< The Journal of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED THE ENTIRE Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, EDITED BY E. W. BADGER & W. J. HARRISON, F.G.S Come forth into the light of things, Let Nature be your teacher.” Wordsworth VOLUME VII 1884. London : David Bogus, 3, St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar Square, W.C. Birmingham : Cornish Brothers, 37, New Street. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED AT THE HERALD PRESS, UNION ST., BIRMINGHAM l MWM WORTHINGTON SMITH DEl.ETSC . o f.rvr./.*' Gray Herbarium Harvard University PREFACE. The completion of the seventh volume of “ The Midland Naturalist,” and the character of its contents, form, we trust, a fair subject of congratulation for all who are interested in the progress of science in the Midlands. Owing to the active co-operation of several of the Societies belonging to the Midland Union our circulation has increased during the past year ; but when we consider the very favourable terms on which the Magazine is supplied to Members of the Union (through their Secretaries), we hope to see a large increase in the number of subscribers in the year to come. To our contributors, who have loyally aided us during the past year, we return hearty thanks. They may rest assured that future workers in local science will find it necessary to very frequently refer to our pages. Our critics are earnestly invited — not to discontinue their criticism — but to render their active aid in the improvements which they desire. We are glad to note that “ The Midland Naturalist” is now the sole organ of publication of the Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, and of the Natural History Section of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society. We earnestly ask for the co-operation of all Midland observers. In conversation with many friends living in various parts of our district, the Editors find scarcely one who does not mention some newly- discovered section — some rare plant, or insect, or bird lately seen. We appeal to them to put pen to paper, and to communicate to us more frequently the results of their investigations. Hundreds of workers hold back in the hope of perfecting their work at some future time — a time which probably never comes. To the Secretaries of the Societies in the Union we again look for aid in securing good original papers read before their respective Societies. In the matter of increasing our number of subscribers they can also render us most valuable aid. Finally, we ask help from one and all to render the new volume — for 1885 — better than its seven predecessors. PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME. C. H. Allison, Birmingham. E. W. Badger, Birmingham. J. E. Bagnall, Birmingham. J. O. W. Barratt, B.Sc., Birmingham. F. Bates, Leicester. C. Beale, C.E., Rowley Regis. Wm. Berridge, F.R. Met. Soc., Loughborough. Henry Blandy, L.D.S. Edin., Nottingham. Rev. Henry Boyden, B.A., Birmingham. R. W. Chase, Birmingham. W. W. Collins, Birmingham. Frederick John Cullis, Birmingham. F. Enock, Woking. W. H. France, Birmingham. W. Greatheed, Birmingham. W. B. Grove, B.A., Birmingham. W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., Birmingham. William L. Hiepe, Birmingham. Alfred Hill, M.D., F.I.C., Birmingham. William Hillhouse, B.A., F.L.S., Birmingham. T. Y. Hodgson, London. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., Birmingham. W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., Birmingham. F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S., Leicester. Horace PfeARCE, F.G.S., Stourbridge. H. E. Quilter, Leicester. Lawson Tait, F.R.C.S., Birmingham. T. H. Waller, B.A., B.Sc. Lond., Birmingham. W. H. Wilkinson, Birmingham. A. W. Wills, Birmingham. ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VII. PLATES. Recent Sunsets and Sunrises . . Kimberley Diamond Mine Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts.. The Pilobolidse Ricasolia Amplissima The Pilobolidee PAGE. Plate I., to face 1 Plate II. Plate III. Plate IV. Plate Y. Plate YI. 93 121 149 */ 273 > 333 INDEX A Call to Plienological Observers, 159 A Floral Register, 141 A Summer Campaign, 295-G A Visit to Ceylon, 1G1-7 Action on Plants of Rain ; Dew, and Artificial Watering, 260 Algae, a Chapter in the History of the Fresh-water ; on the Zygne- maceae, 315-24 • - Our Marine, 4-6, 37-40 Allison (C. H.), on The Principles of Biology, 285-7 Alternaria Brassicae, 268-9, 329, 349 Anatomy of Teeth, some Points of Interest in the Comparative, 29-34 Andrews (W.), Height of Croft Hill, 86 Animals, Mental Evolution in, 54 Annual Meeting of the Union, 100 Annual Conversazione of the Birming¬ ham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society, 344-6 Antedon (Comatula) ltos ceus, 145 Artichoke, Jerusalem, 348 Artro, Ice Action in the Valley of, 197-8 Asphodel, Meads of, 116 Association, the British, 317-8 Australia, Sunsets in, 252-3 - Temperature in, 86 Bacteria, Cohn’s Calculation of the Multiplication of, 74 Bagnall (James E.), A Fungus Foray in the Middleton District, 339-41 - The Flora of Warwickshire, 12-15, 45-8, 75-80, 112-6, 154-7, 198-201, 221-5, 261-7, 288-93, 324-7 - on a Manual of the Mosses of North America, 293-5 - Journal of Botany for January (Review), 52 Barratt (J. O. W.), on The Principles of Biology, 160-1 Basalt of Rowley Regis, the — I. The Occurrence of Grooved and Striated Stones on the Rowley Hills, 109-12. II. The Roche and Clay-Marl, 126-31 Bates (F.), on the Zgynemacese ; a Chapter in the History of the Fresh-water Algae, 315-24 Beale (C.), on the Basalt of Row’ley Regis, 109-12, 126-31 Beans, Haricot, 348-9 Bentham, George, Death of, 330 Berkeley (Rev. M. J.), Approaching Retire¬ ment, 19 Berridge (Wm.), Meteorological Notes, 66, 98, 141-2, 166-7, 206-7, 236, 268, 297, 328, 346-7 Betteridge ( J.), on Birds of the Neighbour¬ hood of Birmingham, 191-5 “ Bewick, Thomas, and his Pupils,” 270 Biology, The Principles of — - Organic Matter, 35-6 - Actions of Forces on Organic Matter, 71-2 - Re-actions of Organic Matter on Forces, 99-100 - Proximate Definition of Life, 139 - “ The Correspondence between Life and its Circumstances,” and “ The Degree of Life varies as the Degree of Correspon dence,” 160-1 - Mr. Barratt’ s Note, 195-7 - Reply to Mr. Lawson Tait’s Note, 226-9 - Development, 250-2 - The Inductions of Biology, 285-7 - Adaptation, Individuality, 309-15 Birds of the Neighbourhood of Birming¬ ham, 194-5 - Heron, the (Arclea Cinerea), 105-9 - Lark, the, and the Thrush, 142-3 - Ornithological Notes, 171-2 - Stanley’s Familiar History of (Review), 51 - Swallows, Arrival of, 170 - Terns Breeding at the Fame Islands, Notes on the, 67-70 - Thrush, the, and the Lark, 142-3 Birmingham, Birds of the Neighbour¬ hood of, 194-5 - Technical School for, 86-7 Blandy (Henry), on Some Points of Interest in the Comparative Anatomy of Teeth, 29-34 . Blue Moon ; Green Sun ; and Gorgeous Sunsets, the, 23 Botany — Botanical Notes from South Beds, 172 - “ Correspondance Botanique,” 270 - Flora of Oxfordshire, 170 - Flowers and their Pedigrees (Review), 21 - Influence of the Geological Con¬ ditions of a Country upon its Flora, 55 - Intercellular Relations of Proto¬ plasts, 61-6, 101-5, 121-6 - Journal of Botany for January, 52 - Lichen from Oban, the Study of a (Ricasolia Amplissima), 273-7 - Lunularia Vulgaris, Mich., 277-9 - Moss Flora, the British, 330 - Moss, Hybrid, 17 - Mosses of North America, Manual of, 293-5 - Nitella, and Flint Implements, 56 - - Mucronata in Beds, 117 - Peronospora Alta, Fckl., 297 - Plants, Action on, of Rain, Dew and Artificial Watering, 260 11. INDEX. Botany — Plants, The Preservation of Native, 209-14, 260 - Ilicasolia Amplissima, 273-7 - Saxifraga Cernua, 330 - See also Algae Fungi, Natural History. Boyden (Rev. Henry), on Our Marine Algae, 4-6, 37-40 British Association, the, 347-8 British Fossil Reptiles, History of, 271 - - Fungi, Flora of (Hymenomycetes), 145 - - New, 297-8 - Moss Flora, the, 330 Pucciuia, New, 349 Capture of a Badger, 116 Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, 80-2 Carpenter ( W. Lant), on Energy in Nature, 85 Ceylon, a Visit to {Review), 161-7 Chase (R. W.), on the Terns Breeding at the Fame Islands, 67-70 Chemical Balance, Weighing the Earth with a, 157-8 Cohn’s Calculation of the Multiplication of Bacteria, 74 Collins (W. W.), on The Principles of Biology, 250-2 Comet, the Great, of 1882, 52 Conifers, Dimensions of a few Rare, 270 “ Correspondance Botanique,” 270 Crops, Diseases of Field and Garden, 270 Cullis (Fred. John), on the Principles of Biology, 99-100, 139 Curled Web of Spider, 236-7 Damp, Remedy for, 72 Darwin’s Essay on Instinct, 18-19 Davenport (Rev. E.), on the Lark and the Thrush, 142-3 Davidson (Thos.), Note on Lingula Lesueuri, Roualt, 73-4 Death of Henry Bohn, 271 Deep Boring at Sapcote, Leicestershire, 84-116 Discomycetes, Manual of the British, 193 Dobson (A.), on “ Thomas Bewick and his Pupils,” 270 Energy in Nature {Review), 85 Enock (F.), on the Curled Web of Spider, 236-7 - on Miscus Campestris, 328-9 - Notes from Woking, 51 - - on Trap-door Spiders in Captivity, 3 Ethics of Sociology, the, 187-193 Extraordinary Sunsets and Sunrises, the, 22 Faculties, Record of Family, 36 Fertilisation of the Boraginaceae, 23-4 Flint Implements, and Nitella, 56 Flora of Warwickshire, the, 12-15, 45-8, 75-80, 112-16, 154-7, 198-201, 221-5, 261-7, 288-93, 297, 324-7. Floral Register, 144 Foray, a Fungus, in the Middleton District, 339-341 France ( W. H.), on the Ethics of Sociology, 187-93 Fungi — Alternaria Brassicae, Saccardo, 268-9 - British Discomycetes, Manual of, 193 - Flora of British (Hymenomy¬ cetes), 145 - New British, 297-8 - CEcidium Convallariae, 237-8 - On the Pilobolidae, 131-5, 149-53 184-7, 214-20, 253-60, 280-4, 304-9 - Peronospora alta, Feld., 297 - Puccinia Anthoxauthi, 238 Gales, Equinoctial, 270 Galton (Francis), Record of Family Faculties, 36 Geology — Basalt of Rowley Regis, the, 109-12, 126-31 - Charnwood Forest, on a Slaty Conglomerate in the Rocks of, 140-1 - Deep Boring at Sapcote, Leices¬ tershire, 84, 116 - Geology of Stroud, the {Revieiv), 85 - Geological Conditions of a Country, Influence of the, upon its Flora, 55 - Geological Formation at Market Harborough, 145 - Geological Map of Nottingham, 135-7 - Great Kimberley Diamond Mine, Notes on the, 93-8 - Lias at Market Harborough, 145 - - Lingula Lesueuri, Rouault, Note on, 73-4 - - Mineral Ore Deposits, 298-9 - The Syenites of South Leicester¬ shire, 7-11, 41-2 George Bentham, Death of, 330 Glacial Epoch, High Land and Great Moisture essential to the Initiation of a, 82-3 Goldsmith (T. J.), Local Observations, 53 Greatheed (W.), on The Principles of Biology, 226-9 Great Kimberley Diamond Mine, Notos on the, 93-8 Gresley (W. S.), on Capture of a Badger, 116 Grove (W. B.), on Alternaria Brassicae, Saccardo, 268-9 - on A Call to Plienological Observers, 159 - on Darwin’s Essay on Instinct, 18-19 - on New British Fungi. 297-8 - on The Flora of Warwickhire, 297 - on The Pilobolidae, 131-5, 149-53, 184-7, 214-20, 253-60, 280-4, 304-9, 333-39 - on The Principles of Biology, 228 - on Saxifraga Cernua, 330 - Speculations on Protoplasm, 43-4 Haeckel (Ernst), A Visit to Ceylon (Review), 161-7 Hamson (J. H.), Nitella, and Flint Imple ments, 56 Handsworth, Cuckoo at, 145 I Haricot Beans, 348-9 INDEX. 11! Harrison (W. Jerome), on The Blue Moon ; Green Sun ; and Gorgeous Sunsets, 23 - On The Syenites of South Leicestershire, 7-11, 41-2 Heron ( Arclea Cinerea), 105-9 Hiepe (William L.), on The Principles of Biology, 309-15 High Land and Great Moi'ture essential to the Initiation of a Glacial Epoch, 82-3 Hill (Dr. A.), on The Principles of Biology, 35-6, 71-2, 309-15 Hillliouse (William), on The Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts, 61-6, 101-5, 121-6 Hodgson (T. V.), on The Heron {Arclea Cinerea), 105-9 Hughes (W. R.), on Antedou (Comatula) Rosaceus, 145 - on a Visit to Ceylon, 161-7 - on The Cuckoo at Handsworth, 145 - on the Mildness of the Season, 86 Hybrid Moss, 17 Ice Action in the Valley of the Artro, 197-8 Ice-grooved Boulders, 25 Insects— Dictyna latens — Ergatis latens, 236-7 - Miscus campestris, 328-9 Instinct, Darwin’s Essay on, 18-19 Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts, on the, 61-6, 101-5, 121-6 International Scientific Assocition, 298 Jerusalem Artichoke, 348 Ketley (Mr. Charles), Death of, 170 Lark, the, and the Thrush, 142 Late Dr. T. Wright, the, 341-4 Leicestershire, on The Mammals of, 301-3 Lias at Market Harborough, 145 Lingula Lesueuri, Rouault, Note on, 73-4 Lloyd, Richard Mosley, 70 Lunularia Vulgaris, Mich., 277-9 Magnin (A.), on The Bacteria, 74 Mammals of Leicestershire, on the, 301-3 Manual of the Bi'itish Discomycetes, 193 Marine Algse, Our, 4-6, 37-40 Market Harborough, Lias at, 145 Marshall ( W. P.), on The Great Kimberley Diamond Mine, 93-8 - on The Volcanic Iheory for the Cause of the Recent Remarkable Sunsets, 177-81 - on The Recent Sunsets and Sunrises, 1-3 Meteorological Notes, 66, 98, 141-2, 166-7, 206-7, 236, 268, 297, 328, 346-7 Midland Union of Natural History Societies — Annual Meeting at Peterborough, 137-8, 167-8 • - Report of the Council, the Darwin Medal, &c., 201-6 - Balance Sheet, Notes, &c., 230-6 - Address by the Dean of Peter¬ borough, 241-50 - Financial Result, 270 Mineral Ore Deposits, 298-9 Mott (F. T.), on A Summer Campaign, 295-6 - on The Mammals of Leicester¬ shire, 301-3 Mounting Hydrozoa, Polyzoa, &c., with Extended Tentacles, 24 Native Plants, the Preservation of, 209-14 Natural History Objects, (Notes on Col¬ lecting and Preserving (Bevieiu), 51 Natural History Notes— Alternaria Bras- sicae, Saccardo, 26S-9, 329, 349 - A New Vorticella, 298 - Ante don (Comatula) Rosaceus, 145 - Arrival of Swallows, 170 - Badger, Capture of, 116 - Blue Moon ; Green Sun ; and Gorgeous Sunsets, The, 23 - Boraginacete, Fertilisation of the, 23-4 - Botanical Notes from South Beds, 172 - Boulders, Ice-grooved, 25 - Coal, Preparation of, 26 - “ Correspondance Botanique," 270 - Croft Hill, Height of, 86 - Cuckoo at Handsworth, 145 - Dimensions of a few Rare Coni¬ fers, 270 - Diseases of Field ’and Garden Crops, 270 - English-grown Medicinal Rhu¬ barb,, 269-70 - Equinoctial Gales, 270 - Flora of British Fungi (Hymeno- mycetes), 145 - Flora of Oxfordshire, 170 - Flora of Warwickshiref Additional Records), 297 - Floral Register, 144 - Formation of Starch, 269 - George Bentham, 330 - Great Comet, the, of 1882, 52 - Haricot Beans, 348 - Henry Bohn, Death of, 271 - History of British Fossil Reptiles, 271 - Hydrozoa, Polyzoa, &c., Mounting with Extended Tentacles, 24 - Influence of the Geological Con¬ ditions of a Country upon its Flora, 55 - International Scientific JAssocia- tion, 298 - Jerusalem Artichoke, 348 - Journal of I otany for January, 52 - Lias, the, at Market Harborough, 145 - Local Observations, 53 - Meads of Asphodel, 116 - Mental Evolution in Animals, 51 - Microscope, Safety Stage for the, 25 - Mild Season in the Fens, 53-4 - Mildness of the Season, 53, 86 - Mineral Ore Deposits, 298-9 - Mr. Charles Ketley, 170 - New British Fungi, 297-8 - New British Puccinia, 349 - Nitella, and Flint Implements, 56 - Nitella Mucronata in Beds, 117 - Notes from Woking — Curled Web of Spider, 236-7 IV. INDEX. Natural* History Notes — Notes from Woking — Miscus Campestris, 328-9 - Ornithological Notes, 171-2 - Peronospora Alta, Fckl., 297 - Query (R. Rogers), 348 - Saunders (J.), Nitella Mucronaca in Beds, 117 - Saxifraga Cernua, 330 - Sunsets and Sunrises, The Extra¬ ordinary, 22 - - Volcanic Dust in relation to the Recent, 22 - Technical School for Birmingham, 86-7 - Temperature in Australia, 86 - The British Moss Flora, 330 - - The Wild Garden, 24 - “ Thomas Bewick and his Pupils,” 270 - Two New British Uredines, 237-8 - Waterproof Paper, 86 — — Woking, Notes from, 54 Niagara and its Wild Flowers, 16-17 Nitella and Flint Implements, 56 - Mucronata in Beds, 117 North America, Manual of the Mosses of (Review), 293-5 Notes, Meteorological, 66, 98, 141-2, 166-7, 206-7, 236, 268, 297, 328 - Natural History ( See Natural History Notes) - Ornithological, 171-2 - from Woking, 54 Nottingham, Geological Map of, 135-7 Observations, Local, 53 Observatory, Torrens, South Australia, 98 Our Meteorological Column, 60 Owen (Professor), Resignation of, 6 Owen’s (SirR.), History of British Fossil Reptiles, 271 Oxfordshire, Flora of, 170 Paper, Waterproof, 86 Pearce (Horace), on Ice Action in 'the Valley of the Artro, 197-8 Peronospora Alta, Fckl., 297 Peterborough, Botany of, 234-6 Phiinologie, Beitriige zur (Revieiv), 169 Phonological Observers, a Call to, 159 Phillips (J. A.), on Mineral Ore Deposits, 298-9 Phillips (W.), on Alternaria Brassicse, Sacc., 329 - on Peronospora Alta, Fckl. 297 Pilobolidse, on the, 131-5, 149-53, 184-7, 214-20, 253-60, 280-4, 304-9, 333-39 Plowright (Clias. B.), on Two New British Uredines, 237-8 Preparations of Coal, 26, 51 Preservation of Native Plants, the, 209-14, 260 Principles of Biology, the, 35-6, 71-2, 99- 100, 139, 160-1, 195-7, 226-9, 250-2, 285-7, 309-15 Protoplasm, Speculations on, 43-4 Puccinia, New British, 349 Quilter (H. E.), on A Slaty Conglomerate in the Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 140-1 Quilter (H. E.), on the Lias at Market Harborough, 145 Reader (H. P.), on Lunularia Vulgaris, Mich., 277-9 Record of Family Faculties, 36 Religion : A Retrospect and Prospect, 48 Remedy for Damp, 72 Reviews: — A Visit to Ceylon, 161-7 Beitriige zur Phiinologie, 169 Energy in Nature, 85 Flowers and their Pedigrees, 21 Half-hours with the Stars, 20 Half-hours with the Telescope, 20 Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles, 20 Manual of the Mosses of North America, 293-5 Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects, 51 Reminiscences of Travel in Australia, America, and Egypt, 49-50 Stanley’s Familiar History of Birds, 51 The Geology of Stroud, 85 The Science Monthly, Illustrated, 51 The Scientific Roll, 50 Rhubarb, English-grown Medicinal, 269-70 Richard Mosley Lloyd, 70 Robinson (W.), on The Wild Garden, 24 Romanes (G. J.), Mental Evolution in Animals, 54 Safety Stage for the Microscope, 25 Sapcote, Leicestershire, Deep Boring at, 84, 116 Saunders ( J.), Botanical Notes from South Beds, 172 Saxifraga Cernua, 330 Science Monthly, The (Revieiv), 51 Scientific Roll, The (Review), 50 - Societies, Year-Book of, 100 Season, Mild, in the Fens, 53-4 - Mildness of the, 53, 86 Shells of the British Isles, Land and Freshwater (Review), 20 Shipman (J.), on Ice-grooved Boulders, 25 Slaty Conglomerate in the Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 140-1 Societies, Reports of: — Bedfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club, 27, 90, 174-6 Birmingham Microscopists’ and Naturalists’ Union, 58, 89-90, 118, 147, 173-4, 208, 239-40, 272, 300, 33 », 351-2 Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society, 27, 57-8, 89, 148 Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, 26-7, 56-7, 87-9, 117-8, 145-7, 173, 207-8, 238-9, 271-2, 299-300, 330-2, 344-6 (Annual Conversazione), 349 Caradoc Field Club, 118-9 Cheltenham Natural Science Society, 58 Dudley and Midland Geological Society and Field Club, 176 Handsworth Natural History and Scientific Society, 119 Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, 352 INDEX. V. Societies, Reports of : — Nottingham Working Men’s Natura¬ lists’ Society, 59, 92 Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, 28, 58-9, 91-2, 119-20, 148 Peterborough Natural History and Scientific Society, 28, 59-GO, 91, 148, 240 Tamworth Natural History, Ac., Society, 92, 120, 148, 176, 240 Sociology, the Ethics of, 187-93 South Beds, Botanical Notes from, 172 Speculations on Protoplasm, 43-4 Spencer (Herbert), on Religion: A Retro¬ spect and Prospect, 48 - The Principles of Biology, 35-6, 71-2, 99-100, 139, 153-4, 160-4, 168, 195-7, 206, 226-9, 250-2, 285-7, 309- 15 - Translation of Works, 85 Spider, Curled Web of, 236-7 Spiders, Trap-door, in Captivity, 3 Stanley (Edward), on Familiar History of Birds, 51 Starch, the Formation of, 269 Star’s. Half-liours with the (Review), 20 Stokes (Dr. A. C.), on a New Vorticella, 298 Study of a Lichen from Oban (Ricasolia Amplissima), 273-7 Sub-Editors, our, 28-60 Sunsets in Australia, 25*2-3 - and Sunrises, The Recent, 1-3 - on the Volcanic Theory for the Cause of the Recent Remark¬ able, 177-84 Swallows, Arrival of, 170 Svenites of South Leicestershire, the, 7-11, 41-2 Tait (Lawson), on The Principles of Biology, 195-7 Tangye (R.), Reminiscences of Travel in Australia., America, and Egypt, 49-50 Taylor (J. E.), on Collecting and Pre¬ serving Natural History Objects (Review), 51 Teeth, Some Points of Interest in the Comparative Anatomy of, 2‘J-34 Telescope, Half-hours with the (Review), 20 Terns Breeding at the Fame Islands, Notes on the, 67-70 Thrush, the Lark and the, 142 Torrens Observatory, South Australia, 98 Trap-door Spiders in Captivity, 3 Travel, Reminiscences of, in Australia, America, and Egypt (Review), 49-50 Union, Annual (Meeting of the, 100 Uredines, Two New British, 237-8 Volcanic Dust in relation to the Recent Sunsets and Sunrises, 22 - Theory for the Cause of the Recent Remarkable Sunsets, on the, 177-81 Vorticella, a New, 298 Waller (T. H.), on Volcanic Dust in Rela¬ tion to the Recent Sunsets and Sunrises, 22 Web, Curled, of Spider, 23G-7 Weighing the Earth with a Chemical Balance, 157-8 Wheeler (E. ), Mild Season in the Fens, 53-4 Wild Garden, 24 Wilkinson (W. H.), on The Study of a Lichen from Oban (Ricasolia Amplis¬ sima), 273-7 Wills (A. W.), on The Preservation of Native Plants, 209-14 Witchell (E.), The Geology of Stroud, 85 Wragge (Clement L.), on Sunsets in Australia, 252-3 On Temperature in Australia, 86 Wright, the late Dr. T., 341-4 Year-Book of Scientific Societies, KM) Zygnemacea1, on the; a Chapter in the History of the Fresli-water Algae 315-324 Madra$\\ fortnight aftWt moil mon RECENT SUNSETS AND SUNRJSES. W PM del. / I l.fcl THE MIDLAND NATURALIST. “Come forth into the light of things, Let Nature be your teacher.” Wordsworth. THE RECENT SUNSETS- AND SUNRISES.* By W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E. The very remarkable sunsets and sunrises seen in this country in the latter part of November last were exceptional phenomena, not only from their magnificent display of colour and the great range of the Earth over which they extended, but also from the unusually long period after sunset and before sunrise for which they were seen as compared with the ordinary sunset and sunrise effects, showing that the cause producing the phenomena was situated at a higher level in the atmosphere than the layers of aqueous vapour that produce the ordinary effects. This exceptional occurrence must consequently have had some exceptional cause, and that cause has now been suggested to be the great eruption of a volcano in Java, that occurred at the end of August last, three months previously. This suggestion, although at first appear¬ ing a very wild one, has now received so much support from various evidence that it is looked upon by many as the true solution of the difficulty. This eruption, which occurred in the small island of Krakatoa, between Java and Sumatra, was of exceptionally enormous violence and extent, and is spoken of as the most tremendous volcanic eruption which perhaps has ever occurred in historic times. An island of 3000 feet height disappeared in the eruption, forming a wave of 100 feet height in the sea, which caused great destruction ; ashes were discharged to a distance of 250 miles from the volcano, and complete darkness was caused for two days to a distance of more than 30 miles, by a dense continuous downfall of mud and volcanic dust. It is now suggested that in this eruption lava was projected to an extreme height in the atmosphere in the form of minute * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Bead at a Meeting of the Society, Dec. 11, 1883. 2 THE RECENT SUNSETS AND SUNRISES. hollow glassy vesicles, such as may be supposed to be produced by a sudden discharge of very high pressure steam through a layer of melted lava ; and that these vesicles, from their extremely small actual weight, and the relatively large surface that they expose to the atmosphere in comparison with their weight, must be many months at least before they can fall down through the atmosphere to the surface of the earth, and during that time they will be liable to be carried by the currents of air to great distances over the earth. Taking a direct line westward from the volcano (the direction in which the great equatorial currents of the upper regions of the atmosphere travel), the special atmospheric phenomena were observed (as illustrated in the chart, Plate I.) in two days after the eruption at Seychelles Island towards Madagascar ; in six days at the Gold Coast on the west of Africa ; and in a week at Trinidad in the West Indies. This last place is at a distance of about 12,000 miles from the volcano (half round the earth), travelled in a week, giving an average rate of 70 miles an hour, which is within the rate of observed velocities in the upper regions of the atmosphere. The rate of rotation of the earth’s surface at the equator being about 1000 miles an hour (8000 miles diameter, or 24,000 miles circumference travelled in 24 liours\ the rate of rotation of the surrounding atmosphere at different heights from the earth’s surface may be considered to range between the limits of 1000 miles an hour at the surface of the earth, and nothing where the relatively stationary inter-planetary atmo¬ sphere is reached ; and at the height of the supposed stratum of volcanic matter, which was estimated at as much as 40 miles by Helmholtz from observations in the special sunsets seen at Berlin, the lagging behind of the atmosphere from its slower rotation, would give the effect upon the earth of a westward current ; and 70 miles an hour for such a current would amount to only a small retardation from the 1000 miles an hour surface velocity (only 7 per cent). The slower lateral dispersion northwards and southwards of the stratum of matter producing the special atmospheric phenomena appears to follow from the circumstances of the successive appearances at different distances north and south, as illustrated in the chart, reaching Madras and Ceylon a fortnight after the eruption, Cape of Good Hope a month after, and England three months after. The special pheno¬ mena that have been named at present (mainly from Mr Norman Lockyer’s interesting communication to the Times) as having been observed at the several places, are as follows : — TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS IN CAPTIVITY. 3 In the direct westward course : — Seychelles — Remarkable sunrises and sunsets, and sun appeared like a full moon. Gold Coast — Blue sun, and sun white and pale like moon. Trinidad — Blue sun, and great sunset-glow like a fire. In the northward and southward dispersion : — Madras — Green sun at sunrise and sunset. Ceylon — Green sun and blue sun ; sun blue even at noon. Cape of Good Hope — Grand and unusual sunsets. England — Grand and unusual sunsets and sunrises. TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS IN CAPTIVITY. For some time past I have had a number of male and female Atypi in confinement in various flower pots, partly filled with sand, and with a layer of moss on the surface to make it more homelike. Not having seen anything of them for some time, I became anxious to ascertain whether they were living. I carefully lifted the moss in one pot, and found the occupant (a male) dead. In another pot, one almost done for, with abdomen shrivelled and dry, and the legs drawn up. I immediately damped the moss, replacing the glass cover, which was soon covered with moisture. In the evening, on removing the glass, I was surprised and delighted to find Atypus had quite recovered the use of his limbs and jaws, for on placing my finger within half an inch of him, he made an attempt to seize it, but I declined such close friendship, having had my thumb’s blood drawn pretty freely by a ferocious mate of his. The abdomen, too, had regained its natural form and bright healthy colour. The spider is, whilst I am writing, enjoying perfect health and spirits. Last week, I mentioned my observations to my friend — Sir Sidney S. Saunders, and he confirmed my opinion that moisture was of the utmost importance for the well-being of spiders in captivity, and informed me that some time ago he kept a large trap-door spider ( Cteniza Iunica ) for a con¬ siderable time in confinement, and wishing to see if it would make a door at the bottom of its nest, he reversed it, a proceeding not appreciated by Cteniza, and which it resented by sulking. “ I then (said Sir Sidney) obtained the garden watering pot, and gave her a good shower-bath ; the next morning there was the perfect door, which she had made during the night.” F. Enoch, Woking. 4 OUR MARINE ALGjE OUB MARINE ALG®.* By Key. Henry Boyden, B.A. Our Marine Algie seem to find little favour among Midland botanists, owing, in some measure, perhaps, to the fact that other cryptogams, as the mosses and fungi so diligently studied, are near at hand, while the sea- weeds are far away. But the Marine Algas have seldom attracted the attention they deserve. The old classical writers spoke of them in words of contempt. Even Linnaeus overlooked them. As the ferns, so widely popular for house and garden decoration in these latter days, were denounced as “ liedge-row trumpery” by old medical writers, so the Algae were seaside trumpery in scientific esti¬ mation. Dr. Harveyf and Messrs. Johnstone and Croall,j in their splendidly illustrated works on our British sea-weeds, have manifested to the eye, as they also prove to the mind, what perfect treasures of beauty adorn our bays and are cast upon our shores. These writers were largely aided by enthu¬ siastic collectors at different stations on our coast, especially ladies, who had much time and patience at their disposal, and who were rewarded, in some instances, by becoming god¬ mothers in the temple of science, the new species they dis¬ covered being called by their names. But even with our modern aids and incentives, how rarely do we find any able to instruct us in regard to our Marine Algae. I meet now and then with an album containing sea-weeds in a lady’s drawing¬ room, but, unless they were purchased from a professional collector, they are inserted without regard to order, and are unnamed. Yet great facilities exist for the scientific collec¬ tion of our British Algas. We have 2,000 miles of English coast, and there are few parts where the plants of Neptune’s garden may not be found. For a thorough scientific study of them a continued residence at the seaside is necessary, that the habits of the plants may be observed ; but, in these days of cheap excursions, much may be done by an occasional visit. 1 spent ten days at Felixstowe, on the east coast, last summer, and while there filled an album with sea- weeds for the lady who entertained me, and brought home species that were new to me for the enlargement of my own collection. I also went by a day trip to Llandudno in search of lodgings, and found it possible for an excursionist to look over the place * Transactions of Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. Bead at a General Meeting, Nov. 27, 1883. f “ Phycologia Britannica.” \ “ Nature Printed Sea-Weedg.” OUR MARINE ALG.E. 5 and fill a vasculum with sufficient sea-weeds to start a respect¬ able collection, and to occupy a whole winter in the study of them. During the subsequent holiday I spent there I mounted about one hundred specimens, and found some forty different species. As the sea-weeds are arranged on a natural plan, it is necessary that there should be a careful discrimi¬ nation of all parts of a plant, that it may be assigned to its proper place. These parts are — the root, the frond, and the fructification or reproductive organs. The root generally takes the form of a disc, though in some rare instances it may be of a fibrous nature. Its office is not, as in other plants, to extract nourishment from the earth, but merely to maintain a safe position. The sea has its wild moods, like the aerial ocean in which we vegetate, and its weeds could not exist on the rocks and other places exposed to the violence of the waves, but for the firm grasp of their roots ; and tenacious as they are, many are wrenched from their hold and cast ashore by every storm. As the roots are not for nourishment, the plants seem to be, in a large measure, in¬ different as to the place where they grow. They fix their home in the sand or mud, or on the hard rock, and in many cases become parasitical, although not truly so, perhaps, as they do not derive nourishment from the other plants on which they grow. Some sea-weeds root themselves on fronds of their own species, and Johnstone and Croall report that they have often seen a specimen of Laminaria diyitata so completely en¬ veloped by a forest of young Laminaria, that the poor old parent was well-nigh suffocated by its own progeny. The Laminaria is not the only parent who is overweighted with a multitude of children. I have a piece of the stem of a Lam¬ inaria affording a home to a little happy family consisting of Rhodymenia palmata, Ddesseria alata, and Cladophora rupestris , to say nothing of the Zoophytes that had founded their colony there. The root of the sea- weed is always small compared with the size of the plant, and in some cases it is entirely absent. The fronds of our Algie have next to be considered. These are more or less gelatinous in their nature, for which reason many of the specimens adhere to paper without the aid of gum. I have a specimen of Porpliyra laciniata , which I mounted some twenty years ago, that has been tossed about in frequent exhibitions, but remains almost part of the paper to which it adheres. The gelatine gives substance to the frond, and by the quantity contained the plant is described. If small it is called membranaceous, if abundant and fluid gelatinous, and if firmly fixed it is said to be cartilaginous. These form some of 6 OUR MARINE ALGiE. the criteria by which the species of a plant is determined. Fronds vary much in form and colour, and as their con¬ figuration, whether simple and entire, or branched, may be taken as an index to the genera, so the colour, whether red, olive-green, or sea-green, with their variety of shades, may serve as an indication of the sub-order to which they belong. It has also to be noticed that fronds vary in their mode of growth, commencing in some cases at the tip of the old frond, and in others at the base. In the filiform genera the branches are “ deciduous,” a fact that has to be remembered by the col¬ lector, as specimens of the same species present very different aspects at the different seasons of the year. In the larger plants of the olive series the fronds are furnished with an in¬ telligent provision in the shape of air-vessels, or bladders, which give buoyancy, enabling them to float on the surface of the water ; the bladder-wrack or popweed being a familiar ex¬ ample. But it is the cellular structure of the frond, as exam¬ ined under the microscope, which above all discriminates the genera and species, and the plants cannot be correctly determined without this aid. The cells present a variety of forms, as spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, quadrate, clavate, etc. ; they differ in every species, and even in plants of the same species. Examples come from Jersey in the genus Codium where there is only a single cell, but others are more or less complex in their cellular structure. The stem of these is composed of two or more series of cells ; the axial, those which form the centre, and are arranged lengthwise, either bound closely together, or separated by layers of gelatine ; and those which form the periphery, at the surface, which are generally smaller and horizontal. When the cells of these series are all of equal length, they appear to be jointed, and the stem is said to be articulate ; but when unequal the stem is called inarticulate. Good examples of the former we have in the Polysiphonias. (To be continued.) It is announced that Professor Owen has resigned his position as superintendent of the Natural History Department of the British Museum. Though the mania of the anti-vivisectionists has led them to entitle him “ an old humbug,” because he will not agree with the doctrines of these “peculiar people,” there is probably no scientific man in the whole world, outside such craze-mongers, who will not view with regret the announcement that increasing years render such a step necessary. Professor Owen’s great services to science have been gratefully and appreciatively recorded in “ Nature,” not long ago, in an article of the series on “ Our Scientific Worthies.” THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. 7 THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. By W. Jerome Harrison, F.G-.S. The traveller going northwards from London passes over a great succession of soft and yielding strata. Sands, clays, and marls, alternating with beds of sandstone and limestone, bear evidence by their position, their character, and by the fossils they contain, that their place is comparatively high in the geological scale. The London Clay hills of Herts, the chalk of the North Downs, the oolitic, liassic, and tnassic limestones and clays of Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, and South Leicestershire, all belong to either the Secondary or the Tertiary Systems of geologists. It is with some surprise then, that the student of science comes in South Leicester¬ shire upon hard crystalline igneous rocks, which must evidently be referred to the Primary Epoch, and which can indeed be proved to take rank among the very oldest rocks in the British Islands. The rocks to which we are referring are seen at the surface between Enderby on the north-east and Sapcote on the south¬ west, a distance of 5-| miles, and in a line at right angles to this we have indications of their presence over a width of 2| miles. But they do not occupy the surface of all the tract just named ; the amount of rock actually exposed does not in the aggregate exceed one square mile. They crop out at five distinct points, each of which is surrounded and isolated from the others by the great expanse of red marl and sand¬ stone (the Keuper Mari of the Trias) which constitutes so much of the south-west and west of Leicestershire. The five areas occupied by igneous rocks are as follows : — 1. Enderby. 8. Croft. 2. Narborougli. 4. Sapcote and Stoney Stanton. 5. Barrow Hill, near Earl Shilton. We shall now describe each of these places separately : — 1. Enderby. — This is the name of a village lying four and a-lialf miles south-west of Leicester ; standing on elevated ground about one mile west of the River Soar, and distant about a mile and a-lialf from Narborougli Station. Walking from the last-named place, we turn to the right just before en¬ tering Enderby, and find ourselves in a very remarkable quarry, lying south-west of and close to the village. The rock we stand upon, and which forms the lower and middle part of the “ face” of the pit, is a compact, hard, and excessively tough crystalline rock. Examining it carefully and with the aid of a magnifier, we can make out the minerals of which it is 8 THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTEKSHIKE. composed. These are felspar (pinkish or grey) and horn¬ blende (green), with a few grains of quartz. On the whole, this is a rock which may be termed syenite. It differs from granite in containing hornblende instead of mica, and in having hut little quartz. Here and there we notice patches of a bluish or greenish tint in the rock, but these are better seen in other quarries, and will be noticed hereafter. The rock which forms the upper ten to twenty feet of the face of the pit is of a very different nature from that upon which it rests. These upper beds are stratified — that is, they occur in distinct layers or strata — a fact which shows us at once that they were deposited under water ; they are not at all crystalline, but are green and red marls, with a band of sand¬ stone from two to four feet thick. Everywhere they follow the irregular surface of the syenite, in one place filling up a deep hollow in that rock, so as to be perceptibly curved. This is finely shown in an excellent photograph taken by Messrs. Spencer for my work on the “ Geology of Leicester and Rutland.” These upper strata are the Keuper marls and Upper Keuper sandstone, a sub-division of a great series of beds called the Triassic formation. The sandstone band is the same as that which forms the Dane Hills, near Leicester, where it contains teeth and spines of fishes and the covering of a little crustacean ( Kstheria minuta) in appearance like a bivalve shell ; probably the Enderby bed would yield similar evidences of life to a diligent worker. But the most remarkable point in this pit remains yet to be noticed. In an excavation on the right-hand of the entrance, and again at the other extremity of the pit, we see underlying the syenite (which has all the appearance of having broken through it) a mass of coarse slaty rock of a dull green or grey colour, extremely tough and traversed by many fine lines or veins, very spotty too in places. The water in the hollows of the pit where this slate is exposed interferes much with a careful examination of it, but it appears to have a northerly inclination or dip ; at one point it rises 15 feet above the floor of the pit, under which it certainly extends. This (Lower Enderby) quarry is worked by Mr. Marston, who utilises the upper beds ( Keuper Marls) or bearing,” by making excellent bricks out of the marly beds. Entering now Enderby village, we find it indeed to be “ founded on a rock.” When we reach the top of the sharply sloping street we find more quarries, worked by Mr. Rawson. In these the mode of weathering of the syenite is well shown : the surface blocks have become rounded into immense balls THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. 9 varying from 1 to 8 feet in diameter, and these are often sur¬ rounded by coat after coat of rock which scales off under blows of the hammer. 2. Na rborough. — We now retrace our steps, and passing by Narborougli village cross the famous old Roman road called the Fosse Way, which runs straight as a line from this point to High Cross. The road to Huncote diverges here from the Fosse Way, and close to its northern side we have another very large quarry (worked by Messrs. Nowell and Robsonj in which syenite is again visible. Those who refer to the Government Geological Map of South Leicestershire will not find this outcrop of igneous rock marked upon it. It was either missed by the geological surveyor or was then covered over by Iveuper Marl and soil. The stone is of a much redder tint and is more compact than that of Enderby, but is of the same general nature. 3. Croft Hill. — This hill is of a beautifully conical form and is a marked feature in the scenery of the district. Its height is about 580 feet above the sea, and 300 feet above the surrounding plain. It has been attacked on two sides, a large quarry being worked on the north-east flank close to Huncote village, while very extensive workings have of late years been opened in the south-east corner, near the village of Croft. Proceeding from Narborougli we walk through Huncote village and enter Mr. Marston’s fine quarry. This is now in good working order ; the floor of the pit is level, of great extent, and about 80 feet below the surface. The stone is wheeled in trucks along tramways laid on the floor of the pit, and is then raised to the surface by a novel and effective lift ; it is of excellent quality. Walking towards Croft along the side of the hill we pass several openings or “ trial-holes ” which have been made to prove the quality of the rock. We note here that the rock has • a speckled appearance ; the white spots are due to the partial decomposition of some of the felspar crystals. The quarries near Croft village are very large and have been ably developed by the manager, Mr. Pocliin. Here again we see the Keuper red marls and sandstone resting upon the syenite, from which they slope rapidly away in all directions. Embedded in the lowest stratum of the Keuper are many large masses of syenite ; this is splendidly seen in a deep cutting made for the laden stone-trucks to pass out of the pit. On the sides of this quarry too we see above the red marls in one place a fine exposure of the drift. This is the term applied to the accumulations formed during the last glacial period, when these islands were covered by ice, which, gathering together to form glaciers, pushed over the surface, 10 THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. breaking up and carrying forward the surface rocks. The drift-beds here seen are grey or brown clays full of angular masses of rock, many of which, such as the flints, pebbles of chalk, limestone, &c., must have come from a considerable distance. Next ascending to the hill- top we admire the magnificent view obtainable over the whole of this part of Leicestershire. Due north lie the Charnwood Hills ; on the north-east the picturesque village of Enderby occupies high ground, hiding Leicester from our view, but we can see the white stone spire of St. Peter’s Church on the Spinney Hills gleaming on the right. The low eminence close at hand on the west is Barrow Hill, which we must visit, and southward we note the long ridge on which stand the villages of Stoney Stanton and Sapcote. Croft Station lies at the foot of the hill, providing the means of a speedy return to Leicester, and as we cross the Soar we note the rocky and picturesque gorge through which the river flows, this being the only point at which any syenite is found on the east or right bank of the Soar. 4. Sapcote and Stoney Stanton. — Getting out at Croft Station we turn to the left and then take an old bridle-road which leads across the fields on the right hand. Soon we reach Sopewell Bridge, an old and interesting bit of masonry ; then bearing to the left we cross the water-meadows, and ascend t Lie slope which clearly marks to the geological eye the presence of a different and harder kind of rock. We are now close to the village of Sapcote, and here is Sopewell Quarry, the property of Messrs. T. and J. Spencer, but leased and worked by Mr. Marston. This pit has been opened and developed entirely within the last nine years. When the surface soil was removed, the syenite on one side was seen to be covered by 8 or 10 feet of sand, above which came a number of coarse boulders from 6 to 18 inches in diameter. The whole had the appearance of an ancient sea-beacli, and the polished condition of the surfaces of the syenite may have been due to the friction of the sand. My best thanks are due to Messrs. T. and J. Spencer for the fine photograph of this old sea-cliff, taken especially for my work on the “Geology” of the county. Under the adjoining cottages called Granite- thorpe there exists some blackish boulder clay, which was excavated in digging a reservoir for water. The stone of Sopewell Quarry is a tough syenite of excellent quality. Here I found some good crystals of iron pyrites, a mineral of a shining yellow colour, common enough at Mountsorrel, but which I have not found elsewhere in these South Leicester¬ shire pits ; epidote too occurs, and may be known by its apple-green tint, and there are some large crystals of pink THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. 11 felspar. The height of the edge of this quarry I found by aneroid to be 320 feet above the sea. Making now towards the windmill, some shallow excava¬ tions, the “ Parish pits,” are seen by the roadside. A little further on, on the left-hand side of the road, is “ Lovett’s Pit,” leased by Mr. Marston ; it is almost full of water, but we note that some of the stone has a strong reddish tint. Crossing a field on the opposite side of the road (in which many Boman relics have been found), Cauver Hill Quarry lies at our feet. “ Cauver Hole” would be a better name for the spot, for the little knoll has been quarried away, and the workings are now some 20 feet below the surface. Here we noticed a remarkable rounded mass of coarsely crystalline felspar (red) and quartz, which had been found enclosed in the syenite. Cauver Hill contains the “ syenite nearest to London;” it is the most southerly exposure of these old rocks. Betracing now our steps, we pass through Sapcote village, and pro¬ ceed towards Stoney Stanton. As we near the latter village we find an extensive opening called “ Stanton Top Pit,” on the right-hand side of the road. It is separated from Stanton village by a narrow but rather deep valley. Stanton itself is mostly founded on the bare rock — a circumstance which, from the value of the stone, may very likely in time to come lead to a removal of at all events some of the houses. An observation with the aneroid showed the top of the “ Parish Pit” to be 330 feet above the sea. Here there are four open¬ ings or pits: — (1) Wood’s Pit, immediately adjoining the roadside, and of very limited area ; (2) the Parish Pit, lately purchased by the Mountsorrel Granite Company — (these two pits stand on a little eminence called Carey Hill) ; (3) Stanton Bottom Pit (or Clent Hill Pit), where red marl is again seen, overlying the syenite ; and (4) Varnam’s Pit, at the back of the Blue Bell Inn. From Stoney Stanton we can return either to Elmestliorpe or Croft Station, each being less than two miles distant. 5. Barrow Hill. — This point lies about the same distance on the north side of the railway from either of the two stations we have just mentioned that Stoney Stanton does on the south side, and is one and a quarter mile south-east of the village of Earl Shilton. A farmhouse and a windmill stand on the low rise of ground, which hardly deserves the name of hill. The highest point I found by aneroid to be 395 feet above sea-level. The rock is exposed in numerous shallow deserted workings near the mill, and again in a “ parish pit” a little further east. The colour of the stone varies from a light grey to a decided pink. (To be continued.) 12 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from vol. VI., page 258.) LABIAT^E. LYCOPUS. L. europaeus, Linn. Gipsy Wort. Native: In damp woods and ditches. Locally abundant. July, August. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Colesbill Pool ; Meriden Marsh ; Balsall Street ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Knowle ; Solihull ; Shelly, etc. II. Honington, Newb.; by the canal near Rugby, Blox., N. B. G. S.; canal near Stratford ; Henley-in-Arden ; Sowe village. MENTHA. M. rotundifolia, Linn. Round-leaved Mint. Denizen : In damp or marshy pastures. Very rare. August. I. Abundant in a swampy field near Boldmir, Sutton. M. alopecuroides, Hull. Horse Mint. Denizen: Near villages. Very rare. II. In the old moat near Chesterton Church, in abundance for two years, but now probably extinct, H. B. M. sylvestris, Linn, Horse Mint. Native: In marshy and watery places. Very rare. August, September. II. Great Alne, on the side of the ford leading to Haslor, Burt, iii., 53. b. nemorosa. Very rare. II. Near Sunrising, Edge Hills, Bolton King. [M. viridis, Linn., has been recorded from near Bilton, Rugby, 1833, but no later record is known to me.] M. piperita, Huds. Peppermint. Denizen : In damp places, by ditches, streams, and canals. Rathei rare. August, September. a. officinalis, Hull. I. River at Tamworth, With., ed. 5, iii., 612 ; near Middleton Park, abundant, 1872 ; Four Ashes, near Solihull ; Hockley, near Solihull. II. Coughton Mill, side of the River Alne, Purt. i., 276; Myton, H. B. ; Honington ; Spernal Ash ; Lapwortli ; Kingswood. b. vulgaris , Sole. I. Four Ashes, near Solihull. II. Warwick, Y. and B. ; Balsall Common, II. B. ; Herb. Bab. M. hirsuta, Linn. Hairy Water Mint. Native : In marshes, by rivers, streams, etc. Common. August, September. Area general. b. subglabra, Baker. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE 18 I. Stockingford ; Packwood. II. Spernal Ash ; Lapworth ; Broad Lane, near Berkswell ; a slight variety occurring at intervals with type. M. sativa, Linn. Marsh Wliorled Mint. Native : In damp woods, marshes, ditches, Ac. Local. August, September. a. rivalis = genuina. I. Sutton Park, (casual) ; Trickley ; Bentley Park (small form) ; Arley ; Coleshill Pool ; Marston Green ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Shelly ; Monkspalli. II. Emscote, Y. and B. ; pit near Bounsel Lane, H. B.; Honily, H. B., Exch. Club Report, 1879, labelled paludosa ; Broad Lane, Berkswell. b. paludosa , Sole. Bare. I. Sliarman’s Cross ; Monkspatli ; Shelly, near Solihull ; Beards- more, near Hockley. II. Ditch near Honily, H. B., Herb. Bab. c. subglabra. Baker. Bare or overlooked. I. Coleshill Pool ; Spring Coppice, near Hockley. II. Beausale Common ! H. B., Exch. Club Rep., 1874. M. rubra, Sin. Tall Bed Mint. Native or denizen : In drains and ditches. Bare. I. Bannersley Pool ; Monkspath, near Hockley (peculiar form), very abundant, 1871. II. Near Haseley (?) H. B. ; Offchurch, Y. and B. ; ditch near Luddington ; Witliybrook, near Nuneaton ; Sowe waste canal. The plant from Luddington, which appears to be similar to the form “ gathered by Dr. Windsor, at Partington, Cheshire, has long white fleecy hairs upon the teeth and upper part of calyx, and the stem and veins of the under side of the leaves are similarly clothed.” See Baker “ On English Mints,” page 17. M. gracilis, Sm. Slender Red Mint. Native : In watery places. Very rare. August. II. Ted Pit, Allesley, Bree, Purt. iii., 54. b. cardiaca, Baker. Very rare. II. Haseley Common, H. B. ! Exch. Club Rep., 1876 ; Shrewley Common, Dr. Baker, Exch. Club Rep., 1877-8. M. gentilis, Linn. Bushy Red Mint. Native : In watery places and river sides. Bare. July. I. What may be this at Marston Green and Four Ashes. II. Side of the Biver Alne ; Oversley, near the bridge, Part, i., 276. Fillongley, Kirk; Haseley, H. B. b. Wirtgeniana. Very rare. II. Chadsliunt, Bolton King. M. arvensis, Linn. Corn Mint. Native : In fields, pastures, and waysides. Locally common. June to September. Area general. b. nummularia, Schreb. Bare. I. Fields near Knowle. c. agrestis. II. Fillongley, T. Kirk; Bradnocks Marsh, Hampton-in-Arden; R. Rogers ; Austey wood, near Henley-in-Arden. The varieties in this species do not appear to be of a very marked character. 14 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. M. Pulegium, Linn. Pennyroyal. Denizen : Damp places on heath lands. Very rare. August, September. I. Side of a pool at Edgbaston, With., ed. 7., iii., 706. II. Half dry pits, Allesley, Bree, Purt ., iii., 52 ; Corley Moor, T. Kirk. * I do not think it would be found in any of these stations now. THYMUS. T. Serpyllum, Linn. Creeping Wild Thyme. Native : On heaths, heathy waysides, and dry banks. Locally common. July to September. I. Sutton Park; Middleton Heath; Coleshill Heath ; Cornel’s End, etc. II. Salford Priors! Rev. J. C.; Tredington ; Honington, Neivb.; high ground near Billesley Hall; Bardon Hill ; near Kineton. T. Chamaedrys, Fries. Larger Wild Thyme. Native : On marly banks and in pastures. Very rare. July to September. I. Sandy Field, above Coleshill Pool. II. Hatton, H. B ., Herb. Perry ; between Wroxall and Rowington, H. B.; Yarningale Common, H.B., Herb. Brit. Mus.; fields between Harborough and Cosford, Rev. A. Blox. ; banks between Kineton and Compton Verney ; near Billesley Hall ; banks near Crab Mill, Preston Bagot. Var. alba, near Ufton, Southam, Bolton King. ORIGANUM. 0. vulgare, Linn. Common Marjoram. Native: On railway banks, and banks in calcareous soils. Very rare. July, August. II. Salford Priors, Rev. J. C. ; Steeple Hill, near Bidford ; possibly an escape. Railway cutting near Coventry station, doubtfully wild. CALAMINTHA. C. Clinopodium, Spenn. Wild Basil. Native: On dry banks and waysides. Local. July, August. I. Tamworth road, near Sutton ; Elmdon ; lanes about Solihull ; Hay Lane, near Hockley ; lanes about Hampton-in-Arden and Bickenhill. II. Lambcote, Neivb. ; Gaydon, Bolton King ; Kineton ; Myton ; Shotwell ; Alveston pastures ; Bidford ; Wixford ; Exhall ; Alcester; Arrow Lane. C. Acinos, Clairv. Basil Thyme. Native or colonist : On heath lands and pastures. Rare. July to September. I. Sutton Park ; footways near Coleshill Pool ; sandy pastures, Coleshill Heath. II. Grafton and near Rolls Wood fields, Purt. i., 281 ; between Milverton and Asliow, Perry , 1817 ; near Wilmcote, on the footway to Billesley ! Cheshire , Herb. Perry ; Moreton Morrell, H, B, THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 15 C. menthifolia, Host. Common Calamint. Native : On dry hedge banks. Rather rare. June to September. I. ( Thymus Calamintha ), near Tamworth Castle, With., ed. 7, iii., 723. Dry banks, lane from Sliustoke to Maxtoke. II. ( Melissa Calamintha), Pophills Lane, Wixford 1 Part, i., 285. ( Thymus Calamintha), Warwick Castle Blount; Hatton! Abbots Salford! near Leamington! Perry, FI., 54; near Wasperton, Herb. Perry ! near Stratford-on-Avon, Herb. Perry ! Charlcote, Bolton King ; Alveston pastures ; Arrow ; Myton. b. Briggsii (Syme), c. ascendens (Jord.) Very rare. Hatton, H. B., Exch. Club Rep., 1879 ; near Wixford ; Myton. A slight variety merging into type. [. Melissa officinalis, Linn. Common Balm. Occurs as a casual weed of short duration, occasionally, as at Radford Semele and the Woodloes, H. B.; a mere escape.] NEPETA. N. Cataria, Linn. Catmint. Native : In pastures and on dry banks. Rare. July, August. I. Dry banks near Great Packington. II. Oversley, on hedge banks by Mr. Edkin’s farm, Part, i., 279 ; near Stratford, on the Warwick Road ; roadside between Warwick and Myton ! Perry, FI. ; between Stratford and Warwick, Blox., M.S. note ; near Whitley Common, Herb. Perry ; on the Fosse way, near Lambcote ; near Halford, Newb. ; Moreton Morrell, Y. and B.; near Alveston; F. Townsend; Bardon Hill ; Binton ; near Atherstone-on-Stour ; abundant, Loxley Road, near Stratford. N. Glechoma, Bentli. Ground Ivy. Native : On banks, waysides, in woods and pastures. Common. April to June. Area general. b. parvifiora, Benth. Rare. I. Hampton-in- Arden ; Furnace End near Shustoke. II. Banks of the Leamington Canal, H. B.; Excli. Club Rep., 1879. c. liirsuta. Rare. I. Dry bank near Hampton-in-Arden. II. Kenilworth, etc., Y. and B. ; near Claverdon. SALVIA. S. Verbenaca, Linn. Wild English Clary. Native : On dry banks and waysides, and in churchyards. Rare. June to October. I. On the Castle Hill, Tamworth, With., ed. 7, ii., 26. II. Bidford! and Haslor, near the churches, Part, i., 57; Pigwell Lane, Warwick, 1812; Stratford churchyard! Perry, FI., 3; Warwick Park, Y. and B. ; Salford Priors, Rev. J. C.; Binton churchyard, 1878 ; Asliorne ; Bidford churchyard. S. pratensis, Linn. Meadow Sage or Clary. Denizen : In old pastures. Very rare. July. II. Dry fields east of Kineton, Bolton King, Ex. Herb. Brit. Mus. ; Chadshunt, Bolton King ! ( To be continued.) 1G NIAGARA AND ITS WILD FLOWERS. NIAGARA AND ITS WILD FLOWERS. A lovely afternoon in the Indian summer ! We are sitting near the top of the hill close above the great Horse-shoe Fall at Niagara, and the wealth and loveliness of the wild flowers, forming one of Nature’s most exquisite wild gardens, lying stretched out at our feet, makes us think how many of our gardening friends would find a deep enjoyment could they be here, and see what we are now seeing, and what I will try to describe, faint and feeble though my description must necessarily be in comparison with the glorious reality. The great cataract itself is of unusual magnificence. The early autumn rains have brought a large body of water into the lake, and the torrent of liquid emerald pouring over the jagged rocks is deep and massive, and its thunder has an unwonted tone of grandeur and solemnity. Far away in the distance lie the quiet waters of the great lake, placid and unstirred as yet, and the white sail of a far-off boat is seen as it gets an occasional gleam of sun while passing from one shore of the lake to the other. Nearer at hand, for the space of a mile or so before reaching their doom, the waters, placid no longer, foam and swirl, hurrying madly along. Every dancing wave-crest is turned into molten silver in the rays of the westering sun ; every rock lying in the channel seizes a passing wave and whirls it upwards in masses of glittering spray, till at last, when on the brink of the great chasm, there comes to the rushing waters a sudden gathering up of irresistible strength, and they, whose only object hitherto seems to have been to dash themselves past all obstacles with reckless and ever-increasing speed, became all at once possessed with a sense of their awful power as they suddenly, swiftly, silently, drop over the perpendicular rock into the fearsome turmoil below, great green jewels, wide and deep, in a setting of frosted silver. And this solemn magnificence and grandeur has the exquisite contrast of so lovely and peaceful a foreground. The hillside, down which we are looking, and which stretches to the edge of the water, is aglow with vivid colour — huge golden masses of Solidago of many kinds, great clumps many yards wide of big, deep purple, primrose-eyed asters, alternate with those of a pale shimmering lilac, and with others, small flowered but profuse in bloom, while throughout the under¬ growth is a bright blue gleam, as though some spangles had fallen from the sky — the gift of a flower of which the name is unknown to me. Then from out the grass shine everywhere small bright flowers of many colours, among them a delicate gentian-like bloom bravely lifting up its head on a slender stalk. And there are many lovely flowers besides — a bush covered with apricot-coloured blossoms in shape like a Mimulus, a glowing mass of red Lythrum, and a delicately lovely aster, in which the lilac is replaced by a sheeny-grey pink. The feathery blooms of Spiraea and some white daisies shine here and there among their more richly-coloured sisters. It is indeed a garden unapproachable in its own beauty, and with its tender loveliness made more impressive by its wonderful surroundings. Just where we are NIAGARA AND ITS WILD FLOWERS 17 sitting we have taken advantage of masses of tall shrubs and the stems of forest trees, to shut out from view all buildings and roads, and have left ourselves with the Falls and the Nature-planted garden as they might have been seen long, long ago. There is hardly a breath of wind ; the great misty columns of spray rise high into the sky from the base of the falling water, and it is only at rare intervals that a wandering spirit of air takes one of the lighter spray clouds and bends it over towards us, when its soft and dew-like mist is shed over the thirsty flowers, making their vivid colours glow with intenser beauty in the rays of the setting sun. As the gentle breeze passes by they bow their heads in gratitude for the welcome moisture, and a rustling murmur runs from top to bottom of the hill as they raise themselves up again in thankful praise. And ever the voices of the waters are circling around us, now seeming to raise a threatening warning of their irresistible power, now chanting a solemn death song as they are hurled over the precipice to be broken to the very last drop into foam, and spray, and mist on the rocks below, and ever through the voices, now loud, now low, with unceasing iteration, seems to vibrate a note of praise to the great Creator of all for the use He has made of them in the formation of one of the wonderful sights He has given on earth for our enjoyment. And now, with sudden dip, the sun is lost behind the hill; the air strikes chill, and the flowers begin folding themselves away to sleep, but the beauty of the scene entrances us yet. In front of the now dark and sunless foreground sweeps the broad horse-shoe of foaming and struggling water ; the great emerald is now changing into myriad-tinted opal ; the wavelets that leap into the air all along the whirling rapids are dyed with a flush of pink ; while from far down in the gloom and depths of the Great Fall a rainbow rises into the misty mass of spray. Above, around, and through the spray gleam the floating clouds in the evening sky — now blushing o’er with rosy flame, now slowly changing to a lustrous gold, till all colour slowly fading gleam by gleam away, the grey hush of the coming night falls over the wondrous scene. As we rise to begin our way down the hill, our first step seems to bring us back from a world of dreams, and we know afterwards that the same thought was in both our minds and the same words were ringing in both our ears, those words in which God gives us afore-shadowing of His eternal mysteries: — “ Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love Him.” — From “The Garden,” by H. Stuart Wortley (Colonel). Hybrid Moss. — H. Philibert records a new instance of a hybrid moss, found wild, between Orthotrichum diaphanuni and 0. sprucei. He considers it a true instance of a hybrid sporogonium, resulting from the fertilisation of an arcliegonium of 0. sprucei by antherozoids of 0. diaphanuni. The hybrid was intermediate in its characters between the two parents, and also in the time of producing its reproductive organs. — Rev. Bryol, X., p. 813 (1883). 18 darwin’s essay on instinct. DARWIN’S ESSAY ON INSTINCT. This so-called “posthumous” essay of the late Charles Darwin, which was written thirty years ago, was read at a recent meeting of the Linnsean Society by Mr. G. J. Romanes, to whose forth¬ coming work on*the “ Mental Evolution of Animals” it will be added as an appendix. The following is an outline of the paper: — Under the head of migration the main points with which Darwin is con¬ cerned are — (1) that in different kinds of birds we can trace a perfect gradation from those which, with more or less regularity, change their quarters within the same country, to those which at regular intervals migrate to another country ; (2) the same species is found in one country to migrate, and in another not to do so, or migratory and stationary individuals of one species may be found in the same country ; (3) the migratory instinct may be resolved into two distinct factors — a periodical impulse to travel, and a sense of the direction in which to travel ; (4) men in a savage state are known to exhibit a sense of direction, lost in more civilised individuals, which may be analogous to that shown by animals ; (5) certain birds and animals have truly migratory instincts. On these admitted data Mr. Darwin proceeds to found his theory of the origin of the migratory instinct. This theory is, that the ancestors of migratory animals were annually driven, by cold or want of food, to travel slowly southwards, and that iu time this compulsory travelling would become an in¬ stinctive passion, as in the case of certain Spanish sheep. In the case of birds, the wings would be used, and if in the course of many genera¬ tions the land over which they were in the habit of flying in their annual journey were to be slowly submerged, the line of flight would tend to remain unaltered, and we should thus arrive at the state of things which we know now to exist, viz., migratory birds flying over great stretches of ocean. In regard to another kind of instinct, we are in possession of abundant facts to show that, in the case of man, instinctive fear does not exist in a state of nature; it has first to be acquired, and is then lost again under domestication. The feigning of death by insects and spiders is shown to be merely an instinct of remaining motionless, and therefore inconspicuous in the presence of danger, there being no idea of death, or the simulation thereof, on the part of the animal. In respect of a third instinct, that of nest-building, many facts show that it is subject to great variation, both in an individual and, in course of time, in a species. Hence Darwin argues — “ If it be admitted that the nests of each bird, wherever placed, and however constructed, be good for that species under its own conditions of life, and if the nesting instinct varies ever so little when a bird is placed under new conditions, and if these variations can be inherited, of which there can be little doubt, then natural selection in the course Darwin’s essay on instinct. 19 of ages might modify and perfect almost to any degree the nest of a bird in comparison with that of its progenitors.” Mr. Darwin shows likewise that variations of instinct have occurred in animals, as, e.g., the 113'aena of South Africa has ceased to make burrows, and so on ; and similarly the lodge of the beaver might have been developed out of such a habitation as is made by the musk rat. The author con¬ tinues — “As there is often much difficulty in imagining how an instinct could first have arisen, it may be worth while to give a few, out of many, cases of occasional and curious habits, which cannot be considered as regular instincts, but which might, according to our viewTs, give rise to such.” After doing this, Mr. Darwin proceeds to consider some of the special difficulties of the subject from the point of view of natural selection, and finally sums up the argument in his usual way. His concluding words are — “ It may not be logical, but to my mind it is far more satisfactory, to look at the young cuckoo eject¬ ing its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, the larvae of the Ichneu- monidae feeding within the live bodies of their prey, cats playing with mice, otters and cormorants with living fish, not as instincts specially given by the Creator, but as very small parts of one general law leading to the advancement of all organic bodies— Multiply, Vary, let the Strongest Live and the Weakest Die.” Though this doctrine may not be in accord with our usual lines of thought, there can be no doubt that it is at once more logical (in spite of Darwin’s hesitation to make the claim in the sentence just quoted), and more reverent to the Creator, to suppose these things to be but minute details of one general plan, gradually working itself out in the course in which He has set it, than to picture each detail as inde¬ pendently fixed and considered, where, as often happens, the instinct only leads to its possessor’s misery or death. It may be added that, as may be gathered from what was said at first, this essay must not be regarded entirely as giving the views of its author as he would have set them forth, had he elaborated the subject with all the wealth of his later knowledge. — W. B. G. In another paragraph we have referred to the retirement of Professor Owen from his active duties. Still another veteran has signified that he is probably approaching the end of his long scientific labours. In the last number of the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History ” the Bev. M. J. Berkeley, in a concluding note to his contribution to “British Fungi,” says that he is “glad to be able to make” a certain correction, “ as this is in all probability the last of a long series of contributions.” How long they have been our readers may form some idea, if we state that they commenced in 1837, in the “ Magazine of Zoology and Botany,” and that Mr. Berkeley has enumerated in them over 2,CC0 species of Fungi new to our British Flora. 20 REVIEWS Htbitfos. Half-hours with the Stars . Twelve Maps of the Constellations, with descriptions. By R. A. Proctor. Fourteenth thousand. Price 2s. 6d. Half-hours with the Telescope. By R. A. Proctor. 109 pp., 7 plates, 15 woodcuts. Price 2s. 6d. Eighth edition. W, H. Allen and Co., Waterloo Place, London. These are new editions of two well-known books, now issued by Messrs. Allen and Co. The celestial objects described in the book on the telescope are all within range of a small instrument, and are described with Mr. Proctor’s well-known lucidity. The introductory chapter on the “ structure of the telescope” is very good indeed, and supplies just the information required by amateurs. The Star Maps form a capital companion to the telescope ; but even without any instrument they enable any person to become acquainted with the “star-lit sky.” Their use will obviate Carlyle’s complaint, “ Oh, why did not some one teach me the stars and the constellations when I was a boy!” The maps hold true for every year, and are so arranged that they can be consulted on any given hour of any night. They are very distinctly printed in white on a dark-blue ground. Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles. By R. Rimmer, F.L.S. 8vo. 205 pp., 10 plates. Price 6s. Published by W. H. Allen and Co., London. The study of shells is, perhaps, the best which can be taken up, as an introduction to Natural History, by anyone desirous of commencing practical work. Shells are to be found everywhere, and at all seasons of the year. They are usually of sufficient size to enable their charac¬ ters to be distinguished by the naked eye, and their preservation involves no difficulty. To the geologist, too, the study of living shells is of great importance ; for he must not expect to understand the (frequently fragmentary) fossil shells which are so common in rocks, unless he has first formed some acquaintance with their living repre¬ sentatives. For the study of our British land and freshwater shells only one thing was wanting, and that has been supplied by the publication of Mr. Rimmer’s clear, yet thoroughly scientific and carefully prepared hand-book, which includes excellent figures (reproduced by the Albertype process from photographs) of all the British species. The introduction contains very useful hints about collecting, and the pre¬ paration and care of the specimens when once obtained ; while in the body of the work the descriptions of specific characters are full and accurate. Ample and interesting information is also given as to localities, habits, etc. The most recent researches of British conclio- logists are here referred to, amoug which we notice frequent mention of our able contributors, Messrs. G. Slierriff Tye and W. G. Blatcli. reviews 21 Flowers and their Pedigrees. By Grant Allen. 266 pp., 54 cuts. Price , 7s. 6d. Longmans, Green, and Co. This attractively printed and well-bound volume contains an article upon the “Daisy’s Pedigree,” in which Mr. Allen claims a very high position in the vegetable world for the “ wee, modest, crimson-tippit flower,” arguing that, “ from the strict biological point of view, daisies really stand to other plants in the same relation as man stands towards other animals.” In the next article, “ The Romance of a Wayside Weed,” the history of that rare plant, the hairy wood-spurge, is dis¬ cussed, and it is shown to be a relic of that Mediterranean flora which, before the last glacial epoch, stretched at least as far as our south¬ western counties. Then we are told about Cl Strawberries,” and here, in one paragraph, Mr. Allen has so well described an instance of “ evolution ” that we quote his words in full : — “ A strawberry, as we all know, consists of a swollen red receptacle or end of the flower- stalk, dotted over with little seed-like nuts, which answer to the tiny dry fruits of the ‘ barren strawberry,’ or potentilla. Suppose any ancestral potentilla ever to have shown any marked tendency towards fleshiness in the berry, what would happen ? It would probably be eaten by small hedgerow birds, who would swallow and digest the pulp, but would not digest the seed-like nuts embedded in its midst. Hence the nuts would get carried about from place to place, and dropped by the birds in hedgerows or woods, under circumstances admirably adapted for their proper germination. Supposing this to happen often, the juiciest berries would get most frequently eaten, and so would produce hearty young plants oftener than those among their neighbours which simply trusted to dropping off casually among the herbage. Again, the birds like sweetness as well as pulpiness, and those berries which grow most full of sugary juices would be most likely to attract their attention. Once more, the brightest- coloured fruits would be most easily seen among the tall foliage of the hedgerows, and so those berries which showed any tendency towards redness of flesh would be sure to gain a point in attractiveness over their greener rivals. Thus, at last, the strawberry has grown into the fruit that we know so well by constant unconscious selection of the little hedgerow birds, exerted at once in favour of the pulpiest, the sweetest, and the ruddiest berries.” Other valuable essays upon “ Cleavers,” “ The Origin of Wheat,” “ A Mountain Tulip” ( Lloydia serotina of the Welsh hills), “ A Family History” (in which the origin and development of the existing Eng¬ lish roses are considered), and “ Cuckoo-Pint,” make up a volume which is a valuable contribution to a work which we trust Mr. Grant Allen will continue to carry out — “ A Functional Companion to the British Flora.” To quote the author’s own words, “ We know by this time pretty well what our English wild-flowers are like : we want to know next why they are just what they are, and how they came to be so.” 22 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. The Extraordinary Sunsets and Sunrises. — These were observed at Naples and all over Italy during the week ending Dec. 8th, and Father Denza, a meteorologist connected with the Observatory of Montcalieri, attempts to show that they are merely intensifications of a phenomenon not rare in mountainous or more southern regions. He recalls the fact that on the evenings from the 24tli to the 26tli of September, 1831, throughout Southern Europe, from Madrid to Odessa, the sky at sunset appeared of a deep orange colour and then vivid red ; and then says that these phenomena can be explained by the (hygrometric and barometric) state of the atmosphere. But he was evidently unaware, at the time, of the great extent of the earth’s surface over which these appearances have been visible, which puts such explanations and the references which have also been made to the aurora borealis and the zodiacal light altogether out of the question. The same phenomena were observed in Switzerland shortly after their appearance in Italy. It would be interesting to know if any previous similar sunset displays could be connected with volcanic outbursts. Volcanic Dust, in relation to the Kecent Sunsets and Sunrises. — A few further hints and suggestions as to the dependence of the recent wonderful sunrise and sunset phenomena on the presence of volcanic dust in the higher regions of the atmosphere have appeared in the Times newspaper lately, from various sources, which it may be worth while to collect together. Mr. Preece points out (Dec. 13) that the electrical state of the particles of dust ejected by a volcano must have an important influence on their distribution in the atmosphere. They must necessarily have at the moment of eruption electricity of the same sign as that of the earth, and therefore must be repelled by it, m opposition to the force of gravity, when the explosive impulse is expended, and thus their suspension in the air be immensely facilitated. In the second place, being all electrified with the same sign, their mutual repulsion must determine the extension in all directions of the cloud formed by them. This is supplemented by Mr. Crookes (Dec. 18), who recalls the fact that he showed in 1879, by the length of time during which two gold leaves repelled each other, that air, at a rarefaction of one millionth of an atmosphere (corresponding to a height of about 62 miles above the earth’s surface), is an almost perfect non-conductor of electricity, so that there is every reason to believe that the dust once projected in an electrified state to 50 or 60 miles from the surface would retain its charge almost indefinitely. Colonel Stuart Wortley calls attention (Dec. 18) to the circumstance that there are well-defined belts of the globe where such magnificent aerial effects are very common, and suggests that this may be due to the almost constant ejections from the great South American volcanoes. He mentions also the exceptional sunsets seen at Naples in 1862, during the eruption of Vesuvius in that year. — T. H. Waller, B. A., B. Sc. NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 28 Tiie Blue Moon ; Green Sun ; and Gorgeous Sunsets. — On December 4th, at 4.30 p.m., I saw the crescent moon of a distinctly greenisli-blue colour — electric blue my wife designated the tint ; the phenomenon only lasted for about a quarter of an hour. The setting sun was concealed by stratus clouds of a coppery-red hue, while elsewhere masses of cumulus were separated by patches of blue sky. This “ blue moon ” was seen at several other places in England on the same evening, according to notices which have appeared in “ Nature,'’ “ Knowledge,” etc. Throughout this country generally, during the latter part of November and the beginning of December, the sunsets have been grand beyond description, and a rosy glow has hovered over the western sky for more than an hour after the sun’s disappearance below the horizon. From India and from the Soudan accounts of an abnormal greenish disc presented by the sun during the last few weeks have been received. How are these unusual meteorological phenomena to be accounted for ? Two theories have been advanced. Mr. Mathieu Williams found the snow which fell early in December to be full of particles of the magnetic oxide of iron, and he considers it possible that these were derived from a cloud of cosmic dust through which the earth has lately passed, or rather which has been attracted to the earth by the force of gravitation. Other scientists attribute the presence of this matter in the atmosphere to the terrible volcanic outbursts which have lately occurred in the East Indian archipelago. Enormous quantities of finely-divided matter have there been shot up to a great height from volcanic craters, and this matter, carried by air-currents, has gradually spread westward, until, at last, it has even invaded the skies of Britain. Each theory, it will be noticed, explains the phenomena actually observed by referring them to the action, upon sun-light, of finely divided matter in our atmosphere, and in this each is no doubt correct. It is not the sun which has varied in colour, but certain of the sun’s rays have been absorbed while passing through the air — the red rays chiefly — and therefore the sun appears green. So, also, the moon — which we see by reflected sun-light — has had a bluish tint instead of her usual silvery- white hue. The proverb, “ not once in a blue moon ! ” and the historical statement that “ the moon is made of green cheese ! ” would seem to have their origin in previous observations of a similar nature. By searching the meteorological (and other) records of the past, it may be possible to ascertain if any similar change of colour has accompanied former great volcanic outbursts. — W. Jerome Harrison. Fertilisation of the Boraginace^e. — The change of colour in various boraginaceous flowers would seem to bear relation to their fertilisation by insects. Hermann Muller remarks that he has observed that in¬ sects visit exclusively those which ore red or just beginning to change to blue. All the blue flowers which he examined in a locality about 2 yards broad and 20 long, where many hundred flowers of Pulmonaria were in all stages of development, proved to be empty of honey, and all 24 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES which lie observed with the aid of a lens had the stigma already supplied with pollen ; so that it would appear that, as in Lantana and Ribes aureum, the change of tint serves as a guide to insects visiting the flower. This is a subject to which the attention of Midland botanists could be easily directed and with good results, for we have several genera of Boraginese, such as Echium, in which we could observe the change ; and it would be worth while also to consider it in relation to Grant Allen’s theory of the “ Colours of Flowers,” according to which the blue colour is developed for the attraction of certain kinds of insects, and not as a beacon to warn them that the flower is no longer worth visiting. — See Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., 188B, p. 864. Mounting Hydrozoa, Polyzoa, etc., with Extended Tentacles. — Mr. A. D. Michael prefers to use spirits for killing the animals, as osmic acid stains too much. They should be got in good condition, placed in a watch-glass, and syringed freely, and then placed under a low power and watched until the tentacles are well extended. Then with a fine pipette run a small drop of spirit down the side of the glass, not on the polype. The creature will probably withdraw its tentacles. If so, leave it alone until they expand again ; without disturbing it run another drop down the glass. After doing this once or twice the animal gets dull and heavy, drunk in fact, and then spirit may be added freely, and the polype mounted. As a medium for mounting, spirit and water give very good results, possibly the best on the whole ; but Goadby’s solution preserves the creatures in more natural form, and keeps the sarcode harder, presenting a more life-like appearance, but it is open to the objection that it contains corrosive sublimate, which produces a certain amount of discoloration of the creature after a time. Another objection is that it has a tendency to cast a sediment. For that reason it should be used weaker than the book strength, adding about three times the quantity of water. — Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, I., p. 241 (1883). [Would not these be better mounted in pure spirit, like the Leptodora hyalina mounted by Mr. Clarke? See “ Midland Naturalist,” 1883, p. 282.] “ The Wild Garden.” — “As far as my eye can range it rests only on flowers — on beautiful flowers ! I am looking as on a tinted map — an enamelled picture brilliant with every hue of the prism. Yonder is golden yellow, where the Helianthus turns her dial-like face to the sun ; yonder scarlet, where the Malva rears its red banner. Here is a parterre of the purple Monarda ; there the Euphorbia sheds its silver leaf. Yonder the orange predominates in the showy flower of the Asclepias, and beyond the eye roams over the pink blossoms of the Cleome. The breeze stirs them ; millions of corollas are waving their gaudy standards. The tall stalks of the Helianthus bend and rise in long undulations like the amber waves of a cornfield, like billows on a golden sea.” — W. Bobinson, F.L.S, NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 25 Safety Stage for the Microscope. — At the meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society on November 14th, Mr. Stewart exhibited a safety stage which he had invented, chiefly to meet the want which is sometimes felt in exhibiting a perhaps valuable slide to a class of students, or other inexperienced persons, who are very apt to break the cover-glass by racking the objective down upon it. A piece of wood rather wider than an ordinary glass slide has a hole cut in the centre large enough to admit the light to the object. Between this hole and the sides of the piece of wood two small strips of wood are fixed, and on the top of each of these is a thin strip of brass, rather longer than the strip of wood, so as to overhang at each end. A couple of india-rubber rings are then passed, one round each pair of projecting ends, and between these, suspended in a kind of hammock, is placed the slide which it is desired to protect. If then the ob¬ jective is brought down upon the cover- glass, the india-rubber springs yield to the pressure, and the object is saved from destruction. Ice-grooved Boulders. — The curious phenomenon of ice-grooves passing round the corners of boulders, mentioned by Mr. W. J. Harrison in the December number of the “ Midland Naturalist,” as having been observed in the basalt boulders of the Rowley Hills by Dr. Crosskey, reminded me of something similar that came under my own notice while rambling on the south coast of the Isle of Man during a holiday visit in the summer of 1875. It was just south of Port St. Mary, where the extremity of a blunted spur of coast is fringed for about half-a-mile with Lower Carboniferous Limestone. At one spot the sea was quietly removing the stiff brown boulder clay that hid the limestone in some places from view. A miniature promontory of limestone, two or three feet in length, that had recently been uncovered by the waves, attracted my attention on account of some ice-scratches that I thought I could detect on it. The little projecting rock rose into a peak or crest down the middle, and the ice-scratches and grooves passed right over the smoothed and polished ridge from one side to the other, or in an east and westerly direction, and parallel with the coast-line, instead of away from it, as one would have expected. How to account for these scratches by the action of floating ice was long a problem to me, for I had not yet learnt that most of these striations on rocks had been produced by the action of land-ice or glaciers. Of course if this rib of polished and scratched limestone came to be torn up and broken into boulders by the action of the waves, some of these boulders would present the curious phenomenon noticed by Dr. Crosskey of striae passing un¬ interruptedly across the corners from one face to another. I am glad Mr. Harrison was so thoughtful as to mention the matter in the pages of the “Midland Naturalist,” as otherwise I should have heard nothing about it. It seems to me rather a misfortune that such papers are not either distributed more widely among the Societies in the Union or reprinted in this magazine. Such papers as Dr. Crosskey’s are of absorbing interest to most geologists. — J. Shipman, Nottingham. 26 EE PORTS OF SOCIETIES. Preparations of Coal. — P. F. Reinsch’s preparations of coal from the carboniferous strata, the Dyas and Trias (the material being very difficult to reduce to thin and sufficiently transparent sections), are made by using the finest emery employed in polishing mirrors ; powdered chalk obtained by levigation, and carbonate of lime precipi¬ tated from lime-water by soda are also used. A small piece of cork serves as a rubber. During the process the preparation is moistened with glycerine. — Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., IX., pp. 87-8 (1888). BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — Geological Section, Nov. 27tli. — Mr. T. H. Waller read a report on the Geological Specimens collected by the Society during the Oban excursion. General Meeting, Dec. 4th. — Mr. T. Clarke exhibited glass microscopic slides, with the etched ring on the surface, as referred to at the previous meetings, by which greater security is obtained for the adhesion of the cement when mounting in cells containing glycerine or other liquids. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Ditrichum flexicaule , from near Bidford; also (for Mr. J. B. Stone) Racomitrium canescens , from Norway; R. lanuyinosum , Hedwigia ciliata, Pterogonium gracile , and JEurhynchium myosuroides, from Barmouth; Hookeria lucens , from Malham; also (for Mr. Wm. Mathews) Galium sylvestre from Lanca¬ shire; Linaria repens , Thymus Ghamcedrys , and Galium uliginosum , from Clent ; and Linaria minor , from Knowle. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following Fungi: — Polyporus obducens, Typhula Grevillei , Agaricus pyxidatus, from Harborne; Russula drimeia, and Chondrioderma deplanaturn, from Sutton. Professor W. Hillhouse, of the Mason College, then read the first part of a paper “On the Continuity of Protoplasm,” which will appear in a future number. Biological Section, December 11th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Potamogeton Zizii and Selinum Carvifolia and read notes on the same from Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., Manchester; also Potamogeton lucens from near Anstey ; Leucojum vernum, and Erica ciliaris, from Dorset; Plantago arenaria and other plants, from near Warwick. Mosses: — Hypnum Kneiffii and II. Liudbergii, Leucodon sciuroides, etc., with microscopical preparations, from Bardon Hill ; also (for Mrs. Bailey, of Brixham) Lycopodium clavatum, Cladonia pyxidata, C. fimbriata, C. elegans. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Foliaceus Coregoni, male and female, a fish parasite from the Royal Aquarium, Westminster, sent by Mr. Carrington, the Naturalist of that Aquarium. Mr. W. R. Hughes exhibited My sis Fabricii (a stomapodous crustacean), the slide prepared be Mr. F. W. Sliarpus of London ; also on behalf of Mr. F. H. Collins, a slide of eggs of parasite (Ectozoon) from Reeves’ Pheasant. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited a Lichen from Oban, Ricasolia amplissima. Mr. W. P. Marshall gave an explanation of the causes of the remark¬ able sunrises and sunsets which have been observed during the last few weeks, which is printed in this number. Microscopical General Meeting, Dec. 18tli. — Mr. W. P. Marshall read a paper on the “Great Kimberley Diamond Mine,” which will appear in a future number. Mr. Austin, who has recently returned from Kimberley, then gave an amusing account of the way in which the mine is worked and the REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 27 difficulties encountered. Sociological Section, December 20th. — The President, Mr. W. R. Hughes, in the chair. The attendance was small, being doubtless reduced by the near approach of Christmas. The elucidation of chapters 5 and 6 of the Principles of Biology was proceeded with by Mr. J. O. W. Barratt, B.Sc. Bond., and illustrated by exhibits showing the approximate proportions of oxygen and water, and of carbonic acid, urea, and water, which might be supposed to be respectively assimilated and got rid of by a simple organism such as an amoeba. Hydra fusca was also exhibited as a compound organism of higher grade. The discussion turned on the adaptation of marine animals to fresh water, on the bulk of organisms relatively to their daily food, and on the proportion which length of animal life bears to intelligence. An abstract of Mr. Barratt’s elucidation will be printed hereafter. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. — Photographic Section. — December 5th. Mr. R. Fisher gave a demonstration of the “ Platinotype.” This is a new method of printing photographs with salts of platinum instead of silver, whereby it is claimed that the results cannot possibly fade. The prepared paper or linen is supplied by the Platinotype Company, who hold the patent ; and after being printed is developed by immersion in a hot solution of potassic oxalate. Since the platinum salt does not show any visible change before development, an iron salt is used in addi¬ tion to that of platinum, in order to guide the operator to the exposure to light required, and this is afterwards dissolved out by hydrochloric acid, and the print finally washed. The resulting colour resembles that of an engraving, and, as such, does not meet with much favour from those accustomed to the warmer tone of silver prints. BEDFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY & FIELD CLUB. — This Society is trying the experiment of furnishing lecturers on scientific subjects for the towns and larger villages of the county. A committee has been appointed for the purpose of making the necessary arrangements, Mr. Arthur Ransom acting as chairman, and Mr. J. Hamson as secretary. A scheme has been prepared by the Committee and adopted by the Society, providing that upon proper application to the secretary of the Lecture Committee, a lecturer may be supplied. It requires that the lectures shall be brief, popular, and, as far as possible, practical, and it is suggested that objects of the county would be the most proper subjects to expatiate upon. The lecturers are to give their services gratuitously, but the applicants are required to defray all expenses incurred for travelling, refreshments, experiments, etc. The secretary was instructed to send circulars, explanatory of this offer and the terms, to the clergy, chairmen of school boards, schoolmasters, secretaries of local institutes, temperance societies, etc., in the county. A list has been drawn up of the names of gentlemen who are prepared with suitable papers, and upon receiving an application, the secretary negotiates for the subject and date, etc. At present the project is in its initiatory stage, and but two or three lectures have been given under it. It is perhaps premature to form any opinions as to the success of this undertaking, but so far the number of appli¬ cations has by no means realised the hopes of its promoters. In fact, we are inclined to think science is by no means appreciated in the rural districts of Bedfordshire, whatever may be the case in other counties. The advice of some of your contributors would be acceptable. — J. Hamson. 28 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— Oct. 16— Mr. G. Mundon read a paper on “ Tokens,” which was full of interesting facts about the various kinds of tokens that were issued chiefly during the reign of George III. He also exhibited a number of tokens with their attendant forgeries, the more remarkable among them being Bank of England 3/- tokens, with their forgeries, a 1/6 (English), and a 1/6, a 10d., and a 5d. (Irish), with a number of light private tokens, 1/-, 6d., and other forgeries. Nov. 6. — Mr. Henry Blandy, L.D.S., read an interesting and instructive paper on “ Some points of interest in the Comparative Anatomy of Teeth,” which was illustrated with diagrams, microscopic slides, and specimens. Nov. 20. — Mr. Councillor Hugh Browne read a paper on “ What is the meaning of Vegetable Life,” which led to a long and spirited discussion. Dec. 4. — Mr. B. S. Dodd (Hon. Sec.) read a paper on “ Savoury Dishes (animal and vegetable) not usually eaten,” in illustration of a series of dishes, one of which he had had prepared for each meeting of the Society for the past few weeks. The series comprised (1) roast hedgehog ; (2) sea- weed jelly and blanc mange ; (3) fricassee of frogs (French) ; (4) rat pie (English barn rats) ; (5) French snails (from Paris) ; (6) Iceland moss jelly. The remainder of the evening was devoted to the examination of fresh-water pond life under microscopes. PETERBOROUGH NATURAL HISTORY, &c., SOCIETY.— November 22nd. Mrs. Dalton exhibited a collection of Fungi ; one specimen (name unknown) had five branches each with a fine head. Microscopical exhibits by Messrs. A. W. Beale and J. W. Bodger. December 13tli. Mr. A. Edwards read an interesting paper on “ Rome and her legions in Britain.” The Society has arranged for a course of six lectures, to be delivered in connection with the Gilchrist Educational Trust, on alternate Thursday evenings, commencing January 14th, by the following eminent scientific men : Dr. W. B. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S., W. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S., Professor P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., Professor L. C. Miall, F.G.S., and R. A. Proctor, Esq., B.A., F.R.A.S. OUR SUB-EDITORS. We have much pleasure in stating that the gentlemen named below have been nominated by their respective Societies and have consented to act as sub-editors for the “ Midland Naturalist.” By their aid we hope to secure concise reports of meetings, original papers, and records of local scientific facts. We hope to be able to add additional names in our next number : — Mr. E. Wheeler, 45, Cromwell Road, Peterborough. Mr. T. J. Goldsmith, 7, Colsterwortli Terrace, Glebe Street, Nottingham. Mr. J. Hamson, Spring Road, Elstow, Bedford. Mr. J. W. Neville, Wellington Road, Handsworth. Note. — There will he 32 pp. in each ordinary number of this Magazine , but only 28 when there is a plate. The reduction is necessary in order to enable the Magazine to be sent at half-penny postal rate. