9 I HARVARD UNIVERSITY % LIBRARY OF THE GRAY HERBARIUM Received i l I f, ;NATURALIST: The Journal OF THE Associated Natural History, Philosophical, AND ArCH/EOLOGICAL SOCIETIES AND FlELD ClUBS OF THE Midland Counties. EDITED BY E. W. BADGER & W. J. HARRISON, E.G.S “ Come forth into the light of things, Let Nature be your teacher.” Wordsivorth. VOLUME VI. 1883. -:o: — London : David Bogue, 3, St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Birmingham : Cornish Brothers, 37, New Street. i Y1 U't. V I lUf Gray Herbarium Harvard University > > t PEEFACE. No paper of sufficient merit on an ArchaBological subject having been sent in for publication, there was no award of the Darwin Prize for 1883. The Darwin Prize is offered in 1884 for a paper on some Botanical subject. In the coming year the Magazine will be printed in larger type and on better paper. Additional efforts will be made to render the contents interesting to the general reader, while the scientific character of the papers will be carefully maintained. The Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society has decided to purchase a sufficient number of copies each month for the supply of all the members. The proceedings of the Society will be inserted in full, and no separate publication of the proceedings will be made. The Monthly Diary of the Society will also appear each month on the cover. Secretaries of the various Societies in the Midland Union are urgently requested to secure for publication in the “Midland Naturalist” every really good paper read before the Societies. PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME. Oliver V. Aplin, Bodicote, Banbury. A. H. Atkins, B.Sc., Birmingham. E. W. Badger, Birmingham. J. E. Bagnall, Birmingham. Kev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.R.S., Market Harboro’. G. Claridge Druce, F.L.S., Oxford. F. Enock, Ferndale, Woking Station. W. H. France, Birmingham. J. F. Goode, Birmingham. W. B. Grove, B.A., Birmingham. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., Birmingham. Egbert de Hamel, Tamworth. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., Birmingham. Hugh A. Macpherson, B.A., Oxford. W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., Birmingham. F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S., Leicester. J. G. Ogle, Nottingham. W. Phillips, F.L.S., Shrewsbury. R. Rogers, HamptoD -in- Arden. J. Saunders, Luton. James Shipman, Nottingham. W. Southall, F.L.S., Birmingham. E. A. Walford, F.G.S., BanWry. T. H. Waller, B.A., B.Sc. Lond., Birmingham. E. Wilson, F.G.S., Nottingham. Horace B. Woodward, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey. C. L. Wragge, F.R.G.S., F.M.S., Farley, near Cheadle. T. Wright, M.D., F.R.S., Cheltenham. ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI. PLATES. page. Underground Fungi . Plates I., II., III., to face 1 c/ The Uredineee . Plate IV. ,, 49 The Fertilisation of Saxifraga . . . . Plate V. ,, 73 Section of the Alluvium of the Leen at Old Radford . . . . 78 Section of the Alluvial and Drift Deposits of the Leen at Old Basford . 110 Generalised Section of the Rhaetic Rocks of Nottinghamshire . . 196 Map of Tamworth District in illustration of President’s Address 169 INDEX. Analogies, Biological, 251-252 Animal-Lore of Shakespeare’s Time, 278- 281 Anomalies of the Season during March, 1883, 93 AjDlin (Oliver V.), Abstract of North Oxfordshire Ornithology, 144 - Kemarks on Migratory Birds noticed in North Oxfordshire in the Autumn of 1882, 57-58 - Summer Migrants: Notice of the Arrival of Migratory Birds in North Oxon in the Spring of 1883, with Notes, 205-208. Arrangement, An Improved System of, in Provincial Museums, 129-132 Arum maculatum, 82-84 Ash, Fruit of the, 70 Astronomy, Rudimentarj'^ (Bevieiv), 17 Atkins (A. H.), Geology of Wyre Forest. 31-33 - On Glacial Markings in the Bed Marl, 230-232 Atypus Sulzeri, The British Trap-door Spider, 109, 186 Bacillus tuberculosis, Heneage Gibbs, Mode of Staining the Germs of, 20 Badger (E. W.>, Animal-Lore of Shake¬ speare’s Time, 278-281 Bagnall (James E.), The Flora of War¬ wickshire, 12-16, 41-43, 63-67, 86-88, 103-107, 135-138, 186-190, 210-212, 232-236, 253-258 Barnetby Junction, Wild Ducks at, 142 Bats, some Notes on Oxon, by the late Frank Norton, arranged and com¬ municated by the Rev, H. A. Macpherson, 149-153 Bedfordshire, South, Botanical Notes from, 237 Beech Leaf,*Note on a, 106 Ben Nevis in Mid-winter, 34-39 Ben Nevis Observatory. 1882, 20-21 Berkeley (Rev. M. J,', On Underground Fungi {Fungi hypogaiv, 1-7 Biological Analogies, 251-252 Birds — Ducks, Wild, at Barnetby Junc¬ tion, 141-142 - Food of Small Birds, Note on the,' 09-70 - Gull, the Blackheaded, 141 - Migratory, Remarks on, noticed in North Oxfordshire in the Autumn of 1882, 57-58 - Nest, A, in a Letter-box, 214 - Ornithological Notes from Leices¬ tershire for i 882, 85-86 - Ornithology, Abstract of North Oxfordshire, 144 - Robk’s Nest, Curious Site for, 165 Birds— Summer Migrants: Notice of the Arrival of Migratory Birds in North Oxon in the Spring of 1883, with Notes, 205-208 Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society : General Report on Dredging Operations at Oban, July 5 to 12, 1881, 53-57 Blue Caps, 41, 165, 167 Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles, The {Bevieiv', 17-18 Botanical Record Club: Phanerogamic Report for 188 (-82 {Bevieio, 259-260 Botany — Agaricus nitidus, 261 - Anomalies of the Season during March, 1883 ’ ■' - Arum maculatum, 82-84 - Ash, Fruit of the, 70 - Beech Leaf, Note on a, 166 - Blue Caps, 141, 165, 167 - Boletus aluterius, 261 - Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles ; Report for 1881 (Bevieiv), 17-18 - - Notes from South Bedford¬ shire, 237 - - Record Club, The (Beview), 259-261 - Bramble, Phragmidium on, 21 - Bryological Note from South Beds, 261 - Colours of Flowers, The, as illus¬ trated by the British Flora (Bevieiv), 89 - Composites, Fruit of, 70 - Cuckoo Flower, 117, 133-134 - Dactylium obovatum, 70 - Elementary Botany (Bevie w), 90 - Facts about Plants, 94 - Flora of Derbyshire, 165 - - of Hampshire, The, 248-250 - - of Warwickshire, The, 12- 16, 41-43, 63-67, 86-88, 10:i-107, 135- 138, 186-190, 210-212, 232-236. 253- 258 - Flowers, Early Spring, 93 - Fruits of all Countries, The: A Preliminary Catalogue (Beview), 261 - Fungi from near Birmingham, 236 - - of the Neighbourhood of Birmingham, 163-165, 271-277 - - Nomad : the Reclassification of the Uredinese, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 - - Underground (Fungi Hypo- gcei), 1-7 - Leafing of Oak and Ash, 190 - Moss Flora, the British (Beview), 259 - Mucorini, New British Species of, 20, 70 11 INDEX. Botany— Mushroom Growing, 127-129 - Oak and Ash, Leafing of, 190 - — of Malvern, 117 - Phragmidium on Bramble, 21 - Saxifraga, Observations on the Fertilisation of certain Species of, 73-75 - Sphagnaceae of the South Mid¬ lands gathered in 1882, 45 - Uredineae, The Eeclassification of, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 - Vagaries of the Season, 92 - - — Viola sylvatica, var. Reichen- bachiana, 166, 237 - Worcestershire Plants, 94 Boulders, Ice-grooved, 277-278 Boyden iRev. H.), on “ Our Marine Algae,” 288 Brachypodiumcristatum-Brachypodium piunatum, 214 Bramble, Phragmidium on, 21 Bi’eedon and Cloud Hill Lime, 93 British Isles, Contributions to the Physical History of the (Review), 213 Bryological Note from South Beds, 261 Buckland, Dr., and the Glacial Theory, 225-229 Burnishers, 70 Cement for Objects mounted in Spirits of Wine, 282 Chain 1 rand. The, 192 Charnwood Forest, The Diorite of, 237-238 Chase (R. W.), On the Study of Ornitho¬ logy, 72 Civilisation, The Origin of, and the Primitive Condition of Man (Bevieivi, 258 Cloud Hill and Breedon Lime, 93 Clypeus Grit, Relation of the so-called “Northampton Sand” of North Oxfordshire to the, 108 Colin Clout’s Calendar Review), 117 Collins iF. H.), on the Magnifying powers of a Microscope, J67 Colours of Flowers, The, as illustrated by the British Flora (Reviexv), 89 Composites, Fruit of, 70 Contributions to the Physical History of the British Isles (Revieiv), 213 Cooke (M. C.i, on Biological Analogies, 25 -252 Correction, A, 261 Correspondence, 20-21, 45-46, 69-70, 92-94, 117-118, 1 40- 42, 165-167, 190, 214-215, 236-238, 261„281-282 Cremation, 24 1 -248 Crosskey (Dr. H. W.l, on Recent Investi¬ gations in the Glacial Deposits of the Midlands, 95 Cuckoo Flower, 117, 133-134 Dactylium obovatum, 70 Deposits, The Alluvial and Drift, of the Leen Valley, 76-79, 109-115 Derbyshire, Flora of, J65 Diorite, The, of Charnwood Forest, 237- 238 Dorset County Museum and Library, 21 Druce (G. i laridge), A Visit to Glen Clova and Callater, 7-12 - on Townsend’s “ Flora of Hamp¬ shire,” 248-250 Ducks, Wild, at Barnetby Junction, 141- 142 Echinodermata, The, 265-271 Elementary Botany (Review), 90 England, Tree-frogs in, 215 Euock (Frederick), Holes in the Sand, 184-186 - on Macropis labiata, 236 - on the British Trap-door Spider Atypvs Sdlzeri, 109, 186 Errata in “ Midland Naturalist,” 214 Exchange, 48, 192 Excursion, Marine, 95 Facts about Plants, 94 Felspars, The, 217-225 Flora of Derbyshire, 165 Flora of Hampshire, The, 248-250 - Warwickshire, The, 12-16, 41-43, 63-67, 86-88, 103-107, 135-138, 186- 190, 210-212, 232-236, 253-258 Flowering Plants, The Young Collector’s Handbook of (Review), 213 Flowers, Early Spring, 93 - The Colours of, as illustrated by the British Flora (Review), 89 Food of Small Birds, Note on the, 69-70 France (W. H.), on Cremation, 241-248 Frogs, a Note on, 140 Fruit of Composites, 70 - of the Ash, 70 Fruits of all Countries: a Preliminary Catalogue (Review), 261 Fungi, Nomad : the Reclassification of the Uredineae, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 - Underground (Fungi hypogcei), 1-7 - from near Birmingham, 236 - of the Neighbourhood of Bir¬ mingham, 163-165, 271-277 Geology — Breedon and Cloud Hill Lime,93 - Buckland, Dr., and the Glacial Theory, 225-229 - Burnishers, 70 - Clypeus Grit, Relation of the so- called “ Northampton Sand ” to the, 108 - Diorite, The, of Charnwood Forest, 237-238 - Felspars, The, 217-225 - Glacial Theory, Dr. Buckland and the, 225-229 - Ice-grooved Boulders, 277-278 - Leen Valley, The Alluvial and Drift Deposits of the, 76-79, 109- 115 - “Northampton Sand” of North Oxfordshire, Relation of the so- called, to the Clypeus Grit, 108 - of Wire Forest, 31-33 - Pen Pits, 141 - Pen Pits and other supposed Early British Dwellings, Remarks on the, 98-103 - Red Marl, Glacial Markings in the, 230-232 - Rhsetic Rocks of Nottingham¬ shire, The (lUus.), 193-199 - Study of the Rocks (Reviexo), 259 — ; - Wealden Formation, The, 22 Gibbs (Heneagei, Mode of Staining the Germs of Bacillus tuberculosis, 20 Glacial Markings in the Red Marl, 230-232 Glacial Theory, Dr. Buckland and the, 225-229 Gleanings, 21-22, 94-95, 117-118* INDEX. Ill Glen Clova and Callater, A visit to, 7-12 Goode (John F.) and Marshall (William P.), General Eeport on Dredging Operations at Oban of the Birming¬ ham Natural History and Microsco¬ pical Society, July 5 to 12, 1881, 53-57 Greatheed tW.i, An Evolutionist’s Notes on Transmigration, 95-96 Greatheed (W.), on Vertebrate Egg-life, 168 Grove (W. B.), Fungi from near Birming¬ ham, 236 - Fungi of the Neighbourhood of Birmingham, 163-165, 271-277 - Mycological Notes, 208-209 - Nomad Fungi: the B,eclassifica- tion of the Uredinese, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 Gull, The Blackheaded, 141 Hamel (Egbert de'. Address as President at Annual Meeting of Midland Union of Natural History Societies, 169- i 80 Hampshire, The Flora of, 248-250 Harrison (W. Jerome), Change of Address, 97 - on Ice-grooved Boulders, 277-278 Hedgerows, The, of Leicestershire, 58-62 Heralds of Spring, 93 Heroes of Science (Review), 90 Hill (Dr.), on Herbert Spencer’s “System of Philosophy,’’ 262-263, 287-288 Holes in the sand, 184-186 Hovgaard (Lieut.), return from Arctic Expedition, 282 Hughes (W. E..I, on Marine Zoology at Oban, 181-184 - on Sociology, 121-127, 143, 145-149, 200-204 Ice-grooved Boulders, 277-278 Insects, Common British (Beetles, Moths, and Butterflies), Review, 213 Lantern, The Optical, 22 Lapworth (Professor C.), on Scotch Geo¬ logy, 191 Leafing of Oak and Ash, 190 Leen Valley, The Alluvial and Drift Deposits of the, 76-79, 109-115 Leicestershire, Ornithological Notes from, for 1882, 85-86 Leicestershire, The Hedgerows of, 58-62 Limnsea glabra, 2i4 Macaulay (Thomas), Ornithological Notes from Leicestershire for i882, 85-86 Macpherson (H. A.*, Notes on Oxon Bats by the late Frank Norton, arranged and communicated by, 149-153 Macropis labiata, 236 Malvern. Botany of, 117 Marine Excursion, 95 Marine Zoology at Oban, 181-184 Markings, Glacial, in the Ked Marl, 230- 232 Marshall (William P.) and Goode (John F.', General Report on Di-edging Operations at Oban of the Birming¬ ham Natural History and Microsco- incal Society, July 5 to 12, 1881, 53-57 Meteorological Notes by Observers, 69, 92 - Society, The Scottish, 282 Meteorology of the Midlands, 18-19, 43-44, 67-69, 90-92, 115-116 Microscope, New Methods of Mounting for the, 190 Midland Union of Natural History Societies : Annual Meeting at Tam- worth, 2 1, 97, 139-140, 153-163, 169-180 Moss Flora, The British f Review , 259 Mott F. T.) on An improved System of Arrangement in Provincial Museums, 129-132 - The Hedgerows of Leicestershire, 58-62 Mounting, New Methods of, for the Microscope, 166, 190 Mucorini, New British Species of, 20, 70 Museums, Provincial. An imijroved System of Arrangement in, 129-132 - School, 281 Mushroom-Growing, 1 27-129 Mycological Notes, 208-209 Nat the Naturalist {Review), 212 Newman i8. J.i, on Man’s Agency, direct and indirect, in exterminating some species and extending the range of others, 119-120 Nomad Fungi : The Reclassification of the Uredinese, 25-3 i, 49-53, 79-82 “Northampton Sand” of North Oxford¬ shire, Relation of the so-called, to the Clypeus Grit, 108 Note, Bryological, from South Beds, 261 Note on the Food of Small Birds, 6^70 Notes, Botanical, from South Bedford¬ shire, 237 - from Woking, 142 - Meteorological, by Observers,69-92 - Mycological, 208-209 - on Oxon Bats, by the late Frank Norton, arranged and com¬ municated by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, 149-153 - Ornithological, from Leicester¬ shire, for 1882,85-86 - - Zoological iJBei iew), 258 Nottingham Naturalists Society: Annual Excursions, 240 Nottinghamshire, The Rhsetic Rocks of iIUus.), 193-199 Novels ancl Science, 94 Oak and Ash, Leafing of, 190 Oban, General Report on Dredging Operations at, of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, July 5 to 12, 188!, 53-57 - Marine Zoology at, 18_-184 Observations on the Fertilisation of certain Species of Saxifraga (Illus.), 73-75 Ogle ( J, J.i, Observations on the Fertilisa¬ tion of certain Species of Saxifraga, 73-75 Origin of Civilisation, The, and the Primitive Condition of Man (Revieio', 258 Other Worlds than Ours {Revieiv), 89-90 Out of Doors (Review), 117 Pen Pits and other supposed Early British Dwellings, Remarks on the, 98-103, 141 Phillips (W.), Truffles in Shropshire, 40-41 IV INDEX. Phragmidium on Bramble, 21 Physical History of the British Isles, Contributions to the iBevieiO), 213 Plants, Facts about, 94 Pond Life, 214 Pyramids of Egypt, The, 22 Questions and Answers, 70 Eainfall for November, 1882, 19; Decem¬ ber, 44; January, 1883, 68; February, 91 ; March, 116 ; Rat, Prolific, 141 Reclassification of the Uredinese, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 Red Marl, Glacial Markings in the, 230-232 Remarks on the Pen Pits and other supposed Early British Dwellings, 98-103 Report, General, on Dredging Operations at Oban of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society ; July 5 to 12, J 88 1, 53-57 Reviews : — Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles, Report for 1881, 17-18 Botanical Record Club, The Phanero¬ gamic Report for J 88 1, 82, 259-260 Civilisation, The Origin of, and the Primitive Condition of Man, 258 Colours of Flowers, The, as illustrated by the British Flora, 89 Colin Clout’s Calendar, 117 Common British Insects (Beetles, Moths, and Butterflies), 213 Contributions to the Physical His¬ tory of the British Isles, 213 Elementary Botany, 30 Handbook of British Fungi, 281 Heroes of Science : Botanists, Zoolo¬ gists, and Geologists, 90 Nat the Naturalist, 212 Other Worlds than Ours, 89-90 Out of Doors, 117 Rudimentary Astronomy, 17 Study of the Rocks, 259 The British Moss Flora, 259 The Fruits of all ( ountries, a Preliminary t atalogue, 261 The Sun ; its Planets and their Satellites, 16-17 The Young Collector’s Handbook of Flowering Plants, 213 Zoological Notes, 2M Rhaetic Rocks of Nottinghamshire, The (Ulus.), 193-199 Rocks, Study of the (Be' iew), 259 Rogers (Robert), on Arum maculatum, 82-84 - on Cuckoo Flowers, 133-134 Roll, The Scientific, 286 Rook’s Nest, curious Site for, 165 Seience, Heroes of iBeview', 90 Science and Novels, 94 Scientific Roll, The, 282 Scottish Meteorological Society, 282 Shipman (J.), on a Boulder from the Bunter Pebble Beds, 264 - Toe Alluvial and Drift Deposits of the Leen Valley, 76-79, 109-115 Shropshire, Truffles in, 40-41 Societies, Reports of : — Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society, 119 Birmingham Microscopists’ and Naturalists’ Union, 47-48, 72, 192, 239 Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, 22-24, 46-47, 71-72, 95-96, 118-119, 143-144, 167- '68, 190-192, 215-216, 238-239, 261-264, 282- 284 Midland Union of Natural History Societies, 97 - Annual General Meeting, 153- 154 - Annual Meeting at Tam worth, 97, 139-140, 153-163, 169-180 - Conversazione, 16 1-163 - Excursion to Hartshill, 162 - Hon. Treasurer’s Report, 159- 160 - Lichfield Excursion, 163 - Local Excursions, 160-161 - Meeting-place for 1884, '59 - - Presentation of the Darwin Gold Medal for 1882, 159 - President’s Address, 169-180 - Report of the Council, 154-159 Northamptonshire Natural History Society, 119-120 Nottingham G. R. S. Naturalists’ Society — Annual Soiree, 48 Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, 96, 120, 240, 264 Oxfordshire Natural History Society, 24, 144 Practical Naturalists’ Society, 240 Sociology : Abstract of Address delivered to the Sociological Section of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, May, 18^, 121- 127, 145-149, 200-204 - The Study of, 94 South Beds, Bryological Note from, 261 - Midlands, Sphagnacese of the, gathered in 1882, 45 Sphagnacese of the South Midlands gathered in 1882, 45 Stecker (Dr.), Return from Abyssinia, 282 Study of the Rocks tBevieiv<, 259 I Summer Migrants: Notice of the Arrival ! of Migratory Birds in North Oxon in I the Spring of 1883, with Notes, 205-208 j Sun, The ; its Planets and Satellites (Beviexu), 16-17 Sunspot Maximum, Note on a, 92 Superstition, Curious, 46 Saunders ( J.), Botanical Notes from South j Bedfordshire, 237 - Bryological Note from South Beds, 261 - Sphagnacese of the South Mid¬ lands gathered in 1882, 45 Saxifraga, Observations on the Fertilisa¬ tion of certain Species of, 73-75 School Museums, 281 Temperature for November, 1882, 19; December, 44; January, 1883, 68; February, 91 ; March, 116 Transit of Venus, The, 20 Trap-door Spider, Atypus Sulzeri, The British, 109 Tree-frogs in England, 215 Truffles in Shropshire, 46-41 Tylor (Dr. E. B.', Appointment of, 282 INDEX V \ Uredinese, The Reclassification of, 25-31, 49-53, 79-82 Vagaries of the Season, 92 Venus, The Transit of, 20 Viola sylvatica, var. Reichenbachiana, 166, 237 Walford (Edwin A.\ On the Relation of the so-called “Northampton Sand” of North Oxfordshire to the Clypeus Grit, 108 Waller (T. H.), on the Felspars, 217-225 Warwickshire, Flora of, 12-16, 41-43, 63-67, 86-88, 103-107, 135-138, 186-190, 210-212, 232-236, 253-258 Watson (Dr. Forbes', 282 Wealden Formation, The, 22 Weather, The, 92 Weather of November, 1882. 18-19 ; Decem¬ ber. 43-44; January, 1883, 67-69; Feb¬ ruary, 90-92 ; March, 115-116 Wilson (E.) The Rhsetic Rocks of Notting¬ hamshire (Ulus.), 193-199 Wire Forest, the Geology of, 31-33 Woking, Notes from, 142 Woodward (H. B.i, Notes on Dr. Buck- land and the Glacial Theory, 225-229 - Remarks on the Pen Pits and other supposed Early British Dwellings, 98-103 Worcestershire Plants, 94 Wragge (Clement L.), Meteorology of the Midlands, 18-19, 43-44, 67-69, 90- 92, 115-116 - Ben Nevis in Mid-Winter, 34-39 - - Observatory, 1882, 20-21 - The Transit of Venus, 20 - Voyage to Australia, 118 Wright (Dr. T.), on the Echinodermata, 265-271 Zoological Notes {Beview\ 258 Zoology, Marine, at Oban, 181-184 BIRMINGHAM : PRINTED AT THE HERALD PRESS, UNION STREET. f m ■ r ■ s W'- i If 'ij 1 i 4 . ^ . * • * PI ate 1. r Underground Ftjngi. W.B GUh. Plate II. I pi^<^ i WP% ! ^if ! yt v^'ii 0 \. l| O <5 0 \ ;) h^^cftooh I Mq0^o»^o4 il j5 it Wg»/’ Underground Fungi. VVB G Ut, Plate III ] Underground Fungi. W.B.a L.'th, THE MIDLAND NATURALIST. “ Come forth into the light of things, Let Nature be your teacher.” Wordmoorth. ON UNDERGROUND FUNGI (FUNGI HYPOGH^]!.)* BY THE KEV. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.R.S. The most interesting objects in Natural History are often found amongst the mo^ anomalous forms. This is peculiarly the case with the particular group of Fungi which I have chosen for the subject of the present paper, in which I do not profess to make any new observa¬ tions, but I shall be quite content, should it prove to your members at once interesting and instructive. I should be more able to make it so if I could address you viva voce, with power of continual illustration by means of figures drawn at once in your presence, but at my advanced age, now verging on eighty, it would be impossible for me, and I must not attempt that in which I might possibly break dowii ; and I now comply with the request which has been made to me, as far as my powers allow. The Fungi in question are those which are, as a rule, produced beneath the surface of the earth, or which after a time become Referencks to Plates I., II., and III. Fig. 1. Tuber cestivum, Vittadiui, ascus with sporidia and single spondiuni. '2. Titber JSorcTiti, Vittadini, single sporidimn. Tuber nitidum, Vittadini, single sporidimn. 4. Tuber rufum, Pico, single sporidimn. o. Balsamia vulgaris, Vittadini, ascus with contained sporidia. 6. Genea verrucosa, yittduAini, section of plant slightly enlarged, and section highly magnified, showing the linear ascus with its contained sporidia. 7. Genea Klotschii, Corda, section of plant natural size, and single sporidimn. 8. Elaphomyces Leveillei, Tulasne, ascus with the contained sporidia and single sporidimn. y. Melanogaster ambiguus, Tulasne, sporophore with spores. 10. Hysterangiuni nep)liriticum, section showing sporophores and spores. 11. lihizopogon rubesceiis, Tulasne, section magnified. 12. Hynienogaster citrinus, Vittadini, sporophores with spores. 13. Do. do. surrounded by cyst. 14. Hynienogaster Thivaitesii, Berk, and Broome, spores with cyst. 15. Endogone pisiformis, Lk., section of plant slightly magnified. 16. Do. do. Threads with cysts. All the figures are copied either from Corda or Tulasne, but the coirectness of all has been verified. They are all more or less highly magnified, except where it is otherwise stated. * Read before the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, October 4th, 1881. 2 /•i I ? ■ \ i IW' ON UNDEKOROUNt) FUNGI. superficial. They belong to several different types ; they abound in calcareous districts, to which many species are restricted, and only a few species can be expected to reward the researches of your local Naturalists. In favourable localities, as the neighbourhood of Bath and Rockingham Forest, many species are abundant, Wiltshire and Kent, and other chalk counties, produce the greater part of what are sold in Covent Garden, but, if properly hunted for, there are parts of Northamptonshire which could yield, as I know by experience, an abundant supply. They, however, in general require a good deal of diligence in research, and some tact in selecting the most fertile spots. It was at one time doubted whether a single species was indigenous; but in “ Morton’s History of Northamptonshire,” published at the beginning of the last century, Rushton Wilderness, formerly in posses¬ sion of the Tresham family (too well known in history), is mentioned as producing them, yet even then it was doubted whether they had not been introduced with exotic shrubs ; but now more than forty species have been found near Bath, and half that number in Northamptonshire. As Truffles are always valuable in the London market, though we do not possess the two species which are most esteemed abroad, one of which is found, indeed, only in Italy, a successful hunt would amply repay the labour of research, and it becomes matter of interest to ascertain means by which they may be found without waste of time and labour. In a particular parish in Northamptonshire they were once so abundant that in a few minutes I could collect as many pounds weight of truffles, some of them of extraordinary size, but this is only the case in favoured spots. The more common way is to train dogs for the purpose, which they answer most effectively. In Germany, pigs are sometimes employed, and there have been cases in which idiots, who could be employed to no other useful purpose, have been found to be first-rate truffle-hunters. The dogs belong to a peculiar breed, between a poodle and a turnspit, and by hereditary descent acquire an especial faculty. They have been trained to such a nicety that Vittadini, who made truffles an especial study, and published an excellent work on the subject, and, indeed, was one of the first to call attention to their real structure, if he wished to get additional specimens of any particular species, had merely to show a specimen to his dogs, allowing them to sniff the peculiar odour, and they would go off into the woods and bring back that species, and that alone. Truffles in that country are a great source of gain to poachers, who send their dogs into the proper locali¬ ties, who hunt without making the slightest noise, and soon reward their contraband masters. The mode of training is very simple. A truffle is placed within a hollow ball, which is perforated in every direction, and given as a plaything from the earliest age, the dogs thus becoming completely familiar with the scent, which is peculiar, and, as this is very penetrative, they readily detect the spot beneath which a truffle is concealed. But in this country in general the dogs are not so completely trained as to be trusted alone, for they are very fond of ON UNDERGROUND FUNGI. 8 the truffles, which they would at once devour. But to prevent this the truffle-hunter carries biscuits, or something which the dog likes better than truffles, and while a portion is thrown down the specimen is secured. Truffles, as said before, are produced principally in districts which abound in lime. Many attempts have been made at their cultivation, and it was once confidently announced that, like mushroom spawn, truffle spawn would in a few months be on sale. But it ended in utter disappointment. Still, after this result, the late Mr. Disney, of the Hyde, near Ingatestone, made experiments in this direction, and he was so confident of success that I was invited to witness the result of his experiment, the failure of which might indeed have been antici¬ pated, when it appeared that his experimental specimens of truffles were obtained from the Italian warehouses, consisting of refuse slices of truffles, dried by artificial heat. In one case alone something like germination seemed to have taken place. Experiments more rationally conducted were made at the Horticultural Gardens at Chiswick, but the truffles merely rotted without anything like germination. The result was so unsatisfactory that the experiments were not renewed. Better attempts were made by others in more favourable quarters. In the south of France the Viscomte Noe, who was once well known in this country as an emigre, raised truffles in some abundance by enclosing a tract of ground in the forest to keep off the wild boars, which would at once have devoured everything. The ground was then well watered with fluid in which fresh truffles had been grated, and thus he obtained a supply ; but this could scarcely be called cultivation. Another plan is adopted with great success in Poitou, which yields the best truffles of Paris. A tract of ground is selected on the downs, and when pro¬ perly enclosed is sown with acorns, and in a few years, when the seed¬ lings are well established, there is always an abundant supply which continues for several years, when it generally ceases. It was supposed that the young truffles were parasitic on the rootlets of the seedling oaks, but this has not been proved ; and in many countries they are by no means confi:ied to oaks, indeed, are most abundant when there is an admixture of beech, hazel, and even of conifers. Their site is sometimes easily detected by the presence of an insect belonging to the genus Leiodes, which hovers about them with the view of depositing its eggs in a favourable situation for their introduction into the fungus, and thousands of specimens are in this way destroyed by the larvae of the beetle. It is time, however, that I should say something of underground Fungi in a scientific point of view. It is well known to every one who has paid the least attention to the structure of Fungi and their classification that there are two great types, namely, those which produce their reproductive bodies (spores) on the tips of certain privileged cells called sporophores or basidia, and those which are developed xoithin certain organisms which are called {isci or sacs, The former is considered in general the higher division. 4 ON UNDERGKOUND FUNGI. including the large tribe of mushrooms, and their numerous close allies for which we have no general popular name, though most of us know that of the puffballs, and our smell informs us too unpleasantly of the presence or neighbourhood of the stinkhorns, a few, however, of which, especially of exotic species, are extremely beautiful objects. As regards the other branch we have the cup-shaped Fungi, known under the name of Pezizas, some of which attract notice by their splendid colour. There is a third group to which we shall have to advert pre¬ sently. As, however, the true truffles of commerce are the objects of most importance in an economical point of view, I shall advert to these first. The common Truffle, whether under that name we include the French Truffle* (Tuber melanoaporuiii), the black-seeded Truffle, or our own most abundant species Tuber cButiinim, the summer Truffle, presents when divided vertically a number of pallid veins which communicate with the warty surface of a dark brown or black tint, and consist of branched threads, which answer to the hymenium (fructifying surface) of the cup-fungi, as they give rise to the fertile threads whicTi are terminated by the seed-sacs. A common lens is sufficient to indicate their presence, where they appear as dark specks. The further investigation requires a compound microscope, and few objects are more interesting than the enclosed sporidia, of some of the more marked of which I have submitted figures to the meeting, Thev are in general of a comparatively large size, and their external surface is variously spinulose, warty, or reticulated, often to an extent which does not take place in more aerial Fungi. In a few cases, how¬ ever, as in Balsamia, they are smaller and quite even. Very little is known about the impregnation of Fungi, but in the true Truffles, as in some species of the cup-fungi and the water-fungi, which are the destruction of fish, and especially of young salmon, certain threads swell at the tips and curl round the sacs, to which they impart the male element, the whole process in Truffles being completed beneath the surface of the earth. Spermatozoids or spermatia have not been discovered in these Fungi. Several species have been found in this country, each of which is distinguished by its own peculiar odour ; but most of these are so small that they are at once thrown aside by the collectors. The odour of Tuber melanosporum is so penetrating that it cannot escape the prying nose of the exciseman or douanier, however cunningly it may be concealed. There is, however, a distinct genus Choiromyces, known amongst other peculiarities by its pale colour and even surface and globose sporidia, which is esculent, though far inferior to the summer Truffle. The species sometimes grow to a large size, and are met with unexpec- * We believe that the truffle collectors at Audley End call young Tuber ('eativum before the seed-sacs are formed by that name. ON UNDERGROUND FUNGI 5 tedly in the most unlikely spots, but occur occasionally in great pro¬ fusion, principally in avenues of oaks. We are not aware, however, that they ever appear in our markets, and when fresh they are rather acrid. Either the same genus, or one closely allied, produces in Africa and near Damascus abundance of esculent Fungi, of which I have received a large bag of dried specimens, which proved when cooked perfectly insipid. They occur principally about the roots of several species of Cistus, and are found again in the Canaries. They are quite worthless as far as aroma is concerned. The Ghoiromyces, or white Truffles, have long been known in this country, and are figured by Sowerby. A small Truffle, belonging to the genus Balsamia, distinguished by its small, oblong, smooth sporidia, is often rooted up by squirrels under beech trees, the odour, as the name implies, betraying its presence. One of the most curious and instructive genera, as throwing much light on the structure of Truffles, is that of Genea, of which we have more than one species in this country. It is, in fact, a Truffle unravelled, as it were, or turned inside out, so as to expose every one of the veins, so that each has a distinct peridium, the whole having one general aperture, instead of all the veins being enclosed within a single crust. It is foreshadowed, perhaps, by those species of Peziza which are more or less subterraneous in their mode of growth, as P. geaster, &c. It is, however, to be remembered that the sporidia have no longer the same hyaline appearance, while the structure of the outer coat resembles that of Tuber. In the genus SpJiarosovm, there is no peridium, and the structure is as near that of Peziza as is conceivable, the hymenium being merely undulated or tuberculated. I might advert to other genera of which we have examples, and of some of which no British species has as yet been discovered, especially that of Picoa which will some day reward researches among bushes of Juniper. Hydnotnja, like Sphcsrosoma, is entirely without peridium. The genus Elaphornyces approaches some of the Puffballs, but has asci, and the sporidia, which are perfectly globose, have more than the two usual integuments. The genus Scleroderma, however, which is a true Puffball, is sometimes quite hypogaeous in its mode of growth, especially where the soil is sandy ; and in some parts of Belgium or the United Provinces, where it is very abundant, it is used when young as a substitute for Truffles, of which it is a sorry representative. It is said it is used especially for the Strasburg terrines. It will, however, be more interesting to proceed to others which are more distantly related in structure to the Puffballs, but in which the veins are not resolved into a mass of threads mixed with the dusty spores. One of these, belonging to the genus Melanogaster, is well known at Bath as the red Truffle, but though so far culinary as to be employed to give a dark colour to the sauce of a salmi, it is quite free from any pleasant aroma, and if largely used it is very doubtful whether it is quite wholesome. When fresh, the odour is powerful enough, and in an allied species which occurs sometimes in company with the summer Truffle, the smell is quite overpowering, 6 ON UNDERGKOUND FUNGI. and approaches that of assafoetida. It was known originally as the Musk Truffle. The species belonging to the second division, distinguished by the spores being naked and numerous, but most of them of small size, are merely of botanical interest, and may be distinguished as fahe Truffles. MeJanogaster and Rliizopogon are distinguished by the peridium being traversed by creeping branched fibres. The spores in the former are dark, in the latter hyaline. Though a species of Bhizopogon sometimes occurs abundantly in sandy soils, its odour in age becomes stercorous, and, perhaps in consequence, no one ventures upon it as an esculent. Many species of the genus Hymenogaster, which is without the creeping filaments, occur in this country, but most of them are small, and the larger species are by no means tempting. It is curious that in one or two species the spores, though really terminal, are found occasionally surrounded by a cyst, anticipating a structure which obtains in certain moulds. Octaviana and Hydnangium have sometimes rough, sometimes smooth, spores. One of the latter is remarkable for its orange colour and its almost superficial growth, as I have seen it in the neighbourhood of Bristol. As if no type was to be without its representative, we have the genus Hysterangium whose white cartilaginous peridium separates entirely from the fructifying substance, which resembles in colour that of a Phallus, and is inclined in age to become soft, though it does not run away, as in Phalloidece, into a loathsome mass. Those species of Hymenogaster which produce a cyst round the spores lead us to the genus Emlogoiie, in which, and in its exotic ally, we have essentially a subterraneous Mucor. It would scarcely be interesting to go into further details. The drawings submitted to the meeting will show the peculiarities of structure. We may remark, in conclusion, that, as at present known, we have twenty-six species of Truffles, nineteen of false Truffles,” and two of Endogone. Besides these, Tulasne has figured subterranean forms of a few Fungi, which have generally aerial growth. One or two of these, as the Saffron Fungus, which is so destructive to the Saffron Crocus and the Copper Web, which destroys Asparagus, Lucerne, and Mint, are too well known ; but perfect fruit has at present not been detected in these species. Still less has it been found in the large Cocoa Nut Fungus, known under the name of Tuckahoo in the United States, which is really an altered state of certain roots, the whole substance being converted into pectic acid, and is used like that for jelly. The equally large masses called in Australia Native Bread, belonging to the genus Mylitta, have not been found with perfect fruit, but as far as it is at present known it belongs to the real Truffles. It is highly nutritious, and when dry so hard that it requires to be grated, and answers the purpose of Sago. In Italy large globular masses of earth impregnated with spawn are known under the name of Pietra Fungaya, and when moistened yield an esculent species of Polyporus. Specimens of the perfect Fungus were produced in this country at the Hammer- ON UNDERGROUND FUNGI 7 smith Nursery in the last century, by the ancestor of the present firm. I know of no tribe of Fungi which exhibits more various forms, or more natural genera. Many species probably might reward future researches in this country ; but the search for Hypogseous Fungi is so laborious, and it may be added so exclusive, when carried on persever- ingly, as it -was by Messrs. Broome and Thwaites, that they are not likely to be very numerous. Octaviana compacta is, x)erhaps, the most recent addition to our list. A VISIT TO GLEN CLOVA AND CALLATEE.* BY G. CLARIDGE DRUCE, F.L.S. To the Botanist the name Clova is one of the most interesting among the many rich and fertile places which still remain in Britain, and I derived such pleasure from a recent visit, that I thought it probable some of the members of this Society interested in Botany might care to hear the results of a few days’ botanising in a district discovered, I may say, by Don, a florist of Forfar, who began a rough and hard life’s labour by an apprenticeship to a watchmaker, after¬ wards removing to Glasgow, where he obtained a situation as assistant to the Professor of Botany. He then went to Edinburgh, where he eventually made the acquaintance of Sir Janies E. Smith, who frequently quotes him in his “ English Botany ; ” but, as with Murchi¬ son’s friendship with Kobert Dick, no pecuniary advantage accrued to Don from it. Don returned to Forfar and obtained a small piece of ground, which he turned into a botanic garden, and in which he grew a great collection of the rarer alpine plants : this garden he called Dovehill. To obtain the plants he made long excursions over the country, his favourite ground being the hills of Clova, and to these, some thirty miles from Forfar, he would walk with no provisions besides some oatmeal or bread and cheese, and no shelter save his plaid, loaded with his paper and bag. For living plants he would ransack the rocky glens and bleak moors and spongy morasses, adding to our British flora that most lovely willow Salix lanata, with its leaves covered with golden-coloured down, the pretty little pink-flowered Lychnis aljjina on Culrannoch, the graceful alpine Cotton Grass at Bestennet, the rare grass Calaina- yrostis stricta, and Caltha radicans, near Carse, which, since 1790, when he found it, had disappeared, till recently it has been refound in the vicinity by my friend Mr. Peter Graham, who kindly showed it me this summer. Besides the above, Don added a willow, Salix Doniana, about which there is some doubt as to itsindigenity. With the mosses he was almost * Read before the Birmingham Natural History and Micx'oscopical Society, December 19th, 1882. 8 A VISIT TO GLEN CLOVA AND CALLATER equally fortunate, the little moss Gyvuiostoiiium Doniaiium, Sm., being found by him, I am informed, when he was only fifteen years old, Splachnum tenue, S. ampullaceum, Didymodon inclinatus, IVeissia nigrita, Bryum trichodes, and other mosses being added to the Forfarshire flora through his industry. A life of privation and hard work at length told upon his constitution, and a severe cold, caught on one of his excursions, turned to a putrid sore throat, to which he eventually succumbed, leaving his family in extreme poverty. From the enormous amount he collected, and the few facilities he had for keeping his specimens in order, there is no doubt that occasional mistakes were made in his records ; but I do not think he deserves the great contempt which some “arm-chair” botanists, such as Arnott, cast wholesale upon him, since several plants recorded by him and long treated as errors have eventually been rediscovered : for instance, Hierochloe borealis was said by Don -to be found in Glen Gaily, — now that glen, or at any rate the head of it (the least likely part), has been searched unsuccessfully; but then possibly the search had been made too late in the year. At any rate, the Hierochloe was treated as one of Don’s reputed discoveries, till another poor working botanist, Robert Dick (since rendered famous by Smiles), discovered it near Thurso, thus showing there was no great improbability in the Glen Gaily record : and further search may rediscover some of the other plants which now figure only in the list of “ ambiguities ” or “ impositions ” in our British list. It is said that his Moss records have all since been verified. When I started for Clova it was just after revelling in the sylvan glades and sphagnum bogs of the New Forest, gathering in the one the splendid crimson spikes of Gladiolus, and the delicately lovely flowers of Melittis, while in the other the tiny orchis Malaxis, the rare lihy nchospora fusca, the Isnardia, and other rarities offered a great con¬ trast to the Gentiana venia, Fotentilla fruticosa, Folygala. uliginosa, Ahine strieta, llelianthemum vineale, and Viola areiiaria of that strange sugar limestone district of Teesdale, which had tempted me to linger on my northward journey, and perhaps dulled my appreciation for all but the rarer plants ; yet, despite these rich treasures, I longed to get to the little inn at Clova, where it is best to bespeak rooms a week previously, and also to obtain a pass from the owner of Glen Dole — Mr. Gurney, of Norwich — a permission obtainable, I am told, not later than June, since the Dole is unfortunately now a deer forest, and the generosity sometimes shown to botanists by landowners is not, I am afraid, conspicuously developed in the present owner of the Dole. After leaving the train at Kirriemuir, sixteen miles south of Clova, a conveyance was hired, and a pleasant drive it was up to the kirktown of Clova, Once there, the first walk was by the river side to gather Carex aquatilis var. JVatsoui, which occurs about half-a-mile from the inn. lurning eastwards from the river the road is soon met with, fringed here with that lovely Umbellifera Meum athamanticum, while the A VISIT TO GLDN CLOVA AND CAlLATER. 9 turf is besprinkled, as in Teesdale, with the pretty Viola hitea, varyingfrom the richest purple to the palest yellow. A short walk brings one to the little stream that flows out of Loch Wharral, and following up this, at an altitude of about 2,000 feet, the little Highland loch appears, bordered on the north-east side by steep rocky corries, while its south side slopes into green woodlands. Down the corrie a little stream runs into the lake, and above this may be gathered Saxifraga stellaiis, Epilobiuvi alpinum, Juncm trigluiiiis, H ieracium anglicum, Veronica alpina, and the foliage, if not the flower, of that rare grass Alopecurus alpimts. From the moorland (altitude 2,500 feet) a short walk brings one to the top of the Green Hill (2,837 feet) whence a good view of the East Forfar Hills may be had. A descent from this of 800 feet, in a northerly direction, brings one to Loch Brandy, where, on skirting the south side, quantities of the cloudberry Rubus Chamcemorus, in flower or fruit, will be met with, as also of Arbutus uva ursi, and Empetrum nigrum. In the north-west corner of the lake grow Subularia aquatica, Nitella opaca, Isoet.es, Lobelia Dortniaimi and a variety of Ranunculus Flammula which flowers under water ; this lake, like Wharral, has the same high cliffs on the north and east, and on the stony debris may be found Lycopo¬ dium annotinum, and a few plants of Aspidium Loncliitis still survive the depredations of Dundee excursionists, to whom this loch is the Mecca of their pilgrimage. Higher up the corrie occur Hieracium argeiiteum, H. pallidum, H. eximium, H. melanocephalum, and Rhodiola, while in the water-course some fine plants of Cerastium alpinum may be gathered. On the moorland near Lycopodium complanatuvi, recently added to the British flora was obtained. On attaining the top of the corrie, the summit of the Snub is reached (about 2,500 feet), here covered with Loiseleuria procurnbens. The Snub itself is partially separated from the corrie by a narrow rift a few feet wide and about seventy deep, of recent origin, which the yearly frosts widen perceptibly. Looking north-east Lochnagar may be plainly seen, while the western sky is filled up with the summit of the Bassies and the Driesh, which separate Glen Clova from Glen Prosen. Northwards is the fine front of Craig Mellon, north- westward of which is the entrance to the Dole, the north-eastward road leading up to Glen Muick or Bachnagairn. A short walk takes one to Ben Reda, whence the descent may be made into the glen. On one of the many ruined shielings (there being ninety-four in this glen alone) Gnaplialium mar- garitaceum occurred, and ascending up the most southward turn from Loch Brandy a strange variety of Gentiana campestris was gathered, with Ilabenaria albida, Polygonum viviparum and Veronica humifusa. The next day was of course spent in the Dole. I began my work at Craig Maid, a high mass of rocks (about 2,250 feet) on the west side of the Dole, about eight miles from the hotel, and on this historic rock, magnificent in outline, a rich field for work presented itself : steep rocky cliffs with grassy ledges, on whose rich micaceous soil grew at some considerable height the rare Erigeron alpinus, the lovely perishable 10 A VISIT TO GLEN CLOVA AND CALLATER. flower of Dryas octopetala, the beautiful Veronica saxatilU, the rare sedge Carex rupestris, and Gnaphalium norvegiciim. Still higher occurs Mulgedium alpinum; and here too Professor G-raham first found Astragalus alpinus in Britain. By the stream sides grew Cerastium alpestre, J uncus biglumis, Hieracium Laiosoni, and H. calendtdijiorum ; and now again on the ledges, on one occasion so narrow that progress could only be made crab-like (sideways) on one’s knees, we gather Carex Leesii, Hieracium eximium, Carex atrata, Salix reticulata, etc. All about the Dole were splendid fronds of Aspidium Lonchitis varying from two inches to two feet in length, while Salix Lapponurn, S. petr(Ea, S. Andersoniana, Gnaphalium sup inum, G.sylvaticum\Si.r. alpestre, Juncus trifidus, and Carex atrata were again and again met with. Coming to Craig Bennet, at about 2,000 feet a quantity of Linncea borealis was met with in fragrant flower, growing near that lovely moss H. crista-castrensis. Ascending again on to steep ledges Oxytropis campestris was gathered, in its only British locality, and close by this that rare British fern Woodsia hyperborea, for which so many botanists have hazarded life or limb. Close by grew Arena alpina, Aira alpina, Aira brevifolia, and other rare alpine plants ; then, searching the rocks of Craig Kennet,which form the north boundary of Glen Phee (itself a western prolongation of the Dole), at the head of which a burn comes sprawling down some three or four hundred feet, and climbing up the wet shelving rocks on the south side of the burn another series of alpines was gathered, including the sweet heliotrope scented Saussurea, white and pink flowered Saxifraga oppositifoUa, l&rge flowered S. hypnoides and S.sponhemica, Epilobium alsin- ifolium and E. anagallidifolium, Cochlearia alpma, sweet-scented Pyrola rotundifolia, large plants of Asplenium viride, Pseudathyrium alpestre, Salix herbacea, that smallest British shrub, S. reticulata, with abundant capsules, S. Myrsinites, S. procumbens, S. arbutifolia, S. Stuartiana, Poa alpina, Vaccinium uliginosum, mimicking the willows in habit (here I saw it for the first time in flower), Sagina saxatilis, Silene acaulis var. alba, Carex vaginata, C. rigida, C. capillaris, C. Jiava, C. pallescens, large C. atrata, Rhodiola in profusion, Sibbaldia and Rubus saxatilis, while on the moorland (above 2,600 feet) Carex aquatilis, G. vitilis, Caltlia minor, Tojieldia, etc., occurred ; in fact, of all the plants recorded for the Dole and Phee, I only missed Carex Grahami. Another day was occupied in walking from the’ kirktown up Glen Clova to Braedownie, turning eastward by Craig Mellon, and on to Bachnagairn shooting lodge (1,500 feet). Ascending moorland to north-west up to Loch Esk (2,500 feet), thence ascending to western ridge (2,750 feet), and descending to the White Water, I found Phleuin alpinum, Caltha minor, Carex aquatilis, C. vitilis, etc. Keep by the side of White Water till it reaches the base of Tolmount, ascend it (3,140 feet), and then stretching out before is the fine Glen Callater, Loclma- gar, and the Broad Cairn on the east, Carn-y-Glasha and Glas Mheal to the west, while northwards, over Braemar, rise the Aberdeenshire Alps, Ben Avon, etc., with the snow-fields shining on their southern slopes, still unmelted by the August sun. Descending the cliffs of A VISIT TO GLEN CLOVA AND CALLATER 11 Tolmount (about 500 feet), and then keeping on the west side of Glen Callater, a gathering almost as rich as from the Dole was made, a list of which I will not now detail, but simply enumerate some of the special finds : — Salix lanata, in magnificent condition, overhung the steep rock of a small waterfall (at about 2,500 feet), and near this a single plant of Mulgedium alpinum. Here too Garex vaginata, and C. Leesii, the latter only an acute-glumed variety of pilulifera, with Cerastium alpestre were gathered, Poa BalfoiLrii, Aira alpina and Juncus castaneus, the latter nine inches high, J. biglmnis, etc., were found. Descending to Loch Callater (1,600 feet) Carex ampullacea, Subularia, Isoetes, CalUtriche autumnalis, etc., were gathered. The next day was employed in walking up Glen Callater on the west side of the loch, where the rich profusion of Saxifraga aizoides and strongly stunted Veronica Beccabunga were admired ; then ascending Tolmount (3,140 feet), descend to White Water, where Gornus suecica was gathered, ascend Tom-y-Buide (3,400 feet), descend to moorland (2,750 feet), and walkjacross to Little Culrannoch (3,200 feet). Here there was a great profusion of Lychnis alpina in splendid flower, growing with^?*7H«ria duriuscula, Gochlearia alpina, and Gerastium alpestre. A fine view was had of Glen Caness and Glen Caenlochan, the white quartz veins at its head marking the locality of Gentiana nivalis. Descending to the White Water by the Fenlah burn Garex rarijlora was gathered, and then a rough and toilsome journey was made up the valley of the White Water to Carn-y-Glasha (3,484 feet), and thence to the corrie of Loch Ceander, From the rocks above a fine view was had of the east side of Glen Callater, the polished rocks showing the glacial friction most plainly. By the stream above the corrie grew Alopecurus alpinus, Phleum alpinum, Equisetum nudum, etc., and in the corrie itself (from 2,600 down to 2,000 feet) a rich gathering was again made. In addition to the plants before mentioned occurred Hieraeium chrysanthum, H. coRsium, H. nigrescens, Garex mipestris, Pseudathyrium alpestre, Salix glauca, Garex vaginata. Poly gala grandifiora, etc., ; and then down came the rain (which had been threatening all day) in thick sheets, while the mist came rolling over the cliffs, shutting out rock after rock from vision, till the descent became risky. But at last, one reached the boggy ground at the foot of Loch Ceander,? where Garex paucijlora was gathered, and then a squashy walk was made down to Braemar with little besides Nitella opaca, Ghara fragilis, Pyrola rotundifolia, and Listera cordata to cheer the way. The following day proved but little better, heavy clouds hanging over the mountains, rendering the glen still more gloomy ; but still Lochnagar' had to be ascended, the intention being to descend by the great precipice to the lake and thence to Balmoral and Ballater. Near Braemar Hieraeium prenanthoides, IT. murorurn, Salix phylicifolia, Gam- panula rotundifolia var. montana were gathered. By Loch Phadrig (2,000 feet) is a plentiful growth of Betula nana, and on the ascent to Lochnagar Hieracmm chrysanthum, and Trientalis Europcea, may be gathered. On the moorland (3,250 feet) overlooking Loch Dhu is the 12 A. VISIT TO GLEN CLOVA AND CALLATER. locality for Garex rariflora and G. IcKjnpina, but the latter this time I could not see, for here the clouds came down so thick as to render anything beyond ten yards invisible, distorting and magnifying objects till a poor unforunate sheep became the size of a deer. Here in a ravine underneath a snow wreath I sat sheltered from the rain for three hours, and then was obliged to retrace my steps to Braemar. The foregoing will show what a rich spoil of plants may be gathered even in indifferent weather, and as I have already exceeded the space I originally intended filling, I am obliged to omit any account of the plants gathered at Loch Park, Deeside, and the sands of Barry, and of my doings during a most interesting day occupied in dredging Lochs Bescobie and Balgavies, and botanising in the bog of Resteunet. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Gontinued from page 257.) S AXIFRAGACE..^ . SAXIFRAGA. S. tridactylites, Linn. Rue-leaved Saxifrage. Native : On walls, roofs, &o. Locally abundant. April, May. I. Wishaw ; Coleshill ; Fillongley ; Nuneaton ; Arley ; Whitacre ; Middleton ; Kingsbury ; Erdington. II. Harbury ! Y. and B. Wall near Newbold and at Morton, R. S. R., 1877; Brailes ; Honington ! ; Shipston, Neioh. ; Tysoe and Compton Wynyates, Rev. J. Gorle ; Salford ! Rev. J. G., Henley-in- Arden, &c. S. granulata, Linn. White Saxifrage. Native : On banks, and in fields and pastures. Locally common. May, June. I. In the garlick meadows, Penns Mill! With., ed. 5, ii., 498. Sutton Park; New Park; Middleton; Minworth ; Meriden ; Hampton- in-Arden, &c. II. Between Leamington and Warwick ; Pigwell quarry, Warwick ; roadside at Guy’s Cliff, Per. FI., 39; Warmington, Bolton King ; Honington, Neioh.; Bilton, R. S. R., 1877 ; near Tysoe, Rev. J. Gorle ; Allesley ; Stratford-on-Avon ; Alcester, &c. CHRYSOSPLENIUM. C. oppositifolium, Linn. Opposite-leaved Golden Saxifrage. Native : In marshes, swamps, damp woods, &c. Local. April, May. I. Sutton Park ; Erdington ; Plant’s Brook ; Marston Green ; lanes about Arley ; abundant in Hartshill Hayes ; lanes about Fillongley. II. Sambourne ; Great Alne, Part. 210 ; Crackley Wood, near Kenil¬ worth ! near Leek Wootton, Per. F'l., 38 ; Honily Brook I Y. and B.; Dripping Well, Milverton! H. B.; Allesley, Coventry, Bolton King. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 13 C. alternifolium, Linn. Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage. Native : In marshes, swamps, damp woods, &c. Kather rare. May. I. Temple Balsall, Bree, Fart, i., 211 ; Sutton Park ; Plants Brook ; Minworth : Marston Green ; Elmdon. II. Crackley Wood! Per. FI., 38; Ilonily Brook; Bromwich, Herb. Brit. 3Ius. ; meadows, Rounshill Lane, Kenilworth ! II. B. PARNASSIA. P. palustris, Linn. Grass of Parnassus. Native : In bogs and marshy ground. Rare. July, August. I. Coleshill Bog! and Knowle ! Part, i., 163; in meadows at Penns Mills, near Erdington ; With., ed. ii., 465 , near Stonebridge ; in meadows between Bradnock’s Marsh and Berkswell, Per. FI., 27 ; Sutton Park! Freeman, Phyt. i., 262 ; between Olton and Elmdon, Pev. J. Gorle; abundant near several of the pools in Sutton Park, 1880. II. Norbrook ; Fern Hill, Per. FI., 27 ; boggy meadows near Warwick, Bree, Purt. iii., 350 ; meadows, Rounshill Lane, Kenilworth, H. B. UMBELLIFER^. HYDROCOTYLE. H. vulgaris, Linn. Marsh Pennywort. Native : In bogs, marshes, and swamps. Local. June to Sept. I. Sutton Park, abundantly ; Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Pool and bog ; sand quarry, Cornell’s End ; Olton Reservoir ; marsh near Packington. II. Near Hasler Fields ; near Hoo Mill, Part, i., 152 ; Bagington Park, Per. FI. ; Rugby district, R. S. R., 1867 ; Kenilworth Heath ; Hasley Common, H. B. SANICULA. S. europaea, Lmn. Wood Sanicle. Native : In woods, copses, and shady banks. Locally common. May, June. I. Sutton Park ; New Park ; Fillongley ; lanes about Arley ; Harts- hill Hayes; near Solihull ; Elmdon ; Kingsbury Wood. II. Honington, Neioh. ; Combe Woods ; Prince Thorpe ; Cubington ; Wootton Wawen ; Alveston pastures ; Salford Priors ; Red Hill ; Edge Hills. APIUM. A. graveolens, Linn. Wild Celery. Native ? Near streams, and canals in Lias soils. Very rare. July. I. Bishopton Spa, near Stratford-on-Avon ; Cheshire, Herb. Per. “ Near Honington in one spot, with Samolus Valerandi, the wild form, July, 1880,” Newb. HELOSCIADIUM. H. nodiflorum, Koch. Procumbent Water Parsnip. Native : In streams and ditches. Common. June to August. Throughout the country. b. repens, R. “ Moist boggy places. Rare. June to August. Cook- hill, near Alcester.” Part, hi., 25. Var. pseudo-repens. Streams. Rare. I. Sutton Park ; marsh near Escoles Green. II. Woodloes, near Warwick ; Rounshill Lane, Kenilworth, H. B. 14 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. H. inundatum, Koch. Least Water Parsnip. Water Honeioort. Native : In marshes and near pools. Bare. June to August. I. Coleshill Pool! Freeman, Pkyt. i,, 262, Sutton Park; Springbrook, near Earls wood. II. Near Sambourne, Cheshire, Herb. Per. Arbury Hall. PETKOSELINUM. P. sativum, Hoffm. Common Parsley. Alien : On walls and old ruins. Bare. July. II. “Walls at Spoil End, Coventry; in a deep, rocky cutting on the London and Northwestern Bailway, near Whitley Common.” Kirk, Phyt. ii., 970; naturalised on an old wall at Warwick; Dr. Lloyd, Herb. Brit. Mus.; Kenilworth. P. segetum, Koch. Corn Parsley. Corn Iloneioort. Native : On banks in Lias soils. Bare. July. II. Warwickshire, Bree, N. B. G., 1835; Bardon Hill; Mont Piers Hill ; Cheshire, Herb. Per.; Whitnash; Tachbrook, Y. and B.; Myton, H. B.; Tredington, Whatcote, Neicb.; banks at the Cape and Stank Hill, Warwick ; H. B., Herb. Brit. Mus. SISON. S. Amomum, Linn. Hedge Stonewort. Hedge Honeioort. Native: By roadsides and on banks in Lias and marly soils. Locally abundant. August, September. II. Whitnash, Tachbrook, Y. and B. ; Newbold-on-Avon, Blox., N. B. G. ; Honington 1 Tredington! Tysoe; Shipston ; Halford, Newb., near Stratford-on-Avon; Alcester; Wixford; Bidford; Ipsley; Studley; Ullenhall; Tanworth; Lapworth Street. .EGOPODIUM. M. Podagraria, Linn. Common Goutioeed. Denizen : On hedge banks near villages. Bather common. May to July. Area general. Fruiting freely in many situations. I have never seen this plant very remote from villages. CAKUM. [C. Carui, Linn. Common Caraway. Alien or Denizen : On waysides and railway banks. Bare. June, July. I. Near Hampton-in-Arden, T. Kirk ; on waysides near Oscott College for several years. Rev. J. C. II. I have picked the Carui on the banks of the L. and N. W. Bailway at various spots between Hampton and Brandon, a length of fourteen or fifteen miles. Curiously enough a policeman at Hampton informed me that he recollected a package of Caraway Seeds being injured whilst on a truck, and he supposed the seeds would be scattered all the way up the line, T. Kirk ; Compend. Brit., 519. Willenhall railway bank, Kirk ; footpath to Lawford and railway bank, Brandon, B. S. B., 1877-80.] BUNIUM. B. flexuosum. With. Common Earth Nut ; Pig Nut. Native : On banks, waysides, heaths, and in woods. Common. May, June.' Throughout the county. PIMPINELLA. P. saxifraga, Linn. Common Burnet Saxifrage. Native: On banks, heathy waysides, Ac. Bather local. June to September. THE FLOKA OF WAKWICKSHIRE. 15 I. Sutton Park ; Marston Green, with long styles and broader leaflets ; Elmdon ; Solihull ; Middleton ; near Hartshill. II. Tredington ; Honington ; Shipston-on-Stour, “ mostly the large plant figured as dissectum” Neich.; Harborough Magna; Salford Priors; near Barnmoor Green; near Bearley Cross. P. magna, Linn. Great Burnet Saxifrage. Native ; On hanks and waysides, in marly and calcareous soils. Locally abundant. July to September. I. Waysides between Ansley and Over Wbitacre ; lanes about Arley and Sbustoke ; abundant on the road between Nuneaton and Atberstone. II. Rugby, A. Blox., N.B.G., 1837. Allesley ! Meriden! &c. Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist, iii., 164; Counden, 1\ Kirk, Herb. Brit. 3Jns. ; Harborough Magna; Wyken Lane, Coventry; abundant in Banner’s Lane and Broad Lane, Tile Hill ; Wixford, Alcester, Ac. SIUM. S. angustifolium, Linn. Lesser Water Bor.sni}). Native : In ditches, pools, and streams. Local. June to September. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton ; lane at Minwortb ; Colesbill Pool ; near Knowle ; Hampton-in- Arden, Ac. II. Harborough Magna, Bev.A.B.; Honington; St. Dennis, Newh.; Myton, near Warwick; Chesterton, H.B.; Rugby district, R. S. R., 1877 ; Southam, Y. and JL ; canal near Wooton Wawen, Ac. [.9. latifoliiun, Linn. Warioickshire, Bree, N. B. G. 38 Warwickshire insufficiently vouched. Top. Bot., 186. Recorded also from near Rugby. R. S. R., 1868.] BUPIEUEUM. B. rotundifolium, Linn. Common Hare's-ear. TJiorowax. Native : In cultivated fields, in Lias and marly soils. Local. June, July. II. Bidford ! Haslor ! Grafton! Pari, i., 148; Wootton, near Warwick. Countess of Aylesford, B. G., 634; near Brinklow Railway Station, Rev. A. B., R. S. R., 1874; Tachbrook, Harbury, Y. and B. ; Kineton, Chadshunt, Bolton King ; Morton Morrell; Red Hill ; Oversley; Wilmcote. (ENANTHE. (E. fistulosa, Linn. Water Dropwort. Native : In pools and marshes. Local. June, July. I. Marston Green ; Coleshill Pool ; Duke’s Bridge ; Meriden Marsh; Hampton-in-Arden ; Bedlam’s End, near Knowle; Withy- brook, Ac. II. Whitnash ; Kenilworth, Y. and B. ; Honington, Neivb. ; old canals near Clifton Mill ! between Newbold and Harboro’ ! near Little Lawford ! R. S. R., 1877. CE. Lachenalii, G7nel. Parsley Water Dropwort. Native : In marshes and drains. Rare. July to September. II. Near Honington, Nc’jrZ;.; marshes and drains near Stratford-upon- Avon, in abundance, 1882. \(E. pimpinelloides, Linn., is placed among the Warwickshire plants in Perry’s herbarium; the locality given, viz., “3^ miles from Stratford, on the Banbury Road,” belongs to Worcestershire. I have not seen this plant in or from any Warwickshire station.] 16 THE flora of WARWICKSHIRE (E. silaifolia, Biel). Sulplmrwort-leaved Drojncort. Native : In ditches. Very rare. August. I. 'peucedani folia.) In a gorsy field by Small Heath House, near Birmingham; With., ed. 7, ii., 384. II. ((E. peucedani folia.) Not rare. Great Alne, Grafton, Bidford, Burt., i., 150; near the footroad to Bishopton Spa, near Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Perry. (E. crocata, Linn. Hemlock Water Bropwort. Native: On banks by rivers and streams. Bare. July. I. Witton, abundantly on the banks of the Tame; Gravelly Hill; Castle Bromwich ; Water Orton. (E. Phellandrium, Lam. Fine-leaved Water Dropioort. Native: In rivers, ditches, and pools. Bare. July. II. (Phellandrium aquaticum.) In an old gravelpit full of water at Eden Way, Part, i., 156 ; the Avon at Bugby Mill; and other places, Blox, N. B. G.; near Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Per.; Compton Verney, i/. B.; river in Brownsover Fields, at Little Lawford Mill, R. S. R., 1877 ; Chesterton Mill Pool. CE. iiuviatilis, Coleman. Floating Water Dropioort. Native: In rivers. Bare. July. II. Emscote, Birdingbury, Y. and B.; In the river beside the footpath to Brownsover, R. S. R., 1878 ; in the Learn, near Leaming¬ ton! and Offchurch, H. B.; Harborough Magna, Rev. A. Blox. .ETHUSA. .E. cynapium, Linn. Common FooVs Parsley. Native: In fields, on waysides, waste heaps, &c. Common. June to October. Area general. F(ENICULUM. F. vulgare, Gaertn. Common Fennel. Casual : On railway banks. Bare. June. II. Abundant on the railway banks between Warwick and Emscote, H. B. So far as my knowledge serves this is the only station for this plant in the county. Mr. Bromwich informs me that it is well established here. (To be continued.) The Hun : its Planets and their Satellites. By the Bev. E. Ledger, M.A. 432 pp., 94 woodcuts, 8 plates. Price 10s. 6d. Published by E. Stanford. In this well-printed and excellently illustrated book, the Gresham lecturer gives a very clear account of the members of the solar system, and of the laws by which they are controlled. The author appears to have sought most diligently for information, and has successfully incorporated in this book the most recent results of the study of astronomy. He treats chiefly of the physical side of the subject, and REVIEWS. 17 % this is one great factor of his success, for astronomical mathematics are “ caviare to the general.” The illustrations are very good, the plates, executed by the Woodbury process, being especially successful. A chart of the planet Mars, from drawings made at Madeira in 1877 by that enthusiastic astronomer Mr. N. E. Green, forms a capital frontispiece to the book. W. J. H. Rudimentary Astronomy. By Main and Lynn. Third edition, 1882 ; pp. 176 ; woodcuts. Published by Crosby, Lockwood, and Co. Price 2s. This is pre-eminently a book for the practical astronomer. Written by the late Radcliffe Observer, and revised by a Greenwich Observatory assistant, the descriptions of astronomical instruments and their methods of use are accurate and precise. In addition to chapters on the Moon, Planets, Fixed Stars, Spectrum Analysis, etc., there is an admirable account of the (to young astronomers) puzzling phenomena of refraction, parallax, aberration, precession, and nutation. W. J. H. The Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles; Report for 1881, pp. 45 — 60. Manchester : Jas. Collins and Co. How are the mighty fallen ! This report contains the verdicts, passed by certain authorities, on the specimens gathered by the members of the Club during 1881. The minute study of varieties, now called species, of many plants occupies the attention of our British botanists at the present time, and develops so many differences of opinion, bluntly expressed, that the study of these pages reminds one, in parts, of a Billingsgate scolding match. There is no doubt that a great deal of light can be thrown upon the process of evolution generally, and upon the means whereby existing species of plants have been developed from their ancestral forms in particular, by the dili¬ gent comparison of the interminable varieties of Ranunculus, Viola, Rubus, Rosa, Pyrus, Carduus, Hieracium, Euphrasia, Erythrsea, Mentha, Runiex, Salix, Potamogeton, Chara, etc. A few attempts to glean in this field have already been made. But what can be gained by such intellectual diversions as the following (p. 52) : — “ Hieracium sp., A. Ley. ‘ I hesitate between gothicum and crocatum,' J. G. Baker. ‘ I believe horealef C. C. Babington. ‘ This is H. corymhosumf J. T. Boswell.” Or this (p. 55): — '^Symphytum sp., A. Ley. ^Orientate,' J. G. Baker. ‘ It looks like peregrinum in a weak state,’ G. C. Babing¬ ton. SS'. asperrimum,^ J. T. Boswell.” Again, but not quite so bad, because one of the disputants is missing (p. 51): — Helosciadium Moorei ?, S. A. Stewart. ‘ The Moorei which I place under inundatum, ' C. C. Babington. This is not at all like my II. inundatum, var. Moorei. It is a luxuriant state of ochreatum, approaching the normal form of II. nodijlorum,' J. T. Boswell.” Such a reductio ad ahsurdumoi 18 REVIEWS — METEOROLOGY. “ critical ” botany must soon work out its own cure. What that cure is has been already indicated in these pages ; it is, to recognise that the vast and abounding fertility of nature will not be tied down by our hard and fast lines. It is, to acknowledge that, however many “species ” we may describe, we can still discover numerous specimens which will accord with none of them. It is, to give up the vain idea of inventing a name for every plant we find, and to remember that many of our modern definitions of species are merely descriptions of a group of individuals from some particular locality or kind of habitat. The “splitting fever” is now, perhaps, approaching its height; the crisis past, reaction will set in, and recovery will be slow, but sure. It must not be supposed, however, that the whole of this pamphlet is like the extracts which have been made above. There is some interest¬ ing information about British plants, with records of new localities, but it is too evident that, if it were not for the recent intense develop¬ ment of the craze for the minute subdivision of species, the Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles would have little left to do. W. B. G. METEOKOLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS. THE WEATHER OF NOVEMBER, 1882. BY CLEMENT L. WRAGGE, F.R.G.S., F.M.S., ETC. Great and unusual disturbances, both atmospheric and magnetic, marked the month of November. Generally it was very stormy and wild, with an abundant rainfall and resulting fioods. Thunderstorms took place on the 4th and 8th, with hail ; snow on the loth and 16th, and more hail on the 27th. Strong winds and gales were frequent. Brilliant and continuous displays of aurora with co-existing earth currents of great strength, causing the partial collapse of the working of the telegraph system, occurred, especially during the third week. The existence of a tremendous sun-spot at the same time — which, as my sketches show, marked a region of extraordinary activity and disturbance in the solar atmospheres — proves, I think, conclusively the close correlation existing between the great solar storms and terrestrial magnetism. The aurorae were well observed at FortWilliam. A smart shock of earthquake occurred in the west of Scotland on the morning of the 12th. In Central England the highest reduced barometric reading was about 30T37, and happened on the 30th ; the lowest, 29T10, took place on the 8th. Mean temperature was about 41*3 ; amount of cloud only 5‘7 (scale 0 to 10), and relative humidity 88 %. Westerly winds prevailed. The absolute maximum temperature in sun’s rays (reported) was 105-3 at Hodsock on the 5th; and the absolute minimum on grass was 11-7, on the 18th, at Aspley Guise. Some 19 ground frosts were noted. Bright sunshine 72-9 hours, at Hodsock, or 29 % ; 78-5 at Strelley, 72-4 at Aspley Guise, 81 at Oxford, and 53-3 hours at Blackpool. The mean temperature of the soil at a depth of one foot was 42-9 at Hodsock, 40-9 at Strelley, and 41-7 at Cardiff. The mean amounts of ozone were 1-8, 2*2, 5-0, and 6-8 — values for Oxford, Cheltenham, Carmarthen, and Blackpool respectively. Solar halos were observed in the Midlands on the 21st and 28th ; a very fine lunar halo on the 23rd ; and a beautiful lunar corona at Fort William on the 25th. THE WEATHER OF NOVEMBER 19 STATION. RAINFALL. SHADE TEMP. OBSERVER. Total :orM. Greatest fall in 24 hours. 