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PROCEEDINGS

OF THER

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

Vol. XII

JANUARY 1871 TO DECEMBER, 1872

PHILADELPHIA >
PRINTED POR DITE SOGCTLR Ty
BY M’CALLA & STAVELY.

oP 878,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

Vol. SUL, 1871. No. 86

Stated Meeting, January 6.
Present, seventeen members.
Gro. B. Woop, President, in the Chair.

Mr. Eckley Coxe, lately elected, was presented to the pre-
siding officer and took his seat.

The resignation of Dr. D. F. Condie on account of ill health
was received, and accepted.

A photograp h of Mr. Thomas Davidson, dated Geological
Society, Somerset House, London, Dec. 6, 1870, was received.

Letters of acknowl] inca were received from the London
Geological Society (Proceedings No. 82); the Smithsonian
Institution (83); and the Swiss Society at Berne, dated No-
vember, 1869 (Proceedings, vols. X and XI).

__ Donation 1s for the Library were received from the Moscow

VieEle Ss,
‘heee samy, R. Institution of G. B., London Asoo ctead
Chemical and Geological Societies, Leeds Philosophical go.
ciety, R. Dublin Society, Peabody Museum at Boston, Boston

Boston Geological Soviety, Silas Society, Bavarian

N.H.5S., Silliman’s Journal, American Antiquarian Society,

Frank - Institute, College of Physicians, Penn Monthly, U.

S. Observatory, the Treasury Bureau, and Editors of ree)
wv} e ?

OF. BeVOL, XA

The decease of Wm. Chauvenet of St. Louis, a member of
the Society, at St. Paul, Dec. 18, 1870, was announced by
the Secretary.

The decease of Joshua J. Cohen, a member of the Society,
at Baltimore, November 4, 1870, aged 70 years, was an-
nounced by Prof. Trego.

The decease of Albert Barnes, a member of the Society, at
Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870, aged 72 years, was announced
by Mr. Fraley.

Dr. Geo. B. Wood communicated the results of experiments
on the best method of reviving fruit trees.

Prof. Cope communicated the discovery of a new genus of
fish from the Green River Country.

Mr. Chase described the methods adopted by the Meteoro-
logical Board of the Royal Sogiety, which he had lately vis-
ited in London.

The Report of the Judges and Clerks of the annual election
was read, by which the following members were declared duly
elected to fill the respective offices of the Society for the en-
suing year.

President.
George B. Wood.

Vice Presidents.

John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick Fraley.
Secretaries.
Charles B. Trego, John L. LeConte,
i. Otis Kendall, J. P. Lesley.
Curators.
Hector Tyndale, Khas Durand, Joseph Carson.
Treasurer.

Charles B. Trego.
Counsellors to serve three years.
Isaac Hays, Henry C. Carey,
Robert HK. Rogers, Robert Bridges.

Mr. Lesley was nominated Librarian.
Pending nominations for membership, Nos. 661 to 668 were
read.

Jan. 6, 1871.] 3 [ Wood.

The Publication Committee reported upon the subject of
the publication of Dr. H. C. Wood's Memoir of the Fresh
Water Aleve of the United States.

The Report of the Finance Committee, postponed from the
last meeting, was read by its Chairman, Mr. Fraley; and the
sums recommended by the Committee were, on motion, ap-
propriated for the expenses of the ensuing year. A. further
recommendation to increase the insurance on the Hall, was
on motion adopted; and the meeting was adjourned.

RevIVAL oF Fruit TREES prematurely ceasing to bear fruit, or prema-
turely decaying, by Guo. B. Woop, M. D.

Communicated to the American Philosophical Society, January 6, 1871.
Ys y >

It is well known that most fruit trees, especially the peach and apple
trees, in sites where they have been long cultivated, often cease to bear
fruit, and even perish, long before their natural period. Thus the peach,
which has a normal life of 50 or 60 years, or longer, and grows under fa-
vourable circumstances to the size of a considerable tree, generally, in this
part of the United States, ceases to bear fruit after two or three years of
productiveness, and soon after begins to decay, seldom living beyond 15
or 20 years. The apple tree also, long before it has attained its normal
length of life, often ceases to yield fruit, cither for a time or permanently,
without apparent cause; and trees, planted on the site of an old orchard
which has been removed, not unfrequently refuse to bear at all, or at least
to a profitable extent.

Tt is obviously of great importance to discover the cause or causes of
such failures, and, if possible, to apply a remedy or preventive. Unless
I greatly deceive myself, I have succeeded in showing that the evil gen-
erally has its source in a deficiency of the salts of potassa in the soil, and
may be corrected by supplying that deficiency.

The alkali potassa, in combination generally with one or another of
the vegetable acids, is an essential ingredient in all plants, excepting
the sea plants, in which its place is supplied by soda. In living vegeta-
bles it is contained dissolved in the juice, and is consequently most abun-
dant in the most succulent parts; and, when the plants are burned, the al-
kaliis left behind in the ashes, of which it constitutes an exceedingly vari-
able proportion, according to the peculiar plant or part of the plant burned.
Thus, while the ashes of oak wood contain only about 3 parts in 1000,
those of the common poke, the growing wheat stalk, and the potato
stems, contain 48 or 50 parts or more. The greater portion by far of the
alkali is in the state of carbonate, with a little in the caustic state, and
being, inthese conditions, very soluble in water, is extracted by lixiviation

Wood.] 4 [Jan. 6,

with water, and obtained by evaporating the ley. A muchsmaller portion
is in the form of silicate, whichis left behind in the ashes after lixiviation,
and gives to the soap-boilers’ ashes almost all if not quite all their value
asamanure. It is, however, only the fresh-burned ashes, not yet sub-
initted to lixiviation, and consequently still containing the potash in its
soluble state, that is applicable to the purpose of supplying the alkali to
fruit trees in the mode in which I employ it.

When plants are no longer supplied with the requisite amount. of pot-

ash, they cease to grow, and at length generally perish. In the case of

the succulent fruit trees, as the alkali is required in the largest propor-
tion in the fruit, this is the first to suffer; then the leaves gradually fail; |
and at length the whole tree dies, limb after limb.
How I came to discover this source of premature failure of fruit trees,
and to supply the deficiency by means of the soluble potash contained in
fresh ashes, J explained, so far as the peach tree is concerned, in a com-
munication made last year to the Scciety, which was published in the
Proceedings.
In that communication I stated that, believing with most others
that the peach tree perishes prematurely, in consequence of being at-
tacked near the root by a species of worm, I employed as a remedy
against this parasite, after scraping as far as possible the worm out of the
root with a knife, fresh ashes in an excavation about the stem of the
plant; supposing that, by their caustic power, they might destroy any re-
mains of the insect or its eggs. This method was not original with my-
I self; as I had seen it practiced in my youth very effectually in keeping a |
peach orchard in bearing for several years.
The peach trees on which I tried the experiment had long ceased to bear
fruit, and were in the last stage of decay ; in several instances one or
more branches being absolutely dead, and the stem being covered with
lichens, as is apt to happen with dying trees.
| This was done in the Autumn; the earth having been removed around
i the stem of each tree to the depth of four or five inches, so as to lay bare

the upper surface of the main roots, and the excavation filled with fresh |
| ashes. Next Spring a marvellous change was experienced by the trees. \
| They had recovered more than the vigor of their early life, and bore fruit
in an abundance which I had rarely, if ever, witnessed.

I could not conceive that such a result should proceed so rapidly, from
the destruction of a few worms. Besides, some of the trees had no worms
| that could be observed; and yet they had been as far gone, and were as
much revived as the others.

I was, therefore, driven to the conclusion, that the ashes had not acted
by destroying the worm, but by furnishing to the trees a material neces-
| sary to their existence, and from the want of which they were perishing.
This could only be the soluble potash contained in the ashes, which being
dissolved by the rain, was carried in solution along the roots to the mi-

nute rootlets where it was needed.
One important inference, which may be here incidentally mentioned, is

1871. ] v L Wood.

that the peach trees were not dying from the worms, but that these at-
tacked them because they were dying from other causes; and it is proba-
bly true, as a general rule, that plants in perfect health are in a condition
to protect themselves against destructive parasites, probably because
the salts of potash in their vessels are repulsive or even destructive
to the parasites, which destroy the plant in the absence of this defense.
I am not certain even that the curculio may not attack certain fruits,
the plum for example, in consequence of deficiency of the alkali in its
juice.

At first my experiments were confined to the peach tree; but it may be
remembered that I said in my communication to the Society that the
principle was applicable as well to other fruit trees, especially the apple,
which often refuses to bear, apparently capriciously, but probably
from the same deficiency of potash in the soil.

Last year I had the opportunity of testing the correctness of this sup-
position. I happened to have two apple orchards; one of them old, per-
haps 60 years or more, the other comparatively young, having been
planted, 15 or 20 years since, upon a piece of ground which had previously
been the site of an apple orchard for I presume nearly a century. Both
of these orchards might be considered as nearly or quite barren; the old
orchard not having borne fruit of any account for 5 or 6 years; and the
young one having never borne at all.

In the Autumn of 1869, I tried with these trees the same experi-
ments as in the Autumn before I had tried with the peach trees. The
earth was dug from around their stems to the depth of about 5 inches,
and the excavation filled, in each case, with about half a bushel of fresh
ashes. As regards the old orchard, a part was allowed to remain without
treatment, soasto secure the effect of contrast. Inthe following Spring
and Summer (1870), my expectations were fully realized. Early in the sea-
son a striking difference was observed between the trees not treated with
ashes and those which had been so treated. A dividing line could be observed
between the two sections of the orchard; the trees which had been ashed
being forward both in leaf and blossom, while the others had made little
progress; and the same contrast was presented in the fruit; the trees left
to themselves continuing barren, while the ashed trees were loaded with
apples. The young orchard, which had never borne fruit of any account,
was also made for the first time very productive.

A similar experiment I tried on several fruit trees of different kinds in
my garden in town. Though the ashes were applied in Spring instead of
of Autumn, the trees in the growing season gave evidence of a similar
result. The trees were richly covered with blossoms, which were just
becoming exchanged for young fruit, when the famous hail storm which
proved so destructive in this city last Summer, put an end to the experi-
ment by stripping the trees of blossom and fruit, and to a great extent
even of their leaves.

Among the trees was a very old Newtown pippen tree, probably of not

Wood.] 6 Jan, 6,

less than three-quarters of a century, which had for years ceased to bear,
or at best only now and then brought forth a smail knotty fruit unfit
for usc. The tree had been dying branch by branch every year, until re-
duced almost to the original stem, with a few branches above. This tree
appeared in the warm season to have renewed its youth. It was richly
loaded with flowers and fruit, and gave hopes of an abundant product in
the Autumn. It suffered, however, like the others from the storm ; very
few of the blossoms or young fruit remaining still attached. One of these
went on to full size; and the handsome Newtown pippen which I now
exhibit to the members as the sole relict of the storm, shows what the
product might have been had not the hail interfered.

I consider that the efficiency of potassa in the revival of fruit trees has
been satisfactorily demonstrated by the foregoing experiments, at least in
relation to the peach and apple trees, and I may add also the pear and
quince, several of which were treated in the same way and with similar
results.

As to the securing of the plum and other fruits against the curculio,
J think it highly probable that this also may be done by ashes, on the
principle already stated, but I can adduce no proof of the fact; for, in
the only instance in which ashes were applied to a plum, though the tree
showed its effects by a copious growth of leaves and flowers, and even of
young fruit; yet the destruction of these by the hail storm prevented the
completion of the experiment ; and for the determination of this point,
which is an important one, we shall have to wait another year.

But, important as I consider the discovery of the reviving power of
potassa in the case of failing fruit trees, I attach much greater value
to its influence in another direction, which has suggested itself in the
prosecution of the foregoing experiments. It is an unfortunate fact,
with which the farmers of my own country neighbourhood are unhap-
pily but too familiar, that certain cereal crops, especially that of wheat,
have for some years failed to be remunerative. Where wheat formerly
yielded 20 bushels or more to the acre, it can now seldom be made to
produce more than 12 or 15 bushels.

Tn examining into the relative proportion of potassa contained in the
ashes of different plants, I was surprised to find that, while the ashes of
the common fire wood, as the oak, maple, &c., contain from about 2 to
4 parts in 1000, the wheat stalk yields 47 parts. Now, while this fact
shows the extraordinary demand of growing wheat for potassa, it sug-
gests also that the failure of this crop of late may be owing to the same
deficiency of the salts of potassa in the soil which has caused the premature
destruction of the peach; and, though the manure employed in the culti-
vation of wheat contains potassa, yet it does not yield as much of this al-
kali as the plant requires for its greatest productiveness ; few of the
vegetables that unite in the constitution of manure containing so large a
proportion as wheat. To meet this demand of wheat, I propose to employ
unleached ashes in the cultivation of this cereal. Leached ashes, though
* containing but a small proportion of potassa, and that chiefly in the form

~
1871 ] ( [ Wood.
of insoluble silicate, have nevertheless been found one of the best fertilizers
for wheat; and the unleached, if properly applied, would probably pro-
ducea much greater effect. This is as yet conjectural; but I have in-
stituted an experiment which I hope may determine the point.

In the early Autumn I caused an acre of ground to be prepared for a
wheat crop. It was divided into three parts, one of which was to be
treated with fresh ashes exclusively, another with ashes and swamp muck,
and the third with muck alone. The part treated with fresh ashes ex-
clusively was first ploughed, and then sown with wheat and ashes, and
finally. harrowed; the ashes being applied to the surface, so that its
potassa when dissolved by the rain should be in immediate contact
with the germinating seed; instead of being ploughed in, as ordinary
leached ashes are. The second part, after being covered with the muck,
was ploughed; and the wheat and ashes were applied as before. The
third part was simply treated with muck, then ploughed and sown with
wheat.

The result of this experiment cannot be determined until the time of
the wheat harvest next Summer; but, thus far, it is decidedly in favor of
the ashes; the two-thirds which were treated with this material being
obviously better grown than the part treated with muck alone. A glance
of the eye is sufficient to show a decided line of demarcation, the ashed
part being greener and further advanced than the remainder.

T have little doubt that the same remarks are equally applicable to the
common potato. This is now a much less certain, and on the whole much
less productive crop than formerly. I find that the potato stalks contain
55 parts of potassa in 1000 of ashes; so that the plant requires consider-
ably more potassa than wheat. If, therefore, fresh ashes are to be a rem-
edy for the failure of the wheat crop, they are likely to be even more so
for the potato. The verification of this supposition experimentally I have
reserved for the next year, when, if living, I propose to try an experiment
on a large scale.

An objection to all the foregoing facts, in a practical bearing, is the
question whence the ashes are to be obtained for carrying the proposition
into effect on a large scale, and whether enough can be obtained for the
purpose. An obvious answer to this objection is that, should ashes fail
in any neighbourhood, recourse can be had to the crude potash of the shops
derived from the lixiviation of the ashes of forests cleared in the course of
cultivation, and, when these forests shall have all been destroyed, we may
resort to the minerals containing pota as to the felspar in granite
rocks, which contains a large proportion of that alkali.

But for a long time yet to come, and indefinitely as regards fruit trees,
ashes can be obtained from the resources of the farm itself. If all the
falling leaves of the woods and swamps, all the dead and dying branches
or stems of trees, and all the weeds, trimmings of trees, and other rub-
bish of a farm be collected and burnt, enough ashes could probably be
obtained annually, for an indefinite length of time, to keep all the fruit
trees in full bearing.

CO

Stated Meeting, January 20, 1871.
Present, twelve members.
Gro. B. Woon, President, in the Chair.

A. letter was received from the Illinois Industrial Uni iver-
sity at Champaign, dated Jan. 12, 1871.

Letters of envoy were received from the R. Saxon Society,
and the Society of Natural Sciences at Chemnitz.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Academies and Societies at Berlin, Leipsig, Munich, Chem
nitz, Altenburg, Quebec and Montreal; the London Astro-
nomical, Antiquarian and Meteorological Societies; the
American and Medical Journals, Prof. Greenough of poe
bridge, Dr. D. D. Slade of Chestnut Hill, Mass., Prof. E.
Andrews of Columbus, Ohio, and Gen. Tyndale.

The death of Stephen Colwell, at Philadel phia, Jan’y 15th,
aged 70 years, was announced by Prof. Cresson; and on mo-
tion, Mr. Carey was appointed to prepare an obikesns notice
of the deceased.

The death of Dr. Edward Rhoads, at Philadelphia, Jan’y
. ane x
1dth, aged 29 years, was announced by Professor Trego.
Mr. Lesley was elected Librarian.

The Committee to which was referred the paper of Dr.
Pepper, on a case of universal Hyperostosis, reported in favor
of its publication in the Proceedings of the Society, aceompa-
nied with figures for two octavo plates, which, on motion of
Prof, Cresson, was so ordered.

A communication entitled: “Computation of the effects of
gradients, by Herman Haupt,” was read by the Secretary.

Jan. 20, 1871.] 9 (Haupt.

CompuTarron oF EFFECT oF GREDIENTS, by HerMAN Havrt, C. E.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 20, 1871.)

When the maximum load of the same engine on any two different incli-
nations has been determined by experiment, the data thus furnished will
suffice to calculate the load on any other inclination, the load on a level,
the angle of friction at which a train will descend by gravity, the tractive
power per ton of load required on a level, and the number of pounds
adhesion for each ton of load. ;

Let R = resistance of the train on a level, which is equal to the power
of the engine.

W = gross weight of train on a level.

W! — Weight of train on grade a.

W? = Weight of train on grade b.

It is proper to assume that the power required to move a train and the
resistance, which is equal to it, will be in proportion to the gross weight.

The force of gravity on any inclination is in proportion to the height
of the plane divided by its length, or as the rise per mile divided by 5280.

The resistance of the train W! being in proportion to its weight, will

be expressed by W! R

fo

“WwW
and the resistance of WW, 2 bY. We R
Wee
: ‘ W'a
The gravity of the train W! on the grade a = <
: < 5280
; r2
and of the train W? on the grade bi
5280

Tf the engine is supposed to be loaded to the limit of its capacity on
each gradient, then the power exerted must be the same as on a level and

We W'a

a | Med

We Wl

wh + F980 =R_ and consequently
W'r pe eWedeg Wo Wb
Wicd 2ORBO0, 6 Wo 1 5880

From which the value of Rin terms of W W' and W? is found.
Stas ac dae a
5280 (W'—W?)
wi Wla

Take now the former equation R= we 5980

from which a second value of Ris obtained = oo Wia Bes)
5280 (W—W'!)

ae

A, PS 8-VOU Sir

Haupt. ] 1 0 [Jan. 20

Placing these two values of R equal to each other,
there results Wla W*b—W'a

wW-wi Wwe

By substituting in the equation the values of W' W2 a and b, as deter_
mined by observation, the values of W, or the gross load on a level can
be ascertained.

By substituting the values of W W' W2a and b, the value of R on the
power exerted by the engine is obtained.

By dividing this power in pounds by the gross load on a level, the trac-
tile power per ton is determined.

As the power of an engine is always sufficient to slip the wheels ona
dry rail, the adhesion is equal to the actual power exerted in moving the
train and divided by the weight on drives, gives the proportion between
adhesion and weight.

‘rhe angle of friction can be found when the tractive power per ton of
of 2000 Ibs. on a level (T) has been determined, by the equation.

T X 5280
2000.

It has been customary for engineers to consider the angle of friction as
16 to 18 feet per mile, the tractive power per ton on a level 8 pounds, and
the adhesion one-eighth the weight upon the drives; but to obtain reliable
data from the actual operation of roads running full trains, a letter was
addressed to A. J. Cassatt, Gen’l Sup’t of the Penna. R. R., who fur-
nished the following data:

A standard 10 wheel freight engine with 3 pairs of 4} feet drivers with

Angle of friction expressed in feet per mile =

average water and coal, weighs 75,500 lbs.
Weight on drivers, 58,000 ‘<
Weight of tender with coal and water, 50,000 ‘*
Such an engine will haul on a moderately straight and Jevel road 50

loaded ears of 40,000 lbs. each. Gross load, 1062 tons.
On a grade of 10 feet to the mile, 48 cars, O82,05 <

a6 “ce 26 “6 “ec ce 85 oe 762 ee

oe ce 52455 “se “e abhe se 402 “ec

“ec 6é 96 46 oe “é 11 “ce 282, “e

And the engine would work easier with 50 cars on the level than in either
of the other cases and with most difficulty in the last.
Herman J. Lombaert, Esq., Vice President and former General Super-
intendent of Penna. R. R., gives as a full average load for actual work in
the usual conditions of the rail.

Tons.
Load on 528, ft. grade, 16 cars. Gross load of engine, 382
6c 6é 10 6s 6é AQ “e “ce 66 66 862

As it is proper to allow a margin for unfavorable condition of rails, the
calculations will be made on the data furnished by H. J. Lombaert.

Substituting the values of a b W! W2, which are 10, 5258, 882 and 862,
the value of W, or the gross load on a Icvel is found be 1210 tons.

q
1871.] 11 [Reid.

The value of R or the tractive power on a level, is 11,160 lbs., or 92;
lbs. per ton.
9.2 X 5280

The angle of friction is_—* —— = 24.28 feet per mile.
2000

- oo ee 11160 : aie i

The adhesion is ~ or nearly one-fifth of weight on drives.

58,000
From the data thus obtained a simple formula may be found to deter-
mine the load of the engine on any given inclination, a.
Let P = tractile power of engine on a level = 11,160 lbs.
a == feet per mile of inclination.
W! == weight of train on incline a, including engine and tender.
Then W! X 9.2 = power required to move W! on level.

9
Ay Woe gravity on incline a, in tons or W! sigue a, in pounds.
5280 : 5280
irs MOO ai
Oe Woe W'a — power of engine — 11,160 Ibs.
5280

Or Wi = 11,160"

9.2+.38a,

Ifa be supposed equal to 48.56, or twice the angle of friction, the load
would be 404 tons nearly, or one-third the load on a level.

On a grade of 80 feet the load would be 541 tons. The grade that would
require double the power of a grade of 80 feet would be 84} feet.

If the gross load of a train on a grade of 30 feet be 541 tons, the engine
and tender being 63 tons, the cars and contents will weigh 478 tons, or if
18,000 Ibs. be allowed for each car and 22,000 lbs. for load, the number of
cars will be 27 and the net load 297 tons, weight of cars 243 tons,

If the return cars shall be only one-fourth loaded, which is probably a
full proportion for the Shenadoah Valley extension, the gross weight of
the trains would be 380 tons.

The inclination that would employ the full power of the engine in haul-
ing 880 tons, would be 58 feet.

The inclination that would employ the full power of an assistant engine
in hauling a gross load of 380 tons, would be 130 feet, but allowance must
be made for the weight of the assistant engine.

’

The following description of Indian sculpture on the banks
of the Monongahela River, by Jos. D. Reid, was received
through Prof. Cope, accompanied by a drawing of the same.
SKETCH AND Description or A CARvED Rock on the bank of the Mo-

nongahela River, Pa., by Josepu D. Rein.
(Read before the American Phiiosophical Society, Jan. 20, 1871.)
The engraving represents the face of a large rock lying on the east

bluff of the Monongahela River, in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, oppo-
site the village of Millsborough and the mouth of Ten Mile Creek,

Reid.] 12 [Jan, 20 1871.

Originally there were three rocks, but after the settlement of the coun-
try, two of them were broken up and used in building a mill dam. At
that time no one valued or took any interest in them, so no record was
kept other than the fact that they were larger, and the figures more nu-
merous than on the one remaining. This is in its original position, partly
buried in the earth and so worn by the elements that the figures have be-
come indistinct, and some perhaps entirely obliterated.

The Indians that inhabited this part of the conntry at the time of its
settlement by the whites, had no legend connected with the rock, nor
had they used it for any purpose. The river bank at this point and for
a mile above and below is nearly a perpendicular bluff, three hundred
feet high, which is broken by a single ravine, and up this by a narrow
winding path, apparently made by the same people that carved the figures
on the rock, it may be reached directly from the river. A carriage road
that leaves the river opposite Fredericktown, and winds around behind
the bluff, passes within a few hundred yards of it.

The rock is sandstone, of the same formation as that overlying the coal
bed below; the surface is nearly flat, of an area of twenty by twenty-four
feet, with a depression diagonally across, in a line with the three cups or
hollows, the largest of which is one foot in diameter, the middle one six
inches, and the other three inches, and about the same in depth. The de-
pression or gutter and cups, are discolored, apparently by the blood of
the victims that the inhabitants offered as sacrifices to their deity.

The south end of the rock is three feet above the ground, with a hog-
like figure carved upon it. The foot and hand prints are deeper and
more perfect than the other figures, and in no way can I better describe
them than they present the appearance of having been made by pressing
the naked fect and hands upon soft clay, so perfect are some of the im-
pressions. This is particularly the case with one foot-print, with a large
toe on each side of the foot, and a hand-print with a thumb on both sides.

The largest impressions of feet measure fourteen inches in length,
eight inches across the toes, and four inches across the heel, the other
foot-prints vary in size from that of a full grown man to a child five years
of age; the foot-prints of syuirrels are numerous and cross the rock in
every direction, not all that were on the rock being represented in the en-
grvaving. A single track of an animal with claws, and one intended to re-
present a buffalo track, but too smal] and no division of hoof, are also on
the rock. The bird tracks are quite distinct:and six inches in length; the
three links have apparently been made recently. The other figures are
outlines, and whether made as a pastime by some Indian artist or as the
hieroglyphic history of an Indian race, I leave others to determine.

Two miles down the river from the rock is the site of an old Indian
town and grave-yard, which covers an area of fifteen or twenty acres.
There may be found pieces of sun dried pottery made of clay and minute
fragments of muscle shells, pipes of the same material, and some of soap
stone, axes of red 2jasper as hard as steel, arrow heads of flint, and cireu-
lar flat sandstones, two of six inches in diameter and froin one-fourth of

13

an inch to one inch in thickness, some of them with a hole in the centre
and with a worn appearance of the edge.

The graves are covered with flat stones taken from the cliff above the
town; they were placed about two feet below the surface, and being out
of reach of the plow, the graves are seldom disturbed; one opened a few
years since, exposed the skeleton of a female in a sitting position with a
child in her arms, the skull of the child stuck to the stone, and when ex-
posed to the air for a few minutes a slight puff of wind carried it away
in a little cloud of dust. The skeletons are found in a sitting position
facing the east and after being exposed a short time fall to dust. Noth-
ing besides pieces of charcoal have been found in the graves with the
bones. (See Plate I.)

The following members were nominated and elected to
serve on the Standing Committees for the year :—

Finance.—Mr. Fraley, Mr. H. K. Price, Mr. Marsh.

Publication —Prof. Trego, Mr. E. K. Price, Dr. Carson,
Mr. Fraley, Mr. W. M. Tilghman.

Hall—Gen. Tyndale, Mr. E. Hopper, Mr. S. W: Roberts.

Library.—Dr. Bell, Dr. Coates, Mr. E. K. Price, Dr. Carson,
Dr. Krauth.

On motion of the Secretary, the reading of the list of mem-
bers was postponed to the next stated meeting.

Pending nominations Nos. 661 to 668, and new nominations
Nos. 669, 670, were read.

Balloting then proceeded; and there being no other busi-
ness, the ballot-boxes were examined by the presiding offi-
cers, who declared the following named persons duly elected
members of the Society :

M. Esyuirox de Parieu, of France.

Mr. W. T. Roepper, of Bethlehem.

Rev. W. C. Cattell, of Easton, Pa., Pres. Lafayette Coll.

Mr. H. M. Phillips, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Thos. Meehan, of Germantown.

Gen. George G. Meade, of Philadelphia, U.S. A.

Lieut. C. HE. Dutton, of Frankford, Pa.

Mr. Ed. Goodfellow, of Philadelphia, U. 8. Coast Survey.

And the Society was adjourned.

14
Stated Meeting, February 3, 1871.
Present, twelve members.
Mr. Fraury, Vice President, in the Chair.

Mr. Goodfellow, a newly elected member, was presented to
the presiding officer, and took his seat,

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. W.
Thos. Roepper, dated Bethlehem, Jan. 80; from GC. KE. Dut-
ton, Lieut. of Ordnance U.S. A., Frankford Arsenal, Jan. 30;
from Thos. Meehan, dated Germantown, Jan. 26; from W. C.
Cattell, dated Lafayette College, Kaston, Pa., Jan’y 28; from
Edward Goodfellow, dated 927 Clinton Street, Phila., Jan'y
23; and from Geo. G. Meade, Maj. Gen. U.S. A., dated Phila.,
Jan’y 80, 1871.

A letter was received from Wm. Lowber, M. D., dated 819
S. 16th Street, Phila. Jan’y 8, 1871, offering for the accept-
ance of the Society the glass cylinder of the electrical machine
belonging to his great-grandfather, David Rittenhouse, an
early President of the Society. On motion, the offer was ac-
cepted, and the Curators were desired to return to Dr. Lowber
the thanks of the Society.

A letter was received from Wm. Hitchman, M. D., dated
29 Hrskine Street, Liverpool, Kng., January, respecting the
organization of a Liverpool Anthropological Society.

Donations for the Library were received from the Italian
Committee of Geology, the Academia dei Lincei at Rome, the
Berlin Academy, the London Astronomical Society, the Essex
Institute, the Boston Natural History Society, the American
Journal of Science, the Franklin Institute, Penn Monthly,
Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, American Journal of
Pharmacy, and London Nature,

lo

The death of George Ticknor, of Boston, a member of the
Society, Jan. 26th, aged 80 years, was announced by the Se-
cretary.

On motion, Dr. H. Hartshorne was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the late Dr. Rhoads.

On motion, Prof. Kendall was appointed to prepare an obit-
uary notice of the late Prof. Chauvenet:

Mr. Cope reported that Mr. McNeil was prosecuting his re-
searches in Panama, and had sent home fossils, showing
among other things, that the back bone or water shed of the
Isthmus was an ancient coral reef, many of the corals being
in an excellently well preserved condition.

THE PORT KENNEDY BONE CAVERN.

Prof. Cope announced the discovery of a bone cave by Mr. Charles M.
Wheatley, in the Calciferous limestone, at a point about 25 miles N. W.
of Philadelphia.

There had been obtained numerous remains of plants, and insects, with
about thirty species of vertebrata.

These consisted of Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. The first were ser-
pents, and tortoises of several species, mostly harmless. The birds in-
cluded a turkey and snipe. The manimalian remains were most numer-
ous, embracing various forms.

There were Rodentia, of American types, as IHesperomys, Fiber, ete. ;
also Sciurus, Lepus, ete.

There were Ruminants, several tapirs, and a small horse. Two carni-
voxes of large size, one a cat, the other a bear, Ursus pristinus of Leidy,
of a remarkable type, and entirely distinct from the cave bear, or living
species of Europe and America. Remains of several Sloths were discoy-
ered, which were mostly of gigantic size. These were referable to at
least three species, one Megalonyx wheatleyt was new, and two Mylodons,
one of them probably also new to science. With them occurred the teeth
and tusks of the Z’rilophodon ohioticus (Mastodon). This animal had pro-
bably fallen in, as the cave was rather a fissure at the point examined.

The bones were not gnawed. ‘The fissure was 40 feet deep, 15 feet in
width, and of unknown length. Above the cave deposit, it was filled
with wash from neighboring hills of Triassic age.

16

Mr. Lesley desired to place on record the recent exposure of a bed of
solid brown hematite iron ore, at the upper limit of No. II, Lower Silu-
rian Limestone Formation, in Leathercracker Cove, Morrison’s Cove,
Middle Pennsylvania, of very unusual size. The bed is nearly vertical
and 72 feet thick, where cut across by a water drift. No such deposit
has been before discovered at this horizon, in a situation favorable for
exact measurement.

Pending nominations 669, 670 were read, and the reading
of the list of members was postponed, and the Society was

adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 17, 1871.
Present, ten members.
Mr. FRALEY, Vice President, in the Chair.

Mr. Carey accepted by letter, the appointment to prepare
an obituary notice of Mr. Colwell.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the New
York, New Jersey, and Georgia Historical Societies (85);
Cincinnati Observatory (85) ; Smithsonian Institution (84 and
RIV. 2), and Reichenbach N. H. Society (78, 79, 80).

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Academy and Observatory at Turin, Levant Herald at Con-
stantinople, London Nature, Philadelphia Journal of Phar-
macy, Medical News, McCalla & Stavely, the Librarian of
Congress, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society.

No. 85 of the Proceedings, just published, was laid on the

table.
The death of John F. James, a member of the Society, at

Philadelphia, Feb’y 5, was announced by the Secretary.

Mr. Lesley asked for information respecting the alleged dis-
covery of a hewn cave and erypt with hieroglyphics, skele-
tons, vases, &c., lately made by a railroad engineering party

Feb. 17, 1871.] l T { Emerson.

in Iowa; and connected it with Baron Burck’s account of the
traditions he found among the Aztecs, of the migration of
that race or tribe from the Northeast or Upper Mississippi
and Missouri country.

Mr. Coxe described a locality at Baker’s Run, on the West
Branch of the Susquehanna, where the great freshets of 1868
uncovered ancient hearths and numerous large vases, all of
which were soon broken and scattered by the curious.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of officers

were read.

Dr. Emerson introduced the subject of Lunar Influence, or
e ’
supposed influence, upon the conditions of wet or dry weather.

On Lunar INFLUENCE upon the Conditions of Wet or Dry Weather,
by Dr. Emerson.

(Read before the American Philosophical Soctety, February 17, 1871.)

That the moon exerts such an influence, he said, is a very old opinion,
widely spread at the present day, and even maintained by many distin-
guished philosophers. A great deal of attention has been devoted to
tabulating atmospheric observations in relation to the conditions of the
weather at the quarterly changes of the moon. The results of such labo-
rious investigations have, however, not been found to agree, some reports
seeming to favor the existence of lunar influence in producing wet and
dry weather, and others, to show that no such influences are exerted by
the moon upon the hygrometric conditions of our atmosphere. Among
the many who have engaged in investigating this subject I will only re-
fer to the celebrated Italian philosopher Toaldo, whose observations were
extended through a period of forty-five years, and to Pilgram, whose ob-
servations were extended through a period of fifty-two years. For some
reason which I shall not attempt to explain or examine, the conclusions
of these indefatigable observers and inquirers were the very opposite of
each other.

The circumstance which has perhaps contributed most to strengthen
the belief in lunar inflnmence upon the weather, is the well known agency
exerted by the satelite upon the ocean and atmosphere, in the production
of tides and barometrical fluctuations. Both of these phenomena are at-
tributable to the force of gravitation, acting between the earth and moon,
and giving rise to ocean and atmospheric waves.

The atmosphere surrounding our earth consists : first, of a mixture of
permanently elastic gases; and secondly, of a changeable atmosphere of
watery vapor, depending for its suspension entirely upon heat. This

A. P. §S.—VOL. XII—C

Emerson. | 18 [Feb. 17, 1871.
theory of an independent atmosphere of vapor owing its suspension to
heat alone, was established by Dalton, and is as incontestible as the
theory of gravitation established by Newton.

When watery vapor suspended in the air loses the amount of heat ne-
cessary for its suspension, or, in other words, when the temperature is
reduced to the ‘‘Dew-point,’’ vapor is immediately condensed into mist,
dew, clouds and rain. Now there is good reasun to believe that the moon
exerts no appreciable influence, directly or indirectly, upon the tempera-
ture of our atmosphere.

Some who have attempted to investigate this point by using reflectors
and very delicate thermometers, have been led to the absurd conclusion
that the moon’s rays emitted cold. The marked depression observed in
the thermometers exposed to the lunar rays, was in no wise produced by
these, but by radiation of heat from the instruments into a clear sky.

In many parts of the surface of our globe, extensive regions exist in
which it seldom or never rains, as in Lower Egypt. But in such places
the atmosphere is very dry, and no local causes exist, such as mountains
or hills, to interfere with the regular currents of the atmosphere and.
favor the mixture of strata of different temperatures. Consequently,
rain rarely falls.

In other regions, in the Tropics, for example, there are extensive spaces
in mid-ocean embracing many thousands of square miles, where the tem-
peratures of the sea and atmosphere remain constantly within one or two:
degrees of each other, with the atmosphere of vapor close upon the
“Dew-point.’’? Here, if anywhere, the moon might be expected to pro-
duce changes in the hygrometric conditions of the atmosphere. But for
months continued, there is no rain or other proof of lunar influence upon
the weather. It is only in the extra-tropical latitudes where many other
active agencies exist to disturb the equilibrium of atmospheric tempera-
ture, that the advocates of lunar influence assume to find evidence in fa-
vor of their views.

The power exercised by the moon upon bodies of water and permanent
elastic gases on the surface of our planet, is solely derived from the law
of gravitation, which exercises no influence, direct or indirect, in suspend-
ing or condensing vaper, or controlling the conditions of weather as to
wet or dry. These conditions are brought about solely through changes
of temperature, during the operations of which the moon remains a silent
spectator, taking no active part, so far as the condensation of vapor is
eoncerned.

Pending nominations 669, 670 were read.

On motion of Mr. Winsor, the Library Committee were in-
structed to report upon the subject of completing and pub-
lishing the Catalogue of the Society’s books and pamphlets.

And the meeting was adjourned.

(
Dee. 2, 1870.] 19 i Pepper.

A CASE
OF UNIVERSAL HYPEROSTOSIS, ASSOCIATED WITH OSTEO-

POROSIS, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIMENS, by

J. Ewine Mears, M. D., W. W. Kenn, M. D., Harrison ALLEN,

M. D., and WiLt1AM Perper, M. D.

(Read before the American Philosophieal Society, Dec. 2, 1879.)

The undersigned, to whom were referred the above specimens, presented
by a friend to Dr. J. Ewing Mears, have carefully examined them, and
have prepared the following Report :—

In the investigation of the subject, we have prepared as full a history
of the case as could be obtained, a detailed account of the general ana-
tomical characters of the disease, and of the peculiarities of each individ-
ual bone, as well as of the microscopic appearances, have consulted the
works and periodicals in various languages accessible in this city, and
have examined all the specimens contained in the Museums of the Col-
lege of Physicians, Academy of Natural Sciences, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Jefferson Medical College, and also the hospital and private collec-
tions in the city.

We have nowhere found specimens of this disease, or descriptions of
such, at all equalling in extent and severity these here described.

The only similar case, though far less in degree and extent (skeleton
imperfect), is found in Virchow’s Archives, Vol. 43, 1868, p. 470, plate
No. 12, although we have met with specimens and descriptions of skulls
and bones which afford evidences of a limited development of the same
disease.

Of the pathology of the disease, as well as of the anatomical appear-
ances (116), we have found the best descriptions in Lobstein, Traité
@anatomie pathologique, Tom. II, p.116; Boyer, Sur les Maladies,
Chirurgicales, Tom. III, p. 571; Paget, Surg. Path. Eng. Ed., pp. 301-2,
and fig. 40; Stanley on the Bones; 8. Solly, Med.-Chir. Trans., Vol. 27;
Férster Handbuch der Path. Anat., Bd. I, S. 249-52, and Bd. II, S.
850-4; R. Volkmann, in Pitha und Billroth’s Handb. der Chirurgie, Bd.
IT, 8. 249-58; Oeffinger, Virchow’s Archiv, Bd. 48, 8. 470; Haubner,
Canstatt’s Jahresbericht, 1854, Bd. 27, 8. 23-4; Virchow, Die Krankhaf-
ten Geschwiilste, Bd. II, Vorlesung XVII.

HISTORY OF THE CASE.

Fully recognizing the importance the history of the case has in the dis-
cussion of the Etiology and Pathology of the disease, we regret our inabil-
ity to add any information to the statement given at the time of the
presentation of the specimens, which is as follows :—

A. M. aet, 14, native of England—occupation farm boy—came from
England to this country when very young—father died in November,
1862, of Phthisis, aged 57—mother died in 1867, cause of death not as-
certained—has one brother and one sister, both young and healthy. In
September, 1866, while engaged at work on the farm, noticed swelling

Pepper.] 20 [ Dec; 2,
beginning in the face, and also, that in stooping, face felt puckered and
wrinkled, while the effort to regain the erect position gave intense pain
along the entire spinal column. Subsequently the fore-arms became sore
and swollen, was placed under treatment, which was of such decided
benefit that he thought himself entirely well, and in March, 1867, re-
sumed his farm duties ; about two months later the symptoms returned
in an aggravated degree, the feet and then, in succession, the legs and
thighs becoming enlarged and very painful ; under the influence of con-
stant bandaging the swelling diminished ; his appetite became impaired,
and he died from exhaustion Feb’y 8th, 1868. The treatment adopted
was mostly of a tonic character.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIMEN
(See Plates I. and II.)
I. WHAT BONES ARE WANTING.
We have the entire skeleton except the following bones :
Vertebra—dth and 7th cervical.
1st and 10th dorsal.
2d lumbar.
2d and 4th sacral.
all the coceygeal.
Sternum, gladiolus and ensiform.
Hyoid bone.
Right Patella.
Hands, all wanting

g save the right seaphoid.

Feet, all wanting save left calcis.

Five metacarpal and metatarsal bones and eight phalanges are pre-
served, but, except the two metatarsals of the great toe, they can scarcely
be designated, they are so greatly deformed.

II. THEIR CONDITION.

Unfortunately, by the prolonged boiling to which they were sub-
jected before coming into our possession, the bones have lost proba-
bly all their animal matter, and are now almost as friable as if they had
been burned. By removing the marrow, also, this has rendered the
pathology of the disease much less clear and the microscopic examin-
ation much less valuable than it would otherwise have been. Moreover,
it has removed probably all the gelatine, so that the chemical examina-
tion and the specific gravity would be worthless. Even the weights are,
by reason of this misfortune, only of slight value. All the epiphyses too,
except the coracoid process of the scapula, are separated from the shafts or
bodies, and in some bones even integral parts are separated, e. g. the sa-
crum is divided into its component vertebre and the innominate bone
into two pieces. Many of the epiphyses are preserved, as will be indi-
cated in describing each bone. The epiphyses have attached to them in
many places the dried gelatinous articular cartilages of a transparent

9]
1870. ] a [Pepper

brown color, and when an epiphysis has been incompletely essified, the
cartilaginous portion presents itself as a similar dried gelatinous mass.
The ends of the shafts of the long bones are very ragged also, the can-

cellated substance being exposed and more or less broken.

III. WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS.

In order to have some relative standard of weight, we have also
weighed the bones of a girl of about seventeen. But, it must be
observed, that all these but the scapula (which wanted the acromion epi-
physis) were weighed with all the epiphyses. These healthy bones
were rather slender, but were also longer than the diseased bones (the
diseased and healthy femurs being 14} and 16 inches respectively, ex-
cluding the lower epiphyses).

Diseased Bones. Hlealthy Bones.

Femur (without lower epiphysis) 8 oz. Do (with all epiphyses) 8 oz. 84 drms.

Sibi. Co. a nie ) 55 “* Do a - Dees
Humerus (with all epiphyses) 35 ‘‘ Do ‘ - Rie OR
Radius (without epiphyses) 1 “ Do <4 fs 6 be
Ulna (without lower epiphysis) 2 ‘* Do we - i oe
Clavicle (_ ‘* inner - ae
Scapula ( ‘ all epiphyses

except coracoid) Pe a
Fibula (without both epiphyses) 15 ‘‘ Do . fie aa

The following are the measurements in circumference of the bones, the

same healthy skeleton as before being used for comparison,

Diseased Bones. Healthy Bones.
Femur (middle), 5 in. 24 in,
Tibia ff AB 6 &s
(at tubercle), fe &<
Humerus (middle), qi + Decks
(above condyles), 5 6 Bh «
Radius (middle), BE: 1k «
(lower fourth), AL ss 12“
UIna (ac) and middle); Beit fay es
(just below corocoid), 4i bs 18
Fibula (lower fourth), thie 12%
Clavicle (acromial extremity), Sian Qe «6

The following are the diameters. In general the original limits of the
bone were pretty easily distinguished. The external line of demarcation
in the femur and the posterior in the tibia are so indistinct that the diam-
eters of the original bones are not wholly reliable. All the diameters are
derived from longitudinal sections by a circular saw, and they are all at
the middle unless otherwise stated.

Pepper.) ae [ Dee. 2,

Original Bone. Diseased Bone. Addition

by Disease.

Femur, de ails 1d in. + in.
Tibia, 1. 1,2, « ie
Humerus, fe 13 « 5
Radius (middle), gene ieee a“
(upper third), 4 6 ee a «
(lower third), ie ie 16
Ulna (middle), ie qi. Ys
(at coronoid), B 66 aan 5
(lower third), BM 1 & te
Metacarpal (great toe), 4 6 ee Be
Phalanx 2 ca a. Le
Clavicle, gs Boe gee
Fibula (upper & lowerthirds) 7; ‘ Be iv,

Tlium (1 in. above acetabu-

lum), is *! a B «

IV. GENERAL Description.

The bones which have suffered the most are the clavicle, humerus, ra-
dius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, or-tarsals and phalanges of
both hand and foot. These are diseased in almost the entire length of
their shafts. The radius and ulna have suffered rather more than any of
the other bones just named. All the other bones of the trunk have suf-
fered to some extent, those of the skull but very little or not at all.

Comparing the upper and the lower extremities, there is no appreciable
difference in the violence of the disease.

Comparing the two sides externally, not only is there no difference in
the extent and character of the disease, but there is the most remarkable
symmetry of the corresponding, diseased bones, which may be traced even
to details. (Figs. 9 and 10.) The disease begins and ends on both sides
at corresponding points, it changes in character from simple porosity
to the growth of osteophytes at corresponding points; if on one side
the posterior part of the bone is most diseased, the same is true of
the other side; if the osteophyte growth is continuous or interrupted
on one bone (fibula Fig. 18) it is so on the opposite one; if one is
unusually diseased at a tendinous or aponeurotic insertion, so is its
mate ; if a groove or a variation in color exist on the one side, the same
will be found on the other side; even of single marked spicule of bone
the same may be said; so that a description of one side will answer for
both, minute differences being noted as they occur.

The main violence of the disease is expended on the shafts of the long
bones. The epiphyses, of which the most important remain, e. g. those
of the femur, tibia, humerus, &c., show we may almost say nodisease. The
lower epiphysis of the femur is slightly porous in the usually compact
layer of the articular surface, but so fine is the porosity and so slight the
disease that it would not be observed save on a most careful examination.

1870, ] — [Pepper.

‘The other epiphyses show occasionally still slighter disease. Indeed it is

a question whether this be not the result of the prolonged boiling. The
bones of the trunk are but little affected except the sternum, which must
have suffered severely, the manubrium being very porous and much

thickened. The bones of the head are scarcely at all affected.

The point of greatest development of the disease varies with its char-
acter. 1°. The thickening is most developed in the middle of the shafts,
and here generally the sclerosis is furthest advanced. (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 21.)

20, The porosity is not noticeably greater in any particular parts of the

shafts, but seems externally to be equally diffused. 3°. The osteophytes
follow a marked law in their development. They are most developed
where the muscles, aponeuroses, fasciae, &c., are attached, ¢. g. the
linea aspera, interosseus ridges of the tibia and fibula, radius and ulna,
the insertion of the deltoid, biceps and brachialis anticus, the condyloid
ridges of the humerus. But it is not always true conversely, that
where a large muscle is attached there must be a large osteophyte
growth, ¢. g. there are none at the origins of the pectoralis major
and sterno-mastoid, the supra- and infra-spinatus, the insertion of the

-‘quadratus femoris, &c. One class of exceptions is, however, to be

noted, viz: that at the attachment of those muscles and ligaments that
are connected to epiphyses, there is generally no disease, ¢. y. the muscu-
lar attachments to the greater and lesser trochanters, the greater and
lesser tuberosities, tubercle of the tibia, the tuber iscbii and nearly all
the ligaments. The epiphyses and their attached parts are very nearly
all quite free from disease, though it may be largely developed in their
immediate neighborhood.

The direction of the nutritious artery seems to have had no influence

‘on the development of the disease either in its extent or degree.

The porosity varies in its character, and usually any one bone will show
all its varieties. 1°. The surface of the bone presents a very fine cribri-
form appearance, resembling pumice stone. When magnified six or eight
times this is seen to consist of a stout network of bone perforated by nu-
merous small foramina, which are generally tolerably circular, and do not

communicate one with another. (Fig. 24.) 2°. It may be of a finer vel-

vety appearance. This by the same power is seen to consist of the same
network of bone, whose very large foramina or meshes now communi-
cate and are therefore very irregular in form, while the ridges forming
the bony net-work are very thin and form relatively high walls between
the adjacent meshes. Sometimes these ridges assume a tolerably regu-
lar parallelism, giving a striated appearance to the part. 3°. A coarser
appearance is often produced by a similar honey-combing with large
foramina or meshes, deep and irregular, varying in size from a horse-hair
to a line in diameter with the first or second variety existing in the inter-
vening ridges. (See lower end of Humerus, Fig. 1.) 4°. The surface is

-often pierced more or less sparsely by small foramina about the size of a

shorse-hair. (Fig. 20.)
The osteophytes vary greatly also in their character. In shape they

D4
Pepper.) ~ t [Dec.2,

are either pointed, flat, or clubbed, sessile or pedunculated. They fre-

quently form larger or smaller scales, which cover more or less of the
pone. They vary from the smallest size visible up to ? inch in length or

1 inch square. They are often compound, smaller ones growing from
larger ones as a base. Imbrication is not unusually a marked feature,
and whether imbricated or not, their direction or ‘“‘trend’”’ almost always
follows that of the fibres attached at that point. This is very marked
where adjacent muscles run in different directions, ¢. g. the flexor attach-
ments of the radius and ulna as contrasted with that of the pronater
quadratus. (Figs. 11 and 15.) The grooves between the osteophytes
have sometimes rolling edges, sometimes are as sharp as if cut with a
knife, and often lie closely together and parallel; they are apparently
made in many cases by the numerous small vessels. All of the osteo-
phytes are more or less porous. :

The color is usually normal, but in some places is of varying shades of
brown.

On a section the whole bone is seen to be encased with anew formation
of bone. This is true not only of the long bones but also of the scapule
and ossa innominata. Viewing these bones and also many parts of the
shafts of the long bones on the surface, one would suppose he.had simply
to do with the original thickened bone which had undergone this porous
change. But a section shows that there is a complete new formation
which is added layer after layer around the old bone. These layers (except-
ing where sclerosis has taken place) are separated by interspaces sometimes

_ just appreciable to the eye, sometimes a quarter of an inch wide. (Fig.17).
The outer layer is often very thin, but presents to the eye that deceptive
appearance of apparent compact tissue which has simply become porous.
Where sclerosis has taken place or osteophytes are developed, of course
the thickness of the outer layer is either greatly increased or else unde-
terminable. The other layers also vary in thickness from the develop-
ment of the sclerosis from the thinnest possible to one or two lines.
“These layers may sometimes be traced into continuity with those form-
ing the healthy portion of the wall’ * of the original bone, especially at the
extremities of the shaft. (Fig. 4.) At these points, starting from the ori-
ginal compact tissue, the several layers of the encasing new formation grad-
ually become more and more widely separated or new layers may appear,
thus producing a very great thickening at the centre, while at the ends of
the shaft the thickening gradually (sometimes suddenly) diminishes. The

interspaces between the layers are sometimes for even an inch wholly
void, but they are generally filled with intervening trabecule of bone,
which form a cancellated tissue and also support the superimposed layer
to which they are always perpendicular. To a very large extent these
layers have been welded together by sclerosis, and sometimes the new
growth and the origirial bone present no line of demarcation by which
they can be distinguished. Where this solidification has taken place, the
cut surface instead of the uniform ivory-like solidity of normal compact

* Paget. Surg. Path. F

Ed. 1863, p. 301-2, and fig. 40.

OF
1870. ] a (Pepper.

tissue presents a granular appearance, as if the cancelli of the interspaces
were not solidly filled up. The process of sclerosis not infrequently dips
down like a cone whose base is of considerable extent at the surface of
the new growth and whose apex just touches, or is sometimes welded with
the original compact tissue. (Fig. 21.) Eburnation has nowhere taken
place.

The original bone, too, has undergone marked changes. Its limits are
generally pretty well defined, but the compact tissue of which its wall
once consisted, is now cancellated, to a greater or less degree (osteo-spon-
giosis). Sometimes all appearance of compact tissue, save a mere worm-
eaten porous external film, has disappeared. Sometimes no cancellation
appears, but the old and new growths are welded together. The cancelli
of the once compact tissue of the old bone always run parallel with the
aais of the bone, and are thus easily distinguished from those of the spaces
between the laminz of the new growth which run at right angles to the
surface of the bone. (Figs. 4 and 17.) The old cancellated tissue has
often very large cancelli and in some cases has disappeared, leaving a
wider medullary canal than is normal.

The epiphyses do not appear materially altered on section.

V. Description OF INDIVIDUAL BONES.

1. Head.—All the bones of the head are present, completely disarticu-
lated. The spheno-occipital suture was not ossified. No sections were
made of these bones, and the external appearances alone are described.

(a) Frontal. The roof of the orbit, especially in the fosse for the
lachrymal glands, is somewhat porous. Internally the porosity appears
over various parts of the perpendicular portion. The irregular striated
appearance from large numbers of fine grooves is marked, and sclerosis
seems to have made considerable progress.

(b) Parietal. Externally slightly porous at the posterior border ; in-
ternally also over, say one-fifth of the surface, corresponding to the
protuberance.

(ec) Occipital. Externally small scattered patches of porosity ; inter-
nally the same change is limited to the superior fosse and the groove for
the left lateral sinus.

(d) Sphenoid. Porosity of external surface of greater wings, and also
in most of the pterygoid plates, which are somewhat thickened.

(e) Temporal. Slightly porous and thickened externally on squamous
portion, and in the glenoid cavity and in the grooves for both lateral
sinuses.

(f) Sup. Max. Slightly porous on anterior surface, and at the tuber-
osity. The alveoli are reticulated so as to resemble almost the meshes of
the pulmenary structure.

(g) Palate. Internally, slight porosity at the junctlon of the perpen-
dicular and horizontal portions.

(h) Inf. Max. Ascending ramus markedly thickened, and porous in-
ternally and externally ; most developed at the centre of the ramus ;

Avr Sia Vv Ob Sil 1)

In
Pepper.] 26 [Dec. 2,
body similarly affected, principally between the mental foramen and the
external oblique line. Alveoli like those of the upper jaw. This bone
has suffered more than any other bone of the skull.

Condition of Teeth.—The teeth were all present, and were carefully ex-
amined. They were very brittle, so as to break across with little difficulty
(see Micros. Hx.), but presented no peculiarity of shape. The entire ab-
sence of the peculiar deformity of the incisors, noted by Hutchinson, of
London, as characteristic of hereditary syphilis, is to be especially marked
as it bears upon the question of causation of the morbid process.

2. Vertebrw.—The epiphysal plates of the bodies, and the epiphyses of
the transverse and spinous processes, are all gone. In the dorsal region
the groove between the three original parts in which the ossification takes
place, is very deep, but they are all united more or less. This groove
gradually disappears both above and below, none of the remaining cervi-
cal vertebree showing it, while inferiorily it is visible as far as the first
sacral. On section the body is not much thickened, and no line of de-
marcation exists. No sclerosis has taken place.

(a) Cervical. Scarcely noticeable porosity of the anterior surface of
body. Posterior arch of atlas is unusually thick and dense.

(b) Dorsal. Marked porosity of external surface of body, which is
elevated above the surface left by the removal of the slightly overlapping
epiphysal plates, about one-half a line to a line. Spinous processes
slightly porous.

(c) Lumbar and Sacral. Same as dorsal ; the porosity of spinous pro-
cesses being more marked.

3. Sternum and Ribs.—(a) The manubrium only is present, and is very
thick and porous. No osteophytes.

(b) The ribs have lost all their epiphyses. They are not affected on the
external surface, save slightly in one or two instances. On the pleural
surface they are all porous, and often a little thickened. For about one
inch from the head the entire bone is thickened and porous.

4. Upper Extremities.—(a) Clavicle. The sternal epiphysis is wanting.
Where the surface for the articulation with the acromion should be, there
is on each side an oval cup-like depression } x 1 in, and 4 in. deep. (Fig.
13.) Its walls are perpendicular, its floor flat, and both are covered with
a thin layer of compact tissue resembling that which covers all the ends of
the diaphyses of the other bones next the epiphysal cartilage. It was filled,
when first seen, with a small mass of dried tissue resembling the epiphysal
cartilage already described. Possibly it may have been an unusual third
centre of ossification for this bone. It was occupied, certainly, by some
substance separate from the shaft of the clavicle, either a third centre of
ossification, or a projecting piece of the acromion. If the former, it is a
yery unusual place for a supernumerary epiphysis.

The whole bone is thickened to about twice its normal width, and its
surface is coarsely porous throughout. At the insertion of the ligaments
on the under surface, the porosity is quite fine and velvety. At the inner
half of the origin of the deltoid there are twelve to twenty stout and well

9
1870. ] 27 [Pepper.

developed osteophytes. A few also exist at the middle of the insertion of
the trapezius. The section shows the original bone distinct from the
new growth at all points. The lamine of the new growth are very dis-
tinct at most points. A large part of those of the under surface are more
or less closely united by partial sclerosis. The original bony tissue is
relatively but little altered.

(b) Scapula. The coracoid process is one-third united to the bone, but
wants the epiphysis developed on it at about seventeen years of age. All
the other epiphyses are absent.

The bone is porous throughout, save at the centre of the infra-spinous
fossa ; generally of the coarse variety, but very five in certain spots. The
whole bone is somewhat thickened, as can be seen without any section,
at its posterior border and on the spine. (Fig. 23.) The latter being to a
great extent denuded of the outermost compact, yet porous layer of the
new growth, shows the reticulated trabecule which supported it, and
through their meshes the old external compact layer of the original bone
now all worm eaten and very thin. his is especially well seen at the two
extremities of the spine. The axillary border of the bone is three or four
times as thick as is normal, has a few coarse osteophytes, and a very deep
and wide groove for the dorsalis scapule artery.

(c) Humerus. All the epiphyses are preserved except that of the in-
ternal condyle. The trochlear surface projects only to a level with the
radial.

The whole shaft (Figs. 1 and 2) is involved in the disease, the least
at the upper fourth, the other three-fourths being about alike. The
porosity is almost wholly very fine or velvety. About two inches below
the head, at the insertion of the Pect. maj., the anterior bicipital ridge is
greatly thickened (especially on the right side). It is continuous with a
very large elevated surface (2 1} in.) at the insertion of the deltoid. This
is covered with a large mass of not very large porous osteophytes whose
trend is generally upwards. One (r. side) or two (left) large flat imbricated
osteophytes mark the posterior lip of the bicipital groove. At the musculo-
spiral groove, which is well marked, the bone is finely porous, but presents
no osteophytes. At the lower third, anteriorly, the bone presents numer-
ous osteophytes, sometimes single, but generally in groups. They are
sessile, porous, and in some cases imbricated ; their trend is generally
downwards, except just above the epiphysis, where they are at right
angles to the bone. The two condyloid ridges, especially the inner, are
greatly diseased. The external ridge (especially on the right side) has
several large porous sessile outgrowths with intervening grooves, the
largest groove about corresponding in position to the anastomotica magna
artery. The internal ridge up to the insertion of the coraco-brachialis is
covered with large knobby and porous, imbricated osteophytes, continu-
ous witha similar remarkable growth on the posterior surface of the bone,
covering the origin of the internal head of the triceps, which extends to
the musculo-spiral groove above, and fades into simple porosity exter-
nally. Atthe origin of the external head of the triceps, there is also a

gee)
28 [ Dee, 2,

Pepper. ]
marked elevation covered with pointed osteophytes, and continuous with
that of the deltoid insertion. The trend of all these osteophytes is down-
wards, and their color (especially on the right side) is a light brown.

The section (Figs. 8 and 4) shows the outline of the old bone obliterated
in the lower third, and only faintly visible in the upper two-thirds ante-
riorly. In the posterior upper two-thirds the lamin of the new growth
are admirably shown, though even here the sclerosis is in some parts far
advanced. The original compact wall in the superior one-third, anterior-
ily, and two-thirds posteriorly, has almost disappeared, the cancellation
(spongiosis) is so great, and it is a typical illustration of this process in
various stages. The original cancellated structure is either fragmentary,
its cancelli being very large, or else it has entirely vanished, leaving an
enlarged medullary canal.

(d) Radius (Figs. 9,10 and 11.) All the epiphyses are gone, save the
left upper one. Instead of being rounded externally, and showing a sharp
interosseous ridge internally, it is almost cylindrical, increasing in diame-
ter from above downwards. At the bicipital tubercle there is a crest of
curved osteophytes under which, as in a cave, the tendon of the biceps was
inserted. The oblique line is marked by a series of knobby, porous, slightly
imbricated osteophytes, whose trend is downwards and inwards till they
reach the insertion of the pronator teres, where their size increases, and
their trend is upwards and outwards. The interosseous border is rounded
off and marked by a series of deep)y imbricated laminated osteophytes, all
trending downwards, resembling a rounded surface deeply grooved by ob-
lique parallel cuts of a thin saw. Where the pronater quadratus was at-
tached, a large number of osteophytes exist in ridges, which run lat-
terally. All the rest of the bone is thickened and porous, and where
the muscles took origin, is covered with porous osteophytes.

Tn section (Fig. 8) the outlines of the original bone are visible through-
out ; the laminz of the new growth are marked ; the sclorosis is in various
stages, and anteriorly for some two inches the new and old growths are
almost welded together. The old compact tissue is wholly changed to
spongy, and the medullary canal is increased in size.

(e) Ulna (Figs. 14 and 15.) The lower epiyhyses are absent. Like the
radius, the ulna is involved in its whole length, and is about twice its nor-
mal diameter. At the insertion of the brachialis anticus, a cup-like
depression surrounded by an elevated ridge of osteophytes, exists,
somewhat similar to that on the bicipital tubercle of the radius.
The anterior surface is covered with small porous osteophytes, witl
a slight downward imbrication. At the attachment of the pronater
quadratus they become more marked in their development, and the
imbrication is external. The interossecus ridge is rounded off and
marked, as in the radius, but with several unusually large and deeply
imbricated osteophytes with a deep groove, probably that of the inter-
osseous artery. Externally a brown discoloration is seen, which is
the most noticeable on the rig

side. Posteriorly the bone is coarsely

1870.] 29 [Pepper.

porous, but very few osteophytes exist, save on the lower third. The
intervening grooves run transversely, but are neither deeply nor sharply
cut.

On section (Figs. 16 and 17) the line of the original bone can be dis-
tinguished throughout ; the laminew of the new growth are very marked ;
the sclorosis has welded together all the new layers anteriorly, and at
the junction of the upper and middle thirds, the new and old growths
are almost melted together both anteriorly and posteriorly. The inter-
space between the old bone and the first new lamina reaches one-fourth
of an inch in width just below the olecranum, and the distinction between
the perpendicular trabecule filling it up, and the longitudinal cancelli of
the once compact tissue of the old bone is very marked. The medullary
sanal is scarcely, if at all, enlarged, and, indeed, at the point of greatest
sclerosis above named, the same process seems to have invaded the canal
itself.

5. Lower Extremities.—(a) Innominate Bones. The ilium is separated
from the ischium and pubes, which are firmly and indistinguishably united
together at their rami, but at the acetabulum are distinct. The Y-shaped
piece uniting them is preserved, andis loose on both sides. All the other
epiphyses are missing. The bones are porous throughout but not to a
marked degree. The thickening varies from } to 3 of an inch, being
greatest just above the acetabulum. On the ischium and pubes no osteo-
phytes exist, save one small lamina on the body of the right pubes. The
ilium is free from them except above the acetabulum for a considerable
space, on and around the reflected origin of the rectus, where large and
strong osteophytes exist, with a trend inwards and upwards.

On section of the ilium, (Fig. 12) the external surfaces, which other-
wise would be thought to be the porous surface of the original bone, are
seen to be the outer layer of the new growth. The original compact tis-
sue has undergone spongiosis to a great extent. Sclerosis is furthest ad-
vanced just above the acetabulum.

. :

(b) Femur (Figs. 6 and 7). All the epiphyses are separated. Both
heads and great trochanters and the left lower epiphysis are preserved.
The latter shows some very slight porosity, as already noticed.

Anteriorly the inter-trochanteric line is marked by a well developed
growth of short, thick, rather acuminate osteophytes, separated by
grooves running in the axis of the neck. A similar line of more slender
imbricated osteophytes runs parallel to the base of the great trochanter
and trends toward it. These two lines form the letter A. Immediately
within this letter A (especially on the left side) the trend of all the osteo-
phytes turns sharply downwards and so continues to the lower j of the
bone, where they are perpendicular. They are not very marked in their
development. Just above the end of the shaft, however, they form an
Overlapping sheath to the bone. In the middle of the right femur an
aperture (14 X 2 inches) exists in the ensheating new growth, disclosing

ay
30 [Dee.

Pepper. ]

to view the original but altered bone. Posteriorly the osteophyte growth
extends from half an inch below the lesser trochanter to within 2} inches
of the end of the shaft, and the same sheath-like appearance is very no-
ticeable at its two extremities. Where not covered with osteophytes, the
shaft is very finely porous and thickened. All the central two-thirds of the
shaft is one vast mass of large, irregular, porous osteophytes. Their di-
rection is not constant, but is in general downwards, and their shapes are
very varied. The massextends for about eight inches, along what was the
tolerably sharp linea aspera, but is now about } in. wide and about ¢ inch
thick. The posterior inter-trochanteric line and great trochanter are not
affected, except a slight porosity in the former. The lesser trochanter is
wanting, but for } in. around it there is no disease beyond some porosity
save one squamous osteophyte on the right side.

On section (Fig. 5) in the axis of the head and great trochanter the out-
line of the old bone is not to be made out save internally, and then only
imperfectly. The old and new growths are almost everywhere indistin-
guishably welded together. The lamine of the new growth, too, are
welded together save at a very few points. The old compact wall is still
solid, but it looks granular and does not present the ivory-like solidity of
normal compact tissue. The medullary canal is somewhat enlarged at
the expense of its walls. At the lower extremity the trabeculw of the can-
cellated substance are normal, but in the head and neck the arches for
mechanical support are much less distinctly marked than is usual.

(c) Patella. The right patella is missing. The anterior surface of the
left shows a few osteophytes trending downwards.

(d) Tibia. Both the upper epiphyses are preserved. The whole bone
is greatly diseased and thickened to about twice its usual diameter. The
tubercle is slightly thickened and presents a ragged edge above for
articulation with the epiphyses, but the greater part of the tubercle being
developed from the epiphyses the disease is not very marked. The crest
is rounded in its whole length and porous. The internal sub-cutaneous
surface presents marked syelling and porosity. There is but little oste-
ophyte growth, and it is generally in the laminz except at the sartorius
insertion, where it is more developed. A number of deep grooves exist,
generally longitudinal in their direction and most marked at the upper
third. The posterior and external surfaces are covered with a warty
growth of porous osteophytes which attain their greatest development
at the interosseous border and especially at the oblique line. The gen-
eral trend of all this growth is downwards. Grooves for the vessels are
frequent and tolerably deep. :

On section (antero-posterior) the outline of the old bone is distinct at
the extremities, but in the central two-thirds it is barely visible in front
and wholly lost behind, the sclerosis at this part having welded together
all the lamine of the new growth and the original bone. Even at the ex-
tremities the new lamine are not very marked. The rarefaction of the
original compact substance is of course therefore not marked. The me-
dullary canal if at all altered is narrowed by the encroaching sclerosis.

1870. ] 31

[ Pepper.

(e) Fibula (Fig. 18). Its shaft alone is preserved, and its axis iS:
slightly bent inwards. The whole bone is encased in a newly formed os-
seous growth which is sometimes simply porous, and is covered with
sometimes an interrupted, sometimes a continuous, growth of warty
osteophytes, all more or less porous. Posteriorly and internally this
growth is most developed, the trend being downwards. The lower sub-
cutaneous surface is greatly thickened and finely porous, but has no os-
teophytes.

On section the bone is doubled in its diameter, the outline of the
original bone being only visible in about ene-half of its extent, the scle-
rosis obscuring it at other points. The original compact tissue is rare-
fied by spongiosis, and the medullary canal is somewhat widened.

(f) Hand and Foot. They are considered together, as some of the
bones are indistinguishable, and moreover, in general the same descrip-
tion applies to both.

(1.) Right scaphoid of hand. Not diseased.

(2.) Left calcis. Porous and enlarged throughout. Porous osteophytes
are seen at the attachments of the tendinous sheaths internally, and one
large flat one on the inferior surface. The epiphysis for the attachment
of the tendo achillis is preserved, but shows no disease.

(3.y Metacarpus, metatarsus and phalanges. Two of the phalanges
have their epiphyses attached but not united by ossification. The epi-
physes are not diseased. No other epiphyses are preserved. All these
bones suffer by far to the greatest extent in the centre, not at all at the
head (viewed externally), and but little at the base, and the new growth
is five or six times as thick on the dorsum as on the opposite surface. No:
osteophytes exist save on one of the metatarsal bones and at the ridges
for the flexor sheaths of three of the phalanges.

On section (Fig. 21), compare also Fig. 22, the outlines of the old bones
are very readily seen, the apex of the conical sclerosis having, at points,

just touched the surface of the old bone. The original wall of compact

tissue is wholly rarefied by spongiosis, and the cancelli of the new and old
bone are readily distinguished by the different directions of their axes.
The normal compact wall of the phalanges being very thick relatively,
the changes in it are the more marked. Sclerosis has invaded from
half to two-thirds of the new growth. The head of the bone is also
markedly rarefied by spongiosis.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION.

The specimens from which the following description and wood-cuts
were made, were prepared with his well known skill by Dr. J. H. MeQuil-
len. They consisted of a transverse section through the thickened wall of
a phalanx, embracing the thickness of the layers superimposed by the pe-
riosteum, but not of the entire original compact layer of the bone, and of
a transverse section through the right canine tooth.

Q«¢

2
Pepper. ] ied [Dee. 2,

The section of the phalanx (Fig. A) exhibited a quite compact osseous
structure—the Haversian canals being for the most part round, and
rather small, though in some places they were irregularly shaped or oval,
and larger. The intervening bone lamelle were of unusual thickness,

fh A
\ I yy ‘

and presented in the majority of cases, bone corpuscles with canaliculi.
In some cases, however, no bone corpuscles were present, and the lamellze
appeared to be merely calcified by saturation with bone salts. :

The bone corpuscles were small and often indistinct ; in some places they
were unusually round, but in others they presented the normal elongated
shape; their canaliculi were invariably very poorly developed, and often
could not be discovered.

With regard to the mode of arrangement of the bone lamellw, they
were always developed concentrically with (parallel to the walls of) the
Haversian canals, and in no instance were any lamelle found whose di-
rection was parallel to the external surface of the shaft.

egg

38

1870.] — [Pepper.
The section of the tooth (Fig. B) showed the existence of numerous ir-
regularly shaped, branching lacune in the dentine near the marginal
layer of enamel. These spaces were of various sizes and intercepted the

Fic. B.

course of a varying number of dental tubuli. They indicated unquestion-
ably either an arrest of the process of calcification of the dentine, or of
the resorption of calcareous matter already deposited, conditions which are
also present in the true bony tissue. They are identical with the so-called
interglobular spaces first described by Kolliker and carefully studied by
Dr. McQuillen of this city, who has published (Dental Cosmos, N. 8. Vol.
VIII, No. 3, pg. 113,) several excellent illustrations of them.

PATHOLOGY OF THE DISEASE.

Having thus described the gross and minute features of these bones,
we would hazard the following remarks in regard to the nature and cause
of the pathological process :—

Tn the first place it is to be observed that three separate processes, or
at least three distinct stages of the same process, are represented in dif-
ferent parts of the skeleton, or even, in some instances, in single bones.
These stages are :

First. Internal Osteoporosis of the original osseous tissue. 2d. Ex-
ternal Hyperostosis, due to successive attacks of Periostitis, both of
which processes are present in varying propertion in almost all the bones,
and 3d. Secondary Induration.

A. P. §.—VOL. XII—E

Pepper.] 3b4 [Deez2,

1. It is especially in regard to the explanation of the internal osteopo-
rosis, which constitutes so marked a feature of these specimens, that we
regret the absence of any careful examination of the bones in their recent
condition. Jn their present state, it is only possible to describe the de-
gree to which this rarefaction of the osseous tissue has occurred, but it is
evident that such changes might be produced by very varied alterations
of the medulla and bone corpuscles. Thus, among the recognized causes
of osteoporosis, may be mentioned syphilis, scrofula, rheumatism ; qnd,
in addition, we must add that both osteomalacia and simple ostitis pro-
duce changes in the bones which, after the specimen has been boiled, and
the organic matter entirely removed, are not to be distingushed from the
effects of the first mentioned diseases. In each case, under the action of
the morbid irritant, whether purely external and local, or internal and con-
stitutional, there is more or less rapid proliferation of the essential vital
elements of the osseous tissue, called bone corpuscles or cells. At the same
time, the bony lamin surrounding the Haversian canals, and the walls
ef the lacunse, are progressively deprived of their calcareous salts and
removed, while the enlarged spaces thus produced are filled by the con-
stantly growing cellular elements. The manner in which this removal of
the caleareous salts is effected has been, and indeed remains, a subject of
much discussion. The first idea which seems to have been entertained may
be inferred from the name, eccentric atrophy, which was given to many
specimens of osteoporosis, under the belief that the bony lamelle were
thinned and pushed asunder by the centrifugal pressure of the growing
medulla. There is, however, no evidence whatever in favor of such a
mechanical explanation, and this hypothesis has justly been almost uni-
yersally abandoned.

By far the most plausible explanation which has been advanced appears
to be that the removal of the calcareous salts, the first essential step in
the destruction of the bony lamelle, is due to the solvent action of some
acid elaborated by the bone cells during the inflammatory process. Ac-
cording to Weber, their removal is not due to the direct action of any
acid, but is owing to a gradual conversion of the insoluble trt-basie phos-
phate of lime into the more soluble b2-basie salt.

As this feature of rarefaction is, however, common to so many diseases
of the bones, it is evident that the most characteristic results of such dis-
eases are to be rather found in the condition of the bone cells, and in the
characters of the morbid product which has resulted from their multipli-
cation. And it is to be trusted, that by careful chemical and microscopi-
cal study of these, such peculiarities will be discovered as will enable us
to distinguish with certainty in recent bones the various morbid changes.

Heretofore the majority of observers have limited themselves either to
a description of the dried bone, after maceration or boiling, or at most,
of the general characters of the medulla with which its cancelli are filled.
And it results from this swperficial mode of study, that there is as yet but

om geninn

cm, aise

mene iil “

7 mes

—

Or
1870.] 39 (Pepper.

little exact knowledge of the really essential changes which the organic,
active portions of bones undergo in disease.

Virchow, who was among the first to examine microscopically the con-
dition of the bone cells in ostitis and some other diseases attended with
rarefaction of the bone tissue, (Uber parenchymatése Entziindung ;
Virchow’s Archiv. Bd. IV. Hft. 2: 1852, b. s. 801 to 311,) formerly
regarded the process as essentially a degenerative one, due to the fatty
degeneration of the bone corpuscles and the subsequent softening and
removal of the area depending on these cells. We have already, how-
ever, stated the view which appears most plausible in regard to the re-
moval of the calcareous salts, and so far from fatty degeneration of the
bone corpuscles being a constant feature in the different forms of osteo-
porosis, it would appear from the careful researches of Ranvier (Archives
d’ Anat. et Phys., Norm. et Path., No. 1, 1868, page 69), that this condition
of the cells is altogether characteristic of caries and limited to that morbid
process. On the other hand, there is every reason to presume that these
cells are influenced by various morbid ‘causes, (inflammation, syphilis,
rheumatism, gout, scrofula, &c.) in the same way as the other tissues of
the body, and give rise to products more or less characteristic of the dis-
eased action present.

The history of the present case would appear to indicate that the na-
ture of the disease was a rheumatic or scrofulous inflammation, but
beyond this mere supposition we are prevented from advancing by the
absence of any chemical and microscopical examination of the recent
bones.

We would here again call attention to the marked peculiarity of the
porotic bones, fully described at pages 24 and 25, and figs. 4 and 17, al-
though we are unable to suggest any plausible explanation of the invaria-
bly parallel arrangement of the meshes of the porotic bone, and of the
equally uniform vertical arrangement of the meshes of the new-formed
sub-periosteal layers.