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH. 29 SOME POINTS OF INTEREST IN THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH * By Henry Blandy, L.D.S. Edin. It is a great advantage to the naturalist if lie understands what is expressed by a tooth, should he happen to find one. You have only to present to the comparative anatomist and palaeontologist a fossil tooth which has perchance been buried in some cave for thousands of years, and he will, perhaps, be able, from the consideration of its formation, to build up and sketch out the animal from whose head it has come. In this way many of the extinct saurian s and mammoths of pre -historic times have been recognised and allied to the reptilia or pachydermata. Speaking roughly, the teeth of animals may be divided into two great classes — the graminivorous or grain-eating vegetable-feeding animals, and the carnivorous or flesh-eating animals. Between these two is an almost infinite variety of gradations in form and structure. The teeth of the graminivores are flat and broad — adapted for grinding — such as those of the elephant, cow, sheep, and horse, whose lower jaws have considerable lateral motion. Those of the carnivora bite like scissors, and are cutting or chopping teeth. You will have observed that dogs and cats do not chew their food much. Now, the pig is an all-round feeder. He will eat flesh and grain, too ; nothing comes amiss to him. He will even eat coal — perhaps because it is of vegetable origin ; and we find his molars are broad for this scrunching, but they have cusps like the carnivora, and are very much more like man’s teeth than are either cow’s or lion’s. Then, again, the rodents, or rats, have a pattern of their own. So have the insect eaters, snakes, and fish ; and as teeth differ in form, so also do they differ widely in microscopic structure. So that, although there are certain homologies in teeth, there are also unmistakeable differences. When you see a tooth, before you could attempt to decide finally whose it is, you would have to decide which tooth it was — whether an incisor, canine, premolar, or molar — and which ; and you would proceed by elimination. Some animals have no upper incisors, as sheep, oxen, and antelopes ; while some have no canine teeth, as rodents, hares, rabbits, rats, etc. If the tooth belonged to a quadruped, there are sufficient distinctive characteristics to enable a skilled odontologist to identify it ; while if the tooth belonged to a reptile or fish there would be much greater difficulty, * Read before the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, Nov. 6, 1883, 80 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH. since their teeth are so much alike — not being divided into incisors, canines, and molars. They are mostly pointed and sharp, like canines ; but you may fall back on structure to some extent. The bulk of the teeth of most fishes is made up of one or other modification of vasodentine or osteodentine ; this is often glazed over upon its exterior by a thin film of enamel, so thin as often to appear structureless. Unvascular dentine also forms the teeth of many fishes, and in some is remarkable for the fine¬ ness of its tubes; in fact, every form of dentine, from fine tubed hard dentine to tissue undistinguishable from coarse bone, is to be found in this class. The formation of the condyle of the lower jaw and the shape of the glenoid fossa of the temporal bone is of great assistance, as corroborating a diagnosis of the tooth. This will show whether the animal was a ruminant or a flesli-eater by the degree of motion permitted to the lower jaw. Then, again, as to number of teeth. There are homologies in number, and it will much assist the naturalist in the identification of an animal through its tooth to know which of a number of teeth any particular one is ; as for instance, whether it be the first, second, or third incisor, the first, second, third, or fourth premolar, or which molar, just as a dentist should be able to name the exact position in the jaw once occupied by any human tooth that you might place before him. The typical number of teeth in mammalia is believed to be: — Incisors, 8-8; canines, 1-1 ; premolars, 4-4; molars, 8-8— equal to 22 in each jaw, or altogether to 44. The number of teeth (82) in man is interesting, as being not very far from that which is typical of the great bulk of the class to which he belongs. It is identical with that existing in the whole of the apes which inhabit the old world, and those of the new world only differ from him by the presence of one more pre¬ molar, or by the absence of a molar on each side of each jaw. In man’s own class (the mammalia) the number of teeth developed may be very great, as in the dolphins, where the greatest number is reached in Pontoporia, namely, 220 ; while in the narwhal the teeth are reduced to two, only one of which is fully developed. Passing out of man’s class, teeth in the reptiles may be many or few ; but amongst fishes we meet with every extreme, from a single-pointed tooth on the roof of the mouth, as in myxine, or two above and two below (flat and crushing), as in Ceratodus , up to such a multitude that to count them would be a task both useless and difficult, as in muraena — a sort of eel — and the common pike. The development of teeth next demands our consideration. They are perfectly distinct from the internal bony skeleton, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH. 81 and, like the hair and nails, are appendages of the skin. The teeth of the shark, and of many other creatures, remain imbedded in tough mucous membrane, and never acquire any connection with the bone. Whether teeth have a bony or tegumentary connection with the skeleton lias been much discussed, and it may be well here to show some grounds for the belief in their connection with and development from the skin. If a transverse section through the jaw of a dogfish ( Scyllium ccinicula) be examined, we shall find that the forming teeth lie upon the inside of the semi-ossified jawbones, the youngest being at the bottom ; progressing upwards each tooth is more fully calcified till on passing over the border of the jaw we come to those teeth whose period of greatest usefulness is past, and which are about to be cast off, in the course of that slow rotation of the whole tooth - bearing mucous membrane over the border of the jaw which is constantly going on. The dentine germs and consequently the dentine are indisputably derived from the connective tissue of the mucous membrane immediately subjacent to the epithelium, nor can it be doubted that the enamel organs are simply the modified epithelium of that same mucous membrane. The teeth of man and other mammalia being set in bony sockets has given rise to the opinion that they were developed in the bone, whereas their germs are to be found in the mucous membrane and the subjacent tissue, and the bony sockets grow around the forming teeth ; or as in the case of the sharks just quoted there is no bony socket, but simply a membranous attachment. Besides this, the teeth begin to be formed when there is no bone at all. The attachment of teeth in the various animals is in itself a very interesting study. Although the gradations from one class to another prevent any absolutely correct classification, four principal methods may be enumerated, viz., attachment by means of fibrous membrane, by a hinge, by anchylosis, and by implantation in bony sockets. The fibrous attachment I have already alluded to in the shark. In this animal the teeth formed inside the jaw rise gradually to its crest and then work round to the outside and drop into the sea. This would appear to account for the great numbers of fossil sharks’ teeth to be found. Then there is attachment by an elastic hinge. The possession of moveable teeth able to yield to pressure and subsequently to resume the upright position was formerly supposed to be confined to the lophius (angler) and its immediate allies. They have, however, been found in the common pike (esox) and in the gadidae (cod tribe), so that as they occur in these fish, so widely removed from one another in other respects, it is probable that further investi- 32 COMPAEATIYE ANATOMY OF TEETH. gation will bring to light many other examples of this very peculiar method of attachment, eminently suited to, and hitherto only discovered in, fish of predatory habits. In the angler, which obtains its food by lying in ambush at the bottom, which it closely resembles in colour, many of the largest teeth are so hinged that they easily allow an object to pass into the mouth, but, rebounding again, oppose its egress. These teeth are held in position by dense fibrous ligaments radiating from the posterior side of their bases on to the subjacent bone, while the fronts of the bases of the teeth are free, and when the teeth are pressed towards the throat rise from the bone. The elasticity of the ligament is such that when it has been compressed by the tooth bending over towards it, it returns it instantly into position with a snap. Many of the teeth of the angler are, however, like most fishes’ teeth, ancliylosed firmly. The hake possesses two rows of teeth, the inner or shorter of which are ancliylosed, whilst the outer and longer are hinged. Now, the common pike possesses hinged teeth, whose resiliency is provided for in another way. Here the teeth which surround the jaws are ancliylosed by a development of osteodentine, which becoming continuous with the subjacent bone unites them to it. The manner of development of this is by rods of calcifying material shooting down through the central pulps ; in the hinged teeth also these trabeculae shoot down and become continuous with the subjacent bone, only instead of rigidly ossifying they remain soft and elastic, so that the tooth is like an extinguisher fastened down by a large number of elastic strings attached to different points of its interior and hinged at one side. There are some peculiarities in the form and formation of elephants’ teeth which it may be interesting to notice. In the first place the tusks are incisor teeth, and not canines, as might be supposed, and they grow from persistent pulps like the teeth of rodents. These tusks grow to an enormous length ; m the Indian elephant they are not so large as in the African species, and the tusks of the female are much shorter than those of the male. In the African elephant no such difference in size has been established. A male makes use of his tusk for all sorts of purposes. Thus, when a tamed one is given a rope to pull, he will, by way of getting a good purchase, pass it over one tusk and grasp it between his molar teeth. The tusks of the Siberian mammoth, whose remains are abundant, are strongly curved, and attain the length of 18ft., and a weight of 2001b. each. A pair of African tusks exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 weighed 3251b., and measured 8ft. Gin. in length, and 22in. in circumference, but the average tusks imported from Africa COMPAEATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH. 33 do not exceed 201b. to 501b. in weight. Indian elephants seldom have tusks attaining very large dimensions. One was, however, shot by Sir Victor Brooke with a tusk 8ft. long, weighing 901b. The female elephant’s tusk is liable to the attacks of a dipterous insect, which imbeds itself in the gums, and either gnaws off the ivory in a circle or the ivory is absorbed owing to the irritation set up by the insect. The tusks of the elephant are implanted in long and stout sockets, and grow from persistent pulps throughout the life¬ time of the animal. Some curious examples of spear heads and bullets found in the centre of tusks exist. In these cases the missile has penetrated into the pulp cavity, where the bone is thin. The ivory has grown around it, and, increasing in length, the tusk has carried the iron forward, which, when the tusk has been cut up by the turner, has been discovered. In the museum of the Odontological Society is the head of a spear, measuring 7J by 1^ inches, so embedded. In 1879. there were 9,414cwt. of ivory, of the value of £406,927, imported into this country. Though the elephant has during the course of its life 24 molars, they are not all in place, nor, indeed, are they all actually in existence at the same time. Only one whole tooth on each side or portions of two when the front one is nearly worn out, are in use at the same time. After a tooth has been in use for some time and is worn down, a new tooth comes up to take its place behind it, and absorption in the old tooth being set up, it is shed off, and a new tooth pushes up into its place. Each successive tooth is of greater size than its predecessor ; thus in the Indian elephant the first tooth has, on an average, 4 transverse plates, the second has 8, the third 12, the fourth 12, the fifth 16, the sixth 24 to 27. In the African elephant, in which the individual plates are much broader, they are fewer in number. Of course, everyone will have noticed that in the grinders of the horse or cow the enamel does not surround the tooth, as in our teeth, but that it runs into the tooth substance in a peculiar manner, yet constant in its devious path. There is a wonderful evidence of design in this. If you took a piece of wood, however rough and hard at first, and made a rub-stone of it, in time its surface would be worn even and smooth — the harder the wood the smoother and more polished would it become. But if you were to place, first a layer of boxwood, then a layer of steel, and then a layer of deal side by side, and screw them into a solid block and use it as a rub-stone, your deal and boxwood would wear away before your steel, and your rub-stone would remain rough. Now, in the elephant, which chews an immense 84 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF TEETH. amount of grain and even young trees, you have first a layer of cementum, then a layer of very hard enamel which will turn the edge of the hardest steel instrument, and soon spoil a file, and then a layer of dentine. So that, as will be seen from the transverse section of an elephant’s tooth, it is quite impossible to polish it evenly, and it cannot but he felt that the surface is rough. You can distinguish the African from the Asiatic elephant by its tooth. In the African the enamel winds in and out in two lines like the sinuous course of the sea serpent. In the Indian the enamel forms rings or long oval islands in the tooth. I have already alluded to the fact of the elephant’s tusk growing from a persistent pulp, as does that of the narwhal (Monodon monoceros ), the ancient unicorn, whose tusk will grow to a length of ten or twelve feet ; but we have interesting examples of persistent pulp and continuous tooth-growing nearer home, in the rodents — the rats, rabbits, hares, etc. Here I have to introduce to your notice one of the most beautiful specimens I have seen, specially lent to me to show you by my friend, Mr. F. H. Balkwill, L.D.S., of Plymouth. It is the skull of a rat. The lower incisors have by some means become inclined to the left, and missing the upper ones, have not been worn away by them, and have grown upwards, curling backwards an inch long; while the right upper incisor has grown in a circular and spiral direction, completing a circle and a half and projecting from the side of the palate bone about tliree-eigliths of an inch. The left incisor has likewise curled round, but has penetrated the margin of the pre-maxilla, and its point is shown by a small portion of the bone having been cut away about one-eiglith of an inch short of completing the circle. These gnawing animals would soon be without teeth did not their incisors grow as fast as they wear them down. There are many examples in museums of an incisor tooth which, from some irregularity of position or from having nothing to oppose it, has grown and grown in a circle until the point of the tooth, recurving on the head, has either pierced the skull or so prevented the animal opening its mouth that it has died of starvation. At our last Goose Fair, in the wild beast show, the keeper showed a large handful of chewed wood which was made by the porcupine, to whom they were obliged to give a chump of wood every day upon which he might exercise his teeth. There are many points of great interest to naturalists in the teeth of snakes, insect-eating animals, and the carnivora ; but one would have to write a book and give very many illustrations to do more than touch the borderland of this extensive subject. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 35 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.* Exposition of Chapter I. Organic Matter. By Alfred Hill, M.D., F.I.C. Organic Matter . Of tlie four chief chemical elements of living bodies, three are gaseous, viz., oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and one is solid, viz., carbon. Until recently these gaseous elements had resisted all attempts to reduce them to the liquid form, and their great mobility has a significant bearing on the redistributions of matter constituting evolution. The compounds produced by the union of these elements have physical properties which are resultants , in which the properties of the elements are still in action, though mutually obscured, so that the molecular mobility of the various compounds is influenced by the molecular mobility of its constituents. Chemically the affinities of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen are of narrow range and low intensity ; this chemical indifference is most marked in the case of nitrogen. Allotropism, or the faculty of elementary bodies to assume different physical states, is well seen in the organic elements ; while isomerism, the analogue of allotropism, is exhibited in the compounds. This is strikingly true, not only of carbon and oxygen, but also of sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, silica, and even of iron, which latter are essential constituents of organic bodies, although their relative quantity be not large. The four principal organic elements present extreme antitheses — chemical, between oxygen and nitrogen; physical, between carbon and the three gases. By these contrasts of properties differentiation and integration are facilitated, for while unlike units are most -easily separated, they are also most easily segregated. The binary compounds of these four elements have less molecular mobility than the elements themselves, while it is greater than that of binary compounds in general ; chemically * It is intended to give, under tlie above heading, from time to time, short abstracts of the addresses or expositions of the portions of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s works now under consideration by the Members of the Sociological Section of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. By this means a continuous record of the transactions of the Section will be preserved, and it is hoped that the attention of other Naturalists may be directed to Mr. Herbert Spencer’s writings, in this somewhat popular form. Where illustrations are given these will be mentioned also. 36 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. tliey are less stable than ordinary binary compounds. Those which form parts of organised tissues are hydrocarbons, and are the most unstable of their class. Ternary compounds, with their greater complexity, show a diminished mobility; they include alcohols, fixed oils, solid fats, starch, sugar and resins, &c. ; in chemical stability they are inferior to the binary compounds. The quaternary compounds, containing all the four chief organic elements, and including those which are constituents of the living tissues, as albumen, fibrin, casein, as well as some which result from the decomposition of the tissues, such as urea and kreatin, exhibit instability and inertness carried to the extreme. Atomic complexity here reaches its maximum, as shown by Mulder’s formula for albumen 10 (C40 H31 N5 Q12) + S2 + P containing 883 ultimate atoms. Such chemical and physical properties are favourable to rearrange¬ ments and decompositions. The part played by the tissues in relation to the phenomena of dialysis is here somewhat fully entered upon ; the question is too lengthy for satisfactory abstraction and should be read at length ; it is as interesting as it is important. In conclusion it is shown how in organic materials and tissues those conditions of chemical indifference, variety of complexity and stability, molecular mobility, plasticity, different diffusibilities of colloids and crystalloids, and isomerism aided by the influence of heat, are fulfilled so as to effect that redistribution of matter and motion which constitutes evolution. Mr. Francis Galton lias published a thin quarto book under the head of “ Record of Family Faculties,” consisting of tabular forms in which anyone who likes to collect this kind of information can enter certain particulars concerning “his sisters, his cousins, and his aunts.” In an explanatory preface he gives directions how this is to be carried out, and also offers £500 in prizes for the books sent in when filled with the required details ; no prize to be greater than £50 nor less than £5. This may be considered a kind of “Family Game,” with the recommendation that the result, if truthfully recorded, will have a scientific value ; for it need scarcely be said, to those who are acquainted with Mr. Galton’s previous writings, that his object is to collect data for further studies of heredity. In the contest the greatest value will be attached to the completeness with which all the members of a given family are entered, together with their distinguishing traits of character and faculties. All information thus contributed will be considered confidential. The book is published by Macmillan dc Co ., and the price is half-a-crown. OUR MARINE ALG.E. 37 OUR MARINE ALG^. By Rev. Henry Boyden, B.A. {Continued from page 6.) We now come to the fructification of our Marine Algas; their reproductive organs form a difficult subject, into which I have as yet neither the learning nor the appliances to enter with any degree of satisfaction. The organs of reproduction are called spores, tetraspores, antheridia, and zoospores. It is supposed that spores are formed by certain cells which have the power of attracting to themselves the contents of adjacent cells ; and that the fertilising influence is imparted to the sporangium at an early stage of its growth, and not to each individual spore. Spores are formed in a capsule, or cerami- dium, which is an ovate conceptacle pierced by a terminal pore containing a tuft of spores rising from the base of the conceptacle. The capsule is external, and it is a mode of fructification for which the Polysiphonias are conspicuous. Spores are also embedded among sporiferous filaments called paraphyses. They are found also embedded in soft, pulpy berries, which are either simple or variously lobed and clustered on the sides of the branches, at one time enclosed, at another surrounded by an involucre. These may he seen on specimens of the Ceramiums. In other cases the masses of spores are found attached, not to the outer surface but to the inner, the fronds consisting of a thin membrane rolled round. Another kind of fruit consists of tetraspores, so called because on maturity they break up into four sporules, though often into three and sometimes six. The division is various, for there is the cruciate, the tripartite, and the zonate. It is thought that the spores are true spores fertilised by means of an antheridium, while the tetraspores, totally distinct, are mere gemmules or buds of the simplest structure, which are cast off by the parent plant, carrying with them sufficient vitality to become the nucleus of fresh individuals. “Each tetraspore consists of a dark-coloured mass of endo- elirome enveloped in a transparent membranous sac, and marked by the lines of division ” as described. The tetra¬ spores are variously placed, some scattered singly, others gathered into sori or clusters, others on branclilets, some in external warts, nematliecia ; others in pod-like receptacles, the sticliidia ; and their position forms a mark of the different genera. 88 OUR MARINE ALG.E. The antlieridia are reproductive organs very imperfectly understood. Dr. Harvey describes them thus : — “ The an- theridia are oval, somewhat pointed at one end, and contain a reddish orange granule, and they are furnished with two extremely vibratile hairs or cilia, one of which issues from the narrow extremity of the corpuscle ; the other, which is of greater length, from the coloured granule. The corpuscles escape from the antheridium into the surrounding water, where they perform rapid circular movements like the zoospores of the green series of Fresli-water Algas, the narrow end of the corpuscle being in front, and the cilium rising from the coloured granule trailing behind.” In regard to the reproductive agency of the zoospores, the following description may be given. The cells at first are filled with endochrome nearly homogeneous and fluid ; this becomes more granulated, the granules adhering to the inner surface of the wall ; they then detach themselves and float freely in the cell, at first irregular in shape, then spheroidal. Afterwards they congregate into a dense mass in the centre of the cell, when one by one the granules, becoming detached, move vivaciously in the centre of the cell, push against the sides of the cell-wall till they pierce it, then escape into the surrounding water, continuing their movements until they become fixed to some submerged object, where they develop cells that grow into algaB, similar to those from whose cells they issued. Thus, m review, we have the root and frond with their various characteristics, the cellular structure, and the organs of reproduction, as criteria by which our Marine Algae are classified and arranged There are three sub-orders ; first — the Bliodospermeae, which are distinguished by the red colour of their spores, and their red or brown fronds ; second — the Melanospermeae, distinguished by their olive-green spores and similarly coloured fronds, turning almost black when dried ; and thirdly we have the sub- order of Clilorospermeae, known by their sea-green spores and fronds, except in several species where they are purple. All the series are divided into families, genera, and species, these being determined by the fructification, cellular tissue, form and colour of the frond. All our Marine Algae are included under three sub-orders, 25 families, 122 genera, and 876 species. But many of the species are exceedingly variable, none more so than the Chondrus crlspus, needing very careful microscopic examina¬ tion to discriminate them. Attempts have been made by botanists to classify our sea¬ weeds according to definite zones of growth, and so we hear OUR MARINE ALGiE. 39 of the Fucal, or littoral zone, commencing at high water mark, in which the Melanosperms abounds ; the Laminarian zone, where forests of the large sea-weed Laminaria cligitata luxuriate ; and still further towards low water mark, and only uncovered at the ebb of spring-tides, the Coralline zone. But these divisions are only roughly descriptive, as the gradations are not found on all shores, and species of the different sub¬ orders are much intermixed. Of the economic uses of our sea-weed I will say but little. Man has not largely benefited by them in a direct way. They have been of some mercantile value as affording materials for the manufacture of kelp and iodine ; and farmers near the coast cart off great quantities as manure for their lands. Of the edible qualities of our sea-weeds I cannot boast. The Chondrus crispus, or Irish moss, used to be in great request as affording a nourishing diet. “ Dulse and Tangle ” were formerly cried for sale through the streets of Edinburgh, and eaten as a relish between slices of bread and butter.* For savoury dishes and delicious breakfasts we must assign the palm, not to our sea- weeds, but to their country cousins the fungi. But if voracious man gets little gain from them, there are myriads of God’s lesser creatures, which have a life to perpetuate and enjoy, that find abundance of food, groves of shelter, places of defence, and gardens of pleasure, in the Algse that decorate our sea-waslied shores. A writer in the August number of “ Good Words,” in an article on “ The Study of Small Shells,” says: “A calculation necessarily rough, but as likely to be under the truth as over it, led to the conclusion that, if it were possible to examine all the sea-weeds which the lowest tide leaves bare for a stretch of only twenty-five or thirty yards along that shore, 100,000,000 living shell-bearing molluscs would be found. Of all these not even the smallest would, strictly speaking, be a microscopic object, though certainly requiring a lens for the determination of its species.” The sea- weeds so furnish food for the molluscs, these feed the fishes, and by them we are fed. I have only to add a few words on the aesthetic value of our Marine Algae, and on this topic I scarcely dare to speak, so enthusiastic do I feel. Holiday hours spent, say among * Sea-weeds are also said to be tbe basis of many jellies, gelatine, etc., which are found in commerce. Those which are made from this source may be recognised microscopically by the number of marine diatoms enclosed in them. Good hauls of rare species have been obtained from such unlikely material. — Ed. 40 OUR MARINE ALG.E. the igneous rocks that break up the shores of North Berwick — spent in perfect solitude, excepting the seagull and Solan goose — spent in peering into the natural aquaria, the little rocky pools, fringed and decorated with sea- weeds of every colour, and “beautiful as a dream” — these are hours that never can be forgotten. And sea- weeds are beautiful, both in form and colour, even when dead, if carefully and neatly displayed. I think the hundred mounted specimens I have brought, gathered and prepared by myself at different times — some twenty years ago, and some this year — compel admiration on asstlietic grounds. I thus mounted them that I might hang them on the walls of schoolrooms, as I do my flowering plants, and as I have done many times, to try to cultivate the taste of my poorer neighbours, and give them a love for pure pleasures in the study of simple things. There is a sense of the beautiful which God has implanted in every breast — this is my belief — and my effort has been to educate this sense of the beautiful by presenting natural pictures to the eye, as there are so many laudable attempts to gratify the ear by the concord of sweet sounds. I have often thought how attrac¬ tive the little homes of our artisans might be made by them¬ selves if they had a taste for natural history ; what cottage museums they might form for the delectation and instruction of their friends and neighbours ; and I have tried to foster the feeling — tried to make them partakers of my delightful recreations, though with little result. POSTSCRIPT. As questions were put to me in regard to the mounting of sea- weeds, I will add a few directions : — 1. Wash your specimens in fresh water to free them from superfluous salt. 2. Pour clean water into a vessel — a wash-hand basin — and put in your selected specimen, turning it about with the finger till the frond unfolds ; then immerse your card or paper, cut to the requisite size, beneath the specimen, and move it about till it sinks in a natural position on the paper. 3. Lift it from the water with great care, and slant it for a short time for the water to run off ; then put it between sheets of blotting paper under slight pressure, that of a brick or book, having a sheet of stout card-board above and below. 4. Change your blotting paper twice the same day, apply greater pressure as the drying proceeds, and in two days, in summer, your specimens will be ready for the herbarium. As a rule, the sea-weeds will adhere to the paper, but those of thicker texture will have to be secured by gum. THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. 41 THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. By W. Jerome Harrison, F.G-.S. ( Continued from page 11.) General Conclusions. — Having now examined all the points at which these syenitic rocks crop out in South Leicester¬ shire, we may briefly sum up, and point out the conclusions derivable from a minute study of the rocks and the conditions under which they occur. (1) The rock, in all the exposures, has a general simi¬ larity, so that it is difficult to tell from which pit any hand specimen came. It is a syenite, a crystalline, unstratified, unfossiliferous rock, all of which facts clearly point to its being igneous or fire-formed — i.e., it has been melted, and has slowly cooled down. Whether the differently coloured, finer- grained masses, so often seen included in the syenite, may not be lumps of some older rock — perhaps slate — which the syenite has enveloped, incorporated, and altered — is a very interesting question. The remarkable specimen alluded to, from Cauver Hill Quarry, might certainly seem to point in this direction. (2) As to the age of the rock. It is clearly connected with the Charnwood Forest Series ; the coarse slate seen in Enderby Quarry belongs either to the Charnwood Pre- Cambrian Beds or to the Cambrian strata which we now know to rest upon them. If we could strip off the red marls we should find these old Palaeozoic rocks forming an uneven land surface and connected with the equally old, or older rocks of Groby and Markfield ; in fact, at a point about half way, called “ Baron’s Park,” near Kirby Muxloe, it is reported that syenite was struck in a boring at a depth of 118 feet. This underground extension of the Charnwood Rocks forms the easterly boundary of the Leicestershire coal field, whose coal seams rise up against it along a line extend¬ ing from Desford to Hinckley. At a point called Sapcote Freeliolt, about two miles east of Hinckley, on the land of the late Mr. T. Frewen, a boring executed by Mr. J. A. Boswortli, F.G.S., passed through about 540 feet of red marls. At this depth it entered hard slates, which were penetrated to the great depth of 1,655 feet. All the slaty beds were standing up on end, marking the position of a boundary line close to and on the east, this boundary line being formed by the ridge of igneous rocks whose exposed summits we have been describing. We must refer these slates to the Cambrian formation, whose presence in the immediate vicinity (between 42 THE SYENITES OF SOUTH LEICESTERSHIRE. Nuneaton and Atherstone) we were able to prove some time back. Tlie same Cambrian Beds have also been reached in two boreholes put down on the east side of Leicester, between the Spinney Hills and the village of Evington. In the first of these borings hard, much-jointed, bluish slates were reached, at a depth of 728 feet, and pierced to a total depth of 819 feet. In the second boring, a little further east, very similar slates were touched at 886 feet, and the boring attained a total depth of 1,002 feet. Other borings near Market Bosworth have revealed the presence of precisely similar coarse red, purple, and blue slates, underlying the coal measures. On the whole, it seems probable that all the syenites of South Leicestershire are intrusive in rocks of Cambrian age. As to the actual date of the intrusion we cannot be certain, but it may possibly have taken place during the Lower Silurian period, when, as we know, volcanic action was rife elsewhere in Britain. Economic Uses. — Our modern systems of paving have brought into great request rocks possessed of a sufficient degree of hardness and toughness to stand the wear and tear of our streets. As we stand in any syenite quarry we observe the rock to be crossed in two or three directions by well-marked cracks and fissures. These are termed master- joints , and between them the blocks of stone are again divided by minor joints. These joints greatly facilitate the working of the rock ; which, indeed, it would be impossible to quarry if it were not for their existence. A mass of tough boulder-clay, in which there are no joints, is dreaded by a navvy far more than the hardest granite. In the syenite quarries the first task is the removal of the surface soil. Holes are then bored in the rock with iron rods to a depth of ten or twenty feet. In these holes charges of powder are inserted and fired, by which a large quantity of rock is dislodged and made to fall upon the floor of the pit. The great blocks are then still further split up by powder or by dynamite into masses of a more convenient size. Skilled workmen now take the stone in hand, and, by properly directed blows with heavy hammers, divide it into square or oblong masses (four-inch cubes are most commonly made) termed setts, or into longer pieces called kerbs. The smaller fragments are broken up and used as macadam. The South Leicestershire syenite splits, “ cuts,” or cleaves very readily. It is largely used in the neighbouring towns and in the eastern counties ; many thousands of tons are also sent to' London annually. The average price of good setts is about twenty-seven shillings per ton. SPECULATIONS ON PROTOPLASM. 43 SPECULATIONS ON PROTOPLASM. An article in the “ American Naturalist ” for last September contains some suggestive remarks under the title of “ The Variability of Protoplasm.” We are accustomed to speak and reason as if protoplasm were all of one kind, although, of course, on consideration we should readily admit that this cannot be true. Differences are observed on comparing the protoplasms of distinct organisms, which go to show that they are chemically distinct. Some forms of it coagulate in the presence of water, others do not ; there are differences in colour, transparency, and behaviour with chemical re-agents which all point to some difference in ultimate composition. For instance, it is well known that some species of bacteria take a colouring matter which has no effect upon others ; and, in fact, Professor Koch’s process for demonstrating Bacillus tuberculosis, and also Hansen’s for B. lepra, are founded upon this very property. There is, besides, that wonderful fact, the great arcanum of life, that two little cells apparently undistinguishable from one another may be germs proceeding from two distinct beings, and may develop into creatures totally unlike. We are led to the conclusion that the protoplasm of each species is a distinct organisation, and may be of a molecular composition more or less peculiar to itself. Moreover, some of the properties which were formerly thought to be distinctive of protoplasm, such as its motion and its capability of surrounding itself with a pellicle (the ectoplasm) of a different constitution from the interior mass, have been now met with in other substances of a truly inorganic nature. A small mass of cholesterine, for instance, if placed in a suitable fluid, surrounds itself with a membrane, which possesses that peculiar dialysing power that is often spoken of as peculiar to organic membranes, and permits liquids to pass through it by a process similar to osmosis. These pseudo- cells have heterogeneous contents and produce granular particles in their interior, and are, therefore, both in form and composition similar to the proximate elements (cells) of which organic tissues are composed. Certain speculative minds have thus been led to imagine that this similarity constitutes identity, and that thus no barrier exists to the conception of the formation of living beings from non-living matter. But this identity is not proved. A great flood of light has recently been thrown on the constitution of protoplasm, and 44 SPECULATIONS ON PROTOPLASM. it is now known that the crude and simple idea of a cell, on which the hypothesis was founded, falls far short of represent¬ ing its real complexity. A series of papers about to appear in the “ Midland Naturalist,” from the able pen of Professor Hillhouse, of the Mason College, will render this point clear. The speculation has been carried still farther. It is pointed out that to suppose consciousness and life to be con¬ fined to the planet on which we dwell is an improbable assumption. The idea of a plurality of worlds has had a fascination for many minds of the highest rank. But it is obvious that, if living beings exist in the other planets of our solar system, they cannot be composed of what we call proto¬ plasm. In Mercury, for instance, our fundamental basis of life would be resolved into its component gases, and in Saturn would be frozen into a hard and dense solid, “ of which edge-tools might be made.” The protoplasm of one planet cannot, therefore, be identical with that of any other planet. In the “ Principles of Biology,” Herbert Spencer shows that the peculiar fitness of organic substances, as we know them, for forming the vehicle of life, resides in their many- atomed chemical composition and consequent molecular insta¬ bility. But these qualities are not necessarily confined to protoplasm. We can, indeed, partly see why our protoplasm is constituted as it is. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro¬ gen are abundant in our atmosphere, with its proportions of carbonic acid gas and watery vapour, and are consequently brought with ease within the reach of every living thing.* But it is not difficult to imagine that, with other environment, matters might be quite different, and yet the essential prin¬ ciple of organic chemistry remain the same. In our case, certain molecules are deoxidised in a vegetable cell, and then reoxidised in an animal, and there is no reason why this mutual interchange of function might not take place with other oxides for its basis. In fact, wherever heat is found, there life is possible. Only when the last dim ray from cooling suns lias winged its way across the illimitable void, when the last foot-pound of energy is dissipated into the depths of space — only then need the cold and pulseless universe feel the final throb of life. W. B. G. * The question, whether plants derive their nitrogen directly from the air, or from the nitrates, etc., in the soil, is here unimportant, as in either case it comes ultimately from the former source. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE 45 THE FLORA. OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from page 15.) LABIAT^E . — Continued. PRUNELLA. P. vulgaris, Linn. Self-heal. Native : In woods, pastures, and on waysides and heaths. Common. June to October. Area general. SCUTELLARIA. S. galericulata, Linn. Common Skull-cap. Native : By rivers, canals, pools, ditches, and marshes. Locally common. July, August. I. Back of the Stews at Edgbaston, With ., ed. v., iii., 666 ; Bradnock’s Marsh, R. Rogers ; Sutton Park ; Coleshill Pool ; Knowle and Solihull Canal ; Elmdon ; Olton Reservoir. II. Side of the Arrow and River Alne, Purt., i., 282 ; banks of the Learn, Leamington, Perry , FI. ; several places near Rugby ! R. S. R., 1871 ; Salford Priors, Rev. J. C .; Honington, Newb. ; Kineton, Bolton King ; Holywell and Stratford Canal ; canal, Sowe Common ; Ansty. S. minor, Linn. Lesser Skull-cap. Native : In marshes and bogs, by streams and pools. Rare. July, August. I. Packington! Aylesford , B. G., 635; bogs, Sutton Coldfield! Rufford, Purt ., i., 283 ; Coleshill, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 165 ; Bannersley Pool! Herb., Perry ; Coleshill pool and bog; Marston Green. MARRUBIUM. M. vulgare, Linn. White Horehound. Alien : On roadsides. Very rare. July. II. Near Oversley Lodge, near Alcester, Purt., i., 274; Princetliorpe, R. S. R. I have searched for this several times, but without success. BALLOTA. B. nigra, Linn.; a. fcetida (Lam.) Black Horehound. Native : On liedgebanks, waysides, and pastures. Locally common. July to September. I. Ward End, W. B. Grove ; Boldmir; Middleton Heath; Marston Green ; Temple Balsall ; Hampton-in-Arden. Occasionally with white flowers. 46 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. II. Stratford; Tredington ; Sliipston, Newb.; Alveston pastures; Wixford ; Bidford ; Wellesbourn Hastings. Although on the whole a common plant it is very local in some of the districts. STACHYS. S. betonica, Benth. Wood Betony. Native : In woods, on banks, and by waysides. Locally common. June to August. I. Middleton; Wishaw ; Minworth ; Duke End; Edge Hill, and Kingsbury Woods; Solihull; Hampton-in-Arden ; Berkswell; Fulford and Forsliaw Heaths. II. Green’s Grove, Hatton ; Bagington Park, Berry , 1817 ; near "Rugby ! Princethorpe Wood ! li.S.R. ; Cubbington ; lanes about Corley and Meriden ; Alveston Pastures ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen ; Arrow ; Kagley. Occurring more or less abundantly throughout the whole area but often at wide intervals. S. palustris, Linn. Marsh Woundwort. Native: In damp and marshy places, by waysides. Bather local. June to August. I. Shustoke ; Colesliill ; Duke Bridge ; Maxtoke ; Meriden Marsh ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Knowle ; Beardsmore, Hockley ; Boxtrees, Hockley, etc. II. Banks of the Avon and other places near Bugby, B.S.R.; Binton. S. ambigua, Sm. S. sylvatici-palustris (Wirtz.) Native : On damp places near waysides. Local. June to August. I. Duke Bridge, near Shustoke, with S. palustris; Haylane, Hock¬ ley ; Monkspatli. II. Beausale Common, H. B., Herb. Brit. Mus. ; Alveston pastures; Alcester. Although distinguished as a species, I do not think it is more than a variety of palustris. S. sylvatica, Linn. Hedcje Woundioort. Native: In woods, on banks, waysides, etc. Common. June to September. Area general. S. arvensis, Linn. Corn Woundioort. Colonist : In cultivated fields and on railway banks. Bare. June to September. I. Cornfields near Hartshill Hayes ; railway banks, Sutton Park, 1877-8. II. In a cornfield near Alcester, W. C., Herb. Perry , 1854 ; Brandon, on railway banks, T. Kirk ; near Compton Verney, in cornfields. [5. annua , Linn. Occurred as a casual on the new railway banks in Sutton Park, 1877.] GALEOPSIS. G. Ladanum, Linn. ' Red Hemp Nettle. Colonist : In cornfields, quarries, and waysides, in calcareous soils. Very local. July to September. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 47 II. In a quarry near Stratford-on-Avon, With., iii., 652 ; near Church Lawford, R.S.R.; Chesterton; Tachebrook, Y. and B.; near Halford; Fosseway, near Lambcote, Newb. ; Steeple Hill, Bidford ; Exhall; Wixford ; Binton ; Bed Hill ; Wilmcote ; Drayton, near Stratford-on-Avon. G. versicolor, Curt. Large-flowered Hemp Nettle. Colonist: In cultivated land. Bare. July, August. I. Near Coleshill, Aylesford, B. G. ; under a moist hedge at Birches Green, near Birmingham., With., ed. 7, iii., 718. II. In a turnip field at Milcote, near Stratford-upon-Avon, Part, iii., 566 ; Wliitnash ; Myton, Y. and B. ; in a potato field near the late Mr. Purton’s, near Alcester, Blox., N. B. G. S. ; bank beyond Bilton, R. S. R., 1880 ; Edge Hills, Bolton King. G. Tetrahit, Linn. Common Hemp Nettle. Native: In woods, on hanks, and field borders. Common. June to September. Area general. With white flowers in several districts. LEONURTJS. L. Cardiaca, Linn. Motherwort. Denizen or alien : On banks and waysides. Very rare. July, August. I. In a lane near Hams Hall, W. B. Grove , 1882; in a lane at Boldmere, near Sutton, for many years ; now extinct. II. King’s Cougliton, Purt. i., 285; near Hatton, Herb. Perry , 1823. The Boldmir plant appeared to be a mere casual weed. LAMIUM. L. amplexicaule, Linn. Henbit Dead Nettle. Native : In cornfields and on waysides. Local. March to July. I. Boldmir, near Sutton ; Marston Green ; Coleshill Heath ; Solihull. II. Near the Aqueduct, Emscote, Perry, 1817 ; walls at Thurlaston, R. S. R., 1877 ; Honington, Newb. ; Walton Village; Bidford ; Offchurch ; Binley ; Brandon. L. intermedium, Fries. Native: On banks and in cultivated ground. Bare. July, August. II. In an allotment near Dunchurcli, R. S. R., 1877. L. incisum, Willd. Cut-leaved Dead Nettle. Colonist : In cultivated land. Bare. June to September. I. Field near Stonebridge. II. Fields near Wliitnash ! Cross, Herb. Perry ; fields near Fern Hill Wood ! H. B. L. purpureum, Linn. Red Dead Nettle. Native or colonist : On banks, in cultivated land and gardens. Common. February to November. Area general. L. maculatum, Linn. Spotted Dead Nettle. Alien : On banks. Bare. June to August. I. Hampton-in-Arden ! Y. and B.; on banks in a lane from Coleshill to Maxtoke ; banks near Packwood. 48 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. II. Myton. b. hirsutum. Allesley, Herb. Perry , 1853. (L. Iccvigatum.) Allesley ! H. B., Herb. Brit. Mus., 1873. Growing abundantly on the banks of a stream under the footroad from Allesley to Coventry in 1881, probably planted by the late Rev. W. T. Bree. L. album, Linn. White Dead Nettle. Native : On banks and in waste places. Common. May to August. Area general. L. Galeobdolon, Grantz. Yellow Archangel. Native : In woods and on dry banks. Locally common. May, June. I. New Park, Middleton; Coleshill ; Ilampton-in-Arden ; Arley ; Hartshill ; Kingsbury; Eillongley ; Solihull ; Umberslade, etc. II. Oversley, Rose Hall, Purt. i., 278; near Lillington, and in Warwick Castle Park, Perry, 1817 ; near Crackley Wood ! Perry , FI.; common at Allesley! Bree, N. B. G. S. ; Stoneleigli Woods; Arbury Hall! Radford! Keresley, T. Kirk, Phyt. ii., 971; Haywood ! Y. and B., near Rugby ! R.S.R., 1877 ; Edge Hills, Bolton King; Berkswell ; Rowington canal bank; Redhill ; Billesley ; Combe Woods. AJUGA. A. reptans, Linn. Common Bugle. Native : In moist woods, on moist waysides and banks. Common. May to August. Area general. TEUCRITJM. T. Scorodonia, Linn. Wood Sage. Wood Germander. Native : In woods and on heaths and dry banks. Locally common. July to September. I. Sutton Park; New Park; Kingsbury and Edge Hill Woods; Coleshill Heath ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Berkswell ; lanes about Solihull. II. Pophills Lane ; about Pitched, Ragley Woods ! etc., Purt. i., 273 ; Hatton Wood ; between Hatton and Warwick ; between Leek Wootton and Stoneleigli ! Perry, FI. ; Wilmcote ; Hatton Rock, Herb. Per.; road between Rugby and Hill Morton, Baxter , 1831 ; Combe Woods! R. S. R. ; Corley Wood; Waverley Wood, near Stoneleigli ; Alvetson Heath. (To be continued.) “Religion: A Retrospect and Prospect.” — Mr. Herbert Spencer’s remarkable essay in the January number of the “ Nineteenth Century” may be mentioned here, on account of the boldness with which the author puts forward his claims, so opposed to the ordinary doctrines, but which, nevertheless, he thinks to be not inimical to the growth of truly reverent feeling on this topic. Towards the end of the essay, however, where Mr. Spencer treats of an objection which he himself acknowledges -would be fatal if it could not be refuted, he shows symptoms of weakness, and his answer to the objection is far from convincing. REVIEWS 49 Reminiscences of Travel in Australia, America, and Egypt. By Bichard Tangye. 8vo., 290 pp., illustrated. Price 6s. Cornish Brothers. If it be wondered how so busy a man as the head of a great engineer¬ ing firm could find time to write a book, the explanation will be found in the preface to this work, from which it will be seen that it was accomplished during the enforced leisure of a long voyage. As for the book itself, we may at once say that there is not a dull page in it. Many years ago we visited the Australian Colonies, and we have certainly never since met with so vivid and accurate a description of life on board a passenger ship, and the conditions of existence in that new world across the sea, as are contained in this most interesting volume. For natural phenomena the author has a keen eye ; take his description of the shadows of opaque objects in tropical regions — “In passing under a vertical sun the old proverb * may your shadow never grow less ’ is entirely out of place .... When standing upright my shadow was about two feet in diameter, 'and it looked like the shadow of the brim of my hat all round my feet.” In the account of the visits made to Victoria and to New South Wales respectively, perhaps the most important point is the testimony which Mr. Tangye bears to the ill effects of the system of protection in the former colony as compared with the prosperous condition of its neighbour under free trade. Melbourne is so thoroughly permeated with the principles of “ protection,” that a Bill lately introduced into the Local Legislature permitting the construction of tramways in the very wide and long streets of Melbourne “ had to be abandoned in consequence of the determined opposition of the cab-drivers, the majority of whom own the vehicles which they drive. These men argued, naturally enough, that as the manufacturing trades (of Victoria) were protected against foreigners, their business also should be protected against competition in the only form in which it could arise.” In the author’s American experiences we get a glimpse of the magnificent “Palace Hotel in San Francisco, containing over a thousand rooms, and with rarely less than a thousand inhabitants.” Then we are told of the journey eastwards, via Salt Lake City, to Chicago, in a Pullman train, life in which is said to be uncommonly like travelling in a ship over dry ground. Diverging to visit Niagara, we there hear of “the peripatetic photographer, who endeavours to persuade you that you are greater than the ‘Falls.-’ . The Falls, indeed, are made to seem a mere background to your photograph, in which the artist is careful to show you nearest the camera, and hence proportionately by far the most imposing object.” 50 KEVIEWS The latter part of the book contains an account of two visits to Egypt — one made before and one after the late war. Here we have a graphic description of the Suez Canal, and of the present condition of Alexandria. The “miles of ruined streets” in this famous city are the result, not of the bombardment, but of the conflagration origi¬ nated by native ruffians. Ordinary books of travel are notorious for the omission of just those points about which the ordinary reader would like to hear. In this respect Mr. Tangye’s book supplies a distinct want. The author’s personality shines out in every page, and we seem to follow him and his travelling companions as along a moving panorama. As we read the clear and incisive descriptions and racy “bits” and anecdotes which stud the pages of these “ Reminiscences,” we are tempted to regret that the author is a great manufacturer — he would have made such an excellent “ Special Correspondent.” To Mr. Tangye’s friends — and his noble qualities and good works cause them to be numbered by thousands — the perusal of this volume of travels will give great pleasure ; but the book has even a wider purpose : its transparent truth and the solid information which it con¬ tains constitute it a valuable book of reference for the countries to which it relates. We are not, therefore, surprised to hear that a large first edition has been sold out in a few days. The original sketches by which the book is illustrated are clever and frequently amusing; they have been admirably reproduced by Mr. E. C. Mountfort. — W. J. H. The Scientific Roll. Conducted by Alex. Ramsay, F.G.S. This quarterly “magazine of systematised notes” commenced in November, 1880, and is now, wTe much regret to hear, temporarily discontinued for want of sufficient support. Eleven numbers have been issued, and only one more is needed to complete Vol. I. — a compact volume of some 380 pages — which will be issued to subscribers at the low rate of 10s. ; names may be sent to the Editor, at 4, Cowper’s Road, Acton, London, W. Taking Meteorology as his first subject, Mr. Ramsay’s plan has been to give (1) a list of works, papers, etc., on the subject, classified chronologically, and (2) a resume of the contents of each. The points dealt with in this first volume include, I., General Bibliography, and, II., Aqueous Vapour. Of the immense utility of the plan it is quite unnecessary to speak, while the manner in which it is being carried out by Mr. Ramsay is deserving of high praise. We also note, in the parts which have been published, two very able essays: one by the editor, “On the Diurnal Periodicity,” and the second by Prof. E. D. Archibald, “ On the Connection between Solar Phenomena and Climatic Cycles.” We sincerely hope that scientists in general, and meteorologists in particular, will rally round Mr. Ramsay and enable him at once to complete the first volume of a work on which he has spent so much well-directed and patient labour. REVIEWS. 51 Stanley's Familiar History of Birds. 420 pp., illustrated. New and revised edition. Price 6s. Published by Longmans, Green, and Co. The late Bishop of Norwich, Edward Stanley, F.R.S., was a man possessing a great love for Nature, combined with scientific knowledge and accuracy. His book on birds has been, according to the publisher’s preface, “revised by a practical ornithologist of much experience,” but many alterations were neither necessary nor desirable, for the author was famous for his clear and admirable English, and his book contains a great mass of facts which no advance in scientific theories can ever alter. We have re-read the book, in this its new and hand¬ some form, and we can safely say that there is no better or more interesting introduction to the science of ornithology. The Science Monthly , Illustrated. David Bogue and E. W. Allen, London. We have received the January number of this magazine, a new venture at the end of last year. Many of the illustrations are capital, and the reproduction of the photograph of Sir William Thomson is one of the finest we have seen of its kind. This magazine is well edited and the articles are for the most part interesting and useful. Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects. Edited by J. E. Taylor; 215 pages, 45 woodcuts ; price 3s. 6d. Published by W. H. Allen & Co., London. This is a new edition of a book which has had a large sale since its first publication some few years ago. Each branch of Natural History is treated by an expert — Geological Specimens by the editor ; Birds’ Eggs, by T. Southwell ; Butterflies and Moths, by Dr. Knaggs ; Flowering Plants and Ferns, by J. Britten ; Mosses, by Dr. Braitliwaite ; Fungi, by W. G. Smith ; and Seaweeds, by W. H. Grattan. Grasses, Lichens, Beetles, Bones, Hymenoptera, and Shells also have special articles devoted to the places in which they occur ; how to look for them ; how to secure, prepare, dry or clean individual specimens, etc., etc. This work ought to be in the hand of every student of Natural History ; even the oldest collector may learn something from it, while to the beginner it will be of inestimable value, teaching him how to set about his work and how to preserve the fruits of his toil in a manner which, without such aid, he could only attain to a knowledge of by years of dearly-bought experience. P reparation of Coal. — Having read the note on this subject in last month’s issue I should like to state my experience and learn that of others. I have tried section-making of every kind of fire coal I could get, grinding as thin as it is possible, with but one result — failure. I could get no light to pass through the section. I have tried to get rid of the colouring matter but with like success. I think the difficulty lies not in getting the coal thin but in the presence of so much colour¬ ing matter. Will others state their experience? — H. Insley. 52 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. ftatuol if) is to nr Botes. The Great Comet of 1882. — Notwithstanding the long period during which this fine comet remained visible, great discrepancies have been made by astronomers in the calculation of its orbit, the cause doubtless being the change in form and even the multiplication of the nucleus. The latest, and probably the most trustworthy calculations — by Dr. Morrison, of Washington, — assign to the comet a period of 751 years. It is therefore identical with the comet of whose appearance we have records in 370 b.c., and again in 1131 a.d. As at one time certain astronomers were inclined to believe the comet of 1882 the same as that of 1880 and 1843, and therefore to predict its early return and possible rush into the sun, it may be some comfort to them to know that it is not again “ due ” till the year 2633. In the Journal of Botany for January are several articles of special interest to British botanists. Messrs. Henry and J ames Groves give their notes on British Characeae for 1883, in which new records are given for many of our British species. A new variety -of G. fragilis, Desv., var. Sturrockii, var.nov., is described, the special characters being “stem 2 to 3ft. high, very imperfectly triplostichous, spine cells tubercular, branclilets 1 to 3in. long, with all the segments ecorticate, bract cells whorled.” A new species, G. Braunii , Gmelin, is also described, and figured. “ Stem moderately stout, much branched, without spine cells, whorls usually of 8 to 11 straight or slightly incurved branchlets ; stipulodes in a single circle, alternating with the branchlets ; branch- lets of 4 to 5 segments, the ultimate very short, scarcely exceeding the bract-cells ; bract-cells at the fruiting nodes, 5 to 7, usually shorter than the nucules, nucules single or in pairs, ovate, 10 to 11 striate. Coronula short, slightly spreading, nucleus black.” Cham Braunii was discovered by Mr. Charles Bailey, near Reddish, South Lancashire, in September last, in a canal in which the water is raised to an abnormal temperature by the hot water from the adjacent mills. TolypeUa prolifera, Leonb., has been found in Lincolnshire by Mr. W. H. Beeby ; not previously found in England since Borrer’s time. Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., contributes a valuable and interesting paper “ On the Upland Botany of Derbyshire,” in which is an account of the various elevations in that county, and a full list of the plants observed, ascending 200 yards and upwards. Over 370 plants are recorded, with the highest elevations in yards at which they were found. Mr. W. H. Beeby gives notes “On the Flora of South Lincolnshire,” in which about 300 species are noticed. Of these, 26 are unrecorded for South Lincolnshire in “ Topographical Botany,” ed. ii. In the short notes, Mr. Frederick Townsend gives a note on “ Proterogyny in Erythrcea capitate r, Willd,” and Mr. Arthur Bennett, F.L.S., announces the discovery in England of Carex Liyerica, Gay. — J. E. B. NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 53 Local Observations. — We have Primula vulgaris and Ulex Eur op ecus in bloom ; Vanessa urticce taken in the streets, Winter Moth abundant. Young birds of Hedge Sparrow taken in our gardens. It is a grand time for pupa-digging, of which we are taking advantage. — T. J. Goldsmith, Nottingham, Jan. 16. Mildness of the Season. — Up to the time of writing this paragraph, the winter (?) of 1883-4 has given us no frost or snow, and has been alto¬ gether abnormally mild. Wild flowers — violets, snowdrops, and prim-, roses — are abundant ; birds are building their nests — we have just heard of a brown linnet’s, containing six eggs, being taken near Bed- worth — and there have been many days superior in warmth and sun¬ shine to those of the inclement summers with which we have lately been familiar. In considering the cause of the high temperature which has prevailed, we may note the unusually disturbed state of the surface of the sun, as evidenced by the numerous spots, many large enough to be visible to the naked eye, which have been noted on the photosphere during the last few months. Then it may be suspected that the conditions which have produced the remarkable sunsets referred to in our last number may also have influenced the tempera¬ ture of the earth’s surface. The presence of much aqueous vapour, or of matter in a finely divided form, as volcanic dust, would un¬ doubtedly tend in this direction, as it would prevent the radiation of heat from the earth, and so act like the glass roof of a hot-house, or a cloud. Gilbert White (letter lxv.) notices that the year 1783, in which Sicily and Norway were subject to earthquakes and, the air was filled with volcanic dust (though he did not know this latter fact), was remarkable for its extreme heat. Thunder-storms abounded, wasps swarmed in myriads (letter lxiv.), and honey-dew ruined the beauties of the garden. The Mild Season in the Fens. — The mildness of the weather for the time of year has been unprecedented. Of winter we have had none, but the weather-wise predict a period of severity about Easter. The fruit trees are showing the forwardness of the season in an extraordinary manner, and make proprietors of orchards shrug their shoulders as they see the bursting buds and contemplate the prospect- of nipping frosts ahead. The cherries are the most precocious. In one case near the town sufficient bloom might have been gathered from a cherry tree to form a large-sized bouquet, whilst there are instances of currants and goose¬ berries failing to shed some of their leaves at all. In all departments of the orchard the sap is rising fast ; when once the sap gets active (and nothing will do it sooner than the warm muggy days lately experienced) orchardists may rely on high prices and scarcity of fruit in 1884. In the floricultural line the deceptiveness of the season is equally apparent. Violets have been plentifully plucked in the hedges during the past fortnight, and there are beds of primroses blooming in many gardens. Half-hardy plants remained in the beds in the open without so much as receiving a check. The fens are “boiling” in newly-turned grounds, 54 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. as they are accustomed to do in March, whilst the animal and insect world all show decided indications of a premature season. Last Sunday, on the Dogstliorpe Road, a resident caught a fine specimen of butterfly (probably Vanessa urticce ), whilst the common honey bee has been roused from its dormant condition these three weeks, and may be seen settling on the opening spring flowers, both wild and cultivated. The North Bank and the meadows around are thickly sprinkled with daisies, and the wild foxglove in warm haunts is beginning to throw up flowering spikelets, and thus, in common with the whole of nature, showing the remarkable mildness of the season. — E. Wheeler, Peter¬ borough, Jan, 17, 1884. Notes from Woking.— The mild weather seems to have upset the insects altogether from their winter slumbers. The Blow Fly ( Musca vomitoria ) was quite plentiful on the walls and palings on December 28th, 1883, New Year’s Day being danced in by small companies of the Spring Gnat (Trichocera vernalis ), whilst the female of Gulex pipiens and her big sister, annulatus, seemed to be looking about for a likely water butt wherein they might place their baskets of eggs ; but like human beiugs, they are procrastinating, and don’t seem to know whether to “go in” for another snooze, or a little human blood. Creeping up the glass on the inside of the greenhouse and windows, I noticed a large number of minute Hymenoptera, some of which no doubt had emerged from their pupos in the various species of Green Fly, which abound on everything in a damp lean-to house. January 10th. — The sun shone out so brightly that a small Tortoise¬ shell Butterfly ( Vanessa urticce ) felt compelled to come out and try its wings again, rejoicing in the glorious freedom — now alighting on the wall, basking in the warm sunshine, then with that peculiar flutter off it sailed over the tops of the houses. January 12th. — A sudden frost after six a.m., the thermometer registering 6° below freezing point ; the White Dead Nettle and Hawkweed out in bloom, the lark warbling, sparrows pairing, and nature generally seems to have been called up very early. — F. Enock. “ Mental Evolution in Animals ” is the title of the long-expected work by Mr. G. J. Romanes, in which he applies the data that he collected in his “Animal Intelligence” to trace the course by which mind has been evolved in animals. He found the field on which he had entered so wide that he was compelled to relinquish his first design, and hence the mental evolution of man is excluded from the present work, and will form the subject of a later treatise. The subject of instinct is treated at very great length in this volume (through nearly 200 pages), and in an appendix at the end is contained Mr. Darwin’s “ Essay on Instinct,” to which allusion was made in our last number, and which, we forgot to mention there, was originally written to form a part of the famous “Origin of Species,” but was suppressed in consequence of the merciless compression to which that book was subjected. NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 55 Influence of the Geological Conditions of a Country upon its Flora. — It is a curious and interesting fact in connection with the botany of Northern Queensland, that the country outside of what is generally known as the conglomerate is nearly always devoid of striking or beautiful plants, trees, or shrubs. Grasses abound, and the country is valuable for pastoral purposes. The conglomerate, on the contrary, is utterly useless, excepting always those portions which are auriferous. Its chief charac¬ teristic features consist of stretches of bare rock, dotted here and there by a few clumps of dwarfed trees and bushes, and occasionally crossed by patches of low, dense jungle. This tract is furrowed in every direction by innumerable creeks, which have eroded deep gorges through the soft sandstone rock. Many of these creeks have their sources underground, and flow through caves for a con¬ siderable distance before emerging into the light of day. These caves are joined together by innumerable cross passages or caves, the whole forming a perfect reticulation. But although the conglomerate is useless for pastoral purposes, it affords a marked contrast to the more richly grassed country, for we here find that every nook and dell, every creek and valley, is transformed into what I may aptly term a natural conservatory. Bare and valuable plants meet the gaze in every direction ; flowers of most varied hues, from the tiniest of tiny orchids, to the dazzling spikes of the grevilleas, which form masses of bright scarlet on a dark background of dense scrub, whose walls of the most vivid green rise gradually towards the summit of the sloping wall of rock, allowing a glimpse here and there of its rich brown sides, and terminating in a broad band of shrubs some 5ft. high, which everywhere crown the edge of the cliff. The novelty of the many parasitical plants growing in the most unexpected places, the beautiful and ever-varying forms of countless ferns rearing their graceful fronds over the margins of pools, the varying tints of the mosses and lichens, the nodding grasses, and the many shades of green, combine to make up a picture which cannot be surpassed for loveliness in Australia. Of course this wealth of plant-life is entirely owing to the abundance of water, and to the great heat generated by the sandstone rock. Every few steps you pass the mouth of a cave, sometimes a mere hole, and again a glorious arch thirty or forty feet high, leading into a tunnel, where a drink of ice-cold water can always be obtained. These cave-openings can be seen high up in the sides of the cliffs. Bats, snakes, the rock- wallaby, and a host of birds make their homes in the sombre depths of these natural chambers. Daylight often struggles in through a rift in the ceiling, through which also the water percolates. Now and then you pass the mouths of others, and obtain glimpses into the fairy-like depths of their botanical treasures. But when you reach the summit and step out of the narrow strip of jungle on to a stretch of bare rock, you gaze at a scene the sterility and loneliness of which strikes you as the very antipodes of the paradise you have left below. — From “ The Australasian,” by Capt. W. E. Armit, F.L.S. 56 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. Nitella, and Flint Implements. — In the fall of 1882, Mr. J. Saunders, of Luton, discovered Nitella mucronita in a pond at the end of the Ouse embankment, Bedford, but during the summer scarcely a trace of the plant could be found. Mr. W. Davis, however, has just re-discovered it in a locality nearer the town. A few weeks since I found a perfect specimen of a flint axe-head in gravel, which came from the river deposits at Kempston. These beds were investigated by the late Mr. Wyatt, F.G.S., who discovered several flint implements therein, and they belong to the same series as the implement-bearing gravels of Biddenham, which are represented in Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” by fig. 86, giving k section across the valley of the Ouse, two miles west-north-west of Bedford. Several of Flint Jack’s productions are still extant in Bedford, but I have found, on comparison, a marked difference between his handicraft and the genuine specimens. Some months ago Mr. Harrison inquired through the columns of “Knowledge” what had become of Flint Jack. I am informed that he was committed to Bedford gaol for stealing a clock, and that he died while an inmate of that institution. — J. H. Hamson, Bedford. ♦ BIRMIN G II AM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — January 8th.— At a specially summoned General Meeting, the Committee of this Society recommended an alteration of the rules which has been long under consideration, by which the annual sub¬ scription of ordinary members is raised to one guinea. This recom¬ mendation was proposed by the President, Mr. T. H. Waller, and seconded by the Vice-President, Mr. R. W. Chase, and after a discus¬ sion, in which it was supported by Messrs. Levick, Wills, Hughes, Hillhouse, and others, and opposed by Messrs. Woodward and Barrett, on the ground that the augmented expenditure, to meet which the increase was made, was unnecessary, the resolution was carried by a large majority. Several other changes of the laws, involved in the the foregoing, were then carried. Under the new arrangement the privileges of members will be greatly increased, and the Society will be consolidated. It was also provided that resident members of the family of a subscriber may, on payment of half a guinea, be entitled to most of the privileges of membership. — Soiree, January 22nd. — The President, Mr. T. H. Waller, in the chair. The evening was chiefly devoted to the exhibition of microscopic objects, among which were the following : — Mr. W. P. Marshall, a section of an excreting gland on the edge of a Saxifrage leaf, showing the excreted lime deposited at the discharging orifice ; Mr. T. H. Waller, section of Perthite (felspar) and Microcline felspar, showing the characteristics of these minerals ; Mr. W. R. Hughes, section of sponge, “Venus’s Flower Basket,” showing the strengthening spicules in situ; Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, a lichen ( Gladonia ) from the Scotch Highlands, showing the brilliant scarlet fructification ; Mr. W. Graham, REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 57 a Sertularia, showing the zoophytes with extended tentacles ; Mr. H. Miller, Pleurosigma formosum — a marine diatom — showing the striations ; Mr. F. Derry, the “Fairy fly,” a species of Hymenoptera ; Mr. W. H. Bowater, transverse section of oak, stained, mounted by himself ; Mr. R. M. Lloyd, the palate of Succinea putris ; Mr. C. T. Parsons, the carmine Peziza, a beautiful fungus, on a twig ; Mr. W. B. Grove, the fungus on mouldy bread ; Mr. J. Morley, a fine specimen of Lepto- dora hyalina, mounted in pure spirit. Mr. R. W. Chase also exhibited three birds — the Little Auk, from the Faroe Islands ; the Reeve, from Ireland ; and the Grasshopper Warbler, from Frankley. A large number of photographs of the earthquake at Ischia were also exhibited, by permission of Mr. Paxton Porter. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. — December 12th. — Mr. A. H. Hiorns read a paper on the “ Basic Bessemer Process.” Among the methods of refining iron in open vessels, the most important is that patented by Mr. Bessemer in 1856, which has had so large a development in late years. It consists of blowing air through molten pig-iron so as to burn off the carbon, silicon, etc., leaving the iron in a malleable condition, or sufficient carbon to form steel. This was a great advance on the old method of refining in reverberatory furnaces, called puddling. In the latter, only about one hundred- weight is operated on at a time; in the former several tons, and in a much quicker time. The early apparatus was a closed vessel, with only one communication with the atmosphere by means of a curved opening. This was after¬ wards modified into a pear-shaped vessel with a large open mouth inclined to one side. At the present time concentric vessels are used with a wide mouth and straight neck, which prevents the metal from sticking to the neck as in the eccentric form. Originally two or three tons were operated upon at one time; now ten to fifteen tons is a usual quantity. The Bessemer converter has an acid lining formed of ganister, which prevents the elimination of phosphorus. In 1872 Snelus showed that the retention of phosphorus was intimately related to the slag. When the slag is highly basic, as in puddling, the phos¬ phorus goes into the slag. He substituted dolomite bricks for the. ganister lining, and proved that steel could be made from pig-iron con¬ taining 2 per cent, phosphorus, and the phosphorus be reduced to OT per cent., but these results were not published. Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist, after a series of experiments, prepared a paper to be read before the Iron and Steel Institute in 1878, and it is to their skill and perseverance, in conjunction with Mr. W. Richards, that the Basic process has achieved a technical and commercial success. They at first made bricks of Magnesian limestone like Snelus, but encountered great difficulties on account of the enormous shrinkage of the limestone. The lining is made of calcined and crushed dolomite, mixed with tar and rammed round a core which is afterwards removed. From 15 to 25 per cent, of lime is charged in with the iron according to the amount of silicon in the pig. By this means the phosphorus is almost completely removed. It is a noteworthy fact that while in the Bessemer process the pig must be siliceous and contain very little phosphorus, with the Basic process the reverse is the case ; so that if the pig in the latter process does not contain 1£ to 2 per cent, of phosphorus, that element is added as ferro-phosphorus. Also in the Bessemer process gray iron is necessary ; in the Basic process white iron is much preferred. The lining is not so durable in the latter as 58 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. in the former, and a much greater amount of slag is formed, which increases the loss of iron and diminishes the useful effect by one fourth to one third. In both methods the refining is carried on till the iron is malleable, and the necessary amount of carbon added in the form of Spiegel-eisen or ferro-manganese. An essential feature in the Basic process is the successive stoppages for test samples, which pro¬ long the operation. There is also uncertainty of sufficient dephospori- sation. One point more of very great importance remains to be noted. The phosphorus is very little affected as long as any carbon is present, so that an “after-blow” is necessary to remove the phosphorus. Now, on adding the ferro-manganese some of the phosphide of iron in the slag is reduced by the carbon monoxide liberated, so that the amount of phosphorus in the final product is greater than in the malleable metal at the end of the ordinary blow. Therefore the great desidera¬ tum of the Basic process is avoidance of the after-blow, which at present is essential. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — This Society has removed its place of meeting to more commodious and central premises, 20, Paradise Street, next door but one to the Midland Institute. On the opening night, January 21st, a “ Special Microscopic Exhibition” took place, when a good show of instruments was made. The exhibits were chiefly living organisms, and proved very interesting to those present. Meetings are held evei’y Monday evening at 7.30, when the attendance of all interested in natural science is earnestly invited. As the Society was formed solely to promote a love for natural objects all students and lovers of Nature who may visit its rooms will be sure to meet with a cordial welcome. CHELTENHAM NATURAL SCIENCE SOCIETY.— Decem¬ ber 20th. — Mr. H. Matthews delivered a lecture on “ The Optical Characters of Crystals.” which was beautifully illustrated by experi¬ ments. Beginning with a general idea of wave motion as derived from the observation of the disturbance created in a still pond by throwing in pebbles, he passed on to the motion of the luminiferous ether, and then to double refraction. The action of a pair of Nicol’s prisms was then illustrated, and the effect of introducing between them a plate of selenite. A curious effect was produced by splitting the selenite thinner and thinner, while still holding it between the prisms ; as the thickness of the slices was very variable, a gorgeous display of colour was obtained. After explaining the theory of the production of these colours, the lecturer placed a thin film of liquified benzoic acid between the prisms ; no colour was produced, but as it cooled crystal after crystal was formed, and their images flashed on the screen in brilliant hues. Mr. E. Wethered exhibited the sporangia of carboniferous plants from the lower limestone shales of the Forest of Dean, which were similar to those found in the black shales of Ohio, from which oil is derived. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— January 15th.— Mr. J. S. Hedderley read an instructive paper by Capt. Becher, R.A., of Southwell, entitled “ About Birds.” At the conclusion of the paper an interesting discussion followed, in which Messrs. Wheatley, Blandy, Musson, and Hedderley took part. The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 8th. The President, Dr. E. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 59 Seaton, occupied the chair. The proceedings were commenced by the Hon. Secretary, Mr. B. S. Dodd, reading the annual report of the Committee, of which the following is an abridgment : — The Committee with great pleasure recorded a considerable increase of members during the past year, 69 ordinary members having been added to the Society, besides 6 corresponding members who reside at a distance. The membership stood thus : 5 honorary, 133 ordinary, and 7 corre¬ sponding members, making a total of 145. The Committee has been enlarged so as to make it more widely representative. They were endeavouring to secure a larger and more convenient meeting place on account of the increased membership. During the summer excursions had been made to Burghley House, Lincoln, and Dovedale. During the year nine papers and eight short communications of considerable interest and merit had been read before the Society, and had been followed usually by discussion. The Committee has arranged that in future all papers read before the Society, after being printed by the local press, should be printed from time to time to form the yearly volume of the Society’s transactions. The lending library had been very successful, 70 volumes having been in circulation since its opening in April last. During the year the library had been augmented by the purchase of 20 interesting works, and still further by the generous gift of the late members of the G.R.S. Naturalists’ Society of some 30 odd volumes. The annual dinner was announced to be held on February 7tli at the George Hotel, and the annual soiree some time in March. After the rules of the society had been revised, the meeting proceeded to elect the officers and committee for the ensuing year, Dr. Seaton being re-elected president, and the meeting closed with the usual vote of thanks to the chairman. NOTTINGHAM WORKING MEN’S NATURALIST’S SOCIETY. — January 7th. — An entertainment, called “ A Peep at Nature through the Microscope,” illustrated by dissolving views, was given by Messrs. Jepson and Goldsmith. The subjects treated of were Parasites of various kinds, Botany, Geological Sections, and Soundings from H.M.S. “Challenger.” This Society usually devotes the evening of the first Monday in the month to a scientific exhibition, free to the public. — T. J. Goldsmith. PETERBOROUGH NATURAL HISTORY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. — Gilchrist Lecture, Jan. 17th. — The first of a series of six lectures of the “ Gilchrist Educational Trust” was given in the Drill Hall, Peterborough, under the auspices of this Society. For some time previously Mr. R. A. Procter was announced for the opening lecture, which was to have been upon the fascinating subject, “ The Birth and Death of Worlds,” but owing to indisposition he was unable to fulfil the engagement, and Professor Robert Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland, lectured on “The Telescope and its uses.” There was a large audience. The lecture, which was illustrated by views thrown upon a screen by a powerful lime light, was given in a popular and interesting manner. It first dealt with the human eye and how it was aided in the attempts to see faint celestial objects by the telescope, the use of which was an equivalent to an enlargement of the pupil. The early attempts to construct a large telescope were described, and the present monster one at Vienna was illustrated. Lord Rosse’s great telescope and various 60 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. kinds of tlie same instrument were shown upon the screen, followed by a photograph of the moon and observations thereon. The arctic regions and the wonderful canals discernible in Mars were demon¬ strated, as well as the peculiarities of the planet Saturn as seen by a telescope. Comets were touched upon, as also the sun and his system, our sun, the lecturer remarking, being only one of 50,000,000 suns. The whole of the heavens was reviewed by the telescope, and the lecturer concluded by a peroration on the infinity of space. The next lecture will be on the “ Animals of the Coal Period,” by Professor Miall, F.G.S. — E. Wheeler. OUR SUB-EDITORS. Mr. E. Wheeler, 45, Cromwell Road, Peterborough. Mr. T. J. Goldsmith, 7, Colsterwortli Terrace, Glebe Street, Nottingham. Mr. J. Hamson, Spring Road, Elstow, Bedford. Mr. J. W. Neville, Wellington Road, Handsworth. Rev. T. Foster Rolfe, Glascote, Tamworth. Mr. J. O’Sullivan, Stapenhill, Burton-on-Trent. Mr. Trios. W. Cave, M.R.C.Y.S., Broad Street, Nottingham. R. H. Law, Esq., Copthorne House, Shrewsbury. OUR METEOROLOGICAL COLUMN. The first three volumes of the “Midland Naturalist” contain tabu¬ lated meteorological returns from about sixty stations in the Midlands, with remarks on the weather of each month; the whole being edited by Mr.W. J. Harrison, who was then in charge of the meteorological instru¬ ments belonging to the Leicester Museum. On Mr. Harrison’s re¬ moval to Birmingham the work was continued for more than two years by Mr. Clement L. Wragge, whose work in connection with the obser¬ vatory on Ben Nevis has made him so generally known. Mr. Wragge left England last year in order to continue his observations abroad, and our meteorological column was temporarily discontinued. We have now much pleasure in announcing that Mr. Wm. Berridge, F.M.S., of 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough, has consented to act as sub-editor for meteorology, and we earnestly ask all who are interested in that subject to send their observations to him monthly, in order that he may be supplied with the material for a resume of the atmospheric con¬ ditions of the Midlands. It is not Mr. Berridge’s intention to revive the old “page of figures;” the statistics formerly so given are now printed elsewhere — in the Meteorological Magazine, the Proceedings of the Meteorological Society, the publications of the Government Weather Office, Ac. — where experts can refer to them, while in our columns they were “caviare to the general.” Still Mr. Berridge will be thank¬ ful to receive all such information, and will work it up with such notes on the connection of plants and animals with atmospheric phenomena, &c., as he may receive. We consider ourselves fortunate in securing the services of so able and accurate a meteorologist, to act as a sub¬ editor. Mr. Berridge has lately been appointed Observer to the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, and Loughborough now supplants Nottingham as one of the centres yielding information from which the Daily Weather Charts are prepared. intercellular relations of protoplasts. 61 ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS.* BY WILLIAM HILLHOUSE, B.A., F.L.S., SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. INTRODUCTION. - [ABSTRACT.] During the past few years the one preponderating study in which vegetable physiologists have been engaged is the elucidation of the internal phenomena of the vegetable cell. Since the time when Schleiden first suggested that in the study of the life-history of the individual cell we should find the true basis of the study of plant life, von Mold published in Wagner’s “ Handworterbuch der Pliysiologie ” an account of its structure and life-history, f and Hofmeister gave to the world his far broader and more incisive work,]; the ball has rolled on apace, gathering vigour as it has proceeded, until now at length we appear to be within arm’s length of some grand generalisation. The mass of facts which within recent years has been brought together by a host of observers, pre-eminent amongst whom, in this department, stands Strasburger, the gifted author of the modern conception of vegetable embryology, is simply incredible. What is now needed is someone who shall collect these masses of isolated phenomena and weld them into one organic whole, who shall do for this decade what von Mold and Hofmeister did respectively for theirs. One by one the old conceptions of vegetable life have given way to the new ; the barriers which have apparently isolated the vegetable from the animal world have been broken down. It is but a few years since botanists were taught that the cell was everything ; in modern teaching the vegetable organism is a whole, with its protoplasmic body, it is true, broken into fragments which show apparent isolation, but which, nevertheless, show clear co-ordination. To the acceptance of this view Sachs, by far the greatest of modern vegetable physiologists, has mainly conduced. And now it appears as if another line of demarcation is to be wiped out, * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Read December 4th, 1883. f “ Grundziige der Anatomie und Physiologie der vegetabilisclien Zelle ” (1851). ] “Die Lenre von der Pflanzenzelle” (1867). 62 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. and the anatomical isolation which has been ascribed to the vegetable cell is also to be shown to be but a partial truth, if, indeed, it be a truth at all. The vital basis of the plant-cell is its protoplasm, a name given to it by von Mohl in 1851. So long ago as 1868, Max Schultze showed'1' that vegetable protoplasm and animal sarcodef are one and the same thing. To this identic substance Huxley has given the very happy title of the “Physical Basis of Life,” while Dr. Lionel Beale has suggested the somewhat broader name of Bioplasm to be applied alike to animal and vegetable protoplasm. Living, it possesses alike in animal and vegetable form certain special characteristics — assimilative and constructive energy, spontaneous motility (contractility), water absorptive power, and coagulability with various reagents ; while dead it has cumulative action with staining matters. Exactly like, then, as animal and vegetable protoplasm fundamentally are, the vegetable cell, in at least all except its most primitive forms, has been by biologists looked upon as a thing sui generis, in having the property of closely investing itself with a wall, secreted by the activity of its own protoplasm, a wall carbohydrate in its chemical nature, closely analogous with starch, a “cell- wall” of cellulose, as it is called, by which each particle of protoplasm has imprisoned itself and cut itself off from contact, and thereby, apparently, from close physiological connection with its neighbours ; a wall, by diffusion through which, except in a few well-marked cases, was the only method of the intercommunication of cell- contents ; a wall, which acts towards the individual cell as an exoskeleton, in a manner analogous to the cliitinous envelope which invests the bodies, etc., of the insecta. Even the possession of a cell-wall is not, however, exclusively a vegetable function. Fat cells and epithelial cells have an external investment, totally unlike, however, that of the plant-cell, while Bergli lias recently shown that in the Cilia fiagcllata a cell wall much more closely resembling that in plants is present. The greater part of our knowledge of protoplasm in its relations with the cell-wall has been derived from the study of protoplasm in its contracted state. At all times, and especially so in cells which are actively growing, the protoplasm * Sclmltze, “Ueber das Protoplasma der Rhizopoden und Pflanzen- zellen.” f Sarcode. — Name given by Dujardin in 1835 to the contractile, structureless, semi fluid substance which forms the body of many of the lowest members of the animal kingdom. INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 63 contains a considerable, and often very large, percentage of water. Under the influence, as it is usually stated, of this aqueous content the protoplasm is kept in an expanded state, closely applied to the inner side of the cell- wall, and pressing upon it. This pressure, under the name of “ The Mechanical Theory of Growth,” has been looked upon, from the teaching of Sachs, as the great cause of the increase in size of the cell.* Under the influence of various water withdrawing media the water can in part, though never altogether, be withdrawn from the protoplasm, the latter then contracting to one side of the cell. This phenomenon, known to all observers for at least the last thirty years, had been the origin of the name “ primordial utricle.” The outer layer of protoplasm, in contact with the cell-wall, Pringsheimf had, so early as 1854, shown to be differentiated from the inner portion, and had given to it a separate name. In its con¬ tracted state Pringslieim had shown that sometimes at least the protoplasm remains attached to the cell-wall by proto¬ plasmic threads, J and had figured them. Nageli § had observed the same phenomenon as the result of the con¬ traction of the protoplasm under the influence of sugar solution, and had figured it especially well in the case of cells in the petals of Dentana dujitata (Taf. ii., fig. 5) and of Spirogyra alpina( Taf. iii. , fig. 5), in which the threads go only to the end walls, while in other cases (Taf. iii., fig. 12) the threads are branched. It is to Hugo de Vries, however, that we owe the most extended researclies|| into the phenomena of protoplasmic contraction under the influence of salt solutions, to which contraction he gave the name of Plasmolysis. Using as water-withdrawing (or plasmolytic) solution sugar, solutions of various salts, especially of saltpetre and common salt, he carefully described the effects not only on the protoplasm but also on the cell-wall. Of all salts he found solutions of common table salt to be the best. Varying in rate with the strength of the solution, de Vries found that when under the influence of the salt the watery cell sap was withdrawn, the protoplasm contracted away from the cell wall (this latter also shrinking) into a rounded lump, which he always describes and figures as lying free in the cell-cavity, or only * I shall have occasion later to discuss the sufficiency of this cause.. f Pringslieim, “ Bau und Bildung der Pflanzenzelle,” 1854, p. 4. I Pringslieim, l.c., Taf. iii. § Nageli, “ Pflanzenphysiologisclie Untersuchungen,” von Nageli und Cramer, 1855. Ii Be Vries, “ Unters. iiher die median. Ursachen d. Zellstreckung,” 1877. - _ 64 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. adhering by a part of its periphery to the cell- wall. Its free margin, that is, the boundary of its external differentiated layer, the ectoplasm, he describes as of smooth unbroken outline. On removal of the salt by pure water the protoplasm will, sometimes even after several days remaining in the plasmolysed state, gradually reabsorb, and resume its old place applied to the cell- wall. Apart from the previously known cases mentioned above, and the striking phenomena uniformly present in many tissues, which will be illustrated in a subsequent section of this paper, the light which has within the last two years been thrown on the actual origin of the cell- wall would in itself predispose to doubt on the subject of this apparent freedom of the cell- wall from firm attachment to the protoplasm whence it derives its origin. The theory of intussusception, as accounting for the growth in extent and thickness of the cell- wall, has, in the opinion of most physiological botanists, to be more or less completely abandoned in favour of the older theory of apposition, now reaffirmed by Schimper, Meyer, Strasburger, Schmitz, von Hohnel, and others. The position especially maintained by Strasburger * and Schmitz,! that the cell- wall is formed and thickened by protoplasmic granules, called by the latter microsomcita ; and the opinion expressed by the former (1. c., p. 174) that cellulose is formed by the direct splitting of protoplasm,! greatly enhance the interest of this question. We cannot help asking ourselves (1) Do any of the protoplasmic threads which connect the poles of nuclei in process of division, and in (or on) which the elements of the cell-plate are formed, persist after the forma¬ tion of the partition wall ? and (2) If the microsomata more or less bodily pass over into the substance of the cell- wall, is there thereby established a more intimate subsequent con¬ nection than de Vries’ researches would suggest between cell-wall and protoplasm ? An interesting contribution to the knowledge of the relations between the cell- wall and the protoplasm it encloses, as illustrated in the phenomena of Plasmolysis, * Strasburger, “ Ueber den Bau und das Wachsthum der Zell- haute,” 1882. f Schmitz, “ Sitzbr. der niederrh. Gesell. fur Natur-und Heilkunde in Bonn,” 6th Dec., 1880. f “ Die Beobachtungen iiber Scheidewandbildung zeigen aber, sobald die Natur der Zellplattenelemente als Mikrosomen erkannt ist, auf das Bestimmteste die Bildung der Cellulose durch directs Spaltung des Protoplasma,” INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. G 5 is tliat of F. 0. Bower. * Using as plasmolysing agent solutions of common salt, from one to ten per cent., so largely used by de Vries (l.c.), Bower shows that in a great many cases the contracted protoplasm of parenchymatous cells remains connected with the cell-walls by strings of great initial tenuity, often only after some interval, and commonly slowly, thickening. In the prothallus of Nephro- dium villosum and Aspidium Filix-mas a two per cent, solution causes contraction of the protoplasm into a rounded mass, showing usually the smooth outline of de Vries. Later appear, however, delicate radial striation from the protoplasmic body, striation gradually extending itself to the cell-wall, while the striae gradually become more definite and resolve themselves into protoplasmic strings passing from protoplasm to cell-wall. Sometimes these strings are present from the first. In the coarser threads are often shown nodal thickenings. The increase of thickness of the threads Bower suggests may either take place from a supply of new material from the protoplasmic mass, or by lateral coalescence of the threads. Slow movement of the nodal thickenings away from the protoplasmic mass suggests the occurrence of the former ; the vibratory motion which the threads acquire after a time, showing diminution of their tension, supports this view, while the author has no evidence to show, though he admits the probability of, the occurrence of lateral coalescence of neighbouring threads. These observations the author confirms on various plants ; in the young flower stalks of Cephalaria riyida (allied material to that used by de Vries), leaves of Vallisneria spiralis , and of many other aquatics. In the prothalli above mentioned he had found that the threads ran equally to the free walls of the cells, and to those adjoining other cells ; this he confirms in the internal cells adjoining intercellular spaces in Pontederia ccerulea. All the above plants have approximately smooth-walled cells, and the author further proceeds to examine the cells of the fronds of two species of Trichomanes, in which the walls are pitted, in order to see if any relation exists between the protoplasmic threads and the pits. In the cells of these plants he found the threads equally to run to the unpitted free walls and the pitted lateral walls, and that though protoplasmic threads do run to pits, and threads from the * F. O. Bower, “ On Plasmolysis and its bearing upon the relations between cell-wall and protoplasm.” Quart. J. Mic. Science, 1883 (Jan.), pp. 157-67, and plate VIII. 66 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. neighbour cell run to the equivalent pit in its wall, these are, however, the exception. The author’s observations therefore fail to show any special relation of the protoplasm to the pits. In his concluding remarks he suggests two possible explana¬ tions of these phenomena: — “ (1) That the main mass of protoplasm on retreating may leave the cell-wall still com¬ pletely lined with a thin film of protoplasm ; (2) that the peripheral part of the protoplasm being entangled, as a network, among the deposited microsomata, may, on the contraction of the main mass, be drawn out at the points of entanglement into fine strings like those observed, while the surface of the wall is for the most part left free.” To the second of these views the author leans. (To be continued.) METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— January, 1884. A raw, easterly wind, on the 1st, seemed to indicate a period of cold weather, but the wind soon veered to southward, and the tem¬ perature continued relatively high to the end of the month. The barometer was unsteady at the commencement of the month, with a downward tendency ; after touching 29*72 inches on the 6th, it rose by a succession of jerks to 30*62 inches on the 16th. From the 21st the mercury fell rapidly till the 23rd, when a sudden rise was succeeded by a fall, most unusual in its depth. At 6 p.m. on the 26th the corrected readings were : — at Loughborough, 28*377 inches; at Strelley, 28*322 inches ; at Hodsock, 28*293 inches. This very low reading was accompanied by gales, much lightning, and squally showers of rain and hail. A rapid rise succeeded, but at the close of the month the mercury was unsteady. Temperature was very uniform ; air-frosts on only one or two occasions. A minimum of 30°. 0 was recorded at Coston Rectory on the 16th, while a maximum of 51°. 5 was registered at Hodsock on the 22nd. The mean temperature was consequently high, 5° to 6° above the average, and 15° higher than that of January, 1881, in which month the mean of maxima was 4° lower than the mean of minima of the past month. The rain-fall was rather higher than the average, the falls of snow few and slight. Sunshine was very deficient, and the atmosphere was generally cloudy and misty. Strong winds prevailed through the month, and gales were experienced from the 22nd to the 26th. Lunar halos were observed at Lough¬ borough on the 7th and 10th. The mildness of the season caused a premature development of vegetation, and it was by no means uncommon to find spring flowers blooming in what should be mid¬ winter. A continuance of mild weather through the spring may be favourable to the crops, but late frosts will assuredly be particularly injurious. Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough, TERNS AT THE FARNE ISLANDS. 67 NOTES ON THE TERNS BREEDING AT THE FARNE ISLANDS.* BY R. W. CHASE. A visitor to the Fame Islands is at once struck with the immense number of birds upon them, especially during the breeding season, and his attention is immediately drawn to them instead of being attracted by the rocky aspect and wild grandeur of the Isles themselves. Amongst various species the Terns are not the least conspicuous, as they circle and swoop over an intruder’s head, uttering their shrill cries incessantly, and it is to this family that I shall confine my remarks upon the present occasion. I have visited the Fames several times during the breeding season, and in different months, so that I might have an opportunity of watching the habits of the Sterninas as far as possible during the whole period of raising their young. Four species of the genus Sterna may be considered as visiting these islands annually, viz. : S. jiuviatilis, the Com¬ mon Tern ; 8. hirundo, the Arctic Tern ; S. dougalli, the Roseate Tern ; S. cantiaca , the Sandwich Tern. The habits of all these are in some respects similar, but upon close observation a considerable difference may be discerned, even between such closely allied species as fluviatilis and hirundo, which were considered for years to be one and the same bird, and the eggs of which it is impossible to pick out with certainty, unless you verify them by snaring the old bird on the nest. The principal breeding station of S. fluviatilis is on the “ Wide Opens,” where in some places the eggs are so thickly placed that it requires care not to step upon them. The nest is a slight hollow scratched by the bird and lined with stalks and roots of dead herbage. I found the favourite situation to be at the top of the rock where it is grassy and nearly covered with Sea Campion ( Silene maritima) some distance from the shore. The eggs are either two or three, more generally the latter number, I believe, and vary much in colour, from pale blue with few markings, to an olive-brown ground, well covered with dark-brown blotches. In some nests the eggs are very dissimilar to each other, but I have specially noticed that when the nest contains three * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Bead at a Meeting, January 29th, 1884. 