape, and terminating in
an extremely fine tail ; the movements were in every respect those of
spermatic animalcules, and it was impossible for him to consider them in
any other light than true zoosperms. He likewise describes ovoid cap-
sules, grouped near to the pyriform sacs, which he calls testicles, thereby
endeavouring to show that these singular animals are provided with male
organs. — October, p. 228.

Leon Dufour on the Metamorphoses of the Cecidomyia of the Sea Pine
and Poplar. — An interesting paper to the Entomologist, with several
microscopic remarks. — October, p. 257.

Sars on the Development of Acalephce (Medusa aurita and Cyanea capil-
lata) . — The following are the most important results arrived at by the
author connected with this class of animals : — 1, Spherical eggs con-
tained in ovaries, on which may be observed the vesicle of Purkinje, the
spot (vesicule) of Wagner, and on which the jaune offers the division or
ordinary bifurcation, give birth to young of an oval or cylindrical- oval
form, furnished with vibratile cilia, contained during a certain period of
their development in numerous receptacles, which form at the same time
in the four arms surrounding the mouth of their parent. — 2, Shortly,
these young quit their parent, and swim for a certain time similar to
Infusoria ; they then soon fix themselves by one of their extremities to
a foreign body, on which they grow, whilst at the other extremity they
are free ; a mouth is situated at the free end, and around this opening a
row of tentacles is formed. — 3, In this polypoid state, wrhich may be
considered that of a larva, these animals are capable of propagating by
budding similar to Polyps, that is to say, by gemmae and stolons : new
animals produced by these means closely resemble the primitive larvae. —
4, Lastly, after an indeterminate space of time, the larva divides spon-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 155

taneously into a number of transverse segments, all of which become
new animals. The latter (not resembling the larvae) are free, swim in
every sense of the word, and have a disc-like body, the periphery of
which is divided into eight bifurcated rays at their extremities ; they
have a quadrangular mouth, in the form of a pendent tube, &c. As
they increase in size, the rays become shorter and shorter ; in the mean
time the intervals between the rays increase in extent, and give rise to
marginal tentacles ; to be brief, these animals become perfectly identi-
cal with their original parent (the Medusa or Cyanea). It is not then
the larva or the individual developed in the egg, which becomes changed
into the perfect Acalepha ; but the small ones formed by the transverse
and spontaneous division. This metamorphosis cannot be better com-
pared than to the development of the Salpa, although offering many
points of difference. The numerous observations of the author, made
during last autumn, convinced him that Chamisso has given every
necessary insight into their development. The Salpas resemble the
Acalephee, in the particular, that it is not the larva, but the young of the
larva which become perfect animals : it is not the individual, but the
race is changed. The author, in conclusion, refers particularly to the
observations of Graham Dalyell (Edin. Philos. Journ., Vol. XXI, 1836)
as confirmatory in part of several of his observations. — December, p. 343.

Quatrefages on the Anatomy and Physiology of Synapta Duverneea. —
The genus Synapta was established by Eschscholts for those Holothu-
ridae with very delicate integuments, deprived of respiratory organs, and
possessing the property of adhering to foreign bodies in a similar man-
ner to the heads of Bardanus. It has been adopted by Jaeger and all
succeeding naturalists. All the species of this genus hitherto known,
have been discovered in the Red Sea, or in the seas of Asia and Ame-
rica. The presence then of these animals in our seas (the Islands of
Chausey, and on the coasts of La Manche) is alone an interesting fact
in Zoological Geography.

The portion of this memoir which, had it not been so lengthy, it was
our intention to insert related particularly to the minute Anatomy and
Physiology of this interesting animal; to proceed with order in the
study of the several parts of the body of this Synapta, named by M.
Quatrefages S. Duvern&a, we had intended examining them successively
in the same order they are given in the original paper, viz. : — 1st, the
integuments, — 2nd, the trunk, — 3rd, the digestive apparatus, — 4th, the
organs of circulation, — 5th, those of respiration, — 6th and lastly, those
of generation. We must, however, refer our readers to the original
paper for the many interesting facts brought to light by the employment
of the microscope when examining the several tissues of this animal, es-
pecially as we cannot conveniently give at present the numerous illus-
trations accompanying the memoir. — January, 1842, p. 19.

Remak on the Production of the Blood-globules.— In the blood of
chicks during the third week of artificial incubation, I found blood-
corpuscles, some of which were round, some pear-shaped and stalked,

156 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

and some biscuit- shaped, with their large ends coloured red, and con-
taining each a nucleus. These two nuclei were collected together by
a thin process, which traversed the uncoloured and canal-shaped inter-
mediate portion of the corpuscle. The nuclei of the stalked corpuscles
also exhibited a process corresponding to the peduncle of the corpuscle.
These observations, therefore, render it probable that in these instances
an increase of the corpuscles is effected by means of division. The
corpuscles of the embryos of pigs an inch long were four to six times
larger than those of adult pigs ; they exhibited double or quadruple
nuclei, which probably belong to different divisions of the blood cor-
puscle marked by pale intermediate lines.

To observe the reproduction of the blood corpuscles after losses of
blood ; thirty pounds of blood were drawn from a horse, and a part of
it when examined was found to contain besides the well known cor-
puscles without nuclei, only a few pale lymph-corpuscles, as they are
called. On the following day the latter were found in enormous quan-
tities and much enlarged ; and in their interior they exhibited one or
more pale reddish globules of the size of blood-corpuscles, covered by
the granular contents. On succeeding days these globules appeared
the more red the more the granular contents of the parent- cells (for such
the pale lymph- corpuscles proved to be) diminished, and the thinner
their membrane became. On the fourth day, there could be no doubt,
that the red blood- corpuscles form within the enlarged pale cells, and
become free by the disappearance of the latter. The blood of the
horse became, as further experiments showed, the more coagulable,
and the thickness of the buffy coat become the greater, the more blood
was drawn ; but the buffy coat in such a case consisted of but little
coagulated fibrine, with an excessive quantity of the parent-cells of
blood- globules.

I have confirmed these results in near about forty times. Between
the fourth and eight days after the first considerable abstraction of
blood, even during inflammatory and typhous diseases, the commenc-
ing regeneration of blood-corpuscles is seen in the appearance of parent
cells, which, as in horses, in consequence of their low specific gravity,
are chiefly found in the coagulum of the buffy coat, of which indeed
they form a considerable part. My present investigations lead me to
expect that I shall succeed in finding easily discernable physical diffe-
rences between the buffy coats formed by an excess of parent cells, and
those which consist chiefly of coagulated fibrine, and which are the
results of the great specific gravity of the blood- corpuscles causing
them to sink in slowly coagulating blood. I shall at present only say,
that the looseness of the buffy coat is generally the consequence of an
excess of new parent-cells. A buffy coat, which appears five days, or
perhaps even a shorter time after the first bleeding, can never be a true
sign of inflammation.

With respect to the production of the pale parent-cells, my present
investigations render it probable that they are generated, not within
the blood, but in the cells which line the walls of the blood-vessels and
lymphatics, but experiments in which I am now occupied will deter-
mine this. — Medicinische Zeitung. July 7, 1841, quoted in Brit, and For.
Med. Rev. Jan. 1842.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 157

On the Organs that Secrete the Perspiration. — A letter was read from
M. Giraldis, at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences, on the 16th
August, 1841, on the glands secreting perspiration. After mentioning
that they were first described by M. Breschet, in his pamphlet on the
skin, and enumerating the different German authors that have taken
notice of them in their workb, he proceeds to state the situations in
which they can best be seen. They are visible over all the skin, but are
most numerous in the following places, viz., the palms of the hands, the
soles of the feet, the armpits, and the mon veneris. They are not formed
by tubes which divide at their extremity, but by a narrow canal, which
penetrates the skin, and runs sometimes to a considerable distance in the
fatty tissue beneath. At the extremities of the fingers, they appear
entirely to cross it. They sometimes divide, but generally they are
rolled upon themselves, forming little masses, which have been taken for
the termination of the glandular structure. It is easy to see the tubes
forming these little masses on a piece of skin properly prepared. Such
is the kind of organ, according to M. Giraldis, in the human species, for
the secretion of the perspiration, and which is analogous to the elemen-
tary glands of insects.

The general plan at present in use for examining the skin, viz., by
removing from it all the fatty tissue, is one which must always lead to
negative results, as the termination of the glands, always situated in
that tissue, must of course be removed ; another fatal mistake is the
employment of too thin sections of skin, as the tubes are thus com-
pletely cut, and it must be by the greatest chance, if we can preserve in
the same position the entire canal with its terminations. The skin
ought to be prepared in the following manner : — The part should be
taken from the palm of the hand, or sole of the foot, along with the
fatty substance beneath it, and macerated for 24 hours in nitric acid
diluted with two parts of water ; it should then be removed, and mace-
rated for the same length of time in pure water ; a section of the thick-
ness of a millimetre, should then be made, and subjected to a slight
pressure between two plates of glass. The skin, thus prepared, becomes
transparent, and the prolongations which line the canals, of a yellowish
colour, thus making the tubes very distinct. By this way, we can ex-
amine the form of the papillae, and the tissue which composes them. —
Abridged from the Gazette Medicale de Paris, Aug. 21, 1841, in Lond.
and E din. Month. Journ. Med. Soc., Nov. 1841. p. 823.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

May 26th, 1842. — Professor Lindley, President, in the Chair.

THE following communication, originally read before the Chemical So-
ciety on February 1st, 1842, was, at the request of the Council, laid
before the Microscopical Society, as being likely to attract the attention
of Microscopists to the field of Chemistry for research.

" On the change of colour in the biniodide of Mercury." — By ROBERT
WARINGTON, ESQ. The author after describing the method of prepa-
ration, and the well known change of colour which takes place when

158 PROCEEDINGS OP THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF DUBLIN.

the scarlet biniodide of mercury is subjected to the influence of heat
and sublimed, and the passage of the yellow resulting crystals back to
the original scarlet from various causes, details a series of most in-
teresting microscopic observations on this subject from which he con-
cludes that the resumption of the scarlet colour is owing to a series of
changes taking place, which separate, to a certain extent, the laminae
of the crystals from each other, that this is determined more rapidly by
mechanical disturbance of the surfaces from various enumerated causes,
and that the yellow colour can be again produced, without materially
altering the form, by carefully fusing together the separated plates of
the altered crystals by a rapid application of heat. The author also
states that when the heat is gradually applied a mixture of red and
yellow crystals are produced, each having its proper and distinct form,
but if suddenly submitted to a higher temperature, nothing but the
yellow crystals result, proving that this compound is dimorphous, and
has two distinct vapours at varying temperatures.

Mr. W. then goes on to investigate the changes of colour which
take place when the biniodide is formed by precipitation from solutions,
and finds that the yellow powder which at first appears, is in the form
of the sublimed yellow crystals, and that these are after a short time
redissolved slowly producing the formation of red crystals of the same
shape as those obtained by the gentle application of heat to the dry
compound ; a phenomenon new in the subject of crystalization, and
highly interesting. This paper was illustrated by drawings of the crys-
tals taken from the microscope by the camera lucida. The powers em-
ployed were 250 and 620 diameters.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OP DUBLIN.

March 3rd, 1842.— J. F. Bergin, Esq., President, in the Chair.

THE Secretary having read the proceedings of the last meeting,

Mr. Allman read a very interesting paper on the reproduction of
Entozoa.

Mr. Grubb exhibited a block of pine wood, which had formed part
of a pile taken up from the bed of the Shannon, near Tarbert, where it
had been lying for five years ; — it was found penetrated by numerous
tabular canals of Teredo navalis, and was rendered completely cellular
by Lemnoria.

Mr Callwell presented some specimens of minute Algae, Calathamniwn
Corymbosa, &c.

Dr. Hill exhibited several specimens of minute arterial injections of
the human kidneys.

April I4th, 1842. — T. F. Bergin, Esq., President, in the Chair.

THE Minutes of last meeting having been read —

Mr. Callwell mentioned that he had obtained specimens of minute
Algae which had grown on a solution of Iodide of Potassium.

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 159

Mr. Bergin exhibited an instrument invented by him for the purpose
of illuminating transparent objects, and promised a communication on
the subject.

The Society was occupied during the remainder of the evening in
testing the powers of Mr. Bergin's invention, and the result was deemed
highly satisfactory.

Kippist on the existence of Spiral Cells in the Seeds of Acanthacea. —
After briefly enumerating the other natural families in whose seeds spi-
ral cells had been previously observed, the author proceeds to describe
those of a plant brought from Upper Egypt by Mr. Holroyd (Acantho-
dium spicatum, Delile), whose peculiar appearance when placed under
the microscope, first led him to examine those of other Acanthacea, in
which family the existence of spiral cells had not been noticed. The
entire surface of the seed in Acanthodium is covered with whitish hairs,
which are appressed, and adhere closely to it in the dry state, being ap-
parently glued together at their extremities. On being placed in water,
these hairs are set free, and spread out on all sides, they are then seen
to be clusters of from five to twenty spiral cells, which adhere firmly
together in their lower portions while their upper parts are free, sepa-
rating from the cluster at different heights, and expanding in all direc-
tions like plumes, forming a very beautiful microscopic object. The
free portions of the cells readily unroll, exhibiting the spire formed of
one, two, or occasionally of three fibres, which may sometimes be seen
to branch, and not unfrequently break up into rings, Throughout the
whole length of the cell the coils are nearly contiguous ; in the lower
part they are united by connecting fibrils, and towards the base of the
adherent portion become completely reticulated. The testa is a semi-
transparent membrane formed of nearly regular hexagonal cells, whose
centre is occupied by an opaque mass of grumous matter. Those cells
which surround the bases of the hairs are considerably elongated, and
gradually tapering into transparent tubes, appear to occupy the interior
of the spiral clusters. Some of these appearances were noticed by
Delile, who described the Acanthodium in the splendid work on Egypt,
published by the French Institute, where also a slightly magnified figure
of the seed will be found, but without representing the spiral cells,
which Delile does not appear to have detected.

Two species of Blepharis are mentioned as possessing a structure
very similar to that of Acanthodium spicatum, differing chiefly in the
smaller and more uniform diameter of the spiral cells, and in their
thicker fibre, which is always single and loosely coiled.

The seed of Ruettia formosa on being placed in water developes from
every part of its surface single short thick tapering tubes, within which
in some cases a spiral fibre is loosely coiled ; whilst in others the place
of the spiral fibre is supplied by distant rings.

In the seeds of Ruellia littoralis, Phaylopsis glutinosa, and Barleria

160 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

noctiflora, the whole surface becomes covered with separate tubes, very
similar in form, but destitute of spiral fibre, and terminating in a minute
pore, from which streams of mucilage are discharged.

Those of several species of Barleria, Lepidagathis, &c. are entirely
covered with long tapering simple hairs, which expand in water, and
like the rest are enveloped in a thick coat of mucilage.

In all the foregoing species the hairs occupy the entire surface of the
seed, and are usually directed towards its apex, though they occur often
most abundantly at the edges ; in others they are only found attached
to a marginal ring of a different texture from the rest of the seed.
This is the case in Strobilanthus lupulina, Blechum Brownii, and Ruellia
secunda. The seeds of many plants of this family are wholly destitute
both of spiral cells or of any other appendages possessing hygroscopic
properties, such for example as Acanthus mollis and ilicifolius, Diptera-
canthus erectus, and several species of Jiisticia and Eranthemum. — Proc.
Linn. Soc., March 17 th, 1840.

Harrison on Longitudinal Stria on Navicula Hippocampus. — It is not
generally known, and indeed it has been denied by some, that there ex-
ist longitudinal striae in Navicula Hippocampus. In specimens of re-
cent Infusoria collected by me at Hull, several of this species are met
with, and the striae can be distinctly seen with a power of about 400
linear, especially if not mounted in Canada Balsam. — Robert Harrison,
Hull, 6th of June, 1841.

[We have examined the specimens sent by Mr. Harrison, and can
with him affirm that Navicula Hippocampus is beautifully striated from
end to end, at the same time among some of the specimens forwarded
in his first letter, we must confess such markings are not invariably met
with, and the lorica has every apppearance of not being so marked.
Perhaps this might be a sufficient character to form a species or at least
a variety upon. — Editor.']

E. J. Quekett's observations on a certain Crystaline Matter found on
the recently, cut surfaces of the Wood of the Red Cedar. — On the recently
cut surfaces of the Wood of the Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiand) a crys-
taline matter is observed to form, which puts on the appearance of a
mouldiness, but which, when viewed with a magnifying glass, is seen to
consist of innumerable extremely minute crystals of an acicular form.
The substance was observed to form on the duramen or heart- wood only,
and not universally but in patches. It is easily volatilized by heat, and
gives out the well-known odour of the wood. Mr. Quekett showed that
the duramen of the red cedar contains an abundance of a concrete volatile
oil, on which the peculiar odour depends, and that the crystaline sub-
stance is a compound formed between the air and the oil, for when the
latter was obtained from the wood, and exposed to the action of the air,
it was soon also found to be covered with the same acicular crystals.
This substance, which possesses many of the properties of benzole acid,
Mr. Quekett considers new, and he proposed for it the name of Ceda-
rine. — Proc. Linn. Soc., March 3rd, 1840.

Microscopic JownaL 'Vbl.H. PI. V.

p. 97.

p. 19 2

, fat/log:

161

XXVI. LETTER FROM M. RUSCONI TO PROFESSOR BRESCHET, ON A

NEW METHOD OF INJECTING THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF REPTILES?.*

PROFESSOR COSTA handed to me a short time since the letter with which
you have been kind enough to honour me. I am delighted to see you
have undertaken, at my particular request, to make some researches
on the lymphatic vessels of reptiles ; this subject well deserves your
attention, and I feel satisfied your investigations will tend to the ad-
vancement of science. You desire to know the anatomical process of
which I make use, for injecting the lymphatic vessels of reptiles ; I
hasten to satisfy you : —

In my first letter, after having briefly shown the chief results obtained
by my experiments, and having also shown the singular disposition of
the arteries enclosed within the veins, I believe I stated that I employ
a small syringe in place of the injecting tube of Walter, modified by
Scernmering, and a fluid coloured red or white in the place of mercury —
but I have not at all directed attention to the small instrument I use,
and which is most essential, it is a kind of trochar, of which the
canula is formed from the quill of the wing feather of the quail or
partridge, the trochar being a tolerably large sized needle of five or six
centimetres in length, and of which the point has three facets. It is on
this small instrument that the successful result of the operation most
frequently depends : I also take great precaution to sharpen its point
well upon a hone, and also that the anterior extremity of the tube is
adapted exactly to the needle.

When I am desirous of filling with injection the lymphatic system of
a lizard, salamander, or tortoise, I seize with a small pair of forceps the
mesentery close to the vertebral column where the reservoir of the chyle
is situated, and I introduce into it the point of the trochar, I then re-
tain the quill and withdraw the needle from the tube — after having thus
withdrawn it, and I think it necessary, the tube is pushed forward,
taking great care that the reservoir of the chyle has not been injured
in any other part.

This done I seize with the small forceps the quill, and introduce into
it the small extremity of the syringe, and push the piston with a force
always decreasing. It is by this process the arterial and venous systems

* From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles. — February, 1842, p. iii.

VOL. II. M

162 ON INJECTING THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF REPTILES,

are injected. When it is required to make a warm injection, the animal
is placed in tepid water, and the injection is melted in a sand-bath. I
do not dilate further on this subject, as I hasten to inform you that
since my last letter, I have made some researches on other reptiles, and
have found that land-tortoises, lizards, and snakes, are organized so far
as regards the lymphatics, similarly to frogs and salamanders. In the
snake I have seen a vein enclosed in a lymphatic vessel, but on this
point I am not quite certain, not having at my disposal but two or three
of those reptiles which were extremely small.

During the period of these researches it occurred to me to destroy
the tortoises under observation by prussic acid. I was surprised to find
them almost resist the poisonous action of this acid ; I say almost, be-
cause the doses which caused the immediate death of a cock, cat, or
a dog, do not sensibly affect them ; so that to kill a tortoise of twelve
centimetres in length, I have been obliged to inject into the stomach
by the aid of a syringe, a dose of this poison which would have been
more than sufficient to kill a horse, and after all it did not die until
fifteen hours. But to return to the lymphatic vessels : —

When I announced to you the result of my observations on frogs
and salamanders I was entirely ignorant that M. Weber, Professor of
Anatomy at Leipsic, had inserted in Miiller's Archives, 1835, an article
on the hearts and lymphatic vessels of Python tigris. This observer
has remarked that the lymphatics of this serpent are very large, and
that the greater part of the arteries and even of the veins are enclosed
in those vessels, but always separated from one another. He has ob-
served that the aorta and its ramifications, even to the smallest, are en-
veloped in such a manner as to be bathed by the lymph : you see then
that it is to M. Weber that the merit of the discovery of this fact is due,
which entirely escaped the researches of Panizza.

One reflection occurs to me, and I cannot refrain from communicating
it to you : M. E. Weber has made the dissection of but one reptile, the
Python tigris, (which is seven feet long,) and he has enriched science
with a very singular fact. Five years after I dissected a very small rep-
tile in comparison, and I discovered the same fact. Panizza has dis-
sected several land tortoises, but they were not sufficiently large for the
experiments he had in view ; he then procured several turtles. He has
besides dissected many snakes, lizards, frogs, and salamanders, and in
spite of all these opportunities, the fact of which I have spoken, al-
together escaped his investigation. You will not be surprised at this
when you recollect, that in all his experiments he employed the injecting
tube of Walter and mercury. If he had made use of a syringe, and a

ON INJECTING THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF REPTILES. 163

fluid coloured red or white, without doubt the fact of which we speak
would not have escaped the notice of this anatomist.

In my researches on the common salamander, I will prove to you in
the most manifest and positive manner, that Panizza is mistaken with
regard to the lymphatic vessels of this reptile, and that he has fallen
into error respecting the inferior or abdominal vena cava, of which he
has misunderstood the direction and ramifications. I will further prove
in the most incontestible manner, with the aid of drawings, made from
nature, and placed side by side with his, that all the plates annexed to
his work though drawn and engraved by a most talented artist, repre-
sent the lymphatic vessels entirely deformed, and that their deformity
arises from Panizza having made use of mercury in his injections for
demonstrating the lymphatic vessels.
Pavia, Nov. 1 6th, 1841.

Note on the above by M. G. Breschet.

WITH this letter M. Rusconi forwarded two sketches, the description of
which will be hereafter given, and several small dried anatomical prepa-
rations, made from reptiles of which he had injected the arteries and
lymphatic vessels. These two orders of vessels can be distinctly ob-
served ; but the state of desiccation in which they were did not allow
of their examination with sufficient surety and precision, to determine
with exactness the relations of these vessels with each other. This
examination can only be made in a rigorous manner upon fresh portions
injected in the best possible manner, or on portions preserved in a liquid
and equally well injected.

We have, with M. Rusconi, altogether abandoned the injection of
lymphatics with tubes and mercury, on account of this metal rupturing
frequently by its weight, the vessels and lymphatic reservoirs, the walls
of which are very thin. This method is above all insufficient and even
bad, when investigations are entered upon and the course and ramifica-
tions of the vessels not hitherto known. If one of the small canals be
opened, the metal runs out, and it is not further possible to continue
the researches.

I believe, with M. Rusconi, that the expansions (bosselures) or nodo-
sities which the lymphatics possess at various parts, are principally due
to the presence and to the weight of the mercury. In my injections
with other substances besides the fluid mercury, the vessels are more
regular in their outline and much resemble those of arteries ; whilst, it

164 ON INJECTING THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF REPTILES.

must be admitted, they are not altogether exempt at certain points
from these dilatations rendering their surfaces unequal and undulating.
In this relation, they may be compared to veins, which they resemble in
many other points and of which they are perhaps but a modification.
As it is, I have frequently recognized something analogous on veins,
both on the trunks, and on the divisions of small calibre. My experi-
ence on this particular, has probably some value, for professional anato-
mists are not altogether unaware that I performed numerous experi-
ments on veins, and that I commenced publishing the history of this
important section of the vascular system, which I am in hopes of con-
tinuing at some future period.

M. Rusconi generously gives us his operative process for making in-
jections of lymphatic vessels ; at the same time he forgets to make us
acquainted with the nature and composition of the matter he employs
to distend the vessels. We will now give in a few words, with a view
of supplying this deficiency, that which the talented zootomist has
omitted to mention.

Independently of the substances mentioned in the Dissertation of M.
Dumeril, or in the Manual of Anatomy by E. A. Lauth, we have fre-
quently employed with success, milk, isinglass variously coloured either
with vermillion, cochineal, chrome yellow, prussian blue, indigo, &c.,
or the alcoholic solution of gum-lac, coloured with the substances just
alluded to. Spirit varnish, or spirit of turpentine, and sometimes dia-
chylon plaster, made liquid by heat in a sand-bath, are all of them
methods of which the anatomist may take advantage.

It has been for a long time observed that injections in which the co-
louring substance is in suspension, are, in many cases insufficient, be-
cause in the very small vessels, there is a separation between the vehicle
and colouring principle. I desired then to possess a colouring substance
soluble in water, oil, or alcohol ; in short a soluble matter. I have dis-
covered this colouring matter, it is that which chemistry affords abun-
dantly to commerce, at a low price, and is extracted from campeachy,
fernambouc, or sandal woods.

The colouring matter of campeachy wood easily dissolves in water
and in alcohol ; it is so penetrating that it becomes rapidly spread
throughout the vascular networks. The sole inconvenience of this kind
of injection is, that it cannot be made to distend any except the most
delicate vessels, and that its ready penetration does not admit of distin-
guishing between arteries, veins, and lymphatics.

Lastly, there is another process of injection which we frequently em-
ploy, and which may be termed the chemical process. The process

ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GLAS* FOR OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 165

most made use of in the Anatomical Laboratories of Paris, belongs to
Dr. Doyere, who promises to be to zootomy one of its most distin-
guished observers. According to this process,* an aqueous solution of
bi-chromate of potass is propelled into the vessels ; after a short time,
in the same manner and into the same vessel, an aqueous solution of
acetate of lead is injected. This injection is made quite cold in a
most easy and economical way, and the finest vascular networks are
instantly coloured of a beautiful sulphur- yellow hue. I have also made
several trials with a solution of caoutchouc, which gives great flexibility
to the vessels.

Explantion of the Figures, Plate V, Div. 1.

Fig. a. — Represents the small Syringe used by M. Rusconi for his injections.

This instrument should be made of silver ; it is ten centimetres long by two in
diameter ; its free extremity, which is received in the small tube, is conical, thirty-
two millimetres long, and should be made of gold. This syringe has a ring on
which the index or middle fingers rest, when the piston is about to be pushed for-
ward. The end of the syringe, which is of gold, has very thin and at the same time
resisting walls ; the opening at the extremity should be as large as possible.

We cannot give here figures of the quills of the quail or partridge made use of by
M. Rusconi. When it is required to inject the sanguiferous system of tadpoles or
salamanders, the smallest tubes are used.

Fig. b. — Represents the lymphatic vessels of a portion of the rectum of a sala-
mander, a continuation of the small intestines. — This drawing is a most faithful
copy, drawn by M. Rusconi from an anatomical preparation, in which the lymphatics
had been filled with a reddish coloured fluid, and the arteries distended by a sub-
stance of a white colour. On attentive examination of this figure, may be distin-
guished, by their white tint, the arteries in the centre of the lymphatics, and the
branches (ramuscules) of these same lymphatic vessels.

XXVII. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GLASS FOR OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

MR. A. BOURNE of Chillicothe, Ohio, has addressed a letter to the
Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts, which is inserted
at p. 207 of the number for January, 1841, in which after alluding to
the decline of this art in proportion to the progress of the other arts in
England, and to the results obtained by the Committee of the Royal
Society of London in 1824, and the members of the Board of Longi-

* For a more detailed account of this process, consult the Microscopic Journal,
Vol. I, p. 156.

166 ON THK MANUFACTURE OF GLASS FOR OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,

tude for the improvement of glass for optical purposes, and which com-
mittee appointed a sub- committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Mr.
Dollond, and Dr. Faraday, who in the year 1834 reported progress, that
they had succeeeded in making glass plates seven inches square, and
eight tenths of an inch thick, tolerably free from bubbles and striae,
offers the subjoined questions for the consideration of men of science.
Their glass (we repeat particulars for the sake of reference,) was a si-
licated borate of lead, composed of 104£ parts of nitrate of lead, 24
parts of silicated lead, and 42 parts of borax; specific gravity 5.44,
refractive index 1.8735, dispersive index 0.0703 ; and was not free from
colour. This result, adds Mr. Bourne, does not appear to have been
very satisfactory, and I have not heard of any further experiments or
results.

Mr. B. then submits to the attention of men of science the following
inquiries ; the replies to which we shall be happy to insert in a future
number should any of our correspondents think them worthy of their
consideration : —

1 . If we add a small quantity of lead to the materials of crown glass,
so as to answer the purpose of a common crown glass lens of an object
glass, and also add a larger portion of lead to the same materials, so as
to answer the purpose of the common flint glass lens, will not these
two kinds of glass have the same character, and produce spectra in
which the several colours will be proportional, each to each ?

2. If we add a very small quantity of lead to the other materials of
flint glass, so as to answer the purpose of the crown glass lens, and also
add a larger portion of lead to the same materials, so as to answer the
purpose of the common flint glass lens, will not these two kinds of flint
glass have the same character, and produce spectra in which the several
colours will be proportional, each to each ?

3. Can we use bismuth, or some metal other than lead, in the manu-
facture of transparent and colourless glass ?*

4. As the inflexion of light by angular projections produces nearly
the same dispersion that refraction does, and as the best of our polish-
ing probably leaves the surface of glass rough and uneven, which would
be obvious if we could see the ultimate atoms, may not a considerable

* We should presume that oxide of bismuth would give a yellow colour to glass,
and it is quite doubtful whether we could impart any portion of the fluidity which
belongs to the alloys of metallic bismuth to the compounds of its oxide with alka-
line and earthy bases. — Editors of Amer. Journ. Sc. 8f Arts.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE TISSUES OF CYCADE.E. 167

part of the dispersion be derived from the inflexion by the irregularly
situated particles at the surface ?

5. As the combination of bismuth with some other metals adds much
to their fluidity in the melted state, would not the oxide of bismuth
probably add much to the fluidity of glass in the melted state ?

6. If we can render glass very fluid in the melted state, and cast
lenses in finely polished moulds, is it not highly probable that the sepa-
rate particles will arrange themselves by mutual attraction, much more
regularly than the grinding and polishing can leave them ? And may
we not in this way hope to lessen the dispersion, or at least its irregu-
larity ?

Further, it is said that the alkalies render glass liable to a slow de-
composition. If we could make transparent glass of alumina and bis-
muth, I have reason to believe that we should obtain great refractive
power, very little dispersion, and great fluidity in the melted state,
which are important desiderata ; but it is highly probable that any
combination with alumina would produce an opaque enamel. He con-
cludes by saying that he has not heard of any experiments made for
these specific purposes.

XXVIII. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE TISSUES OF CYCADE2B.*

By the late David Don, Esq., Professor of Botany, King's College,

London.

IN Conifers the structure of the stem presents the ordinary appearance
of dicotyledonous trees ; the annual layers are distinctly marked, and
there is a regular bipartition of each into wood and bark (liber) ; but in
Cycadete no bipartition takes place of fibro- vascular bundles, which in
in that respect resemble those of monocotyledonous plants, and the dif-
ferences otherwise are very striking, Cycas having, besides a large cen-
tral pith, several thick concentric alternating layers of cellular and fibro-
vascular tissue ; and in Zamia and Encephalartos, besides the pith, there
are only two very thick layers, one of fibro- vascular, and the other,
which is also the exterior one, of cellular tissue. The great peculiarity
of the Coniferte, and which distinguishes them as well from Cycadete as
from every other family, is the remarkable uniformity of their woody

From the Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, 1840.

168 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THB TISSUES OF CYCADE^E.

tissue, which consists of slender tubes, furnished on the sides parallel
to the medulary rays with one or more rows of circular or angular
dots ; but in Cycadece no such uniformity is observable, their tissue, as
in other phsenogamous plants, consisting of two kinds of vessels, namely
of slender transparent tubes, \vithout dots or markings, and of dotted,
reticulated, and spiral vessels, which are capable of being unrolled.
The former are identical with the fibrous or woody tissue, whilst the
latter, which form a part of each bundle, can only be compared to the
strictly vascular tissue of other plants. These dotted vessels in Cycadece
bear a considerable resemblance to the vessels of Coniferce, and espe-
cially to those of Dammara and Araucaria, from the dots being dis-
posed in rows, and confined to the two vertical sides of the vessel only,
and they are moreover alternate, as in the two genera just mentioned.
In Cycadea, however, the dots present much less regularity in number
and size than in Conifers, not only in different vessels of the same
bundle, but in different parts of the same vessel, forming one, two,
three, four, and five rows ; and they are not always confined to the
vertical sides, but appear in some cases to follow the entire circle of
the vessels. Their form is oblong or elliptical, in Cycas revoluta, circi-
nalis, glauca, and speciosa, Zamia furfuracea and pumila, as well as in
Encephalartos horridus and spiralis ; but they are sometimes longer,
narrower, and nearly linear, giving the vessel the appearance of being
marked with transverse stripes. The vessels in all present so much
similarity, that no generic distinction can be drawn from them. The
dots are always arranged diagonally. The dotted vessels of Zamia fur-
furacea and pumila were observed to unroll spirally in the form of a
band, presenting a striking resemblance to those of Ferns. The band
was found to vary in breadth in different vessels, and was furnished
with transverse rows, composed of two, three, or more dots. The coils
followed the direction of the dots, and the unrolling was from right to
left. In Cycas revoluta dotted vessels frequently occur with a single
row of dots ; but, from the circumstance of the dots on both sides being
in view at the same time, they are liable to be mistaken as having a
double row on each side. Besides the dotted vessels, there occurs
throughout Cycadeec another variety, differing but little from the ordi-
nary spiral vessel, except in the tendency of the coils to unite. In some
vessels the coils are free, and the fibre exhibits frequently, at intervals,
bifurcations or narrow loops ; in others, the coils unite at one or both
sides, in which case the vessel presents a series either of rings or bars ;
and the fibre then is with difficulty unrolled, and it often breaks off
into rings, or the bars separate at the point where the coils unite,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE TISSUES OF CYCADE^. 169

which is generally on the perpendicular sides of the vessel. In other
cases the vessels are distinctly reticulated, and they then exhibit a
striking analogy to the dotted cellules in Cycas revoluta. All these
modifications are frequently to be observed in the same vessel in Zamia
furfuracea and pumila, a fact which affords conclusive evidence of the
accuracy of the theory advanced by Meyen, which refers the spiral,
annular, reticulated, and dotted vessels to a common type. The dots
and stripes are evidently the thinnest portions of the tube, being most
probably parts of the primitive membrane remaining uncovered by the
matter subsequently deposited on the walls.

The cellular tissue of Cycadece consists of tolerably regular paren-
chyma, composed of prismatic, six-sided cellules. In the species of
Zamia and Encephalartos, so often referred to, the walls of the cellules
appear to be of a uniform thickness and transparency, and destitute
both of dots or marking ; but in the adult fronds of Cycas revoluta, a
different structure presents itself, for the walls of the cellules are fur-
nished with numerous elliptical, obliquely transverse dots or spaces,
where the membrane is so exceedingly delicate and transparent as to
give the cellules the appearance of being perforated by holes, the in-
tervening spaces being covered by incrustating matter, disposed in the
form of confluent bands, which, when viewed under the microscope,
resemble a kind of net- work. The dots or spaces uncovered by incrusting
matter, are generally of a large size, and occur more particularly on the
vertical sides of the cellules, a band usually running along the middle
of the two opposite sides. The bands vary in breath, as do the dots,
and they not unfrequently exhibit minute transparent points or spaces,
where the solid matter forming the band shows a tendency to separate.
The extreme delicacy and transparency of the dots or spaces of what-
ever size, appear fully to prove that they are parts of the primitive
membrane of the cellule, which are uncovered by the incrusting matter.
A solution of iodine will be found of great service in determining the
actual existence of the membrane at those parts ; for although it does
not materially alter its colour, it tends very much to dimmish its trans-
parency and renders it distinctly visible, so as to leave no doubt that
the spaces are not openings. The bands are evidently the result of a
partial lignification ; and indeed no better example can be offered than
Cycas revoluta to illustrate and confirm the correctness of the views ad-
vanced by Schleiden as to the origin of the bands and fibres in the cel-
lules and vessels of plants.- Being anxious to ascertain whether the
bands exist at an early period, the author had recourse to the examina-
tion of a young undeveloped frond, about two weeks old, and he was

170 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE TISSUES OF CYCADE.E.

much gratified by finding his previous suspicions fully confirmed : the
cellules then being of a uniform transparency, presenting neither bands
nor dots, but furnished with a distinct cytoblast or nucleus, which was
found to have entirely disappeared from those cellules in which the in-
crusting matter was visible, proving that the incrusting matter is formed
at the expense of the nucleus. The matter forming the bands is continu-
ous, and is evidently not formed by a coalescing of spiral fibres, as some
might suppose ; for it is perfectly solid, and shows no disposition to
unroll or to break up into fibres. The bands most probably originated
form the shrinking up of the incrustating substance, which at first was
equally diffused in a fluid state over the walls, and which, from the
mere effects of consolidation, aided by the distension, and perhaps en-
largement of the cellule, would naturally leave portions of the primitive
membrane uncovered. That the dotted and reticulated vessels in Cyca-
decs are of the same nature, and originate in a similar way as the
cellules just described, there seems no reasonable ground to doubt.
The parenchymatous cellules in Cycas circinalis, glauca, and speciosa
resemble those of Zamia and Encephalartos , in having their walls of a
nearly uniform thickness and transparency, being but rarely furnished
with a few eliptical obliquely transverse spaces or dots. The cellules
in Cycas revoluta vary both in size and structure, some being three or
four times longer, whilst others are still longer and narrower, and fur-
nished with more numerous and much smaller dots, which are not con-
fined to the sides, but are disposed around the tube. These last, which
have been observed also in Cycas glauca and circinalis, present an evi-
dent transition to the dotted vessels.

The whole of the Cycadete are supplied with numerous gummife-
rous canals, often of great length, and uniformly furnished with dis-
tinct cellular walls of considerable thickness, and which have been
accurately described and figured by Professor Morren in a recent me-
moir.

Notwithstanding the analogies presented by their reproductive organs,
the author considers the Cycadeee as related to Coniferce only in a re-
mote degree, and that they constitute the remains of a class of plants
which belonged to a former vegetation.

171

XXIX. REMARKS ON THE GLOBULES OF BLOOD.*

By Dr. Henry Lambotte of Brussels.

NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous published accounts of the blood-
globules, by the greater number of physiologists who have followed
Malpighi and Leuwenhoeck, it must be admitted that they far from
agreed, even at the present day, as regards their history. There are two
points above all which are interesting in a scientific point of view, and
on which there are conflicting opinions^ thus, some physiologists be-
lieve, that each blood-globule is formed of a small nucleus surrounded
by a kind of envelope ; others, on the contrary, regard these small
bodies as altogether homogenous, where they are naturally situated,
but susceptible of presenting a nucleus, when submitted to changes due
to external causes.

The existence of this central nucleus, to which many physiologists
assign a most important part, is then not only very uncertain, although
it be admitted by great authorities, but others not less imposing, con-
sider it a matter of doubt, or reject it altogether.