2. Another important appearance present in the bones here described,
and indeed one which is as marked and wide-spread as the osteoporosis,
is the extensive development of bone upon the exterior of the original
shafts. In our description of the skeleton, we have already noted the
peculiarities of these sub-periosteal growths, and it will be remembered
that they are in every instance limited to the body or shaft of the bones,
and never extend on to the epiphyses, and that they usually present sey-
eral thin lamine of imperfectly compact bone, parallel to the shaft and
separated from it and from each other by more or less wide interspaces
usually occupied by coarse cancellated tissue.

lt is undoubtedly from the examination of such specimens as this that
the mistaken idea arose that the lamelle, of which the original compact
shaft was formed, had been pushed asunder by the great enlargement of
its cancelli. It will, however, be seen from our description that the ap-

Pepper. ] 36 {Dec. 2, 1870.

pearances contradict any such supposition, and clearly show that while
in the cancellated and imperfectly compact tissue of the original shaft a
process of rarefaction (osteoporosis) has been advancing by atrophy of
the bony lamelle, there has also been an active process of periostitis re-
sulting in the formation of thick layers of new bone on the exterior.

Another means of distinguishing the line of demarcation between the
original shafts and the new-formed layers, is the abrupt change in the
direction of the cancelli already referred to.

It isevident, also, that the periostitis has not been uniformly continuous,
but that for a variable time its intensity was such that the inflammatory
product was capable of but imperfect ossification, and remained as cancel-
lous tissue ; while at irregular intervals thin layers of imperfectly com-
pact tissue have been formed. The occurrence of this long standing, but
not uniform process of periostitis ossificans appears to account, in every
instance, for the changes observed on the exterior of the original shafts.
In addition to this uniform hyperostosis, it will be observed from the de-
scription (see pp. 23, 24) that the same process of periostitis has given rise
to varied forms of porous osteophytes.

3. In some places, however, it is evident that a still further change has
occurred, consisting in the gradual conversion of the cancellous tissue
into compact bone. This process of consecutive or secondary induration
is most marked in the layers of bone formed by the periosteum ; though
it is present in the shafts of the tibie, femora and some other bones. It
is manifestly impossible to determine accurately the portions which
have been rendered compact by this process, but the disposition of the
successive layers of new-formed bone is, in general, so much like that
above described, that we are inclined to regard all the areas of compact
bone of any considerable thickness as due to this secondary change.

It would, indeed, appear but probable that as the high degree of inflam-
mation, under which the layer of cancellous tissue had been formed, sub-
sided, there should be a tendency to the formation of successive layers of
bone on the interior of the walls of the cancelli. It is especially in con-
nection with this point that the result of the microscopical examination
of the sub-periosteal layers is of so much interest. It will be observed
(see Fig. A) that in the newly-formed compact bony tissue, the lamella
are arranged concentrically around the vascular canals; a mode of ar-
rangement which strongly points to the occurrence of the process of con-
secutive induration, as we have above described.

The specimens are deposited in the Museum of the College of Physi-
cians.

J. EWING MEARS, M. D.
WM. W. KEEN, M. D.
HARRISON ALLEN, M. D.
WM. PHP PER, Mi D.

‘
|

Stated Meeting, March 3, 1871.
Present, five members.
Dr. .G. B. Woop, President, in the Chair.

Donations for the Library were received from the Dorpat
Observatory, St. Gall Society, R. Asylum for Lunatics at
Perth, Scotland, the London Royal Society, R. Geographical
Society, Society of Arts, and Thomas Irving, Esq., General
Sabine, Sir Charles Lyell, the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich, Prof. Mayer of Bethlehem, the American 7? gee neleeaeoe
Resoct aon, Franklin Institute; Directors of City Trusts, and
U.S. Commission Bureau for the Paris International Expo-
sition for 1867.

The Cylinder presented by Dr. Lowber was laid on the
table, and Prof. Cresson called the attention of the members
to it.

The death of Wm. J. Hamilton, F. R.S., member of the
Society, was announced by Mr, Chase.

Prof. Cope offered for publication in the Proceedings three
memoirs, entitled :

“Supplement to the Extinet Batrachia and Reptilia of N.
America; by E. D. Cope.’ (See Proc. p. 41.)

“On two extinct forms of Physostomi of the Neotropical
region; by H. D. Cope, APM.” “(See Proc. p. 52.)

“On the occurrence of fossil Cobitide in Idaho; by E. D.
Cope.” (See Proce. p. 5d.)

Also “Notes relating to the Physical Geography and
Geology of, and the distribution of Terrestrial Mollusca in
certain of the West Indian Islands; by Thomas Bland.”

Prof. Cope exhibited specimens of teeth and portions of the
jaw of a new Mososauroid; also slabs of coal te containing
fossils of a new species of batrachian, and a new reptilian
genus.

IR
Chase. ] Die) [March 3,

Mr. Chase offered some additional evidence of the contrast
between Huropean and American rainfalls; and communicated
some American peculiarities in the relations of barometric
pressure of winds and storms. (See below.)

Pending nominations Nos. 669, 670, and new nomination

671, were read.

Mr. Chase made a communication on the subject of pro-
viding suitable accommodations for the observations of the
Signal Service Bureau, which was referred to the Curators

and Hall Committee, with power to act.

And the mecting was adjourned.

Kuropean and American Rain-faiis.
3y Priny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 3, 1871.)

There is still a lingering skepticism on the part of some meteorologists,
regarding the moon’s influence on the weather, a skepticism which is
perhaps owing to the apparent want of agreement between observations
at different places. There is, however, no good reason for expecting such
accurate correspondence as is sometimes deemed essential. Dr. Emerson
(Proc. A. P. S., XI. 518) has communicated to the Society his early ob-
servation upon the reversal of the European barometric prognostics on
this side of the Atlantic. Mr. Blodget (Climatology, pp. 221-257) has
pointed out various climatologic contrasts, and Mr. Scott, the Director
of the British Meteorological Office, has noticed an opposition between
the solar (or temperature) rain-falls in Western Europe and Eastern
America, analogous to that which I have indicated in the lunar rain-falls.
The confirmation thus afforded to the results of my previous investigations,
strengthens the presumption that, in our Atlantic States, signs of fair
weather may be most confidently trusted during the ten days preceding,
signs of rain during the eight days following, full moon.

In order to make a comparison between stations of similar latitude, I
obtained from the ‘‘ Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz,’’ a record of the
quarterly rains at Lisbon for sixteen years, which T have embodied, to-

1871.) 39 [Chase.

gether with the observations at Pennsylvania Hospital for the same period,
in the following tables. The measurements are given in millimetres.
J.—QuUARTERLY RAIN-FALL AT LiIsBoNn.
YEARS. WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN. ‘TOTAL.

1855 280.8 272.7 15.4 862.5 930.9
1856 513.4 800.7 8.5 90.3 912.9
1857 267.8 152.2 67.9 324.4 812.3
1858 224.2 tise fh 567.6 912.1
1859 128.0 201.8 71.6 306.9 708.3
1860 210.9 122.4 39.6 187.3 560.2
1861 OULD 154.3 14.6 311.4 981.8
1862 364.4 282.9 6.6 176.9 830.8
1863 181.8 196.6 64.8 101.6 544.7
1864 155.3 282.2 33.9 863.5 834.9
1865 O1L.G 159.2 24.4 487.2 1042.4
1866 214.7 365.8 14.6 82.3 676.9
1867 197.2 216.2 18.6 172.1 599.1
1868 162.9 76.9 38.0 279.4 5
1869 323.2 158.5 3.1 66.0
1870 805.7, 11.1.6 21.9 60.3
Mean 275.2 197.9 27.9 252.5

TT.—QuvuantEeRLy RAIN-FALL AT PHILADELPHIA.

YEARS. WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN. TOTAL.

1855 193.0 169.9 485.4 257.8 1056.1
1856 284.5 211.8 241.3 187.5 925.1
1857 1844 359.9 482.6 133.4 1160.3
1858 264,9 272.8 Q744 297.1 1038.9
1859 376.7 376.9 376.4 371.6 1501.6
1860 240.3 2 311.7 342.9 1124.5
1861 269.8 362. 943 3 832.0 1207.6
1862 292.6 254.5 263.1 343.9 11541
1863 280.7 442.0 207.4 153.4 1173.5
1864 174.8 448.3 204.2 327.9 1155.3
1865 370.1 874.7 291.9 380.3 1416.9
1866 390.4 247.9 194.6 370.9 1203.8
1867 230.1 370.6 749..5 228, 1571.3
1868 225.8 401.3 268.0 404.6 1299.2
1869 318.5 296.2 247.7 337.8 1200.2
1870 997.7 404.9 303.8 195.8 1202.2
Mean 274.6 326.5 323.6 287.2 1211.9

Tt appears, therefore, that the heaviest rain-falls at Lisbon and the
lightest at Philadelphia, are usually in the Atitumn and Winter semester
the heaviest at Philadelphia and the lightest at Lisbon, in the Spring and
Summer. In ten years out of the sixteen, when the rain-fall of the entire
year was above the average at one station, it was below the average at
the other.

March 3, 1871.] 40) (Chase.

American Weather Notes.
By Puiny EarLE CHAse.
The signal service observations of our War Department have already

N

shown the value both of Buys Ballot’s law and of Capt. Toynbee’s modi-
fication in predicting changes of wind, especially if due regard is paid to
the barometric variations of the two previous days. They have also
suggested the following general deductions, some of which may perhaps
prove to be true only of the winter, while others seem to be explicable by
natural circumstances of position and physical configuration, which must
be operative at all seasons.

1. Winds varying like the land and sea breezes, are often traceable,
especially in the lull which follows the passage of storms, to differences of
temperature in the neighborhood of the great lakes, and of mountain
peaks and ridges.

2. The wind, especially in the Southern States, often blows directly in
the line of the greatest barometric gradient. But even in such cases,
after a few hours continuance, it tends towards the azimuth indicated by
Buys Ballot’s law.

3. The isobaric lines are, therefore, often of less relative importance
than the gradients in forming forceasts.

4, Long ridges of high barometer, as observed by Espy and others,
with adjacent troughs of low barometer, often traverse the continent,
sometimes with slight defiection, sometimes having a semi-circular,
cireular, or elliptical curvature with a diameter of three thousand miles
or more. Such ridges usually have a steeper declivity and stronger winds
on their northerly and easterly than on their southerly and westerly sides.

5. Currents with an anti-cyclonic tendency, controlled by arreas of high
barometer, are notably common. Reversals of wind, asfrom N. E. to8. W..,
are, therefore, frequent after the passage of an anticyclonic ridge or cen-
tre, as well as after the passage of a cyclone.

6. Our recent storms have been anticyclonic, and there seems some
reason for supposing that anticyclones are the usual “ weather-breeders,’”
even of such of our land storms as become more or less cyclonic after they
are fully developed.

7. The precipitation of vapor of course gives rise to local cyclones,
which, however, may be easily and speedily overborne by the grand anti-
cyclonic whirls of a half million miles or more in area. ’

8. These and other peculiarities, point to a probable origin of storms
in the blending of polar and equatorial currents, near the latitudes at
which the general tendency of the winds changes its direction.

9. Mr. Scott has observed that when polar (E.) currents are blowing at.
the North, and equatorial (W.) currents at the South, a serious baro-
metrical disturbance, frequently resulting in a gale, generally soon fol-
lows ; but when the polar current is at the South and the equatorial at
the North there appears to be no law of sequence. The latter condition,
with us, seems often indicative of approaching fair weather, especially if
northerly or easterly are separated from southerly or westerly winds by a
ridge of high barometer. :

10. If the progress of a northerly or easterly current towards the equa-
tor is impeded by an intervening southerly or westerly current, the dis-
turbance not only speedily follows, as indicated by Mr. Scott, but it is
also, commonly, like most showers, 8. JJ. storms, and other marked cyclonic
commotions, of briefer duration than those which are primarily anti-
cyclonic.

;

Hs,

mh

March 3, 1871.] 41 [Cope.

SuprPLeMEN'’ to the ‘‘ Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of
North America.”’

3y E. D. Corn.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 3, 1871.)

BATRACHIA.
SAUROPLEURA REMEX, Cope.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 1868, p. 217. 0. wmphiunimus, Cope..
Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 1869, 17 in parts.

A fine specimen of this speciés recently sent me by Prof. Newberry,.
from Linton, Ohio, includes the vertebral column from the hind limbs to-
the end of the caudal series. One of the former is preserved and exhibits
slender digits and other characters like those already described in the S.
pectinata. Having ascertained that the Oestocephalus amphiuminus pos-
sesses no anterior limbs, I regard my reference of these species to that
genus as premature, and will allow them to remain in Sauropleura,
where I originally placed them.

OESTOCEPHALUS AMPHIUMINUS, Cope.

Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1869, p. 17; 1. ¢. p. il.

The bones formerly regarded by me as referable to a rudimental fore
limb in this genus, appear to be rather branchihyals, and indicate the ex-
istence of external branchie.

CoLOsTEUSs SCUTELLATUS, Newb.

Pygopterus scutellatus, Newberry, Proceed. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phil. 1856.
Colosteus crassiscutatus, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1869, 28.

The original description of this species by Prof. Newberry was over-
looked, in preparing my account of it above quoted.

MOSASAURID &.
LIoDON sECTORIUS, Cope, sp. nov. :

Established on a large part of the under and upper jaw, and other parts
of the cranium with a vertebra, from the green sand of the upper bed of
the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

The character which at once distinguishes this species from other
Liodons, and especially from all the species of Mosasaurus, is the very
compressed’form of the crowns of the teeth, which approach nearer in
this respect to those of Diplotomodon, than any others that I have seen.
The vertebra, a lumbar, has also subround articular faces, thus removing ,
the species from close relationship to those with depressed vertebra, of
some of which the teeth are unknown.

In the presené specimen crowns and _ pedestals of thirteen teeth are pre-
served. Those of the mandible are most numerous, and display the suc-
cessional modification of form from before backwards visible in other
species of the family. The anterior teeth are less compressed, and have

ALP. 8.——VOL S11?

Cope. ] 42 {Mareh 8,
but one, an anterior, cutting edge, the posterior face being regularly
convex. The inner face is much more convex than the outer, and the
flatness of the latter is marked at the apex of the tooth by a short ridge
which bounds it posteriorly. This is a trace of the bounding angle which
extends to the basis of the crown in Mosasaurus. The anterior cutting
edge is in profile convex ; the posterior outline concave to near the tip.
The cutting edge is acute, and beautifully ribbed on each side, but not
properly denticulate. The surface of the tooth is not facetted, but the
outer face exhibits the peculiarity of a longitudinal coneavity, or shallow
groove extending from the base to the middle of the crown. The enamel
is polished, but under the microscope minutely and extensively striate:
ridged. This description is taken from the second or third from the
anterior end of the maxillary bone. The third from the distal end of the
dentary is very similar.

The crowns become rapidly more compressed as we pass backwards.
From a broad oval section of two crown bases, we reach a flattened oval
crown, with the cutting edge sharp behind as well as before, and minutely
ribbed. ‘The crown is not facetted, and is more convex interiorly than
exteriorly. The exterior convexity is chiefly anterior ; the posterior face
is slightly concave from the open groove already described as present in
the anterior teeth. In two posterior crowns, one still more elongate in
section, the external concavity becomes flatter and includes a great
part of the outer face. A tooth still more posterior presents the peculiarity
of the species in the strongest light. The crown is still more compressed,
directed backwards, and only .25 higher than wide antero-posteriorly at
the base. The latter is a little over twice the transverse diameter just
behind the middle. The surface presents the characters described in
others. The outer concave surface is wide and shallow, and contributes
to the attenuation of the posterior half of the tooth rather than the an-
terior, which is consequently thicker. The cutting edges are sharp, the
anterior convex and retreating backwards to the rather obtuse apex ; the
posterior convex above, concave below.

The exposed parts of the dental pedestals are frustra of cones, neither
swollen nor concave.

Measurements. M.
Third superior maxillary length crown............0.++-++ 0.088
Neiglt.crown and pedestal... ii. .ausc.ss i.e. >. . .048
‘¢ longitudinal diameter base crown...... WA cage 002
Hee SUPSMAVOLEOn cis wee: OU fo ee ee .018
Sixth dentary, longitudinal ....... Pog oe Pi cre ce 0rd!
Mi ss transverse... .... ait aehiye Pont eRe A sires ote eed
Eleventh dentary height crown..............+. bite ide 034
us height crown. and pedestal. ..06. «ive cee seen s .0505
fs longitudinal diameter basis crown............... .026
#3 UPADBYCIEG . 06.665 6 oe wVviele or Vale he caes Gee eas 014

The articular bone is perhaps .66 the size of that of Mosasaurus dekayt
I I Y

1871.] 43 {Cope.

and presents less powerful development of the interior ridge for the
pterygoid muscle. The cotylus descends abruptly behind it. The coro-
noid bone exhibits the usual anterior fissure. ‘The rolled front margin of
the ascending portion is thickened. The superior surface of the anterior
part of the frontal bone, is lumpy and with some shallow pits ; the outer
face of the articular is smooth. The vertebra preserved is a posterior
lumbar, and is injured; the anterior articular face is nearly round. Its
vertical diameter is M.058. Length of centrum M.008.

The forms of the teeth distinguish the Liodon sectorius from the species
of Mosasaurus, and that of the vertebra, from such species as Liodon
perlatus, Cope, and L. dyspelor, Cope. There remain to compare with it,
L. proviger, Cope; L. mitchillii, Dekay ; L. laevis, Owen; L. congrops,
Cope; L. tetericus, Cope; and L. mudgei, Cope. In size it will only
compare with the first two species, being from twice to four times as
large as any of the remaining four. The flattened teeth distinguish it a
once from JL. éetericus, and the abrupt rising superior margin of the
articular bone, from the L. mudget, where the upper and lower margins
are for some distance parallel. The less compressed vertebral centrum
distinguishes it from ZL. laevis. From the two large species, dental
characters separate it. Thus in L. proriger the teeth are less compressed,
and are facetted, especially the anterior ones, with concave grooves sep-
arated by obtuse ribs. In IM. mitehillit the teeth present more similarity,
but are abundantly distinct. They are much less compressed, even where
the posterior cutting edge is strongly developed, the external face is con-
vex to the apex and without concave or flat facet ; it is narrower at the
base as compared with the height, and has an incurvature not seen in this
Liodon. The enamel is smooth, and not striate under the glass.

This and the L. miichillé ave the largest Liodons of the Eastern cre-
taceous. I have recently obtained three anterior dorsal vertebrae and a
tooth of the latter, from the lower bed of cretaceous green sand near
Freehold, N. J. The vertebrie rival in size those of Mosasaurus dekayt,
but are of a more elongate form. The articular extremities are cordiform

oe

and nearly round, the posterior with the smooth neck band just in front
ofits margin. In front of this, the surface is sharply striate, especially
on the inferior aspect ; the same appears on the bases of the diapophysis.
The tooth is like one of those described by Leidy. (Cret. Rept. Pl. XI.)
* The Léodon sectorius was obtained by Judson C. Gaskill, from the marl
pits of the Pemberton Marl Co., at Birmingham, N. J., and liberally
placed at my disposal by him.

ADOCID A.

The species of this family display considerable differences in the nature
of the sutures of the bones of the plastron. In the thickest species the
sutures are fine and the processes very small. This is especially the case
with Adocus pectoralis. In .A. beatus which is thinner, the sutures are
coarser, but without gomphosis ; that between the hyo- and hyposternal
elements looking as though a slight mobility existed in life, as I have

44

Cope. ] [March 3,.
observed in a former article. In A. syntheticus the sutures are a little
coarser, and in A. agilis a further increase is seen, but with but little
gomphosis. In A. pravus, according to Leidy, there is a little gomphosis,
but how much is not ascertainable from his figure and description. In
Homorophus insuetus, a stouter turtle, the gomphosis is very strong,
especially in the longitudinal sutures, where the teeth are long and stout.
In Zygoramma this coarseness of gomphosis reaches a maximum, being
strong in all the sutures of the two species, except the anterior meso-
sternal of
ZYGORAMMA MICROGLYPHA, Cope, sp. nov.

This large species is represented by the greater part of plastron and °
half of carapace, with four marginal bones, ‘of an individual from the
New Jersey cretaceous, of two and a half feet in length. Its discovery is
interesting as enabling me to refer this genus to the Adocidw without
doubt, a point which the specimens of the original species, Z%. striatula,.
Cope, left uncertain.* The episternal bone displays beautifully the wide
intergular scutum separating the lateral reduced gulars. The postabdom-
inal bone displays the swellings corresponding to the pubis and ischium.
The pectoral dermal scuta advance medially on the posterior part of the
mesosternal bone. These characters are those of Adocus. On the other
hand there is not satisfactory indication of the intermarginal seuta, though
they may exist, and the free marginal bones anterior to the bridge display
the double articulation, by suture and gomphosis characteristic of Zygo-
ramma. It might be here observed that it is possible that this structure
will be found tu exist in + pecies at present referred to Adocus, A. agilis,
for example, where the marginal bones are unknown.

This species is one of those in which the mesosternal is received in the
very open emargination of the hyosternals, a character indicating the
breadth of the former, and seen in A. agilis and A. synitheticus. The
bones are relatively thin, the marginals light and gently recurved. The
anterior lobe of the plastron is truncate, the straight anterior margin
grooved lengthwise. The posterior lobe is regularly contracted; and
rounded, and with thin edge. The xiphisternal and hyosternal of the
right side have each an oblique sutural union with the hyposternal of the

“left. The mesosternal is broader than long, the posterior margin broadly

truncate, the latero-posterior curved sigmoidally, the anterior regularly
convéx. The episternal is but moderately thickened. The parts of thé
hyposternals on the bridge are nearly in the plane of the rest of the plastron.
The marginal bones near those of the bridge have a thickened shoulder
above within, into which the slender costal processes are received : they
thin out rapidly and are gently everted distally. More distal marginals
are lighter and more everted. ,

The bones of the carapace include three vertebrals and numerous
costals. The latter display very weak capitular processes, but in none are
they entirely absent. Neither they nor the vertebrals are thickened. The

* Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, 559.

1871] A [Cope.

vertebrals are short coftin-shaped, concave or emarginate in front; a stout
laminar neural spine supports the vertebra below.

The sculpture of all the bones is a delicate impressed punctation, the
impressions forming lines or delicate grooves in some places. These run
obliquely across some of the costals and marginals, and sublongitudinally
on the posterior lobe of the plastron. The corneous scuta have left dis-
tinct impressions. The marginals extended on to the costal bones at the
place of the free marginal bones. The vertebrals were a little longer than
wide, with bracket shaped lateral sutures, and openly emarginate below.
The intergular plate was pentagonal, with straight sides, and broader

-than long. The gulars are short and not prolonged very far on the
outer margin of the plastron. The pectorals are narrowed laterally, and
present a convex median outline on the mesosternum. The abdomino-
femoral suture crosses a little behind the middle of the hyposternal bone.
The median longitudinal suture winds from side to side on the posterior
lobe in the most erratic fashion, abnormally no doubt, and the suture for
the anals is anterior, convex in front, sigmoid at the sides.

Measurements. M.
Ioeviagt OF PIABtLOM WESbOLEN) si 3 56 esc as te ws et ee 0.457
se from front to postabdominal suture............... .34
Me Ma toMignG): Ny postermal.. vtck. sy ane oes 195
ee bE to hiyosternal. 2 ck shied onions. .104
iS pues to mesostetnals snc cae on -038
Width at MeSOSteruals ¢. ie eco cies ep eet ss 194
fee OL es OO rhe en ee 095
oo diy WUSUADUOMMMAL SULULCs «tol. vse tb eats (ics ces 22
Minekness OF mesosternal behind. 2... kes. sess ewe 0116
OL Gy posteinel medially... 6.6.66... as -0158
Width of average costal at vert. scute suture...........-. 055
PEIMCMORS OL SAMO soc sss thier uncer toni bas. O11
Otal lengur adqaGeut VOLUCDMAls «cece iss oy hs ce wes -066
GUOHLCSE WIE gt ee ent .036
Width G0v au Cll 2. on, es es rae en ss sets wes 022
Length of first free marginal from bridge.... ............ .0655
Wau OL OUb 6 cic ier 06! nan es iia sear tan cae eee 10
SIMLGMERN COMMING it Ck eet MU ce rs es es 6s) oes cel 0175,
* OL Hires marcinal ProxmMally ss.) 07. cee eyes as OF
Width iA er OE ge O75
Length we ee Ee 0548

The type specimen of this species is about twice the size of that of Z.
striatula. It also differs in some respects which might be attributed to
age, as the greater recurvature of the marginal bones and the greater ex-
tent or prolongation of the thickening on the inside of the marginals next
the bridge. But there are others which appear to be specific. Thus
there is very little evidence of cross-union of sternal elements in the Z.
striatula, and the sculpture is twice as coarse and so much more marked.

Cope.] 46 [March 8,

The pegs of the costal gomphosis are absolutely twice as large, and

relatively still larger. I therefore believe this specimen to represent

another species, Besides the sutural characters, those of the intergular

scuta separate this species from Adocus beatus. In the latter that scute is

urceolate, and the gulars sickle-shaped, being produced backwards on the

margins ‘of the episternal or clavicular bones. In A. syntheticus the

intergular is narrower, and convex behind, the mesosternum is angulate *
posteriorly, and the plastron much thicker. In <A, agil’s the plastron is
nearly similar in thickness, but the mesosternum is angulate behind, and
is narrower, and the sculpture very much coarser.

The Z. microglypha was found by my friend, Judson Gaskill, in the
marl excavations under his direction, at Birmingham, N. J.

AGOMPHUS, Cope.

This name is proposed for a genus of Testudinata heretofore not recog-
nized. It appears to belong to the Hmydidw so far as known, but to
differ from them in lacking the articulation of costal and marginal bones
by gomphosis, characteristic of the existing genera of the family. It 4
does not appear to differ in any other point so far as known. The type
species is Agomphus turgidus, Cope (Hmys Trans. Amer. Phila,, 1870,
127) ; others from the cretaceous of New Jersey are A. firmus, Leidy (1. ¢.
126) and A. petrosus, Cope, (1. c. 126).

(?) PROPLEURID &, Cope.
Stllim. Amer. Jowrn. Sci. Arts, 1870, (L) 137-8.

CATAPLEURA PONDEROSA, Cope, spec. nov.

This turtle is represented by two posterior marginal bones, six costals,
a hyposternal, scapula and procoracoid, and femur and humerus, all more
or less fractured.

The marginals are the caudal, and adjoining one of the right side.
They both present a suture for the pygal vertebral, and the lateral pre-
sents also a pit for articulation by gomphosis with the last costal bone.
They are of heavier form than those of any other species of the group.
The hyposternal has had no sutural union with the hyosternal unless ex-
teriorly ; this, if existing, has been slight. The shaft of the humerus is
contracted and nearly cylindrical; the great trochanter of the femur is
little elevated, and not continuous in the piane of the head, but separated
from it by a depression.

The above characters express the generic relationships of this type.
The gomphosis with the last lateral marginal, as weil as the lack of union
of the lateral elements of the sternum separates it from Osteopygis ; their
union is more extensive than in Propleura sopita. This would not prevent
the generic unity of the two, were it not for the additional characters of
a slender shafted humerus, and probably broad short mandible with long
symphysis. In P. sopita the rami are slender, and the sympysis short. The
characters are much like those of Catapleura repanda, and I arrange it
with that species until better information compels a change.

—

>» Y

1871.] a [Cope.

The caudal marginal is strongly concave below, convex above, the
margin little recurved. The anterior outline is convex medially, with
straight continuations at right angles to each lateral suture. A portion
of the edge is broken off. Lateral marginal strongly and openly emar-
ginate, surface not convex as in the median. Both are massive as in
Agomphus firmus and allies. The union with the pygal ceases behind
the costal pit.

The costals ave thick and considerably curved transversely to the verte-
bral axis, the rib heads are unusually large and prominent and sub-
cylindric in section. The rib-ridge is more elevated and rounded in
section than in any other species.

The hyposternal is from the left side. It exhibits the free articulation
for the xiphisternals; the posterior margin is thinned out, while the
anterior is more abruptly rounded, and without trace of hyosternal
suture. The external face is distally rayed with narrow ridges. The
common peduncle of the scapula and procoracoid is short and wide, the
sutural face for the coracoid, subtriangular.

The bicipital ridge of the humerus is as usual at right angles to the
head, and is thin and flat. The plane of the inner crest makes an open
angle with the outer; its base is less distant from the shaft than that of
the outer. The great trochanter diverges somewhat from the plane of
the axis of the head of the femur. The latter overhangs the shaft be-
hind ; the latter is curved, and beyond the middle subquadrate. In this
as in the humerus, one of the two crests is continued-as a ridge along the
shaft.

Measurements. Me

Length caudal marginal....... adds cxogsses aa Seeded meee: 0.06
AAG ares ye ee Re ive sy YS
ECCS) ok sw Sine oe 6s yt rvent Oa oo 40 itt eee ieee: 0017
Width: second ?.coshal DONG. 6.0.6 115, «5% vee eS i ee 082
NTIVIICEMESS GOs th GOMEC ous isk,s an ef - sieitsee teen ot 2 ta 015
W.idth hyposternal at middle.............. ek ee ona .. .064
Thickness do. near anterior margin.............. wee os 012
Length free portion of a rib..... Wee ae sar Br ae siceioe VIRGO
Diameter (long) head humerus.......... Saye ene ts 037

ee <¢ shaft Dee ae Ai Nahe 8 6 ie 0 Taso Se teas a 015

ve * Wad LOMan ss 4s.5 0.5 os its aot uae ee ole

a EE a PR ee ee ee papi .016

Width mandible at symphysis at right angles to margin .. .034.
Thickness mandible at symphysis posteriorly............. .011

Accompanying the above remains were those of a small chelydrine
turtle, and of a Taphrosphys, and a portion of the mandible of a species
allied to Lytoloma augusta and other species. Its size relates well to the
other bones of the Cataplewra ponderosa, and J suspect that it belongs to
that species. It has the expanded form with slightly recurved alveolar
margin, of this group; the masseter fossa is strongly marked ; the dental

Cope.] 48 {Mareh 38,
I

foramen opens almost superiorly; the posterior margin of the jaw is
deeply grooved. :

The ©. ponderosa differs from C. repanda in its rounded instead of
flattened rib-ridges on the inferior surface of the costal bone, and in the
different proportions of the crests of the femur. The lesser trochanter in
the latter is more robust, and less narrowed and prolonged as a ridge on
the shaft. The proximal half of the shaft is straight; in OC. ponderosa
curved.

This species was discovered by John G. Miers, a gentleman who has
already enriched paleontology with many interesting forms. From the
upper bed of Cretaceous green sand at Hornerstown, New Jersey.

In the nomenclature of the elements of the plastron of the Testudinata,
I will in future adopt in part that proposed by Parker (on the shoulder
girdle Roy. Society, 1869), who has shown after Rathke that the posterior
pieces do not belong to the sternum. The bones from front backwards
should then be named, clavicle (‘‘episternal’’), mesosternal, hyosternal,
hyposternal, and postabdominal (‘ xiphisternal ’’).

CROCODILIA.
BovrrosauRUsS MACRORHYNCHUS, Harlan.
C. harlant, Meyer. Bottosaurus harlani, Agass., Leidy, Cope.

The present state of knowledge of this rare species and genus involve
some confusion, and I propose here to set it to rights in a brief manner.
This is rendered easy by the discovery of the almost complete skeleton of
a nearly grown individual, in the upper bed of cretaceous green sand.

Following my predecessors, I regarded the Crocodilus basitruncatus of
Owen as this species, in the synopsis Batr. Rept. N. Am., 1869, p. 65,
but with expression of considerable doubt. At page 281 of the same
work, I distinguished the species of Owenasatrue Jolops. As I had sup-
posed the cervical vertebre to present the characters of Holops, the
assignation of the specimens on which this opinion was founded to a
species of that genus, left an entire uncertainty as to their character in
Bottosaurus. 'The discovery of a series of vertebra as above mentioned,
settles that their structure is not that of the other cretaceous genera, but
that of the Tertiary and recent forms, 7. ¢., that the hypapophysis of the
cervicals are produced and undivided to the axis. Deducting the errone-
ously supposed character, there remains one curious feature to distinguish
this form from the recent Alligator. The fangs of the teeth posterior to
the eleventh are not enclosed by the dentary bone, but are exposed to the
inner face of the splenial. How far the latter protects them the nature
of the specimen does not allow me to decide.

It remains to correct the specific relations of this crocodile. At page
230 of the above work, I described a new species of Bottosaurus, under
the name of B. tuberculatus, establishing it on remains of cranium of one
individual and those of the posterior parts of a skeleton of another. The
anterior part, with jaws of the latter having fortunately been recovered

macy

oe

1871.] 49 [Cope.

as above mentioned, and placed in my hands, I find that the animal be-
longs to the original B. macrorhynchus, and that the first jaw and teeth
represent an individual of another species, which will bear the name of
B. tuberculatus. It differs from the first named in the acute or conic form
of the crowns of some of the teeth, and probably in the much smaller
size.

In addition to the generic peculiarities already mentioned, this species
exhibits a disparity between the lengths of the centra of the lumbar and
cervical vertebra, which is unusual; compare the measurements below
with those given for the remainder of the same animal as above cited.

The hypapophysis of the dorsal vertebre are long, with parallel sides,
and oval in section. In that one where the capitular articular face is
near the suture of the neural arch, the articular cup is entirely round,
and its margin flared out regularly to the capitular surface. The neura-
pophyses are narrow, and the anterior zygapophyses directed very obliquely
downwards.

The cervicals are not only shortened, but diminish very much in
diameter anteriorly, and the cup continues round. The hypapophysis is
very stout on the anterior, more compressed on the posterior vertebrae. |
The neurapophysial articular faces have the usual rugose anterior and |
radiate crested posterior areas, but are short and wide, and the anterior
area has an oblique concavity extending across it outwards and anteriorly.

The posterior area is, however, the more deeply grooved, especially on
the lumbar vertebree.

The rami of the mandible ave preserved nearly entire. The large ex-
ternal foramen between the dentary, angular, and articular bones, exists
as also the smaller one on the inner face of the ramus. The rami are
hollow and thin walled, though of very stout form. The anterior teeth
extend along the outer margin of the dentary and then cross to the inner
side, the teeth from the twelfth to the eighteenth or last being separated,
the first by rudimental septa the latter by mere low ridges. Six of these
teeth are exposed without osseous wall on the inner face, and that for the
anterior tooth is probably incomplete. The whole length of the ramus is
about twenty-eight anda half inches. It is elevated at the position of the
tooth usually called the inferior canine ; this may be made to appear like an
external expansion by rotating the ramus outwards (see Leidy Cretaceous
Rept. U.S., Tab. IV. fig. 20). There is another elevation at the seventh
tooth behind this point, and a concave eurve to the elevation of the
articular bone. The angle of the jaw is prominent. The cutting edge
is rather obtuse and delicately ridged transversely ; the rest of the crown

» is rugose-striate.

Measurements.
Length ramus mandible...... Lawperameas slecoktaicer eh mild ese
Length series of last seven teeth.......... ss
Depth ramus at twelfth tooth (from front)....
‘ai at externa] foramen....... :

A. ok, 8 VO. xt 6

50 [March 3,

Measurements. M.
Length centrum anterior lumbar........... 65 eee eee eee 055
DIAMELeL CU OO, saa + nieces curtail tee iets es 042
ie neurapophysis do..........-..- APSR OO a livey ae 043
ny if CLOUSA) eo ccs eee alas rk ee 027
My CUp.Of COMO eee ene OG ret Ss eit 085
Length base hypapophysis........-.--.+-- may cd ee sca 08
Length centrum median cervical. ...........--.-eee eens O51
Width cup oo ee ee ee a 08
Depth ‘“ ef cman Leone Lea aon a 0385
e “ anterior Ae aal Snare SL nip 029
Width <‘‘ S i Mann are eee Eee 0382
is between post. marg. parapophyses................ 045
Depth of centrum to lower edge.....-- Seite ce wee Cra 1 ae 04

Bottosaurus macrorhynchus, Harl., was then a crocodilian with a body
of the proportions of our alligator, but with larger legs, and relatively con-
siderably larger head. The cranial bones, however, are much less massive,
as though to reduce the weight which would prove inconvenient to a body
of no larger size. The bones of the mandible are thin and enclose large
pneumatic cavities ; the teeth are hollow and with thin walls.

Lam indebted to Judson C. Gaskill for the opportunity of examining
this interesting fossil.

DINOSAURIA.

HADROSAURUS CAVATUS, Cope, sp. nov.

This species is indicated by remains derived from the upper green sand
bed of the upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. They belong to an individ-
ual of the gigantic proportions characteristic of the four known species
of the genus. It is smaller than ZZ. tripos or H. occidentalis, and in a less
degree smaller than the I. foulkei, 'The remains consist of four caudal
vertebrae from the median part of the series, three of them exhibiting
rudiments of the diapophyses. In two of them the neural arch remains,
one with the spine, and the articular prominences for the chevron bones
are nearly complete.

The first character which is observed in these vertebree is their opistho
coelian articulation. The posterior concave face is marked by a more or.
less prominent elevated band descending from the end of the floor of the
neural canal, and which is sometimes grooved medially. The convex ex-
tremity is swollen in the middle, most especially so at three points, and a
groove or depressed band which has less than one fourth the width of the
centrum, extends round the margin outside of it. The general form of
the extremities is rounded hexagonal, the anterior a little depressed, the
posterior alittle compressed. The sides of the centra are quite concave.
The chevron articular projections are quite prominent, terminating ante-

1871.] 51 [Cope.

riorly in a low ridge which extends to near the artterior face. At the latter
position chevron articuar faces are either wanting or very little marked.
The centra exhibit no lateral angulation; the third from the anterior has
4 trace in a longitudinal fulness above the middle of the side ; the last, the
same, below the middle of the side. The margins of the extremities are well
flared. The neural canal is a little compressed and deeply excavated in
the centrum. The surface of the centrum is only rugose at the base of the
diapophysis. The general form viewed laterally is subquadrate, the
anterior vertebra a little deeper than long, the posterior a litile longer
than deep.

Measurements: MM.
Length Cominim Of AnverOm pi. 0 0 uae. ay a 0.66
Deprh posterior £460, aoc. osniais ches es et oe O71
Width Sie Giese cde DAPI ON hth, Mike eeu sun Se 084
£7, OF bow, chéyrom processesic.¢js..99 a 05
recy OL MeMral CANal ficulors so Wie. a 023
Depth neural canals, vc. scves aise or ee 023
Idenguh netrapopbysis. <6. .05.16.. 1:00 eo ee 04
Third vertebra, depth posteriorly...........<..9...4,. O71
“depth posteriorly with chevron process............ 42 078
Fourth vertebra, width centrum bebind................... 075
ie depth ee oa er -066
“cc oe
Wadth aeunaloonnali.s Sela mii Gh oh. abt tat ©
nN ay spine, .
SE MCUTaDODN SIR GG et ei 03

The measurements of depth of centrum are made from the floor of the
neural canal, not from the upper margin of the superior lateral projections
of the articular faces.

Asin H. fouiket, the neural spines have a small antero-posterior diam-
eter, and the zygopophyses are little developed. The anterior are sub-
acuminate and more or less joined together. As the neural spine is very
oblique, the posterior zygapophyses are above a point behind the articular
extremity of the centrum.

This species differs at once from the ZH. tripos, H. foulket and H. minor
in the opisthocoelian vertebr, resembling in this respect the H. occi-
dentalis (Thespesius, Leidy). The latter differs from HZ. cavatus in the
development of the chevron articulation equally on both adjacent centra,
instead of on the posterior extremity only. In H. foulket and IL. tripas
* this double junction of chevrons extends to the extremity of the caudal
series, adding another important ground of difference between them and
the H. cavatus. The single caudal vertebra of H. ocetdentalis known, is
like that of the former species in this respect, but there is no certainty
that the structure continues the same throughout the caudal series, and
that the distal vertebrae may not be like those of JZ. cavatus in this re-

ji
Cope.] 52 [March 3,

spect. It, however, further differs in the relatively more compressed or
oval centrum, and much greater size. From /. minor the present reptile
differs in the opisthocoelian vertebrae, the known caudals of the former
having plane articular surfaces, and in the much larger size. It is not
possible to compare similar parts of this species and the Ornithotarsus
immanis, Cope, but the larger size and much lower stratigraphic horizon
of the latter renders their identity very doubtful.

Should the genus Thespesius of Leidy turn out to be well eatablished,
the present species will enter it. I am not, however, entirely satisfied that
the difference in the form of the articular faces of the caudal vertebra is
such as indicates generic difference. It was on this ground that I referred
this form to Hadrosaurus (in Synopsis Extinct Batr. Rept. N. Amer.,
p. 98), and not from misapprehension of Leidy’s definition of it, as the
latter supposes (Proceed. Aca. Nat. Sci., 1870, p. 67).

The rather slight material above described is fortunately so character-
istic as to enable us to establish satisfactorily the existence of another
monster of the remarkable group of the Dinosauria; beings, whose ap-
pearance and structure have rivalled the strangest creations of the
imagination, and shown again what every other page of the book of
nature teaches, that reality is stranger than fiction.

On Two extinct forms of Physostomé of the Neotropical Region.
By E. D. Corn, A. M.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 3, 1871.)
Fam. ELOPID &.
PRYMNETES, Cope.

Dorsal fin above the anal with short basis and very elongate rays; the
posterior ray free and longer than the others. Ventrals posterior.
Vertebrae with deep lateral grooves, disproportionally numerous in the
abdominal region, viz.: Abd. 49, caudal 18. Tail deeply bifurcated, its
exterior or supporting rays, like those of the dorsal, ventral and pectoral,
very stout and obliquely segmented. Head short, mouth (in the specimen)
inferior ; teeth simple, small. Scales with many concentric grooves and
a few radii on the proximal portion. No lateral line discoverable.

The pertinence of this genus to the Elopide is indicated in various
ways. The general form is that of Hlops and Megalops, and the normal
and supernumerary ribs are quite as in the former. The interneural
spines extending from the head to the dorsal fin, are quite like those of
the same genus. It differs from both in the posterior position of dorsal
fin, and relatively numerous abdominal vertebrae. From Hlops it differs
especially in the long posterior lash-like ray of the dorsal, and the deeply
grooved vertebree,

PRYMNETES LONGIVENTER, Cope, sp. noy.

Established on a very fine and nearly perfect specimen, preserved op a

e
1871.] d3 [Cope.
block of lime slate from Chiapas, Mexico. The body is seen in profile,
but the head has been pressed from above, and the view is therefore
oblique. i

The general form is elongate. The pectoral fins are inserted at the
pectoral plane, and are of moderate length. The ventrals are short and
small. It is uncertain whether they reach the anal, as the anterior part
of that fin is destroyed. rom the small number of interhemal spines,
the anal has probably hada short basis. Caudal lobes narrow. A strong
horizontal interneural spine. The anterior interneurals are like those of
Megalops, slender, gently curved rods, apparently, but not really contin-
uous with the neural spines in some places. The dorsal fin laid back-
wards extends to the emargination of the caudal. The vertebre near the
head are not altered. There appears to have been a laminiform crest on
the head, but the bones thus described may be those of the opposite side
of the cranium. The muzzle appears to be contracted and projecting
beyond the mouth. Three narrow obtuse teeth appear on the edge of
the premaxillary bone. Dentary bone, stout. Orbit, round, large;
entering 4.66 times the head to the posterior margin of the operculum,
and 1.38 times the length of the muzzle. Operculum rounded.

Hadi; D. 2. 13. 4, 0.7.2. 6,0, Aa 2 Val i PS apparently not
numerous, but very numerously divided. There are about twenty-five
longitudinal series of scales at a point a short distance anterior to the
ventral fins.

M.
Total lengthovg .cesho scan ease Jee Me. Benp aD. 6 0.580
duenoth to orbityicas 2 a ees eS one. ay 024
Vertical didmeterof orbit. caves Gh. ek Ate 8 : .018
co dentity bonerene eda s ee. -016
lngnethsto eperculan bordéts ia 4.00 ial. a wed eos add -086
VSR TIS 254 os, DAGON) TORE Be 310
= Gotsdle sa wise Opus Je cust Leese Be 363
c DASISECAUM ST Ne, ER. OAR 1 OUTO0.8 .880
Depth at pectoral Nine aaio sk BOSE Oe has ok 085
as VOLTA io Sih IU a A SIP at 074
a posterion margin dorsalie: 3.2) tees ie 04
e HRI TCHNGAi a ee vat SSE .02

This species was found near Tuxtla Chiapas, Mexico, by Dr. J. Berendt,
and by him sent to the Smithsonian Institution. Mus. No. 9819-20.

Fam. (?) CHARACINID 2A.
ANADOPOGON, Cope.
Mouth opening almost vertically upwards. Dentition weak, consisting
of lancet shaped teeth on the dentary and premaxillary bones; maxillary

without or with minute teeth. Post-temporal bone large. Scales with few
radii, no concentric grooves or cells.

54
Cope.] [March B

The pertinence of this genus to the Oharacinida cannot be considered
as entirely established, as the specimen described does not display any
of the fins. The appearance is not unlike that of Osteoglosswm, but the
structure of the scales distinguishes it. The great development of the swd-
and postorbital bones, and small size of the preorbital, distinguish it as
allied to the Characins. Its dentition and general form approach the
genus Anacyrius Mill. but it is at the same time distinguished by the lack
of maxillary teeth. In addition, it appears to lack the anterior inter-
neural spines found in so many Characin and Clupeoid genera, and in
families allied to them. They are at least not apparent on the faces of
two fractures across the vertebral column. Three vertebrae are exposed
throughout their length. They are longer than deep, and exhibit the
two lateral grooves common to so many Teleosts. The only scales pre-
served are those above the pectoral fins, with but few above the vertebral
column. None of these present traces of the lateral line. The clavicle
makes a right angle with its inferior limb, and with the coracoid, and is
produced backwards at the base of the pectoral fin. The epéclavicle and
post-temporal are wide bones. The operculum is developed upwards to
the epiotic, and the interoperculum is present. A fragmént represents
the suboperculwm, which was probaly a narrow bone. The coracold was
a broad vertical lamina, extending horizontally forwards to below the pre-
operculum,

ANADOPOGON TENUIDENS, Cope.

Orbit round, its diameter entering the length of the head five times,
and a little exceeding that of the muzzle and. closed under jaw. The pro-
file is gently descending and perhaps slightly concave ; the symphysis
mandibuli is very stout and presents an angle outwards; the inferior
margin of the dentary is slightly convex. The maxillary bone is slender.
The suborbital bones together form a shield deeper than wide; with the
postorbitals they reach the preoperculum. The head increases rapidly in
depth. The scales are large, and extended below the operculum on the
sides of the coracoid region. They have smooth margins, and are every-
where quite thin. The surface is glistening, and in some scales exhibits
under the microscope delicate parallel lines which separate short concave
lines. The middle of the scale is marked with obtuse tubercular radii, or
small or minute tubercles.

Measurements. M.
UeeM GEOL WOAG i ihy0 06 ci tanto aie wyatt eae eNOS dives ie 0.14
LY OU MIOUUN aaliyah gn aw (erie os tees: 061
ef GUNCONAGOIG WOUGh Fas ee on ae) 091
Depth head at eye...... shes Th Gee Wa eG © dopa pied sou ede 098
- ep VORUCS <A kA sie si nga ge 126
So SUD OL DIU) SOCIO yal w fire cdsd wienbh vpeh sermehe sw paces poli ice, 044

Six series of scales between basis of pectoral fin and vertebral column.
A mandibular tooth is lancet shaped, and with minutely striate enamel.
A premaxillary is more conic; both are rather small.

1871.] D0 [Cope.

This species may have more affinities with Ama than with the Chara-
cinide. A. single specimen was obtained in a clay nodule by the naturalists
of the U. S. Paraguay Expedition under Capt. Page, from the neighbor-
hood of Para. It was accom»anied by several specimens of a fish from
other nodules, which closely resembles an Aspidorhynchus. Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution.

On the occurrence of fossil Cobitide in Idaho.
By E. D. Corn.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 3, 1871.)

Of the five genera of extinct Cyprinide and allied forms discovered by
Capt. Clarence King * in the fresh water deposit of Catharine’s Creek,
etc., Idaho, the writer has been able to indicate the affinities of three.
Thus Semotilus, Anchybopsts and Mylocyprinus, were regarded as repre-
sentations of existing types of both carnivorous and herbivorous babits.
Oligobelus and Diastichus were not assigned to any definite position in
relation to known types of the same great group, and I am still compelled
to leave the former in the same uncertain position. Diastichus I find, on
the other hand, presents the peculiar direction of the pharyngeal teeth
which is characteristic of the Cobitide, and I suspect that it represents a
form of that family. I am entirely confirmed in this conclusion by the
discovery, among the specimens submitted to me by the Smithonian
Institution, of the inferior element of the three modified anterior vertebra,
which are so characteristic of certain families of the Physostomous fishes.
This portion, moreover, is that which occupies this position among the
Oovitida only among them. It consists of a longitudinal plate terminat-
ing posteriorly in a bladder-like chamber on each side, each of which is
closed below by a transverse process of the inferior plate : an angular
fissure extends round the ends of these, and. at the angle sends a short
continuation upwards. This is quite similar to what is observed in
Cobitis. The specimen described is apparently adult, and indicates a con-
siderably smaller species than either the Déastichus macrodon or D.
parvidens.

The occurrence of Cobitide is perhaps the most interesting fact brought
to light by the examination of these extinct fishes. All of the numerous
existing species are found in the Eastern Hemisphere, and the great
majority in tropical Asia, a few only occurring in Europe and South
Africa. Extinct species are found in the Miocene of Oeningen. We have,
then, in the genus Diastichus another example of the occurrence of Asiatic
types in North America prior to the glacial epoch, and as in a freshwater
fish, strongly suggestive of continuity of territory of the two continents.

% See Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, 539.

: :
Bland.] 56 [March 3,

Notes relating to the Physical Geography and Geology of, and the Distribu-
tion of Terrestrial Mollusca in certain of the West India Islands.

By Tuomas BLAND.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 8, 1871.)

In 1861 I published (Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y. VII.) a paper on the
Geographical distribution of the genera and species of land shells of the
West India Islands, and in 1866 (American Jour. of Conchology, I.) fur-
ther papers on the same subject. From a study of such distribution,
without reference to the Physical Geography or Geology of the Islands, I
arrived at the conclusion that they may be divided into the five following
provinces or sections, each having a distinct faunal character, viz. :

I. Cuba with the Isle of Pines, Bahamas, and Bermudas.

II. Jamaica.

III. Haiti.

IV. Puerto Rico with Vieque, the Virgin Islands, Sombrero, Anguilla,
St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, and St. Croix.

VY. The Islands to the south of those last mentioned, to and inclusive
of Trinidad.

I remarked that the Islands tothe West of Puerto Rico have the greater
generic, as well as specific alliance with the North American Continent
(Mexico and Central America,*of course, included), and those to the
East and South, with tropical South America.

Within the last year I have endeavored to learn, if any and what
evidence may be gathered from the depth of the sea around, and in the
vicinity of the Islands, of their former greater proximity to each other
and the adjacent continents, sufficient to account for or throw light on
the observed facts of land shell distribution. The result is extremely
interesting, and in the main confirmatory of the views above expressed.

The British Admiralty Charts have afforded data, chiefly to the 100
fathom line of soundings only, while recently, through the kindness of Mr.
Rawson W. Rawson, Governor in Chief of Barbados and the Windward
Islands, I have obtained particulars of the deep sea soundings, taken in
the Caribbean sea, especially for Telegraph Cable purposes, by United
States and British Naval Officers, which supply information of great
value, as I propose in this paper to show. Iam also indebted for much in-
formation to ‘‘The West India Pilot,’’ published by the British Admiralty.

I reserve, for another opportunity, observations on the faunas of the
first three of the above mentioned sections, now confining myself to the
fourth and fifth, with incidental reference to that of the second. Since
the date of my former papers, my knowledge of the species inhabiting the
Islands embraced in the latter sections has been largely increased, for
which my acknowledgments are due principally to Mr. Robert Swift, of
St. Thomas, Dr. Cleve, of the University of Upsala, Governor Rawson,
and Mr. R. J. Lechmere Guppy, of Trinidad.

=~

1871.] o7

(Bland,

Section IV. Puerto Rico with Vieque, the Virgin Islands, Sombrero,
Anguilla, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, and St. Croix.

Puerto Rico, Vieque and the Virgin Islands, of which Anegada is the
most eastern, stand on one and the same bank, an elevation of which to
the extent of somewhat less than 40 fathoms (240 feet) would unite the
whole, converting them into one Island. Sombrero is on another bank,
about 40 miles from the Virgin bank, and 23 miles from the north end of
the Anguilla bank. The depth of the channels which separate the Som-
brero bank from the Virgin bank on the west, and the northern end of the
Anguilla bank to the east, is not known, but soundings are recorded, at
their margins, of 160 fathoms (950 feet) and 190 fathoms (1,140 feet), with-
out bottom.

Anguilla, St. Martin and St. Bartholomew stand on the western edge
of another bank of considerable extent. Its southeastern end is 14 miles
only from the Antigua bank, and the depth of water between the two is
upwards of 122 fathoms (782 feet). An elevation of the Anguilla bank of
about 40 fathoms (240 feet) would wnite the Islands upon it.

The land shell fauna of the above named Islands is unquestionably the
same ; it has some alliance with that of Haiti, but very little with that of
the Islands to the south of the Anguilla bank. Not only is the absence
of certain genera prevailing in Sections I., LE and, Ei, noticeable, kut
the diminished number of representatives of others is equally so, for
example:

in § I. Sill: Sty.
MM GBRIGMaStOMA ee erst oe cere ers, 13 species, 1 3
AlCa0iia sya ea eee 9 os 2 il
Strophia... sco .5 ve pie OR ue Ste. oe Cae a 2 2
Mactocoramins cia, asd fos io 8 ee 85 £6 ak) 2
(Oh dinotclill Ey OW ees eee eee 93 fer eeG 6

The fact that Megalomastoma, Aleadia, Strophia, and Macroceramus are
not represented in the Islands south of the Anguilla bank (§ V.) and that
in those Islands there are 4 species only of Cy lindrella, affords striking
proof of the difference of their faunas.

St. Croix is not unfrequently classed with the Virgin Islands, from
which it is 35 miles distant, but it stands on a bank disconnected from
any others and with very deep water around it. Soundings are on record
(taken, I believe, by Capt. Parsons, R. N,), between it and the Virgin
bank, about the mid-channel, of 1,550 fathoms (9,300 feet), and not far
from its northern shore of 2,000 fathoms (12,000 feet), without bottom being
found.

The following soundings to the eastward were obtained by the U. §.
8. Yantic, in 1870, between St. Thomas and Saba:
fathoms. feet.
N. Lat. 18° 01/ 50", W. Long. 64° 10/ 20/7.—1,825 = 10,950
uy 7° 55/ 00’, “ 68° 50’ 30/.—1,240 — 7,440

Ay Es §.—-VOh, el

Bland.] 08 [March 3,

Considering the facts of distribution already given, and the above
mentioned soundings, it seems highly probable that very deep water will
be found between the Anguilla and Antigua banks.

In this connection it is interesting to notice that the depth of the sea is
1,376 fathoms (8,256 fect) between Cuba and Jamaica, in N. Lat. 18° 36/,
W. Long. 76° 03/, a somewhat near approximation to the Latitude of the
great depth between the Virgin bank (St. Thomas) and Saba.

The fauna of St. Croix is closely allied to that of Puerto Rico, and seeing
the depth of water between them, it is a significant fact that Caracolla
(Helix), caracolla L. one of the characteristic species of the latter, is
found subfossil only, with other extinct species, and among thema Strophia,
in the former. Megalomastoma, Aleadia, and Mucroceramus do not exist
in St. Croix, while there is one species of Oylindrella. With further
reference to the soundings, the Latitude of Jamaica, and the nature of
the fauna of St. Croix, I should mention that Megalomastoma and Strophia
have none, and Macroceramus one representative (a Cuban species) in
Jamaica, in which Island there are, however, 14 species of Alcudia and
51 of Cylindrella. Sombrero has one living species (Chondropoma Julient
Pf.) which is also found, with a Strophia, embedded in the phosphatic
limestones of that Island,

Professor Cope lately referred to me, for determination, shells from the
matrix between the femoral condyles of Lozomylus latidens, Cope, one of
the great extinct Rodents, the bones of which have been found in the
caves of Anguilla. The shells are closely allied to Tudora pupaeformis,
Sow, now living on Anguilla, and apparently identical with an unde-
termined species which inhabits St. Martin.

Sxcrion V.—Subdivision 1. Islands on the St. Christopher and Antiqua
banks, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, and Barbado

Subdivision 2. St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and the Grenadines, To-
bago, and Trinidad.

In former papers I did not treat the fauna of the Islands in this section
as capable of subdivision, but with my present increased knowledge must
necessarily do so.

Immediately to the south of the Anguilla bank there is, to the eastward,
@ bank on which stand Barbuda and Antigua, and to the westward, another
(separated from the adjacent Islands by channels of a greater depth than
200 fathoms, 1,200 feet), which constitutes the base of St. Eustatius, St.
Christopher, and Nevis. At a short distance from the northern end of
the latter bank stands Saba (about 24 miles in diameter,) rising perpen-
dicularly from the sea to the height of 2,820 feet, with the 100 fathoms
(600 feet) line of soundings about half a mile from its western, and a little

‘more than half that distance from its easternside. ‘Late soundings between
St. Eustatius and Saba (Lat. 17° 31/10’, Long. 63° 08/ 30’) give a depth
of 343 fathoms (2,058 feet).

* T omit mention of several small Islands geographically belongingto those enumerated in both
subdivisions,

1871.] 59 {Bland.

Within 3 miles 8. W. from Saba is the Saba bank, which forms nearly
a parallelogram, its longest sides about 32 miles and its shortest about 20
miles in extent, the eastern edge fringed with a narrow ledge of living
coral, sand and rock, nearly 30 miles in length and varying in depth from
65 to 10 fathoms.

It is remarkable that an elevation similar to that mentioned with re-
ference to the Virgin and Anguilla banks (less than 40 fathoms,) would
unite Barbuda and Antigua, alsoSt. Eustatius, St. mney and Nevis,
and convert the Saba bank into an Island.

With respect to Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, &c., the following
particulars of soundings lately taken by the U. §. S. ‘‘ Yantic,’’? Com-
mander Irwin, are extremely interesting :

Between fathoms. feet.
Antigua and Guadeloupe, Lat. 16° 40’. Long. 61° 48/. 348 == mee
Guadeloupe and Dominica, ‘f 15° 45’. fet O12 387, 850 = 2,700
Dominica and Martinique, Sb DO, 06/e ©. 819 20/. - 1,078 == 6,468
Martinque and St. Lucia, £6 140 Vis 2 B19: 041) 91282 = 7,892

St. Lucia and St. Vincent, Foch oaOts ‘Se CLS 20/1. dB46ie= 8,076
Capt. Parsons, R. N., found on a line of soundings from St. Vincent to
Barbados, depths of 350, 956, 1,218 in (about) Lat. 18° 057, Long.
60° 25’, 1,211, and 147 fathoms, the greatest ascertained depth peine equal
to 7,308 feet.
The same officer obtained the following results from soundings between

Barbados and Tobago, viz. :
fathoms. feet.

N. Lat. 18° 00/.. W. Long. 59° 40’. 300 = 1,800

we 12° 40/. cs a 570 = 3,420

s 12° 30’. ey 59° 50’. 780 = 4,680 *

¢ 12° 10’. ue 60° 05’. 1,030 — 6,180

6 11° 40/. 4 60° 10’. 1,060 = 6,860

ff 11° 27, ve 60° 25’, 500 = 38,000 without bottom.

I have already given the depths between Martinique and St. Lucia, that
Islandand St. Vincent and the latterand Barbados. St. Vincent isseparated
from the northernend of the Grenada bank, on which Grenadaand the Gren-
adines are situated, by a narrow channel, not over, Capt. Parsons remarks,
300 fathoms (1,800 feet) deep. The Grenadines consist of a chain of Islands
and rocks extending for 60 miles between Grenada and St. Vincent. The
depth found on soundings taken by the ‘‘Yantic,’’ gave on and near to the
west side of St.Vincent, in about the Latitude of its northern end, 1,080
fathoms (6480 feet), opposite the channel to the south of St. Vincent 594
fathoms (3,564 feet), and along the West side, in close proximity to the
Grenada bank, from North toSouth, 880 fathoms (5,280 feet), 801 fathoms
(4,806 feet), 916 fathoms (5,496 feet), and 545 fathoms (8,270 feet).

Trinidad and Tobago are on soundings (less than 100 fathoms), both
being in fact on the submarine slope of the South American Continent,
and the deeper water found by the ‘‘ Yantic’’ between the former Island
and the Grenada bank, in (about) Lat. 11° 50’, Long. 61° 45’, was 386

60

Bland.]

March 8,

fathoms (2,316 feet), while the maximum depth known, as above stated,
between Tobago and Barbados, is 1,060 fathoms (6,360 feet).

It appears from the foregoing evidence, that Trinidad, Tobago, the
Grenada bank (an elevation of which to the extent of 40 fathoms would
give an Island nearly 100 miles in length), and St. Vincent, stand on a
partially submerged ridge, an extension of the South American Continent,
having, say, 1,000 fathoms depth of water on the west side, and still greater
depths between its northern termination and St. Lucia, also ouits eastern
side between it and Barbados, and between the latter Island and Tobago.
The summit of this ridge is 2,316 feet beneath the level of the sea be-
tween Trinidad and the Grenada bank, and, say, 1,800 feet between that
and St. Vincent, while the altitudes above the sea are, of Trinidad 8,100,
Tobago 1,800, Grenada 2,746, and St. Vincent about 3,000 feet.

The genera and species of land Mollusks which occur in the Islands on
the “submerged ridge” just mentioned (Trinidad to St. Lucia inclusive),
are chiefly allied to those which are characteristic of Venezuela, the por-
tion of the Continent contiguous to Trinidad. The species of Seitz,
in its wide application, including Stenopus, Hyalina, and Zonites, are 15
only in number, while there are of Bulémus (as restricted by Albers) 5, and
of Pulimulus 14 species, the total number of species of the latter in the
West Indies, being about 38. The subgenus Dentellaria (Helix) is character-
istic of the Islands embraced in Subdivision 1 of Section V., but has few
representatives in those named in Subdivision 2. D. perplexa, Fer., is
peculiar to the Grenadines and Grenada, D. Isabella, Fer., is common to
one of the Grenadines, Barbados, and Cayenne, (French Guiana,) and D.
orbiculata, Fer., toSt. Lucia, Martinique and Cayenne.

The genus Bulimus, of which the subgenera represented are Borus,
Pelécychilus, and Hurytus, all South American, occurs in the West: Indies
only in the group (subdivision 2) embracing St. Lucia and Trinidad and the
intermediate Islands. Borus oblongus inhabits Barbados, but it was
introduced there from St. Vincent by the late Rev. Mr. Parkinson.
Hurytus aulacostylus, Pf., occurs both in St. Lucia and Demerara.
With respect to Trinidad, it is certainly curious that we have there a
species of Diplommatina (D. Huttoni, Pf.) and of Ennea (#4. bicolor,
Hutton). the latter found also in Grenada and St. Thomas, both living in
the East Indies. Guppy has lately discovered a species to which he has
given the generic name of Blandiella, but it is, I think, a Truncatella,
allied, at least, to the subgenus Taheitia, H. and A. Adams, the type of
which is 7. porrecta, Gould, of Taheiti.

The land shell fauna of the Islands in subdivision 2 have marked alliance
with that of Cayenne. There are on that group six species of Helix which
are also found in Cayenne, viz.: Dentellaria orbiculata, nua-denticulata,
dentiens, Isabella, badia, and Thelidomus discolor. The genus Cyclophorus
has no less than seven species in Martinique, Dominica, and Guadeloupe,
but none in any other part of the West Indies, while one, a different
species, inhabits Cayenne. In Barbados no member of the family
Cyclostomacea has been discovered. I have already referred to some
other peculiarities of this fauna as compared with that of the Islands

1871.] ‘ 6 1 (Bland.

embraced in section IY, and should add that Dentellaria does not occur in
those Islands. Helix predominates over Buliémus in North America and
the Islands in Sections I., I1., I1f., and 1V, while the reverse is the case
in South America, and there is at least an increased proportionate num-
ber of Bulimus, as compared with Helix in Section V.

Ihave spoken of a ‘‘ridge’’ on which the Islands in subdivision 2 of
that section stand (St. Lucia excepted), and must remark in addition,
that there may have existed an extension of the South American Con-
tinent, from the eastern boundary of Guiana to some point west of the
Grenada bank, and running North to the neighborhood of the Anguilla
bank, on the western side of which extension there was the fauna now to
be studied in the Islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad, and on the eastern
side, in those from the St. Christopher and Antigua banks to Barbados.

reference has been made to the similarity of depths in nearly the same
Latitude between Jamaica and Cuba, and Saba and the Virgin bank.

Mr. Rawson has directed my attention to a comparison of the following
depths in the Caribbean sea, ascertained by soundings between Kingston
(Jamaica *) and Chagres, and those between Barbados and Tobago :

Lat. 12° 00/, Long. 79° 25/—924 fa. Lat. 12° 10/, Long. 60° 05/—1, 080 fa.
H1925/; 790 BORO G Oar SE TIO OM: Ee eg OO ALIC 060 fat

Taking a wide view of land shell distribution in the West Indies, it
may be said that the fauna of the Islands on the northern side of the
Jaribbean sea, from Cuba to the Virgin and Anguilla banks, was derived
from Mexico and Central America, and that of the Islands of the eastern
side, from the Antigua and St. Christopher banks to Trinidad, from
tropical South America. It is noticeable that the mountains in the former
Islands, range, generally, from West to East, but in the latter from South
to North, excepting in Tobago and Trinidad, where they are parallel with,
or in the same divection as the coast mountains of the adjacent continent.

The present geological condition of the Islands affords ample evidence
of the lapse of vast’ periods of time in the earlier tertiary epochs, during
which the Limestone formations, extensively developed in most of the
Islands, were deposited. The white Limestone of Jamaica, referred by
Sawkins (Geology of Jamaica, London, 1869), to the Post Pliocene,
covers more than three-fourths of the Island and is computed at 2000
feet in thickness. It rests on the yellow Limestone (Miocene), which, he
remarks, during the deposition of the former, ‘‘sank to great depths, in
some places apparently 8000 feet, so as to permit the growth of those
great coral structures, from the débris of which the enormous calcareous
development of the white Limestone has been derived. The lapse of
time required for these important phenomena cannot be easily realized by
the imagination.”’

That the Islands, or some of them, were formerly united and formed
part of an ancient continent, may, it would seem for various reasons, be
nferred, and the discovery of mammalian and other remains in Anguilla,
Sombrero, etc., is an important one.

* The Pedro bank, within 50 miles of the southern shores of Jamaica, with an elevation of 30 to
40 fathoms would give an Island 100 miles long, 30 in breadth near its centre, and 45 at its western
edge.

‘
Blanad.] 6 2 [March 3,

Referring to the Anguilla cave remains, Prof. Cope remarks (Proc. Acad.
N.S. Phila., 1868) on their indicating “that the Caribbean continent had

' not been submerged prior to the close of the Post-pliocene, and that its

connection was with the other Antilles, while a wide strait separated it
from the then comparatively remote shores of North America.”’
The oceurrence with the Anguilla fossils of a land shell of a species

now living, points to the age of the existing tauna, but the marked’

difference, both generic and specific, between the present land shell fauna
of the Islands upon and to the North and West of the Anguilla bank and
those to the South of it, may be taken as evidence of their early and con-
tinued separation.

Captain Parsons, in MS. Notes on the Geology of some of the West
Indies, for a perusal of which I am indebted to Mr. Rawson, observes
that the eastern or windward edge of the Grenada bank is at an average
distance of 7 miles from the Islands, while the western edge is not more
than two-thirds of a mile, and that there is a similar great disparity in

“other of the banks and Islands. He concludes that such increased develop-

ment of the eastern over the western sides is primarily due to the equa-
torial current, which running for ages through the Islands has brought
and deposited material on the windward side.*

On this subject, the following quotation from ‘‘The Natural History of
Barbadoes,”’ by the Rev. W. Hughes, London, 1750, is really interesting,
and particularly so in connectiqn with the views of Sawkins with regard
to Jamaica.

“The current of the Deluge between the Tropics ranfrom East to West.
Notice the shattered condition of the eastward side of the chain of hills
and cliffs, which are as barriers to the Island (Barbados), from Cuckold’s
Point to Conset’s Bay, for as they face the East their torn state on that
side alone and no where else, shews that they not only by their situation,
first stemmed, but as they were higher than any other part of the Island,
they wholly bore the repeated percussions of the current in the gradual
ascent of the Deluge. Notice, also, the coping figure of the Island from
East to West, for if we view narrowly the several gradual descents of so
many continued ridges of rock, like cascades, descending precipitously
to the westward (for instance, the long chain of hills from Mount Gilboa,
in St. Lucia’s Parish, to the Black Rock in St. Michael’s), we shall con-
clude from the deep soil on the eastward of these where the land is level,
and from the rugged and bare washed surface of the west, that the latter was
thus torn by the violence of the waters falling over them, and the former,
the effect of the subsided sediment upon the decrease of the Deluge.
The want of such a bed of rocks from Black Rock to St. Anne’s Castle
caused the chasm which opens to the sea through Bridgetown opposite

to the Valley of St. George’s. The course of the gullies is, too, from Hast |

to West, and they were caused by the current of the Deluge, the regular
course of which to the westward between the tropics was the natural con-
sequence of the easterly trade wind.”’

* In the Bahamas the islands are, generally speaking, on the windward side of their respective
groups and banks,—(Nelson.)

1871.] 63

(Bland.

Sawkins, in the Report on Jamaica, to which I have already referred,
shows that the highest elevations on that Island are situated to the east,
and the inclined slope rises from the west. With respect to this, he
draws ‘‘deductions from two important elements:

“1, The great equatorial currents have existed in times past as at present.

¢2. That the trade winds also prevailed with the same uniformity.”

Referring to vestiges of volcanic action and certain stratified deposits
towards the eastern end of the Island, containing pebbles and debris of
previously existing rocks, Sawkins remarks: ‘‘This (voleanic) action
might have operated intermittently, so as to permit the growth of coral
reefs, marine animals, &c., of which the remains are contained in the
limestone formations. Again, supposing the deposits to have originated
from local igneous or voleanic action, or from debris derived from islands
to the east, submersion having intervened, the lighter materials and finer
sediment would be transported by the currents to the westward, these in-
fluences combining with subsequent changes of level, account for the
prolongation of the land to the westward.”

In connection with the facts stated I can only incidentally refer to the
barrier presented by Tririidad, Tobago, the Grenada bank, and St. Vincent
to the distribution, to the westward, of marine forms living at greater
depths than 400 fathoms ; and to the same barrier and others offered by the
Islands and banks to the North of St. Vincent, to the flow of the equatorial
current into the Caribbean sea. Also to the existence of a cold current at
great depths between Barbados and Tobago, shown by the temperatures
ascertained by Capt. Parsons, viz.

Surface, Max. 79° Fah., ‘a 1,030 fathoms, Min. 88°
Sy Oe St, O60 ‘a 6 7 BSP6

Stated Meeting, March 17, 1871.
Present, seventeen members.
Dr. Woon, President, in the chair.

Haha tee of Mr. Frederick Graff and Prof. D. F. Sandber-
ger, of Wiirzburg, were received for the Album.

A letter of envoy was received from the Swedish Bureau of
Statistics.

Letters of acknowledgment were ae te ‘aes Herr Hai-
dinger, of Vienna (for Proc. No. 81, 82); Dr. D. F. Sandberger
(81, 82, 83); Edinbourg Observatory (82); Bess Bunsen (82,
83); Prof. ¢ Kirch hoff (82, 83); Smithsonian Institute and Essex
Institute (85); Harrisburg State Library and Baltimore Pea-
body Institute (Proc. 85 and Trans. XIV .lII.); D. H. Storer,

)

Yale College (85, XIV.-I.); West Point Academy Library

64

(85, XIV.-III.); N. Y.N. H. Lyceum, New York, New Jersey,
and Massachusetts Historical Societies, Boston Public Library,
and American Antiquarian Society (all for Trans. XIV.-I.).

An extract from a letter of Mr. Carlier to Mr. Durand,
respecting the Michaux Legacy, was read.

Donations for the Library were received from the R. Prussian
Academy, the Society at Leyden (Flora Batava), the Sta-
tistical Bureau of Sweden, the Museum of Com. Zool. of Har-

vard College, Prof. Mayer of S. Bethlehem, the College of

Pharmacy, Medical News and Penn. Monthly, of Philadelphia,
Mrs. M. E. Tyson, of Baltimore, the State G eologist of Illinois,
the Minnesota Historical Society, and Mr. W. H. Jackson.

The death of Judge Conyneham, of Wilksbarre, Pa., a mem-
ber of the Society, was announced by the Secretary, and on
motion of Prof. Cresson, the Rev. Bishop Stevens was ap-
pointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased,

The death of Prof. Charles M. Wetherill, of Lehigh Uni-
versity, Pa., was announced by the Secretary, and on motion
of Prof. Cresson, Prof. Frazer was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

Prof. Cope exhibited a suite of fossils obtained by further
exploration of the Bone Cavern near Port Kennedy, and in-
formed the members of the progress of the examination, A
discussion ensued, in which Prof. Cope expressed his views of
migration, considering that the higher types belonging to
Eocene and Miocene ages (including the fresh water fishes,
Idaho), being all Asiatic, show a land emigration over the
space now occupied by the North Pacific Ocean. When this
fauna was destroyed by cold, the sinking of the North Pacific
area, and the ice barrier together prevented its restoration.
It was, therefore, replaced by a fauna of a lower type from
Central America.

Mr. Chase communicated his views of the anticyclonic
character of our winds and periodic storms between the 25°
and 46° N. Lat. parallels, and between the meridians of Pas-
samaquoddy and 100° West. :

Pending nominations Nos. 669, 670, and new nominations
Nos. 671, 672, 678, 674, were read.
And the meeting was adjourned.

mg

/
i
}

ly

nail

March 17, 1871.] 65 [Chase.

WINDs OF THE United States.
By Puiny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 17, 1871.)

Notwithstanding Ferrel’s mathematical, and Galton’s practical, demon-
stration of the tendency, in winds of propulsion, to become anti-cyclonic,
many meteorologists regard cyclonic atmospheric currents as normal, in
fair as well as in stormy weather. Such an impression may be naturally
strengthened by the admitted facts, that most of the European winds are
cyclonic, that all currents flowing in towards a centre of low pressure,
speedily become cyclonic, and that the system of aspiration induced by the
diminished pressure at the equator, is the proximate cause of all our at-
mospheric circulation.

But it should be remembered on the other hand, that the normal mo-
tion of the principal oceanic, atmospheric and magnetic currents, both
polar and equatorial, and the daily veering of the wind consequent onthe
progressive heating of the earth’s surface, are confessedly anti-cyclonic;
that centres of violent and rapid commotion must necessarily cover a
smaller area than the less disturbed peripheries which help to restore the
equilibrium; that the air drifts more often in alternate ridges and troughs
than in spirals; and that downward pressure is the impelling force by
which the partial vacua, produced by increase of temperature or by con-
densation of vapor, are supplied. Each of these considerations is indicative
of systems of winds over the entire globe, which are normally anti-cyclo-
nic, and only exceptionally cyclonic. Even in storms, the blending of
opposite currents may take place at a circumference as well as at a centre,
and condensation of vapor may be going on along an extended line, the
equilibrium being restored by the pressure of an adjacent ridge, as well
asover a limited area towards which there is an influx from all quarters.
There may, therefore, be anti-cyclonic as well as cyclonic storms. In fact,
as I stated at the last meeting of the Society, most of our recent storms
have been of the former character, and the more closely I have serutinized
the Signal Service observations, the more strongly have I been impressed
with the belief that most, if not all, of our north-easterly storms are anti-
cyclonic as a whole, though they may be accompanied by limited and
comparatively insignificant local cyclones, and although, in consequence
of the trend of our Atlantic coast and the in-draught towards the gulf
stream, they may assume a form more or less cyclonic as they leave our
shores.

The charts in Coffin’s Winds of the Northern Hemisphere, seem to me
to furnish ample confirmation to these views, although, in consequence
of their very admirable fulness of detail, general tendencies are some-
times disguised by the local deflecting influences of mountains, lakes and
valleys. In order to eliminate such local disturbances, I have grouped
by States and Territories, all the winds in the first volume of the ‘‘Re-
sults of Meteorological Observations,’’ from 1854 to 1859 inclusive, and
computed the resultant for the entire period for each district.