68 TERNS AT THE FARNE ISLANDS. they are usually alike both as regards size, shape, and colouring. I have not been able satisfactorily to ascertain the exact time of incubation, but think it is about sixteen days. The young as soon as they are hatched creep in amongst the Sea Campion for shelter, and you might often wonder what had become of the young birds, unless you knew where to look for them. The principal breeding place of S. liirundo is the “Knoxes,” an island formed of water-worn boulders and shingle, with fine sand in the centre, and entirely destitute of vegetation ; also the AVide Opens and the “ Northern Ears,” which last is only bare whinstone, with sand thrown upon it in patches ; a few pairs only form this colony. The nest is merely a slight hollow scratched by the bird in the shingle or sand without the slightest signs of any lining ; a favourite site being just above high water mark on the pebbly beach. The eggs are two in number (rarely three), usually very dark in ground colour and markings. I have never verified a nest with three eggs as belonging to 8. liirundo; all those with that number have turned out to belong to 8. fluvicitilis. My observations have led me to the following conclusions concerning the difference between S . Jiuviatilis and 8. hirundo. In the adult bird, S. fluvicitilis is lighter in colour, especially on the breast, and slightly larger ; the tarsus is longer, and this mark of distinction I hold to be an infallible test, and discernible in all stages ; the wings also extend beyond the tail ; while in the case of hirundo the reverse occurs. The nest of duviatilis has a slight lining and is placed generally amongst some kind of vegetation, and some distance from the shore, the number of eggs being frequently three ; whereas the nest of hirundo has no lining and is usually placed amongst stones and shingle, often only just out of reach of the tide, the number of eggs being usually two. The young of these two species differ little when first hatched except that those of hirundo are darker and have a smutty appearance. The method I adopted to verify the eggs was to snare the old birds at the nest, which can easily be done ; and after determining the species I liberated the bird, as the mode of capture does not injure it in the least. Some years ago, when I wanted specimens, those so caught were killed, and five-sixths of them upon dissection proved males, clearly showing that in the Sterninte the male assists in incubation, at all events during the day. 8. douijalli, the most beautiful and graceful of all the Terns, occurs in small numbers, associated with S. fluviatilU TERNS AT THE FARNE ISLANDS. 69 and S. hirundo. I cannot say for certain that it breeds on the Islands, as it would be simply a matter of chance to snare a Roseate Tern at a nest, when there are hundreds of nests around, but that it does occur at the Islands regularly I am sure ; and although a note was published in the “ Zoologist” for November, 1881 (p. 470), throwing doubt upon a previous communication (p. 428) affirming the occurrence of this species, I can positively state that 8. dougaJli did occur in 1881 — for the best of all reasons, viz., that I have specimens in my collection obtained at the Fame Islands in that very year. On June 21st, 1883, I distinctly saw three of this species amongst the Terns upon the Wide Opens. You can easily distinguish them from fluvmtilis and hirundo by their more graceful form of flight, as they wheel with almost motionless wings, by their keeping at a greater altitude, by their white appearance, long tails, and less size, and by their note, which somewhat resembles a shrill bark repeated rapidly. The beautiful pink blush upon the feathers fades considerably with death, and a stuffed specimen if exposed to light will nearly lose all trace of it. Of 8. cantiacci , the chief breeding place is on the Knoxes, where a large colony has bred for many years. Last year a few pairs began laying on the Northern Ears, owing, in the opinion of the lighthouse keepers, to the colony at the Knoxes being disturbed for a few days by a large falcon, probably a Peregrine. The Northern Ears, thus selected by the birds which forsook their nests at the Knoxes, was formerly a regular nesting place of this species. It is characteristic of S. cantiacci that it resents inter¬ ference, and if much disturbed the birds will forsake their eggs and move to a fresh locality in the hope of being left in peace. Macgillivray, quoting Selby, states that 4 ‘the eggs are placed in a shallow hole scratched amongst the Sea Campion and other plants that may happen to grow on the selected place this is not exactly according to what I have seen. The eggs, usually two, sometimes three, are placed in a slight hollow upon fine sand, and upon sand only, not coarse shingle, with no sign of vegetation near. In one case on the Northern Ears in June last I saw a nest containing four eggs, but in my opinion in this instance two birds had laid in the same nest. A great difference occurs as regards colour and markings on eggs found in the same nest. In an exposed situation, such as I have endeavoured to describe, they rear their young, feeding them principally upon sand eels. The feathers of this species have a beautiful 70 RICHARD MOSLEY LLOYD. satiny appearance upon the neck and breast, and in some cases if you lift the feathers you will perceive a pink tinge, almost as vivid as in S. dougalli. The Terns arrive about the middle of May, a few at first, afterwards the main body, Common, Arctic, and Sandwich, all together. After flying for hours together over the usual breeding stations without settling, they take themselves out to sea, and you can often see flocks resting upon the water. I remember in May, 1881, being afloat very early one morning, passing a great number so resting, and a very pretty sight it was ; this behaviour goes on for a few days, when the birds “ take the islands,” as the lighthouse keepers term it ; that is, they rest a greater part of the day upon the stations chosen, and roost there, after which they at once begin laying. Their departure takes place about the middle of September, after which not a single tern is to be seen, whereas a month earlier the air was thick with their wheeling flocks, and the ear almost deafened by their shrill and incessant cries. RICHARD MOSLEY LLOYD. It is our painful duty to record the death of an old and valued member of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, Mr. Richard Mosley Lloyd, who for many years has been a warm supporter and active worker and officer of that institution. He died at his residence, Spring Hill, Birmingham, on Saturday, February 16th, after a few days’ illness. Mr. Lloyd will be remembered by conchologists as having added two new and well-marked varieties to the British inolluscan fauna, viz., Paludina vivipara, var. atro-purpurea, and Planorbis glciber, var. compressa, as also by his contributions to various natural history publications. Of late he had given more attention to microscopic work in connection with the above Society, where, as a painstaking and obliging officer, his loss will be much felt. All who knew him will lament the loss of a warm-hearted and honest man, kind, indulgent and forbearing, simple-minded, yet clever in much of this world’s knowledge, never obtrusive, ever ready to do a kind action, not seeking reward. The writer, to whom he was a constant companion for more than twenty years, mourns the loss of a true, gentle, and genuine friend, and his sorrowing family a tender guardian, whose care was always for the welfare and happiness of those he loved, and who never spared himself in doing that which he thought worthy of his hand. For many years Mr. Lloyd was one of the engineers to the Water Department of Birmingham, an office he held at his death, and wherein his upright character made him much respected. February 21, 1884. G. S. T. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 71 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER II., BY ALFRED HILL, M.D., F.I.C. The Actions of Forces on Organic Matter . The various forces which affect organic matter are heat, light, mechanical force, quasi-meclianical force as seen in the absorption of water and osmose, chemical affinity, and indirect chemical action or catalysis. The increased mole¬ cular vibration and consequent assistance rendered to the action of the other incident forces which are occasioned by the influence of heat are noticeable, and the more direct results of heat are exemplified by the evaporation which it occasions, one result of which is that circulation is started in the tissues of plants and animals, as seen in the withering of a plant whose roots are lacking sufficient moisture. The effect which light has on mineral, vegetable, and animal forms of life is obvious. As evidence of the compound character of a ray of light attention is directed to the fact that it is the yellow or luminous portion of the ray which affords the plant the opportunity of decomposing its mineral food and of fixing the hydrogen and carbon in its tissues and secretions. A consideration of the undulatory theory of the nature of light furnishes an explanation of the manner in which these changes are considered to be effected. One thing, however, is clear beyond doubt, and that is that light is absolutely necessary for the production of chlorophyll, the colours of the flower petals, and other similar results too numerous to state. The importance of the quasi- meclianical forces is shown in the absorption of water, and the introduction with it of the agents of chemical change, as well as in the conveying away of the products of such change. The physical phenomenon termed osmosis is one to be explained at length, as well as its instrumentality in contributing to the work of redistribution in organised bodies. The most important force, however, is chemical affinity, the part which oxygen performs in this character being very important. Ordinary chemical action must be compared with indirect chemical action or catalysis, so that we may have a clear conception of the peculiar nature n tHE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. of tlie latter as exhibited in the action of diastase in germi¬ nation, of yeast in fermentation, of the vinegar plant in acetification, and of the production of prussic acid by the action of synaptase on amygdalin. In conclusion, attention may be drawn to the vast difference between plants and animals in the amounts of nitrogen they contain, proving that, if the functions of the former are not to cease, light is absolutely indispensable, while for the growth of the latter it is not requisite. Fungi appear to be an exception to this rule, as light is positively inimical to their growth, and they are known to thrive best when nearly or quite excluded from its influence. It is generally recog¬ nised, however, that these vegetable forms contain much nitrogen, and in this respect resemble animals. It is also worthy of remark that although those portions of plants which possess least nitrogen need sunlight, those which have most nitrogen, viz., the seeds, develop and will germinate in the dark. Thus while the ferments previously alluded to are all nitrogenous, their very activity seeming to be due to nitrogen, those parts of living animals which possess the greatest vital activity contain also, comparatively speaking, the largest amount of this element. The meta¬ morphosis of a substance, such as sugar, in the body and out of the body may be contrasted ; it will then be proved that while in the living organism sugar is rapidly changed into carbonic acid and water, out of the body it has to go through several chemical conversions admitting of experimental demonstration, before these results are attained, it being first changed by fermentation into alcohol and carbonic acid, then into acetic acid, and lastly by further oxidation into carbonic acid and water. As, therefore, these changes in the body are clearly not produced by chemical and thermal actions solely, it may be inferred that they are brought about by means of that indirect influence known as catalysis. Remedy for Damp. — When a solution of bichromate of potash (the crystals dissolve readily in hot water) is applied to any surface exposed to sunlight, and allowed to dry, it forms a coating which is very impervious to moisture. As the application of two coats of the solution (mixed with size to make it adhere) the walls of damp rooms, cellars, &c., may be made quite dry. The action of light pro¬ duces a chemical change in the bichromate, which gives it this valuable property. Bills that have been posted on walls, &c., by means of size containing a little bichromate of potash (Jib. to each gallon of size), adhere so firmly that it is impossible to remove them by any process short of scraping away the surface of the wall. NOTE ON LINGULA LESUEURI. 73 NOTE ON LINGULA LESUEURI , Rouault. BY THOS. DAVIDSON, LL.D, , F.R.S. I have already fully described and illustrated this very remarkable species, and revert to the subject once more in order to allude to the able researches by W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., and to his excellent and instructive memoir “ On the Quartzite Pebbles contained in the Drift and in the Triassic Strata of England ; and on their derivation from an ancient land-barrier in Central England.” Lingula Lesueuri has again been collected in some abundance by Mr. Harrison in quartzite pebbles from the Drift at Moseley, near Birmingham. The specimens or casts are sometimes found in a fine state of preservation, but, as far as I have seen, are much smaller in size than those that occur in similar pebbles at Budleigli- Salterton. It is the only species of Brachiopod from the lower portion of the Llandeilo or “ Gr£s Armoricain ” that lias been hitherto obtained from the Drift of the Midland Counties, and it is somewhat remarkable that no example of Lingula Hawlcei , Lingula ? Salteri, or Dinobolus Brimonti, which occur so plentifully with L. Lesueuri in the Budleigh- Salterton and Brittany localities, should have hitherto turned up in the Moseley or other Birmingham Drift localities. Along with the Lingula Lesueuri pebbles at Moseley and else¬ where Mr. Harrison has found sandstone and quartzite pebbles of the age of the Caradoc or “Gres de May” with Orthis Budleighensis in great abundance, and in company with Orthis Valpyana , 0. elegantula, ? 0. unguis, O. calligramma, and Leptama sericea. A few fragments also of Middle- Llandovery rock with Stricldandinia lirata have been collected ; also Lower-Devonian pebbles with SpiEfer Verneuili, Rh. Daleulenns , R. Valpyana , R. elliptica, R. Thebaulti , Orthis? laticosta ? , 0. Monnieri , Strophomena Edgelliana , Stroph. crenistria, and one or two other species which owing to their bad state of preservation I was unable to determine. No rock in situ has, however, been hitherto discovered in Great Britain containing Lingula Lesueuri. Mr. Harrison remarks that “it seems perfectly clear that the quartzite pebbles which occur so abundantly in the Drift of the Midland Counties were derived from the pebble-bed or conglomerate which forms the middle member of the Bunter Sandstone or Lower Trias.” I have carefully examined and described the Bracliiopoda from the Gres Armoricain ( Lower Silurian) of Brittany. It * From the Volume issued by the Palasontographical Society for 1883. 74 NOTE ON LINGULA LESUEURL contains four species, viz., Lingula Lesueuri , L. Haivkei, L. ? Saltern, and Dinobolus Brimonti. In the “ Gres Armoricain” of Bagnoles, Department de l’Orne, I found Lingula Lesueuri, L. Hawkei, L. Salteri (very large and abundant), and Dinobolus Brimonti (rare). In the same rock and formation in the Depart¬ ment de la Sarthe are Lingula Lesueuri (small), L. crumena (abundant), and L. Criei, JDav. (very abundant); but in the Department de la Sartlie Mr. Guillier found no examples of Lingula Hawkei nor of Dinobolus Brimonti. At Budleigh- Salterton we have Lingula Lesueuri, L. Hawkei, L. crumena, L. Salteri, and Dinobolus Brimonti; so that the only species not found in our British quartzite pebbles is the Lingula Criei. In a very instructive paper by the Rev. P. B. Brodie “ On certain Quartzite and Sandstone Fossiliferous Pebbles in the Drift of Warwickshire,” published in the “ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society” for August, 1881, will also be found many points of much interest relating to the possible source of derivation of the quartzite pebbles of the Midland Counties. Cohn’s Calculation of the Multiplication of Bacteria. — Let us suppose that a bacterium divides into two in the space of an hour, then into four at the end of a second hour, then into eight at the end of three hours ; in twenty-four hours the number will already amount to more than sixteen millions and a half (16,777,220) ; at the end of two days this single bacterium will have multiplied to the incredible number of 281,500,000,000 ; at the end of three days it will have reached forty-seven trillions, and at the end of about a week, a number which can only be represented by fifty-one figures. In order to render these numbers more comprehensible, let us consider the volume which may result from the multiplication of a single bacterium. The individuals of the most common species of rod- bacteria present the form of a short cylinder having a diameter of a thousandth of a millimetre, and about one five-hundredth of a millimetre in length (that is, about 1-12,500 of an inch long by 1-25,000 of an inch broad). Let us figure to ourselves a cubic milli¬ metre. This volume would contain, according to what we have just said, 683,000,000 bacteria, without leaving any empty space. Now, at the end of twenty-four hours, the bacteria coming from a single rod would occupy the fortieth part of a cubic millimetre ; but at the end of the following day they would fill a space equal to 442,570 of these cubes, or about half a litre. Let us admit that the space occupied by the sea is equal to two-tliirds of the terrestrial surface, and that its mean depth is a mile, the capacity of the ocean will then be 928,000,000 cubic miles. Now, the bacteria issuing from a single germ, the multiplication being continued on the same conditions, would fill the whole ocean in five days. — A. Magnin, on the Bacteria. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 75 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. Continued from page 48. BORAGIN ACE-42. i ECHITJM. E. vulgare, Linn. Common Viper's Bugloss. Native: In sandy fields, old walls, and copses. Very local. July to September. I. Oscott College grounds, Rev. J. C. ; field on outskirts of Sutton Park, near the town, W. B. Grove ; Westwood Coppice, Sutton Park ; sandy lane, Wylde Green ; sandy field, Marston Green ; fields near Gibbett’s Hill, Coleshill ; Coleshill Heath. II. Near Stratford, on the Bidford Road ; stone quarries, Coten End and Woodloes, 'Pern/ FI. ; on a wall at Salford; about the lime¬ kilns at Grafton, Purt. i., 110; Trent Valley Railway, near Rugby, 1867 ; Cawston, Hill Morton, R. S. R., 1871 ; Kenil¬ worth ruins. Rev. A. Blox. ; Lighthorne, Bolton King ; Binton. PTJLMONARIA. P. officinalis, Linn. Common Lungwort. Alien : In shrubberies. Very rare. July. I. In a shrubbery near Elmdon Hall, probably an escape from culti¬ vation. II. Arbury Hall, T. Kirk. Herb. Perry. I do not think this plant has any claim to be considered as more than a casual in this county. [. Echinospermum Lappula , Linn. As a casual, near the skin-yards, Kenilworth, H. B.!] LITHOSPERMUM. L. officinale, Linn. Common Gromwell. Native: In woods, copses, and hedge-banks. Rather rare. June, July. II. Great Alne ! Oversley Wood ! Purt. i., 112 ; footpath leading from Alcester to Wixford, Perry FI. 15 ; Wliitnash, Myton, Y. and B.; Itchington Holt; Ufton, Cross. Herb. Per.; Lodge Woods, Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. ; Gaydon ! Bolton King ; Drayton Bushes ; near Rose Hall, Oversley ; near Binton and Red Hill ; near Chesterton Wood ; near Southam. L. arvense, Linn. Corn Gromwell. Painting -root. Colonist : In corn and other cultivated fields. Local. May, June. I. Siden Hill, Hampton-in-Arden, R. Rogers ; cornfields near Knowle; cornfields, Solihull. II. Wliitnash, Y. and B. ; Tredington, Newb. ; near Dunchurch and Little Lawford, R. S. R., 1877 ; cornfield near Prince Thorpe ; Bascote Heath ; Billesley ; Binton ; fields between Meriden and Coventry. 76 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. MYOSOTIS. M. caespitosa, Schultz. Tufted Water Forget-me-not. Native : Near streams, pools, ditches, and marshy places. Bather common. June to September. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; canal near Atherstone ; near Kingsbury ; Coleshill Pool ; Marston Green ; Hampton-in- Arden ; Solihull ; Olton Pool ; near Berkswell, &c. II. Watery places on Stoke Heath ! Whitley Common ! Coventry Park, Arbury ! Kirk. PJvyt., i., 971 ; near Brown’s Over and Clifton Mills, R.S.R., 1877 ; Honington, Neiob. ; canal near Stratford-on-Avon. M. palustris, With. Great Water Forget-me-not. Native: Near streams, pools, ditches, and marshy places. Local. May to July. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; near Kingsbury ; Canal near Atherstone; Water Orton; Coleshill Pool; Meriden Marsh ; Solihull. II. Honington ! Neivb. ; Cathiron Lane, near Bugby ; Combe Pastures ; Sowe Waste ; Ansty, near Coventry ; Drayton, near Stratford- on-Avon. Yar. strigulosa, rare. Blythe Bridge, near Solihull ; canal near Bearley. M. repens, Don. Creeping Water Forget-me-not. Native : By pools and streams and marshes. Bare. June to August. I. Bog near Stonebridge ! W. C. Herb. Perry. Sutton Park, abundant ; Trickley Coppice ; drains between Forge Mills and Coleshill ; Hill Bickenhill ; Olton Pool. M. sylvatica, Ehrh. Wood Scorpion-Grass. Native : In woods and copses. Bare. April to June. I. Hartsliill ! Herb. Perry ; in a ditch, near Arley, W. B. Grove ; coppice near Shustoke ; dingle near New Fillongley Hall ; near Maxtoke Priory. II. In plantations near Arbury Hall, T. Kirk , Phyt. ii., 971 ; by Ches¬ terton Mill Pool ! H. B. ; abundant in a coppice near Henley- in-Arden. M. arvensis, Lehm. Field Forget-me-not. Native : On hedgebanks, waysides, in woods and arable land. Common. April to September. Area general. b. umbrosa. Locallv common. «/ I. Near Maxtoke ; Fillongley ; Kingsbury Wood ; Solihull ; Spring Coppice, Hockley. II. Warwick Deer Park ! Dr. Baker; Drayton Bushes; Studley Woods ; Oversley Wood ; Bagley Park. M. collina, Hoffm , Dwarf Forget-me-not. Native : On old walls and dry heathy places. Bare. May, June. I. Sutton Park ; Maxtoke Priory ruins ; Coleshill Heath ; Abbey walls, Nuneaton ; Bradnock’s Marsh, on foot-bridge, 1881. II. Bailway cutting near Stratford-on-Avon ; Spernal Ash, W. C. Herb. Perry; Hare’s Lane, Stratford-on-Avon, Herb. Perry ; Kenil¬ worth Castle, T. Kirk, Herb. Perry ; Salford Priors! Rev. J. C.; Milverton, Y. and B. ; peafield, Binley Common ; near Bran¬ don. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 77 M. versicolor, Reich. Yellow and Blue Forget-me-not. Native : In woods, lieathy waysides, and fields. Local. April, June, I. Sutton Park ; Hill Wood, near Sutton ; New Park, Middleton ; Coleshill Heath ; woods near Maxtoke. II. Milverton, Y. and B. Near Lawford Heath, R.S.R., 1877. Combe Woods; Oversley Wood ; woods near Berkswell. ANCHUSA. A. arvensis, Bieb. Small Bugloss. Native or Colonist : In cultivated fields, on banks and waysides. Rather local. June, July. I. Railway banks, Sutton Park; fields, Witton ; sandy fields near Coleshill and Great Packington ; cornfields near Meriden Marsh ; Marston Green ; cornfields near Solihull and Knowle. II. Salford Priors, Rev. J. C. Cornfields, Offchurch ; near Brandon ; hedge banks and cornfields, Binley, near Coventry ; bridle road from Billesley to Wilmcote. A. sempervirens, Linn. Evergreen Alkanet. Denizen : On banks near villages. Rare. May to July. I. In lanes about Edgbaston, plentiful! With. Ed. 7, ii., 281. Four Oaks, near Sutton. II. Near Kenilworth in the Coventry Road ! Herb. Berry. Crackley, Y. and B. Near Newbold Grange (escaped), R. S. R ., 1868. On the Fosseway near Brandon. BORAGO. [B. officinalis , Linn. Common Borage. Casual ; On waste heaps and in fields. Very rare. June to August. I. As a weed in cultivated ground, Hampton-in-xArden, Rogers ; on a rubbish heap, Birmingham Road, near Solihull, 1876. II. Among some rubbish in a field by the Arrow turnpike, Purt. i., Ill; in gardens at Warwick and Leamington, Perry FL, 16. Merely a remains or escape from cultivation.] SYMPHYTUM. S. officinale, Linn. Common Comfrey. Denizen : By river banks, near streams, etc. Rare. May to August. I. By the River Tame, Witton and Aston ; near Knowle ; Solihull ; Olton ; Sutton ; near Oscott College ; waysides near Temple Balsall. II. River Arrow, near Oversley Bridge ! Purt. i., 108 ; near Stone- leigli Mill ; roadside between Tredington and Shipston ! plenti¬ ful, Perry FL, 16. Kenilworth, Milverton, Y. and B. Near Brown’s Over Mill. R. S. R., 1877. Honington ! Newb. Newbold Pacey. Yar. patens, Sibth. Honington! Tredington, Halford, Newb. [ S . tauricum , Willd. Blistered Comfrey. Alien or casual : On banks. Very rare. May to August. II. “ Permanently established at Allesley ! Kirk ,” Comp. Cyb. Brit., 548. Occurs as a garden escape at Allesley, Syme, E. B. vii. 121. Established in enclosed ground between Leamington and Warwick, Excli. Club. Rep., 1879, 24.] [S. tuberosum, Linn. Tuberous-rooted Comfrey. Allesley, T. Kirk , Herb. Perry.'] 78 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. CYNOGLOSSUM. C. officinale, Linn. Common Hound's -tongue. Native: On waysides and banks. Rare. June to August. I. On a bank at Castle Bromwich, Ick. Anal., 1837. II. Hatton Rock, near Hampton Lucy ; Fullbrook, Y. and B. ; near Hampton Lucy, Herb. Perry. Compton Yerney, Kenilworth, H. B. Halford, Rev. J. Gorle. Tredington 1 Honington ! Neivb. Lanes near Stratford ! Newb. Between Stratford-on- Avon and Binton ; bridle road from Billesley to Wilmcote ; near Alveston Pastures. C. montanum, Lam. (C. sylvaticum, Perry,) Green-leaved Hound's- tongue. Native : On banks. Very rare. June to August. II. “ Pigwell Lane, Warwick, 1812. On a hedge bank, Cape of Good Hope, Warwick.” Perry FI., 15. Dunspit Lane, Kenilworth ; on a bank near the Copse, Warwick, Herb. Perry . Near Kenilworth Chase Wood, Milverton ! H. B. PINGUICULACEuE . PINGUICULA. P. vulgaris, Linn. Common Butterwort. Native : In bogs and marshes. Very rare. May to July. I. Bannersley Pool ! Bree. Purt. i., 55 ; Sutton Common ! (with hyber- nacula), Lux ford Pliyt. i. 15 ; abundant here in 1881 ; bog near Chelmsley Wood, Bree. Mag. Nat. Hist, iii., 163; Coleshill bog. II. Stivichall, near Coventry, T. Kirk, Herb. Perry.. UTRICULARIA. U. vulgaris, Linn. Common Bladder-icort. Native: In pools and canals. Very rare. July. II. Stoke Heath Canal, 1849, T.K., Herb. Perry ; pool on Commyn’s Farm, near Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire ; pit at Balsall, Bree. Herb. Perry ; canal at Longford, Kirk ; old canals, near Rugby, Blox. 31. S. U. minor, Linn. Lesser Bladder-wort. Native : In pools. Very rare. I. In Powell’s and Bracebridge Pools, and in small marshy pool, Sutton Park, 1877-9 ; not seen in flower. PRIMULACEvE. HOTTONIA. H. palustre, Linn. Water Violet. Native : In pools and ditches. Very rare. June. I. Between Coleshill and Tamworth, Bree. Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 163. PRIMULA. P. vulgaris, Huds. Common Primrose. Native : On banks and in woods and copses. Locally common. March to May. I. Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Sheldon ; Solihull, &c. II. Hay woods, Kenilworth; Allesley; Oversley, &c. Yar. flore-alba and var. flore-rubra, Allesley, Bree. Purt. iii., 341. Var. b. caulescens. Rare. I. New Park, Middleton. II. Badger’s Wood, Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Perry ; Balsall, Herb. Perry. ; Lodge Wood, Salford Priors, Rev. J. C. ; Hay- woods ; Wrox all. Yar. c. intermedia. Rare, THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 79 I. Hampton-in-Arden, R. Rogers; Wishaw ; New Park, Middleton. II. (P. variabilis) Oversley Wood! Lower Norton, W.C.; Wroxall, Herb. Perry ; Honington, Newb. ; Chadshunt, Bolton King ; Rowington ; near Yarningale Farm. P. officinalis, Linn. Cowslip. Native : In pastures and woods. Locally common. April, May. I. Middleton; Hartshill; Solihull; Shustoke ; Kingsbury, &c. II. Tredington, Honington! Neiob.; Alveston pastures; Oversley; Ragley ; Rowington, &c. A large form, with flowers nearly as large as those of the caulescent form of P. vulgaris occurs in Ragley Woods. Although P. officinalis cannot be considered more than a common plant in the county as a whole, it is very rare in some of the districts. LYSIMACHIA. L. vulgaris, Linn. Common Loosestrife. Native : On river banks and damp shady places. Rare. July. I. Coleshill on the Blythe, Bree. Purt. iii., 343. Marston Green. II. Below Bidford Grange, Purt. i., 122 ; lane near Fern Hill Wood ! H.B. ; Radford, Y. and B. ; Salford Priors, Rev. J. C. ; What- cote, Rev. J. Gorle. L. Nummularia, Linn. Creeping Jenny. Native : In woods. Wet meadows and ditches. Locally common. June to August. I. Trickley Coppice ; Hartsliill Hayes ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; near Packwood Church ; lanes about Hockley ; Earlswood. II. Newwbold Pacey, Rev. J. Gorle ; Liglithorne, Bolton King ; Honing¬ ton Park ! Neiob. ; Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. ; Brown’s Over, R.S.R.; Oversley Wood; Alveston Pastures; Itchington Holt Lowson Ford ; Haywoods ; Combe Woods. L. nemorum, Linn. Yelloio Pimpernel. Native : In damp woods and copses. Local. May to August. I. Sutton Park; Trickley Coppice; New Park; Kingsbury Wood Bentley Park ; Hartshill Hayes ; Coleshill Pool ; Marston Green ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Solihull ; Hockley. II. Prince Thorpe Wood; R.S.R., 1877; Combe Woods; Seas Wood, Arbury; Haywoods; Clialcot Wood ; Bush Wood, Lapworth; Oversley Wood. ANAGALIS. A. arvensis, Linn. Scarlet Pimpernel. Native or colonist: In cultivated land, by roadsides, and on heathy waste places. Common. May to September. Area general. Yar. b. pallida. Scarbank, W.C. , Herb. Perry! Kenilworth, Y. and B. A. cserulea, Sm. Blue Pimpernel. Native or colonist : In gardens, fields, and by waysides in cal¬ careous soils. Rather rare. June to August. I. As a weed in a garden, Witton. II. Bidford! Grafton! Purt. i., 115; Leamington, Pliyt. i., 92; Whit- nash, H.B., Herb. Brit. Mus. ; Binton ! Billesley ! Grafton ! Saltisford, Herb. Perry ; Moreton Morrell, Whitnasli ! Y. and B. ; about Honington, F. Toionsend ; Chesterton, Kineton, Bolton King ; Red Hill ; Exhall ; Loxley ; Brandon. A. tenella, Linn. Bog Pimpernel. Native: In bogs, near streams and pools. Rare. June to August. I. Bogs, Sutton Park! and Coleshill Bog! Bree. Mag. Nat. Hist, iii., 163 ; Olton Reservoir; shores of Coleshill Pool. II. Kenilworth, Y. and B. 80 CARDIFF NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY. CENTUNCTJLUS. C. minimus, Linn. Bastard Pimpernel. Native : In damp, sandy drives in woods. Very rare. July, August. I. In Bull’s fields, and near Moor Hall, Sutton, J. Power , B.G. II. Damp, sandy drive in Oversley Wood ! J. T. Slatter and J.E.B. ; sandy waysides, Balsall Heath, H.B. ; damp, sandy drives, Combe Wood, 1880. SAMOLUS. S. Valerandi, Linn. Brook-weed. Native: Near rivers, and in damp, marshy meadows. Bare. July to September. II. Biver Alne above Oversley ; in some boggy ground near Bidford Grange, Purt. i., 120 ; near the Biver Learn, Leamington, Perry FI. ; Itchington ! Bree. Mag. Nat. Hist. iii. , 163; Lud- dington ; Itchington Holt! Straford-on-Avon, IF. (7. ; near Leamington, W.G.P., Herb. Perry ; Salford Brook, Rev. J.G.; near Halford, Neivb. ; Kmeton, Bolton King ; wet meadows west of Blackwell, F. Townsend ; Birdingbury, Y. and B. (To be continued.) CABDIFF NATUBALISTS’ SOCIETY.* I had intended giving (according to the custom of inaugural addresses) some account of the progress of scientific discovery during the last sixteen years, but the range is so wide, and its history has already been told so well and so often elsewhere, that I do not feel justified in doing more than glancing at a few of its more salient points. The development of scientific knowledge, which during the 19tli century has been unexampled in the history of mankind, has been especially marked during the period of our existence as a society. The most important of the more recent developments are Spencer’s and Darwin’s theories of evolution. Mr. Darwin’s great work, “ The Origin of Species,” was published ten years before the birth of our Society, but at the time this commenced its career it was still com¬ paratively unknown. No single person in Cardiff, so far as I know, believed in it, or, at any rate, no one dared avow a belief in it. I shall never forget the intense interest with which I read that wonderful book. The marvellous theory seemed to influence every event and circumstance, however trivial or however important, and invested every department of human enquiry with a new and absorbing interest. That such wide-reaching consequences could follow from a principle so simple is astonishing. What can be more simple or obvious than the fact that the production of organic beings is vastly in excess of their means of support ? We know, for instance, that corn is so productive that a bushel of it re-sown would, if unchecked, cover the whole surface of the earth in nine or ten years. We learn that the common watercress, introduced by English emigrants, already * Extract from Inaugural Address read before the Society, 24th January, 1884, by Peter Price, President and Treasurer. CARDIFF NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY. 81 fills almost to choking the rivers of New Zealand, and so on. Mr. Darwin’s book contains the most interesting instances of this prolific and excessive reproduction. This fact, viz., excessive reproduction, is one of the bases of Darwin’s theory. The other is equally simple, certain, and obvious, viz., that all organic beings differ more or less from their progenitors. For instance, out of millions of human beings, there is seldom one so like another that they cannot be distinguished. Now a necessary consequence of these two undoubted facts, viz., the excessive reproduction of individuals and their continuous variation, must cause a struggle for life, ending in an extinction of the weakest — thus leading to a constant modification of all organic beings from one generation to another. These positions are so demonstrably true, that one is now inclined to wonder how they could ever have been doubted. It is, however, a significant and instructive fact, that not only were these conclusions reached with difficulty, and reluctantly accepted, but they are still received with doubt and misgiving by those who have not considered the subject. It affords another instance to be added to the many which history furnishes of the unwillingness or inability of the human mind fo^accept a new view or a new idea which strays from ‘•the even roadway of public opinion.” Soon after the establishment of this society I prepared a paper on Darwinism, but, at the earnest request of some of the^members, I withdrew it, as it was feared that the advocacy of such a daring inroad upon current beliefs would imperil the existence of our young society. Since then we have had the satisfaction of hearing Darwinism acknowledged and advocated by one of our most eminent lecturers — himself a minister of the Gospel, and even from a local pulpit. What a remarkable change in 16 years ! There are many indications which go to show that this theory, like so many others, received at first with mingled. derision and alarm, will eventually become one of the commonplaces of ordinary belief. Darwinism is, however, only one phase of the still wider theory of evolution. It is, in fact, the theory of evolution applied to Biology, just as Malthusianism is Darwinism applied to human beings. The theory of evolution, as propounded by Herbert Spencer, is a still more wonderful product of the human intellect than Darwinism ;[ but it is perhaps more difficult to grasp, and, therefore, less widely appreciated. I am inclined to think that in the next age Spencer’s name will stand higher even than that of Darwin. We know that Spencer preceded Darwin in the enunciation of the all-embracing principle of evolution, and that he has worked it out with a wider grasp of its necessary consequences. “ The First Principles” of Spencer, and “The Origin of Species” of Darwin, will hereafter rank in the annals of science with Bacon’s “Instauratio Magna” and Newton’s “Principia.” It is interesting to note the different ways in which this theory of evolution is presented in these two books. Broadly, it may be said that Darwin proves his principle by inductive reasoning, and Spencer by deductive reasoning. Darwin laboriously and patiently accumulates instances, the result of a life of continuous and accurate observation, from which 82 HIGH LAND AND GHIEAT MOISTURE. he cautiously draws the inevitable conclusion that all organic beings have been derived and developed from a primordial germ. To this conclusion he strictly limits himself, looking neither before nor after. Within that limit he proves his case to demonstration, but there is no trace in his book which shows that he appreciated the immensely wider consequences that must necessarily flow from the principle which he establishes. In Spencer, on the other hand, the reasoning takes an opposite course. He deduces his theory from fundamental principles, viz., from the indestructibility of matter, the conservation of force, the transformation and equivalence of the physical forces, and the continuity of motion. From these principles he argues deductively that evolution is a necessary condition of things, and that everything is a “flux” or a “becoming,” to use the language of the Greek Philosopher. Having thus established his principle he traces the effects which must necessarily follow, not only in biological phenomena, but into every department of science and philosophy. Darwin confines his attention to the effect produced on the life and development of plants and animals only. Spencer, on the other hand, shows its application to the entire Cosmos. He weaves in the nebular hypothesis and the geological history of the earth. To it he traces the development of life upon its surface, the constitution of the human mind, the development of the principles of government, political economy and commerce, the development of language, science, and aesthetics, and in it he finds a new basis for the principles of morals. In all these departments of knowledge Spencer has applied his theory with profound insight and the most marvellous skill, and the series of works which he is publishing in its elucidation strikes me as one of the most pro¬ found productions of modern philosophy. His theory will eventually become a new point of departure in every department of human enquiry. HIGH LAND AND GREAT MOISTURE ESSENTIAL TO THE INITIATION OF A GLACIAL EPOCH. A point of great importance in connection with the occurrence of a Glacial Epoch is the fact that the permanent storing up of cold depends entirely on the annual amount of snow-fall in proportion to that of the sun and air heat, and not on the actual cold of winter or even on the average cold of the year. A place may be intensely cold in winter and may have a short Arctic summer, yet, if so little snow falls that it is quickly melted by the returning sun, there is nothing to prevent the summer being hot and the earth producing a luxuriant vegetation. As an example of this we have great forests in the extreme north of Asia and America, where the winters are colder and the summers shorten than in Green¬ land in lat. 62° N., or than in Heard Island and South Georgia, both in lat. 53° S., in the Southern Ocean, and almost wholly covered with perpetual snow and ice. At the “ Jardin ” on the Mont Blano range, above the line of perpetual snow, a thermometer in an exposed situation HIGH LAND AND GREAT MOISTURE. 83 marked — 6° F. as tlie lowest winter temperature, while in many parts of Siberia mercury freezes for several weeks in winter, showing a tem¬ perature below — 40° F. ; yet here the summers are hot, all the snow disappears, and there is a luxuriant vegetation. Even in the very highest latitudes reached by our last Arctic Expedition there is very little perpetual snow or ice, for Captain Nares tells us that north of Hayes’ Sound, in lat. 79° N., the mountains were remarkably free from ice-cap, wdiile extensive tracts of land were free from snow during summer, and covered with a rich vegetation with abundance of bright flowers. The reason of this is evidently the scanty snowfall, which rendered it sometimes difficult to obtain enough to form shelter-banks around the ships, and this was north of 80Q N. lat., where the sun was absent for 142 days. It is a very remarkable and most suggestive fact that nowhere in the world at the present time are there any extensive lowlands covered with perpetual snow. The Tundras of Siberia and the barren grounds of North America are all clothed with some kind of summer vegetation ; and it is only where there are lofty mountains or plateaus — as in Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Grinnell’s Land— that glaciers, accom¬ panied by perpetual snow, cover the country, and descend in places to the level of the sea. The reason why no accumulation of snow or ice ever takes place on Arctic lowlands is explained by the observations of Lieutenant Payer, of the Austrian Polar Expedition, who found that during the short Arctic summer of the highest latitudes, the icefields diminished four feet in thickness under the influence of the sun and wind. To replace this would require a precipitation of snow equivalent to about forty-five inches of rain, an amount which rarely occurs in lowlands out of the Tropics. In Siberia, within and near the Arctic circle, about six feet of snow covers the country all the winter and spring, and is not sen¬ sibly diminished by the powerful sun so long as northerly winds keep the air below the freezing-point and occasional snow-storms occur. But early in June the wind usually changes to southerly, probably the south-western anti-trades overcoming the northern inflow ; and under its influence the snow all disappears in a few days and the vegetable kingdom bursts into full luxuriance. This is very important as showing the impotence of mere sun-lieat to get rid of a thick mass of snow so long as the air remains cold, while currents of warm air are in the highest degree effective. If, however, they are not of sufficiently high temperature, or do not last long enough to melt the snow, they are likely to increase it from the quantity of moisture they bring with them, which will be condensed into snow by coming into contact with the frozen surface. We may therefore expect the transition from perpetual snow to a luxuriant Arctic vegetation to be very abrupt, depending as it must on a few degrees more or less in the summer temperature of the air, and this is quite in accordance with the fact of corn ripening by the sides of Alpine glaciers. — A. R. Wallace , from “ Island Life.” 84 DEEP BORING AT SAPCOTE, LEICESTERSHIRE. DEEP BOEING AT SAPCOTE, LEICESTERSHIRE. In a paper in your last number on the “ Syenites of South Leicester¬ shire,” Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., refers to a boring made some years ago, about two miles east of Hinckley, at Sapcote Ereeholt, by Mr. J. A. Bosworth, F.G.S. Mr. Harrison states that after passing through 540 feet of red marls, the boring was carried down through 1,100 feet of hard slates. In the next sentence, without any explan¬ ation, he decides that these slates were Cambrian. If he had made the least enquiry he could scarcely have failed to learn that this was one of the few borings carried out under the supervision of a competent geologist. The cores were all examined by Mr. Robert Etheridge, F.R.S. He discovered in them Flemingites (Carruthers), and so settled that the so-called slates belonged to the Coal Measures. — John D. Paul, Leicester, 21st February, 1884. [Perhaps Mr. Paul will kindly refer me to any statement by Mr. Etheridge that the lower beds reached at Sapcote were true coal measures. I am well aware that somebody else said that Mr. Etheridge said so twenty years ago, but that is not evidence. I need not say that I have made every possible enquiry as to the age of the Palaeozoic rocks reached in the various borings made of late years in the centre, south, and east of England; I have visited the places, examined the cores, and consulted all available sources of information. In my paper on the “Quartzite Pebbles of the Trias, and on their Derivation from Ancient Land in Central England,” I have used a portion of the information so obtained ; in the paper on the “ Syenites of South Leicestershire,” to which Mr. Paul refers, I only mention the Sapcote boring incidentally, and do not, therefore, go into details. The fact is that the key to the true age of the coarse much -jointed slates reached in the several borings put down at Sapcote, Leicester, Market Bosworth, etc., lies in the discovery, made by Professor Lap worth and myself early in 1882, of the Cambrian age of the rocks exposed in the Stockingford cutting, near Nuneaton. Until that time these Stockingford rocks were also supposed to be Lower Coal Measures, and were so mapped by the Geological Survey. Now these very rocks at Stockingford have been referred to by Mr. Bosworth (by whom the Sapcote boring was executed) as being similar to the strata reached at Sapcote. The Sapcote boring was made nearly twenty years ago ; it is possible that Mr. Etheridge may at that time have been of opinion that the lower beds there reached were of Coal Measure age, though he has published nothing on the subject. It is also just possible that the boring there may have passed through a stratum of coal measures lying between the Red Marls and the Cambrians. Still, I think it more probable that the whole of the lower beds pierced at Sapcote were of Cambrian age. Has Mr. Paul any authority from Mr. Etheridge to state what his opinions were, and are, as to the age of the rocks alluded to ? If so, I shall be glad to discuss the question with the latter gentleman. — W. J. Harrison.] REVIEWS. 85 Energy in Nature. By W. Lant Carpenter. 8vo., 212 pp., 81 woodcuts. Price 3s. 6d. Cassell & Co. Mr. Lant Carpenter lias done good service to the cause of science in many ways, among which his lectures delivered in connection with the Gilchrist Trust may be specially named. The admirably clear and interesting book which he has now written had its origin in a course of six lectures lately delivered to the artisans of certain Lancashire towns, and it probably owes much of the simplicity combined with thoroughness, which is its leading feature, to the circumstances under which it was written. Commencing with Mechanical Energy, Mr. Carpenter passes on to Heat, Chemical Attraction, Electricity, and Magnetism, and shows by clear reasoning and well-selected experiments how all these forms of energy are connected and convertible — any one into any other. The last chapter, which deals with Energy in Organic Nature, will be especially interesting to students of Natural History. Throughout the work the very latest results of scientific investigation are used and described. W. J. H. The Geology of Stroud. By E. Witchell, F.G.S. 8 vo., 108 pp., 5 plates. Price 3s. 6d. G. H. James, Stroud. Too many of our local workers in science leave no record of the facts which they have ascertained ; we therefore welcome the publica¬ tion, in a compact and connected form, of the results obtained by so careful and thorough a geologist as Mr. Witchell. Stroud forms an admirable centre for the study of the Oolitic and Liassic strata, includ¬ ing the debatable sandy beds — which the author proposes to term the Cottesiuold Sands — that lie between the clays of the Lias and the lime¬ stones of the Oolite. The physical geography of the district is described in the first chapter, and in those which follow the various formations are considered in detail, commencing with the Lower Lias and ending with the Cornbrash. The last chapter deals with the Gravels, River Deposits, and Surface Denudation of the district under consideration. The principal sections of the country round Stroud are fully described, and very complete lists of the fossils obtained are given. The illustrations include two plates of sections and three plates of fossils. W. J. H. Batumi ^jistorn Bates. Mr. Herbert Spencer. — It will interest the admirers of Mr. Herbert Spencer to hear that his works, which have already been translated into the principal Continental languages, have recently been translated into Japanese, and are now being reprinted in Australia. 86 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. Croft Hill. — I think the height of Croft Hill, as stated on page 9, vol. vii., of the “Midland Naturalist,” is in excess. I have measured height by the barometer many times, and the mean of my measures is 456 feet. Bench mark at Narborough Church, 241ft. ; rails at Narborougli Station, 220 ; rails at Croft Station, 239 ; river at Croft, 231. — W. Andrews, Coventry. Waterproof Paper. — When paper is treated with ammoniacal sub¬ chloride of copper it is rendered water-proof and rot-proof ; even boiling fails to separate the fibres. Such paper is now being manufactured bv a company (Mr. Healey, manager) at Willesden. There are many purposes to which it can be usefully applied by students of natural history. The extreme width in which it is manufactured is a yard and a half. Mildness of the Season. — The unusually fine weather which pre¬ vailed from the 1st to the 26th of January, 1884, when it terminated in a hurricane and a frost succeeded, enabled us to gather primroses and several spring flowers in the garden ; but the most noteworthy instance was that of a fine scarlet rhododendron (Russelliana ?) which continued flowering in the garden of Endwood Court all the month. On Sunday, 13th January, I counted twenty blossoms on this beautiful plant. — W. R. Hughes, Handsworth, 20th January, 1884. Temperature in Australia. — The heat and dryness around Adelaide have been so remarkable that a few scientific statistics will be of interest to my meteorological friends. The plains of South Australia are undoubtedly, for absolute values, the hottest and driest regions in the British Empire. At 3 p.m. on January 13th I registered the following figures at my observatory on the plains, bordering the river Torrens : — Shade temperature of air by dry bulb, 107*0 ; temperature of evaporation by wet bulb, 69*7 — giving the extraordinary difference of 37'3 degrees between the dry and wet thermometers. The shade maximum for twelve hours ending 9 p.m. was 109*6, and the solar maximum (black bulb in vacuo) 152*3. The temperature of the ground at a depth of 1 foot at 9 p.m. was 91*0. Both man and beast suffered severely during this parched heat ; yet really the climate at this season is not unhealthy to the adult, and I feel the heat less than when under a temperature of 83 in the Tropics. A greater change from the climate of Ben Nevis, where temperature averaged 36*0, and where the wet bulb rarely read a degree lower than the dry, can scarcely be imagined. — Clement L. Wragge, Adelaide, South Australia, Jan. 19th, 1884. Technical School for Birmingham. — Encouraged by the success of the science teaching in the Birmingham Board Schools, Mr. George Dixon, the Chairman of the Board, has most generously offered extensive premises in the centre of the town, rent free, for the purpose of a technical school, defraying at the same time the cost of the necessary structural alterations, which will amount, we believe, to over £2,000. The School will possess an excellent chemical laboratory, provided with work-benches for forty students, a lecture theatre to seat KEPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 87 eighty, a carpenter’s shop and lathe-room for forty, a room for geomet¬ rical and model drawing, with large class rooms for mathematics and literature, and a dining-hall. The school will be maintained by the Bir¬ mingham School Board, and the scientific and technical training will be given under the direction of Mr. W. J. Harrison, Science Demonstrator for the Board. The Dixon Technical School is intended for boys who have passed through the six standards of the “ Code ” in one or other of the thirty Board Schools of the town, and whose parents are willing to give them one or two years’ further instruction in practical science. The building will accommodate 240 boys, and within three days of the announcement of Mr. Dixon’s offer, applications were received from 280 of the parents of boys now in the sixth or seventh standards of the Birmingham Board Schools, desiring that their sons might be admitted to the school, and undertaking to keep them there for at least one year. It is hoped that the school will be ready to open in June next. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — General Meeting, Jan. 29th. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited a series of mosses from. Merivale and Baddesley, including Hypnum tenellum (rare); and a lichen, Cladonia uncialis , new to the county ; also (for Mr. J. B. Stone) Dicranum longifolium, in fruit ; Pylaiscea polyantha, and Bartramia ithyphylla , from Norway. Mr. R. W. Chase then read a paper, entitled “Notes on the Terns Breeding at the Fame Islands,” which is printed in this number. — Annual General Meeting, Feb. 5th. — The annual report and treasurer’s audited accounts were read and adopted, and will be sent to the members. After the usual complimentary votes, the following officers and committee were elected for the ensuing year : — President, Mr. T. H. Waller; vice-presidents, Messrs. R. W. Chase and J. E. Bagnall; ex-presidents (who are vice-presidents), Messrs. W. Graham, W. R. Hughes, J. Levick, and W. Southall ; treasurer, Mr. C. Pumphrey ; librarian, Mr. W. B. Grove; curators, Messrs. R. M. Lloyd and H. J. Sayer ; committee : Messrs. J. F. Goode, W. Hillhouse (Professor), C. Lapwortli (Professor), W. P. Marshall, J. Rabone, and Edmund Tonks ; secretaries, Mr. J. Morley and Mr. W. H. Wilkinson. The meeting was then adjourned. Biological Section, Feb. 12. — Mr. W. P. Marshall was elected Chairman, and Mr. J. F. Goode, Secretary. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited mosses: Fontinalis antipyretica , new locality, Earlswood ; Fissedens inconstans, new to North Warwick, Hockley ; Bryam obconicum, new to county, Rowington ; Amblystegium liparium var. longifolium , new to South Warwick ; and other mosses. Fungi : Travietes suaveolens, new to the district, Hampton- in-Arden. For Mr. J. B. Stone, Hyocomium Jlagellare , from New Forest ; Dicranodontium longifolium , Cynodonthim strumiferum, Bartramia Halleriana , and other mosses from Norway. For Dr. M. C. Cooke, Auricularia mcscnterica, Phlebia merismoides, Merulius molluscus , Hydnum Weinmanni , and other fungi; also Hypnum Kneiffii and Sendtneri from South Beds, collected by Mr. J. Saunders; Rosa melvini, a new variety of Rosa sempervirens from Malvern, collected by Mr. Towndrow. Mr. W. P. Marshall exhibited a new method of drawing objects for 88 REPORTS OE SOCIETIES. reproduction by lithography, which was very effective. Mr. Egbert de Hamel, President of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies, and Treasurer of the Tamworth Natural History and Antiquarian Society, read a paper on “ Elementary Biology.” He began by drawing a parallel between the elements and the alphabet. Just as from the letters of the alphabet syllables are formed, from the words sentences, and finally, an eloquent book which lives in the hearts of men long after the hand that wrote it has passed away ; so from atoms are formed molecules, from molecules chemical compounds, from chemical compounds minerals and organic beings, of which the beautiful world of nature is composed. He then proceeded to trace out the numerous analogies which are now known to exist between the organic and the inorganic kingdoms — the resemblance of a snow-crystal to a fern, a flower, and even to a skeleton ; the similarity in form of a starch granule and a crystal of carbonate of lime, crystallised under certain conditions ; the formation of pseudo cells from truly inorganic matter ; the gradual passage from the molecules of the simple crystalloids, with their few atoms, to the more complex colloids, and finally to the complicated molecules of albumen (containing 883 atoms) and bathybius (containing 1,120 atoms.) He showed, too, how pure crystalline substances, when crystallising in the presence of ammonia or free nitrogen, assume more tree-like forms than those which are proper to them under ordinary conditions. A series of beautiful slides illustrating this change was exhibited, and the paper was also illustrated by many diagrams and other means. Dr. Hill then made some remarks drawing especial attention to Dr. Beale’s discovery of mildew (1870) and also to a fallacy (as he believed) in the reasoning concerning the crystallisation of chloride of ammonium and bichromate of potash, in the one case the result being the same whether ammonia is added or not, in the second, not, the latter being a double salt. A discussion then arose, in which Messrs. Hughes, Grove, Great- heed, and the Chairman, Mr. W. P. Marshall, took part. — General Meeting, Feb. 19. — A vote of condolence was passed to the family of the late Mr. B,. M. Lloyd, a gentleman who was much respected for his quiet but efficient services in the care and manipulation of the microscopes of which he was in charge. — Mr. T. H. Waller, the President, showed, by means of the Society’s new oxyhydrogen microscope, a number of thin sections of rocks, illustrating the order in which the various minerals composing them have separated, and the different forms which minerals, especially quartz, have assumed, under varying conditions of formation. Mr. J. Levick also exhibited the following living specimens of pond life, the moving cilia of some of which were beautifully shown by his careful dark background illumination : Stylonickia viytilus, Brachionus urceolaris, Synclueta Mordax, Stephanoceros Eichhornii , Stentor poly- morphus, S. Rceselii, and S. Mullari. Mr. K. T. Brain also exhibited a lichen, XJsnea barbata, the fruit of which was well formed on the ciliated disks ; this lichen is common, but is rarely met with in fruit. Also a fungus, Polyporus versicolor, from the south coast, and a piece of rock supposed to have come from Java. Sociological Section, February 21st. — Mr. Hughes was re-elected President of the Section, and Mr. F. J. Cullis was elected Secretary. A few of the members assembled an hour before the ordinary meeting and made a commencement with the compilation of an index to Mr. Herbert Spencer’s smaller work on Sociology. This enterprise has the approval of Mr. Spencer, and is being conducted on a plan REPORTS OF SOCIETIES 89 arranged by Mr. F. H. Collins. The President read some very pleasant letters from some Sociologists at a distance who are interested in the section, and Mr. J. O. W. Barratt repeated (by special request) his illustration of the material changes occurring during the life of an Amoeba. The study of Mr. Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology ” was then proceeded with, Chapter 7 of Part II. being introduced by Mr. W. W. Collins, and this was followed by a discussion, in which the President, Messrs. C. H. Allison, W. Greatheed, S. D. Williams, and the Secretary took part. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. — Feb. 6. — Mr. C. J. Watson gave an interesting description of a trip “Round Snowdon with a Camera,” and exhibited a large number of slides, many of them showing the effects of the Glacial Period. — On Feb. 13 Mr. E. B. Marten, C.E., of Stourbridge, showed some beautiful apparatus made by Mr. Wm. Grove, after the designs of Mr. Stroh, of London, to illustrate the action of vibrating discs or drums upon one another, causing attraction when their movements or vibrations are alike and repulsion when they are unlike. Also, when a light metal disc was suspended between two vibrating drums it arranged itself in the line of their axes when the vibrations were alike, and at right angles to the axes when unlike. The same kind of disc was suspended between two electro magnets when it showed move¬ ments very analogous, but in reverse order, as it was at right angles to axes of the magnets when they were both similar poles and in the line of the axes when the poles were contrary. It was explained that this had been noted by Dr. C. A. Bjerkner, of Christiania, in 1856, and illustrated by beautiful apparatus for showing the effects upon bodies suspended in water at the Paris Electrical Exhibition. Similar effects were shown with a cardboard vane poised like a weather-cock, and also with two discs connected like a pair of spectacles and suspended by a thread. The action was explained by showing that when the discs approached the air between was driven out sideways, and on parting a partial vacuum was formed between them, and the air at the back of the disc on the vane pushed it forward. If a rim was put round the vibrated disc the action was the reverse, and the vane was repelled. Some other curious effects of atmospheric impact were illustrated with a disc suspended before a hole in a box with an elastic side, which approached when the beating of the side caused a puff of air and a reaction. The same was shown by a disc held up by a current of air from a hole in the centre of another disc ; and again by the falling of some cardboard figures towards a vibrated disc. Two large diagrams made for that meeting explained the work of Dr. Bjerkner and Mr. Stroh respectively. Feb. 20th. — Mr. W. W. Staveley read a paper on “Frac¬ tional Distillation.” After briefly alluding to the history of the subject, he dealt with the various forms of apparatus used in the laboratory, and the industrial apparatus used on an immense scale in the manufacture of alcohol, benzene, etc., showing, by means of diagrams, the gradual advance from the primitive cucurbit or alembic of the old alchemists to the complicated apparatus of the present day. He next gave comparative results obtained with each form of apparatus, and concluded by presenting in a succinct form all that is at present known relating to the theory of distillation. BIRMINGHAM MICBOSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION.— January 21st, opening night at new rooms. — Mr. Darley exhibited a collection of moths, including among many others large 90 KEPORTS OP' SOCIETIES. and small elephant hawk, wood tiger, scarlet tiger C. innabar, large emerald, etc., etc. ; Mr. Madison, Lmincea pereger var. albida and Ancylus Jluviatilis var. albida from Westmoreland ; Mr. Delicate, a stuffed specimen of jack snipe ( Gallinago gallinula). The following objects were shown under the microscopes : — Mr. Dunn, larva of day fly ( Ephemera marginata ) ; Mr. Darley, rotifers ; Mr. Foster, Cyclops quadricornis ; Mr. Tylar, Daphnia pulex ; Mr. Moore, circula¬ tion of blood in a fish ; Mr. C. P. Neville, Hydra vulgaris ; Mr. Brad¬ bury, Sarcoptes scabiei and Pediculus vestimenti ; Mr. J. W. Neville, Melicerta r ingens ; Mr. Flower, head of crane fly ( Tipula oloracea). January 28th. — Mr. Hawkes, a specimen of tooth-wort ( Latlircca squamaria) , from Halesowen ; Mr. Darley, hybernated larvae of fox moth ; Mr. Dunn, great water mite ( Hydrachna geographica) ; Mr. Tylar, trans. section of echinus spine ; Mr, Moore, trans. section of Lithostrotion basaltifonne, a fossil coral from Plymouth ; Mr. J. W. Neville, deep sea dredgings from Indian Ocean; Mr. Hawkes, a portable or pocket microscope specially designed by himself ; Mr. Madison, a short lecture on “ How to distinguish common rocks,” well illustrated by specimens that were subjected to various tests to show their nature and composition. Microscopical and General Meeting, February 4tli. — Mr. Moore, a collection of twenty-four beetles found in decaying vegetation. Mr. Madison, Limncea palustris, a large variety from Cheddar, and Planorbis nitidus, var. albida. Mr. Simpson, a small electric motor for use with turntable. Mr. Dunn, Chydorus sphcericus. Mr. Tylar, young of Gobius niger , just hatched. Mr. Hawkes, larva of Coretlira plumicornis. Mr. J. W. Neville, snake’s head Coralline ( Anguinaria spathulata). February 11th. — Mr. Deakin exhibited a collection of wild flowers, showing the mildness of the season. Mr. Tylar, young Starfish ( Asteria gibbosa and Stephanoceros eichhornii) . Mr. Moore, gizzard of beetle ( Cetonia lineatus). Mr. Flower then read a paper, “ Notes on Foreign Cage Birds,” illustrated by living specimens. BEDFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. — A meeting was held at the Bedford Assembly Rooms on Thursday, the 13th inst., Mr. T. G. Eiger, F.R.A.S., in the chair. Arrangements were made for printing the transactions, the editorship of which is ably carried out by Mr. Eiger. An invitation was sent to the North¬ ampton Natural History Society to join our own upon some date, and at some suitable place to be afterwards agreed upon, for a field excursion. Mr. Arthur Ransom, the botanical secretary, expressed his willingness to conduct a series of Saturday afternoon botanical expeditions during the summer. The Secretary of the Rural Lecturing Committee (Mr. Hamson) announced that lectures had been delivered at Kempton by the Rev. J. Copner and Mr. Crick, and at Great Barford by Mr. A. Ransom. An application for a lecture was received from Potton, and Mr. Hamson agreed to give one on “Flowers and their Fertilization.” A paper on “ Vegetable Cells and their Contents ” was then read by Mr. Hamson, describing the formation, nature, and function of protoplasm, starch, and its derivatives, chlorophyll, crystalloids, globoids, aleuronegrains, the albuminoids, raphides, etc. Mr. Davis lent two microscopes, and an admirable series of slides illus¬ trating the subject, together with a live plant of nitella showing the circulation in the cells. At the close, on the proposition of Mr. Eiger, seconded by Dr. Adams, and supported by Mr. G. Hurst, a vote of thanks was passed to the essayist. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 01 PETERBOROUGH NATURAL HISTORY, SCIENTIFIC, AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.— Two “Gilchrist” Lectures have been given, under the auspices of the Society, during the month : — “ The Animals of the Coal Period,” by Professor Miall, F.G.S. ; and “ The Dynamo-Machine,” by W. Lant Carpenter, Esq., B.A. The Drill Hall was densely crowded at each lecture. No ordinary meetings of the Society have been held in consequence of these lectures. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— February 5th.— The members of this Society met for the first time in their new and commodious room at the Social Guild, Parliament Street, when Mr. J. J. Ogle read an interesting paper on “ The Dispersion of Seeds.” After a few introductory remarks, Mr. Ogle said that water and wind were the most evident means of dispersion, then animals, especially birds. The various adaptations of the seed itself, or of its coverings, or of other attachments, for this special purpose were most interesting and instructive. To begin with the contrivances adapted to the wind as the carrying medium. These were mainly wing-like or plume-like attachments. The ash, the elm, the fir, the maple, and several plants of the natural order Umbelliferee furnished examples of the former kind of expanded attachments to the seed. Great numbers of the Compositse, such as the dandelion, the goat’s beard, and the thistle, and of other natural orders, as for instance the willow herb, the bull- rush, the willow, and the clematis, gave good examples of connections more or less plume-like. In the fir the wing-like appendage was a development of the seed-covering ; in the ash it was an extension of the covering of the fruit. In the lime tree there was another kind of wing, which served as a sail to a whole bunch of fruits, being in fact a modified leaf or bract attached along half its length to the main stem of the fruiting branch. The plume-like attach¬ ments of the seeds of plants of the natural order Compositse were modified calyces so contrived as to catch the wind which was to waft the seeds to their resting place. The pappus-like crown of the willow herb was a part of the seed — it was in fact a special development of the chalaza. In the clematis the top of the fruit consisted of a long flexible feathery tail which was simply the style of the flower increased and rendered permanent. The dispersion of seeds by animals was effected in various ways. In some cases the fruit (to use the word in its popular sense) was sweet and succulent, and eagerly sought after by birds, and the seeds were either dropped from their bills during flight, or were voided in an undigested state. The strawberry was well adapted for dispersion by fruit-eating animals, as also were the blackberry, raspberry, cherry, etc. The seeds of edible fruits were chiefly adapted for dispersion by birds, though in the case of such fruits as the hazel nut, squirrels and other animals were the agents. Then, again, there was a large class of hooked fruits, a familiar example of which was seen in the common heriff , or cleavers, the fruit being covered with minute hooks, so arranged as to cling to any animal that touched it. The fruits of the forget- me-not, agrimony, wood-sanicle, bur-parsley, and the enchanter’s night¬ shade, had hooks very effectively arranged for the end in view. Lastly, there was a large class of plants that disseminated their seeds by forces inherent to themselves ; the bursting of cells through high tension, the elasticity of some special part, together with hygrometric action upon the tissues and fibres, resulted in little explosions which threw the seeds a considerable distance from their birth-place. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 92 Instances of this inherent force were seen in the squirting cucumber, in the Ecballium agreste, in the Impatiens noli-me -tang ere and in plants of the natural order Geraniacese. — February 7th. — The Annual Dinner of the Society took place at the George Hotel, under the presidency of Dr. E. Seaton. The Mayor (Alderman Manning) and the Slierift (Councillor Cleaver) and upwards of fifty members and friends were present, and spent a most enjoyable evening. NOTTINGHAM WORKING MEN’S NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY. — Annual Meeting, February 4th, 5th, and 6th. — On the 4th Mr. W. Watchorn read a paper on the “Life History of the Emperor Moth,” explaining the stages from the egg to the perfect insect. This moth was taken very plentifully a few years ago by Mr. Watchorn and Mr. J. Fox in Newstead Park, but no specimens can now be obtained . On the 5th the Annual Exhibition was held, when there was a good gathering and an interesting local exhibit by the members. On Wednesday the 6th, the Annual Dinner was held, Mr. Haynes in the chair, Mr. Morley vice-chair. After the usual toasts the yearly report was read by Mr. Goldsmith, Secretary, showing the healthy way in which the Society has worked for the past nine years, having now a valuable library of 100 volumes, a micro¬ scope, entomological and large bird cabinets, and other scientific appliances for the instruction of the members. TAMWORTH NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.— On Monday, Jan. 14th, the prizes were distributed to the junior members of the Society. Amongst others, a special prize was offered by the Rev. Brooke Lambert for the best explanation of the following lines from Milton, with any remarks on the word “ indented,” the explanations to be accompanied with a map : — “ Rivers, arise! whether thou be the son Of utmost Tweed, or Ouse, or gulphy Dun ; Or Trent, who like some earth-born giant spreads His thirty arms along the indented meads ; Or sullen Mole that runneth underneath ; Or Severn swift, guilty of maiden’s death ; Or of rocky Avon, or of sedgy Lee ; Or coaly Tyne, or ancient hallowed Dee ; Or Humber loud that keeps the Scythian’s name ; Or Medway smooth, or royal towered Thame.” Miss Gilbert and Master S. R. Cope were each awarded prizes, Mr. Lambert considering their papers of sufficient merit. Very satisfactory progress is being made in this junior branch of the Society ; the numbers are increasing, and the members show interest in their work. — On Monday, the 28th, Mr. E. D. de Hamel gave a lecture on “Air.” The lecture was cast in a popular form, with original diagrams and experiments. Dividing the subject under the three heads of “Mechanical Qualities,” “Chemical Qualities,” and “Effects on Life,” the lecturer amusingly illustrated the five governing laws from a scene at the hustings in an old-fashioned election. — On Feb. 11th the Rev. W. Robinson gave his lecture on “Life beneath the Waves.” It included notices of sea anemones, star-fish, annelids, the echinas, trochus, octopus, etc. Excellent diagrams, drawn for the purpose by Mr. Robinson, were shown in illustration. The chair on each occasion was occupied by Mr. W. G. Davy, president, Plat e II Fig. 2 •' 1'MS‘itsCJzZ' <£ec&o-) i-,.cc£ Kimberley Diamond Mine. THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. 93 NOTES ON THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE * By W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E. The diamond field of South Africa is situated in the northern part of Cape Colony, adjoining the Orange Free State and the Transvaal ; at about 400 miles distance by road and railway from the south-east coast at Port Elizabeth, and about 650 miles from Cape Town on the south-west coast, the capital of the Colony. This district is quite unique, and the most remarkable one known for the produce of diamonds and for the circumstances of the ground in which the diamonds are found, and there are several points of special interest connected with it. Besides the Kimberley diamond mine there are three others in the immediate neighbourhood — Du Toit’s Pan, De Beers, and Bultfontein ; these are larger in surface extent than the Kimberley mine, but the latter is the one of most importance, and has been worked to the greatest depth and in the most systematic manner. There are also two other diamond mines in the Orange Free State, at about 40 miles distance from Kimberley. The Kimberley mine is worked by a number of diamond mining companies, under conditions from the Government of the Colony, and now forms a great conical pit of irregular outline 450ft. deep and nearly a quarter of a mile across at the top. In Plate II. is shown an approximate sketch of the vertical section and plan of the mine ; and this drawing and the following paper have been mainly prepared from infor¬ mation supplied by Mr. H. Kenneth Austin, who has recently returned from the district, having been engaged upon the Cape Government Eailways. Fig. 1 is a plan showing the division into separate claims. Fig. 2 is an approximate section of the mine at the beginning of the working. Fig. 3 is a corresponding section at the present time, showing the 450ft. depth of excavation of the mine. The first diamonds of the South African field were found sixteen years ago in the bed of the River Vaal, near the border of the Transvaal State, and in adjoining ground washed by mountain streams forming sandy and gravel deposits in which diamonds were picked up. These “River Diggings,” and the searching of the top gravel on the river banks, were carried on for some years in that locality, at about twenty- four miles north of Kimberley ; and extended irregularly * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Read February 26tli, 1884. 94 THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. along the River Yaal in both directions over a total length of 200 miles. Afterwards, and about twelve years ago, the bed of “ diamantiferous stuff” forming the surface portion of the Kimberley mine was discovered in the middle of a farm belonging to a Mr. Ebden ; and near the same time similar discoveries were made on three other farms in the neighbour¬ hood, resulting in the present four diamond mines, all within two or three miles of Kimberley. The Kimberley mine was bought by the Cape Government, and the surface was allotted out to the numerous diamond miners in separate claims of ten yards square each, as shown upon the approximate plan Fig. 1, Plate II., making upwards of 400 claims altogether in this one mine, for which a royalty of 10s. per month is paid for each claim. Sometimes a claim is subdivided again amongst several persons ; but in some cases a number of adjoining claims have been united by purchase into one company, for obtaining the facility and economy of combined working ; in the most important of these cases as many as twenty- seven claims are united in one working. The original “ diamantiferous stuff” (a, Fig. 2) was a loose yellow gravelly soil, partly calcareous, and covered by only 2ft. or 8ft. thickness of red surface soil; it was removed by Kaffirs with wheelbarrows and carts, and conveyed to depositing ground beyond the margin of the mine for washing and sifting. This stuff continued to a depth of from 60ft. to 100ft., containing a large number, of diamonds of various si^es, and the stuff was valued at 10s. to 20s. per load of 16 cubic feet. But this mine of wealth then came to an abrupt stoppage, and the diamantiferous stuff was succeeded by a floor of hard trap rock (b), that seemed to form a hopeless termination to the workings, and caused most of the miners to give up in despair. A few, however, stuck to their claims and determined to sink on into the trap rock with the hope of piercing through it ; and they were ultimately rewarded for their perseverance, after passing through 20ft. to 80ft. thickness, by coming upon another deposit of “ diamantiferous stuff ” (c) that proved even richer in contents than the upper deposit, and was valued at 20s. to 80s. per load. This deposit, which is known as the “ Blue ” stuff in distinction from the “ Yellow ” stuff of the upper deposit, is a hard tough breccia of a bluish slaty colour, requiring blasting for quarrying it. It is looked upon as an eruptive rock, and is of a very remarkable and unique com¬ position, containing great quantities of broken pieces of shale, boulders, and different kinds of basalt. It occurs in irregular masses or “pockets,” which are separated by intru- THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. 05 sions of trap rock (d) called “ Floating Reef” by the miners. The whole is surrounded by trap rock called “ Main Reef,” as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, and this commences at about 170ft. to 200ft. from the surface, and the portion above the trap is a loose shale with some intrusive trap. These upper strata have proved very treacherous, and several serious slips of the sides of the mine have occurred ; the worst of these slips has recently taken place, and is so serious in extent that the whole of the workings at the bottom are blocked up by the fallen material, and the progress of the mine is entirely stopped until this can be removed, which may require several months time. The result of this accident is a very serious check to the prosperity not only of the mining district but of the Cape Colony itself and the Government railways, from the loss of the traffic for the supply of materials for the mining works, and for the support of the large population gathered round the diamond mines. The distance of about 200 miles from Kimberley to the present railway terminus has to be traversed by bullock waggons, which are the only means of conveyance in the Colony where railways do not exist, excepting a ten-liorse coach that runs between Kimberley and the railway terminus for passenger traffic. The town of Kimberley, which has now 10,000 or 15,000 inhabitants, extends round the margin of the great pit forming the Kimberley mine, the earlier buildings having been removed by the falling in and enlargement of the circumference of the pit. As the excavations got deeper the original wheelbarrows and carts had to be superseded by horse whins for drawing up the excavated material, and this was carried out by means of a very extensive system of wire-rope suspended railways — wire ropes suspended for long distances in the air, and stretched tight so that buckets on suspending wheels can be run upon the wire ropes like railways, and the excavated material from the claims in the middle of the pit at the bottom is drawn up to the surface over the heads of the other claims. The result produced is a remarkable net-work of wire ropes, like a gigantic spider’s web, extending over the entire area of the mine. For the last seven years steam power has been used in place of horse power for the hauling, on account of the increase in depth of the mine, and a large number of steam engines are now fixed round the margin of the pit for hauling and mining purposes. The work of removing the fallen material from slips of the sides of the mine, and of keeping the workings clear from water, is undertaken by the Mining Board, and the cost of this work is defrayed by a tax on the several claims. 90 THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. The excavated material when brought up to the surface is removed to a depositing ground, a separate ground being allotted for each claim, and the “stuff” is there laid out upon a floor in a layer of four to six inches thickness and watered about every three to six days to cause the material to slack. It is left exposed to the air for a period of four to six weeks and is then passed through the washing and sifting machines, and the contained diamonds are obtained by their settling down at the bottom of the last machine, the diamonds being a much higher specific gravity than any other materials with which they are associated in the stuff; the deposited material is afterwards passed over sorting tables, where the managers and proprietors of the claim pick out the diamonds. One great difficulty that has been experienced in this washing process has been the scarcity of water in the district and the great difficulty of obtaining the supply of water requisite for the washing of the stuff; the river Vaal being 24 miles off, and the elevation of the whole district more than 3,000ft. above the sea. A Kimberley Water-works has consequently been constructed and started in the last two years, by which water is supplied at the comparatively moderate rate of Is. per 100 gallons. There lias also been, in connection with these diamond mines, a large application of mechanical skill in devising the hauling and washing apparatus for obtaining the best results with the greatest economy in weight of material employed in the construction, on account of the great difficulties and limitation in the means of conveyance to the place ; and also for obtaining the greatest economy in the fuel consumed for the engine power obtained, the scanty natural supply of wood in the district having become nearly exhausted and the supply of coal being very costly. Mr. Paxman, of Leeds, has done much in improving the supply of engines and machinery for these diamond mines, and gave a paper on the subject to the Institution of Civil Engineers, from which some of the particulars in the present paper have been obtained. All claims “ fall in” or revert to the Government if the mining licenses and taxes are not continued to be paid ; but a very special and almost romantic circumstance to be noticed in connection with the Kimberley mine is that the original allotment of claims being for a definite area, each including all the produce of digging within that area, and not having any limit as to depth of excavation, those of the original claims situated towards the right hand (eastern) margin of the field, although they utterly failed in results after having passed through the top “ Yellow” diamantiferous stuff, will THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. 97 now have a good chance of sharing in the most valuable portion of the mine, the “ Blue ” stuff, on account of the general inclination towards the right hand of the great “ pipe” comprising the entire deposit; when the time comes that the general excavation of the pit reaches the required depth, as illustrated by the vertical dotted line (e) on the right of the section, Fig. 2. The claims situated on the left of the original field have lost from this cause all further chance, after sharing in the top yellow stuff. The great “pipe” forming this mine is looked upon as probably the throat of an ancient volcano, of which the summit cone has been removed by denudation, and the throat has remained filled up with volcanic mud and other material forced up from below, amongst which the diamonds are distributed ; and this consideration suggests the possibility of an increased yield of diamonds being found as the workings are carried still deeper. To effect this, however, it will be requisite to have recourse probably to sinking shafts, with regular under¬ ground mining work, the practical limit of “ open working” having been now nearly reached. The diamonds found are either perfectly pure or more or less coloured, and also the black diamonds called “ bort,” and, as found imbedded in the material of the “ pipe,” they generally show evidence of having been exposed to some severe disturbing force, their angles being frequently abraded, and many being fragments fractured from larger stones. One form of the diamonds is known as “ splints,” consisting of thin plates. The other three diamond mines adjoining the Kimberley mine and the two in Orange Free State are also of a similar character in natural formation ; but the river diggings are of an entirely different character, and the diamonds that are there found in superficial gravel deposits are looked upon as possibly derived from uplieaved volcanic material in a higher district of the country that has been denuded and carried down by water action. The diamond fields in other parts of the world are also generally of this latter character, and the diamond mines of the Kimberley district are quite unique in their character, and of special interest as affording some important information towards a knowledge of the source of origin of the diamond. Several other “pipes” have been opened and partially worked in the Kimberley district, but were subsequently abandoned as unremunerative, although some diamonds were obtained ; probably by deeper sinking richer yields would have been found. The Kimberley mines are situated at an elevation of about 4,000ft. above the sea, and the range of mountains, the 98 THE GREAT KIMBERLEY DIAMOND MINE. Draakensberge, on the slopes of which the Yaal river has its source, rise to 10,000ft. above the sea. It is a point of interest to notice that the new gold field in the Transvaal is within about 500 miles of the Kimberley diamond mines, in a north-east direction, and is at a level about 8,000ft. higher, or 7,000ft. above the sea. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— February, 1884. Tlie barometer was low at the commencement of the month, but rose an inch in two days, reading on the 3rd 30*395 inches, its highest point during the month ; from this it fell steadily, with dull weather, to the 9th, when it rose till the 14th. A gradual fall, till the 23rd, was succeeded by another rise, till the end of the month. Slight gales were experienced about the middle of the month. Temperature was nearly 2 degrees above the average, though lower than that of January. The mean of maxima, 47°. 4, differed but slightly from that of January, but the mean of minima was 2°. 3 lower. The lowest air temperatures (4 feet) were 21°. 6 at Hodsock, 25°. 5 at Strelley, and 26°. 3 at Coston. On the grass the thermometer fell below 32°.0 on thirteen nights, a minimum of 15°. 2 being recorded at Coston on the 29th. The maxima varied from 52°. 7 at Strelley, to 55°. 1 at Loughborough. Rainfall was decidedly below the average ; there was no snow, but slight showers of graupel (soft hail) fell on two or three occasions. There were no special features of interest during the month, but, being comparatively mild and dry, vegetation did not receive any of the checks to which it was exposed in its very forward state. Wm. Berridge, F.R.Met.Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. Mr. Clement L. Wragge, the well-known astronomer, is about to start an astronomical and meteorological observatory on the banks of the Torrens, at Gilberton, South Australia, observations to be com¬ menced on 1st January, though the preliminary operations will not be fully completed till some days later. An astronomical telescope, one of Wray’s finest equatorials, with object glass 4| inches in aperture, has yet to be unpacked and mounted. Numerous appliances have been provided. The house will be called the Torrens Observatory. THE PRINCIPLES OP BIOLOGY. 99 THE PKINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER III. The Re-actions of Organic Matter on Forces. BY FREDERICK JOHN CULLIS. This chapter is very intimately related to the two preceding ones, concluding the argument opened in them. In Chapter I. some important aspects of the physical and chemical composition of organic and organisable matter are considered, and it is found that such matter is extremely susceptible of change. Chapter II. discusses the action of force on these changeable substances, and shows how, in the leaves of plants, matter is compounded into potential forms bv the accumulated effect of multitudes of infinitesimal */ etlierial impacts ; and that in the tissues of animals, under the catalytic action of ferments, these complex bodies are again reduced to simpler forms. In Chapter III. we are shown that these changes of matter are accompanied by equivalent changes of force. Perfect symmetry of the argu¬ ment would have demanded a discussion of that accumulation of energy which accompanies the building up of food- stuffs in the green parts of plants, and of the manifestations of force which result from the decomposition of matter in the tissues of animals. But only the latter series of phenomena are considered on this side of the argument. It is shewn successively that this manifestation of force occurs — (a.) As heat. It being a chief characteristic of animate bodies that they maintain a constant evolution of heat, the quantity of which is strictly dependent on the amount of organic matter decomposed by the organism. (b.) As light. Though less conspicuously than heat, light also is sometimes given off by animals as a partial result of the liberation of force in their tissues ; the phosphorescence of some insects and marine animals being well-known phenomena. (c.) As electricity. Which is found to be constantly generated in the ordinary structures of the higher animals, as well as in the special organs of electric fishes. 100 THE PKINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. (d.) As nerve force. This is also seen to be dependent on the same breaking down of complex substances. (e.) As sensible motion. The most evident of the “ re¬ actions called forth from organisms by surrounding actions.” This manifestation of force is not con¬ fined to the Animal Kingdom, being commonly exhibited by certain of the humbler plants, as well as in the circulation of the sap in higher forms. Mechanical motion is nevertheless specially characteristic of animal life, and in its highest manifestations is always effected by the contraction of muscle under the impulse of nervous stimuli. Mr. Spencer suggests that the important changes involved in the contraction and relaxation of muscle may be explained by the repeated occur¬ rence of an isomeric change in its molecular constitution. ANNUAL MEETING OF THE UNION. The Midland Union of Natural History Societies will this year travel to the eastern verge of its district, in accordance with the invitation of the Peterborough Natural History Society. The annual meeting will be held at Peterborough probably in the latter part of June, and very attractive excursions are being arranged by the local committee. Situated on the border of the Fens, yet surrounded by excellent and remarkable sections in the oolitic strata, Peterborough offers attractions of a high order to the botanist, the entomologist, and the geologist, while the archaeologist can revel in the buildings and churches of the town and neighbourhood. We trust that the members of the Union will muster in large numbers to avail themselves of such an excellent opportunity of exploring “ fresh scenes and pastures new ” under able and judicious guidance. Yeab-Book of Scientific Societies. — Messrs. Griffin & Co., of Exeter Street, Strand, have in hand a work which will give much information respecting the scientific and learned societies of Great Britain. It will be edited by Mr. W. B. Browne and Mr. Barclay. Secretaries of societies in the Midland Union should at once put themselves in communication with Messrs. Griffin, who will forward them a form containing the points on which information is desired for publication. INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 101 ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS.— II * * * § BY WILLIAM HILLHOUSE, B.A., F.L.S., PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AT THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. [ Continued from page 66 .] Sieve Tubes. — The existence of open communication between certain cells of the higher plants, namely, between the different anatomical elements which compose sieve tubes, and between adjoining sieve tubes, has been for many years well known. Attention was first drawn to these structures as forming a constituent of the bast portion of the fibro-vasal bundle of at least the phanerogams by Tli. Hartig f in his great work on the native trees of Germany, and to them he gave the name of “ Siebfasern.” Little attention, however, appears to have been paid to these structures until after the publication by the same investigator many years later of a detailed account of this tissue in Cucurbita Pepo.\ The subject was then taken up by the distinguished morphologist, von Mohl,§ whose influence at that period preponderated in all branches of vegetable anatomy. Yon Molil first proved the existence of sieve tubes in Gymnosperms, denied by Hartig. Little actually new was, however, added until Nageli|| demon¬ strated that the sieve plates were actually perforated, a fact confirmed by Sachs I1 and further by Hanstein,** by means of the now classical method of treatment by iodine and sul¬ phuric acid, showing clearly the existence of protoplasmic * Transactions of tlie Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Bead March 18th, 1884. + Tli. Hartig, “Vergl. Untersuchungen iib. d. Organisation des Stammes d. einheimischen Waldbiiume,” 1837. X Th. Hartig, Bot. Zeit., 1854, pp. 51 — 4. The same author had previously referred to these structures in “ Yollst. Naturgescli. d. forstl. Culturpfl.,” Berlin, 1851, and Bot. Zeit., 1853, p. 571. § Yon Mohl, “ Einige Andeutungen lib. d. Bau d. Bastes.” Bot. Zeit., 1855, p. 865, f.f. For proof of presence of sieve tubes in Gymnosperms, see p. 891. || Niigeli, “Ueber d. Siebrohren.” Sitz. d. Bair. Akad., 1861,1., p. 212. Sachs, in “Flora,” 1863, p. 68. ** Hanstein, “Hie Milclisaftgefiisse u. verw. Organe,” 1864, p.23, ff. 102 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. threads permeating the sieve plate, and connecting together the protoplasmic body of the constituent cells of the sieve tube.* * * § Several investigators have since turned their attention to the same deeply interesting point of structure, amongst whom Dippel f first demonstrated the presence of similar anatomical features in Vascular Cryptogams, and enriched science with a series of most carefully drawn figures from different plants ; while RussowJ gave details of the forms of the tubes in different plants of the same groups, distinguishing, with Dippel, two main forms to which lie gave the names of Siebrohren (sieve tubes) and Siebgefasse (sieve vessels). By far the most important researches up to their date were, however, those of de Bary,§ published in his great work on the comparative anatomy of the vascular plants, to whom is due the merit of first drawing systematic attention to the contents of the tubes, although Briosi || had previously pointed out the very frequent presence of starch in the tubes, and had declared that he had by pressure forced the grains through the pores of the sieve plate. De Bary also first showed, in the case of the vine ( Vitis vinifera), the absence of the sieve perforation during the winter months. Within the last two or three years the study of sieve tubes has entered into a new phase, and they have formed the subject of several excellent monographs, in which they have been dealt with mainly from a developmental point of * For further early literature : — Th. Hartig, ‘‘Die Entwickelung des Jalirringes.” Bot. Zeit., 1853, p. 571, f f already referred to. Franck, “ Eiu Beitrag zur Kenntniss der G-efassbundel.” Bot. Zeit., 1854, p. 159. Schacht, “Der Baum.” 3rd Aufl., 1860. Schacht distinguishes here three types of sieve tubes in Phanerogams ; (1) Tubes transversely divided by simple sieves ; (2) Tubes terminated by oblique partitions and provided with several sieves ; (3) Fusiform tubes having sieves also on their radial walls. See pp. 208 — 15. f Dippel, Bericht der 39. Naturforscherversammlung zu Giessen, 1884. See also “Das Mikroskop,” II. Theil, pp. 132, 199, 200, and Figs. 54 and 150 to 155. f Bussow, “ Vergl. Unters. ub. Leitbundel-Kryptogamen, 1872, p. 118, ff. § De Bary, “ Yergl. Anatomie der Phanerogamen und Earne,” 1877, pp. 179-191, and many figures. |] Briosi, “ Sopra la Generale Prezenza d’Amido nei Yasi Crivel- lati.” Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, Vol. vii. (1875), pp. 83-108, and plate. INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 103 view. First of these came the investigations of Wilhelm,* who, although he studied but three plants, viz., Vitis vinifera, Lay maria vulgaris {the Gourd), and Cucurbita Pepo (Pumpkin), followed out in them the history of these structures with such care and fidelity as to place him high in the rank of sieve tube investigators. He more completely stated the dependence of the perforation on the seasons. Rnssow,f whose earlier work we have already referred to, has widely and critically extended his observations in two memoirs of much intrinsic importance ; while another of the highest value is that of the Polish observer, Janczewski.j Sieve tubes, whether perforate or imperforate, must be therefore looked upon as the essential constituent of that part of the fibro-vasal bundle of plants which morphologists variously call the liber, bast, or phloem. They have been, however, most completely studied in the Angiospermous Phanerogams. Typically, sieve tubes are composed of elongated cylindrical or prismatic cells, arranged end to end in longitudinal rows which traverse the entire length of the plant, sometimes isolated amid a different tissue, sometimes collected into groups, bundles, or layers. On this isolation or otherwise of the sieve tube depend important morphological results ; for, when the tube is isolated amidst parenchymatous tissue, the perforations, where they exist, are only between the constituent cells of the row, the sieve plates and perforations are only terminal ; where, on the other hand, two sieve tubes are in lateral contact the sieve plates and perforations establish communication also between these lateral rows, i.e ., are both terminal and lateral. One further point of morpho¬ logical interest may be noticed. The constituent elements of a single sieve tube may join end to end by approxi¬ mately horizontal partition walls. Then, as in Cucurbitaceas generally, a cross section of the part containing the tubes will show the whole or nearly the whole of some sieve plate in surface view. Such a surface view of the sieve plate of * Wilhelm, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Siebrohrenapparates dicotyler Pflanzen,” Leipzig, 1880. f Russow, “ Verbreitung der Callusplatten bei den Gefasspflanzen,” Sitz. der Naturf. G-esellsch. zu Dorpat, 1881, and a recent memoir in the same, of date Feb., 1882, translated into Annales des Sc. Nat., 1882, series vi., tome xiv., pp. 167 — 215. I Janczewski, “ Etudes comparees sur les tubes cribreux,” M6m. Soc. des Sc. Nat. de Cherbourg, xxiii., 1882, p. 209, etc., with eight double plates ; reprinted in condensed form in Ann. des Sc. Nat., ser. vi., tome xiv., pp. 50 — 166, with six single plates. 