A second fact, equally controvertible, is that of the solubility of the
globules in water.

I have made several observations, with a view to arrive at an opinion
on this subject. I made use of a simple microscope, furnished with
lenses of different powers, the greatest of which magnified from six to
eight thousand diameters ; that of from five to six hundred diameters
was employed, and was quite sufficient to verify the principal facts.
The reflecting mirror was plane.

If the light be bright, as when it impinges from a large extent of sky,
the globules may be seen representing a mass of small grumous vesicles,
very regular and clearly defined ; they have a gelatinous aspect, are
quite transparent, and have a slight yellow tint.

If the light be less intense, or if it falls on the reflector at a more
limited degree, as, for example, through a window, then the globules
are marked either with a deep point occupying the centre, or with a
blackish ring, which is nearly concentrical to the border ; but all the
globules met with in the field of the microscope, do not present the

* From the Bulletin de 1'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres de
Bruxelles. Anne 1839. Tom. XVI. Part II. p. ISO.

172 REMARKS ON THE GLOBULES OF BLOOD.

same aspect : thus, those grouped together at the side have generally a
well defined circular line ; those entirely isolated, do not often show
where they are imperfect ; on the margin of the field there are globules
which exhibit this dark line well marked, and others where it is imper-
fectly visible. With very high powers, I have only observed rings, and
never dark central points within the globules.

Every thing remains in the same state if the reflector be not moved,
and if the slide be not removed further from the eye-piece ; but when
the reflector is turned gently either one way or the other, at the
moment all the points or shaded rings may be observed to move and to
change their appearance ; for if the hand, or any other opaque body be
passed between the window from whence the light enters, and the
mirror which reflects the light upon the slide, the image of the hand or
other body becomes evident in the globule ; even if a small dark line or
point be made on the mirror, the same may be observed, if viewed atten-
tively, in each globule ; but more, when the globules are attentively
examined, it will be seen that in cautiously advancing and withdrawing
the object towards the body of the instrument, there are nearly always
some transparent globules of a more liquid character, in which may be
traced the image of the bars of the window more or less distinct.

To form a correct idea of this phenomenon, and to be able to appre-
ciate its character, it may be well seen in very small globules of grease ;
but care must be taken in placing these small corpuscules slightly out of
focus, on account of the degree of refractive power of grease : here, in
the globules of grease, the annular series becomes confounded with the
the margin of the globules ; but it must be remembered, that they are
of a spherical form, and that the globules of blood are lenticular,
which gives rise to that partially destroyed (caustique) appearance
near the border of the latter. The same phenomena may also be seen
in small globules of glass and bubbles of air ; but modified by the diffe-
rent refractive power of these substances.

Lastly, it is easy to be convinced that the shady ring seen in the
blood-globules under the microscope, is nearly always owing to an
optical illusion, produced by surrounding objects : I say nearly always,
because I do not pretend to assert that other causes might not give rise
to the same illusion ; as, for example, the depression which may be
formed by the diminution (retrait) of a globule losing its volume, when
the water with which it is impregnated evaporates. I do not further
doubt, that it is impossible to produce a true central nucleus, when, for
example, the surface of a globule absorbs the water in which it is placed
to examine it, and presents in consequence, a different degree of refrac-

REMARKS ON THE GLOBULES OF BLOOD. 173

tive power in the central part to that which it does in the circumference
or periphery.

As regards the question of the solubility or insolubility of the glo-
bules in water, it is surprising that it has for so long a time remained
in dispute, and that so many difficulties have been brought forward to
reconcile a fact, to all appearance so simple to verify. This diversity of
opinion may probably be attributed to the means that have been em-
ployed in the endeavour to elucidate it. Thus, if blood be mixed with
a small quantity of water, the water may dissolve a small part of the
globular substance, and will be soon saturated ; there will remain glo-
bules, which, although diminished in bulk, may have preserved a volume
as large as before, by the absorption of water. If, on the contrary, too
great a quantity of \vater be employed, the globules may disappear,
either as the result of their limpidity, which is further increased in
water, or because they are in reality dissolved.

But no doubt can remain, if the blood be operated upon in the fol-
lowing manner, in the way in which I did it : Spread on a piece of
glass some drops of blood at the moment they are taken from the body,
breathe immediately upon the glass ; in a few moments the vapour of the
breath condenses upon it, and the globules are dissolved in the liquid ;
there soon only remains on the glass a small quantity of reddish yellow
fluid ; this, when examined by the strongest power, does not exhibit the
smallest globule, and has all the appearance of serum. This fact is
very easily verified ; but as it may be objected, that it is owing to the
salts contained in the expired air, that the globular matter becomes
dissolved, I convinced myself to the contrary by employing steam ob-
tained from water heated from 35° to 40° : the result was the same;
care must however be taken, that the temperature of the steam is not
too high, as it would coagulate the globules, and render them inso-
luble.

I cannot pass over in silence a remark which necessarily arises
from that which precedes ; at the sitting of the 12th November, 1838,
M. Askerson presented a memoir to the Academy of Sciences of Paris.
(Conjectures on the part performed by fatty bodies in the formation of
layers of cellular tissue.) Among the results arrived at by the author,
was the following : The globules or vesicles of blood are cellules which
contain a fatty liquid ; and it is their function to carry and to distribute
this fluid everywhere, where the formation of cellules should take place.

This fact would be very important, if it were true ; but is it possible
to believe, that if the blood- globules were fatty, that they would dissolve
in water with such facility ? On the other hand, is it so easy to con-

174 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES^

found fatty globules with blood- globules, when they are mixed, as is
frequently seen in the body ? It it is thus that in a woman, who died
of erysipelas of the face, I found that the blood contained in the
veins of this part, offered a great number of small fatty globules,
which were readily recognisable by the property they possessed of
refracting light, and by their greasing the surface of the slide on which
they were placed ; they did not dissolve when the breath was directed
upon them, whilst the globules of blood rapidly disappeared when so
treated.

From the facts I have related, I consider I am authorised in stating,
that the globules of the blood have no central nucleus, but are composed of
corpuscules or small homogeneous masses completely soluble in water.

[We have repeated the experiment above alluded to, but do not rest
altogether satisfied with the results obtained by Dr. Lambotte. We
do not question the enlargement and rupture of the blood- corpuscles
by endosmosis, which evidently takes place when blood is so treated.
As Dr. L. used a single lens of such high power, probably the trans-
parent envelopes of the corpuscles could not be seen to such advantage
as when they are viewed with a compound microscope, and with powers
of acknowledged achromatic superiority. Our apology for inserting the
above communication entire, must be the desire we entertain of record-
ing the labours of Continental observers.]

XXX. ON THE DEVELOPEMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

By Professor Mutter.
[Continued from page 83.]

CLASS III. — 1. Cartilages. — Their structure and mode of development
has already been described, (see page 80).

2. The Teeth. — The enamel of a tooth not yet fully formed retains
the same form and structure after it has been treated with dilute acid.
The inner surface of the enamel membrane which envelopes the crown
of the tooth is formed of short hexagonal fibres, placed perpendicularly,
so that each fibre of the enamel membrane corresponds to a fibre of the
enamel. These fibres of the enamel membrane appear to be elongated
cells. In the fresh state they contain a nucleus with nucleoli. Beneath
these prismatic fibres of the enamel membrane is a layer of round cells
which probably represent the primary condition of those fibres. The

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES. 175

true enamel fibres probably separate from the enamel membrane, coa-
lesce with the enamel already formed, and at the same time become im-
pregnated with calcareous salts. The substantia propria or ivory of the
tooth is formed of fibres, between which the dental tubuli run. The
pulp of the tooth at its surface consists of cylindrical cells which con-
tain nuclei with nucleoli. The interior of the pulp is composed of
round nucleated cells. Schwann conjectures that the fibres at the sur-
face of the pulp are in successive layers added to and converted into
the growing dental substance.

CLASS IV. 1. Cellular Tissue. — In the development of cellular tissue
there first appears a structureless cytoblastema, in which round nuclea-
ted cells are subsequently formed. These cells become transformed into
spindle-shaped bodies, which have in their interior, but attached to their
wall, a round or oval nucleus, while this nucleus in its turn includes
one or two dark points (nucleoli). These elongated cells become more
and more drawn out at their extremities, and give off fibres, which are
sometimes branched ; and at length become resolved at each end into a
fasciculus of extremely delicate fibrils. The division of the fibre-like
prolongations of the cells into more minute fibrils gradually extends to-
wards the centre of the cell, so that at a later period the fasciculus
of fibrils proceeds immediately from the body of the cell. Lastly,
the division into fibrils takes place even in the situation of the nu-
cleus of the cell, and then the cell becomes wholly resolved into
a fasciculus of fibres, upon which the nucleus lies. The fibres are
probably tubular.

The cells of adipose tissue which are found even in the cellular tissue
of the foetus, present at first a distinct nucleus attached to their mem-
branous wall. When the wall of the cell is thin, the nucleus forms
a prominence above the surface of the fat globule contained in the
cell. When the wall of the cell is thick, the nucleus is entirely
included in its thickness. The nucleus contains one or two nu-
cleoli. The fat cells in the cranium of a young fish (Plotze,) some-
times have each two nuclei which bear the same relation to the mem-
branous wall of the cell. In the cellular tissue of the foetus a third
kind of cells is met with. These are round and pale ; each has a nu-
cleus with one or two nucleoli attached to their wall ; they do not be-
come elongated into fibres, contain no fat, but are filled with granules ;
and this deposit of granules is first formed about the nucleus.

The cellular tissue of the foetus, when submitted to boiling, yields
no gelatine ; but in its place a substance which resembles pyine, except

176 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

in the particular that the turbidity produced in the solution by hydro-
chloric acid is removed by the addition of an excess of the acid.

2. Tendinous Tissue. — The fibres of tendinous tissue are formed from
cells, in the same way as those of cellular tissue.

3. Elastic Tissue. — The middle coat of the arteries in embryo pigs,
six inches in length, contains numerous isolated cells, some of which
are globular, and some have an oblong form, while others give out two
or more branching processes of various length. At the inner surface of
the wall of each of these cells lies the usual nucleus with one or two
nucleoli. In addition to the cells thus variously modified, fully deve-
loped elastic tissue is also present. The branching fibres of elastic
tissue, which according to Purkinje, are hollow tubes, appear to be
formed from the cells just described.

CLASS V. — In the development of the tissues of this class there are
first formed independent cells, which either are round or cylindrical, or
have a stellate form. In the former case the primary cells arrange
themselves in longitudinal series, their walls coalesce at the points of
contact, and the septa thus formed between the cavities of the different
cells are subsequently absorbed, so that in place of several primary cells
one secondary cell is produced. This secondary cell now continues to
grow as the simple cells grow. In this way the fibres of muscles and
nerves appear to be developed. In the case of the stellate primary cells
the radiating processes of contiguous cells unite, and their walls be-
coming absorbed at the points of union, a network of communicating
canals is formed. This seems to be the process by which capillaries are
developed.

1. Muscles. — Valentin had observed that the primitive fasciculi (fibres)
of muscles are formed by granules arranging themselves in a linear
manner and coalescing ; but that the primitive fibres (fibrilbe) are pro-
duced by the subsequent division of the primitive bundle. Schwann
has remarked that the primitive fasciculi in the muscles of a foetal pig,
measuring three inches and a half in length, present a dark border —
and a middle, more transparent part, probably a cavity. In this more
transparent part he perceived, besides some small granules a series of
larger oval flat bodies, which appeared to be the nuclei of cells, and
frequently contained one or two smaller corpuscules — their nucleoli.
These nuclei lay at pretty regular distances from each, in the thickness
of the cylinder, but external to its axis. In muscles more advanced in
development, the primitive fasciculi present no indication of a cavity ;
but the nuclei remain visible for a long period, frequently producing
slight prominences on the surface of the cylinders. According to re-

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES. 177

cent observations of Rosenthal, the nuclei are still present in the mus-
cular fibre of adult animals. The proper substance of the muscular
fibres is produced by a deposit taking place within the tube. (The
structureless sheath of the primitive muscular fasciculus, which I ob-
served long since in insects, appears to be the remains of the tube
formed by the united walls of the primitive cells.)

According to the late observations of Valentin,* there are first visible
in the blastema of muscle nuclei with nucleoli, which soon become sur-
rounded by extremely delicate cells. These cells assume an oblong
figure and arrange themselves in linear forms like filaments of Confervse.
On the inner surface of the membranous walls of the tubes, or secon-
dary cells formed by the coalescence of the primary cells, longitudinal
striae or fibres are deposited, while the septa dividing the tube into
compartments are absorbed. The muscular fasciculus then has the form
of a tube, with proportionally thick walls which are composed of perfectly
transparent longitudinal fibrils. The nuclei of the primary cells are
contained in the cavity of the tube.

[ Mr. William Bowman's Observations "On the Minute

Structure and Movements of Voluntary Muscles," read before the
Royal Society, June 18th, 1840, not having been referred to by Pro-
fessor Miiller, we consider, now that we are detailing the labours of
philosophers on this subject, we should be committing an act of injus-
tice to this talented observer, did we not quote the abstract of his
paper published in the Proceedings of the above named Society, and
refer those of our readers still further interested in details, to the entire
paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1841, where the excellent
illustrations bear out to the letter the facts brought forward : —

" The objects of the author, in this paper, are the following, — 1st.
To confirm, under some modifications, the view taken of the primitive
fasciculi of voluntary muscles being composed of a solid bundle of
fibrillse. 2dly. To describe new parts entering into their composition.
And 3dly. To detail new observations on the mechanism of voluntary
motion.

" He first shows that the primitive fasciculi are not cylindrical, but
polygonal threads ; their sides being more or less flattened where they
are in contact with one another ; he next records, in a tabular form, the
results of his examination of their size in the different divisions of the
animal kingdom. It appears that the largest are met with in fish ; they

* Muller's Archiv., 1840, p. 179.
VOL. II. N

178 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

are smaller in reptiles, and their size continues to diminish in insects,
in mammalia, and lastly, in birds, where they are the smallest of all.
In all these instances, however, an extensive range of size is observable,
not only in different species, but in the same animal, and even in the
same muscle. He then shows that all the fibrillae into which a primitive
fasciculus may be split, are marked by alternate dark and light points,
and that fibrillse of this description exist throughout the whole thick-
ness of the fasciculus ; that the apposition of the segments of conti-
guous fibrillse, so marked, must form transverse striae, and that such
transverse striae do in fact exist throughout the whole interior of the
fasciculus. He next inquires into the form of the segments composing
the fibrillae, and shows that their longitudinal adhesion constitutes
fibrillte, and their lateral adhesion discs, or plates, transverse to the
length of the fasciculus ; each disc being, therefore, composed of a
single segment from every one of the fibrillae. He shows that these
discs always exist quite as unequivocally as the fibrillae, and gives several
examples and figures of a natural cleavage of the fasciculus into such
discs. It follows that the transverse striae are the edges, or focal sec-
tions of these discs. Several varieties in the striae are then detailed,
and the fact noticed that in all animals there is frequently more or less
diversity in the number of striae in a given space, not only on contigu-
ous fasciculi, but also on the same fasciculus at different parts.

" The author then proceeds to describe a tubular membranaceous
sheath, of the most exquisite delicacy and transparency, investing each
fasciculus from end to end, and isolating it from all other parts ; this
sheath he terms Sarcolemma. Its existence and properties are shown
by several modes of demonstration : and among others, by a specimen
in which it is seen filled with parasitic worms (Trichinae), which have
removed all the fibrillae. The adhesion of this sarcolemma to the out-
ermost fibrillae is explained.

" It is also shown that there exist in all voluntary muscles a number
of minute corpuscles of definite form, which appear to be identical with,
or at least analogous to the nuclei of the cells from which the develop-
ment of the fasciculi has originally proceeded. These are shown to be
analogous to similar bodies in the muscles of organic life, and in
other organic structures.

" The author next describes his observations on the mode of union
between tendon and muscle ; that is, on the extremities of the primitive
fasciculi. He shows that in fish and insects the tendinous fibrillae be-
come sometimes directly continuous with the extremities of the fasciculi,
which are not taper, but have a perfect terminal disc. In other cases

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES. 179

the extremities are shown to be obliquely truncated, where the fasciculi
are attached to surfaces not at right angles to their direction.

" Lastly. He states his opinion, and gives new facts on which it is
founded, that in muscular contraction the discs of the fasciculi become
approximated, flattened, and expanded ; the fasciculi, of course, at the
same time becoming shorter and thicker. He considers that in all con-
tractions these phenomena occur; and he adduces arguments to show
the improbability of the existence of any rugae or zigzags as a condition
of contracting fasciculi in the living body. — The paper is abundantly
illustrated by drawings of microscopic appearances "]

2. Nerves. — Each entire nervous fibre is to be regarded as a second-
ary cell, formed by the coalescence of a series of primary nucleated
cells. Schwann is of opinion that the white substance of the nervous
fibre, which forms a tube around Remak's band-like axis of the fibre, or
the cylindrical axis of Purkinje, is a secondary deposit on the inner
surface of the membranous wall of the secondary cell. He finds that
the white substance of each nervous fibre is invested externally by a
peculiar structureless sheath like that of the primitive muscular fasci-
culi. This membranous sheath can be distinguished as a transparent
border external to the opaque white substance of the fibre. Its defined
outline is opposed, Schwann remarks, to the view of its being composed
of cellular tissue. In perfectly formed nervous fibres Schwann some-
times perceived here and there at the side of the fibre a nucleus which
lay included in the transparent border formed by the membranous
sheath. In the grey nervous fibres no white substance is formed.

[In the substance of the brain of young embryos, Valentin observed
cells, on the outer surface of which a granular mass was gradually de-
posited. These cells subsequently became nuclei; and their former
nuclei became nucleoli ; while the granular matter deposited around
them formed the mass of the ganglionic globules, which were thus de-
veloped. Valentin has also observed, that after the development of
nervous fibres, nuclei, elongated fibre cells, and fully developed fibres of
cellular tissue are formed around them. *]

Schwann's discoveries are to be ranked amongst the most important
steps by which the science of physiology has ever been advanced.

* Compare Valentin's observations on the Development of Tissues in Wagner's
Physiology, p. 132. [Willis's translation, p. 214.] Henle's observations on the
Structure of the Tissues in his Symbola ad Anatomiam cet. Berol, 1837. Miiller's
Archiv., 1838, p. 102. Froriep's Notiz. n. 294.

180 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.

They afford the basis for a general theory of vegetation and organiza-
tion which it had hitherto been impossible to frame. Valuable observa-
tions had been made in all parts of physiology, and some branches of
the science had been brought to a state of high perfection. But as
regards the fundamental principles on which all should rest, these it
must be confessed were either very unstable or entirely wanting, hence
the slight connection which seemed to subsist between different impor-
tant observations in parts of the science which were far advanced.
These fundamental principles are now obtained. Schwann himself has
pointed out with equal lucidity and acuteness, the general conclusions
which are to be deduced from the observations of Schleiden and himself,
and has framed from them a theory of the organization and vegetation
of organized beings. It is not possible to give here more than the
principal features of his theory.

There is one common mode of development observed in the forma-
tion of the most different elementary tissues of plants and animals, and
that is the development from cells. In a pre-existing structureless sub-
stance, which may be situated either within or on the exterior of cells
already formed, new cells are developed in a manner regulated by deter-
minate laws, and these new cells undergo various modifications and
transformations by which they are converted into the elementary or-
ganic tissues. In every tissue the new cells are formed only in those
parts to which new nutritive matter has direct access. On this alone
depends the difference subsisting between the vascular and non-vascular
tissues. In the former the nutritive fluid, the liquor sanguinis, is dis-
tributed through every part of the tissues, and hence new cells are
formed through its substance. In the non-vascular tissues, on the con-
trary, the nutritive fluid has access to one surface only, as in the case of
the epidermis. Hence in cartilages, also, when they are destitute of
vessels the new cells are formed only at their surface, or to a slight
depth, namely, as far as the liquor sanguinis, their cytoblastema pene-
trates. The expression, growth by apposition, is correct, when under-
stood to signify the development of new cells, and not the growth of
those already existing ; for in the epidermis new cells are formed only
at the inferior surface of the membrane, whilst in the vascular tissues
the new cells are developed in the whole substance of the tissue. In
both cases, however, the cells themselves grow by intussusception.
Cartilage is at first destitute of vessels, and the new cells consequently
are formed only in the vicinity of the external surface. But after ves-
sels have extended into the medullary canals, the formation of new cy-
toblastema and new cells can proceed not only on the surface of the

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 181

bone, but also around each of these canals. This explains the structure
of the cartilage of bone, the lamellae of which are concentric, partly
around the whole bone, and partly around the medullary canals. The
process by which the primary cells are formed is the following. The
cytoblastema, which is at first structureless or only finely granular, pre-
sents after a time round corpuscules. These corpuscules are in their
earliest recognizable condition, the nuclei of cells, around which cells
are subsequently to be developed. The nucleus is granular, and may
be either solid or hollow. The part of the nucleus first formed is the
nucleolus. Around this there is deposited a layer of fine granules. The
nucleus thus formed increases in size, and then the cell is developed
around it by the deposition of a layer of substance different from that
of the surrounding cytoblastema. This layer has at first no defined
outline ; but when it has become consolidated into a membrane, it ex-
pands by the continued addition of new molecules in the interstices of
the old ones. It thus becomes removed from the surface of the nucleus,
which remains attached to one point of the wall of the cell. This for-
mation of the cell around the nucleus is only a repetition on a larger
scale of the process by which the nucleus was formed around the nucle-
olus. The membranous wall of the cell differs in its chemical proper-
ties in different kinds of cells, and even in the same cell it varies in
chemical composition at different periods of its growth. Thus the
walls of vegetable cells, when first formed, are, according to Schleiden,
soluble in water, which is not the case with the cells which are perfectly
developed. The matter contained in the cell varies in a still greater
degree ; for example, it is in one case fat, in another pigment. In a
cell which is at first perfectly transparent, a granular deposit may gra-
dually appear, its formation commencing around the nucleus ; or, on
the other hand, a granular deposit contained in a cell may be gradually
dissolved.

<£jrtract3 anfc $to«ltractg from

[From the Comptes Rendus, 1841.]

Flourens researches on the Development of Bones. — In this Memoir the
author treats on the general mechanism connected with the formation
of Bones, and deduces, from the experiments quoted in detail, these
three general conclusions ; — 1. There is in bone, a formative apparatus,
which is the periosteum : — 2. There is also an absorbing apparatus, viz.

182 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

the medullary membrane : — 3. The medullary membrane or internal
periosteum, is but a continuation of the external periosteum. — Oct. 4,
1841,^. 681.

Biot " On the influence of a Lamella-arrangement in the phenomena
of Polarisation and Double Refraction, produced by different crystallised
bodies."— 3\st of May, and 21st of June, 1841, p. 112.

[We quote the title of this and the following paper by way of refer-
ence for those of our readers interested in the laws of Optics.]

Biot " On the Optical Examination of a substance having the ap-
pearance of Natural Manna, and introduced as such in Commerce for
Medicinal uses." — 10th of Jan, 1842, p. 49.

Laurent on the Return of the Monstrosities of the Hydra to a Normal
State. — He has confirmed that the several monstrosities of the Hydra
about to produce young, never give birth to other monsters, and that
the offspring are normal individuals. He has equally determined the
various physiological conditions by means of which they can prolong
the monster state, or favour the natural tendency of several of these
monsters to return towards their normal form. — 2lst of June, 1841,
p. 1171.

Bouchardat on the Theory of Buds, and the Existence of Rhyzogenes. —
In this memoir the author passed successively in review the various cir-
cumstances which may favour or retard the development of roots, when
stems are immersed in water ; he exhibited by experiment the influence
of light, heat, that of certain acids mixed in different proportions with
the liquid ; he examined the conditions of evolution of the roots which
depend on the state of the stem and those belonging naturally to the
plant, and lastly observed the changes produced in the organs of a
branch placed in those circumstances capable of giving rise to buds.

When a leaf- bearing stem deprived of its root is placed in a vessel
filled with \vater, the green parts remain turgid frequently for a very
long period, but without evincing any appreciable growth. The water
first penetrates at the cut end, but this diffuse and irregular passage does
not fail to be interrupted, at least in a great part, by the death of
the extremity of the stem. There exists, however, organs which by an
isolated kind of development can supply to the defect of absorption re-
sulting from this alteration ; these are the lenticels, organs irregularly
dispersed on the bark, and having no communication with the interior
of the stem. These lenticels, essentially composed of cellular tissue,
enlarge on immersion in the fluid, project considerably, and finally be-
come organs of absorption, denominated by M. Bouchardat caulinear
spongioles ; they are then seen under the form of white tubercular
masses, sometimes elongating as true roots, but they may be always
distinguished from such in this stage of growth, by never having any
direct connection except with the external part of the bark.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 183

When the caulinear spongioles are developed on a stem, its preserva-
tion in pure water may be relied on for an indefinite length of time ;
but its growth is none or inappreciable, for these are not the normal
organs of absorption. It is not the same even with the absorption
which operates by means of the development of special organs, at first
confounded with lenticels, but which, according to the observations of
M. Bouchardat, are essentially distinct. Considering these latter organs
as the true root-buds, he has given them the name of Rhyzogenes.

" At first," says he, " the Rhyzogenes and Lenticels might be con-
founded ; nevertheless a little attention will render evident the fact that
whilst the latter are distributed without order on the bark, the others
have a regular mode of distribution. Further, lenticels are flat, or
very slightly swollen ; rhyzogenes, on the contrary form conical protu-
berances ; lastly, microscopical examination shows, that whilst the len-
ticels are as before stated essentially composed of cellular tissue, and
solely in connection with the external part of the bark — rhyzogenes are
formed of a number of vessels and cellular tissues and have an evident
communication with the woody axis. The preservation of the green
parts of a branch may be the result of a simple development of the
caulinear spongioles, as above stated; but it is only by the growth of
rhyzogenes that a true increase of structure can take place."

The portions of the lower part of the stem at the point where the
rhyzogenes are developed, have given rise to true roots, modified accor-
ding to a particular manner, and the study of the changes presented,
appears to M. Bouchardat, to be able to furnish a new argument in
favour of the theory of M. Du Petit Thouars, on the mode of growth
of plants.

For the Science of Botany properly speaking, the consideration of
rhyzogenes, has also according to the author, a certain importance, and
may be able to furnish good characters for distinguishing one from the
other in nearly allied species. — 21st of June, 1841, p. 1172.

[From Valentin's Repertorium, 1841.]

Valentin on Parasites in the Bladder of the Frog. — In spring and sum-
mer I found a great number of parasitical animals within the urinary
bladder of the frog, which probably represented transitional conditions
between the Infusorial-like creatures and Distoma cygnoides observed
by MIESCHER in the same viscus. At their anterior extremity they pos-
sessed a large excavation, becoming narrower posteriorly, at the bottom
of which was an opening, having two distinct marginal lines, and sur-
rounded by radiating folds. Behind this, on the external surface of the
body, was a wreath of cilia, which in the live animal was in active mo-
tion, but in the dying creature moved but slightly, and in a pulsating or
rythmical manner. By means of these organs the parasite moved itself in
a circle, without exerting any great locomotive action. Through the
opening at the bottom of the discoid excavation, a smaller, though yet a
comparatively large and round body might be observed, which, when

184 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

viewed laterally, appeared as if placed in the posterior portion of the
body; and here also might be seen sometimes two or more vesicular
bodies. In the dying or dead animal, a sinuous tube, having an enlarged
extremity, was to be observed, which was probably an intestinal canal.
In the interior of the body was an apparatus of cilia, though it was not
always very distinctly seen. The internal large bladder was sometimes
so much distended, that it covered a great portion of the other organs.
Besides these, numerous small granules, varying from each other very
much in size, were seen internally. Remarkably enough, the neigh-
bouring intestine of the frog, did not contain any of these animals, but
an immense number of Infusorial creatures, and a Filaria. A single
specimen was found near the liver.

Negrier on the connection of Menstruation with the Graafian Vesicle. —
Menstruation, according to the author, is connected with a periodical
bursting of a Graafian vesicle in the ovarium. In the new-born female
there are only to be found rudiments of follicles ; about the 12th year,
a grey matter is observed within the follical coverings, which soon be-
comes hardened. At puberty the interior of the follicle becomes yellow,
and the follicle itself is now more vascular. At the first menstrual pe-
riod, a follicle swells, and bursts at its peritoneal surface. This is re-
peated at each menstruation, and ceases at the time when the uterine
discharge stops.

Grube on the Menstrual Blood. — Besides want of coagulating power,
and the presence of much albumen, with diminished quantity of fibrine,
the menstrual blood is characterised by the altered condition of the true
blood- globules, which are often notched and crumbled.

Storer and Valentin on the Spawn of Syngnathus. — Storer has observed
abundance of spawn in the male Syngnathus, which decidedly receives
the eggs from the female. Valentin remarks since the confirmation of
the opinion of Rathke, that the female bears the spawn, I have several
times examined, under the microscope, the organs, or at any rate
what was analogous to them, mentioned by Rathke, taken from spe-
cimens preserved in spirits, belonging to the species S. pelagius, Op-
hidion, and Rondeletii, and have seen the elements of the egg in the
generative organs. On the other hand, in a fresh Syngnathus, provided
with spawn, which was obtained at Nizza, the genitals appeared per-
fectly white, and only exhibited, under the microscope, granular bodies,
so that even after a microscopical examination, I could not say to which
gender the creature belonged.

Langenbeck on Medullary Sarcoma. — The femoral artery of a dog was
opened, and some blood drawn off ; this being freed from its fibrine, was
mixed with the soft matter of a medullary sarcomatous tumour of the
humerus, and injected into the artery ; the diseased limb had been
amputated two hours and a half previously, and was not quite cold. In
nine weeks time there were found two or three light-blue circular and

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 185

flattened swellings upon the anterior surfaces of the upper portions of
the right and left lungs, and which were like carcinoma of these organs
in man. In the substance of the central portion of the left lung was a
hard circumscribed tumour, about the size of a bean ; the portions of the
lung surrounding were normal in character. This tumour presented
on a dissection the characters of a carcinomatous tubercle. Under the
microscope the numerous red points in it were seen to be convoluted
capillary vessels. The substance of the tumour itself consisted of strong
fibres of the thickness of the primitive muscular fibres, having between
them closely placed cells of y^tti"' in diameter. In the fluid got from
the tumour by pressure, were found small cells about the size of the
blood-globules, besides some still smaller cells of oil-globules. These
identical microscopic elements were found in the medullary sarcoma of
the humerus.

Erdl on the Kidnies of Helix Algira. — Between the delicate vessels
of the vascular net- work met with in the urinary glands of Helix Algira,
are spaces containing round or elongated cells, apparently seated on
these minute vessels ; these cells sometimes contain a nucleus, at other
times are empty. This nucleus increases in size, finally becoming as
large as the mother cell, and then becomes freed from the net- work of
vessels, remaining free in the kidney ; at length it passes off by the
excretoiy duct of the organ.

Simon on the Structure of Warts. — The common warts met with on the
integuments of the hand, consist of papillose elongations of the corium,
which appear as delicate, closely-packed fibres, covered by the upper
skin. Warts with peduncles contain soft cellular tissue, and often
fat. Both kinds are to be met with in the domesticated mammalia.

Valentin on Hair. — Near the unhurt points of hair which has not
been cut, as for example, in the hair of the mons veneris, the forms
under which the transverse lines are seen, indicate that here delicate
epidermoid scales are placed upon each other like tiles. By the use of
sulphuric acid, however, which is a very good re-agent for this investi-
gation, the matter becomes plainer. The very thin scaly pieces which
appear to be placed in a double and opposed direction around the longi-
tudinal axis of the hair, separate from each other, very often in a regu-
lar manner, so that the surface of the hair appears as if symetrically
tessalated by their fibres. Since these little scales near their free mar-
gins exhibit some portion of their surface, they appear like fibres, whose
separated edge or place where the connection is broken evinces their
true nature, viz. — elongated scales void of nucleus. By this structure
hair approaches only the formation of horn, since in horn got from the
ox, large scales will separate from it with the use of any re-agent.
After making use of the sulphuric acid, the apparently fibrous horny
substance is seen to consist of scales. These scales, as well as horn
and epidermis, have no visible nuclei. I should be therefore inclined
to reduce all the apparently fibrous substance to such scales. In dif-

186 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

ferent hair they are more coloured or devoid of colour, or have long
pigment cells.

Delia Chiaje on the appendages of the Kidnies in Fishes and Reptiles. —
In Ammocatis branchialis and Petromyzon fluviatilis, they are placed on
the outer margin of the gland, near the ureter and the fatty bodies. In
Petromyzon marinus they cover the outer surface of the kidney, and in
Accipenser sturio and A, murcena they appear as round yellow bodies
incorporated with the parenchyma of the same. In Torpedo electrica,
T. galvanii, Squalus centrina, and C. acanthias, they constitute a semi-
lunar yellow granulated mass about the size of a large bean at the base
of the left portion of the kidney. In Raja rubus and R. batis, they lie
in the form of a Y along the middle line between the glands.

The greatest development occurs in Squalus acanthias and S. mustelus.
In the flat tailed Salamander, along the edge of each kidney are seen
a row of round yellowish bodies composed of glandular acini. Rana
esculenta has in the middle of the under surface of the organ small
yellow glands composed of minute ramified vessels, and which are also
found in the green and the common Toad. These appendages of the
kidnies receive their arteries from the Aorta and four large veins from
the Vena cava.

Valentin's remarks on Trichina spiralis. (Vide page 147 of the Mi-
croscopic Journal.) — In specimens which have been preserved in spirit
I have not only observed the granular matter in the two poles of the
outer cyst, but also in the narrow space which appears to exist between
the outer and inner cyst and connecting as it were the two poles on all
sides. The outer cyst is probably a true organized envelope, whilst the
granules are rich in inorganic salts. If the cysts are acted on by weak
caustic bicarbonate of Potassa, the walls of the outer cyst appear as a
narrow bright stripe, whilst the granules remain dark. After being
acted on by Hydro- chloric acid, carbonic acid is evolved and all becomes
brighter and more transparent. In the latter case the skin of the inner
cyst sometimes exhibits concentric lines which, perhaps, indicate its
origin from concentric layers. The intestine and longitudinal thread
are distinctly visible in the preserved specimens. At the anterior ob-
tuse rounded extremity I several times observed an oval cavity, which
was probably the oral aperture alluded to by Owen and Wormald.

The granular organ described by Farre and Bischoff, and which
appears to me a very doubtful ovarium, I could not discern in the
preserved specimens. Only once did I see it as a bright granular spot
after the action of the Hydro-chloric acid.

[From Schlechtendal's Linnaa, 1842.]

Bange on the Seed of Pugionium cornutum. — That the outer covering
of the seed cannot be an arillus is evident enough if this plant is
regarded as a member of the Cruciferae. It must, therefore, be one of

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 187

the proper coats of the seed, and regarded as an " integumentum ex-
terius " since there exists beneath it an " integumentum simplex mem-
branaceum." We do not find any where amongst the Cruciferse a
semblance to this, or at the most a delicate epidermis lying closely upon
the testa, which sometimes spreads out at its margin in a winged man-
ner. Besides, within this covering which loosely envelopes the seed we
find the umbilical cord, and which cannot be in the least compared with
a raphe. Further who ever observed in a ripe seed of the Cruciferae an
"Embryo gramineo-viridis." The thickening of the radicle near its
extremity, is a condition which as far as I know is found in no Crucife-
rous plant.

Pugionium must be removed from the Cruciferse, it belongs to the
family Chenopodeae.

Bange on the Seed of Dipterygium glaucum. — This plant is not one
of the Cruciferse but belongs to the tribe Capparideae. This view I
adopt from the presence of an albumen enclosing the embryo as it does
in Capparideae, this was described by Decandolle as an " Endopleura
tumida," whilst others have wrongly denied the presence of an albu-
men.

[From Okens Isis, Heft 3, 1842.]

Meyer on the Anatomy of the Entozoa. — The indefatigable author has
here given us very full and able dissections of the intestinal worms, the
internal structure of which has hitherto not been sufficiently known.

Trichocephalus dispar from the Caecum is first described, and drawn
highly magnified both male and female on tables 1 and 2. The intes-
tinal tube is fully represented with the oral and anal apertures, as also
the seminal vessel with the ruthe near the anal opening. The female
organs are also equally well shown. The oviduct is exceedingly long,
commencing posteriorly near the anal orifice, then running as far as the
stomach and turning back again to the anus it proceeds once more close
to the stomach where it opens in the middle third of the body. The
ova are drawn highly magnified.

Oxyuris ambigua both male and female, ar.d the male of O. acuminata
are represented on table 3. The opening of the seminal canal is near
the anus, just before the point of the tail, that of the female is further
forward. The male and female organs of Distoma appendiculatum are
well developed in table 3, fig. 12, and the same may be said of D. cy-
lindricum, table 3, fig. 13.

The dissections of Octobothrium lanceolatum call for especial praise,
four pair of suckers are drawn posteriorly, two anteriorly near the
mouth, behind these one with ten teeth where the male and female
canals open ; the stomach is double and blind, and runs backwards, the
ovi-sac especially is very large, the seminal duct contains large seminal
capsules, which are also drawn highly magnified.

No circulating apparatus is to be seen, and that which Nordmann
took for the circulation in Diptozoon was but the movement of cilia.

188 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

[From the Gazette des Hopitaux, 1842.]

M . Borjery on the Microscopic Anatomy of the Spleen in Man and the
Mammifera. — From the anatomical structure of the spleen, and the
appearance of the fluid contained in its vesicles as shown by the
microscope, the following propositions may be advanced respecting the
functions of this organ : these propositions although not positively in-
dicating the whole service of the spleen, point out the path to its
determination.

1st. The spleen appears to be an organ of sanguineous elaboration
and consists of two different structures.

a. A secretory vesicular apparatus operating directly on the arterial
blood, the product which is absorbed by the veins being only a prepara-
tory step towards another elaboration. This should have its seat in the
liver, where the splenic fluid is carried along with the venous blood of
the digestive organs.

b. A lymphatic apparatus on the one hand, acting on the blood fur-
nished to it by the numerous little glandular arteries, and on the other
on the fluid residues of the elaboration of the vesicular apparatus, con-
veyed to it by the lymphatics.

2dly. These two portions or structures do not appear to be connected
anatomically, and juxtaposed organule to organule, save in the point of
exercising a common function. The venous residues of the two por-
tions go equally to the Liver, whilst the mere residue of the lymphatic
glands is transported in the apparatus of the same name.

3rdly. The analogy of texture between the spleen and the lymphatic
glands though not affording evident proof, admits of the legitimate
assumption that these two organs can up to a certain point supply the
place of each other, and which explains the want of fatality when the
former is extirpated.

Ehrenberg on the Perception of the Smallest Bright Bodies. — On
pressing small globules of quicksilver on a glass micrometer, he easily
obtained smaller globules of y^Q-th to g^pth of a line in diameter. In
the sunshine he could only discern the reflection of light, and the ex-
istence of such globules as were ^-oth of a line in diameter with the
naked eye ; smaller ones did not affect his eye either in sunshine or
with a Chevalier's reverberatory lamp. He however remarked, at the
same time, that the actual bright part of the globule did not amount to
more than g-J-gth of a line in diameter. Spider-threads of 2Q00'" in
diameter were still discernible from their lustre. — Poggendorff's Annalen,
in Taylor' s Scientific Memoirs, Vol. I, p. 583.