4M >* 0.2 Absolute Maximum. Absolute Minimum- In. In. 1 Date. Deg| Date. Deg.)Date. C. L. Wragge, Esq., F.M.S. 8-83 1-40 7 25 56-5 1 26-0 12 I. Cartraell. Esq., F.M.S. . . 5-26 0-90 3 18 56-8 6 22-6 15 W. C. Hughes, Esq., F.M.S. S-86 0-53 15 25 68-2 6 32-6 18, 20 C. T. Ward, Esq., B. A. .F.M.S. 5-55 0-52 21 23 557 6 25-9 12 J. Nicol, Esq., M.D . 3-91 0-41 21 23 56-1 5 30-2 15 H. E. MiUer, Esq., F.M.S... 3-<18 0’39 6 22 69-6 5 29-8 18 G. J. Hearder, Esq.. M.D... 6-66 0-78 23 25 58-0 1 24-9 15 W. Adams, Esq., C.E . 6-26 0-90 7 21 59-8 6 28-1 18 E. E. Glyde, Esq., F.M.S. .. 3-98 0-86 12 24 58-8 6 .30-1 18 W. T. Radford, Esq., M.D. 4-07 0-80 6 26 69-0 6 30-3 18 A. Collenette, Esq., F.M.S. 7-95 1-40 12 30 587 6 33-3 18 T. A. Chapman, Esq., M.D. 2-87 0-82 6 22 60-2 23 23-3 18 Rev. E. D. Carr . 5-20 0-63 23 26 570 5 290 15 3-99 0-51 6 22 587 23 211 18 Rev. A. S. Male . 5-00 0-47 23 26 56-0 23 24-0 18 J. M. Downmg, Esq . 3-84 0'65 16 27 58-0 23 160 18 T. H. Davis, Esq., F.M.S. . . 3 99 0-58 6 23 61 '6 5 22-0 18 A. H. Hartland, Esq . 4-64 1'08 6 25 550 5 29-0 17 3-96 1-22 6 24 5.V0 5 237 18 E. B. Marten, Esq . 4-08 0-59 8 23 55-0 1, 4 24 0 14, SO J. Jefferies, Esq . 050 6 22 58*0 5 25-0 14. 17 C. Beale, Esq . 4-01 0-68S 15 19 55-0 5 28-0 30 C.Webb, Esq . 3-69 0-50 6 24 59-0 5 22-0 18 Rev. W. H. Bolton . 4-09 0-68 15 22 59-0 6 23-0 17 N. E. Beat, Esq . 4-18 0-54 6 25 56-0 6 26-0 17 J. P. Roberts, Esq . 3-60 0-48 6 24 590 5 22-0 17 C. U. Tripp, Esq., F.M.S. . . 3-67 0-55 23 25 60-0 5 20-0 18 E. Simpson, Esq . 050 23 2:i 57-8 56-4 5 24-5 18 |.I. C. Philips, Esq., F.M.S. 4-93 0-60 23 hi 5 25-1 18 Rev. G. T. Ryves, F.M.S. 5*48 0-63 23 25 57-0 5 20-0 18 Mr.Williams . fi'37 0-67 24 25 58-2 4 23-5 29 Mr. James Hall . _ 58*5 240 Rev. W. H. Purchas . 7-22 0-71 22 2i 54-2 5 16-6 19 Rev. U. Smith . 5-52 0-54 3 — 55-0 4,5 20-0 29, 30 F. J. Jackson, Esq . 4-59 0-60 23 24 67-0 5 23-0 18 J. T. Barber, Esq . 3-63 0-53 23 24 H. F. Johnson, Esq . 8T2 0-47 6 23 62-4 5 22-9 18 H. MeUish, Esq., F.M.S. . . 2-68 0-39 3 23 58-4 6 207 18 T. L. K. Edge, Esq . 3-68 0-44 23 24 57'9 5 21-0 18 J. N. Dufty, Esq., F.G.S. . . 3-19 0-55 23 18 550 6 22-0 18 Rev. G. H. Mullins, M.A., F.M.S. 3-21 0-89 6 24 57-9 6 25-1 18 W. Berridge, Esq., F.M.S... 3-08 0-42 6 25 690 6 22-9 18, 19 J. Hames, Esq . 2-92 0-48 6 24 57-0 5 25-0 19 J. C. Smith, Esq . 3T8 0-57 6 17 58-5 6 22-0 18 Rev. Canon WiUes . S-31 0-84 6 22 66-0 5 — Edwin Ball, Esq . 0-62 6 24 52 0 2 26’0 18 Rev. A. M. Rendell . 3-57 0-74 6 24 jS’o 6 18-0 18 J. W. Brown, Esq . 3-31 0-52 6 23 58-2 6 25-0 18 T. H. G. Newton, Esq . 3’91 0-47 23 23 56’6 1 200 18 F. Slade, Esq., C.E., F.M.S. 4T1 0-96 6 22 58’3 5 19-6 18 Rev. T. N. Hutcliinson .... 4-11 1-05 6 22 58-6 5 20-2 18 C. A. Markham, Esq . 3-66 1-07 6 18 60-0 5 23-0 18 J. Webb, Esq . 4T3 0-96 6 21 — — — J. Wallis, Esq . 3-53 0-99 G 22 59-0 6 29-0 12 H. J. Sheppard, Esq . 3-21 0-80 6 22 60-1 5 23-9 18 E. E.Dymond, Esq., F.M.S. 3-77 0-88 15 21 58-6 5 20-6 18 ’The Staff . 3-34 0-58 6 18 597 5 227 18 Rev. T. A. Preston, F.M.S. 4-30 077 6 23 68-8 5 22-2 18 R. Tyrer, Esq., B..A., F.M.S. 8-86 079 6 22 58-6 6 23-0 16 OUTPOST STATIONS. Fort William (.a) . Spitnl Cemetery, Carlisle _ Scarborough (a) . Blackpool ('a.;— South Shore. Llandudno (a) . Lowestoft (a) . Carmarthen (a) . Cardiff (a) . Babbacombe (n) . Sidmouth (iO)na o,itiolatuin, Tub! A further search resulted in Gcnea Jiisjyldula, Berk., which, with Genea rouui ostiulatuin, Tul. Ercall Hill, near Wellington. 1873. Gcnea verrucosa, Vitt. Ercall Hill. Genea his2)idula, Berk. Ercall Hill. 1882. Elaphoimjces variegatus, Vitt. Ercall Hill. 1878. Ela2diomnces (jramdatus, Fr. Ercall Hill. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRF. AN ACCOUNT OE THE ELOWERINO PLANTS ANH PERNS OE THE COUNTY OE WARWICK. EY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from / UMBELLIFERvE. SILAUS. S. pratensis, Hess. Meadow Saxifrage, or Sul2iiiuru'ort. Native : In meadows, fields, and waysides. Local. July, xlugust. I. Maxtoke; Stonebridge; Hampton-in-Arden; Solihull; Tanworth, Ac. II. Meadow^s, by the Avon, Rugby, Blox., N. B. G., 1837; Tachbrook, Kenilworth! T. aud B.; Whitnash, Harbury ! il. B.; Sow Waste, ATr/c; Tysoe,Whatcote, Honington, Tredington, A’’ejf5.; Edge Hills ; Alveston pastures ; Bidford ; Cold Comfort ; Billesley; Alne ; Henley-in- Arden. ANGELICA. A. sylvestris, Linn. Wild Angelica. Native: In marshes, damp woods, ditches, Ac. Common. July to October. Area general. PASTINACA. P. sativa, Linn. Wild Parsiiq). Native : On banks, waysides, and in fields, in calcareous and marly soils. Locally common. July. Trip] FLORA OP^ WARWlCKSriUlF. II. Side of the Avon, near Ilugijy School ; Blox., N. B. G. ; Harbury, Wliitnash. Y. . ; lane by Brandon Station; near the Lodge, Combe Abbey; in both stations abundant. C. sylvestre, Linn. Wild Chervil. Native: On banks, by waysides, in fields, woods, Ac. Common. April to June. Area general. C. lemulum, Linn. Jtonnh Chervil. Native; On banks, by waysides, in fields, woods, Ac. Ccnnmon. May to August. Area general. MYRRHIS. M. odorata, .S'cop. Sau’et Chervil ; Sweet C iced ij. DeJiizen: In ‘•orchards and waste places, but always near houses." Rare. June. 1. (Scandix odorata. i Temple Balsall, Pnrt. i., loJ ; Erdingtoii, in a wild lane near the Old Chester Road. 1870, locality now destroyed. I. ( Souidix odorata.) At Studley Castle,” Part. i.. IJ.J. SCANDIX. S. Pecten-Veneris, Lin)i. Common Shepherd' Needle. Colonist : In cultivated marly fields. Rather common. April to September. T. Sutton Park; Middleton: Hartshill ; Coleshill; Solihull, A'c. II. 'rachI)rook, Y. and P>.; near Combe Al)bey; Southam; Bidford ; Alcester ; Alvcston Heath. t La he conti lined . ) M 1^: T 0 11 0 J. 0 G Y ( ) F 1’ li E M 1 1) L A N I) S . THE WEATHER OF DECEMBER, 188‘2. ItV CLF.MF.XT I.. WRAGGK, F.i:.(LS.. F.M.S., ETC. 'Fhe first half of the month was marked by severe winter weather —deep snow and hard frosts — while the second half showed the usual characteristics attendant on depressions and crests of pressure from the Atlantic passing northwards, and was, lienee, generally mild and wet. with high winds and a tiuctuating barometer. Flowers came into bloom near the close of the year. The highest reduced barometric reading took place on the ‘iOtli, and was about 30-*294 ; the lowest happened between the 4th and 6th, and was about ‘29-010, as means for the Midlands. Mean temperature for the Central Counties may be given as 86-8, amount of cloud 8-9 (scale 0 — 10), and relative humidity 98 per cent. Westerly winds were again prevalent. The solar radia¬ tion thei’mometer read 88-8 on the 10th at Aspley Guise, and the terrestrial minimum — 0’8 at Hodsock on the l‘2th. Bright sunshine only 16‘0 hours at Hodsock, ‘20‘7 at Strelley, 87‘‘25 at Aspley Guise, ‘27 at Oxford, and barely 16 hours at Blackpool. The mean tempera¬ ture of the soil at a depth of one foot was 88-5 at Hodsock, 87-4 at Strelley, and 41-7 at Cardiff. The mean amounts of ozone were 1-0, 1-8, 8-u, and 4-5 — values for Oxford, Cheltenham, Carmarthen, and Blackpool respectively. 44 THK WEATHEIi OF EECEM15E1! RAINFALL. SHADE TEMP. STATION. OUTPOST STATIONS. GreenhiH, Fort William (a) . Spitiil Cemetery, Carlisle . . . Scarborough (a) . Blackpool Ca) — South Shore. Llandudno (a) Lowestoft («) . . Carmarthen la) Cardiff (a) . Sidmouth (fl.) . . Guernsey . Les Ruettes Brayt (a) es, Guernsey MIDLAND STATIONS. HEREFORDSHIRE. BurghiU (a) . SHROPSHIRE. Woolstaston . More Rectory . Dowles, near Bewdley . WORCESTERSHIRE. Orleton, near Tenbury {a). . . . West Malvern . Evesham . Pedmore . Stourbridge . STAFFORDSHIRE. Rowley Regis . Dennis, Stourbridge (a) . Kinver . Walsall . Lichfield . Burton-on-Trent (c) . Wrottesley (a) . Heath House, Cheadle (a) . . lean (c) . Oakamoor, Churnet Valley (a) Beacon Stoop, Weaver Hills(a) Alstonfield . DERBYSHIRE. Fernslope, Belper . Spondon . NOTTINaHAMSHIRE. Park HUl, Nottingham (a) . . Hodsock Priory, Worksop (a) Strelley (a) . Tuxford . RUTLANDSHIRE. Uppingham . LEICESTERSHIRE. Loughborough (a) . Syston . Town Museum, Leicester . . . . Ashby Magna . Waltham-le-Wold . Coston Rectory, Melton (a) . . WARWICKSHIRE. St. Mary’s CoUege, Oscott .. Kenilworth (a) . Rugby School (a) . NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. Pitsford, Northampton . Towcester . Kettering . BEDFORDSHIRE. Bedford (a) . Aspley Guise (a) . OXFORDSHIRE. Radcliffe Observatory, 0> WILTSHIRE. Marlborough {aj . GLOUCESTERSHIRE. Cheltenham (a) . ! OBSERVER. O o Greatest fall in 24 hours. Absolute Maximum. Absolute Minimum. In. In. 1 Date. Deg 1 Date. Deg. 1 Date C. L. Wragge, Esq., F.M.S. I. Cartmell, Esq., F.M.S. . . 7-30 48-8 27 13-2 15 11 2'5() O-.ii 3, 20 15 51 -8 28 15'5 W. C. Hughes, Esq., F.M.S. 3'H6 T03 0 23 53’5 29 9-3 12 C. T.Ward.Esq.. B. A.,F.M.S. 2-95 0-70 25 18 51-4 28 18-0 12 .1. Nicol, Esq., M.D . 3 50 1-14 2.3 19 55-2 28 25-5 12 H. E. Miller, Esq., F.M.S... :i-07 0 70 7 21 55*0 27. ’28 21-0 12 G. .T. Hearder, Esq.. M.D... 6-30 0-79 29 23 53-8 27 19-8 11 W. Adams, Esq., C.E . 4-H() 0-73 .11 25 53-7 31 20-2 11 W. T. Radford, Esq., IM.D. 1-79 0-51 31 28 .37 0 30 24-9 11 H. C. Carey, Esq., M.D . o-m 0'56 20 27 50‘.3 22 30-3 11 .A. Collenette, Esq., P’.M.S. 6-50 0'71 20 29 540 31 30-0 10 'T. A. Chapman, Esq., M.D. 2-71 0- 12 27 57-3 28 •20-2 11 Rev. E. D. Carr . 3-3'l 0-.36 23 25 54'5 27 190 12 Rev. A. S. Male . 3-71 0-32 25 23 54-0 20, 27,28 8-0 12 J. M. Downing, Esq . 3-18 0-46 8 21 48-0 28 17-0 11 T. H. Davis, Esq., F.M.S. . . 3 18 0-31 0. 12 24 50‘5 27 10-5 11 A. H. Hartland, Esq . 3-12 0-61 12 21 53-0 27 19-5 10 T. J. Slatter, Esq., F.G.S... 2-91 0-3(5 30 21 54 5 27 19-5 12 E. B. Marten, Esq . 3-34 0-38 31 2.3 54-0 27 15-0 11 J. Jefferies, Esq . 3-18 0-35 7 22 55‘0 28 180 11 C. Beale, Esq . 3-38 0-39 2.3 21 51-0 27, 28 18-0 11 C.Webb, Esq . 2-93 0-32S 7 22 56'0 27 17-0 12 Rev. W. H. Bolton . 3 09 0-33 7 23 55'0 28 ■22-0 11 N. E. Best, Esq . 4-39 0-43 27 24 32-0 28 18 0 13 J. P. Roberts, Esq . 4-81 0-61 25 24 55-0 27 ■20-0 11 C. U. Tripp, Esq., F.M.S. . . 5-73 0-90 25 23 550 27, 28 18-0 11, 12 E. Simpson, Esq . 3-93 0-41S 12 21 5 1-8 27 18-0 11 J. C. Philips, Esq., F.M.S. Rev. G. T. Ryves, M.A., 6-2o 104 25 21 53 ’5 27 13-5 12 F.M.S . 6-12 103 25 25 54-4 27 14-2 12 Mr. Williams . 7-08 1-04 25 22 54'0 27 10-9 11 Mr. James Hall . 8-58 • • . • , , . , 50-0 18-0 Rev. W. H. Purchas . 7T6 i-or> 25 20 .312 27, 28 •• •• F. J. Jackson, Esq . 6-22 0-75 7 20 54-0 28 13-0 12 J. T. Barber, Esq . 5-26 0-90 25 22 * • •• •• H. F. Johnson, Esq . 4-92 0-83 25 22 ■34-2 27 17-0 12 H. MeUish, Esq., F.M.S. . . 4-60 0-75S 7 21 55-0 27 7-7 12 T. L. K. Edge, Esq . 4-88 0'83 25 24 53-1 28 10-0 12 J. N. Dufty, Esq., F.G.S. . . 4-64 0-80 7 17 51-0 28, 29 11-0 12 Rev. G. H. Mullins, M.A., F.M.S . 8-83 0-73 25 23 53-0 28 18-3 12 W. Berridge, Esq., F.M.S.. . 4-32 0-74 25 21 55-0 28 17-3 12 J. Hames, Esq . 3-61 0-66 2.3 23 53-0 28 20-0 12 J. C. Smith, Esq . 4-28 0-74 25 14 55 ‘0 28 10-4 12 Rev. Canon Willes . 3-20 0-55 25 20 .32-0 28 Edwin Ball, Esq . 4-63 0-94 7 •>9, 54-0 27 100 12 Rev. A. M. Ren'dell . 3-98 0-77 25 20 53-5 28, 29 9-0 12 Rev. J. W. Brown . F. Slade, Esq., C.E., F.M.S. 3-96 O’oOs ? 7 20 53-8 27 19-4 11 3-66 0-44 25 24 55- 1 28 17-2 Rev. T. N. Hutchinson _ 3-36 0-60 25 2i 55-4 28 15-0 12 C. A. Markham, Esq . 2-90 0-57 1 19 500 28, 29 15-0 12 J. Webb, Esq . 2-79 0-38 25 19 J. Wallis, Esq . 3-41 0-70 7 19 55-0 29 17-0 12 H. J. Sheppard, Esq . 2-48 0-51 7 21 55T 27, 28 19-1 12 E. E.Dymond, Esq., F.M.S. 2-73 0-48 6 19 5 )‘2 •27 13-9 12 The Staff . 3-17 0-71 29 17 550 29 17-8 12 Rev. T. A. Preston, F.M.S. 4-OG 0-66 25 23 34T 27 11-8 11 R. Tyrer, Esq., B.A., F.M.S. 3-16 0-36 25 24 55-3 27 17-0 12 We have to announce with the deepest regret the death of Mr. Scott, of Barlaston. (a) At these Stations Stevenson’s 'Thermometer Screen is in use, and the values may be regarded as strictly intercomparable, (c) Glaisher s pattern of Thermometer Screen employed at tlieae stations. COIJRESPONDENCK . 45 CoiTfspoiikiitf. ctr. Sphagnace.e of the South Midlands oathehed in 1882. — It is generally admitted that the cryptogamic flora of the South Midland Counties has received but little attention from bryologists. That it is not without interest, and would repay a careful investigation, is, I think, suggested by the following list. The specimens were gathered during the summer and autumn of 1882, but chiefly in the second week of August. The character of the summer, which, as a whole, was both cool and drv, affected the habit of such of these mosses as grew in the shelter of woods. The water in the pools, in which these plants find a congenial habitat, gradually diminished as the summer advanced, and as a consequence considerable portions of the living part of the stems were left standing above the water. The surrounding woods protected these from the force of the wind, and hence they were not beaten down, as were others which had been observed in July in some of the exposed bogs of the New Forest. But as it is essential to the life of these plants that their tissues should be saturated with moisture, in the case of those before mentioned, the spreading branches of the apexes of the stems became considerably elon¬ gated, so as to assist in drawing up the water. This was most strikingly the case with those that grew in “Mermaid’s Pond,” Aspley Woods, and has produced what Dr. Braithwaite designates “ comal, attenuated branches.” Specimens of all the gatherings were submitted to Mr. Boswell, who, with his usual courtesy, rendered valuable assistance in naming them. Besides this, duplicates were subsequently sent to several eminent bryologists, by whom they have been critically exa’uined, and to whom also my best thanks are due. Si'liAONUM. acutifoUuni. b. defle.vuin. c. tenue. fimhriaUnn. sqnarwsum. h. imhricainm. intermedin m. cmpidatum. var. riparioides. rigidum. compactum . subsecunduni. h. contort Hill. c. obesum. d. anricHidtiiin tenellum. cijmhifolinm. b. coiigestuiii. ] (. squarro.'oilimi ) DELS. Aspley Woods. Aspley Woods, f Aspley Woods. I ( Flitwick Marsh, j Flitwick Mai’sh. Flitwick Marsh, f Aspley Wood. ) I Flitwick Marsh. )' Aspley Wood. f “ Mermaid’s Pond,” ( Aspley. ( Flitwick Marsh. ) ( Aspley Woods, j P^litwick MiU’sh. BUCKS. HE UTS. Little Brickhill — < BricketWood. ( Mr. A. F. Gibl)s. Little Brickhill. — — BricketWood. Little Brickhill. — — BricketWood. Little Brickhill. — Little Brickhill. — Little Brickhill. — Little Brickhill. . — .1. SAUN])Eits, Luton. CORRESPONDENCE — REPORTS. 4H Curious Superstition. — E have lately heard from some of the pea¬ santry here (Hampton-in- Arden), the following strange receipt for effect¬ ing the cure of whooping-cough in children, viz. : take a pinch of hair from the nape of the neck of the afflicted person, and, after having cut it into very fine pieces, lay it between two slices of bread and butter, and give it to a dog to eat — a strange dog is preferable to one living on the premises. If it is for a girl care must be taken that the animal is of the male sex, and if a boy, of the opposite sex, otherwise the remedy would be inefficacious. The Rev. Thistleton Dyer states, in “ Englisli Folklore,” that a very similar remedy is resorted to in Gloucestershire, and that measles are sometimes cured in the same way. Another remedy is to pass the afflicted child backwards and forwards beneath an arched bramble, one of peculiar growth, rooting at lioth ends. It would appear almost incredible in these days of medical science and social advancement that persons could still be found to rely so much upon so foolish a superstition. I have actually seen preparations made for applying the remedy, but have not heard of the result. Such cases as the above, and one may often meet with many equally curious in our rural districts, only tend to prove the force of long standing super¬ stitious, and how difficult it is to remove certain ideas, howevei- whimsical and fallacious, when once they have taken deep root in the mind. — R. Rogers, Hampton-in- Arden. Ifjiorts of Sotiftifs. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND :\IICR()SC()PICAL SOCIETY. - [Microscopical, General Meeting.— January lOtli.— Mr. C. B. Plowriptht, the eminent fungologist, of King’s Lynn, was unanimously elected a cori-esponding member of the Society. Mr. ^Y. B. Gi'ove exhibited the following fungi : — Trametes gibhosa, Hinnenochcete riihiginosa, Corticium ochrnceuni, C. Samhnei, Tremella Indecorata. Helotiuin paUescens, Spluc ia nihelUi, and S. acuta, all from Sutton; HordaHa breviseta (new to the districti, trom Water Orton; Spliceria sabidetormn, from Rhyl, on stems of Ammopliil < arundinace t ; StegonospoHuin cellulosuni, from Sparkhill ; and Torula sporeudoneaia (rare and new to the district), from Sutton. Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., then exhibited and presented to the Society six slides of Echinodermata and Entozoa, on behalf of IMr. F. W. Sharpus, of London, by whom they were mounted. He also gave a description of the sljdes and the points of interest which they illustrated. The first was a young individual of Echinus aphccra, the common egg urchin, measuring only one inch across, includ¬ ing the spines, mounted whole in such a manner that the student could examine the whole external anatomy in detail on either the upper or under surface. The second and third slides showed ceidain plates relating to the ambulacral and pore systems, and formed very beautiful objects. The fourth slide contained one of the arms of Ophiocotn i rosula, the rosy brittle star, complete to the very base. This is very difficult to obtain ; everyone, who has attempted to catch these brittle stars know’S the facilitj" with which they dismember themselves at the slightest provocation. The fifth and sixth slides contained perfectly mounted specimens of the liver-fluke. Fasciola h>-p itica, in which the whole internal anatomy of these parasites could be observed. Con¬ cerning this entozoon, which is the cause of the “ rot ” in sheep, Mr. Hughes gave several interesting particulars, which were supplemented bv the remarks of other members who were present. The eggs of the liver-fluke, of which one in¬ dividual can produce 50,000, pass with the bile into the sheep’s intestines and KEPOETS OF SOCIETIES. 47 are theu dropped over the pasture. If then they are washed into water, they jiive exit to a ciliatea embryo, which moves rapidly through the water. At this jioint there was formerly a doubt as to the precise mode iu which the develop¬ ment was continued, but this has now been cleared up by the researches of Mr. P. Thomas, of Oxford, who has proved that the embryos bore their way into the tissues of a certain hivaH, Liniiiceus truncatidus ; they will not, })robably, enter any other species. This small mollusc is abundant in pools, ditches, and running streams, and, being amphibious, is also met with upon the surface of land not far from water, especially after floods. In the body of this “inter¬ mediate host ” the eml)ryo undergoes various complicated changes, finally assuming the form of a Cercar a, which escapes from the mollusc and becomes encj sted on various objects, such as blades of grass. Eaten with the grass by the sheep, it undergoes further changes, and at last assumes the form of the matui'e fluke, which gains access to the liver of the sheep. When an animal is seriously infected with these i)arasites, there apjiears to be no cure; the only remedy is to kill them in some of the intermediate stages 1 y killing the molluscs which they inhabit. This can lie done liy the use of salt, which is also otherwise beneficial to the sheep. iMr. Sharpus’s slides are deposited in the Society’s cabinet, and can be inspected by anyone who desires to see them. Ml'. Hughes then read a note upon the “ Poisoning of some Actiuitti.” The species involuntarily made the subject of experiment was Buiwdes (jenunarea, the gem pimplet, obtained near Ilfracombe, and kept in a small aquarium. These ivere supplied daily with fresh sea-water, fetched in a vasculummade of silvered copper. Portions of the silver being rubbed off and the copper exposed, a galvanic action appears to have been set up and sulphate of copper produced. This being unwittingly given to the anemones, they were poisoned and nearly died. The remedy w'as to wash them carefully with fresh water, removing the decaying tissues with a camel-hair pencil. 'When they had recovered from this, they were afterwards nearly poisoned with fresh water, which was given them by mistake, and then all but frozen to death in the cold weather of last year. Nevertheless, they ivere exhibited to the meet¬ ing in a healthy and well expanded state, four months after their capture. January '2:3rd.— Geological Section. — The following exhibits were made ; — Mr. S. Wilkins, for Jlr. Mace— a large pebble, extremely hard and heavy, and quite spherical in shape, found near Stechford ; Mr. Vs. H. Wilkinson — a specimen of Lo(loiceE. VISCUM. V. album, Linn. Common Mistletoe. Native : On apple, poplar and hawthorn trees. Rare. I. On a poplar, near Packwood, 1868 ; on an apple tree, Packwood Grange. II, Scarce in the neighbourhood of Warwick, Norbrook, Perry FI. ; in an orchard at Birdingbury. H. B. ; on hawthoi'ii, at Bird- ingbury, H.B. ; apple orchard, Abbott’s Salford, Rev. J. C. ; in an orchard near Alcester. GAPRIFOLIAGE^. ADOXA. A. Moschatellina, Linn. Tuberous moschatel. Native : On banks and in woods. Local. April, May. I. Erdington ; Gravelly Hill ; Castle Bromwich ; Kingsbury ; Marston Green ; Bentley Heatli ; Earlswood ; Shirley. (54 THK FLOKA OF WARWICKSHIRE II. Alcester, in tlie rough ground by the floodgates, Purt. i., 20G ; grove at Wootton Grange, Perry FL, 37 ; Honington, Newh. ; Lillingtou, //. B. ; Shrewley ; Kenilworth, Y. and B. ; Allesley ; Meriden ; Rowington ; Kingswood ; Alne Hills ; Harborough Magna SAMBUCUS. S. nigra, Linn. Common Folder. Native : In woods and hedges. Common. May, June. Area general. Var. 2. Berries green and white. Warwickshire. With., ed. 7, ii., 402. S. Ebulus, Linn. Dxoarf Elder. Denizen : In hedges and ou wayside banks. Very rare. July. I. Tamworth Castle Hill, towards the river. With., ed. 7, ii., 400. “ A fresh specimen shown me from Shirley, 1879,” Nevjh. Near Kuowle, on marly banks ! With., ed. 7, ii., 400. II. Near Grafton Church, on the side of the road. Part, i., 162. It has been seen in this locality recently by the Rev. J. H. Thompson. “ In the grounds of Evelyn Philhps Shirley, Esq., Eatington Park,” Rev. J. Gorle. Moreton Morrell Church. With., I.C., 400 ; believed to be extinct in the last locality. VIBURNUM. V. Opulus. Linn. Common Gnehler Rose, Marsh Elder. Native: In hedges and damp woods. Local. June. I. Coleshill Bog ! Lck. Anal., 1837, near Coleshill ; Forge Mills ; Middleton ; Sutton Park ; Blossom Fields, Solihull ; Brad- nock’s Marsh ; river bank, near Stonebridge, &c. II. Kenilworth; Radford, Y. and B.; Salford, Rev. J. G.; near Avon Mill, R. S. R., 1877 ; Broadmore Wood, near Alcester ; Austey Wood, near Wootton Wawen. V. Lantana, Linn. Wayfariny Tree. Native : In woods, copses, and hedges, in calcareous soils. Locally abundant. May. II. Hedges between Leamington and Southam! With., ed. 7, iii., 398. Hedge between Harborough and Co.sford, Blox., R. S. R., 1872 ; Whitnash ; Chesterton ! Y. and B. ; near Frankton Wood, Pk.. S. R.,1^11 •, Ga,ydon, Bolton King ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen ; Little Alne ; lane from Norton Lindsay to Claverdon ; Aston Cantlow ; Drayton bushes ; Oversley Wood ; Binton ; Alveston pastures ; Compton Verney ; Pillerton ; near Kineton ; Ufton Wood. LONICERA. L. Periclymenum, Linn. Common Woodbine, Honeysuckle. Native: In hedges, woods, and copses. Common. June to Sep¬ tember, or later. Area general. [L. Xylosteum. Linn. Is recorded by Withering, iii., 315, as occurring “in the wood S.-W. side of the lake in Edgbaston Park, 1812.”] [L. Caprifolium. Linn. Chadshunt, quite naturalised, Bolton King.] RUBIAGE^. GALIUM. G. cruoiatum, With. Grossicort. Native: On hedge banks, waysides, and in woods. Common. May, June. Area general. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 65 G. verum, Linn, Yellow Bedstmw ; Cheese Rennet. Native: Hedge banks and fields. Rather common. July, August. I. Castle Bromwich ; Shustoke ; Harfcshill ; Solihull ; Knowle. II. Honington ; Tredington ; Shipston, Newb. ; Alveston pastures ; Bardon Hill ; Arrow ; Henley-in-Arden, &c. b. ochroleiicuin. Rare. In a pit by footpath from Wellesbourn to Moreton Morrell, one large patch with G. verum, H. B. G. erectum, Huds. Upright Bedstraw. Native: In meadows and pastures. Rare, June, July. I. Coleshill Heath, Bree, N. B. G., 1835. II. On the side of a wet ditch at Pophills, June 27, L821, Part., iii., 564. On railway banks. Leek Wootton and Kenilworth, H. B. ; Cathiron Lane, near Rugby, Rev. A. I. Blow. G. Mollugo, L. Common Great Bedstra w. Native : On banks, in fields, hedges, &c. Locally common. July, August. I. Canal bank, Hatton to Knowle ; Berkswell, near Meriden ; Tan worth. II. Weir-break Hill and Cross-of-the-Hill, near Stratford, Perry FI., 12 ; Radford Semele ; Walton; Moreton Morrell, H. B.; Alcester ; Binton ; Temple Grafton ; Henley-in-Arden ; Ullenhall ; Little Alne, &c. Var. seabrum. Radford, H.B. c. Bakcri. Ufton Wood, iJ. R. Exch. Club Report, IS7&. Moreton Morrell, II. B. ; Golden Cross Lane, Wixford, G. saxatile, Linn. Heath Bedstraw. Native : On dry banks, heaths, &c. Local. June. I. Sutton Park; Hill Wood, near Sutton ; Middleton Heath ; Coles¬ hill Heath ; heathlands near Bentlev and Hartshill ; Arley Wood. II. (G. procumhem }. Studley Common! Burt, i., 97; Kenilworth Heath! Perry FI., 12; Oversley Wood. G. palustre, Linn. Marsh Bedstraw. Native: In marshes, drains, and streams. Common. June to September. Area general. b. elongatnin, Presl. Rather rare. I. Lane from Water Orton to Minworth ; Coleshill Pool ; Osier Bed Lane from Solihull to Sharinan’s Cross ; Shirley Heath ; Lane near Rotten Row, Knowle. II. Milverton, II. Bromwich, Herb. Brit. Mus. ; Honington ! Newb. ; River Avon, near Hill AVootton, H. B. ; Learn, near Offchurch, 11. /). ; Sow Waste, near Coventry ; cattle pool near Coombe Abbey. G. Witheringii. Sm. Rather rare. I. Sutton Park ; Coleshill Pool ; Bannersley Pool ; bog, near Packing- ton ; Shirley. II. Yarningal Common, Shrewley Common, H. B.; canal near Wootton Wawen. This variety has, I think, been not unfrequently mistaken for G. tiligi nosum. G. uliginosum, Linn. Rough Marsh Bedstraw. Native: In bogs and marshes. Very rare. July, August. I. Coleshill Bog, Part., i., 99; Bannersley Pool; Sutton Park; Arley Wood. II. Bog at the Woodloes, near Warwick; Haseley, H. B. 66 tHE ELuKA WAKWICKSHIKE. G. anglicum, Huds. SvutJl Tjudloi' BoAUtraw. Small Goose-prass. Native: “ On wall sandy ground. Rare. July.” II. “ On high ground in Oversley Wood,” Purl., i., 97. Although I have made special search for this plant on all the high ground in and near Oversley Wood, I have not been able to find it. I found an abundance of a tall form of G. mxatile. This Purton does not record. G. Aparine, Linn. Common Goose-prass, Cleavers. Native: In hedges, woods, and as a weed in arable land. Common. May to September. Area general. The plant is better known among the peasantry by the name of Haprif or Herrif. According to Prior this is derived from the A.-S. hepe., hedge ; and reafa, a tax-gatherer or robber, so called, we may suppose, from its plucking wool from passing sheep. It is in much repute as a diuretic. G. tricorne. With. llouph Corn Bedstraw. Colonist : In arable land, in calcareous and marly soils. Rather rare. July, August. II. On Alne Hills; in a cornfield by Drayton Bushes! Part, i., 99, in the last locality in 1880 ; near Birdingbury, R. S. R. 1877 ; Chesterton ; Tachbrook ; Harbury ; Lighthorne, H. B. ; Kineton ; Chadshunt, Bolton Kinp : Moreton Morrell ; near Binton ; Steeple Hill, Bidford ; Red Hill ; Temple Grafton ; Wilmcote; Birdingbury; Brandon. Although occurring over so wide an area in the Avon basin, I have never found it in any locality in the Tame basin. I should, however, expect it to be found about Hartshill or Nuneaton. ASPERULA. A. odorata, Linn. Sweet Woodruff. Native: In damp woods and on banks in marly soils. Locally abundant. April to June. I. Hockley, near Knowle ; lanes about Meriden and Meriden Shafts; lanes about Arley ; Hartshill Wood. II. Oversley! Spernal! Ragley Woods! Part., i., 101. Honley ! Whitnash, Y.and B.; Cathiron Lane, R. S. R., 1877 ; Red Hill, near Alcester ; Combe Woods ; Harborough Magna ; Kemp’s Green. A. cynanchica, Liiui. Cai nancy-wort. Native : In cornfields in Lias soils. Very rare. duly. II. Cornfields, near Wilmcote, Rev. A. Blow. SHERARDIA. S. arvensis, Linn. Blue Field Madder. Native: In fields and meadows. Common. May to October. Area general. VALERIANAGE^. VALERIANA. V. dioica, Linn. Marsh Valerian. Native : In marshes and wet meadows. Local. May, June. I. Garlick Meadows, Erdington, With., ii., 90; Sutton Park; Middle- ton Heath ; Coleshill Pool ; Hampton-in-Arden ; meadow by Olton Pool ; near Hockley ; near Solihull Railway Station. II. Marshy ground by Hoo Mill ; near Middletown, Part, i., 59. At Leamington ; near the Race Stand, Warwick, Perry FI., 4 ; Kenilworth, Y. and B. V. officinalis, Linn. Common Valerian. • a. Mikanii, Symc. Native: In woods and moist places. Rare. duly. THE FLO I? A OF WARWICKSHIRE ()7 II. Chesterton ! Tackbrook ! Y. and B. Near Oakley Wood ; between Stratford-on-Avon and Alcester ; Alveston Pastures. b. samhiici folia, Mik. Rather common. I. In the Garlick meadows near Penn’s Mill! With., ii., 91. Sutton Park ; Solihull ; near Knowle, &c. II. Oversley Wood, Part., i. 59. Warwick, not rare. Perry PL, 5. Combe Woods ; near Tile Hill, Ac. VALERIANELLA. V. olitoria, Moench. Common Lamh'st Tjettuce. Native : On banks and walls and in fields. Common. May, June. Area general. [Valerianella carinata, Lois. Was found by Cheshire at Alder- minster on the borders of Warwickshire, and may occur in this county.] V. auricula, DC. Sharp-frnited Lamlfs Lettuce. Colonist : In cornfields in Lias soils. Very rare. July. II. In a cornfield in the bridle road from Red Hill to Binton village, 1877 and 1879. Drayton Bushes. V. dentata, Koch. Narrow-fruited Lamb'.'< Lettuce. Colonist : In corn and other cultivated fields. Local. June to August, or later. I. Oscott, Per. J. C. Fields near Schoolrougli, Marston Green ; heathy pasture near Coleshill Pool. II. Cornfields about Rugby, Eev. A. Blox., N.B.G.S., 1837 ; Sow Waste, Kirk; plentiful in cornfields. Blue Boar Lane, 11. S. R., 1877 ; Tachbrook, Harbury ! Y. and B. ; Chesterton; Moreton Morrell, Lighthorne ! Whitnash, H. B. ; Red Hill, Drayton Bushes ; Wilmcote. b. mixta, Duf. I. Cornfield near Bannersley Pool ; heathy pasture near Coleshill Pool. II. Tachbrook, Harbury, Y. and B. Moreton Morrell, H. B. Reel Hill ; Drayton Bushes. [Centranthus ruber, DC. On a wall near Kenilworth Castle, Kirk, Phyt. ii., 970. Extinct in this locality now, 1880. Naturalised on walls at Salford I Rev. J. C.; Eastgate, Warwick, Perry, 1817. I do not think this plant can be con¬ sidered as more than a straggler from cultivation in this county.] {To he continued.) METEOROLOGY OE THE MIDLANDS. THE WEATHER OF JANUARY, 1883. BY CLEMENT L. WRAGGE, F.R.G.S., F.M.S., ETC. The month was on the whole wet, with a rainfall above the average ; mild and stormy, with some fogs. The fogs in the Churnet Valley, by the way, were exceptionally dense, and the observer at my station at Oakamoor reports that on the 19th distinct vision was limited to “a couple of yards.” The atmosphere generally was in a very disturbed condition, especially during the third and last weeks, owing to the passage of depressions from the Atlantic ; and the great and sudden fluctuations of the barometer formed a special feature. THE WEATHER OF JANUARY ()H STATION. 1 RAINFALL. 1 SHADE TEMP. OBSERVER. C - In. Greatest fall ' in 24 hours. In. 1 Date. •M 'O = >.i 0.2 ^ S ^ 1 Absolute Maximum. Degi Date. Absolute Minimum. Deg. j Date. OUTPOST STATIONS. Greenhili, Fort William (a) . . C. L. Wragge, Esq., F.M.S. 8-48 • 51-0 19 26-4 8 Spitnl Cemetery, Carlisle .... I. Cartmell, Esq., F.M.S. . . 3-38 0-58 24 13 59-3 20 23-3 31 Scarborough (a) . W. C. Hughes, Esq., F.M.S. 1-47 0-25 24 14 5t-4 2 .30-4 24 Blackpool fn,;— South Shore. . C. T.Ward.Esq., B.A..F.M.S. 5T7 0-84 28 22 o2-7 1 2(5'9 31 Lowestoft (a) . H. E. MiUer, Esq., F.M.S... 1-74 0-29 23 17 54‘4 1 29-6 31 Carmarthen {a) . G. J. Hearder, Esq., M.D... 0-04 0-86 28 23 52-0 1 28-1 7 Cardiff (a) . W. Adams, Esq., C.E . 5‘75 l-Il 24 25 54 2 1 31-6 16, 31 Sidmoutli (o,) . W. T. Radford, Esq., M.D. 2-82 0-.32 14 24 547 1 31-0 81 LesRuettes Braves, Guernsey A. Collenette, Esq., F.M.S. 2-99 0-44 25 20 55 '0 1 32-2 10 (a) MIDLAND STATIONS. HEREFORDSHIRE. Burghill (a) . T. A. Chapman, Esq., M.D. 3-00 0-40 24 22 56‘2 1 27-8 31 SHROPSHIRE. Woolstaston . 3-79 0-52 24 21 530 1 2G-0 7, 8 Stokesay ttt) . 4’47 0'61 24 17 1 25-5 .31 More Rectory . 0'59 28 24 53-0 •2 28-0 16 Dowles, near Bewdley . J. M. Downing, Esq . 3-17 0-51 29 19 61-0 18 21-0 31 WORCESTERSHIRE. Orleton, near Tenbnry (a). . . . T. H. Davis, Esq., F.M.S. . . 3-99 0-60 24 . 24 657 J 26-3 31 West Malvern . A. H. Hartland, Esq . 4-29 0-57 24 22 61-5 1 280 6 Evesham {a) . T. J. Slatter, Esq., F.G.S... 2-52 0-.51 29 23 54-0 1 27-0 7 Pedmore . 1 . 0*49 25 19 65 0 18 23-0 . 6 Stourbridge . 3*63 0-47 27 22 55‘0 1 26-0 30 STAFFORDSHIRE. Rowley Regis . 0-3fi 24 19 57 0 1 28 0 an .31 Dennis, Stourbridge (a) . 0*4K 24 20 53-5 1 26-5 7 Kinver . 3-41 0-45 27 22 530 iO'O 30 Lichfield . J. P. Roberts, Esq . 2-83 0-42 27 20 64-0 1 28-0 31 Wrottesley (a) . 3*22 0‘r>2 2 18 .53-6 1 967 7 Heath House, Cheadle (a) .. .1. C. Philips, Esq., F.M S. 3 68 0-69 27 21 56-0 31 24-6 31 Tean (b) . Rev. G. T. Ryves, M.A., 411 0-62 27 21 53-0 1, 28 26-0 7, .31 F.M.S . Oakamoor, Chnrnet Valley (n) Mr.Williams . 4-48 0-57 27 21 .54-0 1, 2 200 21 Beacon Stoop,WeaverHills(«) Mr. James Hall . 4-92 . « . • , , .. 500 23-0 Alstonfleld . 4*21 0-81 24 16 51 3 1 22-3 7 31 DEU UYSillUE. stony Middleton . 4-67 17 570 18 19 210 30 Spon'don . J. T. Barber, Esq . 2-31 0-24 29 17 XOTTINGHAMSHIRE. Park Hill, Nottingham {a) .. H. F. Johnson, Esq . 1-9G 0-27 29 18 53’5 1 28-1 31 Hodsock Priory, Worksop (a) H. MeUish, Esq., F.M.S. . . 2-51 O’oO 27 19 54-5 1 22-4 31 Strelley (a) . T. L. K. Edge, Esq . 2-46 0-34 27 21 531 28 24-9 31 Tuxford . J. N. Dufty, Esq., F.G.S. .. 2T8 0-45 24 17 50-0 1 33'0 6 RUTLANDSHIRE. Uppingham . Rev. G. H. Mullins, M.A., 2-00 0-34 29 18 53-4 1 27-0 24, .31 F.M.S . LEICESTERSHIRE. Loughborough (a) . W. Berridge, Esq., F.M.S.. . 2-58 0-42 27 18 547 1 267 31 Syston . 9.-17 27 24 53*0 1 18 29-0 24, 31 Ashby Magna . 9.*71 29 18 51*0 1 Waltham-le-Wold . 2*01 0*36 29 16 52-0 18 26-0 24 Coston Rectory, Melton (a) . . Rev. A. M. Rendell . 2-31 0-39 27 20 63 '5 1 24-0 31 WARWICRSHIRE. St. Marv’s College, Oscott .. Rev. J. W. Brown . 2-97 0-42 29 13 53-3 1 25-5 81 Henlev-in-Arden . T. H. G. Newton, Esq . 3-39 0-66 29 25 54-0 1. 18 20-0 31 Park Hill, Kenilworth (n) . . T. G. Hawley, Esq . 2-91 0-47 29 21 54*2 1 26T 31 Kenilworth faj . F. Slade, Esq., C.E., F.M.S. 3-28 0-50 29 23 54’0 1 25 9 31 Rugby School (a) . Rev. T. N. Hutchinson . . . . 3T7 077 29 20 53-6 1 210 31 NI)KTHAMPT0NSHIRK. Pitsford, Northampton . C. A. Markham, Esq . 2-68 0-33 29 21 54'0 1, 18 26 0 .31 Towcester . J. Webb. Esq . 2-96 0-58 15 22 , , 2-87 0‘43 29 20 54-0 2 •2S*0 24, 31 BEDFORDSHIRE. 1-75 i)-3n 29 21 54*4 29 27*4 31 OXFORDSHIRE. Radcliffe Observatory, Ox. («) The Staff . 2-28 0-34 24 21 54-9 1, 18 28-6 31 WILTSHIRE. MarlborouglWny . Rev. T. A. Preston, F.M.S. 3-79 0-89 24 24 53-2 1 28’3 31 GLOUCKSTEUSH IRE. Cheltenham (n) . R.Tyrer, Esq., B. A., F.M.S. 2-67 0-50 29 2 4 66-0 1 27-5 7 («) At tliese Siaiions Stevenson’s Thermometer Screen is in use, and the values may be regarded as strictly intercomparable, [b) Glaisher s pattern of Thermometer Screen employed at these stations. The Stafford Station is temporarily closed owing to the absence of an observer.— C.L.W, MKTP:OROLOfTY - CORRP’.SPONl )P: N CE . ()9 Snow fell on the 8th, and almost daily from the 24th to the 80th inclusive. The minimum thermometer, about four feet above ground, fell below 32“^ Fahr. about eight times, and some nineteen grass frosts were recorded ; the cold, however, could not be called intense on any of these occasions, and the mean temperature of the air may be given as 89-6®.* Mean pressure was about 29’870in., the highest mean reading of the barometer was 30-640 on 22nd — 23rd, and the lowest 29-026 on 25th — 26th. West-south-west and east-south-east winds were frequent, and much damage to trees, etc., resulted from the violent gales of the last week. The mean amount of cloud was 6-9 (scale 0 to 10), and relative humidity 90°/o. The absolute maximum temperature in the sun’s rays (reported) was 95-6° at Hodsock on the 30th, and the absolute minimum on grass was 18-9° at the Radcliffe Observatory on the 31st. Bright sunshine 45-4 hours or 18o/o at Hodsock (being slightly more than in the two previous years), 49-5 hours or 20°/o at Strelley, 60 hours at Oxford, and 41-7 hours at Blackpool. The mean temperature of the soil at a depth of one foot was 39-3° at Hodsock, 38-8° at Strelley, and 43-2° at Cardiff. At a depth of four feet at Cardiff the mean tempera¬ ture was 46-3°. The mean amounts of ozone were 1-1, 3-2, 4-0, and 4-4 on the usual scale of 0 to 10 — values for Oxford, Cheltenham, Carmar¬ then, and Blackpool respectively. Lunar halos on the 17th and 18th. Notks by Observers. — Stokemy. — Large hunch of primroses gathered in a wood adjacent on 7th; missel thrush singing throughout the month. More Rectory .~A complete absence of winter birds, especially fieldfares ; a few redwings, however, and one hawfinch appeared. Orleton. — Land become perfectly saturated with rain, and all farming operations stopped. Rowley Reyix. — Primroses and polyanthus in flower. .S'poadou. — Filberts in blossom early in the inonth; yellow crocus in bloom in third week; all early spring flowering bulbs advancing rapidly. Hodxock. — Snowdrop blooming on 17th, in full flower 29th ; hazel in flower by 23rd, and in full flower on 29th; dog’s mercury in bloom 29th. Waltham-le-Wold. — Snowdrop, primroses, etc., in bloom during the latter part of month. Corrcspoiikuti'. Note on the Food of Small Birds. — Now that winter is come, and the arable land is for the most part broken up, the feeding grounds of our small hard-billed birds become very much restricted in area. In the few stubbles still remaining — -chiefly those which were barley or oats planted with clover to follow — the Finches, Sparrows, and Buntings congregate in considerable numbers, and the amount of seed that it takes to keep them alive cannot fail to be a matter of curiosity to the naturalist, and of interest to the farmer. About the middle of this month I shot from a flock of small birds a Tree Sparrow(Pa.s'.s-r7- mwitu/ULs-), and noticing that the oesophagus was considerably distended, I had the curiosity to examine its contents. I took from it twenty-two shelled oats, two seeds of a small species of vetch, and one hundred and ninety- two others, the greater part of which appeared to be those of the field clover, there were also numerous fragments, and allowing four for these, it brings up the total to 220 grains. These were in the crop alone, and * It must be borne in mind henceforth that all mean and extreme values (except where otherwise stated) are for the districts embraced by our Midland Stations only and that all barometric values are reduced to 32"" Fahr. and sea level. 70 CORREHPONDENCK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. (luite fresh, showing that they were the result of that day’s foragiu" ; the stomach contained a considerable quantity of broken fragments, but in too far advanced a state of digestion for me to make any computa¬ tion as to the number of seeds. When we consider that the flock must have consisted of at least three or four hundred individuals, we may form some idea of the amount of food that they would daily consume. — Oliver V. Aplin, Banbury, Oxon, December, 1882, New British Mucorini. — In the process of cultivating various species of Pilobolus, I have recently had the pleasure of meeting with the following other species of Mucorini, concerning which I can find no record of their occurrence in Britain, viz. : — PilobohiH kcHjjus, PiJaira Cemtii^ Piptocephali)^ Preseniana, and a species of Mortierella, which is closely allied to MortiereJUt tnhernui, but may possibly prove to be distinct. — W. B. Orove, B.A. Dactylium obovatum (Berkeley), — I have recently met with this species on willow twigs, the habitat on which it was found by Bev. M. J. Berkeley, lint my specimens clearly show that it is only a young state of DdcUflium roseum ; every stage can be traced between the slender, simple, colourless filaments of the former, and the branched, intricate, rosy tufts of the latter. — W. B, Grove, B.A. (i)ufstions aiib l^irsfous. Fruit of the Ash. — In the fruit of the ash there is frequently, if not always, a small cavity corresponding to that loculus of the ovary which contains the undeveloped ovule of the two which were originally in the carpel of the flower. This gives a greater degree of lightness to the saiiKiru or winged fruit, and so assists in tlie dispersion of the heavy seed which is enclosed within it. Is this empty loculus or chamber filled with air, or is it a vacuum ; perhaps some one of your readers can tell me if it be known ? — Jno. J, Oole, Nottingham. Fruit of Composites. — -Is the pappus, which is characteristic of many of the Compositae, composed of hollow hairs or not ? If solid, how can the floating of the fruit in the air on a still day be accounted for, as the specific gravity of the whole would then be heavier than that of air. — Jxo. J. Ogle. ’In answer to Mr. Ogle's inquiries, it may be stated that the cavity in the ripened fruit of the ash is filled with air. The pappus of the Compositie is formed of cells, and these cells, when the pappus is dry, are filled with air. Examination in water under the microscope will at once show the cellular nature of the pappus, and also the presence of air in those cells. The pappus floats in air because it offers a relatively large surface of resistance to the air. Even on the stillest days there are currents of air sufficient to waft about the winged messengers of the dandelion and other Composites. — J. E. B.] Burnishers. — I beg to thank Mr. Harrison for his remarks in answer to my query on page 281, vol. v,, of the “ Midland Naturalist.” I cannot help thinking, however, that he is not acquainted with the stones to which I refer, as they possess little resemblance to the Agates of the Bunter beds of this neighbourhood, but on the contrary have, when cut, the appearance of steel, though many are of a more or less red hue. I am led to conclude they are Haematite rather than Silica. Can any one enlighten us upon this question ? — W. S. Gresley. liK PORTS OR SOCIETIES 71 IlfpOTts of .Soriftics. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.- Genekal Meeting, January 30th. — Mr. J. E. BaKiiall e.xhibiteci a series of ninety-six species of mosses, arranged in groups to represent those peculiar to the various habitats ; also BartriDnia ithyjjhijlla, from Dovrefield, Norway, with a microscopic preparation showing the inflorescence. Mr. \V. H. Wilkinson, exhibited Lee-chee nuts, the fruit of Neplieliinii Litchi, from China, Cactus triangularis, the prickly pear, also models of an orange and a lemon. Mr-. W. B. Grove, exhibited A(/arfc»s velutipes, Pohjporus spunteus, and Tremella foliacea from Sutton Park ; Peziza oiuphalodes, a curious species which occurs on char¬ coal heaps, covering them with a wide confluent velvety mass of a beautiful pink colour, from the vinery of the Crystal Palace, Sutton ; Ptuclujgaxter albus, which is norv considered a conidial stage of Polijporus Ptgchogaster, but was formerly placed among the Myxomycetes ; and (on behalf of Mr. W. H. Wilkin¬ son), Scliizophylluni coimmme, from a gate-post at Washington, U.S.A., a species remarkable for its enormous range, having been found in every quarter of the globe from the Arctic Seas to Australia. The Rev. H. Boyden then read a paper on the “ Geography and Botany of the Rea,” in which he said that, with a slight interval at Pebble Mill Pool, he had travelled along the w-hole course of the river from the point where its country associations begin, at Calthorpe Park, to its source at Wetty Farm. He considered that the highest source was at a spring on the “ Shoulder-of-Mutton Hill.” Flowing from that place past the Rubery Asylum, it is joined by a tributary from the Frankley Hills, and thence runs through Northfield and Lifford to the Pebble Mill Pool, where it receives the tributary waters of the Bourne. He remarked upon the curious fact that most manuals of geogi'aphy seem to be unaware that Birmingham stands on the Rea. Along the banks of the river he had collected 140 species of flowering plants, the whole of which, as well as a number of algse, mosses, hepaticse and fungi, found along the valley, were exhibited at the meeting. Among them were Golchicum autuniuile, from a field at the Dog-pool Lane, Petasites vulgaris from several places, and Campanula latifolia from the railway embankment, at Northfield. .\nnual Meeting — February 6th. — At this meeting the Annual Report and Treasurer’s Accounts were read ; the latter showed that the Society was slightly in debt, but all outstanding liabilities were amply covered by the subscriptions still due to the Treasurer. In addition to this, the Society had paid off the debt which was incurred in connection with the removal to the Mason College. The following ofldcers and Committee were then elected for 1883 : — President, Mr. T. H. Waller; Vice-Presidents, Messrs. W. G. Blatch and K. W. Chase; Ex-Presi¬ dents, (Who are Vice-Presidents), Messrs. J. Levick, W. R. Hughes, W. Graham, and A. W. Wills; Treasurer, Mr.- C. Pumphrey ; Librarian, Mr. J. E. Bagnall ; Curators, Messrs. R. M. Lloyd and H. Miller; Secretaries, Messrs. J. Morley and W. B. Grove ; Committee, Messrs. E. W. Badger, W. J. Harrison, W. P. Marshall, E. Tonks, S. Wilkins, and W. H. Wilkinson. The meeting was then adjourned to receive the retiring President’s Address at a future date. Biologicae Sec¬ tion — February 13th. — Mr. A. W. Wills was re-elected chairman, and Mr. J. F. Goode secretary for the current year. Mr. Thomas Bolton exhibited a new marine capito-branchiate annelid, Haplohranchus cestuarinus, figured and de¬ scribed in a well-illustrated paper in the “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science ” by Mr. Alfred Gibbs Bourne, B.Sc. London. In a few remarks on this specimen Mr. Hughes paid a just tribute to Mr. Bolton for his indefatigable zeal in discovering new forms and bringing them under the notice of the society. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited the following mosses; — Bartramia granulata, B. cederi, B. stricta, B. seriata, Catoscopium nigriturn ; and Bicranum scoparium, from Hampton-in-Arden, with microscopical preparations of each species ; also, for Mr. R. Rogers, Campylopus fragilis, from Hampton-in-Arden (rare', in fruit ; and a fungus, Hydnum auriscalpium, from same habitat, new as a record for Warwickshire. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited and described Pilubolus ^cdipus, from Sutton and Piptocejjlialis Prescniana, from Edgbaston, both species ot REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. T2 Mucorini, new to the British Flora. Mr. K. W. Chase read a paper “On the Study of Ornithology.” The subject was divided under the following heads, viz •.—Classi¬ fication, Feathers, Skeleton, Digestive Organs and Trachea, Life History and Habits, all of which were fully treated. One of tne most important points of study for the collector is to obtain a perfect knowledge of the various stages which each species goes through until maturity is reached, some species taking longer than others to arrive at their mature plumage, e.g., some require three or four years, whilst others attain it on being fully fledged, or after the first moult. A striking change of plumage also occurs as they assume their winter or summer garb. The construction of the nest, the materials employed, the situation chosen, and the colouring of the eggs should be noted ; also if they simulate the surroundings, so as to make it difficult to discover them. TTie importance of noting the colour of the legs and eyes in freshly-killed specimens is essential, as many mistakes occur in descriptions taken from dried specimens from which the colouring matter has faded or disappeared. The contents of the birds’ stomachs also furnish a vast amount of information, and will repay examina¬ tion to ascertain upon what the bird feeds, and so be able to tell the habitat of the species. The paper was illustrated by numerous typical specimens and interesting preparations. MicBOSCOPiCAn General, Meeting — February 20th. —Mr. T. Bolton exhibited a new infusorian, just discovered by himself, to which he had given the name of Chilomonas spiralis. The Eev. H. Boyden exhibited a small collection of plants from the South of France and South of Portugal, gathered by the Rev. F. H. Thompson ; many of them rare. Mr. J. F. Goode exhibited a minute Alga, Coccochloris Brebissonii. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Utricularid neglecta, from Staines; Eldtine hexanclra, from Surrey; E. triandra, from Kew Gardens ; Selinicni carvifoliwni, from Lincolnshire (newly- discovered in Britain), with Peucedanum palustre, from Norfolk, with which it has been hitherto confounded ; Ulota intermedia, Tetraphis pellucida (in fruit), Eunaria fascicidaris, and Mnium rostratum (for Mr. R. Rogers), all rare, from Hampton -in-Arden ; also two Hepatic®, Lunula ria vulgaris and Metzgeria furcata, and a fungus, Galera sphagnorum, from the same place ; also Geaster limhatus, from near Kidderminster (for Dr. Arnold Lees), and a series of Fungi to illustrate Mr. Plowright’s paper. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following fungi i—Hypoxglon marginatum, Helicnmijces (probably roseus), Corticium incarnatum, and Peziza Chavetii from Sutton ; Dactylium obovaUmi (Berkeley), also from Sutton, growing on willow twigs, and showing all stages between that figured by Mr. Berkeley in the “ Annals of Natural History ” under the name given above, and the ordinary form of Dactylium roseum, thus rendering it probable that the two species are not distinct ; also Elaphomyces V rriegatus, from King’s Lynn, sent by Mr. C. B. Plowrigh and the zygospores or sexually produced spores of Mucor mucedo, obtained by cultivating the Mucor ill a deficiency of oxygen. Mr. T. H. Waller exhibited globular phosphate of lime, from South Russia. Mr. Bagnall then read a paper by Mr. C. B. Plowright on “ T he Reclassification of the Uredines,” in which the writer gave an account of the changes which have recently been made in the arrangement of those fungi, owing to the adoption of the theory of their Trimorphism, and appended a list of the British species, according to the system adopted by Dr. Winter. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION.— Microscopical and General Meeting. — January Bth. — Mr. Madison showed Limax flavus (living specimen) ; Mr. Boland, a collection of Indian marine shells ; Mr. Delicate, microscopical section of shell of cocoa-nut ; Mr. J. W. Neville, dredgings from “Challenger” Expedition. January 13th. — Mr. H. Insley exhibited a collection of Australian woods, polished, showing their structure. A paper, “ Notes on Nebul®,” was read by Mr. J. Wykes. January 22nd. — Mr. Tylor showed a microscopical Fungus found in an Oporto wine cellar and Mr. Baxter, a specimen of Membranivora pilosa. January 29th.— Special pond life ; various common objects shown and described. February 3rd. — Mr. Tylor showed a s})ecimeu of Laln-adorite ; Mr. Baxter, Ophiocoma neglecta, and O. rosula. A paper was read by Mr. Wheeldon, “ Notes on Dragon-Flies, ’ illustrated by diagrams. Plate V The' Fertilisation of Saxifraga. PRINTED AT THE HERALD PRESS, BIRAiiNGHAM. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FERTILISATION OF SAXIFRAOA. 73 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FERTILISATION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF SAXIFRAGA* BY JNO. J. OGLE. The Saxifrages and their close allies, the Sundews ( Drosera), ihQ Golden Saxifrage ( Chrysosplenium), and the Grass of Parnassus (Paraasaia), exliibit some very wonderful phenomena of vegetable life. Bennett, Hooker, Darwin, Lubbock, and others have observed and described several of the peculiarities that characterise plants belonging to the natural order (Saxifragacese), which includes the above-named species ; but so far as I am aware no one has yet described the way in which the members of the genus Saxifraga are fertilised. In the case of the Grass of Parnassus and the Golden Saxifrage their arrangement and motions for the prevention of the fertilisation of an individual flower by its own pollen have been well described. In the cases I am about to describe the same object is achieved by a some¬ what different process. That some such contrivance is necessary for the health and vigour of succeeding individuals of the same species is a well-ascertained fact. Plants raised from seed produced by self-fertilised flowers (i.e., flowershaving ovaries impregnated by pollen from the same individual to which each belongs) are always weaker than those from seed which has been set by cross-fertilised flowers (i.e., those the stigmas of which were brought into contact with pollen from other plants of the same species). On the ground of a similar law in the animal world applicable to that highest of animals — man. Scripture and the law of the land prohibit the marriage of very near relatives, as the children of such marriages would be very weakly, and in many cases a burden to themselves and to society. But to return to the Saxifrages. It will be necessary to point out the structure of the flower of a typical saxifrage and the relations of its References to Plate V. Fig. 1 . — Diagram of flower of a Saxifraga. Fig. 2. — Flower of Saxifraga umbrosa, with two petals and stamens near them removed. Fig. 3. — Ovary of the same in a more advanced state. Fig. 4. — Ovary of S. muscoides ; learly condition. Fig. 5. — The same ; later condition. Fig. 6. — Ovary of S. grantdata ; early condition. Fig. 7. — The same ; later condition. * This paper was read before the Nottingham and District G. II. S. Naturalist’s Society in June last. 74 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FERTILISATION OF SAXIFRAGA. parts one to another before we proceed further. Fig. 1 is a diagram that will answer our purpose. The sepals are not shown, as they do not affect the point we wish to elucidate. The outside ring of leaves represents the corolla, consisting of five petals. Next, there are the stamens, an outer whorl or circle of five long and an inner whorl of five short ones. Each of these consists of a filament or stalk, and a head or anther, which is two-celled, and contains the pollen. Then in the centre we have the ovary, or seed-vessel, which is two- chamhered. Connected with each chamber is a projection called a style, and at the tips of these two styles are the stigmas. We are now in a position to understand the description of the phenomena of the fertilisation of the Saxifrages. If we take a flower of the London Pride {Haxifraga umhrosa), which has not been too recently nor too long expanded, and tear away two of the petals with the stamens near them, we shall see something like what is shown in Fig. 2. Here we notice that the two styles touch at the tips. One of the longer stamens has lost its anther, another has assumed an almost erect position, with the anther cross¬ wise on the top of the filament, and the three remaining stamens of the inner whorl have grown out to about the length of the outer stamens, but still lie back upon the petals. If we had examined this flower a little earlier we should have found the stamens entire, and the styles a little apart all the way up. Later on, when all the pollen is shed, the petals and stamens will wither and fall, and the ovary assume the appearance of Fig. B. Here the styles have parted from each other and sprayed out, exposing the rough sticky stigmas at their tips, so as to brush off from any insect that may alight upon the flower some of the pollen with which it may have been dusted from a flower in the state shown at Fig. 2. Figures 4 and 5 represent the ovary of the mossy saxifrage ((S', muscoides) at an early and at a later stage of development ; and Figures 6 and 7 exhibit the same features in the White Meadow saxifrage (.S', granulata). The shape and size of the ovaries in these species differ from one another and from the London Pride, but essentially the same motions take place in each of the three species. At first, we have stamens entire, of two lengths, in two whorls, and ovary with immature parallel styles. Later on, the styles beiid over to each other, and press their stigmas together, while each of the stamens, first of the outer whorl then of the inner, in succession a^isumes an erect position, with the bursting anther lying across the top of the filament, just in the right position to besmear any hairy insect that may alight upon the flower, and at the same time incapable of dusting the stigmas by reason of their close contact throughout the whole of their surfaces. When each stamen has shed its pollen the filament either goes back to its former position or shrivels up ; and when all the stamens have performed their office the styles of the ovary part from each other and, widely diverging, fully expose the now ripe stigmatic faces. Finally, a OBSERVATIONS ON THE FERTILISATION OF SAXIFRAGA. 75 passing insect coming from a younger flower brushes by, and leaves a portion of the pollen behind it. The phenomena above described were noticed by me for the first time when gathering specimens of the White Meadow Saxifrage, with a view to verify and extend my observations of a former year on the variations in the parts of the flower as illustrative of vegetable morphology. Herewith I append a table of my notes of nine specimens of this flower, taken at random, which, I venture to believe, will be found to bear out my conclusions. Since making these notes I have had many opportunities of testing my first impressions in the examination of various individuals of the Saxifrapa umbrosa, S. granulata, and S. inuscoides, and the result has in every case verified my first impres¬ sions. With the hope that this simple record may encourage and stimulate all young botanists to a a closer observation of the common plants of our fields and woods, I herewith conclude. No. OF Floavek. Corolla. Stamens. Ovary. 1.... Normal . Pollen shed . Stigmas across the apices of the styles mot on one side only, as is usual), with a slight cleft in each ; rough ; reddish tinge ; and only very slightly touching at the two inner edges, fully displayed. 2.... Normal . Pollen not shed. Filaments five long, five short . Styles rudimentary, about 1-16 inch apart. Stigmas im¬ mature ; vertically cleft ; and slightly leaning to each other. 3.... Normal . Like No. 2 . Styles more rudimentary than in No. 2, but touching. 4.... Normal . Like No. 2, except¬ ing outer whorl of varying lengths, the longest dehisc¬ ing . Styles immature. Stigmas just touching at lower edge. 5.... Gnawed apparently by insects . Pollen shed . Styles, one immature, the other apiAarently eaten away. 6.... Petals unusually long . Outer and inner whorl of varying lengths ; none de¬ hiscing . Styles immature, not touch¬ ing. 7.... Like No. G . Like No. 6, but not quite so forward .... Styles immature ; separated by twice the distance of the same in No. 6. 8.... Shrivelled . Shrivelled . Styles widely diverging. Stig¬ mas almost ipetaAoid ; not so rough as No. 1, and face to face. 9.... Petals unusually long ; not shriv¬ elled . Shrivelled . Like No. 8, but expanded stig¬ mas at right angles. My grateful acknowledgments are due to Mr. J. G. Davidson, natural history draughtsman to Professor Blake, University College, Nottingham, for the drawings from which the illustrations accompany¬ ing this paper have been prepared ; and to Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., of Birmingham, for lithographing them. 76 DEPOSITS OF THi: LEEN VALLEY THE ALLUVIAL AND DRIFT DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY.* BY JAMES SHIPMAN. The River Leen is a small tributary of the Trent. It rises at the foot of Robin Hood’s Hills, in Kirkby Forest, on the western border of Notts, and about a mile or so north-west of Newstead Abbey, the “ home of Lord Byron.” Thence running in a southerly direction, and, fed by many springs on the way, it enters the Trent Valley by the west side of Nottingham, after a course of about ten miles. It is at best only a small stream, but the geological evidence furnished by its deposits invests it with an interest which it would not perhaps other¬ wise possess. We can hardly wander far about the valley of the Leen, especially the lower half, without noticing how thickly the ground is covered with pebbles. There is scarcely a ploughed field or ditch-side but what has its tale to tell about the abundance of gravel all over the valley. Gravel may even be seen perched on the top of the low cliffs of the crimson Lower Mottled Sandstone that stand out at intervals along the east bank of the Leen. In one or two places this high-level gravel may be seen in the roads that cut through it on that side of the valley. The gravel that lines the valley slopes is exposed now and then by the side of the Midland Railway between Basford and Bui well, and again in the small gravel holes that dot the low flat ground by the side of the same line on Bulwell Forest. But although this gravel lies eight or ten feet thick in some parts, there are no good sections in it, and we can only get occasional glimpses of its character. In some spots — between Basford and Bulwell, for instance, — this gravel forms terraces, now grass-grown, and with little to indicate that the river which now flows many feet below had anything to do with their formation. The gravel itself probably occupies shelves or terraces cut back out of the solid rock that forms the sides of the valley. A good example of one of these river terraces may be seen where it is cut into by the old sand pit at Spring Close, Lenton, just at the junction of the Leen Valley with that of the Trent. As we look upon these sheets and terraces of gravel scattered up and down the Leen Valley we can hardly help wondering where all this gravel came from, and how it got so distributed about the valley. Gravel, to most people’s minds, is suggestive of a flood of some kind, and it is generally (but of course erroneously) regarded by the non- scientific as a pretty certain indication of the presence of the sea over that part not very long ago. Let us see, however, what we can deduce from the gravel itself, as to where it probably came from, and when. The gravel that lines the sides of the Leen Valley * Read before the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, October 11th, 1882. DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY 77 gets thicker as we follow it clown into the narrow strip of flat meadow ground through which the Leen now meanders. This fact itself would suggest that the bottom of the valley probably contains a good thickness of gravel along with sand and silt brought down by the river. It must not be inferred, however, that the gravel that covers the sides of the valley is exactly the same in character or was formed at the same time and by precisely the same agency as the gravel in the bottom of the valley. Even the gravel and sand that is spread along the valley slopes is probably not all of the same age. Excavations made in the meadow ground that immediately borders the river show that our supposition as to the thickening of the gravel as we approach the river is quite true, and that in fact the meadow itself owes its flatness to the layers of sandy, gravelly, and clayey materials of which it is composed. But where did all the gravel come from ; and how did it get spread along the sides of the valley high above the level of the river as we now find it ? The pebbles most abundant in these gravels of the Leen Valley are quartzites of all sizes, many of them split, perhaps by intense frost, some perhaps by the pressure of glacier ice ; but there are besides quartz, coal measure sandstone, millstone grit, chert, flints, and more rarely pebbles co'mposed of the harder rocks of the neighbourhood. An examination of the rocks out of which the Leen Valley has been scooped shows that the pebbles in the valley gravels could not all have been derived from the rocks that bound the valley. The valley of the Leen has been worn for the most part out of the Lower Mottled Sand¬ stone of the Trias, as may easily be seen by the little low cliffs of bright crimson sandstone which have been formed by th^dver here and there along its east bank. Now, the Lower Mottled Sandstone contains only a few small pebbles, so that they could hardly have been derived from the wearing away of this rock. In some parts of its course, indeed, the Leen has entirely swept away the thick mass of this Lower Mottled Sandstone that once stretched across its bed and far away over the ground beyond, and has even eaten its way down into the Middle Marl of the Permian, and through that again into the underlying Permian Magnesian Limestone, which, along with a small strip of Coal Measures, form its western slopes. But there are very few pebbles to be found that have been derived from these rocks. The majority of the pebbles were no doubt derived from the wearing away of the Bunter Sandstone, which forms so much of the country to the north-east. But most of the others were in all likelihood brought from North Derbyshire, while the flints must of course have come out of the Chalk. Many of the pebbles now found in the gravel of the Leen Valley, then, must have come a very long way. One of the questions we shall have to try to solve is, when and by what means these pebbles were brought. Until lately, our knowledge of the gravelly deposits that line the Leen Valley was confined to what we could make out from examining the gravel that mantles the valley slopes. Although 78 DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY this gravel is very instructive, it does not tell us all we want to know, however. It contains only about one chapter as it were of the history of this ancient valley. Fortunately, a good oppor¬ tunity has at length been afforded of making a more complete examination of the alluvial and drift deposits of this valley. Some extensive excavations made recently in the narrow alluvial plain of the Leen, during the extension of the Nottingham Corporation Gas Works at Old Radford and at Basford, opened out a series of very instructive sections in the deposits that underlie this plain. The evidence revealed by these sections was found to throw a good deal of light on what had hitherto been a blank page in the geological history of the valley. Fig. 1. Section of the Alluvium of the Leen at Old Badford. ,a) Yellow, bluish, and dark gray clay. (b) Peat, with upright steins of young trees. (c) White and gray “ sharp ” sand and gravel. (d) Brown gravel, with flakes of red hematite, and thin seams of red sand near the bottom. (hbb) Isolated small patches of peat. (e) Lower Mottled Sandstone (Trias). The first of these excavations was made by the west side of the Leen at Old Radford, in 1879-80, and was for a well for a new gas¬ holder. This well was something like 180ft. in diameter, and about 40ft. deep. It passed through the whole of the deposits of the Leen that form the alluvial fiat, and far down into the Lower Mottled Sand¬ stone rock beneath. The Leen now wanders through a level meadow which varies in width from a few yards to a quarter of a mile. The excavation at Radford, however, revealed the fact that beneath the middle of this flat meadow lay a ravine, not very broad — probably not many yards — that is, supposing the part opened out in this cutting to be only half the entire width, and nine or ten feet deep, carved out of the solid rock (Fig. 1). This cavity was filled up by layers of gravel and sand, peat and clay, piled bed upon bed, while the Leen itself now flowed over all. At the bottom there was rusty-brown gravel, stained crimson here and there by bits and flakes of decomposing red earthy hematite which it contained. This hematite could have been derived from no other source in this district than the Coal Measures, probably of DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY. 79 Derbyshire. Above this coarse brown gravel came a loose, sharp, coarse gray or white sand, in some parts clayey and pebbly, but mostly free from pebbles. The traces of oblique bedding in it indicated that this sand was deposited by water flowing somewhat rapidly down the valley, though not x>erhaps more rapidly than the Leen would flow now were the artificial dams and water-mills removed. Judging from the horizontal extent and uniform thickness of this sand, too, the stream, must have been considerably wider than it is now. Several stools of trees were found in this deposit in the position in which they grew. Some of the fragments of these trees which I collected were too much decomposed to make out what they were, but one fragment of a stool about ten inches in diameter was found by Dr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., of the British Natural History Museum, South Kensington (who kindly examined the specimens for me) to be Quercus robur (Lin.) “ This fragment,” says Dr. Carruthers, “ belonged to a slow-growing tree, as the annual rings are very small, and conse¬ quently the vessels very numerous and close together.” Resting on this gray sand was a band of peat, from six to ten inches thick, full of upright stems of young trees, along with leaves and twigs, all jumbled together and in a more or less decomposed or carbonised state. Another fragment of wood met with here is believed by Dr. Carruthers to belong to Pinm sylvestris, and in all likelihood came out of the peat bed. The peat was covered by about three feet of stiff clay or silt, which contained no pebbles. This clay swelled out on the south side of the excavation to about five feet in thickness, as if it occupied an old saucer-shaped hollow in that direction. Laterally, these alluvial deposits rested against a mass of red sand and clay and pebbles, which appeared to partly line that side of the old river hollow, though it was not now easy to draw the line between the two. The red sand with pebbles was evidently all that remained of a mass of Glacial Drift that may once have entirely filled the ravine, and in which the Leen had since eaten out a channel for itself. ( To he continued. } NOMAD FUNGI: THE EECLASSIFICATION OF THE UKEDINE^. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. SEC. OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. {Continued from page 53.) Meaning of the CEcihium Stage. There is one point which strikes an attentive observer of the fore¬ going phenomena very forcibly ; I mean, the apparent uselessness of the oecidium-stage in the life-history of a Urediuous fungus. Why should a puccinia-spore generate an (Ecidium ? Why not produce the Uredo at once ? Some Pucciuias indeed have no CEcidium, as F. malva- 80 NOMAD FUNGI. cearum, but why not all? This is a question upon which I have seen few attempts made to throw any li^^ht. We can see the object of the Uredo and the Puccinia, but not of the (Ecidium. There is only one glimmer in the darkness, and that will be introduced by the point to which I wish now to draw attention. I believe that in the life-history of most plants there must occur, more or less frequently, a process akin to the fertilisation of the phanerogams. There must be that mysterious commingling of the contents of two distinct cells, from which animal and vegetable species alike derive a renewed lease of life. Many facts point to the conclusion that a species which reproduces itself only by budding has a tendency to degenerate continually, and finally to become extinct. It is true that there are apparent (or real) exceptions to this law, where a species maintains itself, so far as we know, by purely asexual means. But it seems to me that we lose the significance of a whole body of facts if we refuse to believe that the law is as I have said. We cannot forget in how many instances the presence of an act of fertilisation has been detected where it was formerly unknown, as in the Fucaceaj or Bladder- wracks of our sea-coasts, and in Volvox, the Desmidieae, the Diatomaceae, and other Algae, not to speak of instances now so well known as the Ferns and the Mosses. There are now several groups of Fungi in which a true reproductive process is known to occur, as in the Mucorini, the Peronosporeae, the Saprolegnieae, and some of the Ascomycetes. We must remember that the reproductive pro¬ cess is one of the chief means, on the Darwinian theory, by which new species are produced ; a group of organisms, which has entirely lost traces of a gamogenetic act, has thereby I’educed itself to this difficulty — that as the existing species disappear, under the influence of competition, it can form no others of a more or less divergent character to suit the changing circumstances, and so has doomed itself to a sure, though lingering, death. It is true that, if it avail itself of the sexual act to produce invigorated descendants, it per¬ petuates itself under a changing form, which finally becomes what we call a distinct species ; but still it does perpetuate itself, which is the main point. I believe that the only cases, in which it may be conjec¬ tured from our present knowledge, that gamogenesis is absent, are found in organisms which inhabit water : such are, perhaps, the Oscillatoriese. But it is conceivable that most species which live in water are not subject to such changing conditions, do not require therefore so great a power of adaptation to circumstances as do those which live in the air. However this may be, a family of plants so large and so varied as the Fungi are must have formerly possessed the means of sexual reproduction, and probably in great part still retains it ; in no other way can the existence of numerous and closely-related species be accounted for. Now, if we were to look for a process of fertilisation in our leaf- fungi, where should we probably expect it to occur ? Analogy will help us to answer this question. A flowering plant usually produces NOMAD FUNGI 81 seed when the vigour of its growth is ceasing. I need only I’emind you that a rapidly-growing fruit-tree, in which a superabundance of sap is present, seldom fruits ; and that a gardener who wishes to make a geranium flower stints its supply of water. It is true that there is a seeming exception to this law in the case of trees which flower in spring, before the leaves are out ; the common Coltsfoot (Tussilago) would also seem to contradict the rule ; but really they obey it. In all these cases the buds which are to develop into the flowers are formed at the close of growth in autumn and only wait till spring to complete their development. Applying these considerations to the Uredineae, we are naturally led to look for the sexual process in the production either of the Puccinia or of the CEcidium. The probability is vastly in favour of the latter, viz : that fertilisation occurs in the mycelium produced by the germination of the sporidia, and that the CEcidium is the product thereof. Curiously enough, it is here that we meet with the only known organs which suggest a sexual process in the Uredineae, the spermogones. These are minute flask-shaped bodies, which are pro¬ duced on the same leaf which bears the CEcidium, usually a little earlier, sometimes on the opposite side of the leaf, sometimes among the CEcidia themselves. They contain an enormous number of small oblong cells, which are perfectly transparent, and enveloped in a mucous secretion. These were called spermatia, from a suspicion that they represent the male element in a reproductive act ; this suspicion was strengthened by the difflculty of inducing them to germinate. Recently, however, it is said that a well-known French biologist has succeeded in compelling them to germinate, and thus produce a mycelium ; but remembering how a pollen-grain may be said to germinate, in a sense, when it sends out a pollen-tube, we may be ex¬ cused for waiting for further investigation before we consider such a statement a bar to the truth of the supposed function of the spermatia. It is at least probable, both from their size and character, their vast numbers and their mode and time of growth, that these bodies are the male organs, and that the female organs are produced and fertilised on the spot where the CEcidia are subsequently formed. The CEcidia would then be the true fruit of the fungus. The whole subject is at present wrapped in mystery. I often think how the next generation, after clearing up this and many similar difficulties, will look down upon us as a crowd of bunglers, who did not know how to use our micro¬ scopes. The subject is one of groat interest to us from our present point of view, because, if the reasoning just given should turn out to represent the facts correctly, the whole scheme of arrangement of these fungi must be remodelled. The CEcidium-stage, and not the Puccinia-stage, would then be the typical one, and our classification must be founded upon that basis. It may be asked whether, under these circumstances, it is right to continue to give names to these stages of growth, as if they were ’independent species, to talk, e.g., of (Ecidiurn violcc as well as of Puccinia violarum. To this question the answer must, at present, be 82 NOMAD FITNGI in the affirmative ; it is only when our knowledge is approximately complete that we shall be able to decide finally what arrangement should be adopted. When we consider that many of these fungi are often met with under one form only, we must admit the necessity of having a provisional name for that form. At the same time it will be possible to arrange the various stages of species, so far as they are' known, together, and not, as now, on widely separated pages ; and this scheme would also meet the requirements of those who merely want to discover the names of their finds, if a little typographical ingenuity be exercised in placing them so that one may be able to glance through all the oecidium-forms, for instance, without reading the descriptions of the other stages. Finally, I may remind you that I promised to treat of “ Nomad Fungi,” and ask you whether the title is not merited by those species, of which one begins its existence upon the Dock, and terminates it upon the Reed ; another pitches its tent upon the Nettle, and trans¬ fers it to the Sedge ; a third on the Coltsfoot, from which it passes to the Meadow G-rass ; a fourth travels from the Wood Spurge to the Common Pea ; a fifth from the Fleabane to the Rush ; and a sixth from the Barberry to the Corn. ARUM MACULATUM. One of the most conspicuous plants which arrests the attention of the rambling botanist during the early spring mouths is the Spotted Arum or Cuckoo’s Pint (Arum maculatum), the appearance of which is thus described by the poet Clare : — “ How sweet it used to be when April first Unclosed the Arum leaves, and into view Its ear-like spindling flowers their cases burst, Betinged with yellowish, white, or purplish hue.” It is in many respects a peculiar plant, exhibiting in a marked degree the curious and most interesting phenomenon of vegetable evolu¬ tion of heat, which may be felt by the hand or tested with an ordinary thermometer for some hours after the expansion of the spathe. It is also one of the few Monocotyledons possessing reticulated veins in the leaves. The spadix — the club-shaped organ within the spathe — is a spike with a succulent axis, a kind of flower stalk in fact, bearing two sorts of flowers — those most essential organs for the reproduction of the species by means of matured seeds — stamens and pistils, both destitute of calyx and corolla. At the base is a cluster of fertile pistils, surmounted by a frill of one or two rows of rudimentary organs of the same kind. Above these is a group of stamens, and still higher another ring of abortive stamens.' These organs are all said to be very good microscopical objects when ARUM MACULATUM. 83 viewed under a low power. The spatlie is contracted below the middle, and on tearing it away from any fully-developed flowers there will often be found some small dipterous insects imprisoned at the base, some of which are dead, indicating that they have probably been there for some time previously, while others are active, and on the destruc¬ tion of their prison they fly forth to enjoy their regained liberty. It may be asked, How came these insects to be within the spathe? Probably attracted by the peculiar fetid odour of the plant, they entered the aperture at the top of the spathe in search of food ; the downward tendency of the hair-like aborted stamens in the topmost cluster would facilitate their entrance ; but on their endeavouring to escape again by the same way they would force the delicate hairs upwards, and so close the aperture. Then finding themselves to be prisoners, in their ineffectual attempts to escape they would distribute the pollen from the perfect stamens on to the stigmas below, so fulfilling nature’s purpose in fertilising the ovules. The leaves are very acrid, and are sometimes mistaken for Sorrel ; but their disagreeable effects are soon perceived on their being chewed., “ pricking the tongue as nettles do the hands,” says Culpeper, “ and so abiding a great while without alteration.” But notwithstanding the dangerous property of the herb, according to this quaint old author, it possesses many “virtues,” and seems to be truly a most wonderful herb. He speaks of its power of curing coughs, boils or any bad sores, weak and red eyes, and that troublesome complaint the itch ; adding, further, that “ the herb is under the dominion of Mars, and, as Tragus reports, a dram weight, or more if need be, of the Spotted Wake Robin, either fresh, green, or dried, having been eaten and taken, is a present and sure remedy for poison and the plague.” In Cheshire this Arum is called Gethsemane, because it is said to have been growing at the foot of the cross, and to have received on its leaves some drops of blood — “ Those deep, un wrought marks. The villager will tell thee. Are the flower’s portion of the atoning blood on Calvary shed. Beneath the cross it grew.”* A farina prepared from the corm or rootstock has been used as an article of diet, and has been also employed to adulterate arrowroot. The corm contains a considerable amount of starch, and Culpeper informs us that “ it was anciently used instead of starch to starch linen with.” And hence probably the old name of Starchwort. Con¬ cerning the popular name of “ Lords and Ladies,” which appears to be the most widely distributed of its many titles. Miss Baker aptly remarks, in her “ Glossary of Northamptonshire Words and Phrases,” + Vide Thistletou Dyer’s “ English Folk-lore.” 84 ARUM MACULATUM. that “ this playful appellation has suggested some of the numerous and interesting reminiscences with which Clare’s poetry abounds, and which constitute one of its principal charms.” (See “ Village Minstrel ”) : — “ Oft under trees we nestled in a ring, Culling our ‘ Lords and Ladies.’ O ye hours ! I never see the broad-leaved Arum spring. Stained with spots of jet. I never see Those dear delights which April still does bring, But memory’s tongue repeats it all to me.” From the same authority I gather that the appellations Dog Bobbin and Bobbin and Joan were in use in some parts of Northants, both of which names have doubtless been suggested by the fancied resemblance to a lacemaker’s bobbin. It would be interesting to ascertain if they are still in use within the county, also by what addi¬ tional names the herb is known among the rustic population of the Midland Counties. I have been informed that the peasantry of this district (Hampton- in-Arden) term them Bulls and Cows, or Cows and Calves, of which the dark-coloured spadices are bulls, and the lighter ones cows. It would appear from the above authority that the use of this name has also extended into the adjoining county of Northants, though at present I have not heard it used there. The terms Cuckoo Flowers and Cuckoos are not in general use, though sanctioned by Clare. (See “ Rural Muse,” as quoted by Miss Baker) “ And gaping Cuckoo Flower, with spotted leaves Seems blushing of the singing it has heard.” And “ Bedlam Cowslips and Cuckoos, With freck’d lip and hooked nose. Growing safe near the hazel of thicket and woods.” Clare's MS. Poems. Respecting Cuckoo’s Pint, I think very probably that this is but the corruption of the phrase “ the point (poignard or spear) of the Cuckoo,” which is a translation of the name by which the plant is known in Wales. Culpeper adopts what seems to be the more correct orthography — “ Cuckow’s Point.” Among more than twenty names for the plant noticed by Parkinson, are — Cuckowe’s Pintle, Priest’s Pintle, Rampe, Buckrams, Starch- wort ; “ and in Latin — Arum, and by some Pes vituli, because the leaf doth somewhat resemble a calve’s foote; some nlso Dracoiitea minor, and Serpentaria minor : others againe, from the figure of the pestle or clapper in the middle of the hose, call it Sarcerdotes penis, and Cains priapus." Robt. Rogers, Hampton-in-Arden. ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM LEICESTERSHIRE. 85 ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM LEICESTERSHIRE FOR 1882. The winter of ] 881-2 was one of the mildest on record. An almost entire absence of snow and frost resulted, as a matter of course, in a corresponding absence of winter visitors. No Fieldfares and very few Redwings were seen. Wild violets were found on 3rd January. On the 5th. — Thrush in full song. 11th. — Tufted Duck killed on Saddington Reservoir. 17th. — Tomtit singing. February 2nd. — A Merlin was shot at Bardon. 3rd. — Hedge Accentor singing. 10th. — Lark soaring and singing. 11th.— Tufted Duck seen. 19th. — Wren singing, Missel Thrush singing. 21st. — A Chiffchaff was seen at Langton by Mr. Logan. In reference to this last note, I should say that in the Field of March 4th it was recorded that the Chiffchaff was seen and shot in Nottinghamshire on February 8th, and seen and heard in Devonshire on February 22nd. A correspondent of the “ Zoologist ” for March 1st also states that he saw and heard the bird in December and January in Oxfordshire. It appears, therefore, that owing to the exceptional mildness of the winter, some few specimens of this little warbler wintered in England; probably some always remain behind, but do not survive. March 13th. — Bullfinch singing. 17th. — Coletit singing. On the same date Mr. Davenport reports the Willow Wren seen in Skeffington Wood. 26th.— I saw the Willow Wren in Gumley Wood, and on the same day heard the Blackcap. The above dates are unusually early for these migrants, and may be due to the mildness of the season or possibly, like the Chiffchaff, they may have wintered in this country. April 4th. — Cuckoo heard. 6th. — First Swallow. 7th. — Lesser Whitethroat seen. 16th.— House Martin and Sand Martin observed. 18th. — Nightingale heard. 19th. — Yellow Wagtail. 21st. — Wryneck and Common Sandpiper. 24th. — Sedgewarbler. May 5th. — Landrail heard. 10th. — Mr. Davenport sent me word that he had found the nest of the Long-eared Owl in Skeffington Wood. This is, I believe, the first record of this bird nesting in this part of Leicestershire. As the keeper was murderously inclined we decided to take the young, and on the 14th May I heard from my friend that he had secured the four young birds. I saw them a few days after their capture, when they were apparently about three weeks old ; there was no doubt about their being Long-eared Owls. One unfortunately died young, but the other three are alive and well at the time I write. The parent birds had appropriated an old Carrion Crow’s nest for domestic purposes. 18th. — Turtle Dove seen. 28th. — Common Flycatcher arrived. June 23rd. — Two Common Gulls on Saddington Reservoir. July 7th. — Two Great Crested Grebes on Saddington Reservoir. 86 ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM LEICESTERSHIRE. October 13th. — An Osprey was seen at Saddington Reservoir, and on IStli and 22nd the same bird (probably) was seen at Gumley. I have already recorded this in the “ Midland Naturalist,” Vol. V., p. 261. 26th. —A Long-eared Owl was caught in a rat trap at Saddington Reservoir. 31st. —Two Hen Harriers seen at Gumley. November 1st. — Redwings seen first time. 3rd. — Fieldfares ; both late arrivals, and very scarce. 11th. — A Chiffchaff was seen in the garden at Gumley Rectory by Rev. A. Matthews. This confirms my previous note of the probability of this bird remaining in England during the winter. 15th. — I saw a flock of about twenty Siskins in a lane near Gumley. 16th. — Short-eared Owl killed at Smeeton. 23rd. — Redwings abundant (by thousands), but very few Fieldfares. Female Merlin seen at Gumley. December 10th. — Grey-lag Goose shot at Shangton by Mr. Brown. 12th. — Female Hawfinch shot at Gumley. 13th. — Herring Gull and a male Sheldrake seen at Gumley. 24th. — Three Wild Swans seen passing over Gumley. Thomas Macaulay, M.R.C.S.L., (fee. Kibworth, March, 1883. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from page 67 ■ ) DIPSAGE^. DIPSACUS. D. sylvestris, Linn. Wild Teasel. Native: On hedge-banks and in fields. Rare and local. July, August. I. Near Hampton-in- Arden, in one or two localities. II. Between Hatton and Warwick, With., ed. 7, ii., 217 ; Salford 1 Rev. J. C.; Honnington, Neivb.; Henley-in-Arden ; Wixford; Exhall; Bintou ; Little Alne ; Kineton, &c. D. pilosus, Linn. Small Teasel, Shepherd's Rod. Native : On wet hedge-banks, near streams, and in damp woody places. Very local. August. I. Near Coleshill, Countess of Aylesford, B. G., 633 ; Merivale, J. Power ; banks of the Blythe! near Coleshill; Bournbrook, Shustoke, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 163. Banks of the Bourn, near Arley. II. Studley Mill ; Wixford Lane ; Oversley Hill, Burt., i., 94 ; Emscote, on the road to Lillingtou, Perry FI., ii., Honington I Newb.; Stoneleigh ; Offchurch, //. if. ; hedge bank, near Yar- ningal Common. SCABIOSA. S. succisa. lAnn. DeviVs-bit Scabious, Native: On waysides, heath lands and pastures. Rather local. July, August. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE 87 I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Heath ; Maxtoke ; Fillongley, &c. II. Near Rugby, R. S. R., 1878; Drayton; Henley; Lapworth, (fee. S. columbaria, Linn. Small Scabious. Native : On banks and in pastures, in calcareous and marly soils. Very local. June to September. II. Tachbrook, Stockton, Y. and B. Right of road between Birding- bury and Wharf, R.S.R., 1878. Moreton Morrel ! Compton Verney, H. B. ; Butler’s Marston, Bolton King ; between Bearley Cross and Little Alne ; bridle road near Billesley ; hedge bank between Drayton Bushes and Red Hill ; Binton ; Marl Cliff ; Ashorne ; Edge Hills, near Ratley. S. arvensis, Linn. Field Scabious. Native : On hedge banks and in fields and pastures. Common. June to September. Area general. Var. integrifolia, occasionally with type. COMPOSITE. ONOPORDON. 0. Acanthium, Linn. Common Cotton Thistle; Common Argentine. Alien or denizen ; on rubbish and roadsides. Rare. July to September. II. Bidford : Broome, Purt., ii., 385 ; near the old pound, Coten End, Warwick ; in a lane leading from Emscote to Nicholas meadow, Warwick ; Perry FI., 68 ; Woodloes ; Hampton Lucy ; Off- church, H. B. ; Tredington, Newb. ; Temple Grafton ; Alveston Pastures. SILYBUM. S. Marianum, Gaertn. Milk Thistle; Ladies' Thistle. Casual or Alien: On rubbish heaps, road sides and ditch banks. Rare. June. II. Alcester ; Coughton, Purt. i., 380. Race-course, Warwick; Perry, 1817 ; hedge bank on the N. side of the common, Warwick ; in a lane leading from Nicholas meadow to Emscote Road ; and in the Saltisford brickyard; Warwick, Perry, FI., 67. Chester¬ ton, F. and B. ; Scarbank, Herb. Per. ; hedge banks, Milverton; Chesterton Windmill, H. B. CARDUUS. C. nutans, Lin7i. Musk Thistle. Native: On heaths, banks, and in fields. Locally common. May to July. I. Banks at Aston and Nechells Green, Ick. Anal, 1837. Field by Saltley toll-gate, 1867, W. B. Grove. Sutton Railway Bank; Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Coleshill Heath ; Shustoke ; Hartshill, (fee. II. Great plenty at Red Hill ! and Grafton ! amongst the quarries of limestone, Purt. ii., 379 ; on the road from Stratford to War¬ wick, Perry FI., 67; Chesterton; Emscote, Y. and B.; near Great Alne ; Alveston Pastures ; Hill Morton ; Edge Hills. C. crispus, Linn. Welted Thistle; Thistle -upon-Thistle. Native: In woods, on banks, and in pastures. Very local. July to September. I. ( Polyanthemos), Four Oaks, near Sutton; lane from Shustoke to Maxtoke ; fields near Coleshill church ; Coleshill Heath ; Temple Balsall. 8B THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. II. ( Acanthoides), Chestevton Wood \ Herb. Per.; Houington ; Treding- ton ; Halford ; Shipstoii, Neivh. ; Oversley Wood ; fields between Oversley and Arrow ; banks, Arrow lane ; f Polyan- tlicmos), Bardon Hill, Stratford-upon-Avon ; Shilton, near Edge Hills; ( Utiniosus ), pea field, Drayton Bushes; near Temple Grafton. C. lanceolatus, Linn. Spetr ThiMe. Native : In woods, pastures, heath, and on waysides and banks. Common. July to September. Area general. C. eriophorus, Linn. Woolly -headed Thistle ; Globe Thistle. • Native: On waysides and in meadows, in calcareous soils. Rather rare. July, August. II. On the road from Warwick to Stratford ; between Warwick and Hatton ; on the road from Harbury to Tachbrook ; Binton ! Oversley Hill ! Ferry FI., 67 ; Allesley, Free, May. Nat. Hist., iii., 165 ; Cathiron Lane, by the old canal ! Blox., R. S. R., 1874; Chesterton! Whitnash : Morton! Y. and B.; in the Newbold Road, by the river, Blox., N. B. G., 1837 ; Honington, and near Sherrington Hall, Neivb. ; abundant at Great Alne ; near Billesley ; Drayton Bushes ; Binton ; Bardon Hill ; Marl Cliff ; Eatington. C. palustris, Linn. Marsh Thistle. Native : In damp woods, damp waysides, meadows, marshes, and bogs. Common. June to August. Area general. C. pratensis, Huds. Meadow Thistle; Single-headed Thistle. Native : In marshes and damp meadows. Very local. June, July, or later. I. Packington ! Countess of Aylesford, B. G., 1850 ; bog below Coleshill Pool,! Bree. Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 165; moist meadows, Merivale, J. Rower, 1885; Coleshill, Freeman, Phyt., i., 262; marshes, Sutton Park ; damp pasture above Olton Pool ; meadows by School Rough, Marston Green ; Coleshill Pool. II. Near Wroxhall ! Bree, N. B. G. ; Baddesley Clinton ; The Oaks Farm, Kenilworth, H. B. C. acaulis, Linn. Dwarf Thistle. Native : In pastures, and on waysides and rubbish heaps, in calcareous soils. Rare. July to September. II. Opposite Moorhall, bn the Bidford Road ; and between this place and Red Hill, on the hedge bank. Part, i., 383 ; Long Compton Hill, Perry FI., 68 ; road side, near Harbury (caulescent form), Kirk, Herb. Per. ; Chesterton ! Tachbrook, Y. and B. ; rough pasture in Rounshill Lane ! H. B. ; Hatton, Beausale common, //. B. ; near Birdingbury Wharf ; lime heaps, Lawford Fields, R. S. R., 1874 and 1878 ; Honington Park ! Tredington, Newb. ; a white variety and the caulescent form at Chadshunt, Bolto)i King ; by Chesterton Windmill ; Yarningal common ; caulescent form at Itchington Holt. C. arvensis, Curt. Creeping Plume Thistle. Native: In woods, pastures, on banks, heaths, waysides. Common. July to September. Area general. The white variety not un¬ frequent with type. Var. setosa; one patch of this occurred in a field at Milverton 1 this field is now a potato garden, H. B. I have found a hybrid between C. crispus and C. nutans in pastures near Coleshill, and Mr. Bromwich finds a hybrid between C. palustris and C. arvensis in a cornfield at Myton, Warwick. f To be continued. ) REVIEWS. 89 If? The Colours of Flowers, as illustrated by the British Flora. By Grant Allen. 119 pp. Nature Series, 1882. Price Ss, 6d. This ably written little book is a valuable addition to our botanical literature. The leading idea of the work, “ the derivation of petals from flattened stamens,” is well sustained, and ably supported by examples from most of the leading Natural orders of British plants. However much the reader of this work may differ from some of Mr. Allen’s conclusions, he will be compelled to acknowledge that throughout the work there are abundant evidences of close and patient study, not • merely of written books, but also of the plants themselves in all their various phases. He will see that although he may have collected every British plant, he has still much work of interest and importance awaiting him on every hand, and that time which has possibly been spent in endeavouring to understand the innumerable varieties into which some of our plants run might have been better employed in endeavouring to trace the descent of many of our wayside weeds. This work will be found to teem with suggestions in this direction, and may be read with interest and instruction by every botanist. “ If the botanical reader will provisionally accept the principles laid down in this little book, and will then test their validity by applying them to the flowers which he meets in his daily walks, he will find many other confirmatory examples occur to him at every step. He will find that close inspection reveals some unexpected answer to a super¬ ficial difficulty, some solution for the problem of an apparent exception, which can only be obtained by personal examination of the specimen with that particular object held definitely in view.” The work is written in a very pleasant style, and will be charming to even non-scientific readers. The illustrations, of which there are forty-five, are very good ; the price so extremely moderate as to place it within the reach of all ; and the matter of such extreme interest that Mr. Allen will be sure to have many followers. This work will be found to be a valuable companion volume to Sir John Lubbock’s interesting little book on “ British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects.” J. E. B. Other Worlds than Ours. By R. A. Proctor. Fifth Edition. 318 pp., 14 plates. Price 10s, Od. Longmans & Co. This is a new edition of one of the most fascinating works on astronomy that has ever been written. Mr. Proctor’s rich imagination, curbed aud guided by his sound mathematical knowledge, has led him to form new theories on many points concerning the physical condition of our fellow-planets — theories which subsequent research has justified and maintained. The chapters on the Sun, on Meteors and Comets, and 90 REVIEWS — METEOROLOGY. on Nebulae are also of high interest. The coloured plates of Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, etc., are beautifully executed, while the delicacy of those representing nebulae and fixed stars leaves nothing to be desired. Elementary Botany. By H. Edmonds, B.Sc. 207 pp., 308 woodcuts. Price 2s. Longmans & Co. This work has been written primarily for the Science and Art Depart¬ ment’s examination in Botany, and, from long experience in preparing students for that examination, we can strongly recommend Mr. Edmonds’ book. The definitions are clear and terse ; there is enough to satisfy the real student, yet not so much as to perplex him. The illustrations are very numerous, well drawn, and appear to be largely original. There is a useful appendix of 100 questions, and a capital (combined) index and glossary. Heroes of Science : Botanists, Zoologists, and Geologists. By Prof. P. M. Duncan. 348 pp. Price 4s. S.P.C.K. The chief personages of whom this work treats are Linnaeus, Buffon, Pennant, Lamarck, Cuvier, Hutton, W. Smith, Murchison, and Lyell ; but sketches of several less known worthies are added, and the whole is so welded together by the skilful pen and wide knowledge of Professor Duncan, that in this volume we have a general history of the progress of those sections of natural science to which it relates from the time of Aristotle, Pliny, and Theophrastus down to the present day. The book is a thoroughly readable one ; it has both a scientific interest and a human interest. In reading it we learn the progress of science by the efforts of individual workers, and our natural interest in the man is reflected upon his icork. This volume may be read with pleasure both by scientific tyros and by veterans. METEOKOLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS. THE WEATHEE OF FEBEUAEY, 1883. BY CLEMENT L. WRAGGE, F.R.G.S., F.M.S., ETC. The first part of the month — indeed until the 19th — was marked by a continuance of the cyclonic type of weather, with its accompanying rains, resulting floods, and saturated lands. The cyclonic depressions followed each other with wonderful rapidity, travelling along the western coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and skirting a high-pressure area existing over the Western and North-Western parts of the Continent which held its ground with great persistency. Hence, steep gradients, heavy gales, prevalent south-westerly winds, and mild weather, owing to the general course followed by the storm-centres. A new distribution of pressure came about on the 19th ; and an anti-cyclone — probably a “ tongue ” from the great high pressure region north of the Sargasso Sea — stretched up from south-west, and ultimately encircled nearly the whole of the British Islands. The weather then became fine, the ground dried, and agricultural opera¬ tions and spring sowing were pushed on apace. THE WEATHER OF FEBRUARY 91 STATION. OBSERVER. OUTPOST STATIONS. Spit.nl Cemptery, Carlisle . . . . Scarborough (a) . Blackpool fa) — South Shore. . Llandudno fa) . Lowestoft (a) . Carmarthen (a) . Cardiff (a) . Babbacombe (a.) . Sidmouth {a) . Les Ruettes Brayes,Guernsey (a) Guernsey (a) . I. Cartmell. Esq., E.M.S. W. C. Hughes. Eso.. F.M 1 MIDL.AND STATIONS. HEREFORDSHIRE. Burgliill (a) . SHROPSHIRE. Woolstaston . Stokesay(a) . Bishop’s Castle . More Rectory . Dowles. near Bewdley . WORCESTERS nr RE. Orleton, near Tenbury (a)... West Malvern . Evesham . Pedmore . Stourbridge . .1. Nicol. Esq., M.D . H. E. Miller, Esq., E.M.S. G. J. Hearder, Esq.. M.D. W. Adams, Esq., C.E . E. E. Glyde, Esq., E.M.S. E. Carey, Esq., M.D. T. A. Chapman, Esq., M.D. STAFFORDSHIRE. Rowley Regis . Dennis, Stourbridge (a). . . . Kinver . Walsall . Lichfield . Burton-on-Trent(6) . Wrottesley (rt) . Heath House, Cheadle (a) Tean (6) . Oakamoor, Churnet Valley (a) Beacon Stoop,WeaverHills{a) D ERRVSHIRK. StonyMiddleton . Spondon . Rev. E. D. Carr .... M. D. La Touche . . . . E. Griffiths, Esq . Rev. A. S. Male . J. M. Downing. Esq. T. H. Davis, Esq., E.M.S. A. H. Hartland, Esq . E. B. Marten, Esq. J. Jefferies, Esq. .. C. Beale, Esq . C.Webb, Esq . Rev. W. H. Bolton N. E. Best, Esq. . . J. P. Roberts, Esq. XOTTrNOHAMSTriRF.. Park Hill, Nottingham (a) .. Hodsock Priory, Worksop (a) Strelley (a) . Tuxford . r.EICESTF.RSHIRE. Loughborough (a) . Systoii . Town Museum, Leicester .... Ashby Magna . Waltiiam-le-Wold . Coston Rectory, Melton (a) . . WARWICKSHIRE. St. Mary’s College, Oscott . . Henley-in-Arden . Park HUI, Kenilworth («) Kenilworth fa) . Rugby School (a) . NO R'r H A M P'ro NS H IRE. Pitsford, Northampton .... Towcesier . Kettering . BEDFORDSHIRE. Bedford (a) . WILTSHIRE. Marlborough fay . GI.ODCKSTF.RSllIRE. Cheltenham (a) * . E. Simpson, Esq . .1. C. Philips, Esq., F.M S. Rev. G. T. Ryves, E.M.S . Mr. Williams . Mr. James Hall ..... Rev. U. Smith . . J. T. Barber, Esq. H. F. Johnson, Esq. . . . H. MeUish, Esq., E.M.S. T. L. K. Edge, Esq . J. N. Dufty, Esq., F.G.S. W. Berridge, Esq., E.M.S.. J. Hames, Esq . J. C. Smith, Esq . Rev. Canon Willes . Edwin Ball, Esq . Rev. A. M. Rendell . Rev. J. W. Brown, _ T. H. G. Newton, Esq. T. G. Hawley, Esq . Rev. T. N. Hutchinson C. A. Markham, Esq. .1 . Webb, Esq . J. Wallis, Elsq . H. J. Sheppard, Esq. RAINFALL. SHADE TEMP. 5 ^ Greatest fal Absolute Absolute O V. in 24 liours ^ > 0.5 Maximum. Minimum. In In. 1 Date. Dpg| Date. Deg.l Hate. I’W 0-28 6 15 58’f 1 1 20 1 25’f 1 s'. ■i-5S 0-65 10 17 55’.' 27 33\ 1 s 1-87 0'20 10 18 512 14 26’( 1 •27ii T53 13 18 fil*,** 21 32". 1 217 0 36 8 15 53-7 22. 24 31’( 20 6-20 0 91 17 21 53-6 14 .30-;- 1 H-73 065 10 20 54-7 22 29£ 1 5’6S 1-21 1 18 67’fi 27 ■29-2 1 i). i 81 0-85 10 24 56-3 21 28-6 1 s. 4-33 0 93 10 21 .52-3 7, 21 34’t 19 • • 3-89 0-81 8 21 52-5 21 35-2 24 D. 3 61 0’78 1 17 .587 1 25 29-6 1 422 0’61 1,12 20 56-0 21 27-0 J 3-88 0-87 1 16 59-5 24 29 1 23 5-26 1-41 1 16 5.5-0 21 30 0 2 504 1-30 1 21 52-0 21 32-0 23 2-82 0-63 2 15 •• •• 25-0 16 3-35 0-68 1 18 57-5 24 29’0 16 3-90 065 1 16 55 ’0 24 30’5 15 . 3-26 073 10 17 51-0 24 28-5 1 2-98 0-53 1 16 5S)’0 24 29 0 15 2 ’73 0'52 1 15 56’0 21 28 0 15 2-97 0’42s 1,10 15 51-0 21, 24 290 1, 2 2-83 0'53 1 15 57 0 24 30’5 16 2-79 0-48 1 16 55’0 21 -'9 0 15 0’48 10,12 18 52*0 23 1 6 i'45 0-44 10 15 590 21 31-0 15 3. 2-38 0-56 10 14 58-0 20. 24 24 0 1 2’69 O’fCs 1 15 547 21 27 ’8 1 2-19 0’32s 1 17 55’5 24 30-0 1 •» 2-53 0-32 1 18 57 ’0 24 29-0 16 3-49 0’71 11 18 5G* ‘ 21 28-0 1 2’H7 .... .... •• 51-8 •• 28-0 •• 2-99 019 11 15 580 21 100 1 2’73 073 10 16 •• •• •• •• 2-96 0-88 10 18 57”2 24 31’6 2 273 O’ol 10 17 5G’0 21 25-4 1 , 3’00 i)'83 10 17 56-9 24 27’6 1 * 3 02 0’73 10 u 520 21 25-0 1 3-03 0-58 10 15 [ 57-8 24 26-4 1 2’74 )70 10 20 56-0 21, 24 28-0 1 S-19 9*69 10 11 24 0 *5 16 '5*43 0-66 10 ifi 54*0 21 24 0 16 2-93 0-84 10 17 520 24 30-0 16 I’lO 3’76 10 18 >6-0 21 29 0 1 5*01 10 ^7-Q 24 )Q-0 1 5*45 J’77 10 17 |57’0 24 J7’0 1 2-93 3’60 10 14 ;55-8 24 !8-6 1 . I’OO i-oo 10 17 66 1 24 !67 1 3-41 )-66 10 16 68’8 24 .8-0 1 5*51 f V73 10 IK KK‘n 21, 25 O’C 1-21 )’80 10 16 i i’28 ;’63 10 17 :64’0 2’2 1 0 0 1 < 2-53 )'49 10 16 5 1 5-8 24 -2 8-6 1 1 >•50 L’13 0 19 5 2-7 28 3 0-9 16 . ^ I’GO )’67 2 •• •• •• •• •• (a) At these Stations Stevenson’s Thermometer Screen is in use, and the values may be regarded as strictly intercomparable, (b) Glaisher 's pattern of Thermometer Screen employed at these stations. ■+ The Temperature Values for Cheltenham were unfortunately torn off in course of post. 92 METEOROLOGY - CORRESPONDENCE. Mt^au pressure was about 30-010 ; the highest mean reading of the barometer, 30’760, happened on the 23rd — 24th, and the lowest, 28-935, on the 2nd. Temperature was above the average, and the mean value may be stated as 41-5. Some eighteen grass frosts were observed ; and only three frosts at four feet above ground. The mean amount of cloud was 6-5 (scale 0 to 10), and relative humidity 91%. The absolute maximum in sun’s rays was 117-3, at Stokesay, on the 24th; and the absolute minimum on grass 20-7, on the 16th, at Strelley. Bright sunshine 74-8 hours or 28% at Hodsock, 71-3 hours or 26% at Strelley, and 71-4 hours at Blackpool. The mean temperature of the soil at one foot was 39-7 at Hodsock, 39-3 at Strelley, and 42-6 at Cardiff. At four feet at Cardiff 45-2 was the value. The mean amount of ozone was 5-0 at Carmarthen, and 7*4 at Blackpool. Lunar halos on 12th, 16th, 19th, and 21st. Some snow and hail between the 11th and 19th, with electrical disturbances. Notes by Observers. — More Rectory. — Blackbirds, thrushes, and chaffinches in full song, and vegetation very forward. Tean. — The bright sunshine and dry searching winds which prevailed during the last ten days effected a wonderful improvement in agricultural pros¬ pects in this district. Oakamoor. — Blackbirds and thrushes heard in the Churnet Valley Woods on the 1st. All spring flowers in full bloom. As WE ARE NOT FAR FROM A SUNSPOT MAXIMUM it is Worthy of UOtc that on February 24th, on carefully scanning the sun’s disc with an instrument of 2f inches clear aperture, I could not detect one single spot. — Clement L. Wragge, Edinburgh. The Weather, it seems, like history, repeats itself. The Rev. J. C. Bloomfield writes from Lauuton Rectory that the following record of the weather is written on the fly-leaf of a Register of Bicester Church: — “ June the 19th, 1763. It began raining and con¬ tinued mostly wet weather till the begining of February, 1764, and a perpetual flood for the most part of November, December, January, and the beginning of February — fifteen weeks.” — J. M. Downing, Dowles, near Bewdley. Vagaries of the Season. — In a garden in the southern suburbs of Birmingham the following flowers were gathered on New Year’s Day in the present year : — Christmas Roses, Erica carnea, Tussilago fragrans. Primroses, Polyanthuses, Blue Hepaticas, and a bud of Gloire de Dijon rose. A new shoot of Clematis Jackmanni measured 6in. in length; new growth on rose bushes from lin. to 2in. long, honeysucldes were breaking into leaf, and many other plants showed signs of growth. About noon on the same day, a number of gnats were seen flying about as though spring had arrived. To-day (March 24th) how changed is everything in the same garden ; spring flowers of many kinds which three weeks before were plentiful are now all cut up by frost and the east wind ; all kinds of trees and shrubs look miserable in the extreme, and have I fear, suffered severely. — E. W. B. COBRESPONDENCE . 9B Breedon and Cloud Hill Lime. — Will one of your correspondents inform me what are the constituents of Breedon and Cloud Hill lime ? Also what in particular renders them unfit for agricultural purposes? — E. A. Green. Early Spring Flowers. — January 29th — PrimuJa vulgaris. Primrose. February 9th — Poteiitilla Vragariastrum, barren Strawberry; 14th — Viola odorata alba, White Violet; Mercurialis perennis, Dog’s Mercury ; 15th — Ranunculus Ficaria, Lesser Celandine ; 18th — Taraxacum officinale, Dandelion ; 25th — Tussilago Farfara, Coltsfoot. — 0. M. F., Frankton Bectory, Oswestry, Salop. Heralds of Spring. — February 18th — A gloriously warm, sunny day, briuging out the Honey Bees in plenty. 23rd — The Mason Bee (Anthophora retusa), with its musical pipe and lightning-like flight, only resting a moment, ]3oising over some open flower to sip the first nectar of spring, and then on again in its rapid flight. This bee makes its burrows in sandbanks exposed to the south, also in the mortar of old walls, and where it is plentiful I would advise entomologists to search its nest for the rare Parasitic Beetle ( Sitaris liumeralis ) , and in a short time the beautiful silver-striped Parasitic Bee ( Melecta argentata ) will make its appearance I have taken both of these parasitic insects in localities where Anthophora occurred. Another insect that always ap¬ pears with the first hot weather is the Biting Sand-fly ( Simuliurn reptans ). It is a most persevering blood-sucker. The organs of the mouth will well repay careful study, as also will those of its larv£B, which I have just seen for the first time. February 28th. — I observed, besides these two insects, Bombus terrestris; and on March 5th, the first Tortoiseshell Butter¬ fly (Vanessa urticce ) and the Wild Bee ( Andrena albicans). In a wood near Woking, of about ten acres extent, the ground is literally carpeted with the Wild Daffodil (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus), which, seen for the first time, will never be forgotten. March 6th. — The weather changed suddenly, commencing with 6° of frost, increasing to 14° last Saturday night. — Fred. Enoch, Ferndale, Woking Station, March 16th, 1883. Anomalies of the Season During March, 1883. — Throughout the Winter, since the middle of December last, the weather has been extremely mild up to the beginning of March, primroses here (where we are rather bleak) remaining in flower most of the time. On Sunday, the 4th (a beautiful day), I saw a Rhododendron in a neigh¬ bour’s garden with two very fine flowers quite open; and a week previously we pulled Rhubarb from our garden which had not been covered up at all during the winter. After the almost Arctic weather that has prevailed since the 6th, a very different sight presented itself at the back of the Town Hall, Birmingham, yesterday, the 22nd, in the middle of the day. Near the fountain of the Chamberlain Memorial are a few evergreens. One of these, two or three feet high, standing in a tub — an Aucuba or allied plant, for it was difficult to make out its species as the leaves were blown off — was in a position that enabled it to receive the fine spray driven from the fountain by the bitter east wind. It was, by the sharp frost prevailing, conse¬ quently encrusted with ice all over the stems, from which here and there an icicle of several inches in length depended. The cylindrical ice was in many parts more than an inch in thickness and the plant presented a singular appearance, very like a beautiful stalactite. Several other plants near it were also encrusted with ice, reminding one of the photographs of Niagara during the winter months. — W. R, Hughes, Haiidsworth Wood, Good Friday, 1883. 94 cokrp:spondp^nce — gleanings. Worcestershire Plants. — I am desirous of forming a Herbarium exclusively of Worcestershire plants, specimens of both common and rare species, with their varieties, being wanted from each of the four botanical districts — (see “ The Botany of Worcestershire,” by Mr. Edwin Lees). At present I do not propose to collect any crypto- gamous orders, excepting those enumerated in the London Catalogue, 7th edition — viz., Filices, Lycopodiacese, Marsileacese, Equisetacese, and Charace®. My own specimens chiefly represent the Malvern district, and to those botanists who collect m other parts of the county I should feel much obliged for assistance in forming this collection, which, I need scarcely say, while in my possession, would be at the service of any who might wish to consult it. I should, of course, be pleased to supply as far as I could the wants of others from the plants of this neighbourhood. There are many Malvern and Teme Valley plants also which I should be very glad of. — R. F. Towndrow, 2, Com¬ mercial Buildings, Malvern Link, March 16th, 1883. Novels and Science. —In Mr. Hardy’s new book {Two on a Towei') the author shows that he has been studying astronomy to good purpose. The hero is enthusiastically devoted to the study of the stars, and the heroine is a wealthy lady, who presents him with a fine telescope I This book is another illustration of the rapid strides which science is making, and of the manner in which it is becoming part of the daily life, nay, even of the amusements of every educated person. The Study of Sociology. — The Committee of The Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society ” have, on the request of fifteen of its members, and in accordance with the provisions in their rules, unanimously resolved to form a new section, to be called “ The Sociological Section for the study of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s system.” The Spring Meetings of the Section wfill be on Thursdays, May 3rd and June 7th, at 7 o’clock in the evening, at the Mason College. The subject chosen for consideration and discussion at these first meetings is Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Essay on Education.” The discussion at the May Meeting will be opened by Mr. W. Greatheed. Full particu¬ lars respecting the organisation of the Section, which will be open to the members of the Society, may be obtained of Mr. Alfred Hayes, B.A., Hon. Sec., Prospect Road, Moseley. Facts about Plants. — In his recent and very interesting work on Plant-life {Freaks and Marvels of Plant Life, 463 pp., 97 icoodcuts, 6/0, S.P.C.K.), Dr. M. C. Cooke estimates the number of living species of plants of all kinds at not less than half a million ! Among these, the middle position, in point of size, would be occupied by, say a moss of an inch and a half in height ; for, on the one hand, the microscope will disclose to us water-plants {alga;) consisting of a single ceil barely the 2o00th part of an inch in diameter, while, on the other, the Eucalypti of Australia tower to a height of 420 feet. Dr. Cooke’s book teems with most interesting accounts of vegetable wonders, including the rain-tree, carnivorous and sensitive plants, plants which mimic other plants, light-giving plants, mystic plants, etc. Everyone who cares at all for flowers (and who does not?) will here find something to interest, to please, and to instruct. GLEANINGS - KEPOKTS 95 Marine Excursion. — The Birraincjham Natural History and Micro- scopical Society have resolved to have a second Marine Excursion at Oban this summer. The great success of the last excursion to this charming and salubrious part of Scotland, coupled with the fact that Mr. W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., and Prof. A. Milnes Marshall (who recently obtained the Darwin Prize awarded to Biology by tlie Midland Union) have still to determine some important points connected with the Pennatulida, have influenced the Committee in this decision. The time fixed for the Excursion is from Friday evening, 29th June, to Tuesday, 10th July. Committees have been appointed for Transport and Commissariat and Dredging arrangements. Information about the Excursion may be obtained from Mr. John Morley, Hon. Sec. to the Society, Sherborne Road, Balsall Heath, Birmingham. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— GeologicaXi Section. — February 27tli. — Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., was re¬ elected chairman, and Mr. A. H. Atkins, B.Sc., secretary for the ensuing year. Dr. H. W. Crosskey read a very interesting paper on “ Recent Investigations in the Glacial Geology of the Midlands.” He described three localities where he had found remarkable traces of glacial action. The first was a section in the Lias at Stockton, near Rugby, where a mass of boulder clay overlies a Lias bed. The clay is much contorted, and contains fragments of millstone grit, quartzite, granite, flints, and striated Lias pebbles. The second locality was at Mochas Bay, near Barmouth, where a large number of angular boulders, derived from the neighbouring mountains, are found on the sea coast near the water. Above these, nearer the shore, is found a bed entirely composed of shells and frag¬ ments of shells and rock, and this in turn is succeeded by the ordinary sea¬ shore sand. This section indicates glacial conditions, followed by a subsidence of the land, when a varied molluscan fauna abounded in the bays and estuaries. This was succeeded by an elevation, and the accumulation of sand which is going on now. The third phenomenon described was a curious series of striated and polished blocks of basalt, or Rowley Rag, found in some clay beds on the Rowley Hills, which apparently could not have been so acted on except by ice action. He thought that it was quite possible that about the time of the Glacial epoch the Rowley Hills and other similar elevations might have been islands in the Glacial Sea, and that the comparatively small ice masses on them might have caused the effects mentioned. Biological Section, March 6th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Bicranum montanum (new to Worcestershire!, Br'ijum roseimi and Leucobryum glaucnm, from Shrawley Wood ; Taryionia hypophylla, and Kantia arguta, from Habberley Valley ; and TJsnea hirta and BcBomycea rufus, from Shrawley and Stourport. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Hemidiniutn nasuium, an Infusorian which he discovered, for the first time in Britain, in Sutton Park last month. It some¬ what resembles Peiidinium tabulaturn, but is only half as large, and the equatorial groove extends only half-way round the body. It is described in Stein’s recently published volume. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following fungi: — Sphcsria aquila, Hypomyces aurcmtius, and Trichia chrysosperma, from Sutton; Sphceria pulvis-vyrius, and Diatrype stigma, from Ufi'moor Wood, Halesowen ; and a remarkably large specimen of Polyporus betulinus, from Harborne, measuring thirteen inches across, and six inches thick. Mr. W. Greatheed then read a paper entitled “An Evolutionist’s Notes on Transmi¬ gration,” in which he showed how our predecessors had a glimpse of one of the truths of evolution as revealed by Darwin, namely, heredity. He began with a quotation from Plato, in which Socrates clearly set forth the view that the 96 llEP0ETi5 OF SOCIETIES. present is, consciously or unconsciously, the possessor by inheritance of all the treasures of knowledge painfully acquired by the past. The doctrine of transmi¬ gration, as believed by the Greeks, the Hindoos, and the Jews, has not the meaning which we are accustomed to attribute to it. That the souls of men pass, after their death, into the bodies of animals, is an absurd addition to the real truth, which is that the descendants of each living being inherit therefrom a portion of their mind as well as a portion of their body. The savage — nay, the more educated man, who jierceives how the children inherit the mental and physical characteristics of their parent may be excused for believing that the soul of the latter has migrated into the former. Mr. Greatheed showed by examples how each higher group of animals inherits the experiences and feelings of all those below it, and how man himself, passing as he does in his development, though in a curio ns abbreviated way, through all the gradations of structure which mark the classes below him, inherits more or less the physical and mental attiibutes of all the animals from the amoeba to the anthropoid ape. Increasing complexity of structure is indissolubly connected with increasing complexity of mind. The ancients had then a dim anticipation of the reality; the past was not “ golden,” any future destiny to which man may attain must be nobler than any of those through which his ancestry has alre idy passed. The paper, which was of a highly philosophical character, was much applauded ; and a discussion followed, in which Mr. S. Wilkins said that the writer’s aim was to show how there lay in man the potentiality of a higher life, to which the human race, by a continuance of the evolution which had made it what it was, must in time attain. Btological Section. — March 13th. — Mr. Bagnall exhibited Lichens: — Parmelia conspersa and Parmelia physocles, various localities ; Pamalin t. farinacea and Bamalina fraxinea, from. Hampton-in-Arden ; Peltig era spuria (rare , Hampton-in-Arden, new to Warwickshire. Fungi : — Ascobohis denudatus, from Handsworth (new to district ; Comatriclia Friesiana, one of the Myxomycetes, from Hands¬ worth (new to Stafford I, for Mr. G. S. Tye ; Peziza coclileata, from near Bewdley (from Dr. Arnold Lees). Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Fungi: — Auricularia mesenterica, Arcyria ncarnata, Chondrioderrna physarioides, and PUizomorpha, from Sutton ; Peziza stercorea, from Quinton ; Zasmidium cellare and Podisonia Juniperi. Mr. J. F. Goode exhibited Ova of Cleanser Swimming Crab [Portunus depurator), and of Masked Crab (Corystes cassivelaunus). Geological, Section.— March 20th. — Mr. T. H. Waller exhibited a thin section of Foraininiferal lime¬ stone (carboniferous) from North Wales. Mr. W. G. Blatch exhibited Croptarcha striyata and Cryptarcha imperialis, two species of Clavicorn bettles found at Knowle, and new to the district. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited four lichens — Lecanora atra, L. ulmicola, L. varia, and Pertusaria communis, from various localities. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited two interesting species of Myxomycetes — Hemiarcyi'ia rubiformis and H. clavata, and two species of Torulacei (almost the simplest kind of fungi) — Bispora monilioides and Speira toruloides, all from Sutton, and all new to the district. Mr. Bagnall then read some “Notes upon Plants collected at Hunstanton, Norfolk, by Mr. R. W. Chase.” He gave a brief account of the distribution of the plants which he exhibited, and read extracts upon their peculiar medicinal virtues from the quaint old herbals of Gerarde, Parkinson, and Culpepper. Among the most noticeable were Suoeda fruticosa, and several species of Statice or Sea Lavender, which occupy several acres of marshy ground near Hunstanton, and when in bloom in August make a splendid show. He afterwards made some general remarks upon the distribu¬ tion of plants, with especial reference to the predominance of the Scandinavian flora, the occurrence of which in so many iparts of the world, in conjunction with such diverse native floras, he showed could bo accounted for by the theory of the Glacial Epoch. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY. — February 20th. — An interesting and able paper on the “Rhaetic Beds of Nottinghamshire” was read by Edw. Wilson, F.G S., illustrated with numerous specimens, diagrams, and maps. Twenty-five new members were elected and six proposed at this meeting. MIDLAND UNION : TAMWORTH MEETING. 97 MIDLAND UNION OF NATUKAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. The Annual Meeting of the Union for the year 1883 will be held at Tamworth on Tuesday and Wednesday, June 12th and 13th, under the presidency of Mr. Egbert de Hamel. The local arrangements, under the direction of the Tamworth Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society, are already well advanced. On the first day the Council Meeting will he held at 12, and the Annual Meeting at 3, in the banqueting hall of Marmion’s Castle (by kind permission of T. Cooke, Esq.). For visitors who are not members of the Council, arrangements will be made to conduct a party over the antiquarian remains in whicli Tamworth is so rich, including the Earthworks surrounding the old town, the Church, the Moat House, and the Castle. Various manufactories may also be inspected, including Messrs. Hamel’s Tape Mills, the Pottery Works, etc., while, if the weather is fine, a botanical excursion in boats on the Eiver Anker will doubtless prove a most attractive feature. In the evening a Conversazione will be held in the Town Hall. On the second day of the meeting, Wednesday, June 13th, excursions will be made to Hartshill and to Lichfield. The Hartshill excursion will follow the old Koman road, called Watling Street, in a south¬ easterly direction, examining en route Polesworth Nunnery, Merivale Abbey, Oldbury Fort, the tumuli, Castle, and quarries of Hartshill, Mancetter Church, and home by Atherstone ; the newly-discovered Cambrian rocks, which form the Hartshill ridge, will be studied, and the line of country taken is specially favourable to geological and antiquarian inquiries. The Lichfield Excursion will proceed by Drayton Manor (Sir Kobert Peel’s seat), along Watling Street, in a north-westerly direction (examining Hint’s Tumulus and Off Low) ; thence to the Roman station of Etocetum, and on to Lichfield, where the Cathedral will be visited, and also Dr. Johnson’s statue and house. The return journey will be by Borrow Cop Hill, Whittington Heath, Hopwas Wood (through which the party will walk), and so home. This Excursion will be rich in botanical and antiquarian attractions. Tamworth will be reached in the evening by each party before 7 p.m., so as to catch the various trains. Considering that the Midland Union may be said to have had its inception at Tamworth, in 1876, and knowing also the energy of the members of the Tamworth Natural History Society, we confidently look forward to a numerously-attended and very successful meeting. Change of Address. — Hon. Secretaries and Members of the Midland Union generally are requested kindly to note the new address of the GenerpJ Hon. Sec.: — Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, 365, Lodge Road, Birmingham. 08 PEN PITS. REMARKS ON THE PEN PITS AND OTHER SUPPOSED EARLY BRITISH DWELLINGS. BY HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.G.S. At the western end of what was once the great forest of Selwood, and near the junction of the three counties of Wilts, Dorset, and Somerset, a considerable tract of country is found to be broken up by numerous circular hollows, which are generally known as the Pen Pits. Their more precise situation is between the towns of Mere in Wilt¬ shire, and Wincanton in Somerset, and just in the hounds of the latter county. Of their antiquity there is for the most part no question. Indeed it has been asserted that they were overgrown with large oaks in the time of the Saxons ; but their purpose has been a fertile source of controversy among antiquaries ever since much attention was bestowed upon the subject. The more commonly received opinion has been that the excavations were originally intended as Pit-dwellings, and that hence we have evidence, at this place, of one of the earliest and one of the largest British villages in the country.* Sir John Lubbock has observed that “ Many of the dwellings in use during the Bronze Age were no doubt subterranean or semi-subterranean. On almost all large tracts of uncultivated land, ancient villages of this character may still be traced. A pit was dug, and the earth which was thrown out formed a circular wall, the whole being then probably covered with boughs. ”t That the Pen Pits were British habitations was the view taken by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, whose residence at Stourhead gave him ample opportunities for investigating the matter, and in his “ Ancient History of South Wiltshire ” (1812), and “ History of Modern Wiltshire ” (1822), he has given many details about the pits. In form they are like inverted cones or “punch-bowls,” varying from three to forty feet in diameter, in some instances being double, with a slight partition of earth, and they exhibit great regularity. He observed that formerly they extended over 700 acres of land. Another explanation is that the Pen Pits were simply opened for the purpose of obtaining stone, and this view has recently been supported by members of a Committee appointed by the Council of the Somersetshire Archfeological and Natural History Society. The members were — General Lane-Fox (now Pitt-Rivers), the Revs. Prebendary Scarth, J. A. Bennett, J. H. Ellis, H. H. Winwood, T. W. Wilkinson, and Mr. W. Muller. The ground in which the pits have been made, is formed of the Upper Greensand, which was ascertained to comprise a top layer of chert and T. Kerslake : “ A Primaeval British Metropolis,” Bristol, 1877 ; and T, Wright : “ The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon,” edit. ‘1, 1B75, p. 115, I ” Pi-ehistoric Times,” edit. 2, p. .52. PI3N PITS. 99 rubble, succeeded by live feet of sandstone (locally called Penstone), resting on green and buff-coloured sand, of which a thickness of thirty- two feet was proved. The Greensand forms an escarpment, called Penridge, facing the west, and overlooking a vale of Oxford and Kimeridge (?) clays. To the east of this high ground a lateral valley has been hollowed out through the Greensand to the clay beneath ; and in this deep and ramifying valley, in what are now the picturesque grounds of Stour- head, rises the river which gives its name to the place, and to the adjoining village of Stourton. Upon two spurs of the Greensand bordering the Stour valley, and not far to the east of Penzlewood (or Pen Selwood) Church, the exca¬ vations are found. These are separated by Kose Combe, to the south of which are the Pen Pits proper, those on the north being called the Gaspar Pits. At the eastern end of the Gaspar promontory are remains of earthworks, and a keep called the Castel— fortifications which the Committee decide to be probably Norman, if not earlier. But a most interesting conclusion which they formed was that prior to the erection of these earthworks excavations had been made for the purpose of obtaining Penstone. Further investigations among the Gaspar Pits revealed only evidence of workings for stone, and not of habitations. In all cases the pits had been partially refilled by subsequent weathering and falling in of the sides. Turning their attention to the Pen Pits proper, the Committee made an examination of two deep cone-shaped pits, where the usual rubble of chert, sand, and penstone was met with, and nothing found but a few fragments of charcoal and chalk-flint. A block of penstone, with tool markings, was the only object of any importance worthy of notice. The results of this investigation of the Committee, “ showing an entire absence of pottery, or any other trace of human occupation, warrant them in concluding that, in spite of any preconceived opinions to the contrary, these pits were never intended for the purpose of dwellings but that they were the work of people who had dug into the surrounding high grounds in search of that hard bed of Greensand rock — locally called Penstone — lying close to the surface, beneath a debris of chert and rubble, which must have been of as great value to them for their various purposes, whether for millstones, querns, or the more prosaic erection of cottage walls, etc., as it is to the cottagers of the present day who live in the neighbourhood, and are constantly digging into the surface of the broken ground for similar purposes.”* While this is the general result expressed in the Keport, it should be added that, owing to the limited tract investigated, several members of the Committee are of opinion that farther research is desirable before any conclusive evidence against a very early settlement can be arrived at. Whatever decision may ultimately be formed on this question, there is no doubt that openings have been made for stone, and Mr. Alfred Gillett told me several years ago that material for * “ Proc. Somerset Archeeol. and Nat. Hist. Sou. ” vol. xv. 100 PEN PITS. scythe-stones had been obtained from the Pen Pits, and it was a more compact rock than that used for the Devonshire batts at Broadhem- bury, near Honiton.* During an excursion made under his guidance to Penzlewood in July, 1881, we noticed that holes similar to the Pen Pits are now occasionally dug for the purpose of obtaining chert and rubbly greensand for mending roads. This explanation of the origin of the Pen Pits makes it interesting to inquire into the meaning of other pits that have been regarded as dwellings. Among the more important of these are Cole’s Pits, near Faringdon. in Berkshire — old pits extending over fourteen acres. These have been considered to be the remains of early British habitations ; and the largest, as we are informed by Mr. E. C. Davey, has been assigned to no less a personage than “ King Cole.” Mr. Godwin-Austen and Mr. Davey have, however, shown that the pits are simply the remains of old workings for sandstone and iron-ore, in the sponge-gravel of Neocomian (Lower Greensand) age.f In Yorkshire Professor Phillips described a number of circular pits, considered to be the bases of British huts. He observes that “ In general, as in the double series which encircles the summit of Kosebury Topping, only circular hollows appear — not unlike swallow-holes. But at Egton Grange, in Eskdale, the cavities, which vary in diameter from eight to eighteen feet, and in depth from three to six feet, have a raised border of earth and stones, with usually an opening on one side. Some have been built round within in the form of a well,” “Killing Pits, one mile south of Goadland Chapel ; Hole Pits, a little south of Westerdale Chapel ; a few near Ugthorpe ; and a large group between Danby Beacon and Wapley, have the same general characters. In the last situation they ai’e ranged in two straight lines, as if on two sides of a street. The pits are about ten feet in diameter. ”+ Prof. Phillips described the “ pit-houses” as tapering huts constructed of wood on a circular basis. In short, after the ground was excavated, it was supposed that branches of trees were placed to form a conical roof, which, perhaps, might be made weather-proof by wattling, a covering of rushes, or sods. Referring to these pits, Mr. Clement Reid writes to me (7th Dec., 1882) : — “ All of them are undoubtedly old ironstone mines. Both [Mr. George] Barrow and I came to this conclusion when [geologically] sur¬ veying the country, and though the Rev, J. C, Atkinson, who, I believe, is the principal authority for the pit-dwelling theory, objected at the time, I have lately been corresponding with him, and in one of his letters he says, “ I give up the idea of British settlements entirely now.” Mr. Reid adds that “ the pits are always associated with heaps of iron¬ stone slag, and pieces of the stone are scattered about in the neighbour- * “ Geology of East Somerset,” etc. (Geol. Survey Memoir), p. 139. I “ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,” vol.vi., p. 4.59; aiicl “ Traus. Newbury District Field Club,” vol. ii. Itepriuted, Wantage, 1874. : “ Itivers, mountains, and sea-coast of Yorkshire,” p. 109. PEN PITS. 101 hood. ‘ The raised border of earth and stones ’ is simply the waste tipped round the edge of the pit, as they always do at the present day. The ‘ opening on one side ’ was of course necessary for getting to the mouth. Nearly all the pits are constantly full of water in wet weather. The date of the ironstone workings is generally about the end of the fourteenth and early part of the fifteenth centuries.” “ Though these ‘ British settlements ’ have to be given up, I found a real one on the [Yorkshire] moors. It consisted of a number of circular depressions a few inches deep, not pits, which were made simply by paring off the peaty turf so as to get a dry sandy floor. In each were a number of flint flakes and spoilt tools, very often calcined ; the manufacture seems to have been carried on inside the hut, for very few occurred away from the circles. The flint is black flint, which must have come from South Lincolnshire or Norfolk.” Mr. Davey has mentioned (in his work previously cited) that “ In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, is preserved a model of an entire ancient village which was recently disclosed at Standlake [near Witney]. The Curator informed me that some of the pits were four feet wide and two feet deep, while even the largest did not exceed six feet in diameter and four feet in depth.” Oil the Greensand hills of Devonshire there are numerous hollows which have been described as iron pits by Mr. P. O. Hutchinson. Thus he mentions hollows near Kentisbere and other places, which are sometimes called “ Ash Pits.” Others occur near Dunkeswell, varying from eight to ten feet deep, and from twenty to thirty feet in diameter. Bits of ironstone and haematite were noticed in the neighbourhood. He observes that, “ There are numerous pieces of scoria to be found in the fields near Nortchcott, in the parish of Uffculme * * * indicat¬ ing that there had been a smelting-place not far off. In a field at Tudborough, near Hemyock, the plough continually turns up cinders, and doubtless there had been a bloomary or melting-pit near them.”