Kers 8.—VOn. STL

66

I. Number of Winds from each cardinal point.
S.E.
2645
2664
1607
1150

6068

Chase. |

N.
BUTS AMECTICH 5. ccess cet 1651
IMEAITIONS s cate e ts 2008
New Hampshire..... 860
Vermont tiv, 00D
Ma&SSACHUSCTIBY sc eer iss cers 8681
WhodeIslandss. sen 20, 1383
OOMNSCU Cad cates rey cess cpa 1560
INGW MOUMS cscs shicvcreeves ce > GORD
INOW DOUSCY Ges sc ee creel says 1016
Pennsylvania
Delaware -.....1)..
Maryland &. D..0f Cia si600 1650
VAT ONIN. vs fonction see 2) Oreo:
North Carona csi... 1019
South Caroling ..........4. 1248
OOOUS seve ive, one Rei he 1585
HOUR sven eres cc tenons 2374
PID WAENG. sess eros yee iene Vs 676
DVEISRISOND ks ci iriviyereres ors 923
AU OUMOVOILA soy eee Serv SUN Ge 736
MOSASia ere eg A ces aL 4357
TTRENNGSSCGS 2... 25. de 567
Kentucky 604
OUD... 8151
Michigan. . 2079
Indiana. . 5 ..» 1449
Illinois. ean aes 3510
IVISSOUN 55 coscigey very fa BS
WWISCOMGUL: va cassettes ores 3321
LOW Avis oe es Sivonen ee: 2249
MOTITIESOLN Ve econ visas OLD
Nebraska........ ies baer 1035

ISGUGAS ish sj etbotes. an, OGd
WEGKECO vce visa cewgee cies Sie

California........ rt tes 985
AINA ie Aleit tet 163
GUAteMala ces ceeds visi es 4 56
MULAN. oii i6 cs) fees 89

6399
147
2849
3230
1760
8252
3436
6455
508
929
969
1011
649
1348
5277
3508
1086
7151
492
4932
3144
iss:
436
49]
345
235
348
806
803

Ey

853
1198
1284.
401
2619
73
675
8692
658
6743
59
1082
1759
470
1036
2052
2651
548
738
194
1168
316
447
1976
2776
990
3593
678
2689
1636
910
235
360
73
185
252
18
417

2966,
884
762

6509

3427

427

8. BW.
2098 4735
2248 6349

933 2652
6225 2018
3802 13656

241 720
1842 4352
8676 14314
1956 = 4158
6398 18617

42 164
2621 3812
4590 5616

809 =. 2019
1505
2415
1411

734

971

793
5871 1510

980 755
1218 3159
4742 14747
8061 7300
1910 = - 2901
8026 11218

906 838
4150 6967
8648 5891
1469 710
1226 434

1371 559
68 144
igie «1175
217 418
3 262
14] 39

II. Percentages, and Resultant Winds.

N;

BYitish AMCUCA hci vere os ¢ We
XE

5

Pole

Massachusetis......-...7.4 '6
CdS, Tela i356. tis 4
COUNOCUCUL 6h ied ener s reo
INOW. OUR oki cs or Pic les 6
INGW OOUSOVs rrivi eres ys 6
PeRnsy Wana i aieies ss 6
Delaware ......i.. 4
Maryland & D. of C. 7
VIDOE yes sey ce ssn wee ae
North Carolina, . 2) 2....00., 10
South Carolina... .05.03.°,.; i

GOOrgla: .ecises aereys

N.E. E.
15 4
14 4

3, 7

4 2
a 4
ig 2
13 3

9 5
15 t

8 9
16 6
13

S.E.
aI

SeWe AVENE Wa
20 1Bi a pal
21 i 27
Ue ee fee een)

10 19 20
22 3 29
23 6 36
22 7 30

20-2 cel 18
ae de 28
Lie FON: Oa

LT, 10 BR
De 20) 18
20 12 15
21 21 12
2 LO? >? It

[March 17,

3057 4641
1976 = 4040
8020 18095

199 1114
1498 5940
14882 18342

2377 3989
17346 16930
97 316

4410 3870
3400 4319
2080 1122
1616 2306
2611 4118
1801 3441

897 1096

812 1447

134 659
1009 1181
893 716

1453 1650
7449 9828
6170 5608
2591 2418
8063 = 9126
1081 710
5374 5906
80638 7874
1209 2033
287 yelg
182 586
85 123
979 904
200 182
6 52

5 19

tesultant.
N. 85°28’ W.
247 **

5.30

e
1871] 67 [Chase.

a
a
“I
vs

PLOT dias suse hei Won daar 9 25 10

DAUD AN igs os boot es wm ccgene 10 8 8 20 ABE 13 14 16
Miss ll 1 9 15 12 15 10 17
MHOUISIOMIE Sh ec eek ee 1S 220 iby lb 2 2
LOMAS Cots TEA 23 5 6 16 81 8 5 6
Tennessee .......... esd 7 ah 12 6.511 19 14 7 14
ESGUUO CRY cis so sn ives < cad wren 6 3 4 7 Rial 3 14 15
Oo ee ee 6 10 4 12 9 27 14 18
MINCIIO AN « qseas a see 6 10 8 10 i) 22 18 16
CIA Sitar eeciie ta. . 9 o 2g 12 3 19 a7 16
Dinos nuiniinwii6 ww Bhs 6 12 6 12 14 20 14 16
WM SSO0 ai ccs tec 8 8 107 219. lh aly 11
MWUSCOUMID ici c ec help (Oe el abil 19 ig «1G
lOWa se ee ge 10 5 a6 11 18 9 23
Minnesota. ais eee 10 Oe D0 9 aby 8 14 23
Nebraska: o).<6053 55> ints ok 9 5 2 25 8 6 14
HANSA Ds pc koeete den veh 19 9 HA 14 26 dey 3 11
WECM GOL bays sono vo on «ce 16 7 oe iL 6 6 3 8 12
California Ae Gae 3) 3 3 14 alg) 18 ats) 3 8. 56 53 W.
mociiease 0" ois sae sy 8 a7 12 14 10 20 10 S) ** 23 53. E.
Giiatemalaccy. cies nce d 56x06 2 1 Oy 221 u 4 Me
SURNAM secs as eck et es 5 41 22 22 ve 2 0 1 260; 58.¢5

This grouping, by exhibiting the excess or deficiency, in the percent-
age of any given wind, from the percentage of the same wind in adja-
cent districts, shows local irregularities which are often easily explicable
by the physical features of the neighborhood, and enables us, by plotting
the general resultants on a map, to demonstrate the anti-cyclonic motion
of the air, over the entire region between the twenty-fifth and forty-fifth
parallel of latitude, and between Passamaquoddy Bay on the east, and
the 100th meridian on the west. It shows, moreover, that there is a nor-
mal intersection of a polar (N. E.) current off the coast of Florida, with
an equatorial (S. W.) current from the Bahama Islands, and a similar in-
tersection of a south-easterly and south-westerly equatorial current, (the
latter having been refrigerated by the Sierra Nevada,) near the common
boundary line of Nebraska and Kansas. The former of these intersec-
tions is analogous to the one referred to by Mr. Scott, as indicative of an
approaching gale in the British Islands, and suggests an obvious explana-
tion of the gulf stream cyclones, as well as of the cyclonic winds in
Western Europe; the latter helps to account for a considerable propor-
tion of our land storms.

The comparisun of these currents and intersections with Blodget’s
hyetal charts is very instructive, and I feel little hesitation in predicting
that a more thorough acquaintance with the winds of Alaska and British
America, will develop another anti-cyclonic system, referable to a differ-
ent centre of disturbance, with intersecting normals near the northern
boundary line between the polar and equatorial prevailing winds, and
perhaps in the valley of the Saskatchewan, which has been specially de-
signated by Professor Henry as a storm-breeding district.

Chase. | 68 [April 7,

RESEMBLANCE oF Atmospheric, Magnetic and Oceanic Currents.
By Pursy EARLE CHASE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1871.)

My belief that terrestial magnetism is dependent solely upon fluid cur-
rents, electrified by convection and by the condensation of vapor, led me
to look for some confirmation of my views in the results of my recent
discussions of the winds of the United States. My attention was first
drawn to the resemblance between the looped isogonic lines in the eastern
equatorial portion of the Pacific Ocean, and the anti-cyclonic course of the
winds in the Gulf States. The undoubted rapidity of macnetic action,
a rapidity analogous to, if not identical with, that of luminiferous vibra-
tions, renders it probable that the flexure of the isogonic lines, at any
given point, may be determined by the resultant of all the forces acting
at that point, and that the equatorial loops are, therefore, expressions of
equatorial disturbance.

Tf the same disturbance is communicated to the more sl uggish air, its
culmination may naturally be sought at some point northward and east-
ward, because of the well-known laws of current deflection. The prin-
cipal thermal contrasts which contribute to the establishment of currents,
are: 1st, land and water; 2d, polar and equatorial; 3d, heat and cold at
isabnormal centres. It seems reasonable te suppose that these triple con-
trasts should be so mutually related, that there may be some system of
rectangular codrdinate planes which would present each of them as a
maximum.

A great circle cutting the equator on the meridians of 100° W. and 80°
£., and passing through the geographic centre of the land hemisphere,
follows the general trend of the American coast from Florida to New-
foundland, skirts the equatorial isogonic and the Florida atmospheric
loops, finds the western limit of our anti-cyclonic system of winds
at a point about midway between the magnetic pole and the equator,
and crosses the equator on the meridians and near the centres of greatest
Horizontal Force. A co-ordinate great circle following the meridians of
10° W. and 170° E., intersects the magnetic equator of minimum inten-
sity near its greatest northern and southern elongations. The third
co-ordinate great circle corresponds very nearly with the dividing plane
between the land and water hemispheres. The principal north pole of
declination and the Asiatic equatorial intersection of the line of no varia-
tion, are on the meridians first named, which traverse the intersections

of the first and third co-ordinate circles. A great circle intersecting the
second co-ordinate on the equator, and passing near the North American
pole of declination, would cut the first of these meridians (100° W.) at
an angular distance from the pole analogous to that of the Florida wind
loop from the equator, traversing the principal isogonic loops in such
manner as to exhibit the magnetic symmetry of the entire globe to the
best advantage. No other system of rectangular co-ordinate planes
would meet with so little Jand interruption, or would divide the globe
jnto hemispheres with so great current-producing contrasts.

cal

——

—

C
1871.] 69 [Chase.

An observer, therefore, near the centre of the land hemisphere, would
find, at the four cardinal points of his true horizon, magnetic, thermal
and geographic positions of peculiar importance, and indicative of inter-
esting mutual relations. The recognition of such relations gives a new
interest to the often noticed resemblance between the isoclinal and iso-
thermal lines, the analogy which I have myself pointed out between the iso-
gonic and cotidal lines, the parallelism of the boundary lines and of the
axis of the westerly isogonic belt with the boundaries of the correspond-
ing annual isabnormal belt, the isogonic curvatures in or about regions
of isabnormal heat or cold, ‘se different angular relations of the isogonic
lines to the customary paths of hurricanes and storms, and the approxi-
mate perpendicularity of direction and ~— of curvature between
the westerly wind belt and the isogons. - All of these features, which
may be satisfactorily explained by the general indie on which storm
laws are based, furnish cumulative, if not irresistible, evidence of the de-
pendence of magnetic currents upon the same laws of gravitation, which
tend to restore the equilibrium of air and sea, after tid al or thermal dis-
turbances. The evidenceis sustained not only in the general distribution

of the magnetic lines, but also in their particular details, the course of

the isogonic lines, at every point, being an evident resultant of the com-
bined equilibrating tendencies between land and water, and between
centres of normal and isabnormal heat and cold.

The ocean currents corroborate the gravitation theory of magnet-
ism, perhaps even more strongly than the wind belt. A physical atlas
like Petermann’s, which marks the most rapid portions of the several cur-
rents with the deepest tints, shows their relation to the magnetic and
coast lines very satisfactorily. A comparison of the more minute details

exhibits additional interesting evidence that the original impulse of all
terrestial currents, atmospheric, magnetic and oceanic, is given by lumin-
ous, thermal or tidal disturbances, that the currents are maintained by
gravity in its continual tendencies to restore the continually dis-
turbed equilibrium, that the magnetic currents are least, while the ocean
currents are most interrupted and modified by land contours, that each
of the more sluggish currents exerts a secondary modifying influence on the
more rapid, that extraordinary variations in thermal or luminous undu-
lations, whether originating at the sun or at the earth, produce ‘‘mag-
netie storms,’’ and that, whatever theory may be adopted as to the mode
in which the solar undulations are transmitted, there is no philosophical
necessity for the hypothesis of any cosmical origin or disturbance of ter-
restrial magnetism other than variations in the amount of light and heat
received and in the directions of gravitating tidal and equilibrating
lines. *

* It is so difficult to make the necessary allowances for the distortions of the ordinary magnetic
the it | would recommend any one, who may desire to make the comparisons which | have

g , to trace the lines on aglobe. A slate globe is especially satisfactory. The data for my
own comparisons were taken from the lines of equal magnetic tion and of equal horizon
force for 186 24 edition of the ** Admir by Manual for ascertaining and applying the de

tions of a compass, caused by the iron in a ship.” Walker’s ‘* Terrestial and Cozmi¢al Magnetis
Cottin’s “ Winds of the Northern Hemisphe¢ Dove’s “Isothermal and Isabnormal chart
“ Petermann’s and Johnston’s Physical Atlase In order to judge of the resultant influences of
the normal and isabnormal thermal disturbances, it will be well to mark the « es of isabnormal
heat and cold,as well as the points of greatest average heat and cold.

70
Dutton. ] ‘ [April 7,

Mr. Walker, in his Adams Prize Essay for 1865, p. 268, says: ‘it is
worthy of remark that the portion of the year when the magnetic force is
the greatest, and the direction of the needle most vertical in both hemis-
pheres, coincides with that at which the earth is nearest to the sun and
moves with the greatest velocity in its orbit. This fact furnishes another
argument against the theory that these effects are due to temperature, as
in that case they ought to occur at opposite periods of the year in the two
hemispheres, whereas in fact they occur at the same period in both.’’ The
writer was doubtless misled by the annual variations in declination and
horizontal force, which are evidently dependent upon the relative tem-
perature of the northern and southern hemispheres. But if all the
magnetic effects are primarily due to thermal and gravitating motion, it
is evident that the tota/ magnetic foree must depend upon the total cur-
rent producing energy of the sun, which is, of course, a maximum when
“the earth is nearest the sun, and moves with the greatest velocity in its
orbit.” The argument which was considered conclusive against the the-
ory, is, therefore, wholly in its favor.

Tue cAusES oF Regional Elevations and Subsidences, by Lirur. C. E.
Duron.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1871.)

Lieut. C. E. Dutton, desired to submit certain views, which he had
been led to entertain, respecting the causes of regional elevations and
subsidences. He was unacquainted with any views on this subject in the
writings of geologists, which seemed to be satisfactory. In reflecting
upon the nature of metamorphic rocks, and the probable changes which
they had undergone, he thought that the facts brought to light by the re-
searches of Bischoff, Daubrée, Sorby, Sterry-Hunt and others in that
field, might contain, also, a solution of the unexplained problem of ele-
vations and subsidences. It is now a generally accepted opinion among
writers upon chemical geology, that metamorphic rocks have reached their
present, condition, through the combined agencies of heat, pressure, and
water, acting upon sedimentary strata; that sulphur, carbonic acid and
yolatile chlorides and fluorides have played highly important parts under
similar conditions, and that soluble earths and metallic salts and vapors
have had no inconsiderable influence upon the totality of changes, That
water especially, under the influence of a moderately high temperature
and great pressure, is capable of changing in a wonderful manner the
structure and arrangement of rocky materials of all kinds, has been abun-
dantly shown by innumerable synthetical experiments, a great number of
which have been summed up by Daubrée in an able memoir on the sub-
ject to the French Academy. He has also shown that minerals, which,

—

1871. J i] [ Dutton.

under ordinary temperatures to which water is subjected, are in no re-
spect changed, may be completely altered by water confined in strong

s. Silicates, aluminates and calcareous
matters in the amorphous condition, may not only be made crystalline,

vessels and heated to dull redne

but their degrees of hydration may also be permanently altered; and he
also mentions the production of anthracite by a simi

ir process, from wood.
Indeed, the changes both of structure and chemical constitution, which
may be produced in this manner, are very great, and extend, in all proba-
bility, to nearly the whole range of mineral matters found in the rocks.

Now, if as is generally believed and accepted, these are the changes in
progress, while rocks are undergoing metamorphism, then, in all proba-
bility, the rocks are undergoing at the same time «@ change tn their specific
gravity. Itis highly probable, if water is the chief reagent, and if it
constitutes a change both chemical and physical, that the specific gravity
of the mass, into which it enters, is not the same as it was before such a
change took place. Butif we admit this, then we have also admitted
that the volume of those rocks has either increased or diminished. If we
assume it to have increased, there must take place an expansion, and such
an expansion must necessarily be upward. For, beginning at the lowest
level, at which any such change may be assumed to supervene, the total
weight of the superincumbent mass is the same as it was before, and
hence there would be no change at that level. Nor could there be lateral
expansion of any importance; all expansion would of necessity be verti-
cally upwards. On the other hand, a decrease of volume would occasion
a subsidence for converse reasons.

If we were to assume a change in the specific gravity of 1000 fect of
rock, to the extent of five per cent., we could account for a change of
level of 50 feet, and a series of rocks as thick as the carboniferous in this
State, would, with an equal amount of change, give an alteration of level
equal to the average attitude of the North American Continent above
the ocean. It is, of course, impossible to conjecture the depth to which
metamorphic action may extend, though it is undoubtedly very great; at
least eight or ten miles, and there might be no great improbability in
supposing such changes to take place through a large portion of that
depth at the same time.

That the rocks far down below the surface take up under the influence
of great pressure, aided no doubt by heat, large quantities of water, car-
bonic acid, sulphydric acid, and perhaps other electro-negative agents, is
manifest inthe materials issuing from voleanoes and from thermal springs.
Water and gaseous acids issue in such enormous quantities from volea-
noes, as to constitute a large fraction of the entire mass delivered, indi-
eating that the solid materials have become super-saturated with them,
and the association is resolved as soon as they reach the surface of the
earth, and are relieved of the pressure to which they have been subjected.

The overflow of volcanoes would, it is suggested, be susceptible of a
similar explanation. Let us suppose a stratum ortwo, situated afew miles

79
Dutton, | e [April 7, 1871.
below the surface, became softened or lightened by the combined agencies
described, so as to be specifically lighter than the average mass of over-
laying rock. Ifa vent or fissure could be found, such a plastic mass
would inevitably follow the laws of the equilibrium of fluids, and would
not only rise up into the chasm, but overflow. Putting the problem into
another form, the heavier over-lying mass would sink into the lighter
semi-fluid beneath, and drive it upwards. It is a well known fact, that
the lavas are all of small specific gravity. Indeed, were it otherwise,
Lieut. Dutton thought that the overflow of a lofty voleano like AStna or
Mauna Loa, would be impossible; for a column of dense material of such
a height, exerting its pressure upon its subterranean reservoir, would
raise the overlying strata, instead of rising above them. But, in truth,
the superior strata are doubtless heavier, and exert a greater pressure
upon the reservoir than the lava itself.

Ina similar manner Lieut. Dutton sought to explain the intrusion of
traps, trachytes and basalts. These rocks were probably lighter than
those which originally overlaid them, and forced their way through weak
places to the surface. The traps, basalts and porphyries,—at least such

porphyries as may be called intrusive—though they are unquestionably
altered sediments, are for the most part amorphous, and not crystalline.
They were evidently altered at a comparatively low temperature, and at
no very great depth. They do not appear to affect the strata into which
they are intruded, and withal, are less highly metamorphic than gneiss or

marble. Water seems to have been the chief agent in their transforma-
tion, and they may have been forced upward in asoft condition, and upon
being relieved of the pressure, parted with the greater portion of this
water, The traps and basalts also exhibit many planes of cleavage,
with very perceptible interstices, and these interstices would seem to be
much wider than could be accounted for by the contraction of cooling.
He stated that he had often noted this fact, and was decidedly of the
opinion that the contraction of these rocks by loss of heat, could by no
means account for the entire width of such plans of cleavage, and be-
lieved that it was in great part due to the loss of water, which had once
rendered them plastic.

If these views be correct, then we ought to expect that voleanic regions
will be confined to those areas which have recently been regions of marked
elevation. And we find this to be the case. In America, the whole extent
of the Rocky Mountains and of the Andes, so far as known, was covered
by the ocean at the beginning of the Tertiary period. The elevation of
the Rocky Mountains was probably earlier than that of the Andes, and
sooner completed. Hence, while the former was the scene of an unparal-
leled amount of volcanic action during the Pliocene and Miocene, and is
now nearly, or quite, quiescent, except in Southern Mexico, the Andes
still abound in active volcanoes. The East Indian voleanice regions are
all of Tertiary formation, as are those of the Mediterranean and the
Auvergne.

April 7, 1871.] 13 [Cope.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE VERTEBRATA DISCOVERED
IN THE PORT KENNEDY BONE CAVE.

‘ By Pror. E. D. Copz.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society April 7, 1871.)

My friend, Charles M. Wheatley, has already given an account of the
discovery of a fissure in the Potsdam limestone of Chester Co., Pennsyl-
vania, containing the remains of numerous animals and plants of the
Postpliocene period (see Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1871, April). Dr. Quick,
of Phanixville, having brought to his notice mastodon remains exposed
in quarrying the limestone near Port Kennedy, he visited the spot, and
determined the existence of the fissure and its contents. In the article
in question he describes it as situated near the line of junction of the
Triassic red sandstone. Its depth is nearly fifty feet, and the greatest
width thirty ; at the summit or surface of the limestone, its width is
twenty feet. It is filled to a depth of forty feet with the debris of the
neighboring Triassic strata, of a red color; below this point is a bed of
tough “black clay eighteen inches in thickness, filled with leaves, stems,
and seed vessels of post-tertiary plants. Scattered through all this mass
of vegetable remains, and also in a red tough clay underneath for six to
eight inches in depth, are found the fossils noticed in this paper.”

Mr. Wheatley furnishes a list of the species we had identified up to
the time of writing, viz. ; twenty-seven vertebrata, ten coleoptera, and
ten plants. These numbers have been considerably increased up to the
present time, and I look to a much fuller and more complete exposition
of the Postpliocene vertebrate fauna, in consequence of a more thorough
examination of the remaining part of the fissure, by my friend, C. M.
Wheatley.

As regards the position of the remains, the article above quoted, pro-
ceeds to state that “the remains of Mylodon, Ursus, and Tapirus have
been mostly obtained from the tough red clay directly under the plant bed,
but the remains of rodents, snakes, tortoises, plants, and insects, are
entirely confined to the plant bed. Neither the bones nor the teeth are
rolled or water worn, but all are sharp and well defined.’ The appear-
ance of the specimens corroborates the above statements. I would add
some exceptions. Thus two of the specimens referred to Arvicola sig-
modus came from the red bed, and one from the black; one Megalonyx
wheatleyt, came from the black bed, the others from the red. Milk teeth
of Mastodon occur in the red bed also. General remarks are deferred to
the close of the report.

MercGatonyx, Jefferson.

The remains of species of this genus found in the fissure are more
abundant and striking than those of any other. At least fourteen in-
dividuals are represented by the bones and teeth obtained. These belong
probably to five species, as described below, four of them different from

A. P. S.—-VOL. XII-—J

Cope.) ts [April 7,

those hitherto known, three of them of a size equal to that of the I.
jeffersonit, the others smaller. These species are only certainly distin-
guishable at present by the teeth, as the other bones are very similar to
those of other species, so far as preserved.

The teeth consist of eighteen canine, and nineteen molar teeth, whose
characters are discussed below. The bones are chiefly those of the feet,
with portions of long bones, and numerous vertebra. Cranial bones are
in most instances destroyed, for though several complete crania were ex-
humed, the exposure to frosts and thaws with snow and rain, as they
laid in the piles of material, disintegrated them. Of limb bones there are
the extremity of a large tibia with cotylus for astragalus, several extrem-
ities of fibula, and some broken heads of femora.

Of the bones of the fore limb there are three unciforms, two magnums,
and fifteen metacarpals with numerous phalanges. The bones of the
hind limb include three astragali, seven cubiods, six scaphoids, and five
incomplete metatarsals. The phalanges of both fore and hind feet, which
much resemble each other, number thirty-two, of which nine are ungueal,
Of vertebree, no cervicals have been found, except an axis without neural
arch. Caudals are most numerous ; some of the vertebra have codssified
epiphyses, others not, indicating various ages. I have counted twelve
individuals from the teeth, but it is quite possible that there are others
represented by some of the bones.

The canine (molar) teeth present a remarkable variety of forms. As is
known, the section of the crown is oval, on one side concave with a more
or less prominent swelling interrupting it. The differences are seen in
the development and position of the broad rib of which the swelling is a
section, in the curvature of the shaft, and greater or less obliquity of the
grinding surface.

There are three types of form among them as follows :

ist. The shaft curved, the triturating surface oblique, the internal
longitudinal rib prominent, nearer one end of the crown than the other,
dentine of inner side thickened anteriorly ; two specimens.

2d. Shaft nearly straight, triturating surface transverse (in its long
direction); rib of inner face median, prominent ; dentine of inner side
uniformly thin.

8d. As in the last, but the shaft more compressed, therefore the
section narrower, the inner bulging rib being very low and insignificant.

The first of these represents a species distinct from those of the other
series; one nearer the W. jeffersonii, and of large size.

In studying the present genus I have been under many obligations to
Dr. Leidy’s Memoir on the Extinct Sloth tribe of North America, pub-
lished by the Smithonian Institute in 1855. In it the species Megalonyx
jefersonit is established for the first time on a solid foundation, and the
characters, especially of the dentition, clearly pointed out.

M2EGALONYX LOXODON, Cope, species nova.

The two teeth of the first type may, perhaps, be superior ones; their
curvature accounts for the obliquity of the grinding face in the long

me

1871,] [Cope.
direction, This curvature is seen in teeth of WV. jeffersonii (See Leidy’s
Memoir on Extinct Sloth tribe, Pl. VI., figs. 4-6), which do not appear
to be straight in the maxillary bone at least, at any time. These teeth
differ from those of I. jeffersondi in having the posterior margin thinned
ut, while the anterior is thickened by the near aproximation of the
interior rib. In the larger of the two the posterior margin is slightly in-
curved, the exterior convexity thus produced opposing that of the anterior
face and inner rib, as one short side of a romboid does that opposite to it.
The section of the smaller differs in the shortness of this intero-external
face, and is thus rounded subtriangularly and antero-internally, as de-
scribed by Leidy in the IZ jeffersondi, and thus different from that seen
in the W. wheatleyt. The external face has an open longitudinal con-
cavity, The triturating surface in both teeth is a longitudinal groove ;
in the larger, the inner margin is highest anteriorly, the outer highest
posteriorly.

These teeth I suppose to represent a species different from the J/.
wheatleyi, and perhaps from the M. jeffersonti also, as none of the sections
given by Leidy (1. c. Pl. XVI), approach their form. The nearest is his
fig. 8, where the section of the bulge is not quite central.

MEGALONYX WHEATLEYI, Cope.

Species nova.

Represented especially by fourteen canine and sixteen molar teeth, but
probably also by the greater part of the bones above mentioned. The
former are referable to eight individuals, to which perhaps four others
should be added.

The characters of the species are chiefly visible in the molar teeth,
which in the maxillary bone are acutely trigonal instead of triangular
ovate as in the MW. jefersont?; and in the dentary bone, transversely,
sometimes narrowly, parallelogrammic, frequently narrower internally
than externally. In the W. jeffersonii the latter are almost as broad as
long, of equal width, and with the inner or outer margin slightly oblique.”

In the cantne-molars before mentioned of the second and third types,
Wwe have but little or no curvature of the shaft, no longitudinal grooving
of the outer face, the outer dentinal wall uniformly higher on the tri-
turating surface than the inner, and the long diameter of this face but
little oblique to the transverse plane of the shaft. As both superior and
inferior molars corresponding in size, color, and number to these teeth
have been found, I suppose the latter to have been derived from both
Jaws,

The differences in these teeth are to be seen in the different degrees of
development of the dentine layer, and of the bulge on the inner face, and
of the degree of compression of the shaft. Five of the best preserved ex-
hibit the thickness of the external layer continued round the extremities
of the grinding surface, and then rather abruptly contracting wedge like,
into the thin layer of the interior face. In two other teeth this con-
traction takes place at the external curves, and is less in degree, the inner

April 7,

ASE iu, )

Lar f

1871.] i7 [Cope.

layer being more uniform. In two teeth the dentine of the bulge of the
inner face is very nearly as thick as that of the outer (F. 4). As regards
the form, in the last mentioned tooth the bulge is well developed (as in
Leidy’s Pl. XVI. fig. 1), and the shaft is not compressed. In the two
previously mentioned, the shaft is short and the bulge very low and
bounded by two shallow grooves; in one (F. 6) (which is accompanied
by the posterior molars), it has a shallow median groove. In the five
canine molars first named we have every degree of compression. In one
(F. 3) the shaft is stout, and the bulge larger than in any other, about as
in Leidy’s Pl. XVI. fig. 2; in a second (F. 5) the shaft is similar, with
low bulge, like fig. 7. 1.c. In the third (#. 7) from a large individual,
there is more compression, and the bulge is very low ; the last two are
similar, but sinaller; they belong apparently to opposite sides of the
same animal (F.8). These are like the tooth figured and described by Dr.
Leidy as that of Megalonyx dissimilis.

T am inclined to refer the teeth of these types to one species, a view
confirmed by a study of the molars. They are all stained yellowish or
light rust color except one, which is black, and which is associated with
three posterior molars of similar color and corresponding size. The re-
maining posterior molars are of the color of the other canine molars, and
no doubt belong to the same individuals in part, but none can be associ-
ated with the same certainty as the black specimens. On the light colored
posterior molars I propose to establish the Meyalonyx wheatley?, since I
should scarcely distinguish it from M. jeffersonti, or M. dissimilis by the
canine-molars alone. There can be-no question that the forms of these
teeth, characteristic of the two supposed species, graduate into each other ;
the characters derived from the development of the interior enamel plate,
may be distinctive, but in that case there is at least one other undescribed
species in the series I have explained above. I. dissimilis it appears to
me must repose on the posterior upper molar, which Leidy shows to be
transversly oval and not triangularin section. That tooth is as triangular
in M. wheatleyi as in M. jeffersonit.

From the preceding, it is probable that the most allied species of
Megalonyx, cannot be exactly defined by the characters of their canine
molar teeth, though, as in many species of Mammalia, they may be in-
dicated by the extreme forms of those teeth, the range of variation over-
lapping.

The supertor-molars (1a) belong to at least three (perhaps four) in-
dividuals. They are nearly straight trilateral prisms, so worn that the
inner anterior angle is the most elevated. The anterior dentinal plane is
slightly convex, the posterior concave to a less degree. The exterior
angle is much less obtuse than in WM. jeffersonii, that enclosed by the
dentine being prolonged and very narrow. There is a notable difference
between the two posterior molars of the superior series, preserved. One
belongs to the individual stained black. Both are slightly bowed pos-
teriorly, and both have a subtriangular section, the apex directed inwards.

i
Cope.] i8 [April 7,

In the light colored specimen the outer face is wide and nearly plane, the
anterior very slightly convex, and the posterior concave, making an open
longitudinal groove ; the external angle is obtuse. In the black speci-
men the inner face is narrower, the anterior more distinctly convex, and
the posterior convex also, rounding off to the more obtuse external angle.
Both these teeth are worn obliquely as in A. jeffersonit.

The wearing of the median molars is transverse to the axis of the shaft
anteriorly, oblique to it or descending inwards, posteriorly. The wearing
in the long axis of the jaw bone, is obliquely forwards on the posterior
dentinal wall, and divided on the anterior, one half sloping forwards and
the other backwards, the slopes separated by a sharp ridge of the dentine.

A. single tooth, which by its form is excluded from a place in the man-
dible, and by the character of the wearing of its crown, can be none other
than the second molar, or first of the regular series. Its form is very
different from that of the same tooth in I. jeffersonit, but is appropriate
to the modification described below. as characteristic of the inferior
molars of MW. wheatley?. There is no anterior wear on the anterior den-
tinal plate, indicating the absence of any tooth anterior to it in the infe-
rior jaw ; this plate is much higher than the posterior, which has two
worn surfaces, the anterior horizontal, the posterior oblique. The middle
of the crown is concave, and the concavity is carried across the dentine
of one end. ‘The tooth is in section a transverse parallelogram with
the outer short side oblique, instead of parallel to the inner. Anterior
face slightly concave, posterior slightly convex.

The characters of the inferior molars are established by three posterior
in place in the fragments of jaw held together by the matrix of red sand
and clay. That they might be the superior series of another species is
suggested by the subtriangular outline of two of them, and the jawis so
fragmentary that it is not sufficient to decide the case. The following
points, however, are conclusive. If they were superior, the terminal
teeth must be either the second or fifth molars, according to the relation
to front or back in which they are viewed. ‘That neither can occupy
this place is proven by the following description:

The anterior is a rather narrow transverse parallelogram, with the
sides and angles rounded. The posterior dentinal plate is worn trans-
versely, the opposite one is oblique, descending to one side. The form is
worn obliquely away from the centre of the crown, the latter is plane.
The next tooth is a parallelogram narrowed towards one end, which is
rounded obliquely to the other sides; it is narrower than the last, and
the dentinal plates are worn in exactly the same way. The last tooth is
much wider than the others, and has a subtriangular outline, the narrow
end very wide and obtuse, and on the same side as the narrowed end of
the one in front of it. The outline is worn in the same manner, except
that the angle at one end of the base of the triangle is, perhaps, more
elevated.

(1.) Neither of the extremital teeth have the oblique face of the pos-

ae

wy
1871.] i9 [Cope.

terior one of the known species of Megalcnya, nor the reduced size, so
that it remains to ascertain whether either of them is the first superior
molar. (2.) The larger is evidently notso, because it has an obliquely-
worn distal face, indicating the existence of another tooth beyond it in
the opposite jaw. (8.) The opposite one is not the anterior molar, be-
cause (a) its anterior dentinal face is worn horizontally, not obliquely
backward, indicating an overlapping tooth ; (b) because the oblique wear
of the dentine would, on the supposition that it is the first, be thrown
on the posterior instead of the anterior faces of the other molars ; (c) and
because its form is narrower than the other teeth, instead of wider as
in other species.

Confirmatory of this conclusion is the fact that no palate can be dis-
covered among the fragments where it should be, were these teeth max-
illaries. The question as to the relation of ends is settled by the fact
that the plane of the crowns rises to the narrower, which would thus be
anterior. Also the large tooth has the oblique surface for the last supe-
rior molar, which the anterior has not. The fragments of the jaw indi-
cate the same thing, rising (towards the coronoid process) at the large
tooth and falling at the narrower. The latter, then, for the above rea-
sons, I assume to be the anterior.

M.
Length of three juxtaposed Crowns. ....-.-0.seseeee cence eee tees 0.053
fC AMLOLIOL CRO ws SUNT ON Cie ea. 548 ea. - a rleyin's sh ge ey ey vias oeree .018
a oy OO OUUCE ONO so sted oe es a eee 018
Width ye Oe a ee cect ats Sey sues cea Sec eke .02
Length of last Oe UMUC T CMC bese ae ied iaislags ote he ote O14
we os . TOOL. GUC si ital. Seco sis yep te ee 0016
Width Mi Se ks a ee .02
iength of, Shatt. frst COObM: ; sie cc echo icc eS oe oe tales ge oe 054

There are five isolated molars of the same type as the above. Three
of these are evidently anterior or second inferior molars, two of the left,
side and one of the right. Their section is suboval, and all the details,
size, &c., areas above described. Two others are like the second (or
third) inferior molars. One of these is peculiar in being a little concave
on the anterior face, the inner extremity very oblique, the other is more
oval. =

The question as to the specific relations of these inferior molars may be
stated as follows. Their large size precludes the probability of their be-
longing to either WM. tortulusor M. sphenodon. They appear to belong to
one species, without doubt. The superior molars also belong to one
species, and as no other species is represented in any thing like
the same abundance, it is reasonable to suppose that these, with the most
abundant of canine molars, belong to the same form of Megalonyx. The
canine molars differ from those of JZ. lowodon, and the posterior upper
molars from those of M. dissimilis. The disproportion between the sizes
of the second and last inferior molars, with the narrow oval and triangu-

Cope.] 80 [April 7,

lar forms of the same, separates the animal from the W. jeffersondi. The
only known molar of M. valédus, Leidy, is like nothing found in the
present species, and M. rodens and M. meridionalis each have their
peculiar features. I therefore call the present animal J/. wheatleyt.

4

Another molar, perhaps the third inferior of the three, is larger, and
appears to belong to another individual; it is a little wider inwardly,
and resembles Leidy’s fig. 13 of Pl. XVI., except in its narrower angle
and perfect symmetry. It may belong to Jf. wheatleyi, but the outer
angle is regularly rounded; it may be M. sphenodon. Vt differs from
those of M. jeffersonit as the MM. wheatley?, in the greater extension in a
transyerse direction, and in the concavity of one of the long sides. The
enclosed area of osteodentine is in section a frustrum of a narrow
triangle, instead of rounded parallelogrammice as in M. jeffersonit.

Measurements of teeth.

M.
Long diameter, (Fig. 5) light cold. canine molar................. 0.0316
Short re e CEU e ean, te Oe 018
Long sha Or GBs 3s)" SO A OST ae eae Tick 0825
Short i iy - SO ED ae Ne 019
Long ne of (Fig. 6) black Oy TAT TR Ossi aces 085

Short se ae Js SONS MINT ener noe} 017

1s71.J 81

[Cope.
Long diameter of (Fig. 6) black super. molar ........-.. 50s sees 021
Short ‘ i . loa Wo Res tenleee pies .015
Long sf (Fig. 9) light, Ma Biv yots akan tek 0215
Short et me SS Le er eer ee 0158
Total length i ee ys ens HS .062
Long diameter 4 super. molar of (Fig. 6).........-.+ +e see ences O17
Short ee Me Me qeistea ad Jia. oo Wea eatnn cata 011
Long ve ¢ (igs O) ie ie ee ae 018
Short ve ve Oe Ra oka eae ee PA .0129
Long - inferior molar GiGhh) ioe i tee ae 0228
Short a a ee eras Sec ae 015
engi * Ra (IGOSE) oe eee ek 0214
Wadth,, © be ta ec ie ie online an eae 015

There are vertebra of both adult and young animals. An axis is much
like to that described by Leidy in Megalonye jeffersonti. The centrum is
much depressed, with a strong inferior keel. The articular faces of the
lateral abutments and of the odontoid process are continuous. This pro-
cess is short and conic, and is a continuation of a projection of the cen-
trum, which is notched on each side above, at its anterior limit, for the
annular ligament. A more posterior cervical, with codssified epiphyses, is
much less depressed, and is about as broad as long. A caudal, with co-
ossified epiphyses, has subround articular extremities, and is remarkable
for the extent of the chevron articulation of both ends of the inferior
aspect. These are connected by a lateral ridge which encloses a deep
fossa.

Measurements of Vertebra.

M.
GD Weaontem atheyyen Gr corn CeO ye On oy paces 0.089
Greatest, WIGGh so) gis ck oes (othe, Os 1s es ce 096
PVOUM GAN sc se ce ees es 5 ei ee tee ea 0385
Width centrum behind... .......- 60+. 2 1e. cer ee es stent tt seen 044
Depth Oy le es Petes os Fo es 2? .028
dere thy POSter. CONVICAL, .t00 55s ca cts est eee. ee ees 2 ta oat 054
Width . GUPICU AE TACO ne ve ess re ees siege age Oe 0565
Depth - ee ees er 05
Teugh Caudal i. i sisi eee ee setae eye ete ke eS 052
Width ‘ MPICCUAE TACO. soe a cos ou sus ced Vee eo ce mers ees 057
Depth ** Be ie ght MEO A ay ee ee eta es 05
bs es young, larger animal, with separate epiphyses..... 083
" articular face, dorsal of young......-.. see eee eee e ee eens 05
Width Me ee et oe .062
Length centrum of UE ee ee eel 0455

The carpals do not present marked difference when compared with
those figured by Leidy under J. jeffersonii. Among the tarsals, one as-
tragalus is exactly like that of the latter species; another is deeper and
shorter, viewed from the inner side, with vertical truncation below in

AvP 8 VO. x Kk

Cope.] 82

[April 7,

front, and much deeper superior ligamentous pit. Of the scaphoids, two
probably of the same animal, are deeper posteriorly, and with the convex
part of the superior articular face rounded ; four others are flatter, two
with the articular face above rounded, and two subconical. The cuboids
differ in the degrees of depression of form. ‘Two are more depressed,
three larger less so, and one still less.

The metacarpals are all present, and belong to several animals. There
are four of the first, which appear to have belonged to two species.
Three exhibit the articular extremity as very oblique to the superior
plane of the bone, and including a groove between it and the surface of
attachment to the 2d metacarpal. The inferior surface exhibits a
swollen knob, and a pit behind it. The fourth is nearly plane above and
below, with the articular ginglymus at right angles to both, and articula-
tion to second metatarsal also at right angles to them. No groove be-
tween these surfaces, but a regular concavity. Outer extremity not pro-
Jecting as in the first. The other metatarsals have the form and propor-
tions already described by Leidy.

M.
Pength ot Metdtarsis Iii Gis ei eae esa! 045,
Width & ORUCTIOUNINA © LON cd eb ets ae) sei ee 036
Length...‘ Ms Ney eee Ni nae 059
Depth i ie Obes Gian atti Orit Gaon eee OMe 052
lieneth . ‘ Ti, og nls ee ete a aod % 0945
Depth Nhek Wibere ann Sie ers neledgn se eres 057
ibength =“ AVG FU See bee ee eres. 104
Depth te {Ce SEDER oes ae ieee tS 05

The phalanges are like those figured and described as belonging to the
M. jeffersonti. Many of them are the proximal ones of greatly shortened
proportions, characteristic of the sloths. The penultimate are of various
sizes, an average one measures as follows:

Ni
WECM a Seve seca ceed ee Ae ee ieee 0.071
WCU DOMIN rice loeb iets et ee 045
VIO OS air sa enc. So va ce a 037

But the following measurements of a proximal phalange indicate an
immensely large example.

M.
ARCO TM vl wm Mahene Gee se Fares koe ee ee sal yess” 0.081
US PE OCMC vey acs on ieee G ls ene i a 062
ROU eee Piste nus ee Weer css os Hier el sases ieee oa 058

The wngucal phalanges are compressed and curved, with obtuse rounded
superior margin. Only one exhibits a tendency to the acute superior
margin characteristic of those typical of M. jeffersonii, though claws of
both kinds have been ascribed to the latter. The inferior plane is
gently convex. The insertion for flexor tendon is expanded laterally

1871] 83

[Cope.

over the origin of the nutritious foramen on each side, into a shelf: gen-
eral form longitudinal oval. The superior direction of the median radius
of the cotylus for the last phalange, shows that the claws were always
flexed to some degree. :

Fragments of many long bones, including many condyles, accompanied
the above, but in the lack of certainty as to their proper reference, are
not described.

This species is dedicated to Charles M. Wheatley, of Phonixville, to
whom Natural Science in the United States is under many obligations.
The expense and much labor requisite for the proper recovery and elucida-
tion of the remains contained in the cave are entirely due to his liberality
and exertions. Similar devotion to Science has preserved to us the finest
series of fossils of the triassic period of the Northern States in exist-
ence, and the finest collection of fresh water shells in America.

MzGALONYX Disstmitis, Leidy.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1852, 117. Sloth tribe N.,A.,. 45,.Pl. xiva
figs. 4—8, xvi., 8 and 15.

Probably represented by three canine molars, which belong to at least
two individuals. They have been described under head of the pre-
ceding species (see 1 ac). The canine molars are the only ones which
can be compared with Leidy’s figures and descriptions, with which they
agree closely.

Measurements of teeth.

M.
Long diam. canine molar, larger individual oflac.............. 0.0386
Short “ye Me Bs as cee Ge is .0158
MOM. se sh smaller Ole ee era ee 032
BuO °° re ee eer ers .014
Length shaft - as Ae eae csr oe 079

This species is evidently about the size of the M. wheatleyi and M.
jefferson.

MEGALONYX SPHENODON, Cope.

Yhis species is the smallest of the genus yet known from North Amer-
ica. It is indicated certainly by the canine-molars of opposite sides of
one individual only.

These teeth are flat and a little curved. <A principal peculiarity con-
sists in the regular increase in their diameter, from the apex to the base,
in both the longitudinal and the transverse directions. The long diame-
ter of the triturating surface is four-fifths that of the base where broken
off. The dentinallayer is thick externally ; it contracts after turning,
and the layer of the inner aspect is uniformally thin, but less so than in
M. dissimilis. The inner bulge is well marked, and is a little nearer the
anterior margin than the posterior; the latter is the thicker. The tritur-
ating surface is slightly oblique in the long direction, as in the two species

\

Cope.] 84 [April 7,

preceding this, and concave transversely ; the inner dentinal plate being
worn much lower than the outer. Exterior face of tooth regularly and
gently convex.

M.
dienath of ivagment of TOObN ies viii. de aie be tea ne ees 0.044
iigne diamener angrinding tage, Fj ce. aiie ks er, as 025
cs SS SE DARG. (RO GRtG. tas oat ues ee ates ctu oute ee ee 02°75
Short ue ee OOS ae TT gis ME ee REG aes 0148
& - £6 Grinding faves eho id Ce iy ee er eee 0125

The question has naturally arisen, whether this tooth has not belong-
ed to a young animal of M. wheatleyi or M. jeffersonit. Its small size and
subconic form would suggest this view. Teeth of the monophyodont
type, generally possess the character of those of the successional type, in
being protruded of the full size, and not increasing in diameter with age.
Exceptions, however, occur in some Rodentia, as the beaver. It has
however, never been seen among the numerous teeth of sloths, which
have been studied by authors, while a genus allied to Mylodon, Sphenodon
of Lund, presents this character at maturity. Further, the most ex-
panded portion of these teeth presents considerably smaller dimensions
than the smallest of the MW. jeffersondi, figured by Leidy ; the diameter of
the triturating surface is only .66 of that of the same, (Leidy, 1. ¢. xvi,
fig: .6).

In the moderate development of the inner bulge, these teeth are like
some of those of JM. wheatleyt.

MEGALONYX TORTULUS, Cope, sp. nov.
Established on two corresponding canine-molars of opposite sides of a
sloth, found in association with the preceding, These teeth are more dis-

tinctly curved than in the three species preceding, but are more as in Af. jef-
fersonti and M. lovodon. Its shaft possesses a peculiarity of the latter,
which is not seenin WM. wheatley?, M. dissimilis and M. sphenodon, i. e., it

—

a

1871.] 85 [Cope.

is twisted, so that the vertical plate of the triturating surface is quite
oblique to that of the basal portions of the shaft.

The triturating surface is, in its long diameter, transverse to the mar-
gins of the tooth adjacent; the short diameter is very oblique. The
bulge is well marked, and in the specimens a little anterior to the middle.
The inner layer of dentine is thickest anteriorly, where it is but a little
narrower than the thick external layer, but it is nowhere very thin.
The outer face is concave, a feature not seen in the three species above
mentioned, and not exhibited by any of the sections of the teeth of MW
jeffersonti given by Leidy, 1. c.

M.
Length of fragment of tooth........ ES CO ae Vices aso ouuenss 0.043
Long diameter grinding surface.......... ee es es <e wUROe
uoty xv A ae Levee gosta

These dimensions show that the Megalonyz tortulus is not larger than
M. sphenodon, perhaps not so large, as the diameters of the apices of
their teeth are identical, while that of the base is equal to the apex in
the former, greater in the latter. The concavity of the outer face, and
disposition of the dentine, are entirely different from that seen in J.
and sphenodon other species, and more as in ©. jeffersonti and M. loxodon.

For the better discrimination of these species, the following synoptic
table of dental characters is added.

A Canine-molars, much curved, of equal diameter.

Large, bulge median ; grinding surface oblique. M. jeffersontt.
Large, bulge anterior; grinding surface a groove. M. loxodon.
Small, concave externally. M. tortulus.

zp Canine-molars little curved, of uniform diameter.
Molars triangular, canine-molars less compressed, large. J. wheatleyt.
Last molar oval, canine-molars more compressed, large. MM. dissimilis.
c Canine-molars little curved, diameter contracting to the apex.
Bulge median, dentine thin within, small. M. sphenodon.

Mytopon, Owen.
MyLODON ? HARLANI, Owen.

The remains representing this genus are not sufficiently characteristic
to enable me to determine the species with certainty. They consist of two
imperfect ungueal phalanges, and the distal extremity of the tibia. The
former indicate a very large animal; they are stout, convex above, with
lateral ridge and three basal plates. The flexor insertion is broad and
flat, the foramina well developed. Inthe second phalange the middle
inferior plane is represented by an obtuse angle. The tibia presents the
excavation for the astragalus, as in J. robustus Ow,* but is narrower
or with less anteroposterior diameter than in that species.

*See Owen on Mylodon. Vl. xx fig. 4.

Cope.] 86

Measurements.

Long diameter end of tibia.

Short ue Ms tps p(DRAUEVOLSOLY )i ak: fice eon pada a}
Vertical diameter ungueal phalange at nutritious foramina...
Transverse ‘‘ “ a . Y

These claws are similar to those of the M. harlant which have been
discovered.
Scrurvus, Linn.

ScIuRUS CALYCINUS, Cope.

Species nova.

Established on two imperfect rami of the under jaw, with the incisor
and first, second and third inferior molars in situ. The size approxi-
mates it to the 8. hudsonius, and exceeds that of the S. panolius. The
forms of the ramus so far as visible, is not unlike that seen in the same
squirrel. The characters which distinguish it from S. hudsonius, are
chiefly to be seen in the molar teeth, especially the anterior. The crowns
of all are deeply cupped, and the tritruating surfaces form anterior and
posterior narrow bounding bands, which widen outwardly. The margin
of the tooth is elevated and entire, except externally, where the two
usual low cusps are separated by a deep notch. In the S. hudsontus
the interior and exterior margins are both emarginate, each notch sup-
porting a median cusp, thus forming three on each side. Che anterior
molar exhibits this character still more strongly. Its crown is a cup as
wide as long, with high uninterrupted margin, except on the outer side,
where it is deeply notched, It has but two roots. In 8. hudsontus this
tooth has three roots, islonger than wide, and has three marginal cusps
on the inner and outer sides of the crown.

Length of three crowns m. 0048; length exserted portion of inferior
incisor m. 607; transverse diameter do. at point of issue m. 0023.

From the extent of the worn surfaces of the molars, the animal de-
scribed is adult. The second ramus is of the same size; the dental
series is complete, and the teeth are worn so as to present a dentinal area
surrounded by a thin margin of enamel. The outlines of the teeth are
like those of the first specimen.

As compared with S. panolius, the species is larger, and differs in the
form of the m. 1, asmuch as in the case of S. hudsonius.

JAcuLus, Wagler.
JACULUS ? HUDSONIUS, Zimm.

One ramus mandibuli with incisor and second molar preserved. The
latter nearly resembles the figure in F. Cuvier’s Dents des Mammifers,
and the ramus is about the size of that of the existing jumping mouse.
Nevertheless, in lack of specimens of the cranium of the latter, I am
unable to determine its specific relations, now first found in the Postplio-
cene.

1871.] 87 [Cope.

Hesprromys, Waterhouse.

A ramus with first and second molars and incisor, agreeing in details
of structure, with the group with which our recent //. leucopus is type,
and of the size of that species, not certainly referable to the latter,
without further comparison.

ARVICOLA, Lacep.

Remains of species of the genus are numerous in all the cave forma.
tions of the United States which I have examined. Those obtained by
my friend, C. M. Wheatley, are referable to three sections of the genus,
one of them the group Pitymys, as defined by Prof. Baird,+ the others
new; one intermediate between Arvicola and Pitymys, and third an ex-
aggeration of the peculiarities of the last. They are defined as follows,
the character of the sub-genus Arvicola being added for comparison.

Arvicola, Lac. Anterior lower molar triangles 1,35, 1 three lobed ;
middle lower, 13; middle upper, 1 3.

A. riparia, Ord.*

Isodeita, Cope. Anter. inf. molar, 1 3 ; 1 three lobed ; 2d inf. mol. 1 2.

A. speothen, Cope.

Pitymys, McMurtrie. Ant. inf. mo]. 121, lobed ; 2d inf. mol. 121.

A. pinetorum, Lec. A. sigmodus, Cope. A. didelta, Cope. A. tetra-
delta, Cope.

Anaptogonia, Cope. Ant. inf. mol. 1 4, 1 several lobed, the triangles
all connected medially, the posterior nearly enclosed.

A. hiatidens, Cope.

The third group is represented by the greatest number of individuals
and species.

ARVICOLA SPEOTHEN, Cope.

Sp. noy.

This species is represented by the entire dentition of the left ramus
mandibuli, with a few fragments of the adjaeent bone. As already.
pointed out, its characters entitle it to rank as a distinct section of the
genus. Thus the triangles of the inner side of the anterior inferior mo-
lar are one less than in any species of the section Arvicola. The anterior
loop presents two well marked angular basal areas, while its terminal
portion is regularly rounded. The accompanying outline will give a good

+I have depended on Prof, Baird’s well known work in studying this genus.

#ARVICOLA RIPARIA, Ord.

Baird, U. 8. Pac. R. R. Surv , viii, 522.

This species has not yet been found in the Port Kennedy cave, and I introduce it for the purpose
of recording its occurrence in the cave breccia, Wythe Co., Virginia, whose contents I examined
and described in Proc. Am. Phil. Soc,, 1869, 171. Itisrepresented by a left ramus mandibuli, en-
tire except in the angle and condyle, and with complete dentition, The size and proportions are
identical with those of the existing species, as are also the triangles and form of terminal trefoil
lobe of the anterior inferior molars. There is no difference to be observed between the third infe-
rior molar when compared with that of 4, riparia from Pennsylvania, but the anterior alternate
triangles of the second, are not isolated, the reentrant inflection of the external enamel plate not
reaching the internal, as in the recent animal,

Cope.] 88 [April 7,

idea of its form, That this is not one of the species of Pitymys, in
i which the basal lobe of the anterior trefoil has been cut off by unusual
\| inflexion of the enamel angle, is demonstrated by the structure of the
second molar, which is precisely that of typical Arvicola, all the triangles
from the posterior being isolated and alternating, producing the formula,
120. The third molar has the usual formula, 1-1-1, the posterior two
lobes being crescentic, the anterior trapezoid.

| Measurements.

| M.

Length grinding surface inferior molars, (No. 1)........... soa W0UUS

ie es ee eS 008
e lapg aud Growl... . en ea eee 005

| The structure of the molar triangles, i. e., their acuteness and thinness
of enamel, induces me to descrite here, without any certainty of refer-
ence, the superior molar teeth of one individual found near the same time.
| The formulae of the superior molars are (1) 1 4, (2) 14, (3) ? this, so far
i] as known, identical with that of A. dédelia. In another specimen repre-
il sented by incisor and sup. m. 1., the former has an oblique antero-exter-
| nal face, with narrow truncate outer face ; enamel not striate, emarginate ‘
i at the cutting edge. In A. didelta, (fossil, below), the antero-external

face is more oblique, and without defined external plane ; the end is not
| emarginate (in one specimen). This tooth appears to be relatively small-
er and weaker in the ?.A. speothen.

i M.
| Length fang and crown, ist superior molar (No. 8)......... Vans sees 004

| Width enamelled face incisor ‘ ae Be eee 001

ARVICOLA TETRADELTA, Cope.
| Sp. nov.
|| Represented bya portion of the cranium, which embraces the 2d and 3d
i superior molars, and parts of the m.1, and incisor. The formula of the

fina ert hin ic ace a tes tte le OOH
\
H

2

two molars perfectly preserved is 14, 13%. The terminal triangles are as
well developed inside as outside ; the others are rather small and obtusely
angulated. Those of the m. 8, are entirely separated, and the last is not
followed by a loop, but is completely enclosed behind by the vertical
enamel plate, which bounds the corresponding triangle in the m. 2. This
isa character which distinguishes this species from any other of the

7] 89

[Cope.

genus Arvicola which has been described from North America, of which
the corresponding tooth is known. ‘The last triangle is slightly angulate -
in posterior outline.

M.
Length grinding face of m. sup. 2 and 3............ ih Lagan 0.0087

It is only necessary to compare this species with tho A. speothen and
A. tinvoluta, in which, unfortunately, the corresponding tooth is unknown.
Its small and obtuse triangles distinguish it from the former. As reduc-
tion of the terminal loop of the m. inf. 1 is characteristic of the latter,
the present tooth might be suspected to belong to it, but there is a real
increase in the number of triangles over that of the most nearly allied
species. A. didelta, and of the section Pitymys, to which it belongs,
pointing most to the sections Jsodelia or Arvicola. Size, .25 less than A.
speothen.

ARVICOLA DIDELTA, Cope.

Species nova.

Represented by the mandibular rami of five, and superior dentition of
probably three individuals. One imperfect cranium contains the denti-
tion of both jaws, thus fixing the relations of fragmentary specimens,
especially in the more important relation of the anterior, inferior and
posterior superior molars. The characters of these show that it is allied
to the A. pinetorum. The accompanying cuts illustrate the form of the
first inferior molar tooth. The ridges are four internal and three exter-
nal. The second molar exhibits the formula 141, the anterior area with
an approach to division into two triangles, alternating. This peculiarity
is not seen in Prof. Baird’s figure of A.pinetorum, 1. c. liv. 1719, nor does
the latter represent the loops of the last molar, as exhibited by our speci-
mens. In the figure they are oval, in our specimens angulate crescentic.
As the figure does not agree with the description, I do not rely on it for
these details.

A more important difference is seen in the structure of the superior
third molar, which Baird describes and figures as having but three isola- ’
ted areas, the lateral angles being sub-opposite and confluent medially.
In A. didelta, there is an internal and an external triangle, each entirely
isolated, besides the anterior and the posterior loops. The last differs a
little in its developments ; in one it is broad heart-shaped, the apex pos-
terior ; in another elongate, the sides a little concave ; in a third, more
elongate and concave. The formula of triangles of both series then is:
mip. te lee, abe Set. Inter aal. 25d, 852

Prof, Baird does not describe the triangles of the posterior superior
molars in the Arvicola austera as isolated, though it might be inferred
from his language. His figure, however, resembles that of the A. pine-
torum. (See Baird, U. 8. Pac. R. R. Surveys, viii, 539.)

ARVICOLA INVOLUTA, Cope.

Species nova.

Established on a nearly complete ramus mandibuli, with dentition per-
fectly preserved, It is nearly allied to the A. pinetorum, differing prin

A. P. S—VOL. XII—L

Cope.] 90 April 7,

cipally in the form of the anterior lower molar; (see accompanying cut).
The anterior lobe of this tooth is much shortened and crescentic, the in-
ner horn of the crescent being the apex of aridge of the tooth. Thus there
are five internal and three external ridges to the tooth. Triangles of
inferior series (1) 171 three lobed ; (2) 111 ; (8) 1, 1, 1. The anterior loop
of the second molar is contracted, outlining two triangles. the lobes of
the third are angular sub-crescentic, the anterior trapezoid. This molar
differs distinctly in structure from that of the next species, q.v. The
A. involuta is nearer the A. pinetorum, and is of the same size.

ARVICOLA sIGMopUs, Cope.

Species nova.

This species belongs to the same group (as characterized by dentition),
as the last two, and is of about the same size, viz: about that of our com-
mon A. riparia. It is represented by three imperfect mandibular rami,
two with dentition complete, the other with the posterior molar only
wanting. Its characters are near those of A. austera, Lec., as pointed
out by Prof. Baird. It differs from the A. didelta and A. involuta of
the present paper, in the five lobed anterior loops of the first inferior mo-
lar. The loop has, therefore, besides the two basal unenclosed triangles,
a smaller projecting angle on each side, and the terminal slightly angu-
lated lobe. In the most typical specimen, the median angles of this lobe
are as prominent (fig. a) as the basal, or the triangles, though the loop of
the lobe isnot angulated at the end.

There are, thus, five internal and four external ridges of the tooth.
The triangles are as usual 1271, 5 lobed, (2) 141, (8), 1,1, 1. The ante-

‘rior loop of the second is contracted as in the two preceding species.
The third is quite different from that described under the head of A. in-
voluta, and that figured by Baird for A. pinetorum. Thus, its three loops
are chiefly extended inwardly, their outer angles projecting very little
beyond the point of junction ; they form a w or sigma-shaped grinding
surface, whence the name of the species. Prof. Baird’s figure of A. aus-
tera represents the first inferior molar of this species exactly, but is very
different in form of the last, which is like that of the A. involuta. Should
however,. the character as here described in this tooth of A. ségmodus, be
found to eccur in the A. austera, the former name will become a synonyme
of the latter.

Measurements.
M.
Length grinding surface infer, molars, (NOv.1.).---4..-+.2+1.s008 0.0065
es se foe et a be esas ft ays 0038
«¢ fang and crown Ky ie os Bee ORG sa asco 004
WHC MIRICILOM ICIBOD sac c sci sous ope oa Oa eno nee es Gee, 0015

The dental series of the more typical specimen, whose m. 1 is outlined
in fig. a, is smaller and relatively a little narrower than the others.

The supposed superior maxillary dentition is represented by both series,
that of the left side lacking the first molar, with the palatine surface and

1871.] 91

[Cope.

one upper incisor. The lobe formula is 12, 14, 1,11 three lobed. The lobe
of the posterior molar is quite elongate, and divaricates into two angles
anteriorly, the external of which is almost isolated, almost giving the form-
ula for the tooth 131. The teeth of both sidesare exactly alike. The near
approach to isolation of this external angle is due to the deep inflection
of the posterior inner groove, and very near approach to a corresponding
incurvature of the lobe. This specimen is referred to the A. sigmodus by
the analogy to the relation between superior and inferior molars seen in
A. didelta. In the latter the terminal loop of the inferior m. 1 is more
simple and the loop of superior m. 8, agrees with it in its simplicity, hav-
ing nearly the same form. The increased complexity of the anterior loop
of the inferior m. 1 in A. sigmodus is shared by the m. 3 sup. here de-
scribed, though not in exactly the same manner. I refer it, therefore, to
this species with a reservation.

doeneth Of dental seriesyc hw. dsc usd. ol. lad saeom an.
Width between middle of m. m. 2
ee IMCISOLOCUUMILALONb: . seco! swears eee

ARVICOLA HIATIDENS, Cope.
Species nova.
Represented by several molar teeth. These are several times as large

Va rw,

as the teeth occupying the same position in any of the species already
mentioned in this essay, and suggest the genus Fiber. The distinctive
features of the latter are the compressed oar-like tail, with rooted molars,
and it is evident that the relationship of this species is not to it. Perhaps
it is neither an Avicola nor a Fiver, since it differs in the structure of the
teeth from the known species of both. None of the triangles are isolated,
but are connected by a narrow strip of dentine, which is narrow posteriorly
but widens anteriorly until it opens out into the terminal loop. Thus
the sectional name Anaptogontia may be found ultimately applicable to a
Separate genus. The separation of the enamel folds merely carries to the
highest degree that which is seen in the anterior part of the tooth of A.
sigmodus.

Cope.] 92 [April 7,

In the inferior m. 1, the triangles which do not open on one side to the
anterior loop are 14, then one on each side, and the short wide terminal loop
whichis bilobed or emarginate in the middle of the end. The ridges, which

are very prominent and acute, are, therefore, $; at the extremity there are |
two short ones, between which a third and more prominent one rises a little

below the grinding surface. A little more attrition would give the distal |
loop a trilobate outline, and a little more, an acuminate one, from the |

loss of the lateral angles ; finally the median ridge disappears also. In
its present state one of the terminal lobes is almost external, making the
ridges &.

Measurements. M.
Length grinding surface............ ere eis eee eee 0.005
Width eg re os Fe ae are ree aeen cee 0024
Length fang and crown.............. PN gh ind pal eet ghee: .0078

The accompanying cut of twice natural size explains the above remarks.

Two opposite molars held in natural relation by the matrix, resemble
the above in structure and size so closely as to leave little doubt that they
belong to the same species. Whether they should be referred to the
superior or inferior series is uncertain, though analogy with the Hypu- \
deus gappert would suggest the latter. They represent the right and
left second molars, and the triangular areas if isolated, would be 1?, not
one of them, however, is isolated, the dentine being continuous round the
entering angles of enamel. The failure of these angles to reach the
enamel margin of the side towards which they are directed, and an ap-
proach to parallelism of the entering and projecting enamel plates pro-
duces a triturating surface, having the form of a succession of Ws.
This is the reverse of what occurs in Hypudeus gappert according to
Prof. Baird, where the triangles become confluent at their bases, thus
extending all across the crown; the same thing is seen in the posterior
inferior molar in all the species. There is no trace of roots to these teeth
or that previously described. Length of crown of second molar, m. 0056.

A third specimen is represented by the molars of both maxillary bones,
much broken, the posterior of one of the series only being entire. This \
tooth is slightly curved, and exhibits three ridges on one side, and four
on the other; triangles 1? and a short loop with two basal angles, the
inner more prominent than the other. None of these triangles are isolated,
put are rather angular expansions of the continuous dentine. The two
inner angles are much more prominent than the outer, but in old age they
would probably be equal, judging from their appearance at the base of the
tooth. Viewed from below, they appear to be closed, showing that the
character of the group Anaptogonia in this respect is derived from a
“vetardation”’ of growth in a point which is early attained in true Arvicola.

M.
engtn Of CO0tH issih ia Pie ay ais a eae « 0.005
CHOW Cha Cfagas iat ey raga fe tetiet bella Ces 0.003

IW LQUULVAPMULAIUGn Mase cr oer coin aaron TaaPCy fois asi ati eae Eee AEN

Sinemet

1871,] 93 [Cope.

ERETHIZON, Cuv.
The remains of a porcupine of the existing North American genus
occur in the deposit. It is evidently different from the recent H. dorsatum
and presents the following characters.

ERITHIZON CLOACINUM, Cope.
Species nova.

Represented by a last superior molar of the left side, and a portion of
one of the inferior incisors. The former indicates the distinctness of the
species by two peculiarities. One of these is the greater vertical depth of
the external inflection of enamel. It is nearly as deep as the internal,
while in #. dorsatum itis very much shallower, the internal extending
down to the alveolar border. This appearance in the present species is
not due to deficient attrition, for the molar in question is well worn, so
as to leave the margins of the anterior island well posterior to the anterior
enamel margins of the tooth. This anterior island is a transverse oval,
slightly concave behind.

The general form of this tooth is T shaped, with an expanded triangular
base. The second specific character is seen here ; for while the recent
species posesses an enamel island or annulus which occupies this space
entirely, the #7. cloacinum exhibits two, the additional one being on the
inner side and smaller than the usual one. It is suboval, and occupies
the inner posterior angle of the triturating surface, which is expanded,
and less than a right angle. TI find no trace of this in five crania which I
had the opportunity of examining.* The sizes of both this tooth and the
incisor are about equal to the largest seen in the #. dorsatum. The
enamel of the latter is not smooth, and hasa minute interrupted striation.

Antero-posterior diameter of crown of molar m. 0076; transverse do.
m. 0077; width anterior face of incisor m. 0055.

Lerus, Linn.
LEPUS SYLVATICUS, Bachm.

Portions of crania of six individuals not distinguishable from this
recent species. The palatal surface of one is exposed, and is longer in
relation to its width than in arecent example. Thus in the former the
length enters the width between the two anterior alveoli 1.2 times; in the
latter 1.6 times. In Prof. Baird’s figure it enters 1.4 times. Some of the
specimens are smaller, some larger than the average of our recent ones.
One of them had an oval mass of carbonaceous matter in its mouth,
probably the remains of its unswallowed vegetable food.

PRAOTHERIUM, Cope.

Molars similar to those of Lepus, rootless, with oval crowns transverse
to the axis of the series, all simple ; masticatory surface not divided by
median ridge, enamel boundary emarginate on the inner side. Number
in maxillary bone? four.

* T owe a skeleton of the Z, dorsatum from Muncy, Penna., to the kindness of my friend, Jas. S.
Lippincott.

Q-
Cope.] 94 [April 7,

PRAOTHERIUM PALATINUM, Cope.
Species nova.

This rodent is represented by the palatal region of the cranium of one
individual, with four superior molar teeth of each side in position. The
latter diverge symmetrically, probably in consequence of pressure, But a

|
small part of the palatine surface is preserved. The normal number of
teeth is uncertain, but the anterior tooth is known from its relation to
the fragments of maxillary bone and perhaps zygomatic arch. It resem-
bles the three molars which follow it. Behind the fourth no trace of
tooth or bone could be found on exploring the matrix, though the latter
was unbroken, hence it is possible, though not certain, that there were
none.

The genus differs from those of the @eomyinae of Baird, in the sim-
plicity of the first molar. The wide palate and narrower zygoma, as
well as the forms of the teeth, are those of the rabbits, but it differs from
the two genera, Lepus and Lagomys, in the identity of structure of the
first molar with the others, and the absence of an enamel band dividing
the triturating surface of each of them. In some of the teeth a trace
of the dividing lamina is visible, but does not appear to have been ele-
vated into a crest of the grinding surfaces.

In specific characters, this rodent differs from our rabbits in its small
size, and in having the molars deeply longitudinally grooved on the inner
face, instead of the outer. In worn teeth this groove is continued into
the grinding surface of the crown, without interruption from the enclos-
ing enamel. The form of this surface is then an oval, notched on the
inner side, and rounded or slightly truncated on the outer. The palatine
face is but partially preserved, and is considerably wider in proportion to
the diameter of the tecth than in Lepus syloaticus.

M.
Length crown of four consecutive molars. ..........-.....00e0e. 0.0061
Width ONG MOM stom teins, esos Mi in oe adh Ge 0021
“, spalate between bases of.molang, oi.) c:c< fiesnia cise: 0100

ScaLors, Cuy.
The only remain certainly referable to this genus is ahumerus. As the

1871.] 95 [Cope.

form of this element is very characteristic among the Talpide, the spe-
cies may be determined from it with considerable precision. Its form
is less stout than in Talpa europea and Scalops aquaticus, but consider-
ably more so than in Condylura cristata. In the uncertainty as to
whether it can belong to Scalops brewert, I leave it without a name.

? VESPERTILIO, Linn.

Numerous slender bones referable to this or an allied genus, are found
in the cave deposit.
Mastropon, Cuyv.
MASTODON AMERICANUS, Cuv.

Numerous fragments of teeth, cranium, vertebre, and extremities, of a
large individual, with tusks measuring five to six inches in diameter.
Some three-crested, and several primary or two-crested molars, indicate
a second, smaller animal.

Tapirus, Briss.
TAPIRUS AMERICANUS, Auct.

Numerous teeth from all positions in both jaws indicate several indi-
viduals of different sizes. Some of them are of the size of the existing
species of South America, and do not exhibit any differences of specific
importance.

Taprirus HAysi, Leidy.

Holmes’ Postplioc. Foss. 8. Ca., Pl. xvii. figs. 4, 5, 7, 8.

Four superior and six inferior moiars do not differ in any respect from
those of the preceding species. excepting in size. In this they exceed the
latter, having about twice the superficial area. Leidy appears to have
proposed this species on account of size only, and the specimens may in-
dicate a valid species. Two superior molars, perhaps referable to the
T. americanus, differ less in size, exceeding a little those of our recent
specimens.

Dimensions of three superior molars of the largest (Z. haysti), medium
and smallest (7. americanus) size are given. Thelast two are worn, the
first had not protruded through the gum.

M.
HONE tH por es ests ae Be dia Saree ee Sear at lens 0.029
SWHGuny I (OTOAUCRUs ft oer sete re eect ey ee ee ae 0832
SGU thi eens ee re eee ee ees tk oa sae 023
Wacluie eo (ocalCcy) eet ree coe ee CS ay es ee ee 029
Densthye ss i geal ia Wr ata mis Oo eet eee 0218
Width, 8 (greatest)..... Be ei ee Ore T tees cot. ee 025

In addition to the teeth, there are numerous bones of the extremities,
tarsus, &e., and vertebre.
Equus, Linn.
Numerous phalanges of two species of slender proportions and smaller
Size than the recent domesticated horse. Neither the species nor genus
are determinable as yet, from the remains.

6

Cope.] g

[April 7,

Bos, Linn.

Extremity of a femur, several patelle and fragments of metatarsals of
a large species of ox or bison are preserved with the others. The species
is not yet determined.

There are, perhaps, two other species of ungulate animals not as yet
determined.

Ursus, L.
Ursus pristinus, Leidy.
Arctodus pristinus, Leidy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philada., 1854, 90,
Holmes’ Postpliocene Fossils §. Carolina, 1860, 115, Pl. xxiii, f. 3-4.

This bear has been known hitherto by a molar of the lower jaw found
by Prof. Holmes near Charleston, 8. Ca., and the references above indi-
cate descriptions and figures of this tooth alone. Mr. Wheatley’s collec-
tion contains the first and second molars in a portion of the right ramus
of the mandible, and the canine and first, second and third molars of the
left ramus separated from it. There are also vertebra of bears from the
cervical and dorsal regions, which are appropriate as to size, and were
found at near the same time as the teeth.

A character which at once distinguishes this bear from all those now
living inthe northern hemisphere (faunally speaking), and those known
to have inhabited it during the postpliocene period, is seen in the first
molar. Instead of the usual two series of tubercles, it has on its ante-
rior half a single rather obtuse crest, above the outer side of the crown.
The crest commences with the apex of an elevated conical tubercle, which
marks a point three-fifths the length of the tooth from its posterior ex-
tremity. ‘Two very small worn tubercles are seen behind it on each side,
in the specimen, while the’ greater part of the surface of the crown is
nearly plane, and covered by unbroken enamel. It is a little depressed,
and compressed from the outer side at the posterior third. The enamel of
the inner side of the crown is smooth, of the outer side obsoletely ru-
gose. The second inferior molar is about as long as the first, but wider,
and of different character. The triturating surface is parallelogrammic
rounded at the ends, and narrowed at the anterior third, and con-
tracted, as compared with the width of the base of the crown.
The enamel, though worn, is nowhere worn through, and its sur-
face is remarkable for the almost absence of tubercles. The grind-
ing surface is concave transversely, and is bounded by elevated mar-
gins. The inner and outer display each three obtuse elevations, the
latter the better defined, the anterior the most elevated and connected by
a low cross ridge, which is depressed in the centre. The inner sides of
the crown is swollen at the base, and more oblique than the outer ; both
are marked with obsolete ridges, which descend from the grinding face,
those of the outer most distinct. The last inferior molar is two-thirds
the length of the penultimate. The form is oval, broad anteriorly, nar-
row posteriorly. The crown is low and flat, without tubercles, the
margin a little elevated, and interiorly and posteriorly mammillated ; it
has a single compressed root.

ey
1871.] 9 ‘ [Cope.

The inferior canine is represented by a crown. It is remarkably short,
and stout at the base; the posterior outline very concave. The usual
obtuse keel is seen on its anterior inner aspect, and worn surface postero-
exteriorly. The apex of the crown is worn by use. The smaller pre-
molars have not been recovered, but the last or sectorial has left its
impression in front of the first molar in place in the matrix, and appears
to have been of the proportions seen in the grizzly bear.

M.

Length three inferior molars and fourth premolar together. ....-. 0.096

do M. I crown 029

Width do SHITCWMODIN ves caren ies Trea ait rail? 018

(Lenpth, Mis Ul ayes ts 081
Width do GULCH IOLLY ion shire y ohh ees ae oe 0202
Tength Me Ulu. y. cca. oe tee ins ot sees nee tie ei ee 0233
Wridth anteriorly... ic. t. 00. doalh s- ce-deieegesl bae ob bigeeere ¢ .0188
te POBLOTIOM Yi. os ove bolton meen coe nb cs «cobs chien emer ee Ses 0185

Length crown and root......-.-+e eee e eee teen ete tee eee ee ree 035

In size this species probably equalled the grizzly bear, as the teeth are
as large as those of any of the numerous crania in the Museum of the
Academy Natural Sciences, though Prof. Baird gives measurements of
some in the Smithsonian collections, which are larger. Should the teeth
be related to the skeleton as in our black bear U. americanus, a still larger
size is indicated. The nearest relationship in the characters of dentition
is to be seen in the U. bonacrensis, of Gervais* of Buenos Ayres. It has
the peculiar form of the first molar seen in U. pristinus, but differs spe-
cifically in that of the second, which is interrupted in one of its outlines
and rather more tubercular.

As compared with Ursus amplidens, Leidy, the following relations ap-
pear. The last molar has a smaller crown than in the type specimen of
the latter. In U. pristinus, and the last is between .50 .75, the length of
the second molar; in U. amplidens, exactly as in U. horribilis, five-sixths
length of crown, or equal the extent of alveole. The third molar is less
contracted behind in the type specimen of U. amplidens. The latter
species appears to be in many ways nearly allied to the grizzly bear.