Pappenheim on the Ligament of the Velum Palati. — It is easy to see
with the naked eye that there is a white streak on the anterior median

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 189

line of the velum, which takes its origin from the lowest extremity of
the uvula, dividing the velum into two equal halves, and proceeds to the
membrane of the hard palate, where, though it grows thinner, it may
be traced to the upper incisor tooth. On the posterior median line of
the velum this streak, though less distinct, yet in like manner pro-
ceeds from the uvula to the posterior nasal spine. The microscope
shows that it consists of large and chiefly longitudinal fasciculi of
strong elastic fibres which are traversed by only a few blood vessels
and nerves, and which spread out on either side of the median line
of the velum, beneath its mucous membrane, towards the tonsils. It is
observable that the middle portion is favourable to the considerable
power of contraction which the uvula possesses in the longitudinal
direction, and the lateral fibres to the mobility of the whole velum.

The streak to which, only for the sake of indicating its independent
existence, Dr. Pappenheim gives the name of ligamentum uvulte, occurs
as well in tender children as in adults, and sometimes splits anteriorly
into two halves. — Medicinische Zeitung, July 14th, 1841. — Quoted in
Brit, and For. Med. Rev., January, 1842.

Bischoff on the Microscopic Examination of Lymph. — The fluid ex-
amined was taken from two large lymphatics in the neck of a dog. It
was quite clear and pellucid, and after some time coagulated, but with-
out assuming a reddish colour. It contained some yellow glistening
globules of no great size, having an average diameter of from 1010 Oths
to 10oootns °f a Paris inch, the largest being 10^00ths, the smallest
10g00ths. A nucleus and envelope could not be distinguished in them.
They were not all quite round like the blood -globules ; nor were they
granular and nodulated. They were not altered by water, acetic acid,
or ether ; but in caustic potash they vanished immediately. Similar
globules with the same reactions present themselves, together with in-
numerable very small granules in the white contents of the thoracic
duct and in the chyle. — Mutter's Archiv., 1839. In Dr. Forbes' Medi-
cal Review, Oct. 1841.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

June 22wd, 1842. — Professor Lindley, President, in the Chair.

A PAPER was read by Dr. ARTHUR FARRE " On the minute structure of
certain substances expelled from the Human Intestine, having the or-
dinary appearance of shreds of false membrane, but consisting entirely
of confervoid filaments probably belonging to the genus Oscillatoria."
The author stated that these substances had been passed by a patient,
a middle-aged female, who had suffered lately slight indisposition, but
in whose symptoms there was nothing remarkable except that for
twelve hours before the passage of these shreds considerable pain and

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

uneasiness had been felt in the abdomen ; unaccompanied, however, by
any evidence of inflammation. The substance passed had so much the
appearance of shreds of false membrane as to be easily mistaken for
them. They were of a buff colour and varied in consistence, some
portions being loose and rather flocculent, with a villous surface ; others
smooth, shining, and membranaceous. They had a peculiar elasticity,
and the membraneous portion when torn had a clear edge. These lat-
ter also presented a fibrous appearance to the naked eye, the fibres
crossing at right- angles. When portions of this substance were exa-
mined under the microscope with a power of from 50 to 100 linear,
they were seen to consist entirely of extremely delicate filaments, ap-
pearing like a mass of conferva. The looser portions had the usual
tangled appearance of a mass of conferva, but in the more membranous
flakes the cross-arrangement of the filaments was very evident. Ex-
amined with a power of from 300 to 500 linear, the filaments appeared
of a pale green colour, and most of them exhibited the cross lines
which mark their division into cells, as in Oscillatoria and other allied
genera. The filaments were of nearly uniform size, measuring the
1 0*0 Oth of an inch in diameter, but of indefinite length. At their ex-
tremities many terminated abruptly being evidently broken across at a
joint. Others were attenuated, being apparently the growing ends,
while others had an appearance of branching dichotomously, which
circumstance was to be explained, either by supposing that the fila-
ments split longitudinally as well as transversly, which many of them
had an appearance of doing, or else which is probably the true expla-
nation, that the branches were overlying and united in part, while the
extremities remained free. This union of the filaments in portions of
their length was so firm in most instances as to resist separation when
the parts were put upon the stretch. It was probably of the same
nature as the union which takes place in Zygnema, but the filaments
were too delicate to afford an opportunity of ascertaining the precise
mode in which it is effected. It was observed very frequently to occur
among the filaments, and gave to many of them the appearance of a
dichotomous termination. The author was inclined to refer this singu-
lar production to the genus Oscillatoria, of which it appears to consti-
tute a new species ; but further investigation may show it to belong to
a new genus. There was nothing in the history of the case to show
the source from which it had been derived. The patient drank of the
ordinary water which supplies London ; but supposing the reproductive
sporules to have been thus imbibed, they may have become so far
altered in character during growth, deriving their supplies from an or-
ganized surface and thus becoming converted into an animalized mate-
rial, as to exhibit a new and unknown appearance. The author con-
cluded by referring to parallel instances of growths from various parts
of the bodies of man and animals as discovered by modern microscopic
investigations, but considered the fact now communicated as in itself
new to science.

191

Bibliographical fiotue.

Geology for Beginners. By G. F. Richardson, F.G.S. Of the British
Museum, 8vo. pp. 530, London. Bailliere and Co.

THE author of this publication will be remembered by many of our
readers as having furnished translations of several articles from the
German on subjects of scientific interest, which have appeared in our
pages. We have, therefore, peculiar pleasure in confirming the opinion
both of the general and scientific press in favour of the publication,
and in congratulating our esteemed correspondent on having produced a
work in the highest degree meritorious and useful. Though designed
ostensibly for beginners, it is calculated to afford information to the
proficient, and even the experienced Geologist may derive instruction
from a work so extensive in its plan, and we must add so successful in
its execution. Justly conceiving that many of the treatises previously
published assumed a degree of knowledge on the part of the student
which was not always possessed, and knowing in fact that Geology is
but another name for the knowledge of some half dozen sciences which
pass under that general term, he has furnished a separate treatise on
each, and the " beginner" may here meet with instruction on the varied
and interesting subjects of Mineralogy, Physical Geology, Fossil Con-
chology, Fossil Botany, and Palaeontology, with a sketch of the history
of the Science, a vindication of its utility and importance, &c., history
of the various formations, including directions for collecting and des-
cribing fossils, and generally pursuing the study. It is obvious that a
work embracing such a variety of themes, must possess powerful and
varied claims on public patronage ; and we are by no means surprised
at the eulogies which it has received from the public press, and the
rapidity and extent of its sale. We must not omit to mention that
among its varied dissertations the value and importance of microscopic
investigation are especially enforced, and information of instructive na-
ture imparted. We have noticed some imperfections, such as the too
great prolixity of some chapters, contrasted with the brevity of others,
together with some of those incidental faults unavoidable perhaps in a
work of so extensive a character. They may be remedied in a second
edition, and we doubt not the publication will reach many.

On the occurrence of the Nest ? of an Insect on the Human Hair. —
On examining some human hair with the microscope, I was somewhat
surprised to observe a small elongated cup- shaped nest, of a white
colour and much resembling, when viewed with the naked eye, a
scale of epithelium. It was situated within a quarter of an inch of

192 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

the bulb of the hair, and projected from one side ; its form resembled
that of the calyptra or cup of a moss — there was a decided opening at
the apex, which was furnished with a well denned rim or margin ; the
orifice was filled with a number of small oval or roundish particles
resembling eggs — these were piled one above the other in a conical
manner. The whole interior appeared filled with similar bodies, which
were easily recognisable through the diaphanous parietes of the recep-
tacle. The nest, should such it be, was attached by means of a pro-
longation of its lower part, which encircled the hair, much in the same
manner as wasps and some birds fix their nests to the branches of trees.
Its size as far as could be judged was about -g^th of an inch long, by
about a-^th °f an incn broad. A sketch of this object will be found in
a future plate of this Journal. — Daniel Cooper, Fort Pitt, Chatham,
July 13, 1842.

[PL VI, Fig. 1, a. — The conical pile of eggs protruded from the marginal opening.
b. — The body of the nest, with the contained ova seen through the walls, c. — The
appendage by which the nest was fixed to the hair. d. — The bulb or root of the
hair.]

Appendix to Mohrs paper on the Panctated Vessels of Plants. — The
references to the Figures in Plate V, having been omitted in their pro-
per place, p. 146, they are here inserted : —

Explanation of Plate V, Div. 4.

Fig. a. — Walls of a Punctated Vessel contiguous to cells in Chilianthus arboreus.
Fig. b. — Ditto, contiguous to another Vessel — the pu notations are broadly ex-
tended and simulate a scalariform duct.

Fig. c. — Longitudinal section of walls of two contiguous Vessels in same plant.

Erratum. — At page 99, for Plate IV, Div. 2 & 3, read Plate V, Div.
2 & 3. We would recommend our subscribers to make this and other
alterations with the pen, in order to save confusion.

Erratum. — At page 131, in the references to Plate III, for Div. 6,
read Div. 5, and in the place of what is there printed, read, — a. Nu-
cleated particles from the healthy human liver : — b, c, d, e. The same
from the liver affected with fatty degeneration, shewing in each the
light points or nuclei, with their nucleoli, and the dark contents of each
which are the fatty globules.

[A reference to this page placed in the margin of page 99, opposite
the explanation to the plate, will remedy this error.]

Microscopic Joximal, Vol. II. PI. A7!.

iMicroscopic Journal, Vol. n. PI. TH.

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193

XXXI. ON THE EXISTENCE OF OIL-GLOBULES AND CRYSTALS OF

STEARINE IN THE CELLS COMPOSING THE ALBUMEN OF THE COCOA-
NUT.

By Daniel Cooper, Assistant -Surgeon to the Forces,

IT has been on several occasions a matter of some discussion among
chemists, bearing more particularly on the wording of patent specifica-
tions, as to whether the Elaine and Stearine in the copra, or prepared
cocoa-nut of commerce, — which is imported in considerable quantities
from the East, for the purposes of expressing the oil for domestic and
other uses and the stearine for the manufacture of candles, — existed in
separate states in the substance of the nut. Having been a short time
since consulted on this subject, I submitted a portion to microscopic in-
vestigation, with a view if possible to solve the question, The result
of the examination was most satisfactory : affording one out of many
valuable examples of the use of the microscope, as a means of solving
hitherto considered mysteries connected with some of the most impor-
tant of the Arts and Manufactures. It is well known, that when the
copra, (as it is termed in Ceylon) is subjected to pressure at a low tem-
perature, one of the principles of oily matter is obtained in a nearly
pure state, this is doubtless Elaine — when, however, the pressure is ex-
erted, at a temperature of between 70° and 80° Fahrenheit, in addition
to the Elaine, there is obtained a quantity of Stearine — and if the heat
be further increased, a still greater quantity of white matter is obtained,
from which Cocoa-nut candles are manufactured.

At the suggestion of Mr. J. T. Cooper, who was professionally en-
gaged at the time on the chemical nature of oils, and who from the
above mentioned facts suggested in common,with Mr. Thomas Sturge,
the idea of the Stearine and Elaine existing as two separate sub-
stances in the albumen or fleshy part of the Cocoa-nut, I was induced
at their request to institute an examination — of which the following is
an account.

Having made thin sections of the copra with a sharp scalpel, and
placed them between two slips of glass with a little water, they were
examined with a quarter of an inch Achromatic object-glass. In the
interior of the elongated cells, of which the soft part of the nut is ex-
clusively formed, could be perceived very small globules apparently of
oil, scattered irregularly over their parietes, — in addition to which there

VOL. II. O

194 ON OIL GLOBULES, ETC. IN THE ALBUMEN OF THE COCOA-NUT.

were also to be perceived very fine acicular shaped crystals occupying,
and likewise irregularly distributed over the walls of the cells. These
crystals, doubtless those of stearine, disappeared under the microscope,
when gradual heat was applied, and were even lost altogether for some mi-
nutes, until the temperature became so much reduced as to cause them
to be again deposited. By this process the stearine in the cells assumed
a much more definite and regular crystalline appearance. The globules
of oil (Elaine) are altogether independent of the acicular crystals above
described. In the larger globules of oil, formed of numerous aggre-
gated smaller ones, which wrere pressed out by enclosing the sections of
the nut between the two slips of glass for examination, there were to
be distinctly observed numerous plates or flakes of stearine of a still more
regular crystaline form. These likewise were found to disappear when
heat was cautiously applied, by radiation from a heated portion of metal
held within an inch or more of the object as it lay on the field of the
microscope, and became again deposited as the substance regained its
former temperature.

From the facts mentioned above, and from the manner in which the
examination was conducted for several successive times, I think there can
be no question that the opinion of Mr. J. T. Cooper and Mr. T. Sturge
is correct, and can at any time be satisfactorily demonstrated with a
good quarter of an inch achromatic object-glass, by pursuing the course
of manipulation just described.

Explanation of Plate XI, Div. 1.

Fig. 1. Globules of oil, formed by the aggregation of a multitude of smaller oil-
globules, which have escaped from the cells (2.) of the albumen.

Fig. 2. A longitudinal section of the albumen of the cocoa-nut, exhibiting its cel-
lular structure, and the globules of oil free within the cells. Fine needle-shaped
crystals (?) also occupying the interior of the cells, which are supposed to be those
of stearine, but are more evident in the globules of oil, Fig. 1, where they have ag-
gregated together in a more definite and apparent crystaline state.

Fig. 3. Fasciculi of needle-shaped crystals of stearine which have escaped from
the broken extremities of the cells, and have arranged themselves in the water as
here exhibited.

Fig. 4. Acicular crystals of stearine, which appeared of a more definite form, after
applying radiated heat from a piece of hot iron held for a few moments within half
an inch of the slide.

195

XXXII. *MICROSCOPICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF

THE PATHOLOGICAL FLUIDS, BY DAVID GRUBY, M.D. No I.

Translated from the Latin by S. J. Goodfellow, M.D., #c.

THE translator undertook the translation of the following observations
last winter, as an occupation during a slight indisposition, and for the
purpose of being able the more easily to verify them by further exami-
nation, as soon as an opportunity should offer itself. This opportunity,
he regrets to say, has not been afforded to him ; and believing that the
subject merits further investigation, he has been induced, through the
kindness of the Editors of this Journal, to adopt this method of bringing
this little work to the notice of microscopical pathologists.

The observations were made during day-light, by Plossel's micros-
cope, the diameter of the objects being increased 400 times. For
diluting the objects, distilled water was used, and for changing their
physical characters pure pharmaceutical re -agents.

In the following work are contained : —

1. Observations concerning the morphology of mucus. — Plate 7, figs.

1—22 ; figs. 23 — 26. Plate 9, figs. 51—53.

2. Observations concerning the morphology of pus. — Plate 10, figs, 27

—41 ; figs. 42—50, 52, 54—58 ; figs. 59—64, 72—77.

3. Observations concerning plastic lymph and plastic exudation. —

Plate 10, figs. 65—71.

4. Observations concerning a white, pellucid, and fluid exudation. (Se-

rum).—Plate 10, figs. 78, 79, 81.

5. Observations concerning ulcers and mesenteric glands of abdominal

Typhus.— Plate 10, figs. 72—77. Of the spleen, fig. 62.

6. Observations concerning lobular inflammation of the placenta. —

Plate 10, fig. 80.

* Observationes Microscopicae ad Morphologiam Pathologicum, auctore Dr. Davide
Griiby. Morphologia Fluidorum Pathologicorum. Tomi primi pars prima. Acce-
dunt Tabellse septem et Tabulae litho sculptse quinque. Vindobonse apud Singer et
Goering, 1840. — The Translator has thought it better to omit the short introductory
essay, in which the Author has given a cursory review of the various discoveries in
anatomy, by means of the simple and compound microscope, with a list of the names
and works of the principal anatomists who have had recourse to their aid in the pro-
secution of their anatomical researches ; because he feared that it would occupy too
much of the space allowed to him in this Journal, without a corresponding advan-
tage to the reader.

o 2

196 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS.

Of Normal Mucus.

Mucus taken from the healthy mucous membrane of the nostrils,
settles into a greyish- white fluid, somewhat thick, easily drawn into
threads, dries when exposed to the air, leaving a hard, fragile, transpa-
rent, greyish scale. Water does not dissolve it ; rubbed with water
for a long time it is loosened, softened, and swelled, and it is no longer
to be drawn into threads. A small portion spread upon glass, and ex-
amined by means of a microscope, appears : —

1. Amorphous and greyish- white, with greyish black points irregu-
larly scattered in it, (which I believe to be heterogeneous substances,
from the air brought into contact and united with it.) Agitated for
some time in distilled water, the blackish grey points are dissolved.

2. Moreover there are observed yellowish- white, round, or oval glo-
bules, two to four times more transparent than the red particles of the
blood. Globules taken from the anterior part of the mucous membrane
of the nostrils, appear without primitive molecules ; but, investigated
from the posterior part of the same membrane, they appear endowed
with very small ones ; dried in air they are rendered irregular and more
pellucid ; the primitive molecules disappear at the same time ; exposed
to distilled water, they are not changed, nor are their envelopes broken.
Plate 7, figs. 1 and 2.

3. It contains lamellae and cells of epithelium of a greyish- white or
whitish colour, transparent, of an oblong or angular form, -^ to ^'"
l°ng> TO to ToV" broa(i > the greater part of their surface is irregularly
folded with here and there very small molecules deposited ; they en-
close a central nucleus, or a globule less transparent, exceeding by two
or three times the size of the blood-discs, mostly oblong, less frequently
round ; dried in air, the little cell of epithelium becomes transparent,
the opaque nucleus remaining. Distilled water does not change them.
Plate 7, fig. 8, a, b, c; fig. 11, 6; fig. 12, c; fig. 17, c; fig. 25, d;
Plate 9, fig. 41, e,f; fig. 55, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i; fig. 53. a.

If the cells of epithelium have been treated for about five minutes
with a small drop of concentrated acetic acid, sp. gr. 1,030, I have ob-
served no change. The same occurs with solutions of oxalic and tar-
taric acids : sulphuric acid 1,090; diluted nitric acid 1,170; also with
diluted hydrochloric acid 1,070, and liquid chlorine 1, 00.

The same occurs with hydrochlorate of ammonia, hydrochlorate of
barytes, nitrate of potash, nitrate of barytes, sulphate of potash, acetate
of ammonia 1,015, acetate of potash 1,200, and soda, with solutions of
sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper ; but nitrate of silver tinges the
cell of a brownish colour.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS. 197

Concentrated muriatic acid 1,200, nitric 1,170, sulphuric 1,090,
butter of antimony, and oil of tartar, quickly renders the cell of epithe-
lium perfectly pellucid, so that it is withdrawn from all further obser-
vation.

Of Mucus produced from irritation of Mucous Membranes.

The mucus of an irritated mucous membrane of the nostrils is white,
pellucid, scarcely more consistent than the albumen of a hen's egg ;
exposed to the air the greatest part evaporates, and a very thin pellucid
lamella remains. Distilled water is easily mixed with it.

Under the microscope, besides a few cells of epithelium, it is seen to
contain round globles from four to five times larger than those of the
blood ; a few of them are of a white colour, perfectly round, with ex-
tremely thin pellucid envelopes, enclosing very small molecules. — Plate
7, figs. 3, 4; figs. 11, 12, 18—20.

Of Mucus produced from Catarrhal (i. e. lighter} Inflammation.

Mucus from catarrhal (i. e. milder) inflammation of the mucous
membranes of the nostrils, conjunctive, fauces, larynx, bronchi,
urethra, vagina, and of alimentary tube, has a greater consistence
than that produced from irritation of these membranes. It is transpa-
rent, very tenacious, yellowish-white, thick, drawn out to a thread-like
glue, dries more slowly in air, and a turbid, greyish-yellow elastic
lamella remains. In distilled and river- water it falls to the bottom (if
bubbles filled with air shall not have been mixed with them) ; exposed
for a longer time to water, it is not changed, except that it swells some-
what and becomes whiter ; exposed to a flame it burns and emits an em-
pyreumatic odour.

Investigated by means of the microscope, I beheld : —

1. An amorphous greyish- white mass, not changeable by water.

2. Spherical whitish-yellow globules, the larger the quantity in the
mucus the more intense the yellow colour ; the diameter of the globules
taken from a catarrh of the larynx exceeded eight times that of the
blood- discs. These globules intimately cohered with the amorphous
mass in which they appeared immersed, and were composed of a very
thin diaphanous envelope, which was easily broken when made tense by
shaking it with water ; not agitated in water it is not broken, on account of
the tenacious amorphous mass in which the globules are found immersed.
In the middle, and oftentimes out of the centre towards the edge, is seen
a perfectly round vesicle, which exceeds in size twice the diameter of
the blood-discs ; it either appears to be empty or filled with some pel-

198 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS.

lucid fluid. This vesicle, on account of the place which it occupies,
may be called the central vesicle. In every globule there appear little
points or very small globules, scarcely larger than one-sixth the diame-
ter of the blood- discs, transparent or diaphanous, called molecules, and
dispersed without order.

The quantity of these globules, and their magnitude, vary. We
shall speak in another and more appropriate place concerning these.

When the globules have been dried, they change their round form
into that of an irregular polyhedron, marked with more pellucid mar-
gins ; in the middle there remains a granular yellowish substance,
which surrounds a central vesicle, at first turgid, but by drying becomes
changed into a white pellucid spot. — Plate 7, fig. 5, 6.

Sometimes two central vesicles are seen. — Plate 7, fig. 6, d.

Of Mucus produced by a more intense Inflammation of Mucous
Membranes.

Mucus secreted from mucous membranes affected with a more intense
inflammation, is of a deep yellow colour, easily drawn out into threads
without any order. It is opaque, and when dried, leaves a yellow,
transparent, brittle substance ; in distilled or river- water it sinks to the
bottom, and forms flocculi : agitated with water it renders it turbid, but
1 saw the flocculi themselves, of a white colour, sink to the bottom.
The flocculi, washed a long time in water, did not render it more tur-
bid ; those made of a lighter colour swam upon the water, and enclosed
even then a few globules. The mucus, when dried, burnt with a flame.
The mucus from opthalmo-blennorrhcea, acute urethral blennorrhcea,
acute vaginal blennorrhcea in a puerperal woman is here alluded to.

Investigated by the microscope this mucus consists : —

1. Of a small quantity of a whitish amorphous mass, not soluble in
water.

2. Of innumerable yellow globules, partly with, partly without cen-
tral vesicles.— Plate 7, figs. 7—10, 12,* 14, 22, 23, 25. These glo-
bules, exposed for a long time to distilled water, swelled and became
whitish. After the first minute they are broken, and the contained
molecules are sometimes quickly, at other times slowly expelled, then
sometimes leaped out, as if they were controlled by a physical law.
They did not accumulate about the unchanged central vesicle, but every-
where exercised, for a long time, a molecular motion.

3. Cells of epithelium were rarely observed in this mucus; and if
any occurred, they were round, full, and here and there with difficulty
distinguished from the globules of mucus. — Plate 7, figs. 14, 15.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS. 199

Of Mucus from Mucous Membranes affected with Chronic Blennorrhoea.

Mucus from chronic blennorrhoea of the vagina and urinary bladder,
is yellowish-white, but little ductile, easily renders water turbid, and
white flocculi remain in contact with the bottom of the vessel. I ob-
served other properties like those with mucus produced from a more
intense inflammation of membranes.

Under the microscope there appear: —

1 . A small quantity of a ductile amorphous mass.

2. Very copious yellowish- white globules, of which some seem com-
posed of an envelope, very small molecules, and central vesicles, some
of an envelope and central vesicle, and lastly others of very small mole-
cules only, and destitute of all covering. — Plate 7, figs. 20, 22.

Of the Lochial Discharge.

Shortly after parturition, the lochial discharge, rightly investigated,
exhibits a sanguineous colour, gives out an animal odour, is but little
ductile, and dried in the air leaves a red, friable mass. Treated with
distilled water, three substances are observed : —

1. A reddish- white soluble substance, (Haematosine.)

2. White flocculi quickly falling to the bottom, (Fibrine.)

3. Yellowish -white flocculi suspended in the water, (Vaginal mucus.)

Investigated by the microscope, it consist :

1. Of a ductile amorphous mass.

2. Of blood particles.

3. Of mucous globules, composed of an envelope and primitive mole-
cules.

4. Of epithelium.

When we compare mucus secreted from the vagina during parturi-
tion, Plate 7, fig. 2, which consists of small globules a, d, enclosing pri-
mitive molecules ; also, of small globules e, enclosing two larger mole-
cules, with mucus secreted 13 hours after parturition, Plate 7, fig. 12,
we shall perceive an essential difference between mucus produced from
the healthy vagina, and that from the same organ when irritated.

On the second day, globules endowed with central vesicles, appear ;
and, in proportion as the uterus shall have been injured, so in propor-
tion will these globules be found increased in quantity. As the dis-
charge becomes paler, the number of blood particles decreases, and the
quantity of the larger globules on the contrary, increases.

200 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS.

On the third day after parturition, the reddish discharge contains
many yellowish-white globules, provided with central vesicles and mole-
cules ; the quantity of blood particles decreases, and that of the ductile
amorphous mass increases, (proper mucus.) — Plate 7, fig. 12*.

On the fourth day after parturition, the discharge is but slightly red-
dish, contains white flocculi, easily drawn into threads (of mucus), in
which there are irregular, more obscure globules (corrugated epithe-
lium), and some with central vesicles. A very few blood-particles are
also contained in it. — Plate 7, fig. 13.

On the fifth day after parturition, the mucous discharge is yellowish-
white, the globules which are found in it are white, and even ten times
larger than the blood particles. There are very few or no small mole-
cules included in them, and the central vesicles have disappeared, but I
observed an increased number of larger primitive molecules in them. —
Plate 7, figs. 15, 16.

From the 6th to the 13th days, the lochial discharge is white, con-
sists of white, perfectly round globules, provided with the smallest
primitive molecules without central vesicles or larger molecules. —
Plate 7, figs. 18—20.

I have observed peculiar forms in a diminished discharge of the lochia,
when inflammatory puerperal fever has attacked the mother ; the cen-
tral vesicle, for instance, exceeding by four or five times the magnitude
of the blood particles, has been provided with primitive molecules, the
globules, on the contrary, enclosing this vesicle being entirely destitute
of them. — Plate 7, fig. 21.

Here and there, however, when the secretory process had been re-
tarded, or when a more difficult parturition produced metritis, the cen-
tral vesicles were found in the yellowish- white lochial discharge on the
5th and 8th days after parturition, and even beyond that time. — Plate 7,
figs. 14, 17.

Of Dysenteric Mucus.

Mucus, discharged from the intestine in the commencement of the
dysenteric process, is limpid, easily drawn into threads, scarcely differs
from the mucus produced from a mild diarrhoea ; but the dysenteric
process increasing, reddish and very thick mucus is evacuated. The
red colour is caused by a mixture of the red particles of the blood with
the mucus produced from inflammation of the mucous membrane. In
the acme of the disease, the mucus is seen altogether as green ; it no
longer encloses globules of blood, but white, almost pellucid, globules
deprived of all primitive molecules, having large central vesicles filled

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS. 201

with the smallest molecules, (I have observed this form in the lochial
discharge of a puerperal patient. — Plate 7, fig. 21, and in the purulent
exudation of recent purulent peritonitis, fig. 56.) I have, moreover, be-
held peculiar green bodies intermixed with the dysenteric mucus.
See the explanation of Plate 7, fig. 25.

OF SPUTA.

The mucus ejected from coughing differs according to the character,
extent, and stage of the pathological process ; hence I shall first speak
of the sputa from normal inflammation ; secondly, of sputa from anoma-
lous inflammation, and also on the appearance of sputa produced by the
tubercular process.

Of Sputa generated by Normal Inflammation.

Sputa produced in the commencement of a catarrhal affection of the
air-passages, are found to be white, pellucid, thin, easily drawn into
threads, and here and there they disclose within themselves a few small
flocculent greyish nubeculse. The quantity of these sputa bears a direct
relation with the extent of the pathological process.

Investigated by the aid of the microscope, the white pellucid fluid
contains a very few round globules, filled with primitive molecules, and
many cells of nucleated epithelium ; the globules as well as the cells
appear immersed in the pellucid fluid (proper mucus), but the greyish
flocculiare composed of copious round globules filled with primitive
molecules, and linked together with the proper mucus.

The catarrhal process increasing, the greyish flocculi receive an in-
crease, which at length, from a yellowish-white, become tinged of a
deeper yellow colour; the more the flocculi increase, the more the quan-
tity of white fluid mucus decreases, the sputa becoming globose, and
extremely tenacious.

The flocculi, investigated under the microscope, are composed of
round globules filled with primitive molecules and a central vesicle.
These globules appear linked with extremely tenacious mucus ; but the
white mucus (properly mucus), is a white amorphous substance, easily
drawn into pellucid threads, which disclose cells of nucleated epithelium,
and a few globules of a yellowish-white colour, endowed with the
smallest molecules and a central nucleus. The inflammatory process
decreasing, the quantity of globular sputa decreases ; they acquire a
somewhat whitish colour, until, the inflammatory process being'finished,
all yellow secretion ceases.

202 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS.

Microscopico- Chemical Investigation.

The globules contained in yellow mucus, consist of smooth, very
thin envelopes, in which again primitive molecules, and a single or
double central vesicle are seen. The magnitude of the globules exceeds
by six or eight times that of the blood- discs ; but the diameter of the
central vesicles scarcely equals it.

Globules exposed to distilled water increase in volume, although they
may all have been freed from the adhering mucus, the envelopes break,
the central vesicle and primitive molecules remaining. — Plate 7, fig. 24.

Acetic acid 1,030 dissolves the envelopes and primitive molecules,
but the central vesicles remain intact, aye and more than this, they are
seen more clearly, but their number increases from one to six. — Plate 6,
fig. 82.

Oxalic acid dissolves the envelopes, the central vesicles from two to
five in number remaining. — Plate 6, fig. 85.

Tartaric acid quickly dissolves the envelopes ; the central vesicles,
observed of a white colour, remain.

Diluted nitric acid 1,170, corrugates the globules, and tinges them
of a deeper yellow colour. — Plate 6, fig. 83, a.

Diluted hydrochloric acid 1,070, corrugates the globules.

A dilute solution of the nitrate of silver 1,075, corrugates the co-
verings of the globules, and leaves them tinged of a yellowish colour. —
Plate 6, fig. 84.

Concentrated solution of nitrate of silver 1,275, at first dissolves the
coverings and the primitive molecules, the central vesicles remaining,
from one to four being seen clearly ; but in a longer time the central
vesicles themselves become dissolved.

Solution of pure potash 1,350, dissolves the globules, and a white
pellucid mucous fluid remains.

Spirit of caustic sal ammonia 0,980, produces no change.

Lime water occasions no change.

Spirits of wine 0,830, contracts the globules.

In crude pneumonic sputa, white, irregular, turbid particles are found
intermixed with mucus, which are composed of an entire patch of cells
of non-nucleated epithelium, joined to each other in symmetrical order,
on whose surface irregular globules (plastic exudation) are found. —
Plate 6, fig. 86.

Tenacious mucus of yellow globose sputa, which embrace or enclose
the globules above described, appears, when submitted to the micro-
scope, white, almost pellucid, and free from globules.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS. 203

Distilled water does not produce any change in it.

Treated with nitric acid 1,170, it forms yellow filaments, decussating
among themselves in different directions, and marked with irregular,
obscure margins. Plate 6, fig. 83, b.

The same happens if it have been treated with hydrochloric acid,
1,070.

Solution of nitrate of silver 1,075, forms filaments, which after a little
time are dissolved.

Contentrated acetic acid 1,030, T

Solution of oxalic acid, > Occasion no change.

Solution of tartaric acid, J

Of Sputa generated by Anomalous Inflammation, and from the Tubercular

Process.

Sputa generated by the tubercular process, differ according to the
nature, the extent, and the stage of the disease.
The tubercular process is three-fold : —

1. Miliary tubercular process.

2. The tubercular process of infiltration. And,

3. The tubercular process, forming solitary tubercles, distinguishing
by turns the characteristic sputa which each process forms.

Of Sputa ejected from the process forming Solitary Tubercles.

A solitary tubercle, generating in the texture of the coats of the air-
tubes, or in the cellular tissue surrounding the bronchi or blood-vessels,
only affects the pulmonary secretion so as to increase it, and also presses
upon the coats of the intermediate and capillary blood-vessels, as well as
upon those of the minute bronchial ramifications, so much so as to impede
or totally put a stop to the circulation of the blood, as well as air in
that small portion of lung lying next the tubercle ; the product gene-
rated from the irritation of the mucous membrane, differs in no respect
from that of a mucous membrane irritated by the application of cold,
therefore there is as yet no qualitative difference between the sputa of
an incipient catarrhal process, and those of a commencing tubercular
process ; but a quantitive difference is given, for the sputa ejected from
an incipient catarrh, are more copious than those which were expec-
torated from the irritation of a solitary tubercle.

The tubercle increasing the quantity of sputa increases until the
tubercle becomes softened, which having taken place, besides the con-
cocted or puri-form sputa, there are found yellowish-white and finely

204 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS.

granulated particles mixed with the white mucus ; or, yellowish -white
oval lenticular particles, whose longest diameter scarcely exceeds the
half of a Viennese line adhering to the bottom of the smooth vessel in
which the sputa are accumulated.

It is seen by the microscope, that these yellowish- white particles are
a compound of roundish or ovate lenticular spheres, gashed globules,
and mucus. The lenticular spheres are from the same size to ten
times larger than the globules of pus ; they present, for the most part,
a smoothish surface, and in almost all, obscure striae, running concen-
trically, are detected. — Plate 6, fig. 89. Some of these spheres are
fissured once or oftener from the periphery towards the centre, the broad-
est part of the fissure continually decreasing, until it altogether ceases
far in towards the centre. — Plate 6, fig. 90. They are easily broken,
and break with angular margins, Plate. 6, fig. 91 ; whereas, if one look
closely at the face of the fracture, he will perceive the lenticular sphere
to be composed of concentric lamellae, resembling a bulb of garlic.
—Plate 6, fig. 92.

The lenticular spheres fall to the bottom in distilled water. Dried
for a long time in air, they are not changed, with the exception of a
slight diminution of their diameter.

They are not changed by distilled water.

A solution of caustic potash dissolves them.

They are in no respects changed by liquid ammonia 0,910.

Concentrated acetic acid 1,030, and solutions of tartaric and oxalic
acids produce no change.

In dilute nitric acid all their diameters are enlarged from three to
five times, and the concentric striae disappear ; they swell like inflated
bladders, become semi-transparent, are bent in a different manner, and
ultimately disappear altogether. — Plate 6, figs. 94, 95.

They are not changed in hydrochloric acid 1,070.

Carbonate of soda, acetate of lead, prussiate of potash, and am-
moniacal sulphate of copper, do not change them.

Solutions of the nitrate of silver 1,275, change them in the same
manner as nitric acid, only they do not disappear so quickly.

Infusion of galls, and pure alcohol 0,830, produce no change.

As long as the softened tubercle shall not have thoroughly been
thrown off, so long are the lenticular spheres mixed with the sputa.

The tubercle being expectorated, the sputa again differ according to
the difference of the pathological process ; for, if the tubercular pro-
cess has been local, the parietes of the cancer secrete globules of pus,
which are ejected in union with the mucus of the irritated or inflamed

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME FLUIDS. 205

mucous membrane of the air-passages, until the contracted parietes and
the cavern, forming a cicatrix by granulation, become consolidated,
the lenticular spheres being no longer detected in the sputa.

But if the tubercular process (the individual labouring from a tuber-
culous dyscrasis), is not quieted by the ejected tubercle, the lenticular
spheres are found constantly intermixed with the sputa.

There are seen in the tuberculous sputa, besides the lenticular spheres
now described, and white tenacious flocculi before noticed, white mucous
and granular-looking shreds. Investigated by the microscope they
contain cells* composed of tetra or pentagonal margins, with obscure or
unequally yellow centres, the striated margins having the diameter and
texture of the intermediate vessels (capillaries). — Plate 6, figs. 87, 88.
Besides these cells, there are here and there found yellow cylindrical
fibres marked with black transverse lines (muscular fibres.) — Plate 6,
fig. 96,

Sputa produced from other inflammations of an anomalous character,
will be treated elsewhere.

Of Urethral Blennorrhcea.

The fluid, which is secreted in the beginning of a catarrhal inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane of the urethra, is white and not easily
drawn out ; contains very few globules which are four times larger than
those of the blood, and composed of a smooth, transparent, very thin
envelope, filled with the smallest molecules.

On the 3rd day of the disease, the secreted fluid is observed to be
thicker, and of a yellowish- white colour. It is composed of numerous
globules, for the most part perfectly round and yellowish -white, which
are transparent, smooth, very thin envelope, the smallest molecules, and
here and there a central ves.cle. — Plate 7, fig. 7.

On the 9th day after the infecting coitus, the puriform fluid in pre-
putial blennorrhcea contains numerous yellow globules, three or four
times larger than those of the blood, some of which are seen composed
of an envelope, and the smallest molecules, others of an envelope, the
smallest molecules, and the central vesicle perfectly round or oblong. —
Plate 7, fig. 8.

On the 21st day, the globules contained in the yellow secretion are
very numerous, and are composed of a smooth envelope, the smallest
molecules, and the central vesicle. They rapidly swell in distilled

* Infiltrated pulmonal cells, (cellulas pulmonales infiltratas.)

206 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

water, the envelope quickly breaks, and the primitive molecules are
seen accumulated around the central vesicle. — Plate 7, fig. 10.

On the 30th day, the thick fluid is perceived of a yellow colour, and
few globules ; and on the 40th day after the infecting coitus very few
globules, and those for the most part ruptured, are found in the white
and thinnish fluid.

(To be continued at p. 225 .)

anfc £3flbstract£ from ^foreign

[From Mullers Archives, 1842.]

Meyer on the Existence of a Distinct Membrane surrounding the Yelk
in the Ova of Mammalia. — Repeated observations made principally on
the ova of the pig, have satisfied Dr. H. Meyer of the existence of a
peculiar yelk membrane. He found this fact to be most clearly
demonstrated in ova taken from ovaries which had been a few hours in
alcohol.

The appearances upon which the existence of this membrane is pre-
sumed are as follows : —

1 . The yelk granules are not in immediate contact with the inner
surface of the chorion, but cease with a regular border, at a greater or
less distance from it. — 2. The interspace thus formed is filled with a
yellowish granular matter.

Several experiments have proved, that this matter is a distinct mem-
brane.

1. In one instance, on the bursting of an ovum, the yelk granules
passed through the rent in the chorion, not scattered or separated, but
in a mass, which was distinctly seen to be kept together by an envelope,
by which it was attached to the edges of the rent, forming a sort of
hernia ; and within the almost empty chorion, a plicated, pale-coloured
granular looking membrane was distinguishable.

2. Although the presence of the interspace between the yelk and the
chorion does not prove that the former is enclosed in a peculiar mem-
brane, yet it does prove that it is surrounded by something more than
the chorion. That this additional envelope, however, is really a mem-
brane, is proved, partly by the above observations, and partly by the
result of an easy experiment.

3. If a drop of a solution of caustic potass be brought in contact
with an ovum under the microscope, the chorion is very easily dissolved,
yet the yelk remains unaltered ; and it can now be readily proved, that
the yelk granules still retain an envelope, by moving the glass covering
the object, backwards or forwards, or by causing it to make pressure
upon it, and increasing the pressure until the covering is ruptured
and the yelk granules escape, the envelope remaining in the form of a
granular, but otherwise structural membrane.