104 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. Bryonia dioica is shown in Plate III., fig. 1. When, on the other hand, the constituent cells are fusiform, and join by more or less strongly overlapping ends, the walls separating the constituent cells, and consequently the sieve plates which are formed on and in these walls, are oblique in greater or less degree (e.g., Vitis * and the great majority of sieve tubes). In such cases a cross section will naturally not show the sieve plate, or will only show an often unrecognisable fragment of it, and longitudinal sections are the only ones by which they can be studied in surface view. Variously constituted as sieve plates are, they show one apparently constant feature, to which Hanstein was, I believe, the first to draw attention, but which Russo w has, in the second of the memoirs above referred to, thoroughly studied, as also, though to a lesser degree, did Wilhelm and Janczewski. This is the presence on the plate of a substance called callus. The normal wall of the sieve tube is soft and colourless, colouring blue with iodine and sulphuric acid, or with clilorzinc iodine, and therefore of pure cellulose. The end, or sieve walls, show, however, a different structure. The wall is manifestly thickened, and with a substance which does not give the above cellulose re-actions, nor does it dissolve in ammonia cuproxide. On the other hand, this substance possesses certain marked re-actions : with a solution of Rosolic acid (corallin) in soda or ammonia f it takes a beau¬ tiful rose-red colour, a colour, however, of unfortunately but brief duration. This reaction shows the substance to be a transformed cellulose of a mucilaginous nature ; aniline blue, a colour which is not retained by cellulose, is fixed by this substance (Russow) ; aniline brown is also fixed ; a mixture of clilorzinc iodine and potassium iodide iodine in varying proportions colours it of a deep reddish brown and shows also any variations present in its structure ; J and the same end I have attained with success by first treatment for a few minutes with potassium iodide iodine, and then for twenty- four hours or so with clilorzinc iodine, and without needing to vary the proportions so carefully from plant to plant. Of all these re-actions the corallin and iodine ones are the best, but unfortunately both are ephemeral, though the latter will last with care for days in all its pristine delicacy. The coloration by aniline blue, though apparently permanent, is generally of comparatively little use, as it is accompanied by * In Vitis the sieve plates are occasionally horizontal. f See Szyszylowicz, in Bot. Centralbl., 1882. J Bussow, Sitz. d. Dorp. Naturf. Ges., 17 Feb., 1882. INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 105 the great swelling of the thickening substance and obliteration of its clearly marked outlines. This thickening substance is the callus. The walls thus thickened are perforated by the canals of the sieve pores, the pores being , distributed over a limited area. Most commonly, markedly in very oblique sieve 'plates, a number of such areas are side by side, separated by narrow bands of unmodified cell-wall. When, on the other hand, the cells composing the tube join by nearly horizontal ends, the whole end wall forms a single area (or, according to Janczewski, it, in Yitis, frequently consists of a number of areas).* This condition is the normal one in the great horizontal or but slightly oblique sieve plates of Cucurbitaceae (Plate III., fig. 1), in AEsculus , Acer, etc. (To be continued.) THE HERON (ARTE A CINEREA). BY T. V. HODGSON. The progress of agriculture has made itself severely felt on the majority of birds, but no order has suffered so much as the Herodii. Several species of this order were formerly common in Britain, and some, in days of yore, considered the noblest quarry of the falconer, a sport which has now fallen into disuse though still occasionally followed. The large tracts of marsh land reclaimed and cultivated in these more modern days has driven nearly the whole of this order from our shores, and what agriculture has spared the gun remorselessly exterminates. The Broads of Norfolk and Fens of Lincolnshire form almost the only homes of any space left to these birds, and the former are infested with gunners, ever ready to slaughter some uncommon bird ; consequently few of these birds are seen, and those merely stragglers from a foreign country. One species, and only one, the Heron, seems to have made a comparatively success¬ ful struggle against extermination, though constant persecu¬ tion has rendered it a veiy wary and a local bird. The existence of a small Heronry at Middleton, four miles from Tamwortli, has given me a good opportunity of watching these birds, and I have endeavoured to make use of it, obtaining many a pleasurable hour thereby. The Heronry is not more than two hundred yards from the Hall, and occupies one end of a wood intersected by a cart-track and * Wilhelm (l.c.) thinks this occurs but rarely. 106 THE HERON. two or three broad ditches containing but little water. Brambles and elder bushes form the underwood and surround¬ ings. Borne little time back a strong gale blew down a large number of trees in close proximity to the Heronry, leaving a large open space, which however, has recently been replanted, and the birds still cling to their accustomed haunts. The nests of the birds breeding in this locality are built in the tops of tall trees, some forty or fifty feet high, and though something like thirty or forty birds occupy the wood during the breeding season, since I have known the Heronry I have never seen more than nine nests at one time. Year after year I have noticed four or five nests left incom¬ plete, for what reason I cannot say ; but for its occurring so regularly I should have put it down to the death of one of the old birds, as, in a neighbourhood like Middleton, some one or other is always prowling about with a gun. Chambers, the gamekeeper of the estate, tells me that a little nest¬ building is done at intervals through the summer, but I have never witnessed it after the usual time. All through the winter two or three Herons remain at Middleton, and, scouring the district round in search of food during the day, they always return home for the night. Towards the end of February a large accession to the winter residents is made by the arrival of the first migratory flock. A second flock arrives a week or so later, and not unfrequently a third later still. Nest-building is begun soon after the arrival of the first dock, but very little real work is then done, most of the time being spent in fighting and the systematic robbery of each other’s materials ; these qualities seem highly developed at this season, and are scarcely to be surpassed even by the Rook. Frequently high winds retard building operations, the demolition of a half finished nest being not at all a rare occurrence ; but when the birds set to in earnest, two or three days suffice to complete a massive structure. Like the Rook, the Heron repairs the ruins of the old nest and occupies the same site for years. The eggs are laid in the middle of March and a month later the young are hatched. The Herons were very wild during my first visits to the Heronry. A harsh cry, and the loud dap of their large wings striking the smaller branches of the trees on which they were reposing, the moment I entered the wood, showed that they were on the alert, and I seldom saw them again till after going some distance from the spot. One bird, but occasionally more, usually acted as scout to the colony, and the whole time I was there it sailed round and round, occasionally uttering a harsh cry. I always carried a powerful THE HERON. 107 opera-glass with me, so that 1 could see the bird distinctly; its head was then thrown hack on its shoulders, and its long legs stretched out behind, both the latter being frequently called into play for steering the bird on its course ; as a rule, only one is used at a time. Sometimes, managing to hide - myself and waiting some time, I could see the Hejons coming slowly back and settling on, or near, their respective nests, but the moment I showed myself away they went. As my visits became more frequent many of the birds would remain where they were, but even then their actions betrayed their suspicions. Not far from the Heronry are two rather extensive Rookeries, the tenants of which do not seem to be on good terms with their less numerous but more powerful neighbours. On April 6tli, 1882, as I was in the Heronry with the game- keeper, he told me that a fortnight before some Rooks attacked a nest and destroyed the eggs. He pointed out the nest as we passed under, and I saw a Heron then sitting on it; the egg shells lying underneath bore only too evident traces of the spoliation. Another of my notes (Feb. 25, 1888) says “ after leaving the Heronry I looked back, and with my glass I saw the flock of fourteen Herons approach the wood, wheel round, and retire. One bird was apart from the rest, being attacked by a Rook or some other bird, but what I could not make out on account of the distance.” Last year, on the third of April, with an eye to enrich my Oological collection, I attempted a raid on a nest, which, after a stifAsli climb, I reached; it only contained two eggs which were of a beautiful greenish blue colour and about the size of a Wild Duck’s. The nest measured about 8 feet in diameter and 20 inches thick (my measurements would have been more accurate but for my awkward position). It was nearly flat, and very compactly built of sticks and small branches, and the eggs were reposing on a lining, if such it may be called, of very coarse grass and roots. The bird did not forsake the nest, for when I was in the Heronry on the 20th inst. I saw the old bird on the nest. Egg shells were lying under the remaining eight nests, and under one of them was the corpse of some adventurous young one about a week old. On May 1st the keeper told me that his son had five eggs out of the nest from which I had taken my eggs. The supposition that the Heron makes two holes in its nest for the accommodation of its long legs is too well known to be erroneous to need a fresh denial here, though it is still believed in by some people in the neighbourhood. Many of the people don’t seem to know what a Heron is, the local name being Crane. 108 THE HERON. Adjoining Middleton Hall is a large pool of some twenty or thirty acres in extent. It is supplied by a fair- sized stream, which, on leaving it at the other end, runs into the river. The pool is very shallow and forms the haunt of many species of waterfowl. The food of the Heron is principally fish, young birds it is not at all averse to, chickens not excepted, while frogs and water rats are freely devoured. These fine birds meet with but little sympathy in the district. In search of food they are seen many miles from Middleton, and are remorselessly shot down by gamekeepers and prowling gunners all over the neighbourhood, even at Middleton itself. One bird, which the keeper shot, I dissected and found in its stomach a fair-sized trout only just swallowed ; the remainder of the stomach’s contents was so far digested as to be unrecognisable. The keeper told me that the Herons had destroyed £40 worth of young trout in a few weeks. This accusation seemed to me quite unfair, and I raised my voice in their favour, but it was useless. While the trout were disappearing, no less than eight swans were committing their depredations with impunity. People think the swan is a beautiful bird to ornament a sheet of water, and for this reason its protection is secured. Beauty covers a multitude of sins, and other birds, though equally beautiful, if not more so, which do not strike the eye of the superficial observer, are condemned to extermination for a fault, which to a great extent they have not committed. There is no doubt these birds destroy a large quantity of fish, but, though they can both swim and dive, I have never heard of them catching fish by any other method than that of standing motionless in shallow water, when a sudden dash at the unsuspecting victim seldom fails to secure it. From this cause the depredations of the Heron must be very circumscribed, deep water affording a comparatively safe refuge for the fish. The shallowness of the pool and the aid of eight swans would account for the speed with which £40 worth of trout dis¬ appeared, as the bird would doubtless live most freely on what was easiest to obtain. As deep water affords a protection for the fish, I should certainly not consider the depredations of this bird of sufficient weight to justify its slaughter, more especially as fish do not form the whole of its diet, rats being freely devoured, and it must be confessed these are a terrible plague. Whatever its faults are, the Heron’s stately flight, and its interesting colony in the breeding season, add a charm to the country scene worthy of admiration by the lover of Nature. While boating daily down the Tame I almost always THE HERON. 109 roused up two or three of these birds from the island known as Broad Meadow, and watched them wend their flight some¬ times towards Middleton but often in a contrary direction. This is the last species that is anything like common in Britain of a noble order of birds. Let not this handsome bird be banished from the country in which it has struggled for existence so long. As soon as a bird becomes rare, the few individuals that are seen are instantly shot to adorn some museum, and the note of their occurrence is also the note of their death. A large proportion of our British birds are in this plight, and I am afraid the number is increasing. Many naturalists complain, but hitherto little or nothing has been done to stop it. THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. I.— THE OCCURRENCE OF GROOVED AND STRIATED STONES ON THE ROWLEY HILLS. BY C. BEALE, C.E. A stranger passing along the many pleasant roads and footpaths of this elevated district could not fail to notice on every hand the long lines of fence walls built of dry stones, loosely, but securely, placed without mortar. Some of these walls are of considerable magnitude, being from eight to ten feet in height, five or six feet in thickness at bottom, and a couple of feet thick at top ; but the ordinary size of the walls is about five feet high, three feet thick at base, and eighteen inches at top. The stones comprising these walls vary in size from huge blocks of, perhaps, a ton weight, or even more, to the ordinary size of twenty-eight or thirty pounds in weight. Generally speaking, these walls show signs of age. Some¬ times the roots of growing trees firmly clasp a number of the stones in an everlasting embrace. Sometimes the ferns of many generations have quite filled the interstices between the stones, and again, in favourable aspects, whole ranges of fences will charm the eye by their covering of many-tinted lichens and mosses. In cases like these we might be justified in assuming that such walls had been in existence for one or even two centuries, and we have walls of all ages down to those built within the last few years. The whole of the stones composing these walls — both the old and the new — have one common origin. They are all basalt. They are all natives of these Rowley hills, and, as a 110 THE BASALT OF KOWLEY REGIS. rule, we see them exactly as they have been found, that is, they are not stones from the quarry, but have, each one and all, been got from the surface, or just below the surface, in the ordinary agricultural operations of the last few centuries, and they are still being picked from the land year by year in very large quantities. These stones are not boulders. You could not find a rounded stone among them if you were to search the whole year through. There is not a foreign stone among them, therefore they are not erratic blocks, but are all natives of the hills on which they are found. They are all angular and subangular, some indeed with the angles as sharp as when they were first detached from the parent rock ; but all are somewhat weathered, not in the sense of becoming disinte¬ grated or rotten, but in the same way that joints in the actual mass of rock in the quarry are weathered — that is, the surface is discoloured for a depth of about the twentieth or sixteenth of an inch by the contact of air and moisture. Indeed, this surface colour completely enveloping our native blocks is the ‘ chief difference between these stones and any similar heap of stones in the quarry resulting from a recent fall or the usual quarrying operations. The largest of these stones are usually found on the tops, for a very little, if at all, below the shoulders of the hills. Lower down we get stones of less size ; near the base of the hills we get the smallest stones, while around the base on almost every side we get the famous blue brick marl, being the final stage of the debris of the hill tops. I say around the base on almost every side advisedly, because in at least one locality we get a production entirely different to the marl, to which I shall refer hereafter. Now let us examine any of the walls about us ; and we soon remark a grooved stone, and close by another, and if we were to go on with our examination for a day we should find that we had noted hundreds of the stones similarly grooved and scratched as we went along the walls. And now we come to a field where a man is ploughing, and we follow the plough with him for a while, observing while we talk with him. We see that occasionally the plough turns up a stone of three or five or seven pounds’ weight, and we ask him what would happen if the plough struck a larger stone a fair blow. He will tell you that it would knock the plough out of his hands and perhaps break it. At last, however, you hear the plough grating along a stone, and the ploughman may tell you that he knew of a big stone being about there and he eased the plough up a little so as to go over the stone instead of THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. Ill striking it full tilt. You immediately fall behind, and with help of hands and hammer you succeed in baring the stone, and you find that the plough has left no mark of its passage over it ; but, strange to tell, you may find the stone grooved and scratched, it may be at right angles to the direction of the plough. This sets you thinking, and on examination of the plough you find there is no part of it that could by any possibility in passing over a stone mark it with the grooves or strife you have just seen on the stone in situ or on those you had examined in the walls. Not satisfied with your partial examination of the stone you uncovered, you may desire to unearth it altogether, and, having got the necessary permission and bared the stone completely, you find yourself in possession of these facts : — You see a stone weighing half a ton or a ton, a stone that could not possibly be moved by any agricultural operations that had ever taken place above it ; you find it grooved in about a north and south direction, not only on the uppermost side but you find the grooves on other sides also ; and you even trace one groove going across the stone in a connected manner over an angle and across another side, and this, remember, is a stone in situ which no agricul¬ tural implement could move if it struck it. How then has it come about that these curious markings are exhibited, and sometimes continuously on more than one face? We have no positive evidence as yet enabling us satisfactorily to reply to this query, but the negative evidence would lead us to confess that these marks were not made during the course of agricul¬ tural operations. To be able to read these markings correctly we must go below the surface. We therefore visit the sections exhibited in the various quarries upon the hills, and we may sum up briefly the result of our observations thus. Taking the sections of the quarries on the north and east sides of the hills, we find below the surface soil, generally about thirteen inches in depth, a mass of dry rocky material, which breaks up into small cubical morsels in the hand without any diffi culty, and this material obtains until you get down to the basalt itself, at depths varying from two to four, ten, twenty, and even one hundred feet. You can scarcely find a stone throughout the entire area ; but directly we turn the southern shoulder of the hill a totally different class of facts confronts us. We have the surface soil as before, but we have no roche beneath it ; instead, we find a tumultuous bed of stones, without arrangement of any kind. There is no attempt at stratification, the large and the small stones are tumultuously thrown together, just as much so as if they had been 112 THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. simultaneously tipped out of some huge vessel, and so left ; but surrounding each stone there is a matrix of clay marl, generally forming a compact matrix, hut not necessarily uniformly so. The sections of quarries on the south and west sides are all similar, except that this deposit of stones varies in thickness from three or four feet to eighteen or twenty feet. These south and west sections being sometimes widely separated, and all being similar in general features, it is only fair to assume that the intermediate spaces between the quarries would exhibit the same general character. It is from this bed that the stones forming our dry stone walls have been derived for, perhaps, centuries, the stones as they work up to the surface being removed by the agriculturist from time to time. {To be continued .) THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. Continued from page 80. PLANT AGIN ACE^E. PL ANT AGO. P. major, Linn. Way-bread. Greater Plantain. Native : In pastures, on roadsides, and waste places. Common. June to September. Area general. P. media, Linn. Hoary Plantain. Native : In pastures, fields, and by waysides, in marly and calca¬ reous soils. Locally common. June to September. I. Hampton-in-Arden ; Knowle canal bank. II. Honington ! Tredington ! Halford, Neivb. ; Moreton Morrell ; Alves- ton heath ; Kineton ; Binton ; Exhall ; Oversley ; Little Alne ; Bearley; Lapworth Street; Brandon. P. lanceolata, Linn. Ribwort Plantain. Rib-grass. Native : In pastures, meadows, on waysides, &c. Common. May to September. Area general. Yar. b. Timbali. Colonist or casual : In cultivated land. Very rare. I. On the new embankment, Sutton Park, 1880-81. II. As a weed in gardens about Myton, II. B. ; Alveston Heath, 1880. P. Coronopus, Linn. Buck' s-horn Plantain. Native : On heaths and heathy waysides. Rare. June to Sept. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 113 I. Roadsides near Oscott College ; Sutton Park ; Middleton Heatli ; Coleshill Heatli ; near Bannersley Pool ; Baddesley Heath ; stone quarries, Hartshill ; Bradnock’s Marsh. II. Kenilworth Heath, Herb. Ferry ; heathy footways near Brinklow. [P. arenaria. P.S. — Occurs as a garden weed at Milverton, H.B. A native of Hungary.] LITTORELLA. L. lacustris, Linn. Plantain Shore-weed. Native : In and about pools. Very rare. July, August. I. Coleshill Pool! Aylesford , B.G., 636; Olton Reservoir, abundant, 1881 ; Earl’s Wood Reservoir. [ Blitum capitulum , IF. Warwick Castle Park, Herb. Perry.] [Blitum virgatum, IF. Garden weed, Stratford-on-Avon, Cheshire, Herb. Perry.] [_ Amaranthus retroflexus , Linn,. Near Stratford-on-Avon, IF. C. ; skin-yards, Kenilworth and Milverton, H. B., Herb. Perry.] [A. Blitum, IF. New Town, Coventry, Kirk, Herb. Perry.] [A. dejlexus. Waste ground, Kenilworth, J. B. Syme, Herb. Bab.] All these are mere casual weeds of uncertain occurrence. CHENOPODIACEvE. CHENOPODIUM. C. polyspermum, Linn. Many-seeded Goosefoot. Colonist : In cultivated ground and corn fields. Rare. July to August, or later. II. Alcester; Kinwarton ; Oversley, Part, iii., 24; Great Alne, Herb. Perry; Saltisford, near Warwick, Per. FI. ; as a garden weed at Myton ; Wliitn ash ; Milverton; Budbrook; Berkswell, H.B.; near Brown’s Over Hall, B. S. R., 1868 ; in cornfields, Ipsley ! Slatter ; Drayton, near Stratford-on-Avon. All our plants are the variety C. acutifolium. C. album, Linn. White Goosefoot. Native : In cultivated ground and on roadsides. Common as an aggregate species. July to October. a. candicans. I. Railway banks, Sutton Park; Hartshill; Miuwortli, Temple Balsall. II. Offchurcli ! Harbury ; Tachbrook; Budbrook, II. B.; Stratford-on- Avon. b. viride. I. Railway banks, Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Coleshill ; Maxtoke ; Cornels End ; Hampton-in-Arden. II. Warwick, Y. and B.; Honington ; Alveston Heath: Drayton; Berkswell ; near Rugby. c. paganum. I. Railway banks, Sutton Park ; Boldmir, near Sutton ; Hartshill ; Temple Balsall, &c. II. Rare ; in gardens and waste places about Milverton, Myton, War¬ wick, H. B. ; cornfields, Berkswell, &c. These plants have not been sufficiently discriminated to allow of a full account of their distribution. [C. murale , Linn., has been recorded in the new Botanist’s Guide on the authority of the Rev. W. T. Bree. I have no knowledge of this as a Warwickshire plant.] 114 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. C. hybridum, Linn. Hybrid Goosefoot. Alien : In cultivated land and on waste heaps. Very local. June to September. II. Warwick, W. G. Perry , 1829, Herb. Bab. ; on the road from Hampton-on-tlie-Hill to Warwick, Perry, FI.; Alcester, in cul¬ tivated land! W. G., Herb. Per.; Leamington, Y. and B. ; Emscote; Milverton! Myton ! H.B.; near Oversley bridge; near the Avon in the Loxley road, Stratford-on-Avon ; abun¬ dant. [ C . urbicum, Linn., has occurred as a casual on railway banks, Sutton Park, and on waste places near Hoare Park, Over- Whitacre.] C. rubrum, Linn. Colonist : On waste heaps and in cultivated land. Rare. July to September. I. Hampton-in-Arden, R. Rogers. II. Brandon Lane, T. K., Herb. Perry ; near the reservoir on the Rad¬ ford road (near Coventry) Kirk. ; Whitnash Brook ; Myton, Y. and B. ; common in the parish of Honington in dung yards ! F. Townsend ; on waste heaps near Milverton Station, Myton, Chesterton, H.B. ; Lighthorne, Bolton King ; Oversley ; Dray¬ ton, near Stratford-on-Avon. Var b. pseudo-botryoides. II. Shrewley Pool, near Hatton, H. B. C. Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Allgood. Good King Henry . Denizen : Near church-yards, on waste places, and banks. Local. June to September. I. Near Temple Balsall, Herb. Perry; Hampton-in-Arden; Knowle, by the church-yard ; Marston Green ; lane from Water-Orton to Minworth. II. Kenilworth; Leek Wootton, Herb. Perry ; Whitnash, Y. arid B.; Tachbrook ; Warwick; Milverton, II . B.; Salford Priors ! Rev. J. G .; Barcheston, Newb.; Tile Hill; Princethorpe, Weston, near Coventry. ATRIPLEX. A. angustifolia, Linn. Narrow-leaved Orache. Native: In cultivated land, on waysides, &c. Common. July to September. Area general. A. erecta, Huds. Erect Orache. Native : On waste heaps, banks, and in cultivated land. Common. July to September. Area general. This includes the A. erecta (Bab. Man.) and the A. erecta ( E . B.), between which I have not sufficiently discriminated to speak with confidence as to their distribution. A. deltoidea, Bab. Triangular-leaved Orache. Native or Colonist : On waste heaps and in cultivated land. Local or rare. August. I. On waste heaps on the roadside between Ansley and Over Whit- acre, abundant ; Green lanes, Colesliill. II. Myton, Y. &' B. ; Warwick ; Leamington, H. B. ; field at Drayton, near Stratford-on-Avon. [Chenopodium opulifolium. Has occurred as a casual weed by road sides near Sutton Park, and on waste places near Milverton.] THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 115 POLYGONACE^E. RUMEX. R. conglomeratus, Murr. Sharp Dock. Native : By roadsides, waste heaps, banks, etc. Common. July to September. Area general. Apparently very local in the district around Sliipston-on-Stour. R. nemorosus, Schrad. Green-veined Dock. a. viridis. Native : By roadsides, on waste heaps in woods, etc. Locally abundant. I. Sutton Park ; New Park, Middleton ; lanes about Arley ; lanes about Hampton-in-Arden, Solihull, and Olton, &c. II. Honington ; Tredington ; Neivb. Frequent near Warwick. H. B. Oversley ; Combe Woods ; near Rugby. b. sanguineus. Bloody-veined Dock. Denizen ; in gardens and cultivated land. Rare. I. Came up as a weed in my own garden, Aston, two or three seasons. II. Near Leamington Herb. Ferry ; a garden weed, Warwick and Myton ! H. B. R. maritimus, Linn. Golden Dock. Native : Near brackish pools and marshes. Very rare. May, June. I. Near Perkin’s Pool, Sutton Park. J. P., B. G. II. Chesterton Mill Pool; New Waters, Warwick Park; Wash Brook, Kenilworth, H. B. Fish Pond, Liglithorne ; Chadshunt, Bolton King. A mere casual in Sutton Park, in the other stations probably a native. R. pulcher, Linn. Fiddle Dock. Alien : In cultivated land, churchyards, and rarely on banks. Very rare. June, July. II. Harbury Village, Gross. Chesterton churchyard and field adjoining! near Chesterton Wood. H. B. ; Tredington churchyard ; kitchen garden, Honington Hall; Stratford-on-Avon churchyard ! Neivb. R. obtusifolius, Auct. Broad-leaved Dock. Native : In woods, on banks, by roadsides and in fields and pastures. Common. June to August. Area general. The variety a. Friesii appears to be the prevailing plant of the county. R. pratensis, M. & K. Meadoio Dock. Native : In fields, by roadsides and on banks. Local and rather rare. June to August. I. Lanes about Solihull ; Lanes about Hartshill. II. Harborough Magna! Rev. A. Blox ; lanes about Old Park, Warwick ! Myton ; Tachbrook ; Beausale ; Balsall Common ! II. B. R. crispus, Linn. Curled Dock. Native : By roadsides ; on waste heaps, banks and cultivated ground. Common. July, August. Area general. Yar. trigranulatus. Rare. II. — Cornfield near Harbury station ; Chesterton Mill Pool. H. B. A large form which Mr. Bromwich thinks is var. sub-cordatus ; in marshy ground, Avon-side, Hill Wootton. I have not sufficiently discriminated between the forms and varieties of this dock to be able to give a proper idea of their distribution. 116 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. R. Hydrolapathum, Huds. Great Water Dock. Native : In marshes, pools, canals, and rivers. Local. July, August. I. Tamwortli at the foot of Bowbridge on the Coventry Road, With., ed. 7, ii., 455 ; meadows near Dosthill ; canal near Atherstone ; lane from Water Orton to Minwortli. II. Near Bidford ! River Arrow, near Alcester ! Purt ; Hill Wootton ; Myton ; "Warwick; Wasperton, H. B.; Salford Priors ! Rev. J.G.; Binton Bridges ; Oversley Mill ; Bearley Canal ; Tardebig Canal; Sowe waste canal ; canals near Rugby. R. Aeetosa, Linn. Common Sorrel. Green Sauce. Native : In woods, pastures, meadows, on banks and waste places. Very common. May to July. Area general. R. Acetosella, Linn. Sheep's Sorrel. Native : On heath lands, railway banks, sandy fields, etc. Common. May, June. Area general. (To be continued.) Sapcote Boring. — Mr. Paul sends us a lengthy note on this subject, but as it is mainly personal and controversial, without adding a single new or unpublished fact, we do not feel justified in printing it. Badger. — On the 15th Feb., 1881, a fine female badger was met with and captured in the parish of Packington, Leicestershire, and is now in the care of the Earl of Loudoun. I cannot learn that a badger has been seen in the neighbourhood for the last forty or fifty years, until now, and consequently they were believed to be extinct. I am informed that this one was found whilst coursing in some fields. It was seen to come out of one hole and try to force itself into another, which it failed to do, and thus was easily secured from behind. — W. S. Gresley, Overseal, 19th Feb., 1884. Meads of Asphodel. — “ He prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and small,” so that there is little need to wonder at Kingsley’s love for beautiful blossoms. Writing from Biarritz in April, 1864, he says, “ The hills here are covered with the true Cornish Heath, pale blue vernal Squills, a great white Potentilla (P. verna), and a long lilac flower, which seems to me a Borage or a Bugloss. There are the most lovely sweet-smelling purple Pinks on the rocks here, and the woods are full of Asphodels — great Lilies, four feet high, with white and purple flowers. I saw the wood yesterday where the dreadful fight was between the French and English, and over the place where all the brave men lay buried, grew one great flower bed of Asphodels. So they “ slept in the meads of Asphodel,” like the old Greek heroes in Homer. There were great “ Lords and Ladies ” (Arums) there growing in the bank, twice as big as ours, and not red, but white and primrose — most beautiful. You cannot think how beautiful the commons are ; they are like flower gardens, golden with Furze, and white with Potentilla, and crimson with Daphne, and blue with the most wonderful blue flower (Lithospermum) which grows everywhere, — Veronica , from The Garden . NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 117 Nitella mucronata in Beds. — The statement by Mr. Hamson in the February “ Midland Naturalist,” with reference to the re-discovery of this plant, requires some qualification. It was first gathered by a youth named C. H. Davis. Specimens of this and some other Characeae were sent me by Mr. Davis. When it was known, through the kindness of Messrs. Groves, that one of them was really Nitella mucronata, I at once arranged to visit the station, see it growing, and gather some for distribution. This was only possible by wading through about a foot of floodwater, beneath a drenching shower, the youth directing my steps to the spot, which had been recently sub¬ merged owing to the heavy rains with which the month of October, 1882, was characterized. Much time was spent during the summer of 1883 to find it in fruit, but unsuccessfully, and it is gratifying to know that it has recently been again found not far from its only known station in 1882. Of course, readers of the “ Midland Naturalist ” are aware that it had only once before been gathered in Britain by Mr. Borrer many years since. — J. Saunders, Luton. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — Geological Section, February 26th.— Mr. T. H. Waller was elected as chairman of the section for the ensuing year. It was decided to defer the appointment of a secretary till next meeting. Mr. Bagnall exhibited Pfdlonotis calcarea , Philonotis ccespitosa, Bryum pallescens, all new to Warwickshire ; Fissidens pusillus , Fissidens incurvus , Scolopendrium vulgare. The last three are rare and were collected near Rugby. Mr. W. P. Marshall described three photographs of the Great Kimberley diamond mine, and exhibited an enlarged diagram constructed from them. Mr. J. Levick exhibited a large number of photographs of the diamond fields and various curiosities from South Africa. Mr. Austin made some remarks in continuation of the information he gave at a previous meeting. General Meeting, March 18th. — Mr. C. Pumphrey exhibited the palate of the shell fish Haliotus tuberculatus , which he had prepared from specimens collected in the Channel Islands. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited two micro¬ fungi, Botryosporium pulchrum, from Sutton ; and Stachylidimn bicolor, var. cyclosporum, from King’s Heath, new to Britain. Biological Section, March 11th, Mr. W. R. Hughes in the chair. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Clathrulina elegans, new to Great Britain. Dr. M. C. Cooke then read a paper on “ Dinners and Diners all the World over,” in which the writer proposed taking a geographical survey of the prin¬ cipal articles of animal food, passing first to the polar regions of Europe, and the warmer countries of Southern Europe, thence to tropical and subtropical Asia, the Islands of the Pacific, and Austral¬ asia, ending the Old World with Africa. After which, he passed to the New World, United States, Central States, and the countries of ^outli America, enumerating some of the curiosities of animal food to be met with during such a progress. This gastronomic tour was terminated by a return to England and a hasty summary of some of our own eccentricities of animal food, with a graphic picture of the animal food consumption of the metropolis. At the close of the paper, Mr. W. R. Hughes proposed a vote of thanks, which was seconded by Mr. J. Levick, supported by Professor Hillhouse, and passed unani¬ mously. Sociological Section. — The eleventh ordinary meeting of 118 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. the section was held on Thursday, 20th March, in the Society’s Room at Mason College. The President, W. R. Hughes, Esq., F.L.S., was unanimously requested to re-deliver before the Section the lecture on “ The Synthetic Philosophy of Mr. Herbert Spencer,” which he has recently given to the Handsworth Natural History and Scientific Society. The consideration of Mr. Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology ” was then continued, Chapter 2 of Part II., on Development, being introduced by Mr. W. W. Collins. On Thursday, 27tli March, at a special meeting, the index to Mr. Spencer’s “ Study of Sociology ” was proceeded with, under the leadership of Mr. F. H. Collins. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — February 18th. — Mr. Flower showed egg of budgerigar. Mr. Madison the following shells : Bythinia leachii, from Weston- super-Mare ; B. tentaculata, from the Birmingham district ; and large specimens of Valvata piscinalis, from near Cheddar. The following objects were shown under the microscopes : Mr. Dunn, sugar mite (Acanis sacchari) ; Mr. Tylar, eggs of shrimp, showing development of embryo; Mr. Foster, spring plant bug ( Tingis hystricellus ), from Ceylon. February 25th. — Mr. Dunn exhibited several ammonites from Lyme Regis, some cut and polished, showing casts of the shell in iron pyrites; Mr. Tylar, cat’s-eye-stone, Grococodolithe , in the rough, also polished ; Mr. J. W. Neville, specimens of horned aphis ( Gerataphis latanice), an insect new to this country, having been introduced into English hot¬ houses on foreign orchids. Apterous females and young were shown, the perfect or winged form being as yet extremely rare ; Mr. Foster, Challenger dredgings from Antarctic Ocean. Mr. Delicate then read a paper on “ Some phases of mind common to man and the lower animals.” The paper dealt with reason, instinct, and genius, defining them and showing their existence in various degrees. The paper was largely illustrated with anecdotes and diagrams. March 3rd. — Mr. Madison showed Anodonta cygnea and A. anatina, from Blackroot Pool, Sutton Park. The following objects were shown under the micro¬ scopes : Mr. J. W. Neville, a trough of Cyclops quadricornis all infested with epistylis taken from a pool where they abound in this state. Mr. Tylar, crystals of menthol by polarised light. March 10th. — Mr. F. Shrive, a house sparrow (stuffed) with curiously misshapen upper bill ; Mr. Madison, Planorbis corneus, from Hall Green, a large variety from Stensall Common, York, and P. corneus var. albida , from Minster, Kent ; Mr. Tylar showed under the micro¬ scope viscid lines of spider’s web ; Mr. Moore, gizzard of Locusta viridis; Mr. J. W. Neville, a wing of foreign butterfly, Orthoptera rhadamanthus. Mr. Dunn then read a paper. “ Notes on the Naiads.” The paper described their place in the animal kingdom, and compared them with the familiar earthworm. Of the several species two, the free-swim¬ ming and mud-boring, were taken as types of the whole class ; their food and manner of feeding, their anatomy, mode of breathing, nervous system, peculiar circulation, natural economy, parasite, locomotion, reproduction, etc., were fully described. The paper was illustrated with a living specimen and diagrams. CARADOC FIELD CLUB. — The Annual General Meeting of the club was held at the George Hotel, Shrewsbury, March 14th, the Rev. J. D. La Touche, President, in the chair. The Field Meetings fixed for the forthcoming season are as follows May 20th. Lebotwood REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 119 for Roman Road, Devil’s Causeway, and Plaisk ; June 13th. Ludlow for Bone Will and Richard’s Castle ; July 29th to 31st. Tewkesbury ; Sept. 26th. Bomere, Betton and Berrington Pools. According to the usage of the society, the last of these excursions will be devoted to the collection and study of cryptogamic plants. The Rev. W. Elliot and the Rev. Canon Butler were elected honorary members ; the Rev. C. Warner and Mr. W. E. Beckwith, Vice-Presidents; and Mr. W. Phillips, F.L.S., was appointed sub-editor for the society, for the “ Midland Naturalist.” Mr. R. H. Law, having tendered his resignation as Secretary and Treasurer, in consequence of leaving the neighbour¬ hood, was thanked in complimentary terms for his valuable services by the President on behalf of the members, and the Rev. T. Auden, Vicar of St. Julians, Shrewsbury, was unanimously elected in his place. HANDSWORTH NATURAL HISTORY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. — This Society was started in 1881 with the object of mutual help in obtaining scientific knowledge. Popular lectures on subjects from all sciences and Natural History are provided during the winter, and excursions in the summer. The members number at present sixty-six. Visitors are admitted at all meetings. The President is Mr. G. Sherriff Tye ; the Secretary, Dr. William L. Hiepe, 68, Villa Road, Handsworth. The meetings are held on alternate Tuesdays at Portland House, Soho Hill, at 8 p.m. The seventh general meeting was held on Tuesday, February 19th, at 8 p.m., at Portland House, Soho Hill. The chair was occupied by the President, Mr. G. Sherriff Tye, and there was a good meeting. Mr. William Madeley, Hon. Secretary of the Dudley Geological Society, delivered a lecture on “ The Life of the Coal Period.” The audience followed the lecturer with great interest and attention, and some time was occupied after the lecture by the inspection of the numerous and splendid specimens of fossil ferns, Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, scales of fish, etc. The eighth general meeting was held on Tuesday, March 4th, the chair being occupied by Mr. F. A. Walton. The lecturer of the evening was Mr. E. Mundye, Head Master of the Birchfield High School. The subject was “ The Phenomena of Light and Colour.” The lecturer explained the vibration theory of light, in opposition to the older emanation theory, and then he showed the phenomena of reflection, refraction, dispersion, phosphorescence, etc., with the aid of a magnificent oxy-hydrogen lamp kindly lent by Mr. H. Lane. All the experiments were successful and striking, and although the lecture occupied above an hour and a half, the audience, which consisted of over eighty, followed it with great interest to the end. NOTTINGHAM NATURALISTS’ SOCIETY.— February 19tli. Mr. J. Shipman read an interesting paper entitled “ The Story of the Hemlock Stone,” in which he took an entirely new view of the origin of this most curious pillar of rock. At the conclusion of the paper, which was of considerable length, Professor Blake, M.A., F.G.S., Mr. E. Wilson, F.G.S., and others took part in the discussion, and warmly combated some of the theories put forward by the essayist ; it was also decided that the subject should at some future date be again brought forward for further discussion. March 4th. — Mr. E. Francis, F.C.S., read a paper on “ The Chemistry of Chalk,” in which he first referred to the formation of the soluble acid carbonate of lime, which, being 120 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. carried in solution by streams and rivers to the ocean, is used by the foraminifera in building up their shells, which are composed of carbonate of lime. He then passed on to the microscopic character of the chalk, which was shown to be almost entirely made up of foraminifera and the siliceous portions of diatoms. The paper was profusely illustrated by diagrams and chemical experiments. March 6th. — The annual soiree and exhibition was held in the large hall of the Mechanics’ Institution. The programme included a great variety of objects of science, art, local manufactures, &c. Microscopes were exhibited by a number of gentlemen during the evening. Perhaps the most novel part of the exhibition was the naturalists’ dinner table, which was presided over by the Hon. Sec., Mr. B. S. Dodd, and on which was served up a number of dishes not commonly partaken of ; the menu consisting of rat-pie, stewed squirrel, roast hedgehog, fricassee of frogs, French snails, horse steaks, reindeer tongue, seaweed ielly and blancmange, American pop-corn, and a number of vegetarian dishes. The Hon. Sec. was ably assisted in this department by Mrs. W. Foster, Jun., and Mr. H. Foster. An organ recital was given during the evening by Mr. W. G. Taylor. March 18th. — Dr. Handford read a paper on “ The Circulating Fluids in Plants and Animals.” The paper was of considerable interest, and entered very minutely into the subject. Commencing with the lowest types of plants and animals, the lecturer reviewed the simplest forms of circulation ; and then proceeded to deal with the blood of the vertebrate animals, referring to the various shapes and sizes of the blood corpuscles in different animals. In conclusion he drew attention to the “fugitive corpuscles, recently discovered by Dr. Norris in the blood of mammalian animals, and which were only to be detected by careful preparation, not from their small size, for they are as large as the ordinary red corpuscles, but that they are rendered invisible owing to their having the same refractive index and the same colour as the liquor sanguinis in which they are submerged. These “fugitive corpuscles” are considered by Dr. Norris to be the source from which the red corpuscles are developed, for, when brought into view and carefully examined, they are found to be colourless bi-concave discs, and between these and the red bi-concave discs the existence of other bi-concave discs, possessing every gradation of tint, could be detected not only by the eye but more conclusively by the aid of the most delicate photo-chemical tests. The paper was illustrated by numerous diagrams and drawings and also by microscopic slides. TAMWOETH NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGICAL, AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.— On February 25th a paper was read by Mr. F. A. Grayston on “The Solar System.” The lecturer dealt with the nebular theory — the sun, earth, and moon — showing its three stages of development. In the case of the moon the lecturer suggested that the volcanoes, which are of a larger size than those of our own planet, might be so owing partly to the more rapid cooling of that body in consequence of its smaller size. On the debatable question as to whether Jupiter and Saturn are self-luminous bodies, he was inclined to chink that the later theory (that they are) was not satisfactorily proved. Lantern slides were given in illustration. — On March 10th “ Town Chapters ” was given by the Rev. T. Forster Rolfe. Starting from the point of the Tamworth earliest Charter (1317), he illustrated it by the early history of the Saxon Monks, the customs of various places from Domesday Book, and the Charters of London, Lincoln, Beverley, and Oxford, to the time of Edward III. Plate III. W Hillhous e ,a,d n.a.t del. Herald Pie&s.LitK Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts. INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 121 ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS.— ID* BY WILLIAM HILLHOUSE, B.A., F.L.S., PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AT THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. (Continued from page 105.) The method of development of the sieve plate and its perforations affords still disputed ground in several particulars. The partition wall is at first single and homogeneous, but, according to Russow, prior to the appearance of the callus is already punctate in that portion of its membrane where the sieve area will be formed, while Wilhelm and Janczewski maintain that the punctation does not appear till after the callus formation. Very early the area is covered on both sides PLATE III. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. Fig. 1. — Terminal sieve plate of Bryonia dioica, in transverse section of stem. Fig. 2. — Terminal sieve plate of Bryonia dioica , in radial longitudinal section of stem, very greatly swollen with Russow’s Aniline Blue, but showing strongly-marked sieve canals. The remains of the original sieve plate wall are still visible, though very indistinctly, not quite so clearly as in the figure. Fig. 3. — Terminal sieve plate of Bryonia dioica , in longitudinal radial section of stem, also treated with Aniline Blue, but much less swollen that that in Fig. 2. Protoplasmic threads, few in number, can be seen passing to and through the plate. Figs. 1-3 were drawn from sections taken from alcohol material gathered in August. Fig. 4. — Terminal sieve plate of Cucurbita Pepo, in longitudinal radial section of stem, showing the mucous collection on each, but mostly on one side of the sieve plate, traversed by strands which also pass through the sieve perforations. Taken from alcohol material of July, 1881, the section having been now two years mounted in glycerine, stained Logwood. The protoplasmic mucous is of a dirty pale-brown colour, and the threads show more plainly than depicted in the figure. Fig. 5. — Sieve plates of Cytisus Laburnum in longitudinal tangential sections of stem, after 24 hours in Potassium Iodide Iodine, and previous treatment with Chlorzinc Iodine. December. Fig. 6. — Sieve perforation in Cytisus Laburnum , after staining with Alcohol Iodine and removal of the walls by 48 hours in strong Sulphuric Acid. July. * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Read March 18th, 1884. 122 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. with small but gradually enlarging callus projections, exactly harmonising in position on the two sides, which projections indicate the position of the future perforations. According to Russow, these callus formations are first made in the pre-existing depressions in the wall, while Janczewski* and Wilhelm believe that these local thinnesses show only after the projections have developed to a certain extent. All three observers agree, however, that at this period the original cellulose membrane is no longer simple and plain, but is now composed of a network of thicker parts, with a mesliwork of thinner, the thinner parts lying between the corresponding projections in question, the network representing the parts free from these projections. As to the source of the callus, there is another divergence of opinion. Wilhelm says, somewhat hesitatingly, that it arises from a local transforma¬ tion of the cellulose ; Janczewski affirms this with positiveness ; Russow, on the other hand, claims that it is in no way the result of cellulose transformation, but is in all cases a new deposit from the protoplasm of the sieve tubes. Quantitatively it appears improbable that the thick callus which many sieve tubes possess should be entirely a transformation of the original extremely thin cell wall ; equally improbable does it seem to be that the protoplasm should form new cellulose deposits only to have them at once reconverted into callus. Such cellulose deposits would have to be either internal or external, but of these there is never the slightest sign.f The deposit of callus can go on slowly for considerable periods ; Russow thinks that the amount deposited is dependent on the length of period during which the sieve perforations remain open, and the sieve tube thus active. But, on the other hand, it is quite clear that in Monocotyledons, where the sieve tubes remain active for the greatest length of time, there is a smaller formation of callus than in Dicotyledons, where the sieve tube is seldom active for more than two or three years. * Janczewski in his earlier observations held the same opinion as Russow, viz., that the wall was pitted before the formation of the callus. t As callus is but a modified form of cellulose it is more probable that both processes go on, the original callus formation, so far as it involves the thinning out and local disappearance of the original cell wall, beiug due to transformation, subsequent increase being due to callus deposit. Transformation, however, if it takes place, is appa¬ rently not simple. Many of the reactions of callus are distinctly semi-protoplasmic. Some suggest a resemblance, probably however merely casual, to the basis substance of the cell-nucleus — nuclein (a name first given to it by Hanstein, although Miescher and Hertwig had both previously employed the term, and equivalent to the chromatin of Flemming, and Kernsubstanz of Strasburger). INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 123 Tims Russow himself mentions the case of Yucca aloifolia , 15 years old, where the sieve tubes in all the fibro-vasal bundles were still active and had callus coverings to their sieve plates, the callus, nevertheless, being no thicker in the oldest than in the youngest tubes ; while, on the contrary, in many herbaceous Dicotyledons of exceedingly rapid growth (Bryonia), the callus formation is often very considerable. To resume our account of the sieve development. The callus projections now swell, fuse together, and completely cover all the parts of the young sieve plate ; and in those places where previously the cellulose wall was thinned (called above the “ mesh work ” ) this wall now entirely disappears, having been either dissolved or transformed into callus, so that at these points the callus on the two sides of the plate is fused. The young sieve is now ready for perforation. In the meantime great changes have taken place in the contents of the tube, which it is not a part of our present purpose to describe, and masses of protoplasmic jelly have accumulated on either side of the still closed sieve plate, separated from it by the parietal layer of protoplasm. Opposite to some or all of the meshes of the callus this jelly puts out a minute prolongation, covered by the parietal layer, which gradually penetrates the callus substance of the sieve, perforates it, and fuses with the similar mucous substance of the cell on the other side of the plate, forming thus a continuous filament. Up to this time the sieve tube has been in what Janczewski calls an “ evolu¬ tive ” state ; it now passes into what he calls the “active ” state, m which it will remain for a varying period (see Plate III., figs. 2 to 5). A sieve plate thus formed consists there¬ fore of a very delicate network of cellulose, shown still faintly in Plate III., fig. 2, taken from Bryonia dioica, covered by a callous envelope, which lines also the perforating canals. If in this state the cell-wall, &c., be entirely removed by sulphuric acid the connecting threads will perhaps be left intact, communicating from one cell to the other through the thickness of the sieve, as is shown in Plate III., fig. 6 (Cytisus Laburnum). Such is the typical method of development of the sieve perforations and plate in Angiospermous Phanerogams. In the references to the literature above, I have noted that a certain amount of relation appears to exist between the viability of the sieve plate and the seasons. My own investigations upon the roots of hardy dicotyledonous trees, both deciduous and evergreen (e.g., Cerasus Laurocerasus, Rhododendron ponticum, Cytisus Laburnum , various species of Acer, Quercus, JEsculus, and those of Cheiranthus Cheiri), lead 124 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. me to agree with Russow that in roots the sieve pores are not closed in winter. As the two winters during which I have from time to time investigated this point, viz., 1882-3 and 1883-4, have been remarkable for their mildness, I cannot venture to say what might be the case in seasons when the cold is intense ; nor have I examined any half- hardy plants to see whether their behaviour is different. In the case of stems the closure in winter has not been . — ' nearly so complete as previous statements would lead to believe. Here again, however, the extreme mildness of the two seasons may have had some effect. The general view of Janczewski is that the function of the callus is to close the sieve pores in winter. Russow has, however, pointed out the frequency with which in winter the callus shows differentiation, in the form of strias passing from cell to cell. These striae are probably mucilaginous filaments of proto¬ plasmic material ; the swelling callus has closed upon them, but has not shut them out. The perforations are, therefore, probably not completely closed. When open the sieve pores are lined by a callus layer, which continues into the main callus deposits on either side of the sieve plate. When the pores are closed in winter the closure operates by means of the swelling of the callus in autumn. Once closed the pores remain so through the winter. In spring the callus in each pore contracts and the pore again becomes visible. This reopening can be produced artificially, e.g., by passing a branch of a vine for a week or so into a warm moist chamber. The actual data of the reopening no doubt varies from year to year, as well as from plant to plant. On January 20tli, 1883, after about three weeks of very open weather, I found (at Bonn) the sieve tubes of Syringa vulgaris (the Lilac) fully open. The relations of the constituent elements of the sieve tubes in different great groups of plants afford a field of evolutionary speculation. In all the investigated Vascular Cryptogams the sieve tubes are present, but they are always closed — never communicate by’ pores. The membranes forming their end walls are pitted, but are usually unpro¬ vided with callus. In Pteris aquilina (the Bracken Fern), which one would not naturally suspect of a high degree of develop¬ ment, the walls are perforate at the pits, but the perforations are completely closed by the callus formation ; so that here the sieve tubes appear to show the initial stage of a higher development. In Grymnosperms, on the other hand, the sieve plates, both terminal and radial, are callous when young, prior to the INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 125 opening of the sieve pores ; later the callus is entirely dis¬ solved, leaving the pores open and the sieve plate quite bare. But at the same time, however, the protoplasm disappears from the sieve tubes, leaving behind only a watery fluid.51' On passing from their evolutive stage, the sieve tubes of conifers pass directly into a passive state. Another point of biological interest is that in conifers each sieve element is directly formed from a cambial cell, without undergoing, as in Angiospenns, any prior subdivisions. A final point of interest is the contents of the tubes in the different groups of plants. In Vascular Cryptogams the sieve tubes contain neither protoplasm (other than a very thin parietal layer), nor nucleus, nor starch ; the parietal layer of protoplasm contains, or has adherent to it, a number of highly refractive globules of albuminous nature, which especially accumulate at the base of the pits. These globules are often much more numerous on one side of the sieve plate than the other. In Grymnosperms, as the sieve tube approaches its complete state, the nucleus first disappears, then the bulk of the proto¬ plasm, while a thin parietal layer of this persists till the time when the pores are opened ; this parietal layer contains a number of highly refractive granules, of albuminous nature, especially abundant near the sieve plates ; starch is absent. In Monocotyledons, as the sieve tube approaches its com¬ plete state, the nucleus first disappears, then (or, e.g ., in Phragmites previously) the protoplasm is reduced to a thin parietal layer, with sometimes (Typha, Phragmites f ) a mass of very refractive protoplasmic jelly collected on both sides of the sieve plate, but more largely on one side than on the other. In other cases (according to Bussow generally) this jelly mass is not present ; numerous refractive granules, albuminous in nature, adhere to the parietal protoplasm, chiefly near the sieve plates. Starch is rarely present. In Dicotyledons, as the sieve tube approaches its complete state, the nucleus first disappears, then the protoplasm is reduced to a thin parietal layer, a mass of albuminous jelly is collected chiefly at one side of the sieve plate (well shown in Plate III., fig. 4), and a similar mucilaginous strand often traverses the length of the constituent cell. Starch is very generally present during the active life of the tubes, and, as I have demonstrated in a very large number of plants, mainly on one side of the plate. * This, however, I have seen show a clear proteid reaction, t Janczewski, 1. c. 126 INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. It will be seen, therefore, that in all cases the nucleus has disappeared from the mature sieve tube, the protoplasm lias diminished to a parietal layer ol small thickness, while in Cryptogams, Gy mno sperms, and some Monocotyledons there has been a variable development of highly refractive globules of albuminous nature, and in Dicotyledons and other Monocotyledons there has been a similar variable development of an albuminous or proteid mucous or gelatinous substance. Is the mucous of Dicotyledons equivalent to the jelly of Monocotyledons ? Have they any genetic relationship with the albuminous refractive globules of the Cryptogams and Gymnosperms ? (To be continued.) THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. II.— THE ROCHE AND CLAY-MARL. BY C. BEALE, C.E. (Continued from page 112.) The roclie is a peculiar development of the basalt, and it is the facts in connection with this material which we have now to review, I have just said it is a mass of dry rocky material, which breaks up into small cubical morsels in the hand without any difficulty ; that is, doubtless, one great feature in the roclie, but it is only one feature. The roclie is of various depths, but, perhaps, if we give it an average of twenty or twenty-five feet we shall not be overstating the fact. It occurs in various forms. We find it in one place in thin vertical bands of from three to fifteen inches in thickness ; these bands are not solid throughout, but consist of a number of plates about an eighth to one quarter- of-an-incli in thickness ; removing these we find they crumble as already described. These vertical bands occur as partings between a different development of the roclie, consisting of spheroidal masses formed of concentric layers of the same thickness, generally, as the vertical plates, each mass having for a nucleus a compact fine-grained spherical mass of true basalt, but of a somewhat darker colour than the stone below, and very much harder. These spheroidal masses are roughly arranged in columnar fashion, and are of various dimensions, not only as THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. 127 regards the columns, but also as regards each individual mass. The columns are sometimes but a few inches in diameter, sometimes as much as five or six feet ; and it is noticeable that the columns do not uniformly consist of masses of equal diameter. We should find, taking any column at random, that there were, perhaps, three or four or even a greater number of similar sized masses ; then would come a division of the mass into two or more nuclei, and again a further subdivision into a very large number of nuclei within the original diameter of the column, and again we should come to single masses occupying the whole width of the column. These varying masses of roclie are not continuous over the extent of any quarry now open, hut occasionally — between — occur masses of the basalt itself, leading on to the solid stone below. A face of the quarry showing these columnar masses of nodular roclie is a beautiful and interesting sight to the geologist, though eminently unsatisfactory to the quarry owner. Sometimes the concentric layers weather off in places, so that many thicknesses of the covering of the nucleus are exposed, and the effect of light and shadow resulting therefrom is often striking as well as beautiful. The whole of this mass of roclie must be removed before the quarry can he worked satisfactorily. It has been held, I believe, that this mass of roclie was once solid basalt, thrown up from below, and of similar quality and hardness to the true stone upon which it rests, and that its present state is the result of decomposition due to atmo¬ spheric or other influences; but I can see nothing to bear out this theory. On the contrary, I believe there is abundant evidence to show that we find the roclie exactly as it was to be found when it cooled after its eruption, consisting of exactly the same component parts as when erupted, and that the rude columnar structure in the roclie, as the more perfect columnar structure in the true basalt, is due to the cooling of the different masses. When we see a mass of true basalt occurring here and there, side by side with masses of roclie ; when we consider iliat each has been subjected to the same influences, that what has touched or affected one mass has equally touched and affected all ; and when we consider the diverseness of the materials as they stand now, we cannot come to any other conclusion than that both masses are practically now the same as when thrown out from Nature’s laboratory. We might, if further proof were necessary, find it all over the hills themselves ; proof that the true basalt does not weather — remains unchanged under all 128 THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. circumstances of atmospheric or sub-aerial influences. Take an instance. The native blocks already referred to are what we might call weathered — that is, the colour is altered from its original blue to a warm buff, partly perhaps by the de¬ composition of the felspar contained in the exterior parts liable to be acted upon, but much more so by being stained by ferruginous or other matters in the moist materials in contact with them. And so it is with the true stone in the quarry ; wherever you see a joint — no matter whether it is stone against stone or stone against a roclie parting — then you see the uniform rich buff colour. In both instances the discolouration extends to about a similar depth. Now it would not be quite safe, I suppose, to argue from this that the exterior colouring of both blocks and rocks dates from the same period ; and yet I am inclined to think that such is the case, because when I search my favourite old walls — the very oldest of them — or even when I examine some of the many huge blocks which, from their ponderous size, have been allowed to remain where placed by Nature countless ages ago, what do 1 find ? I find that when any stone or block has been fractured, subsequent of course to its fracture of detachment from the solid rock, no discoloration, no weathering, has taken place; that, instead of the buff colour of blocks and joints in quarry, the fractures show a black face, and therefore that no weathering has taken place during the centuries or milleniums in which they have been exposed ; and I deduce from this that practically true basalt does not weather or decay, and that the roclie is an entirely different substance of basaltic origin, but wanting in some of the component parts of true basalt, and that we find it in its original condition. I have said that directly we turn the southern shoulder of the hill we have no roche beneath the surface soil ; the same may be said of the extreme tops of the various bosses of the range of these Eowley Hills, but the circumstances of these two cases are widely different. On the tops of the hills the roche has been removed, degraded. That it had covered these parts could, I think, be easily shown, even leaving analogy out of consideration ; but as we turn southwards we find the roche in situ and persistent over the whole south and west area, only it is here covered by our bed of native blocks already referred to. We find, then, a general section of the hills would give — Basalt at base, Roclie above, covered by Surface soil ; but at the apex we have a section of basalt only, the surface THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. 129 soil, only three to nine inches, being hardly worth notice ; while on south and west our section would be — Basalt at base, Roche above, obscured by till or bed of Native blocks, and covered by Surface soil as before ; thus accounting for the waste or degradation of the bill tops, and pointing out the direction from which the degrading forces proceeded. I think in the above we have another proof of the roche being in its original condition, for we find it of precisely the same structure, and arranged similarly to where it lias no pro¬ tecting covering of till. Where it is not so covered (on the north and east) the beds are no thinner, i.e., disintegration (?) has not proceeded more rapidly or done more work than on the south and west where it is thickly covered, well protected, and the material itself is not any more friable, more decom¬ posed, or “ rotten,” than where such covering protection obtains. We now come to consider the clay-marl, and this subject opens a much wider field than that we have just been discussing. The clay-marl covers a very considerable area on either side the centre line of eruption, and as it is abundantly evident that it results from the degradation of the roche, and from this cause solely, we should expect to find it thinnest a little below the shoulders of the hill, thickening as we descend to the valley bottoms, and again thinning out to nothing as we approach the outer margin of the deposit ; and as a matter of fact this is really what is found. This high land must have been considerably higher at the close of the eruptions : first, by reason of the great thickness of roche overlying the present tops, and, secondly, by reason of the much greater depth of the surrounding valleys, sub¬ sequently filled with the degraded roche. The outer margin of the clay-marl area we may take generally as being about one-and-a-half miles on either side of the axis of eruption, and this axis lies as near as possible due north and south. The outer margin of the deposit is obscured for the most part by two series of drift- clays and gravels ; the earlier being the ordinary boulder-clay of the district, including gravels and boulders derived from the Bunter conglomerate, and the later (gravel and clay) is a local re- wash of the surface deposits and outcrops of local rocks and measures existing at the period of a later deluge. There is evidence high up on the hill sides that one of these 180 THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. series — I am inclined to think the earlier one — once enveloped the hills, detached patches of gravel, clay and boulders, occurring nearly as high as Rowley village, thus informing us of greater and more varied changes having occurred than we should otherwise be prepared to expect, and showing, I think, that we have not had any deposition of the missing strata between the upper coal measures and the boulder-clay, unless, indeed, the whole had been deposited and subsequently denuded. But in this case, I imagine, some little evidence would be left whereby we should be enabled to read aright the history of the deposition and removal of such strata, in the locality, just as we have the isolated patches of clays and gravels which remain to tell of the covering of these materials once in existence here. If we make the circuit of the hills within the margin of the clay-marl deposit we find a series of deep marl holes, in none of which, that I am aware of, has the base of the marl been touched. The greatest depth reached has been about one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet, the bottom at this depth being equally good marl with that higher up. These deep marl holes furnish evidence that the deposit did not take place continuously, for at a depth from the surface of about fifty feet we find a bed of fine conglomerate rock, the component parts of which are all of basaltic origin, unless we except the calcareous material cementing the mass.. A section of the clay-marl in one of these holes would show thus : — Clay-marl at bottom, Basaltic conglomerate Clay-marl band Basaltic conglomerate Clay-marl (upper) Surface deposits about 50 feet thick. 8 to 6 ,, 1 to 2 2 to 5 30 to 50 2 5 > ? 5 * ? From this section it would appear as though the deposit had been arrested more than once, allowing for a considerable period to elapse wherein the materials composing the beds of conglomerate would have time to be collected and become cemented together. That there must have been a shore these materials abundantly prove, for they are all rounded pebbles, apparently. There is one remark about this conglomerate which may be made here. The pebbles may not be pebbles — that is, stones rounded by aqueous action — at all ; they may be the small nuclei of dark blue fine-grained stone abounding through¬ out the bulk of the roclie in situ, liberated by the saturation and disintegration of the roclie, consequent on its removal THE BASALT OF ROWLEY REGIS. 181 from the upper parts of the liills to the valleys, and on its reduction from roclie to mud. But if the items of the con¬ glomerate are nuclei, why do we not find them throughout the bulk of the marl, which is free from stones, either rounded or angular? We might say they have been washed out and collected by wave action, so as to form a beach or shallow bottom. That is possible, certainly ; but then in that case why should they have collected in the position in which we find them ? I must say that the little stones do not look like ordinary gravel, and though granting the possi¬ bility of their being nuclei, yet I incline to think they are pebbles ; they are peculiar in whatever light we view them. I have been told, when conversing with the owners, that fossils (molluscs) have occasionally been found in this clay- marl on the east side of the hills ; but I have never seen nor have I found any myself, though I have often spent an hour or two in the pits with this object in view. We see, then, that this clay-marl, which is used in the manufacture of our world-famous Staffordshire blue bricks, is a most interesting deposit, and unfolds a wonderful history — a history of fire and water, of tumult and repose. (To be continued.) ON THE PILOBOLIDiE, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE.* BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. Part I.— INTRODUCTION. Imagine an oval translucent vase of exquisite outline, carved from a single diamond, not indeed of the finest water, but brought from South African fields, tinged with a delicate yellow colour. Place beneath this a gracefully-curving slender stem, of crystal clear, and where they join let a circlet of the purest gold lie coiled within the tube. Then let a beautiful and limpid light radiate from every part. To enhance its effect, take a piece of the blackest jet, shaped into a perfect hemisphere. Polish its surface till it shines like a Venetian mirror, and gently poise this sooty crown over the mouth of * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Read at a Meeting of the Society, April 17, 1883. 132 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . the transparent vase. Let glistening strings of orient pearls liang round in graceful festoons, and imagine the whole of this priceless work reduced in size till the total height exceeds not a twentieth of an inch. To complete the contrast, thickly strew these fairy jewels on the half-dried surface of a cake of cow dung, and you have imitated nature as far as your powers allow. To mortals this treasure is known by the name of Pilobolus, and the particular species which I have pictured is called Pilobolus Kleinii. In order to see these tiny gems in all their beauty, the fungus must be viewed while in good condition, with a lin. objective and abundance of light. Of the genus Pilobolus there are recorded in the Handbook of British Fungi two species only, P. cnjstallinus and P. roridus, and no additions have been made, so far as I am aware, to this list of British species. The number of species now described as occurring in Europe is seven, besides two placed in an allied genus, Pilaira, one of which was formerly consi¬ dered a Pilobolus. Thus, out of nine species, seven were unknown in Britain ; of these seven the present paper records three which I have found in this neighbourhood, as well as one species hitherto undescribed which will appear in the sequel. When the second edition of the Handbook is published it will differ from the first, if it reflects the present state of mycological knowledge, not only in containing an enormous number of new species, but in presenting a radical change in the main classification of the groups. To revert for a moment to the two instances which I have already brought before the notice of this Society — in the first place, the Myxomycetes will be far removed from the Gastromycetes, amongst which they are there stationed, being in fact relegated to almost the lowest position in the fungal scale, while the Gastromycetes will continue in their present position as a group closely allied to the Hymenomycetes. Again, the Pucciniacei and their allies (which form the Uredinese and Ustilaginese) will be widely separated from those species with which they are at present classed in the Coniomycetes, while the Torulacei will be absorbed in the Hyphomycetes, into which, as I hope to show on a future occasion, they graduate insensibly. The Sphseronemei and Melanconiei alone will remain, and, although the name Coniomycetes may be properly retained for them, yet it will have lost so great a part of the meaning which it has hitherto borne that in all probability it will be allowed to lapse into oblivion. I have now to bring before your notice another instance of a similar character. The English system, true to its ON THE PJLOBOLIDiE. 133 artificial nature, classes the Mucorini near to the Ascomycetes, that is, to the Pezizse and Spliseriae, with which they have nothing in common, but the fact that their ordinary spores are produced by the endogenous subdivision of the contents of certain cells, called sporangia in the one and asci in the others. But with the exception of this one solitary point ot similarity, the Mucorini are wholly different from the Asco¬ mycetes ; they are really of a very low grade of organisation, and must be placed not far from the Myxomycetes themselves. Their nearest allies are to be found in the genera Cystopus and Peronospora, which by the same system are classified among the Coniomycetes and the Hypliomycetes respectively, and in other genera not included in the Handbook. Part II.— MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 1. — The Mucorini. The Mucorini are characterised especially by their mycelium, at first unicellular, that is, not divided by trans¬ verse septa, however much it may be branched ; septa are, however, afterwards produced at certain places for the purpose of restricting and directing the movements of the protoplasm. Branches of this mycelium are directed upwards, and bear usually globose or subglobose (in one group, cylindrical) sporangia, containing endospores. Sometimes in the course of the mycelium itself, or on short lateral branches, local accumulations of the protoplasm surround themselves by a firm membrane, and constitute a multiplicative apparatus, under the name of chlamydospores. Other branches of the mycelium end in cells, which are cut off by septa, and unite in pairs : the product of this union is called a zygote (formerly a zygospore), and corresponds to the fertilised ovule among the Phanerogams. The conjugating cells may or may not present appreciable sexual differences. The protoplasm which traverses the mycelium also offers certain characters by which by which it is essentially distinguished from that of other Fungi. The Mucorini may be divided into four main groups : — CQ * ui Believe me, Sincerely yours, HERBERT SPENCER. Note. — The paragraph marked * * * referred to a private matter, of no interest to the general public. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWEKING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. {Continued from page 116.) POL YGON ACKvE .—Continued. POLYGONUM. P. Fagopyrum, Linn. Buckwheat. Casual : In cultivated ground and on railway banks. Local and uncertain. I. New railway banks, Sutton Park, abundant, 1878 ; Colesliill Heath ; Marston Green. II. Near Wilmcote ; Warwick Castle Park, Herb. Perry; Kenilworth, Dr. Baker , 1880, Herb. Bab.; Honily ; Stoneleigh ; Milverton ; Berkswell, II. B. This is frequently sown for feeding game, and cannot, I think, be considered naturalised in any of these stations. P. Convolvulus, Linn. Climbing Buckioheat. Native : In woods, by roadsides, and in cultivated fields and gardens. Common. June to October. Area general. P. aviculare. Linn. Common Knot Grass. Native : In fields, on heaths, by roadsides, etc. Common. June to October. Area as an aggregate species general. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 5o a. agrestinum. II. Lambcote ; Honington ; Neivb. Cornfields, not common, Milver¬ ton ; Woodloes, H. B . I have not noticed this variety, so am not able to give its distribution in the Tame basin. b. vulgatum. Area general, most frequent on marly and clayey soils. c. arenas trum. Local. I. On heathy waysides near Sutton Park ; near Hampton-in-Arden ; footway from Henfield to Temple Balsall ; canal side near Solihull wharf ; Coleshill heath. II. Honington; Shipston, Neivb. ; Milverton, H. B. ; Alveston heath ; lanes about Allesley village. Appears to prefer sandy and gravelly soils. d. microspermum. Local. I. Roadsides between Hampton-in-Arden and Meriden. Fields near Oldbury. II. Honington; Shipston, Neivb. ; Myton ; Kenilworth, H. B. ; Alves¬ ton heath ; mostly on clayey or lias soils. e. rurivagum. Rare. I. Cornfields near Cornels Ends, Berkswell. II. Cornfields, Sowe waste; Kirk, Herb. Bab.; Hatton, H. B., Herb. Bab.; Myton; near Kenilworth, H. B. ; Halford; Honington, Neivb. ; abundant at Itchmgton Holt. This variety seems to occur only on heavy soils such as clay and lias. P. Hydropiper, Linn. Water Pepper. Native: In ditches, marshes, damp woods, and by pools. Locally common. July to October. Area general. P. Persicaria, Linn. Common Persicaria. Native: In cultivated fields; by roadsides and on waste heaps. Common. June to September. Area general. Yar. elatum. II. By water, Hasely Reservoir ; near Leamington, H. B. P. lapathifolium, Linn. Glandular Persicaria. Native : In damp woods, cultivated land, and on waste heaps by roadsides. Locally abundant. July to September. I. Abundant in Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Coleshill heath ; near Olton Pool ; Balsall street. II. Brailes ; St. Dennis, Newt.; Warwick; Whitnash, II. B. ; Alveston heath ; Wilmcote, etc. P. maculatum, Dyer. Native or denizen : On railway banks and waste places. Rare. July. I. Abundant on newly made railway banks in Sutton Park, 1878. II. (nodosum ), Myton Grange fields, Herb. Perry ; on mud from a bank at Myton, H. B. P. amphibium, Linn. Amphibious Bistort. Native: In rivers, streams, and pools. Locally abundant. June to September. I. Rotten Park Reservoir, W. B. Grove ; pools in Sutton Park ; pool near New Park; Bannersley Pool; Coleshill Pool; River Blythe, near Solihull. II. Mill pond, Warwick, Perry FI., 36. In the Avon, Bidford Grange ; in the Alne at Kinwarton ! Purt i., 200 ; canal between Newbold and Harboro’ ! R. S. R., 1877 ; in the Stour at Honing¬ ton, Newb. ; Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. 156 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. The variety terrestre occurs frequently with the type, and seems to be a mere form produced by local surroundings. P. Eistorta, Linn. Common Bistort. Snake Weed. Denizen ; in pastures. Locally abundant. May, June. I. In meadows at Tamworth and Fazeley, Bay. Syn. (3), 147 ; near Packington ! Aylesford, B. G., 685. Garlick meadows, Erding- ton ! With., ed. 7, ii., 497. Between Washwood Heath and Gravelly Hill ; meadows near Solihull and Shirley ; near Coleshill ; near Knowle. II. In a field at Oversley, Purt. i., 197 ; Allesley ! Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist. iii. , 164. Myton ; Rowington ! Y. & B. ; Guys Cliff ; Kenil¬ worth ; Balsall, H. B. ; near Henley-in-Arden ; Holywell. THYME L ACE AE . DAPHNE. [D. Mezereum, Linn. Spurge Olive, Dwarf Bay. Denizen : On rocky banks. Very rare. March. II. Canal cutting near Shrewley Common. H.B., Herb. Brit. Mus.] This plant has no claim to a place in this Flora; it was well- established in the station above mentioned at one time, but seems to be eradicated now. Probably introduced by birds dropping the seeds on these rocks. D. Laureola, Linn. Spurge Laurel. Native : In woods and on banks. Very local. March. II. Oversley Wood! Grafton ! Purt. i., 194; Newbold Comyn ; Stank-hill Farm, near Warwick ; Warwick Castle Mount ; on the Stratford and Birmingham Roads, near Warwick! Per. FI., 36; Itchington, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist. iii. 164. Near Wolstone, R. S. B., 1877. Wellesbourn ; Liglithorne, Bolton King; Lower Fullbrook; Lanes near Sherbourn ; Red Hill ; Drayton Bushes. EMPETRACEAE . EMPETRUM. E. nigrum, Linn. Black Croivberry. Native : On damp heath lands. Very rare. April. I. On marshy lands by the New Park, Middleton, Gibson's Camden, 516; Sutton Coldfield! Purt. ii., 746. Still abundant on Sutton Coldfield, but I find no trace of it near the New Park. EUPHORBIACEAE. EUPHORBIA. E. Helioscopia, Linn. Sun Spurge. Colonist : In cultivated ground and on waste heaps. Common. March to October. Area general. E. amygdaloides, Linn. Woody Spurge. Native : In woods, copses, and on hedge banks. Local. I. Bentley Park; lanes about Hockley and Earl’s Wood; Shelly Coppice; Boultbie Wood, near Meriden. II. Old Park, Y. and B.; Salford Priors, Bev. J. C .; Oversley Wood; Austey Wood, near Henley-in-Arden ; Bearley Bushes ; Chalcot Wood ; lanes about Tanworth and Umberslade ; Combe Woods. [E. Esula, Linn. Leafy branched Spurge. Casual : On railway banks. Very rare. June. II. Railway banks, near Myton and Leek Wootton. II. B.~\ THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 157 E. Peplus, Linn. Petty Spurge. Native: In cultivated land, by roadsides, and on waste heaps. Common. March to October. Area general. E. exigua, Linn. Dwarf Spurge. Colonist: In cornfields and on bushy roadsides. Locally common. June to November. I. Cornfields near Sutton ; Middleton ; roadsides near Penns ; Shu stoke ; Arley ; Coleshill ; Marston Green ; Solihull; Olton ; Sheldon, etc. II. Opposite Stoneleigh Lodge ; open field between Harbury and Tacli- brook, Perry FI., 42 ; Salford Priors, Rev. J. G. ; near Harboro’ Magna; Little Lawford ; Cubbington ; Stoneleigh, Wilmcote; Oversley ; Alcester ; Ragley. Uncertain in its occurrence, often absent for two or three seasons in any given station. [. E . Cyparissias, Linn., is recorded in the Rugby School Report from near Rugby, but was merely an escape.] MERCURIALIS. M. perennis, Linn. Perennial Dog's Mercury. Native: In woods, copses, and shady banks. Common. February to April. Area general. [Buxus sempervirens, L., occurs occasionally in hedges and woods, but only where planted.] CERATOPHYLLACEAE . CERATOPHYLLUM. • C. aquaticum, E. B. Common Hornwort. Native : In pools. Rather rare. I. Berkswell mill pool! Herb. Perry ; pool near Berkswell Hall; pools at Springfield and Temple Balsall. IT. In a stew of the Rev. Mr. Bree’s, Allesley, Purt. iii., 70; Chesterton Mill Pool! St. Nicholas Mill Pool, Herb. Perry ; Caludon House Wood, near Coventry, T. K ., Herb. Perry; Old Canal, near Brown’s Over, R. S. R., 1868; Burton Dassett, Y. d B.; Itching- ton Holt ; pool by Oakley Wood ; cattle pool near Gay don Inn ; in flower, Sowe Waste Canal, 1883. (To be continued.) WEIGHING THE EARTH WITH A CHEMICAL BALANCE. The various methods by which the density of the earth, and consequently its weight, have been ascertained, are all dependent upon the principle of comparing the pull, or attrac¬ tion, of the earth upon some small body with that exerted upon the same body by some mass of definite size and weight. From reasons which are not known to us, Newton arrived at the conclusion that the earth was between 5 and G times 158 WEIGHING THE EARTH WITH A CHEMICAL BALANCE. as heavy as an equal sized globe of water. In 1774 Dr. Maskelyne compared the attraction of the mountain of Schiehallien, in Perthshire, upon a leaden weight suspended by a plumb-line, with the attraction of the earth for the same weight, and obtained a result for the earth’s density of 4f times that of water. In such cases the difficulty of correctly estimating the mass of the mountain is very great. In 1854 (Sir) G. B. Airy obtained a result of 6J from his experiments made by swinging a pendulum at the top and at the bottom of the shaft of Harton Colliery, near South Shields. The famous experiment made by Cavendish in 1798, and repeated by Reich in 1887, and (with immense care) by Bailey in 1842, depended upon the perturbations produced in the vibrations of two small balls (fixed one at each end of a light rod suspended by a wire from its centre), when large balls of lead are brought near to the opposite sides of the small balls. The results obtained by this method vary from a little below to a little above 5J. The latest experiment, and that by a new method, having for its object the determination of the density of the earth, was devised and carried out by (Prof.) J. H. Poynting, in 1878, at the Owens College, Manchester. A small metal ball, weighing, say, one pound, is attached to the end of one arm of a chemical balance of very great sensitiveness, and the earth’s pull upon the ball is counterbalanced with the utmost nicety by placing weights in the pan suspended from the end of the other arm. A heavy mass of metal (in the actual experiment a ball of lead weighing 840 lbs. was em¬ ployed) is then placed immediately underneath the small ball. This small ball is then attracted both by the earth and by the large leaden mass, and its weight is consequently in¬ creased ; the actual increase observed being one forty-five- millionth ! Small as this quantity may seem, it wTas found to be quite measurable. In this way we are able to find out how strongly the small ball would be attracted by a mass of lead the size of the earth, and it is found that it would be attracted about twice as strongly as it actually is by the earth. But we know the density of lead is 11^-, therefore the density of the earth must be one-half of this, or rather more than 5J. The precise result obtained by Prof. Poynting was 5 ’GOO. We believe that Prof. Poynting is about to repeat this very striking and original experiment, with certain modifications and improvements in small details, in a base¬ ment room (the balance must rest upon the ground to secure perfect stability) of the Mason College, Birmingham. W. J. H. A CALL TO PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 159 A CALL TO PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVERS. Dr. H. Hoffmann and Dr. E. lime, of Giessen, desire that all who take an interest in observing the influence of the seasons upon the vegetable world will devote themselves to ascertaining, as exactly as possible, the required particulars concerning the undermentioned plants, especially the first flowering and fiirst ripening of fruit. The observations are to be made upon normal plants ; those trained in any way (as in a garden) or exceptionally situated in a sheltered or exposed situation are to be disregarded. It is also desired that the observations may not be confined to the same plant each year, as the object is to obtain a trustworthy mean for each locality. Feb. 10. — Corylus Avellana, bursting of the anthers. Apr. 10.— iEsculus Hippocast././. 13. — Kibes rubrum,//. 17. — K. aureum, /./'. 17. — Betula alba, bursting of the anthers. 18. — Prunus avium, f.f. 19. — P. spinosa, /./. 19. — Betula alba, /.?. 22. — Prunus Cerasus, f.f. 23. — P. Padus ,/./. 23. — Pyrus communis, f.f. 25. — Fagus sylvatica, f.l. 28. — Pyrus Malus ,/./. May 1. — Quercus pedunc., f.l. 3. — Lonicera tatarica, f.f. 4. — Syringa vulgaris,/./. 4. — Fagus sylvat., in full leaf. 4. — Narcissus poeticus ,/./. 7. — iEsculus Hippocast././. 9. — Crataegus Oxyacantlia, //• 12. — Sarotliamnus scopa- rius, f.f. 14. — Quercus pedunc., in full leaf. 14. — Cytisus Laburnum, f.f. 16. — Cydonia vulgaris, /./. 16.— Sorbus aucuparia, f.f. f.l. — First leaf fully expanded. f.f. — First flower open. f.fr. — First fruit ripe (in fleshy fruits). l.d.— Leaves discoloured ; more than half of the foliage changed in colour. It is requested that observations be sent to either of the persons named, at Giessen. The dates given are the means of those observed at that town. W.B.G. May 28. — Sambucus nigra, f.f. 28.— Secale cereale hib. , /./. 28. — Atropa Belladonna, '//. June 1. — Symphoricarpus race- mosa, f.f. 2. — Kubus id sens, f.f. 2. — Salvia officinalis, f.f. 5. — Cornus sanguinea, f.f. 14. — Yitis vinifera, /./. 20. — Kibes rubrum, f.fr. 21. — Ligustrum vulgar e,/./. 22. — Tilia grandifolia, /./. 26. — Lonicera tatarica, f.fr. 30. — Lilium candidum, f.f. July 4. — Kubus idseus, f.fr. 5. — Kibes aureum, f.fr. 19. — Secale cereale hib., be¬ ginning of harvest. 30.— Sorbus aucuparia, f.fr. 30. — Symplior. rac em.ff.fr. Aug. 1 . — Atropa B elladon u a f.fr. 11. — Sambucus nigra, f.fr. 24. — Cornus sanguinea, f.fr. Sept. 9. — Ligustrum vulgar ef.fr. 16. — iEsculus Hippocast., ffr. Oct. 10. — iEsculus Hippocast., l.d. 13.— Betula alba, l.d. 15. — Fagus sylvatica, l.d. 20. — Quercus pedunc., l.d. 160 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTERS Y. AND VI. “ The correspondence between life and its circumstances and “ The degree of life varies as the degree of correspondence BY J. 0. W. BARRATT, B.SC. The proximate definition of life given in Cliap. IV. does not include that adaptation which is so characteristic of living beings. Although we make use of this fact to ascertain if an animal or plant is living — as when we rouse a horse lying down in a field, or when we watch a tree to see if it puts forth leaves in spring — nevertheless, from its very commonness, we usually overlook it, paradoxical though this may appear. Supposing, however, that beings of an entirely different order to mankind were to come to this earth, the adaptation would be the first thing they would notice. They would notice it among the throng in the streets, in the houses, everywhere. And the highest manifestations of this adaptation, such as the ease with which a captain finds his way on the sea, do strike us with wonder. Again, comparing the life of a man with that of a fish, this adaptation is seen to be two-fold. Not only is the individual suited to his external world, but, not less important, the external world must be suited to the individual — a man cannot live in water, nor a fish out of it. Thus the full conception of life of Chap. V. is arrived at. This conception has eluded the grasp of all previous genera¬ tions. The late M. Comte got within measurable distance of it, but it is only within our own times that Mr. Herbert Spencer has reached it, and no one can feel any enthusiasm for Mr. Spencer unless he realises this idea. He Blainville’s definition of life is very nicely illustrated by an amoeba, which might be defined as an entity in which food and oxygen were changing into waste products. In connection with these two chapters also, it is worth while calling to mind that it is by a number of amcebse clubbing together that a compound animal, such as the fresh-water Hydra, is produced. The principle of this union is division of labour, through which the life of each cell becomes easier, and the whole animal has greater scope for action. The differences in longevity exhibited by various forms of life sometimes appear to contradict Mr. Spencer’s views of THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 161 tlie nature of life. Thus, the average life of an oak is con¬ sidered to be somewhere about 300 years, and that of a man not one hundred. But this contradiction arises through an incorrect method of estimating the average life. In the case of an oak, for instance, we must take the average life over all the seeds, whether they afterwards grow up to oaks or not. Every seed is living at the time it leaves the oak ; and to tell the average life we must take all the children of the tree, and not exclude those which die in infancy. And similarly with animals. If this were done, we may infer that the average life would be found to be longer the higher it is. A VISIT TO CEYLON.* At first sight one would perhaps expect to find a new work from the distinguished Evolutionist who has so ably extended the Darwinian theory in his “ Histories of Creation and the Evolution of Man ” to be an abstruse and somewhat technical treatise. Nothing of the kind. This is one of the most delightful and readable books on natural history and travel that has appeared in these days. Like our own lamented, versatile, and enthusiastic Charles Kingsley, who ever cherished a desire to behold the Tropics and “at last” was gratified, so Professor Ernst Haeckel from boyhood seems to have had a similar longing, which in its turn was fulfilled. He says: — “That every naturalist who has made it his life-task to study the forms of organic life on the earth should desire to see for himself all the marvels of tropical nature is self-evident; it must he one of his dearest wishes. For it is only between the Tropics, and under the stimulating influence of a brighter sun and greater heat that the animal and vegetable life on our globe reach that highest and most marvellous variety of form, compared to which the fauna and flora of our temperate zone appear hut a pale and feeble phantom.” As the learned Professor’s journey was for the benefit of science, one would have thought that his fellow countrymen, one and all, would have aided him, where opportunity presented, to the best of their ability. But, alas, in this he found, as too many have done before, that “ a prophet is never without honour save in his own country.” It appears that the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, the most important institution of its kind in Germany, has the income or “ travelling allowance” arising out of the Humboldt Fund at its disposal. At the suggestion of friends, and as he had achieved all his scientific excursions during a quarter of a century at his own cost, he applied to the Academy for a grant in aid of his expedition to Ceylon. But it seems that the leading spirits of the Academy are “the most vehement opponents of the doctrine of * A Visit to Ceylon : By Ernst Haeckel, Professor in the University of Jena Translated by Clara Bell. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., 1883. 162 A VISIT TO CEYLON. evolution, while the Professor for many years had been deeply interested in its advancement and development.” The result was that the application was simply refused! However, he had warm sympathy and encouragement from many naturalists and other friends both in Germany and England, including in the latter the late Charles Darwin (to whom, as his “honoured friend and master,” he subsequently wrote a letter of congratulation on his 73rd birthday from Adam’s Peak, the highest mountain in Ceylon), and the late Sir Wyville Thomson, of H.M.S. “ Challenger.” Abundantly provided with books of reference, microscope, scientific apparatus for physical observations and for photographing, together with trawling and dredging and surface nets, a double-barrelled gun, sketching and painting materials, and an almost endless variety of bottles, phials, tin cases, and preserving fluids, the whole stowed away in sixteen trunks and cases, he left his home on the 8tli October, 1881, and journeyed to Ceylon from Trieste, via Egypt, to Bombay, by the Austrian Lloyd’s steamer “ Helios” (a most significant name, Nomen sit omen ! ) and returned, via Cairo, on the 21st April following. He was, therefore, absent upwards of six months. He landed at Bombay on the 8th November, and he speaks of it as “ The glorious and memorable day in his life when he first set foot in a tropical land, admired tropical vegetation, and gazed in astonishment at tropical life in man and beast.” During a brief week at Bombay he chronicles his first impressions of tropical life and its environment in the vicinity. Bombay he compares to Naples, in regard to its magnificent situation on a deeply indented and hilly coast, beautified by a glorious vegetation, and its chain of islands and rocks enclosing the wide and splendid bay. After reference generally to the population of Bombay (numbering, in 1872, 650,000 souls), he proceeds to describe the most remarkable and important element — the Parsis or Guebres — numbering about 50,000, descended from the ancient Persians — the men of tall and stalwart figures, with yellow olive faces— who by their indefatigable energy, prudence, industry, generosity and public spirit have gained much influence and play an important part. Some have been raised to the dignity of baronets by the English Government in recognition of their merits. The funeral ceremonies of this people are most remarkable. High up on the ridge of the Malabar Hill is their cemetery, in which stand the six Dokhamas or “ Towers of Silence” — cylindrical white towers, 40ft. in diameter and the same in height. The inside is divided into three concentric circles with separate open divisions. The dead are here exposed, the men in the outer circle, the women in the next, and the children in the inner, where they are consumed — except the bones, which are collected— by the sacred bird of Ormuz, the fine brown vulture, and by black ravens. An excursion to the Palm Grove of Mahim — the first he had seen — next claimed his attention. Here “ toddy gatherers” climbed the trunks with the agility of apes to collect the palm sap, others were busy gathering the fruit of the Banana. He could never tire of admiring the A VISIT TO CEYLON. 