The discovery of this species by Mr. Wheatley, in Pennsylvania, is par-
ticularly interesting, as fixing an extended range for it, and proving that
our cave bear is totally distinct from that of Europe, and rather of the
type which was associated with the gigantic sloths in the southern re-
gions of South America, at the same geologic epoch.

Feruis, Linn.

Two proximal phalanges of a species of this or an allied genus, were
found by Mr. Wheatley. They pertained to an animal of the size of the
jaguar, (Felis onca). A fragment of a canine tooth indicates a cat as
large as the tiger, but is too imperfect to allow of determination, Some
yertebre of a carnivorous animal, perhaps of a dog, were also found.

¥Palaeontology of Castelnau’s Anim. novo, on Rar Am. Sud., Pl. fig.

A. PP. 8.—VOL. XII--M

————

Cope.] 98 [April 7,

The result up to the present time may be summed up as follows:

Edentata. Species. Individuals.
Me GAONYS (suk auan Jail dal. een. Mladic Malan 5 15
VOGT gd eit An eagle Vil. FtAE Ok MNO eld al 22
Rodentia.
AMVC Olatade, dohidasa sly: ah eniint i daha eh ose oa 6 15
HLesperomy sia. «. siaee Gliese oi as oven meal ner. 1 1
OMOUMIS 5b eisai} aeae i ul
i 2
1 uy
1 ff
a 1
2 2
1 aL
CIITO Plena: iis cane eo hs ar enh Comes ree 6
Ungulata.
MESLOM ON ails at aca haa oe else. uk cus. nee cE t 2
MAUS tcaes I a eds dy ais ori hei oP hd oe 2 4
CONS. iieevrusiavrandss Ging eel Sct Saeusi yA wee 2 3
BOR omnia cies Len Melati icin woken 1 3
Uindeterniithediniovon vis eee ee oe ea ye 2 é
Oarnivora.
WSUS. wesc St eee ee ee ee ee u 22
CANbei a ee ACs OR ak ene ae ae 21 if
WONG oc .e8l. heatia Wi Cr cu Per ere er ce ae 2 2
NetotN a totale ties. Seek 84 72

Of birds there are fragments of two species, one a turkey, with the
spur preserved, probably the MW. altus, Marsh; (M. superbus,+ Cope. Trans.
A. Phil. Soc., 1870, pp. 289, ii), the other a snipe. The reptiles include
one or two species of tortoises, and three or four serpents. There are a few
bones apparently of Batrachians. The whole number of species of Ver-
tebrata is about forty, represented by perhaps ninety individuals.

Dr. Geo. H. Horn, to whom Mr. Wheatley submitted the insects, re-
ports, at an early stage of the investigation, thirteen species of Coloptera
and two or three of other orders, including Orthoptera. We await with
much interest the further results of this research, as the determination
of Postpliocene Coleoptera has not been practicable heretofore. The
names already published by Dr. Horn,* are, Carabidex— Cychrus wheatleyt
Oychrus minor, Cymindis aurora, Chlaentus punctatissimus, Pterostichus
lacvigatus, Pt. longipennis, Dicaelus alutaceus ; Scarabacide, Aphodius
scutellaris, Apho. micans, Phanaeus antiquus ; Copris punctulatus ; His-
terides ; Saprinus? ebeninus.

} As it is now fifteen months since Prof, Marsh announced his species, and no description has

yet appeared, it appears to me that M, superbus, the only name accompanying a description, will
have to be adopted, if the two are really the same.

*Am. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1871, 385, in a notice by C. M. Wheatley.

C
1871.] 99 [Cope.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Several authors have noticed the great difference in character between
the postpliocene fauna of North America, and those which preceded it,
in Tertiary time. It is well known, that while the Miocene Mammalia are
more or less similar to those of Miocene Europe and Asia, and the Plio-
cene vertebrata have a corresponding resemblance to those of the same
period of Europe and Asia, and the present one of Africa, the postplio-
cene resembles, in many particulars, that of South America or the Neo-
tropical region.

In examining the list of postpliocene mammailia, known up to 1867,*
T found, that of 30 species, eleven were represented by members of the
same genus or family, in the Neotropical region. In an enumeration of
the species from the caves in 1869, which included 27 species of 23 gene-
ra, six genera were shown to be of neotropical type. In an unpublished
list of vertebrata, which the writer exhumed in a bone breccia, from a cave
in East Tennessee, there are twenty species included. Prominent among
these, are Megalonyx, Dicotyles, Tapirus, Cervus, and Sciurus, the first
three neotropical. The species from the Port Kennedy bone cave may
be arranged as follows:

Species.
Neotropical forms. 06s... 240 28 ce ee via
Peculiar Nearctic (North America).........-6..---. eee cess eee 3
Genera common to north of both Hemispheres............... oi wen
WHCONDAIN Gye esc cs ee ee nee ee a oe es os 9
TROL es Werks oact bees PU eto ia te a ee enn 34

The theory of evolution requires that change of fauna in any very
brief period of geologic time, should be accomplished by migration. Ac-
cordingly, authors have suspected that Asia and North America, and
perhaps Europe, were connected by land during the miocene period.
Thus Leidy, (Mammalia of Dakota and Nebraska, 1869, p. 360), suspects.
that North America was peopled from the west, from a continent now
submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean. Prof. Huxley (Anniv. Address,
Lond. Geolog. Society, 1870), makes a similar proposition, but adds that
there is no evidence as to whether the connection was with Europe or
Asia. In describing fossil Cobitide, a family of fresh water fishes, from
Idaho, in 1871, (Proceed. Am. Philo. Soc., p. 55,) I have adduced evidence
that the connection was with Asia. These Coditidw, as is well known,
have no existing representatives in America, and are one of the Asiatic
types, characteristic of our Pliocene period. As fresh water fishes, their
migration is restricted to fresh water communication. Now, as the Rocky
Mountain ranges were in large part elevated prior to Pliocene time, and
the water courses had their present directions, it is obvious that the mi-
gration of fresh water fishes occupying waters on the west side of those
ranges, must have been to or from the west, and not the east. That these

*Pyoc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila. 1867, 156. + Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc. 1869, 178.

Cope.] 100 [April 7,

fishes, then, passed through fresh water connections, existing on a conti-
nent now submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean, seems probable.

The destruction of the Pliocene fauna is generally admitted to have
been brought about by the rigors of the glacial climate, and the extension
southward of the ice sheet and snow falls. Near the same time, con-
nection with Asia must have been severed by the descent of the North
Pacific Continent. Some Pliocene types, not now existent in North
America, may have been driven into the Neotropical region, and may be
still represented in their descendants, the Lamas, the only existing Cu-
melide of the new world, with the horses and perhaps others of the higher
mammalia of that region, The existence of the extinct Mastodon, Mach-
aerodus, etc., in the postpliocene of the same region, mentioned by Hux-
ley, as a puzzling fact, (Address l. c.) may be accounted for in-the same
way.

Of course, on the northward retreat of the ice sheet, the mammalia
fauna would have to be derived from the south, for communication direct
with Asia no longer existed. If Behrings straits were not yet opened,
the masses of glacial ice covering those regions would effectually prevent
immigration by that supposed connection. The resulting Postpliocene
fauna would naturally partake of the mixed character which our brief in-
vestigations into it have revealed. The neotropical forms would occupy
regions left vacant, or peopled by a sparse remnant of boreal genera and
species. This view I proposed some time ago,* and Dr. Leidy has added
his valuable opinion to the same effect.+

Has any great disturbance of level intervened between the occupation
of the post-pliocene fauna and the present period? Prof. Dana (Manual
of Geology, 1862,) summarizes the results attained up to his writing (p.
553), by showing that the period succeeding the glacial drift was one of
submergence, especially in arctic latitudes. He states the depression near
Montreal to have been 450 or more feet, and 1000 feet in Arctic regions.
Of the Middle States he says nothing, and of the south, that the evidence
is not satisfactory. This descent of level he regards as that which caused
the melting of the glacial ice, stratification of the drift, deposition of
gravels, and elevation of temperature. All these changes would natu-
rally precede the introduction of a postglacial fauna from a warmer
region, so that for this and other reasons, the Champlain epoch may be
regarded as that opening the post-pliocene, and its fauna to be repre-
sented by the Walrus, which extended its range to Virginia, the Reindeer
to New Jersey, andthe Beluga of the Champlain clays.

The origin of the caves which so abound in the limestones of the Alle-
gheny and Mississippi valley regions, is a subject of much interest. Their
galleries measure many thousands of miles, and their number is legion. The
writer has examined twenty-five, in more or less detail, in Virginia and
Tennessee, and can add his testimony to the belief that they have been
formed by currents of running water. ‘They generally extend in a direc-

*Proceed, Acad. Nat. Sci. 1867, 156,

+Mammalia Dakota and Nebraska, 359, 1869,

13 101

[Cope.

tion parallel to the strike of the strata, and have their greatest diameter
in the direction of the dip. Their depth is determined in some measure
by. the softness of the stratum, whose removal has given them existence,
but in thinly stratified or soft material, the roofs or large masses of rock
fall in, which interrupt the passage below. Caves, however, exist when
the strata are horizontal. Their course is changed by joints or faults,
into which the excavating waters have found their way.

That these caves were formed prior to the postpliocene fauna is evident
from the fact that they contain its remains. That they were not in ex-
istence prior to the drift is probable, from the fact that they contain no
remains of life of any earlier period so far as known, though in only two
cases, in Virginia and Pennsylvania, have they been examined to the
bottom. No agency isat hand to account for their excavation, compara-
ble in potency and efficiency to the floods supposed to have marked the
close of the glacial period, and which Prof. Dana ascribes to the Cham-
plain epoch. An extraordinary number of rapidly flowing waters must
have operated over a great part of the Southern States, some of them at
an elevation of 1500 feet and over, (perhaps 2000) above the present level
of the sea. A cave in the Gap Mountain, on the Kanawha river, which
I explored for three miles, has at least that elevation.

That a territory experiencing such conditions was suitable for the
occupation of such a fauna, as the deposits contained in these caves re-
veal, is not probable. ‘The material in which the bones occur in the south
isan impure limestone, being mixed with and colored by the red soil
which covers the surface of the ground. It is rather soft, but hardens
on exposure to the air.

The question then remains so far unanswered as to whether a submerg-
ence occurred subsequent to the development of the postpliocene mam-
malian fauna. That some important change took place is rendered prob-
able by the fact, that nearly all the neotropical types of the animals have
been banished from our territory, and the greater part of the species of all
types have become extinct. Two facts have come under my observation’
which indicate a subsequent submergence. <A series of caves or portions
of a single cave once existing on the 8. HE. side of a range of low hills
among the Allegheny mountains in Wythe Co., Virginia, was found to
have been removed by denudation, fragments of the bottom deposit only
remaining in fissures and concavities, separated by various intervals from
each other. These fragments yielded the remains of twenty species of
postpliocene mammalia.*

This denudation can be ascribed to local
causes, following a subsidence of uncertain’ extent. In a caye
examined in Tennessee the ossiferous deposit was in part attached to
the roof of the chamber. Identical fossils were taken from the floor.
This might, however, be accounted for on local grounds. The islands of
the eastern part of the West Indies appear to have been separated by

_ submergence of larger areas, at the close of the period during which they

were inhabited by postpliocene mammalia and shells. The caves of
* See Proceed. Amer. Phil. Soc, 1869, 171

Apvil 7, 1871.] 1 02 [Cope.

Anguilla include remains of twelve vertebrates,* of which seven are
mammalia of extinct species, and several of them are of large size. These
are associated with the recent species of molluscs Turbo pica and a
Ludora near pupaformis.; As these large animals no doubt required a
more extended territory for their support than that represented by the small
island Anguilla, there is every probability that the separation of these
islands took place at a late period of time and probably subsequent to the
spread of the postpliocene fauna over North America.

EXPLANATION OF THE. CUTS.

Figs. 1-12. Sections of teeth of Megalonyx of the natural size.

Fig. 1-2. Sections of canine-molars of Mf. loxodon, Cope ; 2a, profile of
2 from within.

Figs. 3-6. Sections of canine-molars of Megalonyx wheatleyt, Cope; da
side view of 4 from the inner side.

Figs. 7-8. Sections of canine-molars of ? Megalonyx dissimilis, Leidy,
or of M. wheatleyi, Cope.

Fig. 9. Sections of crowns of the superior molars of the right side of
Megalonyx wheatleyi ; from separated teeth, the anterior probably of this
species.

Fig. 10. Sections of crowns of the inferior molars of the right side of
M. wheatley?, from specimens in place in jaw.

Fig. 11. Crown of tooth of Megalonyx sphenodon, Cope; ila, same

from the inside.

Fig. 12. View of canine-molar of Megalonyx tortulus seen from the
crown ; 12a, inner view of same tooth.

Fig. 18. Grinding surfaces of left inferior molars of Arvicola speothen,
Cope, enlarged.

Fig 14, Grinding surfaces of second and third superior molars of
Arvicola tetradelta, Cope.

Fig. 15. Same of Arovicola didelta, Cope, enlarged; a, b, ¢, of the first
inferior molar; d, of the superior molars.

Fig. 16. First inferior molar grinding surface of Arvicola involuta, Cope,
enlarged.

Fig. 17. Same of Arvicola sigmodus, Cope, enlarged; a, b, ¢, of first
inferior molar; d, of superior molars.

Fig. 18. Same of Arvicola hiatidens, Cope, enlarged ; a superior molar
1 or 2, incomplete; b, 8d superior molar; c, 1st inferior. The entering
folds should not be in contact in figs. @ and d, in cuts.

Fig. 19. Grinding surface of last superior molar of Hrithizon cloacinum,
Cope, natural size.

Fig. 20, Superior molar teeth (incomplete) of Praotherium palatinum,
Cope, natural size. :

* Loc. cit. 1869. 183; 1870, 608. A fourth species of gigantic Chinchillid has been found by Dr.
Rijgersma, which may be called Loxomylus quadrans, Cope. It is represented by portions of jaws
and teeth of three als. It is one of the largest species, equalling the L, latiden and has
several marked ch s. Thus the roots of the molars are very short, and the triturating
surface oblique to the shaft. The roots of the second and fourth are longer than those of the first
and third. ‘The last molar has four dental columns instead of three as in the other Loxomyli, and is
triangular or quadrant-shaped in section; the third is quadrangular in section, and has three columns.
‘The second nallest, being only .6 the length of the subtriangular, first. Length of dental
series m. 063 0 5inches. Palate narrow and deeply concave. ‘There is but little or no lateral
constriction in the outlines of the teeth; the shanks are entirely straight. In its additional
dentinal column, this species approaches the genus Amblyrhiza,

The large Chinchillas of Anguilla are as follows, Loxomylus longidens, L, latidens, L. quadrans and
Amblyrhiza inundata,

} See Bland, Proceed. Amer, Phil. Soc., 1871, 58.

October 21, 1870.] 103 [Cope.

ON MEGAPTERA BELLICOSA.
By E. D. Copz,.A M.
(Read October 21, 1870, before the American Philosophical Society.)

For many years American Whalers have been in the habit of taking
hump-back whales off the coast of San Domingo, and in other parts of
the Caribbean Sea. Desiring to determine the species which is the
object of their pursuit, and which, no doubt, haunts the Floridan and

Fig. 21. Fig. 26.
other southern coasts of the United States, I wrote to my friend, Dr. A.
Gos, colonial physician at St. Bartholomew’s, W. J., in reference to the
- possibility of procuring a skeleton of it. His efforts, undertaken in pur-
suance of this object, resulted in the preservation of the skeleton of an
individual of thirty-two feet in length, which he forwarded to Philadel-
phia, and which has furnished the following characteristics.

Cope.] 104 (Oct. 21,

The skeleton lacks a few pieces, viz.: the sternum, pelvic bones, and
perhaps four caudal vertebra. Of the latter, one is a large anterior
vertebra, two are median, and one between the latter and the distal.
The whole number thus restored will be, Cerv. 7, D. 14, L. 10, Caud. 20 ;

total 51. The lengths of the cranium and these elements are :
Bt. Ins \
OPA es ret 9 fs vy ig weeds J 5h oe wow ek ersten 9
Cattdalyerte bites ies. aa ot unas SAG cay Hea ocd oor 8 10
MeMalnderk OL VETO La <1. 5.1 serene heres. eT Bl ia 13-6
OL OPO Hea 2. iy anette tele tie 8a Gs bat any cuans cee 31 4

The cranium is not very different in some respects from that of the
M. longimana of the North. The supraoccipital bone has a deep but
open median groove from the foramen magnum to near the hori-
zontal superior surface, where it is wanting. On each side of it there
is a considerable protuberance near the middle of the height of that bone.

sets

Fig. 24,

The orbital plates of the frontal are plane, with straight anterior and
posterior margins. ‘The posterior extremities of the premaxillaries are
laminar; their middle portions are separated by a considerable vacuity.
The maxillaries are not slender, and are plane; they present several
large foramina near their middle. The nasal bones present marked
characters. Their median face of common contact extends throughout
much of their length, and the posterior divergent portion is very short
(see fig. 22), and serrate for suture. A.beveled portion of the external
face (fig. 22a) is concealed by the maxillaries ; the remaining portion is
narrow. ‘The median projection of the bones is less than the lateral, and
is carried on a keel above the level of the lateral portion of the bone, as

1870.] 105 [Cope.

in Sibbaldius tectirostris, Cope. The whole form is very different from
that of the MZ. lonyimana. he depth and length of the bone on the
interior (median) face, are about equal. The otic bulla is subcylindric,
a little flattened on the inner side ; its surface is quite smooth.

The ramus of the mandible is slender, and when viewed from above,
considerably curved. It has an elevated subtriangular and acuminate
coronoid process, quite as in a Balenoptera. (Fig. 24 from above.) Prox-
imally the ramus has a slight sigmoid curve viewed from the side (fig. 23),
and in the general is more slender than that of M. longémana, in profile.
The angular process is prominent ; the shaft is plane on the inner side, on
the external very convex; it is nowhere compressed, and the external
pores are widely separated.

Fig. 25.
The atlas has no neural spine and no tubereulum atlantis, The dia-
pophyses are compressed, irregularly truncate, their inferior margin con-
siderably above the fundus of the foramen dentati. The axis presents a
rudimental odontoid process. Its diapophysis and parapophysis are pot
very stout, and the former is the longer. The parapophyses diminish
rapidly till the fifth vertebra presents only a rudiment on one side. The
articular faces of these cervicals are a transverse ovate. The diapophyses
are slender and straight. (See figs. 26 atlas, 27 axis, and 28, third cer-
vical. )

Fig. 27 Fig. 28.

Two of the diaphophyses of the caudal vertebr are hocked in form,
owing to the failure to isolate anteriorly the foramen which pierces them.
The scapula is without rudiment of coracoid and is longer than deep ; its
proportions are similar to those of M. osphyia.

The fore limbs are neither of them quite complete. The epiphysis of
the humerus is still free, and indicates that the animal was young when
captured. The bones of the forearm are much as figured by Rudolphi

A. P. §.—VOL. XII—N

106 [Oct. 21,

Cope.]

in the M. longimana ; the radius stout, expanded at the ends, the ulna
shorter, more slender, curyed and with an olecranon. The metacarpi, or
the first series, are quite elongate, except that of the upper (inner) digit,
which is stouter. If there were six digits in the second digit (third), the
limb measured 8 feet 4 inches, but if, asin M. longiémana, there were
eight, it equalled the cranium in length (9 feet).

Measurements. ilies
Total length of skull, (axial).....---+seeeee seer eee Deke aes )

Length of maxillary to emargination for frontal plate......-+..+ bb
“transverse, (to axis of skull) of orbital frontal plate 2.5. - 2 5
“longitudinal ‘ oe dag ees Ps

Distal width over orbit * te ie Ride wise 11.5
Theneth Maga ADONE 6 ih ee hee ed ie cis a cre 9

Width ie Cbs. nwa Pudi ae shies a dg ie ne Gee ae 15
Width cranium behind orbits, (greatest) .....-+.-eseeee ee esters 5 4

“muzzle half way to frontal plates.......--- 2... eee er eee 2 3.5

‘¢ =maxillary ? way ie eT a ee 10.5
Length mandibular ramus 0n CUTVe.....--+ee seers eet er ete tte es 9 10
First rib, length on curve,....--+--+-- Fr eee ee 37
6 4 distal width a
Humerus length.......- t 9
Radius Be Be Ee 216

Gcapula height... oo. 56s ge sass tees cee ee 25.5

Oo Wid cdg bee ae te ae Vo dey ae et Co 39.5

sé glenoid cavity length......-.... +. esses ects e ete t eens 11.5
ee O95 WIQUH pg ee eer ra en veers es oes 9

The simple headed first rib indicates the generic relationships to be
with Megaptera, as does the entirely simple scapula.

In reply to my enquiries, Dr. Gots gives the following account of the
external appearance of this whale. The dorsal outline is strongly con-
vex, and it is questionable whether a dorsal fin exists, as he had not seen
it on two specimens from the decks of the vessels to which they were fast-
ened. The color is sooty black above, the breast, belly, and under sides
of pectoral fins milk white, marked with scattered black spots or dots.

The condition of the specimen allows of an exact comparison with the
species of this genus already known from the Atlantic Ocean. The
skeletons of the two Pacific species, are unfortunately unknown, so that
comparison with them cannot be made.

From WM. lalandii of the Cape seas, it may be at once distinguished by
its lack of acromion process on the scapula. Cuvier, who figures the
Cape species, * does not indicate the deep occipital groove, but rather a
keel without lateral protuberances, a difference too marked to be de-
pendent on age; his orbital plates of the frontal are considerably narrow-
er, and his fourth cervical bears no parapophyses. He does not figure such
a prominent coronoid process. The coloration of this species is much
like that of the West Indian whales.

#Ossemens Fossiles, 227-1.

1870,] 107 [Cope.

Many marked differences separate it from the Kreporkak, of the north-
ern Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The elevated coronoid process and pecu-
liar nasal bones distinguish it at once. Thus in B. longimana these ele-
ments are shorter and wider, considerably separated behind, and with the
median process which overhangs the nares, considerably longer than
the lateral. The reverse is the case here (fig. 2). The head bears a
greater proportion to the length of the body than in B. longimana. Thus
Flower notes a spccimen in mus. Louvain (Belgium), of 32 feet 2 in. in
length, of which the head measures only 8 ft. 6in. In the present of
31.6 in., the cranium is 9 ft. In aspecimenat Brussels of 46 ft., the head
is 12 ft., nearly one fourth. Ina young specimen of 28 ft. 7 in., at Ley-
den, Flower says the cranium measures oaly 7 ft. Tin. Ina specimen
from the Dee, England, the proportions are similiar. As the length of
the flippers is similar to that of the head, the difference is to be seen in
this also. Other characters which distinguish the species from B.
longimana, are the less concavity of the orbital plates of the’ frontal an-
teriorly, and the reduction of the lumbosacrals to 10. If Rudolph’s
figures be correct, the first rib is broader in the present animal, but the
figure may be inaccurate. As to color, the pectoral fin is entirely white
in the Arctic Megaptera,; black externally in this one.

The same differences are to be observed in comparing with the JM.
osphyia, in which the head and fin are even shorter than in M. longimana,
(the proportion being 9.40*) and the coronoid process equally rudiment-
ary. Special features of the latter are seen in the flat, deep diapophyses
of atlas, which are much deeper than inthe present whale ; and the artic-
ular area on the hinder angle of the first and other ribs, which is wanting
here. The width of the orbital plates distally is, .5 their length in the
type of M. osphyia, .83 the length in the present specimen.

The species described by Gray (Catal. B. Mus., 1866, 162,) as Physulus
brasiliensis, founded on some baleen of the ‘‘ Bahia finner,’’ has been
supposed by me (Proc. A. M. Scie. Phila., 1867, p.32,) to be a Megaptera.
Certain it is that a Megaptera is found at Bahia, as I have seen larger
and smaller portions of two skeletons of one, but whether it be the
“Bahia Finner’”? and P. brasiliensis, Gray, is quite doubtful. In the
first place, fishermen and whalers never call a ‘‘ hump-back’’ (Megaptera)
a ‘“finner;’’? if they have done so in the case of this species, it evidently
has a noticeable dorsal fin, which is wanting in the present whale. In
the next place, baleen of the ‘‘ Bahia finner’’ has a commercial value,
being exported to England, while that of Megaptera has none, being
coarse and twisted. That of the specimen here described was thrown
away by it captors.

I therefore believe that the present whale has not been noticed by nat-
uralists, and is unknown to Zoology. I propose to call it Mucarrpra
BELLICOSA.

Dr. Goés says of its habits, that it appears about the island of St. Bar-
tholomew in the beginning of March, or even in February, and remains

>
Core.) 108 [Oct. 21, 1870.

until the end of May. In April and May it is said that they are seen in
pairs, standing vertically in the water. When they return, they often
come in a family of three, male, female and young, the calf of one or two
years old. The bull is wild, and more difficult to take than the female,
and he has, on two occasions, smashed the boat of his pursuers to pieces.
In June they are said to go farther in the Mexican Gulf, and return east-
ward in the autumn, but they do not appear among the smaller Antilles
at that time.* Dr. Goés supposes that they pass the straits of Florida, or
follow the shores of the South Main. He says that the whalers think they
pass the middle of winter on the African coast, but this will require
confirmation,

Additional note on BALAENOPTERA vel SIBBALDIUS SULFUREUS, Cope.

This species was first brought to the notice of zoologists by Captain C.
M. Scammon, in an extended paper on the Cetacea of the Pacific Coast
of North America.* From the data furnished by him, the writer was
enabled to determine it as distinct from any of the species hitherto known,
under the above name, with the following characters :+

Dorsal fin small, conic, situated on the posterior fourth of the back.
Form slender ; length seventy to ninety feet. Color, above, grey or
brown ; below, sulphur yellow.

Capt. Scammon having sent to the museum of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution four laminee of whalebone, Iam enabled to add important points
to the above diagnosis, as follows

3aleen black everywhere. Bristles intermediate in size, between those
of Sibbaldius tectirostris, Cope, (finer) and Megaptera osphyia (coarser),

in six or eight rows, and seven or eight inches in length. Length of
plate, without bristles, two ft. eight inches; width of base eighteen
inches. Lamine with weak transverse rugosities.

The above characters show conclusively that this whale is different
from the B. antarctica, Gray, which is also called sulphur-bottom by the
whalers in the South Pacific. The whalebone of the latter is yellowish
white.

’ EXPLANATION OF CUTS.

21—Cranium of Megaptera bellicosa from above.
22—Nasal bones from above.
28—Posterior portion of ramus mandibuli, from outside.
g. 24—Same as 23 from above.
25—Basihyal bone from above.
Fig. 26—Atlas from front.
Figs. 27 and 27—Portions of articular faces and processes of atlas and
third cervical vertebre.

*Proceed. Acad, Nat. Sci., Phila., 1869, p. 51.

+ Loc. cit., p. 20.

aaie

109

Stated Meeting, April Tth, 1871.
Mr. Frauey, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Present, twelve members.

Donations to the Library werereceived from the Academies
at Berlin and Leyden, the Royal Society at London, and the
Editors of Nature, the Old and New, and Penn Monthly, the
New Bedford Public Library, Medical Journal, Franklin In-
stitute, College of Pharmacy, Academy of Natural Science at
Philadelphia, the Engineer Bureau at Washington, Hssex In-
stitute, Wisconsin Historical Society, and from Prof. Mayer,
of Bethlehem.

Prof. Cresson laid before the Society a map of Fairmount
Park, reduced by photolithography to avery small size, yet ex-
hibiting every line clearly.

Prof. Cope described additional new genera and species
from the Port Kennedy Cavern, nearly one half of which were
of South American types.

Mr. Chase read a communication on “The Resemblance of
Atmospheric, Magnetic and Oceanic Currents.”

Lieut. Dutton explained his views of the origin of Regional
Subsidence and Elevation.

The curators were requested to provide for the proper
preservation of the Photographs of Lines of Magnetic Force,
presented to the Society by Prof. Mayer.

Pending nominations were read and the meeting was ad-
journed.

110

Stated Meeting, April 21st, 1871.
Pror. CREsson, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Present, eleven members.

A Photograph for the Album was received from Prof. Alex-
ander Braun, of Berlin.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Society’s recent pub-
lications were received from the Institute at Halifax, (entire
series of Proceedings No. 1-84), New York Lyceum (85);
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 78, 79-81, and Trans. (XIII. 3);
and the Royal Saxon Society (XIII. 3).

Letters of Knvoy were received from the Society at Gor-
litz, and the Editors of Old and New.

Donations for the library were received from Dr. Braun,
of Berlin, the Upper Lausatian Society, the Anthropological
Society and Geological Institute at Vienna, the Italian Geo-
logical Committee, M. Seguin ainé of Paris, the Linnean,
Chemical, Asiatic and Antiquarian Societies in London, the
Editors of Nature, the Royal Society at Edinburgh, the Phil-
osophical Society at Glasgow, the Institute of Sciences at Hali-
fax, the Peabody Academy at Salem, Silliman’s Journal, Prof.
Vall of Albany, the Young Men’s Association at Buftalo, Mr.
H. C. Bolton of New York, the New Jersey State Geologist,
the New Jersey Historical Society, the Franklin Institute,
and the chief of the U. 8. corps of Topographical Engineers.

The death of Wm. Haidinger of Vienna, on the 19th ultimo,
was announced with appropriate remarks by Dr. Gentb.

The death of Edward Lartét, in the department of Gers,
during the late German investment of Paris, was announced
by the Secretary. Mr. Cope added his personal testimony to
the value of the Paleontological labors of the deceased.

Prof. Cope offered for publication in the Proceedings, a Pre-
liminary Report on the Vertebrata discovered in the Port Ken-
nedy Cave.

pints

Dr. Genth described some striking results of recent analysis
of Pseudomorph Corundums, and promised a fuller account
of them when his investigations were further advanced.

Prof. Cresson desired a memorandum to be made of the
appearance of the tender shoots of the swamp cabbage, blue
bell and other wild flowers, under remarkable circumstances
of difficulty, in a part of Belmont Glen, in the Philadelphia
Park, where an artificial asphalt road had been laid directly
upon the sod. The road was two inches thick, perfectly solid,
and in use by vehicles. Yet this rigid and heavy covering
has been lifted and broken in many places by the young plants,
which present themselves in a living, although damaged con-
dition to the air and light.

The Secretary described a new discovery which he had just
made in East Tennessee, of a sharp anticlinal axis, crossing
the coal measures of the Cumberland mountains, at right an-
gles to the dominant system of disturbances, and showed its
important bearings on the question of the conversion of the
northern anticlinals into the southern downthrows, as well as
its relationship to the latter; and to the cross undulations
worked out by Mr. Joseph Lesley, in his instrumental survey
of the East Kentucky coal measures, twelve or thirteen years
ago; and also to the N. W., 8. E. system of faults described by
Owen, Hall and other Geologists, in the valley of the Missis-
sippl.

Mr. Briggs described certain movements observed under the
microscope in matter mechanically suspended in a fluid and
vulgarly supposed to indicate, vital force, a view from which he
dissented, referring to Baron Rumford’s recorded observations
of the same phenomenon. Mr. Briggs took occasion to ex-
hibit for the inspection of the members, the Watt medal
which he had received from the Society ot Civil Engineers in
London.

Pending Nominations Nos. 669 to 674 were read, and
balloted for, after which the presiding Officer pronounced the

112

following named gentlemen duly elected members of the
Society:
Gen. Herman Haupt, of Philadelphia.
Prof. K. B. Andrews, of Marietta, Ohio.
Rev. Ff. A. P. Barnard, D. D., LL. D., President of Columbia
College, N.Y.
tev. T. D. Woolsey, D. D., President of Yale College, New
Haven, Connecticut.
tev. James McCosh, D. D., President of Princeton College,
New Jersey.
Prof. Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard College,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 5, 1871.

Pror. Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Present, fourteen members.

A letter accepting membership was received from Charles
W. Eliot, dated Cambridge, May 1, 1871.

A letter acknowledging receipt of Trans. A. P.S. XIV. I.
was received from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Donations for the Library were received from the R. Prus-
sian Academy, R. Astronomical Society, Sir Charles Lyell,
Editors of Nature, Old and New, Penn Monthly and Canadian
Naturalist, the Peabody Academy at Salem, Boston Natural
History Society, Massachussetts . Historical Society, New
York Lyceum, College of Pharmacy, Baltimore Public
School Commissioners, Hon. Charles Sumner, Dr. Hayden, P.
B. Dyke, and a Map of St. Domingo from Dr. Genth.

113

The Secretary read the description of a new and improved
field transit instrument, manufactured by Messrs. Heller and
Brightley of Philadelphia; and exhibited the parts of the
instrument which show improvements.

The Seeretary read from Mr. Jno. Fulton’s report of the
Mammoth Fossil Ore bed discovered in 1867, in Woodcock
Valley, Blair Co., Pa., in evidence of what important dis-
coveries may still be made in districts of the State supposed
to be well known.

The Secretary offered for publication in the Proceedings, a
Grammar and Vocabulary of the Mexican language, by Mr.
Adolf Burck, which was referred to Dr. Brinton.

Mr. Chase exhibited two corresponding Curves; one of the
annual auroral curve at New Haven; the other of the annual
rain curve at Philadelphia; and described the probable cause
of their agreement.

And the Meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meetiny, June 16, 1871.

Pror. C. B. Trego, in the Chair.

Present, five members.

A photograph of Mr. Joseph Saxon was presznted by him
self, for insertion in the Album.

A letter of envoy was received from the U. S. Naval Ob
servatory.

Donations for the library were received from the Berlin
Academy, London Astronomical Society, Editors of Nature,
Geological Survey of Canada, Essex Institute, Boston Public
Library, Massachusetts Historical Society, Editors of Old and

Ded Se VOL: SUE —-O

114

New, Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology, Mr. Ed-
mund Quincey, Silliman’s Journal, New York State Library,
American Literary Bureau, Franklin Institute, Medical News,
College of Pharmacy, Boar d of Water Works, Fairmount Park
Commission, Penn Monthly, C. M. W1 1eatley of Phoenixville

Penner tania Board of Public Charities, Smithsonian linet
tute, U.S. N. Observatory, and Georgia Fisteniea) Society.

The Committee to whom was referred the Aztec grammar
and vocabulary of Mr. Burck, reported against its publication,
and the Committee was discharged from further consideration
of the subject.

Mr. H. W.¥ield, a member of the Society, was appointed to
prepare an obituary notice of the late Sir John F. W. Hershel.

Mr. Lesley communicated to the members present, certain
geological facts respecting the percentage of volatile matter in
the six-foot coal bed near Ursina, Somerset County, Pennsyl-
vania, and the percentage of titanic acid in the iron ores near
Greensboro, North Carolina, with a view to placing them on
record.

Mr. Chase communicated a note upon the English wind-ta-
bles, and a note upon the nature of the Tidal Wave.

Mr. Cope announced that 800 species of fish had been re-
ceived by him from Vienna, in good condition, being that part
of Prof. Hyrtl’s Osteological Collection w high Prof. Cope ‘had
secured, against the competition of the British eae and
other Kuropean Cabinets desirous of possessing it, and de-
scribed the admirable character of the preparations.

Pending nominations, Nos. 677 and 678 were read.

An extract was read from a letter of M. Carlier to M.
Durand, respecting the Michaux rentes.

On motion of Mr. Cope, an appropriation was made of an
additional sum of $35, to cover the total expense for the illus-
trations of his paper on Megaptera Bellicosa, published in the

Hes Baa ae weedy
proceedings, and his paper on the Fishes of the Lesser Antilles
published in the transactions.

And the meeting was adjourned.

)

-
Heller and Brightley.] 1 1 a [May 5th, Is71.

HELLER AND BRIGHTLEY’S NEw TRANSIT.

The Engineers and Surveyors’ Transit as at first constructed commonly
termed a “flat centre,’’ or “Railroad Transit,’ although superior to the
English Theodolite which it superseded, yet in practice has been found
defective in the following mechanical details.

ist. The upper or vernier plate, resting and turning upon the under or
graduated limb, was accompanied by so much friction, caused by the
large extent of the rubbing surfaces, that in turning the vernier plate
around the limb, the whole instrument would sometimes be moved upon
the lower spindle.

2d, The oil that was necessarily used to lubricate the plates, would be-
come so congealed in cold weather that the plates would not move at all,
and old Railroad Engineers will readily recall the thawing out of their in-
struments over large fires, at every fall of the thermometer, before they
could be used.

3d. The spindle upon which the entire instrument turns, being detached
from the instrument, thus violating one of the standard rules, that by long
experience in this country and Europe, has been found necessary in the con-
struction of any instrument with any pretensions to accuracy, NAV AMR C)
instrument having a graduated plate and levels should be so constructed
that both of the centres upon which the instrument turns should be always
covered and not detachable from the main plates.”’ To prove the utility of
this rule, it is only necessary after adjusting the levels of one of this class
of Transits so that they will reverse on the top centre, to clamp the two
plates together, and turn the instrument on the lower spindle, and the
levels will invariably be found out of adjustment, showing conclusively
that through some cause, most frequently the settling of flying dust, etc.,,
upon the surface and shoulder of the spindle, the spindle is not at right
angles to the surfaces of the plates.

Ath. The centre around which the graduated limb revolves can only be
the thickness of the graduated limb; this centre by reason of its small
surface wears after comparatively short use, and does not exactly fit the
conical hole in the graduated limb, and two readings of the same object
taken without any change inthe position of the instrument have been found
to differ by 5/, and from no other cause than this.

These various defects have caused this style of instrument to be entirely
discarded in city work, and for this another construction is used in which
the two main plates do not touch each other, thus obviating the two first
evils, viz.: the friction of the two plates rubbing one over the other,
and the stiffness of motion of the plates in cold weather. The sockets
and spindles apon which the main plates revolve being long and fitting

Heller and Brightly.] 1 I 6 [May 5th,

one inside of the other, and neither of them being exposed or detached
from the instrument, thus remedying the two last causes of error. These
two are the only styles of Transit made, and are respectively termed the
“short centre Transit’? and the ‘‘long centre Transit.’? The ‘long
centre,’’ although the most perfect in its construction, has never been a
favorite among Railroad Engineers for the following reasons :

ist. The increased size of the centres making it heavier, and this being
a very serious objection where an instrument must be carried several
miles every day as is frequent in Railroad surveys.

2d. The instrument not being detached from the tripod, except at the
base, compelled the Engineer in moving the instrument from one station to
another to either carry the entire instrument himself or trust it to his assist-
ant, while in the short centre, the instrument lifting off the spindle, the
Engineer could take the comparitively light instrument with all the im-
portant parts, and leave his assistant to carry the heavier portion of the
tripod with its leveling screws, legs, etc.

3d. The removing and replacing of the instrument on the tripod being
accomplished by means of a large screw thread, is a very tedious and un-
safe method, and if not very carefully performed is liable to injure the
instrument.

Ath. The extra skill, time, and care required in making the long centre
was so much greater than the flat centre, that the price of the instrument
was materially increased.

Ever since the introduction of the Transit numerous endeavors have
been made to reduce the weight of the instrument, but as they have all
been conducted on the same principle, 7. ¢., reducing the thickness of the
various plates, etc., their only effect was to make the instrument so slight
as to be unsteady, their bearing surface so short as to soon wear loose,
and the instrument always losing its adjustment. The manufacturers of
this instrument have had their attention drawn to the increased strength
and steadiness that the employment of the ‘‘transverse section,’’ ‘ rib-
bing or bracing,’ imparted to metals; and the amount of metal that
could be removed from a solid plate of metal, and its strength and steadi-
ness not impaired, but even added to, if only judicious ribbing was re-
sorted to. In this improved Transit, which is a long centre, the weight
as compared with an ordinary Transit of the same size is reduced one-half,
and the instrument is not contracted in any part, but insome parts where
increased size would be an advantage, such as the graduated plate, centre,
etc., it has been done, but all the plates, etc., are ribbed in such a way as
to be stronger than a solid plate, and all metal that did not impart
either strength or steadiness has been removed.

The Railroad Engineer has in this instrument along centre Transit
that can be taken from off the tripod and replaced in a quicker and surer

ee

1871.] 117

(Heller and Brightiey.

way than the short centre Transit, but unlike the short centre, keeps all
the centres covered and not removable from the instrument, and leaves
the tripod head and legs with the four levelling screws, ete., to be carried
by his assistant. The difference in weight will be appreciated by the
Railroad Engineer when we inform him that a plain Transit with all its
centres, ete., only weighs about as much as a Surveyor’s Sight Compass,
and is more steady and keepsin adjustment better than the ordinary long
centre transit, weighing from 25 to 80 pounds.

i28) ®
The City Engineer has in this instrument all the advantages of the
ordinary ‘long centre Transit’? with only half the weight, and an in-
crease of steadinsss.
There are several defects that are common to all Transits, among which
are—

1st. The “tangent or slow motion screw’’ that moves the upper or
vernier plate, by use becomes worn and does not fit precisely the thread
in the interior of the nut through which it passes. When this occurs the
tangent screw can be turned sometimes a complete revolution without
moving the vernier plate. This ‘lost motion”? or “back lash”’ of the
tangent is one of the worst annoyances of Engineers, aud has been the
source of serious errors in the field. Several methods have been devised
to overcome this which we will here describe. The nut through which
the screw works has been made in two sections to allow of being drawn
together when the screw wears. This plan would answer ifthe screw always
wore equally in every portion of its length, in other words was a cylinder,
but this it never does, and if the nut is tightened so that the lost motion
is removed from the thinner portion of the screw, it will move so tightly
as to be useless when it comes to the portions that are not worn so thin.
There are several methods of drawing the nut together, but they have
all the same objections as the above, that is, they are not effective in the

entire length, and the nut must be pressed so very hard on the screw as:

to make the working of the tangent very tense, especially in cold weather.
Another, and the last method has been to apply a long spiral spring be-
tween the nut and the head of the screw that acts as the finger piece,
thus pressing the nut and the screw from each other, and consequently
removing all ‘lost motion’? from the screw. This plan though in
theory very good, in practice has been found inoperative, for the
following reason: the spiral spring had of necessity to be made long
enough, and stiff enough, to act in every portion of the screw’s length,
the alternate opening and closing of the spring by use weakened it, and
in a short time it failed to remove the ‘‘ back play.’”’ To get rid of this
defect of ‘‘lost motion’’ in the tangent screw, opposing or butting screws
have been sometimes substituted, but in use they do not give satisfaction,
as two hands must be employed in using them, and standing from the
edge of the plate, they are liable to be injured by blows, and they are
apt, unless very carefully used, to throw the instrument out of level.

————————

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Heller and Brightley.] 1 1 8 [May 5th,

In this instrument we have an improved tangent screw ; that no matter
how much the screw may wear by use, or time, will never get ‘‘lost mo-
tion,’”’ but will instantly obey the slightest touch of the hand : this is
effected by means of a long cylinder nut, from the interior of which two-
thirds of the screw have been removed ; into half the recess thus left in
the nut, is nicely fitted a cylindrical ‘‘follower,”’ with the same length of
screw thread as the nut; this follower is fitted with a ‘‘key,”’ that pre-
vents it turning in the recess, but allows motion in the direction of its
length. A strong spiral spring is placed in the remaining half of the
recess, between the fixed nut and the movable follower, and the spring
has always tension enough to force the follower and fixed thread in con-
trary directions, and thus to remove any ‘‘lost motion’? that may occur
in the screw. It will be observed, that in this method the spring always
remains in a state of rest, instead of clusing and opening, as has been
the case in all other applications of springs, and which have been the
cause of their failure. Tangent screws that have had as much as 10/
play, have been made to work entirely taut by this method.

The mode of attaching the tangent screw to the plates in this instru-
ment is entirely new—it is a miniature modification of the ‘‘ Gimbelling”’
of a ship’s compass, and allows the tangent screw, by its free swivel-
ling, to be tangent to the plates in every part of its length, and thus
never to bind. This tangent screw is also of value for sextants, astro-
nomicalinstruments, &c.,where lost motion is detrimental, and a smooth,
easy motion is required.

In all instruments, the brass cheeks in which the three legs of the
tripod play, are fastened to the lower parallel plate by a number of small
screws, commonly twelve. When the legs wear in the cheeks, and be-
come unsteady, the only method the Engineer has of tightening the legs,
is by drawing the cheeks, in which the leg moves, by means of the bolt
that passes through the leg; this, of necessity, draws the cheeks out of
perpendicularity, and strains the small screws that bind the cheeks to
the parallel plate so much, as frequently to loosen them. This source of
instrumental error hardly, if ever, occurs to the Engineer, but very good
instruments have been condemned as unsteady, when an examination has
shown the fault to be the above. ‘This source of error can never occur in
this instrument, as the cheeks and the parallel plate are made in one
solid piece.

But to come to the last and most serious evil. The effective power of
the Telescope is impaired by spherical aberration ; that is, the field of
view, as seen in the Telescope, is not a perfect plane or flat, but is
spherical. To prove this, take an ordinary telescope, and focus it so that
an object will be clearly defined at the intersection of the cross hairs
or the centre of the field of view, then, by means of the tangent screw,
bring the same object to the edge of the field of view and it will be found in

1871.] 119

[Heller and Brightley.

every case to be indistinct and not in focus ; onthe contrary, focus it soas to
be distinct at the edge, and it will be indistinct when brought to the centre.
In some telescopes, however, it is impossible to focus at the outer edge
of the field, and objects will be tinged with prisniatic colors, showing
that these glasses are affected by chromatic aberration also; sometimes
the cause of this defect lies in the object zlass, but in the majority of
cases, the lenses composing the eye-piece are in fault.

These aberrations affect the working of the telescope in several ways.
First, it practically diminishes the size of the object glass, and the view
is never so clear and distinct as it ought to be. Second, It is very diffi-
cult, and in some cases almost impossible, to adjust the eye-piece to
prevent parallax, or “‘travelling”’ of the cross wires, when the eye is
shifted from side to side; and practical engineers know what a sharper
power of defining, and how much less trying to the eyes a ‘‘soft glass”
has—that is, one that has a ‘ flat field.’

This defect has prevented the general use of the Stadia, or Micrometer
Wires, as a method of measuring distances without a chain, as the two
horizontal hairs that are used, being in diffrent parts of the field of view,
can not, in a majority of cases, be focused so as to be devoid of parallax,
and the slightest travelling of the wires in this operation will give an
erroneous result.

The evils of this defect were most forcibly brought to Mr. Heller and
the late Wm. J. Young’s notice, when one of their best Transits failed to
define in tunnel work, from loss of light, from this cause, and they both
endeavored, to within a short time of Mr. Young's death, to remedy it,
trying all the known formulas of almost all the opticians in the country,
but without any good results.

In the Telescope of this instrument these evils are entirely removed, by
the employment of a new eye-piece, and advantage has been taken of -
the improvements that Optics have made in the last few years, in the
curvatures and arrangements of the lenses that compose it; and the test
referred to above, of focusing an object in the centre of the field of
view, and then bringing the same object to the edge, and it still remain-
ing in sharp focus, can be done with this telescope, and the object shows
no tinge of prismatic color, showing that both chromatic and spherical
aberration have been removed.

The advantages of this improved Telescope are : a clear and sharply de-
fined field of view ; a field of view so flat that the cross hairs are without
parallax in every part of it, and micrometer hairs or Stadia can be used
with favorable results.

The whole effective power of the object glass being used and none of

the light lost, work can be commenced earlier in the morning and contin-
ued later in the afternoon than is usual. This, in the winter season, is

May Sth, 1871.] 1 20 [Heller and Brightley.

no slight matter to the engineer, and lastly, there is no straining of the
eyes in sighting.

The spider’s web, by reason of its fineness, is the only article hitherto
used for cross hairs, yet in use these have been attended with some difti-
culties : first, the spider’s web is hygrometric, or is affected by the hu-
midity of the atmosphere—when exposed to dampness lengthening, and of
course throwing the line of collimation from its true place. This defect
is more serious in the Engineer’s Levelling Instrument than in the
Transit, instances being known where the line of collimation has altered
two or three times in the course of ten hours, by reason of atmospheric
changes, and of course any observations taken at those times would be
defective ; lastly, the spider’s web being a transparent and not an opaque
substance, in some positions it is impossible to see the hairs at all—this
is more especially the case when sightiug in the direction of the sun;
that is, an easterly course in the forenoon, or westerly in the after-
noon.

To remedy this defect, platina cross hairs , 755 of an inch in thickness,
or as fine as spider’s web, are substituted ; these being opaque, and not
transparent, in sighting in the direction of the sun are still visible, and
any atmospheric changes, dampness, &c., do not affect them. We believe
that we are the first ones,in this country who have drawn wire so thin,
and the only ones who have made any practical use of Dr. Wollaston’s
experiment. The platina hairs are invaluable in Mining and Tunneling
Instruments, that are so constantly exposed to dampness, and being
opaque, no reflector to illuminate the cross wires is required.

To prevent the stiffness of working of the leveling, tangent and other
screws in cold weather, which arises from the congealing of the grease
that is used in lubricating them, no oil is used upon the screws of this
instrument, but they are lubricated with pure plumbago.

By a simple arrangement of the clamps on the axle of our complete
Transits, we make them also answer the purpose of a pair of Compass
sights, for taking offsets at right angles to the telescope.

From the above, it will be seen.that this instrument has the following
improvements over the ordinary Transit :—1. A simple, secure and steady
method of attaching and detaching from the tripod, being the only long-
centre transit made that detaches as easily as a short centre. 2. An im-
portant decrease of weight, without decrease of size, and an increase of
steadiness. 3. All the working parts of the tangent screw, &c., brought
within the plates, making the instrument more compact. 4, An improved
tangent screw, telescope, cross hairs and tripod head. 5. A pair of
sights for taking offsets; and 6. A new method of lubricating the
screws.

‘
May 5th, 1871.] 1 21 (Chase.

On the relation of the AURORAS TO GRAVITATING CURRENTS.
By Purny EARLE CHASE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 5th, 1871.)

Prof. Loomis’s observations of the number of Auroras in each month
of 1869 and 1870 (Amer. Jour. of Science, 3d S., i, 309), are specially
noteworthy, both because. of the careful accuracy of the observer, and
because they are the first published observations which furnish satisfac-
tory data for an approximate determination of the laws of auroral dis-
tribution. :

If the auroras are, as is now generally believed, luminous manifesta-
tions of terrestrial magnetism, it seems reasonable to look to them for
some additional evidence upon the question of the relation between mag-
netic and gravitating currents. Messrs. Baxendell and Bloxam have al-
ready pointed out some resemblances between hyetal and magnetic curves,
(see Proce. A. P. 8., x, 868) and if analogous resemblances can be traced
between hyetal and auroral curves, they will be interesting and suggestive.

T have not found the similarity between the annual distribution of rain-
falls and of auroras, sufficiently striking to impress any one who has not
made a special study of the causes of resemblance and difference. But,
as I have repeatedly urged, currents are subject to an increased number
of disguising disturbances, in proportion to the sluggishness of their mo-
tion, and the time which is consequently required for their formation or
change. We may very reasonably look for analogies between the daily
and the aunualauroral or magnetic curves, of a character for which we
could hope to find no parallel in wind, rain, or ocean-current curves.

If we desire, therefore, to find evidence of the joint influence of solar
expansion and gravitating equilibrium, we should look where it is most
likely to be found, and to the best of the observations which may be sup-
posed to be fairly comparable. There are similar variations of solar at-
titude, and consequently increasing and diminishing solar foree, in the
day and in the year, but the effects of these variations upon the precipita-
tion of vapor, are more likely to be shown in their greatest simplicity, by
the meaus of observations at different hours of the day than at different
seasons of the year. I know of no published observations of this char-
acter at New Haven, but there are some extending over a long series of
years, at Philadelphia and at Greenwich, the curves at each station indi-
cating minima of rainfall at noon and midnight, and maxima in the
morning and evening. The difference of longitude between Pihiladeiphia
and New Haven being less than 2$°, it is not likely that there is any
material difference in the daily rain-curves at the two places.

In order to make the curves fairly comparable, both in regard to the
times and the magnitudes of deviation, I treated the auroral observations
in the same manner as those of rainfall (Proc.. A. P. 8., x, 526). Both
in the magnetic and in the hyetal phenomena, the greatest effects accom-
pany the greatest atmospheric changes, But in the magnetic disturb-

Ae Pe -&— VOL. 211-2

Chase.] 122 [May 5th, 1871
ances the principal maxima occur in the spring of the year and the
morning of the day, while the general evaporation is increasing, whereas,
in the daily rains at Philadelphia, the principal maximum occurs in the
afternoon, when evaporation is diminishing. I have, therefore, compared
the midwinter ordinate of the auroral with the noon ordinate of the rain
curve, and the midsummer auroral with the midnight hyetal ordinate.

The auroral observations and the normal ordinates of the accompanying
curves, are given in the following table. I presume no one will doubt
that the condensation of vapor, which is represented by the rain curve, is
occasioned by the simple operation of gravitation in blending currents of
different temperatures, and I see no reason for postulating any different
law for the development of electricity and magnetism in the aurora.

Comparative Table of Auroras and Rainfalls.

w k 4 © + a + °
ome ge eB. oBigegeue one

i ee | 5 asl so 8 5 x5

Zo 2 ee =. © ae % =

2 hh BG Bel B it

88 0 9 100 12 103

January ....82 90 aN Qi || July ee ees es oo 101 3 106
94. 2 93 103 14 109

February ...31 98 3 98 |} August.....384 105 15 108
108 4 105 107 16 104

March... Aes 107 5 110 ||September..43 106 ue 98
109 6 118 103 18 92

Api 2 c 44 109 7: 118. || October, «2.98... 100 19 87
108 tele Pala, 95 20 85

May isisch 3 86 =: 106 9 109 || November . .27 O1 21 87
103 10 8105 89 22 90

IMME ce ts Dis 10 11 102 |! December.. .30 87 2¢ 91

June 16th, 1871.] 123 [Chase.

WINpDs oF EUROPE.
By Purny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 16, 1871.)

In my desire to give proper weight to considerations which favor the
hypothesis of normal cyclonic currents, I stated in a recent communica-
tion to the Society (March 17, 1871), as one of the admitted facts, ‘that
most of the European winds are cyclonic.’’

Further study has satisfied me that this admission is altogether too lib-
eral, and that, although a majority of the European winds are cyclonic,
the majority is not a large one. The daily weather maps of the French
“Bulletin International,’”? and the Quarterly Weather Reports of the
British Meteorological Office for 1869, seem to show conclusively that in
France and Great Britain, anticyclonic are nearly as frequent as cyclonic
currents, and that it is only by a discussion of continuous records that the
prevailing cyclonism, such as is indicated in the following table, can be
demonstrated.

I have deduced the average direction of the winds from the tables in
Coffin’s ‘‘ Winds of the Northern Hemisphere.’’ Those marked (C) were
computed by Prof. Coffin; the others were obtained by combining,
with some regard to weight, the observations which he records for the
respective districts.

MerAn Direction or EvroppEan WInps.

MOIST (2 STMOUS) eis eee es eas N. 869507 W.
1Syaleab nati (Cp icky Gat ogee since aaa Mer cee WIR gee Gice S. 66 a
SUOUIMIGS (Oc secs. oir r Ce ti es eters sta “ 62 -
WV CUCN SCN yt ey So ea nae eeu we
NGL Wives (SUlON) ee er SOG OM.
UVSTM aR, (Ole eile, ices eee eae, =e G2 a
Wenmark. Norway aba sweden....-..-.4.73 0.5.6 os a Oe OO. 4
RUSSIAS Coe ee fee eee : fe
a and Bungary, (Oy vidi ot a a N. 87 a
PTUBSIG, oo. Stee eters eines LE rns ite. 50. oF
GerMay CC) Stare corte Sec en eet ae ae ane 16 %
— MOUUNOL RGU) sect hata eer le | : oe 4
EMU te Prive foe Corer ae ee Vree si os “© 64 49
DOM and BOOT Ce ecco ee veces see ce pine tS
iancerdna Netienands, (O).v.0 sc... ets... oe biaote. “
JSieyaQele) AROS pe atccas cas neuter wr a ane ae wna re rangeuans #8260
MVLEZONIGNC Ce Sci. oy ee aes te an N. 56:54.
MM ee tee Pe ee “96 43

On the NoRMAL POSITION OF THE TIDAL ELLIPsorp.
By Purny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 16, 1871.)

The inferences of Laplace, that for certain depths, and of Airy, that for
all depths, on a globe covered with a sea of uniform depth and without

Chase.] 124 (June 16th, 1871.
friction, it should be low water under the moon, rest on the assumption
that Or is so slight (see Mec. Celeste 327 iv, 887 iv, 342, 2177, Ge., ) that
it may be neglected, in order to satisfy equations which would otherwise
be impossible of integration. Itis true that the radial codrdinate of
the tide wave, is insignificant in comparison with the coédrdinates in lati-
tude and longitude, but the cause of that insignificance is not immediate-
ly evident, and I can see-no reason for omitting, in tidal discussions, any
term which would be important in the discussion of planetary motions.

I presume the following postulates will be readily granted.

I. If the earth had no axial rotation, the tide would be one of equilib-
rium, with high water under the moon.

II. If rotation were to commence after the establishment of the equi-
librium tide, the tidal ellipsoid would be thrown forward in the direction
of rotation.

Ill. If the water flowed with such velocity as to be self-sustaimed, the
centrifugal balancing the centripetal force, it would be low water under
the moon.

As neither the first nor the third of these conditions is true, it would
seem reasonable to infer that the tidal crest should be at some point inter-
mediate between the lunar meridian and the lunar astronomical horizon.
The second postulate favors this inference, provided there is any force,
other than friction, which would tend to set back the crest of the third
postulate.

Such forces, itseems to me, exist in the cohesive attraction and incom-
pressibility of the water, and the rigidity of the earth, all of which tend
to shorten the radius vector and increase the velocity of every particle
dm, in two of the quadrants, and to lengthen the radius and diminish the
velocity, in the alternate quadrants. These successive increments and de-
crements of velocity terminate at the octants, thus tending to produce
low water three hours before, and high water three hours after, the moon
passes the meridian.

Airy (Mo. Notices, R. A. S., April 18, 1866), gives a diagram to show,
from the position of the points at which zero horizontal currents become
plus or minus currents, that it must be low water under the moon. Tam
unable to reconcile his hypotheses, respecting the direction and velocity
of the currents, with actual tidal observations, but even if they are cor-
rect, I think we should look to the total action of the moon, rather than
to the flow of water at particular points. The water falls in the entire
quadrants immediately following, and rises throughout the quadrants im-
mediately preceding the meridian of high water. Would not this contin-
uous action be best sustained if the moon were on the great circle 45°W.
of the crest and 45°. of the trough of the tidal wave, as Newton sug-
gested in his Principia, B. I., Prop. 66, Cor. 20?

e

June, 1871.] 1 25 : [Lesley.

Note on an Apparent Violation of the Law of Regular Progressive De-
bituminisation of the American Coal Beds Coming East.

By J. P. Lusiey.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June, 1871.)

In the course of a Geological survey of certain lands in Somerset County,
Pennsylvania, it appeared that the beds of coal existing at Ursina held
much less volatile matter than was expected. The gas coals of West-
moreland County, which come east as far as Connellsville, only thirty
miles west of Ursina (see accompanying map), hold between 30. and 40
per cent. of volatile matters. Three analyses show the Ursina coals to
have but 17 per cent., while a fourth gives 22 per cent. This puts the
Somerset County coals into the sem-bitwminous class. Yet the specimens
were taken from gangways, a good many years old, and several hundred feet
from the otttcrop, under high hill cover, at a point on the western border of
the First Bituminous Coal Basin of Pennsylvania, near the Maryland and
Virginia Stateline. More properly we should say that the Ursina coals lie in
the second synclinal of the First Basin. For the Negro Mountain Anticlinal
comes up from Virginia and splits the First Basin into two in Pennsyl-
vania. The mountain dies down at Castleman’s River; but the anti-
clinal axis runs on northward. The First Basin is similarly split into
two, east of Johnstown, by the Viaduct Anticlinal, which may or may
not be an actual prolongation of that of Negro Mountain.

To make the situation understood, the following extracts from my re-
port to the owners of the property will suffice. The accompanying map
shows the Backbone of the Alleghany passing by Altoona. This is the
eastern edge of the First Bituminous Coal Basin. The two long parallel
mountains between Ursina and Connellsville enclose the Second Bitumin-
ous Coal Basin of Pennsylvania. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth lie west
of it, and the Sixth occupies the northwest corner of the map ; no moun-
tains separating the last four.

Figs. 1 and 2 will suffice to show the topographical character of the
country, and how the areas of the almost horizontal coal beds have been
cut out into patterns, as if with a jig-saw, leaving outcrop edges around
all the hillsides, at which gangways enter, and from the mouths of these
shutes depend.

Figs. 8 and 4 give vertical sections of the coal measures made with
Becker’s Barometer ; and Figs. 5 and 6 show longitudinal Vertical sections
of the hills.

Special surveys like this have more than a commercial value: they
reveal, sometimes very unexpectedly, new truths for men of science. It
is an advantage to have them placed on record for common use. Too
many of the collected facts of science are annually lost for want of pub-
lication.

The property surveyed in this instance, lies in’ my old tramping and
camping ground of 1840, during the fifth year of the State Geologicat

*

5
1 26 [June,

Resley,]

Survey. The report which Mr. James T. Hodge and myself made to Mr.
H. D. Rogers, Chief of the Survey, may be found recorded in the Fifth
Annual Report (1841), pages 89-92, which I will here recapitulate in the
descending order of the beds, for convenience of comparison.

The Pittsburgh bed, I, has been eroded from the whole country between
the Alleghany Mountain and Chestnut Ridge (at Connellsville and
Blairsville) except two hill tops; one, near Salisbury, and the other near
Ligonier. It is possible also that a third exception may be discovered in
the high hill country south of Johnstown, where a conspicuous bench
runs along the hilltops for several miles.

Limestone, 20 feet below I, 6 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin.

Coal bed H, 50 feet below I, 3 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin ; 1 foot
thick in the Salisbury Basin.

Coal bed G, 100 feet below H, 1} feet thick in the Salisbury Basin; en-
circles the highest hilltops in the Ursina Basin with a conspicyous bench.
Fort Hill is not quite high enough to have it.

Red Shales between G and F.

Coal bed F, 90 feet below G; generally small; but 4 feet thick in the
Salisbury Basin. It forms the high terrace of the Fort Hill.

Mahoning Sandrock.

Coal bed H, <‘ Upper Freeport,’’ 50 feet below F; 2 feet thick, on 2 feet
of Limestone (over it Shales with ore-bails) in Ursina Basin ; 3 feet thick,
on 5 feet of Limestone in the Salisbnry Basin.

Ooal bed D, ‘‘ Lower Freeport,’’ 60 feet below E, 6 feet thick in Ursina
Basin ; 4 feet, further north; over 10 feet of Sandstone with ove bails, in
two beds, 7 feet asunder, 11 inches in all. This ore ball horison is very
extensive north and south of the River.

Coal bed C, 20 feet below D, 23 to 4 feet thick.

Coal bed B, 30 feet below C on Cox’s Creek, 40 on Laurel Hill Creek
(N. Fork), and 60 at Confluence ; 4 feet thick over 8 feet of Limestone on
the river; 1} feet thick over 4 feet of Limestone on the North Fork.
Twenty feet above B lie 15 feet of Shales, etc., containing ore balls, on
Spring Run, below Pinkerton’s Bend of the river.

Coal bed, 22 feet below Limestone, on west bank of Castleman’s river,
+ mile above Zook’s run ford, and on North Fork at old salt boring ;
carries 5 feet of Shale containing 1 foot of ore balls.

Coal bed A, 70 feet below B; 22 inches thick, at Shroff’s Bridge over
Castleman’s river. :

Conglomerate ; 30 feet below A ; the interval being massive Sandstone.

Such was the general scheme of the Coal measures made out during
the old survey, and, however subsequently modified, it has been of in-
calculable value in all subsequent special, and private investigations.
It was a very successful attempt to reduce to system the heterogeneous
mass of details collected from all parts of the Bituminous Coal Region
of western Pennsylvania outside, or to the east, of the Monongahela River
Upper Coal Beds, and of the Alleghany River Lower Coal Beds. It was

SRSA

1871.] 127 [Lesley

A MAP
Showing the Geographical Relations of the Pittsburgh and Baltimore C.
C. and I. Co.’s Lands to the surrounding county.

Pens

Lesley.] 1 28 ‘ [June,
by the collation of these three generalizations, that the first knowledge
of the true order of the American Coal Measures was obtained, a starting
point and a basis for all the Western Surveys.

It was merely a sketch, however; done hastily, in a single season, and
with most inadequate means at our command. In pecuniary power the
party fell so low that one of our camps on the North Fork could not be {
moved, because the whole party could not raise, amongst them all, 374
cents to pay a farmer’s bill for potatoes. A messenger was dispatched to
Hanna’s at the Turkey-foot, now Confluence, with a faint hope of receiy-
ing from the Chief in Philadelphia a remittance. Happily a letter was
lying in the Post office which relieved our embarrassments.

Every subsequent private survey has revealed both the general accuracy
and the special inaccuracies of the summary statement of the Fifth
Annual Report; and there is work for competent local geologists for a
long time to come, tracing the principal members of the column, observ-
ing their variations, intercalating the more insignificant deposits, and
discovering their sudden, and local, and valuable expansions. We know
but little yet of the true nature of the genetic relationships of coal, car-
bonate of lime, and carbonate of iron. But we know that they bold some
curiously fixed relationships of the highest economical importance.
Every special survey, therefore, should be published, in the hope of taking
another step towards a complete understanding of that subject.

It is with this view that I append a special description of a property
recently surveyed, stretching for five miles along the North Fork of the
Youghiogheny. The North Fork is the Laurel Hill Creek of the Fifth
Annual Report. Its mouth and that of Castleman’s river makes the
Turkey Foot at Confluence. Ursina is a new village one mile up the
Fork. The new Baltimore and Pittsburgh Railway is constructed up the
south side of the Fork past Ursina, where its grade is.90 feet above water
level. It then passes (by a tunnel) through the hills, and continues its
course eastward up the North bank of Castleman’s River. Ursina is 86
miles by railroad from Pittsburgh, and 248 from Baltimore. here are
6436 acres in this property, and its greatest width of two miles carries it
across the centre of the Coal Basin so as to include both dips; which,
however, are very gentle, nowhere exceeding 5° and seldom as high as 19,
There is also a gentle lowering of the central belt or axis of the basin
southwestward towards the Turkey foot, which has determined its strik-
ingly romantic topography. The hills of nearly horizontal coal measures
are 300 to 400 feet high, and the coal beds, etc., pass through them from
valley to valley cropping out in nearly horizontal lines along their sides
and around their ends. Easier conditions for mining cannot be imagined.
And it is in a country quite destitute of faults. .

The coal beds belong to the upper part of the Lower Coal System.

[Lesley.

129

1871.]
The Six Foot Coal Bed outcrops on the hill-side, over the town of
Its outcrop

Ursina, at an elevation of about 200 feet above the water.
keeps at about this height along the east flank of the Ridge (Minder’s
and Sander’s hill) for two miles, up the west bank of the North Fork.

Tt crops out on both sides of Minder’s creek, as high up as the forks,
where it gets under the water of the run, which descends rapidly.

Fig. 1.—A MAP sHowING THE AREAS OCCUPIED BY THE S1x Foor
Coan Bep In THE HILLS NortH or URSINA.

Py
2h miles 2 mides homile Ul znile mele
@: 4 ; Iba he Ibd he
Highs | Moe | Mets
re. crmasaremente
\ aE) (r6e yds seo yds 33
V7 ae A
ie £ “* Iho Acres.
: lands north = Yo
é of S
i Ursina,Fa ,°
‘ Gshewing |S
ls . freee oe KS
SixfedeCoaks
|

In the northern part of the property it outcrops on both sides of the

A, PB.) 8.—VOL. XIT—Q

Lesley.] 1 30 [June,
North Fork, at the same elevation of about 200 feet above water-level,
for a distance of two and a half (23) miles ;

—Along both sides of Smith’s creck, for 12 miles :

—Along both sides of Brown’s creek, for 14 miles :

—Along both sides of May’s creek, for 3 mile :

—Along both sides of Sander’s creek, for } mile :

So that the outcrop of this bed has a run of over ten (10) miles.

In this Northern part of the property it lies also in the best manner
possible for mining ; falling gently in all directions towards a central
point, or mining location, between the mouths of Smith’s and Brown’s
creeks. ‘The arrows on the map (fig. 1) show the direction of the fall of
the coal. The two parallel lines (from R R northeastward) show the
central axis of the basin, or deepest part of the coal bed, falling towards
BaB0o + We

Down this central axis the coal bed falls at the rate of less than 1°;
or, between 60 and 70 feet in the mile. The fall from the Krieger bank
to the Rose bank, W. 8. W. is 150 feet in a little less than a mile. The
rise from the Rose bank to the crop, up May’s creek, northward, is 120
feet in a little over a mile.

The following openings on this Six Foot Bed have
been worked for several years :—

The Krieger Bank one mile up Brown’s creek, south
side ; 9 feet above the water-bed ; runs in 109 yards, E.
10° 5. ; coal mined from several small breasts, not many
tons altogether. It is represented in Fig. 7.

Top Rocks * Black-Alate, saeco. is. i. 2 feet.
MCN Oia Onte a cee A ila ie cst a « 6 feet.
Top coal, with three half inch slates.......... 1 foot.
Main coal, solid bench, with occasional wedges

Ob CPAD Clas Gs ita coh lees vecih ore = 5 feet.
Slate Nov lakenipi ys Gy as cee. 8 inches.
Bottom coal, bench not taken up............. 9 inches.

The following analysis by Mr. Persifor Frazer, Jun., shows a superior
percentage of solid carbon with a minimum of ash, sulphur and
water :—

Carbon (cokGi gars facut ou aee es a 79.25 (or + of the whole.)
Volatile substances. ..6.2 sey) eee, 17.17 (It is therefore not a gas coal.)
ABW dt Sock cis on ps Ri OPI LS 3.11 (an extraordinarly pure coal.)
Sulphurs oe levees 2 er 9 0.47
Watets.. peg i ae von a 0.55

ROU ets is uaa i eee 100.55 : in which the sulphur has been

considered exclusively a constituent of the Ash. The specimen (No. 1)
was obtained from the Krieger bank, some distance back in the gangway,
and midway of the bed, between the roof and floor, and may be considered
a fair specimen of what the bed will do when mined on a large scale.

————————————— ee

1871.] 1 3 1 (Lesley.

A MAP sHowineé THE TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTER OF THE SOUTHERN
PART OF THE LANDS OF THE PITTSBURG AND BALTIMORE Coal,
CoxE AND IRON COMPANY.

(Reduced by Photolithography.)

| hee.

L- Stale of es 2

N

opening’ $0 ff aleve Fork water,

NG :
or ‘ i Ursina.
WWarth Fork of GAG ff
Castleman's K AWS i a Somerset Co.
Connells valle RR mb NEL: S
NO = 7 Aan
‘ a é Ne

: aN
| ae sie eh a oe NP Lestle x. Delin.

Lesley.]} ' 1 32 [June,

The ash is remarkably small—the coke very great (nearly 4ths of the
whole); and the gas no higher than in Broad Top Coal; water and
sulphur about half of one per cent. The small percentage.of water in
these coals is remarkable.

The coal is friable and comes out much crumbled, and will not bear
transportation, but makes a very nice grey even coke. The crumbling
shale roof will call for very careful mining and abundant timbering to
keep the mine in good order. But while timber is abundant in the
district, longwall mining will let the roof fall behind and afford plenty of
slate stuff for gobbing up, where needful.

The Rose Bank, opposite the mouth of Brown’s creek, facing south,
220 feet above water ; shows six feet face of coal, very good, except that
there are a few thin layers of slate in the top bench of 12 inches, as be-
fore ; a coal of 8 inches is said to underlie the bed, as before ; roof, again,
crumbly shale ; coal very friable; it is roughly coked in the open air in
front of the mine and makes good coke. :

The Kuhiman Bank is opposite to the Rose, on the west side of the
valley ; and an old mine is % mile further west on the same outcrop, and
at the same level, 25 feet above the bed of Sander’s run. Both are fallen
in. The people say that the bed exhibited the same character as on
Brown’s creek.

The bed has not been fully opened at the southern end of the property,
put I see no reason why it should differ in quality or thickness here from
where it is opened further up the North Fork, since it runs with remark-
able regularity of thickness and character from the Krieger bank (up
Brown’s creek), to the Kuhlman bank and the old opening on Sander’s
creek, a distance of two miles.

Geologically, this bed is the continuation southward, into Maryland, of
one of the Freeport beds of the Alleghany River System, having a wide
extension through western Pennsylvania, and usually furnishing the best
of coal. For want of special instrumental surveys in the country south
of the Conemaugh, it is not now possible to assert positively to which of
these two Alleghany River Coal beds the Six-foot coal, in southern
Somerset county, answers best. Our best guide, the great lime rock
which underlies the upper of these beds, thins out as it approaches the
Allegheny Mountain and the Maryland line. But as we have a dark
Shale, with limestone nodules, overlying our Six-foot coal bed, and be-
neath what is probably the Mahoning Sandrock, in the same position as
that occupied by the upper of the two Allegheny River beds, the Six-foot
coal would seem to be the lower.

If a colliery were established at the mouth of Brown’s creek, and
three incline planes ascended the ends of Younkin’s hill, Menard’s hill,
and Hyatt’s hill, then from the tops of these three planes, three main
entries would have three unbroken coal fields straight before them, with
a rising coal; in Youngkin’s hill rising eastward ; in Menard’s hill rising
northeastward, north northeastward and northward ; and in Hyatt’s hill
rising west northwestward. The point is a rare one for large mining
operations.

—S

ee

1871.] 133

[Lesley.

VERTICAL SECTIONS OF THE CoAL Measures NEAR Ursina, SoMER-
SET CouNTY, PENNSYLVANIA, BY FRANKLIN Puart, Jr.

(Reduced by Photolithography.)

Seg 3
y¢ Ursina
Sormers¢e Co. Ta
LS7r,
Limcslone, 54
Sitasdl blue
slate ovderop. 4SO° peut top.
hug 4
Lowell
4vo- lower coals
Slaly Coal, —
SMP hunched 2
Thick . : “6 Ursina
er 150 f of sgchoeiang
: ‘a.
: 3107 Anvnown: 380 a bes 1821:
aetrt—| fy eens of
f= the hi
lonneclorr
broken
300 ft 30d-
otf 250-14—
Six Foot Coal ;
200%
20013 x
ae 6. ml }, ff ‘Goal i
= 44 ayy Ww.
cane TM feud
{10 r,
: aft “Coa
Ha RtReL ceca a "oto thes
= “te edad
i as
Be xy nodules ¥ fren
ore
* Kittanning
Coal “™ i;
br
}
$0 US 4 aff ‘edule
Shr efiime
dark slate abo fl.
Perriferous Coal) ——
Tron Ore 7g \ Licey
EL 6 316Ne

The gangway entering Menard’s hill (at or near the present Rose bank),
would command an unbroken area of one and three quarter square miles

Lesley.] 134 [June,

of the Six-foot bed, containing the gross amount of. ..... .10,500,000 tons,
and by tresseling May’s and Brown’s creeks at their
upper parts where the bed is near their water level, mining
might be carried forward into the Ramshérger and Krieger

avea, andiadd.. 7.03.6... Bec Deri Ge alse tree ne ge - 1,500,000 tons,
MU DEIN A res ds es eh ey eo 12,000,000 tons,

commanded by this gangway.
The gangway at the end of Hyatt’s hill, would command 2,250,000 tons,
The gangway at the end of Youngkin’s hill would com-

MONG. site. veut oa Paging tof dbes ed ees bio Suse’ a ecees a Ls DUG; OU tone,

The amount of coal to be reached in the easiest possible way, and con-
centrated at one coal depot at the mouth of Brown’s ereek, is therefore
evidently larger than the necessities of the largest collieries for an entire
generation.

When the main gangways become inconveniently long, their air-ways
along the outcrop will afford the most convenient outlets for slack and
waste ; and new gangways can enter any where, because the drainage of
the mine will be perfect.

A fine colliery can also be established at the forks of Minder’s Creek,
a mile and a half above its junction with the North fork. Here the Six
Foot bed strikes the water level of the run; gangways may be driven in
horizontally west, northwest, north, northeast, and east, commanding an
entire square mile of coal lands, or six million tons of coal. The tramroad
for such a colliery will be, say 14 miles long, with a grade of 10, or be-
tween 90 and 100 feet to the mile, which may be lessened by judicious
arrangements. This point has another advantage : it will permit alJ the
Sander’s Hill coal to come out, down grade. I never saw a more beauti-
ful situation for a first class colliery on bituminous coal. Nor do I know
of a better coal on which to establish a great coke trade.