Dr. Meyer remarked, as had previously been done by Wagner, that

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 207

the space between the yelk and the chorion, or in other words that
the thickness of the yelk membrane was increased by the absorption of
water.

He further observes, that every part of the chorion is equally soluble
in the caustic alkali, which circumstance may conduce to prove that it
is a homogeneous membrane, and not a layer of albumen contained
between two membranes, as some have supposed.

A figure, illustrative of the above described appearance, will be found
in Milller's Archives, Tab. II. fig. 7.

Osckatz on a New Cement or Lute for Microscopic purposes. — M.
Oschatz recommends, as a cement or lute for glasses containing micro-
scopic objects, a composition of sealing wax and whitelead, — and for
the purpose of keeping apart glasses, so as to prevent injury by their
pressure upon delicate objects, — rings made of a vegetable pith, such as
is afforded by the Helianthus annuus or the Chinese rice-paper.

M. O. has also invented, but not described, an instrument for cut-
ting thin and uniform slices of different substances for microscopic
purposes,

Eschricht on Diceras rude. — M. Eschricht, in a letter addressed
to Miiller, regrets the publication of a note of his on the so-called
Diceras rude, (and which appears in our present volume, p. 153.) He
states, that a more attentive examination has caused him to arrive at
very different conclusions on the subject.

The pretended Entozoa correspond in every respect with Sultzer's
figures, but the explanation is altogether wrong, as they are in fact only
parts of the fruit of Morus nigra or the common mulberry.

The letter proceeds then to compare the different parts of that fruit
with Sultzer's figures, and to point out their close correspondence.

[From the Comptes Rendus, June, 1842.]

Gliige on Entozoa in the Vessels of Frogs. — M. Gliige has found,
in the blood of frogs, an entozoon allied to those which constitute
the genus Proteus of Ehrenberg. This animal, the existence of which
in the blood of Salmo fario had already been discovered by Valentin,
(vide p. 87) appeared to M. Gliige to undergo, in the blood of frogs
with which it circulates, metamorphoses similar to those which have al-
ready been announced with regard to other Entozoa.

A second observation of M. Gliige refers to another entozoon, found
in great abundance in the lungs of frogs, the Ascaris nigrovenosus.
M. Gliige considers that the organ, whose situation is indicated exter-
nally by a black line, and which has hitherto been looked upon as the
intestine, is in fact the ovary, and in it ova may be distinguished in
different states of development, sometimes even containing an embryo
coiled up. He has also observed the ova of this entozoon in the lungs
of frogs, in which the adult animal was not present ; and thence con-

208 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

eludes, that these entozoa are introduced in the state of eggs, and pro-
bably by respiration, into the lungs of the frogs infested by them.

Dr. Fick of Marburg describes a case in which he found the nerves
of a diseased limb transformed into adipose tissue.

The disease appears to have commenced in the joints of the tarsus,
and the whole limb to have become much swollen and infiltrated, and
the affection had existed a long time, when it was amputated. Dr. Fick
prepared portions of the Saphenits magnus and Sciatic nerve, several
inches in length, tracing the larger branches as far as possible into the
diseased tissues ; and on careful microscopical examination, he found
an unusual quantity of fat deposited among the fibrillse constituting
the nervous branches ; and on tracing these tibrilla? farther into the dis-
eased tissues, he found them to become fewer and fewer in number,
their place being occupied by fat globules, which, especially in the
smaller branches, appeared to be formed on the inner surface of the
nervous sheath. At some distance from the diseased tissues, many
primitive fibrillae could be observed running through this fatty matter,
which gradually, however, became fewer in number, and finally, in the
whole sheath none were to be observed, it being occupied entirely by
the fat.

Copper t on the Spontaneous Movement of the Sporules of Nemaspora
Incarnata (Pers.)- — It is no longer doubted at the present day, that the
sporules of many Algae, when mature, are endowed with the power of
spontaneous motion, not referrible to any external or physical cause, but
to be considered merely as an evidence of life. Similar motions in the
sporules of Lichens have been seen by M. Link, and especially in the
seed-vessels of Limboria stricta, in which he perceived a slowly pro-
gressive motion, which was still evident in specimens which had been
gathered thirty years.* Meyeri observed, that the sporules of Mucor
mucedo occasionally moved when placed in water. In December of last
year (1840), M, Oschatz showed to M. Goppert, sporules of Phallus
impudicus enclosed in water, and which, although they had been re-
moved from the plant eight weeks, presented a very slow but distinct
rotatory motion, and which continued evident even after they had been
in the water for a whole year.

On the first of October, 1841, M. Goppert placed in water some
filaments of the remarkable Nemaspora incarnata (Pers,), which were
growing upon some willow branches standing in water in his chambers.
The water soon dissolved and washed away the gelatinous matter, which
probably contains the spores, and gives the mould-like form to the
plant, leaving the extremely minute, elongated, and pointed, white-
coloured, transparent sporules, free. They require, for their satisfactory
examination, a power of 250 linear. To his no little astonishment, M.
Goppert observed, that these bodies possessed lively motion, so that
they rotated not only in a horizontal, but also in a vertical direction, and

* Froriep's Notiz. XII. No. 293, p. 104.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 209

had even a power of locomotion, confined, however, to a very small
compass. In the vertical position they assumed the appearance of
black points, so that at first he supposed two sorts of sporules to be pre-
sent, until, upon closer examination, he remarked that the change in
the aspect under which he viewed them gave rise to this deceptive ap-
perance.

He mounted some of these bodies in the manner described by M.
Oschatz, and on 20th of November, or nearly eight weeks afterwards,
the motion still continued as active as at first. Specimens of this plant,
which had been collected in 1822, upon being macerated in water,
afforded the same phenomena, although the motions were certainly less
active.

[From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, April, 1842.]

Unger on the Origin of Spiral Vessels. — In the plant just emerging
from the embryo condition, in which state only can the examination
be made, there are two parts especially, the exact study of which throws
the most light upon the development of the spiral vessels.

These two points are the summits of the stalks, with the buds and
the extremities of the principal and of the lateral roots, — in other words,
the two poles of the vegetable axis.

Before entering, however, into the details of this subject, it is neces-
sary to understand fully the meaning of the expression spiral vessels,
very different views in this respect having been entertained by au-
thors.

In the sense attached to it by the old phytotomists, two sorts of
organs are included ; the one of which is distinguished by the presence
of annular or spiral fibres, and is in the form of a simple annular or
spiral vessel ; whilst the other, instead of simple fibres, has them larger
and more ramified, giving, in consequence, to the vascular membrane, a
reticulated or sieve-like appearance; vessels of this kind have been
denominated reticulated or striated, and of them the true porous ones
are only a modification.

Since all these fibrous tissues are not found, as asserted by Meyen, in
the original formation of the vascular wall, but only become deposited
at a later period, on the originally homogeneous membrane of that part,
it necessarily results, that all the forms of vessels above mentioned,
originate in a similar manner, as far as regards the more essential
points.

Direct observation, and the comparison of younger formations with
those more advanced, indicate that the fibrous tissues belong, in some
way, to a secondary layer, deposited on the primitive membrane of the
vessel, and determine the manner in which this increase in the thick-
ness takes place.

From this it appears certain, that the spiral vessels are not truly
elementary organs, but that they are on the contrary composed of nume-
rous cells, superimposed perpendicularly, and more or less cylindrical or

VOL. II. P

210 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

prismatic, and which, by their junction, form a continued whole ; and
in a morphological point of view, they are distinguished by this alone,
perhaps, from the analogous spiral cells.

Two propositions, then, may be stated : —

1 . That the wall of the vessels is like that of cells originally, homo-
geneous.

2. That the organization of the vessels, at their first origin, consists
in cells arranged in a linear series.

M. Unger's conclusions are founded, principally, on observations upon
the organization of the radical extremity, and especially of that of the
fibrous roots of monocotyledonous plants.

He preferred for this purpose the sugar-cane.

Every fully-developed root presents in its interior a medullary part,
surrounded by a vascular, or ligneous one, and externally a cortical.
All these parts from the summit to the base preserve the same re-
lative position with respect to each other. During the growth of the
root, the medulla undergoes the least change ; the bark rather more, and
the vascular part by far the greatest ; and it is to the changes in this
part that the paper more particularly refers.

The ligneous substance of the root, like that of the trunk, is formed
of vessels and of elongated cells, with walls of greater or less thickness.
In the root of the sugar-cane we observe, near the extremity, eight
larger vessels, distinguishable, in a transverse section, by their size ;
towards the exterior, several others of less diameter are visible, but in
this situation not well defined. At the distance of about a line from
the radicular^ extremity, the number of the larger vessels is nine ; at
about five inches there are ten ; and at the base of a root twelve inches
long, they amounted to twelve. On a successful section of the extre-
mity of the root being made, which should not only divide it into two
equal parts, but should also touch upon one of the eight larger vessels,
no difficulty will be found in recognizing upon the section, the origin
and successive development of these parts. It may then be observed
that the vessels become contracted, by insensible degrees, towards the
extremity of the root ; but that at the same time the cells of which
they are composed, become shorter and shorter, until their width is
more than double their length ; from which point, their transverse dia-
meter rapidly diminishes, and finally their dimensions, in either direc-
tion, are nearly equal ; and they have now become so small, that they
can no longer be distinguished from the adjacent cells.

The extremities of the vessels, however, are not found, as might be
supposed, at the very extremity of the root, but are situated a short dis-
tance from it ; and, what is more curious, the extremities of all the
vessels converge to one point, to reach which they are bent consider-
ably. Moreover, as the rest of the cells composing the tissue of the
radicular extremity, and which, like those of the vessels, are disposed in
linear series, also converge to the same point, it is to be understood,
that not only the vascular, but also the cellular formation of the root
commences in, or starts from this point, which may with some reason be

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 211

considered the punctum scdiens or macula germinativa of the radicle, and
which, in consequence of its being the precise point at which all the or-
ganization commences, is continually in process of development.

The root of Saccharum offidnarum teaches the following facts : —

The cells of the punctum veyetationis, examined under a high power,
are the smallest of the root. Their walls are extremely thin and delicate,
so much so, that no doubling can be seen between adjacent cells. They
contain a homogeneous, non-granular mucilage, which differs but little
from the wall of the cell, and represent in some measure the latter in
an amorphous state. The cavities of the cells are not equal in all, which
would seem to indicate, that in the larger cells partitions are formed which
divide the space into two or more compartments. No traces as yet of
nuclei can be observed, which appear in cells a little removed from this
situation. From this it results, that this point, made up of elementary
parts very small and perfectly homogeneous, is evidently organized,
and that it differs from parts more fully developed, and into which it is
continually being transformed, only by the tenuity of the walls of the
cells, and by their homogeneous mucilaginous contents.

Having thus traced the commencement of the larger vessels, it re-
mains to pursue their development in the ascending scale, and the mode
in which the vascular utricules, by their apposition, constitute a perfect
canal. About 77 millim. from the extremity of the radicle, the vascular
utricules are as wide as they are long ; their walls are of extreme tenu-
ity, and they contain a mucoid matter, beginning to become granular.
At the height of about a line, the cells are five or six times longer, but
have not increased in width. They still contain a mucilaginous mass,
in which, however, traces of organization can be recognized. It be-
gins to coagulate into vesicles, which, when magnified, represent a vas-
cular or cellular net- work. At the height of 12 centim., the length of
the cells is again doubled, while their width remains the same. The
membrane composing them also shows the same homogeneous confor-
mation ; but there are now observable, added to its contents, some
cellular nuclei. It is not till they have reached the distance of four
inches from the extremity of the radicle, that the walls of the vessels
appear of any thickness, and at the same time become furnished with
rudiments of pores. The smaller vessels, however, become more fully
developed, even at the distance of two lines from the extremity. It is
a remarkable fact, that those vessels which soon assume the reticulated
form, present at first, in the form of their secondary layers, only a spi-
ral disposition of the molecules composing them, in which respect they
closely represent the type of simple spiral vessels. The metamor-
phosis in this case is easily explained, by supposing a partial engorge-
ment of the spaces left vacant between the spiral fibres.

At five inches from the extremity, there is at last evident an organi-
zation in the membrane of the large vessels ; nevertheless, even here
the spiral band is not at first present, as in the small vessels, but the
secondary (or internal) membrane is studded with numerous minute
pores, giving to the vessels their reticulate appearance, similar to that
of the porous vessels of dicotyledonous plants.

In conclusion, then, it is assumed that the metamorphosis of vessels
is confined to these points : —

212 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

1. To the enlargement of the cells of which they are composed,
which finally assume 90 times their original length, and 12 times their
original width.

2. To the change of the membrane, which is at first tender and ho-
mogeneous, and finally becomes covered with pores ; this change occur-
ring sooner in the smaller vessels than in the large, where, moreover,
it continues to present a transitory organization under the form of a
spiral band.

3. To the multiplication of the great vessels, which takes place from
8 to 12 by the division of some of them, which division is effected by
the formation of longitudinal dissepiments, dividing them into two or
more parts.

The formation of vessels in general can then be reduced to the fol-
lowing points : —

1. The cell of the vessel at first appears under the form of a cell,
with very delicate walls, the membrane composing which is perfectly
homogeneous, and has not the least trace of striae or any fibrous tissue.

2. Upon the interior of this delicate membrane there is sooner or
later deposited, in the form of superimposed rings of spiral fibres or
reticulated lamellae, a second layer of analogous or identical composi-
tion, or indeed the fibrous tissue, in consequence of the subsequent
deposit of similar material, passes from the spiral to the reticular form.
Simultaneously with this internal deposit, a formation of similar layers
on the external surface occurs from the thickening of the walls of the
contiguous elementary organs, and which determines the disposition of
the perforated places.

Finally, the secondary membrane does not begin to be formed until
the cell of the vessel has nearly reached its full development.

Pay en on the occurrence of Crystalline Deposits in the Tissues of Vegeta-
bles.— A short notice relative to Payen's observations on the occurrence
of crystalline deposits in the tissues of vegetables was given in our first
volume ; but as the subject is one of considerable interest, especially
with reference to the mode of secretion of inorganic crystallizable mat-
ters in living bodies ; and as the facts observed by Payen relative to the
manner in which this secretion occurs in vegetables, appear to bear
some analogy to those which have lately attracted attention with respect
to the secretion of salts and other inorganic matters, by the mucous
membranes of animals, we have thought it would not be uninteresting
to give a more complete abstract of the results of Payen's observations,
taken from a report upon his memoir, by M. Mirbel, in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelles, December 1841.

Previously to Payen, M. Meyen had observed, under the epidermis of
various species of fig, masses of crystallized mineral substances, sus-
pended by a cellular cord in the interior of large utricules ; but Meyen
was deceived in some respects in what he saw. He conceived that the
crystallized mass contained a thick kernel of gum, and that the crystals
of mineral matter enveloped this kernel, an error which he would not

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 213

perhaps have committed, had he invoked the aid of chemistry. M. Payen,
however, has succeeded in determining the nature of the crystallized sub-
stances, their position, and the mode of their formation, not only in the
genus Ficus, but in other Urticacea, and in many other plants of diffe-
rent families. These productions are not formed simply of a crystallized
mineral substance, but contain besides an organic tissue which secretes
the mineral matter in solution, and becomes the matrix in which this
matter is afterwards crystallized. It is consequently evident, that the
apparatus must exist before the crystals are apparent. This apparatus,
placed in the centre of a large utricule, is composed of two parts, dis-
tinct in their structure and function. The one is composed of a tissue
in all respects similar to that surrounding it, and constitutes a cellular
cord, attached by its superior extremity to the inner surface of the epi-
dermic layers. The other part is a delicate tissue of cells, so minute
that they appear scarcely more than points, and so numerous, that by
their aggregation they form a mass of considerable size, suspended like
a chandelier, at the end of the cord, in the cavity of the large utricule.
The progress of vegetation produces no appreciable modification in the
cord itself ; but this is not the case with regard to the delicate tissue
which secretes the carbonate of lime. The vacuities of this organ,
become gradually filled with a solution of the salt, which soon crystal-
lizes ; and there are now apparent on the exterior cellular layer, the
minute mamillary projections, sometimes angular, which Meyen, in his
ignorance of the presence of the delicate cellular tissue, mistook for an
envelope of bare crystals, deposited on the surface of the central gummy
mass which he supposed to exist. The above description applies to
many species of the Urticacece ; but it must be remarked, that the same
arrangement is not found in all the plants in which crystals have been
observed. Those, for instance, of the Cannabis sativa and of the Brous-
sonetia papyrifera, are suspended from the inner wall of the utricules
composing the hairs of these two Urticacece.

M. Payen has described and figured the incrustations of carbonate of
lime, which are met with in the stalk of Chara. He describes them as
lodged in a superficial cellular tissue, containing much azote, and which
envelopes the tubular utricules, disposed in a circular series, around the
great central cavities.

The very different forms assumed by the crystals of oxalate of
lime, and the position which they take in a great number of stalks and
leaves, merit particular attention. This salt has been found in small
agglomerations of acicular crystals, radiating from a common centre
in the parenchyma, and around the nervures of the leaves of many
plants. It occurs in rhombic crystals of a certain size in the parenchyma,
of the leaves and under the epidermis of Citrus, of Limonia, and of
Juglans regia, and in still larger masses in the Cacti; and M. Payen
remarks, that there is a great analogy in the forms of crystals in the
more allied species, citing as examples of this, Opuntia, Echinocactus,
Cereus, Cactus, and Rhipsalis.

Every phytologist has observed the minute needle-shaped crystals
named Raphides. They are so slender, that under a magnifying power
of 300 diameter, they present to the eye of the observer merely

214 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

linear traces. The delicate experiments of M. Payen, aided by micro-
scopic observation, have proved that the oxalate of lime, of which these
acicular crystals are composed, is lodged in very minute cells, joined
end to end in a linear series ; and, consequently, that when the salt
is dissolved, the membranous sheath which contained it becomes a flex-
ible filament.

From this it is evident, that under the influence of the vegetable
organism, the same crystallizable matter, oxalate of lime, may assume
forms of great diversity, by the varied arrangement of its integrant mole-
cules. M. Payen has, by incineration of the organ secreting the oxalate
of lime, obtained a result no less remarkable than the above : he found
that the cells which form the matrix, when destroyed by combustion,
left on the plates of glass a silicious skeleton, which, under the micro-
scope, was seen to retain the form of the organic tissue. Fragments of
the stalks of Graminece, of Equisetaceff, of Cactus, and of various leaves,
petals, and grains of pollen, subjected to washing with acid, and to inci-
neration, presented the same phenomena ; delicate traces of silica repro-
ducing the minutest details of the organization.

M. Payen, from these and similar researches, deduces the following
law : —

" That mineral substances contained in vegetables, even when they assume
polyhedric crystalline forms, are not isolated or scattered at hazard, but are
always deposited in the cells of an organic tissue, which determines and
limits their agglomeration."

Ehrenberg on the Paper-like Substance from Silesia. — At the meeting
of the Berlin Academy, 24th June, 1841, "M. Ehrenberg read a report
upon the paper-like substance from Silesia, of 1736, which had been
sent by Prof. Goppert from Breslaw."

The Academy had commissioned the author, on the 4th of March, to
report upon this substance which had been sent to it for examination
by M. Goppert.

Since the microscopical analysis of the meteoric paper which fell in
Courland in 1686 in a snow storm, and which was found to consist
merely of a paper-like web of terrestrial Conferva and Infusoria, it has
appeared advisable to the author to institute a comparison between
this and other similar and purely terrestrial phenomena which have
been authentically recorded.

A similar appearance was especially that of the formation of a paper
and a kind of wadding, which was left upon the surface of low-lying mea-
dows and fields in Silesia, upon the subsidence of a great flood of the
Oder, which lasted all the summer, and broke down the dykes in more
than sixteen places. This caused so much distress in the country, by
its preventing the growth of the later grass, that it excited great atten-
tion ; and it was thought fit to send some of the paper-like substance
to Vienna for the inspection of the Emperor.

This account is given by Dr. Kundmann, who then lived in Bres-
law, in a work entitled, " Rariora Naturae et Artis," &c. — P. 556.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 215

The occurrence in later years, of similar formations near Sabor and
Freiberg, has also excited considerable attention, and these substances
have been exhibited to the Academy.

In order to determine how far this meteoric paper may have been
brought, by perhaps some hurricane, before it fell in Courland, and
whether it may not have been brought from a very distant part of the
earth, the reporter, in his account of it, desired that the old collections
in Breslaw might be searched for larger masses of the substance, in or-
der to ascertain whether flowers or seeds of some known plants might
not be interwoven with these leaves, which is said to have been the
case originally, from which the true origin of this substance might with
certainty be ascertained.

Prof. Goppert, correspondent of the Academy, has undertaken this
scientific task, and has hitherto been unable to find in Breslaw any
more of the paper of 1686 ; but he has discovered in the library of St.
Bernhardin, two large pieces of natural paper, from which he surmises
that they originated in the misfortune of 1736. This mass, which is
composed of interwoven Conferva and grass leaves, is about 34 feet
long, and from 2 to 3 feet wide ; on one side smooth and of a brownish
ash-grey colour, and on the other of a greenish red -brown. This latter
side is loosely interwoven with grass leaves, and has entangled in it
small shells of the genus Planorbis, arid other remains of minute aquatic
animalculse. The grey side is more compact, like grey blotting-paper,
and contains small grass leaves. The grey smooth side is clearly the
upper, and is somewhat bleached by exposure to the rays of the sun.
The looser, green side is the under one, which had been in contact
with the grass of the meadow. — (For the microscopical analysis of this
substance, see p. 59, Vol. II. of this Journal.)

Werneck's Microscopical Observations and Descriptions of New Genera
of Infusoria. — At the sitting of the Berlin Academy, Nov. 25th, 1841,
M. Ehrenberg presented to the Academy, by desire of Dr. Werneck of
Salzburg, an extensive series of new microscopical observations upon
descriptions of Infusoria.

These observations first allude to the little that has been done, for
the last eleven years, in the advancement of our knowledge of the true
anatomy of these beings. They are considered by M. Ehrenberg to be
extremely accurate and important ; and at the end of the account is
given a list of some new genera of Infusoria of both classes, which we
have subjoined : —

I. POLYGASTRICA.

I. CALIA. — Nestermonade.

Char. Gen. — Monades gelatina inclusse (Pandorinae) plantis aqua-
ticis affixae, nee libere natantes. — Duae species.

II. ERETES. W. — Rudermonade.

Char. Gen. — Phacelomonades loricatae. — Una species.

216 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

III. ANCYRIUM. W. — Ankerfuss.

Char. Gen. — Bodones enterodeli, pede setaceo mobili (Bodo grandis)
eique affines. — (6 ?) species.

IV. STEPHANOMA. W. — Kranzkugel.

Char. Gen. — Pandorina, animalculorum serie circular! unica, cor-
pusculis singulis ad Gonii modum dividuis. — Una species. Eximiee
formse genus.

V. DICELLA. W. — Doppelbart.

Char. Gen. — Bursaria setis duabus immobilibus appendiculata. —
Una species.

II. ROTATORIA.

I. MALACOSTOMUM. W. — Weichmund.

Char. Gen. — Notommatae edentulse. — Tres species.

II. BROCHOCERCA. W. — Schlingenfuss.

Char. Gen. — Monocercae pede setaceo basi fisso. — Sed hae formae
a Monocercis satis gravibus notis vix differunt. — Quinque species.

III. RHYNCHOPOGON. W. — Riisselbart.

Char. Gen. — Diglenae rostro bilobo insignes. — Duae species.

Ehrenberg' s further results of his Researches into the Berlin Subterra-
neous Living Microscopic Organisms. — At the sitting of the Berlin Aca-
demy, Nov. llth, 1841, the author made the following communica-
tion : — One of the most striking circumstances with regard to the
Berlin deposit of Infusoria, part of which are still in the living state,
is the fact, that these forms which are thus met with, apparently in a
condition to germinate, being filled with green granules, are for
the most part not to be found living on the surface in the neighbour-
hood of Berlin, although they have been sought for with the greatest
assiduity.

These species were especially Gallionella decussata and G. granulata,
which are very readily distinguished from all other Gallionella by their
regular, shagreen-like surface, and which occur in vast numbers. Both
these species were previously only known to occur as dead shells in the
probably tertiary Bergmehl deposit near Kliecken, and in a similar for-
mation in Greece, as also in a deposit lying under peat in North Ame-
rica. With these were many angular silicious spiculae, similar to those
which have hitherto been observed only in marine sponges.

Latterly, from two quarters, some facts illustrative of these enigma-
tical relations have come to light.

M. Ehrenberg hoped to have been able, in a journey he made in the
summer, to the East-sea (Ost-see) in Mecklenburg, to have cleared up
this phenomenon, by the finding of similar forms in the sea- water at that
locality, or in the brackish water of the marshes ; but nothing similar

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. '217

to them occurred to his observation. But, on the other hand, he un-
expectedly obtained the explanation he had hitherto sought in vain,
by the assistance of Professor Howeger of Berlin, who furnished him
with some mud from the Peene, at Wolgast in Pomerania.

In the Peene, near Wolgast, not far from the sea (Ost-see), and which
also is in the district of the Oder, there are found many of the species
which are met with living in the Berlin deposit. They are here found on
the surface of the river's bottom, and especially the two characteristic
GaUionellcB, mixed with many various living marine animalculse. It is
thus rendered certain, that these species belong to brackish-water, or at
least to river- water, with an admixture of sea- water.

They are not found in the bed of the Elbe near Cuxhaven.

It also appears, from a figure by M. Turpin, in his " Rapport sur
une Note de M. Dujardin, sur I'Animalite des Spongilles," in the
Comptes Rendus, 1838, p. 556, that there is near Paris a species of
fresh-water sponge hitherto confounded with Spongilla lacustris, which
has its silicious spicula furnished with spines, whilst in the northern
species none but smooth spicula are met with. Consequently, some
of those forms of spicula which have been ascribed to marine
sponges, may in reality belong to fresh-water species, whose existence
still remains unknown.

The Parisian Spongilla, in which M. Dujardin imagines he has ob-
served animal life, is not in fact Spongilla lacustris, but should have
another name, and for it M. Ehrenberg proposes the name of Spongilla
(Badiaga) Erinaceus.

Moreover, there are in the Berlin deposit three distinct kinds of
spinous spiculse, none of which altogether resemble M. Turpin's figure,
and which are probably all marine.

The report concludes by mentioning the occurrence of a bed of
earth containing blue phosphate of iron, mixed with Infusoria, in a part
of the great deposit ; and, finally, by stating that the geognostic rela-
tions of the Infusorial bed are determined with certainty. It rests im-
mediately upon brown coal sand (Braun kohlen sand), and is covered
by loam, which has upon it the (Murkischen sand) above both alluvial
deposits or mud.

D'Orbigny's List of the Foraminifera of the Chalk of England. —
M. Alcide D'Orbigny, in his paper " Sur les Foraminiferes de Craie
Blanche de Bassin de Paris," published in the " Memoires de la Societe
Geologique de France, 1840," enumerates, describes, and figures the
following species of Foraminifera he has met with in the chalk of Eng-
land. For the sake of those of our readers interested in this branch of
inquiry, we extract the names of the species described by this observer,
and append the references to the descriptions and figures, which are to
met with in the work above cited : —

1. Dentalina sulcata.— D'Orb. p. 15. PI. I, figs. 10, 11, 12, 13.—

Length, 2 to 3 millim.

2. - — gracilis.— D'Orb. p. 14. PL I, fig. 5.— Length, 1 and 1|

millim.

218 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

3. Dentalina aculeata.—D'Orb. p. 13. PI. I, figs. 2, 3.— Length, 3£

millim.

4. Marginulina trilobata. — D'Orb. p. 16. PL I, figs. 16, 17.— Length,

2 to 3 millim. (Found only in a young state.)

5. Cristellaria rotulata. — D'Orb. — Lenticulites rotulata. Lam. 1804.

— Diameter, 2 millim.

6. Rotalina Voltziana. — D'Orb. p. 31. PL II, figs. 32, 33, 34. — Dia-

meter, |- millim.

7. Micheliniana.— D'Orb. p. 31. PL III, figs. 1,2, 3.

8. umbillcata.— D'Orb. p. 32. PL III, figs. 4, 5, 6.— Diameter,

Y millim.

9. crassa. — D'Orb. p. 32. PL III, figs. 7, 8.— Diameter, 1

millim.

10. Cordieriana.— D'Orb. p. 33. PL III, figs. 9, 10, 11.

11. Globigerina cretacea.— D'Orb. p. 34. PL III. figs. 12, 13, 14.— Dia-

meter, i millim.

12. elevata. — D'Orb. p. 34. PL III, figs. 15, 16.— Diameter,

% millim.

13. Truncatulina Beaumontiana.—Wib. p. 35. PL III, figs. 17, 18, 19.

— Diameter, \ millim.

14. Rosalina Lorneiana.— D'Orb. p. 36. PL III, figs. 20, 21, 22.— Dia-

meter, \ millim.

15. Clementiana— D'Orb. p. 36. PL III, figs. 23, 24, 25. — Dia-

meter, i millim.

16. Bulimina variabilis. — D'Orb. p. 40. PL IV, figs. 9, 10, 11, 12. —

Length, 1 millim.

17. obtusa. — D'Orb. p. 39. PL IV, figs. 3, 6.— Length, |millim.

18. obliqua. — D'Orb. p. 40. PL IV. figs. 7. 8. — Length, 1 millim.

19. Murchisoniana.— D'Orb. p. 41. PL IV, figs. 15, 16.— Length,

-| millim.

20. Gaudryina pupoides. — D'Orb. p. 44. PL IV, figs. 22, 23, 24.—

1 millim.

21. Textularia turns.— D'Orb. p. 46. PL IV, figs. 27, 28.— Length, 1*-

millim.

22. Lituola Nautiloidea. Lam.— D'Orb. p. 29. PL II, figs. 28, 29, 30, 31.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

July 20th, 1842. — /. S. Bowerbank, Esq., in the Chair.

AT the meeting of this Society a paper was read by Mr. John Quekett,
" On the peculiar arrangement of the Blood-vessels in the Air-bladder
of Fishes, and on the evidence they afford of the true function of that
organ." The author, after alluding to three principal modifications of

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 219

the air-bladder in fishes generally, went on to describe that of the cod-
fish, which he stated to be a thick muscular bag, without any opening
externally, and provided, on its ventrical aspect, with a highly vascular
body, which has been supposed to perform the office of secreting the
air contained in the bladder. The author described the minute distribution
of the vessels in this so-called gland, the capillary system of which was
composed of a great number of parallel vessels, aggregated together in
bundles, and forming loops at the free surface of the gland ; and in the
other part of the bladder the arrangement was also remarkable for the
parallel manner iu which the vessels were disposed in this fish ; three, but
in others as many as six vessels, ran parallel to each other. The fact of
the air-bladder being subservient to the function of respiration, was sup-
ported to a certain extent, by the distribution found in the anterior com-
partment of the air-bladder of the eel. In this fish the vascular net-work
approached more nearly that of the cellular lungs of the Batrachia than
any other class of vessels. The author concluded by stating, that the
probable use of the gland in the closed air-bladders might be not that
of secreting air, but of keeping in a pure state the air already there, as
those fish provided with a gland generally live in deep water, and
from having no outlet to the bladder, are unable to change the contents,
should they become impure. The paper was accompanied with injected
specimens, and with diagrams of the most important parts alluded to by
the author.

fKemoranfla.

Cantor on the Infusoria met with at the mouth of the Canton river. —
From comparison with M. Ehrenberg's great work upon Infusoria, it
would appear that most of the forms observed at the island of Lantoa,
situated at the mouth of the Canton river, and at Chusan, also inhabit
Europe. The new forms added, as " dubia," are those to which Dr. C.
has found none corresponding among Ehrenberg's. To G. W. Grant,
Esq., an indefatigable microscopical observer, who kindly examined the
sketches and notes made by Dr. C. of Chinese animalcules, he is in-
debted for the following list of forms described byM. Ehrenberg, which
Mr. Grant has recognized as also occurring in fresh water in and near
Calcutta : —

Sphferosira volvox. Naviculafulva.

Closterium turgidum. turgida.

Euglena longicauda. Vorticella patellina.

Epipyxis utriculus ? Coleps hirtus.

Arcelina aculeata. Lepadella emarginata.

Arthrodesmus quadricaudatus. Brachionus urceolaris.
Micrasterias hexagona.

From what has been stated, it will appear, that Indian forms (to
which may be added a few Javanese), prevail in the fauna of Chusan,
and that European forms make but a secondary feature. — Annals of Na-
tural History, July, 1842,;?. 361.

220 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

H assail on Showers of Pollen. — The American Journal of Science and
Arts for January, 1842, (p. 195), contains some interesting remarks re-
lative to two showers of pollen, one of which fell at Troy, New York,
the other in the harbour of Picton, a portion alighting upon a vessel in
the harbour on a serene night in June, and having to be collected and
thrown over by the bucket-full in the morning. A small quantity of
each of these powders was preserved and sent to Prof. J. W. Bailey, to
submit to microscopic examination. This gentleman ascertained, that
the powder which fell at Picton was wholly composed of the pollen of a
species of pine, and that from Troy was made up of pollen from various
trees ; but Prof. Bailey was not able to state positively what plants fur-
nished it. Figures of the three forms of pollen granules met with in
the powder from Troy, accompany Prof. Bailey's letter. From an exa-
mination of these, I find that two of them are to be referred to some
Endogenous plant, one of them most probably to a species of grass, the
other perhaps to the genus Nymph&a, and that the third form is un-
doubtedly the pollen of an Exogen, not unlikely to be the Cory Ins.
Prof. Bailey thinks, that no part of the powder can be sporules of Lyco-
podium ; because, he remarks, our species of that genus do not flower
until July or August, whereas the powder in question fell in May. I
arrive at the same conclusion, but for a different reason ; the sporules of
Lycopodium do not present at all the structure of any one of the three
figures. — Ann. Nat. Hist. June, 1842,;?. 353.

Phillips on the Microscopic Structure of Coal. — A paper was read
before the Geological Section of the British Association, in which Mr.
Phillips observed, that there was no difference of opinion as to the vege-
table origin of coal, but only as regarded the circumstances under which
those vegetable masses were accumulated. In order to determine this,
several modes of investigation might be followed, one of which was, to
examine the coal itself, in order to ascertain the nature of the plants of
which it is composed. In the microscopic examination of polished
slices of coal, by means of transmitted light, some results had been ob-
tained by Mr. Hutton of Newcastle ; these observations had not been
published, but he believed Mr. Hutton had detected a cellular structure
in the substance of the Northumberland coal, which at first sight might
be imagined vegetable cells. These cells had been supposed to contain
much, if not all the gas of the coal ; and in this respect the Northum-
berland coal differed from the anthracitic, in which the cells were empty.
It had been his intention to employ some of the ingenious processes
recommended by Mr. Reeve, who had discovered the means of making
fossil vegetable tissue apparent to the senses by a process of combus-
tion ; but having lately observed something remarkable in the combus-
tion of Staffordshire coal, he was induced to examine it microscopically,
without waiting to adopt any more refined process. He observed that
the ashes of wood and peat differed in appearance and structure ; and
this Staffordshire coal, which did not cake, but burned to a white ash,
resembled in its combustion the laminated peat of the north of England,
or the compact black peat of Dartmoor. Upon examining these ashes,
he found abundant traces of vegetable structure, consisting of small por-

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 221

tions of woody tissue imbedded in other tissue, apparently of plants much
lower in their organization. He had also detected traces of structure
in the ashes of anthracitic coal received from Sir H. De la Beche. Mr.
Phillips considered this evidence rather in favour of the view that coal
was in a great measure formed by plants growing on the spot, and not
by drifting ; the evidence of such drifting was formerly much stronger
impressed upon his mind ; but he had met with many phenomena, and
this amongst them, which tended very much to diminish the force of his
former conclusions. — Athenceum, July \Qth, 1842.

Hassall on the Growth of the Conferva . — The rapidity of the growth
of most species of Conferva, has been a subject of surprise to many ob-
servers of nature, and the explanation which 1 am about to offer of the
causes of this very rapid growth, has not, that I am aware of, been
before noticed. Most, if not all, the Conferva appear to me to increase
in two ways : first, by the continued growth of the free extremities of
the different filaments ; this method is obvious, and need not be in-
sisted on. Secondly, by the repeated growth and subdivision of each
cell entering into the formation of the filaments. I long suspected the
existence of this mode of development, but was first convinced of its
reality by an examination of those species of the genus Conjugata of
Vaucher, distinguished by the presence of spiral tubes winding round
the interior of the cells, and especially of the one named Conjugata
princeps. If the filaments of this species be carefully examined and
contrasted together, it will be seen, that in some the length of the cells
only just exceeds their diameter, and that each cell contains three spiral
tubes, which together perform from seven to eight turns in each, the
coils almost touching each other ; that in others the length of the cells
is more than three times the diameter, but that still each cell contains
only the same number of spiral turns, viz. seven or eight, which now,
instead of being nearly in opposition, are widely separated, thus plainly
proving the elongated cells to be derived from the growth of the shortest
ones. And again, it will be noticed in others, that the cells have re-
turned to their original length, but that each now contains only three
or four spiral turns, thus manifestly proving the division of the elon-
gated cell, and completing the chain of evidence which establishes to
demonstration the existence of the mode of growth to which I have
referred in the section of the genus alluded to. The number of spiral
tubes varies in this and other species in different filaments, but not in
the same : and this makes a corresponding difference in the length of
the joints or cells, which are longer if there be four or five tubes instead
of three. The proofs now to be adduced, that this mode of growth like-
wise takes place in all Conferva which are composed of simple un-
branched filaments, a large class, are little less conclusive than those
first commenced. In most of the filaments of these, the cells will be
observed to be of various lengths, some twice as long as others, and
these again of very intermediate length. Now, by means of this law of
growth, this variation in the length of the cells is at once and satisfac-
torily accounted for, which is not to be done in any other way. But
this is not all : the progress of the formation of the septa which divide

222 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

the cells, may be frequently traced either in the same or different fila-
ments, which is alone sufficient to establish the reality of the existence
of this law of increase in this numerous section of the class Conferva.
The only Confervas to which I should for a moment hesitate to apply
this method of development, and I believe that it is applicable to them
likewise, are the branched species, to which such a means of increase is
less necessary, seeing that, unlike those with simple unbranched fila-
ments, they have innumerable terminal points of growth. Now I beg
to lay particular stress on this law of development, which is evidently
very important, inasmuch as it not merely goes to account for the rapid
growth of many species of Conferva ; for it is simultaneously in opera-
tion in each of the many hundred cells of which each filament of most
Conferva is composed ; but it likewise teaches us that much caution is
requisite in determining species, as it proves that the character most
relied on for this purpose, is one subject to very great variation ; that
is, the length of the joints. There is a limit, however, to this law of
development, which does not, in the section of the genus Conjugata, to
which reference has been made, allow of more than one or two divisions
of each cell, unless, indeed, the spiral tubes grow likewise in an equal
ratio, which may be the case, and then the division of the cells may be
frequently repeated. In those Conferva which do not contain spiral
tubes, the multiplication of the cells may go on to an almost endless
extent. To illustrate the importance of attention to this law of develop-
ment in determining species, I may observe, but for this timely discovery,
I should have described several species of Conjugata as distinct, which
are really not so, considering the length of the cells and number of
spiral tubes in the interior of each cell to be the most decided charac-
ters whereon to found specific differences. They are not so, however,
one of the most certain being the diameter of the filaments. But,
carying this law in view, it is not difficult to estimate the extent of
variations in length to which the cells are subject, first as ascertaining
what the primary length of the cell is. In the branched Conferva, there
are laws of development, some of them peculiar to each species, presid-
ing over the arrangement of the branches and cells, which have hitherto
escaped the scrutiny of man. — Proc. Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., June 1st,
1842, quoted in Ann. Nat. Hist., July, 1842, p. 431.