* In accounting for the groups of pits that occur in so many places, Mr. Hutchinson quotesf the following passage from Smiles’ “ Industrial Biography,” which refers to some old pits found at Leeds : — “ In seeking for ore, the excavator seems to have dug a pit about six feet in diameter, though this size of course much varied ; and when he came down to the ironstone, he worked away all round as far as he could go without letting the sides fall in. Instead of advancing straight forward, and digging back or throwing back, as the phrase is, or instead of proceeding to make a gallery excavation, as the miners call it, he got out of his pit and then sunk another.” On the Mendip Hills the old mining operations are generally indicated by shallow pits sunk near to one another, or by long lines of excavations, when a vein has been followed at the surface. According to Mr. W. Topley, the ironstone workings in the Weald were mostly bell-pits, about six feet in diameter at the top, and wideii- * “ Trans. Devon Assoc.,” vol. v., 187^, p. 48. t “ Trans. Devon Assoc.,” vol. v., p. 48. 102 PEN PITS. iiig below ; they were rarely more than twenty feet deep, and are generally filled with water. Sometimes they were connected by levels.* It has been remarked that the so-called Pit-dwellings were so constructed in reference to soil that they will hold no water — an essential feature in the hypothesis. But, as Mr. Davey has pointed out, holes of all shapes and sizes have been termed pitsteads, from small and shallow excavations to pits 45 feet broad and 140 feet in depth ! In many parts of Norfolk, where the Glacial sands and gravel cover considerable areas, and have given rise to tracts of heath, old Pit- dwellings have been described. Among the localities mentioned are Weybourn, Edgefield, Aylmerton, Marsham, Koughton, Beeston, Mousehold, and Eaton. At Weybourn, Mr. H. Harrod estimated that there were about 1,000 pits, some containing burnt bones and urns. The pits were stated to be bowl-shaped, from 8 to 20 feet in diameter, 2 to 6 feet in depth, and mostly 12 feet by 3 in breadth. f The urns found were stated to be Celtic. In a communication made to the Norwich Geological Society in 1868, the Rev. A. R. Abbott expressed his opinion that the pits in the neighbourhood of Runton and Weybourn were remains of early British (?) iron-workings, for the oxide of iron in the gravel. He obtained large lumps of iron silicate or slag. The pits were some of them circular, with the sides evidently formed of stones, and a hole in the centre, in which fires had been made.J Mr. Abbott has subsequently informed me (May 2nd, 1882) that the appearances were certainly such as would, in his opinion, have supported the view that there had been habitations on the same spot where smelting had evidently been carried on. On Marsham Heath are numerous shallow pits varying from about 5 to 12 feet in breadth, opened in the Glacial gravel and sand, and now overgrown. I saw (in 1880) many of these in company with Mr. R. J. W. Purdy, who obtained the services of a resident keeper to dig in one of them. At the depth of a foot from the bottom of the pit undisturbed gravelly sand was reached, and nothing to indicate human occupation was observed. The man informed us he had been told by his father that “the soldiers” were encamped on the heath many years ago, and he pointed to some of the larger pits as belonging to officer’s tents. Such was the tradition of the place. Referring to the supposed vestiges of British residences in Norfolk, the Rev. George Munford has remarked that “ the conjecture is very doubtful. §” Even the excavations called Grimes Graves on Weeting Heath, near Brandon, which were supposed to be cave dwellings of the early inhabitants of the district, have been shown by Canon Green- well to be workings for flint that extend back to Neolithic times. And * “ Geology of the Weald,” p. 334. I “ Norfolk Archaeology,” vol. iii., i)p. 232—240, 1852. X Norwich Mercury, Sept. IGth, 1868 ; see also C. Keid, “ Geology of the Country around Crouier” (Geol. Survey), p. 134. S “ Local Names in Norfolk,” p. 5. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 108 he has suggested that the Pen Pits may have had their origin in a similar process of mining.* Edward King has alluded to the conical pits on Household, near Norwich, with which he was inclined to class Pen Pits.f These may all have been sand or gravel pits.f On Edgefield Heath there are several pits ; one occurs west of the Holt and Edgefield Koad, a little north of the 20th milestone. It was 10 yards across and 8 feet deep, and appeared to be simply an old gravel pit. Similar pits occur on East Rudham and Syderstone commons. Diggings are frequently made in Norfolk for “ stone,” that is for flint boulders to be used for building purposes, and when a sufficient quantity of material has been obtained the pit may be abandoned. Such a method of working, especially on heath-lands, may have been more common in former years, when the boulder gravel was obtained for building the greater part of the Norfolk Churches, for many walls, and for paving as well as road-mending. The -irregular occurrence of the gravel, in shoals or masses of uncertain extent in finer gravel and sand, may partly account for the irregular workings. Moreover the boulder gravel often occurs at the surface resting on sand, and it may have been easier to open a fresh pit when stone was wanted, than to enlarge the old one and haul the material from it. Some old pits, as Mr. T. G. Bayfield has suggested to me, may have been made by charcoal-burners ; others of course may have been used as the foundations of dwellings, but of this we want in Norfolk more positive evidence. The miscellaneous information here brought together may perhaps be useful in stimulating further inquiry into the interesting subject of Pits and Pit-dwellings. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN AtH'OUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued fro7n page 88. j COMPOSIT-^ (continued ). CARLINA. C. vulgaris, lAnn. Carline Thistle. Native; On heaths, banks and pastures, in marly and calcareous soils. Rare. July, August. I. Marly banks near Arley Village. II. Oversley Hill, Part, ii., 386 ; between Leek Wootton fields and Ashow ; Welcombe Hills, near Stratford, Ferry FI., 68 ; Green’s Grove, Hatton, Herb. Per.; near Birdingbur}-, R. S. R. ; Hatton, Harbury, H. B.; Wellesbourne ; Lighthorne, Bolton King ; Yarningale common ; between Kineton and Edge Hills. * ‘‘Jour, Ethnol. Soc.,” vol. ii, 1871 i “ Muuiinenta Antiqua,” 1799, pp. 50 — 53, 104 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. ARCTIUM. A. majus, Schkuhr. Greater Burdock. Native; By roadsides and in woods. Very local. July to September. I. Road by Packwood House ; Knowle canal bank. II. Radford ; Hatton, Y. and B. ; Chesterton ! Radford Semele ; Myton, H. B. ; abundant in Honington Park ! Newh. ; Alveston pastures ; on banks, road from Shipston-on-Stour to Stratford- on-Avon ; Marl Cliff, near Bidford ; bridle road. Red Hill to Binton ; hilly pastures near Billesley Hall ; hilly fields near Great Alne ; in abundance near the canal, Holywell ; Dilke’s Lane near Kingswood ; Lapworth ; Umberslade, Ac. A. minus, Schkuhr. Lesser Burdock. Native : By roadsides, on banks, in meadows and woods. Rather local. July to September. I. Erdington ; Sutton Park ; Trickley Coppice ; Marston Green ; Maxtoke ; Meriden Shafts ; Solihull ; Knowle, Ac. II. Warwick ; Chesterton ! Y. and B. ; Woodloes near Warwick ! H. B. ; Honington! Neich. ; Alveston pastures; Bidford; bridle road, Billesley to Wilmcote ; Oversley Wood ; Yarningale ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen; Itchington Holt; Oakley; Combe Woods, Ac. A. intermedium, Lancfe. Intermediate Burdock. Native : In woods, quarries, and by roadsides. Local. July to September. I. Trickley Coppice, Middleton ; quarry near Meriden Shafts ; Meri- vale Park. II. Moreton Morrel, Y. and B. ; Snitterfield, Herb. Per. ; Emscote, H. B. ; Honington ! Newh. ; Alveston pastures ; canal bank near Hatton Railway Station ; near Haywoods ; hilly field near Great Alne ; near Bearley Cross ; Combe Woods ; Itchington Holt. A. nemorosum, Lej. Native: In woods and hedges. Rare. July to September. II. “Damp woods, Honington, Warwickshire, August, 1872. F. Townsend.” Bot. Exch. Club Report, 1872-4, Mr. Townsend states that this sub-species is frequent near Honington. Abundantly in a hedge near Lambscote, Neiob.; road from Stratford-on-Avon to Shipston, near Atherstone-on-Stour ; hilly field, near Alne. SERRATULA. S. tinctoria, Linn. Common Saic-wort. Native: In woods and pastures, and by waysides. Local. July to August. I. Canal near Earl’s Wood, JF. H. Wilkinson ; near Olton Pool ; meadows, near Blythe Bridge, Solihull ; near Righton End, Bradnock’s Marsh ; Arley ; Bentley Park. II. Hatton; Beausale, Y. and B.; Salford Priors, Rev. J. Caswell; canal bank, near Brinklow, R. S. R., 1875 ; Tredington, Neiob.; road from Tachbrook to Harbury, Herb. Bab.; Umberslade, W. B. Grove; Twelveo’ o’clock Riding, Combe Woods; Yarningale Common. CENTAUREA. C. nigra, Linn. Black Knapweed. Native: In pastures, on waysides, banks, Ac. Common. June to September. Area general. Var. radiata. Locally common in lias soils. I. Near Solihull ; near Tanworth. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE IOd II. Myton ; Hatton ! Y. and B.; railway bank, Hill Wootton, H. B.; “form with all the flowers elongate, near Tile Mill, Hon- ington,” Newb.; between Stratford and Red Hill; Alveston pastures ; lane between Alne and Spernal ; Little Alne ; Henley-in- Arden. This is a form liable to be mistaken for (7. decipiens ; it is, I think, truly distinct from that, and quite as markedly distinct from the type. C. scabiosa, Linn. Great Knapweed. Native : On banks, by waysides, and in pastures. Rather local. June to September. I. Lanes about Knowle ; near Hartshill, &c. II. Blacklow Hill, Perry, 1817 ; Salford, Rev. J. C. ; Myton ; Ches¬ terton ! Tachbrook, H. B,; Tredington ; Lambcote, Newb.; Heuley-in-Arden ; Little Alne ; plentiful about Stratford-on- Avon ; Binton ; Temple Grafton ; Ashorn, &c. C. Cyanus, Linn. Corn Blue Bottle, or Corn-flower. Colonist : On railway banks, in cornfields and meadows. Local. June to September. I. Witton ; Maney ; near Knowle Station. II. Stoneleigh ; Warwick, Y. and B.; abundant on railway banks near Warwick, H. B.; in a field about Bilton and Blue Boar ' Lane, R. S. R., 1877 ; Salford, Rev. J. G.; Exhall; Wixford. CHRYSANTHEMUM. C. segetum, Linn. Corn Marigold. Colonist : In corn and other cultivated fields. Locally abundant. June to September. I. Packington, Freeman, Phyt., i., 262; Bodmir; Sutton Park; Trickley coppice ; Coleshill ; Bradnock's Marsh ; Hampton- in-Arden ; Cornel’s End. II. In afield west end of Brailes Hill, Nexob.; Iddicote, Rev. J. Gorle ; cornfields near Binley ; cornfields near Rugby ; cornfields near Kingswood. C. Leucantbemum, Linn. Ox-eye Daisy. Native: On railway banks, waysides, heath lands. Common. May to August. Area general. MATRICARIA. M. Fartbenium, Linn. Common Feverfeiv. Denizen : On banks and waste places near villages. Local. June to August, or later. I. Near Great Packington ; Erdington ; Berkswell ; near Tanworth. II. Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. ; footway between Overslade and Bilton, R. S. R., 1877; Honington; Lambcote, Newb.; Lap- worth Street. M. iuodora, Linn. Scentless Mayweed. Native : In fields, woods, on banks, heaths, and waysides. Common. July to September. Area general. M. cbamomilla, Linn. Wild Chamomile. Colonist : In fields and on waysides. Locally abundant. July to September. I. Fields near Coleshill ; Meriden ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Knowle ; lane from Righton End to Barston. II. Brailes, Newb.; Whatcote, Rev. J. Gorle; Myton and Milverton, H. B.; footways near Wyken. This plant seems as truly native as M. inodora, occurring in similar habitats and in equal abundance. 106 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE TANACETUM. T. vulgare, Linn. Common Tansy. Native: On banks and waysides near villages. Katherrare. July, August. I. Stonebridge Eoad, near Colesliill ; Sheldon. Lane from Meriden marsh to Stonebridge. II. Oversley, opposite Alcester Mill, Part, ii., 392 ; St. Mary’s Church¬ yard and cottage walls, Warwick ; Hatton Hill, Perry, 1817 ; side of the Avon, between Nicholas meadows and the aque¬ duct; between Leamington and Kenilworth, Per. P'1.; banks near Wyken, 1881. This plant is merely a denizen in all stations where I have seen it. ANTHEMIS. A. cotula, Linn. Stiniciny Mayweed. Colonist ; In cultivated fields and on waysides. Common. June to September. Area general. A. arvensis, Linn. Corn Chamomile. Colonist : In corn and other cultivated fields. Rather rare. June to October. I. Corn fields Marston Green ; corn fields by Olton Pool ; Sutton Park ; near Meriden Shafts. II. On the ridgeway on new-made earth mounds, Purt., ii., 395 ; cornfields about Whitnash, H. B. ; Kineton, Bolton King. A. nobilis, Linn. Common Chamomile. Native : On commons. Very rare. July. II. Shrewley pool, in the parish of Hatton ; Bree, MS., N. B. G. ; Yarningale common I H. B. ACHILLEA. A. millefolium, Linn. Milfoil or Yarrow. Native : On heaths, waysides, banks, pastures, &c. Common. Occasionally with purple flowers. June to October. Area general. A. Ptarmica, Linn. Sneeze-wort Yarrow. Native : On marshy heaths, damp waysides, and other like places. Locally common. July to September. I. Sutton Park ; Trickley Coppice ; Middleton ; Wishaw ; Marston Green ; Solihull and Knowle districts ; Balsall Street. II. Damp waysides near Warmington; Alveston Heath; Yarningale Common, &c. ARTEMISIA. A. vulgaris, Linn. Mugicort. Native : On waste heathy places and hedge banks. Common. August, September. Area general. Var. coarctata, Forcel. On hedge banks in marly or Lias soils. Very local. August, September. II. Abundant on Alveston pastures, 1880 ; Harbury, 1881. This is, I believe, the first station from which this plant was recorded as British. The Rev. W. W. Newbould, to whom I sent it, was my authority for the nomenclature. It is figured in Reichenbach’s Flora Germ., tab. 1038. , FILAGO. F. germanica, Linn. Common Cudiveed. Native: In fields, on heaths and waysides. Common. July to September. Area general. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 107 F. minima, Fries. Slender Cudxoeed. Native: On heaths and heathy footways. Rare. June to August, I. Coleshill heath ; heathy footways near Coleshill pool. II. Kenilworth Heath, Herh. Perry. GNAPHALIUM. G. uliginosnm, Linn. Marsh Gudioeed. Native : In moist places in woods, fields, waysides, and on heath lands. Locally common. July to September. Area general. Var. pilulare, Chadshunt. Bolton King ! G. sylvaticum, Linn. Upright Cudweed. Native: On heathy pastures and waysides. Rare. June to August. I. Packington, N. B. G., 636 ; Wolvey Heath, 1835, Rev. A. Blox., 31. S. note in Purton's Flora ; waysides near Shirley ; heathy pasture, Marston Green ; Balsall common. II. Between Wixford and Bidford, by the side of the road. Part., ii., 391 ; banks of canal in the parish of Coseley, With., hi., 928 ; Kersley; Radford, near Stoneleigh, T. K., Herb. Perry ; Oversley Wood, Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; heath at Haseley, H. B. SENECIO. S. vulgaris, Linn. Common Groundsel. Native : In fields, on banks and waysides, &c. Common. Flowers the whole season. Area general. S. sylvaticus, Linn. 3Iountain Groundsel. Native : On banks and field borders. Locally common. July to September. I. Between Birmingham and Erdington ! Perry, 1817 ; Sutton Park ; Middleton heath ; Marston Green ; Hampton - in - Arden ; Cornels End ; Hartshill, &c. II. Alcester Field, between Alcester Lodge and New Inn ! Purt., ii,, 405 ; Haywoods ! H. B. ; Allesley, near Hearsall Common, This is an abundant plant in some of the districts near Birming¬ ham, but is apparently very local in the southern part of the county. S. squalidus, Linn. Casual : On old walls. Very rare. August. II. On old walls, Allesley village, Bx'ee ; walls, Guy’s Cliff ! ‘‘ Introduced from Oxford into the Rectory grounds, Allesley, afterwards establishing itself on the walls in the village ” {see W. T. Bree. 3Iag. Nat. Hist., hi., 150-1). S. erucifolius, Linn. Hoary Ragivort. Native : On banks, waysides, and in fields. Locally common. August, September. I. Near Hampton - in -Arden ; between Shirley Heath and Salter Street. II. Lanes about Halford ; Tredington (both forms) ; Whatcote ; Lambcote, Newb ; Umberslade, W. B. Grove; Banbury Road, near Warwick ; Harbury ; Alcester ; Bearley, &c. A frequent plant in South Warwick, rather rare in North Warwick. S. Jacobaea, Linn. Common Ragivort. Native: On banks, waysides, in fields, &c. Locally common. July to September, or later. A frequent plant in North Warwick, but rare or very local in South Warwick. A peculiar narrow-leaved form occurs in Cathiron Lane, near Rugby. S. aquaticus, Huds. 3Iarsh Ragwort. Native: In marshes, on damp heath lands and waysides. Common, July to September. Area general. I have found this in every district I have visited. (To be continued. j 108 NOitTHAMPTON SAND. ON THE EELATION OF THE SO-CALLED “ NOETH- AMPTON SAND” OF NOETH OXFOEDSHIEE TO THE CLYPEUS GEIT. Abstract of a 'paper read before the Geological Society of London, Feb. 21st. BY MR. EDWIN A. WALFORD, F.G.S., OF BANBURY. The objects of the paper were said to be two-fold : in the first place, to show the existence of some hitherto unrecognised beds of the Inferior Oolite in North Oxfordshire, and then to endeavour to define their position by comparison with one of the uppermost of the Cottes- wold subdivisions, the Clypeus Grit. The area under discussion was said to be the border-land between the S.W. or Cotteswold types and the N.E. or Northamptonshire types, and was for the most part em¬ braced in sheet 45 N.W. of the Geological Survey, in the N.E. corner of which is situated the town of Banbury, whilst to the extreme S.W. lies Chipping Norton. The author first called attention to some remnants of a series of Oolitic limestones at Coombe Hill, near Deddington, which he considered to be the equivalent of the Oolite Marl. He then pointed out near Bourton-on-the-Water the interven¬ tion of some sandy limestones and carbonaceous clays between the Clypeus Grit and the Fuller’s Earth ; he thought they might possibly represent beds found above the Clypeus Grit near Chipping Norton. The beds marked in the map 5' g 7', hitherto termed Northampton Sand, he said, were well shown in the new railway cutting at Hook Norton, and were capable of being split up into several divisions, the two thin base beds containing Ammonites laviusculus and corals : the next higher series (C) yielding a large fauna, amongst which were Rhynchonella spinosa, Trigonia signata, and Trigonia angulata, and a doubtful fragment of Ammonites Parkinsoni. These, with a higher series of sandy, marly, and siliceous limestones designated D and E,were proved to extend over the high lands to the S.W. It was shown that at one end of a ridge called Otley Hill the beds C, with probably some remains of a lower series, rested on the Upper Lias, whilst on the S.W. flanks of the ridge the Clypeus Grit was to be seen also resting upon the Upper Lias. A road section near Over Norton, he said, showed beds similar in lithological character to C and D of Hook Norton, resting upon the Clypeus Grit, and evidencing a fauna of a some¬ what similar character. The author thought that the almost unfossili- ferous series E, which had been called the Chipping-Norton Limestone, might probably be found to be the equivalent in time of part of the Fuller’s Earth, or of some of those beds of the Inferior Bathonian of the Cote d’Or described by M. Jules Martin. THE BRITISH TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. 109 THE BRITISH TRAP -DOOR SPIDER ATYPIJS SULZERI. This grand Spider, the only representative found in Great Britain of that most interesting family the Mygalidse, is generally looked upon as a great rarity, but I am inclined to think that if entomologists would search for it, it would be found on or about most heaths, and in sandy lanes on the banks facing S. or S.W. At Hampstead Heath, London, I first found it March 26th, 1876, scattered about in various parts of that once “ happy hunting ground,” but now, alas ! many of the hillocks have been levelled, the hollows where bees and spiders loved to congregate have been filled up by “ The Board ” with dust-bin refuse, all the bog (through which it was such a pleasure to walk in search of Drosera and Petasites) has been drained bone dry, so that now the little costers from the East End can walk over dry shod though their feet have only nature’s covering. With all these improvements (?) can we wonder that insects and flowers once found in plenty have quite disappeared, and yet holds its ground, perhaps from the fact of its boring and forming its wonder¬ ful “ tube,” just at the foot of a nice prickly and stunted gorse bush, not a pleasant place for a seat, or for the entomologist to dig the tube out. I quite expected to find Atypus in this wild neighbourhood, and on April 12th, whilst minutely scanning a S.W. hank, I noticed a very small silken tube projecting from a hole in the hard sand ; there was no mistaking it, and by a careful search on this and other S.W. banks, I noticed a large number of tubes of all ages, some of which I dug out measuring 10 inches in length, these I have “ set ” in a turf bank facing south, which I have made in my garden, where I hope to ob¬ serve and gather some of the links in the little-known economy of this most interesting spider. Ferndale, Woking Station. Fred. Enock. THE ALLUVIAL AND DRIFT DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY. BY .TAAIES SHIPMAN. ( Continued from page 79, ) A similar succession of deposits was met with in the bed of the Leen at Old Basford, a mile and a half further up the valley. Here two such large excavations for gasholders were made side by side, affording a continuous section of the strata for a length of over 120 yards from east to west across the valley.’^ (Fig. 2.) The site of the excavations was midway between New and Old Basford, and just on the edge of * For facilities kindly afforded me in my examination of these sections from time to time my thanks are due to Mr. M. O. Tarbotton, C.E., Engineer to the Nottingham Corporation Gas and Water Works, and to his courteous Clerk of Works, Mr. F, Phillips. Fig. 110 DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY. Ill the alluvial plain. The Leen itself flows about fifty yards west of where the excavations were made, that is, from the end of the section shown in Fig. 2. In this part of the Leen valley the relations of the various deposits of gravel, sand, and clay that underlie the alluvial plain could he seen to better advantage than at Radford. Another link in the chain of physical events which have happened in this valley since the Glacial period was disclosed, too, by this excavation. The deposits exposed by the cutting at Basford seemed to belong to three distinct stages in the history of the Leen valley. Placed in the order of their relative age we had — 3. Recent alluvial sand, silt, and peat. 2. Torrential gravel. 1. Glacial drift. At Radford the ground was opened on the west side of the river. At Basford, however, the wells were sunk on the east side of the valley. As at Radford, the most recent deposits of the Leen were found to occupy a hollow scooped out of the solid rock. Here, too, only one side of this alluvial hollow was seen in the section, and it descended gently towards the present course of the stream. The oldest deposit met with at Basford was the Boulder Drift. This was composed of a mixture of red, brown, white, and greenish-yellow sand — a mottled, tenacious mass, studded with pebbles of all sizes up to small, well- rounded boulders. No regular bedding or stratification could be dis¬ cerned in the mass. The pebbles were imbedded at all angles, instead of lying more or less horizontally, as they would have done if the deposit had been calmly accumulated under water. Here and there, however, puckered strings of pebbles showed that the mass had been kneaded and crumpled by some powerful force acting laterally, and that the deposit had been then still further compacted by enormous pressure from above in such a way that the pebbles were now tightly wedged into the matrix. The deposit had clearly been formed by some powerful physical agent scouring the surface of the country and pushing the materials in front of it as it went along until they lodged in sheltered hollows, as in this case. That agent was undoubtedly ice. This deposit, then, takes us back to the Great Ice Age, when Britain, in common with the whole of Northern Europe, was enduring climatal con¬ ditions very much like what now prevail in Greenland and the Arctic regions. The pebbles in this Drift consisted chiefly of quartzites, along with pebbles of millstone grit, coal measure sand¬ stone, and occasionally lumps of the underlying sand rock, caught up and incorporated in the mass by the ice-plough. A good deal of the matrix of this Drift was evidently derived from the wearing down of the Lower Mottled Sandstone, which forms much of the ground to the north and west. But the coarse, bluish-white sand or pounded grit, that it contained must have had a different source. The Drift was from two to six feet thick, and rested on a slightly uneven surface of the Lower Mottled Sandstone, towards the bottom of the eastern slope 112 DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY. of the valley. This Drift deposit was again met with close by in an excavation for a cistern 300ft. long, parallel with the gasholders. It was the same mixture of rusty brown and gray sand as before, decidedly contorted in places, and came to an end in the direction of the river just where the more recent alluvial deposits set in. The continuation, apparently, of the same deposit was also disclosed by a cutting made at the back of Springfield Bleach Works, at Old Basford, on the same side of the valley. The deposit of sand and pebbles, seen occupying a shelf cut out of the Lower Mottled Sand¬ stone at Spring Close, Lenton, twenty or thirty feet above the alluvial plain, is probably of this age. Here, too, there is evidence of the action of ice, for not only are the pebbles tightly wedged together in the sandy matrix in the most confused manner, but the surface of the underlying soft sand rock has been swept into small puckers in two or three instances by the pressure which produced corresponding flexures in the overlying gravel. It is not unlikely that the narrow strip of Drift that runs up the western margin of the alluvial flat at Bulwell belongs to this age, though, being rarely exposed, it is difficult to get any details of it, any more than that it is largely composed of the ground-up Permian limestone and marl on which it rests, and suddenly thickens where it occupies old hollows in the underlying rocks. The gravel that caps the low cliffs on the east side of the valley is probably also Glacial Drift. It consists of the usual varieties of quartz and quartzite, with flint chips, and a sandy matrix derived from the rock on which it rests. It is occasionally seen to occupy pre-existing hollows and ruts in the rock, is frequently contorted, and mostly very compact, being sometimes cemented by ferric oxide. No bones or other organic remains have been found in these ancient Glacial de¬ posits of the Leen, though mammalian bones have been met with in similar deposits in some other river valleys. The position of the Boulder Drift in the bottom of the Leen Valley shows that this valley, like most other river valleys in Britain, had been excavated to its present depth, and deeper, before the close of the Glacial Period. Besting partly on the Boulder Drift, and partly on a broad shelf of rock cut back out of the Bunter sandstone that forms the east side of the valley at Basford was some gravel distinct from either the modern river deposits on the one hand, or the Drift on the other. This gravel was about 5ft. thick, and passed up into five or six feet of loose, pebbly sand, that may have been washed down later. The deposit consisted of brown and yellow clean sand in obliquely- laminated patches, surrounded and interbedded with very short, irregular seams and “pockets” of pebbles. The oblique lamination and the confused arrangement of the pebbles in this deposit, all clearly due to the action of water alone, and not to that of ice, considered in connection with the position of this deposit on the side of the valley at a higher level than the later alluvial deposits, combine to suggest that this gravel is the “ tumultuous gravel” found occupying the sides of other river valleys m England and Scotland. It was formed when the DEPOSITS OP THE LEEN VALLEY. 113 volume of water borue down the valley must have been many times greater than it is now. Some of the irregularities of the bedding may be due to the melting of lumps of ice or snow, which may have got buried along with the sediment. However this may have been, the oblique lamination seemed to indicate the influx of water from the side of the valley, as well as an onward movement down the valley. Its pebbles were the same as occur in the Drift, from the destruction of which it was most likely derived. There was evidently a long interval of time between the formation of the Drift at the bottom of the valley and the accumulation of this torrential gravel, during which a considerable amount of gravelly material was probably carried away altogether, leaving those scattered patches and terraces of rusty brown gravel higher up the valley slopes. It was during this interval that the ice-cap that had previously shrouded the land melted away, and the climate became less severe. Once more the Leen appears to have begun to deepen its bed, and to form the “ valley within valley” which its later Post-glacial or “ recent ” deposits were found to occupy. The lowest stratum of these deposits consisted of rusty-coloured coarse gravel, containing thin seams of red sand derived from the wearing away of its rocky bed, and full of flakes and pebbles of red hematite, as at Radford. This gravel was overlaid by a bed of light gray sand, very evenly laminated, and maintaining a tolerably uniform thickness all round the cutting. Above this came a band of peat, full of the stems of young trees, twigs, and leaves, all more or less decayed ; while the roots of many of the trees descended into the underlying sand bed. The peat varied from one to three feet in thickness. Many of the tree stumps were vertical, or nearly so, just as they must have grown. On the west side of the cutting the stool of an oak, about twelve inches in diameter, gnarled, but black and quite decayed, was met with at the bottom of the peat. The peat passed up into about three feet of lead-gray silt and dark surface-loam. The materials that composed the brown gravel resembled those of the Drift, except that the latter contained no hematite. Nor does the red hematite occur in any other of the gravelly deposits that line the valley, so far as I have observed. One curious fact connected with these Post-glacial deposits remains to be noticed. Between the rusty coloured gravel and the solid rock on which it rested at Old Radford were two or three small patches of peat (shown in the sketch. Fig. 1) — apparently all that was left of a more extensive layer that once lined the sides of the rocky ravine which the Leen then occupied. At that time (1879) I could hardly believe these fragments of peat were in situ, and examined the spot carefully to see if they had not somehow fallen down from the overlying peat bed during the work of excavating. On making my usual visit to the cuttings at Basford one day in the spring of this year, however, I was met by one of the superintendents of the works with the startling announcement that they had come upon a mass of peat imbedded right down in the heart of the sandstone rock (i.e., the Lower Mottled), underlying the alluvium, and therefore. 114 DEPOSITS OF THE LEEN VALLEY. presumably of Triassic age ! As I expected, it turned out that they had met with a small patch of peat nestled in a hollow in the surface of the old rocky bed of the Leen, and just underneath the ferruginous gravel, showing that before and perhaps partly during the formation of the brown gravel the Leen Valley nourished a luxuriant vegetation, of which only the merest fragments had been thus accidentally preserved, I have already stated that no bones or other remains of animals have been found in the Glacial deposits of the Leen Valley. While examining the right bank of the stream, just north of Bui well Spring, two summers ago, however, I chanced to notice a bone embedded in the gravel, through which the Leen here cuts its way. The gravel it¬ self is probably Post-glacial, and the bone was found eight or ten feet above the level of the water. Prof. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., P.R.S., who was so good as to examine the bone for me, found it to belong to the “ small domestic ox of the Bos longifrons type, an animal introduced into this country in the Neolithic Age, and which still survives in the small Scotch, Welsh, and Irish cattle.” Prof. Dawkins adds that “ its bones are commonly met with in the pre-historic and historic refuse heaps, but never in undisturbed Pleistocene strata.” It now only remains for me to point out some of the chief inferences to be drawn from the evidence furnished by these interesting sections. The Drift deposits of the Leen Valley carry us back to the time, many thousands of years ago, when Arctic conditions prevailed in Britain, and immense glaciers descended slowly towards the coast, leaving patches and mounds of rocky debris in the more sheltered hollows, or at the spots where two or more ice-streams coalesced. All the evidence afforded by the Drift deposits of the Leen Valley points to the conclu¬ sion that the ice which formed them crossed the valley more or less obliquely, and came from a north-north-westerly direction — or in other words, from the southern extremity of the Pennine Hills. The Leen Valley then presented much the same general outline as it does now, except that the bottom of the valley was in some parts a ravine, in others a ----shaped hollow, now filled with alluvial gravel and silt. There is abundant evidence round our sea-coasts that the British Isles stood higher out of the water then than they do now, and England was united to the Continent. It was about this time that the Creswell Caves, only a few miles farther north, afforded shelter, now to the Palaeo¬ lithic hunter, now to the hyaena, the woolly rhinoceros, the lion, the reindeer, the wolf, and other wild beasts that have long since ceased to inhabit these islands. It seems probable that the Drift once lay much thicker in the Leen Valley than it does now, and may even have choked it up altogether for a time. A long interval appears to have elapsed between the accumulation of the Drift and the deposition of the “ tumultuous gravel,” during which the ice melted away, and the climate became somewhat ameliorated, though perhaps still rigorous.* It was probably during this interval, and when the valley was filled with frozen snow, that the coarse red sand and pebbles which forms the * Prof. James Geikie, F.E.S., “ Pre-historic Europe,” p. 387, et seq. METEOROLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS. 115 terraces between Basford and Bnlwell was deposited. The Leen now began to deepen its channel, and to carve out the hollow in the older deposits now occupied by the more recent gravel, sand, and silt. The climate soon became so far ameliorated that vegetation flourished down to the very bottom of the valley, and peat began to accumulate. The growth of plants at the bottom of the Leen Valley seems to suggest that the land had once more been raised after submergence. Only small fragmentary patches of this earlier growth of peat escaped the denudation that afterwards took place. How and when the red hematite was brought into the valley and came to be so mixed with the rusty coloured gravel at the bottom of the alluvial deposits remains a mystery. Then came the deposition of the gray sand in regular even layers, as if it had been quietly precipitated along the level bottom of a broad stream, many times broader than the Leen is now. Again, there appears to have been an elevation of the land, for we find the stools of oak trees with their rootlets embedded in the sand in such a way that deposition must have ceased for a time, and the area became dry ground. By-and-bye the climate, which during the growth of the oak trees does not appear to have been very favourable, became more equable, and favoured the growth of pines and other plants which ultimately be¬ came choked with peat. Once more the ground was more or less continuously submerged, perhaps caused by increase in the rainfall, and the bottom of the valley became covered with the sheets of slit or clay which now mantle the alluvial plain, and which must themselves have taken many centuries to form. METE GEOLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS. THE WEATHER OF MARCH, 1883. BY CLEMENT L. WRAGGE, F.R.G.S., F.M.S., ETC. This was a month remarkable for constant cold and wintry weather with abundance of frost and snow. At some stations no rain fell, and the entire precipitation consisted of snow, hail, or sleet. Mean tem¬ perature was about 35*3, and at Orleton it was “ more than 5 degrees below the average of 20 years.” Evidently the extraordinary weather was brought about by the peculiar distribution of pressure ; by cyclonic depressions travelling from the north of Russia in a west-south¬ westerly direction, hence taking a course the very opposite to that usually followed, and sweeping round the south side of an anti- cyclonic area, which persistently held its ground over Lapland and Northern Scandinavia. The highest reading of the barometer was 30-738 on the 4th, and lowest 29-250 on 25th — 26th. The air was at times very dry, and mean relative humidity was about 82%. Northerly winds prevailed. As I hope shortly to resume my travels I must now, for a season, bid the ol. servers farewell. Personally I tender my warmest thanks to one and all for the assistance they have given me; and I join with the Editors of this magazine in expressing our best acknowledgments, My interest in the “ Midland Naturalist ” will remain unabated, and I hope to send occasional notes in the course of my wanderings. Clement L. Wkagge. 116 THE WEATHER OF MARCH STATION. OBSERVER. RAINFALL. SHADE TEMP. 3a O u i In. i Greatest fall in 24 hours. In. 1 Date. ■•H *0 o.S Absolute Maximum. Deg| Date. Absolute Minimum. Deg.) Date. OUTPOST STATIONS. Spital Cemetery, Carlisle _ I. Cartmell, Esq., F.M.S. . . 1-42 0-52 19 7 55’7 2 13-7 9 Blackpool raj— South Shore. . C. T.Ward,Esq., B.A., F.M.S. 1-31 0-45 19, 29 9 560 4 22-8 15 Newton Beigny, Penrith (a). . T. G. Benn, Esq . 2-lH 0-72 29 12 56-6 1 16-5 9 Sovrhoroii^h {(L\ . T78 0*27 19 18 51*8 23-5 10 1-73 0*45 29 13 3 26*0 24 Cardiff (a) . \V. Adams, lisq., C.E . 0-60 0-12 19, 20 10 55-6 31 2T2 24 Altarnun, Launceston . Rev. J. Power, F.M.S . 2-jl 0-65 15 10 540 2, 6 15-0 10 Sidmouth (a) . W. T. Radford, Esq., M.D. 1-iy 0-36 29 13 55’7 5 23-7 10 Guildford . C. U. Tripp, Esq., F.M S. . . 53-0 31 17-0 11, 19 LesRuettes Brayes, Guernsey A. Collenette, Esq., F.M.S. 2-39 0-70 14 17 52-2 1 27-9 9 (a) MIDLAND STATIONS. HEREFORDSHIRE. Burghill (a) . T. A. Chapman, Esq., M.D. 0 84 0-36 19 11 56-3 30 17-2 10 SHROPSHIRE. Woolstuston . 114 0-41 19 13 52*0 30 31 19-0 q 10 Stokesayttt) . 0*98 0-29 19 12 54*8 d 5 l()-t 10 Bishop’s Castle . 1*19 0*43s 19 12 55*0 ^ 1 14*0 10 More Rectory . 1*04 0*2 S 19 10 52*0 2 4 Dowles. near Bewdley . J. M. Downing, Esq . 1-33 0-54 20 8 62-0’ 1 11-0 10, 24 WORCKSTEUSHIUK. OiTeton, near Tenbury («). . . . T. H. Davis, Esq., F.M.S. . . T38 0-47S 19 18 57-0 5 16-3 10 West Malvern . V14 0-60 19 12 54*0 30 31 19*0 23 Evesham (a) . T. J. Slatter, Esq., F.G.S... T17 0-()3 19 10 54-6 !.0 170 10 Pedmore . 1*14 19 9 50*0 31 14() Stourbridge . 1-06 0-51 19 (5 55-0 30 130 9 STAFFORDSHIRE. Rowley Regis . 1*06 19 10 49*0 30 19*0 9 Dennis, Stourbridge (a) . n Wplih . 1*04 19 13 5 30 14*0 U) Kinver . 1 1-^ l9 53*0 ’ 30 1M*9 Walsall . 1*54 0-70 19 49*0 1^*0 Lichfield . J. P. Roberts, Ksq . 144 0-(31 19 12 CTO 31 14-0 9 Wrottesley (a) . 1 O'fyri 19 52*1 30 I7‘n 10 Heath House, Cheudle (a) . . J. C. Philips, Esq., F.M.S. 1-19 0-48 19 13 54 1 4 •.iO’5 10 'lean (6) . Rev. G. 'T. Ryves, M.A., 1-26 0-47 19 14 55-0 4 15-0 10 F.M.S . Oakamoor, Churnet Valley (a) Mr.WilUams . 1-25 0-31 26 10 54-7 4 13-1 23 Beacon Stoop, Weaver HiRs(aj iVlr. James Hall . 1-38 50-2 15-5 Alstonfield . 0-89 0-43S 19 DERBYSHIRE. StonyMiddleton . 1-91 0-30 20 55-0 3 4 11-0 9, 10 Spondon . 1-23 C-39 19 12 NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. Park Hill, Nottingham (a) .. H. F. Johnson, Esq . 1-11 0-35 19 9 55’7 5 18-7 10 Streiley (aj . T. L. K. Edge, Esq . T21 0-34 19 13 5 fo 15-2 10 Hodsock Priory, Worksop (a) H. Mellish, Esq., F.M.S. . . 1-15 0-39 19 12 .55-5 80 5-3 10 ’Tuxford . J. N. Dufty, Esq., F.G.S. . . 0-84 0-23 i 10 520 31 14-0 10 RUTLANDSHIRE. Uppingham . Rev. Q. H. Mullins, M.A., 0-84 0-30 19 11 5T8 5 19-3 10 F.M.S . LEICESTERSHIRE. Loughborough (a) . W. Berridge, Esq., F.M.S.. . 0-87 0-34 19 11 50-2 4 13-1 10 Town Museum, Leicester _ J. C. Smith, Esq . 0-95 0-36 19 4 55-0 30, 31 16-0 10 Ashby Magna . Rev. Canon WiUes . 0-92 0-34S 19 11 54-0 4 Waltiiam-le-Wold . Edwin Ball, Esq . 0-93 0-28 19 14 50-0 4 170 10 Cosion Rectory, Melton (a) . . Rev. A. M. Rendell . 1-20 0-30 19 15 52-9 30 5*5 10 WARWICKSHIRE. St. Mary’s College, Oscott . . Rev. J. W. Browne . 1-28 0-63 19 5 5T6 30 18-1 10 Henley-in-Arden . T. H. G. Newton, Esq . 1-32 O'GSs 19 14 57-0 5, 30 18-0 24 Park Hill, Kenilworth (a) . . T. G. Hawley, Esq . 1-23 0-51 19 14 54-7 30 17-1 10 Kenilworth (a) . F. Slade, Esq., C.E., F.M.S. T27 O'oO 19 13 54 1 30 15-9 10 Rugby (ttj . 0-88 0-35 19 11 56-4 31 14-C 24 NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. Pitsford, Northampton . C. A. Markham, Esq . 1’35 0'35 19 14 55-0 SO 14-C 10 Towcester . 0*33 19 12 Kettering . J. Wallis, Esq . 1-22 0-30 8 12 53’0 30 •20’0 10 BEDFORDSHIRE. Bedford {(i) . 0-80 0-13 17 12 55-2 30 20-2 24 OXFORDSHIRE. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford in \ The Staff . 0-9.5 0-48 .8 9 56-2 5 20-5 24 ■WILTSHIRE. 1-29 19 10 55-2 5 18*5 24 GLOUCESTERSHIRE. Cheltenham (a) . U.Tyrer, Esq., B.A., F.M.S. 1-31 0*5 1 S 19 12 57-8 4 16-5 24 (a) At these Stations Stevenson’s Thermometer Screen is in use, and the values may be regarded as strictlY iniercomparable. (l» Gluisher s pattern of 'Thermometer Screen employed at these stations. REVIEWS - CORRESPONDENCE AND OLEANINGS. 117 Out of Doors. By the Kev. J. G. Wood. New Edition. 342 pp., 6 plates, 6 woodcuts. Price, 7s. 6d. Longmans and Co. Mr. Wood’s heart is so thoroughly in his work that in his natural history rambles, whether they be in Regent’s Park or in some rural spot, he thoroughly carries his readers with him, and makes them long for the summer-time, when they too can search for insects “ under the bark,” or study the habits of “the green crab,” the “wood ant,” or “my toads.” Of the eighteen essays included in this book we like best those on “A Sand-quarry in Winter,” and “ Our Last Hippopotamus” — a description of the (vain) attempt to rear a baby -hippo, born in the Zoological Gardens. Colin Clout's Calendar. By Grant Allen. 237 pp. Price, 6s. Chatto and Windus. Under this fanciful rustic title our new scientific prose-poet, Mr. Grant Allen, publishes a series of about forty charming essays, chiefly botanical, on such subjects as “Primrose Time,” “Clover Blooms,” “ Thistledown,” “ The Kerning of the Wheat,” etc. To all lovers of nature such a book as this ought to be a continual pleasure. Botany of Malvern. — The following plants, most of which however, must, I think, be regarded as “ introductions,” but which are new to or rare m this district. I have met with during the past year : — Myosurus minimus, Barharea prcecox, Camelina saliva var. sylvestris, Medicayo denticulata, 2Iedicayo denticulata var. apiculata, Medicayo maculata, Crepis biennU, Loliuin ternulentnm var. arvense, Ceterach officinarum. — R. F. Towndrow, Malvern Link. Cuckoo Flower. — Your correspondent (p. 84) appears to apply the name “ Cuckoo Flower ” to the Avum ! A runk macu I at uni ), &nd quotes Clare in support — “ And gaping Cuckoo Flower, with spotted, leaves, Seems blushing of the singing it has heard.” And — “ Bedlam Cowslips and Cuckoos, With f recit’d lip and hoolced nose. Growing safe near the hazel of thickets and woods.” The words I have italicised appear to apply, in the first quotation equally well, and in the second far better, to the early purple Orchis (Orchis mascula ), and, I believe, it is to this plant that the lines refer. Certain it is that here, in North Oxon, the adjoining county to Northants, I have heard Orchis mascula termed “ Cuckoo Flower,” while I never knew Arum maculatum called by any other name than “ Lords and Ladies,” which is doubtless, as your correspondent remarks, “ the most widely distributed of its many titles.” — Oliver V. Aplin, Great Bourton, near Banbury, 9th April, 1883. 118 COKEESPONDENCE - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES We Understand that Mr. Clement L. Wragge, having first reorganised the Ben Nevis observing system and arranged his museum in the new building at Stafford, intends to follow up the ocean meteorological work of the “Challenger,” under the auspices of the Scottish Meteorological Society, during a third voyage to Australia. He hopes moreover to add to his Ethnographical and General Natural History collections, and, being anxious to make the best of his travels in a scientific point of view, solicits, and will gladly receive any notes, recommendations, or suggestions, from any of the associated Societies. Address, until May 25th, Farley, near Cheadle, Staffordshire; thence, till August 1st next, O, East Mayfield, Edinburgh; and afterwards, until further notice, 9G, King* William Street, Adelaide, South Australia. BIRMINGHAIM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— Annual Meeting (adjourned)— April :ird.— The Retiring President (Mr. J. Levick) delivered his address, in which he gave some useful advice, derived from his own experience, relating to the collection, preservation, and exhibition of microscopic fresh-water life. He advocated the examination of one’s captures on the spot in order that gatherings of no value might not be taken, and showed how this could be done to a great extent with the aid of a simple pocket lens ; he observed that he had generally no difficulty in deciding as to the presence or absence of amoeboB, for example, in the gathering by that means alone, and that he had enabled many who could not find an amoeba even with the aid of a microscope to see them without one. He described his garden-pond, in which he kept an unfailing supply of such rarities as Melicerta annulata, Tubicolaria naias, CEcistes umbella, as well as Floscules, Stephanoceros, Tardigrades, Desmids, and many other microscopic organisms in abundance. Finally, he gave directions for the efficient display of these creatures beneath the microscope in all their beauty. The address, which abounded with useful hints, will be published by the Society at an early date. Biological Section— April 10th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited mosses : Tortul i muralis, var. rupes'vis (rare), T. convoluta, T, revoluta, T. aloides (local). T. unguiculata, var. apiculata (rare), Encalypta streptocarpa ; Hepaticae— PeJHn epiphiilla, Conocephalus conicus, in fine fruit ; Lichen — Usnea barbata, var. hirta (new as a record for Warwickshire), all from the Arley district ; for Dr. F. Arnold Lees, Pterygo- phyllum lueens, in fruit (rare), from near Bewdley, Worcestershire ; for Mr. J. Saunders, Luton, Brachytheciiim albicans and Gamptotliecium lutescens in fruit. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited Lichens ; Pamalina fraxinea, var. ampliata, B. fraxinea, var. fastigiata, B. farinacea, Physcia pr^mastri, P. ciliaris, Parmelia piclverulenta, P. caperata, and P, parietina, all growing on trees, from Blockley, Worcestershire. Mr. J. Morley exhibited for Mr. T. Clarke, Wild Flowers from Tanfield, on the banks of the Ure, North Riding of Yorkshire, Helleborus foetidus, Helleborus viridis, and Daphne laureola. Mr. J. F. Goode exhibited Colletonema neglectiini and VaiLcheria geminata, from Handsworth. Microscopical Meeting— April 17th.— Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Viola hirta, from Alveston pastures; Hypnwm pratense, from Earlswood (rare) ; Diplophyllum albicans, in fruit, from Chalcot ; Scapania irrigua, from Earlswood, new to Warwickshire ; also for Mr. Bolton King, Herniaria hirta, from Christchurch ; Aspar igi(s officinalis, from Waterford ; Viola Symei, from co. Clare, and other rare plants. Mr. W. G. Blatch, exhibited a species of Sclerotium, an imperfect state of a fungus, from dried stems of Hollyhocks. Mr. W. B. Grove then read a paper on “ The British Species of PilobolidJP, with a synopsis of the Eurojiean species, and a description of a new one from this district.” After speaking of REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 119 the position which the Pilobolidee hold among the Mucorini, he described the characters which separate the two genera of which that tribe consists, viz., Pilobolus and Pilaira. This was followed by a minute description of the morphology and physiology of Pilobolus, especially with reference to the forma¬ tion of the sporangium and its projection. Mr. Grove recorded an instance in which a specimen of the fungus, unier one-tenth of an inch in height, threw its sporangium by an ex^ilosive action to a distance of 4ft. lOin., and that a bell- glass, twelve inches high, beneath which some specimens were growing, Avas covered with the projected s^jorangia on all sides to the very top. He then gave a short description of the genus Pilaria, followed by a summary of the history and bibliography of the subject, and, finally, a list of the nine European species, three of which, Pilobolus occlipus, Pilobolus Kleinii, and Pilaira Cesatii, were here recorded as British for the tii’st time, and a descripCion of a new species, Pilaira inosculans, found by him in Worcestershire, near Quinton. GeoliOGICALi Section — April 24th. — Mr. J. Bagnall exhibited Viola hirta, var. florealbo (a rare form), from Wootton Wawen, and Viola sylvatica, var. Beichenbacliiana, from Preston Bagot, a new locality. Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., then gave an interesting lecture on “The Ancient Life-History of the Earth” to a large audience. The lecturer described a number of fine photographs and diagrams which were exhibited by means of the optical lantern, and consisted of views showing the chief varieties of geological action, and also a large number of sketches of the principal fossils of the Palaeozoic period. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.— March 23rd. — The members had an excursion to Gloucester. The party walked on to Whitcombe and Birdliji, then through Crauham Wood, to the Roman Camp on Spooiibed Hill, and I'eturned through Upton St. Leonard’s to Gloucester. April 4th. — Mr. D. Hooper read a paper on “ The Chemistry of the British Coinage.” After briefly describing the history of coins, he gave a full description of the processes through which they passed at the Mint, also the methods used in testing the various metals used for the coinage. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY— March 15th.— A general meeting held at the Toavii Hall, at which Mr. S. J. Newman read some notes upon “Man’s agency, direct and indirect, in exterminating some species and extending the range of others ; an agency by which thousands of different species of the animals, plants, and insects — in fact, representatives of the whole flora and fauna — are being distributed or re-distributed about the world; an agency by which one and another rare bii'd and beast or insect is becoming extinct and lost to us in its living state for ever.” All this was going on so rapidly (said the reader) that in one generation we saw vast tracts of Australia turned into sheep walks, or a thousand miles of prairie changed to a huge cornfield, or a whole country half-bared of its forests for speculating builders. Unless we were cpiick in getting precise lists of the natural habitation of the various species, and of their original geographical distribution, they would become so mixed up over the face of the globe (unless, indeed, exterminated), as to make the task of Avorking out the analogy betAA’een their structure or habits and their natural surroundings too difficult a problem to be satisfactorily solved, if not impossible. It Avas this relation of cause to effect to which Ave look for aid, and, indeed, as our sole guide in working back¬ wards the succession of life, and thus to grasp the laAvs Avhich have resulted in forming in their present state the whole animal and A^egetable life now on the world, with their countless variations of shape, colour, structure, and habits. If it were so necessary to learn the native geographical distribution of animals and plants, if Ave would understand Avhy their forms were as Ave now saw them, then it was important that the Avork should be done speedily, before the movements of man in his restless journeyings from continent to continent have disturbed too much the balance of Nature, as with his goods and chattels, his corn and cattle, he unwittingly conveys many a seed or insect to a new home, and before he has ])ortioned out all the Avorld into cornfields for foed, pasture for cattle. 120 llEPOKTS OP SOCIETIES. and forests for his wood, and when neither in Devonshire or elsewhere would be left a bit of tangled and straggling (useless, but beautiful) wild hedgerow, or a bit of virgin forest the world ovei. Mr. Newman then glanced at a few of the many changes which man’s work and movements were bringing about in our day — an influence which has been at work ever since the unknown day when Adam, in the garden, was instructed “ to dress and to keep it.” Since then more and more had every living thing been compelled to bend to man’s will until now, save in the untouched regions, strange changes in the distribution of species were going on in all the world. A series of illusti’ations of plants which have spread to various parts, especially in the New World and the Colonies, was given, and it was shown how these also introduced strange variations in the fauna. It would take too long to enumerate a tithe of the insects which had increased with the increased cultivation of their food-plants. In many other ways, too, their numbers had been affected. The clothes-moths were so exclu¬ sively attached to our woollen materials that we might wonder whether or how they existed before we provided them with house and food. And how did the mite, at present peculiar to cheese and flour, exist before cheese was made or flour ground ? Again, how did the liver-fluke perform its strange chatiges before the sheep was brought by men into localities frequented by LimncBUs triincatulus ? We might suppose the sheep brought with them the fluke, and the embryos re¬ sulting from them found the LimncBtis truncatulus the most suitable residence for their intermediate stage. Perhaps the fact that the fluke was often found in a species of snail not favourable to its proper de¬ velopment was a proof that it had not been here long enough to be quite settled in its habits. Thus we had the introduction of sheep affecting a certain snail, and no doubt in many another unlooked-for and strange way the agency of man had affected species, for ^ 11 forms of life were closely connected. Mr. Newman went on to describe some unlooked-for and unfortunate results due to mistakes in acclimatisation effoids, and also to the more direct war of extermination, giving details of the rapid decrease of many species of animals, birds, etc. In conclusion, he said these notes might serve to call attention to the way in which florae and faunae were rapidly losing their distinctive features, and how largely man is, and had been responsible for the existence, continuance, and proper balance of all life upon the earth. What would be the final result of all the changes they could not see, but there appeared to be looming a time when the diversified beauties of Nature would be irretriev¬ ably lost, and the earth would be mapped out into districts most suited for the growth of such foods as were most beneficial to man (w’hen upon this point the doctors agreed), rapid communication giving quicker interchange of produce. Strange theories had been whispered that the maze of canal-like markings and lines seen in Mars, and the land apparently massed round the more temperate zones, indicate some such advanced stage of civilisation. Mankind was yearly subduing our earth more and more to his will, and, if left to himself, man’s works would sooner or later affect for good or evil all life upon our earth.— The Rev. S. J. W. Sanders proposed a vote of thanks to the author of the paper, which was seconded by Mr. J. Eunson, and carried unanimously. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— At a recent meeting of this Society Mr. C. T. Musson read some “Notes on the Future Work of the Society,” in the course of which he pointed out that he thought the Society had not kept up to the standard of scientific work that it might have done. They ought to be able to draw up a pretty accurate list of the fauna and flora of this district of the county. He proposed to do this by means of half-day excursions. They ought to go out with some definite object in view ; this had not always been the case hitherto. — Mr. Thos. Cave, M.R C.V.S., then read an interesting paper on “ Foot and Mouth Disease,” variously known as “murrain,” “Eczema epizootica,’ “foot and mouth disease,” and “smack.” April 17th. — Mr. Charles L. Rothera B.A., read a paper entitled “ Some Physiological Relationships between Animals and Plants.” SOCIOLOGY. 121 SOCIOLOGY.* A few remarks seem called for by me on this the interesting occasion of the first meeting of “ The Sociological Section,” for the study of Mr. Herbert ■ Spencer’s system of philosophy. My difficulty is absence of ability and presence of responsibility in introducing so large a subject, and especi¬ ally the want of necessary' time for con¬ densation and co-ordination. In enthusiasm I am second to few. The raison d'etre of the Section may be best gathered from the following letter that was addressed unofficially to Mr. Herbert Spencer, Wood House, Handsworth Wood, near Birmingham, 19th March, 1883. Sir, — I hope that you will pardon this intrusion at a time when all your energies are devoted to your opus magnum. Any interruption, however trivial, must in many cases be simply an annoyance. But I trust that the exceptional circumstances under which I write may not be uninteresting to you, and my letter shall be as brief as I can make it. A few gentlemen, several of whom are members of The Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society — among the Honorary Vice-Presidents of which we have already the advantage of including your name— have resolved, with the approval of the Society, to form a section to be called “ The Sociological Section, for the study of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s system.” The proposed Section will consist chiefly of Naturalists and professional men, all of whom are interested in the Synthetic Philosophy, and sincere admirers of its author. We feel that as the Natural History Society has a very good Biological Library, including your works, together with Microscopes, Specimens, etc., and as its objects are cognate it is the most fitting home lor us. We believe that new members will be drawn to the parent Society on the formation of the new Section, out of which our ranks will be recruited, and that altogether the arrangement is a satisfactory one on both sides. We hope to make our Section attractive to thinkers who recognise the doctrine of Evolution, and we want to make it successful. If, however, the meetings only give us “a wave of pleasure,” that will be something. Our proposed plan is to meet monthly for eight or nine months in the year, to go through in turn all your writings— reading up, of course, privately in the interim — holding discussions, and having papers thereon. Not to begin with too abstruse a subject, we think that the consideration of the “Education” may profitably occupy us for May and June, and in the early autumn we hope to commence with “ First Principles.” * Abstract of an Address delivered to the Sociological Section of The Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society by W. R. Huohes, P.L.S., President of the Section, at its first meeting at the Mason College, Birmingham.— Thursday, 3rd May, 1883. 1‘22 SOCIOLOGY. My object iu addressing yon is to ask the great favour of your informing me whether you think well of our intention, and if so, can you, if you think fit, kindly give us — at any time that may be convenient to you — the benefit of any suggestions? We are modest in expecting any marked practical results from the establish¬ ment of our new Section, but we all feel “ that the character of the aggregate is determined by the characters of the units,” and we are content “ to see how comparatively little can be done, and yet to find it worth while to do that little.” I have the honour to be. Sir, Your faithful and obedient Servant, (Signed) William R. Hughes. Herbert Spencer, Esquire. The very valuable and interesting reply received from Mr. Herbert Spencer is as follows : — 38, Queen’s Gardens, Bayswater, W., March 20th, 1883. Dear Sir, — I wish that others who write to me would all assign as good a reason as that given in your letter of the 19th. The contents of it give me great satisfaction. My aims from the beginning have been directed towards the application of philosophy to the guidance of life, individual and social ; and I rejoice to perceive at length a practical recognition of the truth that Sociology must be studied from the evolutionary point of view, and that political conduct can be rightly guided only when a rational theory of Society has been established. I wish you all success in your undertaking, which cannot but result iu some good, even if but little. In respect of suggestions which you invite, I will say only that I think the growth and prosperity of any organisation is bound up with the doing of work of some kind or other. Mere receptivity will not suffice : there must be inde¬ pendent activity. In this case, where the aim is the diffusion of a doctrine, the work may properly take the form of further elaboration of its component truths by further investigation of evidence. Particular points should be taken up by individual members or groups of members, with the view of gathering together evidence bearing on them, and setting forth the conclusions. As you indicate “ Education” as one of the first objects to be dealt with, you might, in connection with it take up the alleged relations between ignorance and crime, and education and morality. There is the evidence afforded by the different com¬ munities of Europe and America. There is the evidence afforded by different classes in the same community. There is the evidence afforded by different localities in the same community. In each of these inquiries there is ample scope for effort, and great need for it. Various special questions, with the accom¬ panying suggested investigations, will arise in the course of your reading; and my belief is both that you will succeed best as a Society, and will unquestionably do most good, if, along with the discussion of principles, you carry on inquiries concerning the results of conformity and nonconformity to them. I am, faithfully yours, (Signed) Herbeet Spencer. William R. Hughes, Esq. P.S. — It occurs to me that for a Biological Society there is a class of questions specially appropriate to be taken up in connection with Sociology — I mean the modification of men’s natures consequent upon social conditions. There is a large group of inquiries to be made respecting the effects produced upon the physique by this or that kind of treatment, now tending to kill the feeble, now to preserve the feeble ; tending to check this or that disease, or to leave it its free course. There is another large class of questions concerning the mental effects of legislation of this or that kind — the fostering or the repression of this or that sentiment, and this or that intellectual power, and the consequent changes of character and capacity produced in nations by i)olitical causes. sociology. 123 Whatever may come of the establishment of this Section, I think you will all agree with me that it is a subject of great gratification to those members who constitute its nucleus that they have been honoured by the approval of Mr. Herbert Spencer in the course that they have taken. It is no small matter that in the midst of most important and absorbing work he should have recognised and encouraged us so warmly and kindly. His letter is in truth an important and original essay. It is very interesting also to state that Mr. Herbert Spencer in a subsequent letter requested to be furnished with a few copies of our formation Circular, which was addressed to the members of the Society. He says, “ Some of my American friends have taken like steps over there ; and it would be encouraging to them to find this manifestation of sympathy in their aims here also.” Need I say anything of the master himself to those who are his admiring students? Need I say anything of the eminent Englishman living among us at this time, modestly, unselfishly, and devotedly labouring, without State aid or grants from learned Societies, at the gigantic task he has set himself, of working out and co-ordinating a system of philosophy which “ he alone of British thinkers has ever attempted ” — he who has been recognised by Darwin as “ our great philosopher” — by Professor Tyndall as “the apostle of the under¬ standing ” — by Professor Huxley as “ one of the profoundest of living English philosophers ” — and' of whom George Henry Lewes “ con¬ sidered it questionable whether any thinker of finer calibre had appeared in our country.” Nor are opinions less warm abroad. Professor John Fiske, of Harvard University, the talented author of “ Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution,” states in that work “ that in power of psychological analysis Herbert Spencer has been surpassed by no thinker that ever lived, and has been rivalled only by Aristotle, Berkeley, and Kant.” Surely these encomiums are sufficient to entitle the author of the Synthetic Philosophy to the profound admiration and respect of all Naturalists who acknowledge the doctrine of evolution, and follow at a distance in the steps of his friend and co-worker, the illustrious Darwin. But a higher practical tribute to the genius of Mr. Herbert Spencer was paid by the French nation, when not long since the Minister of Instruction had his famous “ Essay on Education ” — on which alone his claim to fame might fairly rest — translated into French for gratuitous public distribution. Nor must the great American people be forgotten, for they have, I believe, expressed in a more substantial manner their recognition of the value of his writings. The enthusi¬ astic and hearty reception recently accorded to Mr. Herbert Spencer in New York is evidence of the high opinion which the Americans entertain of his worth. Why do I refer to these matters ? Matters which are perfectly well known to, and rejoiced in, by all Spencerians. Simply because I fancy that many who from want of opportunity or inclination or 124 SOCIOLOGY. other accidental causes have not made acquaintance Avith Mr. Herbert Spencer’s writings, have sometimes acquired a prejudice against them. Was noble man but made ignoble talk. He makes no friend who never made a foe. — Tennyson. To use an illustration of his own : “ While yet in its nurse’s arms, the infant, by hiding its face and crying at the sight of a stranger, shows the dawning instinct to attain safety by flying from that which is unknown and may be dangerous.” That illustration, which is doubtless very applicable to later life, is, as you are aware, from the “ Education,” and I venture to think that if we followed the example of our French neighbours and printed that Essay alone for gratuitous distribution many lives would be annually saved, and that there is not a single person of average intelligence who reads it but would in some way derive benefit from it. Whether we admit it or reject it, it cannot be doubted that Mr. Herbert Spencer’s writings are acquiring a wonderful influence in this country, on the Continent, and in America. Scarcely a newspaper or magazine can be taken up but there appears an article which borrows force from his deductions or quotes one of his aphorisms on the doctrine of evolution. “ The adaptation of the organism to its environment” — the “egoism and the altruism” — that wonderful description which he gives of life as “ the definite combination of heterogeneous changes, both simultaneous and successive, in correspondence with external co-existences and sequences ” — or simpler, “ the adjustment of internal to external relations” — are familiar in our mouths as household words. If time were not important I should be glad to quote from “ First Principles ” Mr. Herbert Spencer’s views on Keligion and Science — from the “Social Statics” his views on progress, and from the “Study of Sociology ” his views on government. But these are, of course, well known to most of the members of this Section. Of the Synthetic Philosophy, that vast system which, com¬ mencing with “ first principles” — the knowable and the unknowable — carries its students through the principles of Biology, Psychology, Sociology, and Morality (which last and greatest work of all — a portion of which only, “ The Data of Ethics,” has as yet been published — we most fervently trust its learned and gifted author may live to accomplish), gives a rational conception of the Cosmos, and applies the doctrine of evolution to all the phenomena, organic and inorganic, which go to build up our planet, time also allows me only just to allude to generally ; but I think I may paraphrase the words of Mr. Alfred Eussel Wallace applied to the author of the “Origin of Species,” and say, “ that if other principles should hereafter be discovered, or if it be proved lhat some of his subsidiary theories are wholly or partially erroneous, this very discovery can only be made by following in his (Mr. Herbert Spencer’s) steps, by adopting the method of research which he has taught us, and by largely using the rich store of material which he has collected.”