The Turkey-foot is likely to become a second Johnstown, in the way
of iron works, occupying precisely the same position, geographical and
geological, upon the Baltimore and Pittsburgh through railway line, which
Johnstown occupies on the Philadelphia and Pittsburg through railway
line, as the map on page 3 will show; and just as Blairsville and Con-
nellsville occupy precisely analogous situations, geological and geograph-
ical, to each other. At Ursina, the coal beds, iron ores, limestones-
oceur in the hills in the same way that they do at Johnstown; the
hills are of the same sbape; and the minerals lie at the same angles
with the horizon, and at similar heights above water level. At
both places the Pittsburgh and Green county coal beds are absent, swept
from the tops of the highest hills. At both places the blue carbonate
iron ore of No. XI. underlies the conglomerate on the flank of the moun-
tain near the top. And as Johnstown gets brown hematite ores from the
limestone valleys of the Juniata, and fossil ore from Frankstown, and
Lake Superior ore from Cleveland, to mix with the ores under the coal
beds in its hills, so Ursina can get fossil ore and brown hematite from

1871.]

135

[Lesley.

HoRIzONTAL SECTIONS OF THE CoAL MEASURES NEAR Urstna, SOMER-
sET County, Pa., BY FRANKLIN PLATT, JR.

(Reduced by Photolithography.)

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vert & hows $00 yds & one inck

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6 al
Lesley.J 1 36 [June,

Cumberland and other points on the Potomac, and the same Lake Supe-
rior ores via Pittsburgh, to mix with same iron ores which lie in the hill-
sides of Castleman’s river and Laurel Hill Creek.

Two other coal beds range through the property. The Kittanning bed
100 feet lower down the hillsides than the six foot; and the Ferriferous
bed, nearly at water level. Two other small seams of coal exist in the
hill tops, belonging to the middle or upper part of the Barren Measures,
under the Pittsburgh Coal Bed.

The Kittanning Bed averages 2} feet, and is best opened at Ursina.
This bed outcrops all around the hill sides, north of Ursina; but goes
beneath water level of Minder’s Creek, two-thirds of a mile up from its
mouth. It outcrops all the way up the North fork.

A thirty inch coal bed is opened at the Rush Bank, 14 miles above
the mouth of Brown’s Creek, (fig. 1), 25 feet above the water of the
North fork (Laurel Hill Creek). This bed underlies the Six Foot about
100 feet, and is the Kittanning coal bed. It shows 80 inches of good
hard coal, with 15 inches over it of slate mixed with thin coal seams,
anda roof of soft shales, requiring careful timbering. Its floor is a mas-
sive sandrock, without a particle of intervening fireclay. The bed has only
been stripped at its outcrop ; but yields cubical masses of very firm coal.

This is the usual Cannel and Block Coal bed of the country.

The Ferriferous Bed, (so called, not because it carries, itself, any
iron, but because it always comes into the measures just above a lime-
stone which is called ferriferous because it carries on its upper surface
the great iron ore deposite of north west Pennsylvania, especially in Clar-
ion, Venango and Armstrong Counties), averages 23 feet, and lies just
above water level at Ursina. It sinks beneath water level going west,
down the fork. It has been opened, also on the property, at the mouth of
May’s Creek, and at the mouth of Brown’s Creek, on both banks of the
creek. On the north bank 25 inches of coal is visible, with a 3 inch slate
parting. On the south bank 20 inches of coal, 8 inches slate, 5 inches of
coal; roof, 2 feet of iron-stained shales supporting 380 or 40 feet of sand-
stone; floor, hard slate; under this, a thick bed of fire-clay, containing
nodules of iron ore; under this, limestone, said to be 18 inches thick.

The bed is not thick, but its quality of coal is good; the mineral com-
ing out in solid blocks, and apparently adapted for the iron manufacture.
Mr. Frazer has made two analyses of it, with the following results :

Now, | No. 2. || Mean.
Volatile matters and water...... Live i 17.18 bs a Tae
Widtet PONG Site is eed d : 0.80
Bisted: Carpom ee 68.20 68 87 68.585
ASO ei a Aree 14.68 14.00 14.34

Another specimen taken from the Widow Croll’s bank, near the mouth
of Brown’s Creek, shows the same character of this lower coal, above the
limestone; equally free from water and sulphur as the Six Foot bed; more
gas (equal to Alleghany Mountain Coal in this particular); a large quan-
tity of ash; and 3-5ths of it coke,

1871.] 137 (Lesley.

QV AEL Gi BO aiht, DIL BURODIS, GRE, oA ing set Siem Beek 0.55
Volatile sabstancts.(Gas) 4. aii Ua irs reir Aa 2 21.90
Carbon (Coke) ..,, . haut orl Sano BAUR. 60.98
RU pOUr ASR) een dete ae ee ee, 0.62
BABN stout diets (ie in ec natn cue. Been ae ae | 15.95

The Ferriferous coal is opened also at the head of Smith’s Creek, on
both banks of the creek. On the south side a pile of half burned lime,
shows how strongly ferruginous the limestone stratum is. On the north
side, the outcrop exposed by digging, shows two feet of coal, the upper
foot slaty; 1 foot of clay, with nodules of ore, in the roof; over this
again 1 foot of sandstone ; then one foot of dark slate ; then a heavy
sandstone. The floor is a thick bed of fireclay, the upper 8 or 4 feet beins
closely filled with nodules of iron ore.

At the base of the Ramsberger Hill and on Boge’s Creek, at the north
end of the property, this coal, and another bed 30 feet below it, (see sec-
tion fig. 4), apparently 24 to 86 inches thick each, and mixed with
slate, occur again, and no lower measures are visible anywhere. The
conglomerate at the base of the coal measures is just underneath them
the same which may be seen in the gap below Confluence, making a great
arch in the mountain.

The fire clay under the ferriferous coal is usually about 4 feet thick.

The Ferriferous Limestone shows about 18 inches thick on the east bank
of the North fork, but its general thickness Ido not know. It is thesame
deposit which on the Slippery-rock and Beaver River country furnishes
the soda-lime for the Pittsburgh works. On Smith’s creek the farmers
have tried to burn this limestone for use, but failed, and the calcined
fragments show that it contains much iron, and may, therefore, make
a superior blast furnace flux.

This bed underlies the country about water level, and is very con-
sistent with the character given above. At Ursina it shows the same
slate-parting near the bottom, and the same underlying beds of fire
clay, iron ore and limestone. It will probably play an important part
in the future development of the Turkey foot district.

A small (2 inch) layer of nodules of iron ore occurs about 65 feet

above water level at Ursina, but it is, of course, worthless at this point.

A small coal bed outcrops 127 feet above the Six Foot bed, over the
Krieger bank.

One of the limestones of the upper part of the barren measures comes
in, between 475 and 525 feet above water level, near the summit of Min-
der’s Hill, and extends through the hill tops of the property west of
the North fork. Itis at least 5 feet thick, and ferruginous.

About 100 feet below this limestone is a thin coal vein, very slaty, and
good for nothing. There is also a bed of coal-slate 40 feet under this up-
per limestone.

A. P. §.—VOL. XII—R

Lesley.] 138 [June, 1871.

The analyses given above are important. They oppose the law of pro-
gressive bituminisation westward of the coal beds.

That both the 6 foot and the 8 foot Ursina beds, situated at the western
limit of the 1st Bituminous coal basin, should have only 17 per cent. of
volatile matters,—not more than the coals of the Broad Top Region,
lying one hundred miles to the east of Ursina,—is truly remarkable.
The Broad Top beds are tilted and faulted abundantly. The Somerset
County beds are almost perfeetly undisturbed. The coal in one gangway
showed 22 per cent. of volatile substances. But even this is no greater
than the coals of the summit of the Alleghany Mountain, and the coals of
the Cumberland Coal Region.

No proper scheme of the rates of debituminisation to casting, and to
disturbance, can be obtained until all the analyses of each bed in the
series of Coal Measures shall be tabulated apart from the rest. We may
then expect to learn something also respecting the influence of specific
vegetation upon the percentages of coke and gas.

But in the outset one source of error must be guarded against. The
specimens of coal from which the foregoing analyses were made, were ob-
tained in the walls of old gangways. It is possible that they had been
long enough exposed to the air to lose some of their hydro-carbons by
spontaneous evaporation. The rate at which this goes on in coal mined
and exposed in heaps, is variously stated by those who have investiga-
ted the subject.

Dr. Richters made a recent communication toa German Journal, in
which he states his opinion, that the weathering of coal depends upon
its ability to absorb oxygen, converting the hydro-carbons into water
and carbonic acid. At a heat, say of 875° F, only 5 or 6 per cent. of the
carbon accepts oxygen, the rest seems to show little or no disposition to
affine with it. The process is apparently dependent upon the per cent-
age of hydrogen. But with coal, cold, or at ordinary temperature, the
oxydation is so slow as to be imperceptible, even after exposure for an
entire year. He says moisture has no accelerating effect, unless pyrites
is present in quantity. Pure coal, heaped up for nine months or a year,
unprotected by the weather and not allowed to become heated, is changed
no more than it would be in a perfectly dry place.

Herr Grundmann, of Tarnowitz, on the other hand, has recently pub-
lished elaborate experiments proving the effects of exposure on bitumin-
ous coals to be most serious. Coal which he exposed for nine months,
lost fifty per cent. of its value as fuel. His conclusions excited such doubts,
that his experiments were repeated, in connection with Herr Varrentrapp,
of Brunswick, who proved, by laboratory experiments, that oxydation
took place at common temperatures. Three months sufficed to rob coal,
kept uniformly at 140° C. (284° F.) of all its Carbon, a heat less than
that evolved in coal heaps exposed to the air.

Grundmann proyed that the decomposition was the same in the middle
of the heap as at the surface, and reached its maximum about the third
or fourth week ; that half of the oxygen was absorbed during the first
fourteen days ; that a coal poor in oxygen absorbs it most rapidly ; that
moisture is an important condition ; that coals making, when freshly
mined, a firm, coherent coke of good quality, make, after even only
eleven days’ exposure, either no coherent coke at all, or coherent coke of
quite inferior quality. For gas purposes also, the coal is greatly injured.

It is evident that these facts have an important bearing on the value of
the analyses given above.

Sd

June 16, 1871.] 1 39 [Lesley.

Note on the Trvanirerous Iron Ore Beur, near Greensboro, North
Carolina.

By J. P. Lesury.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 16, 1871).

IT embrace the oportunity to exhibit the structure of this interesting
ore belt, afforded by a recent survey of the lands through which itruns
for thirty miles; lands owned or leased, by an association of gentlemen,
known as the North Carolina Centre Iron and Manufacturing Company
of Philadelphia, of which Mr. Thomas Graham is President.

The photolithographed cuts at my command, were reduced in fac sim-
ile, from my drawings, by Bien’s process, and are sufficiently clear to ex-

PG

& ne! seifereensboxo
wy) Cs Se RY OW
~~ a Boke SQ
F a a ie a x6

~ % i 2
) > 1 A NS
Y ~ . 43 :

tn n Heville
y \ “agotlevi |

Morehead SY

4 ——

By

ia
>
f Wes Y Tatle of distances

| vi Ngnonghan Greensboro fg Raleigh ..£2 miles

+ fo Goldsboro -.--~- 130 matles .

fo Morehead. lel,

ee ee

Greensboro f0 Fischmond.- - 189 med.

\ we 'u « Washenghon

y wo 6 Balli more. ,

j J « Philaaelphra
4 10 ot New Yorn.

hibit so much of the geology of the country as is necessary to the right
classification of the ores in question. The chief interest which the ores

Lesley.] 1 40 [June 16,

have for us, comes from the analyses given below. But the relations which
these ores bear to other ores of similar composition, cannot be under-
stood without a general description of the district.

Fig. 1, will inform those who are not acquainted with American geo-
graphy, of the geographical relationship of the Greensboro district to the
Atlantic sea-board ‘and to the Blue Ridge Range of Primary mountains.

The two Triassic belts containing coal appear on this map ; the eastern
including the Richmond Coal Basin and that of Deep River ; the western
that of Dan River, prolonged northward across the James River below
Lynchburg, and originally connected with the continuous out-spread of
the Trias in Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Connecticut
Valley.

Fig. 2 gives, on a larger scale, the position of the ore-belt in Guilford
and Rockingham Counties, N. C., and the radiation of railways, already

running, or under survey, from Greensboro.
ee
EN_
; [y

Fie. 2.
y % a if
ROG K | ‘ GA f M
Ts

Ny bleseyge

STOKES. :
CO: E

at

Big

FORSYTH EY
| a. oS
IL o

Soon Vlas Zp i
EL Frighlihin XX _S JY

ad

1871.] 141 [Lesley.

Fig. 3 is a special map of the ore-belt where it passes the Tuscarora
forges, and has been most thoroughly tested. Here is the Sergeant shaft.
The accompanying section will be of use, as it furnishes a carefully
measured example of the numerous hill slopes which compose the surface
of the country.

Fi fr Sk i |
\ Superintendant’s
\ Re this
\ ia=t
>
! “Engrhe house
Sergeant Shy
Thal trends t
: Fe
ae INES ee + =
ais
ae
RS
; SHE
Old shaft. Approximalely accurale profile along ine AB:
Ad. 107 fest 00 fret
ana ua ‘ Mw
i Seale 200 42 ca the incl ¢ (ean 3 or fog
1th
fazo (N00 seek 50 fF i yee ts yer
‘PR Figs. 4and 5 continue the mapping of the ore-belt on to the head-waters

of Deep River, to the southwest ; and to the northeast as far as the Haw
| River. The general straightness of the outcrop for 15 miles, and more, is
remarkable. The whole length surveyed was about 30 miles.

This part of North Carolina is occupied by some of the oldest rocks
known; the same rocks which hold the iron ore-beds of Harford Co.,
Md., and Chester Co., Pa., and the gold ores of Georgia, North Carglina,
Virginia, and Canada. The gold mines of Guilford Co., N. C., are opened
alongside of, and not more than ten or twelve miles distant from, the
Tuscarora iron ore-belt. See figure 2 above. Both the gold and iron
range continuously with the exception of one break, in New Jersey,
from Quebec, in Canada, to Montgomery, in Alabama. The gold
and iron-bearing rocks are : granites, gneissoid sandstones, and mica slates,
all very much weathered and decomposed ; and that to a depth of many

Lesley.]

Geo 5.Kernodle
ond Wife

Jas TWiksett.

doh Hidhfield
ALM Weteect

Old Monroeton

142

Fia. 4.

Ben.Jordan Wife,
JnaA. Lambert,
Harvey Lambert. \.

Jas. T Morehead ......
(Hamburg tract)

Sale of Miles.

[June 16,

Gath. Warren
Wid. Macg* Moore
Chileuk Brot MChary,

a Arch. Bevola
@avir Tract)

-Ralph Growelt

Osborn.

som Widow MiCucaten,
sree Lewes Rayb,

eh Crack !)

Gen Chart)

*

Wilots Polly Stombey
J Tharnbury

Widoo Suarftuss

Mrs E. Shanley,
AB. bindgay sree
d Diderquont and Others

John =}

lome tract )
doh Clark . «+++
Soler

Rob Raper s+

Weelawo Cook + ase
tease from Nathan Cook,

hn Clavk......
e Gi ie pla 5)

And.Gamble.. +

And.$.Tdel.
wD. Davis

Wiltion Lol...

Kezink B.Swoim }.....
and. B.deKalb Idol.

Wm. Hedgecock ....-

ese oe ae
and Sophie v1. Teague

dks NW 6
38°.

Scale of , Miles.

a

7

76

sh nagagt

[Lesley,

h (Rufus?) Haws
A Al Livitiag.
seus Jesse Trucblood

+. -sdonathan Trueblood

sosses Kirkman.

wae Barker place
se bt Blaylock,

aw
ait greens? oo

and Greens. ud

cece AH. Lindsey
(Peg treet,

ays = Mary Chipman «

~~ Jos. A. Davis.

~Elitha: Chanles.

Wiliam Wilburn.

+ Elo £ Mendenhall.

ocen kemer.
art York. ... (TM. York?)
Exek Hedgecock (WmA Work 2)

sors Susan Teague «

Lesley.] i 44 [June 16,

fathoms beneath the present surface. The solid granites are decomposed
least ; the mica slates most. All contain iron, which has been peroxidised
and hydrated, in the process of decomposition of the whole formation,
and dyes the country soil with a deep red tint. Or, more properly
speaking, the surface of the whole country is streaked with belts of red
and gray soil, following the outcrops of the more weathered and the less
weathered beds. But, even in the gray belts, the solid granite, or gneiss,
or sand-rock, seldom appears at the surface, although outcrops of them
can here and there be found ; and a number of these outcrops are desig-
nated upon the map, close to, and on each side of, the Tuscarora ore-belt
outcrop. The surface of the country, therefore, is a smooth, soft, undu-
lating plain, broken by gentle vales, the bottoms of which are never more
than one hundred feet below the plain, and commonly not more than half
that depth. The roads show how readily the rock soil absorbs water and .
dries off again. The soft, mouldered condition ofall the rock strata, to
depths of 50 or 100 feet, is therefore easily understood. But the rapidity
with which the erosion of the land goes on is surprising. An old bridge,
built a century ago, over a stream near the Quaker Meeting House, and
of course several feet above the water, is now buried to a depth of 6 feet
beneath the surface of its little meadow.

Two general results follow from this universal ancient rainwater decom-
position of the surface of the country, tothe depth of the deep valley drain-
age plane :—

1. All sulphur, We., has been washed out of the ore-beds, leaving the
ore remarkably pure. Whether the ore-beds, when followed down for
hundreds of feet or yards into the earth, will be found to keep a notable
percentage of sulphur, cannot now be known. But, whatever sulphur
was originally combined with the iron, has been removed from the upper
parts of the beds.

2. The decomposition of the rock strata, which inclose the ore-beds,
has weakened them so that extra care must be bestowed upon all shafts
and tunnels sunk or driven to win the ore, to keep them safe for mining
operations. When the more solid strata, at various depths beneath the
surface, are reached, mining operations will be as simple and safe as in
any other region.

The hills being never more than about one hundred feet above the valley-
bottoms, the ore-beds can be mined by horizontal self-draining adits, or
tunnels, only at well selected points. But, seeing that the ore-beds run
in straight lines for long distances, a large quantity of ore can be thus
taken out, for some years to come,

The belt of outcrop of ore-bearing rocks has a uniform breadth of sey-
eral hundred yards, and, I believe, a uniform dip towards the northwest,
or north-northwest ; although there are appearances (to be stated in de-
tail hereafter) which would lead the casual spectator to conclude that the
outercp was double, and not single; that is, that the belt is synclinal, the
ore-beds descending from the southeast side, downwards, northwestward
to a certain depth, and then rising again to the surface. But the general

1871] 145 [Lesley.

considerations against this view ave so strong, that I reject it without much
hesitation ; and I give my reasons further on.

The map, however, shows another ore belt running nearly parallel with
the Tuscarora Forge Outerop, and at a distance of three miles from it.
This is called the Highfield, or Shaw Outcrop. Beyond the Haw River
these two belts approach each other, and are believed to unite in Rocking-
ham County. This, and other considerations, make it almost certain that
the Shaw belt is the Northwest outcrop of a synclinal basin, three miles
wide, and that the Tuscarora Belt is the Southeast outcrop. Ifso, the
Tuscarora ore beds descend, with a N. W. dip, to a depth of a mile beneath
the surface, and then rise again as the ore beds at Highfield and Shaw’s ;
thus:

Fia. 6.

Weck MECeeraten's

How Thagkers,

Ficdimont
raclroad

Atte, sity!
ange

Many of the outcropping ore-beds are, to allappearance, vertical; others
dip irregularly, some southeast, others northwest ; some steeply, others
gently. But all these are extremely local variations, confined to a few
feet or yards of depth, and will not invalidate the general uniformity of
northwest dip of the whole Tuscarora Belt, and southeast dip of the
whole Shaw Belt.

The following section of beds on (fig. 7) the Widow McCuisten plantation
(14—15 miles), in a trench cut at right angles to the outcrop, 50 feet long,
and from 4 to 8 feet deep, will illustrate these irregularities :—

Fie. 7.
_smeneeret
—@ iit (
e eta*
= a ae
a eee
r.
WH
fils
aR
. ae
Pa

Similar irregularities are noticeable everywhere. The miners say that
the pitch of the outcrop of the ore-bed worked in the Sergeant Tunneland
Shaft (9) was southeast for some distance down, after which it took its
regular northwest dip, such as it now has in the shaft and tunnel at a

Ay Pi Se —VOL, SIs

Lesley.] 146 {June 16,

depth of 100 feet. Besides which, there are in fact two beds cut in this
shaft-tunnel, the smaller bed underlying the other, and with a dip which
would carry the two beds together at some distance beneath the floor.

Fig? Ground plan of He Sargeant Shaft and Sturnel.
Vertical Section of the Sarme.

A 7
A

| ee
mes a vi bay

Xe WF 4 Z
: Seale, Ho ft. ta the meh. )

These ore-beds are not ore-veins ; for they do not cut through the rocks
crosswise. They have no well defined walls ; they have no selvages ; there
is no gangue-rock different from the rocks on each side ; they have, there-
fore, not been formed in crevices subsequently in a later age after the
uptilting of the formation ; they have neither been ejected voleanically
from below, nor infiltrated aqueously from above, nor secreted chemically
from the wall rocks ; in a word they are not at all ‘‘yeins.’? On the con-
trary they are ‘beds ;”’ beds deposited, like the rest of the rocks, in water ;
deposited in the same age with the rocks which hold them; are in fact
rock-deposites highly charged with iron; and they differ from the rest of y
the rocks of the formation in no respect, excepting this: that they are
more highly churged with iron. 1 can best represent the facts of the case
by an ideal diagram of the rocks of the ore-belt in their original horizontal
position, somewhat thus:

Fie. 9.

In fact all our primary (magnetic and other) iron-ore beds obey this law.

147 [Lesley

1871.]

They are merely certain strata consisting more or less completely of per-
oxide of iron, with more or less intermixture of mud and sand,
which, when crystalized, fell into the shape of feldspar, hornblende, mica,
quartz, etc., etc.

To show that this is not mere theory, but actual fact, I compare here
the section of magnetic iron-ore beds worked out on Durham Creek,
near Easton, Pennsylvania, a map and sections of which can be seen
by reference to W. Brook’s part of the New Jersey Geological Re-
port, by Prof. Cook, 1868, page 332, and given in Fig. 10.

Fia. 10.

Ty lo.

&
‘S

/
f
)

—— Level of tld Tennel

Bia gs ck Ge cee ‘oa aw

S&

Tt follows then from the above mentioned facts :

1. That the Number of Ore beds in such a formation cannot be
stated. A large number of rock strata will become ore-beds locally. But
there will always be a particular part of the formation more generally
and extensively charged with great quantities (or a high percentage) of
iron than the rest. In other words, the iron of the formation as a whole
is concentrated along one or more lines. This is evidently the case with
the Tuscarora Ore Belt, as is shown by the almost perfect straightness of
the outcrop of the Sergeant Shaft ore-bed, where its outcrop has been
opened for half a mile northeast of the shaft. There are two principal
beds cropping out on the Teague plantation, at the (southwest end of the
belt), both vertical, and about 300 yards asunder, thus: Fig. 11.

Fie. 11.

Or Gah ‘
ore a Abbots Groce
Fram

Yee Scale 100 yarks Ie Hx inch. Section Liss S.78'¢. —»

Another instance occurs on the Trueblood plantation (12 miles), where
the two ore-beds appear to be only about 200 yards apart at their outcrops,
and seem to dip different ways, which I explain by reference to the false
surface-dip of the Sergeant Shaft bed. The Trueblood section is as
follows: ‘

Lesley.] 148 [June 16,
Fie, 12.

Plan op the oulenges ama dajuimgs otha Drueblood. Plawhation

Scale | inch te 100 yards
eis 59 ay

too. piel

36 yards, $.38°W.

ip of ovebed in tunnel about
40° & the N.40°W,

Siew Poeheo cet inthelinnel wena:
A Decamposed granile Pymasses of clay

af. jomty eae He Hi caceouds fire (be

33/4, Saf decomposed v nin iw, 1b”
While decomposed Coarre grammed granite

2ft. Hard tate course grained grantle

83/1. Hard Grawtle ana Syeriile .

L0ft. Disinlegraled gneiss.

Ose obsecred by mass af Korth.

© Solid ove geld
cropping, with amb

E Bef of 70°
A Nii ie

1
Souagtrs House.

'
)
)
i

-

Fie. 12a.
Bruny
ecw a ee tober tind
oforem the 4 Sf .
; igh

SUbtoh st ; es se — S.40°E, ’
70° ts $ uot. be
¥! . “ae BD Poirenee
Com ee (dee plan on next foage)

But nowhere do the number and irregularity of the ore-beds show
more plainly than in the openings made on the Shaw range, and Shaw
plantation, as will be seen by the plans and sections of the old revolutionary
diggings, and the late shafts and trial trenches opened on that property, as
given in Fig. 13, etc., further on.

On this Shaw Plantation, where three or four distinct and parallel beds
have been opened, as seen in the preceding chart and diagrams, the di-
rection of the bed changes somewhat, being N. 30° to 85° E., at the “Old
Revolutionary Pits,’’ and more nearly easterly at the openings recently
made by the Company. The whole course tested amounts to over half
a mile. The beds at the outcrops vary in thickness from one to six feet.
At ¢’’ the ore-bed is full 6 feet across solid ore—a very green, chloritic,
mica-slate rock-ore. In this run of 800 yards, there are, apparently,
two hundred thousand tons above water-level, in the one six-foot bed.

1 49 [Lesley.

1871.]

The ore is good. The outcrop runs along the top of a hill, about one
hundred feet above the bottom of the Haw River Valley, and can be
tunnelled into at that depth. There are apparent variations in the

Fras. 18, 14, 15, 16.

Seoteh, (lola ef Hoe anpforsunes ofbre ae hie Cnwke ben

feet abave the
Haw Rivet

ees fi 200 300 40 $00 _fo2 yds.
Faglb, Pes. Bh. miles in airline from Bemaja d tation, PRR.
Ore-pit ok b, grepili,e, d, eC;

mearts and Mein beds \ Eyer
a ri wath clay ee

red wary pol, ashen
Hew uthrles Herkinrses Geearme. dot. Ore.
Ac ome pet @, Mare was ae ila. sol te
S wel fi ad Hum Lhe Ve choy “ very Soff ‘i Vid
ore, Dr the cutzrop , Hr whole appearereg G ana ontggt toms, paleatila we
does matcme ‘dead 4 ore pers nene Lbs

Uti Bommanrds : ‘
years ago Trabtisone dren Mavs
7 Gthe’mett. A tus Hace

dip, some of the outcrops seeming to be vertical, whereas the principal
part of the mining has already shown a distinct dip towards the south-
east and south. In pit fof the chart, the dip seems to be scarcely 40°,

Lesley.]

‘ 150 [June 16,

The Highfield outcrop shows that the ore beds lie in this Shaw range,
at a much gentler angle than in the Tuscarora range ; thus :—

Fie. 14.

The distribution of pieces of ore over wide sections of the outcrop of
the ore-belt, is a notable thing. Along certain narrow lines inside
the belt, are to be seen multitudes of fragments lying on the ground,
which have been left behind when the rest of the rock has been mould-
ered and washed away. And sometimes these fragments are a foot or
more in diameter, although commonly smaller. Formerly, the ground
was abundantly covered with them, but they were the first ore sought
and used, and most of the large pieces and patches have disappeared du-
ring the war years of 1861, ’2, ’8 and ’4. 4

Large pieces on the surface are the best evidence we can possess (in the
ease of unexplored ground) that the beds are of a good size, for they
have come from those portions of the beds (a,b, c, &e., in the accompa-
nying diagram, (fig.15), which have been destroyed in the general lowering
of the surface of the country. “There is no reason why the parts of the !
beds left under the present surface (a/, b’, ec’, &e.), should not yield as
large masses as the parts a, b, c, which have been mouldered away.

2. The Size of the Ore Beds varies as much as their number. They con-
sist of strings of lens-shaped masses, continually enlarging and contract-
ing in thickness, from a féw inches to six and eight feet. The principal
beds may be safely estimated on an average of four feet, or 176,000 tons
to the mile, with an average breasting of 60 feet above water level. Itis
needless to say that an equal amount would exist beneath water-level,
for every sixty feet sunk on the bed.

3. The Quality of the Ore.—It belongs to the family of the Primary Ores.
It is very similar to the New Jersey ores which are so extensively

1871.] 151 [Lesley.

mined for the furnaces on the Lehigh river. It is a mixture of magnetic

crystals, and specular plates of sesquioxide of iron, with quartz, feldspar

and mica, in a thousand varying proportions. Sometimes the bed will be
Fre. 15.

composed of heavy, tight, massive magnetite (or titaniferous magnetite),
with very little quartz, &c. At other times the bed will be composed of
a loose, half-decomposed mica slate, or gneiss rock, full of scattered crys-
tals of magnetic iron.

The ore is, in fact, a decomposible gneiss rock, with a varying per cent-
age of titaniferous magnetic and specular iron ore, sometimes forming
half the mass, and sometimes constituting almost the whole of it.

The compact varieties will yield between 50 and 60 per cent. of pure
iron, as in the case of the ore now being mined in the Sergeant Shaft,
near the Forges. Mr, Frazer’s analysis of this ore is as follows :

Magnetic OIGG,,....-.-.- SM OCUO sie vrs ok ATOM, ose. Ob. 0. Cell

WIGAN Ol es os Save? (Ui lope is «yeaee, | PIVOMIUIN...660500 D.C. |

Residuum of quartz, &c..............12.86—with a trace of sulphur.

The specimen was obtained from the tunnel, a hundred feet beneath
the surface, and shows an intimate mixture of crystalline titanic ore,
magnesian mica, a little hornblende, a little labradorite, and a little spec-
ular iron.

This kind is difficult to smelt in the high-stack blast-furnace ; but
makes the best iron in the world when smelted in the Catalan forge ; and
is of great value for the lining of puddling furnaces. It serves the same
purpose as the Lake Superior ore, which is brought in large quantities to
Pittsburgh, and the surrounding district of Eastern Ohio and Western
Pennsylvania, for lining puddling furnaces, and to mix with poorer ores |
in the blast-furnaces. Formerly, in the E. Ohio Mahoning district, the
mixture was: one-fourth Lake Superior, one-half coal measure ore, and
one-fourth mill cinders. Since the organization of the Lake Superior
Iron Ore Trade, sufficient quantities come forward to enable the iron
masters to mix one-half Lake Superior. The Sharon Furnace on the Beaver
river runs wholly upon Block Coal and Lake Superior Ore. The titan-
iferous magnetic ores of the Ottawa region, in Canada, are also brought
by.a long and expensive route to Pittsburgh, to mix with Pennsylvania

Lesley.] 152 [June 16,

ores. These Canada ores are of the same geological age, and of the same
mineral character, as the Tuscarora ores under consideration.

Trial of the ore has been made by Mr. Nathan Rowland, at his works
in Kensington, Philadelphia. Five tons were forwarded for trial as lining
to puddling furnaces. Mr. Rowland expressed his opinion that it stood
up three times as long as the Champlain ore, which he uses for that pur-
pose. The difference is due to the superior compactness of titaniferous
magnetite over that of pure crystalline magnetite.

LT have said above, that the Tuscarora ores are essentially like those of
Northern New Jersey. I-referred to their age, situation, consistency,
and general composition. But they have a peculiarity ; they hold a no-
table per centage of tétanic acid. 'The New Jersey ores seldom possess
this property, and, in any case, only ina low degree. The Canada ores,
and the ores of South Sweden, hold large quantities of titanic acid ; even
as much, sometimes, as between 80 and 40 per cent. A small—a very
minute—quantity of titanium in pig-iron is believed to add greatly to
its value, increasing its hardness and firmness, and its ability to stand
wear. The Canadian ores were introduced to the Pittsburgh iron works
for this end. But, seeing that almost all the titanic acid in any iron ore
passes off in the slag, leaving a very small quantity to unite with the pig
metal (sometimes in scattered crystals), it follows, that ores, which have
an excessive quantity of titanic acid, cannot afford a high per centage of
pig metal. It is much better to have an extra 20 per cent. of silex and
alumina, potash or lime, in the ore, than an extra 20 per cent. of titanic
“acid ; for these will make the ore easy to smelt, whereas the titanic acid
makes it difficult to smelt ; requiring a much higher heat in the stack to
decompose than does oxide of iron.

There isno question that titanium in iron ore favors the production
of iron peculiarly suited to conversion into steel. The English steel trade
has always largely depended on Swedish iron; and I believe that the
titaniferous ores of the United States (and they are far from abundant, )
will become annually more and more valuable, on account of the increas-
ing demand for the best iron for steel-making purposes. If these ores were
smelted in large quantities in first-class anthracite furnaces, I do not
think this particular value would appear; the small Swedish blast fur-
nace must be used, or the Catalan forge.

Although the action of titanium upon iron in metallurgy is an obscure
subject, something is known of it by actual experience.

J. H. Alexander, of Baltimore, in his report on the Manufacture of
Iron, gives analyses of certain cinders, among which is one obtained in
the smelting of a primary iron ore, containing, he says, 11 (eleven) per
cent. titanic acid: the analysis is as follows:—

Biioe: eke ok Ouide of Titantum........ 9.0
Magnesia i005 0 ena cee 84.2 Protox. manganese....... 4.4
Letts catend eG dae 14.1 PPROLO Sse ION geass cake 1.0
A MMOING a Uae can resi 8.9

The ore, he says, was hard to smelt, and the pig-iron hard to work, but
when properly made, is peculiarly adapted to the manufacture of steel.

1871.] 155 : [Lesley.
The explanation is as follows:—Titanie acid will not combine readily
with either the acid or the alkaline oxides. In every ton of ore (holding
10 per cent. of it) 320 Ibs. of this neutral stuff exists, or (14 tons of ore
to 1 ton of iron) 830 Ibs. of it in every ton of iron. If only 1-10 of this
(or 83 lbs.) remains in the furnace, the gradual accumulation blocks it
up. The only solvent of it are the double silicates of iron and lime, or
iron and alumina and lime, or iron and potash and lime, &e. To make
these double silicates, we must waste a good deal of iron, But the one
object of the blast furnace is to save all the iron, and the best cinder is
that which has no iron left in it, all the iron of the burden having gone
down into the hearth as pure metal (with enough carbon to make it fusi-
ble). The Catalan forge, on the contrary, wastes iron, and its cinders
are so rich in iron, that they are often worked over again ; hence, titanic
acid is carried off, and does not obstruct the hearth. The forge fire is,
therefore, the best to reduce titaniferous iron ores. But the blast fur-
nace can smelt them also, if the heat be kept low, and some of the iron
be allowed to go to waste in the cinders, to carry off the titanic acid and
cinder mass. The object then, must be to make the utmost quantity of
the most fusible cinder; therefore, a blast furnace running on titaniferous
ores, should not be fluxed by pure limestone, pure clay, or pure sand, but
with ferruginous clay, ferruginous slate, or ferruginous limestone. These
fluxes will dissolve titanic acid at a low heat. To get gray pig iron, the
cinder must be abundant ; to get white forge metal, but little flux is need-
edin comparison, the ore itself being wasted to form cinder. This white
iron with a large amount of carbon in it, is just the metal from which
terman steel is manufactured. A high stack and a small hearth, like the
Styrian furnaces, and ferruginous fluxes, are the best for titaniferous ores,
Osborne says (page 475), that Mr. Henderson writes him that the Nor-
wegian ores are successfully used at Norton, England, on a plan inyented
by John Player, although they contain (by one anlaysis)

CEitanG WCieieg oe ee Chey eS eee 40.95
POLO A IPONS eccrine, oi) ceb eee tisaes 22.63) 51 59
Prokos MON es ree ee re es 26.96
Magiesian ¢ 2055. o.oo oe fp iy
ge 9 |
Alumina Sie a a eats wee ee ean ZRII Ss "St
UGH ies os el nee en es For a 42 {
PVOUOR) WANG, foo es Sys se 56 J 100.35

being smelted in small furnaces with 1000°F temperature of blast, 2
tons of coal to 24 tons of ore, 15 cwt. of limestone, 10 cwt. basalt rock.

«The iron becomes titanized, and is found to be exceedingly strong,
and is used in Europe for armor plates, commanding three times the price
of ordinary pig iron. The tensile strength of the resulting wrought
iron, when puddled, is about 52} tons to the square inch. There is very
little carbon in the pig-metal produced, and being almost steel, in puddling
it requires but half the time of ordinary pig metal.”

Muchat’s Sicel is a titanic tron, with the peculiarity of being sufficiently
hard after being heated red hot and forged, not to require tempering,

As 3s. yy VOn. Xi Tt

fed
Lesley. ] 154

[June 16,

but is comparatively brittle. Its color is not white, but has a tinge of
straw color light brown.

The lighter and looser varieties of the Tuscarora ores have a lower per
centage of iron in them, but will work more kindly in the blast-furnace.
I had Mr. Frazer make me an analysis of a piece of outcrop ore from the
Highfield plantation. It gave: Magnetic oxide, 44.53 [metallic iron,
32.25]. These varieties make equally good iron, and iron as well adapted
to the manufacture of steel.

The hard and soft varieties of ore occur often within a few hundred
yards of each other ; as, for example, on the Widow McCristen’s planta-
tion (14-15 miles), where the soft outcrops are seen on the hill opposite
the house, and the hard ore lies in large chunks on the hill, south of the
swamp. I append Dr. Genth’s analysis of specimens from the two places,
made at my request:

1. Massive ore from Mrs. McCristen’s Plantation. The analysis was
so unexpected in its character, that Dr. Genth suspected some error, and
repeated it, but with the same result. The small amount of titanium
shows the varying nature of the deposits. The percentage of iron is also
low for this kind of ore:

IVOT ies ie gf 88.97 p.c.
Bip auinyanl | ese! ee 1.60 [=2.63 p.c. titanic acid.]
Ratio Of item TO drones a B.S a ee 1: 21.24.

2. Soft micacious ore from the same locality. The high per centage of
both iron and titanium in this ore was equally unexpected, and was very
gratifying ; for it will be seen from fig. 7, on page 17, that there is a
total breadth of ten feet to this outcrop, in a space of twenty-seven. If
any of the beds unite descending, the yield of ore will be great.

EON Se i ree ess: 43.47 p. ¢
LCA SG a eee 9.79 [==16.06 p. c. of titanic acid. ]
iRat© OL Pitan HOON 4. as ee 1: 4.44

It is made known by the Canadian geologists that the constituents of
some of these primary ores are combined in sucha way as to approximate
the rock to a diorite, or green-stone trap. Now, such a rock is seen on
several of the Company’s leases ; and especially on the Shaw, and other
plantations two miles southeast of it. Sometimes the ore-bed itself be-
come dioritic.

It will not be amiss to add other analysis of these Ores.

Ore Analysis, by F. A. Genth, in 1868.

MBGNetICOsIde. 8 i 79.78 Sa Woy: 4 7a pares
ECACC ye Bee 8 aw tes US

Oxide manganese, ... ees 0.2

Chrome oxide (trace of Vanadium)...... 0.82

DUQC HOI ee ee ee, 0.75

MIA a ee ee 4.62

Mapnestaniid lit. siievivoomer. fives * 2.04

12 nen PR i Gree i ee 0.18

1871.) 155 [Lesley.

Ore Analysis, by J. B. Britton, June 8, 1868.

Tron (protoxide) iron........ 21.20.) :(peromde) Mi. 34 89.40 = 60.60
Oxygen, with the iron in said 60.60. ...-....-.. sees eee eee ee 23.67
Mixed Sesquioxide, magnetic, &c...-....-. 6. eee eee ee eee 84.27
i Mitagio Acids 208. 02 ei re Us od ee I See 4.95
{ Containing other insoluble matter. ...... +++... +-eee sere ees 8.25
Alaina bos Ge scold bles acu teen Cuil oe oh a Bi a ae 4.81
MMO oie: oo Pine ee yy ae ce aig ee woe wine wpe cla SORA 0.24
Moisture cies 6 UG i aks SEES OIE ie Reis ate 4 ts LER, E8 1.66

No phosphorus, and a doubtful trace of sulphur.

Norr.—I have changed the order and wording of this analysis, to suit
the others for comparison.

Ore Analysis by CO. Elion Buck, Wilmington, Del., Oct. 31, 1868.

Magnetic Oxide of irom.... 1-6. sees ee ee eee e reese 82.68 [==Iron 59.95]
MER citeteieV: (0) Se ewe mi er reuse Gee Maree 8.72
Oxy Wane eas 0:42. = Sesq. Ox Chom... 29: 0.40 0.82
Sila ea sete yee era CON Cees wea 1.89
ING es is hee oe cates crs 3.98
NWO ee er en bees se shen ce 0.17
AE Yenn CSG home alae Hateats arrest OU UO ear 1.36

Ancther, June, 1869.

Magnet ox. iron........ ty AOS en StS 81.30 [==Iron 58.652]
PRCA SA OIC be tce8 1965 igs hp ona ee «aie ss 65s eee nie ie a 12.82

Ox. Mang. and Ox. Chromium, and Sulphur..........-++ssseeee- traces.
OiltGner ep ae ees ks Nees ee cee 1.04

SiWivnor inal poe Weer apa aei ee MI rene Rare ee iC re i 8.87

Te yhcal sete By Si a a ee a re 0.64

MaAOnGSIA, oy pes eg a ee ei ss ss 0.49

No phosphorus

WMOisturO UL OSS) fos. ves ues veers eae ss 0.84

Ore Analysis, by A. A. Fesquét, Nov. 12, 1868.

Metalic Om. oy. ies eee a pe tee eee as teases s 60.41
MIPAMIG GIES Lest tie nate vee toe cnt ches cece Sr00)

Seeds Ox Grom... 3... ... 2s eee dts 0.83 ) 0.95

Sesq. ox. Manganese.......---ss. ee ener 0.12 § ;

UIC ie ees ee ee Ne oe eS RO 84 6 1.50

Sa lsbst a Sei rire! od Sarak Crue ty Sana eee ar 2.90

DMG ONCS) icles hos aie ce hele es ole ale aly ek ate ete ors 0% 2.02

TANG 5, Pe RE an 0.75

No trace of Sulpbur.

A mere trace of Phosphorus. 5

Analysis made by pulverizing several hand specimens, and mixing them
first, to obtain an average result.

ke
Lesley. ] 15 . [JdJunel6,

Ore Analysis, by A. A. Fesquet, July 6, 1869.
Specimen highly magnetic, and almost without moisture.

Metallic iron in combination with PE EVE Ha 57.3 i 79.14
Oxygen (caleulatedfor peroxide). .... ..2ss.5 2% 21.84
eam ea Acid sycariini lod) saw eiun teehee Ses mere selon rata es 18.74
OUHCALGE Fb. AA t tidy Pesce pene Shaan ede ine ewe oe 0.52
SUNY UNIAN iii os: tes Ga foes te cea da se tok ETC a ste eee tare 4.50
Ma OTES, oa Gunes aie Fastin ows cobesentony eeerree ek 0.54
EMO lt ab tartan me Gerd oath san hos Han ota oe 0.72
SesquiMlanPatsoq vc. odd Mussa de ary Mea dee eee 0.69

Trace of Chromium.
No sulphur ; no phosphorus.

Ochre Analysis, by A. Fesquét, 1869.

Besduiy OF; Ivey .. ee veces ee 19.48 [containing met. iron 13.60]
PilicaveAy. Shiv ever? Fy. Tae BAW Le
CUUEOIINY 5 5 ye co Wiese ys es bees 83.21
Warten? WeeGen NRK eh ty 13.24

In this ochre, which forms large beds on the outcrops of the more fer-
ruginous feldspathic rocks, one has a superior flux for any heavy burden
ore, especially fora close titaniferous ore. The ochre must become a fluid
double silicate, without robbing the ore, and will carry off the titanic acid
in excess.

One of the constituent elements of the whole formation is Ochre, in
beds of various sizes. What the exact geological relationship of these
ochre beds to the magnetic ore-beds is, I do not know. But the ochre
outcrops seem to be always in the immediate vicinity of the ore-beds.
The largest exhibition of ochre which I saw is on the J. Somers Planta-
tion on Brushy Creek. Here an ochre bed twenty feet thick rises, nearly
vertical, out of a gully in a hillside covered with small pieces of fine com-
pact ore.

Bar-iron Analysis, by A. A. Fesquét, April 4, 1870.

“The samples of iron bars which you gave me to analyze have the fol-

lowing composition :

Metallic iron [includes what iron is combined with oxygen]....... 99.38
Insolitble’ calcined stibstances, [Silica;:@t]. 0... 20.) 6. ee, 0.15
Caron [and oxygen ?| [by difierénce|. 1.0.1.7. sees aoe cs Sit 0047

Also, a trace of Titanic acid.
100.00
“T would judge from the nature of the samples, and former. analysis,
that the proportion 0.47 per cent. under head of Carbon, &c., is too con-
siderable to be formed by Carbon alone, and comprises, very likely, carbon
and oxygen. Therefore I would judge that part of the impurities is from
oxide of iron, and the remainder from slag, which I have ascertained ex-
perimentally. In other words, the impurities are due to a highly basic
slag, which cannot be expelled or squeezed out by the hammer and the
rolls.”’
Norz.—The above bars were rolled (from blooms of N. Carolina ore)
by Jas. Rowland & Co., not cut and piled.

ange

or

eerie

1871.] 157 [Lesley.

North Carolina Blooms made into Steel by the Martin’s Process.

In January, 1871, Mr. A. A. Fesquét assisted at the conversion of ten
tons of North Carolina blooms into steel, at Cooper & Hewitt’s Works,
Trenton, N. J.

The blooms were some of the first made at the Tuscarora Forge fires,
rough and variable in size and quality, and weighing from 150 to 225 lbs.

Mr. Fesquét thus reports ;

The Siemens-Martin’s Process consists in mixing steel scraps with pig
iron. The Carbon of the pig iron reduces the iron oxidized by the flames;
keeping watch, as it were, over it, and preventing the perpetually forming
oxide of iron from forming a cinder with the silica of the furnace
lining.

The charge being melted, it remains exposed to the flame until, and
even after, all the carbon is burned off.

The exact moment is known by a series of samples being taken out,
hammered and bent, hot.

If the samples be red short, Franklinite iron is added to restore enough
carbon to remove the oxygen from the iron.

After one or two stirrings the metal is run into moulds.

The North Carolina blooms took the place of the steel scrap. The cast
iron used was West Cumberland (English) pig, nearly free from sulphur
and phosphorus, and with enough silicon and carbon to fit it for Besse-
mer use.

At the moment of complete decarburation asample was taken. It was
slightly red short. An analysis showed that the red-shortness was due
to a minute proportion of oxide of iron and cinder, which had not been
expelled because of the pasty condition of the decarburetted metal. Per-
centage of carbon less than 1-1000th part.

Franklinite was added; the metal became fluid, and was run into
moulds.

The ingots were sound, and presented large crystals, of a clean gray
color.

A sample from one was perfectly malleable, without a trace of hot or
cold shortness, without a flaw, and homogeneous to all appearances. The
large crystals were céndensed under the hammer. The fracture was
not jagged, and resembled that of cast steel of some degree of condensa-
tion and hardness.

In a word, this steel was malleable, homogeneous and tough, like the
best steel produced in any other way. af

Tried at the forge fire (by the same workman), it seemed to bear more
heat for welding and hardening than will the ordinary steel (with a gor-
responding proportion of carbon).

Less carbon is necessary in the case of titanium steel than in the case
of common steel, to arrive at the same hardness.

In the rolls, this steel manifested no difficulties, according to the testi-
mony of Mr. Slade of the Trenton Works. :

Waste: Three operations, 14,152 lbs. of metal inall; waste, 13.5 per cent.,

June 16, 187L.] 158 [Lesley.

exceeding somewhat the waste when steel scraps are used ; for the cinder
in the blooms has to be purged off in the process, and secondly, the almost
purely metallic titaniferous bloom iron is much harder to melt than scrap
steel ; is longer exposed therefore to the flame, and therefore wastes more.
By adding pig metal this evil will find a remedy.

The peculiar qualities of this steel will no doubt be intensified when its
own titaniferous pig metal is used with its titaniferous forge blooms.

A dose of Franklinite may yet be necessary. Mr. Fesquét thinks it
acts by giving up carbon. He suggests, however, that possibly it acts
through manganese ; but as nearly all the manganese goes off in the slag,
he thinks its peculiar use is to keep the cinder fluid, and taking the iron’s
place in the cinder.

Stated Meeting, July 21, 1871.
Present, three members.
Mr. CHASE in the Chair. Secretary, Mr. LusnEy.

A photograph of Dr. O. Seidenstricker was received for the
Album.

Letters of envoy were received from the Senkenburg So-
ciety, at Frankfort, the I. Akad. Vienna, and the Society at
Riga.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from Dr. Bunge,
of Greiswald; Herr Tunner, of Leoben; Dr. Rokitansky; the
Zool. Bot. Soc., Vienna; Munich Observatory, and Chicago
Academy.

A letter was read from Mr. Putnam, of Salem, the consid-
eration of which was postponed.

Donations for the Library were received from the R.5.,
Tasmania; I. A., Vienna; Z. B.S., Vienna; Senk.S., Frank-
fort; R. Danish 8.; R. Com. Geol., Italy ; Capt. Settimanni ;
School of Mines, Paris; R. Ast., R. Geogr. and Chem. 5S8., Lon-
don; Nature; San Fernando Observatory; Essex Institute ;
Mass. Hist. 8., Am. Antigq.S., Camb. Mus. Com. Zool., J. H.
Trumbull, Sill. Jour., Mrs. Willard, N. Y. Lyceum, Frank.
Inst., Acad. N.S, Coll. Pharmacy, Med. News, Dr. Rushen-
berger, Isaac Lea, Peabody Inst., and Secretary Robeson, of
Washington.

159

The death of Mr. Eugenius Nulty, at Philadelphia, on the
3d inst., aged about 88 years, was announced by the Secre-
tary.

Mr. Chase communicated a Note’on the Pluvial Indications

° of the Metonic and Sun-spot Cycles.

Pending nominations 677 and 678 were read and balloted
for, and the following named gentlemen declared duly elected
members of the Society:

Prof, Cleveland Abbe, Signal Ser., War Dep’t, Washington.

Mr. Benj. Chew Tilghman, of Philadelphia.

And the meeting was adjourned.

r Stated Meeting, May 19,* 1871

Present 18 members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Rev. Dr.
James McCosh, dated Princeton, N. J., May 4th, 1871; Prof.
i. B. Andrews, dated Columbus, Ohio, May 4, 1871, and Dr.
T, A. P. Barnard, dated Columbia College, N. Y., May 6, 1871.

} A Photograph for the Album was received from Prof.
Roehrig, of Cornell University.
Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Society’s Publica-
tions were received from the R. Bavarian Academy, (27, 65 to
67;75, 76, 81, 82); the Society of P. & N. H. at Geneva, eabue
8, 78 to 83); the Physical Society at Berlin, (XIII, 8; 81,,82,)
the Boston N. H.S., (XIII, 3, XIV, 1, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,)
1 and the Library of Congress (XIV, J).

*The report of this meeting has been inadvertantly misplaced.

160

Letters of envoy were received from the Physical Society
of Berlin, and Dr. C. Naumann of Leipsig.

A. letter was received from Mr. W. Barker, Engraver to the
U.S. Mint, presenting to the Cabinet of the Society, a medal
of David Rittenhouse, after a bust in the possession of the
Society.

Donations for the Library were received from the Geologi-
cal Institute and Authropological Society at Vienna, the Physi-
cal Society at Berlin, Dr. Naumann, the Bavarian Academy,
the Zoological Garden at, Frankford, the Natural History So-
ciety at Geneva, the London Meteorological Office and Board
of Trade, and Editors of Nature, the Essex Institute, Boston
Natural History Society, American Oriental Society, Franklin
Institute, Medical News, Wilmington Institute, Mr. G. W.
Shaffer of Savannah, and Dr. Newberry.

The death of Sir John F. W. Herschel, on the 12th inst.,
aged 79, was announced by the Secretary.

A specimen of the Jenny Jump variegated marble of New
Jersey, was laid upon the table, and its geological character

“was discussed by several of the members present.

The attentjon of thé members was called to Herr Lauth’s
recent memoir on the Gold Mine Map Papyrus of the age of
Seti I., and its interesting points described by the Secretary.

New nominations Nos. 677 and 678 were read.

On motion of Mr. Chase, the Meteorological Office at Wash-
ington was ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents
to receive the Procecdings,

On motion of Mr. Lesley, the American Institute of Civil
Hngineers was placed on the list of correspondents to receive
a set of the Proceedings.

On motion, the thanks of the Society were tendered to Mr.
Barber, for his beautiful present.

And the meeting was adjourned.

¥

TAN. 20, 1671, PROC. AM. PHIL. SOC. XII, PLATE 1.

Indian Sculptures on a rock in South Western Pennsylvania.

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. Anterior surface of left Humerus.
. Section of left Humerus.

6c te natural size.

. Section of left Femur.
_ Anterior surface of right Femur.
_ Posterior surface of right Femur. The notch about the middle

slice was removed for microscopic preparations.
Section of left Radius.
Posterior surface of left Radius.

. Posterior surface of right Radius.
. Anterior surface of right Radius.
. Section of left Nium.
3, End of right Clavicle.

Posterior surface of right Ulna.
Anterior surface of right Uina.
Section of left Ulna.

ie = natural size.
Posterior surface of right Fibula.
Posterior surface of left Tibia.
Anterior surface of right Tibia.
Section of Phalanx natural size.

Section of healthy Phalanx natural size inserted for com-

Vertebral end of spine of left Scapula.
Anterior surface of carpal end of right Radius enlarged.

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161

Stated Meeting, Aug. 18th, 1871.
Present, two members.
Secretary, Mr. T'REGO, in the chair.

Photographs were received from Prof. Max Miiller, of Ox-
ford, England, and from M. Stanislaus Julien, Membre de
iP ea Paris.

A letter accepting membership was received from Prof.
Cleveland Abbe, dated Washington, D. C., July 24, 1871.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the New
York City University (86).

Donations for the library were received from the Hungarian )
Academy ; Herr K. Magey ; the Society at Moscow ; the Rus-
sian Sia Prussian Academy ; Geological Shen and
Botanical Society of Berlin; the Societies at Gottingen and
Bremen; the Geographical Scdieby at Paris; the London As-
fonciaival Society and Meteorological Bitoni: Editors of
Nature, Cornwell Polytechnical Society ; Peabody Museum ;
Essex Tnatitetas Medical News; and U.S. Department of En-
gineers at eo tiagicn.

The death of Mr. Sidney G. Fisher, a member of the Society,
at his residence near Rising Sun, Philadelphia, July 25th,
| 1871, in the 63d year of his age, was announced.
| Mr. Chase presented some tables of daily Rainfalls at the

Observatorio do Infante Don Luiz, Lisbon, from 1855 to 1870,
with some comparisons, indic ated an opposition between the
| lunar daily rains at Lisbon and Philadelphia, similar to the
one he had pointed out as existing between the solar daily

rains at the same stations.
And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting Sept. 15th, 1871.
Present, two members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRALEY, in the chair.
A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. B.C. 4
Tilghman, dated Philadelphia, Aug. 1871.
Photographs for the Album were received from Prof, Geo.

A. P. $.—VOL. XII—U

162

H. Cook and Col. M. J. Cohen, the latter sending a carte de
visite of the late Dr. Joseph I. Cohen, of Baltimore.

Letters of envoi were received from the Central Observa-
tory of Russia, and the office of the Chief of the U.S. Engi-
neers at Washington.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of Publications of the
Society were received from the Russian Central Observatory ;
the Leeds P. & L. Society, August 24 (xiv. i. 88, 84, 85,); the
Society of Antiquaries, London, August 26 (xiv, i. 83, 85);
the Society of Arts at Batavia, May 31, 1869 (xiii. 2, Proc.
July, 1865); the Radclifte Observatory, August 10th, (88, 84,
85); the Geological Committee of Italy, at Florence, August
12 (Proc. vol. xi. 2); the Glasgow Philosophical Society,
August 10th (83, 84, 85); the Regents of the New York, Uni-
versity, August 7 (Proc. vol. x, xi); the Boston Public Li-
brary, August 28 (86); Rhode Island Society for the encour-
agement of Domestic Industry (86); Georgia Historical
Society, Savannah, August 24 (86); Wisconsin Historical
Society, Madison, August 25 (86); New York Historical
Society, New York, September 1 (86); New Jersey Historical
Society, Newark, Sept. 1 (86); Essex Institute, Salem,
Mass., Sept. 2, 1871 (86).

Donations for the Library were received from the Acade-
mies at St. Petersburg, Berlin and Bruxelles ; the Societies at
Batavia and Riga; Herr Von Frauenfield, of Vienna; the
Geological Committee of Italy; Geographical Society in Paris ;
Zoological Society and Society of Antiquarians in London ;
London Nature; the Essex Institute; Boston Natural History
Society; R. I. Society for the Encouragement of Domestic
Industry, at Providence; the American Journal of Science;
Mr. J. H. Trumbull; the American Chemist; President Bar-
nard of Columbia College; the Franklin Institute; American
Journal Medical Science ; Journal of Pharmacy ; Penn Month-
ly; and Dr. Richard J. Dunglison, of Philadelphia.

A communication for the Proceedings was received, entitled
“On the Formation and Primitive Structure of the Solar Sys-
tem,” by Professor Daniel Kirkwood, of Bloomington, Indiana.

And the meeting was adjourned.

[Kirkwood

Oct. 6. 1871.] 163

On the Formation and Primitive Structure of the Solar System.
By Proressor DANIEL KIRKWoOD.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Oct. 6, 1871.)

The development of any branch of science is generally a slow and
gradual process, The obvious truths which suggested to Laplace his cele-
brated hypothesis of the solar system had been for ages well known to
astronomers ; but, as in the case of the earlier geological observations,
they had been regarded, without any just reason, as ultimate facts. So
now we have numerous results of observation in regard to the rings of
Saturn, the zone of asteroids, the relative distances of the planets, &c.,
the study of which, it is believed, may lead to new and important discov-
eries. ‘These hieroglyphics older than the Nile,”’ pointing back to the
epochs at which the planets were born, will doubtless in the future be
more or less clearly deciphered, and the ancient history of the solar system
at least partially developed.

It is a very remarkable fact in regard to the systems of both primary
and secondary planets that the periods, without any exception, have very
simple relations of approximate commensurability. This truth, though
obvious on mere inspection, seems not to have attracted the special notice
of astronomers, as no attempt had been made, previous to that of the
writer, to assign its physical cause. A general view of these approxima-
tions is presented in the following tables, where the periods of the primary
planets, Mercury, Venus, &e., are represented by P!, P1?, &e., and those
of the satellites by p', p!?, &c.

I:
Tur PRIMARY SYSTEM.

VIII VIL <
yp TIT __89.37 years==P —1.65y.

ype opi 6 Pa, -14>
peer si, P0008
ph 97 <P +000
pe ckorages vere: 0012
ppl 20.667 << =P: 40.052
2p 0,246 “| =P* —0.005
TI.
Tur JovIAN SYSTEM.
aply ee ognhg <8
in pe +36 40
Lp 9 45

a

164 [Oct. 6,

Kirkwood. ]

Il.
Tue SATURNIAN SYSTEM.
Pe: Vile 4
tp esp + (2)
y "4 h m s
beh ce Mee oceee Gaegly ae |
pve lp 10 bo! 13

VES
Tur URANIAN SYSTEM.

pel. ne pan

api’ pl +6
iy aes 5

apt =p — 1

It is infinitely improbable that all these coincidences should be purely
accidental. Their physical cause is a legitimate object of research, and
the writer is vain enough to believe that he has suggested the true one.*
Before proceeding with our discussion, however, it may be proper to in-
dicate such modifications of the nebular hypothesis as seem to be de-
manded by recent discoveries.

The view generally received in regard to the formation of the solar sys-
tem has been that equatorial rings were abandoned only in the vicinity
of the present planetary orbits. As the writer has elsewhere observed,
however, ‘‘it seems highly probable that, after first reaching the point
at which gravity was counterbalanced by the centrifugal force arising
from the rotation of the contracting spheroid, a continuous succession
of narrow rings would be thrown off in close proximity to each other,
and revolving in different periods according to Kepler’s third law.” But
in this matter we are not left to mere speculation. The zone of minor
planets has evidently not been produced by a single annulus, all the parts
of which had, at first, nearly equal velocities. On the contrary, it must
have resulted from an almost continuous abandonment of narrow rings,
from the exterior limit at the mean distance 3.50, down to the interior,
at 2.20. The rings of Saturn, moreover, afford a similar index to the pro-
cess of planetary formation.

Let us assume, then, the existence of a central mass 8, with a ring R,
and an exterior planet P. The particles of the ring having different dis-
tances from the centre of motion will move with different velocities. Let

*Met, Astr., Ch. XIII., and Monthly Notices of the It. A. S., vol. XXIX.

they

1871.] 165

[Kirkwood.

Sp be the distance at which a planetary molecule would revolve in one
half the period of the planet P. The disturbing effect of P will render
the orbit of p more and more eccentric. The particle, therefore, must be
brought into contact, either in aphelion or perihelion, with other parts of
the ring, thus forming a planetary nucleus at such distance that its period
would be nearly one-half that of the exterior planet. Similar reasoning
will apply to the distances at which the ratio of the periods would be 4,
2, or any simple relation of commensurability. We have thus an ex:
tremely simple explanation of the facts embodied in the preceding tables.
Should it be objected that this theory fails to account for the formation
of the most remote planet, it may be answered that the first separation of
matter from the condensing nebula probably occurred before the mass
had assumed a symmetrical form. The successive ratios of the periods
from Neptune to Jupiter are },}.and2. With Jupiter, “the giant of the
solar system,’’ the process of planet formation seems to have culminated ;
the mass of this stupendous globe being nearly three times greater than
that of all other members of the solar family united. But why have we
no planet of any considerable magnitude whose period is one-half, one-
third, or two-fifths that of Jupiter? It may be answered, in the first
place, that the matter of asteroid ring was so extremely rare that the in-
tersection of orbits failed to produce large planetary nuclei. The ques-
tion recurs, however, whence the smali mass of the ring immediately
interior to the Jargest member of the system? The circumstances of the
primitive asteroid-ring were different from those of any other. As its
successive portions were thrown off at the equator of the solar nebula
they would be liable to great perturbations by Jupiter. The perihelion
distance of portions of the zone might thus become less than the equato-
rial radius of the spheroid by which they had been abandoned. <A consid-
erable proportion of the matter originally separated may have been thus
re-united to the parent mass.*

The writer has shown however, that in the distribution of the mean dis-
tances of the asteroids, we have indications of an order similar to that
of the exterior planets. This fact is rendered still more conspicuous
by recent discoveries. The distances at which the periods of asteroids
would be one-half, two-fifths, and one-third that of Jupiter, are respec-
tively, 3.2776, 2.8245, and 2.5012. Between the mean distances 3.22
and 8.82 no asteroid has yet been discovered; while between 3.12 and
3.22 there are no less than 12. Between 2.78 and 2.88, the interval con-
taining the distance at which five times the period of a planet would be
equal to twice that of Jupiter, only two have been detected ; while in the
equal space immediately interior, from 2.68 to 2.78, there are 21. Finally,
between 2.45 and 2.55, the space in the middle of which an asteroid’s
period would be one-third that of Jupiter, the number of known asteroids
is 4; while in the equal space immediately interior there are 20, and in
that exterior, 15. These facts are certainly very remarkable, and deserve

the earnest consideration of astronomers.
*See Proc, Am. Phil. Soc., Aug. 19, 1870,

Kirkwood. ] 1 66 [Oct. 6,

The preceding table of the primary system seems to indicate the de-
pendence of the periods of Mars and the earth on the powerful mass of
Jupiter. The relations expressed between the periods of the earth, Venus,
and Mercury are sufficiently obvious. It is worthy of remark that the
original distances of the exterior planets have been, in all probability,
sensibly diminished. While the solar nebula was undergoing the process
of condensation all cometary and meteoric matter attracted towards its
centre, would, if the perihelion distance were considerably less than the
radius of the nebula, become incorporated with the central body. This
growth of the solar mass would produce a shortening of the periodic times
of all planets previously formed.

The approximations to commensurability in the secondary systems are
still more striking, and must produce the impression in every inquiring
mind that they are not without their physical significance.

The rings of Saturn formerly supposed to be solid and continuous, are
now regarded as consisting of an indefinite number of extremely small
satellites. They are, in short, a compact cluster of secondary asteroids,
analogous to the primary zone between Mars and Jupiter. In the latter,
it is true, a large proportion of the primitive matter has collected in dis-
tinct, planetary masses ; while a similar result has been prevented in the
Saturnian rings by their proximity to the central body. In one respect»
however, we observe a striking correspondence. It has been shown that
several positions occur in the asteroid zone where planetary periods would
have simple relations of commensurability with the period of Jupiter,
and that portions of the original ring occupying these positions would be
liable to great disturbance. Now, the ring of Saturn is evidently subject
to like perturbation by the nearest satellites. Hence gaps or chasms,
analogous to those in the zone of asteroids, ought also to be found in the
secondary ring. It has accordingly been noticed that Cassini’s, or rather
Ball’s division occurs precisely where the periods of satellites would be
commensurable with those of the four members of the system immediately
exterior.*

But astronomers have sometimes seen the ring of Saturn apparently
separated by several black lines into concentric annuli. At other times,
however, no such divisions could be detected. The fact, therefore, of the
permanence of these gaps is extremely doubtful, except in the case of a

division of the exterior bright ring. This has been frequently seen by °

eminent astronomers ; and it is probable, though not absolutely certain,
that it is never entirely closed. Most observers agree in placing it out-
side of the middle of the exterior ring. Let us now inquire whether any
simple relation of commensurability obtains between the periods of satel-
lites revolving at the distance of this outermost gap, and those of Mimas,
Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione.

4 of the period of Mimas — 12" 56

2 . Tethys = 12 57

* Meteoric Astronomy, Chap. XII,

1871 J 167 { Kirkwood.

1 Dione = 13
2 oe Enceladus — 138 9

5

The interior radius of the outer ring =

eo or
io)
Ja)
oo
Co

The radius of a circle bisecting the outer ring =

‘ ‘ ne h ~,m
The distance of a satellite whose period is 12° 56

rw)
as
is
~z
(oo)

Dh ey

The distance of a satellite whose period is 13” 9 2.1510
The exterior radius of the outer ring == 2.2456

Tt is thus seen that just beyond the middle of the outer ring, where the
division is actually found, another zone occurs in which the periodic times
of satellites would be commensurable with those of Mimas, Enceladus,
Tethys and Dione.

The Facts detailed in the preceding pages are unquestionable. In re-
gard to the proposed explanation of these facts the writer would speak
with becoming caution. In his humble attempt to reduce a large class of
isolated truths to the domain of law some important considerations may
have been overlooked. Be this as it may, he indulges the hope that abler
astronomers may deem the enquizy not unworthy their researches.

Stated Meeting, Oct. 6th., 1871.
Present, fifteen members.
Vice President, Mr. FRALEY, in the chair.

A photograph for the Album was received from Professor
E. N. Horsford, dated Cambridge, Massachusetts, October 29,

Letters of acknowledgment were read from the London
Meteorological Office, September 22 (88, 84, 85); and the
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, December 1, 1870
(XI Pro).

Letters of envoi were received from the Natural History
and Historical Union of Donauerschingen, September 15, and
the United States Secretary of the Interior, Washington, D.
C., September 185, 1871.

A recent letter from Mr. Carlier to Mr Durand, was read
by Mr. Price, who offered a Resolution, which was adopted,
authorizing the presiding officer of the meeting to execute

Cope.] 168 ap Oct. 20,
a Power of Attorney to M. Carlier, of Paris, to receive moneys
on account of the Michaux Legacy.

Donations for the Library were received from Doctor
Zenaro, of Constantinople, the Union at Donauerschingen, the
Prussian and Belgian Academies, Geographical Society at
Paris, Annales des Mines, Revue Politique, the Meteorological
Office and Nature of London, the Montreal Natural History
Society, the American Academy, Natural History Society,
and Old and New of Boston; Mr. Edmund Quincy,
of Dedham, Massachusetts, the American Journal of Arts
and Sciences; Doctor Squibb, of New York, the Franklin
Institute, College of Pharmacy, and Penn Monthly, of Phila-
delphia, the Census Bureau at Washington, and the Historical
Society of Georgia at Savannah,

An obituary notice of the late Doctor Rhoads, of Phila-
delphia, was read by Doctor Henry Hartshorne.

Professor Kirkwood’s paper on the Origin of the Solar
System, was read by the Secretary.

A letter from Professor Cope to the Secretary, on the
reptile and Fish remains in the State Museum of Kansas, was
read by the Secretary.

Mr. Baird communicated his views on the cause of the
decline of vegetable vitality in fruit trees, dating from the
year 1860.

Mr. Lesley read a note on some supposed Egyptian letters,
in the Dolmen of Manelud, in Brittany.

New nomination, No. 679 was read, and the meeting was
adjourned.

Note of some Cretaceous Vertebrata in the State Agricultural College of
Kansas, U. S.A.

By Epwarp D. Corr.

Manwarran, Kansas, 1871.
My DEAR Prov. LEsLey :

A. visit to the State Agricultural College of Kansas at Manhattan, has
enabled me to examine the cretaceous vertebrata contained in its collec-
tion. Professor B. F, Mudge, already well known by his interesting dis-
coveries among the Pythonomorph reptiles and Saurodont Fishes, has

1871,] a: 69 [Core.

added to his collections by an excursion in the neighborhood of Fort
Wallace, during the present summer. By his permission I have made an
examination of these fossils, and find them to be of much interest. Chey
consist of seven species of Pythonomorpha, and three of Sawrodontide.
The following are approximate or exact determinations of them.

PyTHONOMORPHA.

Mosasaurus quite near to M. depressus, Cope, from New Jersey.

Lropon pysPELOR, Cope, probably. The first time that this gigantic
reptile has been discovered in Kansas.

Liopon ; a large species near to L. proriger, Cope. It is represented
by dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebrae, by ribs, and by bones of the
extremities. The humerus is a remarkable bone having the outline of
that of Olidastes propython, Cope, but is very much stouter, the antero-
posterior dimensions of the proximal extremity being greatly enlarged,
The long diameters of the two extremities are in fact nearly at right
angles, instead of in the same plane, and the outline of the proximal is
subtriangular, one of the angles being prolonged into a strong deltoid
crest on the outer face of the bone, which extends half its length. The
inner or posterior distal angle is much produced, while the distal ex-
tremity is a flat slightly curved diamond-shaped surface. The radius is
as broad as long and three quarters of a disc. The phalanges are stout,
thick and depressed, thus differing much from those of Liodon ictericus,
A. bone which I cannot assign to any other position than that of femur *
hasa peculiar form. It is a stout bone but more slender than the humerus.
The shaft is contracted and subtrilateral in section. The extremities are
flattened, expanded in directions transverse to each other, the proximal
having, however, a lesser expansion, in the plane of the distal end, The
former has, threrefore, the form of an equilateral spherical triangle, the
apex enclosing a lateral fossa and representing probably the great tro-
chanter. The distal extremity is a transverse and convex oval.

M.
Length humerus.....--++-+++> PO en, Sec peeen eee U0;
Proximal diameter dO... i. 5 :860 2 ee ope weer eye t es . .095
Length femur ..... De ar 0 ee 08
Proximal diameter do....... cere eee s cere t teeter tsetse eee ees 065
Median Oe ee ot cosy hee A A eeu de conics Saban Oh rer 035
Length centrum dorsal vertebra without DAU eee ees ss 061
Transverse diameter CUP...... eee e seer etree eer ee ees So ee 06
Vertical Die ae sire cablnine ere pheerney sae 30 doo ioe oe Se -053

LIODON LATISPINUS, Cope, sp. nov.

This is a large species, nearly equalling the L, mitchillat in its dimen-
sions, that is forty or fifty feet in length. The remains representing it
consist of seven cervical and dorsal vertebra, five of them being contin-
uous and enclosed in a clay concretion.

* Prof, 0. C, Marsh has discovered the posterior limbs in this genus and Clidastes but has as yet
published no description ofthem. See Sillim, Journ. 1871, p. 448.

A. P. S—VOL. X{I—V

Cope. ] 1 70

[Oct. 20,

These display the elongate character seen in JZ. laevis, etc., but the ar-
ticular surfaces are transversely oval, thus resembling the ZL. tctericus.
They are less depressed thanin L,. perlatusand L. dyspelor. ‘The cup and
ball of the penultimate cervical rise a little more transverse than
those of the fourth dorsal. The last cervical is strongly keeled on the
middle line below, and witha short obtuse hypopophysis marking the be-
ginning of the posterior third of the length ; the median line of the first q
dorsal has an obtuse ridge. There is no keel on the fourth dorsal. The
diapophyses on the last two cervical and three first dorsal vertebra have
great vertical extent ; the articular surface for the rib is not bent at right
angles on the last cervical. Neural arches and spines are well preserved
in most of the specimens. There is no trace of zygantrum. The neural
spines are flat, and have considerable antero-posterior extent on cervica.

as well as dorsal vertebree, and are truncate above. The first dorsal has
a long strong rib.

‘l'ransverse diameter cup penultimate cervical vertebra
Nema Miamapter jot, SAMO 6 UL aeteas. Osi sieic pili! Sin ces ood cles O41

Co er 072
Verticalidiameter, balls ...5.+-.00.... ite dD oytel Mig iin ane sa 0455
Transverse DO 64 edi lark wants Wane a usehbiedt) Ade oe 0555 at
Elevation front margin neural spine penultimate cervical........ -088 Hi?
Antero-posterior diameter do do CO} sévecuihe ye 05

There are smooth bands around the balls and the surfaces of the cen-
tra are striate to these.

The depressed cups of the cervicals and anterior dorsals distinguish
this species from the Z. validus, L. proriger and L. mudgti. The same
elements are much larger and more elongate than in ZL. detertous.

Lropon, sp. near éetericus, Cope.

Represented in Prof, Mudge’s collection by portions of cranium inclu-
ding jaws and quadrate bones, ete., with cervical and dorsal vertebiz.

CLIDASTES VYMANU, Marsh, probably.

/LIDASTES CINERIARUM, Cope. Dorsal and cervical vertebra.

SAURODONTID A.

IcurHyopEcrns, nr. ctenodon, Cope.

ANOGMIUS CONTRACTUS, gen. et sp. nov. ? Saurodontidarum.

Represented by a large series of vertebrae and portions of fins of an in- \
dividual of perhaps four feet in length. The characters of the vertebrae
are those of Ichthyodectes in part, i. e. they lack the lateral grooves, but
they resemble those of Saurocephalus in having the basal elements of the
neural and haemal elements inserted by gomphosis and not codssified
with the centrum. Specifically, the centra are relatively longer than in /
I. ctenodon, and more as in the shorter forms of Saurocephalus, as 8.

prognathus, which species the present one approaches in size.
SAUROCEPHALUS, nr. prognathus, Cope.

187].] 1 4 d. [ Hartshorne.

Obituary Notice of Edward Rhoads, M. D.
By Henry Hartsnorne, M. D.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Phila. Oct. 6, 1871.
y ’

Of those recently deceased, members of a profession which has
contributed a large share of workers to the different fields of biological
science, few have given greater promise, and not many among us have at-
tained to better performance in a short career, than Edward Rhoads.
Unfavorable for the full appreciation of his work, except by those with
whom he was closely associated, has been the fact that much of it has
been unrecorded ; being the daily labor of the practitioner and teacher of
medicine. But it is fitting that this Society, whose pursuits and member-
ship are not narrowly limited, should at least briefly record its recognition
of such high ability and character.

Edward Rhoads was born in Philadelphia, September 29, 1841. After
a good preliminary training, in which an early love of natural science dis-
played itself, he entered Haverford College in 1850 ; and was graduated
there, at the head of his class, in 1859. The rural situation of the college
afforded him an opportunity for the study of Botany, in which he became
well versed while a sudent. Shortly after leaving college, an attack of
rheumatic fever, involving the heart, began those inroads upon his con-
stitution, the repetition of which afterwards abridged his life. In the fall
of 1860 he commenced the study of medicine;,and obtained the degree of
Doctor of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, in 1863. He was
then elected, after a competitive examination, Resident Physician in the
Philadelphia Hospital, West Philadelphia. This was followed, in 1864,
by his appointment as Resident Physician in the Pennsylvania Hospital.
In the midst of his arduous duties there, performed with distinguished
success and with satisfaction to all, he was again affected with articular
rheumatism, which renewed seriously the disorganizing disease of his
heart.