Griffith's Observations on Santalum, Osyris, and Isoetis. — In Santalum
the ovulum consists of a nucleus and an embryo-sac, prolonged both
beyond the apex and the base of the nucleus ; the albumen and embryo
are developed in the exserted part above the septum ; the mass of the
embryo is developed directly from the vesicle, which is the termination
of a pollen tube ; the seed (albumen) has no other proper covering
than the incorporated upper separable part of the embryo-sac.

In Osyris the ovulum is reduced to a nucleus and an embryonary
sac, prolonged exactly in the same directions as in Santalum, but not
to such a degree anteriorly ; this anterior portion resembling exactly
the unchanged part of the sac of Santalum below the septum. The
albumen and embryo are formed outside the sac, and are absolutely
naked, or whatever covering they may have, did not enter into the
composition of the ovulum.

MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA. 223

Mr. Griffith adds, I have lately looked at Isoetes capsularis, Roxb. ;
it is an instructive plant, for it shows that botanists are mistaken in
their supposition as to the male. In Roxburgh's plant the contents of
the sporangium are sometimes of two sorts, but both have the same
origin, both are precisely similarly constituted, except perhaps as to
contents ; and the largest of these, the males of authors, become after-
wards like the others, but larger. There can be no doubt that in all
these plants the true sporules or seeds are thus produced by division of
an original simple cell or its contents. Isoetes and Azolla prove, too, a
thing of some importance, that the dissimilar organs which have so
puzzled botanists may have a similar origin. The true male of Isoetes
will probably turn out to be the oblong, cordate, fleshy laminae above
the female. On the male my observations were stopped by indisposi-
tion. As a male it is certainly anomalous ; it is probably, I conjecture,
developed originally within the leaf, and the scale between it and the
female is probably analogous to the indusium of ferns. The most in-
structive plant is Anthoceros (which is not a Hepaticd), for this may
explain Ferns, by showing that a pre-existing organ, to be acted upon
by the male influence, is not necessary. Endlicher says Isoetes has no
stomata ; De Candolle figures them in his " Organographie ;" in /. cap-
sularis they are very evident : no matter whether emerged or submerged,
all plants having a cutis have stomata. — Proc. Linntean Society, Dec.,
1841.

Valentine's Supplementary Observations on the Development of the Theca,
and on the Sexes of Mosses. — The author commences his letter by sta-
ting, that subsequent observations have induced him to concur entirely
with the views of Professor Mohl as to the sporules of Mosses being
developed by four in a mother cell, a fact which he was led to doubt in
his former communication, printed in the 17th volume of the Society's
Transactions. The present paper contains a detailed account of the
development of the theca in (Edipodium Griffithianum, which exhibits a
beautiful example of the tetrahedral union of the sporules. In this moss
the four sporules in each mother cell are piled on each other so as to
form a cone with a triangular base, and they appear to be connected
with each other in the young state by a very minute stalk which is
situated at the conjunction of three radiating lines. This connexion is
perhaps in most instances dissolved at an early period, and the sporules
recede a little from each other, but are still kept in the triangular form
by the mother cell. It is not uncommon, however, to find the con-
nexion unbroken after the sporules have arrived at maturity, and in these
instances there seems to be a general adhesion at the opposing faces of
the sporules.

The author concludes his paper with some remarks on the analogy
that exist between sporules and pollen, which, he observes, is so re-
markable, and the particulars so numerous, that the essential identity
of the two can be scarcely a matter of opinion. — Proc. Linn. Soc.t
1839.

224 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

Dissecting Instruments to use with the Microscope. — A small scalpel
with a thin and narrow blade, whose edge is curved backwards, and
two common needles, very sharp, and fitted into handles like that of
the scalpel, are all the instruments required for the microscopic dissec-
tion of organs. The scalpel is used for dividing, and the needles for
separating and clearing the parts, and for bringing them into contact
with the re-agent employed, or into the field of the microscope. A few
small hooks may also be provided, attached to threads having a small
leaden weight at the end, for the purpose of stretching membranes
which are submitted to observation. When the object under examina-
tion is immersed in an acid, small wires of platina are used in place of
needles.

Dropping Tubes. — These are glass tubes drawn out to a capillary
opening at one end by the lamp ; and they are used for placing on the
object-holder a drop of the re-agent whose action is to be examined,
and which has been introduced through the same end by sucking.
They may be prepared very easily by heating the middle of a piece of
glass tube till it be softened sufficiently to be bent, and after it is cold,
applying the flame of the lamp to one of the branches at a short dis-
tance from the bend. When it is quite red hot, laying hold of the two
ends, they are to be drawn asunder, when the softened part will be
drawn out till it becomes capillary ; and if broken off at a convenient
length, it will be found pervious. — Raspail's Organic Chemistry.

Harrison on Transverse Strife on Navicula Hippocampus. — In our last
number we noticed the existence of distinct longitudinal striae on this
species of Navicula. Our attention has since been directed to transverse
striae on the same species by Mr. Harrison of Hull. We can with him
testify their presence, after some considerable patience and manipula-
tion as regards the modification of the light. They are more evident in
the single shell, not mounted in Canada balsam, than in the slide in which
they are set up in that menstruum.

Grimelli on the Vascular Structure of the Iris. — In the Annali Univer-
sali, 1841, M. Grimelli has published an article on the structure of the
iris. By injections of coloured oils thrown into the carotids, he has
been able to inject the interior of the eye, and all the vessels of the iris.
During his injection he has seen the iris swell, and from his observations
on the direction and form of these vessels, he believes that that mem-
brane is of a vascular, and not of a muscular structure. — Lond. and E din.
Month. Jour. Med. Science, Jan. 1842, p. 58.

[If we mistake not, the late Sir Astley Cooper demonstrated this fact
some years since ; the specimens are, we believe, still to be seen in the
Museum left by that distinguished anatomist.]

Busk on the Hairs of Animals. — The references to the figures in
Plate 2, will be given in the continuation of Mr. Busk's paper " On the
Structure of Hairs and other Cuticular Appendages in various classes of
Animals.— No. 2, page 225.

Microscopic Journal. Vol. II. PL

pJ224: Bvwk on, the.Ma.wy of Arvt'mMLn.

225

XXXIII. ON THE STRUCTURE OF HAIRS AND OTHER CUTICULAR AP-
PENDAGES IN VARIOUS CLASSES OF ANIMALS. No. 2.

By George Busk, Esq., Surgeon to the Hospital Ship,
Dreadnought, #c.

THE hairs figured in Plate 2. accompanying the present number of
the Journal, are those belonging to animals in the following classes of
Mammalia : —

I. RODENTIA.

Rabbit— figs. 5, 7, 15, 24.

Rat— figs. 14, 18.

Musquash (Mus. Zibeth. Gm.)— figs. 13, 22, 23.

Hare— fig. 10.

II. CARNIVORA.

1. Digitigrada.

a. Viverrine.

Ermine (Putorius. Cuv.) — figs. 1, 2, 12.
Stoat or Fitch (Putorius ? Cuv.)— figs. 4, 6, 9.
Sable (Mustek. Zibell.)— figs. 3, 21.

b. Feline.

Cat— fig. 17, 20.

Ocelot (F. Pardalis)— fig. 11.

Tiger (F. Tigris)— fig. 16.

c. Canine.

Dog (Canis Fam.)— fig. 19.

2. Insectivora.

Mole (Talpa)— fig. 8.

The hairs of the Rodents here figured, farther corroborate what was
advanced in the former notice on this subject (p. 33), namely, that in this
class the hairs are furnished in the interior, with distinct, regular, colour
cells, in which only, is the colouring matter of the hair deposited. In
fig. 15, the white hair of a rabbit, the cells will be observed to be quite
empty; and in fig. 24, which is taken from a hair partly black and
partly white, some of the cells are empty, while others are more or less
filled with black matter.

VOL. II. Q

226 ON THE STRUCTURE OF HAIRS.

In the smaller hairs of the animals belonging to the feline tribe,
nearly the same regularity of formation and disposition of cells in the
interior is observable ; but this regularity is not preserved in the larger
ones, as it is for the most part in those of the Rodents. Indeed, the
cells appear to become obliterated in most of the larger hairs, as in fig.
16. The cells, also, in this tribe, as in the Canine, assume more or less
of an angular form, and do not appear to be exclusively the seat of the
colour, as in the former class. Whether, in fact, the cells in these hairs
do really contain colouring matter, I have not positively ascertained.
In the smaller hairs of the Viverrine tribe, the same regularity of form
and arrangement of cells obtain ; they are, however, usually empty,
and in the larger hairs, they coalesce into an irregular cellular texture,
as in figs. 4, 9, 13, 22 ; but in the sable, one of this tribe, they retain a
more regular arrangement, but still less so than is the case in the larger
hairs of Rodents. In this tribe, also, the whole of the colour is not ex-
clusively confined to the cells, but pervades the horny tissue of the
hair, as may be seen in the black hair of the tail of the ermine. A
striking difference between these hairs of the Carnivora above men-
tioned, which have distinct cells, and in this respect resemble the hairs
of Rodents, and those of the latter class, exists in the circumstance of
the former having the surface covered with regularly imbricated scales,
very strongly marked, as seen in figs. 4, 9, 17. In the larger hairs,
however, in which also the internal cells are irregular or deficient, the
scaliness on the surface no longer retains, in all cases its regularity and
distinctness, as in figs. 6. 13, 16, 23.

The hair of the mole, the only insectivorous quadruped I have yet
figured, has the distinct, regularly- arranged colour cells of the Rodent,
but which, even in the larger hairs, are still in a single series, their
width increasing in proportion to that of the hair, from side to side of
which they always reach, and are not multiplied as in the latter.

The hair of this animal is also peculiarly characterised by the unila-
teral, toothed appearance, owing to the projection on one side only of
the hair of the surface scales.

(To be continued.)

227

XXXIV. MICROSCOPICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MOR-
PHOLOGY OF SOME OF THE ANIMAL FLUIDS, BY DAVID GRUBY, M.D.

No 2.

Translated from the Latin by 8. J. Goodfellow, M.D., #e.
[Continued from page 206.]

OF PUS.

I HAVE considered the following questions concerning pus, which
are sufficiently trite, indeed, but as yet have not been performed
with the penetrating examination which the difficulty of the subject
required, in order to ascertain : —

1 . What is understood by the name of pus ?

2. If a material difference can be shown between pus from a wound
(pathological organ), and pus from the surface of an organ whose con-
tinuity is uninjured ?

3. Whether a material difference is to be observed between pus and
mucus ?

4. If the product from the commencement of suppuration to the ter-
mination of the process be always the same ?

5. What material changes are observed between pus produced from a
normal process of suppuration, and that produced from an anomalous
process.

Pus secreted by an abscess is a yellow fluid, of an agreeable animal
odour, of the consistence of cream ; that from the process of inflamma-
tion or irritation is composed of globules three or four times larger than
those of the blood, and a fluid. Allowed to rest, a double stratum is
perceived, the upper one being very fluid, the lower thicker.

The inferior stratum, submitted to the microscope, is perceived to be
endowed with yellowish-white, and perfectly smooth globules, joined
together by a viscid fluid. The globules exceed in size three or four
times those of the blood ; most of them are round, some are oblong,
others wedge-shaped. They consist of a transparent envelope, with
usually one, sometimes two, but seldom with no vesicle enclosed in
them ; the diameter of the central vesicle scarcely exceeds that of the
blood- discs, the remaining space is filled by the small and large primi-
tive molecules.— Plate 6, fig. 97.*

* Gerber thinks that pus-globules secreted from wounds, are nothing more than
exudation-globules, which lie beyond the vivifying influence of the surface of the

Q 2

228 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

The coverings exposed for a long time to distilled water, perceptibly
swell, and are ultimately broken, the central vesicle, surrounded by the
primitive molecules, remaining ; but this being deficient, the congregated
primitive molecules alone remain. — Plate 6, fig. 97, m, n.

Globules exposed for a long time to the air have yellow polygonal
margins, which surround a white pellucid space. — Plate 6, fig. 98.

Acetic acid sp. gr. 1,030, renders the globules diaphanous, the co-
verings sensibly vanish, with from two to five nuclei, which at first were
not clearly seen, remaining ; the nuclei, which have an amber-yellow
colour, are round, and their magnitude is in indirect relation to their
number. Hence, when you perceive five nuclei, their diameter scarcely
exceeds one-third of that of the blood-globules ; but when two only are
seen, their diameter exceeds the half of that of the blood- globules.

The nuclei within the margin have a black ring, and within this
they show another black ring, enclosing a central lucid spot. — Plate
6, fig. 99.

The nuclei swim together in a certain symmetrical order in the sur-
rounding fluid, which being evaporated, they disappear, and nothing
except the rudiments of the envelopes, previously softened in acetic acid,
again comes into view ; they bear an irregular angular or spherical
figure, with a very thin black or punctated margin, showing in their
centre a white pellucid spot surrounded by extremely fine points. —
Plate 6, fig. 100, a and b.

Oxalic acid produces the same change as acetic acid.

Tartaric acid quickly produces the same changes.

Solution of caustic potash 1,350, quickly dissolves the globules,

wound, and exposed to the influence of external agencies, and therefore forsaken,
as it were, by the organizing principle, begin to degenerate in their organization, and
to suffer changes in their chemical constitution, whilst those that continue in imme-
diate contact with the living structures of the body, advance in their organization :
those globules that are cast loose then die — mors vitae origo.

" On the exudation-globules that are free, a number of delicate lines, radiating
from a centre, are first perceived, which divide their peripheries into from six to
eight (seldom more) segments ; these lines become more and more distinct, and the
capsule appears as if it were torn or cleft, but without separation of parts ; in many
globules, too, the nucleus now appears inclined to fall into from two to three pieces ;
the originally reddish -yellow colour of the globules fades, the segments of the enve-
lope and divisions of the nucleus, which had been linear and sharp in appearance,
become rounded off till they appear like aggregated granules, whilst the pus, now
completely formed, acquires a greenish-yellow hue." — Berber's Elements of Anatomy ,
translated by Mr. Gulliver.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 229

and form a white fluid resembling mucus, which is easily drawn into
threads, and when dried, no form is any longer seen.

Caustic ammonia does not change the globules.

Diluted nitric acid 1,170, corrugates the envelopes of the globules,
and forms one contracted central nucleus, which is distinctly to be seen.
Plate 6, fig. 102.

Diluted hydrochloric acid 1,070, like nitric acid, corrugates the en-
velopes, and one moderately clear and contracted nucleus is seen.

A solution of nitrate of silver 1,275, renders the coverings trans-
parent, the remaining contracted nucleus being clearly seen. — Plate 6,
fig. 103.

In alcohol 0,830, the envelopes of the globules become corrugated, the
nucleus, when there is one only, equals twice the diameter of the blood-
globules; or when three nuclei are found, they are even five times
smaller than the blood- globules. — Plate 6, fig. 101.

The upper stratum is more fluid, is endowed with much fewer glo-
bules of pus, and a greater quantity of the white pellucid fluid. The
fewer globules it contains the whiter is the colour, and the more of fluid
(serum) is contained, the more fluid the stratum is found to be.

In large subcutaneous rheumatic abscesses, the different fasciae, cel-
lular tissue, and the smaller vessels and nerves, are found infiltrated
with pus.

Globules of pus found in the parenchyma of organs, evidently sepa-
rate its fibrils and fibres one from another and surround them ; hence
the colour of the parenchyma is changed to yellow, reddish-yellow,
brownish-yellow, greenish -yellow, according to the quantity of pus-
globules and the colour of the organ in its healthy state : thus, for ex-
ample, cellular tissue, which is white, when infiltrated by pus, becomes
yellowish- white, or from white, greenish-yellow. — Plate 10, fig. 64.
The liver, also, when infiltrated with pus, from reddish-brown, becomes
yellow ; the kidnies, from red, change into a yellow colour. By this
infiltration, the texture of organs loses much of its cohesion and tena-
city, the organs are consequently rendered friable and soft, until the
number of the globules shall have so increased, that the lacerated fibrils
completely dissolve, and, mixed with pus are enclosed by the surround-
ing texture, which is as yet firm. This state of things is called an ab-
scess. Some of the globules of pus which have been shut up for a long
time in an abcess, are composed of an envelope filled with very small
molecules, others of the small molecules only. — Plate 10, fig. 61.

But the globules taken from a metastatic abscess, thirty -six hours after
death, were destitute of all covering, — Plate 10, fig. 62. Globules taken

230 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

from an abscess of the liver thirty-four hours after death, consisted of an
envelope filled with the smallest molecules. — Plate 10, fig. 63. Pus from
a wound suppurating torpidly for twenty years, with a base furnished
with hard and long granulations, was yellowish-white, contained a few
globules, and a great quantity of cells of epithelium in different states
of evolution. — Plate 9, figs. 54, 55.

Exudated purulent peritoneal fluid of a yellowish -green colour, besides
globules of pus with an envelope filled with small and large molecules,
contained other globules which were destitute of all covering, and trans-
parent, and of epithelium, beset with larger molecules. — Plate 9, figs. 56,
58 ; Plate 10, fig. 59.

The yellow flocculi swimming in peritoneal exudation, are composed
of coagulated fibrin, enclosing globules of pus. — Plate 10, fig. 60.
Recent peritoneal exudation, Plate 9, fig. 56, contains globules whose
central vesicle is provided with the smallest molecules.

OF VARIOLA.

1. — Modified Variola.

Of the material changes which we find in the products of this patho-
logical process, some take place during the formation of papulae, or of
vesicles, and others during the formation of pustules.

Being preceded by three days of inflammatory fever, the red spots, in
about twenty or thirty hours, appear changed into papulae ; and the
limpid fluid, in small quantity, which was extracted from the affected
epidermis, offered an alkaline re-action ; under the microscope, a few
larger, white, almost pellucid globules appeared in it, together with ani-
malcules composed of a globose or conoid trunk, very thin neck, which
was crowned with a small hook, with which they exercised a continu-
ous motion, by turning the neck forwards and backwards. — Plate 9,
fig. 42.

On the third day of the eruption, the limpid fluid extricated from the
papulae, contained, besides the molecules, a few pellucid globules, ex-
ceeding by two or three times the size of the blood globules, abounding
with primitive molecules, which scarcely exercised any molecular
motion. The animalcules, at one time curved, at another conoid or
cylindri-form, the hook being retracted, sometimes exercise a very
quick circular motion.— Plate 8, fig. 31 ; Plate 9, fig. 43.

The molecules without the globules are of different sizes ; the small-
est which are visible scarcely exceed the -^th, the larger Ta7 — ^V^8' and

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 231

the largest T5^ — ffiha of the size of the blood discs. The smallest glo-
bules scarcely exceed in size •££ — T§-ths of the blood- globules. — Plate 8,
figs. 29, 30.

On the fourth, fifth, and sometimes on the sixth days of the eruption,
the limpid fluid which is found in the vesicles in small quantity, presents
globules almost pellucid, with large and small molecules, and here and
there they are provided with central vesicles. — Plate 8, figs. 31, 35, 36 ;
Plate 9, fig. 45. The molecules which fill the globules exercise a powerful
motion even with the envelope broken, (the envelopes are not easily bro-
ken.) Animalcules and small globules, as above described, also appear.

On the fourth, fifth, and sometimes on the sixth and seventh days of
the eruption, the fluid contained in the vesicles, has an alkali like
the serum of milk. The globules of pus turgid with the larger mole-
cules, are increased in number, and exhibit a yellow colour. Globules
destitute of molecules are seldom seen in this fluid, and the molecular
motion is very evident. In fat individuals, there is sometimes found
in it a globule of fat. In some, large, round, or oval globules are
seen, exceeding in size the globules of pus four to six times, endowed
with the larger molecules, and of a marked yellow colour. The enve-
lopes of some of the globules of pus are more quickly broken, and
conoid and cylindrical animalcules are also seen. — Plate 8, figs. 32,
37.

On the fifth, sixth, and sometimes on the seventh, eighth, and ninth
days of the eruption, the fluid in the pustules becomes thicker, and of a
deeper yellow colour, and has scarcely any perceptible alkaline re-action.
It contains many yellow globules, the envelopes of which are easily
broken. Some of the globules are destitute of all envelopes ; but the
more the pustules approach the stage of exsiccation, the more intensely
the globules are marked of a yellow colour, and the quicker the enve-
lopes are broken : hence they become irregular, some corrugated by
drying ; others, their envelopes being broken, dissolve, and the mole-
cules which they enveloped, I have observed, dispersed without order.
The molecular motion at length ceases, and with the fluid may be mixed
recent and older cells of epidermis ; this continues until all the fluid
which held the globules and molecules suspended in it is evaporated,
and inflammation having ceased, is not renewed. Hence a thick pus is
continually secreted, until ultimately this becomes dried, turns into a
hard crust, which we believe to be made up of a compound of small
and large molecules, a few globules of pus, conoid animalcules, and
dried cells of epidermis.— Plate 8, figs. 33, 34, 38—41 ; Plate 9, figs.
47—50.

232 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

2. — True Human Variola.

True human variola seldom occurs among us. I have observed this
severe pathological process in one individual only. The pellucid
lymph from papulae, here and there broken, contains, on the seventh day
of the disease, white globules, not perfectly round, but fimbriated on
one side as if torn from the place of their growth, [exceeding by four
or five times the magnitude of the blood-globules, and which we ob-
served to be provided with a pellucid covering and very small molecules.
There are, moreover, formed in this fluid, small white or yellowish
globules, and also a few globules of the blood. — Plate 9, fig. 52.

Death, which put an end to the disease on the following day, pre-
vented, to my sorrow, any ulterior investigation.

OF LYMPH AND PLASTIC EXUDATION.

The plastic lymph, an integrant part of the living blood, united to
serum and the red particles, constitutes blood. The living blood cir-
culating in the organism, when investigated by the microscope, appears
composed of two elements : —
a Of globules ; * and,

b Of a pellucid fluid, in which the globules float ; the liquor san-
guinis : —

Fresh blood taken from the circulatory passages, received in a suffi-
ciently deep vessel, and kept at rest for some time at a moderate tempe-
rature, coagulates, and its constituent parts separate from each other.

The globules, on account of their great specific weight, fall to the
bottom ; but the liquor sanguinis also divides : —

1st. Into plastic lymph (fibrin) which coagulates, and united with the
globules forms the clot, but accumulated on the surface without globules,
forms the so-called phlogistic, bufty crust ; and,

2dly. Into serum, in which the clot floats.

The globules of the blood are again endowed : —

1st. With an envelope ; and,

2dly. With a nucleus.

* Particles or discs would be the more correct appellation for these corpuscles,
since all recent microscopical observers agree in opinion that they are not globules ;
but, as the author in the original work has given to them the name globuli, the
Translator, from a wish to deviate as little as possible from the literal translation, has
allowed it to remain.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 233

The envelope of the globules is a red substance, soluble in water, from
whence the blood takes its red colour, and is called cruor (haematosin) ;
but the nucleus is not soluble in water ; it is white, and is called fibrine.

The plastic lymph, on account of its lighter specific weight, coagu-
lates, and constitutes the superior part of the clot (namely, the so-called
phlogistic or buffy crust), exhibiting a yellowish- white colour, and is of
very firm consistence, tenacious, elastic, and transparent.

The blood coagulating quickly, offers no phlogistic crust, for the glo-
bules of the blood, on account of the more rapid coagulation of the plastic
lymph, are not permitted to fall to the bottom ; hence they become sus-
pended by it, and do not change the place which they occupy. They
tinge the clot in every part of a red colour ; hence, on account of the
equable distribution of the plastic lymph, the clot preserves an equable
tenacity and firmness in every part.

The serum of the blood, extricated from the clot by the coagulation of
the plastic lymph, appears of a greenish- white colour, and is a thin and
transparent fluid. Blood, quickly coagulating, extricates but little of
the serum, because a part of the serum remains shut up in the plastic
lymph ; the quicker, therefore, the coagulation of the blood, the smaller
the quantity of serum which is extricated ; and, vice versa, the slower
the coagulation, the more of the serum is extricated, (i. e. in blood
free from any dyscrasy) ; so that the quantity of serum extricated is in
direct relation with the quantity of phlogistic crust ; for when there is a
large phlogistic crust, then there is a large quantity of serum, and when
there is no crust, then but little or no serum is extricated.

Blood stagnating in the heart and large vessels, life being extinct,
separates in the same manner into its constituent parts, viz., into clot
and serum, the clot, as in vessels out of the organism, adapting itself
to the form of the vessels in which it remains. In the heart and
large vessels it forms oblong, globose, cylindrical, or conoid pieces, the
superior part of which, of a white colour and gelatinous, constitutes the
phlogistic crust, composed of plastic lymph ; but the inferior part of
the coagulated blood, of a deep black, is composed of the globules of
the blood. These coagula are called polypi of the heart. The recent
plastic lymph of these polypi, investigated by the microscope, is com-
posed of soft, very thin, transparent fibrils, running in a straight and
parallel direction, and enclosing among them very small molecules. —
Plate 10, fig. 65.

The plastic flocculent exudation of purulent puerperal peritonitis, is
composed of plastic lymph and globules of pus. — Plate 10, fig. 60.

The yellowish gelatinous plastic exudation produced from recent peri-

234 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

carditis, is composed of transparent, very thin fibrils, running parallel,
or for the most joined into fasciculi, and also of the smallest molecules
and globules, exceeding by twice or thrice the diameter of those of the
blood.— Plate 10, fig. 67.

The hard, plastic, greenish-yellow exudation from the mucous surface
of the uterus, is also composed of soft, parallel fibrils, intermixed with
numerous molecules, and the globules of pus are seen equally distri-
buted among the fibrils.— Plate 10, fig. 66.

The plastic yellowish- white exudation formed on the external surface
of the heart for three or four days (the villous heart), consists of soft, ge-
latinous fibrils, united into fasciculi, and running in a parallel direction,
which enclose within themselves a few white transparent globules, ex-
ceeding by twice or three times the diameter of those of the blood , and
filled by the smallest molecules.— Plate 10, figs. 68, 69.

The white, somewhat rough, plastic exudation of the villous heart,
formed from the sixth to the eighth days, is composed of roughish, single
fibres, running flexuously. — Plate 10, fig. 70.

The hard, white plastic exudation of the villous heart, formed from
the fourteenth to the twenty-eighth day, is endowed with hard fibres,
forming oblong and round areolae. — Plate 10, fig. 71.

OF THE WHITE PELLUCID FLUID SEROUS EXUDATION.

The limpid serous fluid of a bladder, formed by the application of a
blistering plaster, investigated by the microscope, consists of two con-
stituent parts, viz., a perfectly fluid part, and a few white globules float-
ing in it. These globules are diaphanous, and scarcely exceed twice
the diameter of those of the blood. They are invested with a very fine,
smooth envelope, which includes the smallest molecules. Here and there,
also, globules occur destitute of all covering, and endowed with naked,
very small molecules. — Plate 10, fig. 78.

The limpid serous fluid received from the papulae of modified variola,
contains, besides the larger globules, others in no respect different from
those of the serum.— Plate 8, fig. 29,

The limpid serous fluid extricated from recent infiltration of intestine
of abdominal typhus, contains the same globules of serum. — Plate 10,
fig. 77.

The limpid serous fluid filling the interstices of the fibrils of the
plastic exudation of the villous heart, contains globules not differing
from those of the serum. — Plate 10, figs. 67, 69.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS 235

The white pellucid fluid of a serous cyst (morsus diaboli) con-
tains white, perfectly round, smooth globules, destitute of all co-
vering, smaller, or a little larger than the globules of the blood. — Plate
10, fig. 81.

The white pellucid serous fluid, with which the skin is rendered tur-
gid in oedema, contains white or yellowish globules with stellate points.
—Plate 10, fig. 79.

OF THE ULCERS AND TUMID MESENTERIC GLANDS OF ABDOMINAL

TYPHUS.

(Of Ileo-Typhus — Ulcerous Ileitus — Gastro-enteric Fever, inclining to
Nervous — Gastro-enteritis — Nervous Inflammatory Fever — Versatile
Nervous — Nervous Fever with Stupor.}

Abdominal typhus, that multiform disease, designated by so many
names by the most celebrated authors, has as many forms. In this
place we shall speak of the pathological mutations of the substance
and texture of the inferior part of the ileum ; also of mesenteric glands
adjacent to this, and of the changes in the spleen.

In bodies examined on the fifth day of the disease, besides a turgid
state of the membranes of the ileum, there is seldom any kind of disease
to be seen.

Those who die on the tenth day, besides a turgid state of this
membrane of the ileum, show roughish, somewhat elevated lenticular
or oblong patches, the extent of which exceeds one or two inches, called
crude infiltrations by the most celebrated anatomists. The mucous
membrane covering the lenticular infiltrations, slightly adheres to them,
and is easily removed from the part, and thrown into folds ; but the
mucous membrane lying over the oblong infiltrations, adheres firmly to
them.

The muscular coat is intimately joined to all the crude infiltrations.

The infiltrations thrust forward the mucous membrane, whose sur-
face is equal and smooth, whilst they are lenticular ; but when it covers
the oblong patches, it is uneven and furnished with many small eleva-
tions and depressions. The places which the oblong patches occupy,
correspond to the seat of the glands of Peyer.

The texture of the infiltrated patches is firm, tenacious, white, or
yellowish- white, and a white, limpid, serous fluid is extricated by pres-
sure, which, investigated by the microscope, contains white globules,,
composed of a smooth covering filled with the smallest molecules. The

236 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

globules are round or oblong, and exceed the diameter of the blood-
gobules once or twice. — Plate 10, fig. 77.

The ileum of patients dying on the fifteenth day of the disease, offers
infiltrated patches, covered here and there near the valve of Bauhinus,
with hard brittle greenish, or greyish-yellow, or brownish crusts, the
thickness of the crusts increases to half a line and beyond ; but the
thickness of the infiltrations from half a line to almost two lines.

The crusts investigated by the microscope are composed of a substance
irregularly granulated. They adhere at first firmly to the infiltrated
patches ; but somewhat later they adhere slightly, and are easily sepa-
rated from them.

The slightly adherent crust, being removed, leaves an ulcerous infil-
trated patch, whose margins are hard and elevated, but whose bottom
is uneven, hard, slightly excavated, and covered with a very little fluid
of a greyish colour.

Under the microscope, round white globules are found in the fluid,
of which some are composed of a smooth envelope, enclosing the
smallest molecules, others of the smallest molecules only. Their dia-
meter exceeds twice or four times that of the blood-discs. — Plate 10,
fig. 72.

The infiltrated substance taken from the margins of the ulcer, offers,
under the microscope, conoid or elongated corpuscles, mostly in
the broader part, enclosing a central vesicle, their narrower part is
prolonged into a thin fibril ; intermixed among these, white, trans-
parent, round globules appear, four or six times larger than those
of the blood, and filled with the very smallest molecules. — Plate 10,
fig. 73.

The infiltrated substance taken from the bottom of the ulcer, con-
tains the same microscopic forms, — Plate 10, fig. 74, (depicted close to-
gether.)

The intestines, investigated on the twentieth day of the disease, exhi-
bit few entire, infiltrated patches, but many ulcers, partly covered with
crusts, partly clean excavations already freed from the crusts, the mar-
gins and the bottom being somewhat rough.

On the twenty-fifth day of the disease, the margins are somewhat ele-
vated, the bottom of the ulcers appear but little rough, and here and
there a crust is still found.

Those who die on the thirtieth day, exhibit ulcers with the bot-
tom somewhat depressed, thin smooth margins ; here and there fibres
of muscular membrane appear in the fundus ; in some the bottom is
closed by the peritonaeal membrane ; in others it is perforated, and

MA11TIN BARRY ON FIBRE. 237

a free passage given to the contents of the alimentary tube into the
peritoneal sac.

On the fortieth day of the disease, generally no more ulcers are to be
detected ; in their place, small smooth depressions of mucous mem-
brane are found, provided with no intestinal villi and no follicles ; the
peritonaeal serous membrane investing this small part, is remarked of a
livid colour. The intermediate net- work, covering the depressed patch
of mucous membrane forms oblong and angular areolae.

On the sixtieth day the depressions of mucous membrane are fur-
nished with elongated cylindrical villi, distant from each other, and
also with a few simple and shallow follicles.

The net-work of intermediate vessels forms angular, round, or oval
areolse.

Those mesenteric glands, which lie next the ulcers, most often swell ;
they grow red or livid, are rendered softer or more fluid ; the degree and
extension of the pathological changes in the glands being seldom found
in indirect relation with the changes in the intestine.

The fluid extricated from the tumid, red, and livid glands, and exa-
mined by the microscope, is greyish- white ; it contains, besides some
globules of blood, a good many round, white globules, exceeding in ex-
tent from three to six times the blood- discs, with a smooth envelope
full of the very small molecules. Globules are here found, furnished
with one or more central vesicles. — Plate 10, figs. 75, 76.

The changes of the spleen in abdominal typhus, respecting its increase
of volume ; of absolute and specific weight ; change of density, and co-
lour ; I shall leave to be treated of in another place; here it will be proper
to note, that globules occur in the inflamed (hepatized) substance of the
spleen endowed with the smaller molecules, which are seldom provided
with a smooth envelope, and elongated white corpuscles, the represen-
tation or form of which the reader will find in Plate 10, fig. 62.
(To be continued.}

. OBSERVATIONS ON FIBRE.*

By Martin Barry, M.D., F.R.S.,L. and E.

THE author observes, that in the mature blood-corpuscles, there
is often seen a flat filament already formed within the corpuscle.

* Extracted from the Annals of Natural History, in the Lond. and Edinb. Journal
of Medical Science. In our next number, we intend offering some remarks with
reference to this interesting subject.

238 MARTIN BARRY ON FIBRE.

In mammalia, including man, this filament is frequently annular ;
sometimes the ring is divided at a certain part, and sometimes one
extremity overlaps the other. This is still more the case in birds,
amphibia, and fishes, in which the filament is of such length as
to constitute a coil. This filament is formed of the discs contained
within the blood-corpuscle. In mammals, the discs entering into its
formation are so few as to form a single ring ; and hence the biconcave
form of the corpuscle in this class, and the frequently annular form of the
filament it produces. In the other vertebrata, the discs contained
within the blood-corpuscles are too numerous for a single ring ; and
they consequently form a coil. At the outer part of this coil, the fila-
ment, already stated to be flat, often presents its edge ; whence there
arises a greater thickness of the corpuscle, and an appearance of being
cut off abruptly at this part ; while in the centre there is generally
found the unappropriated portion of a nucleus ; and hence the central
eminence, surrounded by a depression, in those corpuscles which, from
the above-mentioned cause, have the edge thickened. The nucleus of
the blood- corpuscle in some instances resembles a ball of twine, being
actually composed, at its outer part, of a coiled filament. In such of
the invertebrata as the author has examined, the blood- corpuscle is like-
wise seen passing into a coil.

The filament, thus formed within the blood- corpuscle, has a remark-
able structure ; for it is not only flat, but deeply grooved on both sur-
faces, and consequently thinner in the middle than at the edges, which
are rounded ; so that the filament, when seen edgewise, appears at first
sight to consist of segments. The line separating the apparent seg-
ments from one another is, however, not directly transverse, but ob-
lique.

Portions of the clot in blood sometimes consist of filaments having a
structure identical with that of the filament formed within the blood-
corpuscle. The ring formed in the blood- corpuscle of man, and the
coil formed in that of birds and reptiles, have been seen by the author
unwinding themselves into the straight and often parallel filaments of
the clot ; changes which may be also seen occurriifg in blood placed
under the microscope before its coagulation ; and similar coils may be
perceived scattered over the field of view, the coils here also appearing
to be altered blood- corpuscles, in the act of unwinding themselves ; fila-
ments, having the same structure as the foregoing, are to be met with
apparently in every tissue of the body. The author enumerates a
great variety of organs in which he has observed the same kind of fila-
ments.

MARTIN BARRY ON FIBRE. 239

Among vegetable structures, he subjected to microscopic examina-
tion the root, stem, leaf-stalk, and leaf, besides the several parts of the
flower ; and in no instance of phanerogamous plants, where a fibrous
tissue exists, did he fail to find filaments of the same kind. On subse-
quently examining portions indiscriminately taken from ferns, mosses,
fungi, lichens, and several of the marine algae, he met with an equally
general distribution of the same kind of filaments. The flat filaments
seen by the author in all these structures, of both animals and plants,
he states to be that usually denominated a. fibre. Its appearance is pre-
cisely such as that of the filament formed within the corpuscle of the
blood. It is known, he remarks, that discoid corpuscles circulate in
plants ; and it remains to be seen whether or not filaments are formed
also in these.

By gradually tracing the fibre or filament above mentioned into
similar objects of larger size, the author endeavours to show that it is
not impossible to draw a line of separation between the minutest filament,
and an object being to all appearance composed of two spirals running
in opposite directions, and interlacing at certain regular intervals ; an
arrangement which produces in the entire object a flattened form, and
gives it a grooved appearance. It is, in fact, the structure which, for
want of a better term, he has called a flat filament. The edge of this
filament presents what, at first sight, seem like segments, but which, in
reality, are the consecutive curves of a spiral thread. A transverse
section of such an object is rudely represented by the figure 8. This is
also precisely the appearance presented by the minutest filament, gene-
rally termed fibre ; and the author particularly refers to the oblique di-
rection of the line separating the apparent segments in the smaller fila-
ment, in connection with the oblique direction of the spaces between
the curves of the spiral threads in the larger one.

The spiral form, which has heretofore seemed wanting, or nearly so,
in animal tissues, is then shown to be as general in animals as in plants.
Nervous tissue, muscle, minute blood-vessels, and the crystaline lens,
afford instances in proof of this. And if the author's view of identity
in structure between the larger and the smaller filaments be correct, it
follows that spirals are much more general in plants themselves than
has been hitherto supposed ; spirals would thus appear, in fact, to be as
universal as a fibrous structure.

The tendency to the spiral form manifests itself very early. Of this
the most important instance is afforded by the corpuscle of the blood,
as above described. The author has also obtained an interesting proof
of it in cartilage from the ear of a rabbit, where the nucleus, lying loose

240 MARTIN BARRY ON FIBRE.

in its cell, resembled a ball of twine, being composed at its outer part of
a coiled filament, which it was giving off to weave the cell- wall ; — this
cell-wall being no other than the last-formed portion of what is termed
the intercellular substance — the essential part of cartilage. These
nuclei in cartilage, as well as those in other tissues, there is ground for
believing to be descended, by fissiparous generation, from the nuclei of
blood- corpuscles .

The author then describes the mode of origin of the flat filament or
fibre, its reproduction, in various animal and vegetable tissues, which
he enumerates. He conceives that each filament is a compound body,
which enlarges, and, from analogy, may contain the elements of future
structures, formed by division and subdivision, to which no limits
can be assigned.

[Dr. Barry requests us to add the following, in connection with his
memoir on Fibre, an abstract of which is given above.