163 magnificent effects of light produced by the play of the sunbeams on the broad quivering feathery leaves of the cocoa nut palms and on their white gracefully-bent trunks, as well as on the tender pale green leaves of enormous size. He captured an enormous spider with a thick body, 2^in. long, and thin legs, 4in. long. On the sandy shore numbers of zoological surprises awaited him, left here by a low tide, enormous specimens of a splendid blue Medusa — a species of Crambessa , more than a foot across — a curious sea urchin, Diodon — with a thorny coat and its laryngeal sack blown out to a large size — large Serpulce, numerous Crustacea — notably the swift-footed sand crabs, that make pits in the sand, and fragments of skeletons of fish, and human skeletons, skulls, &c. But we must no longer linger at Bombay ; a pleasant voyage of five days brought the Professor from Bombay to Colombo. He says, “ it was on the 21st November, in the glorious light of a cloudless tropical morning that I first set foot on that ever-green island of marvels, Ceylon, where I was about to spend the most instructive and delightful months of my life.” He landed at Colombo by means of the curious native boat composed of a tree trunk, 20ft. long, and hollowed out, the width being only about 18in. It appears that although Galle has the finer harbour, Colombo is preferred, on account of its being the chief town, and most of the shipping interest is centered here. The climate is one of the hottest in the world, and the country round is flat. The principal streets of the town are decorated with shady avenues of a fine Mallow, Hibiscus ; the large yellow or red blossoms strew the earth in every direction. He speaks enthusiastically of “the astounding marvels of its magnificent vegetation : palms and Pisang, Pandanus and Lianas, tree ferns, banyans, &c.;” and of its no less interesting zoological treasures : apes, dappled Axis deer, parrots, and gorgeously coloured pigeons.” He remained for the first two weeks enjoying “ the hearty and home-like hospitality” of his countryman, Herr Stipperger, at “Whist Bungalow,” about three miles from the fort. This charming place owes its eccentric name to the fact that a former owner, an old English officer, used to invite his friends to play whist with him there on Sundays! During the ride there, through Pettah, scenes of tropical life passed before his astonished eyes, “ as changing pictures in a magic lantern!” All the mixed and motley population of every type character¬ istic of Colombo was out of doors, collected in knots in front of the little houses, or enjoying the shade of the cocoa nut trees. Most of the life and labour of the natives is carried on in public. The particular charm is “naive publicity and primitive simplicity.” Nature is so beneficent here that the little garden plots enclosing the native hovels constitute the chief income and sustenance of the people. Above all natural products must be placed the invaluable cocoa-nut palm, “ every part of which has its use,” often constituting the whole fortune of a Cinglaalese. The number of cocoa-nut palms in the island is estimated at forty millions, each producing from eighty to a hundred nuts, yielding eight to ten quarts of oil. From 60ft. to 80ft. in height, with white stem and a dense crown of immense pinnate leaves, it must 164 A VISIT TO CEYLON. indeed be a gorgeous object. Next in value come the Palmyra palm, the Areca palm, and the Kitool. After these the bread fruit and the mango trees, the figs of Paradise and the Aroids. He contrasts the lovely green of these trees with the bright red colour of the soil, largely impregnated with oxide of iron. “In perfect harmony, too, are the cinnamon -huedCinghalese themselves, and the blackish-brown Tamils.” The delightful situation of Whist Bungalow charmed him — command¬ ing a view of the sea, the mouth of the river, and the beautiful island in its delta. But the chief attraction of the place was its garden, which, under “the careful and loving hand of its owner, had become one of the most enchanting spots in the Paradise of Ceylon,” containing specimens of almost every important plant characteristic of the flora of the islands — a perfect Botanic garden. From here he passed to Kaduwella, a Cinghalese village about ten miles from Whist Bungalow. Here he describes native life and the “ most delightful feature of insensible transition from garden to forest land, from culture to the wilderness.” Next were visited Peradenia, where are the botanic gardens, and where he met the accomplished Director, Dr. Trimen, and Dr. Marshall Ward, the “Royal Crypto- gamist,” who was sent out to Ceylon to investigate the terrible coffee leaf disease, a fungus (Hemileja vastatrix), resembling rust in corn. He then visited Galle (from Galla, Cinghalese for rocks), the most famous and important town of Ceylon from a very remote antiquity. In the opinion of the Professor the Tarshish of the ancient Phoenicians and Hebrews can only have been Galle ; the apes and peacocks, ivory and gold which those navigators brought from the legendary Tarshish, were actually know to the old Hebrew writers by the same names as they now bear amon the Tamils of Ceylon, and all the descriptions of the much-frequented part of Tarshish apply to none of the seaports of the Island but the Rock Point — Punto Galla.” We must not stay long with him while he revels in its glorious situation, its refreshing sea breezes, its pretty hill country, and the Villa Marina of Captain Bayley, “ an enterprising and many-sided man” with whom he stayed. The fern gardens, with native tree ferns, Selaginellte, and Lycopodia, the orchids, Begonise, Bromeliae, &c., were all attractions. Here, also, there was aprivate menagerie with rare Mammalia and birds, and an indigenous ant-eater, (Manis). But most attractive were the magnificent corals on the surrounding rocks, and a small inlet of the sea used as a dock for the captain’s boat abounded with these, with huge black “ sea urchins and red starfish, numbers of crustaceans and fishes, brightly-coloured mollusca, and strange worms ! ” He contrasts the colours of the corals of the Arabian Gulf, which he visited in 1873 — yellow, orange, red, and brown, with the prevailing green colour of the Ceylon corals — yellow green, sea green — Malachite and brown-green. It is noteworthy that this colour (green) predominates in the island, both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and is explained on Darwin’s principles “in the law of adaptation by selection of similar colouring or sympathet affinity of colour,” and has been elucidated by Professor Ernst Haeckel in the “ History of Creation,” A VISIT TO CEYLON. 165 We reluctantly pass over mucli interesting matter in order to accompany the Professor in his visit to Belligam (Cinglialese Veligama , — sand village, but for which by a graceful fancy he not inappropriately gives a new derivation Bella gemma — lovely gem, because in his recollection it was “A choice jewel in nature’s casket.”) Here by the sea in the “ Rest-house” (a kind of Government hotel) he established his zoological laboratory and dwelt six weeks among the Cinghalese. He records the kind services rendered by the “ shrewd old Rest-house keeper,” whom he named “ Socrates,” and the devoted attentions of the gentle Pariah boy, whom he named “ Ganymede.” The village is very beautiful, situated in the midst of cocoa woods, and the sheltered bay is rich in corals. Notwithstanding the difficulties attending the study of marine zoology in the Tropics, with the temperature from 86° to 90° Far. in the shade, and with the atmosphere so humid that the skins of birds and mammals shot and prepared with pains and hung in the sun every day for weeks were always thoroughly wetted through again every night, with an absence of glass windows to his laboratory, which was consequently open to every flying and creeping creature, and without a single assistant except the Cinghalese, the Professor secured and studied many new and interesting forms of Marine life. He speaks of the elegant Medusce and beautiful Siphonophora, Salpce , Hyaleadce , and other Pteropoda, larvae of Mollusca and lovely Polyps and Corals. The difficulties of examining living specimens were immense, for specimens which in his previous experience in the Mediterranean did not decompose until after five to ten hours, had begun to do so at Belligam in half an hour. After Belligam came excursions to Basamuua point — Mirissa headland — Kogalla Yeva, the rocky lake — Boralu Yeva, the pebble lake, Dondera head, or thunder cape, the town of Matura on the Nilwella Gs-nga, the blue sand river, all of which added to his knowledge and pleasure. The learned Professor devoted the last month of his stay in Ceylon to a visit to the coffee district and hill country. In the coffee district this once famous trade had succumbed from its maximum between 1845 and 1850 from over speculation and from dangerous natural foes, The greedy Golunda rat (Golunda Elliotti) the mischievous coffee bug (Lecanium coffece), and the worst foe of all, the microscopic fungus (Hemileja vastatiix). Tea and quinine ( Cinchona bark) have, however, taken its place with great success.” At Newera Ellia (pronounced Nurellia), “a remote and dismal spot” in the hill country, the town stands in an elliptical mountain valley, with a range of mountains 1,500ft. to 2,000ft. high. It is used as a sanitarium or health-resort by the Europeans, but, according to the Professor, its excessive dampness, with cold, frosty nights and hot days — the temperature at noon being often 86° — are great natural obstacles to its success in this respect, and he “ considers its merits monstrously over-rated.” Nevertheless, it is a fashionable resort for the European residents, with the accompanying evils of high prices and bad accommodation ! The most remarkable objects seen near 166 A VISIT TO CEYLON. here were a gigantic worm, 5ft. long, an inch thick, and of a fine sky- bine colour; the beautiful mountain jungle fowl (Gallus Lafayetti); and the large asli-coloured monkey of the hill forests (Presbytes ursinus ) . At the lonely northern portion of the Island — the home of leopards, bears, and wild elephants — called Horton’s Plain — is a precipice known by the characteristic name of “ The World’s End. The rocky wall here terminates in an abrupt fall of 5,000ft. ; the view of the southern rich plain below from the top is described as grand. Here the Professor and his native attendants wandered in the tracks of wild elephants — the only paths — and on one occasion only he saw a herd of “ ten or twelve elephants taking their breakfast very much at their ease.” Here, also, he ascended Adam’s Peak 7,200ft. high, and took his leave for ever of the hill country of Ceylon,” returning to Colombo partly by the Black River, near which “ the tropical vegetation seems to have reached its richest development.” The troublesome land leeches of Ceylon were the only contretemps. An uneventful journey to Egypt by the “ Castor” en route for home succeeded. At Cairo he remained a few days, and had an opportunity of observing the contrast not only between “ the noisy and eager Arab” and “ the gentle unpresuming Cinghalese,” but also between the vegetation of fertile Ceylon and arid Egypt. He points out the “botanical symbols” peculiar to each country — the palm, represented in Ceylon by the cocoa-nut and in Egypt by the date-palm, “ each of almost equal value,” but totally dissimilar in appearance and effect — each being appropriate in its own environment. A high compliment to British colonisation concludes this beautiful and remarkable book, which should be read by every naturalist, and by everyone seeking to be acquainted with the present condition of Ceylon. We shall look forward pleasurably to further accounts of this most interesting expedition, and of the rich and varied collections in Natural History made by the Professor. The volume has been trans¬ lated from the German by Clara Bell, and that lady appears to have accomplished the task in a genial spirit and most successfully. There is little to indicate that it is other than an original work. In our humble opinion it is more than a mere coincidence that the writings of the Evolutionists — Darwin, Fiske, Haeckel, Huxley, Lyell, Herbert Spencer, Tyndall, et id genus omne — of which this is a notable example — rank among the most brilliant and remarkable specimens that have characterised a generation unusually rich in literature of all kinds. It is a product of the great and all embracing doctrine which they advocate. W. R. Hughes. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— April, 1884. The barometer was rather low at the commencement of the month, and fell till the 5th, after which it rose steadily till the 14th ; two slight depressions were succeeded by a gradual fall to the end of the month. Temperature was rather high for the first few days, but after METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. 167 the 9th it remained low, with air-frosts from the 20th to the 25th. The minimum on the 23rd was the lowest recorded since November : 21. 5Q being registered at Coston Rectory, 23.6° at Hodsock, 25.0° at Lough¬ borough, and 26.7° at Strelley, where the thermometer on the grass fell to 18.3°. These low temperatures were very injurious to the fruit crops, especially that of the 23rd, following a slight fall of rain. The highest temperatures recorded were lower than those of March. Maxima were registered as follows: — On the 3rd, Loughborough, 66.2° ; Hodsock, 64. 99 ; Strelley, 64. 19 ; and on the 2nd, Coston Rectory, 64. 89. Rainfall was slightly above the average, but less than two inches in the aggregate, and was fairly distributed through the month. Sunshine was below the average. Lightning was seen at Loughborough on the evening of the 2nd. Thunder was heard at Hodsock on the 28th, accompanied by a sharp hailstorm. Aurora was seen on the evening of the 24th. Northern winds, of moderate force, prevailed from the 7tli. The cuckoo was heard in various places before the end of the month. Wm. Bereidge, F.R.Met.Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. MIDLAND UNION OF NATUKAL HISTOBY SOCIETIES. The Seventh Annual Meeting will be held at Peterborough on Wednesday and Thursday, the 25th and 26th of June instant. PROGRAMME FOR WEDNESDAY. The Council will meet at 12-45. The Annual Meeting will be held in the Fitzwilliam Hall, Peter¬ borough (kindly lent for the occasion by Mr. Alderman Nichols), on Wednesday, June 25th, at three o’clock, the President of the Union (the Very Rev. the Dean of Peterborough) in the chair. The President will open the meeting with an address. Reception Room. — A Reception Room will be provided at the School of Art, in the Minster Close, for Members of the Union and other Visitors, and letters may be addressed there. An Arrival Book will lie on the table, and it is hoped that all Visitors will enter their names and temporary addresses in it, for the information of friends who may desire to communicate with them. The same room will also serve as a News Room, and will be supplied with newspapers. Conversazione. — A Conversazione will be held in the Fitzwilliam Hall on Wednesday Evening, June 25tli. There will be an exhibition of objects of general scientific interest, Microscopy, the various depart¬ ments of Natural History, Art, and Archaeology, especially of Relics from the Fenland and of Saxon and Roman Remains from Castor (the Durobrivae of Antoninus) and the neighbourhood, Members of Societies in the Union and Friends willing to contribute specimens, or to exhibit or lend microscopes, will oblige by at once communicating with Mr. J. W. Bodger, 18, Cowgate, Peterborough. During the evening short Addresses will be delivered by the Rev. Canon Ayles ; 168 MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. Dr. T. J. Walker, on the Roman Remains of the Neighbourhood ; and by W. J. Harrison, Esq., F.G.S., on the Ice Age and the Stone Age. At intervals, a selection of Instrumental Music will be performed under the directorship of the Rev. F. Wilkinson. The charge of admission to the Conversazione will be Two Shillings. Doors open at half-past Seven. Morning Dress. Carriages may be ordered for half-past Ten. Tickets are now ready, and can be obtained by Members for themselves, and for friends not Members of the Union, through any of the Secretaries of the Societies in the Union, or direct from Mr. J. W. Bodger, 18, Cowgate, Peterborough. On Wednesday Afternoon, June 25th, immediately after the Annual Meeting, a part}7 will visit the Cathedral. A Botanical Excursion will be made to Thorpe Hall (by kind permission of E. J. Strong, Esq.) and Holywell, returning by the River Nene. A Geological Excursion will he made to the large sections of Oxford Clay exhibited in the brick fields, and to the Fluvio-marine Gravels, both at Woodstone and Fletton. Luncheon. — A Luncheon will be provided on Wednesday, June 25th, at 2 o’clock, for the Council, Members of the Union, and Visitors. Tickets, price 2s. 6d. each, to be obtained from Mr. J. W. Bodger, 18, Cowgate, Peterborough. Early application should be made for these tickets, so that sufficient accommodation may be provided. PROGRAMME FOR THURSDAY. Excursions. — On Thursday, June 26th, there will be two Excursions, viz. : an Upland Excursion to Stibbington Hall and the Bedford Purlieus, and the other to the Fenland. The Upland party will leave Peterborough about Nine o’clock, and will proceed to Chesterton and to Stibbington Hall, Wansford, and Bedford Purlieus ; lunch will be served here. The return journey will be by Sutton Marsh, through Milton to Peterborough, where a Meat Tea will be provided. Tickets for this Excursion : Nine Shillings and Sixpence each, including Carriage Drive, Luncheon, and Meat Tea. The Fenland party will leave Peterborough about Nine o’clock, and will proceed to the Decoy in Borough Fen, thence to Croyland Abbey, where lunch will be served at the Hotel, after which the Party will pro¬ ceed to Thorney Abbey, thence to Peterborough, where a Meat Tea will be provided. Tickets for this Excursion : Eight Shillings and Sixpence each, including Carriage Drive, Luncheon, and Meat Tea. Tickets must be applied for not later than Saturday, June 21st, and may be procured from Mr. J. W. Bodger, 18, Cowgate, Peterborough. Mr. Herbert Spencer. — The Atlienceum of May 17tli states that China appears to be beginning to adopt the idea of Western civilisation, for a translation of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “Education” has just reached this country. The translator, Y. K. Yen, says in his English preface, “Believing that it will aid in reforming the present narrow education in my country, and thus be the means of promoting her progress,” he has translated the first of his essays. Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Education ” has been translated into every living language in Europe, into Japanese and Chinese, and it is believed into several of the vernacular languages of India. REVIEW. 169 Beitrdge zur Phanologie. By Egon Ihne and Hermann Hoffmann. 178 pp. Giessen, 1884. This pamphlet consists of two parts, the first giving a history of plienological observations in Europe and a list of the magazines and other publications in which they are enshrined, compiled by Dr. E. Ihne ; the second a number of unpublished plienological observations during the years 1879-82, from various parts of Europe, arranged by Dr. H. Hoffmann, Professor of Botany at Giessen. Dr. Ihne undertook the enormous task of compiling this history in preparation for the work which he intends to perform of publishing a series of pheno- logical maps of Europe, each devoted to a single plant. He expects that the first of the series, relating to Syringa vulgaris, will appear during the present year. He gives not only a list of various publi¬ cations in which observations of this kind on flowering plants and mosses are contained, with, in many cases, details to show their usefulness and extent, but also lists of the stations at which these observations were made, classified (1) alphabetically and (2) according to countries. From this it is manifest that an enormous body of trustworthy observations now exists, extending over more than a hundred years, and over nearly the whole of Europe. The only country which has not contributed to the total is Turkey ; Greece and Montenegro come next with one station each, then Denmark, Portugal, and Spain. Great Britain occupies a most honourable place, being surpassed only by Germany and Austro-Hungary (which are combined in one total). The “Midland Naturalist” is duly quoted for the records which appeared therein from 1879 to 1882. The second part, by Dr. Hoffmann, contains a scheme for pheno- logical observations, which it would be best for English observers to adopt, as by that means their records will be capable of easy comparison with those of Continental observers. This is presented on another page. Dr. Hoffmann has invented a method of calculation which enables him to check published records with great ease. He chooses Giessen as the standard, as not only is it situated towards the middle of Europe, but it possesses the longest and most extensive series of plienological observations made by one man, namely himself, as a sure basis for comparison. He then calculates the average time of, e.g., the flowering of various trees at Giessen, and with them compares the average times so calculated for some other place. It will be found that, if the data are equally correct, in each case the average retardation or acceleration of blooming in any one month will be nearly the same for all the plants compared. Thus St. Paul is three days later than Giessen, on the basis of eight April-blooming plants; St. Petersburg, forty-two days later; Vienna, eight days earlier ; while Edinburgh is doubtfully given as thirty-six days later. What Dr. Hoffmann wishes, in order to carry out his plan, is a series observations made at the same place by the same observers on the same species of plants. W.B.G. 170 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. itatoral jjistorjr Itcrtes. Arrival of Swallows. — On Sunday evening, May 11th, at 7.45, a large flock of swallows (“Martins?”) quite 1,000 in number arrived from beyond the seas, and flew over my head. I was standing by Oulton Broad (Mutford Bridge). They tell me there that such a thing is seldom seen, indeed that only one arrival of that magnitude is recorded. As a rule they appear by twos and threes in the morning, i.e., on the water, etc. I suppose these birds left too early and made land sooner than they intended ; they were in a great hurry and twittering most vigorously. — Egbert de Hamel. Mr. Chas. Ketley.— We regret to have to record the death of Mr. Chas. Ketley, of Smethwick, which took place on the 22nd April last, in the 66th year of his age. He had occupied for more than 40 years a responsible position in the local establishment of Messrs. Pickford and Co., and the respect shown by the firm and his colleagues on the occasion of his funeral showed the high esteem in which he was held by them all. As his occupation for many years consisted in the management of the Dudley business of the firm, his attention was early attracted by the beauty and variety of the limestone fossils for which this classic spot is so celebrated, and he soon formed a collection of the choicest specimens, in the selection of which he brought to bear an amount of scientific knowledge which enabled him to understand and appreciate those specimens which best exhibited organic structure and variety. The late Mr. J. W. Salter and M. De Koninck both expressed the highest pleasure in going through Mr. Ketley’s collection, and several of his specimens are figured and described in Mr. Salter’s unfinished mono¬ graph of the Trilobites, published by the Palieontographical Society. It was a delightful occupation to spend a few hours now and then with him and go through his cabinet, listening to his explanations, while he pointed out the particular merits of each specimen, for each one was the most perfect he could obtain. The Dudley and Midland Geological Society purchased a fine collection of Crinoidea from him some years ago, and a year or two since he disposed of his whole remaining collection to the Mason College, Birmingham. His unobtrusive manners and failing health caused him not to be so well known among local scientific societies of late years, but he was one of the earliest members both of the Birmingham Microscopical and Natural History Society and of the Dudley and Midland Geological Society, and though he was unable to attend their meetings, there was little that was done in which he did not take an ardent interest. We feel that by his removal we have lost a scientific collaborateur of no mean intelligence, whilst those who enjoyed the privilege of his intimacy mourn the loss of a generous true-hearted friend. — W. M. Flora of Oxfordshire. — The Athenaeum announces that Mr. G. Claridge Druce, F.L.S., is preparing a “Flora of Oxfordshire.” The Flora is intended to be not only a catalogue, but a history of Oxfordshire plants, and of the botanists connected with the University and County. The botanical divisions of the county will be based on the river drainage, the old authors from 1550 downwards will be freely quoted, and the herbaria at the Oxford Garden, the British Museum, &c., and in the possession of private individuals, will also be consulted. With the Flora will also be incorporated the large number of MS. notes left by the late Alfred French, of the British Museum, and the previously unpublished notes of Mr. W. H. Baxter, of the Oxford NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 171 Botanic Garden, and much assistance will also be given by the Rev. W. W. Newbould, M.A., Rev. A. Robertson, M.A., of Hatfield Hall ; T. Beesley, Esq., of Banbury; Bolton King, Esq., of Balliol ; F. T. Richards, Esq., M.A., Trinity ; H. M. Ridley, Esq., British Museum; the Lord Selborne, Rev. W. Marshall, Rev. F. W. Bennett, H. E. Garnsey, M.A., Magdalen College ; H. Boswell Esq., Rev. E. Fox, &c. Ornithological Notes. — The cold east winds that prevailed during the month of April seem to have retarded the arrival of many of our migratory birds, but some of the later ones were true to their time. On the 29tli March I noticed both the Chiff chaff and the Willow Wren about the hedges. The local paper announced the arrival of the Sand Martin at Shrewsbury as early as April 2nd, but time prevented me going as far to see them ; however, I kept a bright look-out in the neighbourhood, but failed to see anything of them. Rooks were still building and fighting on the 6tli. On the 13tli I went down to Folkestone for a fortnight, and during the whole time I was there the wind was in the east, and it "was not warm. On the 16th I found a Hedge Sparrow’s nest and a Blackbird’s nest, each containing three eggs ; I also saw a few Plovers’ eggs in the market. On the 19tli I went for a ramble over Romney Marshes, and on my way I saw, for the first time, large numbers of Sand Martins and Swallows flying about the military canal. On the marshes I saw a pair of grey Wagtails, a Heron, a Kestrel, and a large flock of Gulls ; principally lesser Blackbacks, but a few Herring Gulls and Ivittiwakes. At Saltwood Castle, on the 20tli, I observed a pair of Wrynecks, and on my way home I heard the Cuckoo at last. The peculiar double cry of the Cuckoo was once a subject of discussion in an early volume of this magazine. It is very common, and scarcely a day passes without my hearing it. Two years ago I heard a Cuckoo stop short in the middle of its note, and begin again after a slight pause (cuckoo-cuck-cuckoo, &c.) On one occasion I heard this seventeen times in quick succession. I could find no cause for it, and now I can’t find a bird that does not do it. It is far more frequent than the ordinary double cry. On May 19tli, this year, I heard a bird double the last syllable of its note five times (cuckoo-koo). This is a variety I have never heard, either before or since. On May 11th and 17th I heard the Cuckoo’s note not only doubled but quadrupled. At the end of April the weather became much warmer, and on the 28th I returned to this part of the country. On the 29th I first saw the House Martin, but it must have arrived some time previously. I also saw a number of Wliitethroats, and late in the evening I heard the Corncrake frequently. May 3rd was Saturday, and so I had my usual long walk in the country. I saw a few Lesser Wliitethroats and the Garden and Sedge Warblers. On the 4tli I saw two or three Swifts flying about, and on the 6th there were numbers of them to be seen. I heard young Rooks cawing in the rookery near the town. On the 10th I saw a pair of Sandpipers on the banks of the canal. On May lltli I saw a Turtle Dove, and on the main road I saw three Wagtails together, and noticed that they all varied in colour — black, dark, and light-grey on the back. On the 13th a friend of mine told me there were some Nightingales to be heard in a coppice, known as Loam Hole, at Coalbrookdale, about six miles from here. He also told me that they were at the same place last year. The next Saturday (17 th) I went my usual walk with the intention of getting to Coalbrookdale at 10 p.m. The bird was singing, or, rather, calling to its mate when I arrived, and I sat on a gate and listened to it for an hour and a half. AVlien I went away I still doubted that it really was a Nightingale, and determined to come again in the daytime and see it. Accordingly I went 172 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. Last Thursday, and arrived at the coppice at 7 p.m. I had not been there long before I was confronted by the keeper, but I made friends with him, and he told me that the birds I was in search of were really Nightingales, and that they had frequented the place for years. At present there were five of them. I remained in the coppice two hours, but I was under supervision, and about 8 o’clock the birds began to sing. With the aid of my glass I searched high and low for the birds, and after nearly an hour’s search I saw two of them on the young saplings that abounded there. It was too dark to identify them, but they seemed to me to be about the size of a Yellowhammer. I intend going again till I have identified them. On the 17tli instant I noticed several Wood Warblers on the Wrekin, and on the 23rd I discovered, on one of the beams of a shed on a friend’s farm, a Blackbird’s nest. I-was told it had been robbed, but on carelessly taking it down to look at it I was surprised to find that a Redstart had built its own nest inside and laid seven eggs. Both nests and eggs are now in my pos¬ session. — T. Y. Hodgson, Admaston, Wellington, Salop. BOTANICAL NOTES FROM SOUTH BEDS, WITH VOUCHER SPECIMENS. Name. Date, 1884. Aspect. Situation, &c. Potentilla Fragariastrum. Jan. 6. Coppice. Anthriscus sylvestris . „ io. S. Hedge bank, Herts. Taraxacum Dens-leonis. „ 12- Open. Meadow. Tussilago Earfara . „ 12. S. Railway bank. One flower. Corylus Avellana . >, 13- — s Coppice. Mercurialis perennis . „ 13. — Coppice. Eropliila verna . Feb. 17. Open. Fallow field. Cardamine hirsuta . Mar. 6. W. Side of a stream. In fruit. Ranunculus Ficaria . „ 6. W. Moist bank. Primula veris . ,, 9. W, Pasture. Prunus spinosa . „ 16. — Hedge. Anemone nemorosa . „ 16. — Coppice. Stellaria Holostea . ,, 23. — Hedge bank. Nepeta Glechoma . „ 23. S. Hedge bank, Herts. „ 29. s. Hedge bank, Beds. Ranunculus acris . „ 29. s. Riverside. One flower only. Caltlia palustris . „ 29. Open. Moist meadow. Luzula campestris . „ 30. ? > Pasture. Cardamine pratensis . April 5. J > Moist meadow. Equisetum arvense . ,, 5. n Moist meadow. Scilla nutans . n o. — Spinney. Geranium Robertianum. . „ io. s. Hedge bank. Ranunculus auricomus. . . „ 10. — Spinney. Sisymbrium Alliaria . „ 19. w. Hedge bank. Orchis mascula . May 4. — • Coppice (plentiful). Viburnum Lantana . „ io. Open. Hedge. Cratsegus monogyna . „ 11. Open. Hedge. Saxifraga granulata . „ 11. S. Pasture. Valeriana dioica . „ 11. Open. Meadow. The cuckoo was heard April 17tli, and the nightingale April 28tli. J. Saunders, Luton. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 173 BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — General Meeting, May 6tli. — Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Fungi, all from this neighbourhood: — Puccinia anemones, Phragmidium mucronatum, P. obtusatum, CEcidium Ficarice, OE. Lapsance, Peziza tuberosa, Sphceria acuminata , S. pulvis-pyrius , S. lierbarum, Helmin - thosporium rhopaloides (very rare), Bispora monilioides, Dinemasporium hispidulum , Polyactis fascicularis, Leptostroma juncinum. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Taraxacum palnstre , T. Icevigatum (rare), from near Barston, and other flowering plants, and the following Mosses: Tortula papillosa , T. latifolia, T. insulana, Orthotrichum affine, Sclero- podium ccespitosum, Brachythecium rivulare, the latter new to Warwick¬ shire, and the others from Henfield and Barston ; he also exhibited microscopical preparations to show fasciated seta in Fissidens tama- rindifolius, a rare phenomenon in mosses, and several peristomes. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited living and mounted specimens of Leptodora hyalina in the nauplius stage ; a cluster of a very minute Acti- nophrys-like Rliizopod, and the Prothallus of an Equisetum. — Biological Section, May 13th : — Exhibited by Mr. R. W. Chase, eggs in clutches of the following birds : Aquila chrysaetos, golden eagle, near Stornoway ; Buteo vulgaris, common buzzard, near Towyn ; Falco pere- grinus, peregrine falcon, near Towyn ; Querquedula circia, Garganey teal, Norfolk. By Mr. T. Bolton, Leptodora hyalina in an early stage of its development ; Anurcea longispina, one of the rotifers, and Cera- tium longicorne, an infusorian allied to Leptodora. By Mr. Charles Pumplirey, the protecting hairs in the throat of the Pansy, and the glandular hairs of the London Pride, Saxifraga umbrosa. By Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Prunus Padus, the bird cherry; Mosses, Brachythecium rivulare ; Dichodontium pellucidum, Dicranum magus ; Amblystegium irriguum in fruit, Sphagnum auriculatum ; Hepatics, Lepidozia reptans, Kantia Tri chomancs in fruit ; Lichens, Usnea hirta, Parmelia caperata, and many other rare mosses and lichens ; also microscopical preparations to show the more minute structure of these plants. Microscopical General Meeting, May 20tli. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Orchis mono , Mclica unifiora, and Veronica montana, from near Hurley; he also exhibited on behalf of Professor Hillliouse, a section of the pistil of C Enothera showing the pollen and pollen-tubes. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited ChcetostyUnu Fresenii, from Malvern, a fungus new to Great Britain ; Puccinia convolvuli, from North America ; P. pilocarpi, from South America ; Trichobasis pietroselini and Omphalia stellata, from Crieff. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited mounted specimens of Leptodora hyalina, showing the persistent nauplius eye, the first time this has been exhibited in England in this stage; Argulus foliaceus in one of the early larval stages, and specimens of Rotifers, Brachionus, Anursea, Ac., several showing parasites. Mr. J. Levick exhibited Melicerta ringens. Mr. J. Blakemore exhibited Actinoplirys Eichhornii. There was also exhibited on behalf of Mr. C. Caswell a specimen of the Arum Lily ( Calla onthiopica), with three flowers (spathes) on one stem. — Sociological Section, May 22nd. — The study of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology was continued, chapters 5 and 6 of Part II., on “Adaptation” and “Individuality,” being introduced by Dr. Heipe. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — April 21st, Microscopical and General Meeting. — Mr. C. P. 174 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. Neville exhibited a collection of shells, zoophytes, &c., from the Blackpool district. Mr. Madison, various specimens of lead ore from Matlock. Under the microscopes the following objects were exhibited : By Mr. Taylor, a section of Carboniferous Limestone, showing Foramin- ifera in situ; Mr. Insley, a section of Diorite, by polar light; Mr. Moore, gizzard of Pediculus capitis ; Mr. Bunn, Spineless Water Flea, Daphnia vetula. April 26th. — An excursion was made to Rowley Regis, where the members were met at the station by Mr. Beale, who conducted them through a quarry, pointing out the strige on numerous blocks resulting from ice action ; also many other interesting features connected with the Basalt. The party then adjourned to inspect Mr. Beale’s fine geological collection, after which a vote of thanks to that gentleman for his kindly proffered services as guide brought a pleasant afternoon to a close. April 28tli. — Mr. J. B. Stone, J.P., presented to the Society (through Mr. Flower) a copy of his new book, “ Children in Norway; or, a Holiday on the Fkeberg.” Mr. Insley exhibited various specimens of Basalt from Rowley Regis ; Mr. Tylar, two photographs of the party in the quarry ; Mr. Darley, larva? of Wood Tiger Moth ; Mr. Hawkes, an album of dried plants from Ivingswood, collected in a day’s ramble ; Mr. Madison, shells of Helix pomatia , H. lapicida , and Cyclostoma elegans , with models of their inmates, giving them a life-like appearance ; also models of Limax fiavus and Anon ater. Under the microscopes Mr. Hawkes showed Batracliospermum and Closterium Lunula; Mr. Tylar, sting of Scorpion. A paper wras then read by Mr. J. W. Neville, “ Notes on Larvae,” it being the second of a series on the egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The subject was taken up from the deposition of the egg ; he described the increase in size of some eggs by the absorption of air and water ; yolk segmentation, the development of the embryo, the resemblance between some stages in the embryo and the course of life in certain lowly organisms ; many degrees of advancement in larvae ; skin casting, its causes, &c., &c. The paper was illustrated by drawings and microscopical objects. — May 5th. Mr. Madison exhibited a distorted specimen of Planorbis vortex (the whorls being separated) from Yardley. Under the microscopes Mr. Dunn showed Draparnaldia glomerata ; Mr. Tylar, Araclmoidiscus ornatus on Sertularia abietina ; Mr. J. W. Neville, Oak Spangle Fly, Cynips longipennis ; Mr. Hawkes, spores of Equisetum arvense. May 12tli. — Mr. Darley showed specimens of larvae of Plusia iota and P. chrysitis. Under the microscopes Mr. J. W. Neville showed Ophiocoma neglecta ; Mr. Tylar, ova of Gobius niger, showing young fish ; Mr. Hawkes, reproductive organs of Nitella translucens. A lecture was then given by Mr. H. Insley, on “ Special Structural Botany.” Ranun¬ culus acris was taken as a type specimen, and the various parts described, from the root to the flower ; also the different tissues of which the plant is built up. The subject was illustrated by diagrams, and a large number of preparations were shown under the microscopes. BEDFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY & FIELD CLUB. — On the 20tli March an admirable paper was read by Mr. W. Steward, on “The Migratory Instinct of Birds.” He treated the subject in an original method, and his views were thoroughly evolu¬ tionary. Going back beyond the Glacial period, Mr. Steward carefully traced the rise of this remarkable instinct, ably described its character, and suggested the conditions that would be adequate, if they were not actually known, to bring about by pure force of circumstances the migratory instinct of birds. Some slight discussion took place at the close, and a cordial vote of thanks, which he thoroughly deserved, REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 175 was passed to Mr. Steward. — No meeting of this Society was held during the month of April. The annual meeting of this Society was held on the 8th of May. Mr. T. G. Eiger, F.R.A.S., (honorary secretary), presented the following report of the Committee The Committee have pleasure in presenting the ninth annual report. During the past year the following papers were read : — ‘ Will it Rain? or weather -forecasting by means of the Spectroscope,’ by Mr. T. G. Eiger, F.R.A.S. ; ‘ The Life of a Naturalist,’ by the Rev. J. Copner, M.A. ; ‘ On Vegetable Cells and their Contents,’ by Mr. Hamson ; ‘On the Migration of Birds,’ by Mr. W. Steward. The thanks of the Society are due to the authors of these papers and also to those members who exhibited specimens at the microscopical and other meetings. Although the number of papers contributed in the course of the past session is fewer than in any previous year, in other respects the Society has shown no lack of vitality. In the botanical section, especially, real progress had been made. Mr. J. Saunders, of Luton, to whom the Society is already so much indebted, has done good work in collecting and cataloguing the flowering and cryptogamic plants of South Bedfordshire, a very complete list of which, the result of his labours, will shortly appear in the Transactions. The want of equally active and energetic workers in the Northern division of the county is a pressing one, and forms the only impediment to the work of preparing for publication of the new ‘Flora Bedfordiensis,’ which the Committee trust will ere long be proceeded with. The Saturday after¬ noon excursions originated and conducted by the Botanical Secretary, Mr. A. Ransom, have been continued with success. Arrangements are in progress to organize, if possible, one or more excursions during the coming summer in connection with the Northamptonshire Natural History Society, of which due notice will be given. The meteorological observations, commenced nearly two years ago, have been systematically carried on, though from unavoidable causes the weekly publication of the results in the local papers has during the last six months been discontinued. The forthcoming report of the Committee will, however, include a summary of the records of all the instruments up to date. The scheme for organizing a system of popular scientific lectures in the county has been very successful. Lectures have been given at Kempston, Potton, and other places during the year, which were well attended and highly appreciated. The Midland Naturalists’ Union, to which our Society is affiliated, hold their annual meeting this year at Peterborough, on 25th June. A wish has been expressed that the Union should be asked to meet next year at Bedford. It rests with the members of our Society to decide whether or no an invitation shall be given. Such a reunion of naturalists and men of science would be most desirable if it can be arranged, as it would instil new life into our Society and be the means of awakening general interest in Natural History in the town and neighbourhood. The Proceedings and Transactions of the Society from June, 1881, to the present date are in the press, and will soon be issued to the members.” — Mr. Hamson presented the report of the Lecturing Committee, from which it appeared that in October last the Secretary was instructed to draw up a circular setting forth the provisions of the lecturing scheme, to have it printed, and cause copies to be sent to the principal officers of various local societies in villages near Bedford. At the same time the Secretary prepared a list of gentlemen (not necessarily members of the Society) who he thought would be willing to give lectures. There had been five applications received through the medium of the Committee, and the following lectures have been delivered : October 176 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 16th, at Kempston, “ Cowper, as a poet of nature,” by the Rev. James Copner ; December 11th, at Kempston, “Pond Life,” by Dr. Crick; January 31st, at Great Barford, “ Salt and Sugar,” by Mr. A. Ransom ; March 3rd, at Potton, “ The Cross Fertilization of Flowers,” by Mr. J. Hamson ; “Wild Flowers” and “Pond Life,” by Dr. Crick, at St. Paul’s Wesleyan School ; March, 1883, at Kempston, “ The Sun,” by Mr. T. G. Eiger; April 22nd, 1884, at Kempston, “Volcanoes and Earthquakes,” by Mr. T. G. Eiger. The Committee had reason to believe that the lectures were heard with intelligent appreciation, from the fact that on more than one occasion the interest of the audience was manifested by the discussion that followed. Mr. Arthur Ransom read a paper on “ The office of Trees in the Economy of Nature,” which awoke great interest, and was followed by an animated discussion. DUDLEY AND MIDLAND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND FIELD CLUB. — The annual meeting of the members of this society was held in the Museum, Dudley, on May 12tli. Mr. H. Johnson, F.G.S., president, in the chair. The yearly statement of accounts and the report of the committee were read and adopted. Mr. H. Johnson was re-elected president for the present year. After the transaction of the business, Mr. G. Jones read an interesting paper on the metallurgical operations of Dud Dudley in this neighbourhood during the early part of the 17th century; Dudley’s object was to smelt iron with coal instead of charcoal, as was then the custom, which had led to the destruction of vast tracts of forests in various parts of the country. Mr. Jones then conducted the party to Dibdale, where very much of this old scoria is still to be found, and he pointed out the site of some of the earliest blast furnaces in the district. He also called attention to the great quantities of calcined shale, frequently baked into porcellanite, lying about, and stated that in consequence of the coal measures cropping out, and being worked near the surface in olden time, together with imperfect modes of working, vast quantities of slack were left in the pits, which afterwards took fire, and then ignited the adjacent coal, so that it is estimated that hundreds of acres of coal were destroyed, the fires resembling, as Dud Dudley remarks, “Etna in Cicily, or Hecla in the Indies.” The party then walked to Mr. B. Gibbons, junr’s., fire-clay works, where Mr. Gibbons kindly explained the discovery of a patch of thick coal which had lately been found, and which had escaped the surrounding conflagrations. The members then drove to the Wren’s Nest, where Mr. Johnson pointed out a most instructive section, showing the manner in which the limestone beds had been contorted by the forces which had upheaved them into their present inclined and almost vertical position. TAMWORTH NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGICAL, AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.— On April 25tli Mr. F. W. Andrews gave a lecture on “ The Fertilization of Flowering Plants.” He showed the intimate connection between the colours and scents of flowers, and the visits of the insects attracted thereby for fertilizing plants. As a practical application of the theory, he said the Australians have lately imported numbers of Queen humble bees for the greater fertilization of their red clover. — On May 12th Mr. J. Spencer Balfour, M.P., gave some notes from his Italian trip, which were thoroughly appreciated by a well filled room. An account is given in the Tamworth Herald of May 24th. THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. 177 ON THE VOLCANIC THEORY FOR THE CAUSE OF THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS.* BY W. P. MARSHALL, M.I.C.E. The recent remarkable sunsets and sunrises have been so exceptional in character that it follows they must have had some exceptional cause, and the volcanic theory attributing this cause to the great Java eruption of the Krakatoa volcano in last autumn, although appearing on the first impression to be very wild and fanciful, has steadily made way, and has received increasing evidence in its support of an unexpectedly definite character. Two other causes have also been suggested for these remarkable sunsets and sunrises : — 1st. The presence of an exceptionally large amount of moisture in the air. 2nd. A possible meeting with a diffused mass of meteoric matter in the interplanetary space passed through by the earth in its orbit. There is now the means of testing these theories by some special circumstances attending the phenomena, which bear very definite evidence upon the question. The first consideration is that there must have been a reflection of the sun’s rays from some special stratum of material floating in the upper regions of the atmosphere at a much higher level than that of the clouds which produce the ordinary sunset effects. In those cases the sun’s rays are reflected from layers of aqueous vapour, or more correctly layers of water-dust, or minute vesicles of condensed water produced by currents of warmer air charged with water in the invisible state of vapour coming into contact with colder currents, and forming by condensation at their surfaces of contact, sheets of this diffused water- dust of very various and irregular densities, forms, and thicknesses. The main point to be ascertained for the consideration of the subject is the actual height in the atmosphere at which the reflecting surface was situated in the case of these special sunsets, and the principle of the calculation for ascertaining this is simple, and depends upon two measurements only, and first the actual extent of depression of the sun below the level of the horizon at the time of the phenomenon being observed. This is ascertained from the length of time that * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Bead 22nd April, 1884. 178 THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. lias passed after sunset until the appearance of the pheno¬ menon, and from the position of the place of observation upon the earth as regards latitude, or distance from the equator towards the pole. At the equator the sun in setting descends vertically in passing below the horizon, and as the whole circle of its course, 300°, is traversed in twenty-four hours, the extent of motion in one hour is 15°, which is the amount of depression of the sun below the horizon at one hour after sunset at the equator. In our latitude of 52°, however, the course of the sun in setting is oblique to the horizon, and the deviation from a vertical direction is the same in amount as the latitude, or 52° ; the consequence of which is that at one hour after sun¬ set the sun instead of having descended 15° below the horizon is only about two-thirds of that amount, or 10° below. The extreme case of this difference is of course at the pole, where the latitude being 90°, the deviation of the sun’s path from a vertical direction is 90°, or a right angle, and the sun travels round the horizon in a level course without rising or falling, being altogether above the horizon through the summer and altogether below through the winter. The time of appearance of the special sunset and sunrise phenomena was about an hour after sunset or before sunrise, and the position of the sun at that time was, therefore, about 10° below the horizon in our latitude, consequently the angle was half that amount, or 5°, between the reflecting surface and the reflected ray. Then, as in any triangle all the parts can be calculated when any three of them are known, pro¬ vided that one of the known parts is a side so as to give a measure of length ; in the triangle that is formed by the horizontal reflected ray, the vertical line from the place of observation to the centre of the earth, and the oblique line from the reflecting surface to the same centre, one side is. known to be 4000 miles length (being the half diameter of the earth), and two angles, 5° and 90°, are known (the latter being a right angle between the horizontal line to the horizon and the vertical line to the centre of the earth) ; the long side of the triangle can then be calculated, and amounts to 4015 miles, or 15 miles more than the distance from the surface to the centre of the earth, and this gives 15 miles as the elevation of the reflecting surface above the surface of the earth. This calculation gives the height for a reflection at the horizon, but the special phenomenon was seen at an eleva¬ tion of about 20° above the horizon, and a further calculation has therefore to be made for ascertaining the actual height of THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. 179 the reflecting surface at that elevation, and this gives 4042 miles as the distance from the centre of the earth, or 42 miles higher than the surface of the earth, or say 40 miles as the height of the reflecting surface in the atmosphere after allowing for the disturbing effect of refraction in reducing the apparent depression of the sun below the horizon. This 40 miles was named by Helmholtz, junr., as the approximate height, calculated from observations at Berlin of the special sunset phenomena. The theory of an unusual amount of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere as a cause for the phenomenon is seen to be untenable when this great height of 40 miles is recognised, because the limit of vapour in the atmosphere capable of forming clouds is much below that height, as the rarefaction of the atmosphere at that height may be considered much too great to allow of aqueous vapour being held there in the atmosphere of sufficient density to allow visible cloud to be formed or strata capable of giving a sunset reflection. In the case of the other theory of diffused meteoric matter in the atmosphere as the cause of the phenomenon, it has to be noted that this matter would necessarily be diffused with an approximate uniformity over the whole atmosphere surrounding the earth, in the event of the earth meeting with and plunging into any collection of meteoric matter in the course of its orbit ; this collection of matter being in front of the earth in its course, and the earth turning round completely in twenty-four hours, would result in a general distribution of the meteoric matter over its whole surface. But the consequence of this would be a simultaneous appear¬ ance of the special phenomenon in different parts of the earth, and this is directly opposed to the observed facts that the phenomenon was distinctly local, and travelled over the surface of the earth with great uniformity of motion. There were two different directions and rates of motion : first a direct westerly translation near the line of the equator that was traced three-quarters of the distance round the earth at a very uniform speed of about 70 miles an hour; and secondly a much slower diffusion northwards and southwards, reaching 30° from the equator in about a month, 50° in three months, and G0° in four months. In the chart given in the former paper upon this subject (“Midland Naturalist,” Plate I., January, 1884), the westerly travel of the phenomenon is shown at 12,000 miles distance, or halfway round the earth in a week ; and since that time information has been received of its reaching the Sandwich Islands at 18,000 miles distance, or three-quarters round the earth, in ten days, both observa- 180 THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. tions agreeing with an average speed of about 70 miles an hour. These circumstances seem to limit the possible cause to something actually local, and the volcanic theory suggests that this cause was the discharge into the atmosphere at the eruption of Krakatoa, on 26th August, of an enormous quantity of volcanic matter, possibly melted lava blown into a very finely divided vesicular state by the bursting through it of an explosion of steam at a very high pressure ; that this erupted matter was projected to an exceptionally great height in the atmosphere and formed an immense cloud that remained suspended there for a great length of time, on account of the slow rate at which the particles would be able to fall through the atmosphere, and also the mutual repulsion of the particles, and their repulsion by the earth due to a highly charged electrical condition from the great electrical disturbance accompanying the eruption ; that this cloud of erupted matter remained stationary at the spot where it was projected in the upper regions of the atmosphere, but that the atmosphere at that height does not partake of the full velocity of rotation of the surface of the earth and of the atmosphere that is in immediate contact with the earth, lagging behind about seven per cent, of the equatorial velocity of 1000 miles an hour, which resulted in an apparent westerly movement of about 70 miles an hour; according with the westward travelling of the special pheno¬ menon that was observed for as great a distance as three- quarters round the earth at an approximately uniform rate of motion ; that the mass of suspended matter became gradually and slowly diffused laterally in the atmosphere, being assisted in northward and southward dispersion by the continuous polar currents of the upper regions of the atmosphere, due to the vertical displacement of heated atmosphere rising in the equatorial region, and causing the phenomenon to become visible successively at places more and more distant from the equator. Such a height in the atmosphere as 40 miles above the earth’s surface appears on first impression to be extravagantly great ; but when looked into it will be seen to be not unreasonable in comparison with the known dimensions of inequalities of the earth’s surface. The highest mountains reach about 5 miles vertical height, and the greatest depths of the sea also reach about 5 miles, making together 10 miles inequality of the earth’s surface. The 40 miles height in the atmosphere is only four times this amount, and when looked at together it does not appear too much to suppose THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. 181 volcanic matter to be ejected in an eruption to four times the height of that inequality. Another point of view for this question is a comparison with the greatest height that has been attained of balloon ascent in the atmosphere, which reached as high as 7 miles in one case, or 2 miles above the highest of the mountains, in an ascent made by Mr. Glaisher and Mr. Cox at Wolver¬ hampton, 5th September, 1862, and the height of 40 miles for the volcanic matter is only about five-and-a-half times that amount. It has been suggested that this volcanic matter was pro¬ jected into the atmosphere by the Krakatoa eruption, in the form of minute hollow glassy vesicles produced by an explo¬ sion of steam at enormous pressure bursting through a bed of melted lava, and that these particles remained suspended for a long time in the atmosphere, and were caused to take a very long time in falling back to the earth on account of their extremely small actual weight of material, which would be further reduced by the internal vacuum arising from con¬ densation of contained steam, and on account of the large surface exposed by the hollow vesicles in relation to their weight. Also in consequence of the excessive electrical dis¬ turbance that accompanied the eruption, these particles would be highly electrified, and would, therefore, forcibly repel one another, and would also be repelled by the earth, from its being in a similar electrical condition ; and this state would continue for a long time with little diminution, on account of the highly rarefied atmosphere being a good insu¬ lator, as proved in Mr. Crooke’s radiometer experiments. In considering the volcanic force of eruption requisite for projecting matter to so great a height as 40 miles, it has to be noticed that on account of the reduction in the density of the atmosphere, its resistance to the passage of a projected body is enormously reduced at that height, the density diminishing in a geometrical proportion as the height increases in an arithmetical proportion. That the eruption in question of the Krakatoa volcano was of a very exceptional character, and one of the most extensive on record in the force of the explosion, is shown by definite evidence of various kinds. More than one half of the island of Krakatoa disappeared in the eruption ; a great tidal wave of 100 feet in height was produced in the ocean, the effect of which extended to harbours round the entire circumference of the earth ; the sound of the explosion was heard at 1200 miles distance, at Baugney, on the further coast of Celebes; and the fall of ashes extended to a distance of 1000 miles, being received by a 182 THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. vessel off the western coast of Australia. There is fortu¬ nately also the record of another vessel which was within only 40 miles distance of the volcano at the time of the eruption, and this vessel, the “ Berbice,” received a con¬ tinuous fall of mud and ashes for two days, causing total darkness for thirty-six hours, during which an accumulation of three feet depth was formed upon the deck, and the masts and rigging were so encrusted that upon the return of light the ship looked as if it had been dug out of the mud. The captain of the “Berbice” has now, through his friend Mr. Boss, the captain of the Society’s dredging steamer at Oban, sent the Society a large specimen of the floating pumice stone which covered the sea for many miles in the neighbourhood of the eruption, and a quantity of the deposit that fell upon the deck of the ship. The following is an extract from the log of the “ Berbice — “ Sunday, August 27th, 1883. “At 4 p.m., having a very threatening appearance in the south-east, deemed it prudent to make fast all small sails, and stand the ship off to seaward, it becoming unusually dark for that hour of the day. 5 p.m., a light fall of fine ashes, accompanied with lightning and thunder; made fast all canvas. 6 p.m., total darkness, with an in¬ creasing fall of ashes, accompanied with heavy lightning and thunder; balls of electricity bursting on all sides of the ship. Midnight, a terrific gale, accompanied with a blinding and cutting fall of ashes, with most fearful lightning and terrific peals of thunder, shaking the ship from stem to stern ; balls of electricity bursting above us and striking different parts of the ship and masts. 4 a.m., storm some¬ what abated, but ashes still falling in torrents. 8 a.m., gale increasing ; ashes falling faster and heavier ; lightning and thunder getting worse. 11 a.m., still total darkness; blowing a fearful hurricane; lightning and thunder most terrific, appearing like as if the heavens had opened upon us, thinking that the next moment would be our last. 4 p.m., still total darkness ; lightning and thunder fast abating, but ashes still falling heavily. 5 p.m., ashes being about three feet deep on the ship’s deck, deemed it prudent for the safety of our lives and ship to light lamps and try and shovel some of it overboard. 8 p.m., light¬ ning and thunder still abating ; ashes not falling so heavily. Mid sky breaking, but still a light fall of very fine ashes, but having every appearance of finer weather. 4 a.m., daylight received with a glad welcome, after a most fearful and total darkness for thirty-six hours — a grand but not a pleasant sight, ship appearing to have been dug out of the mud ; masts and ropes coated with ashes four times their original size.” Tlie strongest evidence, however, of the exceptionally great extent of the eruptive force in this volcanic outburst is afforded by the change effected in the surface of the earth by this ex¬ plosion. The island was previously five miles long and three miles wide, having the volcanic cone of Krakatoa rising from THE RECENT REMARKABLE SUNSETS. 183 it to nearly 3000 feet above tlie sea ; this volcano had long been dormant and its slopes were covered with woods ; a period of two centuries having passed since it showed any volcanic action. In the present eruption more than half the island disappeared, a portion measuring three miles length by two miles average width having not only gone, but there is now a depth of nearly 1000 feet of water on the spot. At the same time two new islands have appeared, at eight miles dis¬ tance, one of them being where there was previously a depth of 150 feet of water; and the island to the west of Krakatoa has been more than doubled in size. This extraordinary disturbance of the surface of the earth caused a gigantic tidal wave which travelled from Krakatoa east and west completely round the earth; and from the numerous records of the tide gauges that have now come in from all parts of the wTorld it has been ascertained that these two waves met on the opposite side of the earth from Kraka¬ toa and did not vanish there, but crossing each other, journeyed on to their starting point, and actually then proceeded forward again as before and repeated their journey round the earth, performing this course, it is stated, no less than four times before the equilibrium of the sea was restored so far as to be insensible by the instruments of observation. This great wave transmitted through the water is now found, from the delicate barometrical registers in numerous parts of the world, to have had a parallel in the atmosphere, in an atmospheric wave also transmitted round the earth from this gigantic and unprecedented explosion. This atmospheric wave has been traced in its progress in both directions round the earth, and is found to have travelled with the same velocity as sound waves are transmitted through the air. There appears reason to suppose, from the enormous quantity of floating pumice that appeared at the time over a wide area of the sea, that the main eruption was a submarine explosion at some distance westward from Krakatoa, and that the Krakatoa eruption, gigantic as it was m extent, was really only a secondary symptom of a still greater Indian Ocean eruption. When there is taken into consideration the enormous ex¬ plosive force that must have been in action to produce such an effect as the bursting asunder and rooting up of a mass of the island of Krakatoa so large as three miles length and two miles width, leaving deep water in its place, and perhaps pro¬ jecting this mass to a distance of eight miles, where two new islands were found after the eruption ; — the feasibility of the idea that has been suggested of minutely divided volcanic 184 ON THE PILOBOLID.E. matter having been projected by tlie same explosion to a height of forty miles in the atmosphere receives an important support, and the volcanic theory for the cause of the recent remarkable sunsets advocated in the former paper on the subject is further confirmed. ON THE PILOBOLIDiB, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. ( Continued from page 153.) e. — The Spores. During this time the contents of the sporange have been resolving themselves into spores by free cell-formation. There are two modes of formation of spores which are some¬ times confused under this name : — Firstly, as in some species of Peziza, the cell-nucleus divides into two, then into four, and lastly into eight smaller nuclei, each of which surrounds itself with a portion of the protoplasm and constitutes a spore ; secondly, as is described by De Bary in his account of tlie formation of the spores of Protomyces, the protoplasm may fall simultaneously into as many parts as there are to be spores, without the previous subdivision of a nucleus — in fact, the nucleus, if there has been one, disappears entirely as a preliminary of this process. There is a difficulty in observing the operation in Pilobolus, as, on account of the opacity of the membrane, the spores can only be seen by lightly pressing the sporange and observing those which protrude through the crack, with as little disturbance as possible. But after many trials I have come to the conclusion that the spores are formed in the following way. The contents of the sporange are mainly twofold, the proto¬ plasm proper, with the granules, and a hyaline homogeneous substance, the epiplasm. At the beginning these are thoroughly intermixed. The first stage in spore-formation is that the granules range themselves in short lines, which anastomose with one another, and form a regular “all-sided” * network, filling the whole interior of the sporange, its meshes being about the size of the future spores. The interstices * I.e., extending in three dimensions of space. ON THE PILOBOLID^E . 185 are filled with homogeneous epiplasm (Fig. 6). When this preliminary marshalling is completed the bounding lines of granules widen, and then a transfer of the granules takes place comparatively suddenly ; they pass from the sides of the meshes into the intervening spaces, falling together, as it were, from all sides to form little roundish or oval balls of granules, separated by a network of homogeneous substance. Each mass of granules then surrounds itself by a cellulose membrane, the granules are dissolved, and we have, according to the species, round or ellipsoidal homogeneous yellowish spores, embedded in a substance of a gelatinous nature, which is perfectly colourless, and binds the whole mass of spores together. This interstitial substance has an important role to play, as we shall see, in the economy of Pilobolus. Since writing the paragraph just given, I have met with a description of the formation of the spores of Pytliium and Achlya, by Marshall Ward, which bears striking testimony to the affinity of those genera to the Mucorini. In that author’s description of the formation of zoospores in the sporangia of Achlya polyandrcfi the identical phenomenon which I have just referred to, of the preliminary marshalling of the granules in a network, is repeated. In Achlya apiculctta f we have the same occurrence of a network of granules, followed suddenly by the production of a granular grey uniform mass ; a vacuole or clear space then develops, probably in the centre of each original mesh, and the lines of division of the zoospores are formed. He also seems to attribute exactly the same process to the formation of the zoospores of Pythium proli- ferum.% These phenomena are also described by De Bary as occurring in the formation of the spores of Protomyces.§ The spores are arranged, for the most part, in regular layers, so that in an absolutely perfect sporange there would be a number of concentric shells, each composed of a single layer of spores, and the spores in each layer would be placed side by side, like cannon balls at a government arsenal. It is difficult to see this regularity, since the necessary manipulation usually destroys it, but I have on many occasions seen an approach to it in carefully compressed sporangia, when the membrane was unusually transparent. We know that in eight- spored asci the spores are frequently arranged in one or two perfectly regular rows with their axes parallel, but I have * Quart. Journal Microscop. Science, 1883, p. 276, pi. xxii., fig. 1, d-f. f L.c., p. 284, pi. xxii., fig. 16, a-b; fig. 15, d, e. { L.c., p. 499. § Beitr. zur Morph, und Phys. der Pilze, ser. 1, pp. 145-6, pi. 1, fig. 14. 186 ON THE PILOBOLIDJE. never seen it stated that the same regularity extends, in an appreciable degree, to sporangia containing, like those of Pilobolus, many hundreds of spores ; my observations have shown me that it is often so. /. — The Columella. While these changes are taking place in the sporange the perfectly plane septum which arose at first at the top of the stem, and the upper portion of the stem itself, have been undergoing transformations in form no less important. The upward tendency of the protoplasm, which must apparently be looked upon as a vital movement admitting of no further analysis, steadily continues and exerts a pressure upon the septum, which causes it to grow upwards in a bluntly conical form within the sporange (Fig. 10), and thus produce the columella so characteristic of the Mucorini. The columella, rising as it does among the spores, and displacing some of them, must cause a considerable pressure upon the wall of the sporangium, but, as the upper portion of this is already more or less cuticularised and capable of withstanding the strain, it follows that the whole effect must fall upon that infra-equatorial zone, before mentioned as exempt from the cuticularisation, which certainly is found to be, in the mature sporange, much thinner and more fragile than it was at first. It is curious to observe the difference between the behaviour of this septum, and of the one at the base of the stem. The lower one is pervious to the protoplasm, and remains always plane ; the upper one is impervious, and is consequently forced up as just described. E. ACORUS. A. Calamus, Linn. Sweet Flag. Sweet Cane. Native (?) In rivers and large pools. Rare. May, June. I. River Tame at Tamworth, at the bottom of Mr. Oldensliaw’s garden ; With (Ed. 3) i., 358 ; between Knowle and Temple Balsall ! H.B. Abundant in June, 1883. II. Abundant in most of the waters near Arbury Hall ! in two ponds at Foleshill, but originally planted from a pond near the Stoke Race Course, which is now filled up, T. Kirk, Phyt. ii., 971 ; Milverton; Guy’s Cliff ! H.B.; Farnborough. Introduced at Arbury, and probably also in all the other stations above quoted. ARUM. A. maculatum, Linn. Cuckoo-pint, Wake Robin, Lords and Ladies, dx. Native : On hedge banks and in woods. Locally common. April, May. Area general. Abundant in some of the districts, but remarkably local in others, occurring, however, throughout the whole county. (To be continued.) 226 PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. THE PBINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER VII., PART I., AND CHAPTER I., PART II. BY W. GREATHEED. Chapter 7, Part I. — “ The Sco})e of Biology .” Having ascertained in prior chapters that organic matter is that matter which is specially sensitive to surrounding agencies, that its very unstable compounds in becoming stable give out motion, and that the changes of which life is made up are internal adjustments to balance outer changes, we come to the question how the science of life, usually called Biology, shall be mapped out. Mr. Spencer indicates such a map, chiefly useful for future application, because much of the territory is inadequately explored. We may study (1) structure, or (2) function, or (3) the interactions of structure and function; and each of these three subjects may be studied with special reference to («) the race or ( h ) the individual. We have also to study (4) genesis, or the production of succes¬ sive individuals. The study of structure includes morphology (form study) and embryology (egg study), whilst the study of function includes physiology and psychology. The study of the interactions of structure and function is illustrated by such works as Mr. Darwin’s “ Origin of Species.” And under Genesis we may study Sexual and Asexual multiplication. Chapter 1, Part II. — “ Growth .” Growth is the assimilation of similar atoms, and may be either organic or inorganic. The wick of an unsnuffed candle, or a geological deposit, illustrate the latter kind. Limits to growth are almost peculiar to the organic kingdom ; not quite, however, since the growth of crystals has limits. The conditions of growth are numerous. The more complex the structure or the greater amount of fit food procurable, or the more economy in expenditure of force, the greater the pro¬ bable size of the animal. Again, the initial bulk of the egg or of the embryo, and the easy supply of food, as in the case of the nourishment supplied at the breast by Mammalia, affect the question. Not only must there be a sufficient PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 227 supply of assimilable matter, but each variety of food must be present, since, e.> 1884. May 21. 22. 23. 20. Ju 29. ne 10. 11. 13. 17. 18. 20. 21. Receipts. £ s. d. Balance of Treasurer’s Account . 2 7 2 Subscriptions Burton Society for 1883, 174 at 3d. 2 3 6 Subscriptions and Arrears Bedford Society ... 2 5 7 Nottingham Literary and Philosophical Society for “ Midland Naturalist ” . 2 0 0 Oxfordshire Natural History Society Oswestry and Welshpool Naturalists’ Field Club Birmingham Philosophical Society . Severn Valley Naturalists’ Field Club Nottingham Naturalists’ Society . Bedfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club ... Dudley and Midland Geological and Scientific Society and Field Club . Birmingham School Natural History Society . Peterborough Natural History and Scientific Society ... Evesham Field Naturalists’ Club . Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society... Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . Nottingham Working Men’s Naturalists’ Society . Birmingham Microscopists’ and Naturalists’ Union Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society Northamptonshire Natural History Society and Field Club . Caradoc Field Club . Tamworth Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society . Balance . £ s. d. 1883. Payments. July 31. “Midland Naturalist” from Nottingham Literary and Philosophical Society . „ Balance of Darwin Die Fund . 1884. June 25. Treasurer’s Expenses, stamps, &c . „ Secretary’s ditto . „ Wright, Dain, Peyton, and Co., Printer’s bill, 1883-4 ,, Joseph Moore, Darwin Medal (bronze) . „ Mr. Grove, Darwin Medallist, bronze medal, and d. 8 16 3 20 at 3 0 5 0 40 3 0 10 0 129 3 1 12 3 68 3 0 17 0 94 3 1 3 6 60 3 0 15 0 100 3 1 5 0 50 1 0 4 2 112 3 1 8 0 35 3 0 8 9 246 1 1 0 6 268 3 3 7 0 30 1 0 2 6 40 3 0 10 0 259 3 3 4 9 200 3 2 10 0 62 3 0 15 6 96 3 1 4 0 ... ... 5 6 0 £35 5 2 £ s . d. £ 8. d. 2 0 0 0 17 6 2 17 0 4 1 9 . 21 19 2 .046 . 8 10 6 £35 5 2 There is a considerable falling off in numbers amongst the Societies in the Union, the total number of Societies having decreased from 23 in 1883 to 19 in 1884, and the gross number of members from 2,410 to 1,965 during the same period; this is mainly owing to the cessation of the Cheltenham, Banburyshire, Burton, and Nottingham G-.R.S., and to the general decrease in reported number of subscribing members by the various Societies. The result of this is that we find the receipts, including the balance carried forward last year and the then outstanding arrears since paid up, amount to £29 19s. 2d. Against this we have to take into account the £2 donation of the Nottingham Literary and Philosophical Society to the “ Midland Naturalist,” and the 17/6 contra balance of the Darwin Die Fund, together with Treasurer’s expenses 4/-, Secretaries’ ditto 29/6, Printers’ Bill £21 19s. 2d., and Bronze Medal 4/6, total £26 14s. 8d., leaving a balance of £3 4s. 6d. at the disposal of the Council. It is customary when the Darwin Medallist so elects to present him with the difference in money value between the cost of the gold medal, 232 MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. £8 15s., and of the bronze medal, 4/6, i.e ., with £8 10s. 6d. ; if this be done the credit balance of £3 4s. 6d. will he converted into a debit balance of £5 6s., and it will be necessary for the Council to consider what steps should be taken to meet this in the coming year. Votes of thanks were then passed to the Officers of the Union (acknowledged by Mr. W. J. Harrison), and to the Officers and Members of the Peterborough Natural History Society (acknowledged by Dr. T. J. Walker). It was resolved that Mr. T. H. Waller, B.A., B.Sc. (Birmingham) should be elected as Honorary Secretary for the ensuing year, and that Mr. E. de Hamel should be re-elected as Honorary Treasurer. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chairman, proposed by Sir H. Wake, and seconded by Mr. de Hamel. LOCAL EXCURSIONS. Immediately after the meeting a large number of the members of the Union proceeded to the Cathedral, where they were met by the Rev. Canon Argles and the Rev. Canon Macdonnell. The former gentleman entered into a long description of the building, giving an account of its early history, and explaining its construction, and the style of architecture. After inspecting the nave the restoration works were visited, and here Canon Argles thoroughly explained the old defects and the reasons for pulling down the central tower. A few of the members went on a botanical excursion to Thorpe Hall (by kind permission of C. I. Strong, Esq.) and Holywell, returning by the River Nene ; others paid a visit to the section of cornbrash exposed by the railway. CONVERSAZIONE. A very successful Conversazione was held in the Fitzwilliam Hall on Wednesday evening. The tables were arrayed with various objects of local and general interest, scientific, antiquarian, literary, &c., including relics from the Fenland and Saxon and Roman remains from Castor, Peterborough, and neighbourhood ; the collections of flint implements, fossils, and Roman and Saxon pottery, bronzes, weapons, &c., being remarkably good. The objects under the microscopes were of the usual character, and there was a capital fresh-water aquarium. At intervals selections of music were per¬ formed by a band, under the directorship of the Rev. W. F. Wilkinson. In the course of the evening Dr. T. J. Walker delivered a very in¬ teresting address on the Pre-historic and Roman Remains found in the neighbourhood of Peterborough, illustrating his remarks by the actual specimens, of which there was a grand display in the numerous glass cases. Afterwards, in the adjoining hall, Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., lectured upon “ The Ice Age and the Stone Age,” illustrating his remarks by a number of views, admirably shown by the oxyhydrogen lime-liglit. SECOND DAY— THURSDAY, June 26th. UPLAND EXCURSION TO BEDFORD PURLIEUS. Leader, Mr. J. W. Bodger. Starting from Peterborough Market Place at nine o’clock, the “Alpine” party (about thirty-five in number) drove westward to Water Newton, where the river gravels were examined, and where some of the visitors obtained quite a collection of (fragmentary) Roman pottery. After examining Chesterton Church, MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 233 the drive was continued to Stibbington Hall, where Captain and Mrs. Yipan most kindly and hospitably received the party, and here a very pleasant hour was spent in the inspection of the Indian and Burmese objects of Art, and in strolling through the lovely grounds, the orchid houses, and the aquaria. After thanking the hosts for their kindness, the drive was continued to the most westerly point reached — Bedford Purlieus— a wild, windy region where many rare plants still grow, and where the fly orchis and blue columbine grow freely. After lunch a return was made through Wansford to Sutton Marsh, where the botanists discovered a large quantity of — mud. Peterborough was reached about half-past five, and here the Fenland party were joined at tea in the rooms of Mr. J. House, by whom the whole of the catering for the meeting was carried out in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. Fenland Excursion — Crowland Abbey. Leader, Mr. E. J. Lilley. The Fenland party took a north-easterly route, and the first point visited was the Decoy, where wild birds are captured during the winter in Borough Fen. The mode of working the Decoy was clearly explained by Mr. T. B. Williams and his sons. Thence the party proceeded by the bank to Crowland, and went direct to the Abbey, where the Rev. T. H. Le Boeuf addressed the company in the belfry on the history and architecture of the Abbey. He afterwards accompanied the party round the venerable pile, and explained the chief features of interest, commencing with the original Norman door-way, which has but of late been opened up to view inside the porch ; from thence he proceeded to describe the figures on the west front and round the nave and south aisle, after which the fine old Norman or Saxon arches of the great central tower were noticed, and the company completed their visit by inspecting the fine old plate belonging to the communion service of the church, and the parish registers, which go back to early in the 16th century. One of the first entries refers to the death of Oliver Cromwell. From the dissolution of the monasteries for a period of 120 years the registers are missing. About 75 years ago the Rev. James Blundell obtained nearly 100 years of the old registers from some person in Cambridgeshire. Should any antiquarian know where the series could now be completed he would confer a great favour on all students of our old records by publishing the information. After lunch at the George Hotel, a vote of thanks was given to the rev. gentleman for the very able address he had given on the Abbey. The Society then ad¬ journed to the remarkable triangular bridge, the history and pecu¬ liarities of its architecture and situation being pointed out by Mr. A. S. Canham. The party next inspected, at Mr. Canham’s residence, a rare collection of old engravings of the most interesting objects in the neighbourhood, and a very complete collection of the flint implements used by pre-liistoric man, gathered from a tumulus which was taken down three years ago, when the wash bank was heightened. The party, after heartily thanking Mr. Canham for the pleasure and interest he had afforded, took their carriages, which were awaiting them, and pro¬ ceeded on their way to Thorney, noting as they went the contact of the three counties, Lincoln, Cambridge, and Northampton at Noman’s Land, and Turketell’s Cross, standing near to Pepper Lake, in which it lay for many years prior to about 1825, when it was taken out and re-erected. After examining Thorney Abbey a rapid return was made to Peterborough, which was reached in good time for tea and the 6.30 train, by which most of the visitors departed, bearing with them very pleasant remembrances of this well-planned, well-managed, and very 234 MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. successful meeting, for whose success the local members must have worked both hard and well. [We are indebted to Mr. G. Claridge Druce, F.L.S., for the following Botanical Notes. — -Eds. M.N.] The Fenland expedition of the members of the Midland Union furnished little of special interest to reward the botanist. The district traversed, once and at no very distant period the haunt of such plants as Gladium Mariscus , Cicuta, Stratiotes, Pilularia , Teucrium Scorditim, and Villarsia , was now covered with rich wheat fields, pleasing to agricul¬ turists, but most barren to botanists ; and the dyke-sides, which stretched out in unpicturesque straightness, were bordered only by such plants as Glijceria aquatica and Garex riparia , and were often too stagnant to show anything upon their surface besides Lemna. Here and there Hottonia was welcomed by the Warwickshire botanists, and in a dyke near the Welland occurred a new addition to the Northampton Flora, Gallitriche obtusangula, a very distinct-looking plant. The far-famed Decoy Farm, in Borough Fen, was also extremely poor in vegetation, nothing unusual occurring in its osier beds and waters. Nor did Crowland or Thorney yield anything to the botanist. The Upland party went over much richer ground, and I determined on Friday to make an expedition in that direction ; so, taking the train to Wakerley station, I commenced work by searching Wakerley Wood. Here occurred Asperula odorata , rare in Northants, Atropa Belladonna , confined to the north-east of the county, Melarnpyrum pratense (M. crista, turn was not in flower), Ophrys apifera, Dipsacus pilosus , Echium, Verbascum Thapsus , and Euphorbia Lathyris. This latter plant is probably a native here, as it occurs in some of the old woods, as at Finesliade and Wakerley, and Mr. Mott found it by the side of Bedford Purlieus. I made careful search but could find no trace of introduced plants, and one can quite agree with Babington’s remark on this italicised plant of the London catalogue — “ that it is a native of some stony and rocky woods.” The road between Wakerley and Duddington was bordered with Grepis biennis, and a form of Ballota occurred, which, in had long calyx teeth, and may be ruderalis. On Colleyweston quarries I gathered Aceras antlvropopliora and Orchis pyramidalis, with Arabia hirsuta, Koeleria , A vena pubescens, Bromus erectus, and Brachypoiium pinnatum. The stream, which begins at the White Water, near Stamford, and ends at Sutton Marsh, affords almost the only remaining portion of bog vegetation in Northamptonshire, and very rich it is; a profuse growth of Juncus obtusijlorus being especially noticeable. Schcenus nigricans, Eriophorum latifolium and E. august if olium, Garex pulicaris, C. dioica, C. Jlava, C. Hornschuchiana, G. stcllulata, C. intermedia, G. ovalis, Scirpus setaceus, S. panciflorus, S. palustris, Anagallis tenella, Sarnohis Valerandi also occurred. In a marshy spot I found Salix pentandra (probably planted) ; Epipactis palustris, Ggmnadenia conopsea, Orchis maculata, 0. latifolia, and 0. incarnata were frequent, the flesh-coloured variety of the latter in full flower on June 27tli ; a hybrid between incarnata and maculata was also found. Garduus pratensis was rare, and one or two specimens of 0. palustri-pratensis, near to, if not identical with G. Forsteri, were gathered. Menganthes was in beautiful flower; a short-leaved, much-encrusted form of Gliara fcetida was present in the wetter portions, while the grasses were represented by Molinia, Triodia, and Aira ccespitosa. Here and there, too, were the tussocks of Garex paniculata ; Pedicularis palustris and Pinguicula were also seen. It was curious to notice how MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 235 close to and sometimes even mixed with the marsh plants occurred Brachypodium pinnatum , Polygala depress a, and Bromus ercctus , but this was only where the stony soil was close to the surface. Having traversed some miles of this interesting strip of marsh, I visited the quarries of Southorpe; here occurred Asperula cynanchica, Verbascum nigrum , Anting llis, Onobrychis , Marrubium vulgar e , etc., but the drought had spoiled the place for botanising. Chlora perfoliata was gathered near Ufford. The river side near Peterborough was not particularly rich ; Siam latifolium, Zannicliellia palustris , ( Enantlie Jluviatilis, Potamogeton per - foliatus , P. lucens , P. pectinatus, and P. crispus ; Ranunculus fiuitans and P. pseudo-fluitans were plentiful in the Nene. In the dyke east of Peterborough, Hydrocharis, Polygonum maculatum , Ranunculus sceleratus (most abundant), (Enanthe Phellandrium, Polygonum mite, Rumex maritimus, Callitriche platycarpa, and Iris acoriformis were the representative plants. It will be seen from the above list that a fair quantity of specimens may be found even in a short visit to an unpromising-looking neighbour¬ hood, and there is little doubt that systematic search of the district would add several plants to the Northampton Flora. I must conclude these rough notes by expressing my thanks to the Peterborough Society for their well-planned excursions paid meetings, which afforded their visitors much pleasure. [The following is communicated by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley.] If we look back forty or fifty years, it would be impossible to fix on a more hopeful point than Peterborough for interesting research. Three members of the household of the late Earl Fitz william worked out the whole country in almost every point of interest. Mr. Artis, the house steward, made an especial study of the site of Durobrivae, and though the text of his work was never published, the illustrations command the attention of archaeologists to this day. Mr. Simmons, the head cook, made, with considerable intelligence, a large and varied collection of the insects; while Mr. J. Henderson, the head gardener at Milton, a man of extensive information and original research, worked out not only the botany but zoology, and his paper on the “ Germination of Ferns,” in one of the earliest volumes of the “Annals of Natural History,” still bears witness to his power as an observer and draftsman. This was, of course, before so much of the Fens had been drained, and though perhaps it would be difficult now to obtain specimens of such plants as Liparis Loeselii, Malaxis paludosa, Viola lactca, and the rare fern Aspidium cristatum , or Andromeda polifolia , diligent research might afford us in Holm Fens Teucrium Scordium, and other varieties. But the Soke country, with its woods and varied geology, will still yield us a good harvest of Lepidoptera and other insects, while the woods give us Inula Helenium , Melampyrum cristatum , with Listera Nidus-avis. And if we extend our view as far as Wansford and the neighbouring Bedford Purlieus we might still get, on the outskirts of Tliornhaugh, Chlora perfoliata ; and, if the planting of conifers in the old stone pits at Southorpe has not altered altogether the locality, there would certainly he Anemone Pulsatilla , Ilypochceris maculata, Sedum Telephium , and possibly, for it was once abundant, Ophrys aranifera. Beyond Wansford there is a tract of thin soil, which yields every year a rare assemblage of species of Phascum, with other mosses, when the corn crop has been secured, while also growing a multitude of annual corn plants, such as Caucalis daucoides, Silene noctijlora, Antirrhinum 28G NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. Orontium, Euphorbia platyphylla ; and on the roadside, with many a limestone plants, numerous specimens of the Fly Orchis ; while the wood itself affords acres of Lily of the Valley, and on the further side of the Purlieus the underwood consists of indigenous specimens of Tilia parvifolia, and when the underwood is cut down, the whole land is sometimes blue with the common Columbine, which I think is indigenous there, if anywhere in England. The same country is undoubtedly rich in Fungi, and some part of the district has been thoroughly examined. There is no doubt that if the country were properly searched many species of Truffle would he found. The common English Truffle, Tuber crstivum, certainly occurs at Milton. At Apetliorpe it is sometimes so abundant that one or more pounds may be collected by experts in a few minutes, and in the lime region of Bedford Purlieus nearly twenty species have been found. Nearer home we may observe that in the brickfield at Wliittlesea the late l)r. Porter made many valuable discoveries, and there is still the same opportunity and hope of novelty, and such rare plants as Ly thrum hyssopifolium may still reward close research in swampy ground. Much might be added of interest, but to enumerate all the capabilities of the neighbourhood would require a formal paper and more energy than an old naturalist in his 82nd year can command. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— June, 1884. The barometer, which was falling at the commencement of the month after a slight fluctuation, rose steadily till the 12th, from whence it continued generally high without material alteration. After the 8th the weather was fair, with light air, chiefly from the westward, though cloud was prevalent, and the amount of sunshine below the average. Some high temperatures were recorded, the maximum ex¬ ceeding 82° at Loughborough and Henley-in-Arden on the 28th ; on the 13th 80° '9 was registered at Strelley, and 80° -7 at Hodsock. The minima were low for the time of the year ; the lowest readings were registered on the 1st: 30o,2 at Coston liectory, 32°-3 at Hodsock, and 33° -0 at other stations. On the grass 5 degrees of frost were registered at Hodsock and Strelley, and 4 degrees at Loughborough. The rainfall was decidedly below the average, the total values being less than 1 inch at Hodsock, Strelley, and Coston Eectory ; and 1-13 inches at Lough¬ borough. At Henley-in-Arden the total was 2-95 inches. The number of rainy days varied from 6 to 10, and as the greater portion of the rain fell at the beginning of the month the grass crops suffered severely. Lightning and thunder were observed on the 5th and 6tli. Wm. Berridge, F.R.Met.Soc. 12, Victoria Stieet, Loughborough. ftittal listener Botes. Notes from Woking. — Curled Web of Spider. — During May and June, amongst the heather I observed a great number of the small webs of Dictyna latens — Ergatis latens, of Blackwall, one of the spiders belonging to the family Dictynides, all of which possess four pairs of spinners instead of three pairs, which is the usual number possessed NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 287 by other spiders. The metatarsus of the posterior leg is provided with a peculiar apparatus, the calamistrum, which is used in connection with the extra pair of spinners in forming the curious and beautiful curled web. This spider generally selects the old flower head of the common heath, C. vulgaris , in which, or upon which, she proceeds to spin her web, first running a number of plain threads from the top and central twig to those which spring about half an inch below, until she has formed a tent-like structure. When this is finished she spins a few plain threads from these side twigs to the central stem below, generally about three-quarters to one inch long, sometimes longer, and if another twig is near she runs out a line to it. The web is now somewhat of an elongated diamond shape, much like the purse nets used by fishermen, but so far it is only a covering and habitation for the owner. The most important and wonderful part of the structure next occupies her atten¬ tion — viz., the spinning of the curled webs, without which no flies could be snared. After a great many watchings, at last I was rewarded by seeing one commence the curling operation. Taking up her position, head downwards, on one of the threads running from a side twig to the central stem, she slightly raised her abdomen, bending the posterior pair of legs until the claws apparently touched the spinners. She then moved them rapidly to and from the abdomen some twelve or fifteen times, then resting a moment, she attached something to one of the plain threads, moved on and down the diagonal thread a very short distance, then repeated the rapid movements, rested again, moved a little to one side, fixing something to the thread running parallel to the one she was on. I very carefully brought my magnifier to bear, and then saw that whilst making the rapid movements she had been (no doubt using the calamistra) tearing, so to speak, her silk from her spinnerets, and by the short movements of the legs made the wonderful curled and double thread which, after each rest, she attached first to one side then to the other of the parallel plain threads, thus covering the threads from the side twigs to the central stem, and a few to the top with a zigzag of this pale blue curled web, and this again was surrounded by the most extraordinary thread of some sort, which looked exactly like a delicate vapour around it, and in which the unlucky flies were soon caught, * neatly spun up in a silken shroud, carried up into the diamond chamber, and after having satisfied the hunger of the neatest “curler” ever known, their wings and legs are hung up outside as ornaments, and very beautiful they look when the sun is upon them. The male is found after dark rapping with his palpi in the most comical manner against the outside of the chamber, and if his wooing is acceptable he is admitted, but if not, the sooner he drops his strumming him¬ self the better, for the lady is not against feeding upon her species when necessity compels. She lays her eggs in several small cocoons within the nest and carefully watches them until hatched. — F. Enock, Ferndale, Woking. Two New British Uredines. — ( Ecidium Convallarice, Schum. Spots pale yellow or whitish, circular, on various green parts of the host plant, leaves, stems, and perigones. Pseudoperidia cup-shaped, with broad, overhanging, split, whitish edges. Spores polygonal, orange yellow, slightly rough, 15-30 x 14-22 mk. On Gonvallaria majalis, near Scarborough; Mr. G. Massee, June, 1883. Windermere, Mr. Thomas Hebden, June, 1884. This interesting addition to our fl»ra was sent to me last year by Mr. Massee. It is figured by Mr. W. G. Smith in the Gardener's Chronicle for 5th July, 1884, p. 12-13, from Mr. Hebden’s 238 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. specimens. On the Continent of Europe it occurs not only on lily of the valley, but on various allied plants such as G. verticillata, C. Polygonatuvi and G. multiflora , Majanthemumbi folium and Paris q uadrifolia. It is synonymous with (Ecidium Majanthce, Schum., Cceoma elegans , Schum., and C. Polygonatuvi, Link. Puccinia Anthoxanthi , Fuckel. Uredospores: Sori elliptical or linear, orange, soon naked; spores elliptical or obverse, egg-shaped or oblong, rough, dark yellow, 20-30x14-19 mk. Teleuto-spores : Sori scattered, small, elliptical or linear, soon naked, brown. Spores on very long stout brownish stalks, generally elliptical, more rarely oblong wredge-shaped, slightly constricted at the centre, thickened dis¬ tinctly at the apex, where they are rounded, generally rounded off at the base but sometimes wedge-shaped, smooth, chestnut brown, 26-42 x 16-21 mk. On Anthoxanthun odoratum : King’s Lynn, May and June; Bradford, Mr. H. T. Soppit, July. I have little doubt that ours is the true plant of Fuckel. There is one point, however, in which they differ, namely, in that the uredospores are accompanied by abundant and well-marked capitate parapliyses, of which Fuckel makes no mention. To those mycologists who confine themselves to anatomical characters, this would of course afford unimpeachable evidence of their distinctness. From a series of experimental cultures with the paraphysed Uredines made during the present summer, I have been led to attach less value to the presence or absence of paraphyses with the uredospores as a specific character than I formerly did. At the present time however, I cannot speak confidently but hope in the course of time to be able to throw some additional light upon the point in question. — Charles B. Plowright, 7, King Street, King’s Lynn, July 15th, 1884. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — Geological Section, May 27th.— Mr. Thos. H. Waller described the characteristics of the minerals Augite, Hornblende, and Mica, with special reference to their appearance as the constituents of rocks, and their discrimination by the use of the microscope. In illustration of his remarks he exhibited some specimens of the various minerals and sections of rocks containing them, and Mr. C. J. Wood¬ ward also exhibited a beautiful specimen of Hornblende. Mr. J. Udall was unanimously elected Hon. Secretary of the Geological Section. Geological Section, June 24tli. — Mr. W. R. Hughes exhibited a specimen of Kieselguhr (German earth), used in preparation of dynamite. The earth when mixed with four parts of nitro-glycerine forms dynamite. Mr. Hughes also exhibited a slide mounted by Mr. Sharpus showing fossil Diatoms, Infusoria, &c., contained in Kieselguhr. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited Lonicera Xylosteum , Gornus sanguinea , Myrica gale, from near Chillington, Listera ovata, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Burbarea vulgaris, Carex Pseudocyperus, Vicia hirsuta, and other plants from near Barnt Green. Mr. W. P. Marshall read a paper on “The Flow of Solids,” which will appear in a future number of the “ Midland Naturalist.” General Meeting, July 1st. — Mr. W. B. Grove B.A., exhibited Rhinotnchum repens, new to REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 289 the district, Ustulina vulgaris , and Cryptosplueria millepunctata , from this district, Diatrype bullata from Peterborough, and Puccinia Smyrnii from Ardmore, Ireland. Mr. Grove also gave a short account of the Meeting of Natural History Societies at Peterborough. Microscopical General Meeting, July loth. — Mr. W. R. Hughes F.L.S., exhibited Merulius lacrymans, a fungus which has caused “ dry rot ” and occasioned such damage to the woodwork of the block floor in Handsworth Parish Church, that the whole floor will have to be removed. Mr. W. B. Grove has kindly consented to examine the church, and it is hoped that he will report on it at the next meeting. Mr. VV. H. Wilkinson exhibited Melica uniflora , from Dudley Park, and Circcea lutetiana (the Enchanter’s Nightshade), from the Wren’s Nest, Dudley. Geological Section, July 22nd. — Mr. Bolton exhibited Pedalion mira — living and mounted — from within four miles of Birmingham. Mr. Morley, on behalf of Mrs. Rabone, exhibited Epipactis atrorubens , oval-leaved, from Grange-over-Sands, and Lastrea rigida from same place. Biological Section, July 8th. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Bythotrephes Cederstromii , the entomostracan from Windermere, which Mr. C. Beck found for the first time in 1881. It was accompanied by Leptodora hyalina , Hyalodaplmia Kahlbergensis, and Anurcea longispina ; Mr. W. II. Wilkinson exhibited Lichens from Scotland ; Gladonia uncialis , Sphceroplioron coralloides, Platysma triste, Nephromium lusitani- cum, all in fruit, very rare, from Ross-shire ; Lecidea Hookeri, Solorina crocea , S. saccata , Peltigera venosa, from Ben Lawers ; Parmeli a oquila, P. stygia , Lecanora frustulosa, mostly in fruit, and very rare ; Mr. W. J. Harrison exhibited a roughly chipped Flint Celt, found at Six-hills, near Loughborough. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — June 16tli. — Mr. Darley exhibited butterflies and moths from Symonds Yat, including, among others, small Yellow Underwing, Heliodes arbuti, Scorched Carpet, Ligdia adustata, and speckled yellow, Venilia maculata ; Mr. J. W. Neville, Sternocem rugosipermis , and Chiloloba acuta , two beetles from Burmali ; under the microscopes Mr. Tylar showed silver ore from Utah ; Mr. Moore, gizzard of ant, Formica nigra ; Mr. Hawkes, Ophrydium versatile , also a series of objects illustrating the life history of the Alder-fly, Sialis lutarius ; Mr. H. Hindmarsh then read a paper on “ Weather and Weather Prophecies.” The paper dealt with the unfavourable opinions of foreigners respect¬ ing it ; erroneous impressions of the moon’s influence ; the difficulty of forecasting weather from our insular position ; the effects of mountains, valleys, and oceans upon it ; cyclonic storms ; the use of telegraphy; application of the spectroscope, Ac. The paper concluded with figures showing the percentage of predicted storms reaching our shores.. June 23rd. — Mr. Hawkes exhibited a collection of plants from Rowington, including, Plantago media , Habenaria bifolia, Sanicula Europant, Geranium lucidum , &c. ; Mr. Deakin, a collection of mounted seaweeds, from Tynemouth ; Mr. Sanderson, club-mosses, also specimens of peat from Wliernside ; Mr. Darley, the following moths: — Wood Tiger, Nemeophila Plantaginis, cinnabar, Callimorplia Jacobean, and burnished brass, Plusia chrysitis ; under the microscope Mr. Moore showed eggs and larvae of flea, Pulex irritans, and Mr. J. W. Neville, Aregma obtusatum. June 30tli. — Mr. Dunn exhibited, under the microscope, Hydra fusca with parasites ; Mr. J. W. Neville, section of Dog-rose through a prickle. July 5tli. — A Geological excursion was made to Dudley and the district; although the weather was somewhat unpropitious, a large number of members and friends assembled. The 240 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. party was met at the station by Mr. Beale, who had kindly consented to act as guide. The route taken was to the Clay Croft Openworks, Mr. Beale pointing out on the way some rich fossiliferous formations ; the thick coal seam was here examined, and its features described. The road was then taken to the Wren’s Nest Hill, where some hours were pleasantly spent ; a visit was afterwards made to the Dudley museum, where a vote of thanks to Mr. Beale for his kind assistance brought an interesting excursion to a close. July 7th. — Mr. Moore showred specimen of Mining Bee, Andrena, and nest of the same, also nest of Humble Bee, Bornbus terrestris; Mr. Deakin, a specimen of Wryneck, Yunx torquilla, and eggs of Crow ; Mr. Hawkes a number of plants, including Atropa belladonna and Reseda luteola ; Mr. Madison, a case of shells, Limncea stagnalis, including five sets taken from the same pond, extending over a number of years, and showing a gradual change of form ; also shells of Clausilia laminata, Paludina vivipara , and Bulimus montanus, with models of their inmates ; Mr. Darley, larvae of Emperor moth, Saturnia carpini , and the following moths : Barred Red, Ellopia fasciaria , Pine Carpet, Thera jirmata , and Shaded Broadbar, Thera variata ; under the microscopes Mr. Foster showed section of fern, Osmunda regalis ; Mr. J. W. Neville, section of shell of Pinna, showing prismatic structure; Mr. Hawkes, Volvox globator. July 14tli. — Special, Botany ; Mr. Hawkes exhibited a collection of plants, which included Poteriurn angnisorba attacked with rust, Lecgthea poterii, and Brand, Xenodochus carbonarius, and Tragopogon pratensis, dwarfed with smut, Ustilago receptaculorum ; also a specimen of Twayblade that had developed a third leaf ; under the microscopes Mr. Tylar showed dotted vessels in oblique section of elm ; Mr. J. W. Neville, Bladderwort, Utricularia vulgaris ; Mr. Hawkes, spores of Burnet Brand. PETERBOROUGH, NATURAL HISTORY, SCIENTIFIC, AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.— On Whit-Monday, June 2nd, a party of members and friends had an excursion to Helpston and Helpston Heath. Leaving Peterborough at 9 a.m. by Midland Railway they alighted at Helpston Station and proceeded to the village, the birth-place of the poet Clare. His house, his grave, and the handsome stone monument erected to his memory, were inspected, also the ancient stone cross and the church. The Heath was reached about noon, and after rest and refreshment, the members dispersed about the Heath and woods adjoining, and succeeded in obtaining a large number of plants, many of them rare, among them being Orchis moria , 0. mascula , 0. latifolia, 0. masculata, Habenaria bifolia , Aceras anthropaphores, Ophreys rnascifera , Listera obata. After a second rest, the party walked to Walton station, via Marliolm, visiting the stone quarries en route, and reached Peterborough at 6-40, having spent a most enjoyable day. TAMWORTH NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGICAL, AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.— On May 26tli Mr. F. Lott delivered an interesting and exhaustive lecture on “ Coal and its Origin the subject was the more attractive from the neighbourhood in which it was delivered, and was duly appreciated by an attentive audience. On June 16th a paper on the “ Poetry of Science ” was read by the Rev. Brooke Lambert, B.C.L. One of the largest audiences of the season met to hear it. The paper was short but suggestive. A desultory discussion followed on the relation of Science and Religion. Mr. W. G. Fretton had to postpone his lecture for the 14th July, owing to illness. MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 241 MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. ANNUAL MEETING AT PETERBOROUGH. ADDRESS BY THE VERY REV. J. J. S. PEROWNE, D.D., DEAN OF PETERBOROUGH, PRESIDENT OE THE UNION. In the name of the Peterborough Natural History and Scientific Society, and as their President for the year, I offer a most hearty welcome to the delegates and members of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies who have honoured us by their presence to-day. it is with the greatest regret that I have to add, that I am unable myself to take any part in the meeting. Unfortunately an earlier engage¬ ment, and one from which I have found it impossible to escape, clashed with the time fixed for your gathering here, and for local reasons it was not found convenient to alter the date so as to admit of my delivering this address in person. It would have been a real pleasure to me could I have assisted in receiving the Union ; for though I cannot put forth the smallest claim to any knowledge of Natural History or Science, yet I am not the less sensible of the great value of such studies and not the less anxious to do what I can for their encouragement. It is my consolation to know that there are members of the society in Peterborough who can more than make up for my deficiencies, and that you will, therefore, have no reason to regret my absence, sincerely as I regret it myself. I can only wish the meeting every possible success and every member of it the utmost enjoyment during the two days of their visit. In considering what should he the subject of my address my thoughts naturally turned to the Cathedral. Under ordinary circumstances I should have had nothing new to say on such a subject. So many able and accomplished archaeologists have given us the history of the Monastery and ' have discussed with infinite labour and learning every detail of the architecture, that little or nothing was left for a new comer on the field to glean. But within the last year and a half we have learnt a great deal about the central tower and the adjacent parts of the building which was not known before. We have been obliged to take down that tower, and in taking it down we have made considerable additions to our knowledge. Like many other misfortunes, this has turned out to be not altogether without its compensation. 242 MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES Those who remember the condition of the lantern as it presented itself to the eye after the walls were scraped, and as it appeared from that time to the time of its demolition, will remember how it was torn and rent by gaping fissures, and must often have wondered how a building showing such signs of weakness could have held together so long. The condition of the two eastern piers added to the surprise. The north¬ eastern pier had been partially rebuilt by the 14th century builders; the south-eastern pier had been crushed and peeled by the weight above, and instead of being repaired had been strapped together with wooden uprights and iron bands in the most unsightly manner. Still till near the end of the year 1882 no danger was apprehended. Then a sudden and alarming movement was discovered to be taking place, and immediate action became necessary to save the whole from instant destruction. Of course the lantern might have been preserved in its exist ing condition by underpinning and by tying its walls together by iron bolts as has been done in other cases, hut the dis¬ coveries which were made in taking down the lantern and the piers gave convincing evidence that Mr. Pearson was right in deciding to take them down altogether and rebuild them. The walls of the 14th century lantern were merely rubble and dust, held together by the thinnest facing of Barnack stone. The Norman piers were no better. The core of the piers was dust and the bonding of the stone courses was wretched. The foundations were of the poorest kind, consisting of small stones laid on the loose gravel, though some two feet and a half lower down the builders would have touched the solid oolitic rock. Magnificent as the Norman architects were in design, they were not equally careful as to the soundness of their structure. In taking down the tower and piers several interesting discoveries were made, of which I shall endeavour to give some account. But before I do this, it may be well briefly to state the facts with regard to the original construction of the tower and lantern, as we learn them from the ancient chroniclers. The tower of the Norman Church was built by the Abbot William de Waterville, who also built both the transepts. “ In suo etiam tempore (says Swapham) ambae cruces Ecclesiae, et tres liystoriae ( i.e ., stories which in more classical Latin would have been tabulata *) magistrae turris erectae sunt.” Mr. Paley infers from this statement that there must have * Paley. MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 243 been four stories in all, and that the fourth was added by the next Abbot, Benedict. If so, this central tower must have been a lofty structure, and as we know, it snbseqently proved too heavy for the main piers on which it rested. I shall advert presently to the interesting fact that evidence of the existence of three stories in the Norman lantern has been found in taking down the 14tli cenntury tower, but no evidence of a fourth. And although Mr. Paley not unnaturally in¬ ferred the existence of a fourth from the language of Swapliam, “ in his time .... three stories of the principal tower were erected,” yet there is no mention anywhere, so far as I am aware, of the erection of a fourth, and I am inclined to think that the fourth was only designed but never erected ; unless, indeed, the words of the chronicler may be rendered (which considering the character of the Latin seems not impossible) “ the three stories of the main tower were built.” No sooner was the demolition of the 14th century lantern begun, than it was seen that the builders of that period had worked up the old Norman material in the construction of their own tower. On removing the stones of the somewhat richly adorned string-course on which the parapet rested, the stones composing it were discovered to be mostly the caps and bases of the internal arcades of the various stages of the old Norman lantern, these being so disposed that the original carved faces were turned inwards, whereas the ends which had been at first bonded into the wall were now exposed and ornamented with the new 14tli century moulding. As the work of demolition proceeded, it turned out that the mass of the stonework, witli the exception only of parts of the belfry window-jambs, was the old Norman material re-worked and re-moulded, and (such was the excellence of the Barnack stone) as fresh and sharply cut as when it was placed in its original position. The walls, however, of the lantern were of the poorest possible con¬ struction. There was a facing only of the Barnack rag varying in thickness from about two to six inches, and the whole of the rest of the walls was composed of small frag¬ ments, many of them not larger than a man’s hand, embedded in rubble and stonednst, or as it is locally called “ pit mortar.” Towards the upper part of the lantern the filling in of the wall presented curious fragments of earlier and later work, bits of decorated carving, pieces of marble shafts — perhaps from the west end, — one of the large keeled angle stones from the west front which had been placed in the extreme angles north and south, and portions of decorated plaster screen work, carved, and ornamented with black plaster inlay. There 244 MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. was also found a very large quantity of fragments of monu¬ mental cross slabs of Early English and decorated work, some presenting good and elegant designs, and two curious foot- stones, with incised line double crosses. Several of the window-jamb stones had been wrought out of these, the words “ hic jacet ” being plainly discernible on one of them; and this use of tomb-stones was carried so far as to include the use of stone coffins for ashlar in two or three instances. As I have already observed, very considerable remains of the old Norman lantern have been recovered, and the history of the “three stories” of the “master tower” has been fully made out. First, there are the bases, caps, jambs, and arches of what appears to have been t-lie tower stage or third storey which was shielded from the light on all sides by the then roof. Secondly, almost all the caps, bases, and parts of jambs, arches, and pillars of what formed the second internal stage (or third, if four existed) and also quantities of the jambs and external arcades as well as of the small blank arcades over them, — a feature similar to what is seen on the present transept gables. Thirdly, there are considerable quantities of the caps, jambs, arch orders, &c., of the upper stage. This on the interior presented a design of three arches, precisely as in the windows of the clerestory on the east side of the transepts, and like these had probably a small blank arcade above on the exterior. Further, large portions of the richly zigzagged string over the Norman arches of the crux have been found, as well as of the two moulded strings over it ; and also fragments of the shafts at the angles of the interior and of the attached half columns which formed the interior upright division lines of the composition. In a similar way a great quantity of the external strings and half pillars has come to light. Of the outside woik a part still retains the lichened coating with which it became covered when it was in its original position. It is well worth considering whether in rebuilding the lantern it would not be desirable to make some use of this Norman arcading. There is enough, or nearly enough of it, to reconstruct the whole of the lower or first stage immediately above the arches of the crux. If this is thought desirable, and I confess it appears to me very desirable, there would be no structural difficulty in the way. The arcading would be quite complete above the two Norman arches on the north and south sides; it would be intersected by the pointed arches MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 245 on the east and west sides of the crux. There would be no interference with the general character of the lantern. It would still tell its tale of the 14th century reconstruction,* and there is no reason why there should not be added to this the rale of 19tli century rebuilding. The addition of this stage of arcading would of course raise the tower to the extent of the height of the arcading. On this, the 14th century tower might still be re-erected. But can nothing more be done ? Such a tower would still be low and out of proportion to the great length of the church. Surely something more might be done and a spire would be a grand feature. There are spires on two of the western towers ; there was, as late as a century ago, a third spire. To erect a lofty and noble spire on the great central tower would be a triumph of architectural skill and would give a dignity and an elevation to the church which nothing else could impart. . I am sorry that I cannot agree with Canon Owen Davys in thinking that the 14th century builders purposely kept the central tower low, whilst they added spires to the western towers in order to concentrate the whole external effect of the church in the west front. It is quite clear, on the contrary, and abundant evidence to the contrary has turned up in the course of taking down the tower, that the architects of that day endeavoured to rebuild the Norman lantern, but were obliged to desist owing to the unsound condition of the piers. They made two attempts at rebuilding, the one closely following the other. Mr. Davys writes : “The Norman idea was that of a lofty central tower with two smaller western towers, as at Southwell, but the Early English builders had since given such unlooked for dignity to the west front that now the Continental idea of western splendour and central lowliness might well be adopted. So two leading thoughts directed the new design ; the first to build a tower so light as to avert future danger ; the second to build a tower so low as not to divert the eye from the west front. In both these efforts as the towers left the hands of the builders they were eminently successful.” — [Guide to Peterborough Cathedral , fifth edition, p. GB.) I quite agree with Mr. Davys as to the first of these reasons for a low tower. I can see no ground whatever for attributing the second to the Early English builders. Certainly I know of no view which can be obtained of the west front * I must say frankly, however, that I see no reason why these two pointed arches should be retained if the Norman arcading is restored. 24G MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. where a lofty tower or spire would so dominate it as to inter¬ fere with its imposing majesty. The excavations which it was necessary to make at the bases of the piers of the central tower, in order to test the state of their foundations, led to a very interesting discovery. At the foot of the south-eastern pier were found the remains of a Saxon building, doubtless the church of the ancient monastery. This church was destroyed by the Danes when they attacked the monastery in 870. The Abbot John tells us in his Chronicle that when they came to Medesliamstede, the Danes found the inhabitants of the neighbourhood collected beneath the walls of the monastery, which were of such strength that they were obliged to attack them with engines, and cover their approaches with archers. Enraged at the obstinacy of the defence, and especially at the death of his own brother, the Danish leader slew all the monks with his own hand, desecrated the shrines, trampled under foot the relics of the saints, and set fire to the monastery, which was entirely consumed, the fire continuing to rage for fifteen days. And now, after the lapse of a thousand years, the disinterred walls show traces of the action of the fire. The stone tells the story of the destruction. The intense heat to which it has been subjected has changed the colour, and in some portions has left the edges cindery and friable. The walls now exposed to view are of no great thickness, and were probably never of any great height, the upper part of the building having doubtless been of wood. First of all there was laid open to the north of the pier a wall, or rather two walls, with a narrow space between them running east and west. These walls, as has been said, are slight, and the method of their construc¬ tion and arrangement confirms the supposition that they were intended to carry a wooden superstructure. Beyond these to the north was evidently open ground, a short wall at right angles to the others coming there to an abrupt termination ; whereas on the south side and west of the pier, at a depth of some six feet below the level of the present Cathedral, the workmen came upon the plaster floor of the ancient building. This was again reached in the south aisle, and extended in all probability to a considerable distance west and south. In the south transept the floor can be followed eastward to a plaster seat placed at the extremity of the building against the external eastern wall. Here it is plain that the limit of the building eastward has been reached, because in the open surface beyond a massive stone sarcophagus is standing, obviously of much more recent date. The lid of this coffin is of uncommon thickness, but at present it is impossible to open MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 247 it, or, indeed, to examine it carefully, as the huge woodwork on which the steam- cranes are supported rests on the floor above. Indeed, only a portion of the tomb is visible. How far the remains of this Saxon building extend, and whether the lines of walling indicate the existence of one or more than one building, it is at present impossible to determine. This can only be done when the immense shoring and scaffolding which have been erected for the demolition and reconstruction of the pier have been removed. Unfortu¬ nately as the pier stood directly over a portion of the Saxon building it was necessary to destroy some part of it in digging the foundations for the new pier. If I am right as to this discovery, if we have here come upon the remains of the old Saxon church, then it is quite plain that Mr. Poole is wrong in Ins conjecture that the Norman church was built on the lines of the old Saxon church. He says, “ In substance, I believe, the Abbot John of Sais (who laid the foundation of the existing presbytery, in March, 1117) found the same monastery and especially the same church which Saxulfus had built and Etlielwold restored. Indeed, I suspect that a very large portion of the Saxon church existed until the present nave was built by Abbot Benedict. From that time no visible traces of it remained above ground.” And of Waterville, who built the tower and the transepts, he remarks, “ His transepts were built in all probability on the foundations of the Saxon transepts, which he removed to make way for them ; but with this difference, that the Saxon transepts had aisles both east and west, the Norman only to the east.” And again (p. 203), in reply to Mr. Palcy’s argument that Waterville must have extended his work west of the central tower because “ so large and heavy a tower could not have stood safely without some considerable abutments against the pillars at the west side,” and that hence, “ two or three nave arches, with their triforia and at least one bay of the clerestory would be essential for sustaining the fabric.” “ Granted,” he says, “ if the fabric had not already a sufficient support ; but you will remember that we have no reason to doubt that the Saxon nave yet remained, so that the support was there already.” All this argument, however, falls to the ground if the building recently disin¬ terred was any part of the old Saxon church. It could never have been used as an abutment to the Norman towers. In fact, even if the Norman building had followed the same lines, the upper portion of the Saxon church being of wood, nothing but the low stone walls on which this rests would have been left and these calcined by the fire. There was, however, an 248 MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. earlier Norman church than the present one, that of Abbot Ernulpli. This was burnt down during the abbacy of John de Seez (or Sais), and he it was who built the present choir. I am able to throw some light upon another question, the probable existence of a crypt under the church. Grunton tells us : “ At the south end of the north aisle near the choir is a vault descending into the ground by stairs of stone, and at the bottom a low arched passage going under the church, wherein anyone might go some five or six yards and there find the way stopped with the fall of the earth over head ; but how far further this vault went, or to what end it was made, I never could learn. Happily it might lead to some penitential purgatorian place ; or, like Mortimer's Hole, at Nottingham , be a subterraneous passage to some other buildings which are now perished.” On this Mr. Paley remarks, “ Similar crypts, and in the very same place, exist at Ripon and Hexham. It was, without doubt, part of the old Saxon church. In 1817, a wall with a subterraneous archway leading towards the church was opened at the base of the mound called Tout Hill, on the north side of the church. There may have been a connection between these two singular and mysterious passages.”* Following the direction of Grunton, I have had this vault excavated. It lies just midway between the north-east and north-west piers of the lantern, Gunton meaning by “ the south end of the north aisle,” the south end of the north transept. It consists of a small entrance chamber and a winding passage trending first from south to north and then to north-west and west. Portions of a stone pavement, some three inches thick, remain in a state of excellent preservation. This is at a depth of 5ft. Gin. below the floor of the present church. But it is obvious at a glance that this was no part of the Saxon building. The walls of the passage and of the chamber are of excellent and finished masonry, apparently of Early English date, the chiselling of the surface being finer than the Norman, and being vertical and not diagonal as in the Norman work. The mason’s marks upon the stones, a bow and arrow in one place and a triangle in others, are quite plain and distinct. The wall on the south side of the chamber runs in a straight line east and west, and was kept no doubt in a line with, and just behind, the stalls which in the old Benedictine Abbey Churches were carried across the transepts, the screen being placed in the nave, two bays below * Mr. Poole is also disposed to look here for the crypt of the Saxon church. See his paper, read at a meeting of the Architectural Societies of the Archdeaconry of Northampton, &c., May 23, 1855. MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES. 249 the central tower. This chamber is 5ft. 9in. by 8ft. 2 Jin., and has traces of steps both on the eastern and western sides, the latter being somewhat worn and broken away, whilst the edges of the former are still clean and sharp. The passage leading from this chamber goes first at right angles to it, and, after a short distance (some 5ft.), turns sharp at an angle of a little more than 45deg. to the north-west, and then again to the west, and comes to an abrupt termination. Here there are in¬ dications of an arch. The passage at the end near the steps is 2ft. lOfin. in width, but becomes narrower after it turns, and at its western extremity is only 1ft. 9 Jin. in width. The ground beyond this has been excavated for the foundation of the new north-western pier, and it is certain, therefore, that the passage does not extend further in that direction ; but just there were discovered two leaden pipes, of 2in. lead, running westward, which, it is conjectured, were used for conveying water from an old well just outside the church. The entrance to this passage was unquestionably by the steps above mentioned. Unless, therefore, the passage was made for access to the pipes, we can only conclude that it was intended to be the approach to some subterranean building, the construction of which was afterwards abandoned, and the unfinished arch at the end of the passage westward may favour this view as well as the other. At the first angle of this zigzag passage, counting from the entrance, there are some indications of another passage to the north-east. The masonry, however, comes almost immediately to an abrupt termination. Otherwise in this direction we might have expected to find the conduit which is said to have brought the water from a well at the foot of Tout Hill to the Cathedral (Paley). The chamber through which the entrance lies, it has been conjectured, was intended as a place of security for the treasure of the church, but this does not seem to me to be probable. The chamber is somewhat larger than the passage, merely because here was the entrance. The descent to it was by stone steps. On the eastern side there are in¬ dications of a complete staircase. On the other side there is no evidence of more than two steps, and these have been partly broken away. It is plain that they originally extended across the recess, and there was doubtless a double flight of steps. On the floor, where the steps are broken away, several fragments of iron were found. These might support the theory of a chest having been kept there for relics, or that of a dungeon or place of penance for refractory monks, suggested by Gun ton, were it not so evident that this was only the entrance. A skull and some other human 250 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. remains were found in this vault, and also several fragments of an ancient stone reredos, the gilding and colouring of which were remarkably fresh and bright when they were first discovered. It must have been a beautiful work of art, either of pointed or early decorated design. Unfortunately no two fragments seem to fit each other, so that it is not easy to restore it even conjecturally. When speaking of the Saxon building I ought to have mentioned that in the foundation or interior of the eastern piers a few fragments of Saxon moulded work were found, such as perforated slabs of windows, doorjambs, and lintels, and one very interesting and richly carved fragment of a capital, almost unquestionably Roman. This may have been brought from Castor, but it is curious that no other frag¬ ment of Roman work has been discovered. All these relics of various ages and workmanship have been carefully preserved and will be shown by Mr. Irvine, the Clerk of the Works, to any members of the Union who may wish to inspect them. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER II., PART II. BY W. W. COLLINS. Development . At the commencement of this extremely interesting chapter, Mr. Spencer is careful to point out in a foot-note that in ordinary speech Development is ofteu used as synony¬ mous with Growth, hence it is needful to say that Develop¬ ment as here used means increase of structure and not increase of bulk. Development is primarily central, every animal and every plant setting out in its earliest stage with a symmetrical arrangement of parts round a centre. Indeed, in organisms of the lowest grade no other mode of arrangement is ever definitely established. Examples of this type of structure may in the vegetal world be seen in the Uredo and several tribes of the Protococci, while in the animal kingdom it is exemplified by the Amoeba, Actinophrys, and their allies. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 251 Central development is distinguished into Unicentral and Multicentral, according as the original product develops symmetrically round one centre, or without subordination to one centre develops in subordination to many centres. The Thalassicollie of the southern seas represent among animals Unicentral development, while in the realm of plants it is exemplified, though feebly, in the Volvox globator. Multi¬ central development being far more general is variously exemplified in both the animal and the vegetal kingdoms. From Central development we pass to that higher system of arrangement which Mr. Spencer terms Axial development, and this kind of development is of two orders, viz., Uniaxial and Multiaxial ; examples of both being found in each division of the organic world. Multiaxial development occurs in all the higher types of vegetal life, while in the animal kingdom it prevails only among the lower types, all the higher orders being examples of Uniaxial development. Both Axial and Central development may be either continuous or discontinuous. Among plants continuous Multiaxial development is the rule, .and as instances of it among animals may be mentioned all the compound Hydrozoa and Actinozoa. From these general aspects of development we are led to the more special aspects. The gradual unfoldment of the bud of any plant to the leaf-bearing shoot is a passage from the incoherent, indefinite, homogeneous, to the coherent, definite, heterogeneous, and the same applies exactly to the development of the arm of a man from its bud stage. In both cases the original is simple, and having much in common with countless other forms, increasing in complexity by slight differentiations, they gradually obtain increasing unlikeness to other forms. In their earliest stages all organisms have the greatest number of characters in common with all other organisms in their earliest stages, but in later stages the characteristics displayed by each structure correspond with a less extensive number of organisms ; step by step these resemblances are diminished until they are finally narrowed down to the members of the same species. Thus while we may not believe that man passes through stages which resemble the adult forms of lower organisms, we may say that the embryos of both man and the lower organisms (the fish for instance) present in certain stages characteristics in common. And while we cannot say that a man was at one time a fish, or a reptile, we may with truth assert that he passes through the piscine and the reptilian into the mammalian stage. 252 SUNSETS IN AUSTRALIA The next great fact we notice is that in each successive stage passed through by any higher organism there is a corresponding modification in the relationship between the organism and its environment. If we note the structure, form, specific gravity, chemical composition, or temperature, we shall as we ascend the grades of organisms find them more and more distinguished from their inanimate media. Thus the development of an individual organism is at the same time a differentiation of its parts from each other and a differentiation of the consolidated whole from its environ¬ ment. The growth of an organism is carried on by the abstrac¬ tion from the environment of substances like those of which the organism is composed. In like manner the development of the organism, the production of each organ within the organism, is carried on by abstracting from the substances contained within the organism those required by the par¬ ticular organ. From all the facts of development we deduce the great and important generalisation that development is a change from incoherent, indefinite homogeneity, to coherent, defi¬ nite heterogeneity, and the profound principle Evolution receives further confirmation. SUNSETS IN AUSTRALIA. The sunsets have been magnificent here, even quite lately; but the displays are now intermittent and usually occur during times of high barometer. I have taken throughout a great number of observations, but have failed to establish a satis¬ factory connection between the “ glows” and other meteoro¬ logical factors prevailing at the earth's surface. That the glow is not due to vapour primarily, as suggested by Mr. Ellery, of Melbourne, seems certain. On occasions of magnificent displays I have had a perfectly sharp “clean” spectrum, without a trace of vapour-bands. Vapour condensed by dust particles may, however, “manipulate” the glow. Often in the forenoon the pink effects have been visible, even a few days ago; and at sundown, under conditions of high pressure, the display well-nigh baffles description, bathing the landscape, with its white-trunked gum trees, in tints so weird that one is tempted to imagine he is living on some other planet. Some ten days ago an intense burning glow was reflected from the western sky for fully an hour after sundown, giving one the ON THE PILOBOLIME. 253 idea of an African picture on tlie approach of the simoon, while opposite the full moon was rising over the lofty ranges against a lovely sky of a deep sea-green. The com¬ bined effect on houses, trees, etc., must be left to the imagination to portray. I am strongly of opinion that the Krakatoa eruption is the first cause of these wondrous pictures in the Kosmos ; and I think I see a way of escape from the difficulty re the displays appearing a fortnight later in India and Ceylon than in Western Africa. We must remember that the eruption took place in a zone of low barometer. Over this, apart from differences of altitude, there would be a relatively higher or accumulated pressure caused by the ascending currents. At least, such a state of matters prevailed at Ben Nevis during low pressure periods. Well then, the piercing and tearing asunder of the atmosphere over that mighty Javan furnace, and the force of the eruption, would be the means of the minute dust particles being ultimately safely landed on the top, as it were, of the upper high pressure. They would afterwards be buoyed up and play over the currents like the “ willow-leaves” in the sun, changing their altitude from time to time with barometric variations. By the rapid rotation of the earth at the equator an easterly upper current would bear the dust westwards ; and the high pressure above the low pressure over the Asiatic land at that season would not allow the dust to make much of a northerly course. On the other hand, the overflow of dust from the main westerly stream would be in a southerly direction where low pressure prevailed over the surface high pressure of the great Indian Ocean. I am hurrying for the mail, and trust I have sufficiently explained my meaning ; and other notes w re may follow m course. — Clement L. Wragge, Torrens Observatory, Adelaide, South Australia. July 17, 1884. ON THE PILOBOLIDyE, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. ( Continued from page 220.) 1. — Heliotropism. The stem and swelling vary much in appearance according to the circumstances under which they grow. They are very 254 ON THE PILOBOLID.E. lieliotropic, and bend energetically towards the side from which the light proceeds, if grown before a window. I have grown P. Kleinii in a dark room, to which only a feeble ray of light penetrated through a narrow crevice, and under these circumstances the stem was very much drawn up, being sometimes three-quarters of an inch in length or more, though its ordinary height is under one-tenth of an inch. But the diameter of the stem was then much less than usual, the swelling was attenuated, and the whole fungus almost colourless, except for the spores and the black cap. This property of heliotropism is not universal among Fungi ; it is possessed by some, but not all, species of Mucor, while some of the allied genera are altogether wanting in it. M. Woronin records an interesting experiment which he performed on Sordaria Jimiseda* The neck of the perithecium of this species bends towards the light, and, by growing it in light proceeding from one side only, and turning it round at intervals, the neck may be made to form itself into a zigzag (or spiral), changing its direction three or four times. All the species of Pilobolus seem to be affected in the same way, and I have often caused the stem to grow with a double curvature, by turning round the plate on which it stood before a window. m. — Periodicity of Growth. Another point deserving of consideration in the physiology of Pilobolus is the duration of its growth. It is the Ephemeron of plant life. Each individual stem lasts, under normal con¬ ditions, only one day. But what is still more surprising is that it goes through its various stages with almost the regularity of clockwork. Each afternoon, about 3 p.m., the surface on which it is growing is studded with a number of minute subulate yellow points ; these are the young stems. By 5 p.m. the sporangia begin to form. During the evening the upper septum is completed, the cap of the sporangium assumes a darker colour, passing through olive to dark brown; at the same time the swelling begins to appear. Then during the night the spores are completely elaborated, the cap assumes its ultimate thickness and blackness, and the swelling reaches its full size. Early the next day, the surface, which last night we had left covered with a number of tiny black-lieaded pins, is seen sprinkled as it were with diamond dust, each swelling brilliantly glittering in the beams of the morning sun. This, however, is a sight reserved for the “ early bird.” As * “ Beitrage zur Morph, und Pliys. der Pilze,” ser. iii. , pp. 9, 10, pi. ii., figs. 12, 11; pi. iii., fig. 7. ON THE PILOBOLHLE. 255 the day advances the fungus completes its growth, and about noon is ready to throw off its sporange. In the afternoon, when the next crop is beginning to appear, nothing is left of the previous one except the withered and dying stems. . While contemplating the saucer in which I grew my specimens, after listening to the mimic bombardment which raged so furiously an hour before, standing as it were on the held of battle with nothing but dead and dying soldiers stretched around me, I have felt as Wellington might have felt after Waterloo, but with a consolation denied to that gallant hero. I knew that even then around my feet another army was growing up among the mangled remains without any help from me, and would be ready the next day with full equipment to march with me to victory again. The normal course of development, however, may easily be disturbed by a change of circumstances. If there be sufficient moisture and nutriment present the growth pro¬ ceeds with regularity, but, if we remove the specimens into a drier atmosphere, we may retard it to a considerable extent. You will see that it is difficult to make sure of specimens to exhibit at an evening meeting, unless you remove them in the morning into a place where their growth will be stopped, and the simplest way is to take them from beneath the bell-glass and place them in the dark. If we grow the Pilobolus altogether in a dark room it soon loses count of the time, and immature or full-grown sporangia may be found at all hours. n. — Modes of Multiplication. If the sporangium falls into a suitable place the gelatinous substance is gradually dissolved by water, and the spores escape and germinate. But it is not by this means that the successive crops of Pilobolus are produced, but by a kind of prolification of the mycelium, which continually sends out fresh branches, from which new stems proceed. In fact, the whole of the membranes appear to possess this reparative power. If the first growth from a basal reservoir be injured it sends out a new stem from some other point ; if the top of a growing stem be injured it forms a septum just below the injured part; a new stem grows out from the side of the old one (Fig. 5) and may mature its sporangium. Van Tieghem has shewn that, if even the spores of P. ceclipus be injured or broken in pieces, each fragment will germinate by itself, and produce a mycelium.* * Troisi^me Meinoire, pi. 10, fig. 1. See also Nouvelles Recherches sur les Mucorinees, pp. 19-24. 256 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . Klein lias attributed to the species named after him that its spores, under certain conditions, gave rise to a Mucor, in fact to two distinct species of Mucor ; * * * § but it is obvious that his experiments were quite untrustworthy and misleading in this respect, and Van Tiegliem has finally disposed of the claim by his observation that the spores of P. Kleinii will not germinate at all under the conditions which Klein employed. Coemans has described and figured a conidial fructification produced from branched liyplne, growing on the basal reser¬ voir of P. oedipus; the conidia were orange(?), oval or oval- fusiform, 7 — 18^. long ; other authors have considered that these did not really belong to the Pilobolus, but this is not certain. Saccardo f describes and figures clilamydospores of P. oedipus, from New Jersey, U.S.A., which he considers identical with the Mycotjone anceps figured by Coemans ; J they are “globose, 20//, in diameter, or ovoid, 30 — 35^ by 20^, often septate below, and slightly constricted, granular within, orange. Hypliae dichotomous or loosely branched, creeping, septate, yellow.” § Roze and Cornu || found stellate clilamydospores on P. crystallinus, which were borne on short lateral recurved branches of the mycelium within the matrix ; membrane thick and yellowish. Van Tieghem, finding similar bodies in P. nanus , placed the physical continuity of the clilamydospores with the Pilobolus beyond a doubt ; their diameter varied from 15 — 20 p. The clilamydospores of which Coemans speaks, which I have also met with, belong to an Ascobolus. No zygotes have yet been discovered in Pilobolus. The organs mentioned by De Bary doubtfully under this name 11 are of another kind. o. — Habitats. The species of Pilobolus are found chiefly on the various kinds of dung, though also on other decaying substances ; and on mud containing probably a quantity of putrefying matter. Baker found his on the black mud of the Thames; Scopoli describes his specimens as growing on the larvae of Sphinx Atropos, preserved in soil; Cohn discovered P. oedipus on a layer of decaying Oscillaria * Zur Kenntniss des Pilobolus, Part III. f Miclielia, ii., 372; Fungi Italici, 86G. I Spic. Mycol., p. 11, fig. 5. § Michelia, l.c. I Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1871, vol. xviii., p. 298. If Morpliologie del* Pilze, p. 179. ON THE PILOBOLIDvE. 257 which covered the surface of the water of a glass in which he had been growing that Alga, and a friend of his found the same on the mud of the Oder. But the most frequent habitat is the dung of various animals, as of horse, cow, sheep, pig, deer, elk, roebuck, rabbit, cat, goat, dog, goose, all of which are mentioned by various authors, and even the excrement of man himself. § 4. — Pilaira. Pilobolus is one of the highest types of the Mucorini. Its distinguishing feature is the basal septum, without which the tension necessary to the projection of the sporange could scarcely be attained. It may be called a tliree-celled plant, as distinguished from most other Mucorini, which are, indi¬ vidually, essentially only two-celled, although, of course, this is only partially true. In the genus to which we now proceed, Pilaira, which forms an exact connecting link between Pilo¬ bolus and the Mucoridae, the general structure, especially of the sporangium, is the same, but with one important difference. The septum at the base of the stem is wanting ; the stem is merely an erect branch of the mycelium and is continuous with it. In correlation with this difference we find that there is no swelling at the top of the stem, and that the sporange is not explosively projected. This furnishes a new proof of the truth of that theory of the cause of the projection which has been given above. The sporange of Pilaira has the same thickened black upper hemisphere as Pilobolus, and the same diffluent zone. The dehiscence therefore takes place in the same way. The interstitial gelatinous substance swells up, on the application of moisture, to even a greater extent than in Pilobolus. But the sporange is not projected. We conclude, therefore, that the cause of the projection in the former case lies in the points of difference between the two genera ; and these are precisely the absence of the swelling and of the septum. But still the species of Pilaira hitherto described secured a certain amount of dissemination of their spores in another way. The cylindrical stems rise to a considerable height, in Pilaira Cesatii reaching even four or five inches, and when mature become flaccid and quietly deposit their sporangia at a greater or less distance. But in a new species described in the sequel, the stem does not attain so great a height, being at first usually from ^-tli to -^th of an inch, and thus it is deprived of both those means by which its allies disperse their spores. 258 ON THE PILOBOT.ID.ZE . The columella of Pilaira is somewhat different from that of most of the species of Pilobolus. This form of columella is not essential to the genus as defined, but it is interesting to notice that the same columella is met with in the new species, even more markedly than in the two previously described. The chief difference arises from the fact that the columella of Pilaira is inserted, not at the place where the terminal sphere joins the stem, but at a higher level, as it were within the sporange. But I think, in order to be consistent, we must regard the swollen portion below the columella as belonging to the stem, and confine the term “sporange” to the cavity included between the columella and the upper hemisphere ; though there are difficulties in either view. The swelling below, which is called the apophysis , is not homologous with the swelling of the Pilobolus stem, since it is formed at the same time as the sporange. The only species of Pilobolus in which a similar columella is found is P. nanus. Here also the columella arises within the sphere, somewhat above the point of junction with the swelling, and thus leaves an apophysis below the sporange. It should be remarked that in this species, as in Pilaira, the fine acicular crystals of oxalate of lime, which usually encrust the sporange, extend even to the apophysis, which would seem to show that the latter is in certain respects more closely related to the sporange than to the stem. It has been already mentioned that the stems of Pilaira grow to a considerable height. But the sporange is first formed when the stem is short, and is raised afterwards by an interstitial growth of the stem, such as is frequently met with in Mucor. This interstitial growth takes place chiefly in the part immediately below the apophysis, and Brefeld suggests, with great probability, that it is the liomologue of that process by which the swelling of the stem is produced in Pilobolus. No clilamydospores, or other asexual modes of repro¬ duction besides the sporange, seem to be known in Pilaira, but on the other hand we meet here with a sexual repro¬ ductive process, such as is known in the Mucors, but has not yet been ascertained in Pilobolus. Both Van Tiegliem* and Brefeld f obtained these zygotes ; the former cultivated them from the spores, thus observing their early development, and the latter observed their germination. I will give a short abstract of their accounts, although I have not myself met * Nouvelles lteclierclies, pp. 57-8, pi. 1, figs. 22-4. f Botanische Untersuchungen, iv., 65, pi. 4, figs. 26-8. ON THE PILOBOLIDiE 259 with these zygotes, which both the before-mentioned observers considered to be very rare, each having met with them on only one occasion. The spores, which Van Tieghem sowed in a pendent drop of nutrient liquid, * in a closed cell, germinated and produced a shortly ramified mycelium. Two days after conjugations were observed between neighbouring branches ; two short lateral ramuli (which even in some cases proceeded from the same branch of the mycelium), growing in a flexuose manner, twined round each other a few times, and their free ends, swelling somewhat and curving towards one another, came into contact. The terminal portion of each was then separated from the rest by a septum, the two cells thus formed being constantly unequal. These became more and more closely united with each other, the intervening mem¬ brane disappeared, and their protoplasmic contents were mingled. The zygote thus formed surrounded itself with a thickened membrane, which became black and smooth ; they reached a size of about 40 /*, but did not develop further. Brefeld found his zygotes already fully developed on horse-dung, on which the fungus was growing luxuriantly. They were black, of an oval form, 100 by 120^, and covered with little warts ; when ruptured they were seen to enclose, within the blackened exospore, a thick-walled, smooth endo- spore, and within that a dense protoplasm. After lying for four weeks on damp paper they germinated, giving out a tube which immediately produced the ordinary sporange of a Pilaira. PART III.— CHEMICAL REACTIONS. Of these, to which I have paid little attention, I will only mention a few. A solution of iodine in potassic iodide imparts to the stem of Pilobolus a beautiful rosy tint, passing into reddish purple with a stronger solution, a reaction which is very characteristic of the Mucorini. Iodine colours the spores at first green, then brown. Thus if a spore-mass, unbroken, be treated with iodine solution, the reagent penetrating gradually inwards, but not reaching the centre, where the orange spores still remain in their normal tint, produces concentric shells of colour which have a very pretty effect. Strong sulphuric acid removes the dark (sometimes brown, sometimes violet-black) pigment from the cuticularised membrane of the sporangium, causing it to * The liquid used was a decoction of dung. 260 THE PRESERVATION OP NATIVE PLANTS. assume a pale transparent brown colour. Tlie same reagent causes the spores to swell up into a roundish mass, bounded only by a faint contour, while the colouring matter which was dissolved in the spore contents is reconcentrated in granules. Under this head I may place the curious dicliroism of the yellow colouring matter of the protoplasm, which by reflected light is of a pure golden yellow, but by transmitted light appears of a rich red or red brown tint. (To be continued.) THE PRESERVATION OE NATIVE PLANTS. We have been requested by the Hon. Secretary of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies (Mr. T. H. Waller, B.Sc.) to publish the following : — At a Meeting of the Management Committee of the Mid¬ land Union of Natural History Societies, held July BOtli, 1884, the subject of the extermination of rare plants was introduced by Mr. A. W. Wills, who read the paper which has since appeared in the Midland Naturalist, and the following resolu¬ tion relating to the Swiss Society mentioned in it was carried unanimously : — “ The Committee of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies, deeply regretting the extermination of many of the native plants of Switzerland, desires to express its sympathy with the Societe pour la Protection des Plantes, and to pledge the members of its own Societies to contribute, by all means in their power, to the cause of the preservation of the native flora of that glorious land which has been the resort and the delight of so many of themselves and of their countrymen.” Action on Plants of Rain, Dew, and Artificial Watering. — From numerous experiments by Professor J. Wiessner (Bied. Gentr. 1883, p. 471) it has been found that the moistened leaves of plants transpire much more freely than when they are in a dry condition ; therefore a larger quantity of water is then withdrawn from the soil by the roots of the growing plants. Consequently if there is plenty of moisture in the ground the plants flourish, but if otherwise they droop and languish. From this fact the Professor argues that plants should not be watered on the leaf unless the soil is likewise moist. The small amount of extra transpiration induced by dew he thinks can do no harm, as it is almost certain that the ground will at the same time be sufficiently moist to supply to the growing plants the requisite amount of water. The action of rain is proved to be by far the most beneficial to the plant, as by its aid the supply of plant food becomes the most rapid. — Gardener's Chronicle. TIIE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 2G1 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWEEING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. [Continued from page 225.) LEMNACEvE. LEMNA. L. trisulca, Linn. Ivy-leaved Duckweed. Native : In ditches, canals, and pools. Locally abundant. Not yet observed in flower. I. Sutton Park ; Green Lanes near Coleshill ; Bannersley Pool ; pond on Baddesley Common ; pool near High Ash, Kinwalsey; pool by Water’s Wood, Maxtoke ; • pond near Barber’s Coppice, Hampton-in-Arden ; pond near Balsall Mill; Earl’s Wood; pools and ponds, Shirley Heath. II. In a deep pool at Stivicliall ! stagnant water on Stoke Heath; near Arbury Hall, Kirk , Phyt. ii. , 971 ; Honington, Neivb.; old canal, near Rugby ; canal, Newbold-on-Avon ; Bmlev Common ; Sowe Waste Canal; Willoughby; Birdingbury Wharfe ; pool near Flecknoe ; pool near Farnborough ; Fullbrook ; Rounsel Lane ; pool near Tile Hill Wood ; pool on Wawens Moor. L. minor, Linn. Least Duckweed. Native : In pools, ditches, canals, streams, &c. Very common. July. Area general. Only rarely observed in flower, and then only in isolated individuals. L. gibba, Linn. Gibbous Duckweed. Native : In pools and ditches. Very local. Rare in flower. July. I. Hampton-in-Arden, Boyers ; Sutton Park, in flower 1878 ; ditch near Minworth ; pool, Coleshill to Bannersley, in flower 1870; small pond, foot-road from Coleshill Church to Maxtoke Park; Duke’s Bridge, Maxtoke ; cattle pond, Bradnock’s Marsh. II. Mill pond near St. Nicholas’ Church, and in a brook in Baly’s Lammas, Warwick, Per. FI. ; three ponds near Lawford and Newnham, Blox. N.B.G.; ditches and ponds near Folesliill; in a pond near Berkswell, Kirk , Phyt. ii., 971 ; Rounsel Lane, Kenilworth ! H.B. ; Spernal Ash, abundantly in flower 1878 ; Sowe Waste Canal, in flower 1883 ; pond by Long Itchington. This plant, when it does flower, is usually in abundant flower. L. polyrrbiza, Linn. Greater Duckweed. Native: In ditches and pools. Rare. Not observed in flower. I. Pool in lane near Hams Hall, W. B. Grove ; roadside pond near Bacon’s End, Coleshill; pools near Escole’s Green; small pool, Druggett’s Lane, Berkswell ; Solihull, near the Railway Station ; pool near Hartshill, on the Mancetter Road. 262 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. II. Near Bradford ; ponds near Stoke Heath, Kirlt, Phyt. ii. , 971 ; Bur¬ ton Dassett, Bolton King ; pond in Bounsel Lane, Kenilworth, H.B. ; pond in field, path from Marl Cliff to Bidford ; pool near High Ash Farm, Morton Hill ; cattle pond, Combe Pastures, near Coventry ; near Carroll’s Green and Hearsall Common, abundantly ; near Flecknoe ; Woodloes. Both this species and L. gibba are uncertain in their appearance, and will often be missing for one or more seasons in any of the above localities. NAIADACEvE. POTOMOGrETON P. natans, Linn. Floating Pondweed. Native : In rivers, streams, pools, ditches, and canals. Locally common. July to September, Area general. P. polygonifolius, Pourret. Oblong-leaved Pondweed. Native : In ponds, streams, ditches, and marshes. Local. June to August. I. Annesley coalfield heath! Rev. A. Blox., Phyt. iii. , 324 ; Astley Heath! Kirk , Herb. Perry ; Sutton Park, abundant; pit by New Park, Middleton ; pond near Springfield House, Ansley ; Bannersley Pool and Heath ; Coleshill Pool ; Hill Bickenhill ; Marston Green; Honily; ponds near Earl’s Wood; Forshaw Heath. II. ( P. oblongus ) Foleshill ; Arbury Park ! Kirk, Herb. Perry ; small pond near Drayton Bushes ; pond in Banner’s Lane, Tile Hill ; pond near Oakley Wood, Warwick ; pond in All Oaks Wood, Cathiron Lane, Brinklow. P. rufescens, Sclirad. Reddish Pondweed. Native : In pools and ponds. Bather rare. July, August. I. Annesley coalfield heath ; Bloxain, Phyt. iii., 324. Olton Pool, abundant, 1881. II. Whitmore Park, (near Coventry,) Kirk, Herb. Brit. Mils.; stagnant water in Arbury Deer Park, Kirk, Phyt. ii., 971 ; Alveston Heath, Cheshire, Herb. Perry. Canal, Stoke Heath, Kirk, Herb. Perry. Near Bugby, H. W. T., R. S. R., 1875. Cattle pond, Bounsel Lane, Kenilworth ! II . B. ; pond near Coventry, on the Allesley side ; pond in Banner’s Lane, Tile Hill. P. lucens, Linn. Great Pondweed. Native : In rivers, pools, and canals. Locally common. June to August. I. Biver at Tamwortli ! With. (ed. 3) 173. Beservoir, Oldbury, near Atherstone ; Biver Cole, Coleshill ; canal, near Knowle ; Earl’s Wood Beservoir. II. Biver Avon and ponds about Bidford ! Part., i., 105 ; in an old canal, Arbury deer park ; in the Oxford Canal, Stoke Heath ! Myton ; Chesterton! Y.andB.; canals near Little Lawford ! and near Harborougli ! R. S. R., 1877. Seas Pool, Arbury Park ; old canal, Sowe Waste, abundantly in fruit ; canal near Newbold-on-Avon. THE FLOE A OF WARWICKSHIRE. 263 b. decipiens , Nolte. Very rare. Canal, Warwick, Sept., 1882, R. L. Baker. “Dr. Baker’s plant approaches my var. affmis very closely, the only difference being that the spikes are longer than in Mr. Brotherston’s Tweed plant.” A. Bennett, Bot. Ex. Club Rep., 1882, p. 78. I have only seen a very imperfect specimen of this plant from Warwick. P. perfoliatus, Linn. Perfoliate Pondweed. Native: In rivers, streams, pools, and canals. Locally common. June to August. I. Oldbury Reservoir ; Coleshill Pool ; River Cole, near Colesliill ; River Blythe, near Barston ; Olton Reservoir ; canal near Solihull, &c. II. In the Stour below Honington, Neiub. ; Avon, near Bidford ; Bearley Canal ; Rowington Canal ; Sowe Waste and Stoke Canals ; pool in Combe Abbey grounds ; old canals near New- bold-on- Avon. R. crispus, Linn. Curled Pondweed. Native : In streams and canals. Local. July to August. I. Streams in Sutton Park ; Oldbury Reservoir ; Spring Pool, near Kinwalsey ; stream near Blythe Bridge, Solihull ; stream near Earlswood Reservoir. II. Barnes Green, near Coventry, T. K., Herb. Brit. Mus. ; old canal, between Newbold and Little Harborough ! R. S. R., 1877. Radway, Edge Hill ; canal near Stratford-on-Avon, abundant ; stream near Bearley ; Ipsley ; stream at Kingswood ; pool in Combe Abbey grounds; stream by Worsley Bridge, Stoneleigh. P. densus, Linn. Opposite -leaved Pondweed. Native: In ponds. Rare. July, August. II. In ponds and ditches on each side the road between Red Hill and Stratford-upon-Avon ! Purt., i., 106, abundant in flower in 1881. Moreton Morrel, H. B., a very small-leaved form ; abun¬ dant in pond, Bardon Hill ; small pool, Green Lanes, Wilm- cote ; narrow-leaved form, canal near Wilmcote ; in abundant flower, cattle pond, between Soutliam and Napton-on-the-Hill. P, zosterifolius, Schuin. Native: In canals. Local. July, August. I. Canal, near Atherstone, 1881. Canal near Hockley. II. Abundant in the Oxford Canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ! Blox. N. B. G.; canal near Rugby ! A. Blox., Herb. Brit. Mus. ; canal, Stoke Heath ! 1855, T. K., Herb. Brit. Mus.; Warwick Canal, near Warwick and Hatton, H. B. ! canal near Bearley, and Stratford-on-Avon; canal, near Holywell and Rowington; Napton-on-the-Hill ; Sowe Waste Canal, abundant ; &c. P. obtusifolius, M. and K. Obtuse-leaved Pondweed. Native : In canals and pools. Very rare. July, August. II. Pit at Kenilworth, II. B., Herb. Brit. Mus.; canal near Stratford- on-Avon ; Stoke Heath and Sowe Waste Canals ; cattle pool, Banner’s Lane, Tile Hill, in fruit. P. mucronatus, Schrad. Native : In canals. Very rare. July, August. II. Canal, near Warwick, H. B. ; canal, near Bearley and Wilmcote ; canal, Sowe Waste ; canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ; Napton- on-the-Hill Canal. 264 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. P. pusillus, Linn Small Pondiveed. Native : in canals and pools. Very rare. July. August. I. About Tamworth, Warwickshire, With. (ed. 2), 176. Meercote Mill Pool ; Oldbury Reservoir. II. In the old canal, Brownsover ! R.S.R., 1878. Canal, Warwick and Emscote, II. B. Abundant in the canal near Bishopton and Wiimcote ; also in the old canal near Rugby Wharf and Newbold-on-Avon. A narrow-leaved form, approaching var. tenuissimus , with the type, in the Wiimcote Canal. P. pectinatus, Linn. Fennel-leaved Pondweea. Native : in pools and canals. Locally common. July, August. I. Sutton Park, in Bracebridge Pool, 1880. All through the Tam¬ worth Canal, from Tyburn ; the Warwick Canal, from Olton ; the Stratford Canal, from Shirley Heath. II. Near the canal bridge, Saltisford ! Perry FI.; old and new canals, near Newbold-on-Avon ! 11. S. R., 1877 ; near Hatton, Holy- well, Bearley, and Stratford-on-Avon ; Birdingbury. Very abundant in the pool in Combe Abbey grounds. A form closely approaching the var. b. scoparius Mr. Bromwich finds near Warwick and I find near Stratford-on-Avon. I believe it is an intermediate form. Var. c. fiabellatus. Very local ; rare in flower. I. Stratford Canal, near Hockley and Shirley Heath ; Warwick Canal, near Solihull ; canal near Atlierstone. II. Longford, Stoke Heath ! Herb. Perry , T. K. ; near Warwick ! and Hatton, H. B. Tredington ; Halford, Neivb. Rowington Canal, canal near Bearley, Bishopton, and Stratford-on-Avon ; canal, near Tardebigg ; canal, near Sowe Waste ; canal, Radford Semele ; Birdingbury Wharf. ZANNICHELLIA. Z. palustris, Linn. Common Horned Pondiveed. Native : In rivers, ditches, pools, and canals. Local. June to August. I. Ditches, Water Orton ; River Cole, near Chelmsley Wood ; drains on Colesliill Heath ; spring pool, Kinwalsey ; Marston Green ; River Blythe, Stonebridge ; Honily. II. Kinwarton ; Oversley, Purt. ii, 484 ; brook at the Woodloes, H. B ., Exch. Club Rep., 1875 ; Compton Verney, II. B.; Honington, Neivb. Alveston Heath ; canal, near Stratford-on-Avon ; Strat¬ ford Canal, near Kingswood ; stream, Worsley Bridge, Stone- leigh ; old canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ; small pool, near Willoughby, Rugby. The plants at Water Orton and the brook at the WoodloDS belong to a form intermediate between palustris and pedicillata, dis¬ cussed in the Exchange Club Report, 1875, pages 28-29. The variety brachystemon , Gay, is the most common form in this county. ALISMACEvE. TRIGLOCHIN. T. palustre, Linn. Marsh Arrowgrass. Native : In marshes, damp meadows, and near pools, &c. Local. June to August. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 265 I. Near Tamworth, With. (ed. 7), 460 ; Sutton ! Freeman , Phyt. i, 292 ; bogs, Colesliill ! Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii, 164 ; Sutton Park; wet meadows, near Maney ; Olton Pool ; Packington. II. Above tlie village of Great Alne, Purt., i., 188, Myton ; Haseley, Y. and B.; canal bank, Napton, Bolton King ; canal bank, Holy- well ; near Claverdon ; canal bank, Sowe Waste ; Henley Mill, Wyken. SAGITTARIA. S. sagittifolia, Linn. Common Arrowhead. Native: In rivers, pools, and canals. Local. July, August. I. Pools near Castle Bromwich railway station ; Warwick Canal, near Olton, Solihull, Knowle ; canal, near Curdworth ; canal, near Atherstone ; near Polesworth ; canal, near Shirley Heath ; near the locks, Temple Balsall. II. On the banks of the Avon, at Stratford ! and in ditches about Bidford ! Purt. i, 188 ; Nicholas Meadows, Perry, 1817. In the Biver Learn, Leamington, Perry, FI.; Stoke Heath! T. K., Herb. Brit. Mas. ; common in the Avon and canal near Rugby 1 Blox., N.B. G. S.; in the Stour, below Tredington, Newb.; Cliadsliunt (introduced), Bolton King; canal, from Rowington to Stratford-on-Avon ; Warwick Canal, Rowington ; Birdingbury Canal; in the Sowe, near Binley; Sowe Waste and Ansty Canals ; canal, Long Itchington ; Birdingbury Canal ; Willoughby. ALISMA. A. plantago, Linn. Greater Water Plantain. Native : In rivers, pools, canals, and ditches. Common. July to September. Area general. b. lanceolata. Rare. I. Canal, near Catherine de Barnes Heath, 1883; canal, Shirley Heath. II. Honington, by the bridge on the way to Iddicote, Newb.; canal, near Myton ! H.B. Small pool m brickyard, near Gaydon ; Alveston pastures, in marshy drives ; canal, near Tardebigg ; canal, near Wilmcote. A. ranunculoid.es, Linn. Lesser Water Plantain. Native : In marshy pools. Very rare. July. I. Tamworth ; Herb. Perry. II. Wimpstone fields, near Alderminster, Cheshire, Herb. Perry. BTJTOMUS. B. umbellatus, Linn. Flowering Rush. Native : Near rivers, ponds, pools, and canals. Locally abundant. June to August. I. Blythe Heath, near Solihull 1 1836, Rev. J. Gorle. Blythe ! and Cole ! Bree, Purt. iii., 357. Canal, near Atherstone ; pit, near Stechford ; Warwick Canal, near Solihull and Knowle; Tytliall Lane, Solihull ; cattle pond, Balsall Street ; canal, Shirley Heath. II. Oversley Bridge ! Great Alne Mill, Purt. i, 203 ; Priory Pool and in the River Avon ! Warwick, Perry FI. ; Radford, Y. and B. Salford Priors ! Rev. J. C. ; canal, Leamington and Longford, Perry FI. ; river and canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ! R.S.R.; Willoughby, near Rugby ; Birdingbury Canal ; Napton Canal, near Long Itchington ; canal, Sowe Waste and Ansty ; canal, near Wilmcote and Bearley ; canal and pool, near Yarningalo Common. 266 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. HYDROCHAHIDAGE^E. ELODEA. E. canadensis, Linn. Water Thyme. Alien : In rivers, canals, pools, ponds, and ditches. Common, but rather rare in flower. July, August. I. Sutton Park ; Coleshill Pool ; canal, Shirley Heath. II. Canal, Preston Bagot ; pond by Tile Hill Wood ; pit in an old quarry near Little Lawford; canal, Sowe Waste ; canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ; canal, near Birdingbury Wharf; Napton Canal, near Badford Semele ; pool at Willoughby, near Bugby. In all the above stations in abundant flower. ORCHID ACE^E . ORCHIS. 0. pyramidalis, Linn , Pyramidal Orchis. Native : In marly and calcareous pastures and in woods and copses. Bare. June, July. II. Bagley Park, Grafton, Purt. ii., 422. Pillerton, Perry , 1817. Wliitnash ; Drayton bushes ! W. C., Herb. Perry. Canal bank, near Newbold Tunnel, single specimen, R. S. R., 1877. Morton Morrel, Y. mid B. Compton Verney, Bolton King. Pastures, bridle road, Wilmcote to Billesley ; Drayton Bough moors. 0. Morio, Linn. Green-winged Meadoiv Orchis. Native : In meadows and pastures. Local. May, June. I. Coleshill Heath ; Curdwortli ; meadows near Hurley and Nether Whitacre ; fields about Solihull, Packwood, &c. II. Honington, Tredington, Sliipston-on-Stour, Newb.; near Bains- brook, R.S.R., 1877. Lodge Woods, Salford, Rev. J. C., Moreton Morrel, Aston Cantlow ; Kingswood ; Honily, Ac. 0. mascula, Linn. Early Purple Orchis. Native : On banks and in copses and woods. Local. May, June. I. Small Heath, in pastures; coppice, near Bedlam’s End; Nether Whitacre ; near Moor Hall, Sutton. II. Chesterton! Y. and B. ; Honington, Newb.; Friz Wood, Compton Verney ; Alveston Pastures ; Oversley Wood ; Bed Hill ; Drayton Bushes; Combe Woods; spinney in Cathiron Lane, near Bugby ; Seas Wood, Arbury. 0. incarnata, Linn. Common Marsh Orchis. Native: In marshes. Very rare. July. I. Marshy field, near Olton Pool ; marsh, near Stonebridge. II. Boggy ground, near Halford, Newb.; Binton Bridges. 0. latifolia, Linn. Broad-leaved Marsh Orchis. Native : In marshes and marshy meadows. June, July. I. Bogs, Coleshill! Bree , Mag. Nat. Hist., iii., 164; Hill Bickenhill ; Sutton Park. II. Near Baly’s Locks, Perry, 1817. Warwick, Herb. Perry; Tacli- brook, Y. and B.; ijieadow near Brown’s Over, R. S. R., 1877 ; near Honington and Halford, Neivb.; Chadsliunt, Bolton King. 0. maculata, Linn. Spotted Palmate Orchis. Native : In bogs, wet pastures, and woods. Locally common. May, July. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 207 I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Kingsbury Wood ; Baddesley Ensor ; Hartshill Hayes ; Bentley Park ; Coleshill Heath ; Hampton-in-Arden ; lanes about Knowle and Solihull ; Earl’s Wood ; Forsliaw Heath ; Ac. II. Rowington, Y.andB.; Compton Wynyates, Rev. J. Gorle ; Honing- ton, Tredington, Newb. ; Alveston Pastures; Oversley Wood; Arrow Lane ; Clark’s Green and Out Hills, near Studley ; More ton Bagot, Sliuckburgh ; Willoughby, near Rugby, Ac. GYMNADENIA. G. conopsea, Brown. Fragrant Orchis. Native : On damp marly banks and in old pastures. Rare. July. I. Chelmsley Wood, Coleshill ; Bannersley Pool, Bree., Mag. Nat. Hist., iii, 164. I have not been able to find it in either of these localities. II. Cold Comfort ; Oversley ! Purt. ii, 423. Footway to Billesley, IF. C. Wbitnasli Fields, Herb. Perry. Plentiful in meadows at Ipsley ! Slatter. Canal bank, near Rowington. HABENARIA. H. viridis, B rown. Frog Orchis. Native: In old pastures. Rare. June, July. II. Meadows about Cold Comfort ; Overslej^ Hill, Purt., ii, 421. Rounsel Lane, Kenilworth ; near Stratford-on-Avon, W. G. ; Honily, Herb. Perry. Old pastures, Ipsley ! Slatter. Hampton- on-the-Hill, H. B. H. bifolia, Bab. Man. Lesser Butterfly Orchis. Native: In old pastures. Very rare. July. II. Large field on the Comyns Farm, between the bouses and Clopton, JV. C., Herb. Perry. H. chlorantha, Bab. Greater Butterfly Orchis. Native : In damp woods and copses. Very local. June, July. I. Asbury’s Coppice, Hampton-in-Arden, Boyers. Kingsbury Wood ; Coppice, near Blossom Fields, Solihull ; Shelly Coppice ; Coppice, near Bedlam’s End. II. Near Wellesbourn, W. C., Herb. Perry. Old Park ; Harbury ; Chesterton Wood ! H. B. Lodge Woods, Salford Priors, Bev. J. C. Canal bank, near Clifton, B. S. B., 1877. Cliads- liunt, Bolton King. Compton Verney ; Alveston Pastures ; Drayton Bushes ; Red Hill. OPHRYS. 0. apifera, Huds. Bee Orchis. Native : On banks in lias and marly soils. Rare. July. II. Canal cutting, Rowington, II. B., Herb. Perry. Near Rowington, Miss Betts. Near Birdingbury Wharf ; Compton Verney, II. B. Ilampton-on-the-IIill, I'ratt. Old Lime Pits, Newbold ; Canal bank, near Newbold Tunnel, B. S. B., 1878. Canal bank, near Clifton, L. Cummin. Piper’s Bolt, Liglithorne, Bolton King. Railway bank, near Harbury Station ; Canal bank, near Bearley. (To be continued.) 2G8 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— July, 1884. The barometer was generally unsteady throughout the month ; falling gradually from 30T79 inches on the 2nd, to 29'634 inches on the 10th. Thence it fluctuated considerably, rising to 30T94 inches at the end of the month ; the weather was, consequently, very unsettled. Temperature was high on some of the earlier days, the following maxima being recorded : — 85°-7 at Loughborough, 84° -4 at Hodsock, 82Q,0 at Henley -in- Arden, and 80°‘G at Coston Rectory. On the 4th the heat of the rays of the sun (black bulb in vacuo) reached 1360,3 at Hodsock and 136o-0 at Loughborough ; on some of the fol¬ lowing days the maxima were low. The night temperatures were uniformly rather high, the lowest registered being 40o,0 at Coston Rectory, 40o,7 at Hodsock, 41°-0 at Henley-in-Arden, and 45° ‘0 at Loughborough. July was decidedly a wet month, and the rainfall was in excess of the average. The total values were : — Coston Rectory, 4‘92 inches; Hodsock, 4*20 inches; Henley-in-Arden, 3-22 inches; Loughborough, 2-94 inches. The number of “rainy days” varied from 19 to 22. Mr. Mellish, of Hodsock Priory, near Worksop, writes: — “ This (2-04 inches, on the 9th) is the heaviest fall yet recorded here in 24 hours ; of the total, L34 inches fell in 1 hour 20 mins., and as there were several ‘ lulls,’ the greater part fell in a much shorter time.” Sunshine was deficient. The wind was chiefly from the south-westward, and varied much in force. Severe thunderstorms visited the Midland Counties at the commencement of the month, and caused loss of life and much damage to live stock and property. Wm. Berridge, F.R.Met.Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough, 20th August, 1884. A Correction. — The specimens of the Chain Brand, Xenodochus carbonarius, mentioned in the last report of the Birmingham Microscopists’ and Naturalists’ Union as occurring on Poterium Sanguisorba , were on Sanguisorba officinalis. Alternaria Brassic,e, Saccardo.— This curious little fungus has just occurred to me on the half-dead leaves of Cytisus Laburnum , which were killed by what I take to be Pliyllosticta cytisella, Sacc. On the arid spots produced by this latter fungus, a lens revealed a number of minute forms, of which the following is a description : — Hypliae very short, scattered or gregarious, erect, pale brown, 25 - 30//. x 5/x. Spores apical, erect, single or shortly concatenate, lageniform, i.e., ovate with a prolonged beak, clear olive brown, multiseptate and muriform, some- NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 209 wliat constricted, 90- 110/x x 20 — 26 g. It will be observed that the fungus is very similar to Macrosporiwm Brassiere, Berk., but if it is identical, as Saccardo asserts, then the descriptions and figures of the latter species must represent the spores as attached by the wrong end. The spores of the Alternaria were mostly single, or occasionally two or three in a short chain. I shall be glad to know the truth of the matter. — W. B. Grove, B.A. Formation of Starch. — Professor Sachs has been engaged in the study of the rate of formation and disappearance of starch in the leaves of growing plants, and as the process for conducting these researches, unlike those for determining the amount of absorption of water by the living plant, is easy to carry out, and requires little or no apparatus, I think I may venture to describe it more in detail, as, perhaps, some present, especially those who reside in country districts, might be inclined to assist in tliis research by their own observations. The leaf to be examined is first plunged into boiling water for about ten minutes, then taken out and digested in alcohol for about the same time (I find methylated spirit answers perfectly well). This treatment extracts the whole of the colouring matter (chlorophyll) and leaves the leaf perfectly white. The leaf is now placed in an alcoholic solution of iodine, and the presence or absence of starch is demonstrated in a few minutes. The absorption of iodine commences at the edges, and soon colours the leaf blue-black if much starch be present, or brown if the quantity of starch be but small. The venation of the leaf appears as a pale network upon a dark ground, rendering it a very beautiful object ; but all my efforts to preserve the specimen beyond a few hours have hitherto failed. The curious and interesting information obtained from these researches is, that the amount of starch present in the leaf of any given plant varies considerably under different circumstances. In direct sunshine, and under otherwise favourable circumstances, starch is formed very rapidly ; but it generally disappears entirely during the night, so that a leaf collected in the evening will prove full of starch, while another leaf of the same plant collected before sunrise will not show a trace. It is also an interesting fact, but one we should quite anticipate, that if the air surrounding the plant is deprived of its carbonic acid by means of caustic soda, no production of starch takes place, even in direct sunshine, and with warmth and moisture that would under other conditions be sufficient. Again, the gradual increase in the quantity of starch produced during the day, and under specified conditions, is a matter of great interest, as it would point to certain times and conditions when the plant would probably be more vigorous, and the activity of its medicinal principles greater than at some other time. We already recognise the importance of plants intended for medicinal use being collected at certain periods of growth, but it is possible that we have still something to learn upon this subject. — From the Pharmaceutica l J on rna l. English-grown Medicinal Rhubarb. — At the recent meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference, as reported in the Pharmaceutical Journal, Mr. W. Elborne read a paper on the cultivation of medicinal Rhubarb. It would appear that English-grown “Rhubarb,” from Rheum officinale, the plant which was first brought to Europe about sixteen years ago (Pharrn. Journ. [3], iii . , 301), has now taken its place side by side in commerce with that from R. rhaponticum, from which it may be distinguished upon fracture by the comparatively black colour of the veins imbedded in a white parenchymatous tissue. 270 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. The excessive development of this tissue, observed in the earlier experimental samples of this variety by Mr. Holmes (Pharm. Journ. [3] , vii., 301), was no doubt due to “ high cultivation,” and it has been found that with a slower growth the roots become more dense, and when prepared are of a richer and darker colour. One of the reports was devoted to some historical, botanical, and microscopical notes on English-grown Rhubarb, and the methods of its preparation, and the other gave the results of a series of analyses showing to a certain extent the constituents of samples of English “ officinale ” and “ rhaponticum,” East Indian and the old-fashioned Russian Rhubarbs. It was mentioned that the production of English rhubarb now amounts to twelve thousand pounds weight yearly. Equinoctial Gales. — According to Mr. R. H. Scott, the occurrence, as a regular thing, of violent storms about the time of the equinoxes is as much a myth as the alleged influence of the moon on the weather. Statistical records show that gales are of no greater frequency at the equinoxes than at any other time, but are all but exclusively confined to the winter half year. “ Correspondance Botanique.” — Prof. E. Morreii has published the tenth edition of his Directory of Botanists, scientific and horticultural establishments throughout the world. This list, which is indispensable to all who have relations with foreign botanic gardens and museums, is published by the compiler at 1, La Boverie, Liege, Belgium. Diseases of Field and Garden Crops. — We are pleased to be able to announce the publication of a small volume on this subject from the pen of Mr. Worthington Smith, to which we shall have further occasion to refer. It is published by Macmillan. Midland Union op Natural History Societies. — Peterborough Meeting. — It may interest the members of the various Societies in the Union to know that the receipts and expenditure in connection with the recent Annual Meeting nearly balanced the accounts, showing a deficit of 14s. 5d. only, which result, considering there were other attractions in the town on the day the conversazione was held, the local committee consider very satisfactory. — Edwin Wheeler. Dimensions op a few Rare Conifers.- — A correspondent kindly sends us the following about some trees at Penny Hill, Bagshot, a locality very favourable to the growth of Coniferous plants Sciadopitys verticillata, 15ft. high, 13^ft. in diameter of head ; Thuiopsis Standishii, 19£ft. high, lift, through the head; Thuiopsis dolabmta , 17ft. high, 10ft. through the head ; Juniperus japonica alba, 13^ft. high, and lift, in diameter of head. These handsome specimens stand in the grounds of Louis Schott, Esq. — Gardener's Chronicle. Mr. Austin Dobson’s “ Thomas Bewick and his Pupils,” based upon his articles in the Century Magazine, w7ill be published in September by Messrs. Chatto and Windus and Messrs. J. R. Osgood and Co., of New York. The whole of the large- paper copies are already disposed of. The “Memorial Edition” of Bewick, the publication of which was delayed by the death of Mr. Ward, of Newcastle, will now be published by Mr. Quaritcli for Mr. Ward’s sons, the present owners of the blocks. It will consist of five volumes — the “ Birds” (two), “ Quadrupeds,” “ Fables of iEsop,” and “ Memoir.” The “ Memoir” will be edited from the original MS. by Mr. Dobson, who wTill also annotate it with the aid of Bewick’s letters and papers, which have recently been placed in his hands by the late Miss Isabella Bewick's executors. The first volume of the new edition may be expected in 1 885 . — A thenanim. REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 271 Sir Richard Owen’s “ History of British Fossil Reptiles,” which has been upwards of forty years in preparation, is now at length ready for publication by Messrs. Cassell. On the preparation of the 268 plates with which the volumes are enriched great labour and attention have been lavished. The edition consists of 170 copies only (each copy being signed by Prof. Owen), and no further number can be produced, as the plates from which the illustrations have been printed have been destroyed. The publishers are anxious to give an oppor¬ tunity to the chief libraries of the kingdom of acquiring the work. Among the original subscribers were many distinguished men who are now dead, such as the Prince Consort, the Duke of Buccleuch, the Earl of Derby (the grandfather of the present earl), Sir P. de Malpas Egerton, Sir J. J. Guest (the father of Lord Wimborne), Henry Hallam, Sir Robert Inglis, Sir William Jardine, Prof. Lindley, Sir Roderick Murchison, Bishop Wilberforce, Chief Baron Pollock, Prof. Sedgwick, Dr. Whewell, Sir F. Thesiger, and Lord Wrottesley.— Athenceum. Henry Bohn. — The death, in his 89tli year, of Mr. Henry Bohn is announced. He will be longest remembered as a publisher, to whose insight and energy students of almost all departments of literature and science owe a deep debt of gratitude. He was the means of placing within their reach scores and hundreds of volumes, to which otherwise they could have had no ready access, if access at all. Mr. Bohn was a Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society in its palmy days, and at one time took great and active interest in its proceedings, and he was to the last a valued supporter of the Gardeners’ Royal Benevolent Institution. Warm-hearted and impulsive, his feelings were generous and sympathetic. A man of taste and wide knowledge, his appreciation was keen and singularly varied. As a horticulturist his garden at Twickenham was chiefly remarkable for the large collec¬ tions of hardy deciduous shrubs and Conifers, got together to a large extent in consequence of his connection with the Royal Horticultural Society and his friendship with the late Mr. Gordon, to the second edition of whose “ Pinetum” Mr. Bohn contributed a valuable appendix of popular names, and a series of references to coloured plates. — Gardener's Chronicle. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — General Meeting, held July 29th. — Mr. J. Morley exhi¬ bited, on behalf of Mr. W. R. Hughes, a number of plants from near Reading, Berkshire, including the following: — Cuscuta Epitliymum, Genista anglica , Lytlirum Salicaria, Agrimonia Eupatoria , and Hordeurn pratense. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited Vuccinia Baryi (new to Warwickshire in the perfect stage), Ramularia Lapsance, and Sporodesmium lobatum (new to the district) ; and on behalf of Mrs. Rabone, Puccinia Buxi , Rcestelia cornuta (in the spermogone stage), from Windermere. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Cordylophora lacustris, living and mounted specimens. Mr. C. R. Robinson exhibited a Dahlia with two flower heads on one stem. Biological Section, August 12tli. — Mr. W. H. Wilkinson gave an account of the excursion to Bradnock’s Marsh, and exhibited from that district Campanula latifolia , C. patula , C. hybrida , Plantago media, Geranium phoeum, and other rare plants. Mr. T. Bolton Holopedium gibberum , an entomostracan from Grasmere. Mr. J. E. Baguall, Sison Ainonium (new to North Warwick), Siam angustifolium, 272 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. Alisina lanceolata, Spargania simplex , and other plants from near Shirley; for Mr. A. W. Wills, Didymium farinaceum, a small fungus growing on the dead roots of orchidaceous plants ; for Mr. W. Southall, Vida Cracca, in which the leaves had been transformed into the semblance of racemes of fruiting pods, this appearance being due to insect agency ; for Mr. J. Saunders, of Luton, Drosera Anglica , I). intermedia , Malaxis paludosa, Garex limosa, Rhyncospora fuse a, and Spiranthes cestivalis, all from the New Forest ; for Mr. W. Halden, Anastatica Hierochuntia, the beautiful Rose of Jericho, the remarkable hygroscopic properties of which were displayed ; for Mr. R. M. Serjeantson, Saracha umbellata , one of the Solanaceae, a native of Peru, which had sprung up spontaneously in the Rectory Garden, Acton Burnell. General Meeting, held August l(Jth. — Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited Fusidium viride, Ramularia urticce , Feronospora vicice , Ovular ia spheeroidea, Coleosporium soiichi, Uromyces rumicis, Erineum alneum , Gladosporium epiphyllum , from Hampton-in-Arden, and Diaporthe Tessella (new to Britain) , from Borough Fen, Peterborough, collected during the excursion of the Midland Union. Geological Section, August 26th. — Mr. J. Edmonds exhibited, (a) adjustable lens, Gin. to 4in., (b) adjustable lens, Bin. to 2in., both by Wray of London ; (c ) Specimens of Sandstone, with a thin stratum of mica, showing ripple marks. Mr. Watson exhibited some beautiful Photographs from the Postal Photographical Society. Mr. W. B. Grove, Arcyria nutans, Alternaria Brassicce (new to district). Mr. John Levick, Zoothamnium arbuscula. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — July 21st. — Mr. Insley exhibited a specimen of Bog Pimpernel, Anagallis tenella , with extra large flowers from the Isle of Man ; Mr. J. Darley, a small collection of moths, including Clouded Buff, Euthemonia russula , and beautiful Yellow Underwing, Anar t a myrtilli ; Mr. Moore, a pair of Beetles, Cychrus rostratus, also gizzard of the same, under the microscope ; Mr. Madison, specimens of Calc- tuff, from the Rushall Canal. Under the microscope, Mr. Foster exhibited a section of Collier’s lung, showing a deposit of coal dust in the air cells ; Mr. J. W. Neville, Trachea, taken from larva of Drinker moth. July 28th. — Mr. J. Betteridge exhibited a female specimen of Great-crested Grebe, Podiceps crista lus, in full summer plumage, shot at Westlieatli ; Mr. Hawkes, a series of objects showing several stages in the life history of a Dragon-fly, Cordulegaster annulatus , Drinker Moth, and Great Water-beetle, Dytiscus marginalis ; Mr. Delicate, a number of moths, from King’s Heath. Under the microscope, Mr. J. W. Neville showed the alimentary canal, etc. of Dytiscus marginalis, showing its carnivorous habits. Mr. P. T. Deakin then read a paper, “ Notes on the Nuthatch, Sitta Europcea," which gave a description of the genus, species, etc., pointing out that though this bird was rare in the north and unknown in Scotland, it was not uncommon with us, and could frequently be seen in Sutton Park and other neighbouring woodlands. Its nesting habits, food, and manner of feeding were described, and the paper concluded with a description of its treat¬ ment in captivity. The paper was illustrated with stuffed specimens, eggs, etc. August lltli. — Mr. Madison exhibited specimens of llelix aspersa var. conoidea, and var. nigrescens, from Weston-super-Mare; Mr. Delicate, a typical collection of shells from Great Grimsby ; Mr. F. Shrive, living specimen of Blind-worm, also two Ringed- snakes, one from near Redditch, and the other from Cambridgeshire. Under the microscope, Mr. Hawkes showed a fish parasite, Argulus foliaceus ; Mr. J. W. Neville, teeth of House-fly, Musca domestica. Plate \ Rl CAS 0 LI A Am plissima W. H.w L>e/ — — W B G.Liih. — PRINTED AT THE HERAlD PRESS BIRMINGHAM . 9 THE STUDY OF A LICHEN FROM ORAN. 273 THE STUDY OF A LICHEN FROM OBAN. ( me A SOLI A A MPLJSSIMA *) BY W. H. WILKINSON, HONORARY SECRETARY OE THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. The rapid increase in commercial pressure and in mental activity during the last twenty years renders it most desirable to break away from the busy hum of town life and to seek rest and quiet and new mental and physical vigour by a visit to the country. Nor will such time be lost if wisely spent, for health will continue longer under the increasing strain if ever and anon eased of its pressure for a brief season. In selecting a place to visit the sea side is to be chosen as offering at once the combined charms of land and water, the shore and the fields ; and of all the lovely spots on earth perhaps few accessible to us surpass Oban, the scene of some of the most successful excursions of the Birmingham Natural History Society. Here Nature seems to reign undisturbed, and whatever be the taste of the visitor he may find abundant material for its gratification. The sea with its charming islands and the mysterious treasures of its mighty depths, the rising cliff and cloud-capped mountain, the forest and the valley, the gurgling stream and glassy lake — all offer their treasures of knowledge to the skilful student. In such a spot every object seems illumined by a glory all its own, beauty and peace seem enthroned, and the heart is irresistibly drawn to worship the unseen Creator and Sustamer of all. Nor do the larger forms of life absorb our whole attention, for we find “ The Infinite equally in the minute as in the vast,” and by the aid of the instruments which modern science has placed at our command we can for ourselves unfold some of the wonders of creation. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V. Eig. 1. — Ricasolia amplissivia, natural size. Fig. 2. — Green gonidia. Fig. 3. — Spores. Fig. 4. — Paraphyses. Fig. 5. — Asci, young and mature. Fig. 6. — Medullary layer. Fig. 7. — Section of glomerulus. Fig. 8. — Mature apotliecium. Fig. 9. — Section of thallus. All the drawings are magnified, except Fig. 1 . * Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬ scopical Society. Read April 8th, 1884. 274 THE STUDY OF A LICHEN FROM OBAN. As a sample we may take the Lichen which forms the subject of this paper, as it is one of a family of plants often overlooked, sometimes even despised ; yet how amply will these plants repay a little careful study — * “ That not alone in trees and flowers The spirit bright of beauty dwells ; That not alone in lofty bowers The mighty hand of God is seen ; But more triumphant still in things men count as mean.” Nor do the poets alone value the lowly lichen, but the artist, too, has learned to value those humble plants, which impart their rich velvety tints and give such soft beauty to the rocks and trees in his landscapes. But to the scientific botanist the Lichens form a link without which the chain of Nature would not be complete. Their constitution still forms a battle-ground for our most advanced cryptogamists, while much interest is aroused by the age to which the Lichens are supposed to attain, and their capabilities of enduring great ex¬ tremes of climate, some species flourishing in the tropics and others in the temperate zone, while some attain their utmost luxuriance even amidst the snows of the frigid zone itself. It is certain that provision is made in some kinds of Lichens to endure great changes of the surrounding elements, to resist alike the withering effect of continued drought and the more fatal influence of excessive moisture — qualities which must tend to a long continuance of existence. Certainly more information could be collected on these points, and a more careful study of the Lichens in these different conditions would soon shed a clearer light upon their life history. The particular species of Lichen to which we wish now to confine our attention is called liicasolia amplissima, and is usually found growing upon trees in shady situations, and from one of the charming woods near Oban our specimen was gathered (Fig. 1). The tliallus, or leaf-like expansion, consists of several very distinct parts, as you will see by reference to the drawing (Fig. 9) ; c represents the cortical layer, which is composed of layers of dense cells somewhat flattened by pressure, and although so much thickened in their cell Avails still retaining sufficient transparency (especially when moist) to a.lloAV the bright green hue of the gonidia to be seen through them. We next come to the gonidia! stratum marked g in the drawing, which consists of a vast number of spherical cells, each containing green granular matter. These cells seem to THE STUDY OF A LICHEN FROM OBAN. 275 be free and to have but little connection with the other parts of the plant. Yet they perform a very important part in perpetuating the species by bursting through the cortical layer in various ways, and under favourable conditions developing into a new plant like the parent. So different does this gonidial layer seem from the other parts of the plant that Scliwendener and some other botanists have ventured to suggest that the gonidia may be a mass of separate plants making the Lichen their home, thus forming a “dual life,” but however fascinating this theory may be it requires a clearer elucidation of the facts of the life history of the lichen to support it. The medullary layer is marked in in Fig. 9, and is seen magnified in Fig. 6 ; it consists of a mass of threads which on examination will be found to be tubes divided by septa ; most probably elongated cells joined end to end. By these moisture is rapidly absorbed and doubtless retained for the future use of the plant, yet they do not seem to exhibit any ordinary kind of circulation. Below this is the subcortical layer sc, similar to the upper layer but not so dense, and from it bundles of filaments proceed called rhizinse r, which serve to attach the plant firmly to the bark of the tree, but here their work ends, as they do not perform the part of true roots in supplying nutriment. The apothecium is one of those cup-shaped discs which lie scattered over the central portion of the thallus in Fig. 1, and a section of which is given at d in Fig. 9. The outer portion of the apothecium is formed of the thallus, and is really a continuation of its various layers, including the green gonidial layer. The central portion, the liymenium or disc, is formed of parapliyses and asci ; the parapliyses (Fig. 4) are slender filaments enlarged and coloured at their ends, the mass of which packed closely together gives the red colour to the liymenium. The asci are transparent sacs which, when mature, are club shaped, and contain the spores — usually eight, placed in a spiral manner in the ascus — but when young are slender and filled with protoplasm (Fig. 5). The spores (Fig. 3) are long, and taper at the ends, with a division in the middle separating them each into two cells. When the spores are fully ripe they are expelled from the summit of the ascus by the pressure caused by the swelling of the parapliyses and asci by the absorption of moisture, and probably by a simultaneous contraction of the lower portion 276 THE STUDY OF A LICHEN FROM OBAN. of the apotliecium, causing the ascus to be ruptured and the spores to be forced up to the surface of the disc. A remark¬ able feature of the apotliecium is that it produces a succession of asci, so that young ones are growing up to take the places of the old ones. The spermogones, a section of one of which is seen at s (Fig. 9), are flask-shaped receptacles formed in the medullary layer, but forcing for themselves a passage through the upper layers to the surface of the thallus and there opening by a minute pore. These receptacles contain a vast number of sterigmata, which give rise to the spermatia; the latter are easily detached by a slight pressure and rise through the pore to the surface. These spermatia are supposed by some to be used in the fertilisation of the plant, somewhat similar to the pollen grains in flowering plants, but this has never been proved to be the case. There is one other point to which we wish to draw attention ; it is the soredia, consisting of a granular powder which appears on the surface of the thallus, and is presumed to be the outgrowth of the gonidial layer. In some Lichens it forms oval patches scattered over the surface — as in Bamalina ; in others it is developed on the edges, forming a border, as in Sticta scrobiculata ; while in others it covers the whole surface — as in Pertusaria ; and again, in other kinds it forms a coral -like (isidiose) appearance — as in Parmelia Saxatilis, var. furfur acea. In the specimen before us it does not assume any of these forms, but causes an abnormal growth of the thallus, which under the microscope looks like the rugged trunk and branches of an oak-tree, covered with an olive-green powder. And these clusters of branches ( glomeruli ) gave the old name to the plant Parmelia glomerulifera . They will be seen in Fig. 1, and in section in Fig. 9. The use of the soredia is generally supposed to be to perpetuate the plant when its surrounding conditions are unfavourable for the formation of spores. As for instance, Parmelia jjhysodes, which grows so abundantly on the Lickey Hills, and yet has never been found in fruit there : the plant may yet be found abundantly in every size, from some inches in diameter down to the germ just beginning life on its own account. Now this plant must depend upon the soredia only for its abundant and successful growth there in the general struggle for existence. From our study of this “Lichen from Oban” we may fairly conclude that loveliness and beauty are to be found in these lower forms of plant life as much as in those more LUNULAKIA VULGARIS, MICH. 277 highly developed ; and we cannot fail to admire the wisdom displayed in the wonderful provision for the growth and reproduction of this plant : — In the thallus by its power to endure the extremes of climatic changes of heat and cold, of drought and moisture, without injury. In the power of the apotliecium to produce a succession of new asci and spores instead of perishing after the first batch of spores was mature, as a flower would fade and die ere its seeds were fully formed and ripened. And, lastly, in the provision which the soredia make for the perpetuation of the plant when circumstances are unfavourable for the formation of spores. So here, in the lowly Lichen, as wherever else we approach it, Nature seems to say — “ The hand that made us is divine.” If any of our friends would wish to study more of the British Lichens, I would refer them to the works of the Bev. W. A. Leighton, B.A., W. L. Lindsay, M.D., or to the excellent papers by Mr. W. Phillips, F.L.S., in the “ Midland Naturalist” for 1880. LUNULAKIA VULGAKIS, MICH.