On recovering from this attack, he visited Europe, in 1865, being absent
eight months. In 1866, he was appointed Visiting Physician to the Phil-
adelphia Hospital ; where his professional talent, enthusiam and knowl
edge, and his capacity as a clinical teacher, found free scope for develop-
ment and utility. He was at the same time assiduously engaged in private
medical teaching, as an examiner in connection with the courses of the
University of Pennsylvania, and in giving lectures upon medical chemistry
and connected subjects. In 1870 the faculty of the University appointed
him its lecturer on Physical Diagnosis. His first course of lectures was
interrupted by illness, which prevented his ever resuming the duties of a
public instructor.

In the same year, a number of gentlemen proposing to establish a new
medical journal,—The Philadelphia Medical Times, —its editorship was
unanimously offered to Dr. Rhoads. This duty, which enlisted all his
zeal, and would have illustrated admirably his professional learning and

.
Hartshorne. ] u 7 2 [Oct. 20,

tact, he was obliged to forego on account of his failure in health, which,
after great suffering for several months, ended his life January 15, 1871.

In private practice, Dr. Rhoads was rapidly gaining the confidence and
success which his skill and acquirement deserved ; as well as the warm
and grateful attachment of many families, —which remains in commemora-
tion of his virtues, more faithful than any eulogy, and more endur-
ing than any monument. He was elected to membership, besides the
Philosophical Society, in the Philadelphia College of Physicians, of which
he was Recording Secretary, the Academy of Natural Sciences, and the
Pathological Society. To the proceedings of the latter he contributed a
number of papers. He wrote for the American Journal of the Medical
Sciences several reviews, showing a quick critical apprehension, a large
acquaintance with medical science and literature, and an excellent com-
mand of language. He assisted Dr. J. F. Meigs in the preparation of an
elaborate paper, published in the first volume of the Pennsylvania Hos-
pital Reports, 1868, on ‘The Morphological Changes of the Blood in
Malarial Fever.”’ With Dr. W. Pepper, he contributed to the same vol-
ume the results of an extended inquiry into the “ Kluorescence of the
Tissues of the Human Body, especially in connection with Malarial
disease and the action of Quinia.’’? The scientific spirit which animated
all his professional labors, and which he brought to the investigation of
the great problems of Pathology and therapeutics, thus elevating the vo-
cation of the physician far above routine, was well exemplified in this
paper. Its preparation was suggested by the remarkable observation of
Bence Jones, by whom a fluorescence resembling closely that of a solution
of quinine was found to eccur in solutions of the tissues of animals which
had taken none of that substance. A peculiar fluorescent organic princi-
ple was here inferred to be a normal constituent of the animal body ; and
to this Bence Jones applied the name of ‘ Animal Quinoidine.”’ It was
not an irrational hypothesis, that the systemic effects of the malarial
poison may be attended by an injurious deficiency of this material ; and
that quinine, or the other extractives of Peruvian bark, may be remedial
for the disease, by supplying the system with its equivalent.

Drs. Rhoads and Pepper undertook first, to ascertain whether, by
chemical and spectroscopic analysis, there could be shown to be a marked
diminution in the amount of animal quinoidine in the body under the in-
fluence of malarial disease. They also gave attention to the effect upon
the animal fluorescence produced by the treatment of the attack by sul-
phate of cinchonia. The interesting result was arrived at by a series of
careful and exact determinations, that there is, uniformly, a close con-
nection between malarial disease and the diminution of ‘animal quinoi-
dine ;”’ and that this connection is apparent, not only in the presence of a
fully developed paroxysm of fever, but also when the system is more in-
sidiously, though often very seriously, affected by the morbid cause.

The same exact inquiry into evidence, with the aim to discover and es-
tablish truth, was applied by Dr. Rhoads in his consideration, both theo-

i
|
1

1871.] 173

[ Hartshorne.

retical and practical, of the highest topics, not only of science, but of
philosophy. Contented to accept no truth upon the evidence of mere tra.

dition or hnman authority, his opinions upon religious subjects, being
those held by the Society of Friends of which he was a member, were the
result of deliberate and strong conviction. His fine critical faculty was
brought to bear upon the recent Biblical and anti-Biblical controversies,
represented, upon the one side, in different modes, by Strauss, Bauer;
Comte, Renan and Buckle. In several essays, prepared for special occa-
sions, only one of which, however, has been published, he displayed a
calm mastery of these topics, an amount of knowledge and force of argu-
ment, such as might be looked for rather in a professed theologian than
in an active member of the medical profession.

With all who knew Dr. Edward Rhoads, however, his intellectual en-
dowments, though great, were always perceived to be subordinated to
moral qualities more rare and admirable. From early youth, purity of
life, unselfishness, refinement and elevation of mind, were his marked
characteristics. Few examples so spotless are met with in any profession
or sphere of life. In the large assembly which met at his funeral, words
spoken by several who knew him well, and whose standard of character
was high, were such as might fulfil the aspirations of the most saintly of
men, and which very few, indeed, could deserve,

Stated Meeting, Oct. 20, 1871.
Present, nine members.

Curator, Dr. Carson, in the chair.

A letter, acknowledging receipt of No. 86 proceedings, was
received from the University of the City of New York.

Donations for the Library were received from the Revue
Politique; the Astronomer Royal of England; the Editors
of Nature; the R. Institute of Cornwall; Thomas P. James,
Esq ; the Bditor of the Old and New ; the Meas Chemist ;
American Journal of Medical = flies and Medical News
and Library.

A letter was read from Professor Cope to the Secretary,
dated Fort Wallace, Kansas, 10th month 9, 1871, giving a
preliminary report i his expedition into Be Va le sy of the

Vit4 [Oct. 20,

Cope. ]

Smoky Hill river, Kansas, and descriptions of new fossil sau-
roids and Chelonians discovered and collected there.

Pending nominations No. 679 and new nominations, Nos.
680 and 681 were read, and the meeting was adjourned.

Fort WALLACE, Kansas,
October 9th, 1871.
My Dear Prof. Lesley :—

I write to give a brief account of the expedition of seventeen days,
which I have just made in the valley of the Smoky Hill river in Kansas.
Through the courtesy ef Gen. Jno. Pope, commanding the Department
of the Missouri, I was furnished with an order on the post commandant at
Fort Wallace for a suitable escort. This was furnished by Capt. HE.
Butler (5th infantry), who spared no pains to make the expedition a
success.

We first camped at a spring eighteen miles south of Fort Wallace, and
five miles south of Butte Creek. It had a fine flow of water, and being
without name I called it Fossil Spring. On a bluff, on Butte Creek,
Lient. Whitten discovered the fragments of a monster saurian projecting
from the shale, and on following the bones into the hill, exhumed a large
part of the skeleton of Liodon dyspelor Cope (Proceeds. A. P. 8. for 1870).
This was welcome, as the species had been previously known from ver-
tebre only. The pelvic arch was found perfectly preserved, and the
scapular arch and limbs partially so. The iliac bone is slender and straight,
slightly expanded at the acetabulum. The ischium has a somewhat
similar form, but is curved. The axis of the proximal portion is directed
upwards; the shaft then turns into a horizontal direction, and lies be-
neath and at one side of the vertebral column without uniting with its
fellow. The pubes are elongate, but wider than the other elements and
flattened. They are in contact in front medially, and have an angulate
axis. A short process projects from near the proximal end, on the ex-
terior margin. The femur is a flat bone, slightly constricted medially,
and with a decurved and projecting portion of the proximal articular,
surface on the inner side representing a head. The extremities of the
dentary bones are each drawn to an acute point differing thus toto coelo
from those of the LZ. proriger.

On the same bluff another Liodon and a Clidastes were found, with five
species of fishes.

On examining neighboring bluffs and denuded areas, bones supposed
to be those of Prerodactyle, two species of Clidastes, a Dinosaur, a Croco-
dile, and numerous fishes were brought to light.

In a similar location on Fox Creek canon, one of the escort, Martin V.
Hartwell, to whom I am indebted for many fine discoveries, observed the
almost entire skeleton of a large fish, furnished with an uncommonly

(Cope.

powerful offensive dentition. The jaws were stout, the dentary bone
very deep. The teeth in a single row in all the bones, but of irregular
sizes. There are two or three very large canines in each maxillary, and
one in the premaxillary, three or four in the dentary separated by an
interval. The lack of coronoid bone and many other characters show
that it should be referred to the order Isospondali, and is probably allied
to the herring and the Saurodontidae. The vertebre are grooved, and
there .is a basi-occipital tube but little developed. The teeth are simple
cylindric conic, with smooth enamel, and project two inches above the
alveolar border, and each descends an inch into ityalveolus. The species
and genus are new to our palaeontology, and may be named Portheus
molossus. It turned out on subsequent exploration to have been quite
abundant in the Cretaceous seas. It was probably the dread of its
cotemporaries among the fishes as well as the smaller saurians.

On another occasion, we detected unusually attenuated bones projecting
from the side of a low bluff of yellow chalk, and some pains were taken
to uncover them. They were found to belong to a singular reptile, of
affinities probably to the Testudinata, this point remaining uncertain.
Instead of being expanded into a carapace, the ribs are slender and flat.
The tubercular portion is expanded into a transverse shield to beyond the
capitular articulation, which thus projects as it were in the midst of a flat
plate. These plates have radiating lines of growth to the circumference,
which is dentate. Above each rib was a large flat ossification of much
tenuity, and digitate on the m argins, which appears to represent the dermo-
ossification of the Tortoises. Two of these bones were recovered, each
two feet across. The femur resembles in some measure that ascribed
by Leidy to Platecarpus tympaniticus, while the phalanges are of great
size. Those of one series measured eight inches and a half in length, and
are very stout, indicating a length of limb of seven feet at least. The
whole expanse would thus be twenty feet if estimated on a Chelonian basis.
The proper reference of this species cannot now be made, but both it and
the genuss are clearly new to science, and its affinities not very near to
those known. Not the least of its peculiarities is the great tenuity of all
the bones. It may be called Protostega gigas.

The greater part of a large Liodon proriger Cope was found scattered
over a denuded surface at one point, his huge truncate, bowsprit-like
snout, betraying his individuality at once. Portions of other examples
of this reptile were afterwards found. Remains of several species of Cli-
dastes occurred at various points in the neighborhood of Fossil Spring.
One was found in the side of a bluff fifty feet above the bottom of the
cation ; Martin Hartwell exhumed another near the 0. cineriarum Cope
almost complete.

We subsequently left this locality and encamped at Russell Springs on
the Smoky Hill, twenty-six miles distant. On the way a large Olidastes
of some forty or more feet in length was found lying on a knoll of shale,
with the head displaying the palatal surface upwards. On the Smoky

.
Cope. ] 1 76 (Oct. 20, 1871.
our explorations were attended with success. When we shifted camp, it
was to go to Hagle Tail in Colorado, whence we returned again to Fossil
Spring. The richness of this locality was again apparent, and we added.
to our collection a number of species. Among these may be mentioned
Liodon ictericus Cope and two new Clidastes. The writer originally pointed
out the existence of representatives of the orders Pythonomorpha and
Sauropterygra, in this cretaceous basin. Prof. Marsh’s explorations
determined the existence of Ornithosauria and Orocodilia. The present
investigation adds Dinosawria and perhaps Zestudinata, or the group that
the new form Protostega Cope represents.

The preceding account expresses some of the points of interest observed.
These, with others, now unnoticed, will be included in a final report.

The giants of this sea were the Liodon proriger, Cope, L. dyspelor, Cope,
Polycotylus latipinnis, Cope, and Hlasmosaurus platyurus, Cope. Of
these the first was apparently the most abundant. The second was the
most elongate, exceeding iu length perhaps any other known reptile.
The last named had the most massive body, and exhibited an extraordi-
nary appearance in consequence of the great length of its neck.

For kind assistance, I am much indebted to Capt. Edwin Butler, post
commandant at Fort Wallace, to Dr. W. H. King, post surgeon, and to
Capt. Wyllys Lyman. To Lieut. Jas. H. Whitten and Sergeant W.
Gardner, who accompanied the expedition, much of its success is also due.

Iam, etc., EDW. D. COPE.

Stated Meeting, Nov. 3d, 1871.
Present, eleven members.
Vice President, CRESSON, in the chair.

Letters of envoi were received from the societies at Riga
Chemnitz, Wiesbaden, Lyons and Copenhagen, the University
of Norway, and the Royal Geographical Society at London.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Nassau
N. History Union at Wiesbaden, (Proceedings 78-83,) and
the Imperial Society of Agriculture and Natural History at
Lyons, July 20, (73-81,) requesting the completion of their
series, which, on motion, was so ordered.

Donations for the Library were received from the Societies
at Riga, Chemnitz, Gorlitz, Wiesbaden, Lausanne, Lyons,
Liverpool, Glasgow and Salem, Mass., the Berlin Academy,
Geological Seciety, and Archeological Institute, the Austrian

Geological Institute, Anthropological Society, Herr von Hauer,

Bit

Mr. Neumeyr and Dr. Emanuel Bunzel, the Danish Antiqua-
rian Society, the Norwegian University, the Revue Politique,
M.M. Delesse and Lapparent, the British Association, Meteo-
rological Office, Meteorological, Geographical, Chemical, Geo-
logical, Zoological and Antiquarian Societies of London, the
Editors of Nature, the American Journal of Science and Art,

the Protestant Episcopal Diocesan of Pennsylvania, and the
Chief of Engineers of the U. S. Army.

The death of Sir R. 1. Murchison, in the eightieth year of
his age, at London, on the 23d instant, was announced by the
Secretary.

The loss by shipwreck, in a recent storm, on Lake Superior,
of James T. Hodge, a member of the society, was announced
by Secretary, with appropriate remarks.

Prof Cope made some general observations on the extinct
Batrachian Fauna of the Carboniferous of Linton, Ohio., based
on studies of material obtained by Prof. J. 8, Newberry, Di-
rector of the Geological Survey of Ohio.

Twenty-seven species had been discovered up to the present time,
and not one of them was a reptile ; twenty-three of these were referred
to the following genera: Pelion, Wyman, 1 5 Sauropleura, Cope, 3; Tu-
ditanus, Cope, 43 Brachydectes, Cope, 1; Oéstocephalus, Cope, 6; Cocy-
tinus, Cope, 1; Molgophis, Cope, 1; Phlegethontia, Cope, 2; Colosteus,
Cope, 8; Hurythoraa, Cope, 1.

Tuditanus, Cocytinus and Phlegethontia were described as new genera.
The first represented Dendrerpeton, but possessed the usual three thoracic
shields, a character not yet found in the former genus,

Phiegethontia embraced slender snake-like forms allied to Molgophis,
but without ribs. Cocytinus was a branchiferous genus having four
branchihyal bones, two basals branchikyals and two ceratohyals on each
side, and with conic teeth in the anterior portion of the mandible only,
on an expansion or dental plate. Limbs none in front.

Oéstocephalus was defined as having the three pectoral shields, poste-
rior limbs only present and weak ; head lanceolate ; ventral armature of
packed osseous rods en chevron ; neural and haemal spines of caudal
vertebrae expanded and fan-like. The six species were enumerated, viz :
O. remex, Cope, O. pectinatus, C., O. marshti, C., O. curoidens, C., O.
vinchellianus, ©., O, serrula, C., the last three being new to science.
Other new species were described, as Sauropleura longipes, C., and 8.
brevipes, O., Tuditanus brevirostris, C., 7, mordax, C., and 7. radiatus,
C., Cocytinus gyrinoides, C., Rhlegethontia linearis, C., was indicated as a
species with lanceolated head, no ribs, a very elongate tail, and without
limbs or ventral or thoracic armature. Phlegethontia serpens, C., was
a larger species. A new Colosteus, C. pauciradiatus was added, and an
allied form described as Hurythorax sablaevis. The pectoral median
shield is subround and nearly smooth, and belonged to an animal of four
feet in length.

Sauropleura, Oocytinus, Molgophis, Phlegethontia were enumerated as
genera in which pectoral shields had not been observed, and Pelion and
Tuditanus were characterized as the broad-headed types.

A. P. 8.——VOL. XII—W

Chase. ] 2 78 [ Aug. 18,

CycnicaAL RAINFALLS AT Lisbon.
By Puiny EArLe Cuasn.
Read before the American Philosophical Soctety, Aug. 18, 1871.

The more strongly marked and decisive character of the curves of lunar
monthly rainfall, in Philadelphia than in Great Britain, (ante v. x., pp.
523-84, ) rendered me desirous of obtaining observations from some Euro-
pean station in lower latitude. The intimation of that desire to the
Director of the ‘Observatorio do Infante Dom Luiz,’”’ at Lisbon, was
promptly followed by the transmission of a copy of observations extend-
ing over a period of sixteen years, which is herewith presented. I also
submit some of the tabulated results of such discussion of the observa-
tions as I have already undertaken, which appear to me to corroborate,
in a most satisfactory manner, the views I have hitherto advanced respect-
ing the meteorological influence of the moon. Some of the tables also
afford interesting indications of a somewhat similar planetary influence,
sufficient, as it seems to me, to encourage further investigation.

One of the objections most often urged against the acknowledgment of

TABLE I.

LUNAR MONTHLY.

SOLAR YEARLY.

Ae A. +
Dec. Mar. Apl. July. Aug. Nov. Yr. || 18554.3N* 1856/3N* 185743N® Av,
ites, -—s> - ite, Zeta FF

ee OR
NI RON ON, HN he ON,

82 154.5 95 106 || 1847 102 275.7 192 2389 160 1 ‘6
89 143.1 104 106 120.7 121 329.7 186 112.6 143 148
94 156.5 103 99 216.8 158 139.9 161 121.8 131 152
97 124.4 98 90 451.38 192 176.4 138 161.4 130 158
98 104.9 81 85 342.9 194 193.6 127 109.0 135 156

109 (74.0 98 105 112.5 69 200.7 99-1918 182 95
HG 7. Ud, 118 118.9 59 33.8 75 1688 118 80
118 987.0188 (0126 23°: 868 31 649° 49 «32
107 118.7 122 118 6.845 1585.3 .

101° 146.9 122 117 IG 8 Od 0 6.2 219
107 195.1 184 126 || fo Oe fy oo 7k
123 2041 141 135 COCO t 8h AO 0RBes 9
188 207.5 182 135 129 3318 + 88.0 5b 114) «696-16
145 135.5 114 124 20 223 42H 4 92. | 88,1. 30. 97
185 98.9 98 106 021° 45 20.8 50- 853 46 47
108 163.9 87 85 08,55 88: 1186 297. 8607. Ba © 80
4 69.5 "7 68 231.2 129 261.2 185, 635 72 116
oo 3h), 7 342.7 166 223.1 150 148.0 (92 141
64 120.7 °°) 67 304.1 192 157.6 142 74.8 109 153
82) BB As iii Y, 208.5 212 152.3 134 140.4 185 166
7 94 134.4 82 86 625.4 216 226.5 131 143.2 174 177
28......1187 95 79.6 94 1242 88 9] 275.6 182 101.5 184 841.4 200 171
29. 219.1- 105-6210 7 86 102.7 8) 98 85.9 131 214.0 150 377.8 195 154

214.7 118 44.5 79 714 84 100 || 177.3 104 9186 174 143.5 177 146

* 1855, °58, °61, °64, °67, °70;

1856, °59, 962, 765, 768; 1857, °60, *63, °66, 69

1871-] 179

[Chase,

any appreciable lunar or planetary influence upon rainfall or other atmo-
spheric phenomena, is based on the different, and sometimes contradictory,
results obtained by different investigators, from observations in different
places and at different times; another arises from the difficulty of con-
ceiving any tidal or other force adequate for the production of any con-
siderable disturbance. Nevertheless, such of the objectors as are familiar
with Howard’s discussion of the moon’s influence upon the barometer;
Sabine’s, of lunar disturbances of terrestrial magnetism; or Schwabe’s and
Wolf’s, of the dependence of sun-spots upon planetary configurations,
seem to admit—at least I am not aware that any of them deny—the prob-
ability of the conclusions which those eminent observers have severally
expressed.

If it is conceivable that Saturn, Jupiter and Venis can in any way
affect the cloudiness, or arnount of spotted surface of the the sun, not-
withstanding the immense preponderance of his attractive, magnetic and
other supposable forces, it is surely much more easy to imagine that they
may similarly affect the meteorologic phenomena of the earth, which op-
poses an antagonizing mass only 574.55 (according to Newcomb’s esti-
mate) as great as that of the sun. If the lunar tides of our atmosphere
are of sufficient magnitude to affect the barometer, the consequent waves
must effect a blending of aerial currents of different temperatures and

TABLE II.
Correspondent Rainfalls at Lisbo

n, in Lunar and Solar periods.

3B LUNAR MONTHLY. | SOLAR YEARLY.

DAY OR |

wh
1861-65. 1866-70. Av.
2 ya
Bee Nu Be Ne aS

208.2 150 178.7 71 146

ef 1855-60. 1861-65. 1866-70. \ AY.
al ¥:

d¢
1
2

59 526 56 314 47 55

ee

22 1S < AB BUC peer ed
LQ: he 7 18 9 tO: 2 2G
0 Wt 9 Or BO ee

7 ele Gil ald. C29
id’ 15. 1b 34.5, 220, #16
- SO 2 OG a og
4° 220 4] 2648 1 47
AO + 608'> 860 04. 2272750
124 261.7 186 .75.8..99 146
9 2540 171 1092 73 141
179 8120 176 |. 8.7270 be
194 156.8 165 45.9 124 166
191 238.4 156 298.7 185 177
163 233.9 149 261.0 211 171

1 80 (Aug. 18,

Chase ]

different degrees of humidity; and in consequence of the stratification of
the upper and lower winds, this blending offers a unique opportunity for
the practical study of the opposite tidal tendencies in deep and shallow
fluid seas or envelopes. If the lunar are as unmistakable as the solar
modifications of magnetic phenomena, the analogies which have been
pointed out, by Messrs. Baxendell and Bloxam between magnetic and
pluvial and by myself between pluvial and auroral curves, are indicative
of other possible lunar influences which are equally unmistakable. If the
difficulty of conceiving an adequate cause for a supposed phenomenon were
to deter us from inquiring whether an apparent dependence were real or
illusory, all progress in science would become impossible. Finally, if it
can be shown that solar rain-curves exhibit different, and often contra-
dictory inflections, similar to those which are objected to in the lunar
curves, and if a consistency of disagreement can be shown between the
lunar results at two given stations, accompanied by a consistency of agree-
ment between the results in different cycles at the same station, the ar-
gument from apparent contradiction will be deprived of all its force.

I have no hope of thoroughly convincing any one who is skeptical of
lunar influence on the weather by deductions from observations at one
or two, or a half dozen stations, but I believe that any one who will ex-
amine, carefully and impartially, the tables I have already published,
based on observations in India, Great Britain, Portugal, Canada and
different portions of the United States, will at least be willing to admit

TABLE III.

1871.] 1 81 [Chase.

that the question is an open one. And if he will compare my previous
tabulations with those which accompany the present paper, he may, per-
haps, find any lingering skepticism shaken, however prejudiced or invet-
erate it may be.

For convenience of comparison, I represent, in each instance, the mean
rainfall for the entire period under consideration by 100, and any devia-
tion from the mean, whether of excess or deficiency, is denoted by the
addition or subtraction of a corresponding percentage. The smoothing
by successive means is uniform in all the tables. I invite special atten-
tion to the columns of lunar rainfall at Lisbon, in each of the first two
tables, representing two different sets of three independent periods, averag-
ing 64 months, a cycle which T have hitherto supposed too short to yield
any satisfactory results. If there is no causal nexus, it is difficult to imagine
any possible reason for the striking similarity between the ordinates for
the different cycles, a similarity which I think quite as striking as that
between the solar curves at the same station for independent periods of
similar duration. If the lunar disturbances are considered as merely
tidal, while the solar are partly tidal, but principally thermal, their rela-
tive magnitudes suggest interesting comparisons between centrifugal and
centripetal forces, analogous to those which I have hitherto had the
honor of presenting to the Society.

The resemblance between the independent curves in Table III. is not
very marked ; but the yearly mean is curiously like the yearly averages of
the lunar monthly ordinates in Tables I. and IL., if we construct the
curves so as to compare the ordinate of Jupiter’s opposition, No. 16, with
the ordinate of lunar conjunction, No. 1, and vice versd.

Sn fh ane pasuir te

TABLE IY.
Comparative Daily and Yearly Rainfalls.

Bx PHILADELPHIA. GREENWICH.
be ee CR ee ee i See ee rs ee a
a of Averge Ave’ge
OR June. Dec. April Oct. Daily. Annwl]. Jan. July. April. Oct.
oe 123 92 “120 eee
2 111 78 130
3 92 72 127
As 17 gs 118
Bi. 69 7 103
6.. a 73 86
40% 79 8 77
Bes

56 87 64
55 85 67
66 90 uh
92 100 82
131 116 94
172 136 11

\
é

Chase. } 182

[Aug. 18,

The tendency to opposition between rainfall curves on opposite sides of
the Atlantic, of which I have already submitted some illustrations to the
Society (ante, p. 38, &e. ), is interestingly shown near the solstitial and
equinoctial per iods, by Table IV.* Columns 6 and’ 7 of the same table
indicate a similarity between the curves of daily and annual rainfall at
Philadelphia, which lends additional interest to my comparison of pluvial
and auroral curves (ante, pp. 121-22).

EXPLANATION OF FIGurss.

The horizontal lines represent the average rainfall ; each vertical space
represents a deviation of .2 of the mean value ; each horizontal space

represents two days in the abscissas of the lunar ‘curves, or +; of a year

in the abscissas of the solar curves. The lunar curves begin and end with
the day of new moon; the solar curves with January 1.

FORE Cet R OR SEER EARRMBEGED
EGAN EVONVs ONREES

PAE fap HN ale

| Ng
PACELLI bled
BABN 7970 81 /BREABBD
ERLE Eo)

cual
Sea pL a! CUTPSGAEEGE HY PSUR
EN

Fig, 1.—Lunar Curves,
December to March, inclusive : ; continuous line.
April to July, inclusive ; broken line.
August to November, inclusive ; dotted line,
Solar Curves.
1855, Rs ‘61, 64, ae 70; continuous line.

1856 62, 165 5, ; broken line.
1857, 60, 63, 66, 160: dotted line.
Big 2.

1855-60 ; continuous line.
1861~65 ; broken line.
1866~’70 ; dotted line,

* ?—P

ublished by permission of Prof, Benjamin Peirce, Supt. U. 8, Coast Survey.

[Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.

Aug. | Sept.| Oct.

July.

183
LISBON RAINFALL.

SIGS eG Seiccl'c)

FEN OSSS RGAE ese acs ns

|
|

|Feb. |Mar.| Ap. May. June.

Jan.

}

|
|

Day.|Dee.

1871.4

a DOABAGCAAD OM HONDO OASIIGHIODIONOA PO | a
$ mH Oda osHtorasdsr SEALE SaSonetsanwod te bt
° MAMOADANN AMMAN NAIDOO MH Noort al
ia
aS ae a. ra Ne ~ ma i
5 a ri S S <i
A |
one DOK ‘en i ior 2 |
SscssH od iS | ©
9D eo)
oe Oana Oo Neo a
roo tH aod |?
oe -. on oD Cig eee seg iD
of mo Le
ae 2 Sie =
Read s
=]
eS —— —___— —
2 S
r=] Ss
3
: onl Sad SOMD OD as |=
Ss nm AHS rin |"
~ ANOROA ONS Onn oO HO WSRNHO |
CHSEGHS HNS Criss S SS Oia red =
ri a en) oD
oe one ae oe ae Meme 6s
DAC R Hd Or Sn Q
RASHANSHHGASN ot HISS od
oA rm fe)
as Z aot
DOD DHADmOHKDOH [eS eo
ONO SSHGARO Sri s for}
nm oa
1
MDNOCOGDHAHGAAHN ONADOOE HE HODHAGIO ro
BH SHSBSAANAS SSSASSSSASHAOS TE 05 =
ON Aad g
re, oo REangtk oorans ogo |
os) rid SOSH cs SSHBEH Aja
Atel,
=
TAN HID OP ORMOND OMOROMAMVHIOON OPO F
FRAN NNANANANN GOO OF

“OG8T ‘T “00 0} ‘CesT ‘T “00d

os pe DOr OPIOID GINO PWM OIA OAOA HONDO MIDOMA ee 2 FORO ROM DOMUMNOEAANDHDORONOPHONONAY |
a 3 FAH HHASASSiQGWOSWSG SH Aid die ddd Hdd m3 Sad HASHES SHO SGSHRASHSGADSADSGSAGS iA
= ios RAS Ors wr AN SSANRA* SSSA ASRS |S Ss Be eT BSR SK TB SRGIHRSBGARASAA st
= | a oe) =
< a PQoNneo 2 C222 Seco wt 12 s co 00 NINH HOPE AOR ANDAR SHAAOQONN ray
sae rr 19S Lal Or S S ~ SESSKASBSSSSSANASEHSOASSG Bal
| 2 a A an Read nes [8 i) aes AGboR BPP SCR? RAS a Gy
ay A
Ea ah |
us AID © ow MAS WH eit | on IDIDIDOD Dram |
aS x ar FSS x i + ais $OoN AEE ot}
i= rir pS el ey i rt Rs rt oO}
° Be aa
13 ase BSS AN oe es Ee if 34 c CONN CS BS
i = re sari Sod oS r a s S06 oN od
2 al o a 6
= n
eae : Re can a | a) ag S
- Sid cs orl eo ro rs 3
= ‘ a 3 = |
ot eee aaa “a Se
=| : eS ae x fae ee |
| ay s s B S Ss
|| 2 2 |
Ee | |= is ae
A = o3 Scouow i Ss a 3
ool S =
=H = mae of =
< S md
DO |= = ES co Eo
— a 2S Pole tar) = Ratoots a S&S 1 2aac Sonn So a}
Z, yy on Scnont so FHssnad a SSS WSANS I Qt
— at rN o AN}
& =I =| |
i ae a Be ae rote ma a = S ‘ “ON Go cow a i)
i Si i SK Of oor so Ss o 3 a cos Co stMM a os |
pee Bee
eae | ae SELEY! mw Sis Os CON na am AWIS =. F 2S mD5 a a Chis
i] 3 No ri ri ao ~~ XS ns nr adl|Ss 3 S6cr di Ss oO aid fr
s nt oO ss Or E|
js SF a eae |
1} “4 1 Mon POWMONNDONANGD rh ar be Aas IDIQ COE MI HID OOH es CHITA ONON 1o)
1} Bis SSSSNSSMHGH Wr T=) 58 © AKSSSHHSHS ar dsotnoosdic n
| OO Or nN Cc aa rin Ad &%D
as re I if ie
a a2 OD OO SHO stagoo CON 1D rRAsAnD co fH | o oo on 1c |
N = rice ridw SS SOSHS uw fad 3 ne} ~t S300 ol
3 | x 5 -
= LPs SHHwHS FRR SSHNe DN IDAHO 1 op < a Co) Sie
. | GOSSOS sgssans Nobel SOoN a } no fos} Ne
A | = ) a rt 8 |
a ia Qa |
ea pat malls a ee
2 Hos oy ls ca re}
= | 3 FAN OD IDO WRON AQ HIGOMWOBOINB MOSHE LESH = s PANO HID OLR DW AOHAM MOON DMOMNAMMOOH NHN | 5)
1| RAM ANNANAANANAN SO | SRAM ANANNANANANH OO | F|
a aA RD a Z|
2 : |
by « 7 tr * |
° LEST ‘T 99 04 *9S8T ‘T “Oo ‘ SSB “T° G81 T 00 |

stale =<) --) wD
Os ri

Nov. | Total

a
a
pe
aS
Q
=
a
pas
a
2
jo}

nedcadosead i
Attn =)

}

=H
oOo.

Belen cncse evan gegendsisat goes
RANA WARN

rt

Aug. | Sept. | Oct.

July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Noy. | Total

|June. |

185

July.

560.2

11.5 a

31.4

LISBON RAINFALL.
Ap. | May.

Mar.|

|
|

Mar.) Ap. | May. June.

oor Ss
oS
Ss
a
in eS
a
Io Oe ee
~~ rics 19 rod
ao ma
a a on
coal
nS
Ae
OO
and
ao
ol S

WDHD CO rdoD
os rns

SOAINBTADHD HOW
BAHrriviaiaseded ond
AMODOS Celso
AoHHGHAS aS
N rie
CON
SS
ad
ee
wN Aaoow leoftal-~ j
ss ANSS BSS
Calta! < oO
oo a

Dec. | Jan. Feb.

Day.|Dec. | Jan. |Feb

1871.

FAN OD HID COE HG Or A ed HD
Aden

“6S8T ‘T 00d 09‘

a
a
=

Day.

TAN CO HINO OO Or Ico Hee OP
—

SaaS ean

“0981 ‘I “00 09 ‘6S8T ‘I “0

2G 8 ye

27.3

Be VOL

mo pele ar BOOAY

AF,

Sum, 64.1 117.5

Obs. Inf, D. Luiz. ]

Zz
Lint
<t |
oat
Z
a
<
a=]
Zz
‘e)
|
ND
a |
|

|

Noy. | Total

02 S10 00 00 69 00 1 rH AO b= 2 00 O21 £0 1 MH LOT GO P~ OD Es SH HID ISD

Sept.| Oct.

6.5

| 168.5' 118.9 8819

5S BSS hog is saidse
er ho

ac

Aug.

June.| July.

Ap. | May.

Mar.

|
|
|

AHO ME NOAH SHOAVHOREN
oiQrggSuansiDsasearnagass

aS
oon
re

Nemo iwias Sra as ns SosSvicrad
rAd nA Ort

Day.| Dec.|Jan. Feb.

“T9ST ‘T 09 09 “O98T ‘TAC.

; =
Ap | May. Jenet suty.| Aug. | Sept | Oct. | Nov. |

|
|

Mar. |

Feb.

)

Day.

Dec. van

|

MANO SHIDO Er

‘ZOST ST Oa 0} ‘T9ST “T 08d

ei oe

115.91 189.9!228,2) 20.5

Sum! 58.6

| 104.9 830.8

SI
=]
S|
A
oat
a
fai
a
2
jo}
tc

187
LISBON RAINFALL.

1871.]

V1 “E98T ‘I “00d 09 ‘Z98T ‘I “00d

2 WOMATMHOHMOMIDNHSIQ INNHRNAMOHOM OO
$ SAHSSAHSSBSASNSBHHIS els]
S ADS AU AGN AG a

a
s = =
iE nd =
AT Pee haa HOINONMO a nS FeO
3 igi int serine baler ee eae oe ah
nicdak ans rs
5 Briain S
-
43 oO Bere 1D DOA HS i
a = a) nm SocHria i
B
en ay Site eee ed
= Sas
=} | +
oe * hls peepee eae eee
ON
Z nai
2
eS Se ee a © eee Soe
oS | n+ So co
S|
ae ie “a ce Pea retro | ee
S Ss So Orsord
S aa
=
ey es wo Gre a Res sie Gee
a | cg Ss a
Las
Hert
\|_= 2 ee Fi
i ae eee anes oe creatine tee Cee a
ees 2 a
Pe | =
|
{fa 9. NOt ooroNG® ~ eae = (<S)
\| @ Is NGS ~ dai
|! 3 | aa A
|
Siecle ess ppaeeere Ss es ee
fe a ee pole
ea Saicd As
| & a i
| = Se ee a eee ead ad "= ee
tea
ll @ NGO HID OL WM OCHAC HIN Oh OBOUNMHIOOh DRO
‘ies SSA PRA SAS MANAANAAAAN Go
|}

11.0) 544.7

8

“642 10

um

| ODES OU TH HOOD IH OD MON TAM OMAOMHHDWOMOIDAH HOD | S|
Sy WSOHSSHAAGBSEK SSA DSH SSAASHSHSrSN | H
° AV AN ASO A BM MAMAMHArONOAN Cort |
po
° ox a on eb ee ta, e
a Soa 315 ads oS Ss
é sn S15 a S
ees, AON WS a ~ NOIDDO AOA |
Pe} =e td or OM ea rt ea eee ee ees ee le) es
Onn 3 irr ssornsss [a
2 Eee a a BRAT RO aA IS
o a
- Sao a eee
3 Se) SO S Ss
i) al
MR
ob eee |
Ss 3)
a = =
es ae ee . or caamaer oe EST. eee oe eee eg ea
> : :
i) | =. =
5
: SS pe _ — $$$
co) ee [ —-
P| ~ SS a S
EI al
Lar)
ae eno a Ln ae eee tees ag aya
| @ iSaicd airs aa |
| | rs ri rc >
|
Se i ———— aaa a
a SS ried S sats é
= | Sor Ss di
<q
“eg | A Howonmnss ei WSHnHEAS Ga
oS SB odorrndt SSsdeSH W
est ae | rig ri nnn ine)
a s Rae OLLI,
a Ween tee soa PD oenoca cart
3 Sood GASHHSSE
a al al
at —— — ———____—_—____—— —
Spare eee Som or To
= sHiso on or
co NO a i
uc) ite Sine canada me Rann aah: Fe
og oO
3 | Ss
=
2) ae
s 1
3 MOD HID OLD WOOHAM HINGE OBONAVMAOONDRON
a | TAN OD HO CO 0 oS SAAN ANA AAA Alcs 09

‘POST L000} ‘COST ‘T “00d

Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.]

LISBON RAINFALL.

June.| July.| Aug. | Sept. | Oct.

LQ 00 CO XH OD,
SANSA SSSSSSS

NS

CO ee a ae Re aor

OOS OHO ORM Or
eons
ro

Nov. |Total

{
|

Nov. Total

SDOMAMMRAROMOAHHHADOMONMOOHOrMDS

BIKA GRBIGNAOAA GOR IBA
Se os epicoat ON °RSASRS

a ao
<>. Oa

Oct.

+
~

|
|

| Aug. | Sept.

No rH hors
TI OS SSAS

Hit iol 233

=
i

emiaa ares carer = ted

I

| = ASOHHOS MQ
i: Pt ODINNRHOS
|

Src notior

iD HOD CD OD CO COIS

BSHrASWHANS
taal

BS esr od i oe
ON

a
Ci
ial
=)
a
oe
oa
=
a
o
<a
a
3
1.
3
oO
Qa

|

June.; July.

May.

| TAN OD HIQDO DOOM A HD
er

"GOST “T “09 09 “F98T ‘T

Or-oo
denn

Sum! 116.5/ 204.8} 50.31 27.81 29.3) 102.11

Day.| Dec.|Jan, Feb. Mar.) Ap.

TAN SD HINEOHh OMONA CD HY
ras

‘Q98T ‘E “oe 02 “COST ‘T “00

38.5! 86.31 140.5!

0) 59.0! 95.7) 1

(Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.

189
LISBON RAINFALL.

1871.]

| Aug. ous Oct. | Noy. | Total

June.) July. |

Sees,

mo

aq Somos

So OAHooa
vos} 4

“A

0.1

| Feb. Mar.) Ap. | May.|

|
| Dec. | Jan

ay.|

l

D

1
| “RAGAHOAHANOON WOSSH 0

SHE AAS SSHSANA SGrstdscH

| 6Srrnitsns SO Re Ge ase >
| NAO AA AA AMANO IN ON rior | 2
| a oO DSSS CONDOM NMGDHONMM c=
oS 3 1Orwicd FHA NOSSSHAHs oo

| nos a rs) a6
a

ee: <p [a
al S
is

1 49.71

24.0
7

TANTO HID COP 00 MOTI NOD H1D OF- ODONINMHNOh DRO
Ann AnANHANN aN aa)

“LOST ‘L “99 09 ‘99ST *T “09

TAN OD SHIN COP OO OMA Hi9 Or
Sean

POMONA MHIOS
ar

ANAAAANNANN Moo

Sum! 89

“S98 ‘T ‘00cT 03 ‘L981 ‘T 99d

acca

Dee. 1. 1868, to Dec. 1, 1869.

Dee. 1, 1869, to Dee. 1, 1870.

Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.]

190

LISBON RAINFALL.

Ap.

= ;
Sept.

1 0
2423.5

3 0.4; 7.7] 0.2)
4 5.2| | |
Bo Lo | |
6

yl ee |
Sele
9 |
10 | 12.3) 0.1
a 5.8] 8 |
12 | 62.7| 17.0
18 | 13.0) 0.6 | J
14 2.3|
15 | 167) 14 |
16 | P02

7 435.8 18
Te weal, | 8.2
19 i} 18.2) | 0.5]
20. | 15.6 | |
CAGE ED. 7.0}
22 | 5.8| 1.0) |
28) 0.2) °0:3)
24 | 13.3) 2.0 |
D5 | - 8.0
26 | ae |
27 | 3.4) 9.0) |
ue} 08] 5.0 |
29 | 6.3) 0.2 |
30 | 0.3] 160
Sy | 6.3

Sum | 202 5! 97.5

Sod
EO

ay

PONS 5.389
Minow

0.2

ae

0.3

Su oo
to

SRS eee

BNWT

a) 274! 96.0 29 0.2 0.0

|
|
|
|
|

1.0)

ea!)
9.2)

beat

Sum |191.0! 49.61 125.1 67.1

~ 24.51 83.4!

Day.|Dee.| Jam Feb, ar Ap. ‘May. June. July. | Aug. Sept. Oct. Lov.
oat aaa ae See i Cae {

| | 0.2 1.6
Po es sed
i ee | 1 2.6 BL
6 | 99 0.8 3, | 5.$
Lea i at al oe Pe
3 153) al 8.0; 2.0) 40.3
age 5.5 | 12] OT] 8.5
i | 3a pe | 0.2 30| 0.2) 144
12 . | Bal 0.2, 5.7) 10.0
13 | 14) | | 0.3 | 2.4 iy
14 0.8} | | | 0.31 ie
15 0.4) | | | 3 41
6 | | | 9.
17 | 0.2| 0) oa} | a 56
8 | | . ; 3.1) 3.
19 1.5} 28.5| | | 3.3} 0.6 12.
20 | 19.3) } 180.6 a0 | oe
21 7.3] Pi | | . | He
oye alee eal as 9
i ig Gee ee 0.8 40-1
24 jes G7) | | ae
5 Pe 40] | | 47
DG TU 8 3912 al os
oT As Ue) esl 22 3.7 | Ls
28 ie 3.6| | | 1
29 | .§ | | | f
30 | 26.4} 3.0 8.7 38.1
BL | IL7| 0 | ee one 2%.
5 aol 8.9! 2.5 0.2! 19.21 2221 41.51 99.61 6025

|

191 [{Cope.

Remarks on Hyrti’s Collection.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society.)

Prof. Cope stated that this collection embraced 800 skeletons, each
with the branchial apparatus mounted separately. A large proportion
of the specimens measured two feet long and upwards. The Selachians
were not very numerous. Among them was to be noted a saw-fish from
the South Pacific Ocean. The Dipnoi were represented by two perfect
specimens of the Protopterus annectens from Central Africa. The Cros-
sopterygians were present in five specimens of Polypteri—some from
Central, others from West Africa. Of Ganoidsa fine series of Lepidosteus,
Sturgeons, Spatularia and Amita.

The series of Nile fishes was probably the fost. in existence. The
Mormyride were especially complete and represented by large specimens.
There were two of Gymnarchus niloticus, each three feet in length. Many
of the specimens were obtained at Chartum, in Nubia, others came from
Gondokoro on the White Nile between lats. 4° and 5° N.

The Australian fauna was well represented. From it might be selected
the genera Schwettea, Neosilurus, Gadopsis and Parapistus. Numerous
species from Samarang, Singapore and Polynesia were included, and the
Osteoglossum formosum from Borneo required especial mention. The
ichthyology of Hindostan was well represented. The Mediterranean
series was very complete. Among them was to be noted a specimen of
the rare Ruvettus speciosus, three feet in length, one of Trachypterus liop-
lerus still larger and an Alepocephalus rostratus. From the Canary Islands
were some uncommon varieties, as Veséarchus nasutus and Centrolophus
ovalis.

The North American series was good, especially the Catostomide.
There were numerous West Indian species, and a good representation
of South American; chiefly from Chili, Puerto Cabello, Rio and the tribu-
taries of the Amazon and Essiquibo. The latter were mostly from Nat-
terer’s collections, and embraced many forms of Siluroids, Characins and
Chromids.

The specimens were prepared by Prof. Hyrtl himself, which was an
unequalled guarantee of their completeness in all respects, to the most
minute. The preparation of the supplementary ribs of the Clupeidm
(herring) was to be noted as an especially difficult task which had been
successfully accomplished. The collection appears to have been com-
menced by Prof. Hyrtl not later than in 1850, and had been an object of
interest to ichthyologists and anatomists for several years. It was prob-
ably the most valuable collection for study in this department in exist-
ence, and Prof. Cope thought it cause of satisfaction that it had arrived
safely in the United States.*

* The liberality of Cope Brothers in transporting it free of charge from Liverpool to
Philadelphia was acknowledged.

192

Prof. Cope remarked upon the peculiar features of some of
the figures on the plates in Benzel’s Reptilfauna der Gosau-
formation.

Stated Meeting, November 17, 1871.
Present nineteen members.
Mr. Fratery, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. Phillips and General Tilghman, recently elected, were
introduced to the presiding officer, and took their seats.

A photograph of Mr. Chabas was received for insertion in
the Album.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from M. I’. Chabas,
dated Chalon sur Sadne, Oct. 21, 1871 (Proc. 88, 84, 85); from
the Linnean Society, London, Aug. 2 (xiv., i. 82, 83, 84, 85) ;
and from the Smithsonian Institution (86).

A letter from the Linnean Society announced the sending
of publications.

Donations for the Library were received from the Prussian
Academy, the Montsouris Observatory, the Astronomical and
Linnean Societies, the London Nature, the Boston Public Li-
brary and Dr. Samuel A. Greene, the Franklin Institute, the
College of Pharmacy, the Medical News, the Penn Monthly,
Mr. Latrobe of Baltimore, and the California Academy of
Sciences.

A letter was received from Mr. leary W. Field, dated Royal
Mint, London, Oct. 22d, accepting his appointment to prepare
an obituary notice of the late Sir John F. W. Herschel.

ella

193

Mr. H. C. Carey read an obituary notice of the late Stephen
Colwell, pursuant to notice.

The death of John Edwards Holbrook, M. D., formerly
Prof. Anat. Med. Coll South Carolina, which took place at
Norfolk, Mass., Sept. 7, 1871, was announced by the Sec-

retary.

The death of Ed. W. Brayley, F. R.S., Feb. 1, 1870, was
announced by the Secretary.

A memoir for the Transactions: On the Tours of the Chess
Knight, by M. Serge de Stchoulepnikoff, was received, with a
letter from the author, dated Circleville, O., Nov. 8, 1871, and,
on motion, referred to the following Committee; Prof. George
Allen, Mr. Pliny E. Chase and General Tilehman.

A Note on the Footmark in Hieroglyphic Script, by M. F.
Chabas, of the Institute of France, was read by the Secretary.

Note of F. Chabas, of the Institute of France, on the Foot-mark in the
Hieroglyphic Seript.

I find in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Vol.
XI., p. 812) the following statement :

‘“‘Mr. Lesley referred also to the fact that the ancient Egyptian B was
graphically represented by the leg, A by the arm, T by the hand, and
that what is called the comb may have been meant for the foot-mark.’’

I am not acquainted with any hieroglyphic character bearing in its
graphical form a nearer resemblance to a comb than [Mr. Chabas here
gives the M as in the first King’s name, Mena,] the larger drawings of
which show manifestly to be a chess or draught-board with its men.

But the feet occur in the hieroglyphic script, not with a phonetic but.
with a symbolic worth. They are a mark of the actual presence of the
delineator. When a pious Egyptian repaired to some place of worship,
in a distant country, he would sometimes, as a token of his zeal, incise a
figure of his two feet on some stone in the neighborhood. Similar sculp-
tures were observable on the terrace of the temple of Khons at Karnak,
and have been published by M. Prisse d’Avennes; the name, pedigree and
titles of the pilgrim are generally written close to his sculptured feet,
which are represented either naked or shoed; in one case they are re-
placed by the soles or feet-marks.

This practice was probably very old, but either from the scarcity of
monuments or the neglect of observers, it can not be traced up in the first
empire. One of the instances published by M. Prisse refers to the reign
of Apries.

F. CHABAS.

Chalon sur Sane, Oct. 21, 1871.

A. P. 8.—VOL, XII—Y.

194

Mr. Lesley explained that he referred to the comb-like syl-
lable Kam which occurs frequently with the signification
“black ; to become black,” and therefore, as the name of Egypt
Kam “black land,” the HaM of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its
verbal meaning is “to advance or be advanced to completion,”
and is so used in reference to any work, building or monument.
Although the figure is drawn with a square heel, yet the slant
of its front end, and the setting upon it of five points like toes
suggests a plausible explanation of its meaning to advance,
provided it be allowed to represent the human foot, which
otherwise does not appear in Egyptian, except in profile and
in connection with the leg. Why Bunsen should call it the
tail of a crocodile it would be difficult to explain. Diimichen’s
plates of the legends on the walls of Dendereh do not give the
figure on a scale large enough to decide upon its original
shape, and I have never happened to see it on the monu-
ments.

Mr. Cope presented for publication in the Proceedings, with
four octavo plates, a communication on certain extinct verte-
brata in the strata of North Carolina; and illustrated a sketch
of his paper by exhibiting some of these fossil remains.

The Minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and
Council were read.

Pending nominations Nos. 679, 680, 681, and new nomina-
tion No. 682 were read.

Mr. Fraley reported that he had duly executed the Power
of Attorney in the case of the Michaux leeacy and transmitted
the same to M. Carlier.

The request of Dr. Somers, Prof. Chem. Southern Univer-
sity at Greensboro, Ala, was referred to the Committee on
Publication, and the meeting was adjourned.

Nov. 17, 1871.] 195 [Carey.

Obituary Notice of STEPHEN COLWELL.

(Read before the American Philosophical Soc., Nov. 17, 1871.)

By Henry C. Carey.

A life protracted considerably beyond the allotted threescore years and
ten has brought me, in the course of nature, to the position of survivor
to a host of personal friends whose lives had made them worthy of the re-
membrance in which they yet are held by those who had known them
best. Of one of the worthiest of those whom I have familiarly known,
and for their words and their works have most esteemed, it is that, in ac-
cordance with the request with which the Society has honored me, I have
prepared the brief memoir that will now be read. For its preparation and
for the proper performance of duty to the departed, to his surviving
friends, and to the public which has a property in his memory, I claim to
have little qualification beyond that resulting from long and familiar ac-
quaintance; from a fellowship in the public labors to which were devoted
so many of his life’s best days ; and from an earnest desire to aid in per-
petuating the recollection thereof in the minds of those whose service
such labors had been performed.

An ardent pursuit of the same general course of study, in a yet unset-
tled department of inquiry, tends necessarily to the development of dif-
ference in modes of thought, even where, as has been the case with Mr.
Colwell and myself, the end in issue is substantially the same. Between
us, however, there has never been any essential difference, and while it
has been among the highest gratifications of my life, it has not been least
of the assurances that have sustained me in my own course of speciality
of labor, that his views of social and economic theory have so nearly co-
incided with those which I have been led to form,

This general coincidence of doctrine is here offered as a reason for
avoiding that indulgence in eulogy of his literary labors which so justly
is their due. A still stronger reason for preferring to allow the simplest
and plainest history of his works to indicate his worth, is found in that
modesty which constituted so striking a feature in his character, respect
for which forbids that I should here say of him anything that would have
been unacceptable if said in his bodily presence. That I can entirely re-
strain within these limits the expression of my apprehension of his char-
acter, and of his life’s work, I do not say; but that I feel the repressive
influence of this regard correspondent with the habitual deference which
has throughout many years of intercourse governed my demeanor towards
him, is very certain. Further than this, however, it will be enough for
praise if I can succeed in making this memoir an adequate report of his
active and energetic life.

Having thus explained the feelings by which I have been influenced, I

Carey.] 1 96 (Nov. 17,

shall now proceed to give such facts as have been attainable in regard to
his unwritten history, and such indices of the works he has left behind
him, as seem to claim a prominent place, and can be made to fall within
the compass of the brief time allowed me for their presentation.

SrePHEN CoLWELL was born in Brooke County, West Virginia, on the
25th of March, 1800. He died in Philadelphia on the 15th of January,
1871, having nearly completed his 71st year. He received his classical
education at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Washington County, Pa.,
where he graduated in 1819. He studied law under the direction of
Judge Halleck in Steubenville, Ohio; was admitted to the bar in L821;
practised the profession seven years in St. Clairsville, Ohio; and in 1828
removed to Pittsburgh, where he continued so to do until the year 1836.

Indicative of that ability and industry which marked his whole subse-
quent life, and now so well accounts for the mass and quality of his at-
tainments, are the facts that he graduated at the early age of nineteen,
and entered upon his profession at twenty-one.

The practice of the law, however, was not the sphere of mental activity
for which by tastes and talents he had been best by nature fitted. The
study of this science was, nevertheless, a happy preparation for the in-
quiries in whose pursuit he afterwards became so much engrossed. Its
exacter method, doubtless, corrected the mental habitude and the narrow-
ing influence which an ardent mind is apt to catch from an exclusive de-
yotion to the study of any single branch of literature or science. His
writings everywhere bear witness in logic and diction to the corrective
influence of his legal acquirements. Social science is that department of
knowledge which especially receives its verification and practical ad-
justment in jurisprudence and civil goverment applied—the philosophy
of Law being the crown and summary of sociology in all its branches.

Further, Mr. Colwell gave for a layman an unusual amount of study
to the department of religious literature, and here also we find the guiding
influence of his sociologic as well as of his legal training. A devoted re-
ligionist from earliest youth to the close of life, he gave himself to an
ardent study of doctrine and of duty, meanwhile laboring as zealously and
almost as constantly asif he had filled the office of pastor in the Church,
in the propagation of such opinions as demanded conformity of life from
professors of religion. His publications bear witness of his faithfulness,
as his life in its every relation illustrated the morality and the charity
which his faith enjoined.

Tt is not for us to sit in judgment upon religious doctrines, whether to
applaud or to condemn them, His well known zeal, and his abundant
labors in piety and charity, are here adduced for the simple reason that
the portraiture of the man would be incomplete and most unworthy of its
subject without distinct recognition of a feature so predominant in his
character.

Were I here to venture an opinion, fully warranted perhaps by the
subject, I should be disposed to say that the study of the theologian must

snc

1871.] 19% [Carey.

be greatly influenced for safer direction and better uses when held in
logical harmony with, and restrained of its speculative tendencies by, those
rules of thought which must govern men in the actual duties and rela-
tions of life. To my mind it is clearly obvious that the religious writings
of Mr. Colwell exhibit a healthy tone and a useful drift reflected from his
economic studies ; and in these latter a faithfulness of service and a dedi-
cation of spirit and endeavor, which happily illustrate the moral respons-
ibility resulting from the sentiments of the former. To this I may per-
haps be allowed to add, that if each and every man occupying an influen-
tial position could be induced with equal fidelity and ability ‘‘ to show
his fidelity by his works,’’ the prevailing indifference to the claims of
Christianity would speedily give place to a widely different spirit induced
by the attractiveness of its illustration. Here, however, I am engaged
mainly with the prominent traits of Mr. Colwell’s own character and the
influences that formed his life and gave direction to it. His education
and effective development were not found alone in the studies by which
he was so largely and so usefully occupied. Whatever of principle and
policy resulted from the application of the student was induced and en-
riched and energized in another and even more exact training school than
any that the speculations of science can afford. In the thirty-sixth year
of his age, fresh and full of all that reading and reflection could supply,
he entered upon the conduct of business affairs in an occupation that as
much as any other, and probably even more, brought into service and
severely tested both economic facts and principles. He became a manu-
facturer of iron first at Weymouth, Atlantic County, New Jersey, and
afterwards at Conshohocken, on the Schuylkill. Throughout a quarter
of a century of vicissitudes, inflicted upon that department of manufac-
ture more mischievously than upon almost any other by an inconstant
and often unfriendly governmental policy, opportunity was presented, as
the necessity was imposed, for studying the interests of productive indus-
try in the light of such actual and greatly varied experiences as might
instruct even the dullest, and could not fail to teach one already so well
qualified for promptly understanding all that actually concerned that and
every other branch of industrial production. 3efore entering upon the
arduous and trying experiences of this pursuit he had visited Europe,
and there had studied the art and management of its advanced and varied
industries.

The settlement of the large estate of his father-in-law, the late Samuel
Richards, and the administration of those of seve ral other members of
his family, required and received as much attention during many years
as would have constituted the entire business of many men, who would
have thought themselves fully occupied. In addition to private affairs,
so considerable and so exacting, he was constantly engaged as a leading
and working member of various public associations; industrial, benevolent
and educational. The character, the extent and the variety of these
engagements, to which he was invariably attentive and puuctual, may Le

Carey. ] 1 9 8 [Novy. 17,

inferred from a simple enumeration by their titles, as follows: he was a
working member of the American Iron and Steel Association, from its
origin to the close of his life; an active member of the African Coloniza-
tion Society for more than a score of years; several years engaged in the
management of our House of Refuge ; nearly twenty years a Director of
the Camden and Atlantic Railroad, whose Board of Directors, in a feeling
notice of his death, say that, ‘““having been an active member of the Board
from its organization, and having contributed very largely of his means,
time and labor in the prosecution and completion of this work ; in many
dark periods of this enterprise we could always look to Mr. Colwell for
his matured judgment and able counsel.”’

He was a Director in the Reading and in the Pennsylvania Central
Railroads, and for years held the office of a Trustee of the University of
Pennsylvania; as also a similar position in the Princeton Theological
Seminary. Simultaneously therewith, he was one of the Trustees of the
Presbyterian General Assembly, and member of the Board of Education
of the Presbyterian Church. After the close of the Rebellion he gave
large pecuniary assistance, and his usual energy of service, to the Freed-
man’s Aid Society, as during the Rebellion he had contributed with like
liberality to the work of both the Sanitary and Christian Commissions.
Of his services in these great patriotic charities a gentleman well acquainted
with their history says: ‘‘At the breaking out of the Rebellion he felt
deeply for the distress in the camps and on the battle-field, and it was at
his suggestion that the first man who left his home to assist the helpless
and the wounded, took his way to the seat of war. He also contributed
freely to supply comforts to those in the hospitals. To one of the active
stewards he said, ‘Let nothing be wanting, and if the Government funds
are insufficient I will see that the bills are paid.’’’ The same witness of
his active benevolence to the suffering soldiers, and of his personal de-
meanor in its administration, further says: ‘*Those who accompanied
him on his visits to the Army of the Potomac, can never forget the kind-
ness and respect with which he treated the humblest individuals.”

In the patriotic services and sacrifices to which the country called its
best citizens in the hour of its utmost need, he was in every form of duty,
one of the earliest most constant, persistent and efficient of the men in
private life who gave themselves unreservedly to the salvation of the
Union. The Union League of this city in words which well might serve
as 2 condensed memoir of his life and character, bears this testimony
to his agency in the great work of their association: “ With an intelli-
gent and thoughtful mind, fully convinced of the necessity and usefulness
of such an organization, and a heart warmly alive to the encouraging in-
fluences, it was peculiarly fitting that at the first formal meeting which
Jed to the establishment of the Union League should be called upon, as
he was, to preside, His name thus heads the list of signers of the con-
stitution of the League ; and he grew with its growth, ever in the fore-
front of whatever movement was planned for giving aid and comfort and

Q
1871,] 199 vecii

support to his country and its government throughout the course of its
struggle for existence, in resisting, by force of arms, a causeless and
wicked armed Rebellion.’’? Of his personal character and demeanor, they
say: ‘‘We desire to bear testimony to those virtues which manifested them-
selves in all its intercourse with us ; to the singleness and unselfishness
of his purpose ; to his courteousness and urbanity in our varied relations;
to his firmness, cautiousness and wisdom in the deliberations of our coun-
cils; to his patience, unwearying industry and cheerful devotion of time,
abilities and means in aid of the cause so dear to all our hearts; to his
constant unwavering joy, and faith, and trust in the overruling Provi-
dence of the God of our fathers amid the darkest hours of the country’s
peril, as well as in times of success and victory.”’

Such engagements as these, and numerous others kindred in their
character and calling for similar labors, filled the middle and later pericds
of his life with occupation: his associates, and all with whom business
intercourse and public enterprises connected him, testifying to the prompt,
energetic, patient and worthy performance of every duty thus assumed
or imposed. Nearly half a century employed in public and private affairs
making large demands for labor and care, and involving creat responsi -
bility, gave him that sound practical experience which well and effect-
ively woven into the studies of his life made him what he eminently be-
came, a clear, safe, and thoroughly instructive economist. Concurrently
with this practical training he was, in the best sense and fuilest meaning
of the word, a student. As early as his business life began, if not even
earlier, he commenced the collection of a library of social science, politi-
cal economy, finance, pauperism, organized charities, productive indus-
tries, and associate and cognate departments of science, now the largest
and best to be found in the country. This grand collection has not been
catalogued, or even classified, but it considerably exceeds five thousand
volumes, and is estimated for the purpose of insurance at a value of
twenty thousand dollars. To this library and to the books, pamphlets,
periodical and newspaper articles of his own production, he devoted all
his leisure. In several lists of cited authorities appended to his own pub-
lications and criticisms upon them, he furnishes evidence that he was, in
the language of one of his familiar acquaintances, ‘‘ one of the greediest
of readers.”’

To the commonly accepted authorities on Political Economy, Finance,
and Policy of Public Affairs, he, however, gave no more than that amount
of faith and acceptance which they should command from a mind well
stored with the facts and philosophy of their subjects. Toa friend who
expressed surprise at his vast collection of books and pamphlets on the
single subject of Money, he replied when asked if he had perused them
all, ‘enough to know that there is really little or nothing in them of any
value.”’

His library, besides its completeness in standard works, derives a special
value from its collection of over twenty-five hundred pamphlets on topics

ar
Carey. ] 200 [Nov. 17,

usually embraced in what is called Political Economy ; each separately
bound and capable of classified arrangement. He regarded, and justly
too, such smaller treatises as especially valuable for containing the best
thoughts of the writers in the most condensed form, and likely thus to
secure not only the greatest number but the most attentive readers. For
the most part he put his own publications on social and economic sub-
jects into this unpretending form,

His judgment was too clear and too well poised to suffer the imposture
of pretentious authorship. Knowing that book-makers are not always
thinkers he gave his regards to those writers only who had something of
their own to say, or knew how to give effective array to the valuable
words of others. It would have been an excellent service to students,
now abandoned to their own unformed judgment in the selection of
works in this department, and thus condemned to promiscuous reading,
if Mr. Colwell had in some effective way employed his eminent discern-
ment in giving us an index expurgatorius of the books and treatises upon
economic subjects which crowd our libraries, thus driving astake through
the worthless and the false among them, numerous as the latter are. In
his Essay Preliminary to List’s Political Economy, he has, indeed, shown
his eminent capacity for estimating aright the economic authorities of
their true value, confining himself, however, almost entirely to an ana-
lysis and commendation of those works which are worthy of reliance. It
was more consonant with his taste and tendencies to select the good, than
to annoy himself with the study and exposure of that which was calcu-
lated to be injurious. Often have I wondered at the patience, even more
than at the diligence, great as it was, with which he conscientiously sur-
rendered so large a portion of his months and years to library labors. His
toil, however, was made for excellent uses, and the fruits of his literary
industry exhibit themselves not only in the number but also in the value
of his publications. Of that value but little can be traced to the thous-
ands of volumes which had passed through his hands. Indeed, it is
curiously significant that the best read man in economic literature stands
now before us so little indebted to the books of his predecessors for the
most valuable portions of his own productions. Never writing without
having something worthy to be read, all that he did write was, as largely
as can be affirmed of any other prolific author, in matter and manner his
own. There was in him, however, nothing of arrogance, nothing of the
scorner. In the whole course of his literary pursuits may be discovered
a constant effort to promote and propagate important scientific truths
bearing upon social welfare, under cover of such books as seemed to him
to deserve extensive circulation. To the translation, annotation, and
effective distribution of these he freely and devotedly gave his time, his
labor, and his means. Among the leading instances of this kind, is the
translation, by Mr. Matile, of List’s National System of Political Econo-
my, with his own invaluable Preliminary Essay, above referred to, and
with copious marginal notes upon the text, from his own pen. In like

1871.] 201] [Carey.
manner he procured the translation (again by Mr. Matile) and the publi-
sation for liberal distribution, of Chastel’s ‘‘Charity of the Primitive
Churches ;’? and also the republication of “The Race for Riches,’’ by
William Arnot, of Glasgow, with a corroborative preface and notes, by
himself supplied.

This would be the place for giving special attention to that long and
varied catalogue of his own contributions to the literature of political
economy, finance, charity, and Christian ethics, in the form of pamphlets
and essays, and other articles in the reviews, periodicals and newspapers -
With that detail, however, 1 willnot here task myself nor use the passing
hour of your time, preferring to append hereto a list of his works as full
and complete as I have been able to make it. Mr. Colwell, as his family
inform me, neither collected nor registered these productions, as a conse-
quence of which my summary of them by their titles is necessarily in-
complete, although not otherwise incorrect.

His labors of mind and pen, his endeavors, services, and subsidies in
aid of the establishment and extension of collegiate education ; his per-
sonal pressure upon all who were in the way of forwarding the great en-
terprise ; his donations and legacies, all had this one grand leading aim—
the propagation of sound doctrine in social duty, and its enforeement in
the education not only of our scholars, but also of the reading people of
our great community. To that object he dedicated his library in giving
it to the University of Pennsylvania. Anxious to make the gift more
effective, he coupled the grant, in his deed of trust, with a condition that
required the endowment of a chair of social science ; but his family,
knowing his intention that the donation should in no event prove a fail-
ure, has waived the present performance of the condition, in the well
warranted expectation that in good time it will be carried out.

With the like intent he labored long for the establishment of a profes-
sorship in the Theological Seminary of Princeton, an idea that, with the
assistance of others in great measure brought to contribute by his own
perseverance and his liberal advances, has now been carried into full effect.
“His works do follow him ’’—the inauguration, on the 27th of September
last, of a professorship of ‘Christian Ethics and Apologetics,’ in its
promise fulfilling one of the dearest wishes of his heart.

What Mr. Colwell intended by the establishment of a chair of Christian
Ethics, in Princeton, and what he regarded as the chief object of a chair
of Social Science in the University of Pennsylvania, can scarcely be mis-
understood if his own writings be studied for their ruling sentiment and
leading purpose. Cultivating political economy as a theory of benefi-
cenee, he wrote his most elaborate and voluminous work upon the credit
system, embracing therein all the agencies and instruments employed in
foreign trade and domestic commeree, and gave a vast amount of time and
thought to the literature of these several subjects in all their branches ;
but through all and over all the crowning aim and purpose of his en-
deavors stands out conspicuously, crystallized as it is in a definition of
political economy in which, after reviewing the entire range of conflicting

A. P. §8.—VOL. XII—Z.

Carey. ] 202 [Nov. 17,
explications, he says: ‘‘ When we meet a definition running thus—the
science of human welfare, in its relations with the production and distri-
bution of wealth, we shall begin to hope the doctrine of social, or politi-
cal, or national economy, is beginning to assume its proper proportions.”’
The sentiment of that definition directed all his studies, all his writings,
and, as a passion, governed all his life. In religion, the faith that works
by love ; in economic theory, the best interests of humanity ; in morals,
the justice, mercy, and charity which practically exemplify the prother-
hood of men; were the governing impulses of all the works of both his
head and his hands.

In his ‘‘ New Themes for the Protestant Clergy”? we find such senti-
ments as these: ‘‘Creeds, but not without charity; Theology, but not
without humanity; Protestantism, but not without Christianity.”
Again: ‘It is not enough for the Christian to be concerned only for the
interests of men in the world to come, but for their best interests in this
world.”? With some severity of rebuke, but far more earnestness of af-
fection, he says: ‘‘ We maintain that Christ himself should have the
chief voice in defining Christianity, and that this has been denied him in
most, if not all, the compends and summaries of Christian doctrine which
are the bond of Protestant churches ;’’ following this up by urging the
fact that ‘the world now believes that the religion announced by the
Author and Finisher of our faith embraces humanity as well as divinity
in its range.’’

This remonstrance, and its implied censure, will be understood when
we perceive that he went further, far further, in his apprehension of true
Christian charity, than almsgiving extended to pressing cases of distress.
The modern usage of devolving the relief of the poor upon the poorhouse
system established by the civil law, he calls ‘the stigma of Protestant-
ism ;” and he demands from the professors of Christianity an earnest en-
deavor to give the poor permanent emancipation from the evils which
they endure. He presses the charge against the Established Church of
England, that it holds resources donated to its Catholic predecessors for
relief of the poor, which now yield £50,000,000 per annum, while throw-
ing the support of the suffering upon the charity of the State; at the
same time quietly sustaining that system of industrial and commercial
policy which takes from the labor of the realm two hundred and fifty
millions of dollars for the use of the government, and five times more for
the profit of capital. Nay further this gentlest of gentlemen, this most
orthodox of churchmen, this most devout of worshipers, in the convic-
tion that the failure of Christians to exemplify Christianity in their deal-
ings with the world is the grand cause of the aversion and rejection it en-
counters, is led therein to find some justification for the socialism and the
insurrectionary demonstrations now so rapidly and threateningly spread-
ing throughout Europe and America, and exhibiting such a spirit of re-
yolt among the masses of Christendom as is nowhere found in the pagan
world,

i €
1871.7 2 0 3 [Carey.

In the battle-cry of the reformers now advancing upon the conservatism
of our civilization, he hears the proclamation of “the fatherhood of God
and the brotherhood of man’’—a protest against “that notion of indi-
vidual liberty which leaves every man to care for himself, and ruin to
seize the hindmost.”’

To the almost universally prevalent doctrines of political economy he
traces the apathy, indifference, and even hostility of the fortunate classes
to the duties enjoined in the second table of the law, as it is summarized
by the Great Teacher. Singling out the most distinguished and most
popular of now existing disciples and advocates of the laissez-faire school
of economists, he thus exhibits Herbert Spencer’s ‘‘Social Statics”? :
‘The man of power and the man without; the man of wealth and the
pauper, should each have the largest and most perfect liberty consistent
with their not touching each other. * * * It forbids the thought of
charity, or brotherhood, or sacrifice ; it consecrates selfishness and indi-
vidualism as the prime feature of society. * * * Its principle is the
least possible restriction, the fewest possible enactments ; the weak must
be left to their weakness, the strong must be trusted with their strength,
the unprotected man must not look for favor, and government must re-
solve itself into the lowest possible agent of nonintervention.”’

Than the view thus presented of the now-so-much lauded Spencerian
social philosophy nothing could be more thoroughly accurate. The whole
tendency of that modern economical school, to whose teachings our de-
parted friend was so much opposed, has been, and is, in the direction of
giving increased power to the rich and strong, while throwing responsi-
bility on the shoulders of the poor and weak. ‘‘If the latter wld marry,
and will have children, why,’’ say they, ‘‘should they not be allowed to
pay the penalty of their crime, as so many millions of starving Ivish have
already done ?’”? ‘ Why,’’ though in somewhat different words, now asks
Mr. Spencer, ‘‘ Why should not the poor remain in ignorance if unable to
provide for educating their children and themselves?’ ‘‘ Why should
the millionaire be required to aid in maintaining hospitals in which dam-
age to poor laborers’ limbs may promptly and properly be repaired ?”’ “Is
it not for every man to do as he will with that which is his own?’? The
new philosophy having answered this latter question in the affirmative,
need we be surprised that the miserable selfishness thus given to the world
as science should have excited the indignation of one who knew, and felt
that it must be a mere pretence of science that could sanction any course
of conduct so wholly inconsistent with the divine command, ‘that we do
to others as,’’ under similar circumstances, ‘‘we would that they should
do to ourselves’? Assuredly not !

It would be difficult for me fully and completely to express the strength
of the humanitarian sympathies exhibited in Mr. Colwell’s plea for jus-
tice to the victims of our reckless competition and our voracity in the
pursuit of material wealth. Tio prevent misconstruction of his severe
animadyversions upon the existing agency of church and state in the pre-
vailing disorders of society, and to show the bearing of his complaint I

Carey. ] 204 [Nov. 17,
cite another passage from the ‘‘ New Themes,” as follows: “ The doc-
trine that property, real and personal, must under all circumstances re-
main inviolate, always under the ever-watchful vigilance of the law, and
its invaders subject to the severest penalties of dungeon and damages,
may be very essential to the maintenance of our present social system,
but it totally disregards the consideration that Labor, the poor man’s
capital, his only property, should, as his only means of securing a com-
fortable subsistence, be also under the special care and safeguard of the
law. The doctrine that trade should be entirely free—that is, that mer-
chants should be perfectly at liberty, throughout the world, to manage
their business in that way which best promotes their interests—may suit
very well for merchants, making them masters of the industry of the world;
but it will be giving a small body of men a power over the bones and
sinews of their fellow-men, which it would be contrary to all our knowl-
edge of human nature if they do not fatally abuse, because they are in-
terested to reduce the avails of labor to the lowest attainable point, as the
best means of enlarging their business and increasing their gains. That
philosophy,”’ he continues, “ which teaches that men should always be
left to the care of themselves—that labor is a merely marketable commo-
dity which should be left, like others, to find its own market value with-
out reference to the welfare of the man, may appear plausible to those
who forget the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of men, but is ut-
terly at variance with the precepts of Him who taught that those who
stood idle in the market-place because no man had hired them, and were
sent to work at the eleventh hour, should receive the same as those who
had borne the burden and heat of the day.”

It is not my business here and now either to commend or to impeach,
but simply to state the attitude assumed by Mr. Jolwell in reference to
questions so much exposed to debate as these, and by him so sharply and
earnestly treated. The great sensation produced in our religious world
by their publication has given way to much more moderate feelings, and
evidently enough to a better appreciation of their spirit and design. One
of the representative papers of the church of whieh he was a life-long
member, thus speaks of the controversy which his publications had aroused
ten years since : ‘‘In one or two of his own books on this engrossing and
all-important theme [Christian charity], he used language in regard to the
apathy and criminality of modern professors of faith in Christ and his
salvation, which was so severe as to arouse bitter hostility to his faithful
and well-meant efforts. Would that now, when the mutual wounds have
ceased to smart, in the case of most of those engaged in them, alas! by a
departure from all the conflicts of the church militant, earnest men could
be roused to examine their lessons and suggestions, forgetful of the occa-
sional sharpness of the form in which they were conveyed.’’ The most
aggrieved having thus now come to acknowledge that ‘faithful are the
wounds of a friend,”’ they may also recollect that only once, and that in a
strikingly pertinent instance, the founder of their faith is reported to have

1871.] 205 [Carey.

given way to indignation against a piety that subordinated humanity to
theology. ‘‘ When the rulers of the synagogue watched him whether he
would heal the withered hand, in their church, on their Sabbath-day, he
looked round about on them with anger, being grieved for the hardness,
or, as the margin has it, the blindness, of their hearts.’’ (Mark iii. 2-5).
That it was this sort of indignation, mixed with the same kind of grief,
which induced the severity of remonstrance complained of at the time, is
manifest in the whole tone, and yet more so in the special drift of his ob-
jurgations. The true construction of his aim, indeed, is found in his pro-
test against the ruling doctrines of political and social economy which the
churches, in common with the community, accept. A single sentence
well represents him on this subject, as follows: “The social, political, and
commercial institutions of the present day, founded upon, and sustained
by, a selfishness heretofore unequaled, are the great barriers to the pro-
eress of Christianity.” And again: “ Political economy, strictly so
called, is as much opposed to the spirit of Christianity asitis antagonistic
to socialism ; or, in other words, there is far more in common between
socialism and Christianity than there is between the latter and political
economy.’? The system of economic theory by himself adopted, is of
course not the one intended here, but is that one which, referring to the
North British Review, is thus described : ‘‘ Followed out to the utmost,
the spirit of political economy leads to the fatal conclusion—that the con-
duct of the social life should be left entirely to the spontaneous operation
of laws which have their seat of action in the minds of individuals, with-
out any attempt on the part of society, as such, to exert a controlling in-
fluence ; in other words, without allowing the State or institutions for
general government any higher function than that of protecting individual
freedom.”’