The " white substance of the nervous fibre," surrounding Remak's
" band-like axis," consists of filaments having the remarkable structure
above described, and often curiously interlaced with one another, as
though each of them had a spiral direction. In examining the substance
of the optic, the olfactory, and auditory nerves, as well as that of the
brain and spinal cord, Dr. Barry employed for the most part such as
had been preserved in spirit ; and, besides using extremely minute por-
tions, he very often avoided adding any covering whatever — the weight
of thin mica itself being sufficient to rupture or to flatten this delicate
substance, and thus entirely prevent its structure from being seen. In
the parts last mentioned, he finds red discs, which pass first into rings,
and then into spirals. In fasciculi from the spiral cord, and surrounded
by spiral filaments, he met with a "band-like axis," which perhaps
corresponds to that of Remak in the nerves ; but if so, Dr. Barry's ob-
servations go farther even than Remak's. The " axis" described by
this observer was found by him to be susceptible of division into fila-
ments. So also is the one described by Dr. Barry. But the latter adds,
that each filament is a compound object, which enlarges, and, from
analogy, may contain the elements of future structures, formed by divi-
sion and subdivision, to which no limits can be assigned. The sper-
matoza, mentioned in the abstract, were from the epididymis of a person
who had died suddenly. The depression noticed in their discoid extre-
mity— corresponding 'apparently to the " sugient orifice" of some au-
thors— is probably analogous to the source of new substance in other
discs. In these examinations, Dr. Barry has generally added to the
objects dilute spirit (sp. gr. about 0'940), containing about a-J^th of

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 241

corrosive sublimate. Spirals from the leaf-stalk of the strawberry,
after the addition of this reagent, were seen to have divided into parallel
filaments having the same structure as those above described. Flax
presented a quadruple coil of such filaments. In early states of volun-
tary muscle also, there were seen double and quadruple coils, evidently
produced by the same means — division. Dr. Barry compares the ap-
pearance of the vegetable " dotted duct," in its several stages, with that
of objects found in mould, in the cornea, in the crystalline lens, and in
voluntary muscle, all of which are produced by associations of minute
spiral threads. The distribution of the remarkable filaments above des-
cribed is so universal, that they are found in silk, in the incipient fea-
ther, in hair, in the feather-like objects from the wing of the butterfly
and gnat, and in the spider's web.

Dr. Barry informs us that he has had the opportunity of showing to
several physiologists the principal appearances described in his memoir
on fibre. And Professor Owen permits him to state, that he has exhi-
bited to him spirals in voluntary muscle, — muscular " fibrillse," having
a flat, grooved, and compound form, — the filamentous structure of
"white substance in nervous fibre," — the vegetable spiral becoming
double by division, — a coiled filament within red blood- discs, — and the
incipient unwinding of the coil in coagulating blood.

<£rtract$ an* 3fostract3 from

[From Mullers Archives, 1842.]

Dr. Vogt makes some observations upon the young of a Filaria
which he found in the blood-vessels of a frog in large numbers, and con-
cludes, from his own and Valentin's observations, that these entozoa
are deposited by the parent in the space between the liver and pericar-
dium, whence they insinuate themselves into the larger blood-vessels,
and circulate with the blood for some time, and are finally deposited
on the surface of the intestines. In this situation they become, as it
were, imbedded, and cysts of effused fibrine are formed around them, in
consequence of the inflammation excited by their presence. In these
cysts they live and grow, until they become mature, when they emerge
from them to deposit their young, which run through the same course.

Herman Meyer on the Structure of the Horny Integument of Coleopte-
rous Insects. — These researches were made in all parts of the horny case of
the Lucanus Cervus. In the natural condition, the substance of this tissue
is so hard and brittle, that it is impossible to procure thin slices of it for

VOL. II. R

242 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

microscopic investigation ; this difficulty, however, is surmounted, if
it is macerated for some days or weeks in a solution of caustic potass,
especially in a warm place. The alkali removes the greater part of a
peculiar brown matter, and leaves the remainder unaltered in form, of a
greyish-yellow colour, and cartilaginous consistence, well adapted for
examination.

It will then be found, that the horny case is composed of three
laminae, viz., an external and an internal cuticle, and a central fibrous
tissue.

The external epidermis is composed of cells, not very closely attached
to each other, about 0.007— 0.010 millim. in length, and 0.005—0.006
millim. in breadth. Their nucleus is a little smaller than the cell itself,
and has one or more nucleoli. The internal epidermis is very delicate,
and the borders of the cells composing it, are with difficulty made out.
They however appear to be more rounded than those of the external
epidermis, and by their more close allocation, assume a more or less hexa-
hedral form. Their diameter varies from the 0.005 to the 0.010 millim.
No nucleus can be distinguished in them ; but instead, a spiculuin pro-
jects in an oblique direction from the centre of each cell.

All these spicula lean in the same direction ; they increase in thick-
ness from their point of insertion to the middle, and thence taper to
a fine point. Their length is about 0.006 — 0.008 millim., and their
greatest thickness 0.002 — 0.003 millim. Both the external and in-
ternal cuticle are formed of but a single layer of cells.

The remaining or central part of the shell will now be seen to be
composed of a transparent material, marked throughout by numerous
dark lines, which are readily ascertained to be formed by several rows
of smaller lines parallel to each other, and placed at regular distances.
The appearances thus afforded are occasionally very elegant. The mass
is readily split into several laminae, the thinnest of which will be found
to be made up of little transparent columns, with sharply defined, dark,
parallel borders. The diameter of these columns is about the 0.008
millim. ; and the above described lines correspond to their borders.
These columns or prisms are connected together by the interlacement
of delicate filaments, which pass very obliquely from the sides of con-
tiguous columns, attaching them to each other. The direction in which
these columns are placed forms an angle of 45° with the surface of the
laminae which they compose. The number of these laminae is very va-
rious ; in some instances as many as sixteen have been counted in the
thickness of the horny case. In portions which have not been mace-
rated in the alkaline solution, a layer of pigmentary matter, homoge-
neous, transparent, is observable between the outer epidermis and the
proper horny substance.

In No. 2 of Miiller's Archives for the present year, is a plate, with
figures illustrating the mode of growth and structure of the confervae
found growing on frogs, salamanders, &c., by Dr. Hannover.

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 243

[From the Comptes Rendus, 1842.]

Schultz's Researches in minute Vegetable Physiology. This work con-
tains : —

1 . New researches on the universality of latex-globules in various fa-
milies of plants ; on the size, form, and quantity of the globules ; circum-
stances upon which the greater or less milkiness of the fluid depends.
The juices become more and more milky in proportion to the increase
in number and diminution in size of the globules, and they are clearer
as the globules increase in size and are fewer in number. Thus the
latex of Musa paradisiaca, which is almost clear, has the largest globules
with which M. Schultz is acquainted; these globules may be compared
to the large blood-discs of Batrachians.

2. Researches into the seat of the various chemical matters in the
latex. The globules contain a kind of adipocire, which he has named
(safifett.) This substance, mixed with other constituents not readily
separable, and principally with the organic substance of the emptied
globule, constitutes what has been hitherto called wax, galactine, and
resin. The globules float in a plastic, coagulable, diaphanous fluid,
(which M. S. names plasma), and which contains caoutchouc, gum,
sugar, and salts. The caoutchouc is formed by the coagulation of the
latex of all plants, whether milky or not, but in variable quantity. The
formation of this substance depends upon the separation, during coagu-
lation, from the juice of a considerable portion of the globules, by the
absorption of a porous substance ; nevertheless, the caoutchouc of com-
merce still contains many globules, which may be recognized in a
lamina submitted to the microscope. The caoutchouc of the figs
(Ficus elastica} is worth nothing, in consequence of its imperfect separa-
tion from the globules, so that they continue mixed in large quantities
with it, and render it tenacious, viscous, and less elastic. M. Schultz
made experiments with the milk of the Palo de Vaca, which he received
from Caraccas, with that of some Euphorbiacece, of Ficus elastica, and of
Asclepias Syriaca, and with the clear latex of Musa paradisiaca, &c.

3. Researches on the transformation of the sap into latex. At first
the sap contains gum, which is converted sooner or later into grape-
sugar, which is again afterwards changed into cane-sugar. In some
plants the gum undergoes but little change, and is always present in
great proportion, as in the vine ; in others, the metamorphosis does
not pass beyond the change into grape-sugar, as in the birch ; and
in others, again, the greater part of the gum is very rapidly converted
into cane-sugar, as in the maple. But the sap of this tree at first con-
tains a large quantity of gum, especially in the autumn, but very little
in spring, so that there is always some grape-sugar mixed with the
cane-sugar.

The gum and sugar remain in the latex, and their solution forms the
fundamental liquid of the plasma, in which the globules are formed
after its aeration, The sap, towards the period at which the buds are
bursting forth, shows a great disposition to the formation of globules.

R 2

244 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

The gum of the latex is, like that of the sap, similar to the gum of
starch. The sugar of the latex is always grape-sugar.

4. New observations on the vessels of the latex and their kinds. In
those plants in which the acid of the latex (which juice always contains
an acid) is the gallic, as in the Musa paradisiaca ; the distribution of the
laticiferous vessels can readily be distinguished without any other pre-
paration, by placing a portion of a living leaf into a solution of a salt
of iron, which blackens the network of vessels, when it has penetrated
the tissues as far as the latex.

5. Observations on the evolution of the laticiferous vessels, in the
cortical layers of trees. Some trees acquire several layers in a sum-
mer ; others require several years for the formation of one, which gra-
dually increases in thickness, and others form an annual layer.

There is a great difference between the mode of formation of the
woody and cortical layers.

6. Observations on the distribution of the latex in the contracted
vessels, and the cellular parenchyma of the medulla, of the epidermis, of
the hairs, &c.

Donne on the Origin of the Blood- globules, their Mode of Formation,
and their Destination. — In blood there are three kinds of particles : —
1st. The red or blood-globules properly so called. 2nd. The white
globules, which have not been well known until lately. 3rd. The chyle
corpuscles.

The red globules are flat in every kind of blood ; they are circular in
that of mammifers ; and elliptic in that of birds, fish, and reptiles. The
elliptic globules alone present a solid substance in their interior : the
existence of a central nucleus cannot be demonstrated in the circular
globules.

Contact with water changes all the blood-globules into small spheres,
and it is to this circumstance, unknown to ancient observers, that we
must attribute the opinion of some of them respecting the spherical
form of the blood-globules of mammifers, as well as the spherical shape
which they supposed was present in the blood- globules of birds at the
time of their formation in the embryo : this shape is only secondary,
and is caused by the water which is made use of to dilute the blood, or
to prepare the embryo of the egg.

The proper blood-globules of mammifers, or the circular globules,
are entirely soluble in acetic acid ; but the proper blood- globules of
birds, fish, and reptiles are only partly dissolved by it ; the internal
substance or nucleus resists the action of this agent. All blood-globules,
whatever may be their shape, or the class to which they belong, are
soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in nitric acid.

The proper blood-globules, or the red globules, appear to be formed
of a flattened vesicle, containing a solid substance or nucleus in the
elliptic globules, and a fluid in the circular ones.

The anomaly which has been remarked in the blood- globules of
CamelidcBy has reference only to their shape, and not to their intimate
structure, which is exactly similar to that of the blood-globules of other
mammifers. The white globules are colourless, spherical, with slightly

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 245

fringed margins, and as it were granular. They are present in the
blood of all animals, and may be seen circulating in the blood within
the vessels ; their number is greater than might be imagined ; they
are burst by water, dissolved by ammonia, and shrivelled by acetic acid ;
they appear formed of three or four solid granules or corpuscles, en-
closed in a vesicle.

These corpuscles measure only -g^th of a millimeter in diameter, and
are exactly similar to chyle corpuscles.

Neither the mode of formation nor destination of the blood-globules
has been hitherto known. The result of M. Donne's researches on this
subject is as follows : —

The blood -globules are not all identical, nor in the same stage of for-
mation ; they do not all resist the action of chemical re-agents in the
same manner ; and the difference of their properties indicates that they
are not all arrived at the same degree of development.

The corpuscles are the product of the chyle constantly poured into
the blood ; these corpuscles unite together by three or four, and become
enveloped in an albuminous covering whilst circulating with the blood :
in this manner they constitute the white globules.

When once these white globules are formed, they gradually change
their shape ; they become flattened, coloured, and the internal granular
matter becomes homogeneous or dissolved ; ultimately they are converted
into the proper blood or red globules.

The red blood- globules themselves have only a limited existence.
They dissolve in the blood at the expiration of a certain time, consti-
tuting the liquor sanguinis properly so called. Certain substances are
susceptible of an immediate change into blood-globules, when mixed
directly with the blood. Milk, which, from its organic constitution, as
well as from its principal elements and physiological properties, has
the greatest analogy to the blood, is best fitted to demonstrate this
change.

Injections of milk into the veins of animals in certain proportions,
produce no ill effect, and the nature of its globules allows us to follow
and to recognize them everywhere.

Besides, observation proves, that these globules injected into the
vessels are immediately changed into blood- globules by the same mecha-
nism which causes chyle corpuscles to become white globules, and these
latter to be transformed into red globules.

The spleen appears specially destined to effect this change ; for it is
in this organ more particularly that we find the greatest number of
white globules, in every state of formation.

The examination of the circulation in the most vascular organs, does
not show that the blood-globules leave their vessels for the purpose of
combining with other organs, or with organic elements ; but the fluid
part of the blood passes through the vascular parietes, and constitutes
probably the essential organizing medium.

In conclusion, young animals, when brought up on other substances
than milk, are less perfectly nourished than those which are left com-
pletely to nature; and the influence of an inappropriate nourishment, may
go far towards altering the shape and nature of the blood-globules.

246 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

M. Tristrans third Memoir on Phytology . — This memoir is confined
to the study of the spiral and large sap vessels.

The author considers that certain spiral vessels have originally been
formed of a simple membrane, which is afterwards cut down into a
helix ; but he maintains that other spiral vessels, or tracheae, are origin-
ally formed by one or more filaments which grow at their extremity,
turning in a helix, and to these there may afterwards be added a mem-
brane, which unites the turns of the spiral. He considers that the
position of the tracheae is too much restricted, when they are supposed
to be confined only to the medullary sheath. He believes that plants
(cifaisceaux didynamesj should be considered as having their tracheae in
the thickness of the ligneous substance. In other plants he shows the
elements of the tracheae (under the name of scattered filaments) even in
the external ligneous layers of the stems of several years growth.

With respect to the sap vessels, he endeavours to recognize the more
essential features of their different forms, with a view to their classifica-
tion, according to a natural method; but there is so much obscurity
still on this subject, that the author conceives that it is necessary to
adhere at present, at least provisionally, to an artificial method, which
he proposes.

M. Arago presented to the academy a microscope, manufactured by
Lerebours, and furnished with achromatic lenses of very short focal
distance, executed by M. Nachet. One of these lenses was ground in
a curve, the radius of which was half a millimetre.

M. Gruby (( On the Entozoa of the Frog, and on some Points in the
Pathology of that Batrachian." . — M. G. remarks that

" The existence of several species of entozoa in different parts of the
bodies of frogs, is known to every one ; he himself has observed them
frequently in the urinary bladder, in the cellular tissue which surrounds
the subclavian veins ; in the lungs ; in the intestines, and in the cellular
tissue of the peritoneum. In the latter situation the worms were
enclosed in small pouches of i to ^ of a millim. The pouches being
transparent, enabled M. Gruby to see the entozoa within them mani-
festing every sign of vitality : these were of the genus Filaria, and their
different parts could be readily distinguished. He saw the ova of this
entozoon not only circulating in the vessels with the blood, but saw
them also in the spinal canal. He observed some Ascarides within the
sheath of the nerves, among the primitive nervous fibrillae. The length
of these worms was from -^ to -^ millim.; their width ^^ millim. :
they were transparent, and moved slowly.

In the lungs, they were lodged in the air cells, surrounded with a
yellowish, firm substance, presenting under the microscope, all the
characters of tuberculous matter.

Desirous of studying the cause of the formation of these tubercles in
the lungs of the frog, he injected ovula into the blood of this animal,
and observed that some were arrested in the capillary net work of the
lungs, and some in that of other transparent portions of the body. He

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 247

was at the same time enabled to appreciate all the changes which the
ova produce in the different tissues, and also the changes which the ova
themselves undergo, and so follow as it were, under the most favourable
circumstances, their developement. Among the embryogenic facts
which he was thus able to determine, he cites the formation of the
three envelopes of the embryo, the manner in which the vitelline cells
become grouped to form the macula germinativa, and, finally, the deve-
lopment of the embryo itself, and the movements it performs in its
transparent ovum.

Observations on the alteration of the tissues in which the ovula may
be lodged, is soon interrupted by the effusion of coagulable matter,
which prevents further microscopic examination. In the lung he
observed the pathological products to be deposited around the ova, and
giving rise in this way to the tubercular appearance mentioned above.

M. Griiby injected the ova of many species of entozoa, but without
success with the majority. He succeeded best with the ova of a species
of Monostoma (Distoma ?) which is frequently found in the bladder of
frogs.

M. Griiby presented to the academy various pathological productions,
chiefly relative to the frog, and the development of which was owing to
the presence of entozoa.

. 1. Pulmonary vesicles, filled with tubercular matter. — This was a
portion of the lung of a frog filled with tubercular matter, presenting
all the physical and anatomical characters of tubercle in the human sub-
ject, and the development of which was the consequence of the deposi-
tion of the ova of entozoa in the lung.

2. Tubercular matter of the pylorus (of the frog?) by which that
orifice was much contracted, and also caused by the deposition of ova
between the peritoneum and muscular coat. And several others which
do not appear to have any connection with this exciting cause.

M. Bourgery's Researches on the Intimate Structure of the Lungs in
Man and the Mammalia. — These researches, embracing many divisions
of the subject, are related in as many special memoirs, and include —

1. The normal microscopic anatomy of the lungs, and its physiologi-
cal application.

2. The morbid microscopic anatomy.

3. Anatomico-physiological inquiries as to the general form of the
pulmonary vessels.

4. Physiological experiments on the capacity for air and the degree
of permeability of the lung to air, under different conditions, in the two
sexes, and at different ages.

The first memoir relates to the first of these subjects, and commences
with the description of the minute anatomy of the air tubes. When
M. Bourgery commenced his investigations, there existed three theories
as to the intimate structure of the aerian capillaries, referred respectively
to Malpighi, Willis and Helvetius. Malpighi (1661), who was the
first to discover the membrano-cavernous structure of the lungs, con-

248 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

ceived that the functional tissue of these organs was formed by an
almost infinite number of orbicular and sinuous vesicles, all communi-
cating with each other. Helvetius (1718), with some difference of view
as to the nature of the tissue, admitted with Malpighi the existence of
cells opening into one another, within each lobule, but denied the com-
munication of cells in different lobules. But, before him, Willis had
represented the pulmonary tissue as being formed of prolongations from
the ultimate ramifications of the bronchial tubes, not communicating
with each other, and which radiate towards the periphery, where they
terminated in a blind extremity. This theory has since gained much
favour, under the name of that of Reisseissen.

M. Bourgery considers, as a previous question of great importance, that
which relates to the mode of preparation of the lungs : Malpighi and Hel-
vetius principally studied the lung when inflated ; Willis, Reisseissen and
his followers chiefly used injection with mercury. These two exclusive
modes of preparation explain the difference in the theories which have
occurred to different observers. M. B. himself has employed all sorts
of injection, but is of opinion that the lung is best studied when dried
and inflated, with the vessels injected, this mode allowing the deeply-
seated canals to be seen, as well as those at the surface, which only, are
visible when opaque materials for injection have been used.

When the lung thus prepared is examined under the microscope, it is
seen to be composed of minute sinuous canals, in the walls separating
which the blood-vessels are situated. The appearance of these canals
is everywhere the same, whatever may be the inclination, with respect
to the pleural surface, of the section by which they are exposed. All
are equally various in direction ; the greater number, however, are more
or less perpendicular to the surface ; but others are occasionally met
with parallel, or horizontal, and being divided longitudinally, present the
appearance of a groove or gutter. All these canals are exceedingly
tortuous, and communicate with each other at their sides and at their
extremities, by a vast number of openings.

Such are, according to M. Bourgery, in general, the true aerian
capillary vessels of the lungs. These sinuous canals, opening into each
other and turning in all directions, forming by their involutions an
intricate mesh, through which the blood-vessels pass, convey the idea
of a minutely divided space with innumerable tortuous branchings, and
uninterruptedly continuous in all parts, having no termination but the
entrance into it, which is at the same time the place of exit : it is, in
fact, the image of a true labyrinth, in three of its dimensions, and this
consideration has induced M. Bourgery to name these tubes the " laby-
rinthine aeriferous canals," in order to distinguish them from the " rami-
fied canals," which constitute the termination of the bronchial tree. In
order to comprehend the latter, we must refer to the mode of composi-
tion of the lobules. Each of these bodies commonly receives a single
central bronchial branch, which forms the common trunk of its subse-
quent divisions, and extends to the peripheric extremity of the lobule.
Starting from this central trunk, which gradually decreases in size, the
secondary ramusculi which constitute the ramified bronchial canals, arise

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 249

in alternate succession, and radiate in a stellate manner ; these are the
ultimate expansion of the tracheal tree. Each of these tubes terminates
in a small irregular, sinuous dilatation, elongated, and either single,
bifid or trifid, pierced in each of its compartments by one or more
orifices of the labyrinthine canals, and opening finally into one of these
which thus forms a continuation of the original canal.

M. Bourgery proceeds to the description of the sanguiferous capillary
system.

There are two kinds of pulmonary capillaries which appear to have a
corresponding difference in their functional destination. The one of these
is formed of an endless chain of annular vessels, and, speaking compa-
ratively, of considerable size. The other consists of a membranous net-
work of very minute capillaries, which .fill the areolse of the larger
vascular rings.

1 . The annular vessels. — These vessels are enclosed between the walls
of the air tubes. Their form and their anatomy are always the same.
A radical arteriole represents a stem, the divergent branches of which
form a cone or tree. Two principal ramifications arise from it and
penetrate the intercanalicular septa " en interceptant un premier canal
retreci dans 1'espace triangulaire qui le renferme," Beyond this they
surround the contiguous (aeriferous) canals by as many polyhedral or
circular rings formed by a single vessel. The same disposition is
repeated at short distances, all the canals being as it were thus sur-
rounded by annular vessels, interposed in their septa, of from -^ to \ of
their volume (T^ to -^ mill.) which anastomose with each other, at the
points where the circular turns touch back to back, or at the points of
intersection. At the other extremities the annular vessels by their junc-
tion again form branches, the inosculations of which constitute venules ;
so that on a section either between two branches arising from an arte-
rial trunk, or from two neighbouring arteries, or in the intermediate
space between the arteries and venules the surface is formed by a net-
work of these annular vessels, communicating with each other, or rather
continuous everywhere without interruption, and becoming less in
diameter from the branches towards the central point of junction. The
general aspect of this surface, penetrated in all directions by the canals,
which are bounded by the vascular septa, resembles a net. The same
disposition obtains at whatever inclination the sections may be made.

2. Net-work of minute capillaries, — This system of minute vessels, is
placed within the membranous wall itself of the aerian capillary canals,
both the bronchial ramified, and the labyrinthine branches. It is
seen then, at the surface separated from the atmospheric air, in the
normal state, merely by a very delicate expansion of membrane, and it
is situated on a plane more superficial, than the annular vessels which
run in the intercanalicular septa.

In order to comprehend this system of the minute capillaries, it is
necessary to consider it under two aspects, first, in minute distinct
fractions, and, second, as a whole.

1st, Considering it in parts. It occupies the areolse formed by the
annular vessels and their anastomosing branches, and forms in the

250 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

internal aerian membrane as many small reticulated surfaces as there
exist polyhedric areolse between those vessels. Anatomically, this net-
work is composed of an uncertain number of minute branches of a third
or fifth of the size of the annular vessels, into which they open at
various points of the circumference of the area enclosed by the latter,
and divide into very delicate ramusculi, which are lost in a net-work of
still more minute capillaries of uniform size, and about y^ mill, in dia-
meter, and by which minute net- work the whole surface is covered.
These capillaries anastomose frequently with each other, and form so
close a texture that the spaces between them, even under high magnify-
ing powers, appear only as points.

2nd. Considered as a whole. The little polyhedric spaces above
described anastomose with each other at their borders, and constitute
by their junction a vast surface of capillary net- work, occupying the full
extent of the pulmonary air membrane.

Intercanalicular septa. — These constitute the intervals which separate
the canals.

Their thickness varies from i to i of the diameter of the canals, and
they are composed of two small (petites) membranes, segments of the
circular walls of two canals, and between them are enclosed the annu-
lar vessels and the minute labyrinthine canals.

M. Dujardins " Complete Manual for the Microscopic Observer." —
This work, which is quite original in the choice of the designs, of
which it is composed, and in the mode of view expressed in these
designs, is intended to show how the details of a great number of
" test objects" may be seen at the present time with the most perfect
microscopes ; and it is at the same time a collection of abundant mate-
rials serviceable for the study of the intimate structure of organized
bodies. The author has attempted to demonstrate by correct figures
the true constitution of the blood globules, or corpuscles, which when
deprived of external membrane, can be agglutinated, drawn out and
deformed in various ways under the influence of reagents ; and has
endeavoured to show that the nucleus which belongs only to the blood
globules of birds and other oviparous animals, is nothing else than the
first degree of alteration. He also believes that he has demonstrated
the true origin of the spermatozoa, or pretended spermatic animalcules.
He has represented the mode in which these bodies originate in the
mucous covering of the tubuli seminiferi, or in mucous globules, which
soon become isolated, and which have been mistaken for vesicles. He
proves also that in certain circumstances, the fibres or lamellae of the crys-
talline lens are transversely striated or grooved, a marked indication of
their contractility. The figures representing the modifications which
the nervous substance undergoes when in contact with water, will serve
to show, as the author expects, the slight foundation upon which is
based the opinion which admits of nervous filaments originally provided
with enlargements (varicose fibres).

A great number of figures are intended to represent the true structure
of the muscular fibre, examined in the whole animal series, and under
different degrees of alteration. Hairs, scales and various epidermic pro-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 251

ductions are the objects of numerous designs, by which it will be shown
that those hairs of vertebrata which continue to grow, are provided with
an external scaly envelope, and that their interior is homogeneous,
fibrous, and sometimes furnished with a canal, whilst, on the contrary,
those of definite growth are hollow in the interior, or provided with
aeriferous cells, as are feathers, the relation of which, to the hairs of
certain Rodents will be easily perceived. The hairs or scales of the Arti-
culata are formed essentially of a flattened membranous vesicle, filled
with air, and more or less folded or striated. Ivory, teeth, the vibratile
cilia of mucous membranes, &c., are also figured as they appear under
an excellent microscope. The author has also represented vegetable
organs and tissues, woody fibre, vessels, starch, pollen, &c. In the exe-
cution of these figures, he has represented the objects, such as they
appear to an experienced eye, through a good microscope with magnify-
ing powers of 300 to 400 diameters. He has been careful to note the
modifications of appearance caused by different modes of £clairage, and
the greater or less distance of the objective. It is known that the
influence of these circumstances may be such that the same object will
appear full or empty, convex or concave, to different observers who do
not pay sufficient attention to them.

Several figures are given of the different appearances which one and
the same object may present under these circumstances.

Report on a Memoir by M. Doyere, relative to the Revivification of
Tardigrada and Rotifera. — Shortly after the existence of swarms of
animalculse in water containing organic matters, had been revealed by
the microscope, the use of that instrument led to the discovery of
another fact, equally unexpected, and more difficult of comprehension,
in as much as it still more widely differed from all the results heretofore
arrived at from the study of animated beings. In fact, by the examina-
tion of dry dust collected from a gutter, Leuwenhoeck ascertained the
existence of an animal which, under the influence of desiccation, ceased
to move, lost its form, and no longer gave any signs of life, and which,
in this condition, appeared to differ in no respect from a dead body, as
it were mummified, by being deprived of the fluids necessary for all
animal existence, and yet which, after having been preserved for a long
period in this dried condition, was restored to life by contact with a
drop of water. Leuwenhoeck did not perceive the whole extent of the
singular fact which he had thus discovered, with respect to the Rotifer
of house roofs, and did not pursue his researches further on this sub-
ject; but a phenomenon of this kind could not fail to excite lively
curiosity among zoologists, and to give rise to long controversies, as
well as to interesting experiments. It may be remarked that the dis-
covery of Leuwenhoeck soon ceased to be an isolated fact in science, for
Needham announced that the eels of mildewed corn possessed, like the
Rotifera, the faculty of reviving after having been completely dried ; and
Spallanzani arrived at the same result, after observation, not only of the
Rotifera and Anguillula, but also of another microscopic animalcule, to
which he gave the name of Tardigrade (R. tardus/J.

The investigations of this skilful observer were numerous and con-

252 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

ducted with the profoundly scientific spirit which characterizes all his
labours, and might perhaps have been deemed sufficient to convince
naturalists as to the truth of the fact, and to serve as a basis to subse-
quent inquiries.

But the results thus obtained carried little weight, and it would be
easy to give a long list of naturalists, who, even at present, deny in the
most positive manner, what has been termed the revivification o/Rotifera.

Latterly, it is true," M. Schultz has successfully repeated some of
Spallanzani's experiments, and has furnished many naturalists with the
opportunity of making similar researches ; but still more lately, M.
Ehrenberg has added the weight of his great authority to the opposite
opinion, and having formally rejected the opinion of Spallanzani, has
attempted to explain the way in which an error of the kind could find
its way into science.

This interesting and much debated question, then, could not be con-
sidered as definitively settled, and appeared to demand further investi-
gation. It was necessary to examine carefully all the circumstances
attending the phenomena described by Leuwenhoeck, Needham and
Spallanzani, to submit to the proof of experiment, the objections and
hypotheses presented by others, antagonists of these celebrated observers,
and to acquire new facts by which one or other of the contradictory
opinions of naturalists might be supported or refuted. This difficult
task has been undertaken by M. Doyere.

The Rotifera and the Tardigrada are found, as is well known, in the
moss growing upon roofs, or in the sand found in the gutters of the
roof, and are seen in the living state, when these matters, after having
been for a long time dry, are wetted with water. The fact of the
appearance of these animalculae in a living state in dust which had been
dry during months, or even whole years, can no longer be disputed, and
it is equally well demonstrated that, with these minute beings as with
animals of a higher class, evaporation of their fluids, carried to a certain
extent, induces the abolition of every sign of vital motion. The parti-
zans of Spallanzani's opinion regard the reappearance of these living
beings as a sort of resurrection ; and the advocates of the contrary
opinion think that the phenomena may be explained in a simpler man-
ner ; the opinion of some is that the Rotifera, &c., are of an amphibious
nature, and capable of living in dry air as well as in water or sand,
where the moss with which they are surrounded would preserve them
from too complete desiccation, so that in fact, in the above cited
instances, the active state of the animalcule would never even be inter-
rupted, and these little animals buried in apparently dry dust, would
still meet with sufficient humidity to prolong their lives and to allow of
reproduction, so that those which have been supposed to become revivi-
fied would be in reality, to use the expression of M. Ehrenberg, only
the great-grandchildren of those observed in the same material at the
commencement of the experiment. According to other naturalists, the
desiccation of the sand or moss containing the Rotifera, would infallibly
kill the animals themselves, but would not destroy the vital principle in
the ova which they may have deposited, and, consequently, instead of
witnessing the resurrection of the animals themselves, we only see the

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 253

ova rapidly developed by the influence of the water, and giving birth to
animalculse whose growth would be equally rapid.

Finally, there are other physiologists who consider that the Rotifera,
&c., of dry sand do not undergo a complete desiccation, but such a
degree of it only, as to plunge them into a sort of torpor, and conceive
that these animalculse, although to all appearance dead, yet preserve a
latent life, but still a real life sufficient to establish a bond of connec-
tion between the active life which precedes the evaporation of the fluids,
and that equally active, when they are restored by the addition of
humidity to the full exercise of their functions.

The observations of M. Doyere overturn all these hypotheses, and
confirm in the clearest way, the results obtained by Spallanzani : —

Thus, in answer to the arguments employed by Ehrenberg, it is suffi-
cient to observe, that living Tardigrada are never found in the dry dust
of gutters, but that, by the aid of the microscope, corpuscles can be
seen which entirely resemble the dead bodies of these animalculse,
deformed by desiccation, and that in matters where no living being was
previously discernible, living Tardigrada frequently appear on the addi-
tion of a little distilled water. M. Doyere is even assured that it is not
impossible to revivify these animalculse, if taken one by one and dried
separately on pieces of glass, without being surrounded with sand or
other material, organic or inorganic, capable of preserving them from
the ordinary effects of evaporation.

In his experiments he has been able to count them, and to trace in
each separate individual ail the phases of desiccation ; to observe them
gradually assume the appearance of dead bodies, and to determine after-
wards that these same bodies, dry and brittle, are susceptible of reas-
suming their primitive form, and of returning to life under the influence
merely of a few drops of water.

This experiment appears to be decisive ; but it may still be asked,
whether the drying which the animalculse have undergone has been
complete, and if the privation of all the water contained in their tissue,
would not render them incapable of resurrection, after having in this
way passed years in a state of apparent death ?

In order to determine satisfactorily this highly interesting physiolo-
gical question, M. D. had recourse to the most powerful means of desic-
cation employed by chemists in the analysis of organic substances.

He suspended for five days, in the vacuum of the air-pump, over a
vessel containing pure sulphuric acid, some Tardigrada surrounded with
sand, or uncovered and dried upon slips of glass ; and he left others
during thirty days, in the Torricellian vacuum, dried by chloride of cal-
cium ; and in all these instances he obtained some resurrections. These
results are of great importance towards the solution of the question
which M. Doyere had proposed to himself ; but he still conceived that
they might be considered as offering only a strong probability in favour
of the complete desiccation of the animalcube, in which the faculty of
becoming revivified was retained ; he continued his experiments, and by
studying the influence of elevated temperatures upon these singular
beings, he arrived at the discovery of the most decisive and surprising
facts.

254 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

It is known that animals perish when their temperature is raised
above a certain limit, inferior, however, to that at which the white of
egg coagulates, and which, in the majority of cases, does not exceed
50° cent. (122° F.) Animalculae capable of resurrection are not
excepted from this law ; M. Doyere is satisfied that the Rotifera and
Tardigrada perish when the water in which they swim is heated to 45°
cent. (105° F.) and that they cannot then be recalled to life by any
means. But he has found that this is not the case when the animalculse
have been previously dried. If, instead of experimenting upon Tardi-
grada in full life, it is done upon individuals which have lost all their
humidity by the ordinary means of desiccation, and which appear as
dead, it is possible, without depriving them of the faculty of reviving, to
raise their temperature to a degree which would necessarily involve the
disorganization of all living tissue containing any water beyond that
chemically combined with its constituent principles. In an experiment
repeated in the presence of the Commission of the Academy, a certain
quantity of moss containing Tardigrada, after having been properly
dried, was placed in a stove, and around the bulb of a thermometer, the
stem of which extended out of the apparatus ; heat was gradually
applied, until the thermometer thus placed in the centre of the moss,
indicated a temperature of 120° cent. (248° F.) This considerable heat
was maintained for several minutes, nevertheless, some of the animal-
culse contained in the moss returned to life, and appeared in their usual
condition after they had been placed for 24 hours in a suitable degree
of moisture. In other experiments, M. Doyere submitted some dried
animalculse to a heat of more than 140° cent. (284° F.), and still -wit-
nessed some of them revive after immersion in water. These facts are
in themselves of considerable importance towards the solution of the
question at issue, and the result without doubt depends npon the cir-
cumstance first pointed out by M. Chevreul, that albumen, deprived of
its water by previous drying, can be submitted to a much higher tem-
perature without, in consequence, losing its solubility, than it could be
if exposed to the same temperature in the moist state ; and from the
simple fact that a Tardigrade exposed to the action of a temperature of
120° c. (248° F.) can still be made to revive, it may be concluded,
with great probability, that the whole of the water chemically free in its
body had been dissipated, a degree of desiccation which would preclude
all idea of vital movement. Thus the Tardigrada and Rotifera, when dry
and retaining the property of living when moistened, cannot be consi-
dered as actually alive, and their mode of existence can only be com-
pared to that of a seed, which is organized so as to live, and which will
live when exposed to the influence of air, of water and of heat, but
which, in the absence of one of these excitants, manifests no sign of
activity or life, and can be preserved thus for ages, although the dura-
tion of its real life may not exceed perhaps a few weeks.

M. Doyere has also given a detailed and excellent account of the
anatomy of these animalculae, including, especially, the nervous and
muscular systems ; and his work is illustrated with beautiful and exact
figures.

255

E. J. Quekett on Vegetable Fibre. — " I perceive that in the number of
the Microscopic Journal for May last, it is mentioned that " an error has
been pointed out" respecting the date of my having made some obser-
vations on a peculiar vegetable structure, visible in a certain specimen
of coal ; and it is stated, that the object of correcting such was, *' be-
cause it involves a question of priority as to two discoveries, the one by
Dr. Barry in recent vegetable structure, the other by Mr. Quekett in the
remains of vegetable fibre found by him in a specimen of coal and of
silicified coniferous wood."

The date of the observation was certainly wrongly given in the
Journal, being one year too early ; but in mentioning the subject, I had
not the slightest idea of doing so with a view to claim any priority in
the discovery, but merely to exhibit the perfect state of preservation of
a singular tissue in a specimen of coal.

If the statement made by Dr. Barry in December last, for which he
claims a priority of observation, be contrasted with that made by my-
self in March last, it will be obvious that the observations of Dr. Barry
do not appear to have reference to the same fact as my own ; his relate
to the structure of the fibre of a vessel of a plant, and mine to the ar-
rangement of the fibres irrespective of structure.

Dr. Barry states (No. 51, p. 364, Proc. of Royal Soc.), that the ap-
parently simple "fibre" — (vegetable or animal), "being to all appear-
ance composed of two spirals running in opposite directions and inter-
lacing at certain regular intervals," — " a transverse section of such an
object is rudely represented by the fig. 8."

Contrast this statement with that to which I am reported to have
made, viz., "where there are more than one row of dots on each (woody)
fibre, these dots appeared to be formed by two spirals wound in the in-
terior in different directions, the turns of each connected at intervals by
longitudinal bands, thereby leaving a transparent space by such ar-
arrangement." Nothing is here stated of two spiral fibres interlacing
with each other, but that the turns of either spiral are connected to
each other by longitudinal bands, and not that one spiral fibre inter-
laces with the other. In fact, if a section of the tube containing the
fibres be made transversely, it would not in any respect resemble
the figure 8 ; but would exhibit the plan as if three cylinders were
placed one within the other, the outer entire, the inner two perforated
with oval holes, in one taking the direction of a right-handed, and in
the other of a left-handed screw, the holes (dots) being formed as be-
fore stated.

As regards the apparently simple fibre of an ordinary vessel of a plant
" being to all appearance composed of two spirals running in opposite
directions, and interlacing at certain regular intervals," is a structure

256 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

which, in the recent tissue, I am unable to see* or comprehend ; if it be
only to be observed under the effects of decomposition or chemical re-
agents, then it is possible that appearances so produced may be de-
lusive.