* “Tropical Nature and other Essays,” by Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 253. London : Macmillan and Co., 1879. SOCIOLOGY. 125 Perhaps the most effective and appreciative criticism that has ever appeared of Mr. Herbert Speneer’s system was that given by the late Professor W. Stanley Jevons, whose untimely death is still fresh in our memories. In an article entitled “John Stuart Mill’s Philosophy Tested” in the “ Contemporary Review” for November, 1879, he said : — “ To me the Spencerian Philosophy presents itself in its main features as unquestionably true ; indeed it is already difficult to look back and imagine how philosophers could have denied of the human mind and actions what is obviously true of the animal races generally . Paley pointed out how many beautiful contrivances there are in the human form tending to our benefit. Spencer has pointed out that the Universe is one deep-laid framework for the production of such beneficent contrivances. Paley called upon us to admire such exquisite inventions as a hand or an eye. Spencer calls upon us to admire a machine, which is the most comprehensive of all machines, because it is ever engaged in inventing beneficial inven¬ tions ad infinitum. According to Mill we are little self-dependent gods fighting with a malignant and murderous power called Nature, sure one would think to be worsted in the struggle . According to Spencer, as I venture to interpret his theory, we are the latest manifestation of an all-prevailing towards the good, — the happy. Creation is not yet concluded, and there is no one of us who may not become conscious in his heart that he is no automaton, no mere lump of protoplasm, but the Creature of a Creator.”* “To Monsieur Comte,” the author of the “Positive Philosophy,” says Mr. Herbert Spencer, “ is due the credit of having set forth, with comparative definiteness, the connection between the science of life and the science of society.” He maintained that a knowledge of all the facts connected with the growth and development of individual man must be understood before the facts of the growth and development of aggregates of men — in other words, of societies — could be correctly’’ understood. In his classification of the sciences he therefore placed Biology before Sociology. For a very admirable opinion of the value of the teaching of Soci¬ ology under many of its aspects, I cannot resist quoting the observations of one of the most distinguished of living philosophers and exponents of the Doctrine of Evolution. In that memorable Address, which many of us had the good fortune to listen to, from Professor Huxley in the Town Hall on the occasion of the opening of this noble College on the 1st of October, 1880, he said at the conclusion ; — “ Within these walls the future employer and the future artizan may sojourn together for awhile, and carry through all their lives the stamp of the influence then brought to bear on them. Hence, it is not beside the mark to remind you that the prosperity of industry depends, not merely upon the ennobling of the individual character, but upon a third condition, namely, a clear understanding of the conditions of social life on the * “Contemporary Eeview,” November, 1879. ‘John Stuart Mill’s Philosophy Tested, by Professor W. Stanley J evons,’ pp. 537-8. 126 SOCIOLOGY. part of both the capitalist and the operative, and their agreement upon common principles of social action. They must learn that social phenomena are as much the expression of natural laws as any others ; that no social arrangements can be permament unless they harmonise with the requirements of social statics and dynamics ; and that in the nature of things there is an arbiter whose decisions execute themselves. “ But this knowledge is only to be obtained by the application of the methods of investigation adopted in physical researches to the investi¬ gation of the phenomena of society. Hence, I confess I should like to see one addition made to the excellent scheme of education propounded for the College, in the shape of provision for the teaching of Sociology. For though we are all agreed that party politics are to have no place in the instruction of the College, yet in this country, practically governed as it is now by universal suffrage, every man who does his duty must exercise political functions ; and if the evils which are inseparable from the good of political liberty are to be checked — if the perpetual oscillation of nations between anarchy and despotism is to be replaced by the steady march of self-restraining freedom — it will be because men will gradually bring themselves to deal with political as they now deal with scientific questions ; to be as ashamed of undue haste and partisan prejudice in the one case as in the other, and to believe that the machinery of society is at least as delicate as that of a spinning- jenny, and not more likely to be improved by the meddling of those who have not taken the trouble to master the principles of its action.” The recurrence of the word politics in Mr. Herbert Spencer’s letter and its postscript, and in the preceding reference to it, may possibly lead some to suspect that we are in some sense a political society. Such, of course, is not the case. We are all students of Sociology, and the basis of our formation is as expressed in our circular. “The Section originated in a wish to unite, for the purpose of mutual help, those who were already students of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s system, but were unknown to each other, and to introduce to the Synthetic Philosophy those already engaged in some special biological study, but as yet unfamiliar with the principles common to all departments of Natural History.” The Science of Society admits of very wide generalisations which no other science offers, and it cannot be doubted that perhaps among the many interesting questions arising out of that study. Education, Religion, Politics, Art, Science, and Literature, will all have a share of attention. Apropos of this I venture to quote a few of the conclud¬ ing words of Mr. Herbert Spencer to his work on the study of Sociology. He says : — “ And here let me point out distinctly the truth already implied, that studying Sociology scientifically leads to fairer appreciations of different parties, political, religious, and other. The conception initiated and developed by Social Science is at the same time Radical and Conservative — Radical to a degree beyond SOCIOLOGY. 127 anything which current Radicalism conceives ; Conservative to a degree beyond anything conceived by present Conservatism.”* And he goes on to point out at length — which I must not stay to trouble you with — that when there has been grasped the truth that Societies are products of evolution, then there will be realised a proper conception of such Societies, and that as Mr. Herbert Spencer says, “ thus the theory of progress, disclosed by the study of Sociology as science, is one which moderates the hopes and the fears of extreme parties.” ( To he continued. ) Note. — By the kind permission of Mr. Herbert Spencer, the Sociological Section is allowed to use on its Proceedings the Device at the head of this Address, which has been impressed at the side of the binding of the volumes of the Synthetic Philosophy since their first issue. The Device appears to indi¬ cate the evolution of life. Beneath are the crystals of the volcanic rocks which underlie all creation. Superimposed is the alluvial soil and recent mould. Springing from the latter are two forms of vegetabledife — a Cryptogam (non flowering) and a Pheiiogam (flowering) plant respectively. The last is a Dicotyledon, the highest form of vegetable life. This appears in bud, leaf, flower, and fruit. Creeping up and feeding upon the flowering plant is a larval form of invertebrate life (caterpillar) ; suspended from the central portion is the 'pupfi (chrysalis), and resting upon and crowning the flower is the imodo (perfect insecti.— W. R. H. MUBHEOOM-GEOWINCt. [This account has been furnished to the Editors by a friend who has had extraordinary success in cultivating mushrooms indoors and out, and they think some of their country readers will appreciate the publication of so successful a method.] You ask me to write you a treatise on mushroom growing ! But the subject has already been so thoroughly discussed in many of our Horticultural publications that I am afraid I can give you no fresh information, and for my pains shall only be accused of plagiarism. However, having been now for some years a tolerably successful grower, I have no right to keep the secret (?) to myself, but will try and make the system as plain to you as it is easy to me. There used to be an old theory that “ horse- dropjnngs ” were the only material of which a mushroom bed could successfully be made, and for some years I laboured under the same delusion myself, until the difficulty of procuring such a material, pure and simple, drove me to the more primitive and certainly more effective practice of using stable manure, straw and all, just as it leaves the stable — (the horses should be corn -fed, and the manure as fresh as possible). With such an appliance failure should be unknowu. The art, if I may so term it, lies in the after treatment. I am in the habit of leaving the manure, when brought and roughly forked out of the wagon, to ferment for two or three days, and then turning it some five or six times until the rank * “ The Study of Sociology,” 9th edition, p. S94, 1880, 128 MUSHROOM-GROWING. heat and smell has subsided. Each time it is turned, like good house¬ wives, we turn “ sides into middles,” and as the turning proceeds, shake in a little rubbish, such as weeds, or long grass from the bottom of an untidy fence, together with a slight sprinkling of good rich loam. This tends much to sweeten the compost, which after the turnings I have enumerated will have become what gardeners term quite “ short.” It is then in a fit state to form a bed, and we proceed thus : mark out a space in a good open situation (by no means under trees) four feet wide, and in length according to the quantity of manure ; shake it thoroughly as you go on, so that the ingredients may be well incor¬ porated, treading it firmly and beating it well with the back of the fork, so that it may be perfectly solid by the time it is finished. The best form for the bed is that of an equilateral triangle for out-door cultivation, and under cover I prefer a slight slope to a level surface. I then insert pointed sticks at intervals all over the bed, and leave it for three or four days, by which time the heat will probably be at its strongest. It is desirable that the manure during its preparation should not be exposed to much rain, as any excess of moisture is fatal to the spawn. After this we withdraw the sticks daily to feel the temperature, and as soon as it begins to decline and becomes about equal to that of milk fresh from the cow, say 70° to 80° Fahr., we insert lumps of spawn about double the size of a walnut six or eight inches apart all over the bed, “ tucking ” it in about three inches under the surface. The bed is then left for a few days, and if the heat still continues to decline gradually, it may be moulded over with good loamy garden soil, free from stones, to the depth of some three or four inches, and the work is done. I need not tell you that the beds must be kept dark, or in other words, covered with straw or dried bracken, which will protect them from cold winds and rain, as well as from being scorched by the sun, either of which would be prejudicial to success. Beds of this description may be made at any time of the year ; but for a main crop and for length of bearing we find September one of the best months, and in ordinary seasons mushrooms will appear about the beginning or middle of March following, continuing till the end of June or beginning of July. One word of caution about gathering the mushrooms. I use the word advisedly. They should be always gathered (giving them a slight twist), but never on any account should they be cut; the old stems thus left in the bed only breed insects, which prey upon the young mushrooms, and will often destroy a whole crop. Care, too, should be taken in gathering the crop not to loosen or disturb adjacent ones, as they never take root again, and only wither away. I think if you follow these simple directions you may almost insure a crop, more or less ; but some seasons are undoubtedly more favourable than others to the growth of all Fungi. I have observed them closely now for some years, and not only are they influenced by the seasons, but you will invariably find that they grow quicker and more luxuriantly when the moon is increasing than when it is decreasing. I know that frequent complaints are made of MUSHKOOM-GKOWING - PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS. 129 failures in mushroom-growing ; but these arise only from want of care in the preparation of the material, and when mushrooms are once established, or rather when their cultivation is thoroughly understood, it is astonishing in what queer places they will make their appearance from time to time. I have not unfrequently had them pushing up in quite small flower pots, when the soil in which the plants were potted had been mixed with the remnant of some old exhausted mushroom bed. Under cover, say under the stage of a greenhouse, which is a very use¬ ful* place to turn to such account during the winter, the temperature should range between 50° and 55°, but never exceed the latter, or the produce will become weak and “ spindly,” and very soon cease altogether. Close covering with some loose material will to a great extent prevent evaporation ; but should the surface of the beds become very dry, a slight syringing with salt and water is all that will be required. AN IMPEOVED SYSTEM OF AEEANGEMENT IN PEOVINCIAL MUSEUMS. BY F. T. MOTT, F.R.G.S. It will be generally admitted that the majority of provincial museums are not quite ideal either in their selection of objects, or in their method of display and arrangement. I wish to suggest a plan suitable for general adoption, by which the largest amount of informa¬ tion may be conveyed in the most attractive form, and at the least expense. For the sake of convenience let us consider what should be done in the single department of Ornithology. A provincial museum generally possesses a number of stuffed birds, but these are not generally objects of beauty and delight, and the uninstructed public walk round bewildered, making much of the spots on an Argus-pheasant, or the protuberance on the head of a hornbill, but getting little information about birds in general. It has often been urged that provincial museums should devote their attention solely to the Natural History of their respective districts. But the objections to tliis are that visitors would get too exalted a notion of the importance of the local fauna in relation to that of the whole world, and that much valuable information, only to be got from foreign forms, would be lost. It has also been recommended that while the local fauna is treated as a distinct department, there should be a typical collection of the fauna of the globe entirely separate from that of the locality. I would suggest, as the most desirable system, a combination of these two proposals, in such a way as to utilise the advantages of each without the awkward and arbitrary separation into two departments. Let a range of good 180 PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS. wall-cases be provided not less than eight feet high, three feet deep, and divided into five feet bays, each bay glazed with a single sheet of plate- glass. Let one or more of these bays be devoted to each order, according to its size and importance. On the ground line of these cases place the collection of local birds, and let the life-history of these be illustrated in the most complete and elaborate manner. The permanent residents and summer visitants should be shown (male and female) with their nest, eggs, and young, in perhaps two or three stages, set up in a pictorial manner, showing the position and materials of the nest, the manner in which the old birds provide food for the young, and the mode in which the half-fledged brood begin to seek their own living. The winter visitants should be shown (male and female only) without nest or young, and the casuals by such single specimens as can be obtained. Every specimen exhibited in this department should have been actually procured in the district, no imported or foreign skins being admitted. It would be competent for each provincial museum to work up this department very com¬ pletely, and it would be highly interesting and instructive to all visitors. Taking the ground line for the local birds, and giving it an average height of three feet six inches, let there be a clearly-marked division, not necessarily a straight line (a wavy and irregular one would be both more convenient and more artistic), but a distinct division at about that height ; and on this second stage let those birds be exhibited which are British, but have never been found in that locality. These should be shown with less pictorial elaboration, in pairs, male and female, but generally without nests or young. Above these let there be exhibited a few of the most striking and typical foreign birds, set up in a simple manner, without any pictorial details. Each order would be distinct, and there would be the best oppor¬ tunity of comparing the local birds with those of Britain generally, and of the whole world ; while a real notion of the life of birds would be conveyed by the full portraiture of those forms with which the local visitors would be most familiar. In those cases in which an order is not represented in the locality at all, an additional piece of instruction would be conveyed by leaving a blank space of say six to twelve inches on the ground line, with a printed card stating the fact that the order, Steganopocles for instance, is not represented in this locality. All specimens or groups of one species should be very distinctly labelled, and to avoid the spottiness produced by a number of white labels, the labels should be lightly tinted with some neutral and harmonious colour, or with the same colour as the ground, or tree stump, or foliage on which the group is placed ; the English name in plain black letters a quarter of an inch high, the scientific name in type of half that size, and the locality or native country, are all the particulars which should be given on the labels. A cheap popular guide-book should be prepared, giving further details. A museum arranged on this principle in all its departments of Natural History, would be novel, and would certainly have more local PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS. 131 interest than museums commonly possess. It is a system which is practicable and not too costly. Local specimens can be obtained at little expense, and a local fauna can be exhibited thoroughly and completely. It is generally wiser to do a little well than to attempt much and make a muddle of it. But when in addition to the little well done you can have all that would otherwise be inefficiently done, and lose nothing, the advantages seem to be all on one side. Objection has been taken to the suggested arrangement on artistic grounds. It has been said that the horizontal lines of division would be artistically objectionable, and that it would be more pleasing to arrange all the birds of one order in one artistic group. There is a certain truth in this, but the first object of a museum is instruction. The artistic effect will depend upon the skill of the curator, who may easily make the three irregular lines strong enough, and yet not so strong as to be objectionable ; and when the whole of an order is grouped together there is the very practical danger that he will select simply the showiest birds in order to produce an attractive effect. A Free Public Museum must be made attractive or the public will not frequent it. The object to be attained is this — to convey as large an amount of information as possible to those who can only take in its teachings by the eye as they pass along the galleries, and at the same time to make it easy for the student to get more detailed information when he requires it. The proposed arrangement might be simplified by introducing two stages only instead of three. In this case the local specimens would occupy the ground line as before, and above them would be placed selected specimens of the same order from all parts of the. world, the British forms not being separately grouped. Another modification might be adopted with the three stages by making the middle one represent, not the British forms, but those of the Palsearctic region, ill which Britain is included. The stages may be marked by difference of prevailing colour, or merely of pictorial elaboration. Nine out of ten of the visitors who pass through a museum will not give much time or thought to the study of what they see. But a good deal of information may be forced upon them by labels which they must read, by pictorial groups which tell attractive stories, and by compari¬ sons which are too obvious to be missed. But then the labels must be in bold type, and in English. Such pedantries as Pisces fiuviatiles, instead of “ Freshwater Fishes,” are simply intolerable in a popular museum. The pictorial groups must be pictures of family life, not merely rocks and grasses with single specimens stuck upright among them. In the comparisons which the public are asked to make the things to be compared must be close together, staring them in the face, not in separate cases right and left of them. The arrangement suggested above provides for all these methods of driving home the truths of Natural History into the minds of casual visitors. It is applicable to all the departments of a museum, so that PKOVINCIAL MUSEUMS. 13^2 if it were adopted a uniform plan might be carried through the collections from end to end, giving a systematic completeness which is rarely found in museums at the present time. It utilises the breaks and blank spaces in every series, making them distinct items of knowledge in a manner scarcely ever attempted, and in fact almost impossible with the usual methods of arrangement. It is an elastic system, admitting of many variations while retaining the fundamental principle, and of all really effective systems it is the least expensive, because it depends mainly upon objects procurable in the locality. That provincial museums should give primary attention to local objects is now a recognised principle among nearly all those authorities who have studied this subject. In the Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society for October, 1881, is an excellent article on Provincial Museums, by Mr. John Hopkinson, F.L.S., in which the opinions of many of the leaders of modern science are quoted, all pointing in this direction. Having recently been engaged in discussing this matter with the managers of the Leicester Museum, I took steps to ascertain the present opinion of the best authorities. Fifty printed circulars were posted to gentlemen of well-known scientific repute, mostly Fellows of the Hoyal Society, asking for their views as to whether, in provincial museums, local or general collections should receive primary attention. The whole of these fifty gentlemen were good enough to return the circular duly marked, and in many cases with notes appended enforcing and explaining their views. Forty of them were distinctly and strongly in favour of the local collections taking primary rank and being worked up to the utmost completeness. Unfortunately, however, this evidence did not prevail ; the old-fashioned system was adhered to, and the Leicester Museum has lost the opportunity of being a leader in museum reform, and a model for the Midland Counties of what present scientific opinion demands. The Derby and Nottingham Museums have made some excellent attempts at reform, hut in my judgment they are not on the whole successful. The Nottingham Museum is imperfectly lighted, and the handsome central cases, being tall and very close together, make a sort of labyrinth, in which one loses the thread of the arrangement. I hope the Birmingham Museum will take all these lessons to heart and give us the model tor which we wait. I hope also that particular at¬ tention will be given to the lighting of its rooms and galleries, both by day and night. The reflection of windows or gaslights from the glass of the cases destroys half the value of their contents. Finally, it must not be forgotten that museums should aim at a good deal more than the casual instruction of chance visitors. A model museum should be associated with a school of science, and should possess, in addition to its mounted and exhibited collections, duplicate collections of skins, etc., arranged in drawers, for removal to the lecture theatre, and tor handling and examination by students. This department is at least as important as the other. CUCKOO FLOWERS. CUCKOO FLOWEKS. It is singularly interesting to notice the many different objects of **> nature that are associated in the minds of the peasantry with the appearance of the cuckoo. In the case of plants, the fact of their flowering about the time tiiat the first note of this welcome harbinger of spring is heard usually constitutes the basis for their being designated Cuckoo flowers ; but not only plants are so associated, for there are cuckoo lambs born about the time that the bird appears ; the well-known cuckoo spit insects, and the Wryneck {Yunx torquilla) called also Cuckoo’s mate, it being alleged that the bird always accompanies the cuckoo in its migrations. The following plants have come under my notice as being so connected, but in recording them I make no pretensions to include all that are thus popularly associated with the Cuckoo by the peasantry of the Midland Counties, there being probably in other districts, at present inaccessible to me, some other plants not noticed. First stands the Kagged Kobin or Cuckoo flower {Lychnis Flos-cuculi) which has the honour of having the name Latinised, thus bearing evidence in support of the application of the term which connects it with the Cuckoo. It would appear from Miss Baker’s “ Glossary of Northamp¬ tonshire Words and Phrases ” that the appellation is extended to Lychnis diurna, and she quotes Clare in support of this assertion — “ And oft while scratching through briary woods, For tempting Cuckoo flowers and violet buds.” (See “ Village Minstrel.”) This quotation would apply with equal propriety to Orchis ma.vcM/a, which, Mr. Aplin remarks (see p. 117), is termed Cuckoo flower in North Oxfordshire, suggesting, further, that it was the plant referred to by Clare, instead of Arum maculatum. For its reference to Arum I was also indebted to Miss Baker’s Glossary, and not having before heard of its application to Orchis, took it for granted that Miss Baker was right, without inquiring particularly into the matter ; but on more mature consideration I feel convinced that Arum is not the plant referred to. Probably the difficulty of ascertaining the correct names of the plants spoken of by the rustics under these popular titles, without the oppor¬ tunity of seeing an actual specimen — the descriptions of them given by the rustics being oftentimes very vague — may have led the author into some errors, of which this is an example. The association of cuckoos with Bedlam Cowslips {Primula elatior) would lead one to expect to find the two plants in flower at the same time ; therefore, it cannot be Orchis maculata (the Spotted Orchis), whose leaves, though more distinctly blotched with purple than those of Orchis mascula, are occasionally found unspotted, and moreover, the plant does not usually flower until the cowslips have disappeared. The “ frecked lip ” and “ hooked nose ” spoken of by Clare would be far more plainly discernible in Orchis than in Arum, the spotted base of the labellum being the “ frecked lip,” and the curved spur the “ hooked nose.” \ CUCKOO FLOWERS. MU V> most common name that I have met with for Orchis mascula .^imd 0. inorio is that of “ king fingers.” If, however, we assume that Mr. Aplin is right, and Miss Baker and myself were wrong in applying the term Cuckoo flower to Arum instead of to Orchis, in the words quoted from Clare (see p. 84), it has certainly been associated with the Cuckoo for more than 200 years, the older authors, such as Culpeper and Parkinson, speaking of it as Cuckow’s point, and the Cuckow’s pintle. I have discovered that several of the local names enjoy a very limited circulation, and possibly such may be the case here. Many authors speak of Gardamine pratensis and Gardamine hirsuta as Cuckoo flowers. Personally, I do not remember having ever heard them called by any other names than those of Lady’s smock {Gardamine prafeiisf.s’) and Land cress {Gardamine hirsuta). Shakespeare says — “ When daisies pied, and violets blue, And Lady smocks all silver white. And Guckoo buis of yellow hue. Do paint the meadows with delight. The Cuckoo then on every tree sings cuckoo.” The cuckoo buds mentioned by Shakespeare are said to be the golden stars of the pilewort {Ranunculus Ficaria), and Miss Baker states that the term is extended so as to include other species of Ranunculus, such as bulbosus and acris, and probably also Galtha palustris. Here, at Hampton, I am informed that the wood sorrel {Oxalis Acetosella) is called Cuckoo flower, and also Anemone nemorosa, which is further designated Cuckoo’s maat — the broad pronunciation of meat — it being alleged that the bird feeds upon the plant. For some time past I have been engaged in recording notes on the names by which plants, birds, insects, or any other objects of nature are known among the rural population of our Midland Counties, noting also such scraps of folklore and relics of superstition as come under my notice, it having occurred to me that unless they were speedily collected the progress of education, now so liberally dis¬ pensed to our country lads and lasses, would in process of time sweep them all away, so that they would become totally lost. My present opportunities for this work are extremely limited, so that I beg to take advantage of the present occasion for soliciting assistance from other members of the Midland Union. All information that I may thus receive from other members shall be noted, and duly acknowledged, it being my intention after having collected further information on the subject to send the matter for publication in the “ Midland Naturalist.” — Robt. Rogers, Harnpton-in- Arden, Warwickshire. [Since writing the above I have extracted the following from Parkin¬ son’s “ Theatre of Plants.” Speaking of the names of the Wood Sorrel or Oxalis Acetosella, he says : — “ Of some Panis Cuculi, Cuckow- breade, eyther because the cuckowes delight to feed thereon or that it beginneth to blossome when the cuckow beginneth to utter her voyce.” — R. R.] THE FLOE A OF WAEWICKSHIRE . 185 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWEEING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from parje 107. ) COMPOSITE {continued). BIDENS. B. cernua, Linn. Noddiiu] Bur Marifiold. Native : In or near pools, ditches, and canals. Local, August, September, or later. T. Sutton Park; Middleton; pool near Maxtoke Priory; Solihull and Knowle Canal ; near Packington ; Meriden marsh ; Balsall Street, &c. TI. Oversley; Sambourne ; Middle-town, Purt. ii., .889; River Avon, Leek Wootton fields ; Bagington Bridge ; mill pool, near St. Nicholas Church, Warwick, Perry FI., 69 ; small pool, Itching- ton Holt. B. tripartita, Linn. Tripartite Bur Marigold. Native : In or near pools, canals, ’. ; Yarningale common; Henley-in-Arden ; Billesley ; Princethorpe. Var. c, Icevigatum. Rare. I. Sutton Park ; Withybrook, near Nuneaton. II. Yarningale Common ; near Chesterton Wood, 1878. Y Sbv. d, palustre, DC. In marshes. Local. I. Sutton Park ; waysides and damp pastures, Middleton ; Withy¬ brook ; Ballard’s Green ; xArley ; Hampton-in-Arden ; marshy field near Packwood Mill. II. Haseley ; Beausale Common ; Wroxall ! H. B. ; Yarningale common ; near Chesterton Wood. (To he continued. ) JtIDLAND UNION OU NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 189 MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. The Sixth Annual Meeting will be held at Tam worth ou June 12th and 1.3th, 1888. The Council will assemble on Tuesday, June 12th, at Twelve o’clock, in the Banqueting Hall of Tamworth Castle. The Annual Meeting will be held at Three o’clock p.m., in the Banqueting Hall, the President of the Union, Egbert de Hamel, Esq., in the chair. The Meeting will be opened with an address from the President, after which the reports of the Council and the Treasurer will be received. The Darwin Gold Medal for 1882, awarded last year for Zoology, will be presented to Professor A. M. Marshall, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., and W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., for their paper on the Peunatulida. Invitations from Societies in the Union for the Annual Meeting in 1884 will be considered, work for the coming year discussed, and general business transacted. At the conclusion of the meeting members will be (by the kind permission of the resident, Thomas Cooke, Esq.) conducted over the Castle, after which an inspection will be made of the ancient fortifications, the Church, the Moat House, and other points of interest in the town. Those Members who prefer Botany to Archaeology will have the option of an excursion in boats on the River Anker. The Conversazione will be held in the Town Hall on Tuesday, June 12th, from 7.30 to 10.30 in the Evening, when there will be an Exhibition of objects of general scientific interest, including a microscopical display exhibiting life from its lowest to its highest forms, together with collections representing the various branches of Natural History, Archaeology, etc. During the Evening there will be a series of short Lectures given in an adjoining room on Living Objects, Geology, and Astronomy, each subject being illustated with lantern slides. Moniimj Dress. Admission, including refreshments, 2/(5, by ticket to be obtained of the local Honorary Secretary. The holders of Conversazione Tickets will be entitled to attend the General Meeting of the Union, and the subsequent Archaeological Excursion in the Town, with the option of obtaining a ticket for either of the two Excursions on the following day. Reception Room. — The rooms of the Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society in George Street will be open as a Reception Room for the members of the Union and visitors, and letters may be addressed there. Excursions. — On Tuesday, June 12th, a party will be formed for visitors not Members of the Council to visit some of the local manu¬ factories, starting at Twelve o’clock from the Society’s Rooms. At the conclusion of the General Meeting (4.30 p.m.) members and their friends will be shown the principal objects of interest in the Town, while those who prefer the River Excursion will assemble at the same time at the Club Boat House by Bolebridge. 140 MIDLANI) union oU natural HISTOKY SOClETlLt? On Wednesday, June 13th, there will be two Excursions, viz.: one to Hartshill and the other to Lichfield and district. The Hartshill Excursion will leave for Polesworth Church and Nunnery, proceeding from here to the old Koman way called Watling Street, thence branching off to Merevale Abbey, across the Park (inspecting the newly-discovered Cambrian Rocks en route) to Bentley Common, where a short halt will be made ; the party will then proceed through Bentley Wood to Oldbury Fort, the Tumulus, Castle, and Quartzite Quarries of Hartshill, Mancetter Church, and the old Roman Station of Manduesseduni. A Luncheon or Meat Tea will be provided at Atherstone, at 4.30, from which point the party will return home by the Watling Street to Tam worth. The Lichfield Excursion will proceed to Drayton Manor, the seat of Sir Robert Peel, Bart., who has granted permission for the Members of the Union to view the celebrated Picture Gallery and American Gardens, thence along the Watling Street in a north-westerly direction to the Tumuli at Hints and Offlow, and on to the Roman Station Etocetum ; leaving here, the party will proceed to Lichfield, traversing the Icknield Street fora short distance en route. On arrival at Lichfield the Members will be conducted over the Cathedral and other objects of interest in the town. The return journey will be by Barrow Cop Hill, Whittington Heath (one of the new Military Depot Centres), to Hopwas Wood, through which the party will walk, and BO home. Tamworth will be reached in the evening by each party before 7 o’clock so as to catch the various trains. Both Excursions will start from the Castle Hotel at 9.30, and from Tamworth Railway Station Yard at 9.45 a.ni. on the morning of the 13th. The price of Tickets for each Excursion will be 10/-, including refreshments at one point during the day, and must be applied for not later than Friday, 8th June, to the local Honorary Secretary, Mr. William George Davy, Elford, Tamworth. A Note on Frogs. — On March 3rd last I observed a quantity of frog spawn in a pond, and at the same time some disgusting looking remains of frogs, chiefly legs, on some flattened rushes at a short distance from the bank. I have seen frogs fighting and squeezing each other. Is it known whether they are cannibals and eat each other ? A country¬ woman who lives near was of opinion the frogs were “ picked by the crows,” i.e. rooks, from a neighbouring rookery, but she had not actually seen them do so. The pond is frequented by waterhens, and it is possible that, being short of other food, they may have slain the frogs, leaving the legs, etc. Mr. Morris gives an instance of a waterhen killing and eating young pheasants all but the leg and wing bones. Perhaps some reader, learned in reptiles, may kuow more about the mattter. — A. E. J. C ( )HRE S PONDE NCE . 141 Prolific Rat. — I learn that in the nest of a rat, killed at the Ben Nevis Distillery, Fort William, on the 22nd instant, were found fifteen young ones. Is it not usual for the rat to have but nine at a birth ? — Clement L. Wragge, May 28th, 1883. Blue Cars. — What is the plant spoken of by Clare, the flowers of which he calls blue caps? — “ Blue caps so divinely blue, And poppies of bright scarlet hue.” MS. Poems. — R. Rogers, Hampton-in- Arden. The Blackheadek Gull. — There is scarcely a held between Barnetby and the Trent and Humber which is not the feeding ground, at this time of year, of the Blackheaded Gull {Larus ridibundus). They assemble by hundreds at the end of March to breed at the Gullerj', at Twigmore, near Brigg, and also in fewer numbers on a rabbit warren near Frodingham, and leave again at the end of June. The eggs are laid on the ground, sometimes in a slight nest of rushes, sometimes on the bare earth ; they vary very much in colour and markings. The nests are so near together that caution is necessary to avoid stepping on the eggs or young birds, and visitors can scarcely hear each other speak for the noise of the old birds screaming overhead. A keeper is employed to watch them as carefully as game, lest the eggs should be stolen and sold as being those of the plover. They are frequently seen in small flocks all the Avinter as far as thirty miles inland, feeding in wet ploughed fields. — A. E. J. Pen Pits. — I have been reading the paper by Mr. Woodward, in the May number of the “ Midland Naturalist,” on the Pen Pits. I had never heard of these pits till a month or two ago, when I met with a book called “ A Tour in Quest of Genealogy,” by a Barrister (Mr. Fenton), published in 1811. The Avriter and a friend visited the pits under the guidance of an old inhabitant of Stourton, and from his account it ap¬ pears there was the same difference of opinion then as to their use and origin as there is now, some supposing them to be quarries, and others habitations. I see the Committee report “ an entire absence of pottery or any other trace of human occupation,” while Mr. Fenton states “ that at the bottom of several of the pits querns had been found ; ” but this is only Avhat he was told, and, if true, does not prove the pits Avere dwellings — they might have been merely manufactories. If, however, the querns were worn by use it would be a different matter, and this point is worth paying attention to should further investigations be made by the Committee and querns be found. As to the question of pits generally, I suppose the safest conclusion to come to is, that some are and some are not dwellings. I cannot think that such pits as those on the top of Ingleborough, Yorkshire (where I have been), could be mere quarries. The top of the hill has been surrounded by a wall of rough stones, and the pits Avithin the enclosure have margins of the same kind. They certainly give the idea of huts, or perhaps sheds (Pens ?) for small cattle which must have been kept in the camp when an enemy was at hand. — G. H. Nevinson, Leicester. Wild Ducks at Barnetby Junction. — On April 3rd, having to wait at the above station in the north of Lincolnshire for about an hour and a half, I made my Avay, with a friend, to the large ballast pit which lies parallel to the line. I had seen from the window, as we passed in the train, a coot on the shore, and Avas anxious to get a nearer view of it if possible. The pond can be no great depth, as it is intersected in all directions by beds of reeds and rushes, except towards its southern end. 142 COKRESPONDENCE where there is a line open space. We walked cautiously along a path, next the line, and came across several pairs of coots feeding on the top of the water, croaking to each other, and often diving with a flip which was most amusing to watch. They appeared quite unconcerned at our presence ; not so several pairs of the common wild duck and two or three pairs of teal, which rose, and after wheeling round, settled at the far side of the pond, hiding among the rushes. On reaching the other end we caught sight of a pair of a different kind, which rose from amongst the reeds, hut soon settled again ; the drake was brown, with a broad white band on each side and a rather fan-shaped tail, with a blackish head ; the duck, brown and white, but not so distinctly marked. On returning a few days later I saw them again, almost in the same place, so perhaps they were preparing to build. It was sug¬ gested to me that they might he Shovellers, which species has at times been caught in a decoy at Ashby, about fourteen miles distant “ as the crow flies and the description in “Morris’s British Birds” tallies with their appearance, as far as one could judge from a limited view at a little distance. Later in the summer I hope to have an opportunity of finding out whether any of these ducks remained to breed ; they were quite indifferent to the noise of the trains, and the pond is other¬ wise very quiet, bounded on the opposite side by a bank and running stream. — A. E. J. Notks from Wokino. — Owing to the continued cold weather, but few' insects have been observed during the past month. On April 18th I heard the Cuckoo {Cuciilus canorus). Night-jar [Caprimulgus Europaus), and a, native informed me he heard the Nightingale [Philomela luscinia); but the knowledge of Natural History, or the power of observing [except their neighbour’s business) possessed by the natives about here is very small, for everyone whose attention I have called to the strange note of the Night-jar will persist in asserting that “ it ain’t the Night¬ jar, never heerd o’ that thing — it’s Frogs!” April 23rd commenced with bright sun, and very warm — Anthophora acervorum dashing about in a most frantic manner. About noon, the sky overcast, and wind bitterly cold. From 6 to 7 p.m. we had a very heavy fall of snow, which did not clear off the ground until 11 a.m. next morning ; at 3 p.m. a heavy hail storm for 10 minutes, some of the stones measuring |-inch diameter ; this gradually changed to rain, and at 7 p.m. was ac¬ companied with some sharp peals of thunder. April 26th. — I noticed a sand-bank facing south-east, from which the “ face ” had fallen away, so exposing to view numerous burrow's of some species of Andrena, but on digging I found a dead Bee, nearly fully developed, at the bottom of each burrow : no doubt the very warm weather we had in February brought the Bees on, and the hard frost which followed killed the whole colony. April 30th. — I took a beautifully marked variety of the March Crosswing [Anisopterijx cescidaria), an insect generally taken at the end of February. At 12.30 p.m. my wife called my attention to a Pond-skater [Hydrometra, lacustris) skimming about in a fountain basin in our garden, and as we had only filled it with water the previous day we concluded that this insect had flown from the Basingstoke Canal, which lies some 300 yards to our north-west, the wind blowing from that direction. I have never known this insect take such a long or high flight, having to pass over two roads with houses. Its sight too must be wonderfully keen to have seen the water in the basin which is but 4ft. 6in. in diameter. The elytra and wings of this insect are very interesting, and the peculiar arrangement of the veins or wing bones is well worth careful study. May 4th to 5th. -We had 5 degrees of frost. — Friod. Enock. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES 14H Ifprts of ^oftcttfs. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— GeneraIj Meeting. — May 1st. — Mr. Bolton exhibited PofIop7i?'(ya limbnta {SaviUo Kent’s Manual, pi. 48, fig. 5), from fresh water near Birmingham, the only previously-recorded habitats having been marine; and Clathrulina elegans, brought from U. S. A. by Mr. R. Hitchcock, together with Limnias annulatus, an unidentified rotifer, Vorticella, etc. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Mosses : — OrthotricJium rioulare, in fruit, O. saxicola, Tortula mucronata, in fruit, and Hypnum chnjsopht/Uum, all rare, from near Wootton Wawen ; Tortula latifoUa, in fruit, T. margina,ta, T. revoluta (rare', from near Sherborne, and other mosses ; Hepaticfe: — Lopliocole(t cuspiclata, from' Preston Bagot mew to Warwickshire', Metzgeria furcata, from Wootton Wawen, and other plants. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Fungi iSoiYZaWa fimeti, Nectria mammoidea, Ditioln radicati, Trarnetes serpens (Berk.), all from Sutton, and new to Warwickshire; Helrnin- thosporium subclavatum, (Sacc.), new to Britian; Ascobolus glaber and A.fnr- furaceus, from Sutton ; and on behalf of Mr. So])pitt, Dineinaspnrium graminurn, on dead grass leaves. Sociologicae Section. — May 3rd. — The first meeting of this Section of the Society, for the study of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s System of Philosophy, was held at the Mason College. The President (Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S.', occupied the chair, and there was a large attendance, including several ladies. The President explained that the new Section had originated in a wish to unite, for the purposes of mutual help, those who were already students of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s system, but were unknown to each other; and to introduce to the Synthetic Philosophy those already engaged in some special biological study, but as yet unfamiliar with the principles common to all departments of natural history. He read a letter from Mr. Herbert Spencer expressing cordial sympathy with the objects of the Section, and adding some valuable suggestions as to the course of work to be undertaken by the Section. An abstract of part of the President’s Address, together with the above-men¬ tioned letter in extenso, will be found at pp. 121-7. The President’s Address was followed by a discussion upon the first two chapters of the “ Essay on Education,” introduced by Mr. Greatheed. Mr. Greatheed warmly sympathised with Mr. Spencer in his views upon the English Public School System, and deprecated the spending of so many years in the study of the dead languages. Professor Sonnenschein thought that the “Essay on Education” overstated the case against the study of the Classics, and did not even lay sufficient stress upon the importance of modern languages. Professor Haycraft advocated specialisa¬ tion at an early stage of the school career, and Mr. S. D. Williams was strong!)’ opposed to it, urging a good general education, and afterwards specialisation. Dr. Hill agreed in the main with Mr. Spencer’s opinion that the study of Science is the most essential of all studies. Mr. Alfred Hayes (Hon. Sec.), whilst admitting its frequent abuse, defended the study of the dead languages on several grounds. After the discussion a series of slides was e.xhibited — under the superintendence of Mr. W. P. Marshall, Mr. J. E. Bagnall, and Mr. Greatheed— illustrating the cellular structure common to all forms of life. Bioeogical Section, May 8th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Hepatics — Junger- mannia inflata, in fruit (rare), Cephalozia. divaricata, Sm., irare and new to Warwickshire', both illustrated by microscopical preparations, and other hepatics; Lichens — Cladonia rangiferina, Coleshill (rare), Tarmelia olivacea, Coleshill (new to Warwickshire', and other lichens; also male and female plants of Empetrum nigrum, from Sutton I’ark. Mr. W. G. Blatch exhibited two linnet eggs, one much paler than the normal form which was taken from the same nest, and also unmarked. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited fungi — Helmin- thosporium siempliylioides (new to England, previously recorded for Scotlandi, Torula ovalispora, Coniothyrium glomerutum, Menispora ciliata, Helotimn pruinosum, Triposporium elegans (all new to Warwickshire), Teziza cyathoide i, and lieticularid unibrin i, all from Sutton ; and Ascobolus furfuraceus, from Edgbaston. Mr. A. W. Wills then read a paper u])on the “ Reclassification of the Conjugate Algie.” .\fter referring to the gradual increase in degree of 144 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. differentiation which we can trace in the vegetalffe kingdom, starting from a uniform mass of nnnucleated protoplasm, he spoke of the three classes into which the freshwater algre may be divided, viz. : — (1.) Those in which the spores are produced by changes in the contents of a single coil ; i2.) Those in which the spores originate in the union of the contents of two apparently similar cells ; (.3. 1 Those in which the spores are produced by the fertilisation of the contents of one cell by those of another dissimilar cell. The Conjugate Algee belong to the second group. He then detailed the attempt which has I’ecently been made by Dr. M. C. Cooke, to rescue the members of this group from the chaos into which they had been thrown by Continental species-mongers. A note by Dr. M. C. Cooke was then read in rei)ly to certain observations made by Mr. C. B. Plowi'ight in his paper on the “lie-classittcation of the Uredines,” read before this Society in February last. Gi-mnooicAn Skctton, May 22nd. — Mr. Mansell, jun., exhibited a rolled fragment from the red marl from Harborne, showing pseudomorphs of salt crystals, and some probable glacial scratches Mr. C. .1. Watson exhibited some fine crystals of selenite from Shotover Hill, Oxford. Mr. T. H. Waller, B.Sc., then read a very interesting and instructive paper on “ The Felspars.” He stated first the general characters of the group, and then described in detail the composition and optical isroperties of each variety, as orthoclase, albite, anorthite, oligoclase, Labradorite, etc. He also described the various methods used to distinguish them by chemical tests, and by the microscope. The paper was illustrated by many hand specimens, and by microscopical sections. The paper was highly appreciated by the members present, and was followed by a discussion, during which Mr. Allport exhibited and described some fine pseudomorphs of felspar ciystals. OXFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.— On April 27th in Uni¬ versity Museum, the first meeting of the summer term was held. Professor Westwood, IM.A., presided, and exhibited a series of Stylops, a parasite found on the Bee. Mr. Battye showed a five-leaved form of Herb Paris, from Wytham Woods, which the Secretary, Mr. Druce, said was almost the commoner form this year in the Beckley locality. A. R. B. Battye, Esq., was elected Secretary of the Ornithological Section, I'ice Rev. H. A. Macphersou, who has recently left Oxford. An abstract of the Report on North Oxfordshire Ornithology for 1882, by Mr. Oliver V. A]fiin, was read. Tlie early part of year was noticeable for its ex¬ treme mildness, and the Chifl'chaff’ (Phylloscopus rufus) was reported as staying the winter at Bodicote. Some additional localities for the Great Spotted Wood¬ pecker {Dendrocopus major) were mentioned, and also that a nestling bird was taken in a wood on the borders of the county in June. The early spring did not appear to have influenced the summer birds of passage in any great degree. The late stay of House Martins was observed — young birds being still in the nest on October 17th. The occui’rence was announced of the Fire Crested Regulus {Begulm ign icapillus) in the county (the first on record), an adult male example r.aving been captured near Banbury. Reference was made to the Crested Grebes at Clattercutt Reservoir {vide “ Midland Naturalist,” 1882, pp. 275-276) and to a Blackheaded Gull {Lotus ridihundus) shot in July. Notes on the autumn migi’ation (vide p. .57-58) were read. The young broods of Partridges varied vei’y much in different parts of the distidct. In some places the coveys were large and the birds well grown early in September, while in other small broods of undersized birds, and too often old birds entirely without encumbrances, were found. The Red Legged Partridge was certainly on the increase, and was met with not uncommonly. A Grey Phalarope (the tenth specimen on record i was procured near Banbury in December. Mr. Aplin also communicated a note on the occurrence of a Puffin (Fratercula nrctica) near Woodstock, in November, and sent to Mr. Darby alive. Also on a peculiar variety of the Mole taken at Souldern in June. The colour of this specimen appeared at first sight to be a dusky cream, but on raising the fur it was found to be of a light though pale apricot colour, each hair having a dusky tip. The colours were warmer and deeper on the lower than the upper parts. Another specimen recently ex¬ amined was of a darkish silver grey. A paper on bats by the late Frank Norton, Esq., which had been arranged am) edited by the Rev. H. A. Macphersou, was then read, and will appear in a future number of the “ Midland Naturalist.” SOCIOLOGY. 115 SOCIOLOGY.* [Continued from page 127.] Mr. Herbert Spencer has over and over again insisted on the necessity of scientific culture in general as a preparation for the study of Sociology, and above all culture of the Science of Life. He says : “ This IS more particularly requisite because the conceptions of continuity, complexity, and contingency of causation, as well as the conception of fructifying causation, are conceptions common to it and to the Science of Society. It affords a specially fit discipline, for the reason that it al'one among the sciences produces familiarity with these cardinal ideas— it alone presents the data for them in forms easily grasped, and so prepares the mind to recognise the data for them in the Social Science where they are less easily grasped though no less constantly presented . The Science of Life yields to the Science of Society certain great generalizations, without which there can be no Science of Society at all.”t It seems to me most appropriate that in Birmingham — whose motto is “ Forward” and whose progress has ever been in harmony with it— once the home of Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, one of the early pioneers of Evolution, and that in connection with a Natural History Society like ours, the oldest scientific society in the town, which has made Biology one of its principal studies, and which offers certain special facilities as regards its Library and appliances, there should be established a Section for the study of Sociology. (1.) As regards the town, I submit from numerous circumstances which I will proceed to set out : its special suitability as a centre for the study of a somewhat advanced type of Society. From its peculiar topographical position in almost the central part of England, situated on the New Red Sandstone, at an average altitude of 450ft. above the mean sea-level (a) of undulating surface, covering a large area, and not generally overcrowded (5), salubrious (c), and enjoying an immunity from (a.) According to Dr. Hill, F.I.C., the Medical Officer of Health for Biriiiingliam, in liis Keport of the Health of the Borough for 1881 : — “ The elevation of the borough, that is its height above the mean level of the sea, varies between 310 and 600 feet, the lowest point being at Saltley, and the highest at Edgbaston. This lofty position is in many respects a considerable advantage, especially when associated, as it is in the case of Birmingham, with a porous soil consisting of the upper division of the Bunter or Mottled Beds of the Trias or Upper New Bed Sandstone.” (6.) Mr. Hughes submitted a table showing the average number of persons per acre in four large towns, as follows, for the year 1881 Birmingham, (incorporated 1838) 47'78; Leeds, (16G1)14'33; Liverpool, (9th King John) 1()6'4: Manchester (1838), parliamentary limits, 61'90. Mean, 57'51. (c.) Mr. Hughes submitted a table, compiled from Dr. Hill’s Report above referred to, exhibiting the mean death-rate per 1,000 persons living in nine large * Abstract of an Address delivered to the Sociological Section of The Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society by W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., President of the Section, at its first meeting at the Mason College, Birmingham. — Thursday, 3rd May, 1883. t ” The Study of Sociology,” ninth edition, p. 322, 1880. 146 SOCIOLOGY. any serious and persistent class of epidemics ; — contiguous to a geological field of exceptional interest, and to a country remarkable for its beautiful and varied scenery, its botanical richness, and its fertile agricultural produce ; — in a county rendered famous by one of the greatest poets that any age has ever witnessed ; — in a scene of develop¬ ments in mechanical science with which are associated the names of James Watt, Matthew Boulton, and other worthies who have laid the foundation of the world’s prosperity ; — in a scene of art manu¬ factures and industries, of beauty and utility, made everywhere famous by the works of Chance, and Elkington, and Gillott, and Hardman, and Mason, and Tangye, and Winfield, and hosts of others ; — from the town being independent of any specific forms of trade such as cotton, woollen, etc., and not subject to recurrent panics or waves of depression arising out of or common to those specific forms of trade ; — from the many and varied kinds of manu¬ factures and trades which the town possesses, involving commer¬ cial relations with all parts of the globe ; — from the facilities that these several manufactures and trades give for acquiring independence of position, and with it independence of character and thought ; — from the town being within easy access of the Metropolis, but not in any way overshadowed by it, and particularly from its constituting the centre of an elaborate plexus of railway ramification, affording free and rapid communication with all parts of the Kingdom, and as a consequence bringing with it a varied and abundant food supply (d) ; — from its local water supply being both wholesome and plentiful ; — from frequent immigration from other and distant localities ; — from the town being undemoralised by antiquities or obsolete charities ; — from the number, variety, and excellence of its educational, scientific, and literary institutions (e) ; — from the perfect freedom which all religious communities possess, and the vitality displayed by them ; — from the active and energetic political and civic life which has always characterised its citizens ; — from the remarkable development in almost every direction which the town lias towns for the nine years from 1872 to 1881, both inclusive, as under : — London, 22'56; Liverpool, 27'77 ; Birmingham, 23'48; Manchester, 28'07 ; Leeds, 24‘34 ; Sheffield, 23‘57 ; Salford, 27’37 ; Newcastle, 24‘64 ; Norwich, 22‘57. Mean of twenty large towns for the same period, 2372. rcBcox and Moenchia erecia, from Yarningale Common, and Cratcegus oxyacantlioides, from Lapworth; a moss, Hijpnuvi filicinum, in fruit (rare) and an hepatic, Aneura muUifida, in fruit, both from Rowington ; a fungus, Axiricularia mesenterica, from Upper Eatington, near Stratford-on-Avon ; and a lichen, Parmelia saxatilis, Horn Oakley Wood. 3Ir. W. B. Grove exhibited the following fungi : — Lenzites hetulina, Diatrype verruccBformis, D. stigvw, P. ferruginea, Cucurbitaria cupu- laris, Uredo potentillarum, and Uromyces ficarice, from Marston Green; Pluteus cerviniis (the Ag. latus of Withering, who records it from Edgbaston), Thelephora corrugat'j, Peziza hyalina, Helotium pruinosum, Helmintliospormm folliculatum, Helicomyces roseiis, Helicocoryne viridis, Sporidesmium lepraria, Lycogala epi- deitdron, Sind Perononpora nivea, from Sutton; CEcidium depauperans, on Yiola. “Bluebell,” from Perry Barr ; and on behalf of Mr. R. M. Lloyd, Coprinus niicaceiis, and Comatriclia ty pinna, from Handsworth. Mr. F. H. Collins, F.L.S., read a note drawing attention to the necessity of gradually changing the magnifying powers of a microscope while examining any object, and thus observing it under a gradually increasing ampliiication. He explained the various methods for facilitating these changes, previously in use, and exhibited a microscope arranged with a means for readilyattaching objectives, superior to the mode usuallyadopted. The difference consists in cutting down the ordinary screw worms along three equal and equidistant segments both of the body-tube and the objective screw; then, when the objective is pushed home, a sixth part of a turn engages the screws and fixes the objective in its propei position. The altered screws will fit unaltered body-tubes, and vice versa, so that objectives will still be interchange¬ able as under the ordinary arrangement. A discussion followed, in which the President, Messrs. Levlck, Goode, Pumphrey, Hughes, and others took part. General Meeting, June 5. — Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited Lichens from the Highlands of Scotland: — Cladonia extensa, C. endivicefolia (ren'e), C. gr iciiis, C. macilenta, C.pyxulata, C.rangiferin t, C.rincialis,a,udSphcBroplioron compressinn (rare). Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Polytrichum formosvm, Salix Smitliiana, Veronica montana, Equisetum fluviatile, and other plants from Arbury Park, collected during the excursion of the Sociological Section on Saturday last. Mr. C. Pumphrey exhibited a number of specimens of Swiss, Italian, and Channel Island plants, at that time in flower in his garden. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following Fungi : — Lenzites sepiaria, Clavaria incequaJis, Pacrym yces 168 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. deliquescens, Pero7iospora Ficarice, Peziza cyathoidea, P. nivea, and P. fusca, from Sutton ; Torula pulveracea, Uredo hifrons, and Peronospora grisea, from Marston Green. Mr. W. Greatlieed then read a paper on “ Vertebrate Egg-life,” in which he gave an account of the changes which take place in the vertebrate ovum, in its development from a single cell to the organised mass of cells which constitutes the new-born young. After pointing out that in the scientific sense of the word the shell is no essential pai-t of the egg, being absent in those of frogs, snakes, fish, and mammals, he proceeded to define an egg as “ a cell amid many cells,” which, owing to some peculiarity, is to have a far more glorious destiny than its companion cells : the growth of an egg, however, must not be looked upon as essentially different from that which a bud undergoes, the process of fertilisation being merely a means by which the energy of the cell- division that constitutes growth is much increased. He then detailed the changes which take place in the germinal vesicle, the multiplication of the cells in certain definite directions, the formation of the “ primitive groove,” of the head and limbs, of the heart and the spinal chord, of the eye and the ear, and of the two coverings by which the embryo is protected from injury. He also referred to some of the more philosophical and general aspects of the deductions which can be drawn from the maxim “ That the histoi’y of the individual repeats the history of the race,” and took occasion, in passing, to refer to the great loss which science had sustained in the early death of Professor Balfour, “the second Darwin.” The Chairman (Mr. E. W. Chase i made a few comments upon the paper, which was illustrated by some microscopical sections and diagrams, kindly lent by Professor Hay craft, of the Mason College. SociOLiOGicAL Section, June 7th. — The Second meeting of this Section of the Society was held at the Mason College. The President (Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S.) occupied the chair, and there was a large attendance, including several ladies. Chapter II. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “Essay on Education” was intro¬ duced by Mr. Greatlieed. The following members took part in the discussion : — The President, Professor Sonnenschein, Dr. Hill, Messrs. Greatlieed, Cullis, Hayes, Major, Williams, Pickering, Pearson, Barratt, and Collins. An Excursion of the Section to “ Shakespeare’s Country ” was fixed for October 6th. The next meeting takes place on Thursday, July 12th, when the last two chapters of the “ Essay on Education ” will be discussed. Genebae Meeting, June 19th. — Some of the members who had attended the meeting of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies at Tamworth on the previous Tuesday and Wednesday gave an account of what took place, and a vote of thanks was passed to the Tamworth Society for the excellent measures which they had taken to render the gathering a success. Mr. W. P. Marshall exhibited the apparatus that had been prepared for the forthcoming dredging operations which the Society intends to commence at Oban at the end of June. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Pezizacochleata, Oidium chartarum ; and the following Fungi from Solihull — Peziza umhrata (Fries, not Cooke), SphcBTia acuminata, S. doliolum, Peronospora effusa, P. grisea, and Urocystis pompliolygodes ; also, on behalf of Mr. Bolton, Puccinia Betonicce from Yorkshire. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Chara fragilis, Nitella flexilis. Corex curta, Bronnis commutatus, Littorella lacustris, and Equisetum sylva- ticiim, all rare, from Earlswood ; Nardus strictn, from Baxterley Common, Equisetum maximum, from Bentley Park, and other plants. Mr. T. Clarke com¬ municated a new method of mounting animal preparations in spirits of wine, sixty-four over proof, and showed some slides which had remained for two years without suffering from evaporation. Professor Hillhouse described a similarls'' successful mode of mounting vegetable objects in glycerine which he had invented : the cell is closed by Canada balsam, dissolved in turpentine, which effectually prevents the glycerine from oozing out. The Secretary then read a paper by Mr. Thomas Bolton, P.R.M.S., in which he enumerated the “ Dis¬ coveries in Freshwater and Marine Life ” within the last four years, for which he claimed credit. These included the following species of Rhizopoda, Itifusoria, Annelida, and Entomostraca : — J?a.p7ifdfop7irt/s pallida, and B. elegans, Hyalodaphnia Kahlbergensis, Ilyocryptus sordidus, Acineta grandis, Stichotricha remex, Floscularia regalis, F. amhigua, F. coronetta, Haplobranchus cestuarinus, Nais littoralis (not found before, since its first discovery fifty years ago), Chilomonas spira lis and Hemidinium nasutam (from Sutton Park), and other rare organisms, most of them new to Great Britain, and some new to science. \ I # Map of the District referred to in Mr. Egbert de Hamel’s Presidential Address. CASfLE\RING C^BEAU\. ^DESERT ^ ol!/- trichi, from the Lickey Hills ; Ag. sericeus, from Eubery Hill ; Diatrype stigma, with its two customary parasites, Nectria episphceria and Helo- tium pruinosum. Boletus flavus, Cystopus candidus, Melampsora salicina, Polythrincium trifolii, from Earlswood ; Ag. fibula, Corticium incarna- tum, C. gUercinum, C. cinereum, from Warley Woods; Polyporus fomen- tarius, Polythrincium trifolii, from Salford Priors; Peronospora. grisea, from Bidford ; P. arborescens and Lycoperdon giganteum, from Wixford ; Ag. rimosus, from Cleeve Hill Wood ; Ag. campanulatus and Cyphella villosa, from near theHagley Road ; Baclucafilum (rare), and Puccinia Baryi (very rare), from California, Harborne ; and a lichen, Lecanora pyrace i, from Kenilworth Castle ; also (for Mr. W. H. Wilkinson), Polyporus rufescens, from Solihull ; (for Mr. R. M. Lloyd) Arcyria punicea, from Spring Hill ; and (for Mr. J. W. Bodger) Clavaria fragilis, from near Peterborough. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited a collection of plants and lichens from Earlswood; also (for Mr. S. Walliker) a piece of conglomerate from North of Ireland, on which were growing the following Lichens: — Bamalina scopulorum, Physcia parietina, Lecanora subfusca, and Verrucaria maura (Leighton). Mr. J. F. Goode exhibited a slide of marine Entomostraca, taken in the tow-net near Oban. Micboscopical Genebal Meeting, August 21st.— Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Drosera rotundifoli • , Empetrum nigrum, and other plants from Milford, near Stafford ; Pimpinella magna, Comarumpalustre, Potamogeton rufescens, P. polygonifolius, Menyanthes trifoliata, Malachmm aquaticum (all rare or local in South Warwick), from near Tile Hill ; Bussida lutea, from Middleton ; B. foetens, Lectarius pergamenus, L. cilicioides, L. camphoratus, Collybia. platyphylla, and Cantharellus cibarius, from Hurley, near Warwick. Mr. J. Levick exhibited Mimulus luteus, from the banks of the Rother, near Midhurst, Sussex. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Fungi Ag. geophyllus, Lactarius glyciosmus, Cortinarius castaneus, Marasmius ramealis. Boletus subtomentosus, Polyporus annosus, JEthalium septicum, and Monotospora megalospora, from Coleshill Pool ; Polyporus dryadeus, from Stonebridge ; Tri- phragmium ulmarice, and a substipitate form of Polyporus versicolor, from Hampton; Ag. appendiculatus, Polyporus sanguinolentus, Phlebia merismoides var. albo-marginata (Phillips), Peziza cochleata, Hypomyces aurantius and Cribraria aurantiaca from Sutton; Ag. variabilis, Ag. tener, Lactarius qiiietus, Bussula emetica, B. alutacea. Boletus flavus, B. edulis, Polyporus annosus, Isaria umbrina, and Hypoxylon coccineum, from Sutton Park ; Penicillium candidum, Peziza palearum, and Dinemasporium graminum, from the Hagley Road, Edgbaston ; Marasmius oreades, from Kenilworth Castle, and a Fungus new to Britain, Botrytis coccotricha, Saccardo, from Crackley Wood, Kenilworth ; also (for Mr. Greatheed), Phragmidium mueronatum, from Essex; i for Mr. H. T. Soppitt) Puccinia chondrillce, P. chrysosplenii, (Ecidium prenanthis, Ustilago Kiihniana, and TJ. bromivora, from Yorkshire ; and (on behalf of Mrs. Dalton, of Peterborough) a series of exquisite drawings of Fungi, which were much admired. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Caligus Stromii, from Christchurch, Hants, a parasite on salmon, which lives on the fish in salt-water, and is killed by the fresh-water, when it enters a river. THE FELSPAKS. 217 THE FELSPAES.- BY T. H. WALLER, B.A., B.SC. LOND., PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY. Among the minerals of which the so-called igneous or crystalline rocks are made up there appear certain which are distinguished from the others by their hardness, colour, and specific gravity, and which go by the general name of the Felspars. I have, however, found it impossible to formulate a definition which would include them all without giving it such wide limits as to destroy its value. Thus there are silicates of alumina and potash, or of alumina and lime, or of alumina and soda, or of alumina with any two of the other oxides. The ratios of the silica to the bases vary greatly, and the crystalline form is either monoclinic or triclinic, and the specific gravity varies between 2’57 and 2*75. I have, therefore, ventured to risk the charge of unsystematic procedure, hoping that even if we cannot exactly express in words the definition of the whole group, the differences between the various members of it, and some of the more striking characteristics, may profitably employ half-an-hour this evening, especially as there is, so far as I know, nothing in the case of minerals which answers to the natural system in Botany, and we have therefore to fall back on what we may call a Linnaean system of description. Beginning, then, with a concrete example, and taking a coarse granite,! such as there is on the table before you, we pass over the black mica scales and the transparent glassy quartz grains, and fix our attention upon the opaque white crystalline constituent of which there is so much in the specimen. We observe first of all that some of the fractures are smooth and shining, evidently such as are familiar to us as cleavage planes, and examining them a little more closely we find in any one crystal two sets of them meeting in an edge, so that the crystal can easily be broken up into prisms. The goniometer tells us that the angles of these fragments are right angles, and from this circumstance the mineral has received the name of Orthoclase, as cleaving at right angles. If now we can obtain a crystal separate from the rock and examine its shape more accurately, it becomes evident that the crystallographic system to which we must refer it is the monoclinic ; that is, there is only one plane along which we could divide it and have the two parts similar — i.e., only one plane of symmetry. If we take a rectangular block of wood and place it on a looking-glass, the reflected image will appear simply a continuation of the block, and the same would be the case whichever of the faces of the block was placed on the glass. There are, therefore, three planes * Read before the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. + From Lamorna, near Penzance. The granite contains very large white crystals of Felspar, 218 THE FELSPARS. of symmetry parallel to the three pairs of faces. But supposing that in preparing our block one pair of sides had, while still at right angles to the second pair, been inclined at some other angle to the third pair, a little consideration will show that placing the block on the glass again we shall have the reflection as a continuation of the object in only two of the six possible positions — that, therefore, there is only one plane of symmetry, and with the block worked to a proper angle this would be a model of our Felspar crystal. If now we cut slices thin enough to see through, parallel to the two cleavage planes, we shall find some differences between them as to their relation to polarised light. In both cases we find double refrac¬ tion — that is, if the polarising and analysing prisms are so placed that the field of the microscope is dark (if the prisms are crossed, as it is called), the film of crystal will, in both cases, enable light to pass through the second prism. But, now, keeping the prisms crossed, rotate the specimens on the stage- Four positions will be found in which they no longer do this, but become dark like the rest of the field of view. If now these four “ extinction ” positions are accurately com¬ pared with the positions of the Nicols prisms, it will be found that the edge formed by the two cleavages is parallel to the principal planes, as they are called, of these (that is, to the shorter diagonal of the face of the prism) in one case, and inclined to them at an angle in the other. The first of these will be found to correspond with the most perfect cleavage, the other with that in the plane of symmetry. Some of the larger crystals, when examined on the best (or basal) cleavage, will be found to be divided into two parts, shown by the fact that the cleavage on the one side makes a considerable angle with that on the other ; and where detached specimens can be observed it will be seen that the appearance is that of two thin individuals, one of them turned round half way with respect to the other, and partly penetrating each other. This is called twinning, and this particular form is the most usual in Orthoclase, and is termed the Carlsbad twin, from a locality where good examples are found. It will be seen that the rotation is not round an axis perpendicular to the faces in contact, but round one lying in it. The laws governing the twinning of crystals show that that plane, being the plane of symmetry, could not be the twinning plane, as it is called, in contradistinction to the plane of composition. It will be seen at once that merely turning these two rough models round on that plane produces no difference in shape, and neither can there be any in physical properties, seeing that these also are the same on both sides of the plane in question. In thin slices this twinning shows very strikingly by the different appearance of the two halves in polarised light, produced by the different distribution of the optical properties in them. If the section is accurately perpendicular to the plane of composition, although there will be differences of colour in most positions, still both halves will become dark at the same time. This, however, will happen but rarely, but it is important, in view of what we shall find afterwards. "THE FELSPARS. 219 to observe that when they do not become dark at the same time the two parts do not extinguish when the dividing line makes equal angles on each side with the principal sections of the Nicols. We shall often find in these sections a very indefinite extinction — i.e., the whole surface does not become equally dark all over at any possible position of the section, but takes a curious mottled look. The cause of this is not certainly known, but it has been suggested that it is owing to the crystal being compound instead of simple, built up of an extremely large number of very minute ones of another of the group, a potash felspar, but differing from Orthoclase in some important particulars. Now we shall probably soon find among the colourless, but often rather cloudy grains, which we are inclined, at the first glance, to take for the mineral we have been studying, some which, under the searching test of polarised light, show themselves to be made up of a very large number of fine bands alternately light and dark, or if the section is thick enough, alternately differently coloured. On rotating this section between crossed prisms alternate bands will be found to extinguish together and at a considerable angle at times from the position of extinction of the other ones, and this, even when the lines of junction make at the extinctions equal angles with the principal planes of the prisms. This shows that we have to do with a mineral which is not symmetrical (physically) with regard to the plane of composition of the twinning ; in fact it will be found that we have here a crystal of what is called the Triclinic system, in which, that is, the three axes are all inclined to each other, in which, therefore, no plane can be found which will divide the form into two exactly similar parts — no plane of symmetry, in fact. If the block of which I spoke earlier had not had any of its edges rectangular, it would be seen that it was impossible to find any position in which there was not an apparent break between the object and its reflected image when it was placed on the looking glass. The mineral which we have thus detected is one of the Triclinic or Plagioclase felspars, so called because if we examine the cleavages in a crystal of one of them we shall find that these are no longer at right angles to each other, but inclose an angle, measured over the edge in which they meet, of about 86 J°, varying slightly with the different sorts. The rough models before you are attempts to give visible proof of some of the exterior properties of these minerals, especially in regard to that by which we have detected them in the rock, the multiple twinning. In the first place, we find that, seeing that no face of the crystal is a plane of symmetry, we may, by simply turning one component through half a circle, keeping the corresponding planes together, produce a twinning possible according to the laws of crystals ; and, indeed, this is the commonest of all among the Triclinic felspars, and from its prevalence in Albite is called the Albite twinning. In most cases this is repeated very many times, and the models show that the result is 220 THE FELSPARS. the production on the surface (it is no longer truly a plane) of easy cleavage of a number of ridges and furrows. These are the cause of the striations visible even to the naked eye on broken surfaces of these felspars which make them frequently easy to distinguish from Ortho- clase. In the large crystal in Granite on the table an included grain of slightly different lustre is visible, and a little further observation shows the striae on it, proving that it is an inclusion of one of the Plagioclases. It is, however, to the more Basic rocks, such as Basalts, Dolerites, and Gabbros, that we must go for the most extended presence of these minerals, in contradistinction to the presence of Orthoclase in the acid rocks, such as Granite, Obsidian, and Porphyry. It must not, however, be for one instant supposed that the separation between what we may call Orthoclase and Plagioclase rocks is a sharp one. Almost all rocks which contain felspar contain a triclinic one to a greater or less extent — even Granite, as mentioned above ; and on the other hand, Orthoclase is by no means unknown, even in those rocks in which the prevailing felspar is triclinic. As to the composition of the different species which make up this group, they are naturally divided into three sections : the pure Soda felspar Albite, the pure Lime felspar Anorthite, and the mixed felspars Oligoclase, Andesin, and Lahradorite. It is still a disputed point whether these last three are really definite minerals, or only mixtures in various proportions of the other two. Szabo is convinced, by the examination of many thousands of specimens, by means of their flame reactions, that the series from Albite to Anorthite is a perfectly continous one. On the other hand, other observers consider that the compounds named are definite and invariable, and that differences of composition are at any rate, to a considerable extent, due to the interlamination of felspars of different species. Dana adduces in favour of the latter view, the fact that different felspars are frequently found intercrystallised ; that in these cases there is no appearance of indefinite shading of one into the other, but that both keep perfectly and sharply distinct. I exhibit a specimen, showing this in a striking manner. On the other hand, it is quite certain that some of them — e.g., Oligoclase — have definite optical properties, and a tolerably definite composition. But we must confess that variations are decidedly more common and larger than can be very easily accounted for. I may perhaps give an instance — Professor Heddle, in his analysis of Scotch felspars, gives one of an Oligoclase from Lairg in Sutherland. I have made one of a specimen collected by Professor Lapworth, in Sutherland, and find a very complete accordance, except that the potash is a trifle higher and the lime correspondingly lower. On cutting a thin slice parallel to the basal cleavage, the reason becomes pretty certain. The greater part of the mass is Oligoclase, extinguishing at the low angle from the twinning plane which is characteristic of it but interlaminated with it is another felspar, which by its angle of extinction is shown to be Microline. Now this latter is a potash felspar, so that its presence would THE FELSPARS. 221 necessarily tend to increase the percentage of that alkali, and correspondingly diminish the lime. It is much to be regretted that Professor Heddle has not made (or published, if he has made) observations on the microscopical and optical properties of the grand series of felspars analysed by him. They would almost certainly have afforded an immensely improved point of departure for argument as to the actual chemistry of the group. To determine what felspar we have in a rock is, unfortunately, a very difficult task, at any rate where it occurs in but small-sized crystals. Chemical analysis is very difficult in the case of such small quantities of material as are usually available, and is frequently but uncertain on account of the almost unavoidable admixture of other minerals. But two or three methods have been proposed, and of them I propose to speak, though only very briefly, seeing that to properly elucidate the subject I should have to make more experiments before you than there is time and opportunity for to-night. I the less regret this, as some time ago I read a paper, and showed experiments, on one of the methods mentioned. This, which is the one elaborated by Dr. Szabo, professor in the Univerisity of Buda-Pesth, is, in essence, a carefully arranged deter¬ mination of the fusibility in different parts of a Bunsen burner flame of particular (or at least invariable) dimensions, ‘the same operations also serving for the estimation of the percentage of the alkalis by the intensity of the flame-colouration. This method, which can be com¬ pletely carried out in about a quarter of an hour, if all goes fortunately, enables us to decide at once and easily between Orthoclase, Albite, Oligoclase, Labradorite, and Anorthite, but requires more practice and more careful observation to determine accurately the varying proportions of soda in Orthoclase (in eighteen analyses of Scotch felspar, by Dr. Heddle, this varies between O’o3 and 5*5%), the division of Andesine between Oligoclase and Labradorite, and the occurrences between this last and Anorthite, which have been called Bytownite. The best way is to compare the specimen with fragments of known composition, one on one side of the flame, the other on the other. Another plan is that of Dr. E. Boricky, depending on the facts that a dilute solution of fluosilicic acid decomposes silicates, and that the fluosilicates of several of the bases which occur most frequently in minerals crystallise in characteristic forms, and so can be detected, after the drying up of the drop of reagent, by means of the microscope. Thus Orthoclase leaves beautiful cubic and octohedral crystals of the Potash salt, and a few hexagonal prisms of the soda one. In the case of Albite the proportion of the two sorts of crystals is reversed. For the purpose of separating portions of felspar for trial by either of these methods it is very convenient to use the heavy solution of iodide of Hg. in iodide of K. which Sonstedt proposed, and which is now being much used, especially in Germany, to get out the various constituents of a rock for purposes of analysis. The solution can be got of a sp. gr. of just over three, so that felspars and quartz float THE FELSPARS. while augite sinks. By careful dilution quartz and felspars can be then separated, and even Orthoclase, from the Tri clinic ones. This is also proposed by Goldschmidt* as a very convenient and very accurate means of obtaining the sp. gr. of the constituent minerals of a rock even when only one or two grains can be detached, for if the dilution be carried so far that the fragment remains suspended anywhere indifferently in the fluid the sp. gr. of the solid and that of fluid must be equal, and may be easily determined in the case of the latter by means of the sp. gr. bottle. The optical method of determining what is the particular felspar in a rock is founded on the fact that the position of the optic axes with respect to those of form varies in the different species. Of course Orthoclase is distinguished from the Plagioclases by its mono¬ clinic symmetry — i.e., in a section of a rock some crystal sections will probably be found in which “extinction” happens when the com¬ position line of the twin structure is parallel to the principal plane of one of the Nicols. It is, however, the discrimination of the Triclinic specifics which is so difficult, and in many cases quite impossible. We have to pick out in the section those cr3'stal sections which extinguish at equal angles on both sides the Nicol plane, and then measure this angle in as many cases as we can find. Now symmetrical extinctions only show that the plane of section has accidentally passed through the crystal perpendicular to the twinning plane, and therefore the extinction angle may vary within wide limits, and it is only by noticing the maximum angle that we can form any conclusion whatever ; f e.g., in trying to determine a felspar a short time ago I found an extinction of 16° on one side and 17|° on the other — i.e., 33|° from one to the other. Now if I had only been able to find this one tolerably symmetrical extinction I could not have told which felspar it was. It would probably not have been Albite, seeing that the angle in that case should not have exceeded 31^°, but I could have gone no further. When, however, I found further angles of 44°, 48°, 53J°, 54°, 56°, 58°, 66°, 71°, 73°, there was enough to assure me of the presence of a very basic Lime felspar, and the observation of one grain showing the zonal structure to be presently mentioned with an extinction angle of 48° in some parts and of 82° in others, made the presence of bothLabradorite and Anorthite almost a certainty. In this case a large number of observa¬ tions could he made, and therefore such a degree of probability produced that I was not at all surprised to find the observations quite confirmed by Szabo’s flame reactions, some of the grains which I was able to detach being much more fusible than others, and all * Neues Jahrbuch I., 1831. Beilage Band, p. 179. + The following table of the angle between the extinction positions of two Twin Lamellae in the various Felspars may be of service. The section is supposed perpendicular to the plane of twin composition, and the angle given is the maximum observable for each species: — Orthoclase, 0° ; Microcline, 36°; Albite, 31^°; Oligoclase, 37° ; Labradorite, 621°; Anorthite, 741° and upwards. In sections parallel to the Basal cleavage : — Microcline, 30°— 32° : Albite, 7“— 8° Oligoclase, 2°— 3° ; Labradorite, 10°— 141° ; Anorthite, 57°— -74°. THE FELSPARS. 223 showing a low alkali percentage — i.e., the presence of the two most basic Lime felspars. But the essential condition of obtaining any satisfactory result is the possibility of finding many symmetrical extinctions, and even then Dr. Becke, who has studied this a good deal, says that the division and discrimination leaves much to be desired, and should only be relied on in default of more certain methods. The optical method, however, is quite trustworthy and accurate when it can be applied to fragments obtained by cleavage and placed in definite directions in the field of the microscope. But this naturally demands a certain size in the crystals, so that manageable pieces may be detached. As an example, I may mention that in a north country dyke large clear glassy felspar crystals occur, which my friend Mr. Teall determined optically as Anorthite, the determination being fully borne out by a subsequent chemical analysis. Passing now to the general features, common to all the different species of Felspar, there is not much that is characteristic, at any rate microscopically. According to the rock in which they occur, they are found to enclose the various minerals associated with them, and, in addition, portions of the ground mass or glassy base, where this occurs, and sometimes, though rarely, the so-called water cavities — i.e., little drops of water shut in by the growing crystal. These inclusions are very frequently arranged in bands round the outline of the section of the crystal, showing that during the time it was forming changes of condition took place, and this is also strikingly shown by the Zonal structure, as it is called, even when there are no inclosures to accentuate it and make it visible without polarised light. A crystal showing this typically does not extinguish all over its extent in any one position between crossed prisms, but bands, more or less nearly following the outline of the grain, become dark, and on continuing the rotation, the extinction passes to other bands, showing, according to the optical method mentioned just now, a difference of composition from band to band. Some felspars are particularly beautiful minerals, on account of, the play of colours they exhibit. In addition to the beautiful green amazon stone from various localities, which is remarkable as being a pure Potash felspar, and yet Triclinic, we have the Aventurine or Sun Stone of Norway; Oligoclase, with extraordinarily delicate flakes of a mineral which is probably Hematite, and the well-known Labradorite from Paul Island, Labrador, with its exquisite play of blues and greens, which is also due to inclusions in its substance, though the nature of them is at present quite a matter of dispute. Those who went to Oxford the other day saw in the new schools a beautiful piece set in amongst the marbles of the staircase, and in the Museum is a fine slab of considerably larger dimensions. I am sorry that I can show you to-night only small specimens, but there is a case of beautiful polished specimens in the Corporation Art Gallery which will well repay a visit and examination. 224 THE FELSPARS. The course of the decomposition of these minerals is most generally by the washing out of the alkaline silicates, and the consequent formation of Kaolin when pure, or of Clay when less so. The China Clay industry of Devon and Cornwall is, as you are well aware, an extremely important one, and the processes of washing, settling, and drying are very interesting to witness, not least perhaps as proving the great length of time that fine particles may remain suspended in water, and the beautiful green colour which is produced by the multitudinous reflections from them while so suspended. In some other cases the decomposition of felspar seems to have resulted in its complete removal— e./;., in the so-called Serpentine of Clicker Tor, by Menheniot, near Liskeard, the original presence of felspar is proved by its still existing where it was completely inclosed by the Augite, which is very little, if at all, changed, and by the forms of the spaces where it indented this mineral, but in the Serpentine of the rock there is no trace of it at all. In the change of the Olivine to Serpentine the felspar has utterly disappeared. In other cases Zeolites and Potash Mica, with the Tridymite form of Silica, result from the decomposition of Orthoclase, while in the case of the Lime felspars, as Labradorite and Anorthite, the curious aggregate called Saussurite, or False Jade, is perhaps as common as any form of alteration product. The analyses show that there is very often a percentage of ferrous oxide or magnesia, which can only be accounted for by supposing a simultaneous alteration of the Pyroxene or Horneblende associated with it, and a mixture of the products. I have omitted a good many points which would have been of interest if they could have been properly exhibited to you. In particular, I should have liked to have spoken rather more of the different twinning systems prevalent, and of the compound twinnings which produce such curious appearances of gratings in. polarised light. The minute crystals, too, in some Obsidians, which have some claim to be thought incipient Orthoclase, and the curious structural peculiarities of some of the massive forms, but this paper, although but superficial and cursory in the treatment of the subject, has already extended to quite as great a length as I can reasonably ask you to listen to, so I will conclude by referring those who wish to inquire further into the subject to — Geikie’s Text-book of Geology. Green’s Physical Geology, where there is a good resume of the optical properties of the various felspars. Kutley’s Study of Rocks. Bauerman’s Systematic Mineralogy, for some information on the crystallography and twinning. Zirkel’s Die Mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Mineralien und Gesteine. Rosenbusch’s Mikroskopische Physiographie der petrographisch wichtigen Mineralien, DR. BUCKLAND AND THE GLACIAL THEORY. 225 Szabo's Eine neue Methode die Felspathe auch in Gesteinen zu bestimmen. Boricky’s Pamphlet on the method of discrimination by the use of Hydrofluosilicic Acid. (The last four in German.) Fouque and Levy’s grand book on Microscopic Petrology “ Les Roches Eruptives de la France.” DR. BUCKLAND AND THE GLACIAL THEORY. The following notes of a discussion that took place at a meeting of the Geological Society of London, on November 18th, 1840, were made by my father, the late Dr. S. P. Woodward, at that time sub-curator to the Society. The discussion followed the reading of the first part of a “ Memoir on the Evidences of Glaciers in Scotland and the North of England,” by the Rev. Professor Buckland, D.D., Pres. G.S., com¬ menced on the 4th of November, resumed and concluded on the 18th of the same month.* At the previous meeting Professor Agassiz, then of Neuchatel, had communicated his celebrated paper on Glaciers, and the evidence of their having once existed in Scotland, Ireland, and England ; and in explanation of the subject it maybe best to quote the following paragraphs from “The Proceedings of the Geological Society ” (vol. iii., pp. 332, 333), in which abstracts of these Memoirs appeared. H. B. W. “ Dr. Buckland’s attention was first directed by Professor Agassiz, in October, 1838, to the phsenomena of polished, striated, and furrowed surfaces on the south-east slope of the Jura, near Neuchatel, as well as to the transport of the erratic boulders on the Jura, as the effects of ice ; but it was not until he had devoted some days to the examination of actual glaciers in the Alps, that he acquiesced in the correctness of Professor Agassiz’s theory relative to Switzerland. On his return to Neuchatel from the glaciers of Rosenlaui and Grindelwald he informed M. Agassiz that he had noticed in Scotland and England phaenomena similar to those he had just examined, but which he had attributed to diluvial action ; thus in 1811 he had observed on the head rocks on the left side of the gorge of the Tay, near Dunkeld, rounded and polished surfaces ; and in 1824, in company with Mr. Lyell, grooves and striae on granite rocks near the east base of Ben Nevis. About the same time Sir George Mackenzie pointed out to the author in a valley near the base of Ben Wyvis, a high ridge of gravel, laid obliquely across, in a manner inexplicable by any action of water, but in which, after his examination of the effects of glaciers in Switzerland, he recognizes the form and condition of a moraine. * The reading of a paper on “ The Geological Evidence of the Former Existence of Glaciers in Forfarshire,” by Charles Lyell, jun., Esq., F.E.S., etc., was commenced at this meeting. 226 DR. BUCKLAND AND THE G-LACIAL THEORY. “ After these general remarks, Dr, Buckland proceeds to describe the evidence of glaciers observed by him in Scotland last autumn, partly before and partly after an excursion, in company with Professor Agassiz ; but he forbears to dwell on the pbsenomena of parallel terraces, though he is convinced that they are the effects of lakes produced by glaciers.” The following discussion then took place* : — Mr. Murchison called upon the mathematicians and physical geographers present to speak of the objections to Dr. Buckland’s glacial hypothesis — himself should attend only to the facts of the case. Of the scratches and polish on the surface of certain rocks there is no doubt, and “Are glaciers the cause?” is the question. Could they be done by ice alone? If we apply it to any as the necessary cause, the day will come when we shall apply it to all. Highgate Hill will be regarded as the seat of a glacier, and Hyde Park and Belgrave Square will be the scene of its influence. Dr. Buckland has in his paper assumed that all these heaps of diluvium are moraines ; but I would rather examine the subject under the old name Diluvium, and with our old ideas of diluvial action, than by using the term moraines assume the question proved. On Schiehalliou there are . . . . rocks. If Schiehallion had been covered with glaciers there ought to be some. ... If the height be great the result should be proportionate. There ought to be a co-ordinate relation in the phenomena. But in the Highland mountains, not one-third the elevation of the Alps, we have moraines two or three times the magnitude of any known in Switzerland. Formerly, when we found traces of fragmented rocks disposed around a mountain, we attributed them to the successive periods of elevation in that mountain. The parallel roads of Glen Roy were compared to sea-beaches ; now all are attributed to the action of ice. And not only these, but Edinburgh ' and Stirling, and other places equally out of the reach of such actions, did glaciers ever exist in the higher chains, are to be covered with a mass of ice ! These grooved and striated surfaces and heaps of boulders are also to be found in Scandinavia, on the east of the Gulf of Bothnia, all proceeding from the north and north-west. Have these crossed the gulf on ice? In Russia, too, we shall find them where there are no mountains. And if we look to the remains of marine shells found in beds elevated, differing in no respect from those in our present seas, except that they are called “Pleistocene” (by James Smith and Lyell), we have proof of a lower elevation at the very time (the period following upon the more tropical epochs), when these glaciers should be introduced. On these accounts I am still contented to retain our old ideas, that when a mountain was elevated. *■ I insert one or two remarks in square brackets to complete the sense of the observations; otherwise the discussion is an exact copy of my father’s notes,— H. B. W, DR. BUCKLAND AND THE GLACIAL THEORY. 227 or a body of water passed over a series of elevations, the diluvium would descend with the strike and be disposed in mounds and terraces according to the direction of currents, etc. Professor Agassiz. — Mr. Murchison has objected to the glacial theory in the only way in which it could be objected to. He allows that the whole is granted as soon as you grant a little bit. For here, as in other cases, we argue from what is proved, to what is to be proved. In Switzerland the action of glaciers is yearly seen by thousands of foreigners, and of these facts there can be no doubt, [nor as to the former] extent of glaciers. In the glacier de I’Aar, grooves, etc., are to be found in the valley 7 leagues (22 miles) from the end of the present glaciers. Did we find these surfaces only on the hard rocks, we might suppose they were merely uncovered by the action of the glaciers ; but on the soft limestone rocks these grooves are only to be seen on the surfaces from which the glacier has just retreated. Many glaciers traverse such rocks only’ (equivalents of our Lias), and there the grooves are annually renewed in winter, and removed by the atmospheric action in summer. I have been many hundred feet under the glacier of Monte Rosa, and found the quartzose sand forming a bed beneath, and acting like emery upon the rocks. A moraine may be distinguished by certain characters from other any accumulation of fragmented rocks. From the sides of the glaciers moving faster than the middle, there is a continual tendency to throw the fragments into lines at the sides (lateral moraines), and when two glaciers descending from different gorges unite, a medial moraine is formed. The lateral [moraines] are exposed to constant friction with the rocks with which they are brought in contact, and their terminations are passed over by the whole mass of the glacier, so that they become rounded and striated ; whilst the medial moraines, remaining on the surface, continue angular. When the glacier retreats in the summer, the medial moraine, composed of angular fragments, is spread out over the surface of the lateral and terminal moraines, composed of rounded fragments ; and it is by these characters that we have proved the existence of moraines in Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England. There are moraines in the Alps 200 feet wide, composed of boulders several feet in diameter. Mr. Lyell spoke of the size of moraines, and the way in which they might, under certain circumstances, attain any magnitude. A glacier has been known to retire half a mile in a single summer, [a number of] moraines have been in succession left, and in severe winters all these might be driven successively into one by the down¬ ward motion of a glacier. Mr. Grebnough spoke of the arguments derivable from analogy, etc., and objected to the mode in which the Geological Society was in the habit of accounting for phenomena. Instances of accumulations of travelled rocks [occur in] North Germany ; from a careful com¬ parison some of these must have crossed the Baltic. In the valleys of 228 DR. BUCKLAND and the GLACTAL THEORY. Switzerland some deposits must have crossed Lake Geneva, and ascended very high mountains. Does Profossor Agassiz suppose that the Lake of Geneva was occupied by a glacier 3,000 feet thick? (Agassiz. — “ At least ! ”) [Mr. Greenough then referred to the] Changes of climate necessary to account for these phenomena [and to the] objection from the tropical nature of remains in recent deposits. [He considered it to be the] climax of absurdity in geological opinions. In one period, the Crag, we have three opposite conditions blended : Corals, Tropical ; Peat, Temperate ; Shells, pronounced by Dr. Beck, Arctic ! Mr. Lyell. — Mr. Greenough confuses four distinct epochs under the name of Crag. The first comparatively tropical (Coralline Crag), the others temperate (Bed and Norwich Crag), and the period of the peat bogs (Lacustrine deposits) more recent than any. Mr. John Edward Gray. — The corals of the Crag appear to me as Arctic as the shells. I know no reason for making them tropical. Mr. Greenough [remarked] on the size of the blocks on mountains, the agency of floating ice, and on mountains as the physical boundaries of different kinds of diluvium. Dr. Mitchell enquired if Dr. Buckland confined the glaciers to the Highlands or whether he made them descend to the Lowlands. Dr. Buckland expressed himself ready to answer any question on the subject under discussion, or any involved in his paper, but con¬ sidered the present question irrelevant. Dr. Mitchell considered his question relevant to the subject. Dr. Buckland rose to reply, but Mr. Whbwell rose (cheers and “Mr. Whewell!”) Mr. Whewell. — At this late hour it is impossible to go into the ques¬ tion of the physical changes necessary to allow of the existence of glaciers in this country. I shall, therefore, confine my remarks to the subject as discussed this evening, and it does appear to me that the way in which Mr. Lyell has treated it is not the most fair and legitimate. He says, “If we do not allow the action of glaciers, how shall we account for these appearances ? ” This is not the way in which we should be called upon to receive a theory. Now it is not within our reach at present to refer each set of phenomena in geology to its adequate cause, but that is no reason why we should receive any theory that is offered to account for it. This glacial theory is brought forward to explain what has hitherto, to a great extent, been found inexplicable — the nature and position of diluvial detritus over considerable areas and in widely different climates. So far as it is founded on strict comparison and analogy, it is to be received ; but we must not overrate its influence ; and it appears to me incomplete in three important particulars : — Firstly, in accounting for such an extent of diluvium over such wide areas, in countries of such DR. BUCKLAND AND THE GLACIAL THEORY. 229 opposite physical structure, surface, climate, etc. Secondly [from the] marine remains of the glacial period, showing the continents to be submerged. Mr. Darwin has described an island capped with snow in the equivalent latitude of Yorkshire, and by supposing an equal extent of water in our Polar regions, we might induce a degree of cold sufficient for that ; but these glacial phenomena are found over too wide an extent to allow of that. (Mr. Lyell — “I have attempted to account for that in my paper ” — here interrupted. Mr. Buckland — “ So have I in a paper which is not yet written ! ”) Mr. Whewell, continuing — Our attention to-night is limited to Dr. Buckland’s paper. Thirdly, the physical conditions under which glaciers now exist. We find them universally stretching out from lofty mountain-chains, which take their rise in warm climates, so as to allow of the downward motion and the retiring in summer. Mr. Lyell speaks of the prodigiously rapid retreat of a glacier which amounted to half a mile in a single summer. But where shall we obtain mountains fulcra for glaciers, stretching many leagues into the plains, producing such results as are ascribed to their action in Scotland ? Dr. Buckland resigned the chair to Mr. Greenough, and argued the a priori credit to be attached to his “narrative,” from the circum¬ stance of his having been a “ sturdy ” opponent of Professor Agassiz when he first broached the glacial theory, and having set out from Neuchatel with the determination of confounding and ridiculing the Professor. But he went and saw all these things, and returned converted. And he considered the testimony of four such competent observers as himself, and Agassiz, and Benouard, and . . . who, next to Saussure, had spent more time in the Alps than any other geologist, sufficient to prove to all the truth of their observations, and the correctness of their inferences. He referred to Professor Agassiz’s book, and condemned the tone in which Mr. Murchison had spoken of the “beautiful” terms employed by the Professor to designate the glacial phenomena. That highly expressive phrase “ roches moutonnes,” which he had done so well to revive, and that other “beautiful designation,” the glacier remanie ! remanie! remanie ! continued the Doctor most impressively, amidst the cheers of the delighted assembly, who were by this time elevated by the hopes of soon getting some tea (it was a quarter to twelve p.m.), and excited by the critical acumen and antiquarian allusions and philological lore poured forth by the learned Doctor, who, after a lengthened and fearful exposition of the doctrines and discipline of the glacial theory, concluded — not as we expected, by lowering his voice to a well-bred whisper, “Now to,” etc., — but with a look and tone of triumph he pronounced upon his opponents who dared to question the orthodoxy of the scratches, and grooves, and polished surfaces of the glacial mountains (when they should come to be d - d) the pains of eternal itch, without the privilege of scratching 1 230 GLACIAL MARKINGS IN THE RED MARL. GLACIAL MARKINGS IN THE RED MARL.- By a. H. Atkins, B.Sc. For some time past the attention of local geologists has been directed to the marks of Glacial action in the Midland Counties. Their efforts tend to prove that the traces of the Glacial epoch extend as far south as Birmingham at least, and that either a sheet of ice covered this neighbourhood, or else a number of ice-covered islands lay in the midst of an extensive Glacial sea. As is well known, the most common traces of ice action consist of roches moutounees, scratches on the rocks, and boulder clay containing striated and polished pebbles and boulders. The former evidences are scarcely possible near Bir¬ mingham, where all the rocks are too soft to receive or retain such markings. At the Rowley Hills, however. Dr. Crosskey has discovered large blocks of basalt striated in a manner which points to the action of ice. Of the latter traces — viz., Boulder Clay, etc. — the best section in this locality is to be seen at California, near Harborne, where there is a thick bed of tenacious clay, containing fragments of all sizes most perfectly scratched and polished, which also show in which direc¬ tion they have travelled, for among them may be found fragments of basalt, limestone coal-shale, limestone, slate, and in fact almost all the rocks which occur in situ between here and North Wales. Patches of a similar clay may be met with in other localities, as, for instance, Wash wood Heath and Tysull. In almost every case it is accompanied and interbedded with masses of Drift, and there seems no doubt that these latter beds were deposited at about the same period. This paper, however, as the title intimates, bears more especially on the traces found in the Red Marl, the uppermost division of the Trias formation. This bed extends southward from Birmingham to Warwick and Stratford, and consists of marl interstratified with characteristic layers of brown sandstone and white or grey shale. These bands contain in abundance ripple markings, rain-drop impressions, and pseudomorphs of salt crystals, which, together with the beds of rock salt and gypsum which occur in this formation, show that it was deposited in a great continental salt lake, like the Dead Sea of the present era. The Boulder Clay is not, at first sight, easily distinguishable from the Red Marl, but a close investigation will show that there is often a top layer of clay of very much better quality, commercially speaking, than the Red Marl below ; a fact of which the brickmakers of the district are well aware. Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., first called attention to a section at Small Heath, where the white bands of the Red Marl were * Abstract of Paper read before the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, 23rd January, 1883. GLACIAL MAEKINGS IN THE KED MARL. 231 contorted in a remarkable manner, as if they had been subjected to an intense grinding action, and this peculiarity I have noticed to be very common in the neighbourhood. The section, however, to which I especially wish to call attention occurs near Small Heath, at Mr. Sames’s brickworks, situated at the junction of Garrison Lane and Cattell Eoad. When I first saw the pit I put it down as merely a section of red marl, but a closer inspec¬ tion revealed many points of interest, and that the lower part only is red marl, with the usual bands of white shale. Above this is a layer about three feet in thickness of an unusually hard shale or sand¬ stone, called by the brickmakers roche, and surmounting all a bed of very tenacious clay which varies in thickness according to the surface, but in its deepest part is about thirty feet, including about four or five feet of soil and gravel. The dip of the beds is about 5° S.S.E., and they are faulted shortly afterwards against the waterstones, the next lower division of the Trias formation. The I fault runs right through the town, extending in fact from Barnt Green to Sutton Coldfield. The hard band is not found else¬ where in the neighbourhood, which is probably owing to the slight dip and the fact that this clay pit is situated on the highest point in the immediate locality. The height is in fact 430ft. above mean sea-level, while the next elevation near is only 420ft., the hard band indeed determining the escarpment which runs for some distance as a steep hill overlooking the whole town of Birmingham. The clay above the hard band contains some of the grey bands, but much twisted and broken. It is of a very different quality from the red marl, and bricks made from it fetch twice the price of those made from the latter. Dr. A. Hill has very kindly made for me a chemical analysis of the different beds, which I reproduce here : — Red Marl. Hard Band. Boulder Clay Silica .. 63-07 37-55 54-38 Peroxide of Iron . . . . 8-30 4-82 15-65 Alumina .. 10-54 8-16 16-58 Calcium Carbonate . . 4-53 25-80 1-02 Magnesium Carbonate . . 9-05 13-29 7-27 Potash .. 1-26 3-05 4-47 Sodsi • • • • • • . . 0-48 0-04 0-15 Water . . 3-43 6-99 0-94 100-66 99-70 100-46 This analysis shows a considerable difference in the percentages of silica, and alumina in the Bed Marl and Boulder Clay, when we take into consideration the fact that the samples were taken from the same section, but it is uncertain whether the discrepancy can be attributed to the results of Glacial action. There is a remarkable difference in the proportions of the soluble constituents, which might possibly be caused by the dissolving out of these substances during the rearrangement of the strata. We cannot learn much, however, from 232 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. a single analysis, but I think if more analyses of the rocks in the district were made, and the results compared, considerable light would be thrown on the mode of their formation and the altera¬ tions they have undergone. The most remarkable fact connected with the section, however, is found at the top of the hard band. In removing the top layer of clay the workmen made a sort of platform, which Mr. Harper, the manager, pointed out to me, and kindly had left for my inspection. When the clay is removed the surface of the rock is found to be beautifully smoothed and polished, which appears to me to point very strongly to glacier action. The only other probable cause is the slipping of the clay above, but the very slight angle of dip seems to preclude this. On the whole the difference in the composition of the layers, the contorted strata, and the polishing of the rock surface, indicate the action of ice, and I think a more rigid investigation of the whole district would tend to confirm this theory. I have brought the subject forward thus early, and in a rather crude form, in the hope that some of the readers of the “ Midland Naturalist” may give the results of their researches, or be induced to pay a little attention to the matter. The field is a wide one, and it is probable that many more data may be obtained not only on the Red Marl, but throughout the district, which will help us to complete the history of the G-reat Ice Age, especially as it affects the Midland Counties. In conclusion, I may mention that in another neighbouring clay pit, at the Adderley Park Brick Works, the clay above the marl is very tenacious and of good quality, but it contains numerous pockets of sand and pebbles. At this pit also is a curious little fracture in the Red Marl which has raised the grey bands in a sort of pucker about six inches high. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from page 212.) GENTIANAGE^. ERYTHR.ff:A. E. Centaurium, Pers. Common Centaury. Native : On banks, waysides, pastures, and woods. Locally common. June to August. I. Middleton ; Shustoke ; Maxtoke ; Solihull ; Knowle ; Marston Green ; Dukesbridge, etc. II. Wellesbourn, Heri. Pern/ ; Salford! Rev. J. C.; Harbury Heath; Alveston pastures ; Marl Cliff ; Billesley ; Austey Wood, near Wootton Wawen ; Lapworth ; Meriden. E. pulchella. Fries. Slender Centaury. Native : In pastures in calcareous soils. Very rare. July. II. Moreton Morrell, H.B. ! THE flora of WARWICKSHIRE. 233 CHLORA. C. perfoliata, Linn. Yellow Centaury. Native: In wood and on waysides in calcareous or marly soils. July, August. I. Plentiful on Galley Common near Nuneaton, J. F. in B. G. II. Great Alne ! Grafton! near Rolls Wood I PurL, i.,194; Wliitnash pastures, Herb. Perry ; Billesley ! near Alcester, Blox., N.B.G.S. ; Bidford! Bree, N.B.G.; Chesterton I Y.andB.; Lodge Woods, Salford, Rev. J. G.; Compton Verney ! Bolton King; near Fullbrook, near Stratford-on-Avon, Herb. Perry; near Adming- ion, F. Townsend ; Marl Cliff ; Drayton bushes ; Bearley Canal bank; Austey Wood, Wootton Waweu. GENTIANA. G. Amarella, Linn. Autumnal Gentian. Native : In dry pastures in calcareous districts. Rare. July. II. Alne Hills, Purt., i., 138 ; Moreton Morrell, W. Satchell ; Alcester Road, from Stratford ; bill between Billesley and Wilmcote ; Banbury Road, 2^ miles from Stratford-on-Avon, W. Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; Myton 1 near Norton Lindsay, H. B. ; Gaydon, Bolton King ; Red Hill, Y. and B. MENYANTHES. M. trifoliata, Liiut. Buckbean. Native : In bogs and marshes. Rare. May to July. I. Coleshill Bog ! Bree, Part., i., 122; Sutton, Freeman, Phyt., i., 262 ; near Atberstone, Harris ; Sutton Park, abundant ; Coleshill Pool. II. In a pit on the Alne Hills ; Shelfield, Rufford, Part., i., 122 ; Westwood Heath ; in the Windmill Field, near Haseley, Perry , FI., 11 ', Herb. Perry; Allesley, Bree, Part., hi., 340; Feni Hill ! Kenilworth, Y. and B. ; Snitterfield bushes, Cheshire ; near Tile Hill Wood, in abundance. LIMNANTHEMUM. [L. nymphceoides, Linn. Fringed Buckbean. Denizen : In pools. Rare. July, August. I. Packington Park, abundantly, Preem., Phyt., i., 262 ; Packington, in still waters, T. Kirk., Herb. Perry, 1848. II. Ornamental waters, Newbold House, Blox., 1871. This is an introduced plant in all these stations.] [Polemonium caruleum, Linn., has been found occasionally by Mr. Bromwich in South Warwickshire, and by myself near Shirley, but cannot be regarded as more than an escape from cultivation.] CON VOLVUL AGE^ . CONVOLVULUS. C. arvensis, Linn. Small Bindweed. Native: On banks, waysides, and in fields. Common. June to August. Area general. C. sepium, Linn. Great Bindweed, English Scammomj. Native : In hedges and copses. Locally common. July to Septem¬ ber or later. I. Hedge, near Tyburn ; Middleton ; Hartshill ; Shustoke ; Meriden ; Solihull ; Monkspath, etc. II. Bidford ; Alcester ; Stratford-on-Avon ; Kenilworth ; Coventry ; Newbold-on-Avon ; Shotwell, etc. 234 THE FLokA of WARWICk^HlRE. CUSCUTA. \ C. Epilinum, Weihe. Flax Dodder. Casual ; On flax. Bare. July. II. On flax, near Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; Bidford, Dr Lloyd, Herb. Perry. C. europaea, Linn. Great Dodder. Native : In cultivated fields. Rare. July. I. Flax-fields about Packington, Aylesford, B. G., ii., 634. II. At Shipton-on-Stour, Dr. Jones, 1833 ; Baxter, i. ; observed one season on clover at Allesley, Bree, N. B. G. ; river banks ; Honington Hall Gardens, seen one year only, F. Toionsend ; near the Windmill on the Tachbrook Road, 1848, Herb. Perry. C. Epithymum, Murr. Lesser Dodder. Native: On banks and waysides. Rare. July, August. II. On waysides near Dunchurch, 1881! H. IF. T.; abundant on a bank near Bidford. C. Trifolii, Bab. Glover Dodder. Alien : In cultivated fields. Rather rare. July, August. I. Clover fields at Springfield, Temple Balsall. Very abundant. II. Clover fields near Rugby, 1871, Rev. A. Blox.; on the Warwick Road from Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; Myton, Moreton Morrell, 7. and B.; clover field and gardens at Combe Abbey, L. Cummin; Kineton, 1876, Bolton Kiny ; Red Hill. [C. hassiaca, Pfeiff., occurred as an introduced plant in a field near Rugby, R. S. R., 1869] . SOLANAGE^. SOLANUM. S. Dulcamara, Linn. Woody Nightshade. Native : In hedges, woods, thickets, and on waysides. Common. June to September. Area general. S. nigrum, Linn. Black Nightshade. Native : In gardens and fields. Rare and local. July to September. II. In many places near Warwick! H.B.; garden weed, Alveston Heath. I have never seen this in any of the Tame Basin districts, and believe it to be very rare in this portion of the county. The variety with green fruit occurs abundantly in a shrubbery at Warwick. ATROPA. A. Belladonna, Linn. Deadly Nightshade. Denizen: In stone quarries. Very rare. July. I. Sutton Coldfield, Warwick, Ray. Syn., ii., 266 ; “ Near Solihull Garden, where it was introduced from Beausale,” Herb. Perry ; Stone Quarry, Oldbury, near Atherstone ! G. Harris, 1880. HYOSCYAMUS. H. niger, Linn. Common Henbane. Native? Road sides, amongst rubbish. Rare. July. II. Great Alne, Wixford, Part., i., 128 ; at the Scar, Hampton Lucy, Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; near Stratford, on the Warwick road. Perry, P'l. ; Salford, New Inn Road, Rev. J. C. DATURA. [D. Stramonium, Linn. Thorn Apple. Casual : On rubbish heaps. Rare. July. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 235 II. Salford, Alcester, Puvt., i., 127 ; on a bank at Saltisford, Warwick, Ferry, FI. ; Hatton, on the road to Grove Park, Herb. Perry.'] [Physalia Alkekenyi, Linn., is recorded as naturalised on waste ground at Foleshill, T. Kirk. Phyt., ii., 971 ; garden weed near Warwick Priory, Herb. Perry.] SGROPHULARIAGE.^. VERBASCUM. V. Thapsus. Linn. Great Mullein. High Taper. Native: On hedge banks and waste places. Very local. July to September. I. Railway banks near Wylde Green ; lane from Forge Mills to Water Orton; road from Coleshill to Stonebridge ; near Curdworth Bridge; near Arley Wood. II. Salford Priors! Rev. J. C.; clay Dunchurch Road, near Rugby, R. S. R., 1877; Honington! Tredington, Newb., Lap- worth Street. V. nigrum, Linn. Black Mullein. Native: On hedge banks and roadsides. Rare. July, August. II. Between Ashow and Stoneleigh, Perry, 1817 ; Hampton Lucy, 1828; near Leamington, 1835; Wasperton, 1835; Ashow, Herb. Perry ; Stoneleigh, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., in., 1(53; Bagington, T. Kirk, Phyt., ii., 971; Hatton Rock; Milverton, Y. and B; between Stratford-on-Avon and Eatington. [V. virgaiuin. With. Large-flowered Mullein. Casual in waste places. Rare. July, August. Near the old bridge, Warwick Castle, probably extinct now, H. B.] [T\ Blattaria, Linn. Moth Mullein. Casual: On hedge banks. Very rare. July. II. Near Little Kineton, Herb. Perry; near Ipsley, J. T. Slater; Friz Hill, near Wellesbourn Hastings, H. B.] A plant frequent in cottage gardens, and as it only occurs in single individuals cannot be considered as more than an escape in this county. V. Thapso-virgatum, Hybrid. Casual : In quarries. Very rare. July, August. II. Stone quarries near Warwick, H. B. ! SCROPHULARIA. S. Balbisii, Hornein. Common Water Betony. Native: In ditches, by streams and damp waste places. Locally common. June to August or September. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Hartshill ; Meriden Marsh ; Olton ; Packington, etc. II. Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. ; Honington, Newb. ; near Stratford-on- Avon ; Wixford ; Marl Cliff ; Alveston pastures ; Itchington ; Binton ; Brandon ; Ansty ; Willoughby, etc. S. nodosa, Linn. Knotty-rooted Figicort. Native: On hedge banks and waste places. Common. May to September. Area general. S. Ehrharti, Stev. Water Betony. Native : In ditches and streams. Very rare. July, August. II. Ditch near Chesterton ; Tachbrook brook, near Tachbrook ! H. B.; abundant this year (1881) near Compton Verney. 236 CORRESPONDENCE DIGITALIS. D. purpurea, Linn. Foxglove. Native : On hedge banks, roadsides, ruins, heath lands, railway banks, and in woods. Common and local. June, July. “ It is plentiful about Rugby,” Baxter ii., 1834. Frequent in the sandy soils of the Tame basin, but very local in the calcareous soils of the Avon basin. ANTIRRHINUM. A. majus, Linn. Common Snapdragon or Calf snout. Alien or casual : On old ruins, walls, and railway banks. Rare. July to September. I. On rocky banks of railway near Arley Station, possibly planted. Railway bank between Hampton and Berkswell. II. Salford, Part., i., 288; “On an old wall at the bottom of the garden, Lawford Hall, near Rugby,” Baxter, iii. ; old town wall, Coventry, Kirk., Herb. Perry ; Stoneleigh Abbey, Kirk, Herb. Perry; Westgate, Warwick ! Y.andB.; Railway banks, near Coventry. A. Orontium, Linn. Corn Snapdragon. Colonist: In cultivated land. Very rare. July, August. II. Railway cutting, Myton, Herb. Perry ; a weed in the Rectory garden, Sbipston-on-Stour, Newb. (To be continued.) Fungi from near Birmingham. — I have lately had the pleasure of adding the following rare species to the Flora of this district: — Agaricus nitidus, Fr., remarkable for the dense angular warts on the pileus, and its beautifully white and shining stem ; Ag. inopus, Fr. ; Ag. pullatus, agreeing exactly with plate 237 of Cooke’s “ Illustrations,” noticeable for the strong contrast between the pure white gills and the almost black pileus; all from Coleshill Pool. Boletus alutarius, Fr., from Hints Wood, a species belonging to that section of the Boleti in which the spores have a rosy hue ; and Hypomyces Baryanus, Tub, from Solihull, parasitic on ’the gills of Nyctalis parasitica, which is itself parasitic on Russula adusta. — W. B. Grove, B.A. Macropis labiata. — This rare and beautiful bee has not been exterminated from this locality (as some rushers into print imagined it would be when I recorded my captures last year). I have seen both males and females — some at rest upon flowers, principally those of thistles, whilst others were flying around enjoying the gloriously hot weather of last month. I have not yet discovered their home, as it is a difficult matter following these bees on the wing, especially when they fly over the canal. On August 7th I had the good fortune to capture a magnificent hermaphrodite, every part — mandible, antennae, wings, legs, and half the sexual organ — on the right side being those of the male, whilst the corresponding parts on the left were those of the female — the beautiful yellow face of the male contrasting with the black half of the female. I had the pleasure of exhibiting this unique specimen at the Entomological Society of London. Instances of hermaphroditism among the Hymenoptera are very rare; in fact, so far as I have been able to ascertain, there is but one on record — that of Anthophora acervorum, figured in Smith’s “ Bees of Great Britain,” plate 5, figs. 2 and 2a. In this specimen the left side is male, the right female. — Fred. Enock, Woking Station, CORRESPONDENCE 237 Viola sylvatica, var. Reichenbachiana. — In your issue for July I notice appended to my remarks on Viola sylvatica, var. Reichenbachiana, a note by my old friend Mr. Bagnall, to the effect that the finding of that plant had not been recorded by me. I have before me a copy of the “ King Edward’s School Chronicle,” dated Saturday, June 9, 1877. In page 33, vol. ii., and in an account of an excursion of the School Natural History Society on May 2, 1877, from Claverdon to Preston Bagot, Henley, and Knowle, among the rare plants recorded is Viola sylvatica, var. Reichenbachiana, the plant in question. I had found it a few weeks previous, and now pointed out its peculiarities to the members. Again, before me is the annual report of the Birmingham School Natural History Society for 1877, printed at the “Herald” Office, and here I find a similar record on page 10. If you would kindly set this right by a line in your next issue I should be glad. Unfortunately there was no “Midland Naturalist” in 1877. — James Turner. Botanical Notes from South Beds. — Earliest Observed Date of Flowering for 1882 and 1883, with Voucher Specimens: — Name. Date. 1882. Date, 1883. Aspect. Habitat. Mercurialis perennis (malei _ Jan. 1 W. Wood. „ „ (female) _ „ 28 W. Hedge bank. Tussilago Farfara . Jan. 25 „ 22 S.W. Railway bank. Helleborus viridis . M 7 Feb. 4 W. Hedge bank. Potentilla Fragariastrum* ... 15 „ 24 W. Hedge bank. Salix Caprea . Mar. 5 M 25 Open Hedge row. Adoxa Moschatellina . - - - Mar. 11 S.W. Coppice. Draba verna . Feb. 19 ,, 11 Open Gravel walk. Anemone nemorosa . Mar. 3 „ 24 W. Coppice. Nepeta glechoma . „ 18 „ 26 S.W. Hedge bank. Anemone Pulsatilla . „ 22 April 4 S.E. Chalk hills. Primula veris . „ 18 „ 1 S. Hedgebank, Luzula pilosa . 7 W. Moist wood. „ campestris . Mar. 25 Open Moist meadow. Prunus spinosa . „ 16 April 8 Hedge row. Ranunculus auricomus . „ 26 „ 8 W. Under trees. „ bulbosus . April 8 W. Meadow. Scilla nutans . Mar. 29 April 13 W. Coppice. Stellaria Holostea . „ 20 M 21 W. Hedge bank. Cardamine pratensis . April 8 ,, 21 Open Moist meadow. Sisymbrium Alliaria . „ 10 „ 21 W. Hedge bank. Veronica Chamsedrys . „ 22 W. Hedge bank. Creetaegus monogyna . „ 30 May 16 Open Hedge row. Geranium Robertianum . ■ » 17 W. Hedge bank. * Gathered in Bricket Wood, Herts, April 11, 1883. Besides the above, a single blossom of Caltha palustris was gathered on February 14, 1883, but the subsequent frosts prevented others from appearing in any quantity till the middle of March. — J. Saunders, Luton. The Diorite of Charnwood Forest. — Near Brazil Wood, Charnwood Forest, is a knoll of diorite, “distinctly crystalline, and remarkably tough and refractory.” Occurring alone, as it does, in the middle of a field, there is nothing to show its relationship either to the granite or the micaceous schist (gneiss) exposed in the wood. While ham¬ mering at this diorite a short time since I obtained some specimens showing a junction between granite and diorite. The junction in the specimens is sharp and clear. The thick growth of lichens on the rock had hidden the characteristic weathering of the granite, making it appear all diorite. The granite of the junction specimens cannot be 238 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. distinguished from that of the exposure in the wood. This favours the supposition that the diorite is a dyke in the granite, which, by its superior hardness, has withstood the denudation that has worn away the granite. From appearances — the sloping downwards towards the plain of the granite in the wood, the circular and knoll-like character of the diorite — the denuding force, I should think, was land ice, probably during the later Glacial period, when Charnwood was an independent centre, sending glaciers into the valleys below. — H. E. Quilter, Leicester. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— Geological Section, August 28th. — The following exhibits were made : — Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, sen.: Lichens from the Highlands of Scotland, including Cladonia rangiferina, Parmelia physodes var. platyphylla, in fruit (very rare in fruit), P, saxatilis varieties sulcata (rare in fruit) and ornphalodes ; P. olivacea; Physcia pulverulenta, P. parietina; Lecatwra tartarea, L. parella var. pallescens, and Pertusaria communis. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, the following fungi : Boletus edulis, Lactarius pyrogalus, L. camphoratus, Bussicla Integra, Bhytisma acerinum, all from Baddesley Clinton ; Boletus scaber, from Middleton ; and a Moss G^ymno- stomum tenue (very rare), from Shrewley Common ; also, for Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., a number of interesting plants from South Devon, including Scilla autumnalis; Erica cinerea, flore albo ; Spiranthes autumnalis; Cuscuta epithymum, etc, Mr. W. B. Grove, B A., the following fungi : Agaricus platyphyllus, Ag. maculatus, and Bhizina Icevigata, from Sutton Park ; Ag. humilis, from Sutton ; Ag. rutilans, Lactarius quietus, Polyporus dryadeus,Nectriapeziza, Phragmidium, violaceum, Puccinia striola, Coleosporium rhinanthacearum, Stigmatea Bobert- iani, TJncinula bicornis, Erysiphe tortilis, E. Martii, and Splicerotheca Castagnei, from Barton Green; also for Mr. C. B, Caswell, Tlielephora puteana ; and for Mr. R. M. Lloyd, Tubulina cylindrica. Mr. W. J. Harrison: Agate nodules, from North Wales. Mr. W. J. Harrison, jun. : Rocks from Criccieth, and Quartz Crystals from Beddgelert, North Wales. General Meeting, Sept, 4th.— Mr. S. Walliker exhibited (through the Secretary; a species of Lepisma “found in cotton-wool from Cyprus,” about three or four times as large as the ordinary species. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Epilobium tetragonum (local), Chara vulgaris var. longibracteata, Potamogeton natans, Lotus tenuis, Carduus erio- phorus, Linari i Elatine, L. spuria, Bhamnus catliarticus, Chenopodium polyspermicm, Galeopsis Ladanum, Bosa stylos i (new as a record for Warwick¬ shire), Odontites rubra var. flore albo, TJrtica urens, Serratula tinctoria, Lithospermum officinale. Clematis Vitalba, Colchicum autumnale, all from Drayton ; Iris foetidissima, Bumex Hydrolapathum, Chlora perfoliata, from Wilmcote; Scirpus acicularis, from Bishopton ; Bubus calvatus, from Marston Green, showing sepals passing into true ternate leaves, etc. ; also (for Mr. W. R. Hughes) a series of plants from South Devon, including Solidago virgaurea, Sedum dasyp>hyllum, Asplenium trichomanes, TJsnea liirta, etc. ; and on behalf of Mr. J. Saunders, of Luton, Sphagnum cuspidatiom var. plumosum, and Tolypella intricat /, both rare. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following fungi : Bussula nigricans, B. fragilis, Nyctilis parasitica., Hypoxylon fuscurn, Phragmidium violaceum, Triphragimum ulmarice, Puceinia straminis, P. galiorum, P. pulverulenti, Coleosporium rhinanthacearum, Erysiphe communis (on Trifolium) &iidi Peronospor a obliqua, from Solihull; Puccinia coronata, Bothideagraminis, Hysterium curvatum, from near Berkswell; Arcyria incarnata, from Barton Green ; Dacnjmyces deliquescens, from Sutton ; Corticium evolvens, from Warley Woods ; also (for Mr, H. T. Soppitt) Bactrodesmium abruption, from Yorkshire; (for Mr. W. H. Wilkinson) Coleosporium petasitis, from Arley; and REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 289 (for Mr. Thos. Bii'ks) CEcidvnn Thalictri and Puccinia Magnusiana, from Goole. Miss Jermyn exhibited a gall on a lime leaf from Kew. BiologicaIi Section, September 11th. — Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Ag. macdatus, Ag. di'yophiliis, Ag. 2>(^scuus, Ag. campanulatus, Ag. spectahilis, Ag. sublateritius, Amanita aspera, Hygropliorus pratensis, Cortinariiis armillatus,C .cinnamomeits, Riis.'iida adusta, Boletus flavus, Polyporus betulinus, P. molluscus, Calocera viscosa, Bhizina Icevigati, and Melampso7 a tremulce, from Coleshill Pool; Ag. atro-albus, Ag. aster oplioi'us, Bvssula fellea, Cantharellus aui'aiitiacus, Marasmius androsaceus, and Boletus edulis, from the Wrekin, Shropshire ; and a number of other Fungi, on behalf of Mr C. F. W. T. Williams, of Bath. Mr. David Hooper exhibited Ai-butus Unedo, Narthecium ossifragum, Myrica Gale, from Killarney, and Crithmum ma^’itimum, from co. Cork, Ireland ; Mr. E. H. Wagstaff exhibited a fungus, Erysiphe communis, from the banks of the Strat¬ ford Canal. Microscopical General Meeting, September 18th.— Mr. Cullis, of Mason College, exhibited some specimens sent by Miss Helen von Mickwitz, of Helsingfors, Finland. One was Linneea borealis, and the other Rubus arcticus. Mr. Bagnall said the former flower was interesting, as being named after the great Linnaeus, and the other was especially so, as from the berries of the plant was made a rather fine preserve, which in Norway was very much esteemed. It is recorded that the berries once saved the life of a noted traveller who, when ill, was maintained for many days by them when no other palatable food was obtainable. The President (Mr. W. B. Hughes) expressed himself particularly pleased not only at the exhibition of the specimens themselves, but as showing that the Natural History Society was not fox'gotten by a Russian lady who some time was associated in their meetings, but who had now returned to her own country. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited a number of Fungi: — Ag. asterosporus, Ag. pascuus, Ag. cei'vinus, Ag. fusipes, Ag. conopilus, Coi’ti'nn^’ius ochroleucus, C. decu7nbens, C. sa7igui7ie7cs, Russula .fellea, R. rubra, Lactarius pallidus, and Boletus stricepes, etc., from Middleton ; and for Dr. M. C. Cooke, Corti7iarius tophaceus, Le7iti7ius lapideus, and Boletus pa7’asiticus ; also for Mr. W. R. Hughes, Dia7ithus Ar7ne7-ia, Lmufn a7igustifoluim, Ce7itra7ithus ruber, and other plants, from near Plymouth. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited a number of Fungi, including Lactaritis pallidus, L. uvidus, and i. turpis, Ag. pascuus, Ag. tenerri77ius, Ag. laccatus var. a7nethysti7ius, Ag. sa7iguinole7itus. Russula emetica, R. oclvroleuca, Helotium aciculare, and Ascobolus pilosus from Four Oaks Park ; Ag. virgatus, Lacta7-ius tu7-pis, L. 7ividus, Sporodmia g7Xt7idis from Coleshill Pool ; T7'e77iella lutescens, Cortidiun evolve7is, Diatr7jpe discifo7'7nis frcm the Wrekin ; Ag. applicatus, Stemonitis fusca, and Helotium lutescens from Sutton ; Cortichim gigu7iteum from Sutton Park ; Peziza 7iivea rom Berkswell ; (for Mr. C. R. Robinson) Ama7iita aspera and Peziza a7i7'a7itia from Bewdley Forest; and ifor Mr. J. A. Wheldon) Peziza atrata from Cambridge, and Sphceria lirella from Scarborough. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION.— August 11th. — Mr. Hawkes showed an abnormal inflorescence of Ribwort Plantain, in which the spikes were reduced in size but produced on short stalks, forming a simple umbel with a conspicuous leafy involucre. Mr. Buttress, living Blindwom. Mr. J. W. Neville, microscopical preparation of larva of Pmiperda, showing the pine leaves upon which the creature fed enclosed in the alimentary canal. Aug. 18.— Mr. Hawkes : Parnassia palust7-is, from Sutton Park ; also transverse section of stem of water lily. Aug. 25. — Mr. J. W. Neville : Oidium 7no7iilioides, on leaves of grass; Phrag7nidi7i7n obtimim aud Lecythea on leaves of barren strawberry; and microscopical preparations of lancet and gizzard of the common flea. Mr. Hawkes : Eggs of Aphis. Mr. J. Wykes ; Fredericella. Sept. 3.— Mr. Deakin : Spores of Trichobasis. Mr. H. Insley : Porphyra lacwiat'i in fruit. The following micro-fungi were laid on the table by Mr. Deakin: — Sallow Rust, Pero7wspora vnfesta7is, and Urom7jces apic7ilosn, on leaves of white clover. Sept. 20.— Paper, “Natural History of a Holiday Ramble,” by Mr. C. P. Neville. 240 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. PRACTICAL NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— On Saturday, September 15th, a meeting of the Scotch members of the Practical Naturalists’ Society was held in Edinburgh. The earlier part of the day was spent in rambling over the Pentland Hills for the purpose of investigating the entomology of the district. In spite of the foggy weather which prevailed during the day a fair list of captures was made up. In the evening the members assembled in their temporary meeting room, when several excellent papers were read, and a large number of specimens in all departments of Natural History was exhibited. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— Three excursions have been made under the aus^iices of this Society during the past summer, all well- attended and much enjoyed. The first was on June 28th, to Stamford, under the guidance of Prof. Blake, M.A., F.G.S., and Dr. Seaton (President). After visiting the ancient parish church, under the courteous guidance of the vicar. Rev. A. C. Abdy, the excursionists divided, one party accompanying Prof. Blake to a quarry in the Lincolnshire Oolite, and thence to a clay-pit in the Estuarine series, both just on the outskirts of the town, and later in the day the Colly weston slates ; while the other devoted attention to the antiquities of the town. The Oolite proved fairly rich in fossils, while rootlets were common in the Estuarine clays. After luncheon at the George Hotel, the united parties visited Burghley House, the seat of the Marquis of Exeter, which was erected by William Cecil, the first Lord Burghley, and the famous Lord High Treasurer to Queen Elizabeth. Here some time was pleasantly spent in looking through the various rooms, with their painted ceilings and walls, their magnificent carvings by Gibbons, and the pictures, old tapestries, miniatures, and other art objects with which the mansion abounds. Tea at the “ George ” brought the day’s proceedings to a very agreeable close. The second excursion was a half-day visit to Lincoln, on July 28th. Again the excursionists resolved themselves into two parties, one visiting the spots of antiquarian interest, of course including the Cathedral and the Castle, the other devoting their attention to the geology, under the guidance of Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., and Mr. W. D. Carr, of Lincoln. The latter party first made for the cutting of the M.S. and L. Railway, on the west side of the city, passing over the Middle and Upper Lias, Northampton Sand, the Upper Estuarine Clay, Lincolnshire Oolite, and the Great Oolite, full of fossils, and returning along the top of the ridge known as the “ Cliff,” where the Northamp¬ ton Sand was seen well exposed in some ironstone quarries, capped with Oolite. After tea, this party paid a visit to the clay pit in the Upper Lias of Messrs. Swan Bros, and Bourne, on the West Cliff, where in a cutting, over sixty feet deep, the three zones, characterised respectively by Ammonites bifrons, A. communis, and A. serpentmus, could be traced, and where many fossils, including the rare Trigonia pulcliella, were found. The third and last excursion of the season was to Ham and Dovedale. Leaving the train at Norbury, near Ashbourne, and first visiting the old church, the party drove northward, through Wootton, to the Weaver Hills. Dismounting about half a mile south¬ east of Three Knowles, the excursionists walked on to Beacon Stoop, about 1200 feet above the sea, from which a magnificent view of the Churnet and Dove Valleys was obtained. Returning to the carriages, the drive was continued to Blore, stopping to visit the church, under the kind auspices of the vicar. Rev. J. Young, and thence to Ham, a charmingly secluded and beautiful valley, where the River Hamps and the Manifold well up out of the limestone rocks, after a subterranean course of nearly four miles. The hall and other objects of interest, and the pretty little church, containing a fine piece of sculpture by the famous Chantry, having been visited, the drive was resumed to Dovedale, after which the party, or as many as could get it, took tea at the “Peveril,” the arrangements of the proprietor being far from satisfactory. The winter session of the Society was opened on September 4th, by a microscopical gathering, at which objects were exhibited by Dr. Seaton, Mr. Dodd (hou. sec.). Ml'. Jennison, Mr. Cave, Mr. Bush, Mr. Blaudy, Dr. Marriott, and others. CREMATION. 241 CREMATION.^ BY W. H. FRANCE. We have it on very old authority that “ there is nothing new under the sun;” and though from his ability to rearrange the forms and combinations of matter, presumptuous man is frequently tempted to exclaim, “ Here is something new,” all he can do is to transpose substances into new forms, as by the transposition of the alphabet, words of endless variety are produced. Though he use the earth as a ball on which to wind his telegraphs and railways, he works with nothing new, or which did not exist before his own form was evolved from pre-existent matter. He can facili¬ tate, and in some ways he can also retard, that which Nature is constantly doing, namely, changing the forms of matter by decompo¬ sition, not destruction. What is decomposition ? What is the agency which commences the operation and completes the process ? Tlie popular meaning attached to the word is an erroneous one, or at best is very remote from that of the word hurninp or combustion as applied to the consumption of fuel in our dwellings and manufactories ; yet decomposition and combustion are one and the same thing, varying only in degree, or rapidity, or both. It is the result of heat, without which nothing can live ; nothing which, when dead, can again become food for the living ; without which those arteries of the earth — the rivers, circulating the blood of the earth, would cease to flow. But for it everything containing moisture would be locked in the rigidity of ice ; perfect cold being the normal condition of matter not subject to active heat. This is well illustrated in the Arctic regions, where, owing to the equatorial fulness of the earth’s form, the sun’s rays are intercepted ; and in proportion to such interception is the increase of cold, and a consequent decrease in the rapidity of decomposition or combustion of organic substances, so as almost to cease at times, as in the case of Arctic animals, which are occasionally found on thawing to be good food, though possibly they have been dead for many years. An arti¬ ficial application of this law of nature is now in regular use in the Paris Morgue, or temporary receptacle of the unknown dead, by which means there is a valuable suspension of natural decay or dissociation of the substances of the body. Where a perpetual state of ice does not exist, there decomposition fills up the intervals, the increase of the one being accompanied by the decrease of the other, until, as in the Tropics, decomposition reigns supreme, and there, as a consequence, life is more abundant. * Read before the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society October 16, 1883, 242 CREMATION Those elements no longer required by the dead are quickly set at liberty in gaseous form, ascending, like aerial springs into the sea of the atmosphere, thence to be absorbed by animal and vegetable life, just as the ocean receives the polluted waters of rivers, only to purify and send them back, to run again in ceaseless circles, a never-ending journey. Decomposition of the dead must surely be one of the most merciful of the Creator’s provisions for the living. But for it, it would only be a question of time as to how long life could be sustained ; for, supposing life to have commenced and continued its course by drawing upon a fixed and unrenewable quantity of matter, it would long since have shown signs of local, if not general, exhaustion, resulting in a final extinction of living forms. In all countries plants and animals have in vast numbers, and endless variety, become extinct, whilst of those still surviving many show indisputable signs of an extinction more or less remote. Side by side with these, other forms have arisen in apparently undiminished numbers and variety, destined, like those which have gone before, to make room for others, which posterity must be left to study. However this may be, the human race does not yet excite a widespread interest on the score of extinction. Man’s extraordinary and unique power of adaptability to his environment, in nearly every climate which his insatiable curiosity leads him to explore, appears to ensure for him an endless succession of descendants, each possessing some modification of that which gave him birth, a constant modification being associated with the greatest vitality. Go to the mountain stream, and, where it issues forth in all its sparkling freshness, ask it whence it cometh and whither it goeth? What will it say, and truly say, to the student of Nature? “I come from the avalanche; an iceberg I have been; I flooded the Ganges with its freight of dead and dying ; I come from the swamp, and the ocean spray ; I moistened the grape, bedewed the grass, rode here on the storm. I go to wait on life ; to search out the haunts of man, whose pollution I will bear in my bosom to the sea of forgiveness, burying myself in its fulness, only to rise again pure and free to visit every clime ! ” In like manner question the human body. Listen, student of Nature ; and, like the river, it says, “ I know no rest. No rest is mine till the sun has ceased to work, I come from the inland grave, and the salt sea wave. In the countless forms in which I have borne a part, I have long since lost all trace of my origin. The form of man is not new to me. I have shared in all his glories, all his crimes. The Mastodon, and greater than he have used my substance, sharing it with all other forms of life, animal and vegetable. Fire is not new to me. Heat is at once my jailer and my liberator. When by its action I am freed from the bonds of one, I go to wait on other forms of life,” CREMATION. 243 If, then, heat is the instrument ordained for the reproduction of living from dead forms, by natural or artificial, combustion, advocates of the latter should doubtless be expected to prove its superiority to the former. It may be suggested that as Nature, when artificial aids are absent, is determined to burn the dead in her own silent mode of slow, so-called spontaneous combustion, why trouble ourselves about such work? Why not leave it to Nature? Certainly her patience is wonderful. She is still at work on the ancient mummies. The cunning of the embalmer only retards, it does not absolutely suspend disintegration. If our sense of smell did not inform us of the fact, the gradual loss of weight is clear proof. Sanitary science, the pages of which book we are constantly cutting, is teaching us, lesson by lesson, that the production of diseases, of the Zymotic class at any rate, is as dependent upon seeds of “ their kind ” as is the husbandman for his harvest upon seeds previously buried. Following the simile a little further, we know that if grain be sub¬ jected to but a moderately high temperature, its germinating power is permanently destroyed. We are but slowly realising or appreciating the fact that Nature has selected a code of laws, which, with a glorious impartiality, are as much in favour of one form of life as another. We are learning that the world was not made for us alone, or indeed more for us than other forms of life. That struggle for existence which is so universal seems most severe for man. However that may be. Nature does not hesitate to use and sacrifice its noblest and loveliest forms, as hot-beds for the production of life, in forms so minute, and, so far as we can at present perceive, so utterly valueless and superfluous to Natural Economy, as to excite our bewilderment, and wound our self-esteem. Self-preservation, the first law of nature, a constant incentive to animal and vegetable action, is exercised most by man. His superior intelligence best enables him to destroy or circumvent antagonistic forces. Slaying his fellow-men often calls forth his utmost energy, and secures his most anxious consideration. He fosters the lives of many animals only to destroy them for food. The advent of a little beetle from America has more than once sent a thrill of alarm through the country, involving considerable exercise of thought and means in order to secure its living absence. Whilst thus exercising our intelligence, we are fairly chargeable with being inconsistent to an extraordinary degree. The man who could be guilty of purposely introducing a plague of such insects would certainly deserve the worst possible fate ; and yet in a perfectly legal, and publicly approved method we are perpetuating forms infinitely more destructive to human life. Germatologists, if I may, so far as I know, coin a word whereby to distinguish the Tyndalls and Pasteurs of science, have clearly proved that those diseases which are classed as preventable are due to the presence in the body of the patient, of organic forms of extraordinary minuteness, and in numbers beyond computation. The death of the ‘244 CHEMATION. patient is favourable to the further development of such bacterial life. In some virulent cases of infectious and contagious diseases certain articles which have been used by the patient are burnt with a view to render them harmless. In those cases where the patients recover there is a lamentable want of efficient aud sufficient isolation. Where death ensues matters are much worse. The body is in most cases treated as if it had lost its power to injure the living. Much unnecessary and purely conventional treatment ensues. I pass by the hideous proceedings conducted by the undertaker, as also the “ correct thing” in black garments. Both are in a state of transition, the result of which may be left to the influence of universal education. If in the country, the corpse will in most cases be carried to the highest point of the hamlet, where stands the village church. The building itself has in most cases been used as a receptacle for the deceased members of influential families. Over the tombs of these decomposing bodies the living assemble more or less frequently. Many of the vaults are during wet seasons partly filled with water. There is no mistaking the odours often perceived in such charnel houses. It is of course impossible to hazard a guess as to how many lives have been sacrificed as a result of such association with the dead on the part of the living. That they have been numerous cannot reasonably be doubted. Outside the building matters are worse. Here the rainfall has full play to percolate through and distribute the contents of the graves into the neighbour¬ ing wells, whence is drawn the drinking water for the living, who, in numberless cases, literally drink the dead in solution. The normal increase of our population may be taken to be about a quarter of a million a year. With such a rapid increat'e of our resident population, the difficulty of obtaining water free from organic impuri¬ ties is increasing to a serious extent, involving the outlay of vast sums of money. If, as we know it to be the case, water flowing from lime¬ stone ranges is, as a rule, highly charged with carbonate of lime, whilst that obtained from soils containing but small quantities of iron is found to be a solution of iron, how much more easily must the decomposing substance of the dead body be borne through the pores of the earth by the circulation of water? Just as surely as poison, when injected into the blood, is rapidly distributed through the whole system, so do the poisons of disease circulate in water round the dwellings of the living. At the base of a hill within a few miles of this building flows a spring of ordinarily clear water, prized for drinking purposes. Some time ago a heap of farm yard manure was placed on high ground, a considerable distance from the spring. The hill is mainly composed of sand and sandstone. Shortly after the manure was so placed the water assumed the colour of pale tea, with an odour not to be mis¬ taken, and obviously due to the manure heap. In the case of suburban cemeteries the results are such as must ere long necessitate a radical change in the disposal of the dead. To CREMATION MB economise area, graves are dug 15 to 20 feet deep. These are filled by piling the dead to within a few inches of the surface. Were an inquiry held, siich as would be instituted by a royal, or a parliamentary commission, into the internal economy of our public cemeteries, the result would probably startle the public into demanding an immediate change. A local paper recently stated that — “ Some terrible discoveries as to the causes of the rapid spread and lengthened stay of epidemic diseases in places where the principles of sanitary sepulture are imper¬ fectly understood or not acted upon, have just been made by Dr. Freor, an eminent physician of Rio de Janeiro. That city is just recovering from the ravages of a very deadly visitation of yellow fever, and Dr. Freor, in his inquiries into the causes of the epidemic, came upon a dreadful fact that the soil of the cemeteries in which the victims of the outbreak were buried was positively alive with microbian organisms, exactly identical with those found in the vomitings and blood of those who had died in the hospitals of yellow fever. From a foot under the ground he gathered a sample of the earth overlying the remains of a person who had died of the fever and had been buried about a year before, and though it showed nothing remarkable at first appearance he found to his horror, when he placed it under the microscope, that it was thickly charged with these disease gferms. Many of the organisms were making spontaneous movements; in effect, therefore, the cemeteries were so many nurseries of yellow fever. Every shower of rain washes the soil and the fever seed which is so thickly sown in it into the water- courses, and distributes the poisonous germs all over the town and neighbourhood. ‘ Each corpse,’ says the doctor, ‘ is the bearer of millions of millions of organisms that are specifics of ill. Imagine what a cemetery must be in which the new foci are forming around each body.’ How terribly fatal these germs are is proved by the fact that the blood of a patient injected into a rabbit killed the animal in less than an hour, and the rabbit’s blood injected into a guinea-pig killed it in about the same time, and the guinea-pig’s blood injected into another rabbit was also fatal, so that the chain of destruction is apparently endless.” Round these spaces devoted to the dead, the living accumulate, until only the greater area distinguishes them from the surcharged burial-grounds of town churches. By submitting the dead body to a much higher temperature than that which Nature finds sufficient for her purposes, it is rendered perfectly harmless to the living, presenting hygienic advantages which must make its adoption only a question of time. Burning the dead formed a part of that wonderful civilisation of ancient Greece, to which we owe so much, and which will long hence be viewed with undiminished admiration. Excepting in the case of overheated haystacks and such artificial conditions, natural decom¬ position rarely occurs at a temperature high enough to destroy animal 246 CKEMATION. or vegetable life-germs. Hence the necessity for artificial treatment. There are so many methods by which the process could be successfully conducted that I will not enter on that branch of the subject. There would certainly be little difficulty in framing such regulations as should be a distinct improvement upon those which are at present in use for the disposal of the dead. The only objection to Cremation which is really of such a character as to call for serious consideration, and to remove which, special precautions must undoubtedly be taken, is the fact that the operation would entirely destroy all trace of foul means as the cause of death. It occasionally happens that after burial circumstances arise which render it desirable to exhume bodies for purposes of examination. Although exhumation seldom results in anything very definite or valuable, public opinion is not likely to be in favour of abandoning it until it is satisfied that a good substitute is ready. All regulations are more or less liable to abuse. People have been hung for offences they have had no part in. Society is occasionally shocked to find that an innocent person has undergone imprisonment or penal servitude (which by the bye are now synonymous terms), and endeavours to make such amends as are suggested by the circumstances. But it would not for a moment be contended that such unfortunate exceptions offer any inducement to abolish such punishments. It must also be admitted that under present conditions there are probably many persons buried whose deaths have been hastened by foul means, never suspected or questioned before or after burial, and with such precautions as are possible, I think it could be made much more difficult to dispose of such bodies than is now the case. Certainly it would not be difficult to improve upon the coroner’s inquiry as at present conducted. One cannot repress astonishment that such a cumbersome and unqualified piece of administration has not succumbed to the want of confidence its decisions excite in the minds of those intimately acquainted with such courts. Since the public mind has ceased to be satisfied with verdicts attributing deaths to the “Act of God” it is manifestly unfair to expect juries, as at present constituted, to elucidate mysteries too deep for the coroner or themselves. The legal profession never fails to supply the Judicial Bench with occupants who deservedly possess the fullest confidence of the public. Is it too 'much to say that the medical profession is equally well able to supply any required number of trained experts, in every sense qualified to give the public absolute facts respecting deaths calling for inquiry ? With such safeguards as medical men are well able to furnish, I will remind my hearers that the difficulty already referred to as presenting the most serious practical obstacle to cremation, does not apply to cases in which cremation is most necessary, i.e. where deaths have arisen from diseases of an infectious nature, and which are those CREMATION 247 indeed which especially require to be dealt with in the manner proposed. Perhaps it will be desirable, at first at any rate, to limit cremation to such cases. Much would certainly be gained to the public health. The permanent extinction of any one of such diseases as are admitted to be preventable, would alone confer inestimable advantages on the human race. Of course many will exclaim, “ Oh ! the idea of being burnt after death is horrible ! ” Is not a dead body a horrible mystery, and the disposal of it by any method a horrible duty ? Suppose for a moment that burial in the earth were a new custom, previous to which the dead were collected and deposited in the sea — which would have much to recommend it from a sanitary point of view — how horrified would many he at the proposal to dig a hole in the ground, in which to place their friends, with the knowledge that those first buried would in time be disturbed by the sexton’s spade, and mixed up in inextricable confusion to make room for later comers. And though the proposal would be opposed to the teachings of true science, that would not be the cause of the opposition it would meet with, any more than the approval of cremation by science convinces those guided by sentiment rather than knowledge. It is only a question of time. As the pages of the book of knowledge are unfolded, our stupendous ignorance is reduced, in spite of sentiment; sentiment which is unfortunately so rarely allied to truth. Far be it from me, however, to despise sentiment. Life would indeed be dull without it. It may indeed be said that fact and fiction, truth and falsehood, are necessary to each other’s existence. Truth shines brightest in a setting of fiction. But whilst disclaiming any inclination to repress sentiment or the healthy exercise of that imaginative power with which mankind is blessed, and by the aid of which so many of the burdens and toils of life are lessened, I make a clear distinction between it and prejudice, the child of ignorance and superstition, prolific parents, from whom it behoves us, to the best of our ability, to free ourselves and our children. Civilisation is ever calling for and initiating measures intended to prolong human life. More, a nation’s desire to extend the average life of its subjects is undoubtedly a measure of its civilisation, and is one of the first duties of statesmanship. The increasing density of our population is prompting us to adopt measures of a sanitary nature which have been too long delayed. The results so far, are such as ought to encourage us to the adoption of more general and consistent fulfilment of recognised sanitary principles. Hitherto legislation in sanitary, as in other matters, has been the result of a desire to cure rather than to prevent. Only when a nuisance has become so great as to be no longer bearable, are steps taken to alleviate if not remove it altogether. Universal education will doubtless develop a more logical public opinion, which must insist upon a policy of prevention, as superior to cure, not alone in matters of bodily health, but of crime also. It is 248 THE FLOEA OF HAMPSHIRE solely as a preventive measure of a sanitary nature that burning the dead, in the opinion of so many, already calls for serious considera¬ tion ; and in the hope that the subject will be received by this influential Society as one worthy of debate, I have ventured to bring it before you, that your thoughts may, as Matthew Arnold says, “ play freely round it,” untrammelled by prejudices unworthy of philosophers. THE FLOEA OF HAMPSHIEE.- Perhaps no local flora was ever more anxiously awaited than the Flora of Hampshire, which was known to be in preparation by Mr. Frederick Townsend. The extent of the county itself, containing as it does not only the sylvan recesses of the New Forest, with the extensive Sphagnum swamps and dry heathy uplands covered with bracken, almost concealing the splendid Gladiolus and handsome Club Moss, the extensive littoral tract, and the woods of Selborne, but also the chalk downs of the north and the Isle of Wight in the south — all these made it probable that the flora of this county would contain almost the largest number of species of any in Britain, and the high reputation of the author as a critical botanist, caused, as has been stated, a considerable amount of expectation. Nor on receiving it has there come any feeling of disappointment ; on the contrary, one feels how much more has been given than even the most sanguine imagination expected, as will be to some extent shown when its contents are glanced at. In a book of over 500 pages, with¬ out superfluous matter, 1,114 species of plants found in Hampshire are enumerated, with 202 varieties, 28 species not sufficiently vouched, and 153 excluded species, so that the flora is unmistakably the largest in Britain. Mr. Townsend has divided the county into twelve districts, founded on the river basins, as follows : — 1. The Trent and Stour district ; 2. The Avon ; 3. The New Forest ; 4. North Wight ; 5. South Wight ; 6. The Teste ; 7. Itchen ; 8. East Solent ; 9. The Arun ; 10. The Wey ; 11. The Lodden ; and 12. The Kennet. With respect to these divisions 4 and 5 (North and South Wight) would possibly have been clearer if put as 1 and 2, or 11 and 12, instead of in the midst of the mainland districts; and again, the south portion of 6 district is quite typical of the New Forest from which, however, the drainage rather artificially separates it. Districts 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are subdivided into two, and No. 8 into three portions, so some idea may be formed as to the amount of work necessary to trace the extensive list of plants enumerated through all these divisions. Perhaps it may be suggested that the districts under each plant would have been more clearly shown if the river from The Flora of Hampshire, by Fred. Townsend, M.A., F.L.S. London ; L. Reeve and Co., Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, Price 16/- THE ELORA OF HAMPSHIRE. 249 which it took its name had been printed instead of the number. Numbers 4 and 5 N. and S. Wight are thus distinguished. The old authors from Turner downwards, have been thoroughly searched, and Mr. Townsend has followed the example set in the admirable Flora of Middlesex in putting the name of the first recorder to each plant. But the special feature in the Flora is the attention given to critical species and varieties. Of these we may specify Lepidium SmitJiii var. alatostyla, a variety without the notched fruits of typical Smithii. Sileiie anylica is made a species, as is also S. yalUca, the latter divided into eugallica and quinquevulnera. Mr. Townsend remarks under Cerastium tetrandrum that, contrary to the opinion of Dr. Bromfield and other botanists who had charac¬ terised it as a seaside form of C. semidecandrum, he has always found the plants, even when growing together, retain their individual characters perfectly. The writer this year noticed on the sands of Barrie some specimens which it was difficult to confidently assign to semidecandrum, bearing as they did such a resemblance to the former plant. Arenaria serpylli folia is divided into four varieties — splmrocarpa, glutinosa, stricta, and leptoclados. Herniaria hirsuta, first recorded for Hants by Mr. Townsend, is, the author states, a possible native. Trifolium arvense has a maritime variety described. Prunus spiiiosa is divided into P. spinosa (Linn.) and P. fruticans (Weihe), the latter perhaps the cooctana of Syme. P. fruticans is between spinosa and insititia. Under the latter name it doubtless exists in many herbaria. Poterium muricatum seems pretty generally distributed. The writer noticed it this year on the railway banks between Lyndhurst and Brockenhurst, in the New Forest district. Alchemilla vulgaris is singularly absent from the New Forest, as is also Parnassia palustris. Of the Bubi thirty-seven species are enumerated. There is no notice of a new (?) species of Lythrum, said to have been found in St. Crossfields, Winchester, by Father Reader. Isnardia palustris, first recorded in “ Merrett’s Pinax,” 1667, after¬ wards lost, has been restored to Hampshire by the pertinacious search of Mr. Bolton King, whose name frequently occurs in the Flora. The small densely-tufted maritime form of Jasione is identified with J. littoralis. Fries. The Erythrsea are most fully treated, descriptions being given of E. capitala (Koch), E. toiuijiora (Link.) E., capitata (Wild), var. sphcero- cephala (Towns.), with plate. The spring flowering form of Gentiaua Arnarclla is also noticed. Under Li )uiria repens is ^noticed that Dr. Bromfield found a pure white unstriped variety. The writer has noticed not only that, but a 250 THE FLORA OF HAMPSHIRE. coral pink-coloured form, as well as more or less striped ones and some of as dark a purple as purpurea on the downs of Oxon and Berks. Mr. Townsend says that Mr. Bentham, judging apparently from dried specimens only, is disposed to write L. italica (Trev.) with vulgaris, but besides other marked and apparently constant characters he finds that the seeds of the two plants are dissimilar; this the writer can fully corroborate. Veronica arvensis (var. eximia — Townsend) is a prostrate form branching from the base of the stem, which has also been found in cultivated fields in Northamptonshire; in habit it comes nearer agrestis. The subglabrous form of Gynonlossuin officinale is recorded from the Isle of Wight. The Muddiford habitat for Polygonum maritimum was verified by Mr. B. King in 1879. A hybrid between Orchis latifoUa and maculata is recorded, as is also a hybrid dock, and two thistle hybrids. Epipactis violacea is properly separated from E. media, from which it abundantly differs. It is a great misfortune that Mr. R. Pryor did not live to set straight the synonymy of the broad-leaved Epipactis, which seems now almost hopelessly confused. Bureau’s description of Durand’s plant is very vivid. Scirpus parvulus is another of Mr. King’s interesting discoveries, as is also Eriophorum gracile. The Glycerise have, in addition to G. Jiuitans ; plicata, pedicellata (Towns.), and declinata (Brev.), separated as species, although the author considers them only worthy of subspecific rank. There is little doubt that Lycopodium complanatum will yet be found either in the New Forest or Bramshot. Not only is the flora rich in these critical plants, but such rare plants as Gladiolus, Isiiardia, Arum italicum, Matthiola incana, Spiranthes cestivalis, Calamiiitha sylvatica, Chara alopecuriodes, Sch'pus parvulus, and. Eriophorum gracile are included in the list. Mr. Townsend gives a comparative table of plant occurrences in Wilts, Dorset, Isle of Wight, Sussex, Surrey, and Berks, with mainland of Hants, which shows that Hants possesses 187 plants not foundin Wilts, 176 not found in Berks, 149 not found in Isle of Wight, 123 not found in Surrey, 69 not found in Dorset, and 64 not found in Sussex. At the end of the book, the botanical districts are described, and their characteristics and rare species enumerated. Plants which might not be expected to occur are also given ; in fact the author seems to have left nothing undone, but has produced a county flora which amply refutes the statements of some s j-called botanists — i.e., that the British Flora is worked out, or is too uninteresting to repay further trouble. G. C. Druce. BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES ^51 BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES * BY M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., ETC. The phenomena of reproduction in animals and plants present many features worthy of comparison. It is scarcely rash to say that sexuality is as common and universal in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom. Not many years ago such an assertion could scarcely have been ventured upon with confidence, when the reproduction of the lower cryptogamia was so little known, but every new discovery adds strength to a belief in universal sexuality. The completeness of the sexual organs and their functions is not a matter of mere speculation. The male and female organs are definite and distinct. They approach each other, as it were, instinctively, and unite. The ovary receives the contents of the antheridium, which, in many cases, are multi¬ tudinous active spermatozoa, with a remarkable similarity to the same bodies high up in the zoological scale. The opening of the ovary just as the spermatozoids are matured, as in the genera LEdogonium and Vauclieria, the entrance of these and their absorption, and finally the maturing of the fertilised ovum, are notable analogies. If we seek more special and particular examples these can be found. What, for instance, could be more suggestive of the fusion which takes place in some of the Infusoria, in which two individuals meet, collide, and finally coalesce in one individual, than the conjugating zoospores in Botrydium gramdatum, where two active zoospores unite, and by their union become a true fertilised isospore, in which all motion soon comes to an end, and is followed by the development of a young plant like its original parent. These are some of the phenomena which startled certain of our progenitors into the supposition that infusoria were generated within, and ultimately escaped from, the tissues of living plants. Metamorphosis, such as we are acquainted with in insects, has also its analogue in the vegetable kingdom. From the egg of a butterfly emerges, not a form like the parent, but a caterpillar, which passes through a period of existence and then comes to rest ; it changes into a pupa or resting condition, in which it remains for a more or less lengthened period, then its final change takes place, and the perfect imago appears, the true image of the original parent. In some of the lower plants we may recognise a similar metamorphosis. In some of the Myxogasters, for instance, the spore, which is the ovum or egg, produces a larval form, an active zoospore. After a time this becomes amoeboid, more sluggish, and quite different from either zoospore or * This extract is taken from a most interesting address delivered by Dr. Cooke, President of the Quekett Microscopical Club, at the Annual Meeting, held July 27th, 188.3. BIOLOGICAL ANALOGiEg. parent, and finally from the amoeboid form results the perfect imago, or image of the plant from which originally the ovum was derived. If exception should be taken to any of the Myxogasters being employed in illustration, inasmuch as their vegetable nature has been called in question, then we can fall back on the life history of Volvox globator, Stephanos2)hcera, and other of the Volvocinece, to say nothing of mosses and Characece, already alluded to, which furnish less perfect trans¬ formations. Although not conducted on so large a scale as in the animal kingdom, it is clear that we have at least suggestions of meta¬ morphosis also in the vegetable world. Alternation of generations, as applied zoologically, differs materially from metamorphosis, although they are sometimes con¬ founded as though they were convertible terms. The fundamental idea is that of an organism “ producing an offspring which at no time resembles its parent, but which, on the other hand, itself brings forth a progeny which returns, in its form and nature, to the parent animal, so that the material organism does not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in the descendants of the second, third, or fourth degree or generation, and this always takes place in the different animals which exhibit the phenomenon in a determinate generation, or with the intervention of a determinate number of generations.” The characteristic difference between this and a simple metamorphosis is that each generation completes its career in the same form as it commenced, so that each starts from an ovum, and the cycle is not the career of a single individual, but of a consecutive series of individuals, which revert to the original form after one, two, or more intermediate and differing generations. In Ferns an alternation of generations is evident. The fronds of mature ferns bear on their under surface, or margin, clusters of spore- cases containing minute spores, which themselves are produced without sexual fertilisation. These spores germinate and produce a little plant called a prothallium, not at all like the parent fern, but a small simple plant nourished by root-hairs. This prothallium is capable of repeating itself by buds, but finally it produces male and female organs, and the result of fertilisation is a true embryo, sexually produced, which develops into a Fern, like its asexual parent. Thus there is an alternate asexual and sexual generation, the sexual being the small prothallium, and the asexual that more imposing form which we are in the habit of calling a Fern. In Mosses a somewhat similar alternation prevails. The ger¬ minating spore produces a confervoid thallus called a Frotnnemci; from this the leafy moss is developed by buds on the branches. Sexual organs are formed, and finally, after fertilisation, spores are produced. It is unnecessary to repeat instances, since my object is more suggestive than exhaustive, and in fact the subject could not possibly be extended in all its details within the narrow limit of time at my disposal. The flora op Warwickshire. 253 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from page 236.) SGROPHULARIAGEvE (continued). LINARIA. L. Cymbalaria, Mill. Ivy-leaved Toad Flax. Mother of Thousands. Denizen : On old walls and ruins. Local. May to October. I. Sutton Churchyard wall ; Coleshill Rectory wall ; walls at Springfield, Astley ; walls near Oldbury Hall; Maxtoke Church¬ yard wall. II. St. Mary’s Churchyard wall ; wall in Meller’s Lane, Warwick ; Per. FI. 52 ; New House, Radford ; Whitley Abbey ; walls at Arbury Hall ; Coton House, near Rugby, Kirk. Phyt., ii. 971. Tachbrook, Y. and B. Wall at Thurlaston, R.S.R., 1877 ; Honington Hall in several places ! Neivb. ; near Wixford ; walls near Farnborough. In many of these stations truly established, but not a native in any of the districts from which I record it. L. Elatine, Mill. Sharp-leaved Fluellen. Native or Colonist : In cultivated land. Rare and local. July to September. I. Sandy cornfield near School rough, Marston Green II. Grafton; Kinwarton ; Part., i., 287. Whitnash ; Bidford! Wyken Colliery ; Herb. Perry. Tachbrook, Morton, Y. and B., Woodloes ! R.B. ; Field at Birdingbury, R.S.R., 1877 ; near Whatcote; Lambcote; Neiob. Lighthorne, King; Drayton, near Stratford ; Billesley ; Exhall, near Alcester ; Brandon. L. spuria, 3Iill. Round-leaved Fluellen. Colonist ; In cultivated fields. Rather rare. July to September. II. Grafton, Purt., i., 288; Bidford ! Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 165; near, Chesterton Windmill, Herb. Perry ; Field at Birdingbury and near Little Lawford, R.S.R., 1877 ; Tachbrook ; Morton, Y. and B. ; Whatcote, Rev. J. Gorle ; Tredington, Lambscote, Neiob. ; Chadshunt, Bolton King ; Honington ; Bidford ; Exhall ; Billesley; Drayton, near Stratford; Wilmcote. L. repens. Mill. Creeping Toad Flax. Native (?) : On old walls. Very rare. July to September. II. Old Walls at Claverdon ! H.B. The plant is well established here, but is merely an escape from some near garden, I think. 254 THE ELORA OE WARWICKSHIRE. L. vulgaris, Mill. Yellow Toad Flax. Native : On hedge banks and borders of fields. Common. July to September. Area general. Altbougb a common plant on the whole, it appears rare in some portions of the county. L. minor, Desf. Lea>ft Toad Flax. Colonist : In cultivated land. Local and rare. I. Railway siding, Knowle Station, W. Mathews. II. In corn fields. Exball ! and G-rafton ! iii., 300 ; Leamington, Perry, FI., 52 ; Quarries between Bidford ! and Binton ! Herb. Perry; Cornfields near Newbold, R.S.R., 1874.; Higbdown, F. and B. ; garden weed, Honington Hall ! Neiob. ; Exhall ; Redbill ; Billesley ; Brandon. [L. purpurea. Mill. Casual, on old walls. Walls of Warwick Castle Park, and other old walls about Warwick ; probably extinct now] . LIMOSELLA. L. aquatica. Linn. Mudwort. Native : In pools and ditches. Rare. July to September. I. Colesbill Pool ! Aylesford, B.G. 1805. II. In waters near Arbury Hall, T. KBk, Pliyt., ii., 970 ; Barwood Green, near Coventry, Kirk ; Shrewley Pool, Bree, Herb. Perry ; Stoke Heath, Kirk, Herb. Brit. 3Tus., 1854. VERONICA. V. hederifolia. Linn. Ivy-leaved Speediocll. Native or Colonist : In cultivated land and on waysides. Common. February to June or August. Area general. V. polita. Fries. Grey procumbent Speedwell. Native or Colonist : In cultivated land, and as a weed in gardens. Local. January to October. I. Field by Chelmsley Wood ; near Knowle Station ; fields by Bannersley Pool, Colesbill. II. Coventry Park; Stoneleigh, Kirk., Pliyt., ii., 191; Myton, JF.C. Herb. Perry ; Tredington, Honington, Neiob.; Fields at Bidford ; Wixford; Exhall; Binton; Red Hill ; Billesley; Alveston ; Loxley; Kenilworth ; Hatton ; Rectory Garden, Harboro-Magna; Cubbington. V. agrestis, Lina. Green procumbent Speedwell. Native or Colonist : In cultivated land, waysides, wall tops, Ac. Common. J anuary to October. Area general. In some seasons in flower all the year round. V. Buxbaumii Ten. Bu.xbaum's Speedwell. Colonist: In cultivated land, waysides and banks. Locally common, January to November. Area general. I have seen this plant more or less abundant in every part of the county, it appears to have spread widely within the last sixteen years. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 255 V. triphylla, Linn. Trijid Speedioell. Native {?). Sandy fields. April. May. II. Sandy fields, not rare. Fart., i, 53. “a plant of local Eastern type, found as a cornfield weed.” R. S. E. 1871. I have never heard of this plant being found in the Alcester district since Purton’s time, it is a most unlikely plant to occur other than as a casual inti*oduction. Mr. Newbould informs me that Mr. Crotch stated that the specimen in Purton’s Herbarium (Worcester) is a form of V. hederifolia. V. arvensis, Linn. Wall Speedioell. Native : On banks, wall tops, fields, waysides, etc. Common. March to October. Area general. V. serpyllifolia , Linn. Perennial Smooth Speedwell. Native : In pastures, and on banks, waysides, etc. April to July. Area general. V. oflB.cinalis, Linn. Common Speedwell. Native : In woods, on heaths, waysides and banks. Common. May to July. I. Middleton Heath; New Park; Stone Quarries, Hartshill; Marston Green; lanes about Solihull; Hockley; Earlswood. II. Near Dumington, Coughtou, Part., i., 51 ; Greens Grove, near Hatton, Perry. FI. ; Honington, Newh. ; Rowington ; Alveston pastures ; Lapworth. Purton considered this plant rare, I have seen it in several places in the Alcester district. V. Chamaedrys, Linn. Germander Speedwell. Native: On hedge banks, waysides, &c. Common. April to June. Area general. With lavender-coloured flowers, near Berkswell. V. montana, Linn. Mountain Speedwell. Native : In woods and on shady banks. Local. May, June. I. Sutton Park. Freeman, Phyt., i., 261 ; Road from Saltley to Stechford, Ick. Anal.; Trickley Coppice ; Middleton Park; New Park ; Shustoke, near Maxtoke ; Harding’s Wood, Maxtoke ; Kinwalsey ; Arley Wood. II. Woods at Beausale, near Wedgenock Park. Dree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 163 ; Hatton Y. and B. ; Haywoods ; lanes about Bad- desley Clinton ; Combe Woods ; Seas Wood, Arbury. V. scutellata, Linn. Marsh Speedwell. Native: In bogs and marshes and near pools. Rare. July, August. I. Ditches about Tam worth. ed. 3. Coleshill Bog! Purt., i., 53; Coleshill heath! Dree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 163; margin of Canal, Atherstone, Blox., MS. note. Sutton Park ; Forge Mills ; Coleshill Pool ; Olton Reservoir. II. Shelfield, Part., i., 53; in a field beyond Swan meadow, footway to Hampton-on-the-Hill, Perry, FI. ; Windmill field, Haseley, Perry, FI. ; Alveston pastures, W. G., Herb. Perry ; Lye Green ! Y. and D. ; fields beyond Barby, near disused mill, E. S. R., 1877 ; var. puhescens, Corley Moor, Kirk., Herb. Perry. 256 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE V. Anagallis, Linn. Water Speedwell. Native: In ditches and by rivers and streams. Local. June, July. I. Sutton Park, Freeman, PJiyt., i., 261; ditches about Tamworth, ed. 3 ; Water Orton ; Middleton; Forge Mills ; marshy land near Packington Park ; Elmdon ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Righton End. II. Nicholas Meadow, Warwick, Perry, 1817 ; Stoneleigh, Warwick, Y.andB.; near St. Dennis, Newb.; cattle pool near Billesley Hall ; Canal, near Bishopton ; Canal bank, near Shrewley Common. The glandular form occurs near Forge Mills. V. Beccabunga, Linn. Brook Lime. Native : In marshes, ditches, and muddy places. Common. May to August. Area general. EUPHRASIA. E. officinalis, Linn. Common Eyebriyht. Native: On heaths, commons, pastures, etc. Common. June to September. Area general. I think that the whole of the Warwickshire plants would be in¬ cluded in the var. b, E. nernorosa, Pers. Var. a I have not seen in any of the districts. A marked form, having a dwarfed habit, much branched stem, and large flowers is abundant on Sutton Coldfield ; but I cannot look upon this as more than a state or form of E. nernorosa. BARTSIA. B. Odontites, TIuds. Red Bartsia. Native: In fields, woods, on waysides and heaths. Common. June to September. Area general. a, verna, Reich. Common. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Shustoke ; Hartshill ; Marston Green ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Knowle, etc. II. Honington ; Tredington, Newb. ; Moreton Morrell, Y. and B. ; Exhall, near Alcester ; Drayton ; Kingswood, etc. b, serotina, Reich. Frequent in Avon basin, local in Tame basin. I. Middleton; Coleshill Heath. II. Whitnash; Chesterton! Y. and B. ; Tredington; Brailes ; Lamb- cote, Neiob. ; Exhall ; Alcester ; Drayton ; Spernal Ash ; Harborough Magna. PEDICULARIS. P. palnstris, Linn. Upright Louseioort. Native : In marshes, damp meadows, and waysides. Local. June to August. I. Coleshill! Freeman, Phyt. i., 262; Sheldon, Rev. J. Gorle ; Sutton Perk; Middleton; Coleshill Pool; Marston Green ; Knowle. II. Sowe Waste Canal ; canal near Lowson’s Ford. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 257 P. sylvatica, Linn. Procumbent Louseioort. Native : On damp heaths, waysides, and in pastures. Common. June to August. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Arley ; Coleshill Pool ; Olton Pool ; Knowle ; near Packwood Mill ; Kemp’s Gz’een ; Chalcot Wood, etc. II. Combe Woods, 1871 ; Yarningale Common ; pastures near Bush- wood; Lapworth. KHINANTHUS. R. Crista-galli, Linn. Common Yellow Rattle. Native : On waysides, in meadows and pastures. Common. May to July. Area general. MELAMPYRUM M. pratense, Linn. Common Cow-Wheat. Native : In woods and copses. Very local. July, August. I. Edgbaston, with white flowers, With., ed. 7, iii., 730 ; Sutton Park, near the wagon road, Ick. Anal. ; Barber’s Coppice ; Hampton-in- Arden, R. Rogers ; in most of the woods in Sutton Park ; Gin Wood, and Iron Stone Wood, Oldbury ; Kingsbury Wood ; Chelmsley Wood ; Clew’s Wood, near Earl’s Wood. II. Woods about Studley, Spernal Park, Part, i., 291 ; Green’s Grove, Hatton, Per. FI. ; Prince Thorpe Wood ! R. S. R., 1877 ; Tile Hill Wood, and North' Waste Wood, Tile Hill ; Ufton Wood, near Southam. A broad-leaved form approaching M. lati/ulium, is occasional in Sutton Park and Efton Wood. OROBANGHACEvE . LATHR.EA. L. squamaria, Linn. Native: In thickets. Very rare. I. In a thicket at Oldbury, near Atherstone, J. Power, B. G. OROBANCHE. 0. major, Linn. Greater Broom-rape. Native: In woods, pastures, and dry grounds. Very rare. June. I. In a wood a mile N.E. by E. of Packington Hall, Perry;, FI. ; Bickenhill, Bree, Part, iii., 367. II. Amongst some gorse by the side of the road from Pophills, Part, i., 296; Allesley; Leek Wootton, Bree, Part, iii., 367; Bush Common, Kenilworth, T. Cox, Herb. Perry ; Myton, II. B. On the root of Broom in Whitby Grove, Kirk, Phyt. ii., 971. 0. elatior. Native: July, August. I. Polesworth, Hoo Hills, rarely found there now, J. Power, Bot. Guide ; Coleshill, Bickenhill, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 165. II. Allesley, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 165, 258 llEVIEWS. 0. minor, Linn. Native. July, August. II. Sandy field, near Luddington, Cheshire, Herb. Perry; roadside between Brinklow and Combe, Rev. A. Blox., R.S.R., 1874; near Mvton, H. B. 1/ • VERBENAGEvE. VERBENA. V. officinalis, Linn. Common Vervain, Simpler's Joy. Native: On banks near Churchyards and old ruins. Rare. July to September. II. Foot of Stankhill near Warwick, Perry, 1817 ; Green’s Grove, Hatton; Wixford ! Herb. Perry; Salford Priors, Rev. J. C.; Tredington by the Churchyard ! Neicb. ; aLout Rnghy, Baxter ; Kenilworth Castle ! Y. and B. ; Chadshunt, Lighthorne, Bolton Kiny ; appearing in newly cut hedges about Binton and Strat¬ ford, Cheshire. { To be continued.) Zoological Notes. By Arthur Nicols. 370 pp., 3 plates, woodcuts. Price, 7s. 6d. L. Upcott Gill. This w'ork consists of an accumulation of little-known and interesting facts relating to (1) Snakes, (2) Marsupials, and (3) Birds. The author is evidently a keen and close observer, and the mass of observations here collected will prove attractive to every lover of natural history. The Origin of Civilisation, and the Primitive Condition of Man. By Sir J. Lubbock, Bart. Fourth Edition. 548 pp., five plates, 20 woodcuts. Price, 18s. Longmans and Co. This book has now become classical ; it is a standard book of reference and study for the ethnologist, for the student of pre-historic man, and for every intelligent being who wishes to know something of the early condition of mankind. The subjects taken up are the Art and Orna¬ ments, the systems of Marriage and Relationship, the Religion, the Character and Morals, the Language and the Laws of Mankind, both civilised and savage ; together with such information as we can glean from history and geology on the habits of bygone ages. Sir John Lubbock, in our opinion, succeeds clearly in proving that, on the whole, the history of the human race is one of continued progress. The book is one of absorbing interest ; the origin of many of our own customs is traced back to times when our ancestors were in the condition of savage tribes, in a manner which excites general curiosity and interest, but which leaves the impression of certainty on the mind of the reader, so skilfully and scientifically is it done. Reviews. ^59 Study of the Rocks. By F. Rutley. Second Edition. 321 pp., wood- cuts. Price, 4s. 6d. Longmans and Co. This work has established itself as the recognised English text-book on the subject. The author is petrologist to the Geological Survey, and has had an excellent opportunity (of which he has well availed himself) of becoming acquainted with the properties of minerals and rocks. The first portion of the book is concerned with the micro¬ scopical characters of rocks, and their behaviour in the field ; in the succeeding chapters we have an admirable account of the method of making thin sections of rocks, preparing them for examination by the microscope ; the optical properties of rock-forming minerals are then described, so that we learn how to discriminate them when examined by ordinary and by polarised light, etc. Mr. Rutley’s book is simply indispensable to every geologist. The British Moss Flora. By R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S., etc. Part vii. Fam. vii., Dicranace^e (Part II.) Published by the Author, 303, Clapham Road, London. Price 6s. This truly valuable work, if it makes slower progress than one would desire, at any rate places before the student of British bryology, in a collected form, all the additions that have from time to time been made to our Moss Flora since the publication of “ Bryologia Britannica,” in 1855. To many students this is most valuable help, as the records of new discoveries have hitherto been scattered among the pages of many varied works. In the present Part vii. several new species are described, and some of them for the first time as British plants. The descriptions are clear and graphic. The plates, of which there are six, contain illustrations of twenty-four species ; these are excellent — superior in finish to any that have been given before. This work deserves the earnest support of every Natural History Society in the Kingdom, and should be subscribed to by all who take an interest in botany. It is only by the united help of all, that such a work can be made in any way a success. J. E. Bagnall. The Botanical Record Club: Phanerogamic and Cryptogamic. Phanerogamic Report for 1881-2. Manchester : Jas. Collins and Co. This report concludes the second quinquennial volume of the record of the Club’s labours. During the ten years beginning with 1873 it has published 3,180 distinct New County Records of Phane¬ rogams (773 of them within the last two years), nearly all of which are vouched for by actual specimens. These are in addition to the localities embodied in the works of the late Hewett C. Watson, which “even at the outset mirrored with essential accuracy the phanerogamic vegetation of an island probably more fully known ” than any other equal area in the whole world. It is evident that the Club has 260 REVIEWS found plenty to do in the work to which it has set its hand ; but the greater the progress the nearer comes the enquiry, “ Is not the work nearly finished? Surely by this time the distribution of plants within Great Britain must be all but fully known.” With regard to all but the modern segregates this is doubtless true, but against it we must set the curious fact that the number of novelties recorded year by year shows but little signs of falling off. Every botanist can bear witness that, however much he may have studied a large district, he can always find in it something new by stepping aside a yard or so from the ruts in which we are all apt to travel. We may therefore hope that, though the present rate of progress cannot be maintained, the Club may find work to do for many years. We find in this volume fresh localities for the latest born into the families of true British plants : — Selinum Carvifolia, Senecio spathuUfoUus, Fotainogeton Zizii, Agrostis nigra, and others, while the distribution of those longer known is extended even into unlooked-for quarters. One of the most noticeable features of the Report is the attempt made by its Editor to hold the balance equally between the views of extreme “lumpers” and “splitters.” When he receives from a member of the Club one of those intermediate forms which no botanist can fail to meet with, he records it as, what it is, an intermediate, instead of forcing upon it the name of the segregate to which ho thinks it is nearest. With regard to the grass first discovered in Warwickshire by our indefatigable contributor, Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Agrostis nigra of Withering, he quotes Professor Haeckel’s opinion, expressed with reference to another genus of Gramineas, that “ it is quite impossible to distinguish all distinguishable and perhaps hereditary forms as species,” unless, we may add, we are prepared to undertake an amount of labour which can at present be but dimly seen, but which, even as thus foreshadowed, is overwhelmingly great. As has been often said in these pages, there are many genera in which the process of evolution is at the present moment engaged in forming new species. The older botanists were ignorant that such is the case, and made the want one of the stock objections to the theory of evolution. But now the number of genera in which this manufacture is seen to be in progress is yearly increased, and when we have to do with one of these “ of the naming of new species (?) there is no end.” This is the true, but as yet hardly recognised explanation of the two botanical (and zoological) “schools.” Among “things not generally known” is the influence of fashion in science, which is nevertheless one of the most potent factors of its condition. It was once the fashion to look at broad distinctions mainly, and in so doing the multitude of really existing but minute differences was overlooked ; then the fashion grew of making the most of these, and now the pendulum must swing back again as is its wont. It is right to treat these intermediate forms as distinguishable at first till we have evidence to the contrary, but then to re-unite them. Thus will finally be solved that still unended controversy as to what constitutes a species. W. B. C. CORKESPONDENCEl - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 261 The Fruits of all Countries : a Preliminary Catalogue. By F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. Published by the Author, Leicester. 2s, 6d, This is a catalogue of “Fruits” in the popular, and not in the technical sense of that word. It includes all the well-known European species, as well as those of which we now often see the strange forms in the windows of fruit warehouses, and others not yet introduced into this country. The catalogue gives the scientific and popular names of the fruit, its native region, the habit of the plant, the edible part, and the appearance and qualities of the fruit. It is well styled a “preliminary” catalogue, and makes no pretence to be complete. The author requests that all corrections or additions may be forwarded to him at Birstall Hill, Leicester, whence copies of the work may be obtained. W. B. G. A Correction. — The Boletus aluterms, Fr.,from Hints Wood, which I mentioned in last months’ “Midland Naturalist,” p. 236, is, I regret to say, iwt that species. The stem of Agaricus nitidus, also, is not pure white, as my words would seem to imply, — W. B. Grove, B.A. Bryological Note from South Beds. — The following Pleurocarpous Mosses have fruited during 1882-3 in South Beds, besides other very common forms, viz :—Neckera coinplanata, Thuidium tamariscimirn, Thamnium alopecurum, Isotliecnim myurum, Camptothecium lutescens, Brachytliecium albicans (on thatch, Harlington), Eurhynchium Sioartzii, BJiyncliostegium niurale, R. ruscifolium, Plagiothecitim denticidatum, Amblystegium riparium, Hypnuni Jluitans, H. Jilicinuin, H. molluscum, 11. cordifoU'um (sparingly on Flit wick Marsh), H. pvrum, H. squarrosum, and of H. triquetrum only one capsule was found. In addition to these, of the other groups of Mosses the following have been gathered in fruit : — Fontinalis antipig retica, Fissidens adiantoides, F. crassipes, Philonotis fontana, Physcomitrium pyrifomne, Physcomitrella patens, F unaria fascicular is, Barbula fallax, B. brevifolia, and Dicranum palustre. Duplicates of all have been examined by Mr. H. Boswell, of Oxford. J. Saunders, Luton. [Having, through the kindness of Mr. Saunders, seen some of the more noticeable of the above Mosses, I can bear testimony to the correctness of the nomenclature. This list is a remarkable one, and does credit to Mr. Saunders as an industrious student of Bryology. — J. E. Bagnall.] BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— Geoeogicad Section, September 25. — The following exhibits were made:— Mr. T. H. Waller: An interesting specimen of slickensides on quartzite, from Caldecote quarry, near Nuneaton. Mr. W. J. Harrison, j un. : Ammonites caudatus, from Desborougli and Ecbinodcrmata spines in chalk matrix, from Grays, m REPORTS OE SOCIETIES. Essex. Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S. : A pebble, evidently broken from the junction of a sandstone bed with a calcareous vein, as it shows both layers, from Brixham, South Devon ; and a fragment of slate with vein of aragonite, from Rossthwaite, Borrowdale. Mr. W. H. France : A remarkable fungus growth which had sapped and destroyed a great part of his dining-room floor, at Sandford Road, Moseley. This fungus (Merulius lacrijmansi is vei-y destructive, especially as it can be eradicated only with very great difficulty. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Ag. vnginatus, Ag. gnlopus var. candidvs, Ag. uclvs, Ag. ceruginosus, Ag. camp mulatus, Ag. asterosporus, Ag. drgoph'lm, Ag. sanguinolentm, Ag. {Pluteiisi nanus, Ag. melas- permits, Coprinus niveiis, Bolbitius titubans, Bussula integra, B. alutacea, Lactarius rufus, L. quietus, L. niitissimus, Hggrophoriis virgineus, Marasmius androsaceus. Boletus chrysenteron, Tlielepliora laciniita, Torrubia milt tar is, Isaria farinosa, and Mucor macrocarpus, from Four Oaks Park; Ag. pascuus and Polyporus hispidus, from Sutton. Mr. J. E. Bagnall : the following fungi — Amanita verna, Lactarius deliHosus, Mycena leptocephala, M galopus, Hygro- phorus pratensis, Collybia dr yophila ,Cortinarius elatior, Boletus elegans,Lactarius glyciosmus, etc., from Coleshill Heath ; and on behalf of Dr. Cooke, Cantharellus cibarius, Agaricus prunulus, Pholiota mutabilis, Marasmius foetens, and Lactarius torminosits, from Hereford. Mr. C. J. Watson : Minerals from Barmouth, and a large number of beautiful photographs of Welsh scenery, taken by himself. Genebal Meeting, October 2nd. — The President introduced the work of the winter session by a few graceful words of welcome to the members. A Conver¬ sazione was then held, at which the following exhibits were made ; — By Mr. T. H. Waller: A section of Precarbonifei’ous lava, from the Cheviot Hills, containing Hypersthene, and traversed by a vein of jasper, with a minute agate in its course. By Mr. W. R. Hughes : A series of slides prepared by Mr. F. W. Shariius, illustrating the development, structure, etc., of the Cephalopoda. By Mr. R. M. Lloyd : Formica rufa, and Bugula plumosa. By Mr. J. Morley : A section of Hippuris vulgaris (the mare’s tail), and a species of Ceramium. By Mr. J. E. Bagnall : Ag. spermaticm, Glitocybe clavipes, Boletus bovinus, Cortimrius subferrugineus, and other rare and local fungi, from Coleshill and Middleton. By Mr. J. Levick : Carchesiumpolypinum. By Mr. C. Pumphrey: Spiral fibres of root of lily, and the remarkable seeds of Parnassia palustris ; also Pyrola rotundifolia, from Southport. By Mr. W. P. Marshall, a small rock-plant, Accena microphyll'i , having the flowers grouped together in a dense head, from which the calyx-leaves, modified into four long red spines, project on all sides. By Mr. R. W. Chase : Charadrius morinellus, from near Bristol ; Phalaropus hyperboreus (in winter plumage), from near Boston; Tringa suharquata (in summer plumage), from Breydon, Norfolk; Phalaropus hyper¬ boreus and Stercorarius crepidatus (in the down', from Shetland ; Somateri t mollissima and Fratercula nrctica (in the down), from the Fame Islands ; Mr. Chase also gave an account of the nesting habits of some of these birds. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following Fungi : — Lactarius deliciosus, L. turpis, Boletus scaber, Agaricus rimosus, from Sutton Park ; Agaricus cucnmis, Plnteus 7ianus, and Helotium lutescens, from Sutton; Polyporus hispidus, Cortinarius elatior, Polyporus abieUnus, Ag. fragrans, and Ag. Gandolleanus, from Hints Wood. SocioLOGiCAii Section.— October 4th. The fifth meeting for the study of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ System of Philosophy” was held at the Mason College. The President (Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S.) occupied the chair, and there was a large attendance, including ladies. A letter from Mr. Alfred Hayes, B.A., was read, resigning the Hon. Secretaryship on the score of distance from Birmingham, and Mr. Greatheed was unani¬ mously elected to take his place. A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Hayes for his valuable services. A letter from Mr. M. J. Savage, of Boston, U.S.A., author of “ The Morals” and “The Religion of Evolution,” proposing some sort of co-operation between English and American Spen- cerians, was read. The discussion of the “Principles of Biology,” which work has been chosen by the Section for perusal during this session, was opened by Dr. Hill, F.I.C., and the first chapter lucidly explained by him in spite of its more than ordinai'y technicality. Mr. Spencer begins by drawing attention to REPORTS OF SOCIETIES 263 the high mobility, physically speaking, and the small afl&nity, chemically speaking, which characterise three of the principal elements of the human body — viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, while at the same time the four exhibit great contrast in both respects, and thereby facilitate the differen¬ tiation and integration which is carried on in the human body. Among their binary, ternary, and succeeding compounds, it was shown that there was decreasing mobility and decreasing affinity, nitrogenous compounds reaching the extreme of instability, as instanced in nitro-glycerine and other familiar substances. The most complex organic molecules must be characterised by the least mobility, while on the other hand they are much more likely to be acted on and rearranged by physical forces. The importance of Professor Graham’s differentiation of substances into crystalloids and colloids was noticed, the former consisting of simple elements or of the less compound molecules, and, therefore, able to pass through the dialyser, or through living membranes ; whilst the molecules of the latter, consisting in some cases of many hundred atoms, were necessarily stationary, though supplying the energia of vitality. Dialysis, or the action of animal membranes, not only separates crystalloids from colloids, but assists in breaking up molecules with feeble affinities. All these circumstances point to the mechanism for the quick escape of the waste products of the body and the mechanical fixity which prevents the living tissue diffusing away with the decomposition products. The conditions necessary to the redistribution of matter and motion which constitute evolution are thus fairly shown to be fulfilled ; the increased warmth or molecular vibration of the higher organisms further assisting towards this end. The discussion was con¬ tinued by Messrs. Cullis, France, Major, Hayes, and W. B. Grove. Mr. J. Levick beautifully exhibited the microscopic plants Diatomacece, in their “ rambling progression,” as an illustration to the third chapter. — BiologicaIj Section, Oct. 9th. Mr. Bagnall exhibited Fungi : Clitocijhe clavipes, and Boletus bovinus, new to the district; Hygropliorus conicus, H. psittacmus, Scleroderma geaster; and a Moss, Georgia pelliicida, all from Middleton. Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited Calcarius l''pponicus, male and female dn adult summer plumage), Tiirdics pilaris young', Turdus iliacus lyoung', all from Norway. Mr. R. W. Felton exhibited Franklin Quail, shot in Suffolk; Hobby youngi, shot in Herefordshire. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited a collection of Fungi, among which were Lactarius cilicioides, L. vellereus, L. pyrogalus, Lentinus cocJileatus, Helvella crispa, Clavaria pistillaris, C. cinerea, C. coralloides, Boletus luridus^^Exidia glandulosa, from Langley and Middleton; Lactarius turpis, L. hysginus, Ag. procerus, B. depallens, B. decolorans, B. fellea, and Polyporus giganteus, from Edgbaston Park. Mr. W. Southall exhibited Oentiana pneumonanthe. Mr. A. W. Wills read a “Note on CEcidiurn berberidis," by Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., in which he, maintains in a well argued paper that the relation between CEcidiurn berberidis and Puccinia graminis is not proven, and points to the fact that in Australia, where (Ecidium berberidis is unknown, the ravages of Puccinia graminis far exceed anything known in this country. Microscopical General Meeting, October 16th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Lemna gibba, from Coleshill; Plagiothecium undulatum a-are), Biccia glauca (local), and Anthoceros punctatus (rare), from Maxtoke and Pack- ington ; also Agaricus odorus, Ag. hydrophilus, Ag. priMiMlas and Cor- tinarius tonus (the two latter new to the district), and other fungi, from Fillongley ; (for Mr. G. S. Tyei an abnormal form of the common mushroom, in which one was attached by its cap in an inverted position to the cap of another ; (for Dr. M. C. Cooke) Cyathus rugosus and G. vemicosus, from Norfolk ; (for Mr. C. B. Plowrighti Geoglossum olivaceum, Agaricus ambustus, and other fungi from Hereford ; and (for Mr. J. B. Stone) a series of rare Norwegian plants, collected and named by Professor Lindberg, of Helsingfors. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Ag. muscarius, Ag. mappa, Cortinarius hemitrichus, C. sangum- eus, Tranietes gibbosa, and Ptychogaster albus, from Sutton Park ; Badhamia liyalina (a myxomycete), from Edgbaston Park, and other fungi. Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited Arcliibates lagopus, the Rough-legged Buzzard, shot at 264 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. St. Olive’s. Mr. W. H. France read a paper on “ Cremation,” which will appear in these pages. Geological Section, October 2ard.— Mr. T. H. Waller ex¬ hibited microscopic preparations of volcanic dust ejected during the late eruption of Krakatoa in Java, and of a lava from Montserrat, the trituration of which would produce such dust. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited the following fungi from the neighbourhood : Epicoccmti purpurascens, Fusidium cylindricum, Agraicus pseudopurus, Ag. fimhriatus, Ag. hrevip>es, Ag. viscipellis, Ag. virgatvs, Ag. mappa, Ag. metaclirous, Ag. ditopiis, Clavaria rugosa, C. stricta, Pistillaria quisqidlviris, Mucor fasiger, etc. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Agaricus squamosus (named by Mr. Phillips) and other fungi from Middleton; also on behalf of Mr. C. B. Plowright, of King’s Lynn, Agaricus humilis, Ag. conissans, Ag. flaccidm, Ag. pyxidatus, Ag. nehularis, Ag. clavipes, Hygropliorxis Icetus, H. hypothejxLS, Cortinarius pTiolideus, C. rigens, and C. castaneus, all from Sandringham; Panus torulosus, etc., from Lynn. Mr. W. H. France then read a paper sent by the Eev. P. B. Brodie, M.A., F.G.S., of Rowington, on ” Fossil Spiders and Scorpions.” NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— September 18th.— Mr. T. W. Cave, M.R.C.V.S., read an important paper on “ The Life-history of a few Parasites of Domestic Animals,” being the second part of a subject brought before the Society during the previous session. Th‘> author dealt with the pi’incipal species of the Nematoda or round-worm family, and gave some instructive facts about the much-dreaded Trichina spiralis. He said it only lived three or four weeks. Each female produced at least 1,000 embryos, and often ten or fifteen thousand. It had been found that one ounce of flesh from an infected pig contained 80,000 irichince. The best means of iirevention con¬ sisted in care being taken that all pork was in a well-cooked condition throughout before being eaten. The remainder of the paper was devoted to other repre¬ sentatives of the class, such as the Strongylidce, which caused the disease called “husk” in calves and lambs. October 2nd. — Dr. E. Seaton (Pr sident) occupied the chair, and the evening was devoted to the reading of short communications. The first was a paper on the “ Hedgehog,” by Mrs. W. A. Brown, in which the subject was treated in a highly practical way, and gave the results of long- continued personal observation of the habits of these animals. Mr. W. Wright followed with an account of “Local Entomological Captures made during the Sum¬ mer,” and the 131 specimens he had collected, all neatly mounted, were insiiected by those present with much interest and admiration. Mr. J. Shipman then read a paper on a “ Boulder from the Bunter Pebble Beds,” a slice of which (showing the shape and surface dimensions) he exhibited. The boulder was found in the Bunter Pebble Beds in a small sand quarry at the south-west corner of Wollaton Park wall. It attracted his attention first on account of its size, being the largest boulder he had ever seen in the Bunter, and very much larger than the pebbles that usually occur in that formation. It measured 7in. by Gin. by 3Jin., and weighed over 91bs. It was quite angular, being only very slightly worn along the edges, and therefore not much rolled about by the action of currents. It resembled Caradoc sandstone more than anything else, and was quite unlike the coal measure sandstone of the adjacent coalfield in texture. It consisted of hard fine-grained white sandstone, finely but unevenly laminated, and very fissile. The author then dwelt briefly on the wonderful interest that was connected with these iiebbles, for it was by their means that geologists were trying to solve the problem of where the source was whence the Bunter sandstone was derived. He referred to the rival theories of Professor Bonney,F.R.S., and Mr.W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., the former believing they came from the north-west of Scotland, and the latter assigning their source as a ridge of high laud that stretches in Bunter lines across the South Midlands of England, and concluded by remarking that wherever the boulder came from it must have come direct from its parent rock. The boulder was examined with much interest. Mr. J. J. Ogle then read a paper on “Some Plant Defences,” which was much appreciated. ON THE ECHINODERMATA. 265 ON THE ECHIN0DEEM4TA * BY DR. T. WRIGHT, F.R.S. The EcJunodermata are highly organised animals, for the most part covered with a coriaceous or calcareous skeleton, and their surface armed with numerous spines, which aid in locomotion, and serve as defensive instruments. They have a complicated system of aquiferous canals, connected with the motion of their sucking feet, which, in the sea urchins, escape through holes in the shell, and in the starfishes, through intervals between the plates. They formed the highest group of Cuvier’s Kadiata, but are far in advance in their organisation of any of the singular animals with which they have been classed. As this is an elementary lesson, I shall take the leading orders in succession, commencing with the lowest form, and ascending gradually to the highest. We divide the Echinoderms into six orders: 1, Holothuridea ; 2, Echinoidea ; 3, Asteroidea; 4, Ophiuroidea; 5, Cystoidea; 6, Crinoidea. Crinoidea. — The name is derived from the resemblance which some of the fossil forms of this order have to the flower of a lily, hence stone lilies, from their infolded rays, resembling the petals of that flower. They have a body more or less spherical, supported upon a jointed stem, as in this Rhizocriims Lofotensis, discovered by Sars near the Lofoden Islands, 100-300 fathoms deep. The cup-like calyx is formed of close-fitting calcareous plates, varying in number in the different genera, and investing the surface like a coat of mail. The calyx is provided with five solid arms, which are independent of the visceral cavity, and are adapted for prehension in seizing their prey. They have a mouth intestine and vent distinct ; no retractile suckers, and the ovaries open by special apertures at the base of the arms. Their skeleton is complicated and composed of many plates closely joined together ; the number and arrangement of the elements are determinate in the different families, the multiples of five being the numbers which predominate ; the central part of the body is supported on a long- jointed stem, which is sometimes rooted to the bed of the sea, or coiled up as a portable support. The mouth is central and prominent, and the vent opens near its side. The arms are mostly ramose and multi-articulate, and when expanded form a net-like structure of con¬ siderable dimensions. The mouth is always placed upwards, so that the normal position of a Crinoid is the reverse of the starfish. In our present seas we have Pentacrinus Caput- MeAluscB, from the seas of the Antilles, Rhizocrinus Lofotensis, from the Lofoden Islands, Bathycrinus Aldrichianus, and Bathyocrinus Bethellianus, found in 1,850 fathoms water, during Challenger expedition ; 1° 47' W. long., 24° 26' W., in a bottom of globigerina ooze. We shall see presently that the Crinoids played a wonderful part in the ancient seas of the world. * Read before the Cheltenham Natural Science Society. 266 ON THE ECHINODERMATA. Cystoidea have a more or less spherical body, supported on a jointed stem ; the basiform calyx is formed of close-fitting plates, of a poly¬ gonal figure, and varying in number in different genera, investing the surface like a coat of mail, except above, where there are three open¬ ings — one for the mouth, one for the vent, and one with a valve for the reproductive organs ; the fourth aperture is below, and is continuous with the canal in the stem. Some have two or four arms, others are armless. Certain species possess articulated tentacula and curious comb-like appendages, or pectinated rhombs in connection with the plates. This order is extinct, and their remains are found in the Devonian and Silurian rocks. Pseudu-crinites bifsasciatus is a good type of this order. Ophiuroidea. — The body is discoidal, distinct and depressed, pro¬ vided with long slender arms, in which there is no excavation for any prolongation of the viscera. They are, in fact, special organs for locomotion, independent of the visceral cavity. They have spines developed from their sides, which form highly movable and import¬ ant aids for locomotion. The mouth is always on the lower surface and is central, and surrounded by tentacula. The skeleton is extremely complicated, and composed of numerous calcareous pieces, which vary in number, size, shape, in the different genera. The long, slender, snake-like arms are supported by a number of vertebral-like pieces, which form the pliable rays for locomotion only. The common sandstar {Ophiura texturata), Lamk, is a typical form which well represents the order. Asteroidea have a depressed stelliform body, provided with five or more rays, or hollow arms, which are continuations of the body, and contain prolongations of the viscera. The mouth is always below, and central ; some have a vent opening on the upper surface. Several rows of tubular retractile suckers occupy the centres of the rays. The skeleton is complicated and composed of numerous solid calcareous pieces joined together, and movable on each other, by which strength and flexibility is at once provided for ; the outer surface is coriaceous, or studded with calcareous spines of various forms and sizes. A singular body, called the ^madreporiform plate, inasmuch as it resembles a miniature head of madrepore coral, is situated between two rays, and is in connection with a canal, through which water passes into the aquiferous system, the plate acting as a sieve to strain off all impurities from entering the channels. The suckers are tubular organs erected by injecting water into them, and by these they move slowly along. The nervous system consists of a cord of nervous matter which surrounds the mouth, and has ganglia or nervous centres opposite each ray, where branches are given off to the organs and a branch is sent out to the end of the rays where the eyes are placed. The stomach is very capacious, and sends a prolongation into each ray, so that each ray is, in fact, a portion of the body. The blood is cir¬ culated in one system of vessels and the water in another. The ovaries are very large, and produce an enormous number of eggs, the OM THE ECHINODERMATA. 267 development of which leads to a strange series of metamorphoses, until the final or parental figure is attained. The order is divided into several families, each containing many genera. The common Star¬ fish (Uraster ruhens), the Sun Star ( Solaster), the Bordered Star ( Astropectenj, and the Cushion Star ( Goniaster), are representatives of the order. Echinoidea. — The sea urchins are enclosed in a calcareous box of marvellous structure. The body is spheroidal, oval, or depressed, without arms, the whole body being shut up in its calcareous skeleton. They have a distinct mouth, situated at the under surface, and sometimes armed with a most complicated set of jaws and teeth; in other forms the mouth is edentulous, and the intestine opens in various parts of the body, often opposite the mouth, sometimes in a groove on the upper surface, or on the posterior border, or underneath the margin. The shell consists of twenty columns of calcareous plates. Ten of these, small and narrow, are called ambulacral, and ten, large and broad, inter-ambulacral ; and between these two systems of plates ten other narrow columns of small plates are placed, between the pieces of which ten rows of holes are formed for the passage of vertical tubular sucking feet. The surface of the plates supports a number of tubercles, with a round polished surface, on which are placed spines of various sizes, shapes, and dimensions, in the different families of this group. The articulature between the tubercle and spine is that of a ball and socket joint, and in some a small ligament passes from one to the other, just as we observe in the thigh bone of mammals. Besides the large species, there are many secondary spines, and the surface of the plates is moreover covered with a more or less abundant develop¬ ment of fine granules. At the summit of the test is the apical disc, composed of five ovarial plates, perforated for the passage of the ovarial and seminal tubes* and five ocular plates for lodging the five eyes. One of the ovarial plates, the right anterolateral, carries the madreporiform tubercle, which is in connection with a sand canal. Scattered over the surface of the test are a great number of curious forms called Pe dicellar ice, which we shall show in the microscope demonstration. These remarkable organs play an important part in the life-history of the urchin and starfish. These bodies are supported on a long stem, which is attached either to the skin or shell ; the movable head consists of two or three prongs, which move upon each other, and form a forceps, the blades of which open and close upon any body which irritates the tegumentary membrane. They appear to serve the animal for removing foreign materials from the surface of the shell, by picking it away from the spines and integument. They are incessantly in motion, and will grasp a pin placed near the open forceps which the head forms. The mouth of the common Echinus is provided with a complicated armature of jaws and teeth, forming what is called Aristotle’s lantern, which consists of five long three-sided triangular sockets with jaws united together, with their apices pointing downward, so as to form a pyramid. Each jaw 268 ON THE ECHINODERMATA. is keeled on its outer surface, and bordered by raised margins. The corresponding sides of the two contiguous pieces are bound together by strong muscles, and moved about in every direction by a complicated arrangement of cords and levers. Each of the contiguous sides are grooved like files, between which every particle of food must pass to be filed down, as in a mill, before it can enter the stomach; each jaw or socket carries a tooth which projects beyond the mouth. The tooth is developed from a pulp, which surrounds the root of the tooth, so that just as the tooth wears away at the point it is renewed at the root. The tooth has a prismatic form, and is never blunted bj^’ work. This apparatus in construction and uses is quite unique among animal structures, the jaws being destined to rub down all fragments upon which the urchins feed, so that the last crumbs which fall to the bottom of the sea, from Nature’s bounteous banquet, maybe all rubbed down and used up as nourishment by these lowly Echinoderms. The intestinal canal makes two and a half turns round the shell, and is always filled with sand and other debris from which nourishment is extracted, just as the earthworms in our soil are constantly passing the vegetable mould through their intestines and loosening the earth, nourishing their bodies at the same time. The blood moves in a true circulation of vessels, which are spread out upon the surface of the digestive organs and distributed throughout the body, forming the blood vascular system, in opposition to another set of vessels destined for the circulation of water throughout the body, called the water vascular system. The water enters freely through appropriate apertures in the shell and washes all the included viscera, giving out its oxygen to the blood and renovating the circulatory fluids ; the water flows in currents created by the action of the cilia, which are developed on the living membrane of the shell, so that ciliary motion urges on the water, and constantly renews the streams that every¬ where meander throughout the interior of the calcareous box. The nervous system of Asterias and Echinus consists of a nervous ring which surrounds the gullet and develops knots or ganglia at each of the five divisions of the body. From these ganglia nerves proceed to the organs, and one long branch passes out to the end of the ray in the starfish and becomes its optic nerve, and in the Echinus the nerve passes up inside the shell and supplies the eyes placed in the apical disc. Holothuroidea have the body in general elongated, the skin usually soft and leathery, in a few genera strengthened by calcareous or horny spines ; five avenues of suckers, which divide the body into as many longitudinal nearly equal, lobes or segments ; the mouth is surrounded by plumose tentacula, the numbers of which are, in general, multiples of five ; vent at the opposite extremity of the body. The digestive organs consist of a long intestine, which makes some coils in passing through the body. Kespiration is carried on by a singular arrange¬ ment of ramified tubes, like a miniature tree, rising from the cloaca, which inhales and exhales the water many times a minute. In this ON THE ECHINODERMATA. 269 chamber a Mediterranean species of fish — the Fierasfer — lives and luxuriates. Locomotion is effected by contractions and extensions of the body, and by action of the rows of tubular suckers. The British forms are grouped into five families, viz., i, P soli da ; ii, Pentacta ; ni,Thyones; iY,Synaptce; v, Sipwiadida. i Such, then, is an outline of the zoological portion of my subject. Let us now see what are the relations of these animals to the past history of our earth. Let me remind you that we divide the rocks forming the earth’s crust into Tertiary, Secondary, and Primary series, taking them in a descending order from the present unto the past, and each of these great divisions are formed of several groups. In the Tertiaries we have — 1st, Lower or Eocene ; 2nd, Middle or Miocene ; 3rd, Upper or Pliocene ; 4th, uppermost or pleistocene. In the Secondary — 1st, the Cretaceous, or chalk formations ; 2nd, the Jurassic, or oolitic formations ; 3rd, the Triassic, or new red sandstone formations. In the Primary — 1st, the Permian, or magnesian limestone ; 2nd, Carboniferous, or coal hearing ; 3rd, Devonian, or old red sandstone ; 4th, Silurian ; 5th, Cambrian ; 6th, Laurentian. Now most of these great rock groupings possess special forms of Echinodermata, the skeletons of which are found in a wonderful state of preservation, and capable of the most careful and minute examination. The specimens on the tables are sufficient to prove the correctness of this stateipent : therefore, when the naturalist comes to deal with these fossil forms he can speak with as much certainty anent their organisation as he can do of recent animals. I know of no class of the animal kingdom so well adapted for illustrating some of the laws which have governed the animalisation of the earth as the class we are now studying ; for the hard parts that we examine form an integral part of the organism, and reflect many of the leading features of their organisation. So that in examining the different groups of rocks we find that the Echinoderms of the one group entirely di:ffer from those of another, the generic forms are all perfectly distinct, and the specific characters of most of the species are quite unmistakable, so that an experienced palasontologist is capable of reading out a history of these rocks from the Echinoderms they are found to contain. The Grinoidea have played a very important part in the animalisa¬ tion of the globe, and the remains of their skeletons are strewn in great abundance. In some of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Rocks, they commenced their life-history in the Silurian epoch, and have peopled the bed of the sea with their varied forms through all subsequent epochs down to the present time. The Lower Silurian Rocks of North America afford a great many remarkable forms of Crinoids which are collected from the Chazy Trenton and Hudson River groups, but their numbers largely increase in the Upper Silurian beds. The Upper Silurian in the British Islands contains a very fine series. In the Upper Silurian Limestone of the Island of Gothland it is stated that 270 ON THE ECHINODEKMATA. forty-three genera, containing 176 species, are found, whilst in the Upper Silurian in North America there are sixty-two genera and 450 species, so that in Europe we have a greater number of genera, but a smaller number of species, than are found in North America. The Lower Silurian forms are quite distinct from the species found in the Upper Silurian Rocks. The Devonian Rocks of England contain very few forms, whilst the Devonian Limestone of the Eifel, Nassau and the Hartz, Thuringia, Ardennes, Mayenne department France, Austria, Spain, and Russia contain many species, and the Devonian Rocks of North America are likewise rich in species, so that at the present time it is estimated that forty genera and 230 species are known from the Devonian formations of the Old and New Worlds. The carboniferous limestone contains an immense abundance of the plates and stems of Encrinites, so much so that this formation has been called the Encrinital Limestone. Bolland and Richmond in Yorkshire, Bakewell, Derbyshire, and Clifton, Gloucestershire, and the carboniferous limestone of Scotland and Ireland have yielded many remains. Germany and Belgium have added their contingent. North America has largely added to our knowledge of the Encrinital Limestone, and the five divisions into which the American geologists have divided their car¬ boniferous group, Kinderhook, Burlington, Keorur, St. Louis, and Chester groups, have yielded an immense addition to our European lists. In the Trias we are surprised to find so few Crinoids after the wonderful devolpment the genera and species attained in carboniferous times. The best known to us is the Encrinus moniliformis, of which I have a fine specimen in my hand from the Muschelkalk of Germany, and this figure will give you a good idea of its structure. When we compare this Crinoid with the forms from the carboniferous rocks we see at a glance the wide gap that separated the genera of these two formations from each other. The Jurassic Rocks contain an entirely new set of generic forms, the Pentacrinidce, of which the Pentacrinus basaltiformis is the best known. The specimens on the table and figures on the wall show us the beautiful form this genus assumed in the rocks beneath our feet. The stem is five sided, and in some species attains many feet in length, and is provided with a great number of side arms. It does not appear to have been attached by a thickened root to the bed of the sea, as was at one time thought to be the case, but to have attached itself by its side arms or the lower part of its stem into the mud, just as the Pennatula and Funiculina of our shores do now. Of the Pentacrinus, there are several living species which live in deep water. The Bristol Museums and the College of Surgeons, London, contain interesting examples from the Antilles. The Apio- crinidcB, with a pear-shaped cup, supported on a long round stem, which was firmly rooted to the bed of the sea, of which Apiocrinus Parkinsoni Bradford Pear Encrinite is the type. Upon the upper portion of the stem rests a broad centrodorsal plate, with five elevated radial borders, upon which the pieces of the radial arms are built, as you see in this figure and section of the fossil. ON THE ECHINODERMATA. 271 In reviewing what I have said in this meagre outline of a large subject I desire to impress on your minds the fact that the study of the Echinoderms enables us to illustrate some of the great natural laws which the study of Palaeontology has unfolded to us. First, then, we see that the species of animals of one geological epoch neither lived before nor after that epoch, and that no species of Echinoderm is common to two epochs of a different age. This great fundamental truth is abundantly verified in the study of this class. Second, we have seen that between fossil and recent Echinoderms the difference is greatest in proportion to the length of time which separates living from fossil forms. Third, a comparison of the species of different epochs with each other shows us that the temperature of the sea in given localities has varied much from time to time, and dredging operations have taught us that species have lived at much greater depths than was formerly considered possible. Fourth, that the species which lived in the ancient seas had a much wider geographical distribution than those which now live, as shown by the species of carboniferous times. Fifth, another important lesson — the permanence of generic types — is derived from the study of this class : that generic forms have only very slightly varied through long periods of time, and, in fact, that many of the Brittle Stars and Sea Stars that lived thousands, or it may be millions, of years ago, are anatomically the same as the Brittle Stars and Starfishes of our own coasts. This I have shown you to be so in the case of the Ophiura and Uraster from the Lias beds, compared with the Ophiura and Uraster of British seas. The microscopic demonstration prepared in the next room by our worthy Secretary, Colonel Basevi, displays a beautiful series of preparations of the Echinodermata. One portion consists of the Sharpus collection, prepared and presented to the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society by Mr. Sharpus, for the loan of which I am indebted to my friend Mr. W. B. Hughes, F.L.S., and to whom I beg to return our very best thanks. The other portion consists of an admirable series of slides illustrating the embryology of the Asteriadte and Echinidae, prepared in the Zoological Station at Naples, from recent specimens obtained in the Mediterranean. In fact, such is the beauty and excellence of these preparations, that I have no hesitation in stating that no similar exhibition of the microscopic anatomy of this class has ever been placed before the members of any society. FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOUEHOOD OF BIEMINGHAM. SECOND LIST, 1883. This list includes no species repeated from the former one, except occasionally when the new locality is in a different county from those previously given. I have again to acknowledge the constant and kindly help of Mr. W. Phillips and Mr. C. B. Plowright in determining 272 FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BIRMINGHAM. some species and confirming others. It is difficult to draw up such a list as this without remarking how utterly incongruous are the various species included under the so-called “ Coniomycetes.” The Sphaeronemei and Melanconiei should form a group apart, placed near to the Pyrenomycetes. The last three orders, constituting the leaf- fungi proper, the Hypodermiece, should be distinct from these ; while the Torulacei are nothing more than the simplest type of the Hypho- mycetes, and are in fact absolutely undistinguishable from some of the genera which are ranked with the latter. It is to be hoped a list of British Fungi (a “ London Catalogue ” in fact) will soon be pub¬ lished, by which British Mycologists may become more generally acquainted with the modern systematic arrangements, in place of the obsolete and unscientific one to which we are at prese:it condemned. I may add to this list that I have eaten this year Ag. nebularis, Ag. rhacodes, Coprinus comatus, C. atravientarius, Hygrophoms pratensis, and Helvella crispa, all of which are delicious ; Ag. ulmariiis I have tried, but would not touch it again ; it resembles underdone pork fat, if my specimens were characteristic of the species. AGAEICINI. Agaricus (Amanita) mappa, Batsch. Sutton Park ; Trickley Coppice. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Am.) muscarius, Linn. Sutton Park ; Edgbaston Park ; Trickley Coppice. Forma “ minor, sine verrucis ” occurs occasionally. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Am.) nitidus, Fr. Coleshill Pool. I find forms of this which it is difficult to distinguish from Ag. mappa. Sept. Ag. (Lepiota) procerus. Scop. Edgbaston Park. Oct. Ag. (Lep.) carcharias, Pers. Water Orton; Trickley Coppice; New Park, Middleton. Oct. Ag. (Tricholoma) stans, Fr. Edgbaston Park, amongst trees. Agreeing with Cooke’s Illustrations, pi. 198. The two forms mentioned by Fries occurred together. Oct. Ag. (Trich.) virgatus, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Edgbaston Park. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Clitocybe) opacus. With. Sutton Park. Besembling Ag. ceriis- satus, but differing in the presence of an umbo, and in the pileus being covered with a shining floccose film. Oct. Ag. (Clitoc.) inversus. Scop. This is the species recorded as Ag. Jlac- cidus, Sow., in the “ Midland Naturalist,” Vol. V., p. 234 (and repeated, by a clerical error, on page 250), from Sutton Park. , Sept., Oct. Ag. (Clitoc.) metachrous, Fr. Trickley Coppice. Oct. Ag. (Clitoc.) ditopus, Fr. Edgbaston Park. Oct. Ag. (Clitoc.) fragrans. Sow. Hints Wood. Sept. Ag. (Collybia) dryophilus. Bull. Sutton Park ; Coleshill Pool ; Four Oaks Park ; New Park, Middleton. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Myc.) purus, Pers. Kenilworth, in a copse. Sept. Ag. (Myc.) pseudopurus, Cooke. Illustrations, pi. 158. Edgbaston Park ; Trickley Coppice. Oct. Ag. (Myc.) pullatus, Cooke. Illustrations, pi. 237. Coleshill Pool. Remarkable for the contrast between the pure-white gills and purple-black pileus. Sept. Ag. (Omphalia) muralis, Sow. On a wall amongst moss, Edgbaston. Nov. Ag. (Omph.) fibula. Bull. Amongst moss, Warley Woods. Aug. Ag. (Pleurotus) fimbriatus. Bolt. In a garden, Ilandsworth. Oct. Ag. (Pluteus) nanus, Pers. On stumps, Four Oaks Park, Sutton. Sept. FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOUKHOOD OF BIRMINGHAM. 278 Ag. (Entoloma) sericeus, Bull. Riibery Hill. Aug. Ag. (Clitopilus) prunulus, Scop. Sutton Park. Oct. Ag. (Claudopus) variabilis, Pers. Sutton Park, ou sticks. Aug. Ag. (Nolanea) pascuus, Pers. Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park ; Sutton ; Four Oaks Park ; Langley; Edgbaston Park. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Pholiota) prsBcox, Pers. Edgbaston ; Erdington ; Sutton; Water Orton ; Kenilworth ; in borders of fields and roadsides. June, July. Ag. (Phol.) spectabilis, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Edgbaston Park. Aug. — Oct. Ag. (Hebeloma) versipellis, Fr. Trickley Coppice ; Sutton. Oct., Nov. Ag. (Heb.) fastibilis, Fr. Sutton Park ; Sutton. Oct. Ag. (Inocybe) rimosus. Bull. Four Oaks Park ; Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park. Ag. (Inoc.) asterosporus, Quel. Four Oaks Park. Ag. (Inoc.) geophyllus. Sow. Coleshill Pool. Ag. (Flammula) inopus, Fr. Coleshill Pool. Ag. (Naucoria) semiorbicularis, Bull. Hints Wood. Ag. (Psalliota) campestris, Linn. Middleton ; Four Oaks Park ; a scaly variety in Edgbaston Park. Aug. Ag. (Stropharia) squamosus, Fr. Sutton. Oct., Nov. Ag. (Hypholoma) pyrotrichus, Holmsk. Sutton; Langley. Sept., Oct. Ag. (Hyph.) Candolleanus, Fr. Solihull ; Hints Wood. June— Sept. Ag. (Psilocybe) udus, Pers. Lickey Hills ; Coleshill Pool. Sept., Oct. Var. Polytrichi, Fr. Lickey Hills. Sept. Ag. (Psil.) spadiceus, Schaff. New Park, Middleton. Oct. Ag. (Panseolus) fimicola, Fr. A form which I believe to be this species Sept. Sept. Aug. Sept. Sept. Sutton Oct. Aug., Sept. Sept., Oct. Sept. Sept., Oct. Oct. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oaks Park ; Sept., Oct. has occurred at Warley and at Sutton. Cortinarius elatior, Fr. Sutton Park ; Hints Wood. C. sanguineus, Fr. Sutton Park. C. cinnamomeus, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park. C. torvus, Fr. Sutton Park. C. armillatus, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; fine specimens. C. hemitrichus, Fr. Sutton Park. C. castaneus, Fr. Trickley Coppice ; Coleshill Pool. Hygrophorus hypothejus, Fr. Hams Hall. H. pratensis, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Water Orton ; Four Langley ; Edgbaston Park. H. coccineus, Fr. Water Orton ; Sutton Park; Langley. Sept., Oct. H. puniceus, Fr. Sutton Park ; Langley. Sept., Oct. Lactarius cilicioides, Fr. Langley ; Trickley Coppice. Oct. L. turpis, Fr. Four Oaks Park; Sutton Park ; New Park, Middleton; Edgbaston Park. Sept., Oct. L. hysginus, Fr. Edgbaston Park. Withering (“ Syst. Arr.,” ed. iv., vol. iv., p. 178) records this species from the same locality, under the name A(/. depressus. Berkeley (“Eng. FI.,” v. 26) refers Withering’s plant to Lact. hysginus, but observes that Withering describes the stem as solid. It is interesting to observe that the fungus which I find in Withering’s old locality has also a decid¬ edly solid stem, exhibiting no tendency to become hollow when old. Oct. L. uvidus, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Four Oaks Park; Langley. Sept., Oct. L. pyrogalus, Fr. Rowington ; New Park, Middleton. Sept. L. vellereus, Fr. New Park, Middleton ; Edgbaston Park. Oct. L. deliciosus, Fr. Sutton Park; abundant in one locality. Sept. — Nov. L. pallidus, Fr. Four Oaks Park. Sept. Russula adusta, Fr. Coleshill Pool; Solihull; New Park, Middleton. Oct. 274 FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BIRMINGHAM. K. depallens, Fr. Edgbaston Park. ' Oct. Er. lieteropliylla, Fr. Earlswood. Aug. E. fellea, Fr. Four Oaks Park ; Edgbaston Park. All pale buff, rather than straw-colour ; disk darker, bay. Sept., Oct. E. driineia, Cooke. “ Grevillea,” x., 46. Sutton Park; abundant in the same locality as Lactarius deliciosu^. Identical with speci¬ mens collected by Mr. J. E. Bagnall, from Packington. Nov. E. Integra, Fr. Coleshill Pool; Four Oaks Park ; Eednal. Sept., Oct. E. decolorans, Fr. New Park, Middleton ; Edgbaston Park. Oct. Nyctalis parasitica, Fr. Solihull; New Park, Middleton. On liussula adusta, and (?) E. nigricans. Aug- — Oct. Marasmius peronatus, Fr. Sutton Park ; Four Oaks Park ; Trickley Coppice. M. ramealis, Fr. Coleshill. Lentinus cochleatus, Fr. New Park, Middleton. Lenzites betulina, Fr. Sutton ; Marston Green. L. sepiaria, Fr. Sutton ; on an old fir-pole. POLYPOEEI. Boletus flavus. With. Sutton Park ; Earlswood Sep., Oct. Aug. Oct. Nov. Dec. Coleshill Pool. Aug., Sept. B. bovinus, Linn. Trickley Coppice. Oct. B. subtomentosus, Linn. Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park ; New Park, Middleton ; Edgbaston Park. Sept., Oct. B. edulis. Bull. Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park ; Hints Wood ; New Park, Middleton ; Langley. Aug. — Oct. B. luridus, Fr. Langley. Oct. B. scaber, Fr. Coleshill Pool ; Sutton Park. Aug. — Oct. Polyporus rufescens, Fr. Solihull ; W. H. Wilkinson. Aug. P. intybaceus, Fr. (“ Hym. Eur.,” ed. ii., p. 588). Sutton Park. Nov. P. giganteus, Fr. Edgbaston Park ; several specimens. Oct. P. hispidus, Fr. Sutton ; Hints Wood. Sept. P. dryadeus, Fr. On oak, Stonebridge ; Berkswell ; on ash, Edg¬ baston Park. ^ Aug. — Oct. P. betulinus, Fr. Coleshill Pool. Sept. P. fomentarius, Fr. Edgbaston Park ; Salford Priors. Aug. — Oct. P. abietinus, Fr. Hints Wood. Sept. HYDNEI. Hydnum ferruginosum, Fr. Sutton, on dead wood. Nov. H. udum, Fr. “Mid. Nat,” v., 251. This was recorded in error; I am as yet uncertain to what species my specimen must be referred. Phlebia merismoides, Fr. Sutton, on bark. Nov. Var. alho-marginata, Phillips. Differing from the type in its beautifully white byssoid border. Sutton, on bark. Dec., Jan. AUEICULAEINI. Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr. New Park, Middleton. Thelephora puteana, Schum. In a well, Edgbaston ; C. Hymenocheete rubiginosa. Lev. Sutton, on dead wood. Auricularia mesenterica. Bull. Sutton. Corticium evolvens, Fr. Sutton ; Edgbaston Park. C. giganteum, Fr. Sutton Park, on larch. C. lactescens. Berk. Earlswood Eeservoir, on willow. C. comedens, Fr. Solihull ; Edgbaston Park, etc. C. sambuci, Pers. Sutton ; Harborne ; on elder. Cyphella Curreyi, Berk. Sutton. Oct. B. Caswell. Aug. Dec., Jan. Nov. — Feb. Sept., Oct. Aug. Aug. Aug. — Oct. Dec., Jan. May. FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BIRMINGHAM. 275 CLAVAKIEI. Clavaria fastigiata, DC. Langley. Oct. C. coralloides, Linn, Langley. Oct. C. cinerea, Bull. New Park, Middleton. Oct. C. cristata, Holmsk. Coleshill Pool. Aug,, Sept. C, rugosa, Bull. Trickley Coppice. Oct. C. stricta, Pers. Handsworth. Oct. C. pistillaris, Linn. New Park, Middleton. Oct. Calocera viscosa, Fr. Coleshill Pool. Sept. Pistillaria micans, Fr, Solihull, on a dead thistle-stem. June. P. quisquiliaris, Fr. Trickley Coppice, on fern stems. Oct. TEEMELLINI. Tremella mesenterica, Ketz. Sutton. Nov., Dec. Exidia glandulosa, Fr. Kenilworth ; New Park, Middleton. July — Oct. Ditiola radicata, Fr. Sutton, on deal planks. - Feb. CONIOMYCETES. Coniothyrium glomeratum, Corda. Sutton, on planks. May. Darluca filum. Cast. Barton Green ; Harborne ; on Uredo. Aug. Septoria polygonorum, Desm. On Polt/goniun Fersicaria, Coleshill; Sutton. ^Rg- S. dianthi, Desm. “ Mich.” i., 187. Rednal. New to Britain. Aug. Phyllosticta vulgaris, var. LonicercB. Water Orton ; Solihull, etc. Aug., Sept. Dinemasporium graminum. Lev. Edgbaston. July* D. hispidulum (Schrad.), Sacc. Feziza liispidnla, Schrad. “ Haud- book,” p. 687. On dead wood, Sutton. May — Nov. Pestalozzia Guepini, Desm. On camellia leaves, Sparkhill ; Sutton, etc. Oct., Nov. Torula ovalispora. Berk. Sutton, on sawn planks. May. T. pulveracea, Corda. Marston Green, on a stump. May. Speira toruloides, Corda. Sutton, on dead wood. Feb. Bactridium helvellae, B. and Br. On hymenium of Feziza scutellata, Sutton. Nov. Bispora pusilla, Sacc. “ Fung. Ital.,” fig. 21. “ Mich.” i., 78. “ Effused, black ; hyphae short, filiform, ascending, pallid ; conidia inserted on the apex of the hyphae, in rather long, rarely branched chains, ovoid, dusky, rounded at each end (not truncate), 6 — 8 x 3’5 — 4'5/4, with a thick and dark septum in the middle, not or scarcely constricted.” New to Britain. Named by Mr. Phillips. Sutton, on dead wood. Dec., Jan. Helicomyces roseus. Link. Sacc., “ Fung. Ital.,” fig. 813. On dead wood, Sutton. Feb. Xenodochus carbonarius, Schl., II., III. On Saiiguisoi'ha officinalis, Water Orton. Rare. June, July. Phragmidium mucronatum. Link, II., III. Stonebridge. Aug. P. bulbosum, Schl. F. violaceum, Schultz, II., III. Berkswell ; Soli¬ hull; Coleshill Pool ; etc. Aug., Sept. P. obtusum. Link, II., III. Harborne; Clent ; Marston Green. Soli¬ hull. July, Aug. Triphragmium ulmarifB, Link, II., III. Solihull ; Hampton. July, Aug. Puccinia straminis, De B., 11., III. Berkswell, Solihull, Harborne, etc. Aug. P. coronata, Corda III. Berkswell, on Arrhenatherum. Aug. 276 FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOUEHOOD OF BIEMINGHAM. P. Baryi (B. & B.), Winter, II., III. P linearis (?), Bob., Cooke. “ Micr. Fung.’’ p. 203. On Tritlcum repensy Harborne ; uredo- spores only [Lecythea Baryi), on Brachy podium silvaticum, Soli- liull. Bare. Aug. P. luzulse, Lib., II., III. Edgbaston ; Colesliill Pool ; on Luzula cam- pestris. July, Aug. P. suaveolens (Pers.), Winter, II., III. TricJiobasis suaveolens, Lev. Edgbaston ; Water Orton, etc. June — Oct. P. striola. Link, II., III. Barton Green, on Carex pendula. Aug. P. valantiae, Pers., III. Bednal, on Galium cruciatum. Aug. P. galiorum. Link, II., III. Solihull, on Galium cruciatum. Aug. P. violarum. Link, II., III. Clent; Earlswood; Hampton-in- Arden, etc. Aug. P. pulverulenta, Grev., II., III. Solihull ; Hampton-in-Arden. Aug. P. 0Bgra, Grove {Jour, of Bot., Sept. 1883), II., III. On Viola cornuta, Moseley; Sutton; Perry Barr. See “ Midland Naturalist,” vi., 209. Aug. — Nov. Uronoyces pose, Babenh., II., III. Harborne ; Salford Priors. July, Aug. Melampsora saliciiia. Lev., II. Earlswood, etc. Aug. M. betulina, Desm., II. Coleshill. etc. Aug., Sept. M. tremulse. Tub, II. Coleshill Pool. Sept. M. populina. Lev., II., III. New Park, Middleton ; etc. Sept., Oct. Uredo potentillarum, DC. Marston Green ; Harborne ; etc. May, June. U. bifrons, Grev. Marston Green. May. Boestelia lacerata, Tul. Water Orton. June. HYPHOMYCETES. Isaria umbrina, Pers. Sutton Park, on and round Hypoxylon cocci- neum. Aug. Anthina flammea, Fr. “ Mid. Nat.,” v., 274. This was recorded from Sutton by mistake. Tubercularia nigricans. Link. Edgbaston Park. Oct. Epicoccum purpurascens, Ehr. Sutton ; Edgbaston Park, on herba¬ ceous stems. New to Britain. Named by Mr. W. Phillips. Oct. — Jan. Dendryphium comosum. Wall. On nettle stems. Alvechurch, Water Orton. May, June. D. laxum, B. & Br. Harborne. Aug. Monotospora megalospora, B. & Br. Sutton Park ; Sutton ; Coleshill Pool. On dead wood and bark. May. — Aug. Helminthosporium folliculatum, var. brevipilum, Corda. On dead wood, Sutton. May. — Nov. H. obclavatum, Sacc. “ Fung. Ital.,” fig. 52 ; “ Mich, i.,” 85. New to Britain. Named by Mr. Phillips. Sutton, on dead wood. Feb. H. fusiforme, Corda. Cooke. “ Blk. Moulds,” fig. 4. Sutton, on dead wood. Nov. H. apicale, B. and Br. Crackley Wood, Kenilworth. Jiii.y* H. stemphylioides, Corda. Cooke, Blk. Moulds, fig. 2. Sutton, on dead wood. Feb. Acrothecium simplex, Berk. On nettle stems, Harborne. Nov. Triposporium elegans, Corda. Sutton, on dead wood. Nov. — May. Helicocoryne viridis, Corda. Sutton, on dead wood. Feb. Helicosporium lumbricoides, Sacc. “Fung. Ital.,” fig. 56, “Mich.” i., 86. This was detected by Mr. Phillips on a piece of dead wood, which I sent him. Sutton. Feb. Polythrincium trifolii, Kunze. Earlswood; Salford Priors. Aug. FUNGI OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BIRMINGHAM. 277 Botrytis coccotriclia, SacTQ. “ Fung. Ital.,” fig. 694. On oak chips. Kenilworth. Named by Mr. Phillips. New to Britain. July. Peronospora nivea, Aug. On umbellifers. Sutton ; Clent. May, June. P. gangliformis, Berk. On Scabiosa, Langley. Oct. P. densa, Rabenh. On Bartsia Odontites, Harborne. Aug. P. effusa, Grev. Sutton; Solihull; Water Orton, etc. May, June. P. grisea, Ung. Marston Green ; Solihull; Wixford. May — Aug. P. arboresceus. Berk. On Poppy, Wixford. Aug. P. ficariae. Tub On Banunculus rejiens, Sutton. May. Cystopus candidus. Lev. Wixford ; Earlswood ; Sutton, etc. Aug. Dactylium obovatum, Berk. Sutton, on willow twigs. Feb. Menispora ciliata, Corda. Sutton; Harborne. Nov.— July. Arthrobotrys oligospoi’a, Fresen. Edgbaston. New to Britain. Pro¬ bably accompanying Sordaria fimiscda. April. Fusisporium aurantiacum. Link. Sutton. Dec. Ovularia sphaeroidea, Sacc. “Fung. Ital.,” fig. 979. On leaves of Lotus coniiculatus, Solihull, Berkswell. New to Britain. Aug. ASCOMYCETES. Sphaerotheca castagnei. Lev. On hop, Berkswell. Aug. Erysiphe graminis, DC. Harborne, Sutton, Wixford, etc. July, Sept. E. tortilis. Link. On leaves of Cornus, Kenilworth. Aug. Helvella crispa, Fr. New Park, Middleton. Oct. Rhizina undulata, Fr. Sutton Park ; Coleshill. Aug., Sept. Peziza cochleata, Huds. Sutton ; Edgbaston. June — Aug. P. villosa, Pers. Edgbaston ; Four Oaks Park. Aug., Sept. P. coronata. Bull. On nettle stems, Sutton. Nov. Helotium aeruginosum, Fr. Oak impregnated with the mycelium of this fungus, Crackley Wood, Kenilworth. July. Helotium lutescens, Fr. Sutton ; Edgbaston Park. Sept. Hypomyces Baryanus, Tub On Nyctalis parasitica, Solihull ; New Park, Middleton. New to Britain. Named by Mr. Plowright. Aug.— Oct. Hysterium curvatum, Fr. Marston Green. Aug. Nectna aquifolia. Berk. Sutton Park ; Four Oaks. April. — Sept. N. flavida, Fr. Sutton, on dead wood. Nov. Hypoxylon rubiginosum, Fr. Sutton ; Marston Green. May. — Nov. Eutypa lata, Tul. Marston Green, on maple. May. E. scabrosa, Fckb Marston Green. May. E. velutina (Wallr.) Marston Green, on maple. Named by Mr. Plowright. May. Melanconis aceris, Plowright. Marston Green. New. May. Rosellinia ligniaria (Grev.) On dead wood, Sutton. Named by Mr. Plowright. May. Stigmatea Robertiani, Fr. Barton Green. Aug. ICE-GEOOVED BOULDEES. One of the most interesting points in an admirable paper on the “ Basalt Boulders of the Rowley Hills,” by Dr. Crosskey, lately published in the Transactions of the Birmingham Philosophical Society, refers to the remarkable manner in which some of the grooves pass round the corners of the boulders ; so that a broad deep groove, for example, may begin on one face of a boulder, be continued round a tolerably sharp corner of the stone, and end on the next face. 278 ICE-GROOVED BOULDERS In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, much doubt was thrown on the possibility of such grooves being made while the stone was firmly frozen into the ice, but I then ventured to affirm that the well-known plasticity of ice would permit any amount of motion of the stones held within its grasp, so long as that motion was slow and long continued, so that it would be quite possible for a boulder, held within and moving along with the ice, to perform a partial revolution and become grooved in this curious manner. But it is, I think, more probable that such grooves were made when the stone formed a part of the solid rock over which the glacier, or local ice-mass, passed. If that early surface was uneven, and before the first invasion of the ice it would certainly be uneven, the ice would accommodate itself to a large extent to the irregularities of the rocks, and where there was a little ridge the ice would rise up one side, flow over the top, and descend on the other side. Embedded in the ice would be numerous fragments of hard rock, and by the points of these, frozen into and carried along with the under-surface of the ice-sheet, the grooves which pass round the corners of the boulders would very commonly be produced. Subsequently, the jointed blocks forming the inequality or ridge in question were torn up bodily, or removed in other ways, carried along by the ice-mass, and left where we now find them. A grand mass of stony boulder-clay fringes Cardigan Bay ; it is * splendidly shown in the Cambrian railway cutting near Harlech, and forms a cliff of 30 feet in height at Criccieth. At the latter place I was pleased to find a boulder (built into a wall near the School and just at the foot of the little hill called Dinas) which showed grooves passing round a corner in exactly the same manner as those on the basalt boulders exhibited by Dr. Crosskey. The Criccieth bo ulder is of Greenstone and measures 21 by 19 by 15 inches. I should imagine that such examples of curved grooves cannot be of very rare occurrence, although I have not seen them referred to in any books or papers on glacial action with which I am acquainted. Perhaps some readers of the “ Midland Naturalist” may know of other examples? W. Jerome Harrison. ANIMAL-LOEE OF SHAKESPEARE’S TIME.* A strangely interesting book, the title of which I give below, has recently been written by Miss Emma Phipson. It presents in a very compact form the references to and descriptions of animals found in books of travels and other contemporary literature of the age of Elizabeth, as well as of the periods immediately preceding and follow¬ ing that age. Looking at this book as a natural history student, * “ The Animal-lore of Shakespeare’s time, including Quadrupeds, Reptiles, Fish, and Insects.” By Emma Phipson. London; Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co. ANIMAL-LOKE OF SHAKESPEARE ’s TIME. 279 I think it will be found full of attractiveness if for no other reason than this, that it gives such a definite idea of the kind of knowledge which prevailed in the 16th and 17th centuries regarding the Animal Kingdom. The book is full of quaint and curious information, and will afford a good deal of amusement to the general reader. It will, however, I think, prove most attractive to the literary man who has a bias towards archaeology. I propose in this paper to give a few specimens of the contents of this book, which will, perhaps, induce all interested who may read what follows, to consult the book itself. I commence my extracts with those relating to the sea-anemone, which the authoress thinks is the creature referred to by Du Bartas in the following lines ; — “ And so the sponge-spye warily awakes The sponges’ dull sense, when repast it takes.” On this the commentator who wrote “ A learned Summary upon the Poeme,” (folio 1637) discourses as follows : — “ This is a little fish (as Plutarch saith in his treatise of the industry of living creatures) like unto a spider of the sea. He guardeth and governeth the spunge (called properly the hollow animal plant), which is not wholly without soule, neither without blood and sence ; but (as divers other sea-animals) cleaveth to the rocks, and hath a proper motion to restrain her selfe outwardly ; but to effect this, shee hath neede of the advertisement and friendship of another, because that (being rare, lither, and soft, by reason of her small vents, and empty for want of bloud, or rather want of sence, which is very dull) shee feeleth not when any good substance fit to be eaten, entreth into these holes, and void spaces, which the spunge there makes her feele and incontinently she closeth her selfe, and devoureth it.” — [Learned Summary, p, 224.) Miss Phipson calls this, not without reason, “ a long and involved note,” and I quite agree with her that the commentator “ does not succeed in making it quite clear what sort of creature is meant.” If it proves anything it proves conclusively that very little was known about sponges or sea-anemones in the year 1637. Michael Drayton, one of our own Warwickshire poets (born at Hartshill, between Atherston and Nuneaton, 1563), speaks of Coral in his Polyolbion, thus : — “ Coral of each kind, the black, the red, the white.” This substance was long a sore puzzle to naturalists, and its animal nature was not discovered till about a hundred and fifty years ago. Lord Bacon (as our authoress points out) says it is a submarine plant. And then proceeds : — “ It hath no leaves, it brancheth only when it is under water ; it is soft and green of colour ; but being brought into the air it becomes hard and shining red as we see. It is said also to have a white berry ; but we find it not brought over with the coral” [Nat. Hist., cent., viii.). 280 ANIMAL-LORE OF SHAKESPEARE ’s TIME. But the use of coral as a “help to the teeth of children ” is also mentioned by him, as it is in a passage quoted by Miss Phipson from a poem by G. Fletcher : — “ So from your growth late be you rent away, And hung with silver bels and whistles shrill. Unto those children be you given to play ! ” (Nichols’ Progresses of James I., vol. i., p. 17.) One of Purchas’s pilgrims wandering through Brazil, reports that on the shores of that country they “ find great store of white stone corrall under water ; it groweth like small trees all in leaves, and canes, as the red corrall of India, and if this also were so, there would be great riches in this countrie, for the great abundance there is of it ; it is very white, it is gotten with difficulty, they make lime of it also.” — (Purchas, Eev. S. “ His Pilgrimes,” vol. iv., p. 1316, 1625.) Everyone will remember Shakespeare’s graceful reference to coral in his lovely Ariel’s Song in the Tempeat : — “ Of his bones are coral made,” which clearly recognises the chemical base of coral. Miss Phipson does not quote, as she well might, Gerarde’s account of coral in his “ Herball,” which describes it as a “Sea-moss,” and where the following occurs : — “ There is found growing upon the rocks near unto the sea a certain matter wrought together of the foame or froth of the sea, which we call spunges, after the Latin name, which may very fitly be inserted among the Sea-mosses.” The most mythical of creatures is the Sea Serpent. This is no modern idea. The size of the monster varies according to the vividness of the imagination of the reporter. Of these Olaus Magnus (1658) gives a most detailed account. In a quotation reproduced in this book he says : — “ They who in works of navigation on the coast of Norway employ themselves in fishing or merchandise, do all agree in this strange story that there is a serpent there which is of a vast magnitude, namely, 200 feet long, and moreover 20 feet thick ; and is wont to live in rocks and caves toward the sea-coast about Berge ; which will go alone from his holes in a clear night in summer, and devour calves, lambs, and hogs, or else he goes into the sea to feed on polypus, locusts, and all sorts of sea-crabs. He hath commonly hair hanging from his neck a cubit long, and sharp scales, and is black, and he hath flaming shining eyes. This snake disquiets the shippers, and he puts up his head on high like a pillar, and catcheth away men, and he devours them ; and this hapneth not but it signifies some wonderful change of the kingdom near at hand — namely, that the princes shall die or be banished ; or some tumultuous wars shall presently follow. There is also another serpent of an incredible magnitude in a town called Moos, of the diocese of Hammer ; which as a comet portends a change in all the world, so that portends a change in the kingdom of Norway, as it was THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 281 seen anno 1522 ; this serpent was thought to be fifty cubits long by conjecture, by sight afar off : there followed this the banishment of King Christierung, and a great persecution of the Bishops ; and it shewed also the destruction of the countrey, — (“ Olaus Magnus Com¬ pendious History,” folio 1658, p. 235), _ E. W. B. Handbook of the British Fungi. By M. C. Cooke. 1883. Second and Revised Edition. So many new species of Fungi have been added to the British Flora since the publication of the Handbook in 1871 that a want has long been felt for a new and revised edition of this valuable work. To in some measure meet this want the author proposes issuing instalments containing descriptions of the Hymenomycetes as an appendix to “ Grevillea,” but with a separate paging, so as to be bound separably if desired. The first instalment of sixteen pages appears in “ Grevillea ” for December, 1883, and is a great improvement on the former edition. The whole of the British species belonging to the genus Amanita, and a greater part of Lepiota are described, and in each species the special characters are printed in italics. Many of the old references are omitted, but in their stead we have references to the pages of Fries “Hymenomycetes Europsei” and other recent works, and also to the plates of “ Illustrations of British Fungi,” which illustrate each species. An interesting feature of the revised edition is that of giving the derivations of each of the generic and specific names so far as this is practicable. This will form a valuable companion volume to the “ Illustrations,” and will be welcomed by all working Mycologists. J. E. Bagnall. School Museums. — Efforts are being made to establish a small Museum of common objects in each of the Birmingham Board Schools. It is hoped that the Board will supply to each School a suitable cabinet in which to store and exhibit the specimens; but for the specimens themselves reliance must be chiefly placed on the exertions of the teachers, the scholars, and those friends to the movement who are willing to give practical aid. Donations of natural history specimens — rocks, fossils, dried plants, insects, birds, small animals, etc. — will be very acceptable ; as also examples of manufactures, etc., and, indeed, any articles likely to rouse the curiosity and awaken the interest of children. Mr. W. J. Harrison, 365, Lodge Road, Birmingham, will be pleased to communicate with any readers of this magazine who will lend their assistance to this very useful and desirable scheme. 282 CORRESPONDENCE AND GLEANINGS. Dr. Forbes Watson, who is about to return to India, has promised to give the Society of Arts a paper embodying the results of his recent experiments on Rheea fibre. The appointment of Dr. E. B. Tylor to a readership in anthro¬ pology at the University of Oxford, is an official recognition of that modern science which has given great satisfaction to anthropologists. Lieut. Hovgaard, commander of the “ Dijmphna ’’Arctic Expe¬ dition, is returning with valuable collections of marine fauna and botanical species. His observations of the aurora, and of arctic meteorology generally, are also very complete. Dr. Stecker, who is now returning from his travels in Abyssinia, brings with him a valuable collection of plants, birds, insects, fossils, and articles of anthropological interest. The specimens of the Gojam flora, which is but little known, number about 2000. The Scientific Koll. — Mr. A. Ramsay (4, Cowper Road, Acton, W.) asks for more subscribers to enable him to complete the first volume (price 10/-) of this very useful publication. Vol. I. deals with Meteorology, and is devoted to the literature of that science. The Scottish Meteorological Society will shortly publish the results of the observations made at Loch Fyne, Eyemouth, and Peterhead during the past summer by Messrs. Herdman, Beddard, and Hoyle, together with the results of Mr. Norman’s investigations as to the food of fishes in the Scottish lochs. Cement for Objects Mounted in Spirits of Wine. — At the meeting of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society on October 30, 1883, Mr. Thomas Clarke exhibited a number of slides of Leptodora hyalina, Hyalodaphiiia Kahlbergemis, and other entomostraca, mounted in spirits of wine, 64 over proof. These were in an excellent state of preservation, the Leptodora especially being a beautiful object, remarkable for its transparent clearness and the perfection with which every organ of its body could be traced, as if the creature were still living, although it had been mounted for many months ; more important still, the cement was as perfect as on the day when the cell was first closed. Mr. Clarke said that the cement used was manu¬ factured by a friend of his who preferred to keep the secret, but a sixpenny bottle could be obtained by any one on application, by letter or otherwise, to the Sub-curator of the Society, at the Mason College. By using this the microscopic mounter can overcome the great and hitherto insuperable difficulty of preserving entomostraca, etc., in a state suitable for future examination. As an auxiliary for securing the adhesion of the cement, Mr. Clarke stated that the slides were roughened (in fact yroiind) in a circle just outside the coverglass, where the cement came in contact with it ; this was effected by the use of hydrofluoric acid. — W. B. G. of Soticfies. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.— Microscopical General Meeting, Oct. 30.— Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Sphagnum papillosum, S. rubellum, S. auriculatum (three rare mosses), from Marston Green; Agaricns tuberosus, from Middleton, Russula drimeia, from REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 283 Packiiigton (both new to the countyi, and other fungi; also (for Mr. C. B. Plowright) Ag. hutyraceus, Ag. maculatus, Ag. carcliarias, Ag. flavo-hrunneus, Lactarius exsidsics, L. glyciosmiis, L. titrpis, Russula, drimeia, R. ochroleuca, Boletus bovinus, Rolyporus spumeus, Hyclnum auriscalpium, Cortinarius scandens, Peziza cochleata, and P. rutilans, from Norfolk ; also (for Mr, W. H. Wilkinson) Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, Asplenium tricho manes, Plagiothecium undulatum, Thamnium alopecurum, CUiloscyplvus polyantlms, etc., from Oban. Mr. W. P. Marshall exhibited the flowers of Accsna microphylla. Mr, T. Clarke exhibited the specimens of Entomostraca to which reference is made on page 286. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Rolyporus versicolor and Lenzites betulina, two fungi which, growing upon the same log and closely united with one another, presented so great a similarity on the upper surface i though they belong to two distinct orders of fungi i as to suggest that there was probably some action of the nature of mimicry involved. Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited a nest of eggs of Rallus aquaticus, the Water Rail, from Horsey, Norfolk, taken May 16, 1883. Genebal Meeting, Nov. 6.— Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited a slide to illustrate the micro¬ scopical structure of Sphagnum papillosmn ; Agaricus inopus (rare), and Ag. sublateritius var. Q, from near Packiiigton ; also ifor Mr. C. B. Plowright) Clavaria umbrzna, C. argillacea, Peziza badia, Torrubia ophioglossoides, Elaphomyces variegatus, and Spliceria spermoides, from near King’s Lynn. Mr. W. B. Grove then read a paper on “New and Noteworthy Fungi, chiefly from the neighbourhood of Birmingham.” He enumerated a list of 42 species, of which 2L were rare, and the other 21 new to Britain; and of these 21, four were new to science. The paper was illustrated by drawings of most of the fungi mentioned, made for the most part to a uniform scale. Sociological Section. — Nov. 11. — At the sixth meeting of this Section a letter from Mr. Minot J. Savage, of Boston, U.S.A., author of the “ Morals of Evolution ” and the “Religion of Evolution,” also of “Christianity the Science of Manhood,” was read, which stated among other things that he was engaged in preparing a publication on the life and work of Mr. Herbert Spencer. Dr. Hill, in entering on an exposition of the second chapter of Mr, Herbert Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology,” enumerated, first of all, the forces which act on organic matter — viz., mechanical force, quasi-mechanical force as exemplified by absorption of water a nd osmose, heat, light, chemical aflinity,and indirect chemical action or catalysis. The importance of the quasi-mechanical forces was shown in the absorption of water and the introduction with it of the agents of chemical change as well as in the conveying away of the piroducts of such change. The phenomena of osmotic action were full}^ described, as well as its instrumentality in the work of re¬ distribution in organised bodies. The action of heat in increasing iflolecular vibration and so favouring the operation of the various incident forces, was explained, and its more direct action in effecting vital changes by producing evaporation and thus setting circulation going in the tissues of plants and animals, as evidenced by the drooping of a plant whose roots were not sufficiently supplied with water. The influence of light on mineral, animal, and vegetable forms was illustrated, and the compound nature of a ray of light explained. It was pointed out that it is the yellow or luminous portion of the ray which stimulates the plant to decompose its mineral food and fix its carbon and hydrogen in the tissues and secretions ; and the undulatory theory of the nature of light by which these changes are supposed to be explained, was treated at considerable length. Independently of all hypothesis, however, it is established that light is indispensable to the production of chlorophyll, the colours of petals, and numerous other effects. Chemical affinity was shown to be the most powerful agent of the whole, and the part played by oxygen was remarked upon with considerable fulness. Ordinary chemical action and indirect chemical action or catalysis were contrasted, and the peculiar nature of the latter illus¬ trated by the part played by yeast in fermentation, by diastase in germination, the Vinegar Plant in acetification, synaptase in the production from amygdaloid of essential oil of bitter almonds and prussic acid, etc. In conclusion, the speaker pointed out the great difference between plants and animals in the 284 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. amounts of nitrogen they respectively contain, and shewed that in the former light is necessaiy to enable them to carry on their functions, while in the latter light is not essential. Fungi are apparently an exception to this rule, as many grow in darkness, but this class of plants is known to be particularly rich in nitrogen, and therefore to resemble animals in this respect. Again, although the parts of plants poor in nitrogen require sunlight, those parts particularly rich in nitrogen — viz., the seeds, germinate in darkness. Thus, while the “ferments” referred to are all nitrogenous, and seemed to owe their activity to nitrogen, those parts of living animals displaying the greatest vital activity are also distinguished by the presence of a comparatively large quantity of this element. The greater rapidity and completeness of the metamorphosis of a substance like sugar in the body than out of the body was shown ; thus, while sugar is quickly converfed in the organism into water and carbonic acid, out of the organism it has to pass through numerous chemical stages capable of the easiest verification; first, forming by fermentation alcohol and carbonic acid; next, acetic acid ; and finally, by further oxidation, carbonic acid and water. As, then, these changes are shown not to be brought about by mere chemical and thermal actions it is to be concluded that they are produced in the body by the aid of that indirect infiuence called catalysis. The discussion was then pursued by the President, Mr. W. K. Hughes, P.L.S., and by Messrs. France, F. H. Collins, J. F. Cullis, A. Hayes, Barratt, and Greatheed. Notice was given that at a special meeting on the 18th November Mr. Eabone would read “Some Jottings about Shakespeare and Stratfoi'd.” BiOLOGicAii Section— Nov. 13.— Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Mosses: — Microscopical pi'eparations of Antheridia of Sioliagnum con- tortum, from Coleshill ; Pleuriclium niticlttm, from Hampton-in-Arden ; also (for Mr. J. B. Stone) Disceliiim nudum, from near Malham, Yorkshire. Mr. Bernard Baker exhibited Tarantula and nest. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Fungi : — Agaricus ejnxanthus, Ag. squamosus, Ag. vitilis, Phlehia merismoides, Hydnum ferruginosum, Bactridium helvellcs, Peziza coronata, Hypoxylon ruhiginosvm, Nectria flavida, Triposporium elegans, and Trichia pyriformis, all from Sutton. Mr. J. E. Bagnall read “Notes on some Plants collected in the Lake District, by Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S.” The collection consisted of flowering plants and ferns, comprising 93 species, 71 genera, and 36 natural orders, mounted and arranged with differently coloured labels to show their geographical distribution, respecting which Mr. Bagnall made some very interesting remarks, leading to a discussion in which several of the members present joined. Microscopical General Meeting — Nov. 20. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Erioc nilon septangu- lare, and Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, from Ireland ; Scirpus maritimus from Flecknoe, and Sphagnum intermedinm, var. p'dchrum mew to the county); Coniiim macidntum and Myriophyllum verticillatum, both from a new locality, from Birdingbury; also (for Mr. J. B. Stone) Dicranella squarrosa (rare', from Malham, Yorkshire. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited a number of Fungi: — Eosellinia ligniaria (rare), Eutypa velutina (new to Britain', Peri- chcena depressa irare', Acrothecium simplex, and Melanconis aceris, Plowright (a new species), from Marston Green and Sutton. Rev. H. Boyden, B.A., then read a paper on “Our Marine Algae,” illustrated by numerous specimens. After speaking of the great advantage which we in Britain, with our 2,000 miles of sea- coast enjoy in the study of sea-weeds, he proceeded to speak of the methods of their multiplication and reproduction. In relation to the economic importance of sea-weeds, he said that it was small directly, but great indirectly, because they furnished food for hosts of molluscs and fish, which in their turn were food for man. Finally, he spoke of the aesthetic aspect of sea-weeds, and said that his splendidly-mounted series of specimens had often been exhibited in school¬ rooms and elsewhere, where they had afforded pleasure to many young persons, educating them in the knowledge of the beautiful, which their bright colours and graceful forms are well fitted to impart. He lamented that although a great taste for mounting sea-weeds in albums existed, especialls’’ among ladies, who were very expert in that art, yet there was little real desire for a scientific study of these plants.