It is, therefere, the laissez-faire theory of political economy which thus
is charged with hostility at once to Christianity and humanity. The
buy-cheap-and-sell-dear system elsewhere described by him as a policy
¢in trade and in society, which makes it not only the interest, but the
natural course of every one to prey upon his fellow-men to the full extent
of his power and canning, and is well fitted to carry selfishness to its
highest limits, and to extinguish every spark of mutual kindness.’’? His
political economy was a system of philosophic benevolence, a doctrine of
justice, mercy, and truth, with a resulting economic policy of protection
to productive industry, leading to the highest human welfare. In the
appendix and notes to his second edition of the ‘‘ New Themes,” he has
given us a whole library of the literature of Charity. In the hundreds or
treatises there cited and briefly epitomized, he exhibits a breadth of sur-
vey and depth of inquiry that one would think must exhaust the subject.
It was the result of many years of labor, directed by a zeal that nothing
could inspire and sustain but a heartfelt devotion to the work of social
duty and remedial beneficence. May I not here add, as a reflection that
concerns the students of social science, that the system of economic doc-
trines which secured the assent of a mind so fully informed, so eminently

Carey. ] 206 [Nov. 17,

endowed, and so long and zealously devoted to a search after truth, is
entitled to all the confidence that authority can give, and justly claims
most studious attention,

Having rendered his best personal services to the subject which he had
so much at heart, he further evidenced his earnestness and solicitude for
its still more formal and more adequate treatment by offering a prize of
$500 for a treatise upon the law or doctrine of Christian charity, accom-
panying the offer with a general outline directory of the plan of the re-
quired work, indicating its essential points ; among which are to be noted
the organization of labor ; international trade in its effects upon the re-
wards of domestic labor ; the subject of public education ; the law of
charity as applying to the poor, the suffering, the imprisoned, the vicious,
the insane, the intemperate, the dangerous, &e., &e.

I am not aware that any work of real merit was secured by the liberal
reward offered. No such book having been published, it is presumable
that no response was made.

There remains yet to be considered, in such manner as my limits allow,
another and a highly important division of the service rendered to the
public by Mr. Colwell, in an official position to which his high reputa-
tion called him in the 65th year of his age. In June, 1865, he was ap-
pointed upon the Commission, authorized by Act of Congress, ‘to in-
quire and report upon the subject of raising by taxation such revenue as
may be necessary in order to supply the wants of the government, having
regard to, and including the sources from which such revenue should be
drawn, and the best and most efficient mode of raising the same.’’? In
the service imposed by this appointment he continued till the midsummer
of 1866, when the work assigned was finished and fully reported. The
labor thus undertaken and performed interrupted and even ended the ac-
tive literary pursuits and practical work of his life. His family, whose
tenderly affectionate watchfulness makes them the best and most compe-
tent witnesses, attribute to his exacting and exhausting toil in the duties
of this position that failure of his health which soon afterwards obliged
him to relinquish, in great measure, his life-long pursuits both as student
and as writer.

Tn the Report of the Revenue Commission, communicated to Congress
in January, 1866, and published in a large octavo volume by authority of
the House of Representatives, may be found the special reports of Mr.
Colwell on ‘‘The Influence of Duplication of Taxes upon American In-
dustry—upon the Relations of Foreign Trade to Domestic Industry and
Internal Reyenue--upon Iron and Steel—and on Wool and Woolens.’’
‘wo other reports of his, one upon High Prices and their Relations with.
Currency and Taxation, and another, upon Over-importation and Relief,
are not included in this volume. How he executed the work which fell
to his share of the duties of the Commission, it is enough to say that he
did it to assure us of finding therein the fullest discussion of those vastly
comprehensive subjects, based upon the most ample store of statistical
facts, and arrayed with that force which the soundest theoretical princi-

on
1871.] 20 ‘ [Carey.
ples, and the largest practical acquaintance with the details which enter
into the several subjects of inquiry, alone could give.

The work done by him, outside of that which his own pen has reported,
was of itself, and independently, worthy of permanent record. The
Secretary of the Wool Manufacturers’ Association, Mr J. L. Hayes, an
eminently capable witness, thus speaks of his agency and influence in
harmonizing the conflicting interests of the agriculturists and manufac-
turers of this staple industry of the nation: ‘“‘ The conferences between
the two committees (representing the respective parties) commenced in
January, 1865, and were continued without much pause for six months. At
the outset the two committees were widely apart in their views, and the
traditional jealousies became at once apparent. Here the weight of char-
acter disinterestedness, and moral power of Mr. Colwell came into play.
He was personally present at many of these conferences, and I am con-
vinced that the harmonious arrangement finally made was mainly due to
his influence. This influence was perfectly unobtrusive, but both parties
had absolute reliance upon Mr. Colwell’s integrity and wisdom, and a
mere hint from him was suflicient to give a right directiou to our coun-
cils. Some of the suggestions which he made were of great practical
value.’ Of one of these this gentleman says: ‘‘It has been in operation
five years, and it is a constant surprise to manufacturers and growers
that so brief an act, affecting so many really distinct branches of indus-
try, should cover so much and operate so wisely.’’ Again he says: ‘‘ The
bill, of which the chief features are due to Mr. Colwell’s suggestions, is
wonderfully sustained ; its practical working is really remarkable for its
success, * * * but the influence upon our own industry is by no means
the chief object. The wool tariff is the key to the protective position in
this country. It secures the agricultural interest and the West.”

His treatment of this subject, and the reports upon trade, production,
prices and national finance, place him, in my judgment, highest among
the authorities in our history in whatever combines knowledge of facts
and soundness of economic principles. Quite sure am I that there is not
so much of practical value and guiding principle to be learned even in
that great storehouse of economic literature which he has given to the
University. The earnest and intelligent student of the industrial and
commercial policy of our country who may give to these reports the at-
tention that is their due, will find himself prepared for a safe, clear and
satisfactory judgment upon all of the many questions therein embraced.

Incidentally, but necessarily, intermixed with the history and statistics
of our national industries, an unusually effective examination of the
theories of free trade and protection finds a deservedly prominent place in
these reports ; and the predominant claims of labor upon the care of gov-
ernment and the regard of the community is the pervading spirit and
ruling impulse of all that he here has written. His heart was in this mat-
ter, and his philosophy most happily corroborated his philanthropy. The
key to all his economic doctrines isin such simple self-proving proposi-
tions as these: ‘The highest condition of national welfare depends upon

208 LNov. 17,

Carey. ]

the highest condition of the masses of the people in point of morals,
religion, intelligence, social ease, and comfort.’’ ‘‘The industry of a
nation is an interest so vital as to be equaled only by its internal liber-
ties and its independence of foreign control. As the tendency of full em-
ployment is to exclude crime, the benefits of that high integrity which is
the best cement of society, may be expected to reward a nation in which
occupation is the most varied and labor best remunerated.”

Last to be noticed, although not latest in its presentation to the world,
is Mr. Colwell’s highly valuable work on money and its substitutes, credit
and its institutions, entitled, “‘ Ways and Means of Payment: a full ana-
lysis of the credit system, with its various modes of adjustment.’’ Its essen-
tial object is that of laying the axe to the root of that pestilent heresy
which teaches that prices are wholly dependent on the supply of money ;
and that, to use the words of Hume, the only effect of an increase in the
abundance of the precious metals is that of ‘‘ obliging every one to pay a
greater number of those little white or yellow pieces than they had been
accustomed to do.’? The whole question of prices is here discussed with
a care characteristic of its author; and his readers, however they may
chance to differ from him in regard to details, can scarcely fail to agree
with him in the belief he has here expressed, that ‘‘among the innumera-
ble influences which go to determine the general range of prices, the
quantity of money or currency is found to be one of the least effective.”’
Truth, however, as is well known, travels but very slowly through the
world, centuries having elapsed since demonstration of the fact that the
earth revolved around the sun, and four-fifths ef the human race yet re-
maining convinced that the sun itis that moves, and not the earth. So
has it been, and so is it like to be, in the present case, the most eminent
European economists still continuing to teach precisely what had been
taught by Hume, and statesmen abroad and at home still constructing
banking and currency laws under the belief that in the ‘ quantity of
money or currency”? had been found one of the most effective causes of
changes of price. Mr. Colwell’s work was published in 1859, since which
date so much light has been thrown on the subject as to make it serious
sause for regret that his other engagements, and his failing health, should
have prevented a re-examination of the case by aid of recent facts, all of
which have tended to prove conclusively the accuracy of the views pre-
sented in the very instructive volume to which reference has now been
made.

A word more and I shall have done. Of all the men with whom I have
at any time been associated there has been none in whom the high-minded
gentleman, the enlightened economist, the active and earnest friend to
those who stood in need of friendship, and the sincere Christian, have
been more happily blended than in the one whose loss we all so much re-
gret, and of whose life and works I here have made so brief, and, as I
fear, so inadequate a presentation.

1871]

be

209 Carey.

List of the Published Writings of Stephen Colwell.
Letter to the Pennsylvania Legislature on the removal of the Deposits
from the United States Bank. 8vo. pp. 45. 1894.
. The Poor and Poor Laws of Great Britain. Prince. Rev. Jan. 1841.
. Review of McCulloch’s British Empire. Prince. Rev. Jan. 1841.
. The Smithsonian Bequest. Princeton Review, 1842.
. Sweden, its Poor Laws and their bearing on Society. P. R. 1848.
. Inand Out of the County Prison. No date.
. Thé Relative Position in our Industry of Foreign Commerce, Domes-
tic Production, and Internal Trade. 8vo. pp. 50. 1850.
. Memorial to Congress in relation to Tariff on Iron. 8vo. pp. 16. 1850.
. New Themes for the Protestant Clergy, with Notes on the Literature
of Charity. 12mo. pp. 384. 1851. ;
. New Themes for the Protestant Clergy, with Notes on the Literature
of Charity. Second Edition. 12mo. pp. 384. 1852.
. Politics for American Christians. 8vo. 1852.
. Money of Account. Merchants’ Magazine. pp. 20. April, 1852,
. Hints toa Layman. 12mo. 18538.
. Position of Christianity in the United States, in its relations with Our
Political System, and Religious Instruction in Public Schools.
8vo. pp. 175. No date.
5. Preface and Notes to The Race for Riches. 12mo. pp. 54. 1893.

6. The South : Effects of Disunion on Slavery. 8vo. pp. 46. 1896.

. Preliminary Essay and Notes to The National Political Economy of
Frederick List. 8vo. pp. 67. 1856.
. Money.of Account. Bankers’ Magazine. pp. 25. July, Aug. 1857.

9. The Ways and Means of Payment. Svo. pp. 644. 1859.

. Money, the Credit System, and Payments. Merchants’ Mag. 1860.

1. The Five Cotton States and New York. 8vo. pp. 64. 1861.
2. Southern Wealth and Northern Profits. 8vo. pp. 81. 1861.
8. The Claims of Labor, and their precedence to the Claims of Free

Trade. S8vo. pp. 52. 1861.
4. Gold, Banks, and Taxation. 8vo. pp. 68. 1864.
5. State and National System of Banks, the Expansion of the Currency,
the Advance of Gold, and the Defects of the Internal Revenue
Bill of June, 1864. S8vo. pp. —. 1864. [1866.
Upon High Prices and their relations with Currency and Taxation.
* Influence of the duplication of Taxes on American Industry. 1866.
* Relations of Foreign Trade to Domestic Industry and Internal Reve-
nue. 1866.
Over-importation and Relief. 1866.
* Tron and Steel. 1866.
* Wool and Manufactures of Wool. 1866
Financial Suggestions and Remarks. 8vo. pp. 19. 1867.

Reports made from the Revenue Commission :—Those marked with an asterisk pub-

lished in the Reports of the Committee.

A. P, 8.—VOL. XII—2A.

Cope. } 210 [ Nov. 17,

Observations on the distribution of certain Hautinet Vertebrata in North
Carolina.

By Epwarp D. Cork.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, November 17, 1871).

Dropon L.
Diopon antrquus, Leidy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Superior and inferior jaws from the Miocene. This fish was described
from transported and much worn specimens from the Ashley River, South
Carolina. The present specimens are unworn, and display the characters
of the species. These are very much like those of the recent D. filamen-
tosus. The species appears also to pertain to the horizon of the Miocene.

Beuopon, Myr.

Teeth of both the smooth and fluted types were found by Prof. Kerr in
Chatham Co., N. C. The latter (8. carolinens’s, Emm.) appear also to
oecur in Wheatley’s collection, from the Trias of Phoenixville, Penn.
Three successive forms of the maxillary teeth of B. priscus are figured.

THECACHAMPSA, Cope.
THECACHAMPSA RUGOSA, Emmons.

Polyptychodon rugosus, Emmons, Geol. Surv. N. C.

Emmons’ figure of this species is not distinguishable from a worn ca-
nine of a Bastlosawrus, and as such I regarded it on a former occasion.
An examination of a specimen received from Prof. Kerr, shows that its
affinities are Crocodilian, and its structure similar to that of Thecachamp-
sa, Cope. It is more strongly rugose-striate than in any of the known
species, but is approached in rugosity by Thecachampsa squankensis,
Marsh. The range of the genus is thus extended to N. Carolina.

Cuepsysaurus, Lea.

Teeth of this genus are very rare, one only having been observed by Dr.
Lea. Prof. Emmons believed that he had discovered two species in the
Trias of North Carolina, C. pennsyloanicus and O. leaii. The greater
part of the remains on which these were based I have shown to be Belo-
donts, but one tooth figured by Emmons, N. ©. Geol. Surv., Pl. Y. f. 3,
may belong to this genus.

Prof. Kerr’s collection contains two teeth which are identical with that
associated with the C. pennsylwanicus by Lea, one of them nearly perfect,
the other the basal portion only. They exhibit two minutely denticulated
cutting edges, separated by one-third of the circumference. This third is
nearly flat, the remaining portion being very convex. One cutting edge
extends to the base of the crown, the other occupies only the distal two-
thirds. The section of the tooth would be round at the base were it not
for the projection of the cutting edge. The enamel is minutely striate,
under the glass. The base of the larger tooth measures .75 of an inch in
diameter. The figure of Emmons leaves something to be desired, as he

«

1871.] 21 1 [Cope.

does not represent the long cutting edge of the crown. His descriptions
of the tooth appear to refer to this genus. Kerr’s specimens are conclu-
Sive as to the extent of this formidable genus of carnivorous Dinosauria
to N. Carolina.

ZATOMUS, Cope.

This genus embraces reptiles whose teeth are described and figured by
Prof. Emmons, American Geology, Pt. VI. p- 62, fig. 84. He found them
associated with radiate osseous plates (probably dermal) which he found
on one occasion in connection with the cranium of the supposed Laby-
rinthodont, Dictyocephalus elegans, Leidy. Both the plates and teeth are
too large to be associated with the latter, and the teeth especially remind
one of the Dinosauria. Emmons describes a tooth in the following lan-
guage :

“‘It is compressed, curved, finely serrate posteriorly, which appears to
point to the apex, when seen go as to bring into view a slight wrinkle or
groove at the base of each tooth. Its enamel covers the whole crown, or
all above the part implanted or inserted. The enamel is finely or minutely
wrinkled, and at the posterior edge, at the junction of the plates at
each side, a faint groove remains; and the serra appear like a double
tow, but near the apex they entirely disappear; the convex or anterior
edge is smooth.

‘The tooth appears much like the tooth of a Megalosaurus in miniature,
though it is less curved. I have found only two teeth of this kind; the
smallest is half the size of the one figured.’? This size is Om. 022 in
length ; diameter at base .012.

In the section given by Emmons, one side of this tooth is a little more
convex than the others.

The affinities of this genus appear to be to Teratosaurus and Lelaps.
From both of these, as well as from Megalosaurus, it differs in the absence
of serration from the anterior margin, and in the groove in the posterior
cutting edge dividing it into two appressed serrate edges which disappear,
near the apex. The species may be called Zatomus sarcophagus. Its
size about equalled large specimens of the Southern Alligator.

HypsiBEMA, Cope.

Char. gen. Proportions of limbs and feet much as in Hadrosaurus.
The caudal vertebrae elongate and depressed, in the median part of the
Series,

The elongate depressed form of caudal vertebra, distinguishes this genus
from Hadrosaurus. The latter possesses elongate vertebrae near the
extremity of the series, but anterior to this point, they are first subqua-
drate in profile, then proximally much narrowed. The form exhibited by
the known species of this genus is more like that of Hyleosaurus Mant.

HypsIBEMA CRASSICAUDA, Cope. 4
The remains on which this species is founded consists of the distal
extremity of the right humerus, a portion of the shaft of the left tibia, a

Cope. ] 21 2 [Nov. 17,

portion of the fibula, the right internal metatarsus somewhat broken, and
a caudal vertebra. There are other uncharacteristic fragments, and a
piece which may be a dermal bone.

Associated with them are several coprolites of large animals.

These species indicate an animal of about the size of the Hadrosaurus
foulkei, Leidy, and with a similar disproportion in the lengths of the
limbs.

This is readily appreciated on comparison of the huge metatarsus with
the light humerus. The medullary cavity of the tibia is large; that of
the humerus small.

The portion of the humerus preserved is injured, and the condyles are
worn. Its relation to that of H. foulkei is readily determined, and on
comparison the following marked differences appear: The ridge connect-
ing the external condyle with the shaft posteriorly is acute ; it is rounded
in H. foulkei. External distal face is flat or slightly concave; in H.
foulkei somewhat rounded. It is at right angles to the plane of the
anterior face, and forms with it rather less than a right angle; in H.
foulkei this region is rounded. Distally, the shaft is much flattened in
H. crassicauda.

Measurements. Lines.

Antero-posterior diameter of shaft, just above condyles.... 20.5

Width external face distally...... MOTO Gh 24,
fA OLCCLANAY HOSA Vee sG SEE oc. ess SS 1G
es Condylesy (GstimMaAped yey het Fy Mak Ta 64,

The anterior face at over three inches above the condyles is slightly con-
cave. About 4.5 inches above the articular face of the external condyle,
the acute ridge dividing the posterior and external faces disappears, and
the surface becomes regularly rounded.

The portion of the tibia is from the shaft of that of the left side, just
below the superior antero-posterior expansion. Therefore, the inner face
is the most extensive, and the posterior the least so. It differs from the
same part in H. foulkei, in its less angularity, especially in the more
rounded, and less defined posterior face.

The internal face narrows downwards, and while the greater diameter
of the fragment above is antero-posterior, below it is diagonal, the anterior
point being the inner,

Measurements. Lines.

Antero-posterior diameter above. 6.02.20 66%. ewes e cans . 48.
Transverse ‘¢ St Suis MeaMegica Ma Maen Rone 22.5
: 5S MOGUL AT Ys, CAV ADY ie sp sie es cage ote acu 20.5

The portion of the fibula is the distal, and resembles that of Hadrosau-
rus foulkei, in being slightly expanded near the extremity, and cylindric
in the lower part of the shaft. In both genera and Ornithotarsus, Cope,
the distal extermity of the fibula is less attenuated then in Iguanodon,

1871.] 2 1 3 [Cope.

Lines.
Transverse distal diameter. .....--+.sseessse eee sai eager 40.5
oe five INCHES BDOVE.« oss es ee sacs ableges s+ ee os 30.

The right internal metatarsus also bears considerable resemblance to H.
foulkei. Its proximal extremity is much more convex in its inner out-
line than in that species. The inner proximal face is plane and longi-
tudinally wrinkled. The proximal or tarsal articular face is concave
anteriorly ; its plane is at right angles to the axis of the shaft of the bone.
It is strongly oblique in H. foulkei, and a rib-like prominence of the outer
face crosses the latter obliquely and at right angles to the proximal
extremity. No such rib exists in the present case, because the weight
was supported by the shaft of the bone, directly and not obliquely as in
Hadrosaurus. Thus the Hypsibemas walked more exactly on the toes
than did the Hadrosauri.

The posterior margin is thinner, and as in H. foulkei, presents a rather
small median protuberance. The distal condyle is broken away, but the
twist of the distal portion of the shaft shows that it was directed away
from the adjoining metatarsal, posteriorly.

Measurements. In. Lines.
Length from antero-superior to postero-inferior, 10 10
Extremity (inferior articular face worn away),
Traverse diameter proximally.......-.+-+++-> 3
a - Medially... 6100s. 5 vena 2 3.5
Antero-posterior diameter medially......-.---++--- . 3 6.

The diameters of the shaft are somewhat larger than in the FH. foulkei
given by Leidy,

The caudal vertebra is of large size and peculiar form. The centram is
considerably wider than deep, and considerably longer than wide. The
posterior chevron articulations are small, and each is connected with each
anterior by a strong rounded angulation. Between the latter the space is
wide and slightly concave in transverse section, least so medially. _ A
marked peculiarity is seen in the strong longitudinal ridge which divides
the lateral surface of the vertebra into two nearly equal faces. The
neural arch is elongate, the neural canal small: in section a short vertical
ellipse. The articular face of the zygapophyses makes an angle of about
thirty-five degrees to the perpendicular. The crest of the arch rises a
half inch behind these into the very stout basis of the neural spine, the
. greater part of which, with the posterior zygapophyses, is broken off.
The inclination of the base is about 65° to the vertical diameter of the
bone, The articular faces are both slightly concave, as are the lateral
faces which are separated by the lateral ridge.

In. Lines.
Length of centrum. .......-++-er seer cere tee ; 4 6
es basis Of MEULALALCly cys iets bee ee yee 2 9

Width posterior articular face.....--+.+.e..ees 4

is;
Cope. ] 2 1 4 [Nov. 17,

In. Lines.

Depth 2 MeOdiAlly; craps cacao gl aes 2s 2 8
me a laterally: .assatisses Shu mee se 3 3

Tt. WASIA JCM ALS DING. ss loanilcmieapeten seeds 12
Transverse diameter neural canal behind....... 10
Width between latero-inferior ridges...... a ccabey i 9
‘* - vertical face of zygapophyses.. «oe. ss.s 11

There is a slight rugose protuberance in the position of the diapophysis.

The peculiarities of this vertebra indicate most strikingly the generic
distinctness of this great reptile from the Hadrosaurus. It is true it
presents some similarity in form to the terminal caudals of that genus
and if it could be referred to that portion of the series, would indicate
merely another and larger species of Hadrosaurus. It differs inform from
these vertebrae, in its depressed instead of compressed form, and its
lateral angulation. That it belongs to a more anterior position in the
tail is evident from the very large size of the basis of the neural spine,
and general greater development of the neural arch and zygapophyses,
and the trace of diapophyses. Further, it is over four times the size of
the terminal caudals of H. foulkei, while the remaining elements do not
indicate any such extraordinary dimensions. A position a little behind
the middle of the series would relate well to the other proportions.

This is another of those remarkable forms which the reptilian type
developed in past ages. That it was herbivorous, and relied less on its
tail for support than Hadrosaurus, appears probable. Large caprolites
of the character of those of herbivorous animals accompanied the bones.
They resemble somewhat those of the hog ; one has a diameter of 3.5 inches
one way, and 2 inches the other; extremity broad, obtuse. The pro-
prietor of the pit told the writer that he had more than once seen large
‘*hoofs’? ‘‘and wide toe-joints’ taken out during the excavation.

This species is different from the Ornithotarsus immanis, Cope, and
belongs to a different genus. The shaft of the tibia in the latter is filled
with cancellous tissue ; in the present.animal it is entirely hollow.

From the marl pits of James King.

Haprosaurvs, Leidy.

HADROSAURUS TRIPOS, Cope.

Ata point about ten miles distant from the marl pit in which the
Hypsibema was found, Prof. Kerr discovered a caudal vertebra of a
colossal reptile, whose affinities are evidently near to the Hadrosaurus
foulkei.

This vertebra is one of the distal, as evidenced by the entire absence
of any trace of diapophysis, and its subquadrate longitudinal section, as
well as by the small size of the neural arch and spine. At first sight it
would appear to occupy a position between the thirtieth and thirty-sixth
of the series; the former in H. foulkei has, however, rudiments of a
diapopbysis. Both its articular faces are distinctly biconcave. The large

OTA
1871.] . LO [Cope.

size of the chevron articular face is as in the thirtieth, and the concavity
of its lateral faces as in the twenty-sixth; in the thirty-sixth the sides
are entirely plane. The round form of the neural canal, as well as lack
of diapophysis, are points of resemblance to the thirty-sixth, but it is
more than twice as long as that vertebra in the H. foulkei. In the thirtieth
the neural canal is somewhat depressed and becomes more so as we
advance towards the proximal part of the series. The small antero-pos-
terior extent of the neural arch is much as in the thirtieth in H. foulkei,
but the basis of the neural spine, which is broken off in this, as well as
the odd species, is much more slight. It isso very thin and weak as to
indicate either comparatively a slight development of the spine, or a
very posterior position in the series. A weak lateral ridge marks the side
of the centrum, which is below the middle line. It holds the same position
in the thirty-sixth in H. foulkei, but is above the middle in the thirtieth
and those anterior.

Measurements. In. Lines,
Depth centrum to summit chevron articulation... 5
‘© from neural canal without chevron face... 4
Greatest width “ Me es soa & 9
Length centrum.......... wes CAL ae Somes lees fe 3
Gs: MCULADODUYSIS cies cua s ye Mee 2 6
Width between anterior zygopophyses........... 1 3
SU OL AUCH ADONO: co0e ose ae ve ce ee ae u 6
Soleo ueutaleCatak 6 a oe fe pasenis 10
Depth ia Seles oe . ; : 10

5

‘* basis neural spine, .

This specimen was procured from the marl pit of W. J. Thompson,
Sampson Co., N. Carolina.

A second and much smaller vertebra from the pit that furnished the
remains of Hypsibema crassicauda, belonged to a third individual, and
possibly to this species. Its proportions would point to a position near
the end of the tail, and its form is less elongate and compressed than
those in that position in H. foulkei. Its neural arch is not codssified. The
extremities are slightly concave, the general form subquadrate.

Lines.
Length of centrum...... godt iate Cokes seveeee 20.5
Diameter. extremity, (vérticak) oi .s.ussc. lial fer. UES
™ ae (transverse) 3.4. x. Sui est Sis 21.5
3 middle o S Peeeey JG Med NSes SEE. Goi,

The first named vertebra pertained to an immense species, perhaps
double the Hadrosaurus foulkei, in weight and bulk, should the general
proportions of the two have been at all similar. In that case the length
of the femur would be sixty-two and a quarter inches.

It will remain for future discovery to determine whether the species is
the same as the Ornithotarsus immanis.

‘ .
Cope. ] 2 l 6 (Nov, 17, 1871.

PLATE I.—Hypsibema crassicauda.
1. Caudal Vertebra of Hadrosaurus tripos, side. la. Articular face.
2. do. young? a. end, b. below.
8. Eschrichtius polyporus, side. 3a. above.

PLATE Il.—Zypsibema ecrassicauda.

1. Humerus, distal portion, from below. 1a. From end.
2. Tibia shaft, from the side ; 2a. from end.
8. Caudal Vertebra.
4. Coprolite fragment.
PLATE IlI.—Hadrosaurus tripos. Lschrichtius polyporus.

1. Fibula, lower portion ; a. proximal end of fragment.
2. Outer metatarsal, inner side ; 2a. proximal end of do.

PLATE IV.—Mesoteras kerrianus. Clepsysaurus pennsyloanicus. The-
cachampsa rugosa. Polydectes biturgidus. Belodon priscus. Diodon
antiquus.

1. Mesosteras kerrianus, periotic bones. 1a. Interior view; 1b. end view.

2. Polydectes biturgidus, crown of tooth, side ; 2a. inner view.

3. Thecachampsa rugosa, crown of tooth, inner view.

4. Clepsysaurus, tooth, inside a 4a, posterior view; 4b. section
base ; 4c. do. near extremity; 4d. baso of larger sp.

5. Belodon? priscus, anterior tooth ; 5a. posterior view of another ; 5b.
lateral view of a posterior tooth ; 5c. edge of do.

Diodon antiquus, upper jaw front; 6a. do. from below ; 6b. lower

jaw from front; 6c. do. from above.

Stated Meeting, December 1, 1871.
Present, ten members.
Dr. HMERSON in the Chair.

A letter of acknowledgment (86) was received from the
Society of Antiquaries, dated | London, November 8

Letters of envoy were received from the Pontifical Academy
d. N. L., dated Rome, June 7, 1869; and from the Public
Museum, at Buenos Ay res, dated July 12, leit

A letter was received from Mr. H. H. Leech, dated New
‘York, Noy. 18, 1871, offering for sale the ss. Pabl es of M.
Lorin, of Paris.

Donations for the Library were announced, from the P. A.
d. N. L. at Rome, the R. Institutes at Milan and Venice, the
R. Observatories at Moncaliere and Turin, Signori Dorna,
Biff, Muoni, Buccellati, Ferraris, Gabba, Mussi and Denza
rein the Public Museum at Buenos Ayres; the Editors of
the Revue Politique, Old and New, the American Chemist,
and from Yale College.

Te, ee ei of the quasi coin described below,
_ was presented to the Cabinet by Mr. Dubois.

An Obituary notice of Sir John F. W. Herschel, written
by Mr. H. W. Field, of the Royal Mint, London, pursuant to to
appointment, was read by Mr. Patterson,

Dee. 1, 1871.] 211 { Field.

Obiiuary Notice of
Str Jonn FREDERICK WILLIAM HERscHEL, BaRtT.,
By Mr. Henry W. Frievp, or Lonpon.
Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 1, 187i.

It is the painful duty of our Society to record the loss we have sus-
tained in our membership, and indeed we may well say, the loss to the
world in general, by the decease of the illustrious Sir John F. W. Her-
schel, Bart.

His father, Sir William Herschel, came from Hanover to England, in
1759, as one of the Hanoverian Guards’ Band; and was for some time the
subject of disappointment and privation. He however became instructor
to a regimental band, stationed in the North, and fortunately obtained an
organist’s appointment in Yorkshire, and subsequently at Bath. Here
it was that his taste for astronomy became developed, and from whence
his first papers, ‘Observations of the Periodical Star Mira Ceti ” issued.
They were read before the Royal Society, in London, on the 10th May,
1780. :

In 1781, the results of his studies and speculations led to his great dis-
covery of Uranus (specially interesting from its leading to the discovery
of the remote planet Neptune) which placed him most prominent in Sci-
entific rank, which standing he retained until his death in 1822, being then
in his 84th year.

Mr. Herschel, our lamented member, (unlike his father who raised him-
self from the humble rank of a regimental musician) after being edu-
cated privately by a Mr. Rogers, at an early age entered St. John’s College,
Cambridge, where by his great success and taste for science he graduated
B. A. in 1813. He came outin the Mathematical Tripos, Senior Wrangler;
an honor which was further enhanced by his attainment of the Firs
Smith’s Prize. That his year was what is called, in Cambridge, ‘‘a good
year,”’ is evident from the names of the distinguished men of whom he
took precedence, such as the following :—Peacock, Dean of Ely ; Fallows,
late Astronomer Royal at the Cape; Romilly, late Registrar of the Uni-
versity ; Amos, Mill, and other men of note, whose names adorn the Det
partments of Science, Theology and Literature. It may be worth while
to note the feeling which subsisted among his fellow collegians ; Charles
Babbage, the mathematician (lately deceased) who coveted the honor of
of Senior Wranglership, but knowing the powers of his antagonist, Her-
schel, declined to appear in the Mathematical Tripos, choosing rather to
be at the Head of the Poll.

On the 27 May, 1813, he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and
became one of its most active members, receiving in 1821 the Copley
medal.

At his father’s death he pursued that branch of science calied ‘‘ Observ-
ing A stronomy,’’ and about this time he conceived tie desirability of form-
ing a Special Society, and was most active in its foundation, the present
‘‘Royal Astronomical Society.”’

A. P. S.—VOL, XII—2B.

Field.] 21 8 , [Dee. 1,

In 1831, King William, as a tribute to his great scientific services con-
ferred on him the honor of knighthood.

Sir John Herschel’s researches on the positions of Nebule and clusters
of stars, took up many years of his life. Several of the results he pub-
lished in conjunction with Mr. (after Sir James) South, for which a re-
ward of a gold medal was presented to both Astronomers. Were it not
for the sincere love of science, the toil of these proceedings from mid-
night to sunrise would not have taken place; for no one can tell the strain
on the constitution, the severity of which is gleaned from his observations
while discussing the double stars. He remarked :

“Should I be fortunate enough to bring this work to a conclusion, I
shall then joyfully yield up a subject on which I have bestowed a large
portion of my time, and expended much of my health and strength, to
others who will, hereafter, by the aid of those masterpieces of workman-
ship, which modern art places at their disposal, pursue with comparative
ease and convenience an inquiry which has presented to myself difficulties
such as at one period had almost compelled me to abandon it, in despair.’’

Tn 1838, Sir John Herschel was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal
Society, for his paper ‘‘ On the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving
Double Stars.”” The Duke of Sussex, President, gave the following
graphic account of his labors :

“Sir John Herschel has devoted himself, as you well know, for many
years at least, as much from filial piety as from inclination, to the exam-
ination of those remote regions of the universe into which his illustrious
father first penetrated, and which he has transmitted to his son as a he-
reditary possession, with which the name of Herschel must be associated
for allages. He has subjected the whole sphere of the heavens within
his observation, to a repeated and systematic scrutiny. He has determ-
ined the position and described the character of the most remarkable of
the Nebulaz. He has observed and registered many thousand distances
and angles of position of double stars, and has shown, from the compari-
son of his own with other observations, that many of them form systems,
whose variations of position are subject to invariable laws. He has suc-
ceeded by a happy combination of graphical construction with numerical
calculations, in determining the relative elements of the orbits which
some of them describe round each other, and in forming tables of their
motions ; and he has thus demonstrated that the laws of gravitation,
which are exhibited as it were, in miniature in our own planetary system,
prevail also in the most distant regions of space ; a memorable conclusion
justly entitled by the generality of its character to be considered as form-
ing an epoch in the history of Astronomy, and presenting one of the
most magnificent examples of the simplicity and universality of those
fundamental laws of nature, by which their great Author has shown that
he is the same to-day and for ever, here and everywhere.

‘That he was not a mere meditative Philosopher, but one of laborious
research and of a practical turn, appears from the imposing catalogue of
his written works, a few of which I may be pardoned for enumerating: 13

1871.] 219 [ Field.

papers on Optics; 28 on Astronomy ; 10, Pure Mathematics, on Geol-
ogy ; on Photography ; on Chemistry ; on Natural Philosophy.

“The Encyclopedia Britannica boasts of excellent articles on Light and
Sound, and Meteorology, now published separately.”’

A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, published by the Admiralty.

The Philosophical Transactions contain many of his valuable re-
searches, especially those read before the Royal Society, 19 Nov., 1863,
which will ever show his energy and perseverance in spite of the infirmi-
ties of his advancing age. In fact, turn where you may, light, emanating
from Sir John, seems to cast its beams on almost every department of
Science.

It may not be out of place to give an extract from his work ‘‘ Outlines
of Astronomy,’ a book which fills the student’s mind with enraptured
interest in the marvels which he reveals in plain and perspicuous lan-
guage ; for example:

“There is no Science which, more than Astronomy, draws more largely
on that intellectual liberality which is ready to adopt whatever is demon-
strated, or concede whatever is rendered highly probable, however new
and uncommon the points of view may be, in which objects the most fa-
miliar may thereby become placed. Almost all the conclusions stand in
open and striking contradiction with those of superficial and vulgar ob-
servation, and with what appears to every one until he has understood
and weighed the proofs to the contrary, the most positive evidence of his
senses. Thus, the earth on which he stands, and which has served for
ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest structures, either of art
or nature, is divested by the Astronomer, of its attribute of fixity ; and
conceived by him as turning swiftly on its centre, and at the same time
moying onwards through space with great rapidity. The sun and the moon,
which appear, to untaught eyes, round bodies of no very considerable size,
become enlarged on his imagination into vast globes : the one approach-
ing in magnitude to the earth itself; the other immensely surpassing it.
The planets which appear only as stars, somewhat brighter than the rest,
are to him spacious, elaborate and habitable worlds; several of them
much greater and far more curiously furnished than the earth he inhabits,
as there are also others less so; and the stars themselves, properly so-
called, which to ordinary apprehension present only lucid sparks or
brilliant atoms, are to him suns of various and transcendent glory, ef-
fulgent centres of life and light to myriads of unseen worlds. So that,
when after dilating his thoughts to comprehend the grandeur of those
ideas his calculations have called up, and exhausting his imagination and
the powers of his language to devise similes and metaphors illustrative of
the immensity of the scale on which his universe is constructed, he
shrinks back to his native sphere; he finds it, in comparison, a mere
point ; so lost, even in the minute system to which it belongs, as to be
invisible and unsuspected from some of its principal and remote members.”’

Without fatiguing the Society, I think the following paragraph on the
study of Natural Philosophy, will be its own apology for insertion.

Field. ] 220 [Dec, 1,

** Among the most remarkable of the celestial objects, are the revolving
double stars, or stars which to the naked eye or to the inferior telescope
appear single, but if examined with high magnifying powers are found
to consist of two individuals placed almost close together, and which when
carefully watched are (many of them) found to revolve in regular elliptic
orbits about each other ; and, so far as we have as yet been able to ascer-
tain, to obey the same laws which regulate the planetary movements. There
is nothing calculated to give a greater idea of the scale on which the siderial
heavens are constructed than these beautiful systems. When we see such
magnificent bodies united in pairs, undoubtedly by the same bond of
mutual gravitation which holds together our own system, and sweeping
over their enormous orbits in periods comprehending many centuries, we
admit at once that they must be accomplishing ends in creation which
will remain for ever unknown to man; and that we have here attained
a point in Science where the human intellect is compelled to acknowledge
its weakness, and to feel that no conception the wildest imagination can
form, will bear the least comparison with the intrinsic greatness of the
subject.” j

England was not the only spot from which he made his observations.
He found it desirable to carry on his investigations at the Cape of Good
Hope, and for this far off scene of inquiry he embarked with his family
at Portsmouth, 13 Nov., 1833. The course he prescribed to himself seems
to have been to restrict his labors almost, if not entirely, to Stellar As-
tronomy. Still he didnot omit to make many careful observations of the
Nebula of Orion, of the Milky Way and of other heavenly phenomena ;
making accurate drawings, which he subsequently published.

In May, 1837, an extraordinary spot appeared on the sun’s disc, the
marvel of which was much increased when Sir John published his caleu-
lation that the ‘crater of this supposed voleano was sufficiently large to
allow the globe of the earth to pass in leaving all around a margin of
1000 miles.

On his return to England, in 1838, after, as he states, enjoying much
happiness, together with the pleasures of good society, his grateful coun-
try bestowed upon him the dignity of a Baronetcy.

At this time, Photography beginning to attract much public attention,
Sir John turned his thoughts to this beautiful art, directing his inquiries
chiefly to that point so important to Photographers, the chemical action
of solar rays.

Of the value attached to Sir John’s scientific attainments we have
abundant evidence in the instances in which he was called upon to occupy
the place of advisor and councilor. As member of the Board of Visitors
of the ‘‘ Royal Observatory,’’? when he was appointed to receive the annual
report of its working and efficiency, a member of the ‘‘ Standard Commis-
sion”? on the question of the introduction of the ‘‘Metric System of
Weights and Measures ;”’ for many years as one of the leading members
of the Council of the Royal Society.

On the retirement of Davies Gilbert, this venerable Society of savans

1871.] 221 [Field.

nearly succeeded in compromising its title, by almost electing the ple-
beian philosopher to the dignity of President, in preference to the Royal
patron of science and literature, the Duke of Sussex. So keen was the
contest that the subject of our memoir lost it only by 8 votes in a meet-
ting of 240 members. He was President of the Astronomical Society
three times. In 1845, he presided at the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science at Cambridge. Many learned European societies,
beside those of his own country, rejoiced to inscribe his name on their
rolls; but to none of them will our American Philosophical Society yield
in its admiration, of this great citizen of the tepublic of Literature and
Science, as evinced by the bestowal upon him of their diploma of member-
ship. In 1842, he was elected Lord Rector of Marischal College, Aber-
deen. :

The last of his public official positions, previously to his retirement into
the quietude of a country life at Collingwood, in Kent, was that of Master
of the Mint, to which he was appointed December 16, 1850, and which he
retained until Professor Graham’s appointment, Apri 283. 18pdec im
this office Sir John was a worthy successor of the great Sir Isaac Newton,
who filled that office in the reign of William III.

In subsequent times, the Mastership acquired a political character and
was conferred generally on members of the Cabinet, which continued
until what is known familiarly amongst Mint employés, the Revolution
of ’51, by which the old system of. charters, indentures and contracts for
the meltings and coinages, being considered antiquated, it was desired
by the higher powers to abolish. Naturally, this move caused much
alarm and dissatisfaction ; the distastefulness of which was, however,
greatly modified by the gentle and considerate manner in which Sir John
exercised the authority entrusted to him.

The labor and anxiety inseparable from a reconstruction of so import-
ant an establishment, much impaired the health of the subject of this
memoir. Still his mental vigor did not succumb to bodily infirmity, as
daily he was at his post about 11 o’clock, rarely leaving till 5 or 6 p. m.,
when he might be seen walking out with his portfolio under his arm, filled
with papers to consider and revise, as an evening amusement.

Among the many alterations made by Sir John, he framed and calcu-
lated tables for standarding the various qualities of gold and silver, which
superseded those said to have been Sir Isaac Newton’s.

He sanctioned the abandonment of ‘ Trial Plates’’ (designated by Sir
John “ Fiducial Pieces ”’) which had been prepared from time to time
and used for centuries, and presumed to be mathematically of the due
proportions of the pure noble metal, but not really so. In lieu of this
practice Sir John directed the Queen’s Assay Master to use his best en-
deavors to obviate the evil, so that no officer of a foreign mint should be
able to question the conventional purity of our British coin as being other
than for gold 916.6, and for silver 925.

In giving effect to the Master's wishes, the Queen’s Assay “Master
worked out the important correction by preparing and introducing chem-

222 [Dee. 1,

Field.]

ically pure gold and silver, in place of the standard trial plates. The
following extract from Sir John’s correspondence may be appropriately
introduced here.

“The almost mathematical coincidence of the result of the Pyx (about
30 millions) with the legal standard, is the best proof which can be ad-
duced of the admirable system of working the assays.”’

As illustrative of the unfailing kindness of this great man towards
friends, as well as towards those, who had had the happiness to serve
under him, the writer may be pardoned for introducing some of his last
utterances contained in a letter, penned only five weeks before his depart-
ure to those realms of Light and Truth, amidst the wonders of which,
while in the flesh, he loved to live.

“T am suffering under an attack of Bronchitis, which has lasted me all
the winter, so excessively severe that I can hardly hold the pen, which
must excuse the brevity of this, and being now in my 80th year, I can
hope for no relief. I shall retain, however, to the last, a pleasing recol-
lection of aid and support I received from you during the period of my
administration of the Mint, and I know you will believe me ever, my
dear sir, yours, most truly, ;
| To'H. W. YT. (Signed) J. F. W. HERSCHEL.

In his domestic circle, he could unbend to the capacity of the young,
in whose amusements he joined with spirit, and considering his advanced
years, with wonderful energy. It may be instanced that, only a few years
back, the great astronomer condescended to enter cordially into the
children’s Christmas gambols, and played in the most animated manner
the part of Sir George with the Dragon; habiting himself in a coat of
mail, extemporized from various culinary articles. His impromptu dia-
logue with his son as ‘‘the Dragon,’’ was said by the elders to be ab-
surdly clever. ‘‘The Herschels do everything well’? was a common way
of speaking of the philosopher and his family ; so here the Dragon was
so life-like, though made only of brown paper with a scarlet cloth tongue,
and the knight looked so doughty, that the tableau nearly sent one of the
children into convulsions.

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K. H., D.C. L., &c., was born at
Slough, near Windsor, 7 March, 1792. He married, in 1829, Margaret
Brodie, daughter to the Rev. Dr. Alexander Stewart, by whom he had a
family of three sons and nine daughters. One is married to General, the
Hon. Alexander Gordon, uncle of the present Lord Aberdeen, and now
heir presumptive to that title. His youngest son is an officer in the Royal
Bengal Engineers. He is succeeded in the title by his son Mr. William
James Herschel, of the Bengal Civil Service, who was born in 1833 and
married in 1864, Anne Emma Haldane Hardcastle, daughter of the late
Mr. Alfred Hardcastle, of Hatcham, Surrey.

Sir John died at his seat, Collingwood, Hawkhurst, Kent, on Thurs-
day, the 11th May, 1871, at 10 o’clock a. M., being in his 80th year. He
was buried in Westminster Abbey, on Tuesday, the 19th May. His re-

1871.) 223 iField
mains were followed by the Presidents and many members of the various
learned societies of England, also by the chief men of science in London.

The well-known Dean Stanley officiated on the mournful occasion, and
on the following Sunday delivered in the Abbey one of his beautiful char-
acteristic sermons, which may be found én etenso, in the July number of
“Good Words,” p. 453 (a work to which he occasionally contributed
some popular papers on the wonders of the Universe). The Dean took
his text from the 14th and 15th verses of the 1st chapter of Genesis.

“ And God said let there be lights in the firmament of the Heaven to
divide the day from the night; and det them be for signs and for seasons
and for days and years; and let them be for lights in the firmament of
the heaven to give light upon the earth; and it was so.”

Glancing at the private sentiments of Sir John, in these days, when there
appears to be an increasing antagonism between science and revelation,
it is refreshing to remember how frequently in his writings, and in con-
versation with some of his friends, strong indications are observable, that
the lofty mind of him who was a master in the science of the starry
heavens could penetrate into higher regions still, and forget the proud
achievements of intellect and science, in the humility of the adoring
Christian; a humility which also manifested itself towards man in count-
less acts of generous sympathy and consideration. Of him truly it may
be said in the language of a poetical tribute to his memory, which has
recently appeared in a periodical of the day (‘‘ Good Words’’).

‘+ Seience and learning led his mind, in reverent awe above ;
To him the voices of the stars proclaim’d their Maker’s love.”

In the above sketch of the scientific, official and personal character of
the departed, it will be sufficiently apparent that with numberless other as-
sociations of the learned and scientific, in the decease of Sir John Herschel,
our Society has to deplore the loss of a member whose name adorned the
catalogue,

Mr. Dubois offered the following paper upon a qguast Coin,
of Copper, affirmed to have been found ata great depth, in
Mlinois.

The annual reports of the Treasurer and Publication Com-

mittee were read and referred.

Pending nominations 679 to 682, and new nomination 683
were read; and the meeting was adjourned,

99,
Dubois. ] 224 (Dec. 1,

ON A QUASI COIN REPORTED FOUND IN A BORING IN ILLINOIS.
Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 1, 1871,
By Won. E. Dusors.

In July last, a letter was received at the Smithsonian Institute, from
Mr. Jacob W, Moffit, of Chillicothe, Peoria county, Illinois, enclosing the
photograph of a medal or coin, with the following particulars in relation
to it:

“In August 1870, I took a contract of sinking a tubular well for Mr.
Peter Cline, in this county. I had two men employed to assist in the
labor, who are cognizant of all the facts connected with the finding of the
coin.

“The following are the several strata through which we passed. We
used a common ground auger, three inch bore :

“Soil, 3 feet. Yellow clay, 10 ; blue clay, 44 ; clay, sand, and gravel 4 ;
purple clay, 19 ; brown “‘hard pan,” 10; green clay, 8} ; vegetable mould,
2; yellow clay, 24; yellow hard pan, 2; mixed clay, 205.

“Here we brought up the coin,on the auger, from a depth of one hundred
and twenty-five feet.

“Tt has been examined by gentlemen in Chicago and St. Louis, without
any result in explaining the mystery of its origin or date. It is my desire
that a further investigation be made. I can, if necessary, send affidavits
of myself and other parties as to the truth of these statements.”

[Signed ] Jacos W. Morrit.

It may here be added, that the place is in a great prairie, near the
centre of the State, and near the Illinois river ; about 80 miles east of the
Mississippi river.

Professor Henry having repeatedly referred rare coins to me, took the
same course on this occasion, giving leave to communicate the facts to
this society, if it was thought proper.

An examination of the piece itself was necessary ; and in reply to my
request the owner forwarded the same, with further details, to wit :

“Tn answer to your questions I must say, that very few wells or shafts
in this region have attained a depth of more than 50 or 75 feet, except in
the valleys, where occasiondlly we find a well, through sand and gravel
drift, at the depth of 100 feet.

“The only token of civilization discovered at a similar depth, in this
State, was taken from a shaft in Whiteside county, about 20 years ago.
The workmen at the depth of 120 feet discovered a large copper ring or
ferrule, similar to those used on ship spars at the present time, They also
found something fashioned like a boat-hook.

«There are numerous instances of relics found at lesser depths. A spear-
shaped hatchet, made of iron, was found imbedded in clay at 40 feet ;
and stone pipes and pottery have been unearthed at depth varying from
10 to 50 feet in many localities.

“No rational estimate has ever been made of the rate of annual earthy
deposit. Our prairie land seems to have been built up by a deposit from

1871.] 225 [Dubois.

waters whose current set in from the N. W., changing its course only
when in contact with some (then) eminence now far below the surface.
The soil is seldom over three feet in thickness, usually underlaid by a yel-
low hard-pan of two to three feet. Wood is quite common at all depths
at which wells have been sunk in blue clay.

“Nothing has been found in any of the Western mounds (as far as I
am informed) bearing any resemblance in form or character to this coin.

‘‘On taking the coin from the auger, I washed the clay from it with
water. It then presented no appearance of corrosion, bearing a dull red
hue, such as is common to old copper. However, after a few minutes,
exposure to the air, it began to blacken, and in a short time was en-
crusted with a dark green, gummy coat, which I allowed to harden, and
then removed by friction.’’ :

Thus far from Mr. Moiiit. I learn from another source, that Chillicothe
is built upon an alluvium of the Illinois river, very sandy, loose, and easily
washed away. The river thereabouts is widened into a lake, about one
mile and a quarter wide, and twelve miles long. The French pioneers
went through that region, about the close of the seventeenth century.
Whether the ground on which Chillicothe stands, has been made by the
river, to the depth of 125 feet, since the entrance of the whites, is a point
on which the residents there, with or without geological instruction, can-
not venture an opinion.

As to the facts as above stated, there isevery reason to rely upon their
accuracy. Ihave to add some remarks on the physical and artistical
traits of the coin itself. :

‘ Properly speaking, it is not a coén or medal, since the marks upon it
have not been produced by striking, but by engraving or etching; and
they are sunken, or intaglio. It is of copper in good condition, in shape
polygonal approaching to circular, about one and an eighth inch in
diameter ; somewhat pitted by corrosions, and with very rude figures and
inscriptions ou both sides. The central image on one side is that of a
man, or a child; on the other are two animals, one of them like a wild
cat, with conspicuous ears. The legends are plain enough, to any one
who can read them; but being somewhere between Arabic and Phono-
graphic, without being either, they are sufficiently puzzling. Happily
we have members whose knowledge of paleography may throw some
light. For myself, I have seen nothing like it.

As to the other artistic characters, the metal proves, by a delicate gauge,
to be very uniform in thiékness ; more so than could be attained by the
beating out of a hammer in savage hands. I therefore feel sure it has
passed through a rolling-mill ; and if the ancient Indians had such a con-
trivance, it must have been pre-historic.

There are other tokens of the machine shop. Any one can see that the
piece has been shaped, not with much symmetry, with shears or chisel ;
and the sharp edge taken down with a file. Coins or medals were not
thus finished in ancient times, but they were in the middle ages, andin

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII—2¢.

Dubois. ] 226 [Dee. 1,
Spanish America down to about 150 years past. (Tapping the edge with
a hammer, was also in use):

If the figures and characters were made with a tool, it must have been
a very rude one, since a ‘‘flat-nosed ” graver would have left a smooth
trough, while here it is rough and granular. This would suggest the
greater likelihood of etching, were it not inconceivable that so advanced
an art should have been practiced long ago on the Western prairies. The
mineral acids, used for such work, were nowhere known until about the
fourteenth century ; and in Illinois, while we might suppose agua ardiente,
we cannot concede aqua fortis, longer ago than one century. On the
whole, it has been worked out with a very crude instrument.

As to the condition of the piece, and the discolorations; it is well known
that copper, exposed to the air, acquires a superficial sub-oxide or dioxide,
which protects it from further destruction. Very many ancient copper
coins have been turned up by the spade or plough, which with a little
cleaning up, look as if just out of the mint. I herewith show a specimen
of Tetricus, a Roman usurper of the purple, in France, about A. D. 270;
entirely free from corrosion. I also show a more interesting piece, which
with many others, was ploughed up in the southern part of England,
about 30 years ago. They were all so encrusted as to be illegible, and
the owner gave me a choice at haphazard. On removing the coat of mail,
and leaving only the mixture of brown and black oxides, it turned out to
be a coin of Carausius, who established himself as a Roman Emperor in
Britain, A. D., 287; as long before William the Conqueror, as William
was before Victoria. This piece is rare and in perfect order, and forms a
part of the Mint collection. ;

Some ancient coins, especially those with a slight alloy of tin or cala-
mine, making them bronze or brass, are beautifully coated and protected
with the green carbonate, the same as that which formed on the Illinois
piece before cleaning. I herewith show one of these patinated pieces, a
coin of Augustus, also from the Mint Cabinet. They may have been in
favorable hiding-places, such as cinerary urns, or columbaria.

All things considered, I cannot regard this Illinois piece as ancient, nor
old, (observing the usual distinction); nor yet recent; because the ‘tooth
of time’’ is plainly visible.

What the piece was made for, is a part of the inquiry. Not for current
money, bevause it would take a long time to make a handful ; more likely
a work of amusement, possibly to exercise the antiquarians. But how
it got into such a deep place, supposing it a bona fide discovery which I
eannot call in question, is a very perplexing point, and I gladly hand over
the explanation to any one willing to undertake it. Certainly it seems,
in connection with the finding of the copper ring, and other articles of
iron and wood, at considerable depths, to form an item in the study of
the formation of the superficial strata in that interesting section of our
country. :

Since the foregoing was written, I am favored with the suggestions (in
writing) of Professor Lesley. He suspects that if anything, it is an
astrological amulet. There are upon it the signs of Pisces and Leo. The

1871. ] 227 (Dubois.

figures, on the obverse and reverse faces correspond in the attitude of the
left arm raised and flourishing a whip, or thunderbolt. He reads the date
1072, and says that no geologist can accept the statement that a piece
of that age could be lying naturally at a depth of 125 feet, under an
Illinois prairie. The piece was placed there as a practical joke, though
not by the present owner; and is a modern fabrication; perhaps of the
sixteenth century; possibly of Hispano-American, or French-American
origin. It may have some connection with the journeys of the early
French priests or their voyageurs.

I would only add, that those views are forcible, but yet they take
imposture for granted, and in so doing, leave us in this dilemma; that a
curious piece was made many years ago, and held for the purpose of trick,
until a deep hole should be made, long afterwards, in which to bury it,
and complete the deception. It is also very hard to believe, that an
intelligent and experienced operator in this line would allow himself to be
sported with by workmen, and take so much pains, far and near, to
ascertain what kind of article he had found.

Mr. Lesley explained :

He considered the integrity, experience and vigilance of the well sinker
no guarantee against the surreptitious insertion of the coin. It is impos-
sible to prevent a practical joke of that sort when the jester is resolved to
have it so. Experience furnishes a thousand proofs of this in our exten-
sive oil regions, where all kinds of rubbish have been brought to the sur-
face from considerable depths ; nails, anthracite coal, California nuggets,
‘‘butter of antimony,’’ Lake Superior Red hematite iron ore, &e.

It looks as if there is a good deal of this sort of thing going on in the
west. The copper-ring and boat-hook ‘taken from a shaft at Whitside;
at a depth of 120 feet,’ ‘‘the iron spear-shaped hatchet embedded in clay
at 40 feet’? mentioned in the paper, are subjects for the same incredulity.
The only possible explanation, excluding an imputation of fraud, in the
latter case, would presuppose the recent filling up of a hole in the river
bed with clay, through which a piece of iron might slowly settle down.

The discovery of a circular stone fire-place, with embers, by Mr.
Latrobe’s party of engineers in a gravel cut for the road bed of the Balti-
more and Ohio R. R., many years ago, at a depth of 50 or 60 feet beneath
the surface, is a circumstance belonging to quite a different category.

In the present case we have an evident imitation of Mediterranean coins.
But the central figures are unmistakably Red Indian in their character.
It is either unique of its kind, or one of a very small class. The proba-
bilities against a borehole striking such an object are simply infinity to
one. The improbabilities of the coin being at or near the surface, and
being worked out from the wall of the hole by the friction of the rods, is
equally great. There is too much method in the arrangement of the
elements of the legend to doubt that the maker had a definite idea to
express. A compound oval symbol occupies the right edge on each face,
and may have a phallic significance. But the two human figures on one

228

face seem rather to be in conflict than in conjunction. The head dress
may represent hair, or may represent the Indian warrior’s feather crest.

Professor Trego remarked that he had seen the once famous grave
mound relic and the man ‘‘ who discovered’’ and possessed it, and believed
it to be fraudulent. He had no faith in such discoveries in the west.

Stated Meeting, December 15, 1871.

Present, twelve members.
Dr. Woop, President, in the chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Anthro-
| pological Institute of G. B. and Ireland, Nov. 24, 1871, (88,
| ee, Oo, OO, and rans, bart L 1670). Lhe IN. Wid POR uo.
Wat Bonn, beo,.6, lol (62, 63): The .N. Ges, imden,,
Sept. 21, 1871 (84, 85); and the Linnean Society at Bordeaux,
July 12, 1870 (78, 79).

Letters of envoy were received from the Societies at Bor-
deaux and Emden, Sept. 22, 1871; the Geographical Society
at Vienna, Sept. 8, 1871; the American Legation at the
Hague, Nov. 28, 1871; and the U. 8. Naval Observatory,
Wee 0, LOT,

The death of Count Agenor Etienne de Gasparin, in June
last, was announced by the Secretary.

Creation of Organic Forms, with illustrations on the black-
board,

Professor Cope added a Catalogue of Pythonomorpha found
in the Cretaceous strata of Kansas.

Pending nominations 679 to 683, and new nominations 684
} to 688 were read.

Professor Cope communicated his views on the Method of

"Dec. 15, 1971.] 229

ie

[Cope.

On motion of Mr. Price, the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, That the Treasurer be authorized to pay to the Treasurer of

the Fairmount Park Commissioners, three hundred dollars ($300) of the
interest or rent lately received on the Michaux Legacy, to be applied to-
wards the Michaux Grove and Michaux Nursery of Oaks in the Park,
agreeably to the resolution of March 18th, 1870 (see page 312, Vol. XL.,
Proceedings A. P.§.)

And the meeting was then adjourned.

THE METHOD OF CREATION OF ORGANIC FORMS.
By Ep. D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 15th, 1871.)

CuapTeR I.—On tHe Law oF ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION.
Nature of law of Natural selection. Two kinds of evidence. Illus-
tration. Examples from cervide, helicide, insects and men.

CuHaprer I].—Tue Law or Reprririve Appirion. Segment and cell
repetition. Illustration from limbs and vertebral column. A, On seg-
ment addition; definitions. On repetition in bilateral and anteroposterior
symmetry; in structure of compound teeth; in segments of articulata;
limbs of Reptilia; brain of lamprey. B, On cell repetition; simple seg-
ment a repetition of cells; simple diverticulum the same. The cell
theory; the nucleated cell. OC, Synthesis of repetition. From unicell-
ular to multicellular animals; simple repetition to compound repe-
tition; <Actinia, Lepidosiren, Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Tenia; the
heart; mammalian teeth. D, On growth force; relation to other
forces; definition. E, Direction of repetition, its location, centrifugal
and longitudinal; movements longitudinal. Inheritance; its relation
to growth force.

CuarTer JII].—Tue Law or Use anpD Error. Points to be investi-
gated. A, On the location of growth force. Relation of effort to use.
Rudimental characters. Examples of growth under influence of phys-
ical laws; Examples of colors under influence of light. Use and disuse
of gills. Rattlesnake; horned animals. Teeth ofruminants. B, Change
in amount of growth force. Local increase of growth force. Convo-
luted structures; brain, teeth, cotyledons. Absolute loss of growth
force. Teeth and toes of Ruminants; incisors of Rodents.

CHarrer ITV.—On Grape INFLUENCE. A, On the nature of Grade
influence or Bathmism. Definitions. In plants; in animals. Increase
in time of Bathmism and growth force. Vital forces and vital influences.
Thought force. Origin of Bathmism in time. B, Physiological origin
of Bathmism. Function of nervous system in force conversion. Au-
tomatic and habitual movements. Effect on nervous system. ©, The
transmission of grade influence. Secretion in general. Spermatozodids.

CHAPTER VY.—INTHLLIGENT SELECTION. Development of intelligence.
Stimuli to use. Compulsion, Choice; Bees, Food, Rattlesnake; Change
of color; Mimetic analogy, Examples. Development of character.

oe
230 [Dee. 15,

Jope. ]

In the present state of biological science, essays like the present can
only be tentative in so far as they treat of the laws of evolution. Never-
theless the present time is preéminently one of generalization in this
field, and properly so. Facts have been accumulating for a long period,
and are now sufficiently numerous to yield important results, under proper
classification and induction. Darwin led the way in this work, and
the development hypothesis is regarded as demonstrated by most biolo-
gists. The discussion of the laws of its progress involves a multitude of
subordinate hypotheses. In the following essay, these are arranged
under five prominent heads, viz: 1, The law of Acceleration and Retarda-
tion; 2. The law of Repetitive Addition; 8. The law of Use and Effort;
4. The law of Grade Influence; 5. The law of Intelligent Selection. Of
these, the first and second are regarded by the author as demonstrated,
the third and fourth as only reduced toa partial demonstration, while
the fifth is a consequence of the third, and stands or falls with it.

The discussion of this subject divides itself into two parts, viz: a con-
sideration of the proof that evolution of organic types or descent with
modification has taken place; and secondly, the investigation of the laws
in accordance with which this development has progressed. As the latter
involves the use of the evidence included in the former, I will not de-
vote a special chapter to the proof for evolution.

The influences and forces which have operated to produce the type
structures of the animal kingdom have been plainly of two kinds; 1.
Originative, 2. Directive. The prime importance of the former is obvi-
ous; that the latter is only secondary in the order of time or succession,
is evident from the fact that it controls the preservation or destruction of
the results or creations of the first, and thus furnishes the bases of the
exhibitions of the originative forces in the production of the successive
generations of living beings.

Wallace and Darwin have propounded as the cause of modifica-
tion in descent their law of natural selection. This law has been ep-
itomized by Spencer as the ‘‘survival of the fittest.”” This neat ex-
pression no doubt covers the case, but it leaves the origin of the fittest en-
tirely untouched. Darwin assumes a ‘‘tendency to variation”’ in nature,
and it is plainly necessary to do this, in order that materials for the exer-
cise of a selection should exist. Darwin and Wallace’s law is, then, only
restrictive, directive, conservative, or destructive of something already
created. I propose then to seek for the originative laws by which these
subjects are furnished—in other words, for the causes of the origin of the
fittest.

It has seemed to the author so clear from the first as to require no dem-
onstration, that Natural Selection includes no actively progressive principle
whatever; that it must first wait for the development of variation, and
then after securing the survival of the best, wait again for the best to pro-
ject its own variations for selection. Jn the question as to whether the
latter are any better or worse than the characters of the parent, natural
selection in no wise concerns itself,

sell

al

1871.] 231

I. ON THE LAW OF ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION.

There are two modes of demonstration of evolution, both depending on
direct observation. One of these has been successfully presented by
Darwin. He has observed the origin of varieties in animals and plants,
either in the domesticated or wild states, and has shown, what had been
known to many, the lack of distinction in the grades of difference which
separate varieties and species. But he has also pointed out that species
(such, so far, as distinctness goes) have been derived from other species
among domesticated animals, and he infers by induction that other spe-
cies, whose origin has not been observed, have also descended from com-
mon parents. So far, I believe his induction to be justified ; but when
from this basis evolution of divisions defined by important structural
characters, as genera, orders, classes, etc., is inferred, I believe that we
do not know enough of the uniformity of nature’s processes in the prem-
ises to enable us to regard this kind of proof as conclusive.

J therefore appeal to another mode of proving it, and one which covers
the case of all the more really structural features of animals and plants.

It is well known that in both kingdoms, in a general way, the young
stages of the more perfect types are represented or imitated with more or
less exactitude by the adults of inferior ones. But atrue identity of these
adults with the various stages of the higher has, comparatively, rarely
been observed. Let such a case be supposed.

In A* we have four species whose growth attains a given point, a certain
number of stages having been passed prior to its termination or maturity.
In B we have another series of four (the number a matter of no import-
ance), which, during the period of growth, cannot be distinguished by
any common, 7. ¢., generic character, from the individuals of group A,
but whose growth has only attained to a point short of that reached by
those of group A at maturity. Here we have a parallelism, but no true
evidence of descent. But if we now find a set of individuals belonging to
one species, or still better, the individuals of a single brood, and therefore
held to have had a common origin or parentage, which present differences
among themselves of the character in question, we have gained a point.
We know in this case that the individuals, @, have attained to the com-
pleteness of character presented by group A, while others, }, of the same
parentage have only attained to the structure of those of group B. It is
perfectly obvious that the individuals of the first part of the family have
grown further, and, therefore, in one sense faster, than those of group 0.
If the parents were like the individuals of the more completely grown,
then the offspring which did not attain that completeness may be said to
have been retarded in their development. If, on the other hand, the
parents were like those less fully grown, then the offspring which have
added something, have been accelerated in their development.

I claim that a consideration of the uniformity of nature’s processes, or
inductive reasoning, requires me (however it may affect the minds of
others) to believe that the groups of species, whose individuals I have

*A cut explaining this proportion will be found at the end of the essay.

796
232 [Dec. 15,

Cope. }

never found to vary, but which differ in the same point as those in which
I have observed the above variations, are also derived from common par-
ents, and the more advanced have been accelerated or the less advanced
retarded, as the case may have been with regard to the parents.

This is not an imaginary case, but a true representation of many which
have come under observation. The developmental resemblances men-
tioned are universal in the animal, and probably in the vegetable king-
doms, approaching the exactitude above depicted in proportion to the
near structural similarity of the species considered.

Heample 1. It is well knownthat the Cerside of the Old World develop
a basal snag of the antler, (see Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, and Gray, Cat.
British Museum,) at the third year; a majority of those of the New
World (genera Subulo, Cariacus) never develop it’ except in abnormal
cases in the most vigorous maturity of the most northern Cariacus (0.
virginianus), while the South American Subulo retains to adult age the
simple horn or spike of the second year of all Vervida. :

Among the higher Cervida, Rusa and Axis never assume characters
beyond an equivalent of the fourth year of Cervus. In Dama the char-
acters are, on the other hand, assumed more rapidly than in Cervus, its
third year corresponding to the fourth of the latter, and the development
in after years of a broad plate of bone, with points being substituted for
the addition of the corresponding snags, thus commencing another series
which terminates in the great fossil elk, Megacerus.

Returning to the American deer we have Blastocerus, whose antlers
are identical with the fourth year of Cariacus. Corresponding with the
Dama-Megacerus type of the Old World we have the moose (Alces) de-
veloping the same palmate horn en the basis of Cariacus (¢. ¢., without
eye-snag. )

Example 2.—I select the following series, embracing the majority of
the genera of the North American Helicide.*

1. Turns of spire very few; wide umbilicus; shell thin, with thin
... Binneya.
2. Turns few, but more; 1 Vitrina.
3. Turns still more numerous; rest as above.. digrs eddy eas
4, As No. 8, but lip thickened.inside..'..:4...-.. Ce ea ce Hlygromia.
5. Coiled; umbilicus closed, lip thickened inside and out,

Tachea and Pematia.

6, Same, with a parietal COO... «4.6, ees eee cys Cieeect Mesodon.

7. Same, with parietal and two interior lip teeth.......Zsognomostoma.
* * Recommencing at No. 4. All with open wmbilicus.

5. As No. 4, but lip thickened in and out. . .. Artonta.
6. Same as No. 5, but with parietal tooth. See rere eh OU NVC

7, Same, with both parietal and lip teeth........... : rtodopsts.

* See Tryon, Terrestrial Mollusca of the United States. Probably other (e.g. dental)
characters distinguish some of these genera, but the above furnishes the history of one
set of characters.

1871.] 230

[Cope.

The successional relation of these genera may be represented in such a
diagram as this:

Umbilicus open. Umbilicus closed.
* *

* *

mw ROD A

KF *

In the history of the growth of the genera Isognomostoma and Trio-
dopsis, the extreme forms of the two series, it is well known that at first
the coils of the shell are extremely few, as in Binneya; and that like it,
it is very thin and with a delicately thin edge; that the turns increase
successively in number, as in Vitrina and Hyalina, and that finally the
lip thickens asin Hygromia. Then the umbilicus may close asin Tachea,
or (in Triodopsis) remain open asin Arionta. In either casea tooth is soon
added on the body whorl (Polymita, Mesodon), and finally, the full ma-
turity of the shell is seen in the added teeth of the inside of the lip margin.
How many of the stages of the genera Z7todopsis and Mesodon are identi-
cal with the genera of the series which represent them, I leave to more
thorough conchologists, but that some now exhibit and all have once
presented illustrations of the relation of exact parallelism, I cannot doubt.

Heample 1.—An abundant race of the American deer, Cariacus virgi-
nianus, exists in the Adirondack region of New York, in which the de-
velopment of the antlers never progresses beyond the spike stage of the
second year. Therefore, some individuals of this species belong to Cari-
acus and some to Subulo.

Heample 2.—A. large part of the individuals of the common snail, MJeso-
don albolabris, never develop the tooth of the body-whorl, characteristic
of the genus whose definition has to be modified to retain them.

Heample 3.—Many individuals of Triodopsis tridentata from eastern
North Carolina occur without the lip-teeth, characteristic of the genus
Triodopsis. Hence these specimens, though of common origin with others
of the species, must be referred to another genus.

Hxample 4.—Structural characters are known in many, if not all, species
which are said to be ‘‘inconstant,’’ being present or absent indifferently,
thus being useless for definition. They may be rudimental when present
or considerably developed. The presence or absence of wings in some
species of insects may be cited; also the presence of generic characters
in the male sex of many Coleoptera and their absence in the females.
‘The characters of males, females, workers and soldiers in bees and ants
may be added. All these facts belong to the same category as those cited
among deer and mollusks and have a similar explanation.

Hzxample 5.-—It does not seem to be the law in “‘retardation’’ that par-
allelisms exhibited by the series in its rise to its highest point of develop-
ment should retrace the steps by which it attained it, and that ‘‘ exact

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—2D.

234 [Dee. 15,

Cope. ]

parallelisms’’ should be exhibited in a reversed order. Parallelisms, it is
true, are exhibited; but so far as I have observed always ‘“‘inexact,’?
often in a high degree. A marked case of retardation occurs in the den-
tal development of a number of persons who have come under my obser-
vation in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. It is not very uncommon to
find persons in whom the third molars in both jaws are incomplete as to
number, one, two, three, or all, being deficient. It is still more common
for them to be incompletely covered by the enamel layer, and to become
in consequence so worthless as to require early removal. Jam acquainted
with two families in which the absence of the exterior upper incisor on
each side is common. In one of these the second and third generation
have inherited it from the mother’s side, and it now characterizes many
of the children. The significance of this modification will be best under-
stood by examining the dental structures of the Quadrwmana in general.
Jommencing with the highest family and its abnormal dentition, we
have :—
Incisors. Canines. Premolars. Molars-

2 2

Dy

¢ Abnormal.

1 1
Hominnd es { Normal. 2 5
ISUNMO: suis es ea eye Z i é
CONE AT ee ones $ ‘ 3
DEMUridt es (ert a ; 2 : ee 4
Mammalia, Normal...... 8 : 5

In this table we see a decline in the number of teeth of the higher
groups. Thus, the premolars are one less than the normal number in the
whole order, and they lose one in each jaw in the Old World apes, and
man. The molars maintain the normal number throughout, but the third
in both jaws is in the Simiide reduced by the loss of a fifth or odd tuber-
cle,thus becoming four-lobed. In the upper jaw, this is first lost in
the Semnopithecus; in the lower, in the next highest genus Cercopithecus.
In Homo its appearance is ‘‘retarded,’’ the interval between that event
and the protrusion of the second molar—six to ten years-—being relatively
greater than in any genus of Quadrumana. Its absence is then the re-
sult of continued retardation, not of a new and adaptive suppression, and
is of direct systematic zoological value.

In the incisors a reduction. is also plainly visible, as we pass from the
most completely furnished mammals to the genus Homo. One from the
upper jaw is first lost, then in the Cebida, one from the lower also. The

number remains the same through the Stmiide and normal Hominida,

but in the abnormal cases cited, the process of reduction is continued and
another incisor from each side disappears. That this also is truly ‘‘re-
tardation”’ is also evident from the fact, that the exterior incisor is the
last developed, being delayed in ordinary growth a year later than those
of the inner pair. The same retardation is seen in the quadrumane Cheir-
omys (the Aye-aye), and the whole order Rodentia. In the latter, the
rare presence of the reduced second incisors, as in Lepus, shows a less de-

1871.] 71313)

[Cope-

gree of this modification. This retardation is also of systematic importance,
and, should either of the characters described be constant in any of the
species of the genus Homo, would at once entitle it to new generic rank.
The very frequent absence of the posterior molars (wisdom teeth) has
been recently found to characterize a race in India. Should this peculi-
arity prove constant, this race would with propriety be referred to as a
new genus of Hominidx, as we have many cases of very similar species
being referred to different genera. It is altogether probable that such
will, at some future time be the condition of some race or races of men.*

Iam now disposed to regard the above as the method of production,
not only of generic but of all other, including specific characters. It
would appear that by excessive acceleration or retardation, some of the
characters of a series may be skipped, but observations are not conclusive
on this point, since very close examination is necessary for the apprecia-
tion ef very transitory embryonic conditions.

II. ON THE LAW OF REPETITIVE ADDITION.

The origin of new structures which distinguish one generation from
those which have preceded it, I have stated to take place under the law of
acceleration. As growth (creation) of parts usually ceases with maturity,
it is entirely plain that the process of acceleration is limited to the period
of infancy and youth in all animals. It is also plain that the question of
growth is one of nutrition, or of the construction of organs and tissues
out of protoplasm.

The construction of the animal types may be referred to two kinds of
increase—the addition of identical segments and the addition of identical
cells.. The first is probably to be referred to the last, but the laws which
give rise to it cannot now be explained. Certain it is that segmentation
is not only produced by-addition of identical parts, but also by subdivision
of a homogeneous part. In reducing the vertebrate or most complex ani-
mal to its simplest expression, we find that all its specialized parts are
but modifications of the segment, either simply or as sub-segments of
compound but identical segments. Gegenbaur has pointed out that the
most complex limb with hand or foot, is construc ted, first, of a single
longitudinal series of identical segments, from each of which a similar
segment diverges, the whole forming parallel series, not only in the ob-
lique transverse, but generally in the longitudinal sense. Thus, the limb
of the Lepidosiren represents the simple type, that of the Ichthyosaurus a
modification. In the latter, the first segment only (femur or humerus) is
specialized, the other pieces being undistinguishable. In the Plesiosaur-
ian paddle the separate parts are distinguished; the ulna and radius well
marked, the carpal pieces hexagonal, the phalanges defined, etc.

As regards the whole skeleton the same position may be safely as-
sumed. Though Huxley may reject Owen’s theory of the vetebrate char-

*The preceding section is merely an abbreviation with new illustrations, of the pro
positions brought forward in the writers “ Origin of Genera,” 1868, where a considera-
ble extension of the subject will be found.

oe
Cope. } 236 [Dee. 15,
acter of the segments of the brain case, because they are so very different
from the segments in other parts of the column, the question rests en-
tively on the definition of a vertebra. If a vertebra be a segment of the
skeleton, of course the brain case is composed of vertebrae; if not, then the
cranium may be said to be formed of ‘‘sclerotomes,’’ or some other name
may be used. Certain it is, however, that the parts of the segments of
the cranium may be now more or less completely parallelised or homolo-
gised with each other, and that as we descend the scale of vertebrated
animals, the resemblance of these segments to vertebra increases, and the
constituent segments of each become more similar. In the types Amphi-
-oxus, etc., where the greatest resemblance is seen, segmentation of either
is incomplete, for they retain the original cartilaginous basis. Other ani-
mals which present cavities or parts of a solid support are still more
easily reduced to a simple basis of segments, arranged either longitudin-
ally (worm) or centrifugally (star-fish, etc.)

DEFINITIONS.

a The succession of construction of parts of a complex, was originally
“a succession of identical repetitions; and grade influence merely deter-
mined the number and location of such repetitions.

f Acceleration signifies addition to the number of those repetitions
during the period preceding maturity, as compared with the preceding
generation, and retardation signifies a reduction of the numbers of such
repetitions during the same time.

7 The successive additions now characterizing the growth of the
highest animals are not exact repetitions of segments at this time, be-
cause of influences brought to bear on cell nutrition during long periods.
The nature of these influences is made the subject of another section.