The fact of two spirals occurring in the same tubes or cells, is known
to every vegetablea natomist. Many species of Jungermannia possess
elaters of this structure ; and in the wood of the yew, the same has
been noticed years ago ; but in neither case, nor in any recent wood
that I have ever examined, is a structure to be found precisely like that
to be seen in the coal which I exhibited. The nearest instance occurs
in the wood of Drimys Winteri, which I believe was first noticed by
Dr. Robert Brown. Therefore I trust the justice will be done me, to
allow this statement to contradict that part of the paragraph in the
Journal, viz., "it will be obvious that Mr. Quekett was mistaken when
he stated his belief, in reference to his own observation, that ' nothing
analogous had hitherto been detected in recent woods.' " — Letter to
the Editors.

[The mistake as to the date of the meeting of the Microscopical So-
ciety, at which Mr. Quekett's observations were made, is sufficiently
obvious ; and with reference to the supposed coincidence of Dr. Barry's
and Mr. Quekett's description of vegetable fibre, the above letter ren-
ders it quite evident, if it were not so before, that the observations and
descriptions of these gentlemen regard two entirely different objects,
and in no respect interfere with each other. Dr. Barry refers to the
supposed structure of what he terms elementary fibre, and Mr. Quekett's
to the mode of arrangement of an organ which may or may not be com-
posed of Dr. Barry's double spiral filaments.]

On the Extent of the Ova of an A earns. — It may be interesting to
microscopic observers to be informed, that the pebbles of the gravel on
Blackheath and the neighbourhood, are at the present time abundantly
covered with the ova of the Acarus lately described by Mr. White, and
formerly considered as a fungus under the name of Craterium pyriforme.

Before the late rains, these bodies were to be seen on pieces of wood
and many other substances, as the stalks of plants, &c., as well as on
the pebbles. We have lately seen specimens of the same deposit on
pebbles, from Lincolnshire and from Devonshire or Cornwall in the
neighbourhood of Plymouth ; from which it would appear to be very
generally distributed throughout the country. It may not impro-
bably perhaps prove to be the ovum of the harvest bug, (Acarus Au-
tumnalis of Shaw.) — E. M. J.

* I have examined the fibre of the spiral vessels of the strawberry leaf, placed in
a solution of corrosive sublimate and diluted alcohol, as recommended by Dr. Barry,
but have not yet been able to discover the bi-spiral character of the filaments.—
E. J. Q.

257

XXXVI. REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF FIBRE.

By the Editors.

THE abstract of Dr. Barry's views on the spiral structure of animal and
vegetable tissues, which was given in our last number, would hardly,
perhaps, convey a sufficient notion of the extent to which they reach ;
to understand which, it will be as well to peruse the catalogue of the
parts in which Dr. Barry has observed the same kind of filaments, as
given by him in the Philosophical Transactions, viz. : —

" The cortical and medullary substance of both the cerebrum and
cerebellum, the spinal chord, the optic nerve and retina, the olfactory
and auditory nerves, nerves connected with the spinal chord, voluntary
and involuntary muscle (the latter including muscle in all parts of the
alimentary canal, and the Fallopian tube and uterus, as well as blood-
vessels, the iris, and the heart), tendon, elastic tissue, cellular aad fatty
tissue, serous membranes (peritoneum, pericardium, and arachnoid mem-
brane), various parts of the so-called mucous membrane, the lining
membrane of the large blood-vessels, and the valve of a large vein, the
skin, the dura mater, and the sheath of the spinal chord, ligament, the
gums and palate, the stroma of the ovary, the testis and the walls of
the vas deferens, the kidney and ureter, the glans as well as the corpus
spongiosum and corpus cavernosum penis, the coats of the gall-bladder
and of the cystic duct, the pancreas, and the liver. He found them
along with the marrow from a bone, between the rings of the trachea,
as well as in the substance of the lungs, and the gills of the common
Mussel, in the parenchyma of the spleen, the lacrymal gland, the scle-
rotic coat of the eye, the conjunctiva, the cornea, the membrane of
the vitreous humor, the capsule of the crystalline lens, the lens itself,
the cartilage of the ear and cartilage of bone, bone itself, the perios-
teum, the claw of the bird, the shell membrane of the egg, substance
connecting the ova of the crab, silk, hair, the incipient feather, the
feather-like objects from the wing of the butterfly and gnat, and the
spider's web."

These are the principal of the animal structures in which Dr. Barry
has found filaments such as he describes. Of plants he subjected to
microscopic examination, the root, stem, leaf-stalk, and leaf, besides the
several parts of the flower : and in no instance where a fibrous tissue
existed, did he fail to find filaments of the same kind, as well in Phane-
rogamous as in Cryptogamous plants. The flat filament seen by him
in all these structures of both animals and plants, is that usually deno-

VOL. ir. s

258 REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF FIBRE.

initiated a " fibre," and described in our last No., p. 238. He conceives
" this filament to be in fact composed of two spirals
running in opposite directions, and interlacing at
certain regular intervals ;" and we are desirous
here of drawing attention to his remark as to the
oblique direction of the line separating the appa-
rent segments in the smaller filaments, in connec-
tion with the oblique direction of the spaces be •
tween the curves of the spiral threads in this
larger one, as it will be found of some importance
when we speak of the ultimate structure of mus-
cle.

The mere perusal of the catalogue of parts given by Dr. Barry, as
the principal of those in which he has observed these peculiar filaments,
is sufficient to prove how extensive such a structure must be, and con-
sequently how important it becomes in all inquiries connected with
the minute structure of bodies, to determine whether his views are cor-
rect, or whether he has not been misled by erroneous and easily mis-
interpreted appearances, in objects so minute and so indefinite in struc-
ture and consistence, and so readily altered by slight causes, as many
of the tissues he enumerates, obviously are. It is somewhat humiliat-
ing, however, in the present comparatively advanced state of microsco-
pical observation, to find, that such extraordinary facts as those adduced
by Dr. Barry with regard to the structure of bodies so familiar as most
of those in his list are to all, who have employed the microscope to any
extent, should even admit of dispute ; and, on the one hand, that if
false, their truth should, to a certain extent, have been admitted by
many whose opinions justly bear great weight in questions of this
kind ; or, on the other, that if true, they should have been equally re-
pudiated by others, who have enjoyed equal opportunities of accurate
investigation, and been animated with the same desire to arrive only at
'the truth. Such, however, is the case. We, among others, have re-
peatedly and carefully examined most of the parts and objects enume-
rated in Dr. Barry's list, with the aid of microscopes of the best con-
struction the present day will afford, and have been unable, in a
single instance, to satisfy ourselves of the existence of fibres or filaments,
having the structure described by Dr. Barry. Appearances, however,
have been frequently met with, which, by imperfect eclairage, or other
accidental circumstance, might readily be interpreted, as they have been
by Dr. Barry.

Our limits will not allow us to pursue the subject through the whole
of Dr. Barry's list, nor even to touch upon all the sections of his paper ;

REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF FIBRE. 259

and we shall confine ourselves at present to the consideration of the sup-
posed formation of the filament within the blood-discs, and to some few
observations on the elementary structure of muscular fibre, — two of the
most important points, perhaps, to which Dr. Barry's hypothesis refers;
and it may be reasonably inferred, that, if it can be shown that the ap-
pearances he has remarked, as leading to the conclusions he has drawn,
may be otherwise and more satisfactorily explained, in these two in-
stances, less reliance can be placed in the truth of his views, applied to
many other of the objects enumerated in his list. With regard, however,
to one item contained in it, and that the last, we cannot, before proceed-
ing further, refrain from adverting to the most extraordinary supposi-
tion as to the mode of formation of the spider's web. Is it possible that
Dr. B. can be understood to say, that the spider's web is wound up
within its body like a ball of twine, and unwound as occasion may re-
quire ?

The first section of Dr. Barry's paper refers to " the formation of a
flat filament within the blood corpuscle ;" and as his theory of the for-
mation of almost all animal tissues, and especially of muscular fibre,
depends upon this, it would appear to demand our chief attention.

In the wood-cut here adjoined, are figures of
blood- corpuscles in various stages of alteration. " x^x ^ 2
The three uppermost figures to the right hand, ^

and lettered c, c, c, are copied from Dr. Barry's ©($)<*>
figures in the Philosophical Transactions, and © @ . (g) ^\
are given by him as instances of the formation of

a filament, " frequently annular, and sometimes having the ring divided
at a certain part," which filament is stated " to be composed of the discs
contained within the blood- corpuscle." Now, that the margin of a
blood-disc, when shrunk by exosmosis, or altered in form by the gran-
nulation of its contained fluid, will assume a crenate appearance in
whole or in part, is well known ; and it is equally well known, that un-
der certain circumstances, the discs become contracted into the form of
a cup.* The other figures are intended to show the appearances pre-
sented by the majority of the blood-discs contained in fluid ejected by a
man from the stomach ; and the alteration of form presented by these
blood-discs, would seem to throw great light upon the apparently annular
formation given in Dr. Barry's figures. Fig. e is that of an unaltered

* This appearance is described by M. Gulliver, Append, to Gerber's Anatomy : —
" They are often swollen at the edges, which in consequence project towards the

s 2

260 REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF FIBRE.

blood- disc, having the natural, flattened, concave aspect, with the mar-
gins of course thicker than the centre ; and it will be observed, that the
diameter of this disc is greater than that of any of the other more or
less annular ones. It is very clear, that the change of size and appear-
ance in the latter, is entirely owing to an alteration in the shape of the
blood- discs, which have assumed the form of a cup, or rather saucer, the
prominent edges of which, by their greater refractive power, owing to their
greater perpendicular depth, necessarily appear as a bright ring around
a darker area. That this is really the case, is proved also by the side-
view of the same or similarly altered blood-discs, which are represented
by the three crescentic figures (without letters), between the horns of
which the faint shadow of the distant edge of the cup could be dis-
tinguished by careful adjustment of the light. Now the resemblance of
these rings and crescents, with those figured by Dr. Barry, is sufficiently
obvious, to render it needless to insist upon the conclusion, that in
all probability the appearances are dependant in each on the same cause,
viz., a contraction into a cup-like form of the naturally flattened bicon-
cave blood-disc ; the apparent diameter of which is necessarily lessened
in proportion to the contraction.*

But, if it should really be the case, that the supposed rings formed
by the blood-discs are in fact nothing more than the turned up edges of
those discs which have assumed a cup-like form : this circumstance
alone, would involve an important part of Dr. Barry's views with re-
gard to the primitive formation of muscular fibre. In a former paper
in the Philosophical Transactions, 1840, Part II., p. 605, he describes
the formation of muscular fibre, as observed by him to take place from
blood-corpuscles, mixed with mucus expressed from the Fallopian tube
of a rabbit (an extraordinary situation, at all events, for the generation
of muscle) ; and in his recent paper in the Philosophical Transactions,
1842, Part I., p. 98, and fig. 48, he represents, what he conceives to be
the mode of formation of muscular fibre from discs, which, " like their
progenitors the corpuscles of the blood, become rings, which rings pass
into coils, and the coils unite, thus forming spirals." If, however, it is
the case, as we are strongly inclined to believe, that these so-called
rings are themselves non-existent, but the creatures of misinterpreted

centre, thus producing there triangular, oval, or irregular depressions. The cup-
shaped variety is rather frequent in corpuscles which have been mixed a little while
with saline solutions ; and it is not uncommon in man, particularly among the par-
ticles of purulent or other morbid fluids."

* It is hardly necessary to remark, that all blood discs, even in the natural state,
can easily be made to appear, erroneously, as rings, or with a dark nucleus, by vary-
ing the adjustment of the eclairage and the quantity of light.

REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF FIBRE. 261

appearance — the first links of this intricate chain will be wanting, and
the ingenious superstructure, without cohesion.

Dr. Barry is of opinion, that muscle is nothing more than a " vast
bundle of spirals ;" and that the muscular fibres and ultimate fibrillse,
are all composed in a similar way, of various sized, interlaced, double
spirals ; and it is here that we would recall his remark, as given above,
relative to the oblique direction of the line separating the apparent seg-
ments in the small filaments, in connection with the oblique direction
of the spaces between the curves of the spiral threads in his larger
figure. For if it can be shown, as it readily can be, that the transverse
lines, though comparatively some distance apart in the ultimate muscular
fibrillae, of the salmon for instance, are strictly transverse, and circum-
scribe truly rectangular spaces, as represented rudely in
this figure, and that the most careful adjustment of focus,
will not show any diagonal lines connecting these transverse
ones, how can such an appearance be explained upon the
double spiral principle ?

The same argument, perhaps, will not hold with regard to
the transverse striae of a whole muscular fibre, as it would
be difficult to ascertain accurately whether they were or
were not more or less oblique, as in fact they often are, not,
in our opinion, from their being portions of a spiral, but owing to other
causes, such as more or less irregularity in the degree of contraction of
the ultimate fibrillse, on different sides of the fasciculus, by the allocation
of the constituent particles, of which fibrillse the transverse striae are
formed ; or by the mechanical traction of them, in the preparation of
the tissue for microscopical examination ; or in the pressure to which
it may be subjected between the glasses.

Any one of these causes (or perhaps others might be assigned), are
sufficient to produce more or less obliquity in the direction of the trans-
verse trise on the muscular fasciculus ; and the two latter would suf-
fice to produce the same obliquity in the transverse lines of an ultimate
fibrilla, where such obliquity, as it often happens, is observable. We
have not alluded at present to the existence of a spiral filament (not Dr.
Barry's), in or upon the ssercolemma of the muscular fasciculi, of which
an excellent observer of our acquaintance, is, we believe, satisfied, as the
consideration of it is remote from our present object. Some obscurities,
perhaps, still hang over the structure of muscle ; but, in Mr. Bowman's
views on this subject we most fully concur, believing that they repre-
sent, as nearly as our present means of microscopic observation will
allow, the truth in this vcxata questio.

262

XXXVII. MICROSCOPICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MOR-
PHOLOGY OF SOME OF THE ANIMAL FLUIDS, BY DAVID GRUBY, M.D.

No. 3.

Translated from the Latin by S. J. Goodfellow, M.D., #c.

[Continued from page 237.]

OF LOBULAR INFLAMMATION OF THE PLACENTA.

THE yellowish- white, hard, friable and fragile substances which occur
in the human placenta, occupy a place towards the margin, or on the
foetal surface around the larger vessels. They have a thickness of half
a line and more, but an extent of 2 — 4 lines.

Microscopical investigation teaches us, that these substances are
composed of the larger molecules, also of globules, scarcely exceeding
in size the blood-discs, having a smooth envelope, and made up very
small molecules.— Plate 10, fig. 80.*

GENERAL SUMMARY.

It is manifest from what has been said, that in every inflammation,
whether acute or chronic, suppurative or adhesive, and whether occur-
ring on the surface of membranous or in the substance of parenchyma-
tous organs, either injured or uninjured, globules are formed — which, in
inflammation of mucous membranes, being united to the fluid peculiar
to those membranes, namely mucus, constitute purulent and puriform
mucus, and crude or concocted catarrhal sputa ; in inflammation of se-
rous membranes, joined to their peculiar product, viz., serum, they con-
stitute at one time turbid serum, and at another a puriform fluid, or
purulent exudation ; in cutaneous inflammations they constitute the
contents of vesicles or pustules ; in suppurative inflammation, united to
a pellucid fluid they constitute pus ; in adhesive inflammation, and in
that of croup, joined to the plastic lymph, they form the false membrane
of croup or a varnish-like exudation ; in parenchymatous inflammation,
united with plastic lymph, they constitute the inflammatory tumefac-
tion ; joined with a serous fluid, and filling up minute interstices, they
appear as purulent infiltration ; and when collected in larger recently
formed cavities, they form the contents of abscesses.

Hence the products of inflammation —

1st. Differ according to the different medium with which the glo-

* The tables, shewing the characteristic properties of the different fluids treated
of, will be inserted in our next number. — E. M. J.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 263

bules, generated by inflammation, appear mixed ; globules, for example,
united to mucus, forms catarrhal purulent mucus, &c. ; united to serum,
purulent serum, &c. ; united to a white fluid, pus ; mixed with plas-
tic lymph, plastic exudation, or purulent plastic exudation.

The medium with which the globules formed by inflammation appear
mixed, then depends (A), upon the organization of the substratum of the
pathological process. As long as the texture of the substratum shall not
have been destroyed, even so long will there be a special character given
to the product of inflammation, which depends upon the special character
of the substratum, and not upon any peculiarity of the pathological pro-
cess. But as soon as the texture of the substratum of the pathological
process shall have been entirely destroyed, then the pathological product
of the inflammation loses its special character ; thus, for example, in in-
flamed mucous membrane, there is remarked a product of inflammation of
a peculiar character, and purulent or puriform mucus is generated, as
long as this membrane shall keep its peculiar and characteristic organi-
zation, which, being lost, the pathological product is equally deprived
of its special character, and in place of puriform or purulent mucus,
pus is generated. Hence it is manifest, that the essential difference
between pus and mucus is to be sought, not in the globules, but rather
in the fluid with which the globules appear mixed. There are not
wanting chemical re-agents, by which a clear and distinct difference is
evinced by which the product of inflammation of a mucous membrane,
whose texture is not altogether destroyed, is distinguished from the
product of that membrane whose continuity is injured or organization
destroyed ; for, in the destroyed part, the globules of inflammation no
longer appear mixed with a medium distinguished by a special character.

The product of an inflammation, for example, from a suppurating
wound of the mucous membrane of the lips of the mouth, is then in no
ways distinguishable from the product of inflammation of a suppurating
wound of the skin ; but the product of an inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the lips, its continuity being uninjured, is distinguished
from it in the former case ; for the globules of inflammation in the for-
mer case, joined to some limpid fluid, eompose pus ; but the globules
in the latter case, mixed with the so-called proper mucus, do not form
pus, but puriform or purulent mucus, to be distinguished by re-agents,
as long as the organization of this inflamed patch shall not altogether
have been destroyed.

Since the so-called globules of pus generated in every inflammation
of mucous membranes are not to be distinguished from each other,
whether the continuity be injured or not, which, although even formed
from a mucous membrane whose continuity is injured, mixed with some

264 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

limpid fluid, compose the pathological fluid called pus, however then, at
least, it can be distinguished by re- agents, while this pathological pro-
duct, freed from all proper mucus, may be submitted to examination,
which then, at least, can be done, provided that access to the patholo-
gical substratum is easily attained, as in the mucous membrane of the
tongue, of the lips, palate, cheeks, nostrils, vagina, neck of the womb,
nymphae, anterior part of the urethra, inferior part of the rectum, con-
junctivse of the palpebrse and of the globe ; but the product of inflamma-
tion formed from a breach of continuity of the mucous membrane in
remoter parts, is almost always intimately mixed with the product of an
inflamed and irritated adjacent mucous membrane, and in no manner is
it discharged separate ; thence the result of the examination of these
mixed products is doubtful. Here we number the product of inflamma-
tion from breach of continuity of the mucous membrane of the pharynx,
oesophagus, and whole alimentary canal, even to the inferior portion of
the rectum, moreover that of all the air passages, ureters, urinary blad-
der, urethra, even to the scaphoid fossa, fallopian tubes, and cavity of the
uterus, Eustachian tubes, and its propagations, sinuses, and different
ducts, except a great part of the mucous membrane may have been des-
troyed ; for then, from the great quantity of pus prevailing, there is not
found sufficient mucus. Hence, pus nearly pure is thrown out, as is wont
to occur in phthisical patients affected with large vomicse of the lungs.

Not only the substratum, but also (B), the different intensity of the
process of inflammation produces various media, with which globules
of inflammation appear mixed ; thus an irritated serous membrane gene-
rates a few globules united with a large quantity of aqueous fluid, and
forms turbid serous fluid.

But a more intense inflammation of a serous membrane equally occa-
sions a few globules, which united to plastic lymph, form intestinal
adhesions. The same occurs in a mucous membrane ; a slight irrita-
tion or inflammation produces globules united to mucus, but a more
intense inflammation generates globules united to plastic lymph, and
causes the exudation of croup, a degree of inflammation, which, when
it occurs in the parenchyma of organs, produces indurations, hepatiza-
tions, and inflammatory tumours.

In suppurating wounds the same pathological product is distinguished
by the name of granulations, and in simple recent wounds, by that of
varnish or plastic lymph, by which the lips of wounds are quickly united,
when they heal by what surgeons term " the first intention."

2nd. Pus of normal inflammation differs according to the different du-
ration of the pathological process ; for the globules, the inflammation
commencing, in a relation to the medium with which they are mixed,

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 265

are few in number. They are white, composed of an envelope and
the smaller molecules, at least usually, so that the pus is more fluid
and white. The globules sensibly multiply, and are remarked of a
white-yellow, or yellow colour, with an envelope, and smaller or larger
molecules, and also a white central vesicle. The envelope swells in
water, and is easily broken ; but the molecules, with the central vesi-
cles, being expelled, are firmly joined together. By a law of attrac-
tion, and at this time, the pus is rendered thicker and of a deeper
yellow. In this way can be explained the reason why pellucid lymph
taken from variolous vesicles, produces the effect of inoculation of
the variolous contagion more surely than the turbid or purulent serum
of the pustules ; because the envelopes of the globules in the latter
case being very quickly broken, the globules lose the power of gene-
ration and fecundation.

Pus of the most advanced stage of inflammation contains globules
destitute of envelope, and lacerated ; and if the secreting pathological
organ shall have been open, they are intermixed with epithelium.

3rd. The product of a specific inflammation differs from the product
of a normal inflammation ; thus, in tuberculous inflammation of the
lungs, peculiar lenticular bodies concentrically striated, occur which are
six times larger than the globules of pus. In the variolous process,
conoid or cylindrical animalcules, exercising a circular motion, are inter-
mixed with the pus globules.

4th. Globules formed from irritation or inflammation of mucous and
serous membranes, their continuity being uninjured, have usually a
larger diameter than those of abscesses and wounds treated by dry re-
medies, on account of the prevailing abundance of serum, in which the
globules swell as if in water.

5th. Pus, purulent serum, pathological mucus, pathological lymph, as
well fluid as thick, are composed, like the blood, of globules and a fluid ;
the globules and the fluid differ as much also in quantity and quality.
The quantity of the globules determines the colour and density of the
pus. The form of the globules is different ; most of them are round,
some are elliptic, oblong, many cylindrical. Their magnitude is equally
different ; the smallest equal, the largest are eight times the diameter of
that of thesblood- globules. The colour of the globules is white or yellow,
some are almost pellucid, others transparent. Globules of pus are pro-
vided with a very thin envelope ; some, however, are destitute of it.
Some are filled with very small molecules, but others with larger ones.
The central vesicle is not met with in all, but some are endowed with two
or three. In some the central vesicle is filled with the smallest molecu-
les, in most of them the central vesicle is destitute of all molecules.

266 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

The fluid in which the globules are suspended, is either pellucid or
diaphanous, at one time thicker, at another time less thick, or is quite
as liquid as serum. In nitric acid and nitrate of silver solution, it is
sometimes converted into yellowish- white shreds.

6th. As yet no material and specific difference has been observed
between the product of ophthalmoblennorrhcea and phalloblennorrhcea,
and the product of normal inflammation of other membranes.

In what manner does the Absorption of Pus take place ?

The globules of the mature pus are broken, but the smallest mole-
cules, being scattered about, are easily seen to permeate the coat of the
intermediate or capillary vessels, and to be mixed for a certain time
with the blood, until they are deposited in a fit place (an excreting
organ), for ulterior elimination, or into some organic non-excreting tex-
ture, and accumulated, are at length transformed into globules of pus,
destitute of all covering, and at first form metastatic infiltration of pus,
or purulent metastatic exudation (for example, Pyo-ophthalmum parturi-
entium), more slowly metastatic abscess. [Afterwards by a vital re-action,
an inflammation arises around the metastatic infiltration ; new globules
of pus, endowed with an envelope, molecules, and a central vesicle
shortly arise ; so that even here and there, in a metastatic abscess,
globules of pus, provided with an envelope, are to be detected.

In phlebitis or arteritis, entire globules of pus mixed immedi-
ately with the blood, and joined to it, are carried about in the sangui-
ferous vessels, until, from their larger diameter, the free passage
through the intermediate vessels is interrupted ; which taking place,
the circulation of the blood-particles becomes impeded or retarded,
and the stagnating blood separates into its constituent parts, as if it
were out of the organism ; the serum and the plastic lymph transude,
the intermediate vessel is obliterated, and, we believe, in such manner
is brought about that small inflammation, which, in lobulated organs,
they call lobular hepatization or inflammation.*

But not in every organ does a globule of pus, interrupting the pas-
sage of the intermediate vessels, provoke or occasion stagnation of the
blood, for as —

1st. The parietes of vessels shall be surrounded by a firm and elastic
texture, then either the globule is driven onwards, or the dilatation of

* Although this may be one cause of lobular inflammation, there are unqestion-
ably others. — Translator.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS 267

adjacent intermediate vessels is interdicted ; hence metastatic inflam-
mation in organs, endowed with fibres, occurs very rarely. Among
these we number fibrous organs, as tendinous fibres, muscular fibre,
nervous fibre, compact neurilemma, and osseous fibre, also organs en-
dowed with an erectile tissue, as the glans and corpora cavernosa of
the penis, and clitoris, the papillae of the breast, and also the parietes of
the arteries.

2nd. Moreover, hard glandular organs, as the prostate, virile, mamma,
testicles, ovaries, womb, liver, kidnies, thyroid gland, the parenchyma
of the spinal marrow and brain, the skin of the sole of the foot, of the
palm of the hand and of the back. The less the resistance offered by
the surrounding tissues to an intermediate vessel obstructed by a glo-
bule of pus, by so much the more difficult is the onward progress of
that globule rendered ; the greater the dilation the quicker and more
frequent does metastatic deposition occur. Here we number soft, sub-
cutaneous cellular tissue surrounding muscles, nerves, and salivary
glands ; the cellular tissue of the female breasts, orbit, &c. ; vascular
membranes, as that of the brain and spine, iris ; synovial organs of
the joints ; soft parenchymatous organs, as the lungs, spleen, mucous
membrane, and the skin, where it offers a soft, weak texture, as that
of the eyelids, ears, pudenda of women, &c.

Pus received into the veins passes very rapidly by the pu Imonary
artery into the intermediate vessels of the lungs, where it chiefly pro-
duces metastatic lobular stagnations and inflammations.

But pus in the arteries is carried around to those organs chiefly to
which the greater quantity of arterial blood is borne, or to which in the
normal state the excretion of heterogenous substances, mixed with the
blood, takes place, (brain and kidnies.)

3rd. The organs whose intermediate vessels are endowed with a
large or too narrow diameter, seem unfit for metastatic depositions,
as, for example,* the intermediate vessels of the corposa cavernosa,
penis, are endowed with the largest diameters = yV^6^- of a Vienna
inch ; on the contrary, the smallest diameters of intermediate vessels
are found in the tendons = TorVoro °^ a Vienna inch.

In the same manner as the stagnation of the blood precedes exuda-
tion and hepatization in lobular inflammation, so in every inflammation
of any substratum, of any extent, from whatever cause arising, the
local stagnation, or at least the impeded and retarded propulsion of the

* According to the observations of the celebrated and excellent anatomist
Berres.

268 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

the blood in any circumscribed place, we observe to precede exudation
and hepatization. * An inflammatory tumour from exudated plastic lymph
takes place, redness from the dilated passage of the adjacent interme-
diate vessels, in which there is contained a greater abundance of blood
which regurgitates from some obliterated intermediate vessels ; pulsation
in the inflamed texture then presents itself, whenever a new wave of
blood is impelled towards the obliterated intermediate vessels, and
hence arises also the dilatation of the adjacent intermediate vessels.*
The impediments of the circulation in the intermediate vessels sensibly
retard also the circulation in the capillary vessels resisting the expan-
sion, until either they overcome the obstacle, or their tonicity being
weakened, they also suffer dilatation ; and in the same manner the
smaller and larger vessels, and lastly the heart itself, on account of the
impediment of the circulation, produces more vehement and quicker ex-
pulsions of blood, exciting an universal fever. Hence, or in this way
is explained the diversity of the pulse, the pectoral pulse in pneumonia,
because the left heart impels the blood into the aorta without any ob-
stacle ; the cephalic pulse, if the obstacle is in the circulation of the
carotids, in a direct line impeding the expulsion of the blood ; and the
abdominal pulse, if the obstacle of the circuit of the blood has extended
much into the mesenteric vessels, it flows back into the abdominal aorta,
and thus is the impediment of expulsion rplaced in the left heart
itself. It is thus that the free pulse, after venesection, is to be ex-
plained.

The liquor sanguinis quickly transudes the walls of the intermediate
vessels, quickly rendered thin by dilatation; it separates into serum and
plastic lymph ; the plastic lymph, again, forms into molecules and soft fi-
brils, forming, by an organic molecular attraction, globules which we find
enclosed between the fibres. Hence an inflammatory boundary —

1. From the texture of the pathological substratum.

2. • • obliterated intermediate vessels.

* It may be here stated, that the author's description of the smaller vessels is in
accordance with the arrangement of Berres. Berres divides the vessels running be-
tween the larger arteries and veins (proceeding in the order of the circulation), into
arterial capillaries, intermediate vessels (capillaries of English anatomists), of equal
diameter throught their course, and venous capillaries. Most English, and French,
and even German writers, on the contrary, call all vessels which gradually decrease
in size, arteries or veins, according to whichever system they belong ; while they
confine the term capillaries to those intermediate vessels whose diameter is the same
throughout their course. — Translator.

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 269

3. From the dilated intermediate and capillary vessels.

4( recently formed soft fibrils.

5. globules of pus, of inflammation.

6. smaller molecules, here and there dispersed.

7. small quantity of serum, with which we see the tex-
tures kept moist.

The exudation is changed in direct relation with the obliteration and
dilatation of the intermediate and capillary vessels ; and in the same
manner as the obliteration proceeds from the centre of the inflammation
to the periphery, so the whole process of inflammation is propagated
from the centre (focus) towards the periphery. But if the cause excit*
ing the inflammation, is more intense, it acts by destroying the normal
texture ; globules, mixed with serum, then form a peculiar fluid, named
pus, in the limits of the injured organs, which flows together from its
different parts, and either remains for a long time enclosed in a pathologi-
cal cavity (abscess), or flows out from a pathological surface (wound) ;
but the pathological fibrils, which, creeping over, constitute the granu-
lations for the new intermediate vessels, are fixed to the parietes, until
the pathological surface (wound) shall have ceased to exist. Hence
the normal inflammatory process everywhere offers to us the same pro-
ducts, which differ as to the quantity and external form, but not as to
quality and internal composition; for the inflammatory tumour and
boundary of the adhesive inflammation is constructed of the same con-
stituent parts as the true inflammatory boundary of suppurative inflam-
mation. But in considering a pure, recent, incised wound, where all the
parts are not only organically disturbed, but their texture and cohesion
(the causes of all organic formations), in part of the incision are des-
troyed and removed, the suppurative inflammation will only be excited
when the pathological surface shall not have been brought together by
the aid of a suture or ligature ; but if anything shall have brought the
pathological surface of the lips of the wound in contact, then the adhe-
sive inflammation will certainly be produced.

In the reported case, the mischievous power and the same lesion then
may produce suppurative inflammation, if the pathological surface con-
tinue exposed, and the adhesive inflammation, if you shall have brought
it together.

In a pure, suppurating, fistulous wound, pus is generated by the sup-
purative inflammation, as long as the pathological surface continues
exposed or open ; but, being brought together, (for example, by proper
compression), the adhesive inflammation arises, and pus is no longer
formed.

270 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

A contusion, like any other mischievous power sufficient to destroy
the texture of the different soft organic parts; for instance, if it shall
have destroyed the sub-cutaneous cellular tissue, will produce abscess ;
because the cellular tissue is destroyed, that is, its continuity has suf-
fered to its smallest particles, so that it shall have been changed
into a pultaceous mass ; it then continues shut up by the pathological
surface, which being brought together, for example, by proper compres-
sion, no pus and no abscess is formed, but the adhesive inflammation
arises. But the recently destroyed cellular tissue, like every other
organic substance, is delivered up to the circulation by absorption.
When, however, on account of the situation of the pathological surface,
or its rigid and firm texture, the bringing together of it is impossible,
for example, in inflammation of the lungs, or the medulla of the bones,
then suppuration only takes place,

How is it explained, that the same situation of the same pathological pro-
cess, produces at first Suppurative Inflammation, afterwards Adhesive
Inflammation, according as a pathological surface shall have been pre-
sent or absent ?

As we understand the material pathological changes of inflammation,
it behoves us to make plain the special cause or end of inflammation.
The continuity of the skin and healthy cellular tissue being destroyed
by a scalpel, the hidden openings of the intermediate and capillary vessels,
and of the smaller vessels, pour out blood, until the capacities or dia-
meters of the divided vessels become obliterated, partly by of the con-
tinuous energetic tone, and partly on account of the coagulation of
blood stagnating next the orifices, by which a compress (trombus) in
some larger vessel, and a stagnation of the blood- particles in the open-
ings of capillary and intermediate vessels arise. The dropping of blood
being stopped, a yellowish reddish-white, then yellowish- white, and at
length a white pellucid fluid flows in small quantity from the wound,
which is composed of a few blood-globules, and the larger globules of
pus suspended in the liquor sanguinis. The opening being obliterated,
the wave of blood is driven, without interruption, against the compress
(trombum), the parietes of the smallest vessels are not long able to re-
sist this action ; hence the diameters of the intermediate vessels imme-
diately adjacent to the obliteration are dilated, their parietes rendered
thinner, and by reason of the diminished tone, the blood is ultimately
moved with difficulty ; the circulation in the dilated vessels is retarded

ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS. 271

on account of the greater quantity of blood with which the dilated ves-
sels are filled, and on account of the more manifest retardation the
greater quantity of the liquor sanguinis transudes. This divides into
serum and plastic lymph ; the latter divides again into soft fibrils and
the smallest molecules, which unite by attraction, and form globules,
which are enclosed among the fibrils. The texture thus appearing red,
on account of the dilatation of the smallest vessels, indurated and tumid
from the great exudation and the larger quantity of blood in it, more
hot from the rapid decomposition of the liquor sanguinis, and the quick
transition of the fluid liquor into solid substance, painful from the com-
pression of the adjacent nerves, is said to be inflamed.

The liquor sanguinis is deposited around the attenuated parietes of
the vessels ; that part of the parietes of the intermediate vessels next
the wound is more quickly and extensively dilated than the other part of
the wall of the vessels, which is as yet joined to, or in contact with, the
adjacent texture. On this account the transudation of the liquor san-
guinis is more easy and more copious in that free part of the wall to
which no texture is opposed than in the other.

The more copious liquor transuding on the free surface from the
vessels, even so as to fill the interstices of the texture, divides into
serum and plastic lymph ; the plastic lymph again forms soft fibrils,
which adhere firmly, like glue, to the parietes, and the smallest mole-
cules, which, in obedience to a physical attraction, form globules united
with the serum ; these two constituent parts form yellowish- white,
yellowish-green white, limpid or turbid, thick or thin fluid, called at
one time purulent fluid, at another puriform serum, purulent serum or
pus.

The accumulated soft fibrils intermixed here and there with globules
of pus, constitute the coagulating lymph or cement^ (vernix) of sur-
geons, by which the lips of a clean, recent wound are agglutinated to-
gether. What has been said concerning an open, suppurating surface,
may be said of a shut suppurating surface, or an abscess.

The more the parietes of the minute vessels are extended, the more
porous they become ; by the continual transuding liquor, the pores be-
come sensibly dilated ; and where the fibrils of exudation shall have
increased into the form of granulation, the liquor provides little rivulets
for itself, which, from the liquor continually transuding, are sensibly
rendered so large as to allow a globule of blood to permeate them ; but
when they decussate among themselves, the globule is easily repelled
again into the mass of the blood, and in such way new intermediate
capillary vessels are formed between the recently formed fibrils.

272 ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF SOME ANIMAL FLUIDS.

But if the lips of a wound shall have been united by suture or liga-
ture, so that the pressure of the lips touching each other, shall at least
be such that it maybe equal to that of the adjacent healthy texture, then
the parietes of the vessels observed on the pathological surface, find as
equable a resistance as the other parietes of the vessels ; hence an equa-
ble dilatation will have an equable exudation ; and the globules of pus
enclosed between the fibrils of plastic lymph, will remain as long
as in every inflammatory boundary, viz., until they shall have been re-
moved by absorption. Hence no pus is collected, and the lips of the
wound glued together, are afterwards joined by new rivulets, aud then
by intermediate vessels.

Therefore a pathological surface is the primary condition, and is in
the highest degree necessary for engendering the process of suppura-
tion ; on the other hand, the removal of the pathological surface, is the
one principal prop for preventing or impeding the suppurating process.

Hence is manifest : —

1. The value of proper compression in the treatment of inflammation.

2. The utility of blood-letting.

3. The utility of the application of cold.

4. The necessity of obliterating the minute vessels, for the production

and sustaining of inflammation.

5. The necessity of continued inflammation for the recovery of in-

juries.

6. The utility of all irritating and stimulating remedies, even of those

destroying the organic texture, for the obliterating of the inter-
mediate vessels for this purpose, that the dilatation of their walls,
and the retarded circulation of the accumulated blood, exudation
of plastic lymph, formation of vessels and of new solid substance
shall follow. In a word, that inflammation, where the process of
inflammation is either insufficient, or shall have been entirely ex-
tinguished, may be sustained, or re-excited.

The Translator thinks it proper to state, that he is in nowise answer-
able for Dr. Griiby's opinions. He leaves them entirely in the hands
of the reader, without giving any opinion of his own as to their correct-
ness or otherwise ; but he thinks that, to any gentleman who can spare
the time and have the opportunities, the various subjects alluded to by Dr.
Griiby, offer a very fruitful and important field for observation and study.

273

anti 8bs!traft£ from dfomgn
[From the Reports of the Berlin Academy, 1842.]

Muller and Retzius' Anatomico-pathological observations upon certain
Parasitic Growths. — When engaged in the dissection of various marine
animals, in the month of August, M. M. Muller and Retzius examined
a haddock with a slender tail, and which, according to the fishermen,
was diseased, and consequently unfit for food.

The disease was seated in the air-bladder, which contained a large
quantity of a yellowish, greasy, inodorous substance. Under the micro-
scope this substance proved to be very peculiar, containing corpuscles
about 0.00058 — 0.00068" long, and which resembled in form a smooth
Navicula or the Frustulia coffeoeformis of Agardh. They were constituted
of two scales, connected by a granular matter. The corpuscles were
at first closed, but afterwards opened longitudinally, being held together
by the granular matter, and finally became separated. They were
formed in cells, each of which contained several individuals. By this
circumstance, and by the want of silica in the shell, these bodies are
clearly distinguished from Naviculce and similar Infusoria. They would
appear to be more properly arranged together with the Psorospermia of
fishes, in a distinct division of parasitic, merely vegetating, organic
growths of specific structure,

The authors had also made further observations on the development
of mould in the lungs and air passages of birds. These observations
do not refer to the mould described b)T Mayer, Jager, Heusinger, Theile,
and more lately by M. Deslongchamps, as found in the lungs of birds
soon after death, but to a fungoid growth, consisting of flattened
masses of a firm and remarkably tough substance. This growth was
noticed by M. Deslongchamps, as forming the substratum of the fila-
mentous mouldiness discovered by him in the lungs and air passages of
an Eider duck, which was sick and affected in its breathing ; but its
real nature, as it would appear, was overlooked by him, since he mis-
took this vegetation for an albuminous exudation. The fungoid
masses have been observed, once in Stockholm and once] in Berlin,
under circumstances altogether alike. The former instance was that of
a Stryx nyctea, which had been brought from Lapland, and had lived
part of the winter in Stockholm, but was always unwell and short
breathed. The dissection was made by Prof. Retzius, and the prepara-
tion has been for a long time in the Anatomical Museum at Stockholm.
The lungs and thoracic cavities were found to be universally covered
with mushroom-like, flat-rounded bodies of yellowish-white colour,
slightly depressed in the centre (or cup-like), and having their surface
marked with concentric rings ; they were of various sizes, from very
small to that of a diameter of 1 or 2 lines or more. They were very
closely attached, but could be detached without injury to the mucous
membrane. Several neighbouring patches ran together, and had their

VOL. II. T

274 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

outer rings in common. In two places the air-passages were covered to
the thickness of 1 to 1^ lines, with these confluent bodies, which thus
constituted a continuous layer of almost cartilaginous consistence. The
second instance, in which a similar occurrence was observed, is that of
a Falco rufus, which was brought to the Zoological Museum of Berlin,
having been shot two years before. In this case, M. Dubois discovered
the white, cup-shaped, flattened bodies, quite fresh, in the air -cavities,
and also in the abdominal cavity in the neighbourhood of the kidnies,
the surface of which presented many of them.