* BY KEVD. H. P. READER, M.A. The Hepatica on which I intend to make a few remarks seems to be an addition to our county list ; at the same time I can hardly feel that in this case I am recording a novelty so much as calling attention to a plant which is familiar to many of us, hut has not so far been discriminated. Lunularia vulgaris, Mich, belongs to the Scliizocarpous section of the order Marchantiacese. It is in fact the Mar- chantia cruciata of Linnaeus, and is so called by most of the older botanists, with the exception of Gray, who prefers to term it Staurophora pulcheUa. Lunularia, however, differs structurally from Marchantia and its nearest allies in no slight degree. The differences are principally in the fructification, which is rarely found, and thus an imperfect knowledge of the plant may perhaps have caused it to be referred to a genus to which it certainly does not belong. What these differences are I shall explain in the course of this paper. * Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬ sophical Society. Read March 19tli, 1884. 278 LUNULARIA VULGARIS, MICH. I take Lunulciria vuh/aris to be a widely distributed and common Hepatica in Great Britain. At the same time it appears to be exclusively confined to cultivated ground, and is, probably, in its origin an introduction. The same, however, may be said of many well-known cornfield weeds, which have long ago taken their place in the British Flora. Its favourite habitats are damp shady paths in gardens, neglected flower beds, crevices in old walls, — and it is often exceedingly abundant in greenhouses. I have seen it asserted that Asterella (Marcliantia) hemispJncrica is a pest to gardeners in this respect ; but the plant intended is doubtless the one we are considering. In such situations, then, I have found Lunularia to be more or less plentiful throughout England ; and Leicester¬ shire seems to produce it as abundantly as any other county known to me. Amongst county localities for it I may mention Birstall, Husband’s Boswortli, and the grounds of the Cister¬ cian Abbey, near Coalville. In the London Catalogue of British Mosses and Hepatics (ed. 1881) it is recorded from eleven out of the twenty- one provinces into which Watson has divided Great Britain, and also from Ireland. In calling Lunularia a common plant, I must be under¬ stood to refer only to an imperfect state of it. Both the male receptacles and the fructification seem to be extremely rare. Indeed, the “ Synopsis Hepaticarum ” says that it rarely perfects its fruit even in Southern Europe, whilst in the central and northern parts, where it is “per liortos cultura jam divulgata,” the plant is always barren. This, however, is not precisely the case, since I possess well developed fruit from Mineliead in Somerset, and I have seen other examples from West Cornwall. A friend of mine also informs me that he has seen it in fruit at Kew. In its barren state, as we usually see it, Lunularia consists of a pale green, somewhat shining frond, furcately divided towards the extremity, and dotted on the upper surface with pores. It adheres closely to the ground by means of abundant rootlets springing from a central rib on the under surface. Scattered here and there on the fronds are seen shallow depressions or cavities half surrounded by a crescent- shaped ridge, from which the generic name Lunularia, is derived. The depressions are filled with minute yellow- green roundish gennnules, which have the power of developing into fronds, and thus render the plant to some extent independent of sexual reproduction. These crescent-shaped “ apparatus gemmipari,” as the “ Synopsis” calls them, afford a ready means of identifying LUNULARIA VULGARIS, MICH. 270 Lunularia, even in the barren state. Analogous structures are to be found in Marchantia polymorpha, but in that plant they take the form of a small drinking-glass, or tumbler, with a toothed edge, whilst in Conoceplialus and Asterella they are orbicular. The male receptacles, containing antheridia, are sessile on the upper surface of the frond, as in Conoceplialus (Fega- tella or Marchantia) conicus. The latter plant, however, both in the barren state and with the male flowers, may always be distinguished by a peculiar aromatic fragrance which the bruised fronds yield. It is also by no means a weed of cultivation, and is much larger and coarser than Lunularia. The fructification of our plant consists of four whitish semi-transparent involucres arranged crosswise at the summit of a common peduncle, which is also white and pellucid. It is to this arrangement of the involucres that we owe the obsolete names of Cruciata and Stauropliora formerly applied to this plant. Each of the four (which used to be considered as forming conjointly a receptacle, as in Marchantia) is bila¬ biate at the apex, and contains a capsule which ultimately projects beyond the apex on a hyaline pedicel, and splits into four linear valves — precisely as in Jungermannia. It will thus be seen that Lunularia forms an interesting link between the Marchantice and the Jungermanniee— approaching the former by the structure of the frond, the disposition of the antheridia and the presence of special “ apparatus gemmipari,” and coming near to the latter in the delicate pellucid fruitstalk, the absence of a true female receptacle, and in the capsules, which do not burst irregularly, as in Marchantia and its allied genera, but normally into four valves, as in Jungermannia and the forms akin to it. And it will be obvious also that there is ample reason for separating it from Marchantia, under which it was formerly included, and constituting for it a separate genus. It is, in fact, considered by some botanists as forming the type of a distinct subsection of the Marchantiacece, called Lunularieee, of which subsection the foreign Plagiochasma is the only other genus known to me. In conclusion I might suggest that records of Asterella hemisphcerica may occasionally refer in reality to the sterile state of Lunularia, the mistake arising from an idea that the specific name hemisphcerica refers to the shape of the gemmi¬ ferous cavities, whereas in reality it is intended to denote the shape of the capsule of Asterella. 280 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . ON THE PILOBOLIDiE, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. (Continued from page 260.) PART IV.— HISTORICAL. The species of Pilobolus have been very much confused together, and many of the previous records are quite useless from the impossibility of deciding to which species they refer. The earliest record which I have been able to find of a species belonging to this genus is met with in the works of our own famous botanist, John Rav. In his Historia Plantarum1 (1688) occurs the following passage, which, on account of its importance, I will quote in full : — “ E Catalogo hue tranfmiffo Anno 1680, quem compofuit eruditiffimus vir et conlummatiffimus Botanicus D. Johannes Banifier Plantarum a feipfo in Virginia obfervatarum. ‘‘Fungus (a ftercore equino) capillaceus capitulo rorido, nigro punctulo in fummitate notato. Ex recenti fimo noctu exoritur cauliculis erectis, vix digitum longis, capillorum inftar tenuibus nec minus denfis feu confertis. Singuli Cauliculi parvulo globulo aqueo coronantur, qui in fumma fui macula parva nigra Limacis oculi fimili infignitur.” It is then recorded and figured by Plukenet2 as “Fungus Virginianus ex ftercoie equino capillaceus, canus, capitulo rorido, nigro punctulo in fummitate notato, D. Banifier .” From this figure and Ray’s description, it is evident that the species they had in view was similar to, if not identical with, that which was afterwards called Mucor roridus. The first record of this fungus as British is found in Ray’s Synopsis3 (1696), in a list of plants observed and communi¬ cated by Mr. James Petiver, who remarks “ 7 bis I have obferved on Horfe-dung about London,” and refers to Plukenet’s figure. 1 Hist. Plant., vol. ii., p. 1928. 2 Almagestum, p. 1G4 ; Phytograpliia, pi. 116, fig. 7. 3 Syn. Metli., ed. ii., Appendix, p. 322. ON THE PILOBOLID.E. 281 This record, therefore, may be considered to have reference to P. roridus. It is repeated by Ray in his Historia Plant- arum1 (1704), and again in his Synopsis2 (1724), and by Petiver in his Gazophylacenm 3 (1711), where he gives a figure identical with that of Plukenet. Another mention of a fungus belonging to this genus (the earliest known to Coemans, in his review4 of the abundant literature of the subject up to his time) is due to Henry Baker (1744), who, in his Natural History of the Polype Insect,5 describes a number of small vase-like plants, filled with a clear liquid, and crowned with a black ball ; these, which he found on mud brought from the Thames, were undoubtedly a species of Pilobolus. In 1764 Otto Muller discovered, and afterwards described and figured 6 a Pilobolus, under the name of “ Kristall- Schwammchen ; ” he imagined that it was in part an animal and in part a plant, and even in part a crystal, thus partaking of all three kingdoms of Nature. The singularity of this view accounts for the widespread attention which was given to his discovery. . Scopoli, in 1772, 7 first gave a name to the plant, which showed that he recognised at that early time its true affinities. He called it Mucor obliquus, from the oblique manner in which the stem frequently springs from the side of the basal reservoir, but Ins description is insufficient to enable us to recognise the species. Withering, in his Botanical Arrangement8 (1776), quotes Petiver’s plant from Ray’s Synopsis, and bestows upon it the name of Mucor roridulus. In Weber’s Primitiae Florae Holsaticae (1780), p. 110, Scopoli’s species is placed in a new genus under the name of Hydrogera crystallina . But the first good description of the genus was given by Tode, in 1784, 9 who imposed upon the species the name of Pilobolus crystallinus , by which it is now known. The generic name is a translation of the title “ Hutwerfer,” under which 1 Hist. Plant, vol. iii., p. 24. 2 Syn. Meth., ed. iii., p. 13. 3 Gazophyl., pi. 105, fig. 14. For the quotations from Petiver and Plukenet I am indebted to Mr. Jas. Britten. 4 Monograpliie du Genre Pilobolus, pp. 7 ff. (18G1.) 5 Chap, xi., pi. 22, figs. 9, 10. 6 Kleine Schriften aus der Naturliist., p. 122, pi. 7. 7 Flora Carniolica, ii. , 494. 8 Bot. Arr., ii., p. 784. 9 Sclirift. der Naturf. Berlin. Gesell., v., 46, pi. i. 282 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . lie first described it (l.c.) He included it again in liis Fungi Mecklenburgenses selecti1 (1790), where lie mentions a variety “ capsula solum liydrophora,” which appears to be merely a stem from which the sporange had been projected, and was replaced by a pellucid drop. Species of Pilobolus are then successively mentioned by Dickson (1785), who figured one2 under the name of Mucor urceolatus ; by Bolton3 (1789), who, besides figuring under that name a form resembling a badly grown P. Kleinii, adds another4 identical with Petiver’s as Mucor roridus ; by Bulliard5 (1790) and by Valil6 (1792). Persoon (1796) gives an excellent description of P. crystal- linns in his Gbservationes Mycologicae,7 accompanied by an imperfect figure ; and in his Synopsis Metliodica Fungorum8 he mentions both the latter and P. roridus , which he con¬ sidered to be a doubtful species. He appears to have fallen into the error of imagining the sporange to be projected without the columella. Link (1809) was the first who attributed9 the projection to the true cause, namely, the tension of the swelling below the sporangium, an explanation which is endorsed by De Bary in his just published work10 (1884). Ehrenberg, in 1823, published in Kunze und Schmidt’s Mykologische Hefte 11 an account of some observations he had made upon P. crystallinus, in which, while searching for Otto Muller’s “ worm,” he noticed a curious movement of yellowish particles arranged in a snake-like form in a drop of water which occupied the summit of the sporange. He inclined to the opinion that this was what Muller had seen, but we know that in this he was mistaken. It is probable that it was only a small stream of the contents of an immature sporange protruding through an injured part into a “ dew-drop,” and the “ slow, steady, circling motion” which so excites his wonder, is nothing more than evapora¬ tion of the drop might easily produce. 1 Part i., p. 41. 2 Fasc. Plant. Crypt. Brit., i., 25, pi. 3, fig. G. 3 Hist. Fnng. pi. 133, fig. 1. ^ L.c., pi. 132, fig. 4. 5 Champ, i., Ill, pi. 480, fig, 1. 6 Flor. Dan., vi., fig. 1080. 7 Part i., 76, pi. 4, figs. 9 — 11. 8 Part i., pp. 117 — 8. 9 Obs. Plant., part 4. 10 Vergleich. Morpli. u. Biol. Pilze, p. 77. 11 Myk. Heft., ii., pp. 70-G. ON THE PILOBOLIDJE. 283 All the authors mentioned so far correctly placed the genus in the immediate vicinity of Mucor. Fyies, how¬ ever, in 1823, considering that it was nearly allied to Spliasrobolus and Thelebolus, placed it1 with them as a sub¬ division of the Gastromycetes, under the name of Carpoboli. In this error he was followed by Berkeley, in the English Flora2 (1836) ; but four years previously, in 1832, Fries had already discovered his mistake, and restored it again to the Mucorini.3 Up to this time only the two species already mentioned, P. cnjstallinus and P. roridus, were generally known, although in 1828 Montague had described4 a third, to which he gave the name of P. cedipus, on account of the basal reservoir which is so conspicuous, a feature of that species. He repeated it again in 1856, in his Sylloge, p. 299. In 1837 Corda instituted5 the group Pilobolidese, in which he included Pilobolus and Chordostylum ; in 1842 he added to the group Pycnopodium and Caulogaster,6 including in the former genus, as Pyc. lentiyevum , a species which he had formerly included in Pilobolus, and which would seem to be merely an abnormal state of Pilobolus Kleinii. It will be seen that the Pilobolidete of Corda is not identical with the Pilobolidae of Van Tiegliem. After Corda’s lamented death, Zobel published (1854) from his friend’s notes the sixth volume of the leones, in which, p. 12, is a long account of P. cnjstallinus , containing numerous errors ; he seems in particular to have been entirely unacquainted with the true cause of the projection of the sporangium. In his drawings also 7 he represents the interior of the swelling as lined with reticulations of the orange- coloured granules, which no other author has seen, and which are probably only the meridional streams to which I have already alluded, disturbed by the pressure to which the preparation was subjected. When Cohn published, in 1851, his celebrated monograph “Die Entwickelungsgeschichte des Pilobolus crystallinus,” he had before him not that species, with which he was really unacquainted, but the species of Montague. He figures the characteristic yellow, spherical, thick-walled spores of 1 Syst. Myc., ii., 308. 2 Vol. v., p. 231. 3 Syst. Myc., iii., p. 312. 4 M6m. Soc. Linn. Lyon, pp. 1 — 7 cum ic. 5 Icon. Fung, i., p. 22. 6 Lx. , v., p. 18. 7 L.c., pi. ii., tig. 32. 284 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . V. cedipus , and then remarks, witli surprise, that Corda had represented the spores of his P. crystallinus as elliptic and colourless “ in contradiction to nature.” Cesati discovered, in 1850, a species, which he published in the next year under the name of P. anomalus.1 Bonorden, in 1851, describes2 a species, under the name of P. crystallinus , which on account of its round spores Coemans refers to P. cedipus , but which I think there is greater reason for considering a peculiar form of P. Kleinii. In 1856 Currey wrote a note “On a Species of Pilobolus,”3 which he considered to be P. roridus , but his plate and description clearly show that the species he had in view was P. Kleinii. He was probably led into this error by Cohn’s monograph, which puts forward P.. cedipus as the true crystal- linus , but, whatever its cause, it has occasioned serious inaccuracies in the British records. Leveille, in 1826, had fallen into the same error, giving, according to Van Tiegliem, the name of P. roridus to a mere form of P. Kleinii. Currey also erroneously attributed the projection of the sporangium to the eversion and upward pressure of the columella. In the “ Outlines of British Fungology ” (1860) Pilobolus is omitted altogether. In 1861 Coemans published his “ Monograpliie du Genre Pilobolus,” in which he summarises all that had previously been done on this subject, and gives a list of all the species referred by other authors to this genus. He considers P. crystallinus and P. cedipus to be the only certain species ; P. roridus he regards as doubtful, P. lentiyerus he refers, wrongly, to P. cedipus, and P. anomalus he places in the genus Ascophora, by the name of A. Cesatii. (To be continued.) 1 Klotzsch, Herb. Myc., No. 1542, cum descr. 2 Hand. Myk., p. 128, fig. 203. 3 Journal Linn. Soc., i., p. 162, pi. 2. Du. J. J. Woodward, whose excellent plioto-micrographs, produced during his connection with the Army Medical Museum, Washington, are well known, is dead. Dr. Woodward many years since undertook an examination of the microscopic test plates ruled by the late F. A. Nobert, of Prussia, in which he was eminently successful. He subsequently made a large series of photo-micrographs of test objects, such as blood corpuscles, on a micrometer plate, so that the diameters could be estimated by inspection, his latest work being the production of photo-micrographs of the diatom Amphipleura pellucida. — Atlienccum. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 285 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER. Part II. — “ The Inductions of Biology." EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER III . - F UNCTION. BY, C. H. ALLISON. Function may be defined as “ tlie totality of* all vital actions.” It originates structure, for tlie vital activity of* every germ obviously precedes the development of* its structures ; the lowest Rhizopods exhibit, says Professor Huxley, “ Life without Organization,” i.e., Function without Structure. Function is divided into various kinds, commencing with the simplest. It is Statical and Dynamical according to the distributions of force which an organism opposes to the forces brought to bear upon it. Again, Function is divisible into the Accumulation of Force — latent in food ; the Expenditure of Force — latent in the tissues and certain matters absorbed by them; and the Transfer of Force — latent in the blood. But these admit of subdivision : Accumulation of Force, including Alimentation and Aeration, of which the former consists of the Prehension of* Food and its Transformation into blood; Transfer of Force, including the Circulation (vascular and lymphatic) ; and the Expenditure of Force, including Nervous and Muscular Actions. There are also the subsidiary Functions, Excretion and Exhalation ; to which add, that the general physiologist considers Functions, as correlatives of tissues, and that Concrete Physiology considers special Functions as ends of special organs. The first induction is that complexity of Function is the correlative of* complexity of Structure ; organisms having distribution of parts have a concomitant distribution of actions. The second generalization is that Functions, like Structures, arise by progressive differentiations ; the first differentiation is between Endodenn and Ectoderm, and progresses with higher forms of life. Similar progressive differentiations take place in the developing Embryo. This progress is from general, indefinite, and simple, to special, definite, and complex, termed by Milne-Edwards the Physiological division of labour. The progress towards specialization of Functions is accompanied by their becoming more mutually dependent, 286 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. and less specialized parts are more capable of performing vicarious Functions than the more specialized, and such animal tissues as are vicarious have conspicuously cellular composition. Something like a 'priori reasons may be reached for these a posteriori conclusions : — From evolution we know that life comes before organisation. Organic matter in a state of homogeneous aggregation precedes matter in a state of heterogeneous aggregation, and as passing from a structureless to a structured state is a vital process, it follows that vitality existed while yet there was no Structure. From the definition of life we know that inner actions become so adjusted as to balance outer actions, and as every advance in life is the better adjustment of inner to outer actions, and as increasing complexity of structure is only a means to that end, it follows that Function determines Structure ; this is also true where modified Structure otherwise produced apparently initiates modified Function, for it is only where such so-called spontaneous modification of Structure subserves some advantageous action that it is permanently established. Heterogeneity of Structure and of Function are obviously connected. The progress of Structure and Function is parallel, for if Structure advances from the simple and general to the complex and special, so too must Function. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER IV. - WASTE AND REPAIR. Waste and Repair are insignificant in the Vegetal Kingdom, either by consumption or reconstruction of tissue or by restoration of lost parts ; they are slight in lower animals, in reptiles, and even in fish, though active, but are great in active, hot-blooded animals, and such animals waste most when most in action, hybernating animals waste little, and in invalids waste diminishes as expenditure of force declines. The waste and repair of special parts is also in proportion to their activity, as is proved by common experience. “ Repair is everywhere and always making up for waste,” though the two processes vary in their relative rates, and reintegration is proportionate to disintegration, the organs continually taking up fresh materials from the blood enriched by food. The rapidity with which wasted organs recover, varies with the age and reparative power of the individual, and function carried to excess may never be made up. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 287 The restoration of lost or injured parts is another kind of repair ; it is greatest in the lowest organizations and least in the highest, from the Hydrozoa, in which the smaller part will produce the greater, to birds and mammals, in which wounds only can be healed. There is complete harmony between the first of the above inductions and deduction from “ First Principles,” viz., “that whatever amount of power an organism expends in any shape is the correlate and equivalent of a power that was taken into it from without.” The power required to raise the elements of the complex atoms (of food) to a state of unstable equilibrium is given out in their falls to a state of stable equilibrium, and “ the loss of these complex unstable substances is proportionate to the quantity of expended force.” A like relation may be deductively inferred between the activity and waste of special parts. The deductive interpretation of Repair, though less easy, appears to be in harmony with First Principles ; it would be simple if the blood contained (which it does only in part) units like those of each organ. The true explanation seems to be, that compound units possess the power of moulding adjacent fit materials into units of their own form. This power is called Katalytic Action. The repair of wasted tissue may be considered due to forces analogous to those by which a crystal reproduces its lost apex in a solution like that from which it was formed, which forces are called “Polarity”; and the repair of lost parts is caused by similar actions, the aggregate forces of an organism controlling the formative process going on in each part. The form of each organism seems due to some peculiarity in the constitution of its units, and living particles have an innate tendency to arrange themselves into the shape of the organism to which they belong. What, then, are these Organic Units? Not chemical Units ; for if so, as millions of plants and animals are mainly built up of such complex atoms, there would be nothing to account for unlike forms. Neither are they Morphological Units, which are cells, for some creatures (as the Rliizopod) do not consist of cells ; the formation of cells themselves is to some extent only a manifestation of this same peculiar power. We must, therefore, conceive this Organic Polarity as possessed by certain intermediate units, which may be called Physiological Units, and must suppose that Chemical units combine into these infinitely more complex Units which in each Organism have distinctive characters. 288 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. {Continued from page 267.) ORCHID ACE v£ ( continued ). SPIRANTHES. S. autumnalis, Rich. ( Ophrys spiralis) Purt. Autumnal Ladies' Tresses. Native : In old pastures. Rare. August to October. II. In a field, in the road from Bidford to Broom, and at Snitterfield near to the Lodge Farm, Purt., ii, 425. In a field crossed by the footroad from Warwick to Hampton-on-the-Hill, Perry FI. Corner of Badger’s Wood, near Stratford, W. C., Herb. Perry. LISTERA. L. ovata, Brown. Common Tway -blade. Native : In damp woods and on damp heathy roadsides. Locally common. May to July. I. Sutton Park ; Hartshill Hayes ; Oldbury ; Baddesley Ensor ; Bentley Park ; Kingsbury Wood ; New Park, Middleton ; lanes about Elmdon and Olton Pool ; Hampton-in- Arden ; lanes about Solihull and Shirley; pastures near Knowle Rail¬ way Station. II. Near Leamington; plantation near Saltisford Common, Perry FI.; common near Rugby, R. S. R., 1877 ; Salford Priors ! Rev. J C. ; Honington, Newb. ; Alveston Pastures ; Overslev Wood; Ragley Woods; woods near Moreton Bagot; Drayton Bushes ; Baddes¬ ley Clinton, &c. NEOTTIA. N. Nidus-Avis, Rich. Bird's-nest Orchis. Native: In woods and copses. Rare. May, June. I. Middleton Wood, Bree, Purt. ii, 426. Kingsbury Wood! Bushy Wood, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., in, 165. Coppice near Elmdon Hall. II. Alveston Pastures, W. C., Herb. Perry. Ragley and Oversley Woods, Purt., ii., 426. Prince Thorpe Wood, L. Cummin. Ufton Wood, H.B. Fletcher’s Copse, Gaydon ; Longbrook Copse, Bishop’s Itchington ; Bolton Ring. Combe Abbey Wood. EPIPACTIS. E. latifolia, Sw. Broad-leaved Helleborine. Native in woods, copses, and bushy waysides. Very local. July, August. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 289 I. Coleskill, Bree, Blag. Nat. Hist., iii, 165. Barber’s Coppice, Hampton-in-Arden, Rogers ; Kingsbury Wood ; heatliy waysides near Packwood. II. ( Serapias latifoUa) Ragley Woods, Purt. ii, 424 ; Allesley ; Leek Wootton, Bree, Part, iii, 380 ; Waverley Wood, Kenilworth ; Edge Hill Wood;* Warnbury Wood,* T. K., Herb. Perry. Whitley Wood,* T. K., Herb. Bab. Hill Wootton ; Rounsel Lane, Kenilworth, H. B. Fletcher’s Copse, Gaydon, Bolton King. The Ridings, near Combe Abbey ; Cubbington Wood, near Stoneleigli ; Warnbury Wood, Stoneleigh ; Snitterfield Bushes ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen ; Oversley Wood. Tile Hill Woods, near Berkswell. The plants from the localities marked thus (*) are labelled E. media by the collectors, a species which does not occur in this county so far as my own observations serve. This species, E. latifolia, varies much in the shape of the leaves, in the flowers being in dense or lax racemes, and in the basal ridges being rugose or smooth, the latter character being remarkably inconstant, as I find that of two plants from the same rootstock one will have these processes smooth and the other distinctly rugose plicate. Plants from some of the above districts have been submitted to Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., and he pronounces them to be E. latifolia, thus confirming my own opinion. E. palustris, Crantz ( Serapias longifolia, Purt.). Marsh Helleborine. Native : in bogs and marshy places. Very rare. July. I. Bogs, Coleshill, &c. Bree, Blag. Nat. Hist., iii, 165. II. Oversley Wood. Purt. ii, 429. I have searched both these localities many times, but have never been successful enough to find this plant in either. CEPHALANTHERA. C. ensifolia, Rich. Stvord-leaved Helleborine. Native : In woods. Very rare. May, June. II. ( Serapias ensifolia.) Oversley Wood ! Ragley Woods, Purt., ii, 428. In a thicket, Wixford Lane, Purt., iii, 380. This was very abundant in Oversley Wood in 1880 — 83. IRIDACE^E. IRIS. I. foetidissima, Linn. Foetid Iris. Roast Beef Plant. Native : In woods, copses, and marly banks. Rare. June, July. II. Alne Hills, Rufford, Purt., i, 61. Grove Park, Pratt, Herb. Perry. Chesterton Wood ! Compton Verney ; Beausale. J1.B. Oversley Wood (abundant) ; Drayton Rough Moors ; on marly banks, bridle road from Billesley to Wilmcote. I. Pseudacorus, Linn. Yelloiv Water Iris. Native : In Marshes, by rivers, streams, and pools. Locally common. May, June. Area general. I have only noticed the var. /3, acoriformis in the county. 290 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. CROCUS. C. nudiflorus, Sm. Nalied-flowering Crocus. Native: In old pastures. Very rare. October. II. Pigwell fields and Lammas fields, near Warwick, Perry FL, 4. [ C . vermis, All. Is recorded from near Sheldon andMarston Green, by the liev. J. Gorle, probably a mere waif or outcast from gardens.] AMARYLLIDACE^E . NARCISSUS. N. Pseudo-narcissus, Linn . Daffodil. Lent Lily. Native or denizen : In woods and pastures. Locally abundant. April, May. I. Near Sutton Coldfield towards Middleton! Ray Cat. (ed. 2), 219. Covers almost a whole field on the road from Birmingham to Sutton. With. (ed. 7), 420. Sutton Park, A. W. Wills. Doe Bank near Sutton ; Wylde Green ; abundant in Trickley Coppice, Middleton ; pastures near Penns ; pastures near Elmdon ; pastures, Shirley Heath, &c. IT. Studley and Sambourne in great plenty, Purt., i., 168; Kenilworth; Honiley, Y. and B.; Hay woods, etc. [The var. major is sometimes found in some abundance as near Elmdon and in Wedgenock Park, Warwick, but is merely an introduced plant.] N. biflorus, Curt. Two- flowered Narcissus. Alien : In pastures. Very rare. April, May. II. In the Lammas fields, Warwick, Perry FI., 29 ; Old Park, Warwick, Herb. Perry ; Haseley, Y. and B. N. poeticus, Linn. Alien : In old pastures. Very rare. April, May. I. A field in the parish of Fillongley is full of it. Some of the flowers are single, others double, probably not truly native ; W. T. Bree , M.SS., N.B.G.S. In a field near^Blaber’s Hall, Wats., Cyb. Brit. Comp., 580. [. Narcissus incomparabilis occurs semi-wild at Guy’s Cliff, but has probably been at one time cultivated in the gardens there.] [ Leucojum cestivum, Linn. Summer Snowflake. Is recorded as probably wild by the side of the Avon near Stratford. No one appears to have found this since Purton’s time. Once found above Rugby Mill, Rev. A. Blox, N.B.G.] [L. vernum. Warwickshire. Top Sot., page 385. I can find no other record for this plant in the county.] GALANTHUS. G. nivalis, Linn. Common Snowdrop. Denizen ; In copses and on banks. Rare. February to April. I. Packington, Aylesford, B.G., 634. Wood near Middleton Hall ; coppice near Oldbury Hall ; coppice, canal bank, near Olton Pool. II. On the side of the ridgeway, Purt., i, 170. In a field near Wedgenock Park, Warwick, Perry FL, 28. Golden Green Wood, Warwick, T. K., Herb. Brit. Mas.; Old Park, Honilv, Y. and B. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 291 DIOSCOREAGE^E . TAMUS. T. communis, Linn. Black Briony. Native: In woods, copses, hedges, and bushy places. Common. June to August. Area general. TRILLI ACEvE. PARIS. P. quadrifolia, Linn. I. Lockes (Loaches) Rough, near Coleshill, Aylesford , B.G., 625. In a wood at Packington Outwoods, Perry FI. 37 ; Bannersley Rough! Coleshill; Fillongley, Bree , Mag. Nat. Hist., iii, 164; Trickley Coppice, and New Park, Middleton ; Hartsliill Hayes; Gin Wood, Oldbury ; coppice, near Solihull ; Chalcot Wood, near Umberslade. II. Spernall Park, Part., i, 202 ; Ufton Wood ! near Wroxall Abbey ! Claverdon, Herb. Perry; Crackley ; Rowington, Y. and B. Plentiful in Combe Wood! B. S. R., 1877; Lodge Woods, Salford Priors, Rev. J. G. LILIACE^E. L Polygonatum multiflorum, All. Mayfield Lane, Snitterfield, W. C. Herb. Perry. Single specimen, Honington, Newbf [P. officinale, All. Near Haseley, H.B. Neither of these plants is more than a casual.] CONVALLARIA. C. majalis, Linn. Lily of the Valley. Native: In old woods. Rare. May, June. I. Bentley Park! Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist,., iii, 164. Hoare Park, near Shustoke ; Kingsbury Wood ; Shelly Coppice. Abundant here but rarely flowering. II. Hay woods! Bree, Purt., i, 174. Allesley and Corley, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., iii, 174. Chase Woods; Haseley Wood; wood near Alcester, Herb. Perry ; The Grove, Stoneleigh Park, planted ; Austey Wood, near Wootton Wawen. [Asparagus officinalis, Linn. Coton End. Established on a wall for many years, Herb. Perry. This is still there, but does not flower.] [Lilium Martagon, Linn. A single plant pointed out by Mr.Townsend, in a copse by the Stour, near Tredington, Newb.] FRITILLARIA. F. Meleagris, Linn. Fritillary. Denizen : In old pastures. Very rare. April, May. I. Abundant in the Fritillary Fields, near Tam worth, 1879. E. He Hamel. II. Near the Abbey Wroxall, W.G.P., Herb. Perry, 1839. This has not been seen here for some years. “ Mr. W. G. Perry found the white-flowered variety in a meadow by the roadside opposite to Wroxall Abbey,” Baxter. 292 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. TULIPA. T. sylvestris, Linn. Wild Tulip. Alien : In old pastures. Very rare. April. I. In meadows by the Bourn at Shustoke, Bree., Part., iii, 381. II. Allesley, Bree , Purt ., i, 172. Meadows near Wroxall Abbey, H.B. Rowington, Y. and B. Pigwell Fields near Warwick, Herb. > erry. Still to be found in the last station, but very rarely flowering. GAGEA. G. lutea, Ker. Yelloiu Star of Bethlehem. Native : In old pastures near streams. Very rare. April. I. Sheldon, 1837, Rev. J. Gorle. Banks of a stream near Elmdon, near the Cock Inn ; banks of the Tame, near Curdworth. ORNITHOGALUM. [0. iimbcllatum, Linn. Common Star of Bethlehem. Alien : In old pastures. Very rare. April, May. II. Near a pond in Godfrey’s Lammas, Warwick, Perry , 1817. Meadows by the Avon, Warwick, Bree , May. Nat. Hist., iii, 164. Osier bed opposite the church, Warwick, IT.B., Herb. Perry.'] [0. nutans is recorded from near Offchurch, but cannot be more than an escape from cultivation. I have seen it in Sutton Park under like circumstances.] SCILLA. S. nutans, Sm. Wood Hyacinth. Blue Bell. Native : In woods, copses, on hedge banks, and in waste places. Very common. Area general. The white variety occurs in most of the localities where the plant is abundant, more especially in shady woods. ALLIUM. A. vineale, Linn. Crow Garlick. c. compactum. Thuill. Native : In corn and other cultivated fields, in marly or calcareous soils. Local. June, July. II. Harbury, Y. and B.; common about Tredington, F. Townsend. Abundant in cornfields near Binton ; cornfields near Drayton Bushes ; cornfields, bridle road from Billesley to Wilmcote ; cornfields near Ullenliall, and Studley. A. oleraceum, Linn. Field Garlic. Native : In bushy pastures, and amongst corn. Rare. July, August. II. In a field by Rosall (Rose Hall) Purt ., i, 169 ; near Leamington, Perry , 1817 ; near Exhall, in a plantation, Perry FI. ; calcareous fields west of Stratford-on-Avon ; Grafton, Dr. Lloyd, Herb. Perry ; Blackwell Bushes, specimen from Miss Townsend , Bolton King ; bushy pastures, near Honington. A. ursinum, Linn. Ramsons. Native : In damp woods, by rivers and streams, and on damp shady banks. Locally abundant. May, June. REVIEW. 293 I. “ Several pastures near Penn’s Mill at Erdington ! abound so much with this plant as to be called the Garlic Meadows.” With. (ed. 7), 424. Banks at Hay House, Castle Bromwich, in great plenty, Purt., i, 179. Shady banks near Moor Hall, Sutton; New Park, Middleton ; very abundant, Erdington ; banks of the Tame near Water Orton ; Kingsbury Wood ; Bentley Park ; Brook End, Hurley ; Blythe Bridge, near Solihull ; footway from Knowle Station to Hockley ; Olton Pool, etc. II. Spernall and Oversley Woods ! Purt., i, 170. Honiley Brook, Y. and B. Salford Priors, Rev. J. C., Binton ; lied Hill; Drayton Bushes ; Wilmcote; Henley-in-Arden, etc. NARTHECITJM. N. ossifragum, Buds. Bog Asphodel. Native : In bogs and marshy places. Very rare. July, August. I. Coleshill Bog ! Part, i, 172 ; south side of Bannersley Pool, Perry FI.) Sutton Park, dying out in this locality; Hill Bickenliill, abundant ; near Marston Green, 1883. COLCHICUM. C. autumnale, Linn. Meadow Saffron. Native: In damp pastures ; woods and copses. Locally abundant. August, September. I. Packington, Aylesford, B.G., 635. Beanfield meadows near Sutton Coldfield, J.P., M.S. note B.G. Sheldon ! Rev. J. Gorle. Near Kowington, abundant, W. B. Grove. Abundant in pasture near Water Orton Railway Station ; pasture at Waste Mills, Small Heath ; near Birches Green, Hockley. II. Barford Meadows, Perry, 1817. Norbrook, Perry FI. Near Long Compton, Baxter. Iddicote Wood. Rev. J. Gorle. In a meadow about one mile from Brinklow on the Anstey Road, Rev. A. Blox, M.S. note in Midland Flora. Pinley, T. Kirk, Phyt., ii, 971. Oakley Wood, Y. and B. Armscote Meadows, F. Townsend. Alveston Pastures ; meadows by Binton Bridges ; Drayton Bushes, Drayton Rough Moors ; Oversley Wood ; Bearley Bushes ; meadows about Ullenliall ; in woods and meadows near Allesley and Meriden. Var. ffore-albo. Meadows, Wliitacre. Bree, Purt., i, 183. (To be continued.) Manual of the Mosses of North America. By Leo Lesquereux and Thomas P. James; with six plates illustrating the genera; pp. 447, royal 8vo. ; 21s. Boston : S. E. Cassino and Co. This work is a record of the researches into the moss flora of North America by Sulivant, Austin, Lesquereux, James, E. Hall, and other eminent bryologists, and is one which every bryological student should possess. To all bryological students it will be valuable, but to the student of botanical geography it will present many points of great interest ; and an attentive comparison of this work with Scliimper’s “ Synopsis Muscorum Europseorum” will afford much matter for scientific speculation. In going through the pages of this work one is 294 REVIEW. struck with the fact that there are so many species common to both Europe and America, clearly showing that the two floras, now so widely separated, have a common origin, and that they are part of that great and ancient Scandinavian flora whose descendants now people the world. Still, though there are strong lines of affinity in the two floras, a careful analysis of the Manual reveals the fact that there are many and marked differences in the two floras. In the Manual we have descriptions of about 900 species and varieties, and of these 385 species are non-European. The following analysis will show the whole matter at a glance ; in this I have given the genera in the order in which they appear in the Manual ; and the first column of figures represents the total number of species of each genus as recorded in the Manual, the second column gives the total number of non- European species of each genus : — Total Species. Non-European. • Total Species. ^ Non-European. Total Species. Non-European. Sphagnum . . 28 9 Desmatodon 13 5 Mnium 21 6 Andresea 3 Barbula . , 48 19 Cinclidium . . 2 Micromitrium 3 2 Cinclodotus. . , , 1 Rhizogonium m # 1 1 Ephemerum 7 4 Grimmia 28 11 Beptotheca . . . . 1 1 Physcomitrella 1 Racomitrium 11 3 Aulacomnium . . 4 1 Sphserangium 4 2 Hedw.igia . • 1 Timmia # # 2 Pliascum 3 Braunia , # 1 1 Atricbum 7 3 Pleuridium . . 5 3 Coscinodon . . , . 3 2 Oligotrichum 2 2 Microbryum 1 0 Ptychomitrium • • 4 4 Psilopilum . . , , 1 Bruchia 14 12 Glyphomitrium . . 1 1 Pogonatum . . 8 G Archidium . . 5 5 Ainphoridium . . 5 3 Pol ytri chum 6 Astomum . . 4 3 Drummondia . , 1 1 Buxbaumia 1 Gymnostomum 4 Ulota . . 10 3 Diphyscium . . # # 1 Anoectangium 1 1 Orthotrichum • • 33 18 Fontinalis . . . . 11 8 Weisia 3 2 Macromitrium • , 4 4 Dichelyma . . 7 3 Dicranoweisia 2 Schlotheimia . , 1 1 Cryphsea 4 4 Oreoweisia . . 1 Encalypta .. • • 8 2 Leptodon , , 3 3 Rliabdoweisia 2 Calyperes . . 3 3 Alsia . . 3 3 Cynodontium 4 Syrrbopodon • • 2 2 Neckera . , li 7 Dicliodontium 2 1 Tetraphis . . • • 2 Homalia 4 3 Trematodon 2 1 Tetrodontium . , 1 Meteorium . . 2 2 Angstroemia 1 Discelium . . . , 1 Leucodon 3 2 Dicranella . . 11 1 Scbistostega . • 1 Pterigynandrum 1 Dicranum . . 23 2 Dissodon 3 Pterogonium 2 1 Dicranodontium 1 0 Tayloria . # 2 Antitrichia . . 2 1 Campylopus 11 9 Tetraplodon . . 4 1 Hookeria 3 3 Fissidens 24 15 Splachnum • • 6 Pterygopliyllum # , 1 Conomitrium 2 1 Pyramidula . . 1 Fabronia G 4 Leucobryum 3 2 Aphanorhegma • • 1 1 Anacamptodon # m 1 Octoblepharum 1 1 Physcomitrium • . G 4 Habrodon . . 1 Ceratodon . . 2 1 Entosthodon 3 2 Clasmatodon 1 1 Trichodon . . 1 Funaria . , 9 5 Thelia 4 4 Disticbium . . 2 Bartramia . . . . 8 2 Myurella 3 1 Eustichia 1 Conostomum . # 1 Leskea 8 5 Anodus 1 Pbilonotis . . . , 5 3 Anomodon .. 7 3 Seligeria 4 Catoscopium . • 1 Platygyrium 1 Blindia 1 Amblyodon . . • • 1 0 Pylaisia # # 5 4 Brachyodus. . 1 Meesia . . 4 Homalotbecium 2 2 Campylostelium 1 Paludella . . 1 Cylindrothecium 8 6 Pharomitrium 1 Mielicboferia , . 1 Climacium .. 3 2 Pottia . . 9 2 Leptobryum , , 1 Orthotbecium 3 1 Didymodon . . 3 Weber a . . 19 5 Hypnum . .19G 85 Leptotrichum 7 1 Bryum • . 42 10 Trichostomum 6 1 Zieria . . 2 A SUMMER CAMPAIGN. 295 Some of the species described appear to be separated by very trivial differences, blit this is an age of hair-splitting. It would have been interesting, if space allowed, to have called attention to common species that are apparently absent in this flora, such as Campylopus pyriformis, G. fragilis, and very many others. The descriptions are excellent, and have evidently been carefully worked out. The analysis of the genera will be found of great service, more especially to young students. In addition to this general analysis there is a very useful key to the subgeuera of the vast and difficult genus Hypnum. The six plates are ably drawn, and will be familiar to those students who use Scliimper’s Synopsis, the author of that work having borrowed them without acknowledgment. The type, printing, and whole get-up of the work is excellent, and does great credit to both author and publishers. James E. Bagnall. A SUMMER CAMPAIGN. Four Botanists met on a cliff by the sea, Old friends who had trudged over forest and lea In search of the wonders that lurk in the bog, Or cling to the rock and the moss-painted log. The hot days of August were just in their prime, The wasps were abundant, the dust was sublime, But the Botanists, each in his own summer rig, Replied to Dame Nature “We don’t care a fig ! You may boil, you may roast, you may pepper or drown, We’re here for a week, we’ve escaped from the town, We’ll rifle your treasures on sand-hill and fen, We’ll find out your secrets, the Where and the When, But the How and the Why we acknowledge are harder, One may dine at an inn but not pry in the larder. The rare long-leaved Sundew we’ll hunt on the moor, And Statice caspia down by the shore. Where the shrubby Suceda just fringes the land And Salsola spreads out his thorns on the sand. We’re in for real work, not a mere boyish game ; So kindly prepare us a welcome, old Dame.” And Nature looked out from her great shining eye, She dried up the fens and she polished the sky, She soothed the sea wind to a sweet-tempered breeze That refreshed the white sand-plains and fanned the hot trees, She opened the doors of her treasure-house wide, From her well-beloved sons she had nothing to hide. “ Come search me, and count me, and read me,” she said, “ I’m a riddle profound that has never been read. You that love me unravel the threads of my life So blended in beauty, so knotted with strife. See ! I give you carte blanche , use my tools or my toys, They are all at your service ; go at it, my boys !” 296 A SUMMER CAMPAIGN. The Botanists laid down tlieir plans for each day, And carried them out in a business-like way. From Bawsey and Roydon and Dersingham fen To Heacliam, Holme, Ringstead and Huns’ton again, They ransacked the land and they searched by the sea, And brought hack their vasculums filled with debris ; Rhynchospora alba and Myrica gale, And Triticum repens , the blue littorale, With Psamma , Cakile, and Glaucium and Phleum, So mixed and so many the eyes that would see ’em Had need to be sharp with the practice of years ; But a Botanist’s eyes are in league with his ears, He knows by the rustle, the crunch, and the crack, One-half of the species that lie in his track. Lactuca virosa they found on the sand, And a rare little Bladderwort further inland ; There were regions where Sphagnum and Drosera spread Like a rich Turkey carpet in yellow and red. There were fens full of Cranberry, Sea-rush, and Reeds, Where the snipe makes his home and the bittern still breeds, Where the blackcock was flushed, and the sandpiper ran, And the stealthy brown adder makes war upon man, And the lizard slid nimbly through heather and fern, Or lay like a stick by the slow-gliding burn ; Where Helix virgata half covered the grass, And the pale rayless Aster the muddy morass, Where Osmunda sat throned in a leaf -sheltered nook, And the slender (Enanthe peered up from the brook. Salicornia, Narthecium, Pinguicula , most Of the life that is anywhere seen on the coast Or the heaths or the bogs of Old England was there, And the Botanists found it, and touched it with care. Not theirs the rude culture that grabs at all cost, E’en the last fading relics of forms nearly lost. True lovers of Nature, they would not destroy The wild beauties she nursed with such pride and such joy. So the hours and the days sped away on swift wings, And the end came at last, as to all pleasant things, And the Botanists parted, each went on his way; If such meeting were ever again, who could say ? The chances of life were against it they knew, But their hearts were at one and their friendship was true. And in life or in death, they all swore by St. Dunstan, They’d remember those days round the red cliffs of Huns’ton. F. T. MOTT. August 23rd, 1884. The names of the boys: E. F. Cooper, F.L.S. ; C. W. Cooper, M.B.; J. E. M. Finch, M.D. ; F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. 297 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— August, 1884. The barometer was generally high during the month, though towards its close it showed a downward tendency. From the 1st to the 27tli, readings ranged between 29*80 and 30*30 inches. The weather during this period was very fine, with but little rain ; there were, however, heavy deposits of dew. The temperature was unusually high, and the somewhat rare occurrence of a maximum of 80 degrees or upwards on six consecutive days is a feature of the past month. The highest readings wrere — at Loughborough, 89°1 on the 8tli, and 88°8 on the 11th ; at Strelley, 85°9 on the 11th ; and at Coston Rectory, 84°5 on the 11th. In the rays of the sun (blackened bulb, in vacuo), llPG was registered at Loughborough on the 11th, and 130o0 at Strelley on the 9th. The minimum readings varied during the month between 62° and 35°, the lowest observed being 35°3 at Coston Rectory, and 40°9 at Strelley on the 26th, and 42°3 at Loughborough on the 5th. The mean temperature of the month was about 2 degrees above the average. The number of “rainy days” varied in districts between 7 and 10. The amounts were but small excepting on the 31st, when an inch or upwards fell at some stations. The total values for the month were — Strelley, 2*07 inches; Lough¬ borough, 1*75 inches; Coston Rectory, 1*74 inches. The similarity between the two last-mentioned stations is noticeable, as also the amounts measured on the 31st, being 0*92 inches at Loughborough, and 0*91 inches at Coston Rectory. With the exception of the 9tli, thunderstorms were remarkable for their absence. The prevailing winds were westerly, of rather more strength than is usual in August. Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. Peronospora alta, Fckl. — This species, which has not, I think, been noted previously in Britain, has occurred here, on the under side of the leaves of Plantago major. Fuckel’s description is as follows: — Laxly caespitose, in discoloured spots, grey; liyphae erect, long, branches about eight, longish, unequal, curved ; conidia ovate, large. Fuckel’s Symb. Myco., p. 71. — William Phillips, Shrewsbury. Flora of Warwickshire. — During the past year I have met with the following plants which are additional records for the Flora of Warwickshire : — b'iltujo minima , in a gravel pit between Hampton and Berkswell ; Campanula pa tula , near Barston ; Specularia liybrida, in a pea-field beyond Bradnock’s Marsh (first record for North Warwick¬ shire) ; Aquilegia vulgaris, Trickley Coppice; LysimacUia vulgaris, a fine clump, Middleton Heath. The latter plant is, of course, often, if not always, an escape from gardens, but where I saw it it was evidently well established, there being more than a hundred stems and no house near. — W. B. Grove, B.A. New British Fungi. — The following Fungi are, I believe, new to the British Flora : — Mortierella candelabrum, V an. T., Rech. sur les Muc. pi. 24, fig. 100 ; this is the first species of this pretty genus recorded as British, except one which I have myself previously men¬ tioned in the “ Midland Naturalist,” which I could not accurately ‘298 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. determine ; on decayed wood from Sutton. — Spicaria eleyans , Harz, on decayed wood, amongst moss, from the same place ; this agreed with Saccardo’s figure (Fung. Ital. 895), and with the smaller specimens in Corda’s leones, ii. , 74. — Oospora candidula, Sacc. (Fung. Ital. 880), from Sutton. — Peziza asperior, Nyl. (determined by Mr. W. Phillips), on a damp spot in a gravel pit between Hampton and Berkswell. This is mentioned in Mycographia (fig. 51), as occurring in Lapland, Finland, and Austria. — Pliyllosticta cytisella, on laburnum leaves, from Brad- nock’s Marsh. — I may also mention that I have found the rare Peziza Dalmeniensis , Cooke, again this year in plenty, in the old locality at Sutton. — W. B. Grove, B.A. A New Yorticella. — Dr. A. C. Stokes describes, in the “ American Naturalist” for August last, a new Yorticella, found sparingly on the leaflets of Ceratophyllum, in a pond in New Jersey. It is distinguished from all other Yorticellge by its curious cuticular prominences and the presence of two contractile vesicles. Hitherto no member of the genus has been observed with more than one pulsating vacuole. The description is annexed : — Yorticella Lockwoodii. — Body when expanded broadly campanulate, not conspicuously changeable in form, the length about equalling the width, tapering posteriorly to the pedicel, and constricted beneath the border of the peristome, which is everted and equal in breadth to the entire length of the body ; subspherical when contracted, and anteriorly crenulated ; ciliary disc not elevated ; cuticular surface hearing numerous scattered hemispherical or ovate elevations, diverse in size, and usually collected about the equatorial region into irregularly disposed series, each prominence enclosing a nuclear nodule ; parenchyma finely granular ; contractile vesicles two , small, spherical, pulsating alternately, one placed somewhat above and in front of the other, near the pharyngeal passage ; pedicel four to five times longer than the body. Length of body 50/x ; width of pedicel o/x. Solitary, or few together. International Scientific Association. — The Editor of the American Journal “ Science,” advocates the formation of an International Scientific Association, which should hold its congresses at intervals in the different countries of the civilised world. The Editor of the “ American Naturalist,” while allowing that such a body would have its uses, considers that, unless great care were taken to prevent the management from falling into amateur and unscientific hands, its life would be feeble and its value small, and the time occupied in attending its sessions wasted. And he suggests that it would be easier and safer to expand the existing International Association of Geologists, which originated at Philadelphia at the time of the Centennial Exposition, so as to include all the sciences ; the geologists could not be spared from the proposed new body, and they could scarcely attend the meetings of both. Mineral Ore Deposits. — “ The miner of the nineteenth century of our era has hut a small increase of guiding light into the mysteries of ore deposits beyond that which directed the labours of the miner who lived nineteen centuries before the birth of Christ. The sum of our knowledge admits of the following grouping, but of little more: — 1. Detrital deposits have been formed by the wearing down, under atmospheric influences, of the older rocks containing metallic ores and native metals, and this debris has been distributed by aqueous agency. 2. Some ores are diffused through the rocks, and may be regarded as contemporaneous with them. 3. Fissures have been formed through the rocks by mechanical disturbances, acting mainly from below ; and NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 299 as the producing force has been exerted in a given direction, the cracks take for each district a fairly well-defined direction. 4. There appears to be good evidence that the bearings of the lines of rupture through the rocks materially influence the deposition of ores within them. Whether this is due to magnetic or to some other polar force has not been determined. 5. These fissures are the channels through which gases, vapours, or fluids are forced from vast depths, bringing with them metalliferous compounds, which are deposited on the sides of the rents under the influence of mechanical attraction or of crystal- logenic force. 6. The ever- varying conditions of subterranean tem¬ perature, of electrical currents, of chemical action, and probably of other forces as yet unknown, are constantly producing variations in the phenomena of ore deposits which seriously complicate the inquiry into their formation.” — The Athenceum , in a review of “A Treatise on Ore Deposits,” by J. Arthur Phillips, F.R.S. (Macmillan and Co.) of ^otidifs. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — General Meeting, September 2nd, Mr. T. H. Waller in the chair.1- — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited Linarici spuria, Galaviintha mentlii folia, Nitella fiexilis, Nepeta cataria , and other plants from near Stratford-on-Avon ; also, on behalf of Mr. S. Walliker, Lycopodium alpiuum, L. clavatum, Cladonia cornucopioides, Hypnum crista-castrense , and other lichens and mosses from Norway. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited Torula stilhospora , Phoma hederce, Phyllosticta cytisella, Glceosporium cytisi, Cladosporium fasciculare, Protomyces macrosporus Marasmius rotula, all from Hampton-in-Arden. Biological Section, September 9th, Mr. R. W. Chase in the chair. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited a new rotifer, a campanulate floscule with only two lobes. Mr. W. B. Grove, B. A., Mortierella candelabrum, a species of fungus new to Britain ; Lentinus lepideus, and Fuligo varians (The Flowers of Tan) from a tan yard at Selly Oak ; also Valonia and Divi-divi, materials used in tanning, and PeniciUium grown from the mothering of the tanning liquor. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Pimpinclla viagna from near Matlock Bath. General Meeting, September 16tli, Mr. T. H. Waller in the chair. — Dr. Cooke was elected a corresponding member of the society. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited for Mr. W. Southall a fine example of Lycoperdon giyanteum, an edible fungus from his garden at Edgbaston. Also for Mr. R. W. Chase, Colchicum autumnal e, from Hamstead. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Hydrodictyon utriculatum , found lately near Birmingham. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, Spiranthes autumnalis, Geranium sanguineum, Helianthemum canum, and other plants from the Little Orme’s Head, North Wales. Geological Section, September 23rd. — Mr. Waller exhibited micro¬ sections : a Phonolite from among Canadian Apatite, showing a crystal of nosean, preserved by being enclosed in a crystal of felspar ; pitch- stone from Arran, showing skeleton felspar crystal, with a fringe of hornblende microliths. For Mr. W. R. Hughes, rocks from Bettws and Penmaenmawr, N. Wales. Mr. W. B. Grove, Hypoxylon concentricum, a fungus found during the last Banbury excursion ; H. coccineum with its supposed conidial state, Isaria umbrina, forming a curious object something like a mite, and formerly called by Sowerby on that account ycoperdon acariforme ; also one of the most curious of British mites, Tegeocranus latus (nymph and larva), from Sutton. Mr. Josiali Lowe, foraminifera from chalk : the chalk bought in the 300 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. ordinary way from a druggist’s shop — a pennyworth. Mr. Wilkinson, Campanula hederacea, Jasione montana , Origanum vulgare. Verbena officinalis , Rubia pereg rina, white variety of Bartsia odontites, Melampyrum sylvaticum, and other plants from N. Wales. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — August 18th. — Mr. Tylar showed an internal parasite, Ascaris lumbricoides ; Mr. Hawkes a collection of plants from Solihull, including Lycopus europceus and Plialaris canariensis ; Mr. J. W. Neville, under the microscope, “Cherry-gall” flies, Cynips quercus folii, male and female. A paper was then read by Mr. Sanderson, “ Notes on the common Frog,” which described the egg and the mode of its fertilisation, together with the use of the gelatinous envelope. In the next stage the creature somewhat resembles a fish, and the heart has only one auricle until the development of the lungs. The gradual growth of the tadpole was followed through to the young frog, this stage being reached in about 120 days from the deposition of the egg ; the frogs only reach their full growth in the fourth year. Their mode of hibernation and peculiar manner of breathing were described, and current stories of showers of young frogs and of mature ones being found imprisoned in solid rocks and trees accounted for. The paper concluded with a description of our three species and their distribution. August 25th.— Mr. Madison exhibited a specimen of Helix aspersa var. minor, from Tenby; also Planorbis corneus, var. albina, from near King’s Norton, new to the district ; Mr. Deakin, a collection of freshwater shells ; Mr. Hawkes, a number of plants from Sutton Park, including Parnassia palustris, Achillea ptarmica, and Veronica scutellata ; also the following fungi: Cystopus Candidas, Trichobasis laMatarum, and Spumaria alba. Under the microscope, Mr. Tylar showed section of quartz pebble by polarised light, and Mr. Sanderson Pandorina Morum. Mr. H. Insley read the second paper of a series on “ The Scenery of the district Geologically considered.” The paper dealt with the scenery from Great Barr, through Newton Road, West Bromwich, Rowley, Halesowen, Clent, the Lickey Hills, Nortlifield, and Harborne, to Birmingham. The various formations, their nature, extent, and the causes that had carved out their present contour were described. The paper was illustrated by a series of landscape sketches taken in the field. September 1st. — Mr. Insley exhibited slabs of limestone from Clay Croft openworks, containing trilobite, etc. ; on behalf of Mr. Baxter, specimens of hop plant, showing young and mature hops. Mr. Hawkes, specimens of Colchicum autumnal e and Alchemilla vulgaris, the latter attacked by the fungus, XJromyces intrusa ; Mr. Madison, a case of specimens of Helix pisana var. alba, var. lineolata, and other unnamed varieties, from Tenby; Mr. Insley, lupuline glands of hop under the microscope. September 8th. — Mr. Deakin, a collection of freshwater shells, including Planorbis albus, and a very small though full-grown specimen of Limruea stagnalis ; Mr. Tylar, specimens of travertine from the Dudley caverns. Under the microscope, Mr. Deakin showed young shells of Sphcerium lacustre, and Mr. Moore alimentary canal and gizzard of stone-fly. September 15tli. — Mr. Rodgers exhibited eggs of stone mite, Tetranychus lapideus ; Mr. Madison, a striped variety of Limncea stagnalis ; Mr. Moore, a case of various sawflies ; Mr. Hawkes, a specimen of soapwort, Saponaria officinalis, from Great Barr. Under the microscope, Mr. Moore exhi¬ bited the alimentary canal of green sawfly, Tenthredo viridis, showing parts of butterfly it had preyed upon ; Mr. J. W. Neville, palate of Chiton cinereus ; Mr. Dunn, organisms in condensed tap water. ON THE MAMMALS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. 301 ON “THE MAMMALS OF LEICESTERSHIRE.” * BY F. T. MOTT, F.R.G.S. The Mammals which still run wild in this county are few in species and of small size. It must always be so, wherever civilized man has long been settled, and has enclosed and cultivated the land. Man is himself the Royal Family among the mammals, and as his relatives compete more closely with him for those products which he most desires, than any other class of animals does, he either exterminates them or reduces them to slavery under the name of domestication. There was a time when the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros browsed in Charnwood Forest and came down to the Soar to drink, and the great Cave Lion hunted the Red Deer in the Soar Valley. This was not so very long ago, 50,000 years perhaps. Those mighty mammals were masters of the country till man found his way into it, and the flooding of the Channel cut off communication with the Continent. Then there came a long fight for mastery between the huge quadrupeds and the clever biped, and they gradually disappeared before neolithic man, as the Red Indian disappears before the whites. There still remained, however, among the larger quadrupeds the wolf, the boar, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the deer, as wild inhabitants of the county, and these held their own until quite modern times, becoming extinct as wild animals only about 500 years ago. The fox is now the largest of our twenty-five or twenty-six Leicestershire mammals. But when the progress of civilisation lias put down the barbaric sport of fox-hunting, he also will be rapidly exterminated. As to * the smaller mammals, such as the mouse, the rat, and the weasel, they are still able to foil man’s efforts to destroy them. Propagating with great rapidity, and concealing themselves in burrows and in the dense vegetable undergrowth which covers the earth like a mat, they still possess the land, to the horror of the gamekeepers and the delight of naturalists. The accompanying table shows the relation of the British and Leicestershire Mammalian Faunas to that of the whole world. It will be seen that of the eleven modern orders, excluding man, six are represented in Britain, and four in our county at the present time. ★ tt Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬ sophical Society. Read January 16tli, 1884. 302 ON THE MAMMALS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. Three species of Insectivora, the mole, the shrew, and the hedgehog, are common everywhere ; but it is not popularly known that the shrew, though commonly called a mouse, is not a mouse at all, but is a near relative of the mole. A fourth species, the water shrew, is sometimes found about our brooks and rivers. Of the three Cheiroptera, the Pipistrelle, or Little Bat, or Flittermouse, is the commonest in this county. The Long¬ eared Bat and the Noctule or Great High-flying Bat are met with occasionally. I remember some years ago seeing a pair of Noctules flying high above the summit of Beacon Hill one summer evening, their outline and wing-action clearly dis¬ tinguishing them from any kind of bird. Of our eleven Bodents, the Hare and the Babbit would perhaps soon become extinct if they were not protected. The Brown Bat we would extinguish if we could, for it seems to be in civilized regions a pure nuisance. It is not a native of Britain, nor even of Europe. Its original home is Asia, but it has now found its way into every country in the world. It was first seen in England about 150 years ago. At that time we had a Bat of our own — the old Black Bat, a smaller and weaker animal than the brown invader, and now almost extinct. I have heard of its being seen in some old Leicester cellars within the last twenty years. The Common Mouse is now as widely distributed as the Brown But. The Long-tailed Field Mouse is common in many districts. Forty years ago, when I lived at Lough¬ borough, it was our commonest garden pest, and we used as boys to catch it in considerable numbers and to preserve the skins for their beautiful tawny-coloured fur. In my present garden at Birstal Hill it is never seen ; we have instead the Short-tailed Field Vole, and a great many Shrews. The Voles are distinguished from the true mice and rats by being purely vegetable feeders, as is shown by their teeth, which are not tubercled on the surface. They are allied to the Beaver. The Water Vole, or Water Bat, is common on the banks of all our rivers and brooks. The Harvest Mouse is, I believe, recorded in the county, but is not common. It is the smallest of the British mammals, and seems most abundant in the Southern Counties, though it is rather a sub-arctic form, and has been found in Scotland. The Dor¬ mouse is also rare in Leicestershire. It is a South European form, inhabiting thickets and hedges, and a vegetable feeder, allied to the Squirrel, which is a common animal in this county, and one of the most elegant and interesting of all our Bodents. ON THE MAMMALS OF LEICESTERSHIRE. 303 Of the Ungulata or Hoofed Animals we have now no wild representatives. The Hog, Goat, Sheep, Ox, Red Deer, Fallow Deer, and Roebuck were all wild or semi-wild 500 years ago, but there is now no room for them here, except as domesticated animals. There were wild Horses in Britain in prehistoric times. Of the Carnivora we have no wild dog, but there is a wild Cat, which is now extremely rare if not quite extinct in the county. It differs from the domestic cat in being larger, stronger limbed, shorter tailed, flatter headed, and black nosed, although the colour is that of a yellowish tabby. The origin of the domestic cat is not known. It was at one time believed to be descended from an Egyptian species, the Gloved Cat (Fells maniculata j, hut it differs from this in its teeth, though there are resemblances in size and form. Domestic cats which have taken to a wild life are sometimes mistaken for the true Wild Cat. The Badger is certainly not common in the county, but there are records of its appearance in many localities during the last twenty years. It has long been preserved and pro¬ tected as a curiosity at the Brand, in Cliarnwood Forest, and some of those seen about the country may have been escapes from that colony. Otters are still found occasionally on the banks of the Soar ; and the Marten, though now extinct, was, no doubt, an inhabitant of Cliarnwood before the old timber was cleared away 200 years ago. Of the Weasel, Stoat, and Polecat— the remaining three of our native mammals — the Weasel is still too plentiful for the game preservers; the Stoat is frequently seen, though less abundant ; and the Polecat, though the rarest and the largest of the three, is still seen in some retired districts. EXISTING SPECIES OF MAMMALIA. Orders. Leicester- Britain. The whole shire. World. 1. — Monotremata .... . 0 0 4 2. — Marsupialia .... . 0 0 100 3. — Edentata . . 0 0 40 4. — Sirenia . . 0 0 6 5. — Cetacea . . 0 6 200 6. — Insectivora . . 4 5 200 7. — Cheiroptera . . . . . 3 15 100 8. — Rodentia . . 11 13 900 9. — Ungulata . . 0 5 400 10. — Carnivora . . 7 12 400 11. — Quadrumana . . . . . 0 0 250 25 56 2600 The known species in most of the Orders are estimated in round numbers. Fifty years ago the estimated total was about 1,200. 301 ON THE P1LOBOLIDJE . ON THE PILOBOLIDHE WITH A SYNOPSIS OP THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OR THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. ( Continued from page 28i.) In 1870 Klein gave to tlie world liis monograph “ Zur Kenntmss des Pilobolus,” a monument of patient and minute investigation, such as only a German could produce. In this he describes two species, P. crystal Linus and P. microsporus ; under the former name he says that he unites the P. crystal- linus and P. ceclipus of former authors. But, though he records his painstaking observations with minute accuracy, in respect of the identification of his specimens Klein was peculiarly unfortunate. His P. microsporus is identical with P. roridus, and he was unacquainted with either the true crystal Linus or the true cedipus. He had before his eyes, without knowing it, another species hitherto undistinguished, to which Van Tiegliem afterwards gave in his honour the name of Pilobolus Kleinii. The spores of cedipus are yellow, nearly spherical, and surrounded by a thickened epispore ; those of crystallinus are ellipsoidal and nearly colourless. Now the spores of P. Kleinii are also ellipsoidal, but of an orange-yellow colour, and twice as long as those of crystallinus; but under certain circumstances it bears sporangia containing nearly spherical spores of the same colour, but without a thickened epispore, and it was this abnormal state, to which I shall, in the fifth part of this essay, give the name of forma splicer ospor a , that led Klein erroneously to imagine that he had met with forms intermediate between cedipus and crystal¬ linus. Here we have the true mischief-maker, which has been the cause of so many errors. The credit of clearing up this difficulty is due to Van Tiegliem, and I am pleased to be able to corroborate his observations by my own. On many occasions I have found the first two or three days’ crops of P. Kleinii to bear small sporangia, containing roundish spores, of unequal size in the same sporangium. These, however, could be distinguished at once by the want of the thickened ON THE PILOBOLIDJE. 305 epispore from those of P. cedipus, and, moreover, the fungus agreed in all respects but its minuteness with the true Kleinii , into which it gradually passed on the following days. The inequality of the spores in the same sporangium, together with the dwarfed size, is a guide to the true cause of this abnormal appearance : it points out that the fungus has not yet established itself and is of weak and uncertain growth. Klein also, as has already been mentioned, believed that he had succeeded in tracing the transformation of Pilobolus into two species of Mucor, and therefore declares his belief in that pleomorphism which various authors have rashly attributed to other species of Mucorini. In 1871 Cooke published the “ Handbook of British Fungi,” in which he records1 two species as inhabitants of Britain, P. crystallinus and P. roridus. It is impossible from the description of the former to tell what species is intended ; the description of the second species agrees with that of P. roridus , but not with the figure, which is taken from Currey’s plate, in the Journal of the Linmean Society, already mentioned, and represents, as I have said, P. Kleinii. Moreover the note “ smaller and slenderer than P. crystallinus ” is only partially true ; P. roridus is indeed more delicate, but at the same time taller than P. crystallinus, being usually of double height. The same is true if by P. crystallinus is meant either Kleinii or cedipus. There is also a curious error in the generic description of the sporange, which is stated to contain “ a globose sporidium.” Brefeld, in 1872, mentions2 and figures a species which he assigns to the genus Pilobolus, under the name of P. Mucedo, but which afterwards 3 (1881) he recognises to be the same as that previously called by Cesati, P. anomalies. In the latter place he also gives a short account of the various species of Pilobolus, but, although he describes the species sometimes with great exactitude, yet he is pursued by so strange a fate that not one of the names which he assigns to them is rightly given. His excellent figures, however, enable us to remedy his mistakes. A small table is appended, giving, in the first column, the name assigned by Brefeld ; in the second, the true name: P. crystallinus. P. Kleinii, Van Tiegliem. P. cedipus. P. Kleinii, forma, sphcerospora , milii. P. microsporus. P. crystallinus, Tode. P. roridus. P. lonyipes, Van Tiegliem. 1 Page 633, fig. 301. 2 Botanische Uutersuch. i., 27, pi. 1, figs. 25 — 6. 3 L.c., iv., 66. 806 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . It will be seen that Brefeld was unacquainted with the true cedipus and the true roridus. He was successful, however, in discovering1 the zygotes of P. anomalies . In 1875 Van Tieghem for the first time 2 cleared up some of the confusion in which the subject had been plunged by previous authors, especially in relation to the Mucor roridus of Bolton. Bolton expressly describes his species, which he found in the neighbourhood of Halifax, as “ pellucid and white, sustaining a small globular head, like a minute pearly drop, with a black spot on its upper part, which gives to the globe the resem¬ blance of an eye in miniature.” No author but Klein had been able, up to this time, to meet with a species nearly resembling this description, and hence it was doubted by some, as by Persoon, Coemans, Greville, and Purton, whether it were really distinct ; Klein, as has been said, failed to recognise it in his microsporus, and it was reserved for Van Tieghem to describe and figure 3 a form which possibly is that which Bolton had in view, and which is as identical as may be with Klein’s microsporus. The long, slender stem, the rounded swelling, the minute sporange, and the want of colour of Van Tiegliem’s species, all point in this direction, and agree pretty well with Bolton’s figure. I am inclined to anticipate, however, that the true species of Bolton, if it could be re-discovered, would be found not absolutely identical with Van Tieghem’s. In the same memoir Van Tieghem also instituted the new genus Pilaira for the reception of the old P. anomalas of Cesati, and added a new species Pilaira nigrescens. In 1878 Van Tieghem completed his work by publishing 4 the descriptions of two new species, P. longipes and P. nanus, while at the same time he pointed out the error which Klein had made, and bestowed the name of P. Kleinii on the species with which he had worked. He also described the chlamydo- spores of P. nanus , a mode of reproduction which had already been signalised by Boze and Cornu 5 (1871) in the case of P. crystal! inns. Bainier, in 1882, published his “Etude sur les Mucorinees,” in which he describes specimens which he had met with of P. longipes, and also a new species P. exiguus ; he also con¬ firmed Van Tieghem’s account of Pilaira nigrescens. 1 L.c., iv., 65. 2 Nouv. Itech. sur Muc., pp. 42- -51. 8 L.c., p. 46, pi. 1, figs. 7 — 13. 4 Trois. Mem. sur Muc., pp. 24 — 31, pi. 10, figs. 6 — 22. 5 Bull. Soc. Bot., France, xviii., 298. 807 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE. With reference especially to the Midland district, I may mention that Purton, in his record of P. urceolatus 1, which judging from his figure is probably the true crystallinus , relates that he found with it some specimens according more or less with the description of Mucor roridus, as other authors have done. He, therefore, inclined to the opinion that the latter is only a variety of the former, in which he is supported by Greville 2 and Loudon 3. Relhan, on the contrary, maintains them as distinct 4, and from his remarks under Id. roridus — “ Capitulo spliaerico. Stipes semuncialis, pellu- cidus, roridus” — seems to have met with a form more closely resembling Bolton’s figure than any authors of later date have been successful in doing. I regret much that I have been unable myself to meet with P. roridus , which I believe is much rarer than is usually imagined. In the neighbourhood of Birmingham only P. crystallinus, P. Kleinii, and P. cedipus have hitherto occurred. PART V.— SYSTEMATIC. Order, MUCORINI, De Bary. Family, Pilobolidte, Van Tiegliem. Genus I. — Pilobolus, Tode. 1. Pilobolus oedipus, Montague. 2. - exiguus, Baimer. 3. - crystallinus, Tode. 4. - Kleinii, Van Tieghem. o • - longipes, Van Tiegliem. 6. - - - roridus, Persoon. 7. - nanus, Van Tieghem. Genus II. — Pilaiiu, Van Tiegliem. 1. Pilaira Cesatii, Van Tiegliem. 2. - - nigrescens, Van Tieghem. 3. - dimidiata, mihi. 1 Midland Flora, iii., 325, pi. 31. 2 Flora Edin., p. 418. 3 Enycl. PL, p. 1024, fig. 16349. 4 Flora Cantab., ed. iii., p. 579. 308 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . KEY TO THE SPECIES OE PILOBOLUS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Swelling ovoid Swelling globular, or nearly so . . Spores oval ; stem slender Spores globular ; stem relatively short and thick Spores small, less than 10, a long Spores more than 12 y long Basal reservoir erect or oblique, globular Basal reservoir creeping, elongated Epispore thick, conspicuous Epispore thin, not conspicuous Sporange opaque ; stem slender .. .. Kleinii , Sporange transparent Sporange narrower than swelling ; spores elliptic 1 6 2 4 crystallinus 3 Kleinii long ip es cedipus 5 spluerospora exiguus roridus { Sporange scarcely narrower than swelling ; spores globular nanus The following is an attempt to show the affinities of these species and those of Pilaira : — longipes roridus — I I Kleinii - crystallinus I forma sphaerospora oedipus .1 exiguus I. PILOBOLUS, Tode. Stem erect, continuous, separated from the mycelium below by a septum, expanded above when mature. Sporange projected; upper hemisphere with an indurated cuticle, and a diffluent zone below. A thin gelatinous layer between the spores and the columella. Spores roundish or oval, numerous. 1.— PILOBOLUS CEDIPUS,* Montague. Pilobolus cedipus , Montagne, “Mem. Soc. Linn. Lyon,” pp. 1-7, f. a-i (1828); “ Sylloge,” p. 299 (1856)— Rabenh., “Fung. Eur.,” No. 382 — Coemans, “Monogr.,” p. 59, pi. 1, f. 1-20 (1861) — Fuckel, “ Symb. Myc.,” p. 73 (1869) ; exs. 2204 — Van Tieghem, “ Nouv. Recli. Muc.,” ex An. Sc. Nat., p. 43 (1875) — Saccardo, “ Michel.,” ii., 372, chlamydospores ex New Jersey, U.S.A. (1881) — Ellis, No. 3360 — Rainier, “Etude,” p. 43, pi. 2, f. 1-10 (1882) — Grove, “ Journ. Bot.,” p. 131, pi. 245, f. 3 (1884). Pilobolus crystallinus, Cohn, “ Entwickelungsgescli.,” pi. 51-2 (1851). Pilobolus reticulatus, Van Tieghem, “ Trois. Mem.,” p. 25, note (1878). Hydrophora vexans, Awd. in Collect., sec. Fuckel. Non P. cedipus, Klein, nec Brefeld. dimidiata mgrescens Cesatii Mucorid^ * Not CEdipus, but adjectival, “ swoln-footed.” THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 309 Stem short and thickisli ; swelling ovoid; basal reservoir roundish, usually above the matrix; spores yellow, spherical, rather unequal, 105-14*8/*, with a distinct, thick, bluish epi spore. On horse, cow, goat, and pig dung, and on mud, algse, and other decaying substances. It seems to be the commonest form on human excrement. Spores germinating easily in water; columella conical, obtuse, sometimes piercing the sporange almost to the summit. Not common. (Figs. 14, 15.) England, France, Belgium, Germany, America. 2.— PILOBOLTJS EXIGTJUS, Bainier. r. exignus, Bainier, “Etude,” p. 47, pi. 2, f. 17 (1882). Stem rather thick and short ; sporange round, black but transparent; spores spherical, yellow, unequal, 14*7-21^; swelling scarcely developed ; basal reservoir concealed roundish. A small and doubtful species, possibly a form of P. cedipus. France. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. BY HERBERT SPENCER, EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER V. - ADAPTATION. BY WILLIAM L. HIE PE. Adaptation in its wider sense may be defined as the power of species of animals or plants to vary under altered circumstances, so as to become again harmonised with the environment. In fact, in the power of adaptation we have one of the agencies by which new species are produced. But adaptation of a whole species can only be brought about by adaptation of single individuals during many generations, and it is this adaptation of single individuals or their parts to altered circumstances with which Chapter V. treats principally. In speaking of a single individual adaptation may be described as the power by which in each part of the body the supply of nutritive matter is regulated according to the requirement, and it is, therefore, a necessary concomitant of function. An organism without the power of adaptation would resemble a steam engine which drives several machines, but has no appliances by which to regulate the supply of force to each machine according to the work required to be done by it. 810 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. Adaptation being a consequence of function, we may expect to find only very insignificant adaptive changes in plants where function is very limited, and the few examples we find are all confined to parts actually in the process of growth. With animals it is different. All through the organism a continuous process of decomposition and rebuilding of the tissues is going on ; the material of all parts is continually renewed, and thus a certain pliability or modifiability is produced, so that any part even of the adult organism will undergo adaptive changes, although they are produced even more easily during the period of growth. The phenomena of adaptation consist mainly of three general truths, which can easily be verified by our every-day experiences. The first general truth is that extra function of any organ is followed by extra growth of that organ ; muscles unusually exercised grow to an unusual degree, of which the blacksmith’s arm and the dancer’s leg are examples, as also the thickening of the epidermis on hands which have to do hard or long- continued work. In fact, examples may be found in all parts of the body, and we find similar facts in connection with the nerves, as the increased delicacy of any of our senses on continued practice or when one of them has partly to take the place of the other, as in the case of blind or deaf people. The second general truth is that after a certain limit is reached, no present, or only very little further, modification can be produced, and that little only very slowly. Athletes very soon reach a limit to the increase of their skill and of their strength, and no possible further exercise will make any difference. Singers in the beginning of their training can increase the compass of their voice a tone or two at each end, but after that no training will increase the range. Very clearly is this second truth recognised in the intellectual faculties. Everyone has a certain capability for drawing, music, mathematics, &c., and everyone can improve this capability, but only to a certain degree or limit, and this limit is different for different individuals, and a special talent for any of these arts or sciences seems to be caused by a special facility of adaptation of the organs which are exercised by them. The third general truth is that the increase of size by increased function of any organ is not permanent unless the increase of function is permanent. Muscles increased by exercise are soon reduced to the original size when the exercise is not continued, and the rapidity of reduction is proportional to the shortness of the time during which the exercise was continued. If the exercise has lasted for years, THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 311 it will be a long time before the original size of the organ is restored. In games of skill, as cricket, billiards, chess, and in the playing of musical instruments, we all know that continued practice is necessary to keep up the increased skill gained by it. In trying to explain all these facts deductively we experience the greatest difficulty in the first of the above three truths. The second and third follow as necessary consequences from the first. That over-exertion of an organ should be met by an extra supply of food is a fact which you would not expect a priori. We know from mechanical principles that every action produces an equal reaction, or as Mr. Spencer says, “ the rhythmical changes produced by antagonistic organic actions cannot any of them he carried to an excess in one direction without there being an equivalent excess in the opposite direction.” But in the phenomena of adaptation we have more than that. The excess in the opposite direction is not only equivalent, but it is more than equivalent, and hence the mean state between the oscillations is altered. A leaden bullet suspended by a string hangs quietly in a vertical line ; if drawn out to a certain distance, on being released it will go to the other side to the same distance, come back, and repeat so on. Without friction it would go on for ever, and the mean between the two farthest points is exactly the point at which it was at rest. It would be inexplicable if the pendulum were to go farther on the one side than on the other, and so alter the mean ; but what we see in the muscle growing by increased exertion is exactly analogous. But then the processes occurring during the growth of the muscle are not so simple as the processes of an oscillating pendulum. There are primary, secondary, tertiary, &c., processes, and it is by the actions of these that we must try to explain the seemingly contradictory facts. Let us see exactly what occurs when a muscle grows through increased work. Additional work of the muscles necessitates additional supply of blood. This can only be done by additional work being thrown upon the arteries which supply the muscle. The increased supply of blood necessitates increased work given to the veins which carry it off again. And also arteries and veins not in direct communication with the muscle will be similarly influenced. The muscle is excited by the nervous centres, and therefore the nerves will have to carry increased nervous force to the muscle, and this increased nervous force and extra supply of blood will produce an increase of the power of assimilation, which again results in the increase of the size of the muscle. 312 THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY To explain the second truth — that in the increase of size a limit is soon reached — we have only to follow a little farther the processes explained above. It was found that the imme¬ diate arteries and veins had increased work to do. To perform this for any length of time they must grow, i.e., increase in diameter and contractile power. The growth of these arteries results in growth of others which supply them, and so on. All the other organs are similarly affected. It is like a wave of increased growth passing through the whole of the body, affecting the remotest parts last. We find, therefore, that an organ will grow rapidly as long as it does not cause any considerable alterations in other organs ; but when this point is reached further growth can take place only very slowly, as it depends on the remodelling of numerous parts only slightly and remotely affected. But we find in this also an explanation of the fact that in growing individuals adaptive changes take place more easily than in adults. In an adult animal assimilation and expen¬ diture have reached a balance, so that increased nutrition of one part implies decreased nutrition of some other part ; in other words, besides a considerable amount of building up there must be an equivalent amount of unbuilding of less important parts. But in the young and growing animal there is always excess of assimilation over expenditure, and this excess can be utilised on the necessity of increased nutrition arising in one part through increased function without unbuilding becoming necessary. We may compare an adult organism to a person who just uses all his income for his customary expenses. When occasion arises to increase expenses in a certain direction it can only be done by decreasing them in another, and if increased expenditure in one direction becomes permanent a complete rearrangement of expenses would become necessary. But. the young and growing animal resembles a person who earns more than he spends, and an increased expense in any direction can be met by the surplus without interfering with the other items. In the consideration of the above processes we find also an explanation of the third truth, that after the excess of function has ceased the original state is reached again after a longer or shorter time. The modifications which have to occur in the remotest parts of an organism on continued excess of function of one organ can take place only exceedingly slowly, and while these modifications are going on the part that was modified most recently is not in equilibrium with the rest, namely, those which are THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. 313 not yet modified. Should the increase of function he carried on till every part, every cell, one might almost say, has undergone the required amount of change and a new and perfect equilibrium is established, then the change would be a permanent one. But the time required for this is more than the lifetime of one generation. If the increase of function ceases before the new equilibrium has been estab¬ lished, then the last affected parts are changed only very slightly, and are not in equilibrium with the rest ; they, therefore, resume their former state in a short time. The parts that depend on them immediately will do the same, and so the process of restoration of the former state goes on the reverse way, till at last the originally affected organ is again reduced to its former size. It is easy to understand that the longer the increase of function in that organ lasted, or, in other words, the farther these adaptive changes have proceeded towards the remoter parts of the body, the longer time will be required in regaining the original state. Mr. Spencer illustrates- the whole of the process of adapta¬ tion by an analogy from commercial processes. He assumes a suddenly increased demand for iron ships, this causes an increase in the demand for iron, this again affects the demand for coal, &c., and he shows that in every detail the process is exactly analogous to the process of an organ growing by increased exertion, and also that the restoration of the original state takes place in both cases in an exactly analogous way. EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER VI.- - INDIVIDUALITY. Chapter VI. treats of individuality, and nearly the whole of it is devoted to the solution of the question : What con¬ stitutes an individual ? One might think that was a task which would hardly require a whole chapter, but Mr. Spencer shows that it is not only a very difficult matter, but that it is impossible to give a perfectly satisfactory definition of an individual. The case is clear enough as long as we consider only the higher animals, but when we extend the word Individual to the whole organic world, an exact definition of its meaning becomes a matter of great difficulty. To begin with plants, although it is a rule to speak of a tree or any whole plant as singular, we must not forget that every branch and every bud has to a certain extent an independent life. If cut off' and planted it will make roots, grow, and become a whole plant like the one it was derived from. Are we to consider both as parts of one individual or 314 THE PIIINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. as two separate ones? and, in the latter case, when exactly does the separate individuality of the cut-off branch begin ? In the case of plants which send out runners, which make roots and grow into separate plants, we have the same questions to answer. In the animal kingdom we find still greater difficulties. All the numerous cases of compound Hydrozoa present us with almost an exact analogy to the tree just spoken of. We find young perfect animals budding out from the parent animal, but remaining in permanent connection with it. Are we then to consider each polype as an invividual, or are we to give that signification only to the whole colony ? The difficulty increases when we find that in many cases the individuality of each member becomes partially merged in the individuality of the colony. We find, in fact, an association on the principle of division of labour, some members attending to the locomotion, some to the procuring of food, some to digestion, some to reproduction, &c. Probably in these cases we are witnessing one of the steps by which Nature proceeds in the creation of new organisms of a higher development . and differentiation. We may suppose this merging of the single individuality into the aggregate individuality, and the application of the division of labour, or rather of function, to go on increasing, and thus we have the material out of which to construct a being of almost any amount of organisa¬ tion and differentiation. Have we not in the articulate animals a structure which might have been brought about by a similar process ? As a definition of an individual it has been proposed to give that name to the whole product of one single fertilised germ ; but there are many difficulties and much inconvenience attendant on that course. It is a clear and satisfactorv definition in all cases where one fertilised germ produces only one separate perfect animal. But there are cases such as the Medusae, and the Aphides, where one germ gives rise to a multitude of perfect animals. Are we then to consider all these animals as parts of one individual ? The proposition to call an individual each perfect animal which has the power to reproduce its kind is met by similar difficulties, in the case of bees, ants, &c., where we find perfect and separate animals unable to do so. If they are not individuals, what are they? and what are we to do in the case of insects where the animal attains the power of reproduction only in the mature stage ? Thus we are forced to the conclusion that no perfect definition is possible, and that the best course is to make a compromise. We must consider that with the idea of an individual is THE ZYGNEMACEiE. 315 always associated the idea of a complete whole, a concrete and not a discrete whole, and also the manifestation of independent life. We will then define as an individual any concrete whole manifesting life, or any concrete whole having a structure which enables it, when placed in appropriate conditions, to continually adjust its internal relations to external relations, so as to maintain the equilibrium of its functions. Thus we have to consider as individuals all buds and shoots of plants, each aphis, each single polype, &c. ON “ THE ZYGNEMACEiE: A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORY OF THE FRESH- WATER ALGiE.”* BY MR. F. BATES. The Zyynemaceai, an important and in¬ teresting family of fresh- water algae, occur in ponds, ditches, &c., as floating or partially submerged, unattached masses of a pale to a dark grassy-green colour, and are slimy to the touch. In their younger and sterile condition they are amongst the most beauti¬ ful of all the fresh-water algae, when viewed under the microscope in a freshly gathered state. Unfortunately they suffer considerable deterioration some time after being mounted as microscopic objects, as no trustworthy medium has yet been discovered which will preserve them in their pristine beauty, a certain shrinking, with loss of brightness and colour in the chlorophyll bodies, always ensuing. The masses consist of delicate, long threads or filaments, composed of rows of cylindrical cells. A marked feature in the larger and more robust species is the cytoblast or nucleus , which is suspended in the sap-cavity of the cell by means of delicate threads of protoplasm, radiating from it to the chlorophyll bodies ; but it is these latter which most attract attention by the beauty of their form, arrangement, and colouring. These bodies in Zyynema take a radiate, or stellate, form, a pair in each cell ; in Spiroyyra they consist of longitudinal rows of parietal bands, arranged spirally ; in Mesocarpus and others, of axile plates or bands. Ayamoyenesis, or vegetative increase, is effected in these plants by repeated transverse cell-division or bi-partition, with subsequent growth of each moiety to the dimensions of the original cell. * Transactions of Section 1) of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬ sophical Society. Read April 23rd, 1884. 316 THE ZYGNEMACE/E . This is a form of the interstitial mode of growth. A full description of this process, as well as of the more complicated process of nuclear division, or Jcaryokinesis, will be found in Sachs’ “ Text book," last edition (1882), pp. 16-18. Whoever desires, however, to observe this phenomenon for himself must needs rise early, for it is a remarkable fact in the history of these plants that this process — as well as most other of the higher vital phenomena, or those concerned in repro¬ duction — takes place in the early dawn. I cannot here do better than give Sachs’ explanation for this curious fact. “ An obvious and necessary condition of these processes of growth, whether in the dark or the light, is the presence of the supply of assimilated reserve-materials, at the expense of which the formation of new cells can take place. In the case of the buds of the higher plants their reservoirs of reserve-materials are the bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, parts of the stem, cotyledons, and endosperm ; after the complete exhaustion of these, growth ceases in the dark but continues in the light, because the assimilating organs can then produce new material. This relation of growth which is connected with cell-division to assimilation is especially clear in algae of simple structure (as Spiroyyra, etc.), which assimilate in the daytime under the influence of light, while cell-division proceeds exclusively, or at least chiefly, at night. The swarm-spores are also formed in the night, but swarm only with access of daylight. While, therefore, in the larger and more highly organised plants assimilation and the construction of new cells out of the assimilated substances is carried on in different parts but at the same time, in small transparent plants in which the parts where these functions are effected are not surrounded by opaque envelopes they take place at different times. We have here a case of division of physio¬ logical labour, which shows us that the cells which have to do with chemical work (assimilation) cannot at the same time perform the mechanical labour of cell-division ; the two kinds of labour are distributed in the higher plants in space, in very simple plants in time.” (“ Text book,” edition 1882, pp. 752-3.) It seems highly probable that there is a specific limit to the power of extension by cell-division, and that when this is reached there comes into play that far more important operation which leads to the production of a new generation by the formation of a spore. And this conclusion would be quite in accordance with analogy, as a flowering plant usually only produces seed when the vigour of its vegetative growth is waning. THE ZYGNEMACEiE. 817 Gamoyenesis, or sexual reproduction, finds its simplest expression in this humble family of plants. Ordinarily the sperm and germ- cells are widely distinguishable ; but here no real or perceptible differences of any importance are discernible, the two sexual elements being apparently still undifferentiated masses of protoplasm. It is true there are observers who believe they have discovered some slight differences in the two cells. Professor Bennett, in a recent communication to the Linnsean Society, affirms that there is an appreciable difference of length and diameter, the germ¬ cell being the larger ; also that their protoplasmic contents pass in one direction only. The first of these statements I might be prepared to accept, as it is analogous to what obtains in the dioecious species of (Edoyonium ; but the fact that in many species of the Zyynemace® the contents of both cells pass into, meet, and coalesce in the middle of the conjugating canal, seems to me fatal to the second statement. However, this is a point which must be left to future investigation ; still it must not be supposed that I absolutely deny that differences may exist ; on the contrary, I believe that they must, but the question is at present involved in obscurity. Conjuyation, as the union of the two sexual elements is called in these plants, is effected in various ways, but the principle is the same in all. At the proper season for the species, whether the spring, summer, or autumn, filaments lying side by side put out from the opposing face of each cell a protuberance of the cell-wall. This goes on increasing until the two ends meet. When their opposing faces come in contact, fusion, with absorption of the intervening membranes at the point of contact, takes place ; there is consequently formed a tube or channel of communication from the one cell to the other. Whilst this has been going on certain changes have been taking place in the contents of the cells. The protoplasm lining the cell-walls becomes detached and collapses on the central mass. Some observers declare that this always commences first in the sperm- cell, or that whose contents pass over to the other or germ-cell. However this may be, contraction, with expulsion of the water of the cell- sap (Sachs), takes place, and the entire contents of the one cell pass over, by means of the channel of communication described, into the other,* with whose contents it completely coalesces, the two nuclei even becoming fused together. As Sachs observes (“ Text Book,” 1882, p, 9), “ the coalescence gives the impression of the union of two drops of fluid, but * Except in those cases where conjugation takes place in the conjugating canal. 