M. Miiller was at first unable to recognize Pany structure in these
bodies; but, upon further microscopic examination, some degree of
structure or organization was evident in all of them, though not always
very readily made out ; in numerous instances, by fortunate sections,
very transparent, delicate, branched filaments were observable in amor-
phous substance. These filaments were so evidently of vegetable na-
ture, that no one who saw them had any doubt on the matter ; they
appeared such to MM. Link and Klotzsch. There were, however,
other more irregular and much thicker filaments of more doubtful na-
ture, which were scattered about, and distinguished by their protube-
rant margins ; these filaments were also occasionally seen to be agglom-
erated into distinct, rounded masses.

The vegetable nature of these patches cannot be doubted. The fila-
ments of the mould growing upon these patches, bear no resemblance
to the filaments within the patch ; they are thicker and evidently
jointed, as was observed by M. Deslongchamps, and are all frequently
furnished with capitate, sporiferous bulbs. This mould is evidently an
Aspergillus.

Organs of fructification have not been met with in the mushroom-like
bodies, which, consequently, in this respect approach the doubtful
Sclerotice ; but direct observation of the latter, as Sclerotium semen,
complanatum, does not show any close resemblance ; still less similarity
is observable in the structure of Dacryomyces stillatus.

{Trom Mullers Archives."]

Simon on an Acarus inhabiting Diseased and Healthy Hair-follicles of
Man. — In reference to the nature of acne, the inquiry may be made,
Whether the pustules constituting this eruption, arise from disease of
any of the special organs present in the skin, such as the sebaceous and
hair-follicles ; or whether they arise from inflammation and suppuration
in the fibrous tissue of the skin itself, without preceding morbid affec-
tion of any other part of it ? I examined, with a view to determine
this question, the contents of acne particles opened in living persons ;
and frequently found, as well in the small pustules, which soon burst,
and which have been termed acne simplex ; as in the larger ones (formed
by more or less reddened indurations of the skin), of acne indurata, be-
sides pus, small, elongated, whitish-looking bodies. When brought
under the microscope, I always found in these a hair, which was sur-

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 275

rounded by the whitish body. The figure of this body, as well as the
relation it bore to the hair, placed it beyond doubt that it was a hair-
follicle ; and it differed from a normal hair-follicle only in the circum-
stance, that it was much more delicate, and appeared as if it had been
macerated, so that by moderate traction it was readily divided into seve-
ral portions. Sometimes, also, I observed parts of sebaceous follicles
in connection with the sac. In smaller acne pustules I found commonly
only one hair-follicle, but in the larger, several. Similar whitish bodies
were not observable in the matter expressed from the acne pustules ;
and I after remarked, when the whole of the contents were brought
under the miscroscope, among them one or more hairs, which were
sometimes entwined together, or rolled up in a spiral form.

Although these facts rendered it probable that acne originates in an
affection of the hair- follicles, still, on the other hand, there was reason
to suppose, that the inflammation which gave rise to the pustule, com-
menced in the true tissue of the cutis : and that by the occurrence of
the suppuration, the connection of the hair-follicles with the skin was
destroyed and thrown off when the pustule burst.

One of the morbid affections of the skin, differing from the pustules of
acne, appeared to me calculated to throw some light on the subject.
There are frequently observable, especially in those who are subjects
of acne, black specks on the surface of the skin, which are caused by
the accumulation of sebaceous matter in small follicles of the skin, and
which are known under the name of maggots (Comedones Acne punctata.)

A real pustule of acne is not unfrequently seen to be formed in con-
sequence of inflammation around one or more of these little bodies, and
not unfrequently we may recognize also, on pustules of acne, the com-
mencement of which may not have been observed, by the presence of
one or more black points, that they also must have arisen in a similar
manner. Should this demonstrate that the Comedones are in some way
altered hair-follicles, the conclusion becomes manifestly more obvious,
that the pustules of acne originate in disease of those follicles. Accord-
ing to the opinion of many authors, these maggot-like bodies consist in
an abnormal accumulation of sebaceous matter in the fat- secreting
glands of the skin, which have been hitherto considered as simple sacs.

These glands, however, open directly on the surface of the skin only
on those parts which are entirely without hair, as the glans and nymphae ;
in other parts of the body, their orifices are always in connection with
hair-follicles : at least this is the result of all late observations, and in
my researches on the skin of the face, I have not been able in any case
to find a fat follicle independent of this connection. Where such dis-
tinct gland has appeared to exist, the total want of orifice, or at least
of one reaching the surface of the skin, has shown that the hair-follicle
belonging to it had been cut away.

As all this rendered it certain that the little follicles in which the ac-
cumulations of sebaceous matter forming the Comedones are found, could
not be the fat glands ; so the following observations proved them to be
in reality hair-follicles.

Earlier investigations had informed us, that the little expressed masses
consisted of minute vesicles, many of which are filled with sebaceous

T 2

276 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

matter. I also frequently found the contents of these bodies to be so
composed, but besides remarked in numerous instances, one or more
hairs in them, which were either scattered about irregularly in the ex-
pressed matter, and curved in various directions, or lay together in a
parallel direction. This was especially and very frequently observable
in large black pointed Comedones on the nose. The number of hairs
thus formed, in some cases, was extraordinarily great, occasionally
amounting to above forty. The hairs contained in the large nasal
Comedones had moreover this peculiarity, that they did not terminate in
a sharp point, but appeared to be cut off, so as to have a rounded extre-
mity. The examination, also, of the integument in the dead subject,
clearly proved the Comedones to be morbidly altered hair-follicles. I
took some perpendicular sections of the integument of the nose, fur-
nished with many of these bodies, and examined them under the micro-
scope, when they clearly appeared to be sacculi, closed below and open-
ing at the surface of the integument. They all had the form of the hair-
follicle, with the exception that they were a little wider than the nor-
mal ones, as I proved by comparison with unaltered hair-follicles taken
from another body. In the interior of the dilated follicles there was a
large accumulation of sebaceous matter, and either one or a great num-
ber of hairs. When many hairs were present, no part of the sheath,
which naturally surrounds the lower part of the hair within the outer
sac, was distinguishable ; but the collected hairs appeared to lie loose in
the outer sac.

The sebaceous matter could be expressed through the opening of the
hair-follicle. Thence it would appear, that the maggot-like bodies are
in fact hair-follicles, and that they are occasionally converted into the
pustules of acne ; and it is very probable, that when the pustules do
not thus originate, some disease of the hair-follicles is still their real
cause.

Further researches, however, are necessary to render this opinion
certain.

But besides the above-mentioned parts, I found in matter from the
Comedones of living subjects, other bodies, which I did not at first know
how to explain. I frequently remarked in them a slender corpuscle
about -^th of a line in length, which was rounded at one end, and at
the other, which was rather thicker, appeared to be furnished with
short teeth. I at first conceived that the glands of the hair- follicles of
the nose were differently constituted to those in other parts of the body,
and that by the pressure I had torn away one of these glands with a
portion of the follicle attached to it.

Opposed to this view, however, was the circumstance, on the one
hand, that the more slender, rounded extremity of this body appeared
completely closed ; and, on the other, that the thicker, toothed end was
always in the same form, which could not well have been the case with
detached or torn away portions of a gland. I consequently pursued my
examination of these bodies, and was at last convinced that they were
animals ; and, by using higher magnifying powers, I was able to make
out clearly a head, legs, thorax, and abdomen.

This supposition was confirmed, when, on an occasion, in which I

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 277

had only moderately compressed the object, under the glass, I perceived
motion in it. Since then I have repeated the observation so often, that
I am perfectly convinced of its correctness.

I have also shown to many of our naturalists and physicians living
specimens, which have been recognized as animals by all who have seen
them. As the occurrence of hitherto unknown animalculse in the hu-
man skin, appeared to me a very remarkable circumstance, the objection
occurred to me, that these creatures might in some way become mixed
with the matter extracted from the Comedones, either from the water
employed or otherwise. It it true, the animals were invariably, closely en-
veloped by the fat cells, and became obvious when these were moderately
drawn apart. But this did not appear to me altogether sufficient. I
freed two perfectly clean slips of glass from all organic particles, by
heating them strongly over a spirit-lamp, and extracted, with a needle
cleaned in the same way, the contents of a Comedo from a living person,
and placed them, without admixture of water or anything else, between
the glasses, and still found the animalculse. That these had been situ-
ated, not on the outer surface of the skin, but within it, was readily
proved, by examination with a lens, which would have shown them,
had they been on the surface. Also, when I scraped the surface of the
skin with a knife, in persons whose Comedones contained animalculse,
and examined the matter thus removed under the microscope, I never
found any in it ; but these were always first apparent when the con-
tents of the follicles were expressed. Altogether, up to the present
time, I have found the animalculse in three living men, whose ages were
respectively 40, 30, and 22 years. All of them were healthy and very
clean persons. The Comedones were in all three situated on the nose.
In seven other living persons, in whom I had examined the contents of
the follicles, I was unable to find any of the animalculse.

Having in the above manner rendered it certain, that a peculiar spe-
cies of parasite occurs in the integuments of living persons, I proceeded
to search for it in that of the dead body. I chose for this purpose six
bodies, four of which had very numerous Comedones in the nose, the
other two but few. I took thin laminae from the integument of that
part, made by perpendicular sections, and in such a way that in each of
them, some of the Comedones were present. On placing these lamellae
under the microscope, I remarked that the Comedones, which were evi-
dently dilated hair-follicles filled with adipose matter, almost all con-
tained animalculae, many of which were still alive. By compression, I
could also, most commonly, express these creatures through the open-
ing of the hair-follicle, together with the sebaceous matter.

The examination of these portions of integument rendered it also clear
to me, that many of the apparently normal hair-follicles contained ani-
malculse. In order to procure a satisfactory view of the width and
other particulars of perfectly normal hair-follicle, I took thin slices from
the integument of the nose of two bodies, in which there was no appear-
ance of Comedones, and submitted them to the microscope, and found
also in this instance one or more of the animals in many hair-follicles. I
have altogether, up to the present time, examined ten bodies ; two of new
born infants, one of a child three years old, and seven of adults of both

278 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

sexes. In eight of these, six of 'which had Comedones, I found the ani-
malculse sometimes in unnaturally dilated, and at others in perfectly
natural, hair-follicles of the nose and immediately surrounding parts.

I have not hitherto examined the hair-follicles of other parts of the
hody. The only bodies in which no animalcule were to be found,
were those of the two new-born infants. Dr. Troschel has found them
also in the integument of the upper lip of a woman.

They exhibit differences, arising from age. The form which 1
have most commonly observed is 0.085 — 0.125 of a line long, and
perhaps 0.020 of a line broad. The head, which becomes narrower
in front, consists of two bodies (the palpi), placed on the sides,
and of a proboscis or snout lying between them. The palpi are com-
posed of two joints, of which the posterior is the longer. The an-
terior and shorter one appears to have small dentations at its free ex-
tremity. The snout, which occasionally projects beyond the palpi, and
sometimes stands back further than them, resembles a long tube. On
the snout there is placed an organ of apparently triangular form, the
very short base of which is situated at the posterior part of the snout ;
but its point hardly reaches quite to the anterior extremity of that part.
By using a stronger power, it is seen that these triangular organs, are
made up of two spiculae or bristles lying together. The head is joined
immediately to the thorax, which forms about a fourth of the length of
the body, and is somewhat wider than the upper part of the abdomen.
On each side of the thorax are placed four very short feet, of conical
form, the base of which arises from the lateral part of the thorax. Or-
dinarily these dark, transverse lines are seen on each leg, which appear
to indicate the presence of three distinct articulations. A high power,
shows at the extremity of each foot, three slender claws, one long and
two shorter. These claws are usually pointed, but sometimes appear to
be rounded.

Figures corresponding to the above description are added to Dr. Si-
mon's paper, from which the animalcule he describes would appear to
be a minute Acaroid. We have examined the contents of the diseased
follicles in many subjects, both dead and living, but hitherto without suc-
cess in finding the animalcule described by Dr. Simon. — E. M. J.

Dr. Vogel on the Existence of Vegetable Parasites in Aphtha. — Dr.
Vogel, like Schoenleiu, Griiby, Gibert, and others, has seen vegetable
parasites in different diseases of the human body ; lately he has found
them on the buccal cesophageal mucous membrane of an infant who
died of aphthae, fifteen days after birth. The mouth and oesophagus,
as far as the cardia, were covered with an aphthous eruption. On exa-
mining this under a microscope of 220 powers, true confervae, similar to
those seen and described by Schoenlein as occurring in Impetigo, were
distinctly visible. In these parasites, two elementary bodies were recog-
nised : 1st, Small round bodies, with and without a central nucleus.
Sometimes these were isolated, and sometimes they were grouped like
mould on yeast ; they had a diameter of from 1- 300th to 1- 500th of a

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 279

line, were colourless, and not acted upon by water, ammonia, or acetic
acid. 2d, Filaments differently arranged, of a slaty colour (ardoists)
swollen at different points, either in the middle, or at their extremities.
Occasionally they were articulated. Several of them were seen dis-
tinctly to take their origin from the round bodies : some of them were
more than a line in length, and in general their diameter was about
1- 600th of a line. They were likewise unaffected by water, ammonia,
or acetic acid. — Allgemeine Zeitung fur Chirurge, #c. ; and Gazette
Med. de Paris, April, 1842 ; quoted in Lond. and Edin. Month. Journ.
Med. Science, July, 1842, p. 595.

Dr. Sharpey on the Membrana Decidua and Uterine Glands. — The
uterine glands alluded to in the text have now been ascertained^ exist
in several orders of mammiferous animals, and from their enlarged size
and augmented secretion during pregnancy, as well as the peculiar con-
nexion which is then established between them and the foetal mem-
branes, it has been inferred that they are in some important way sub-
servient to the nutrition of the foetus. The uterine cotyledons of
Ruminants were very generally considered to be of a glandular nature
by the older anatomists, and as destined to supply a nutrient matter
to the foetus ; indeed, it had not escaped notice, that these bodies ac-
tually yield a mucilaginous secretion. But besides the cotyledons, Mal-
pighi discovered glands opening on all parts of the inner surface of the
uterus of those animals, and recognised them as secreting organs. He
has described them specially in the gravid uterus of the sheep. (Opp.
1687, vol. ii. p. 220.) At a recent period, the uterine glands of Rumi-
nants were again observed by Baer, who also discovered similar glands
in the sow ; and although he erroneously supposed they were absorbent
vessels, he described them well, and showed that they were connected
in a peculiar manner with the ovum ; the dilated orifices of the glands
being attached to a small vascular spots on the surface of the chorion,
which, in the sow, he describes as formed by little circular or star-like
elevations of the membrane surrounding a central depression. (Ueber
die Gefaessverbindung zwischen Mutter and Frucht, 1821.) This ar-
rangement was justly considered by Dr. E. H. Weber, who afterwards
investigated the subject, as a provision for the accumulation of the se-
creted matter of the glands, and for securing its effectual exposure to the
blood-vessels of the foetus. Weber also more fully described the glands
in Ruminants, and observed glands of the same nature, though of a dif-
ferent form, in the uterus of the rabbit (loc. cit.) Still more lately,
uterine glands have been discovered in the pregnant porpoise, by Dr,
Eschricht of Copenhagen ; and in the gravid uterus of the cat, the same
observer found oblong cells lying under the mucous membrane, which
he considers to be glandular cavities, though he could not. discover
their orifices on the inner surface of the membrane. (De organis quae
resp. et nutr. fcetus mammal, inserviunt. Hafn. 1837, p. 43.) Having
had occasion to observe these glands in the uterus of the bitch, and
having examined their condition in various stages of pregnancy, as well

280 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

as their relation to the membranes of the foetus, I beg to subjoin an out-
line of my observations.

The glands of the mucous membrane of the bitch's uterus are of two
kinds, simple and compound, The simple glands, which are the more
numerous, are merely very short unbranched tubes closed at one end.
The compound glands have a long duct, dividing into convoluted
branches ; both open on the inner surface of the membrane by small
round orifices, lined with epithelium and set closely together. After
impregnation, the parts of the mucous membrane which come into im-
mediate relation with the ova, together with the glands seated in those
parts, undergo a remarkable alteration. In a uterus between three and
four weeks after conception, at which period the dilatations or chambers
which contain the ova attained the size of a walnut, we find, on laying
open one of the chambers, that the lemon- shaped ovum is surrounded
by a broad belt or zone of villi, which rise from the surface of the cho-
rion, and, becoming vascular, take part in the formation of the zonular
placenta. Corresponding with this, there is a zonular portion of the
inner surface of the uterus, somewhat raised above the rest, and perfo-
rated with small pits, into which the foetal villi are received ; and as
this part of the membrane enters into the formation of the placenta,
and comes away with the ovum at parturition, it is justly regarded as
the decidua. The decidua is no new structure, however ; it is merely a
portion of the mucous membrane become more thick and vascular than
the rest, and the pits on its surface, which receive the foetal villi, are
merely the glands already mentioned somewhat enlarged and widened.
While, however, the simple glands merely undergo a uniform enlarge-
ment, a change takes place in the compound glands of a much more
remarkable character. The long excretory ducts of those glands, imme-
diately before they open on the inner surface of the membrane, become
dilated into cells, one for each gland, which are filled with a semi-fluid
whitish granular secretion, and are lined with epithelium. These cells
form a layer beneath the surface of the decidua, and being crowded to-
gether, assume a polyhedral form. At the bottom of each, the tubular
duct may be seen about to expand into the cell, and the cell again con-
tracts at its orifice.

In a somewhat more advanced stage, the glandular cells enlarge, their
orifices expand, and now membranous processes rise from the surface
of the ovum and enter the glandular cells, passing a little way beyond
the orifices, by the circumference of which they are embraced. These
foetal processes are prolonged from the chorion and its vascular lining
or endochorion, and hence contain ramifications of the umbilical vessels.
They are for the most part hollow or saccular, at least at first, and some
of them present, for a time, a small aperture of communication between
their cavity and the general sac of the chorion, or rather of its vascular
lining, but this is soon obliterated ; ultimately, they come to resemble
much the villi in structure, differing only in size and form. As preg-
nancy advances, the parts described enlarge, the villi become more com-
plex by rammification, the foetal processes also give off numerous lateral
offsets ; but their broad flattened tops, which close the mouths of the
glandular cells, are smooth and even, and are covered with a prolonga-

EXTRACTS A-ND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURXALS. 281

tion of the same epithelium which lines the cells. The maternal or de-
cidual vessels are everywhere closely applied to the surface of the villi,
and fill up the intervals between them. They also closely embrace the
foetal processes, except at their expanded summits, which, as before
stated, are in contact with the secretion of the glandular cells. The
maternal vessels, in proceeding from the uterus, first ramify on the
parietes of the cells, by which they are supported ; but as they approach
the villi and surface of the ovum, they form an abundant net- work, the
branches of which are unsupported by membranous structure, seemingly
as if the intermediate tissue of the decidua had disappeared, its vessels
alone remaining in the later periods of pregnancy. At parturition, the
decidual vessels come away with the ovum ; the parietes of the now
greatly enlarged glandular cells also separate in great part from the
uterus, leaving merely the bottoms with the round openings of the
glandular ducts in their centres. After separation of the ovum and
placenta, numerous truncated and somewhat shrivelled vessels project
from the inner surface of the uterus ; they are chiefly veins, and they
may be seen for a considerable time after parturition, on those parts
of the uterus to which the ova had been attached.

From the description given, then, it follows, that in the placenta of
the bitch there is an arrangement by which a matter, secreted from the
enlarged glands of the uterus, is brought into proximity with the vessels
of the foetus ; and seeing that a provision of a similar nature is found
in various other instances, it is not improbable that in viviparous ani-
mals generally, a matter deposited from the maternal system by means
of a glandular apparatus may be absorbed into that of the foetus, and
serve for its nutrition ; but this is a question which can be determined
only after a more extended investigation. As connected with this sub-
ject, the source of the well-known green- coloured deposit found at the
borders of the placenta of Carnivora would naturally become an object of
inquiry ; but on this point I cannot as yet speak with certainty.

Dr. Sharpey on the Human Decidua. — These observations on the deci-
dua of the dog led me to examine anew the human decidua, and more
especially its relations to the mucous membrane of the uterus ; and I
shall now briefly state the result, although I find I have been in a great
measure anticipated by Weber, as appears from the statement of Pro-
fessor Miiller in the text. It is right to mention, however, that the re-
sults were arrived at quite independently of Weber's observations, and,
indeed, before the original of the pages of this work in which they are
noticed, reached me.

In various instances in which there was reason to believe that impreg-
nation had recently taken place, and in which the ovary contained a
recent corpus luteum and the uterus a distinct decidual lining, though
no ovum had been discovered, the decidua, in some places one-tenth of
an inch thick, seemed obviously to consist of the thickened mucous
membrane. Its surface presented a multitude of small round apertures,
which, on a verticle section, were seen to belong to the tubular glands
of the mucous membrane, elongated and enlarged. These tubes were
lined with white epithelium, which rendered them very conspicuous

282 EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

They were much waved and contorted towards their deep and doubtless
closed extremity ; and at various parts they appeared to be implanted at
some depth in the tissue of the uterus. Whether any of them divided
into branches I could not determine. In a specimen belonging to Dr.
John Reid, the uterus contained an early ovum, considered as dat-
ing little more than fifteen days after conception. The decidua vera
was somewhat corrugated on the surface. It had the usual cribriform
aspect, arid the pits were for the most part wider than in the earlier
examples ; but the smaller orifices still presented the character of the
tubular glands, and others showed an obvious transition between these
and the larger ones. On making a section parallel with the surface, it
appeared that may of the pits had a comparatively wide cavity, with a
narrow orifice. From these and other observations of a similar kind, I
was led to conclude that the apertures on the decidua which gave to
that membrane its well known cribriform character, however much they
may be modified in the latter stages of pregnancy, are originally no-
thing else than the openings of the glands of the lining membrane of
the uterus ; and that, as in the bitch, the mucous membrane is really
converted into the decidua, and discharged from the uterus at parturi-
tion,— an opinion, it may be remarked, adopted on other grounds by
various continental physiologists. In a uterus supposed to have been
recently impregnated, and in which the vessels had been minutely in-
jected with vermilion, the lining membrane or commencing decidua
appeared everywhere pervaded by a network of blood-vessels, in the
midst of which the tubular glands were seen, their white epithelium
strongly contrasting with the surrounding redness. In more advanced
stages the veins of the decidua form large ramifying canals in the sub-
stance of the membrane, which freely communicate with the uterine
veins. On inflating these venous canals of the decidua with a blow-
pipe, the air will frequently pass out at the openings on the surface of
the membrane which we have considered as the orifices of the enlarged
uterine glands, and it might hence be concluded that there is a natural
communication between the two. I am nevertheless disposed to think,
that the venous canals and glandular recesses form two separate systems
of cavities within the decidua, divided from each other by very thin
parietes, which are easily ruptured. 1 am inclined to adopt this opi-
nion, in consequence of repeated examination, in various ways, of the
structure in question, (though I must admit that the result has not
been always favourable,) and also from considering that the pits in the
decidua appear, as already stated, to be merely the enlarged uterine
glands, which, when observed in earlier stages, seem to have the same
relation to the surrounding blood-vessels of the decidua as is known to
subsist between glands and blood-vessels in general.

An objection to the opinion, that the decidua is merely the altered
mucous membrane of the uterus, which will naturnlly occur, is the dif-
ficulty of accounting on that view for the investment of the ovum by
the decidua reflexa, which is continuous with the uterine decidua, and
is believed by most, though not by all physiologists, to have a similar
origin. At the same time, the force of this objection is lessened by the
fact, that the decidua reflexa, though continuous with the vera, does

EXTRACTS AND ABSTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 283

not, usually at least, present the same character as the vera throughout
its whole career ; for, without laying stress on the differences generally
pointed out by authors, I may state, that in various conceptions which
I have examined, the decidua reflexa, in a great part of its surface, was
destitute of the small orifices which characterise the vera, and that
these were confined chiefly, though certainly not entirely, to a zone of
the membrane adjoining the angle of reflection, that is, to the part next
the decidua vera. Now, if this observation be found to hold good ge-
nerally, it will not be necessary to suppose that the lining membrane of
the uterus is extended over the whole surface of the ovum to form the
decidua reflexa ; and although I am not prepared on such limited obser-
vations to offer a decided opinion, especially on a question of acknow-
ledged difficulty as this is, still, as at least a possible explanation, it
might be suggested that the minute ovum, on its entrance into the ute-
rus, is covered with exuded lymph, either entirely or on that part of its
surface which does not adhere to the inside of the uterus ; that as the
ovum enlarges, a circular fold of the altered mucous membrane (deci-
dua) is drawn up upon it, all round its adhering part, enveloping the
ovum to a greater or less extent, and afterwards forming the cribriform
zonular portion of the decidua reflexa, whilst the remaining thin smooth
portion of the latter membrane, which is more distant from the line of
reflection, and is destitute of apertures, is formed by an extension of the
covering lymph. Or perhaps the following more simple explanation
might not be inadmissible : viz. that the minute ovum, on reaching the
uterus, becomes imbedded in the substance of the then soft and pulpy
mucous membrane, and that in its subsequent enlargement it carries
along with it a covering of the membrane, which is expanded into the
decidua reflexa.

Are the cells observed in the human decidua, by Dr. Montgomery,
identical with the dilated uterine glands ? Dr. M . occasionally found
them to contain " a milky or chylous fluid," but he does not describe
them as opening on the inner surface of the membrane.

In acknowledging the kindness of my friend Dr. John Reid, now
Professor of Medicine in St. Andrew's, in freely placing at my disposal
some very valuable specimens in his collection, I deem it due also to
that gentleman to state, that he had previously observed the tubular
structure of the mucous membrane of the uterus, and was led, by an
examination of recently impregnated uteri, to infer that one of the
earliest changes which occurs after impregnation, was an increased de-
velopment of the tubular structure, and this he conceived was connected
with the formation of the decidua. At the same time, he did not sup-
pose that the mucous membrane was converted into the decidua, but
was disposed to think that the decidua was secreted by the tubes of the
mucous membrane." — Note by Dr. Sharpey to Baly's Translation of
Mutter's Physiology, Lond. and Edin. Month. Journ. Med. and Science,
Feb. 1842.

284

33tbluisrapl)tcal

Monographia Anoplurorum Britannia ; or, an Essay on the British Spe-
cies of Parasitic Insects, belonging to the Order Anoplura of Leach,
with the modern divisions of the Genera according to the views of Leach,
Nitzsch, and Burmeister, with highly magnified figures of each Species,
By Henry Denny, Curator of the Leeds Philosophical Society, 8$c., &c.
London. G. Bohn. 1842. pp. 262. 26 Plates.

THE present volume is one of that class, which never fails to call forth
the admiration of every lover of nature, whether scientific or not, as it
cannot do otherwise than show the zeal, assiduity, and attention the
author has given to this inconspicuous order of beings, by developing
and bringing to light nearly one hundred new species, of whose exist-
ence there was not hitherto any decided proof.

The following will show the arrangement adopted in the work, and
the number of species described under each genus, with brief characters
of the Families and Genera : —

Sub. Class. I. HEMIMETABOLA, Burmeister.
Order II. ANOPLURA, Leach.

Synonym. — Aptera, Linne. — Antliata, Fabr. — Arachnida Parasita,
Latr. — Rhophotera, Cluirville. — Rhyncota, Burmeister. — Arachnides
Acaridiennes, Lamarck.

Section I. Haustellata.

Fam. I. PEDICULID^E, Leach.

Synonym. — Hemiptera^ epizoica, Nitzsch. — Fam. II. Siphunculata,
Latr.

Essent. Char. — Antennae of 5 joints, mouth with a fleshy Haustel-
lum.

Nat. Char. — Apterus, parasitical ; mouth consisting of a fleshy tuber-
culous inarticulate haustellum, armed at the extremity with retractile
hooks ; legs scansorial, tibiae short, thick, armed at the apex on the
inner side with a strong tooth, which, together with the large curved
tarsus and unguis, forms a claw ; tarsus one-jointed, unguis single ;
oesophagus, none ; biliary vessels four, free, equal in length, enlarged
towards their extremities. Males with two testicles on each side ; fe-
males with five ovaries on each side of the uterus. Coitus exercetur
mare femine submisso. — Food the blood of animals.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

285

I

g

Artificial Divisions of the Family.

I. Legs of two kinds, anterior am-
bulatory ; posterior scansorial ;
thorax large, not distinctly se-
parated from the abdomen Genus I. PHTHIRIUS,

(1 species.)

II. Legs all scansorial ; thorax large,
not distinctly separated from
the abdomen ; abdomen of seven

segments Genus II. PEDICULUS,

(3 species.)

III. Legs all scansorial ; thorax gene-
rally narrower than the abdo-
men, and distinctly separated ;
abdomen of eight or nine seg-
ments Genus III. H^MATOPINUS,

(15 species.)

Fam. II. PHILOPTEEIDu®, Burmeister.

Synonym. — Orthoptera epizoica, Nitzsch. — Nirmidae, Leach.

Essent. Char. — Antennae filiform, with three or five joints ; maxillary
palpi none ; mouth with strong mandibles.

Nat. Char. — Mouth beneath ; maxillae none ; mandibulae nearly con-
cealed by the labium ; pro-thorax narrower than the head ; mesothorax
none, or hid by the metathorax, which is very large ; abdomen with nine
segments ; oesophagus long, unilateral, ending somewhat acutely in the
caecum ; biliary vessels four, free, equal, without any particular enlarge-
ment. Males with two testicles on each side ; females with five ovaries
on each side of the uterus. Coitus exercetur mare femine submisso hu-
jusque pedes tertios tenente antennis, si hae sunt cheliformes. Meta-
morphosis indistinct, perhaps none ?

Artificial Divisions of the Family.

o

I

/ 1. Antennae 5
jointed; tarsi
with 2 claws ;
parasitic upon
birds

II. Antennae 3
jointed; tarsi
with 1 claw;
parasitic upon
quadrupeds.

Genus.

>•!. PHILOPTERUS.J

Sub-genus.

• I. Docophorus, (59 species.)
II. Nirmus, (59 species.)

III. Goniocotes, (2 species.)

IV. Gonioides, (9 species.)
V. Lipeurus, (18 species.)

Wl. Ornithobius, (3 species.)

II. TRICHODECTES, (10 species.)

286 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Fam. III. LIOTHEIDJ2, Burmeister.

Synonym. — Orthopterae pizoica, Nitzsch. — Nirmidse, Leach.

Essent. Char. — Antennse capitate, four jointed ; maxillary palpi con-
spicuous ; mouth with strong mandibles.

Nat. Char. — Mouth beneath, very near to the anterior margin ; man-
dibles strong, armed at the end with two teeth ; antennae inserted in a
cavity of the lateral margin ; thorax of two or three segments ; pro-
thorax with the lateral margins protruding more or less, nearly the
width of the head ; mesothorax generally small, in some cases as wide
as the head ; metathorax large, the width of the abdomen ; abdomen
with nine or ten segments; oesophagus symmetrical, equal, slightly uni-
lateral ; biliary vessels four, free, thickened in the middle. Males with
three testicles on each side ; females with three ovaries. Coitus exer-
cetur femina mari submissa. Metamorphosis indistinct.

Artificial Divisions of the Family.

Genus. Sub-genus.

I. Colpocephalum, (12 species.)
II. Menopon, (22 species.)

I. Tarsi with 2

LcUSl W1U1 4B L T T

claws. L LlOTHEUM

II. Tarsi with

\ \

1 claw. J IL GYROPUS> (2 species.)

III, Nitzschia, (nova, 1 species.)

IV. Trinoton, (4 species.)
V. Eureum, (2 species.)

VI. Lamobothrium, (5 species.)
VII. Physostomum (o species.)

The only new genus which the author has added in the work, occurs
in the last family, viz., NITZSCHIA We extract the characters for the
sake of reference : —

Sub-genus III. NITZSCHIA, Denny.

Synonym. — Nitzschia, Denny's MSS. — Menopon, Nitzsch.

Sub-gen. Char. — Head oblong, triangular, orbital margin sinuated ;
maxillary palpi large and prominent; antenna capitate, nearly concealed;
prothorax narrow ; mesothorax large, very distinct ; abdomen oblong ;
tarsi with large involute pulvilli,

Spec. — Nitzschia Burmeisteri. — Denny (Louse of the common Swift.)
— Menopon pulicare, Nitzsch, MSS.

The new species figured and described amount to 93, and the num-
ber of the illustrations of the Order 205, with, in most instances, nume-
rous representations of isolated portions of each species.

The work has been got up with great care. With regard to the
figures we can speak as to the accuracy of their outline and delicacy of
their execution.

287

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OP LONDON.

October 19^, 1842.— J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., in the Chair.

A PAPER was read by William B. Carpenter, M.D., " On the structure
of the Animal Basis of the common Egg-shell, and of the Membrane
surrounding the Albumen." The author found, on examining the
thin membrane surrounding the albumen of the hen's egg fmembrana
putaminis} , that it consisted of several laminae, each lamina being com-
posed of interlacing fibres, between which numerous interspaces are
left. On comparing this with a portion of egg-shell decalcified by
means of dilute acid, both presented the same structure ; but the lami-
nae were more numerous in the latter. He supposes that the deposit of
calcareous matter takes place in the interspaces left by the reticulation
of the fibres, and concludes that this fibrous membrane is analogous to
the chorion of mammalia. A preparation, showing the identity of the
two structures, accompanied the paper. Another paper was also read by
Arthur Hill Hassall, Esq., entitled, " An explanation of the Cause of the
rapid Decay of many Fruits, more especially of those of the Apple tribe."
After some preliminary observations, the author proceeded to state, that
on placing a portion of decayed apple under the microscope, he observed
vast numbers of ramified filaments, passing in all directions between and
around the cells of the parenchyma of the fruit ; these filaments were
regarded as those of a minute fungus or fungi, which, by insinuating
themselves between the cells of the pulp of the fruit, detached them
from their connection with each other, destroyed their vitality, and ulti-
mately produced a decomposition of their contents. The author then
gives his reasons for supposing the fungi to be the cause, and not the
effect of the decay ; and concludes by describing the several stages of
development of the fungi, and their mode of entrance within the fruit.
Specimens of the fungi were exhibited to the Society, after the reading
of the paper.

Ehrenberg on the Power of Vision in the Human Eye, SfC. — He con-
cludes that there are, putting aside all inorganic bodies, even in the king-
dom of organic bodies, whose constituent parts or molecules are
generally considered to be the coarsest, magnitudes capable of direct
proof, which are in diameter j-g-.oTo-o °f a ^ne 5 an(* others that can be
proved indirectly, which may be less than a sixth millionth part of
a Parisian line in diameter ; that the ideas often expressed respecting
atoms, as subjects of experience, are somewhat too confident ; finally,
that the power of the microscopes, which we at present possess, does
not in its maximum amount to more than to make distinctly visible
long opaque threads of y.2ooooo'" diameter, and square superficies or
globules of 1 4/000 of a line in diameter ; and that for these latter they
must be increased forty times, in order to satisfy what is required for
reaching directly those minutest parts of organic bodies, whose existence
has been inferred from simple deductions ; and that we are to not to
entertain a thought of perceptible, or ever attainable simple matter, or
material primitive constituent particles. — From Poggendorff's Annalen

288 MICROSCOPICAL MEMORANDA.

der Physick und Chemie, Vol. xxiv. p, \, Translated in Taylor's Scientific
Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 528.

Rees and Lane on the Structure of the Blood Corpuscles. — The chief
points are, that the blood corpuscle contains a fluid, and that the cor-
puscle of mammals, as well as the other lower vertebrata, 'contains a
nucleus. The human blood being -3 aVoth of an inch in diameter, its
nucleus is described as a thin circular layer of colourless substance
measuring from j-gVoth to g^^th of an inch.

With regard to the fluid, if we remember rightly, M. Mandl (Anato-
mi-Microscopique) expressly states his conviction, that the appearance
of the corpuscles when removed from the body is due to coagulation, as
he considers the corpuscles are in fact not solid while circulating in the
living body. As to the nucleus, it appears to us that Messrs. Rees and
Lane have described under this appellation the blood corpuscle deprived
of its colouring matter, and which has been long well known, — an old
thing with a new name. Thus Sir E. Home (Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 198,
plate 8,), has figured sixteen globules in their colouring matter, occupy-
ing the same space as twenty-five of the same globules with the colour-
ing matter removed. Schultz has described the same central part of
the blood corpuscle, which he procured by washing blood with water
and then adding iodine : and Gulliver saw them in abundance in the
sediment of washed blood. " The human blood corpuscles, enlarged at
first by water and then deprived of colouring matter and reduced in
size, generally present a diameter of 48100th of an inch, whether de-
tected in the pure water, or rendered more apparent by corrosive subli-
mate. They have a very characteristic appearance, being remarkably
flat and pellucid. It is obvious from the size, shape, and general ap-
pearance of these particles, that they are not identical with those gene-
rally described as the nuclei of the blood corpuscles. The average dia-
meter of the discs in the first instance was -g-jV-gth of an inch." (Lond.
and Edin. Phil. Mag. for Feb. 1840.) It does not appear to us to fol-
low as a matter of course, that this basis of the mammiferous corpuscle
is identical with the nucleus of the corpuscles of the oviperous verte-
brata : on the contrary, we cannot help considering that there is an
essential difference in this respect between the corpuscles of mammalia
and the corpuscles of the lower vertebrata. — Vide Guy's Hospital Re-
ports, No. 13, Oct. 1841. — Lond. and Edin. Month. Journ. Med. Science,
Dec. 1841,;?. 906.

Goodsir on the Morbid Anatomy of Intestinal Glands, as occurring in
Continued Fever. — He stated it consist chiefly in the development within
the vesicles of the Peyerian patches, of a matter presenting the appear-
ance of nucleated cells with clear coats. This product, accumulating
in quantity, destroys the walls of the vesicles, and extends itself be-
tween the mucous and submucous tissue, forming patches more or less
elevated. The distension of the mucous membrane causes it to form a
slough, which separates, and consists partly of the mucous membrane,
but chiefly of the mass of cellular matter beneath. — Lond. and Edin.
Month. Jour, of Med. Science, April, 1842, p. 399.

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