818 THE ZYGNEMACEiE. the protoplasm is never fluid in the physical sense of the word.” When complete union of the two cell masses, accompanied by further contraction and expulsion of water (Sachs), has taken place, the united body assumes its specific form and begins to elaborate its protective envelope. This is composed of three layers, the innermost of which only — being the true spore membrane — is concerned in the after germination of the spore ; the other two forming a merely protective shell. When all is perfected, this body — the result of the union of the contents of two cells — is termed a Zygospore. This is the equivalent of the seed in the higher plants : like the seed, the zygospore has enduring vital power; it can survive the lapse of time, extremes of temperature, and so forth. As this body matures its contents become brown, homogeneous, and refractive ; a conversion of its endochrome into oily matter apparently takes place. When germination begins the oily matter disappears or is reconverted into green granular matter ; this soon assumes a spiral form which becomes more distinguishable with the lengthening of the cell. After some months of rest — and in its proper time, the conditions being favourable — the zygospore begins to ger¬ minate. The inner and stouter of the two layers of its protective shell, or envelope, dehisces by a longitudinal sinuous fissure in all those having an ovoid form ; the young plant — the future filament — then bursts through the outer layer and emerges as an elongate claviform body attached by its thin end to its envelope. It grows rapidly, cell division commences, and soon it assumes the form of, and ultimately grows into a free filament like those from which it sprang. With the germination of the zygospore the life cycle is completed ; the empty shell — together with its parent cells — having fulfilled its office, now speedily decays. It does not always follow that the zygospore is formed in the germ-cell. In some species of Zygnema, in Mougeotia, and in Alesocarpus , it is formed in the middle of the conjugating canal ; whilst in Staurospermuin it is a cruciate, or a four or more angled body, occupying the whole of that space. The three typical forms of conjugation in this family are : the scalariform, the lateral , and the genujiexuous. In the first the entire series of cells of each of two parallel filaments usually take part in the process ; there results a ladder-like body, the two filaments representing the side pieces, and the transverse conjugating canals the rounds. This is the most common form, and here the zygospore is always formed in the germ-cell. THE ZYGNEMACEEX 310 Iii the second, or lateral form, also called the IUujnchonema form, conjugation takes place between cells of the same filament, and is effected as follows: — At the point of junction of two cells — that is, at the septum, a beak-like swelling, or bulging out on one side of the cell walls, takes place ; this forms a passage of communication between two adjacent cells round by one end of the septum ; by this passage the contents of the one cell pass over to the contents of the other and coalesce with them in the usual manner, forming a zygospore. It not unfrequently happens that both this and the scalariform method take place simultaneously in one and the same species. I have often met with examples of Spirogyra insignis and Weber i having the same threads showing scalariform conjugation in part of their length, and lateral in the remainder. A variety of this (lateral) form of conjugation is not unfrequent in some species of Spirogyra. It consists in two cells, not in immediate proximity, each putting forth at right angles to the axis of the cell a side protrusion of the cell-wall ; these, becoming bent, grow towards each other, parallel with the filament, and when they meet the consequences already detailed ensue. It sometimes happens, however, that the attempt to unite is abortive, the cells being too widely removed to permit the connection of their outgrowths before the developmental limit of these is reached. These cells are consequently doomed to single blessedness, but some sort of compensation is provided for such cases as we shall presently see. In the third, or genuflexuous , form of conjugation, the cells here and there of opposing filaments bend towards each other in a knee-like manner until they come in contact ; absorption of the cell-walls then takes place at the point of contact, permitting the passage of the contents of the one cell into the other where coajescence takes place in the usual manner, the resulting zygospore being formed in a bulged-out portion of the cell-wall at one side. It would appear that this process is but rarely performed in its entirety, at least in Mesocarpus pleurocarpus (= Mougeotia genuflexa). This is a most abundant and widely distributed plant, occurring in masses in canals, ponds, ditches, and even in the watering- troughs for horses ; yet, although I have met with it profusely in the geniculate condition, I have never seen it in true conjugation, or met with its spore. This being so it is difficult to account for its abundance and wide distribution. I have remarked, however, that the threads of this plant have a great tendency to break up into their component cells ; whether this may, in some obscure manner, compensate for the lack of spores seems problematical, as it is opposed to the THE ZYGNEMACEiE. 320 modern conception that without a gamogenetic act the permanence, within certain limits, of a species cannot he maintained ; and that mere vegetative growth or increase must ultimately result in its extinction. Indeed the modern belief that gamogenesis takes place at some period in the life-history of all species of plants, however humble, is constantly receiving the sanction of experience. The student of the Fresh-water Algie will be a continual witness to their recuperative power. He will constantly see how nature foiled in one process instantly initiates another in the endeavour to restore the balance. Let him betake himself to the nearest pond or ditch and make a gathering of vigorously growing Vaucheria ; then slightly rupturing a cell- wall, let him place the plant in water under his microscope and watch what ensues. He will see portions of the protoplasmic contents of the ruptured cell flowing out in an apparently oily stream, but as soon as they come in contact with the watery medium breaking up and contracting into spherical and other masses which immediately throw around themselves a protective skin, or envelope ; in other words, he has witnessed the formation of gonidia-like bodies presumably possessing the power to germinate, and ultimately to grow into plants like that from which they emanated. The portions of the proto¬ plasm left in the cell also contract into globular masses which acquire apparently a cellulose coat. Hanstein has also observed that if a filament of Vaucheria becomes injured, the protoplasm of the injured part immediately contracts and protects itself by a septum which shuts it off from the injured part. Certain somewhat analogous proceedings frequently take place in those cells of the Zi/f/nemacece which fail to perform their function ; the loss of the normal act being apparently partially compensated by the formation of other bodies, presumably capable of reproducing the likeness of the parent plant, out of the coutents of the cells. Reproduction in the Fresli-water Algie by means of zoogonidia is nature’s mode of providing for the dissemination of a species. This form of increase does not, it seems, normally occur in the Z ytjnemacea ; but, as I have just observed, in cells not conjugating, or otherwise failing to perform their function, certain apparently abnormal pro¬ ceedings take place. These are the differentiation of the plasma of the cell into certain rounded bodies which become encysted, thus simulating a resting form of zoospore ; or numbers of nearly colourless zoogonidia are formed out of the cell contents. On one occasion I witnessed the emission THE ZYGNEMACE.E. 321 of these latter from an accidentally ruptured cell : their motion was very feeble and not at all like to the same bodies normally produced in other algas. There is no more deeply moving and exciting spectacle in the whole range of natural phenomena than is afforded in witnessing the emission from the mother cell of normally produced zoogonidia, as it occurs in the genus Ulothrir . You perceive that the cells of certain filaments are densely packed with green ovoid granules, in place of the usual quadrangular plate of endoebrome : you are gazing upon these apparently inert masses of matter, when lo ! in an instant, and without premonitory symptom, the entire mass of granules in a cell is in motion, and a portion is seen protruding through the cell- wall ; in a short space, and by successive efforts, flic entire mass passes out of the cell, which closes with a rebound. It is then seen that these bodies are enclosed in a filmy envelope of bubble-like tenuity. After a brief period of repose, the outer members of the group begin to jerk and tug and oscillate, and soon separate themselves from their fellows ; the remainder speedily follow, and you have before you a group of from 8 to 32 or more biciliated subpyriform bodies all in a state of wild activity. Cell after cell rapidly discharges its contents till you behold a mass of bodies madly gyrating and waltzing round each other as if, by this, giving expression to their sense of this new active and exuberant life. On viewing the empty cell there is no apparent rupturing of its wall; it is, therefore, presumable that the escape of the body of micro- zoogonida is effected through an orifice specially formed in the cell-wall at the precise period required for its emission : and this is precisely analogous to what takes place at the period of the fertilization of the oosplieresin Vaucheria and OZdoyonium . Pre-eminent among the many questions of importance at present engaging the attention of vegetable physiologists are the nature of the relations that exist between the cell- wall and the protoplasm, and the possible continuity of the protoplasm through the walls of cells. Until recently the cell-wall has been regarded as a sort of protective envelope, elaborated by the protoplasm body, and in which it, in a manner, imprisoned itself and cut itself off from contact or connection with the protoplasm of neighbouring cells, a wall which acts, as Professor Hillliouse has said, towards the individual cell as an exoskeleton. Facts are now rapidly accumulating which will no doubt ultimately lead to an abandonment of that conception. As Hillliouse observes, “ in modern teaching the vegetable organism is a whole, with its protoplasmic body, it is true, broken into fragments which 322 THE Z YGNEMACE/E . show apparent isolation but which, nevertheless, show clear co-ordination.” Further, “ the anatomical isolation which lias been ascribed to the vegetable cell is also shown to be but a partial truth, if, indeed, it be a truth at all.” Hillhouse, Hick, Gardiner, Massee (whose observations have been confirmed by Professor Bennett), Groves, and others have all arrived at the conclusion that these inter¬ cellular relations, by means of delicate connecting threads of protoplasm, do exist, but differ somewhat as to how they are effected, whether by open pits in the cell-wall or not. I need scarcely point out the important bearings of this discovery, for it will at once be evident how potent a factor it must prove in accounting for many curious facts that have hitherto puzzled the vegetable physiologist. As Gardiner has said : “ Observations now and lately recorded give us the power of a clearer insight into such phenomena as the down¬ ward movement of a sensitive leaf upon stimulation ; of the wonderful action of a germinating embryo on the endosperm cells, even to those which are most remote from it ; of the action of a tendril towards its support, and of various other phenomena in connection with general cell-mechanism.” Mr. F. 0. Bower has also contributed an important paper “ On Plasmolysis and its bearing upon the relations between cell-wall and protoplasm.” The conclusion he arrives at seems to be at conflict with that reached by the other observers mentioned. His explanation for the presence of the delicate threads of protoplasm that are still left connecting the main mass (which has been contracted from the cell-walls by means of a solution of common salt used as a plasmolysing agent) with the cell- wall appears to be, that the peripheral part of the mass of protoplasm in the cell is here and there entangled, as a net-work, among the deposited microsomata, and may, therefore, on the contraction of the main mass, be drawn out at the points of entanglement into fine threads. Whether by this he simply means that there is a more intimate connection between the cell-wall and the protoplasm than has hitherto been suspected (in which case lie would be in accord with other investigators) ; or means to imply there is a continually intimate connection — even if not indissoluble bond of union — between the cell-wall and the protoplasm, I cannot say, but I should imagine not the latter : for such a conclusion would be so manifestly at variance with many well ascertained facts. For how, on that view, are we to account for the phenomenon of conju¬ gation, for the formation of oospheres, for all acts of rejuvenescence of the cell, and so forth? It is clear that THE ZYGNEMACETE. 82 8 in all these cases the entire mass of protoplasm parts from the cell-walls and, in many cases, passes entirely out of the cell, leaving it to decay, which it speedily docs. Besides this the conception fails to account for the many curious facts in vegetable life already mentioned. The conclusions arrived at by all the mentioned observers are based upon investigations conducted by means of certain micro-chemical and staining reagents, and this brings me to the point of these remarks. Would it be possible to detect these delicate threads of protoplasm and to trace their connections without the use of reagents ? If this be possible, then we have in the Zygnenuicece the fittest material to work upon in the endeavour to elucidate these questions. For in the phenomenon of conjugation we have Nature herself acting as the plasmolysing agent, dissolving the bond of union between the cell-wall and the protoplasm. I have no practical or experimental knowledge to impart on these points ; but the attempt to solve them in the manner here indicated is well worth an effort ; and I here invite the younger and more vigorous of the botanical members of this section to devote a few all-night sittings to the observation of the phenomenon of conjugation with a view to contribute something towards a solution of these vexed questions. Rabenliorst, in his “Flora Europaea Algarum,” enumerates 125 species of Zygnemacea ?, distributed in ten genera. Dr. Cooke, in his “ British Fresh-water Algae,” has subjected many of Rabenhorst’s species to a much needed revision, and has considerably reduced their number ; he describes thirty-seven species as occurring in Britain, distributed in eight genera. I myself have collected thirteen species determined — with two or three others not yet met with in fruit — in the immediate neighbourhood of Narborougli, including one that was new to the British list. In concluding I would strongly urge upon this Section how much it is to he desired that some of its botanical members forsake the more beaten paths of their pursuit, and seek “fresh fields and pastures new” in the study of the Fresh-water Algre. I can promise them a most exciting and interesting task. The field is large and there is room for many workers. Very much yet remains to be done : in fact, it might almost be said that the study of these plants has scarcely yet advanced beyond the incipient stage. Observa¬ tion and research are constantly proving that many so-called species, and even genera, are but stages in the life history of other species ; and it is extremely probable that future research will place the bulk of the considered genera and species of the families PalmeUacea and Chroucoccacecc in the B24 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE same position. So liere is store of work before you : a wide field for profitable labour and original research ; for it is the Fresli-water Algie that give the most emphatic sanction to the assertion that “ The study of the entire life-history is the only means towards the solution of the value of species.” THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK. BY JAMES E. BAGNALL. ( Continued from page 293.) JUNCACE^E. LUZULA. L. vernalis, DC. ( L . pilosa, Willd). Broad-leaved Hairy Woodrush. Native : In woods and on shady banks. Locally common. April, May. I. Sutton Park ; Trickley Coppice and New Park, Middleton ; Hoare Park, Over Wliitacre ; Kingsbury Wood ; Bentley Park ; Hardings Wood, near Maxstoke ; Arley Wood; woods near Solihull ; Chalcot Wood, Umberslade ; Clow’s Wood, near Earl’s Wood. IF. Frankton ! and Prince Thorpe Wood! R.S.B. , 1877. Combe Woods; Waver ley Wood, Stoneleigh ; Oakley Wood ; Chester¬ ton Wood; woods, Walton Village; Alveston Pastures; Oversley Wood ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen ; Bush Wood, Lapworth ; Haywoods. L, maxima, DC. (L. sylvatica, Gaud). Great Woodrush. Native: In woods. Local. May, June. I. Arley Wood ; Bentley Park ; Hartshill Hayes ; woods near Oldbury ; Boultbie Wood, near Meriden. II. Combe Woods ; Haywoods ; Oversley Wood, &c. L. campestris, DC. Field Woodrusli. Native : In pastures, on heaths, heathy roadsides and banks. Common. April, May. Area general. L. erecta, Desv. {L. multi flora ; L. congesta, Lej). Many-headed Field Woodrush. Native : In peaty bogs, damp heath lands, and heathy waysides. Local. June to August. I. Sutton Park ; Trickley Coppice and New Park, Middleton ; Coleshill, bog and heath ; Hill Bickenliill ; Kingsbury Wood ; Baxterley Common ; Earl’s Wood. II. ( Juncus liniger) On the road from Coughton to Sambourne, Curt, i, 179. Arbury Woods! Brandon Woods! Kirk, Bhyt. ii, 971. Haywood ! Y. and B. Combe Wood ; Oakley Wood. The variety congesta has the same range as the type, the two plants usually growing together. JUNCUS. J. conglomeratus, Linn. Common Bush. Native: In bogs, marshes, marshy heath land and near pools. Common. June, July. Area general. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 325 J. effusus, Linn. Soft Ilush. Native : In marshes, bogs, damp heath land, and near pools. June, July. Common. Area general. J. diffusus, Hoppe. Native: Near pools and on damp heath lands. Rare. July. I. Balsall Street, Ilerb. Perry. Near Curd worth Bridge. Bannersley Bough. II. Pit near Honiley Church! II. B. Ilerb. Brit. Mas. Canal near Rugby Wharfe, liev. A. Blox., II. S. R., 1868. Cathiron Lane. Sir J. D. Hooker considers this to be a hybrid between glaucus and effusus. Student’s Flora (ed. 8), 414. J. glaucus, Sibtli. Hard Rush. Native : In marshy places, near pools, and on heathy roadsides. Common. June, July. Area general. J. obtusillorus, Elirli. Obtuse-flowered Rush. Native: In wet boggy places, and near canals. Rather rare. July. II. In some boggy ground near Bidford Grange ; in a stream at Broome, Purt. i, 177. Canal near Wyken. Near Binton, T.K., Herb. Perry. Oxtail Farm, near Stratford-on-Avon, IV. C., Herb. Perry. Woodloes! Y. and B. Chesterton Moat, II. B. Itchington Holt ; in abundance, small pool near Birding- ton Wharf, 1883 ; on the side of the canal near Bearley Aqueduct ; and in abundance near Crab Mill, Preston Bagot. J. acutiflorus, Ehrli. Sharp -flowered Rush. Native : In bogs, marshes, near pools, and on damp road sides. Common. July, August. Area general. J. lamprocarpus, Elirli. Shining -fruited Rush. Native : In marshes and damp sandy places. Locally common. July, August. I. Sutton Park; Middleton Heath; Bannersley Pool; stone quarries, Hartshill ; sand quarry, near Stonebridge ; sand quarry, Cornels End ; Bentley Heath, &c. II. My ton, Y. andB.; near Newbold, R.S. R., 1877 ; Chadshunt, Bolton King; Lye Green; Lapworth ; Binley Common; old quarry, near Newbold-upon-Avon. J. supinus, Moencli. Lesser Jointed Rush. Native : In boggy and marshy places. Local. June to August. I. ( Juncus uliginosus), Coleshill Pool ! Purt. i, 177. ; Sutton Park, very abundant ; Middleton Heath ; stone quarries, Hartshill ; near Atherstone Outwoods ; sand quarry, Cornels End ; Bannersley Rough ; Baddesley Common ; Forsliaw Heath. II. Beausale Common, Y. and B.; Binley Common. J. bufonius, Linn. Toad Rush. Native : On damp road sides, damp drives in woods, and in drains, Ac. Very common. July, August. Area general. Var. b. fasciculatus , Bert. Rare. I. Sutton Park, W. B. Grove. Sandy roadsides near Coleshill. II. Yarningale Common ; Lye Green. The varietal characters are scarcely constant in this variety as in the one tuft I find branches with the flowers two or three in a cluster and other branches with the flowers solitary as in the type. It is, however, always a much dwarfed plant. J. Gerardi, Lois. Round-fruited Rush. Native : Near rivers, and in brackish marshes. Rare. June. II. Near Stratford-on-Avon Church, W.C., Herb. Perry. Chesterton; Southam Holt, II. B.! Beside Napton Reservoir, II. W. Trott! R.S.R., 1878. In a meadow by the Stour a little below Tredington, F. Townsend. Near St. Dennis, Newb. Arrow Lane, near Alcester. 326 THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. I have seen specimens from two of these localities besides the last, and these appear to be undoubtedly J. Gerardi. J. squarrosus, Linn. Heath Rush. Native: On heaths and heathy roadsides. Local. June, July. I. Coleshill Heath! Purt. i, 176. Sutton Park; Marston Green; sand quarry, Cornels End. II. Haseley, Y. and B. CYPE RACEME . SCHOENUS. S. nigricans, Linn. Black Schcenus. Native : In bogs and boggy meadows. Very rare. July. I. Boggy meadows by the Tame under Dostliill, near Middleton. Ray. Gat., ed. 3, 1677. Coleshill Bog, Part, i, 163. I have searched both these localities, but have not been able to find this plant in either. CLADIUM. C. Mariscus, Brown. Fen Sedge. Native? by rivers. Very rare. July, August. I. By the Biver Tame, near Tamwortlx Ray. Syn., ed. 3, p. 426. Eiver Tame, below Coleshill. J. Power t M.S. Note in B.G. I have never been able to find this plant in the county. Possibly extinct now. RHYNCHOSPORA. R. alba, Vald. White Beaked Sedge. Native: In turfy bogs. Yery rare. July, August. I. Near Packington! Aylesford, B.G., 633. Coleshill Bog. rurt., i, 62. Marshy Coppice, Hill Bickenhill. HELEOCHARIS. H. acicularis, Linn. Slender Club-rush. Native : In turfy bogs, and by pools and canals. Bare. July. I. Sutton, Freeman, Bhyt. i, 262; Oldbury Beservoir; Olton Beservoir; Coleshill Pool; canal side, near Catherine- de-Barnes Heath; Earl’s Wood Beservoir. II. In waters, near Arbury Hall ; Stoke Heath, Kirk , Phyt. ii, 971 ; Seas Wood Pool, T. K., Herb. Perry ; canal side (abundantly), near Stratford-on-Avon ; Canal Beservoir, near Kingswood ; canal side, near Bascote Lodge, on the way for Badford Semele. H. palustris, Linn. Marsh Club-rush. Native: In marshes, pools, ditches, and streams. Common. May to July. Area general. H. multicaulis, Sm. Many -stemmed Club-rush. Native: In spongy bogs. Yery rare. June, July. I. In a marshy coppice, near Packington II. Near Harboro-Magna. Rev. A. Blox, R. S. R., 1871. SCIRPUS. S. pauciflorus, Light/. Chocolate-headed Club-rush. Native: In marshes and turfy bogs. Very rare. July. I. Sutton Park, in several of the marshes and boggy places. S. caespitosus, Linn. Scaly -stemmed Club-rush. Native : In bogs and damp heathy roadsides. Bare. May, June. I. Middleton, Ray, Syn., ii, 429 ; Sutton Common, Lnxford, Herb. Brit. Mus., May 23, 1835 ; Coleshill Bog, T. K., Herb. Perry ! Botany Nook, Sutton Park, J. l\, M.S. note B. G. This plant appears to be extinct now in Sutton Park ; the specimen in Perry’s Herbarium is correct. THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE. 327 S. fluitans, Linn. Floating Club-rush. Native: In pools and marshes. Rare. June to August. I. Marshy coppice, near Packington ; small marsh on Colesliill Heath ; Bracebridge Pool, Sutton Park. II. Haseley, Herb. Perry. S. setaceus, Linn. Bristle-like Club-rush. Native : In wet sandy ground, damp pastures, and road sides. Very local. June to August. I. Poleswortli Common, J. P., 31. S. note, B. G.; damp pastures at Tyburn, F. Terry! Sutton Park; Middleton Heath; heath lands, near Atherstone Outwoods ; stone quarries, Hartshill ; Olton Pool ; Olton Reservoir ; lane from Four Ashes to Box Trees, Hockley ; Forsliaw Heath. II. Arbury Park, T. K., Herb. Perry ; Blue Boar Lane, near Rugby, B. S. R., 1878 ; Honington, Newb.; Itcliington Holt ! Y. and B. ; Yarningal Common. S. lacustris, Linn. Bull-rush. Tall Club-rush. Native: In rivers, ditches, and pools. Locally abundant. July, August. I. Canal at Tyburn, F. Terry ! Sutton Park ; canals about Atherstone ; Rivers Tame and Anker, near Tamwortli ; Rivers Cole and Blythe, near Colesliill ; near Solihull ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Temple Balsall. II. 'Whitmore Park, T. K., Herb. Perry. Chesterton Pool! Y. and B., Honington; Tredington, Neicb., Binton Bridges; Bidford ; Oversley ; canals near Bearlev, Hatton, and Rowington ; River Avon, near Brandon ; near Brinklow ; frequent in the Avon, near Rugby; in the Itcliin, near Bascote Lodge. S. Tabernaemontani, Ginel. Glaucous Bull-rush. Native : In brackish marshes. Very rare. June to August. II. Soutliam Holt, II. B. ! Itchington Holt. This plant is becoming very rare in these localities, owing to drainage. S. maritimus, Linn. Sea Club-rush. Native : In brackish marshes. Very rare. July. II. Salt Marsh, Soutliam Holt, H.B. ! In abundance in a cattle pool near Flecknoe House, near Rugby. S. sylvaticus, Linn. Wood Club-rush. Native: In marshes, near pools, river sides, and in woods. Local, but widely spread. June, July. I. In many places by the Tameside near Tamwortli ! Ray,Syn., 420, 1724. Edgbaston Pool, With., ed. 7, 104. Merivale ! J.P. , M.S. note, B.G. Sutton Park; Spring Pools, Kenwalsey ; marsh by Olton Pool ; lanes near Olton Railway Station ; Blythe Bridge, near Solihull ; Henfield ; Temple Balsall ; near Knowle Railway Station ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; near Packwood ; Spring Coppice, near Hockley. II. Oversley Mill pool ! Ring’s Cougliton ; Purt. i, 64 ; Myton, Emscote, Harborougli, Y. and B. . In the river near Avon Mill; and in the Swift near Rugby Canal, R. S. R., 1877. Combe Woods, 1875 ; near Rowington ; on the side of a drain near Henley-in- Arden. Near Claverdon ; Spinney, near Farnborougli ; Binton Bridges. (To be continued.) 828 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— September, 1884. The barometer was rather low (29,591 inches) at the commence¬ ment of the month, and fell on the 4th and 7th, after which it rose quickly till the 12th, when it fell, and again rose to the 18th. A rapid fall succeeded, and a partial recovery was followed by unimportant fluctuations. The mean of barometric pressure was rather higher than the means for the month of September in previous years. The mean temperature was about 2J degrees above the average, the highest maxima recorded being 84T° at Loughborough, 82-0° at Henley-in-Arden, 78*2° at Hodsock, 77*2° at Strelley, and 76’5° at Coston Rectory — all occurring on the 17tli. In the rays of the sun, ISO’S0 was registered at Lough¬ borough on the 13th, 126’0° at Hodsock on the 17th, and 123’2° at Strelley on the 9th. The night temperatures were comparatively high ; minimum readings of 30 ’0° at Coston Rectory, 32'0° at Henley- in-Arden, and 32-3° at Hodsock, were registered on the 30th. At Loughborough, at 8 a.m. on the 10tli, the minimum for the previous twenty-four hours was as high as 60 '0°, and on fifteen nights the minimum was above 500°. Rain-fall was much below the average, and forms a strong contrast to that of September, 1883. The total values during the past month were: — Henley-in-Arden, 1’35 inches; Loughborough, 1T9 inches; Strelley, 1T3 inches; Coston Rectory, 0-98 inches ; Hodsock, 0’83 inches. At none of these stations did the fall in twenty-four hours reach 0-40 of an inch. Dews were abundant, so that the root crops did not suffer through lack of moisture. Thunder¬ storms were “ conspicuous for their absence,” considering the high temperature and the (apparently) favourable conditions. Sunshine was above the average. The wind direction was variable, its force generally moderate, with, occasionally, fresh breezes. Wm. Berridge, F.R.Met.Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. Notes from Woking. — Perhaps the following facts in connection with the economy of an insect which (from its resemblance to an Ichneumon Fly) is often overlooked, may be of interest to the readers of the “ Midland Naturalist,” and induce them to watch more closely the habits of these wonderful creatures, whose life histories are but little known. On June 27tli I started out for a ramble across one of the commons here. The brilliancy and heat of the sun was something to be felt and remembered. Very few insects were about, but at 12.30, on arriving at one of the numerous bare patches on the common, I observed a Sand Wasp (Mucus cavipestris) dart across my path and “pitch” on to the sand in front of me. It immediately commenced to walk rapidly about, keeping its antennas in constant motion, tapping the ground as if in search of something. I concluded that in crossing and recrossing the spot I had inadvertently covered up the entrance to its burrow. So I quietly sat down and watched its movements. After NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 329 scratching away the sand it came upon its burrow, down which it went, but not quite out of sight ; it backed out almost immediately, bringing in its jaws a small pebble which just about fitted the burrow. The wasp then flew a distance of four inches and dropped the pebble, flew back to the burrow, entered, and went out of sight, but only for less than thirty seconds, when if backed out again, and I expected to see it fly away, instead of which it flew to the pebble, took it up in its jaws, flew back to its burrow, dropped the pebble in, and then flew away. It returned in some thirty-five seconds, entered its burrow for a few seconds, backing out again, bringing in its jaws the pebble which it had but a minute before dropped down the hole ; flying away a distance of nine inches it dropped its load, immediately returned to its burrow, around which it strutted and turned about exactly like a cock pigeon. It then entered, and stayed in the burrow about half a minute, and on backing out flew to and picked up the same pebble, with which it flew back to its burrow and once more dropped it in ; then it commenced to collect smaller pebbles, each one being placed most carefully down the hole until it was almost filled up level with the surface. The wasp then collected smaller grains of sand, and after placing these in she took several jawfuls of the finest sand close to the hole, making the ground quite level, over which she strutted a number of times, then flew on to the heather, pinching off a dead capsule, which was placed in a careless manner just on one side of where the burrow had been ; a small twig of heather, half an inch long, was next laid near the capsule, then a dead leaf and another capsule, until it was impossible to detect the exact place of the burrow. The wasp had now made twenty-seven gatherings of pebbles, sand, capsules, &c., and was apparently satisfied, for after a final strut round it flew away, and though I waited some ten minutes it did not return. It occupied just 7^ minutes in completing its work. Was it instinct or reason which enabled this wasp to protect its eggs during its absence by placing the pebble down its burrow ? — Fred. Enoch. Alternaria Brassic^ (Berk.), Sacc. — A question is asked (p. 269 ante) by Mr. W. B. Grove as to Saccardo’s figure of this species representing the spores attached by the wrong end. Saccardo figures two forms. Mr. Grove does not say to which of them he alludes. Figure 736 (Fung. Ital.) represents a plant on Brassica oleracea referred by the author to Berkeley’s Macrosporiwn Brassiere, but differing in size from that ; he calls it “ forma minor.” The spores are represented as detached from the sporopliores with the small end downwards, which is doubtless the ordinary position, and to me this is nothing more nor less than 31. Brassiere, Berk., as Saccardo himself thinks — to me not even a form. In figure 1206 of the same work he represents another form on Citrus aurantium, which he calls “ forma citri,” in which the spores are represented in various positions, one with the small end downwards and three with the small end upwards. It is this figure to which I suppose Mr. Grove refers, but knowing how variable the outline assumed by some of the congeners of this plant is, I would not venture to say that Saccardo has misrepresented it ; nor yet because some of them are borne on the sporopliores the small end upwards that it is not a form of Berkeley’s species. Some experience in examining these lower fungi inclines me to allow rather wide limits for variation of contour of spores. I have this moment under the microscope a spore of 3Iacrosporium Brassiere, Berk., with a stem-like prolongation of the two ends, fusiform in fact. Corda represents Alternaria tenuis, Nees., with narrow ends upwards and downwards; Saccardo as having them upwards. — William Phillips, Shrewsbury. 330 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. Saxifraga Cerntta.— It will be interesting to some botanists to learn, on the authority of Dr. F. Buchanan White (see “Scottish Naturalist,” October, 1884), that this plant, which has been supposed to maintain itself on Ben Lawers indefinitely without producing seeds, has of late years at least been annually found in flower on that mountain, and is even extending its ground. It does not follow, of course, that it has produced perfect seed (of this nothing is said) ; but its flowering prima facie withdraws one argument from those who put it forward as contradicting the Spencerian doctrine of the necessity of fertilisation for the continued permanence of a species. — W.B.G. The British Moss Flora. — Part VIII. of this superb publication of Dr. Braitliwaite’s has just been issued. It is devoted entii’ely to the Tortulaceae, and contains six exquisitely engraved plates. We shall review this in our next number. George Bentham. — We omitted to mention in the last number the death of this veteran botanist, which took place on September 10th. It will not be necessary to enter upon the details of his work here, as that has been fully done in an article in “Nature” of October 2nd; but it may be permissible to draw attention to the coincidence, by which his death followed at no long interval after the completion of the great work in which he was associated with Dr. Hooker — the “Genera Plantarum”- — at which he laboured for twenty- one years. His health had previously shown signs of weakness, but as soon as his long-continued labours were at an end it rapidly gave way, and he died within a few days of his eighty-fifth year. cprts of Sotieties. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — General Meeting, held September 30tli.- — Mr. Bolton exhibited Asplanchna priodonta and two new rotifers recently found near Birmingham and named by Dr. Hudson Conochilus dossuarius and Pompholix sulcata. Mr. Udall exhibited the head of the stag beetle, Lvcanus cervus ; Mr. Marshall, plants, Ac., from the United States and Canada. General Meeeing, held October 7tli. — Mr. J. T. Blakemore exhibited Spongilla lacustris from Edgbaston Reservoir, and Saprolegnia on a dead entomostracan. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited the following fungi: — Cortinarius hinnuleus, Agaricus testaceus , and Arcyria nutans , from Bradnock’s Marsh ; Arcyria punicea , Trichia chrysosperma , Diciydium cermium , from Sutton ; and the fruit of the Spindle tree, showing the beautiful scarlet aril ; he also exhibited quaternate spores of an agaric in situ. Mr. W. R. Hughes exhibited Crenilabrus Melops , the corkwing wrasse, and Gasterosteus spinachia, the fifteen-spined stickleback, from the Menai Straits ; he also exhibited the head of Vanessa urticce (smaller tortoiseshell butterfly), and a very young specimen of Hippocampus brevirostris (the sea horse), showing the gill tufts; both the latter specimens were mounted by Mr. F. W. Sharpus, London. Mr. T. H. Waller exhibited felspar crystals, showing zones of the glassy ground-mass of the lava shut in during the stages of growth, and basalt lava from Montserrat, West Indies; also minute intergrowth of felspar and quartz felsite from St. Davids, South Wales. Mr. J. F. Goode exhibited Spirogyra quinina in conjugation, and a section of chalk, showing organisms. Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited the REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 331 following birds, nests, and eggs : — Birds : Tringa subarquata, in summer plumage, Breydon Broad ; Xema Sabinii, near Coleshill ; Calcarius lapponicus, male and female, in summer plumage, Norway ; Fratercula arctica, immature, caught in Broad Street, Birmingham ; Uria grylle , male, immature in winter plumage, Fame Islands ; Uria grylle , male, in nearly full summer plumage, which is very remarkable, as this specimen was shot February 1st, 1884, Fame Islands. Nest and eggs of Antlius pratensis, Acrocephalus streperus, Acrocephalus phragmitis , Emberiza schamiclus , Fringilla coelebs, and Accentor modular i s, e&ch of the above containing egg of Cuculus canorus, the common cuckoo. Nest and eggs of Panwrus biarmicus , Emberiza, miliaria , and Cinclus aquations. Mr. France exhibited a fasciated stem of the garden nasturtium. Mr. Lowe exhibited foraminifera from chalk. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited a fungus or alga growing inside the body cavity of the bag-rotifer, Asplanchna. Mrs. Browett exhibited some nuts from which oil is extracted in the South Sea Islands ; also pods of a cotton plant ( ? Gossypium). Mr. J. Morley exhibited the head of a parasitic bee mounted without pressure. Biological Section and Sociological Section (combined meeting), held October 14tli. — W.R. Hughes, F.L.S., in the chair. Professor Hillhouse, B.A., gave a most interesting and instructive exposition of chapter xi. of Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology, “ Classification.” This was followed by a discussion, in which Messrs. W. R. Hughes, W. B. Grove, B.A., J. T. Collins, and F. J. Cullis took part. Mr. Bolton exhibited Paludicella Ehreubergi , Fredericella Sultana, Plumatella repens, &c., Miss Jermyn, Glaucium luteum, the horned poppy, from Eastbourne ; Miss Taunton, lichens, Gladonia cornucopioides, C. pyxidata, C. rangiferina, from New Forest ; Mr. J. E. Bagnall, fungi, Agaricus mappa, Ag. muscarius, Ag. clavipes, Ag. maculatus,' Ag. spectabilis, Gantharellus cibarius, Lactarius turpis , L. deliciosus, Boletus lundus, &c., from near Sliustoke ; and for Mr. G. S. Tye, fungi, Agaricus racliodes and Ag. tdcalinus, from his garden at Hands- worth. Microscopical General Meeting, held October 21st. — Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited, on behalf of tlieRev. D. C. 0. Adams, Agaricus Bloxami from near Tetsworth, and on behalf of Dr. Cooke Agaricus pyriodorus, Ag. atratus, Ag. rusticus, Cortinarius triumphans, and Geaster fimbriatus from near Hereford, and Pax Ulus atro-tomentosus from Surrey. Mr. Bagnall also exhibited Agaricus saponaceus, Ag. tuba, Ag. gatericulatus, var. calopus, Ag. cervinus , Ag. furfuraceus, Ag. ericceus, Ag. retirugis, Cortinarius hinnuleus, (7. caninus, Lactarius controversus , L. pyrogalus, Ilussula consobrina, var. sororia, R. fellea, R. depallens, Lentinus cochleatus, Boletus parasiticus, B . pachypus ,Peziza badia,Cordycepsmilitaris, and many others. Some of these species are new to the district. Miss Taunton exhibited Coprinus comatus from St. Thomas’s Churchyard. Mr. Bolton exhibited Merismopcedia glauca. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited a fine specimen of Merulius lachrymans, the “ Dry-Rot,” from a manu¬ factory at Smethwick ; also Agaricus Jlavo-brunneus, Cortinarius gentilis, and Beedalea confragosa, from Windley Pool, Sutton. Dr. M. C. Cooke read a paper on “ The Life History of an Alga,” which will appear in a future number of the “ Midland Naturalist.” Geological Section, October 28th. — Mr. T. H. Waller, B.Sc., read a paper on “ The Igneous Rock of Penmaenmawr.” This is a mass of enstatite diabase, becoming fine-grained and slightly porphyritic at the edge ; it also contains many light-grey veins, which prove to be considerably more acid than the general mass of the rock, and to show a beautiful micropegmatite structure. The paper was illustrated by photographs of views and sections shown by the lime-light. Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited Ag. heteroclitus (rare, not found here since 1881), Ag. mappa. 332 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. Boletus badius , Ag. acutesquamosus (rare, new to the district), Ag. squamosus, Russula drimeia, R. depalleus , R. Integra , R. fragilis , id. ochroleuca , 7i\ nigricans , 7t. cyanoxantha , Fistulina hepatica , and Sporo- dinia grand is , all from Sutton and Sutton Park. Mr. J. E. Bagnall exhibited d#. ( Triclioloma) imbricatus, new to Warwickshire; Boletus chrysenteron, and other fungi ; for Mrs. E. Hopkins, Sphagnum rigidum var. compaction, S. cuspidatum var. falcatum , -S', tenellum , £. acutifolium var. purpureum, Polytrichum commune var. minus, and other mosses from Hampshire. BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — September 22nd. Mr. Dunn exhibited, on behalf of Mr. Baxter, specimens of larvse of Pale Tussock Moth, Orgyia pudibunda, popularly known as the “ Hop Dog;” Mr. Hawkes, Gentaurea nigra, with fungus, Puccinia compos itarum ; Mr. lnsley, a collection of fossils from the Red Crag of Essex, also a number of sharks' teeth from Eocene formation. Under the microscope, Mr. Tylar showed poison bag, gland, and fang of spider, Epeira diadema ; Mr. Foster, young spiders, just hatched, and zoea of shore crab ; Mr. J. W. Neville, palate of Doris Jlammea ; Mr. Hawkes, seeds of Parnassia palustris ; Mr. Bradbury, section of young vegetable marrow. — September 29th. Mr. Delicate, a specimen of long- eared bat, Plecotus auritus ; Mr. Hawkes, a Lichen, Cenomyces deformis, in fruit ; Mr. Deakin, Puccinia Menthce, on garden mint ; Mr. Moore, Bulimus obscurus, Pupa secale, and other shells, from Swanage. Under the microscopes, Mr. Foster showed tongue of honey bee; Mr. J. W. Neville, a section of Yore- dale Limestone, with goniatites in situ. Mr. Betteridge then read a paper (the first of a series) on the “ Birds of the District.” — October 6 th. Mr. Moore exhibited a collection of Caddis cases, showing various materials and modes of structure ; Mr. Darley, ichneumon Hies from cocoon of Vanessa atalanta ; Mr. Hawkes, the resting stage of a fungus, Claviceps purpurea, on Lolium. Under the microscopes, Mr. Grew showed peculiar fibre in Japanese paper by polarised light; Mr. Hawkes, eggs of house hy ; Mr. Foster, water spider, Argyroneta aquatica ; Mr. J. W. Neville, comb -footed ichneumon hy, Ophion luteum. A paper was then read by Mr. Hawkes on the “Rise and Progress of Systematic Botany,” which described the early knowledge of plants as pursued by herbalists on account of their curative properties. The work achieved by Gerard Tradescant and Nehemiah Grew was enlarged upon. The systems of Tournefort, Ray, Linnaeus, and Jussien were then reviewed, the basis of each being pointed out, with the additions made by later botanists. The paper concluded by describing some of the natural divisions of the vegetable world, and was rendered simpler by a number of diagrams. — October 13tli. Mr. Bradbury exhibited a specimen of Sweet Scabious, showing an abnormal growth consisting of a tuft of leaves springing from the centre of the receptacle ; Mr. lnsley, bony plates of Ichthyosaurus, from the Blue Lias clay ; Mr. J. Betteridge, the following birds : Dunlin, Tringa alpina ; Ringed Plover, JEgialites hiaticula; Curlew Sandpiper, Tringa subarquata ; Common Sandpiper, Tringoides hypoleucos ; and Sander- ling, Calidris arenaria, all from Rhyl; Mr. J. A. Grew, a book, “The Anatomy of Plants, with an Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants,” by Nehemiah Grew, dated 1682, which was much admired for the beauty of the plates. Under the microscopes Mr. Tylar showed silk glands of spider and sting of wasp, with poison gland, duct, &c. Plate VI The Piloboeidjs ON THE PILOBOLIDiE. 388 ON THE PILOBOLIDtE, WITH A SYNOPSIS OF THE EUROPEAN SPECIES, AND A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ONE. BY W. B. GROVE, B.A., HON. LIBRARIAN OF THIS BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. ( Continued from page 309.) 3.— PILOBOLUS CRYSTALLINTJS, Tode. Kristall-Schiodmmchen, O. F. Muller (174), “ Kleine Scliriften,” p. 122, pi. 7 (1782). Mucor obliquus, Scopoli, “ Flor. Carn.,” ii., 494 (1772). Hy drop era crystallina, Weber, “ Prim. Flor. Hols.,” p. 110(1780) — Ehrh., “Beytr.,” iii. , 122— Valil, “Flora Dan.,” vi., 1080 — Roth, “FI. Germ.,” i., 557. Pilobolus crystallinus, Tode, “ Schrift. Nat. Berl. Gesell.,” v., 46, pi. 1 (1784) ; “ Fung. Meek. Sel.,” i., 41 (1790)— Persoon, “ Obs. Myc.,” i., 76, pi. 4, f. 9-11 (1796) ; “Syn. Meth.,” p. 117 (1801)— Schum., “ Saell..” 11., 188 (1803) — Alb. et Schw. “ Consp.,” p. 72 (1805). Link, “ Diss.,” 1., 32, f. 50 (1809); “Spec. PL,” vi., 95; Handbk., iii., 480 (1833) — - Nees, sen., “Syst.,” p. 85, f. 81 (1816) - Fries, “ Syst. Myc.,” ii., PLATE YI. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. Fig. 1. Pilobolus longipes : (a), basal reservoir; (b), full-grown speci¬ men ; (c), spores (after Yan Tieghem). Fig. 2. P. nanus : (a), sporange, swelling, and intercalary mycelian apophyses; (b), spores; (c), stylospore (after Yan Tieghem). Fig. 3. P. exiguus and spore (after Bainier). Fig. 4. P. roridus : (a), three specimens, nat. size ; ( b ), another x 25 ; (c), spores x 380; (d), two mycelian apophyses x 50 (after Yan Tieghem). Fig. 5. Mucor roridus : at a, two separate sporangia (after Bolton). Fig. 6. Fungus Virginianus (after Plukeuet). Fig. 7. Pilaira Cesatii : (a), three specimens, nat. size ; (b), a sporange after dehiscence x 90 ; (c), summit of stem after fall of sporange, enclosing crystalloids of mucorine of two forms — one a hexagonal plate : the others, octahedra x 90 ; (d), spores x 380 (after Van Tieghem). Fig. 8. P. Cesatii: formation of zygospore x 200; in d, which is ripe, the warted exospore, the smooth thick endospore, and the large central oil-drop are shown ; (a, b, c after Van Tieghem, d after Brefeld). Fig. 9. P. nigrescens : (a), four specimens, nat. size; (b), a sporange after dehiscence x 90; (c), summit of stem after fall of sporange x 90 ; (d), spores x 380 (after Van Tieghem). Fig. 10. P. dimidiata : (a), plant with young sporange x 80 ; (5), columella x 120; (c), spores x 500 (from nature). 334 ON THE PILOBOLIDJE . 308 (1822); iii., 312 (1832); “Sum. Yeg. Sc.,” ii, 487 (1849)— Wahl., “ Flor. Suec.,” ii., 999 — Decand., “ FI. Fr.,” ii., 271 ; “Mem. du Mus.,” pi. 14, f. 4, a and b (1815) — G-rev. “ FI. Edin.,'’ p. 448 (1824) — Maison- neuve, “ An. Sc. Nat. , Ser. 1, ix., 221 (1826) — Leveille, “Mem. Soc. Linn. Par.,” iv., 622, pi. 20, and do. figs 1-6 (sub P. rorido) — Desmaz. “ An. Sc. Nat.,” ser. 1, x., 145 (1827) — Montagne, “ Mem. sur gen. Pil.,” p. 5 (1827) — Linn., “ Syst. Veget.,” iv., pt. 1, p. 519 (1827) — Gacliet, “Mem. Soc. Linn. Bordeaux,” ii., 159 (1828) — Bischoff, “Hand. Bot. Term.,” ii., p. 1012, f. 3724, and f. 3725 (sub P. rorido) — Merat, “Flor. Par.,” i., 40 — Chevallier, “Flor. Par.,” ed. 2, i., 73, pi. 4, f. 27 — Wallr. “Fl. Germ.,” ii., 318 (1831) — Berkeley, “Eng. FL,” p. 231 (1836); “Grevillea,” iii., 149, ex Carolina , U.S.A. (1875) ; non “ Intell. Obs.,” vi., 252 — Nees, jun. “ Syst.” i., 32, pi. 5 (1837) — Raben., “ Kr. Fl.,” i., 135 (1844); “ Herb. Myc.,” ed. nov., No. 78; “Fung. Eur.,” No. 270 — Loudon, “ Encyl. PI.,” p. 1024, f. 16349 (1829) — (?)Guigneau, “Mem. Soc. Linn. Bordeaux,” xviii (1852-3) — Bail, “Bot. Zeit. Mohl,” p.629 (1855) — Fuckel, “ Symb. Myc.,” p. 73 (1869); exs. 49 — Cooke, “ Haudb. Br. Fung.,” p.633 (1871) — Luerssen, “Hand. Syst. Bot.,” i., 62 (1879) — Bucknall, “ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.,” ii., 348 (1879) — Yize, “ Cat. PI. Forden ” in Coll. Powys-land Club, xv., 1, part 30 — Stevenson, “Myc. Scot.,” p. 291 (1879) — Saccardo, “Myc. Yen.,” 495; “Fung. Ven.,” v., 172 (1876).* Mucor urceolatus, Dickson, “Fasc. PI. Crvpt.,” i., 25, pi. 3, f. 6 (1785) — Bolton, “Hist. Fung.,” iii., No. 169, pi. 133, f. 1 (1789) — Bulliard, “ Champ.,” i., 111., pi. 480, f. 1 (1790) — Sowei’by, “ Eng. Fungi,” pi. 300 (1796) — Withering, “ Brit. PI.,” ed. 4, iv., 394 (1801) — Purton, “ Midi. Fl.,” ii., No. 1123 (1817). Pilobolus urceolatus , Purt., 1. c ., iii., 325, pi. 31 (1821). Non P. crystallinus, Cohn. Sub-species a.— P. EU-CRYSTALLINUS. P. crystallinus, Corda, “ Icon.,” vi., 12, pi. 2, f. 32 (1854) — Coemans, “Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,” viii., 770, f. 1-16 (1859); “Monogr.,” p. 57, pi. 2, f. 1-20 (1861) — Yan Tieghem, “ Nouv. Rech. Muc.,” ex An. Sc. Nat., p. 43 (1875) ; “Trois. Mem.,” ibid., p. 24, pi. 10, f. 4, 5 (1878) — Bainier, “ Etude,” p. 41 (1882). P. microsporus, Brefeld, “Bot. Unters.,” iv., 70, pi. 4., f. 16, 19-22 (1881). Stem slender, elongated; swelling ovoid; basal reservoir roundish, generally concealed; spores pale yellow or nearly colourless, equal, elliptic, 8-10 x 5-6,“. (PI. iv., fig. 16.) Stem 5-7 mm, high. Basal reservoir sometimes intercalary. Sporange black above, sometimes marked with hexagonal reticulations in white, one hexagon at the top, surrounded by a circle of others. Columella conical, dingy. Spores with no distinct epispore, not ger¬ minating in water, but only in a nutrient solution, somewhat flattened at the sides, having a greenish tinge in the mass. I have met with this species in company with P. Kleinii, each retaining its proper characters. Yan Tieghem’s contention, that the presence of the hexagonal reticulations is a specific character, is unfounded. On all kinds of dung; common. Paler than P. Kleinii. England, Scotland (?), France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, America (?). ‘•''Many of tlie quotations under this head are perhaps referable to other species. ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . 385 4. Sub-species b. — P. KLEINII, Van Tieghem. Pilobolus roridus, Cnrrey, “ Linn. Journ.,” i., 162, pi. 2 (1857). Pilobolus crystallinus, Klein, “ Zur Kennt. Pil.,” p. 860, pi. 23-7, f. 1-52 (1870) — Brefeld, “ Bot. Unters.,” iv., 70, pi. 4, f. 15 (1881). Pilobolus Kleinii , Van Tieghem, “ Trois. Mem.,” p. 26, pi. 10, f. 6-10 (1878) — Saccardo, “ Myc. Ven.,” No. 454 — Bainier, “ Etude,” p. 43, pi. 2, f. 14-5 (1882) — Grove, “ Journ. Bot.,” p. 131, pi. 245, f. 4 (1884). Stem rather slender; swelling ovoid; basal reservoir roundish, generally concealed; spores orange, oval, unequal, averaging 15^x8^. (PI. iv., figs. 1-8, 10-13.) Stem not as high as in crystallinus ; basal reservoir never inter¬ calary ; sporange never reticulated. Columella sometimes colourless ; spores bright orange, not granular, germinating only in decoction of dung or other nutrient solution. There is usually a band of orange granular matter at the base of the swelling, which is wanting in P. eu- crystallinus. On all kinds of dung; probably common, but for a long time con¬ founded with P. eu-crystallinus. England, France, Germany, Italy. P. KLEINII, forma SPHJER0SP0RA, mihi. Pilobolus lentigerus, Corda, “Icon.,” i., 22, pi. vi.. f. 286 (1837) — Babeu., “ Krypt. FI.,” p. 136 (1844) — Bonorden, “Haudbk.,” p. 128 (1851) — Coemans, “ Monogr.,” p. 62 (1861). Pycnopodium lentigerum, Corda, “Icon.,” v. 18 (1842); “Anleit.,” p. 71, pi. C, f. 25 (1842). Pilobolus crystallinus, Bonorden, “ Handbk.,” p. 128, pi. 10, f. 203 (1851), “ die sporen sindrund und gelbP Pilobolus cedipus, Brefeld, “Bot. Unters.,” iv., 69, pi. 3, f. 1-10 ; pi. 4, f. 11-14 (1881) — vars. b et c, Klein, l.c., p. 360, pi. 27, f. 50; pi. 26, f. 40 b (1870). Pilobolus Kleinii, forma sphcerospora, Grove, “Journ. Bot.,” p. 132, pi. 245, f. 5 (1884). Sub P. Kleinii, Van Tieghem, “ Trois. Mem.,” p. 26 (1878). Stem shorter than in the normal form ; spores round, sometimes irregular, orange, lG-21/q often granular. (PI. iv., fig. 9.) With P. Kleinii, at the beginning of growth, passing gradually into the normal form. The spores vary considerably in size. The figures and descriptions of the authors quoted show that they had this form before them, and not, as has been surmised, P. oedipus. Corda’s P. lentigerus is only a badly nourished form, such as is often met with. Coemans’ intermedia is the transition form from this to P. Kleinii. England, France, Germany, Austria. 5.— PILOBOLUS LONGIPES, Van Tieghem. Pilobolus longipes, Van Tieghem, “Trois. Mem.,” p. 27, pi. 10, f. 11-15 (1878)— Bainier, “Etude.,” p. 46, pi. 2, f. 11-13 (1882). Pilobolus roridus, Brefeld, “Bot. Unters.,” iv., 70, pi. 4, f. 17 (1881). Stem tall, slender ; swelling ovoid ; basal reservoir long, cylindrical, creeping, external ; spores orange, equal, oval or almost globular, 13^ x 11 /q with a thickened sometimes bluish-black membrane. (PI. vi., fig. 1.) 336 ON THE PILOBOLIDiE . Stem much taller than in any other species, 2-3 or even 5 cm. high. Sporange J mm. in diameter. Columella conico-cylindric, bluish-black. Spores dark green in the mass. Basal reservoir 1^-2 mm. long, rooting. Swelling 1 mm. or more broad. On horse and dog dung. France, Germany. 6. — P. RORIDUS, Persoon. Fungus (a stercore equino), Bay, “Hist. Plant.,” ii. , 1928 (1688); iii. , 24 (1704) ; “ Syn. Metli.,” ed. ii., p. 322 (1699) ; ed. iii., p. 13 (1724) - — Petiver, “ Gazophyl.,” pi. 105, fig. 14 (1711). Fungus virginianus, Pluk, “ Phyt.,” pi,. 116, f. 7. Mucor roridulus, Withering, “ Bot. Arr.,’’ ed. 1, ii., 784 (1776). Mucor roridus, Bolton, “ Hist. Fung.,” iii., No. 168, pi. 132, f. 4 (1789) — Withering, “ Brit. PL,” ed. 4, iv., 394 (1801) — Belhan, “ Flor. Cantab.,” p. 579 (1820). Pilobolus roridus , Persoon, “Syn. Metli.,” p. 118 (1801) —Schu¬ macher, “ Saell.,” ii., 188 (1803) — Alb. et Schwein., “ Consp. Fung.,’-' p. 72 (1805) — Link, “Spec. PL,” i., 96; “Handb.,” iii., 480 (1833 J — Fries, “ Syst. Myc.,” ii., 309 (1822) ; iii., 312 (1832) ; “ Summ. Veg. Sc.,” p. 487 — Linnaeus, “ Syst. Yeget.,” iv., pt. 1, p. 519 (1827) — Loudon, “ Encycl. Pl.,” p. 1024, f. 16349 (1829) — Berkeley, “Eng. FL,” v., 231 (1836) — Baben., “ Krypt. FL,” i., 135 (18441 — Bonorden, “ Handbk.,” p. 128 (1851)— Bail, “Bot. Zeit. Mohl,” pp. 629-35 (1855) — Coemans, “ Monogr.,” p. 61, pl. 2, f. B (1861) — Cooke, “Handbk. Br. Fung.,” p. 633 pro parte (1871) — Van Tieghem, “Nouv. Bech. Muc.,” p. 46, pl. 1, f. 7-13 (1875) — Stevenson, “Myc. Scot.,” p. 291 (1879) — Yize, “Cat. Pl. Forden ” — Bainier, “Etude,” p. 44, pl. 2, f. 16 (1882). Pilobolus microsporus, Klein, “ Zur KeDnt. Pil.,” p. 360, pl. 27-8, f. 53-67 (1870). Non P. roridus, Leveille, nec Bischoff, nec Currey, nec Cooke, fig. 301, nec Brefeld. Probably also some of those quoted above belong to P. crystallinus, when no figure is given. Stem long, slender, cylindrical, colourless ; swelling globular ; sporange hemispherical, depressed, black, much smaller in diameter than the swelling ; basal reservoir usually intercalary, concealed ; spores elliptic, faintly yellowish in the mass, 6-8fx3-4f. (Pl. vi., figs. 4-6). Stem 1-2 cm. high, with less colour than in any other species. Swelling abrupt. Dew-drops very abundant. Columella flatly convex, dingy. On the dung of horse, hare, etc. Sometimes occurring with P. crystallinus (?) England, France, Germany. Not common. 7.— PILOBOLUS NANUS, Yan Tieghem. Pilobolus nanus , Yan Tieghem, “Trois. Mem.,” p. 29, pl. 10, f. 16-22 (1878). iStern short, slender; swelling globular ; sporange globular, yellow, of the same diameter as the swelling, with a small apophysis; basal reservoirs globular, intercalary, two, three or even five together; spores colourless, homogeneous, spherical, 3-5-4^. (Pl. vi., fig. 2.) The whole plant is colourless except the sporangial membrane. Stem hardly 1 mm. high. Columella flatly convex, inserted above the ON THE PILOBOLIDiE 387 base of the terminal sphere, so as to leave a small apophysis. This species produces, on the same mycelium, on short lateral recurved branches, stellate stylospores, which are colourless or faintly yellow, 15 — 20/4 in diameter. On excrement of rats. France ; rare. July. II. PILAIRA, Van Tieghem. Stem erect, continuous, with no septum at the base, no swelling above. Sporange not projected, otherwise as in Pilobolus. A thick gelatinous layer between the spores and the columella. Spores as in Pilobolus. 1.— PILAIRA CESATII, Van Tieghem. Pilobolus anornalus, Cesati in Klotzscli, “ Herb. Myc.,” No. 1542, cum descript. (1851) — Hoffmann, “Index Myc.,” p. 64 (I860)— Coemans, “ Monogr.,” p. 63 (1861) — Fuckel, “ Symb. Myc.,” p. 73 (1869) ; exs. 2203 — Brefeld, “Bot. Unters.,” iv., 60-5, pi. 4, f. 18, 23-8 (1881), pro parte. Ascopliora Cesatii , Coemans, l.c., p. 65, pi. ii., f. E (1861). Pilobolus Mucedo , Brefeld, l.c., i., 27, pi. 1, f. 25, 6 (1872). Pilaira Cesatii, Van Tieghem, “Nouv. Rech. Muc.,” p. 52, pi. 1, f. 14-24 (1875) — Bainier, “ Etude,” p. 29, pi. 1, f. 16-8 (1882) — Grove, “ Journ. Bot.,” p. 132, pi. 245, f. 6 (1884). Stem tall, slender, cylindrical, colourless, becoming flexuose, sporange at first spherical, then hemispherical, black, with a small granular apophysis ; columella hemispherical, colourless ; spores oval, equal, yellowish in the mass, 8-10/* x 6/4.* (PI. vi., figs. 7, 8.) Stem 1-2 cm. high, when the sporange is first formed, afterwards increasing to 10-12 cm. When the sporange dries somewhat, the apophysis disappears within as in Ascophora. This species produces zygotes which are black, oval, 100/^x120/4, adorned with numerous minute warts, formed by two unequal conjugating cells. On the dung of horse, ass, pig, rabbit, goose. England, France, Germany. Probably common. 2.— PILAIRA NIGRESCENS, Van Tieghem. Pilaira nigrescens , Van Tieghem, “Nouv. Rech. Muc.,” p. 60, pi. 1,. f. 25-8 (1875) — Bainier, “Etude,” p. 32 (1882). Stem shorter, more slender ; apophysis small ; columella blackish ; spores splierial, unequal, 5-6/*, faintly yellowish in the mass. (PI. vi., fig. 9j. Distinguished by its spores, and its conical, bluish or violet-black columella. On excrement of rabbit. France ; rare. * Coemans gives the size of the spores 13-16/4x10/4, Brefeld 7,5/4x4/a (according to the figure, but the text says: “*006 mm. broad ”) ; I found them 11-12/4 x lu. 388 ON THE PILOBOLIDjE. 3.— PILAIRA DIMIDIATA, milii. Pilobolus anomalus, Brefeld, l.c. pro parte (1881). Pilaira inosculans , milii, ohm, “ Mid. Nat.,” vi., 119 (1883). Pilaira dimidiata, Grove, “ Journ. Bot.,” p. 132, pi. 215, f. 7 (1884). P. stipite curto, gracili, asquali, apice denique nutante ; sporangio primo flavido, demum nigro; columella leviter colorata, convexa, prope sequatorem vesiculse apicalis inserta, ifcaque apopliysin magnam liyalinam prsebente, ubi adest in f nngo vegeto constrictio profundula ; sporis liyaliuis, dilutis- sime flavidis, elliptico-oblongis, 12-14/^x 5-Qu. (PI. vi., %. 10.) Stem ^-1 mm. liigh, when the sporange becomes black ; afterwards increasing to 3-4 mm. Sporange -10-'12 mm. in diameter. Distinguished from P. Cesatii, not orly by its much smaller size, but also by its peculiar apophysis, which is almost as large as the sporange, but slightly less in diameter and not granular. It can scarcely be a badly nourished form of P. Cesatii , as it grew luxuriantly on a rich substr turn. On dog’s dung. March, April. England ; rare. Met with in one locality only, Worcestershire. Tills concludes the known species of Pilobolidae. It will be seen that tliey form a close series, which, taken in con¬ junction with the Mueoridae, clusters around two points, Pilobolus Kleinii, and Pilaira Cesatii. The affinities of the species, considered in the light of evolution, are very curious. We must suppose that a Mucor possessed, as many Mucors are, e. g. Mucor plasmaticus, of an abundance of the interstitial gelatinous substance in its sporangium, became provided with an upper indurated cap, and a lower diffluent zone. Many species of Mucorkke do show a decided difference in the per¬ sistence of different parts of their sporangial membrane, e.g. Circinella. The sporange would thereby be enabled to drop off its stem, with the spores included. This would probably be an advantage in one respect, as preserving the spores from adverse influences, till sufficient moisture was obtained to en¬ able them to germinate. But it would be accompanied by a drawback, in that the diffusion of the spores would be less complete ; thus we should not expect the species of Pilaira to be widely spread. But now the faculty of intercalary growth, possessed by that portion of the stem of Pilaira and Mucor situated immediately beneath the sporangium, would vary slightly, allowing of a growth in breadth instead of length. If then a septum arose at the base, so as to permit of the attainment of sufficient tension in the swelling, we should inevitably arrive at the pro¬ jection of the sporange, in the way in which we know it to take place. Thus the spores would be widely dispersed. At the same time, the thick layer of gelatinous substance, which A FUNGUS FORAY IN THE MIDDLETON DISTRICT. 389 was almost a necessity in Pilaira, since by its swelling the sporange was removed from the stem, would tend to diminish in quantity as it has done in Pilobolus ; but as it would still have a use in binding the spore-mass together, it would not entirely disappear. Having then arrived at P. crystallinus, and P. Kleinii , we must regard cedipus as a degraded form, connected with the latter by the forma sphcerospora, and exiguus as a still lower stage. On the other hand lomjipos , the most splendid species of the group, is an advancement on Kleinii, and must be con¬ sidered as the highest type to which the evolution of the Mucorini, in this direction, has yet advanced. Since it would appear, then, that the species of Pilaira show us a distinct stage in the evolution of Pilobolus, at which they themselves have remained, while the true Piloboli have undergone a considerably greater development, the intermediate connecting forms having disappeared, we have a sufficient justification for the view (propounded by Van Tiegliem and adopted here) which places these two sets of species in two distinct genera. It is on such a basis, in fact, mainly, that genera can be satisfactorily established. A FUNGUS FORAY IN THE MIDDLETON DISTRICT. During a recent visit of the eminent Fungologist, Dr. Cooke, to Birmingham, I availed myself of this advantage to make an excursion in his company to a district in which I have long felt an interest, and from which I have recorded from time to time many good and rare fungi. The district lies between Sutton and Middleton, and includes Middleton Heath and the two prolific woods, Trickley Coppice and New Park. Trickley Coppice appears to be comparatively recent as a woodland, and doubtless in the days of Ray was a part of Middleton Heath ; New Park, however, is historic, and claims a special interest from its being more than once mentioned by E ay, in his Synopsis Methodica and Cataloyus Plantarum , for rare and interesting botanical treasures, notable among which is Osmunda reyalis, the Royal Fern. The district still retains many of its old features ; everywhere you see evidences of its former lieathlike characters. The waysides abounding in bramble, furze, heath, ling ; here and there, though now at rare intervals, the sheep’s scabious ; and in former times, as we may see by a letter from Ray to Mr. Lister, dated Middleton, 1GG9, the beautiful trailing stems of the cranberry, 340 A FUNGUS FORAY IN THE MIDDLETON DISTRICT. the heathlike bushes of the black crowberry, and, I have no doubt, the still more rare whortleberry were to be found ; but these are now merely records of the past. Scirpus caspitosus was also to be found in this district in Ray’s time, but so far as I have yet seen, this is also eradicated. Many of the fungi recorded by Ray were from this district, and it was from an interest in this great man’s work, and from a desire to see how many of the plants recorded by him were still to be found, that I began some ten years since to visit this district. My experience had taught me that the district was a rich one, and as it was also a most accessible one, I chose it for our excursion. As on this occasion Dr. Cooke and myself made notes of every Fungus that came within our ken, it may interest others to know what was noted. I may state that every fungus was carefully examined in the field, the more critical ones brought home for more thorough examination, and many of them afterwards exhibited at the Natural History Society’s meeting on the following Tuesday. The list of Fungi found I give below. Several of the species therein recorded are new to the district, and these I have put in italics. Many of them are rare and all were interesting, and gave a charm to a long but beautiful walk. Agaricus vaginatus Agaricus rimosus ,, phalloides ,, geophyllus ,, mappa ,, tener ,, rubescens ,, liypnorum ,, granulosus ,, furfuraceus , , melleus ,, aeruginosus ,, imbricatus ,, sublateritius ,, saponaceus ,, fascicularis ,, pliyllopliilus ,, eric cms ,, infundibuliformis ,, semilanceatus ,, tuba „ udus ,, brnmalis ,, spadiceus ,, ditopus ,, corrugis ,, raetaclirous ,, semiglobatus ,, laccatus ,, separatus ,, platyphyllus ,, retirugis ,, butyraceus ,, maculatus Coprinus atramentarius ,, dryopbilus ,, liiveus ,, rancidus ,, plicatilis ,, galericulatus ,, var. calopus Cortinarius caninus ,, filopes ,, liinnuleus ,, galopus ,, decipiens „ epipterygius ,, cer vinus Paxillus involutus ,, nidorosus ,, pascuus Hygrophorus pratensis ,, squarrosus ,, virgineus THE LATE HR. T. WRIGHT. 841 Hygrophorus ceraceus ,, psittaciuus Lactarius turpis ,, controversus „ pyrogalus ,, pallidus ,, quietus ,, glyciosmus „ mitissimus ,, subdulcis ,, camphoratus Russula nigricans ,, depallens ,, cyanoxantha „ consobrina ,, var. sororia ,, foetens ,, fellea ,, ochroleuca „ fragilis ,, integra Russula alutacea Marasmius peronatus ,, rotula Lentinus cochleatus Boletus luteus ,, flavus ,, parasiticus ,, chrysenteron ,, pacliypus ,, edulis ,, luridus ,, scaber Polvporus versicolor Sterium liirsutum Peziza badia Coniceps militaris James E. Bagnall. THE LATE DR. T. WRIGHT, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Dr. T. Wright, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. , Medical Officer of Health for the town of Cheltenham, and president of the Cheltenham Natural Science Society, after a long and painful illness, died at his residence, in St. Margaret’s Terrace, on the night of November 17th, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. He was born at Paisley, Renfrewshire, N.B., on November 9tli, 1809, and educated at the Grammar School of that town, being subse¬ quently articled to his brother-in-law, a surgeon and general prac¬ titioner. After the completion of his articles he proceeded to Ireland, and entered as an anatomical and surgical student in the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin, where he became the pupil of Professors Jacob and Harrison and Drs. Benson and Houston in anatomy, and Pro¬ fessors Colles and Willmot in surgery. He subsequently entered the Peter Street Anatomical School, under Messrs. Kirby and Ellis, where he was selected as assistant demonstrator ; all the preparations and dissections for Professor Ellis’s lectures being made by him. He became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, in 1832, and graduated at the University of St. Andrews in 1834 : shortly after which he settled in Cheltenham, where his life was subsequently passed in the active practice of his profession. He was elected surgeon to the Cheltenham Dispensary, continuing so for fifteen years, and for twenty years was surgeon to the General Hospital. When the 842 THE LATE DR. T. WRIGII Literary and Philosophic Association was founded he became one of its most active members, and was for some time its President. During different sessions he delivered several courses of lectures on compara¬ tive physiology, natural history, and palaeontology. During the earlier period of his professional life he devoted much time to microscopic anatomy, but owing to the effect it had on his eyesight he turned his attention more particularly to Palaeontology, selecting the oolitic rocks of the Cotteswold Hills as his especial field for study. Indefatigable as a worker he first made a large collection of the echinoderms, not only from localities in the vicinity but likewise from other oolitic formations, respecting the minute anatomy of which he read to the Cotteswold Field Club a series of memoirs, which were published in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History.” These attracted the attention of Professor Edward Forbes, F.B.S., who proposed to Dr. Wright that they should conjointly write a monograph on the British Fossil Echinodermata for the Palseonto- grapliical Society, those of the cretaceous and tertiary epochs being described and figured by the former and the oolitic ones by the latter. Professor Forbes, however, died prior to the completion of his portion of the work, consequently when Dr. Wright had finished the oolitic Ecliinidas he was requested by the council of the society to undertake his late colleague’s allotted task ; this he acceded to, and in I860 commenced the description, with figures, of all the cretaceous species, which occupied him more than twenty years, and forms a large quarto volume of 370 pages with 80 magnificent plates. In 1875, at the solicitation of the council of the same society, Dr. Wright commenced an extensive work upon the “Lias Ammonites of the British Isles,” materials for which he had been collecting for upwards of forty years, and which was completed in 1883 in a volume consisting of 500 pages of text, with nearly ninety plates. The whole of these works constitute four large quarto volumes, with 234 plates and 1,553 pages of descriptive letterpress. During this time he examined many public and private collections both in British and Foreign museums in order to compare all indigenous forms with such as are found on the continent. The accomplishment of this self- imposed task was the pleasure and delight of his life, and the Council of the Geological Society awarded him the Wollaston gold medal. He was elected a Fellow of the Boyal Society of Edinburgh in 1855, of the Geological Society in 1859, and of the Boyal Society of London in 1879. He took a deep interest in all subjects which tended to raiso the moral or intellectual character of his fellow-men, and when asked was always ready and willing to lecture upon useful subjects. A fluent and impressive speaker, he appeared to throw some new light upon every question which he touched, while no one was ever more ready to afford information to or assist a worker upon any subject he was engaged upon. THE LATE DK. T. WEIGHT. 348 Having been elected one of the Improvement Commissioners in 1853 he applied himself to solve many sanitary problems, while his advice was invaluable respecting the best method of obtaining water for the requirements of the town from the pure sources in the Cotteswold Hills instead of from the more polluted Severn. In 3873 he was offered and accepted the post of Medical Officer of Health for Cheltenham, Charlton Kings, and Leckhampton, on terms which rendered it necessary for him to retire from private practice. In 1877, when the Cheltenham Natural Science Society was instituted, he was unanimously elected as its first President, and at each annual meeting this selection has been re-endorsed. Under his auspices this Society has flourished and now numbers nearly 100 members, by one and all of whom he will be greatly missed. Not only will it be difficult to supply his place in an adequate manner, but also as an authority on the geological formations of Gloucester he had no equal, while his works on Echinoderms and Ammonites are universally admitted to be the best monographs which have appeared on these subjects. On the occasion of the visit of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies to Cheltenham, in 1881, he was elected President, and delivered an able and important address on “ The Physiography and Geology of the Country round Cheltenham.” It is to be hoped that the splendid collections of fossils which he has left behind him will find their way into some public museum. His funeral was attended, as a mark of respect and esteem, by the Mayor and Town Council of Cheltenham, the members of the medical profession of the town, and also of Gloucester, the members of the Natural Science Society, the President and Secretary of the Cottes¬ wold Field Club, and many of the local residents of Cheltenham and its vicinity. Dr. Wright leaves behind him one son and two daughters, the elder of whom is married to E. Wetliered, Esq., F.G.S., E.C.S., and the younger to the Rev. C. Wilcox, Yicar of Exton-Normanby. The following are some of the more important works and papers on Natural Science which were published by Dr. Wright. At first he confined himself to his favourite study of Comparative Anatomy, and wrote a memoir on a rare British Dolphin, Delphi nus tursio ; next a paper on Dr. Buckland’s theory of the action of the siphuncle in the pearly nautilus, Nautilus pompilius ; “On the Comparative Structure of the Skeletons of Zoophytes”; “An Outline of the Comparative Structure of the Organs of Locomotion in Radiated Animals”; “On the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Vision in the Auimal Kingdom”; “On the Maxillary Poison Glands of Grophilus longicornis ; and in 1855 a translation, greatly enlarged, of Agassiz and Gould’s “ Outlines of Comparative Physiology.” In 1850, “ A Stratigrapliical Account of the Section of the North- West Coast of the Isle of Wight.” In 1851, “A Stratigrapliical Account of the Section of Hordwell, on the Hampshire Coast ” ; “ On 344 ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. the Cidaridse of tlic Oolites, with a Description of some New Species of that Family.” In 1852, “ Contributions to the Palseontology of the Isle of Wight.” 1856, “ Monographs on British Fossil Echino- dermata ” ; “ Palaeontographical and Stratigraphical Relations of the Sands of the Inferior Oolite.” 1857, “ On the Fossil Echinoderms from the Island of Malta.” 1858-9, “ Monographs on the British Fossil Echinidia.” 1860, “ The Subdivisions of the Inferior Oolite in the South of England.” 1861, “ Fossil Oolitic Asteroidea.” 1863, “Fossil Echinidse of Malta;” “Ammonites of the Lias Formation.” “ On the Fossils from the Middle Lias of Dumbleton.” 1864 — 67, “British Fossil Ecliinodermata from the Cretaceous Formations.” 1866, “ On Coral Reefs, Present and Past.” 1867, “Monograph on the Oolitic Ophiuroidea.” 1869, “ On the Correlation of the Triassic Rocks of the Cote d’Or and the Cotteswold Hills.” 1875, “On the Geological and Palaeontological Characters of the Country around Bristol,” being his Presidential Address to the Geological Section of the British Association at the Bristol Meeting. 1878, “The Lias Ammonites of the British Islands,” Part I. — IV. 1882, “ The Cretaceous Ecliinodermata,” completed. 1883, “ The Lias Ammonites,” completed. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. The Annual Conversazione of this Society was given in the Town Hall, Birmingham, on November 4th. There was the usual large display of microscopes on the floor of the Hall ; beneath these, in number over sixty, there were exhibited a series of objects illustrating the “Short Synopsis of Natural History” which has recently been published by the Society. Among these objects were the following: — Mr. E. H. Wagstaff exhibited Amoeba proteus and various infusoria, including Spirostomum ambiguam and Bursa ri a tmncatella ; Messrs. J. Udall and A. J. Webb, Polycistina ; Mr. A. C. Goode, Sea Soundings of “ Challenger” Expedition ; Mr. J. T. Blakemore, Spongilla fiuviatilis and Cristatella mucedo ; Mr. W. R. Hughes, Sponges, Hydroids, Echino¬ derms, and Polyzoa; Messrs. E. de Hamel and W. G. Davy (of Tamworth), Hydroc ; Mr. Rabone, Hydra fusca , Stephanoceros , and Lopliopus crystallinus ; Mr. J. Levick, Carchesium polypinum and Notouimata aurita ; Mr. H. Hassall, Sida crystallina ; Mr. J. F. Goode, Daphnia pulex ; Mr. W. Graham, Larva of Crab, and a Hydroid, Campamilana, with expanded polyps; Mr. H. J. Sayer, Head of Wasp; Mr. H Miller, English Diamond Beetle and section of Echinus Spine; ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. o 4 r 0-1 0 Mr. C. T. Parsons, Tongue of Cat; Mr. C. H. Saunders, Feet of Spider; Mr. J. Edmonds, Ova of Liparis; Mr. W. B. Grove, a Bacterium in the rod and coccus stage; Mr. J. Morley, Arachnoidiscus ; Mr. W. P. Marshal], Fruit of Golden Fern and Anthers of Lily; Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Capsule of Scale-Moss and Peristomes of Mosses; Mrs. Babone, Volvox globator ; Mr. F. Derry, Spores of Osmunda ; Professor W. Hillhouse, fifteen slides illustrating the Continuity of Protoplasm; Mr. S. Walliker, section of Couch Grass stem by polarised light; Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Eozoon Canadense ; Mr. T. II. Waller, section of Obsidian from Mexico, showing polarisation by strain round a crystal ; Mr. S. Allport, Splierulitic Bhyolite ; Mr. J. Potts, Silex Avanturine, and Ancient Lava from Naples. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited a number of slides showing insect scales arranged like flowers ; mounted groups of Diatoms, one of which, of extraordinary beauty, was exhibited by Mr. J. F. Greenwa^ ; Marine Diatoms; Fresh- water Sponge; Skeleton of Frog (arranged by E. Wade Wilton) ; and a most beautiful and instructive series of Marine Animals, in tubes, from Naples, including Medusaa, Screw Coralline, Salpae, and Tubularia. Mr, F. J. Cullis showed a number of living Lampreys from the Severn, also a preserved Sea Lamprey, and a series of Amphioxus. Mr. F. Enock exhibited a large number of slides mounted by himself, special attention being directed to a series of the Mymaridje (the most minute winged insects in Great Britain), including M. cosmocoma and many as yet undescribed species. Mr. J. H. Shocbotham exhibited a large number of Photographs of Wood Sections, and took one (in thirty seconds) during the evening, showing and explaining the whole process. In the galleries, Professor Hillhouse exhibited Models and Raw Materials illustrating the Chemistry of Beer, and a series of large diagrams illustrating the Vegetable Kingdom ; Mr. W. Southall, thirty varieties of the Common Gourd ( Cucarbita Pepo) grown in the open air ; Mr. W. R. Hughes, Euplcctella aspergillum , (Venus’s Flower- basket Sponge), from the Phillipine Islands, and Spongia oculifera, from the chalk; and, on behalf of Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.S., a beau¬ tiful Purple Sponge, Suberites Wilsoni, from Australia; Rev. W. Robinson, Ammonites from South Somerset ; Mr. W. J. Harrison, a collection of Rocks, Fossils, and Meteorites, with models employed in teaching Physiology, etc. ; Mr. S. Walliker, a number of interesting relics from Cyprus, including Vases, Effigies, and Lamps, a Moorish matchlock, Japanese Sword, Mate Teapot, etc.; Mr. J. E. Bagnall, a collection of Mosses from Bolton Woods, Yorkshire ; Rev. H. Boyden, British Sea-Weeds ; Mr. W. B. Grove, a large collection of Fungi, from Sutton Park, including Corlinarius collinitus , Ptychogaster albus, the rare Russula drimeia , and the edible species, Agaricus rubescens , A. nebularis , A. ostreatus, Coprinus atramentarius , and G. comatus ; Mr. R. W. Chase, a much-admired collection of British Birds’ Nests and Eggs ; Mr. J. Gibbins, British Birds’ Eggs. Collections of Birds and other Animals were also exhibited by Messrs. Franklin, Coburn Bros., and Spicer. 84 G METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. Mr. S. Henson exhibited a fine collection of Minerals, including some magnificent crystals of Stibnite, lately found in Japan. Crystals of this mineral are usually about one inch long ; they have been found in this mine twenty -four inches long, and showing a number of faces previously unknown ; he also showed models of Historical Diamonds, “ Sherry-coloured ” Topaz, from Siberia, and other minerals. Mr. C. J. Woodward exhibited Barytes Crystals, from Salop, and Minerals and Models used in teaching the Institute Mineralogy Class. Mr. G. W. Tait exhibited fragments from the vitrefied fort in Sutherlandshire. In the department of Art and Archaeology, Mr. W. R. Hughes exhibited a series of forty Portraits of Charles Dickens, from 1837 to 1870, and a number of large and striking illustrations to his works ; Mr. W. B. Grove, a series of Drawings of Fungi by Rev. H. W. Lett, Lurgan, Ireland ; Mr. Alderman White, Photographs of Tyrol and Alpine Scenery ; Messrs. Watson and Robinson, Photographic Prints, taken by themselves ; and Mr. J. Rabone, a Wax Medallion of Matthew Boulton from life ; Napier’s Rods (called, when made of ivory, Napier’s Bones); Circles of Proportion; the Shakespeare Brooch, found at Stratford in 1828 ; Hooke’s “ Micro- graphia” (1667), the first book written on the microscope; and “ Investigatio Arcana Rerum” (1696), by Leeuwenhoek, the first discoverer of the Infusoria. Messrs. E. J. Love and W. J. Harrison exhibited a few physical experiments, and Messrs. C. J. Watson and C. R. Robinson demon¬ strated the production of lantern Photographs, in a dark room ; some of these and other photographs taken by the members were exhibited during the evening in the lantern by Mr. C. Pumphrey. In regard to the number and interest of the objects brought together the Conver¬ sazione was inferior to none which have been given previously by the Society, but the attendance was unfortunately not equal to the expectations which had been formed. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— October, 1884. The barometer was rising at the commencement of the month ; it experienced a slight check on the 2nd, and then rose rapidly to the 5th, when the amount of pressure exceeded 307 inches. A decided fall sucQeeded, and on the 10th the reading was below '29*5 inches. Another, more gradual, rise followed, and from the 21st pressure was unsteady, but increasing at the close of the month. Temperature was about two degrees below the average. In the earlier part of the month the range was rather wide, but towards the middle of the month the variations were but slight. No great extremes were registered ; the highest were 63-7° at Hodsock, on the lStli ; 63 6° at Loughborough ; IIE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 347 62-0° at Coston Rectory ; and 6P9° at Strelley ; on tlie 16th upwards of 109° was recorded in the rays of the sun at Loughborough and Hodsock. The lowest minimum temperatures were 304° at Strelley on the lltli ; 29’8° at Loughborough, and 29,59 at Coston Rectory on the otli ; and 29-69 at Hodsock on the 9th. On the grass 24-29 was recorded at Strelley on the 13tli, and 25 ’6° at Hodsock on the 9tli. Rainfall was decidedly below the average, and less than the amounts registered in October since 1879. At Strelley the total fall was only 0'88 of an inch ; at Hodsock, 1-00 inch ; at Loughborough, 1T1 inches ; and at Coston Rectory, 1-21 inches. These amounts were distributed over from sixteen to eleven days. Some snow (with rain) fell at Loughborough on the 10th. Westerly gales were experienced towards the end of the month. Sunshine was below the average. A lunar halo was seen at Loughborough on the evening of the 29th. Wm. Berridge, F.R. Met. Soc. 12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. A meeting of the General Committee of the British Associa¬ tion, adjourned from Montreal, was held in the Lecture Theatre of the Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, on Tuesday, 11th November last, at three o’clock in the afternoon, Lord Rayleigh, the President, in the chair, to determine ( inter alia ) upon the place of meeting for 1886. There was a large attendance. Invitations were submitted from Birmingham, Manchester, Bournemouth, and Mel¬ bourne. The deputation from Birmingham consisted of the Mayor and Town Clerk (representing the Town Council), Professor Haycraft, Professor Lapworth, and Professor Tilden (the Mason College), Mr. Councillor R. F. Martineau, and Mr. C. J. Woodward (the Midland Institute), the Rev. Dr. Crosskey, Mr. William Mathews, and Mr. Councillor Lawson Tait (the Philosophical Society), Mr. W. R. Hughes, Mr. George Maw, Dr. Norris, and Mr. Charles Pumphrey (the Natural History and Microscopical Society). The proposition that the Meeting of 1886 should be held at Birmingham was moved by Sir Frederick Bramwell, seconded by Mr. William Pengelly, and supported by Colonel Ratcliff. The Mayor, Professor Tilden, and Mr. Councillor R. F. Martineau having previously spoken in its favour (Manchester, which was represented by Sir Henry Roscoe and Professor Boyd Dawkins having gracefully withdrawn its claim and the other towns not having 848 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. been proposed), tbe proposition was carried unanimously. Among the members of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies who attended to give support to Birmingham were Mr. E. de Hamel, of Tamwortli, and Mr. F. T. Mott, of Leicester. As the last meeting of the British Association in Birmingham was held in 1865, an interval of twenty-one years will have elapsed by the time the next visit takes place. In a future number we shall call attention to the general and scientific progress of the town since the last visit of the Association. The annual meeting of the Midland Union taking place in Birming¬ ham in 1885, there is a double honour in prospect for that town. Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). — This plaut has bloomed in many parts of this country this summer ; the flowers showing why the Italians gave it the name of girasole (sunflower), of which “ Jerusalem” in our common name is merely a corruption. It is called an artichoke in allusion to the artichoke-like flavour of its roots. De Candolle shows that the old notion that it originated in Peru or Brazil is erroneous, and that it is a native of the north-east of America. Query. — Can any reader of the “ Midland Naturalist ” tell me who is the author of the following lines : — “ To me the wilderness of thorns and brambles, Beneath whose weeds the muddy runnel scrambles, The bald-burnt moor, the marshy sedgy shallows, Where docks, bull rushes, water flags and mallows, Choke the rank waste, alike can yield delight ; A blade of silver hair-grass, nodding slowly In the soft wind ; the thistle’s purple crown, The ferns, the rushes tall, and mosses lowly, A thorn, a weed, an insect or a stone, Can thrill me with sensations exquisite ; For all are exquisite, and every part Points to the Mighty Hand that fashioned it.” R. Rogers, Hampton-in-Arden. Haricot Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). — The origin of the word Haricot as applied to this plant has been a source of much controversy. De Candolle, in his “Origin of Cultivated Plants,” says that chance has led him to find it. An Italian name, araco , found in Durante and Mattliiolo, was given to a leguminous plant which modern botanists attribute to Lathyrus ochrus. Durante quotes the Greek apaxos as the synonym of his araco, which gives the clue to the etymology. P&re Feuillee wrote in French aricot ; before him Tournefort, who was the first to use the name, spelt it haricot , in the belief probably that the Greek word was written with an aspirate, which is not the case, at least in the best authors. Littre, in his dictionary, inclines to the theory that haricot , the plant, comes from the ragout called haricot or REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 349 laricot* of mutton, given in some French dictionaries as the equivalent of “Irish stew,” seeing that the latter is older in the language, and that a certain resemblance may be traced between the haricot bean and the morsels of meat in the ragout, or else that this bean was suitable to the making of the dish. As haricot beans are not used in making the ragout, as we find on reference to Soyer and other authorities on cooking, Littre’s suggestion is evidently a misleading one; while De Candolle’s seems perfectly satisfactory. Wedgwood in his “ Dictionary of English Etymology ” says, “ Haricot is described as small pieces of mutton partly boiled and then fried with vegetables, but without any reference to haricot beans.” New British Puccinia. — A few weeks ago Mr. H. Hawkes, of Birmingham ( not the Borough Coroner), sent me a few fresh leaves of Sonclius infested with a uredinous fungus, having a decidedly pucci- nioid aspect, which he was unable to make out. A microscopic examination under a low power at once revealed the presence of a remarkable palisade-like ring of long dark-brown clavate parapliyses surrounding the sorus of spores just within the ruptured encircling epidermis, which are characteristic of Puccinia Sonclii (Bob.), Des- mazieres. The quantity of material was but small, and continued examination failed to show that there were any teleuto-spores present, but the uredo-spores themselves show a marked character in the very thick warted exospore, so as to leave little doubt on my mind that I had before me this Puccinia, which has not hitherto been recorded for Great Britain. I have visited the place at Hamstead where the specimens were found, but was unable to see any more of the fungus ; in fact, Mr. Hawkes said that he could find only two plants infected, all the leaves of which he gathered. For full description, with figures, see “ Science Gossip” next month. — W. B. Grove, B.A. Alternaria Brassic^e, Sacc. — While thanking Mr. Phillips for his reply, I beg leave to call his attention to the fact that he has mis-read my question. All the figures which he quotes were known to me. I suggested, not that Saccardo but that Berkeley might be wrong, and asked for information about Berkeley’s original Macrosporium Brassicce. Is it really an Alternaria ? W. B. Grove, B.A. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. — Biological Section, November lltli. — Mr. W. P. Marshall in the chair (in the absence of Mr. W. R. Hughes). The Chairman read the “ Report on Marine Sponges obtained in the neighbourhood of Oban and the Island of Kerrera during the excur¬ sions of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society in the months of July of 1881 and 1888 respectively this was illus¬ trated by a fine display of the objects described and commented upon. The report is drawn up by the eminent zoologist, Mr. H. J. Carter, F.G.S. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited preserved specimens from the zoological stations at Naples, and mounted specimens from Messrs. W. Watson, E. Ward, C. Vance Smith, W. Joshua, and the Rev. J. E. * Laricot is a word of M. de Candolle’s own coinage, we fancy. 350 11E POUTS OF SOCIETIES. Yize. Mr. J. H. Shoebotham, micro-photographs of transverse wood section of a runner from the Isle of Negro, and of the insects Mymar pulchellus and Mymar cosmocoma, both taken during the late conver¬ sazione from slides mounted by Mr. F. Enock. Mr. T. Clarke, mounted specimens of Zoea of Porcell nia and the common shore crab from Jersey. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Agaiicus tenuis , Ay. mammosus, Hygrophorus hypothejus, Boletus elegans, Gomphidius glut Luos us, and other fungi from near Great Packington ; also microscopical preparations of mosses and liepatics. For Rev. D. C. O. Adams, Pleurotus ulmarius and other fungi from Hobsford. During the meeting the Chairman read a telegram from Mr. W. R. Hughes, Dr. Norris, and Mr. C. Pumplirey, announcing that the British Association had unanimously resolved to visit Birmingham in 1886. Microscopical General Meeting, November 18th. — Mr. R. W. Chase in the chair. Mr. W. R. Hughes presented to the Society a copy of two Lectures by Dr. T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S., on “ The Parasites of Meat, &c.” Mr. Walter Graham exhibited a branch from a tree of Eucalyptus Globulus, grown from seed sown in 1882, and planted in the open ground at Acock’s Green. Prof. Hillhouse, in his valuable remarks upon the tree, doubted its continu¬ ance in the open ground here, as he thought ten degrees of frost would kill the tree. Mr. H. Spencer Hughes exhibited a female specimen of the Falco Tinnunculus , the Kestrel Hawk, from Hamstead. Mr. Thos. Bolton exhibited Gtenodrilus pardalis (ClaparMe, 1863), or possibly another species, a marine worm of a rare genus. Professor Hillhouse then gave Part 5 of his researches in “ The Continuity of Protoplasm, &c.,” which he illustrated by sketches on the blackboard. His experiments proved that delicate threads of protoplasm penetrated not only the lamella between the pits in the cell wall, but also the cell wall itself. Mr. W. R. Hughes and others expressed their apprecia¬ tion of the value of the paper, and the erudite and clear manner in which the Professor had treated the subject. A copy of the paper will appear in a future number of the “Midland Naturalist.” Socio¬ logical Section, November 20th. — The President, Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., in the chair. The evening was devoted to the study of Chapter XII. of Part II. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology, on “ Distribution.” Mr. William Mathews, M.A., F.G.S., favoured the Section with a very able discourse on the subject, treating mainly of the distribution of plants, and giving the Section the benefit of his observations of the Floras of Europe and Algeria. Mr. Mathews’s address was followed by a discussion opened by Professor Hillhouse, continued by Mr. C. H. Allison, Mr. J. B. Stone, J.P., Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Mr. F. H. Collins, and others, and closed with a general summary aud reply by Mr. Mathews. November 22nd. — Excursion to “ Dr. Johnson’s Country,” under the leadership of Mr. Sam : Timmins, J.P., F.R.S.L. On arriving at Lichfield the party, numbering fifty ladies and gentlemen, first visited the Museum, where many interesting relics of Dr. Johnson were seen ; a visit was also paid to his monu¬ ment and birthplace, and to the “ Johnson’s Head,” at each of which places the visitors were allowed to inspect many valuable memorials. On arriving at the Cathedral the party was met by the Rev. Canon Lonsdale, who in a very happy and lucid manner pointed out the many beauties of the building, calling special attention to the restoration of the west front, now nearly completed. The party remained to service in the Cathedral, and had the pleasure of hearing Dr. Bridge’s Anthem “ It is a good thing to give thanks,” perfectly rendered by the admirable choir. Dr. Erasmus Darwin’s house was next visited ; afterwards Mr. Bridgeman’s studio, where busts of Dr. Johnson were inspected. Some REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. 851 very interesting relics were next shown by Mr. and Mrs. Lomax. After a substantial tea at the George Hotel, Mr. W. R. Hughes, the President of the Section, took the chair, and an eloquent and interesting address was delivered by Mr. Sam: Timmins on “Dr. John¬ son and his connection with Lichfield.” The address lucidly sketched the Doctor’s career from his birth, through the years of school dis¬ cipline, to the date of his last visit to Lichfield in 1784, shortly before his death. Daring the last visit he paid for a monument to be erected in St. Michael’s Church, to the memory of his parents, but either it was never erected or the stone was lost. The address was en¬ thusiastically applauded by a very appreciative audience. Votes of thanks to the Rev. Canon Lonsdale, Mr. Sam : Timmins, Mr. and Mrs. Lomax, Mr. Thomas Clarke, and Mr. Bridgeman, who had con¬ tributed to the pleasures of the day, brought the proceedings to a close. Geological Section, November ‘25th. — Mr. Waller, President, in the chair. Exhibits: — Mr. Bolton, (1) mounted specimens of Acineta grandis, with pseudopodia extended; (2), parasitic growth within a Closterium. Mr. W. P. Marshall, fossils found in Coprolite Pit, near Potton, Bedfordshire. Mr. W. B. Grove, the following fungi : Didymium pertusum , Valsa ceratopliora , Rhino trichuvi Thwaitesii , var. cinnamomeum, and Geplialosporium Acremonium, var. major, from Brad- nock’s Marsh ; Sphceria spermoides and Agaricus inJ'undibuUformis, from Sutton ; Erysiphe umbelliferarum, Fusidium album and Puccinia sonchi (new to Britain), from Hamstead. Mr. Waller, specimen of Obsidian from the Yellowstone district, collected by Mr. C. Pumphrey. The section shows that, before the final consolidation of the rock, spherulites formed, occasionally isolated, but most frequently coalesced into bands. Later on these shared in the crumpling of the rock in its further flow, and after the col solidation of the glass, a coarser and more normal formation of spherulites has taken place, enveloping in most cases the bands of the first set of spherulites, which are very transparent, and only show their radial structure in polarised light. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, the following plants from Scotland : Geranium sylvaticum, Raplianus raphanistrum, Alchemilla alpiua, also a specimen of Phyllody of the bracts of Plantago major (Plantago defonnis), each bract developed into a long leaf-like expansion by which the inflorescence was nearly hidden. The President drew the attention of the Section to the loss which the Society had suffered in consequence of the death of Dr. Wright, of Cheltenham, corresponding member of the Society. He also informed the Section that the General Committee had passed a vote of con¬ dolence with Dr. Wright’s son. Mr. Haghes also spoke in the warmest terms of the many and valuable services rendered to the Society by the late Dr. Wright. Mr. Cullis informed the Section that a felsitic boulder had been discovered in making an excavation in Cherry Street, near the Cobden Coffee House. THE BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’ UNION. — October 20th. — Mr. J. W. Neville exhibited fossil ferns, from Albion ; Mr. Dunn, a collection of plants, from Feckenham Bog ; Mr. Sanderson, an artichoke gall on oak. Under the microscope, Mr. C. P. Neville showed a garden centipede, with it§ peculiarly arranged tracheal system. October 27tli. — Mr. Moore showed a case of lioverer flies and drone flies. Mr. Tylar, under the microscope, a section of carboniferous limestone, from Froghall, with foraminifera in situ; Mr. Moore, stomach of drone fly, with pollen grains ; Mr. Insley, antheridia and archegonia of moss. Mr. J. Betteridge then read his second paper on the “ Birds of the District.” November 3rd. — Mr. Madison 352 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES. exhibited several varieties of Bulimus acutus, from different localities. Under the microscope, Mr. Tylar showed a slide of Thymol in process of crystallisation, by polar light. Mr. J. W. Neville, Diatomacese, from deposit in Black Root pool, Sutton Park ; Mr. Moore, tongue of stag beetle (Lucanus cervus). November 10th. — Annual Meeting for the election of officers for the ensuing year. Mr. C. E. Beale, C.E., was elected president, and Messrs. H. Hawkes and J. W. Neville, vice-presidents. The retiring president, Mr. J. W. Neville, then delivered an address on “ The Offensive and Defensive Weapons of Insects,” remarking that as the subject was a wide one, he should only take that part of it that referred directly to ourselves. It might appear necessary to some to apologise for introducing into respectable company some of the insects to which he should have occasion to refer. But these would not be naturalists, for naturalists studied living objects as they were, whether they pleased the sentiments or no. The offensive weapons of the following insects were then referred to : Pediculus capitis, Nepa cinerea, Notonecta glauca, Cimex lectularius, and Pulex irritans. The peculiarities of their mouth organs were described and compared with a typical insect’s mouth, that of the ground beetle, Carabus, when the remark¬ able departure from a probable original type was made apparent. In the latter part of the subject the sting of the wasp was described with its complicated mechanism of poison bag, duct with chitinous rings, pistons for ejecting poison, lancets, etc. The address concluded by regretting that the labours of inicroscopists were often of a desultory character, and pointing out the advantages of more special pursuits. The use of the various forms and ornamentation of pollen grains was suggested as good ground to be worked by microscopic botanists. The Entomostraca, Diatomacese, and Desmidiacese of the district were mentioned as fields of labour where good and useful work was required, and local catalogues much needed. The address was illustrated by diagrams. LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. — Section D. Zoology and Botany. — The monthly meeting of the Section was held on Wednesday evening, November 19th. Members present, twenty-one. Miss Shenton exhibited a number of beautiful coloured drawings of Leicestershire Fungi, her own work ; Mr. W. A. Vice, very stunted specimens from the South Downs of Campanula glomerata and Jasione montana ; Mr. E. Bates, a specimen of moss from Kew Gardens enveloped in a mass of parasitic alga (Scytonema muscicola) ; Mr. F. T. Mott, a sample of water from Cropstone Reservoir containing a quantity of a minute granular alga l Codoxph cerium ?), which chokes the filter beds at this season ; also magnified and coloured drawings of the same. Mr. F. Bates read a short paper on the “ Measuring of Microscopic Objects,” and explained the method which he recommended, viz., to keep an eyepiece micrometer permanently in each ocular, to determine the value of its divisions for each power by a stage micrometer, and to make a table of these values in decimals of an inch and of a millimetre for ready reference. The size of any object in the field could then be determined with the least possible trouble. A discussion ensued on the importance of acquiring by practice facility in the use of the metric scale. It was necessary to fix in the mind the image of some metric datum. All Englishmen had a mental image of the inch. It would be well to acquire in a similar way an image of the millimetre, as the twenty-fifth of an inch, about equal to the thickness of a thick card. A sub-committee was appointed to consider the question of better accommodation, as the Section was outgrowing the present room at the museum. f \