Tn the endeavor to prove these positions, I will produce evidence, first,
that some simpler animals grow according to the principle of modified
repetitive addition, and that traces of it are to be observed in the most
«complex ; second, that every addition to structure which has resulted in
the complexity of the higher animals, was originally a repetition of a pre-
existent structure.

Detailed explanations of the law of repetitive addition are attempted
in the following pages, under two heads, segment repetition, and.cell re-
petition.

A. ON SEGMENT REPETITION.

This is everywhere seen in the construction of animals and plants
Double bilateral symmetry may serve as one example of repetition in
growth.

a Bilateral symmetry. Anatomists have little difficulty in determin-
ing the bilateral symmetry in most animals; that is, the homologies of
the parts on opposite sides of the median line. It might be almost as-
serted that it was a necessity of organization, but when we observe the
growth of many plants, we are undeceived. And though bilateral symmetry
in the Oelenterata and many Articulata is perfect, yet in higher animals it

1871.] 237 [Cope,

is more or less departed from. In the Vertebrata the Amphiovus is
almost completely bilaterally symmetrical. In the fishes, the digestive
system is the only one which does not conform to it; while in the birds
the reproductive system is atrophied on one side. In the serpents the
respiratory and part of the circulatory are similarly modified; and in the
mammialia the digestive and circulatory systems have both become un-
symmetrical ; and the cranium even in the cetacea.

If evolution be true, the unsymmetrical forms have descended from the
symmetrical, and the asymmetry being thus not inherited, is the result
of laws which have interfered with the original tendency to bilateral
repetition.

Many cases of bilaterally symmetrical diseases have been enumer-
ated by physiologists, and I will select as an example one which has come
under my observation. They were those of two boys who had had that
disease involving the mucodermal system called Varicella, while the crowns
of the successional incisor teeth were still enclosed in the mucous capsules
of the alveolar walls. The deposit of phosphate of lime forming their
surfaces was interrupted by the disease of the tissue, and the result was
a surface pitted, or sculptured intaglio fashion. The sculpture of the
two incisors of the right side was precisely imitated by those of the
left in reversed order, even in minute details, which were numerous, thus
producing a result not displeasing to the eye. This has been observed on
two distinct occasions some years apart.

Another interesting example of bilaterally symmetrical disease, is re-
corded in a paper on ‘‘a case of universal hyperostosis, ete.,’”? by Drs.
Mears, Keen, Allen and Pepper. * They describe the skeleton of a boy
of fourteen which displayed an extraordinarly exostosed condition, the
bones themselves remaining in the condition known as osteoporosis.
They describe the uniform repetition of the abnormal growths of one
side on the other in the following language, (p. 22).

‘““Comparing the two sides externally, not only is there no difference

in the extent and character of the disease, but there is the most remark- .

able symmetry of the corresponding diseased bones, which may be traced
even into details. The disease begins and ends on both sides at corres-
ponding points, it changes in character from simple porosity to the
growth of osteophytes at corresponding points ; if, on one side, the pos-
terior part of the bone is most diseased, the same is true of the other
side ; if the osteophyte growth is continuous or interrupted on one bone
(fibula fig. 18), it is so on the opposite one ; if one is unusually diseased
at a tendinous or aponeurotic insertion, so is its mate; if a groove ora
variation in color exist on the one side, the same will be found on the
other side ; even of single marked spicule of bone the same may be said,
so that a description of one side will answer for both, minute differences
being noted as they oceur.”’

6. Antero-posterior symmetry.

That this is an absolute law of creation will be less readily admitted

* See Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1870, p. 19.

238 (Dee. 15.

Cope. ]

than in the case of double bilateral symmetry, since the exceptions appear
to be so universal. Nevertheless, I believe it to be as much a part of the
law of Repetitive nutrition as the other. The antero-posterior homolo-
gies even of the human skeleton have been largely demonstrated, but as
usual, we must appeal to the lower forms for a clear view of it. In the
rudimental skeletal axis we find such symmetry almost perfect in the
Amphiorus, but in no other vertebrate. In limbs we have it clearly in-
dicated in the Reptilian order Ichthyopterygia, and in the Piscine order
Dipnoi, where the anterior and posterior are scarcely or not all distin-
guishable. In the scapular and pelvic arches we find it also approximated
in the first-named orders.

In the nervous system it also exists approximately in the Amphiozus.
It is not seen in any vertebrate, and in but few other animals, in the di-
gestive system, but it appears to exist in some lower articulata in both
the respiratory and circulatory s ystems.

c. As illustrations of exact repetition involving large portions of the
organism the higher Polyps may be cited, which differ from the lower
chiefly by the addition of similar septa and similar tentacles. Examples
of repetition of nearly the whole organism, may be found in many Entozoa
as Taenia, where the cephalic segment only differs from the others, the
remainder or proglottides being alike. ‘The most entire repetition of
structure is seen in Vibrio, where the segments are all alike, there being
none representing a head.

d. Asan example in special details of structure, the segments of the low-
est brain (that of the lamprey) are repetitions of the first one. The
pelvic arch of Ichthyosaurus when first created, was a repetition of
the scapular, and the hind limb, of the fore limb. The segments of
the limbs of the Dipnot are mere repetitions, the later created of the
earlier. The special parts of the pes and manus of Ichthyosaurus are
simply repetitive efforts of growth-force joined with a diminishing
amount. The addition of a digit often distinguishing one genus of Sala-
manders or Saurians from another, is evidence of a similar repetitive
effort. The low mammal Ornithorhynchus, possesses but a single tooth
in each jaw ; the simple teeth of armadillos and cetaceans, increasing as
they have done from a single commencement as in the monotreme cited,
present examples of repetitive acceleration of growth force.

e. Complication of a single element of repetition is accomplished appar-
ently by a double repetition. This is best understood by the consider-
ation of the transition from simple to complex teeth. In the cetaceans
this occurs in the Squalodonts ; the cylindric incisors are followed by
flattened ones, then by others grooved on the fang, and then by two
rooted, but never double-crowned teeth. This is the result of antero-
posterior repetitive acceleration of the simple cylindric dental type of the
ordinary toothed cetacean.

€
1871.] 239 [Cope.

Another mode of dental complication is by lateral repetition. Thus,
the heel of the sectorial tooth of a Carnivore is supported by a fang along-
side of the usual posterior support of a premolar, and is the result of a
repetitive effort of growth force in a transverse direction. More complex
teeth, as the tubercular molars, merely exhibit an additional lateral repe-
tition, and sometimes additional longitudinal ones. As is well known, the
four tubercles of the human molar commence as similar separate knobs
on the dental papilla.

The above are cited as examples to explain the meaning of the propo-
sition. When fuller demonstration is desired a greater number might be
given.

B. ON Creu REPETITION.

That each additional act of creation in growth was originally identical
with one which preceded it, and therefore an exact repetition in its char-
acter and results, is proven by the following considerations.

It has been already determined by the study of homologies that all
organs and parts of an organism can be referred to an original simple
archetype. ‘

The question then remains as to whether the first element or lowest
term, of a given organized part is essentially a new structure, or whether
it be a repetition of some previously existing one. It may be asserted
that the simplest expressions which shall cover all organs, are the solid
segments and the hollow sack and tube. For example, we have already
noted that the ultimate element of the limb is the first segment of the sin-
gleray of Lepidosiren. Is this short cartilaginous cylinder (which probably
represents the fore-limb of some undiscovered member of the Dipnoi), a
result of the repetition of a pre-existent structural element? This is no
doubt the case, for as will be shown beyond, cartilage, though the least cel-
lular of all the tissues is formed originally by cell-repetition or division.
Again, the ultimate lobules of the most complex gland are but repetitions
of the diverticula of the simply branched, and each of the latter repetitions
of the simple cul-de-sac, which has its origin in a convexity of an original-
ly plane surface. This convexity is again the result of repetition of cells
or cell-division, whereby their number is increased and the surface ren-
dered convex.

We are thus in both the solid segment, and hollow sack, brought down
to cell repetition. Thus it is with organs, as with entire animals, in which,
following the line of simplification, we reach at last forms composed of
cells only, (Actinophrys, ¢. g.) and then the unicellular, (Amba).

If this be the origin of organs, the question whether repetitive growth
has constructed tissues, remains for consideration.

In growth, each segment—and this term includes the parts of a com-
plex whole or parts always undivided, (as the jaw of a whale or the sac-
body of a mollusk)—is constructed, as is well known, by cell division. In
the growing foetus the first cell divides its nucleus and then its whole out-
line, and this process repeated millions of times produces, according to

C
240 [Dec. 15,

Cope. ]

the cell theory, all the tissues of the animal organism or their bases, from
first to last. That the ultimate or histological elements of all organs are
produced originally by repetitive growth of simple nucleated cells, with
various modifications of exactitude of repetition in the more complex, is
taught by the cell theory. The formation of some of the tissues is as
follows:

Kirst Change—Formation of simple nucleated cells from homogeneous
protoplasm or the cytoblastema.

Second—Formation of new cells by division of nucleus and body of the
old.

Third—Formation of tissues by multiplication of cells with or without
addition of intercellular cytoblastema.

A, In connective tissue, by slight alteration of cells and addition of cy to-
blastema.

B. In blood, by addition of fluid cytoblastema (fibrin) to free cells
(lymph corpuscles), which in higher animals (vertebrates) develop into
blood-corpuscles by loss of membrane, and by cell development of nucleus.

C. In muscles, by simple confluence of cells end to end, and mingling
of contents (KOlliker).

D. Of cartilage, by formation of cells in cytoblast which break up,
their contents being added to cytoblast; this occuring several times, the
result being an extensive cytoblast with few and small cells (Vogt).
The process is here an attempt at development with only partial success,
the result being a tissue of small vitality.

Even in repair-nutrition recourse is had to the nucleated cell. For
Cohnheim first showed that if the cornea of a frog’s eye be searified, re-
pair is immediately set on foot by the transportation thither of white or
lymph or nucleated corpuscles from the neighboring lymph heart. This
he ascertained by introducing aniline dye into the latter. Repeated ex-
periments have shown that this is the history in great part of the con-
struction of new tissue in the adult man.

Now, it is well known that the circulating fluid of the footus contains
for a period only these nucleated cells as corpuscles, and that the lower
vertebrates have a greater proportion of these corpuscles than the higher,
whence probably the greater facility for repair or reconstruction of lost
limbs or parts enjoyed by them. Theinvertebrates possess only nucleated
blood corpuscles.

C, Synrursis OF REPETITION.

That growth force is capable of exhibiting great complexity of move-
ment with increase in amount, will now be shown. That this quality
of complication is one of its distinguishing features will appear plain.

The simplest forms of life, as stated by Heckel, are simply homogene-
ous drops of protoplasm (Protamoeba). These only grow by ordinary ac-
cretion, and display a form of self division or reproduction which is the
simplest possible; ¢. ¢., the bisection of the mass by contraction at op-
posite points.

1871.] 241

[Cope.

The next grade of animal type is represented by the nucleated cell.
This is simple in Amaba, complex in Actinophrys, ete. With such forms
as the latter, cell growth begins, and its development is accomplished by
cell division. This is simple repetition of ultimate parts. In the growth
of all higher types, we have nothing more than this, but following a law
of complex repetition. Thus in the growth of the parts of an archetypal
vertebral column, or an archetypal limb, we have the repetition of cell
growth till the first segment is formed, when it ceases at that point, and
repeats the process again, forming another segment like the first; repeti-
tion within repetition. So with the construction of muscular tissue; first,
the nucleated cell repeated in a series, whose adjacent walls disappear,
and whose cell contents flow together, thus forming a fibrilla; then a rep-
etition of the same process forming a second fibrilla; and so on to the
completion of thousands of them in fasciculi.

Let us then trace the series of repetitions and duplicated and still more
complex repetitions, seen in following up animal forms from their arche-
types.

In the simplest repetition of cell growth in a longitudinal direction we
have Vidrio; in the centrifugal, Actinophrys. The former may be repre-
sented by a line of simple dots, thus :—Fig. 1.

eceeeyales BS covncH DODO
9 cax00mMtoo0 voeO0mie Go AO.
4400088 BR 8 cvvveh BSB AZZ.

In a complex repetition we rarely have the same degree of complication
in each repeated part. We have it centrifugally almost perfect in a Co-
lenterate (Actinia) and linearly in some of the lower Entozoa. An arche-
type of the latter kind might be represented thus :—Fig. 2. In a more
complex form, as of the proglottides of Tenia, thus :—Fig. 8. The same
might represent an archetypal vertebrate.

If now we attempt to express the complication of an organ by modified
repetition of once identical parts, the history of extremities will serve us.
Thus the limb of Lenidosiren which is composed of identical segments
may be thus represented :—Fig. 2. Each longitudinal segment of the
limb of Ichthyosaurus may be similarly represented with a modification,
in size only, of the proximal or humerus; thus :—Fig. 4. But in Plesio-

A. P. §.—VOL. XII—2E.

242 [Dee. 15,

Cope. ]

saurus, an important series of changes of shape (but not in complexity)
appears, which may be represented thus :—Fig. 5; the first being hu-
merus, second ulna, third and fourth carpals (tarsals) the last phalanges,
which are first specialized in this genus.

By far the most usual modification is however complication by dupli-
cated and triplicated and still more highly multiplied repetition in some t
segments of the archetype, and its omission in other segments. Thus in F
in the Tenia, the cephalic segments are much modified, and the nature
of its repetitions might be thus expressed :—-Fig. 6 ; the simpler segments
representing the body segment, the two complex, representing these of
the head. In each, it will be observed, the complication is represented
by loops of similar form, and each loop of dots which represent the cells
in the first linear (fig. 1) arrangement.

A somewhat similar figure might represent the nature of the complica-
tion in the Myriapod. In the insect the additional complications of the
thoracic segments would alter the diagram near the middle.

In the vertebrate cranium, a somewhat similar diagram might be used,
except that the modification of the segments or vertebra, as compared with
the segments of the vertebral column, is not by repetition with modifica-
tion of the parts of each segment, but rather by modification of the
forms of the parts of the segments. The basi-cranial segments thus com-
pare with the dorsal vertebrae as the segments of the limb of Plestosaurus
do to those of Ichthyosaurus.

The above considerations have reference to repetition of parts in a
linear direction. Centrifugal repetition is seen in the addition of cham-
bers to the heart, by the subdivision in the earliest stages into auricle and
ventricle in the linear direction, considered in connection with the earlier
division of each in the transverse direction, by the growth of partitions.
This mode of repetitive addition is not readily represented by diagram.

A good example of repetitive addition in both linear and transverse
direction, may be found in the successive complication of tooth structure
seen in mammalia. In the dolphin, the dental series may be repre-
sented thus:—Fig. 7; in the squalodon thus:—Fig. 8; in the cat:—Fig. 9;
in the dog:—Fig. 10; in man :—Fig. 11; in some insectivora :—Fig. 12.

The circles represented here, are each a simple cusp.

In conclusion, the directions of Repetitive growth may be tabulated as
follows: The types to the left represent the original ; to the right, the
derivative.

( More bilaterally
| symmetrical.
Longitudin’] antero-pos- \
terior and bilateral. — |
| More antero-pos- | Only antero-
L teriorly. \ posterior.
( In plane.

|
4 Only bilateral.

(
|
Centrifugal. {
|
U

Centrifugal.
| In globe.

1871.) 243

D. ON GrowtH Force.

From such examples as those that precede, but more especially from
the last, it seems necessary to believe that there resides in organ-
ized matter, and in its most unmodified representative, the nucleated
cell, an affection which displays itself in repetition. This phenomenon
reduced to its lowest terms, may mean cell-division only, but the proof
is only clear in cases of growth proper. This affection displays itself in
very slow or more rapid repetitions,—cell-division in growth occurring
rapidly, while its recurrences at rutting seasons in the development of
horns, feathers, etc., are separated by long intervals of time. In accele-
ration these repetitions occur with increased rapidity, ¢.¢., in the adding
of more structures during the same growth periods, while in low types
its repetitions are few and therefore slow. :

What is the relation of cell division to the forces of nature, and to
which of them as a cause is it to be referred, if to any? The animal or-
ganism transfers solar heat and the chemism of the food (protoplasm)
to correlated amounts of heat, motion, electricity, light (phosphores_
cence), and nerve force. But cell-divisionis an affection of protoplasm
distinct from any of these ; although addition to homogeneous lumps or
parts of protoplasm (as in that lowest animal, Protamaba of Heckel,)
should prove to be an exhibition of mere molecular force, or attraction,
cell-division is certainly something distinct. It looks like an exhi-
bition of another force, which may be called growth force. It is corre-
lated to the other forces, for its exhibitions cease unless the protoplasm
exhibiting it be fed.

Professor Henry pointed out many years ago that this must be the case,
basing his belief on the observed phenomena of growth in the potato, and
in the egg. The starch of the potato weighs much more than the young
shoot of cellulose, etc., into which it has been converted by growth ac-
tivity, so that a portionof the substance of the tuber has evidently escaped
in some other direction. This isshown to be carbonic acid gas and water,
derived from the slow combustion of the starch, which inthus running down
from the complex organic state, to the more simple inorganic compounds,
evolves an amount of force precisely equal in amount to the chemical
force (or chemism) requisite to bind together the elements in the more
complex substance.*

Carpenter also states that in his opinion the growth of the Fungi is
produced by a force liberated by the retrograde metamorphosis of their
food, which is of an organic character, (7. e., humus). This metamor-
phosis consists, as in the tuber, in the production of carbonic acid gas
and water, and a force equivalent to the chemism which had bound them
in the former complex union.+ But in higher forms of vegetable life and
in growth that follows germination, the plant must appropriate carbon
from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. The decomposition of the

* Agricultural Report of the Patent Office, 1857.

t Correlation of Physical and Vital Forces, 1864, (Quarterly Journal of Science.) ,

¢
Cope.] 244 [Dee. 15,

binary compound (which sets free its oxygen) liberates the chemical force
which had previously maintained the compound, (or an equivalent force)
which Henry regards as furnishing the growth force, which produces the
plant. Carpenter derives but a portion of the force in this way, obtain-
ing the greater part from the heat of the sun. To this source also he
looks for the growth force employed in the construction of cold-blooded
animals; while in warm-blooded animals, the retrograde metamorphosis
or running down of the material (protoplasm) of the food, furnishes a
requisite amount of heat. Whether growth force be derived from the
chemism set free, direct, or through the mediation of heat, by conver-
sion, among higher animals, is a question yet unsolved.

Growth force we may then regard as potential in organized tissue, and
as energetic during growth. Our present knowledge only permits us to
believe that other force is only converted into it under the influence of
pre-existent life, but of the real cause of this conversion we are as igno-
rant as in the case of the physical forces.

In the animal organism, different tissues display different degrees of
“‘vitality.”” The most vital display cell-organization and its derivative
forms, while the least so,’approach nearer to homogeneity. As organized
tissue is the machine for converting vital forces, we may believe thatless
growth force is potential in cartilage than in muscle, for it is formed by a
retrograde process, by which cells once formed are mostly burst, and the
contents form the intercellular, nearly structureless mass characteristic of
this tissue. Growth force must be here liberated in some other form,
perhaps heat, to be again converted to other use.

The higher vitality we may believe to result from the greater perfection
of the more complex machine as a force converter, as compared with the
inefficiency of the more simple.

EH. ON tHE Direction oF REPETITION.

It has been already pointed out that growth force exhibits itself in cell or
segment repetition. The forms in which it thus displays itself may be
briefly considered. The approximate cause is treated of in the next
chapter; but enough may be shown here to indicate that duplication and
complex duplication is the law of growth force, and that therefore this
process must always follow an increase in amount in any given locality.

The size of a part is then dependent on the amount of cell-division or
growth foree, which has given it origin, and the number and shape of
segments is due to the same cause. The whole question, then, of the cre-
ation of animal and vegetable types is reduced to one of the amount and
location of growth force.

Repetition is of two kinds, centrifugal and longitudinal. As an exam-
ple of the former, the genus Actinophys has been cited, where the animal
is composed of cells arranged equidistally around a common centre. The
arrangement in this type may be discoidal or globular, providing no defi-
nite axis be discoverable. As an example of longitudinal repetition,
Vibrio, and numerous cellular plants may be cited where the arrangement
is in a single line.

9\ 7 I=
1871.] 245 [Cope.

In by far the greater number of animals these kinds of repetitive struc-
ture coexist. The longitudinal is however predominant inthe Vertebrata,
Mollusca and Articulata, while the centrifugal is greatly developed in the
Celenterata and Radiata. In none but the simplest forms, are either of
these modes to be found alone.

The centrifugal repetition or addition, more nearly resembles the mode
of aggregation of atoms in inorganic or crystalline bodies, and hence may
be regarded as the inferior manifestation. It implies that growth force
in this case conforms to a law of polarity in exhibiting itself at equal dis-
tances from a centre,—which is allied to ordinary molecular force, and in-
dependent of the localizing influences of which higher organisms seem
capable. In centrifugal animals, then, the latter evidently plays an in-
ferior part. In Coelenterates and Radiates, however, the body possesses a
short longitudinal axis, in some /Asterias) very short, in others (Holothu-
ria), more elongate. The amount of complication of centrifugal growth
greatly exceeds the complication in a longitudinal direction mal Or
these animals.except the Holothurida.

It is now important to observe that great numbers of centrifugal ani-
mals are sedentary or sessile; while the longitudinal are vagrant, moving
from place to place. Many of the centrifugal animals which wander, do
not do so in in the direction of their axis, but sideways (Medus«). It is
also proper to notice that not only the movements of the muscles, but also
the direction taken by the food is in the long axis. It is therefore to be con-
cluded that in longitudinal animals growth force has assumed a more truly
animal type, and that this tendency has predominated over the polar or
molecular tendency.

In most longitudinal animals, however, certain lateral portions, limbs,
etc., extend on each side of the axis; and were the space marked by their
extremities, and those of the axis, filled, we would have the outline of a
centrifugal animal.

Before discussing the influences which have increased and located
growth force, it will be necessary to point out the mode in which these
influences must necessarily have effected growth. Acceleration is only
possible during the period of growth in animals, and during that time
most of them are removed from the influence of physical or biological
causes, either through their hidden lives or incapacity for the energetic
performance of life functions. These influences must, then, have opera-
ted on the parents, and become energetic in the growing fotus of the
next generation. However little we may understand this mysterious
process, it is nevertheless a fact. Says Murphy, ‘‘ There is no act which
may not become habitual, and there is no habit that may not be inher-
ited.’”? Materialized, this may be rendered—there is no act which does
not direct growth force, and therefore there is no determination of growth
force which may not become habitual; there is, then, no habitual deter-
mination of growth force which may not be inherited ; and, of course, in
a growing fotus becomes at once energetic in the production of new
s tructure in the direction inherited, which is acceleration.

Cope. ] 246 (Dee. 15,
But if the forces converted into growth force are derived from without
the animal organism, whence and what the agency by which the acceler-
ation or retardation of the latter is inherited from the parent? <A few
suggestions only on this head can be made in the fourth section.
Ill. THE LAW OF USE AND EFFORT.

Up to this point we have followed paths more or less distinctly traced
in the field of nature. The positions taken appear to me either to have
been demonstrated or to have a great balance of probability in their
favor. Inthe closing part of this paper I shall indulge in more of hy-
pothesis than heretofore.

Since repetitive addition only produces identical results in archetypes,
and each effort produces results more and more unlike its predecessor as
structure becomes specialized; it. becomes important to examine into
the influences which have originally modified the repetitive efforts suc-
cessively, producing structures more or less different in detail in the sec-
ond generation from those of the parents, in acceleration, or the reverse,
in retardation. :

Going further back, the question arises, why a simple exhibition of
repetition (¢. g., cell division) should be converted into a complex or du-
plicated repetition (¢. g., jointed ray). This it has already been stated, is
one consequence of increased amount of the growth force.

We then seck explanation of the main question, as to what determines
the location of this additional or new growth force. (Div. A.)

Lastly, why the total amount of this force should change in a given
individual or part of an individual. (Div. B.)

A. Ow tan Location or GrowTH FORCE.

What are the influences locating growth force? The only efficient ones
with which we are acquainted, are, first, physical and chemical causes;
second, use; and I would add a third, viz: effort. I leave the first, as not
especially prominent in the economy of type growth among animals, and
confine myself to the two following. The effects of use are well known.
We cannot use a muscle without increasing its bulk; we cannot long use
the teeth in mastication without inducing a renewed deposit of dentine
within the pulp-cavity to meet the encroachments of attrition. The
hands of the laborer are always larger than those of men of other pur-
suits. Pathology furnishes us with a host of bypertrophies, exostoses,
etc., produced by excessive use, or necessity for increased means of per-
forming excessive work. The tendency, then, induced by use in the
parent, is to add segments or cells to the organ used. Use thus determines
the locality of new repetitions of parts already existing, and determines
an increase of growth force at the same time, by the increase of food al-
ways accompanying increase of work done, in every animal.

But supposing there be no part or organ to use. Such must have been.
the condition of every animal prior to the appearance of an additional
digit or limb or other useful element. It appears to me that the cause of
the determination of growth force is not merely the irritation of the part

24 ‘ [Cope.

1871.]

or organ used by contact with the objects of its use. This would seem
to be the remote cause of the deposit of dentine in the used tooth; in the
thickening epidermis of the hand of the laborer; in the wandering of the
lymph-cells to the scarified cornea of the frog in Cohnheim’s experiment.
You cannot rub the sclerotica of the eye without producing an expansion
of the capillary arteries and corresponding increase in the amount of nu-
tritive fluid. But the case may be different in the muscles and other
organs (as the pigment cells of reptiles and fishes) which are under the
control of the volition of the animal. Here, and in many other instances
which might be cited, it cannot be asserted that the nutrition of use is
not under the direct control of the will through the mediation of nerve
force. Therefore I am disposed to believe that growth force may be,
through the motive force of the animal, as readily determined to a lo-
cality where an executive organ does not exist, as to the first segment or
cell of such an organ already commenced, and that therefore effort is, in
the order of time, the first factor in acceleration.

Addition and subtraction of growth force in accordance with the modes
pointed out below, account for the existence of many characters which
are not adaptive in their nature,

Acceleration under the influence of effort accounts for the existence
of rudiments of organs in’ process of development, while rudiments of
organs in process of extinction are results of retardation, occasioned by
absolute or complementary loss of growth force. Many other characters
will follow, at a distance, the modifications resulting from the operation
of these laws.

EXAMPLES OF THE INFLUENCE OF PHysICAL CAUSES.

This is nowhere better seen than in the case of coloration, which re-
quires the light of the sun for its production. The most striking ex-
amples of this are seen in the colorless surface of animals inhabiting the
recesses of caves, as the blind craw-fish and the Amblyopsis, etc. If evo-
lution be true, {hese have descended from more highly colored pro-
genitors. The flat fishes, also (Pleuronectide) as is known, swim on one
side in adult age, but many of them are hatched symmetrical fishes, or
nearly so, one eye rotating from one side to the other by a twisting of the
cranial bones. It is thus probable that they have descended from syin-
metrical fishes, which were similarly colored on both sides. Now, the
lower side is colorless, the upper retaining often brilliant hues. The in-
fluence of sunlight is thus as distinctly discoverable among animals as
among plants, where it has been generally accepted as a principal of veg-
etable physiology.*

EXAMPLES OF THE Errects oF Errort anp Us.

a The Respiratory and Circulatory System of Vertebrates. It is well

known that the succession of classes of Vertebrates is measured first by

*TIn this and similar cases, care must be taken not to misunderstand the writer by supposing
him to mean that in each generation separately the peculiar coloration is the result of changed ex-
posure to light. ‘’he evolutionist will understand that the effect of such influence juereases with
succeeding generations by the addition to inherited character, of the effect of immediate external

cause,

6
248 [Dee, 15,

Cope. ]

their adaptation to aération in water, and then by their successive de-
partures from this type in connection with the faculty of breathing air.
The same succession of structure is traversed by the embryos of the ver-
tebrates, the number of stages passed being measured by the final status
of the adult. This transition takes place in the Batrachia later in devel-
opment than in any other class. Now, it is well known that the transi-
tion or metamorphosis may be delayed or encduraged by suppression of
use of the branchial and encouragement of use of the pulmonary organs
or the reverse.

The aquatic respiration of tadpoles may be indefinitely prolonged by
preventing their access to the surface, and it is known that in nature the
size or age of the larva at time of metamorphosis may vary much in the
same species. If perennibranchiates (Stren e.g.) are deprived of their
branchia, they will aérate blood by the lungs exclusively, and there is no
reason to doubt that by use of these, and disuse of the branchia, aérial
respiration might become the habit of the animal. It is also easy to per-
ceive that geologic changes would bring about a necessity for precisely
this change of habit. This occurred in the period of tie coal measures,
where large fresh water areas were desiccated, and it was precisely at this
period that many air breathing Batrachians originated and had a great
development. ;

& The rattle of the Rattlesnake.

Nearly all of the larger harmless snakes which live on the ground have a
habit of throwing the end of the tail into violent vibrations when alarmed or
excited, with the view of alarming a supposedenemy. Among Coronelline
snakes, Ophibolus triangulus possesses it; among the water snakes, 7’ropt-
donotus sipedon. Inthe typical Colubrine group the black snake, Bascanium
constrictor isan example; Pityophis say? also shakes the tail violently.
The copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz) and the moccasin (A. piscivorus)
(fide Giinther) have the habit in a marked degree. Among the rattle-
snakes it is a means of both warning and defence, in connection with the
rattle which they carry.

In the structure of the end of the tail of harmless snakes, we see a
trace of the first button of the rattle in a horny cap that covers the ter-
minal vertebree.

In the venomous genera, it is conspicuous in Lachesis especially, reach-
ing a considerable length and having a lateral groove. In the plate-
headed rattlesnakes (Crotalus) this corneous cap is inflated into a button
with lateral groove, and in some of them possesses only one or two but-
tons or joints. In the perfected rattlesnakes (Caudisona) not only are the
segments numerous and inflated, but a number of the terminal caudal
vertebr are greatly enlarged vertically, and codssified into a mass.* This
is important from the fact that the rattlesnakes are the most specialized
of all snakes, standing at the head of the order, and as such, on the prin-
cipal of acceleration present the greatest amount of grade nutrition.

Now it appears to me, that the constant habit of violent vibration in a

“See good figures of this structure in Zeitschr. f, Wissensch. Zoologie, VIII, Tab. 12.

®

1871.) 249

[Cope.

bart, tends to determine an increased amount of nutritive fluid to it, in
other words to localize growth nutrition, and when this has attained com-
plex repetition or grade nutrition, to result in new grade structure. (The
segments of the rattle being nearly all alike, it is a case of simple repeti-
tion.) This view appears to be as reasonable as that generally entertained
with regard to the cause of spavin in the horse’s leg. Here, owing to ex-
cessive use, exostoses appear on the bones surrounding the tibio-tarsal
articulation. As to the reason of the structure in question not appearing
in forms lower in the scale than the rattlesnake, it is explained below,
if the law of accumulation of grade nutrition be true. (See sec. B.)
This is, that repetition (or acceleration) is only possible where the animal
has an excess of growth force at its disposal, or can abstract it from some
portion which is unused or useless.

y On horns. The possession of horns on the posterior part of the
cranium, as defenses against enemies is a character found in many dis-
tinct types of animals. (Herbivora have no (dental) weapons and need
horns). Itisseeninthe Batrachia Stegocephala in the extinct genus Cerater-
peton ; among Anura it is approached by Triprion and Hemiphractus.
Among Reptilia it is well marked in Phrynosoma, a Lacertilian genus. In
Mammatia the Artiodactyla Ruminantia are the horned animals of the order.
We have opportunities of observing the habits of these representatives
of the Frogs, the Lizards and the Mammals.

In the first case, any one who has kept ordinary toads and tree toads
in confinement, is aware that when attacked and unable to escape, they
defend themselves by presenting the top of the head forwards and using
it as a shield. Now I have already pointed out* that in both toads, tree
toads, and frogs, there are natural series of genera, measured by the de-
sree of ossification of the superior cranial walls, the longest being that of
the Hylidx, which embraces six terms, viz: IHylella, Hyla, Scytopis, Osteo-
cephalus, Trachycephalus and Triprion. The two last have the head

thoroughly shielded, and 77tprion has projecting angles which appear in

Some South American forms lately described by M. Espada, to be devel-
Sped into short horns. That this excessive ossification is associated with
the habit of protecting the whole body with the front, seems likely.

In the case of Phrynosoma we know that precisely the same habit is as-
Sociated with the presence of the sharp horns; and that some genera
Without horns possess it also. Phrynosoma is an exceptionally sluggish
senus in a family of mostactive forms, and must necessarily resort to this
mode of defence more than they.

In the case of Ruminants, we also know that defence is accomplished
by throwing the head down with the horns thrown forwards. But this
1Shot confined to this group. That generalized suborder, the Artiodactyla
Ordinaria, represented by the hog, which were no doubt the genetic pre-
decessors of the Ruminants in time, also throw the head down in defence
in the same way, having thus a manner totally distinct from that seen in

*Origin of Genera, 1868, p. 14.

A. P, S— VOL, xII.—2F.

Cope.) 250 [Dec. 15,

the Carnivora. The latter show their teeth and often crouch preparatory
to a leap.

These cases present so constant an association between habit and use,
that admitting evolution, we are compelled to believe that the structure
has given rise to the habit or the habit to the structure. In the former
case, we have to suppose, with the author of natural selection, that among
the many spontaneous variations, rudimental horns oceasionaily appeared,
and that their possessors being thus favored in the struggle for existence,
were preserved and multiplied; while those not favored, dwindled and
were ultimately nearly all extirpated or starved. The question of origin
is here left to chance, and Alfred Bennetthas made a mathematical estimate
of the chances of any particular profitable variation occurring among the
great number of possibilities of the case. This has shown the chance to
be so excessively small as to amount in most cases to a great improbability.

If we turn to the probabilities of such structure having arisen through
the selection of that mode of defence by the animal, we find them greatly
increased. The position occupied by the horns, in all the animals de-
scribed, is that which is at once brought into contact with an enemy in
conflict, and as sport among animals is a gentle imitation of conflict, the
part would be constantly excited in sport as well. With an excess of
growth nutrition, our knowledge of the effects of friction on the epider-
mis, and of excessive ligamentous strain and inflammation on bone

" (e. g., spavin in horses) as well as of abnormal exostoses in general, would
warrant us in the belief that the use of the angles of the parts in ques-
tion in these animals, would result in a normal exostosis, of a simple
kind in the frogs, or as horn cores in the Ruminantia, As to the sheath-
ing of the cores in the Bovidw, and nakedness in the Cervide, itis in
curious relation to their habitat and to their habits. The epidermis and
derm would of course share in the effects of friction. In the Bovide
which dwell in treeless plains, or feed on the grasses in great part, the de-
velopment of these coverings of the horn cores into a horny sheath,
would naturally meet with no interruption. In the case of the deer,
which mostly live in forests or browse on trees, constant contact with the
latter would prevent the healthy growth of the dermal covering, and it
would be liable to injury or constant excoriation by the animals them-
selves on the branches of trees, etc. This we kuow to be the present
habit of the deer as regards the dermal covering of the horns. I have
elsewhere pointed out the similar connection between the dental structure
and habitat among the oxen and the deer. The former eating the harder
grasses, are provided against the consequent rapid attrition of the tooth,
by a prismatic form, which allows of more prolonged growth and more
rapid protrusion. The deer, in accordance with their foliage-eating
habits, do not wear thé crown of the tooth with such rapidity. Long
continued protrusion is not so necessary, hence the teeth are more dis-
tinctly rooted and have a prominence or shoulder, distinguishing the
body of the crown.

pa

1871.] 25 1 (Cope.

B. CHANGE rn AMOUNT OF GROWTH FORCE.

1. Absolute increase of Growth Force.—As every type has had its period
of greatest development in numbers, size, and complication of structure,
the present law indicates as an explanation, a culmination of the pro-
cess of conversion of growth force from its energetic to its potential state
in tissue. The cause is primarily the increased exercise of effort and
use, which while effecting a conversion, increases the capacity of the or-
gans by which further conversion is effected.

2. Local increase of Growth Force.—Examples of a local increase of this
kind are probably to be seen in convoluted organs ; as the convolutions
of the brain in higher Mammalia ; the convolutions of the enamel of the
Labyrinthodont Batrachia; the same phenomenon in the cotyledons or
plumule of some seeds. In these cases the superficial area of the parts
is excessively developed, and the inclosing organs not being proportion-
ately enlarged, a convolution necessary follows. In the first case, the
skull; in the second, the alveolus ; in the third case, the seed-envelope,
restrain the expanse of the contained part, which would otherwise follow
increase of growth force.

3. Absolute loss of Growth Force.—This will follow defective nutrition,
produced by inability of the animal to obtain heat and food requisite
to that end. This is supposed to be due (according to the view hereafter
proposed) primarily to deficiency of intelligence, in failing to adapt habits
to changed physical circumstances, and secondarily to the unfavorable
influence of such changed circumstances. The extinction of highly
specialized types, which has closed so many lines of animal types, will be
accounted for by their less degree of plasticity and want of capacity for
change under such changed circumstances. Such changes consist of mo-
dified topography and temperature, with irruptions of many new forms
of life by migration. The less developed, forms would be most likely to
experience modification of structure under a new order of things, and
paleontology teaches that the predecessors of the characteristic types of
one period were of the less specialized forms of that which went before.

Thus is explained the fact that, in following out the line of succession
of animal forms we have constantly to retrace our steps from specialized
extremes, (as osseous fishes, tailless Batrachia, song birds, etc.), to more
generalized or simple forms, in order to advance beyond.

4, The complementary diminution of growth nutrition follows the excess
of the same in a new locality or organ, of necessity, if the whole amount
of which an animal is capable, be, as I believe, fixed. In this way are ex-
plained the cases of retardation of character seen in most higher types.
The discovery of truly complementary parts is a matter of nice observa-
tion and experiment. Perhaps the following cases may be correctly ex-
plained,

A complementary loss of growth force may be seen in absence of
superior incisor teeth and digits in ruminating Mammalia, where exces-
sive force is evidently expended in the development of horns, and com-

Cope.] 262 [Dee. 15,
plication of stomach and digestive organs. The excess devoted to the latter
region may account for the lack of teeth at its anterior orifice, the mouth ;
otherwise, there appears to be no reason why the ruminating animals
should not have the superior incisors as well developed as in the odd toed
(Perissodactyl) Ungulates, many of which graze and browse. The loss
to the osseous system in the subtraction of digits may be made up in the
development of horns and horn-cores, the horn sheath being perhaps the
complement of the lost hoofs. It is net proposed to assert that similar
parts or organs are necessarily and in all groups complementary to each
other. The horse has the bones of the feet still further reduced than the
ox, and is nevertheless without horns. The expenditure of the comple-
mentary growth force may be sought elsewhere in this animal. The lat-
eral digits of the Hquidw are successively retarded in their growth, their
reduction being marked in Hppotheriwm, the last of the three-toed horses ;
it is accompanied by an almost coincident acceleration in the growth
nutrition of the middle toe, which thus appears to be complementary to
them.

The superior incisors of the Artiodactyla disappear coincidentally with
the appearance of horns, which always exist in the toothless division of
the order, except in some very small antelopes (Cephalophus, etc.) where
the whole amount of growth force is small. Possibly the superior inci-
sors and horns are complementary here. The retardation in development
of the teeth in the higher apes and men, as compared with the lower apes
is coincident with the increase of number of brain conyolutions. That
this is not necessarily coincident with reduction of teeth in other groups
is plainly proven by the rodents“and Chiromys where the loss of many
teeth is complementary to the great size of the incisors of the middle
pair. But in man there is no complementary increase of other teeth, and
the reduction is no doubt due to contraction of the jaws, which is com-
plementary to increase in other parts of the cranium, in both apes and
men. ; eka
Iam confident that the origin and loss of many structures may be ac-
counted for in this way, and the correlation of parts to each other be
measured accurately.

Objection. The first one which arises is that which the author of the
Vestiges of Creation made against Lamarck’s theory of a similar kind, 7. ¢.
that by assuming that effort, use and physical causes have originated modi-
fications of structure, we give the adaptive principle 100 much to
do. I have made the same objection to the theory of natural selec-
tion. It is true that an application to a purpose is involved in the pres-
ent theory of the ‘*‘location of growth force;’’ but in point of fact, a large
nuimber of non-adaptive characters are accounted for by it. These are
the rudimental and transitional ones which mark the successive steps
preliminary to the completion of an adaptive structure; second, those
produced by deficiency of growth force in less favored regions of the body,
and third and fourth, phenomena consequent on general deficiency and ex-
cess of growth force,

253 [Cope.

1871.]

And it may be said in conclusion that if the three principles, or if use
especially, should be found to be inadequate to the service here demanded
of them, it may be at least said that they or the last named, constitute
the only controllers of growth force to any degree at all, with which we
are acquainted.

IV. ON GRADE INFLUENCE.

The object of the present section is the attempt to discuss how the in-
fluence of effort and use on the parent is placed in a position to be inher-
ited by the offspring.

A. Of the Nature of Grade Influence.

In the first place, it is necessary to note the definition and character of
grade influence. :

a. Growth force uninfluenced by grade influence simply adds tissue
either (a) in enlarging size, or (0) in replacing waste. Tt does this by re-
peating the cell, by division, in localities which have already assumed their
specific form. This form of growth force may persist throughout life, but
with diminished energy in age.

&. Grade influence directs growth force in building up the tissues into
organs, and constructs the parts of the body successively to completion,
the result expressing the type or grade of the animal or plant. Its
energy terminates with maturity, except in cases of periodical reproduc-
tion of sexual ornaments of the male (birds, deer), where it continues
throughout life, appearing at regular intervals.

But it has occurred in acceleration that instead of a simple repetition of
the ultimate histological element of an organism, in adding to its amount,
itadds a completely organized part of the structure, as a tube, a phalange,
a digit, a limb or an arch; an ocellus or a tooth. For instance, in the
genus Amblystoma, one section possesses four phalanges on the longest
digit ; another section exhibits but three. In the species A. mavortium,
some individuals have the small number of phalanges, but the majority
possess the larger number. As all are of common parentage a whole pha-

lange has been lost or added. The explanation of this phenomenon is ©

essential to the comprehension of the or/gin of type structures.

*In plants, growth nutrition continues throughout life, but in the
higher plants it is more active during the earlier years in perennial
species, additions te size becoming less and less marked with increasing

‘age. Grade nutrition also persists throughout life, but is chiefly active
during a short period only of every year, or during flowering and fruit-
ing. Not only in the production of the reproductive organs, but also in
the yearly additions to other typical parts of the plant, grade-nutrition is
active.

*In animals, growth nutrition is more active in the early stages of
life, but is continued throughout in the lower divisions ; in the highest,
it is also continued throughout life, but there is a greater contrast between
its results during youth, when nearly the whole size is attained, and dur-
ing age, where the additions are much less.

remeron ne

Cope. ] 254 [Dec. 15,

Grade nutrition is, on the other hand, entirely confined to infancy and
youth, except in those low animals which produce their reproductive
organs periodically (some Zntozoa, ete.), where it may be said to be in
nearly the same condition as in plants.

y While the amount of growth force, potential in adult living animals,
has varied very irregularly throughout the animal kingdom, there being
large and small, simple and complex, in every division, it would seem
to have accumulated on the whole, with the rising scale of animal types.
Thus the lower or Protozoa are the smallest; Radiates are next in size;
Molluses and Articulates reach nearly the same maximum, which exceeds
that of the Radiates, and falls far below that of the Vertebrates. Among
the last the mammalia have attained as large if not larger size than any of
the other orders (6 g., Cetacea). This is, however, not necessary to the
history of evolution.

That an increased amount of grade growth force has been constantly
rendered potential, during the advance of time is clear, if the preceding
inferences be true. It is also evident that some individuals have accu-
mulated it more rapidly than others, if all alike originated from the sim-
plest forms known to us. Multitudes have remained in the earliest
stages (Protozoa) of the whole series, or of their own special series (Lin
guia), forming “persistent types 7’ or taken directions which rendered
them incapable of expansion beyond a certain point without exhaustion
or death ; for example, complicated types, as Ammonitide. The quadru-
manous animal which was the progenitor of man, may thus be believed
to have acquired a higher capacity of this accumulation than his cotem-
poraries.

Assuming the nucleated cell to be the ultimate element of organic
tissue, there are two types of life in which grade influence has not ap-
peared, viz. : unicellular animals and plants, and living forms composed
of homogeneous protoplasm. In the latter neither grade influence nor
animal growth force is potential ; in the former, simple growth force only.
It is therefore apparent that grade influence has been developed in the
organism itself; perhaps this may have been, in the plant, through the
modified influence of external physical causes; in the animal, if our in-
ductions as to use and effort be true, under the influence of the activities
of the parent, which determined a structural change either in itself or in
its offspring. The possibilities of this origin are considered in the next
section.

5. The Location of Growth Force proceeds under the direction of what
Professor Henry calls ‘‘ Vital influence.”’ With this author I discard the
use of the term ‘ Vital Force,’? what was originally understood by that
term being a complex of distinct ideas. The Vital forces are (nerve force)
Neurism, (growth force) Bathmism, and (thought force) Phrenism.* All

*The objection of President Barnard to thought being ‘an exhibition of a force, is that ‘ thought
cannot be measured.” _ This objection does not take into consideration the two-fold nature of
thought. The amount of thought can most assuredly be measured, the quality of the thought, in one

view ofthe case, cannot. That part which cannot be measured is that which determines the Loca-
tion of thought force, which, as in the case of growth force, is an attribute of the vital or other prin-

ciple. .

1871.] 255 [Cope.

of these are supposed to be correlated to the Physical Forces, but are
under direction and control of the Vital principle which locates their
action, ete., just as molecular or atomic constitution determines the
locality and character of the physical forces. The laws of the vital prin-
ciple and of atomic constitution also determine the nature of the conver-
sion of one force into another. Now, since physical and vital forces are
correlated and convertible, the close relationship of the two controlling
principles becomes obvious, and suggestive of their identity.

Dr. Carpenter, in describing the correlation of physical and vital forces,
defines the difference of organic species to be similar to that prevailing
between different chemical bodiés (the latter depending on different mo-
lecular and atomic constitution), which leads them ‘‘to behave differently”
from each other under similar circumstances. This may be more fully
expressed by saying that different species possess different capacities for
the location of the conversion of the physical forces into growth-force.
A “descent with modifications’? contemplated by a process of evolution,
signifies a progressive change in this capacity. Acceleration means an
increase in this capacity ; retardation a diminution of it. Grade influence
means the influence which has produced this change of capacity.

Precisely what the change consists in is a mystery, but that it is mat-
erial in its character is rendered more probable the more we examine it.

B. The Origin of Grade Influence.

Living protoplasm can convert heat and nutriment into growth
force without the agency of the nervous system. This is proven by the
nutrition of the Protozoa and Celenterata and from experiments on the
muscles of frogs, etc. In the latter case, as is well known, the nerve may
be divided, and the muscle retain its size if a current of electricity be
passed through it, thus sustaining the nutrition. As the presence and
structure of the nervous system is in relation to the specialization of ani-
mal structure in other respects, it is very probable that the nervous system
is in higher animals the agent of the location of growth force. In the
lowest it is not effected by any such means. As the nervous system is
the instrument of the metaphysical peculiarities of the animal (emotions,
choice, etc.), we may conclude that in the lower animals, location of
growth force is influenced by necessity without choice; in the higher by
necessity with choice.

The impulses derived from the nervous system, it is known, may be
reflex or automatic in consequence of application of stimuli from without.
They may become so also, after having been originated consciously or by
effort of will. In the case of habits, frequent exercise of choice has so im-
pressed the nervous system as to result in its repetition of effort, often in
opposition to changed choice.

The influence of effort in muscular action on the nervous system ap-
pears to be, first, to enable it to convert heat to nerve force, and, then, to
conduct nerve force to the involuntary muscles or those controlling cir-
culation, where it is converted into motion, which thus controls nutri-

_
©ope.] 256 [Dee. 15,

tion through circulation. The nervous system, like others, develops i
capacity with use, hence probably nerve tissue converts heat into nerve
force as muscular tissue converts heat into motion. In other words, by
repetition, the capacity of the nervous system for this conversion of heat
is known to increase. As the amount of heat converted is in proportion
to the amount of appropriate nerve tissue (see above) it is evident that
use and effort increase the amount of nerve tissue.

The phenomena of thought render the same modification of structure
probable. ffort in the direction of thought is supposed to convert heat
into thought force. Inasmuch as the more intelligent animals possess the
highest development of cerebral hemispheres, it is highly probable that
brain substance converts heat into growth force also, which produces tissue
of its own kind precisely as muscle does.

As different parts of the nervous centres, subserve different purposes,
the development of these parts must proceed approximately under the
influence of special kinds of effort and use. Where, as in the adult, heat
is converted into growth force in the tissues toa very limited extent, if
the above principles be true, the conversion of heat by the nervous system
into nerve growth force and tissue, is on the other hand, not terminated.

Capacity for effecting conversion of force is regarded, as above pointed
out, as dependent on molecular constitution. Hence we conclude that
change in that capacity on the part of the nervous system involves a mo-
lecular change in its constitution.

Now, it is apparent that if the nervous centres possessed the enlarged
capacities for the conversion of heat into nerve force and thus of con-
stantly controlling the circulation in special directions, in a growing or
foetal animal, tissue will be produced in the directions in question. For
the heat converted into motion in the adult is in the foetus in large part
converted into growth-force. ;

Now, we know physical and metaphysical peculiarities of parents to be
inherited by offspring, hence, no doubt, the nervous structure determina-
tive of growth force is inherited. This will then control the localities of
special conversion of heat, ete., (from the mother) into growth force, in
accordance with the structure of the parent, and the more decidedly, as
its own increase progresses.

The result will be acceleration, or construction of tissues and organs in
excess of those of the parent, if the effort or use devoted to a nerve or
organ be represented in the nerve centre of the parent by a greater amount
of force-converting tissue, than is necessary when iuherited in the fetus
for the construction (by conversion), of tissues and organs like those of
the parent.

That this is a partial explanation of inheritance, is rendered probable
from the fact that, the types of structure presented by the nervous centres,
express the grade of the animals possessing them far more nearly than
those of any other organ or set of organs. If the brain, like other organs,
develops by inteiligent use, it cannot be doubted that this relation of its
development to grade is not accidental, but that grade structure is an ex-
pression of its capacities, physical and mental.

pee

ie i |
1871.] 207 [Cope. | |
CO. On the Transmission of Grade Influence.

How force potential in nerve structure is inherited through the repro-
ductive elements is a great mystery. The following considerations relate | i

to it. | §
1. Secre'ion is known to be conducted through the conversion of heat i |
into growth force, probably through the intervention of nerve force. 1 ¥

2. In many secretions which possess strong chemical qualities, as gas-
tric juice, bile, saliva, etc., the fluid is formed by a destruction of the
cells representing the efforts of growth force, which is therefore no doubt
converted into chemism or chemical force.

8. In the spermatozodids, which are produced by a process of secre- [
tion, the cells are not destroyed, and thus growth force remains potential ; {
they exhibit however lively motions, which may represent motive
force derived from the nervous centre.

4, While in contact with the yolk of the ovum, so long as vitality |
lasts, the motion must be communicated to portions with which it is in | di
contact, or converted into one of the forces from which it was derived
(heat) or into another force (growth force). The growth force potential
in the cell of the spermatozodid, on its destruction, becomes converted |
into heat or other force. Thus may originate the growth force of the | |
ovum, which, once commenced, is continued through the period of growth. |
The process might be compared to the application of fire to a piece of
wood. The foree conversion is communicated to other material than that
first inflamed. The new fuel in the case of the embryo, is the pro-
toplasm derived from the mother.

V. ON INTELLIGENT SELECTION.

As neither use nor effort can be ascribed to plants, and as we know
that their life history is much more dependent on their surroundings,
than is that of animals, we naturally look to the physical and chemical
causes as having a prime influence in the origination of their type struc-
tures. Without greater familiarity with the subject, I will not attempt °
to say how far the various degrees of growth force possessed by parent
plants, located under the influence of meteoric and other surroundings,
and preserved, destroyed or restricted by natural selection, may account
for the characters of their successors of the present period. But other
agencies similar to use, that is, automatic movements, may be also intro-
duced as an element in the argument. ‘The movements of tendrils seek- i
ing for support may be here considered, and as Dr. Asa Gray has pointed i
out, have consequences similar to those of use in animals. When the ten-
dril seizes a support, growth force is located at the point of contact, for
the tendril increases considerably in thickness.

Among animals of the lowest grade, movement must be quite similar
to those of plants, or automatic from the start, and not even at the be-
ginning under the influence of will. Evidence of will is, however, soon
seen in the determinate movements of many of the Protozoa in the seiz-

A. P. S—VOL. XII,—2G.

Cope. ] 208 [Dec. 15,
ing of food. With will necessarily appears a power of choice, however
limited in its lowest exhibitions, by the lack of suggestive metaphysical
qualities, or the fewness of alternatives of action presented by surround-
ing circumstances, to animals of low and simple organism. We can,
however, believe that the presence of greater or less number of external
facilities for action, characterize different situations on the earth’s sur-
face, as well as that greater and less metaphysical capacity for perceiving
and taking advantage of them, must exist in different individuals of
every species of animal, however low, which possesses consciousness and
will. -These qualities will, of course, influence effort and use to the ad-
vantage of the animal, or the reverse.

Effort and use have very various immediate stimuli to their exertion.

Use of a part by an animal is either compulsory or optional. In either
case, the use may be followed by an increase of nutrition under the influ-
ence of reflex action or of direct volition.

A compulsory use would naturally occur in new situations which take
place apart from the control of the animal, where no alternatives are pre-
sented. Such a case would arise in a submergence of land where land
animals might be imprisoned on an island or in swamps surrounded by
water, and compelled to assume a more or lessaquatic life. Another case
which has also probably often occurred, would be when the enemies of a
species should so increase as to compel a large number of the latter to
combat who had previously escaped it.

In these cases, the structure produced would be necessarily adaptive.
But the effect would sometimes be to destroy or injure the animals (retard
them) thus brought into new situations and compelled to an additional
struggle for existence, as has, no doubt, been the case in geologic
history.

Direct compulsion would also exist where alternatives should be pre-
sented by nature, but of which the animal would not be sufficiently intel-
ligent to take advantage.

Most situations in the struggle for existence, afford alternatives, and
the most intelligent individuals of a species will take advantage of those
most beneficial. Nevertheless, it is scarcely conceivable that any change
or increase of effort, or use, could take place apart from compulsion de-
rived from the relation of external circumstances, as a more or less remote
cause. ‘

Preservation, with modifications, would most probably ensue when
change of stimulus should oceur gradually, though change of structure
might occur abruptly, under the law of expression points.

Choice is influence not only by ¢ntelligence, but by the ¢magination and
by the emotions.

Intelligence is a conservative principle, and always will direct effort and
use into lines which will be beneficial to its possessor. Here we have the
source of the fittest—7. ¢., addition of parts by increase and location of

* See origin of Genera, p. 38.

1871] 209 [Cope.

growth force, directed by the will—the will being under the influence of
various kinds of compulsion in the lower, and intelligent option among
higher animals.

Thus, intelligent choice taking advantage of the successive evolution of
physical conditions, may be regarded as the originator of the fittest, while
natural selection is the tribunal to which all the results of accelerated
growth are submitted. This preserves or destroys them, and determines
the new points of departure on which accelerated growth shall build.

The influences locating growth force, may be tabulated as follows :

Division. Influence.
Physical and? , » 9

Plants. chemical. §

Plants with me- }
chanical move- |
ments; anim as) > bs + use
withindeterminate |
movements. 7
Animals with de- }
terminate move- L i ad effort under
ments or will, but { compulsion.
no intelligence a
Animals with ) :
will and less intel- + e 3 sit b> + choice.
ligence. |
TALS, Wu oe oe te vy - intelligent choice.

more intelligence. §

As examples of intelligent selection, the modified organisms of the va-
rieties of bees and ants must be regarded as striking cases. Had all in
the hive or hill been modified alike, all soldiers, neuters, etc., the origin of
the structures might have been thought to be compulsory ; but varied
and adapted as the different forms are to the wants.of a community, the
influence of intelligence is too obvious to be denied. The structural re-
sults are obtained in this case by a shorter road than by inheritance.

The selection of food offers an opportunity for the exercise of intelli-
gence, and the adoption of means for obtaining it, still greater ones. It
is here that intelligent selection proves its supremacy as a guide of use,
and consequeiitly of structure, to all the other agencies here proposed.
The preference for vegetable or for animal food determined by the choice
of individual animals among the omnivores, which were, no doubt, ac-
cording to the paleontological record the predecessors of our herbivores,
and perhaps of carnivores also, must have determined their course of life
and thus all their parts, into those totally distinct directions. The choice
of food under ground, on the ground, or in the trees would necessarily
direct the uses of organs in the appropriate directions respectively.

In the selection of means of defence a minor range of choice is pre-
sented. The choice must be limited to the highest capabilities of the ani-
mal, since in defence, these will, as a general thing, be put feith. This
will, however, not be necessarily the case, but will depend in some meas-
ure on the intelligence. of the animal, as we readily observe in the case
of domesticated species,

In the case of the rattlesnake, already cited, the habit of rapid vibra-

260 [Dee 15;

Cope.]

tion of the tail, appears to me to be the result of choice, and not of com-
pulsion. For the cobra, of India, for the same purpose, expands the an-
terior ribs, forming a hood, which is a very different habit. Here are two
alternatives, from which choice might be made; and violent hissing is a
third, which the species of the colubrine genus Pityophis, haveadopted to
some purpose. As to the benefit of the rattle, it no doubt protects the
animal from all foes other than man; but is rather a disadvantage as re-
gards the latter, being by a beautiful turn of events a protection to the
higher animal.

On the principal of natural selection it might be supposed that the
harmless snakes which imitate the Crotalus for the sake of defence were _
preserved ; but if the above explanation of the origin of the habit in the
latter be true, the second explanation is not valid.

"The power of metachrosis, or of changing the color at will, by the ex-
pansion under nerve influence of special pigment cells, exists in most
Reptilia, Batrachia and fishes. It is then easy to believe that free choice
should, under certain circumstances, so habitually avoid one or another
color as to result finally in a loss of the power to produce it.

Thus, it appears to be a fact, that not only are species of fishes which
dwell in the mud, of darker hues than those that inhabit clear water, but
that individuals of the same species differ in a similar manner in relation
to their habitats, those that live in impure or muddy waters having
darker tints than those of clear streams.

Land animals present equally abundant and remarkable imitations of
the objects or substances on which they live. This is well known in in-
sects and spiders, which look like sticks or leaves, or the flowers on which
they feed. It is seen in reptiles, which in very many cases can voluntarily
assume the hue of leaf, stone or bark, or have constantly the gray color
of their native desert sands.

These cases are largely selective or optional in their origin, for though
metachrosis is also induced by some external stimulus, as an enemy or a
food animal, yet other means of escaping the one and procuring the other,
are generally open.

These facts pave the way for a consideration of the phenomenon of
mimetic analogy which, though well known to naturalists, may be illus-
trated by the following new facts :

On the plains of Kansas, there isa species of Mutilla whose abdomen
and thorax are colored ochraceous or brown-yellow, above. A spider of
the genus Saitéews is equally abundant, and is almost precisely similar in
the color of the upper surfaces, so much so as to deceive any but a most
careful observer. The Mutilia being a well armed insect, and a severe
stinger, there can be no doubt that the Saltiews derives considerable im-
munity from enemies from its resemblance.

On the same plains, the Caudisona confluenta, or prairie rattlesnake
abounds. It is an olive grey, with a series of transverse brown dorsal
spots, and two rows of smaller lateral ones. The head exhibits a num-

1871 ] 261 [Cope.

ber of brown and white bands. The prairie Heterodon, (H. nasicus) pos-
sesses not only the same tints but the same pattern of coloration, and at a
short distance cannot be distinguished from it.

In consequence, as one may justly say, this species is, with the rattle-
snake, the most common serpent of the plains, as it shares, no doubt, in
the protection which the armature of the Caudisona gives its possessor.
This isin accordance with the views of Wallace and Bates.

A curious case occurred to me in four species of fishes, which I took in
a small tributary of the Yadkin River, in Roane County, N. C. Among
several others, there were varieties of the widely distributed species
Chaenobryttus gillti, Hypsilepis analostanus and- Ptychostomus pidiensis,
(each representing a different family), which differ from the typical form
of each in the same manner, viz: in having the back and upper part of
the sides with longitudinal black lines, produced by a line along the mid-
dle of each scale. This peculiarity I have not observed in these species
from any other lecality. Until I had examined them I thought them new
species.

The only other species presenting such marking in the Yadkin River,
is the large perch, the Roccus lineatus. According to the theory of
natural selection a resemblance to this well armed species might be of ad-
vantage to the much weaker species in question ; yet the same species
co-exist in other rivers without presenting the same mimicry.

It is difficult not to urge the importance of the causes already regarded
as efficient in the origination of structure, in the present branch of the
subject also. We are especially disposed to call in use and effort here,
after noticing how much more distinctly change of color is under the con-
trol of the animal, than change of shape. It must, however, be borne in
mind that similar resemblances exist among plants; though, as Prof.
Dyer shows, a large majority of these cases occur in species of different
floral regions. Thus in this case, as in those of structure already cited,
we appeal first to physical laws in the lowest beings, but with the in-

creasing interference of use, effort aud intelligence, as we rise in the

scale. Thus it is that in the Vertebrates generally, the mimetic resem-
blances are found in species of the same region, where only an intelligent
or emotional agency could be illustrated. If among animals as low as
butterflies the influence of intelligence be denied, that of admiration for
the beauty, or fear of the armature, of the predominant species imitated,
would appear to be sufficient to account for the result. Admiration and
fear are possessed by animals of very low organization, and with the in-
stincts of hunger and reproduction, constitute the most intense metaphysi-
cal conditions of which they are capable. But our knowledge of this
branch of the subject is less than it ought to be, for animals possess many
mental attributes for which they get little credit.

It appears to be impossible to account for the highest illustrations of
mimetic analogy in any other way, the supposition of Wallace that such
forms must be spontaneously produced, and then preserved by natural

Cope. ] 26 2 . [Dee. 15;

selection, being no explanation. It has been shown by Bennett that the
chances of such modification arising out of the many possibilities are ex-
ceedingly small.

If the above positions be trae, we have here also the theory of the
development of intelligence and of other metaphysical traits: In accord-
ance with it, each trait appropriates from the material ‘world the means
of perpetuating its exhibitions by constructing its instruments. These
react by furnishing increased means of exercise of these qualities, which
have thus grown to their full expression in man.

CRITIQUE.

1. On the preceding essay.—There will probably be found to be consid-+
erable resemblance and coincidence between the theory of Use and Effort,
and the Lamarckian view of Development. The writer has never read
Lamarck in French, nor seen a statement of his theory in English, except
the very slight notices in the Origin of Species and Chambers’ Encyclo-
peedia, the latter subsequent to the first reading of this paper.

Darwin’s only speculations as to the origin of new structures which are
contained in his ‘‘ Origin of Species”? (Ed., 1860), so far as I can find,
occur in the first and fifth chapters. In the first he says, discussing the
variability of domesticated animals and plants, ‘‘ I think we are driven
to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic
productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as,
and somewhat different from, those to which the parent species have
been exposed under nature. There is also, I think, some probability in
the view. propounded by Andrew Knight that this variability may be
partly connected with excess of food. * * * But I am strongly in-
clined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be at-
tributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been
affected prior to the act of conception. * * Nothing is more easy than
to tame an animal, and few things more difficult than to get it to breed
freely under confinement, even in the many cases where the male and
female unite,’’ etc. Chapter V. repeats similar propositions but states
that the effect of climate he believes to be small, but rather greater in
plants than animals,

The view as to the impressibility of the reproductive element is taken
up by Mivart, but the subject remains in the chaos of unshaped hy-
potheses.

2. On the Origin of Genera.—The memoir issued by the writer under
the above name was chiefly devoted to the demonstration of the law of
Acceleration and Retardation. A small portion was devoted to geograph-
ical and geological relations. It remains to correct two errors in the
former portion of the book.

(1). It is there stated (p. 5) that the Law of Natural Selection of Dar-
win is as follows: ‘‘ That the will of the animal applied to its body in the
search for means of subsistence and protection from injuries, gradually
produces those features which are evidently adaptive in their nature.

1871.] 26 3 [Cope,
That in addition, a disposition toa general variation, on the part of the
species, has been met by the greater or less adaptation of the results of
such variation to the varying necessities of their respective situations.
That the result of such conflict has been the extinction of those types
that are not adapted to their immediate or changed conditions and the
preservation of those that are.”

It is unnecessary to state that the first sentence of the above does not
express the theory of Darwin in any part or particular, while the two fol-
lowing do.

Further, it is stated (same page), ‘« What we propose is, that of [gen-
eric characters] comparatively very few, in the whole range of animals
and plants, are adaptations to external needs of forces, and that of specific
characters a large proportion is of the ‘same kind. How, then, could
they owe their existence to a process regulated by adaptation?’ Below,
it is again said, ‘that while Natural Selection acts by the ‘preservation
of the fittest,’ Acceleration and Retardation act without any reference to
fitness at all; that instead of being controlled by fitness it is the controller
of fitness.”’

Thus, from the existence of large numbers of non-adaptive characters I
was induced to believe that an antagonism existed between the two laws.
The present essay shews this to have been an error, and that by recon-
ciling them, they become coérdinate factors in producing the result.
Thus ‘Acceleration and Retardation” is the “controller of fitness,’’
because all adaptive structures are produced in accordance with it, and
in no other way. The law of Intelligent Selection also prescribing fitness,
removes it from the domain of physical or material necessity implied by
Darwin’s law of “Survival of the fittest.” Adaptation therefore is
the guide of change, though not the mechanically produced adaptation
implied by natural selection. The disturbance of: the balance of forces
produced under its influence, leaves growth force to create primarily, the
great number of unadaptive characters, which are simply wnjinished adap-
tive ones, and secondarily, others occasioned by excess or loss of force
in different directions. .

The reconciliation of these laws and their complementary relations
were perceived before the essay was completed, see in the recapitulation.
Prop. bi, pe7g:

2.) Under the head of Heterology (p. 55), a number of groups are in-
troduced as ‘‘ Homologous’? (as defined ~ ——— Ze
p. 64). Some of these I believe to be 9 A.
truly of this character, but somé others
are probably not so related, but are
merely series of genera presenting simi-

lar structural peculiarities as conse-
quences of the operation of identical
laws. I would place under this head,
and withdraw from the homologous class,

Fig. 18. (See Di 238,
the families of Lacerttlia Leptoglossa, Diploglossa and Typhlophthalmi,
those of the Old and New World Quadrumana and those of Cephalopoda.

-

Or :
Cope.] 264 [Dee. 17,

Catalogue of the PytHonomorrHa found in the Cretaceous Strata of

Kansas.
By E. D. Cop.

(Read before the American Philosophical Soctety, December 17th, 1871.)

The following brief review is prepared in consequence of the acquisition
by the author of a considerable accession of material from the chalk cf
Western Kansas. Attention is confined to one order of Reptiles at pres-
ent, owing to its predominant importance in the vertebrate fauna of
that time and place, as is indicated by the great profusion of individual
remains and specific forms. Although occurring in America wherever
the Cretaceous formation appears, they are so far, more numerously rep-
resented in Kansas than elsewhere. Though not rare in New Jersey,
crocodiles and tortoises outnumber them; but in Kansas, all other orders
are subordinate to the Pythonomorpha. As is now well known since 1868*
the seas of the American continent were the home of this order, while
they were comparatively rare in those of Europe. In the latter country
we have four species only determined by palaeontologists, viz :

Mosasaurus....... so Ore ieee ihc ias Up r cies boise aon cs 2

dB La[e lope ORR i ie vee esnit my cute Beara ps ee coum Ai

7 AULOSPONGYAUS: ei ek pe vets rie ee cs ce vs ht hv she ui
p 2

In North America the species have been exactly determined from three
regions, as follows :

Green Sand of New Jersey.

TNO: C ALUM OS gris alas knits ae a ina ing rene smaramrere eh ree lias 6
SALONS, Gey reo reyes Sunes 4c ug vie, Vi Ve 2
ONGARUOSe 0 CPS aes et PE rr eae er eas ReaD 2
WNOdOMN Sry rye a trees Apr pena aaa | 4
@YDIPIOOMOdON i ver Nes erin os es di

15

Rotten Limestone, Alabama.

Mosasdiiisvr re via. tee, ae BES eee errs eee ere al
PolcOdusi iss Os el Re ee ae 1
TRON GW hire OF Pee es a ee Seon 3
ORES, er a ee Pe i ee 2

A

Chalk of Kansas.

CUA eNO i ie cs se oy ES IN I 3
WAGSHOSaMIIUGs er wo eee awe eee eee eS 4
Holcodtig.......- ahs he Bers AE PTET. VINE, 4,
THGUOH Cg as a A OY OT 5

17

*

See Transactions Amer. Philo. Soc., Vol. XIV.

(To be continued in No. 88.)

ret

265

1871.J {Cope.
We have additional species from
Carolina Mosasamius)cst, soles toot ns Seiraensis vise occas iL
Mississippl (Platecampus)aais sins oes sry eee. Tie eee 1L
Nebraska (Mosasaurus)...........- on soe SSRI ae AlEssisae i 1
making with the others from
ENG UGESO VR. a. 8) SSE EN. elicits ha bk wees sie. ais 15
Alabama 20. caine eee uae ts. bin oud eye eek i: 7
ISADSAS. ofa Nia leos. Sac tle os aucls anise ties SN eases ek 17
aA TO tall Ole oe? ian ete sous pity stin Bis Wiearsciee a sale es oes 42

Of these I am not acquainted with any which extends its range into
any two of the areas above named, while some of the districts possess
peculiar genera. It is nevertheless premature to draw any conclusions as
to geographical range, as most of the species are known from but few
specimens as yet.

Two genera have recently been discovered in Europe, which have been
thought to be allied, or belong, to this order. One of these, Acrodon-
toswurus Hulke, rests on the anterior portion of a maxillary bone with
part of premaxillary and teeth. These portions are indecisive as to its
affinities. It is from the English Chalk. The second form is the Danu-
dtosaurus of Bunzel, which its describer refers to the neighborhood of
Mosasaurus. It is quite plain after an inspection of his description and
‘figures, that it has no affinity to that genus or to the order Pythonomor-
pha. Itis from Neue Welt, from the Cretaceous, near Vienna.

The present investigations have added some points of importance to
the history of the structure of the order.

First, as to the pterygoid bones. It appears that these elements are
thin plates, having a free laminar termination, and are entirely toothless.
They articulate with the palatines by a process which fits their posterior
emargination. In Hdestosaurus tortor, they are about half the length of
the palatines. They present no indications of ectopterygoid. The bones
named by authors pterygoids, in imitation of Cuvier, are elongate pala-
tines, and the external process extending to the maxillaries, is that seen
in Varani, serpents, etc., and is at no time distinct from the palatines.

It has also shown that the supposition of Goldfuss and myself, thatthe
palatines of Mosasaurus were in contact on the median line, is an error,
and that they are more or less vertical plates, as in Liodon. The dis-
tinction between these genera, then, rests on the codssification of the
chevron bones in the former, and their permanent independence in the
latter ; perhaps the difference in the form of the teeth may also count for
something.

Second, as to the parieto-squamosal arch, which is distinctly developed
in Holcodus tctericus and Liodon curtirostris in its parietal part and ZH.
_ corypheus in the squamosal part. It was quite strong in the species
named.

Third, as to the pelvis. This part, which has been observed by Marsh
A. P. S—VOL. XII—2

|

R
Cope. 266 | Dee.
in Edestosaurus dispar, is usually perfect in Liodon dyspelor. The
pubes are the only elements united below, forming a weak support to the
abdomen. The ilia are slender, not united with vertebral processes above,
or without indications of such contact. The ischia are the most slender
and directed backwards.

Fourthly, in the hind limb. The femur of tL. crassartus has been
described by the writer, and Professor Marsh asserts its existence in Lio-
don, Clidastes and Edestosaurus. The present collection exhibits both
femur, tibia and fibula of L. dyspelor, and these elements are now first
described. The first mentioned is not larger, sometimes smaller than the
humerus, and has a prominent trochanter, nearly connected with the
head. The shaft is not curved, and the distal end is expanded. The
tibia is a narrow bone expanded at both ends, the fibula is like that of
Plesiosuurus, but wider, or partly discoid. It has been known to ni vtural-
ists but not Sctovariued. Thus I figured it for Liodon taevis,* and Leidy
figured it for an upper Missouri species.+}

CLIDASTES, Cope.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 1868, p. 238. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soe.
1870, 211.

Vertebree with the bt articulation. [Palatine bones flat and
alate, the teeth not exposed at their bases unequally. This point has not
been observed in the type species, C. iguanavus. ]

CLIDASTES CINERIARUM, Cope.
Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, 583.
Several individuals from different points near the Smoky Will

eo

Kansas.
The largest specie
8
CLIDASTES VYMANU, Marsh
Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, June, 1871.
From two individuals from the Smoky Hill River and its North F
A small species.

ork,

CLIDASTES PuMILUS, Marsh, l. ¢.
From one individual from the Smoky Hill River.
The smallest known Mosasauroid.

EDESTOSAURUS, Marsh

Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1871, June.

Vertebre with the zygosphen articulation; palatine bones narrow,
partly vertical, the bases of the pterygoid teeth exposed on one side, or
pleurodont. (Tt 3 is uncertain whether the type of Clidastes presents this
structure or not.)

EDESTOSAURUS TORTOR, Cope, Sp. NOV.

Vertebre of the cervical and anterior dorsal regions with round articu-

lar faces, not emarginate for the spinal cord. The bodies are elongate
* Trans. Amer. Philos, Soc. 1869, 205. t (Cretaceous Reptiles, ) U.S. Tab. viii. fig. 10.

etic,

SR cnyr

-__o

Mc

1871.} 267 [Cope.
*

and somewhat contracted, and marked everywhere with finer and coarser

strie. Hypapophyses prolonged on the cervicals, the free one of the

atlas with a prolonged keel-like process.

Quadrate bone with long external angle and rather thick anterior ala
with broad rugose margin. A prominent obtuse ridge is continued from
the external angle to the inferior articular extremity, the distal portion
being more acute. A rugose process projects at the point where the pos-
terior hook approaches the body, and is continued as an elevated narrow
ridge, parallel to the previously mentioned, to the distal articular surface.
A. button-like knob appears on the posterior margin of the hook opposite
the meatal part. A. strong ridge extends on the inner face of the bone
from opposite the end of the hook to the base of the great ala. The
distal articular surface presents two planes ; the narrower at the end of
the posterior pair of ridges above described ; the larger considerably less
distal, like a broad step.

The maziilary bone descends regularly in front, uniting with the pre-
maxillary by a minute suture. Its posterior extremity is slender and acute.

The premaxillary is short conic, not particularly prominent. The
palatine bone has a slight expansion on the inner side ; on the outer the
margin is very narrow.

The teeth number seventeen on the maxillary bone. They :
pressed, least so anteriorly, and with a cutting edge from base t
as far as the fifth from the front, in those anterior to that point the pos-
oid teeth which are

‘e com-

0 crown

terior edge is discontinued. There are sixteen pte1
smooth and without anterior cutting edge. The frontal bone has a low

carina along the median line of its anterior portion.

M.

Length of axis with odontoid proces ite.
Diameter of ball of a cervical f vertical ae -026

Uiramis verse: 7, bse 026
Hixpanse of diapophyses do. 3.22.4. 22.2000.7 = ed 084
Length of centrum Or. eae PO 052
Length oimaxillary bone. .4e ue eee 363

- ramus mandibuli behind dentary.............. 3B

Length of prem
Total of cranium

Length of pterygoid and palatine .015
8 ] 18
Length of centrum posterior do -066
‘ WOMLIONL. 6 Ee es .088
Diameter of ball ,
LYATISVOESG direc SAL fades acs .038

The bones of this species are all light and slender. The elongation of
the vertebre indicate that if their number was of the usual amount, the
animal was of more than usually slender proportions. The position in
which it was found was a partial coil, the head occupying the inside of a
turn of the dorsal vertebra. As compared with H. dispar and ZH. veloz of
Marsh, the present differs in the lack of depression of the centra of the

*
Cope. ] 268 [Dec. 17,

vertebra, especially the anterior, and in various details of structure of

the quadrate bones, as well as the larger number of teeth.

Discovered in Fossil Spring cafion in the grey limestone by Martin Hart-
well and Sergeant Wm. Gardner. But one specimen was found, which
includes the greater part of the cranium, with the vertebre as far as the
lumbar region.

EDESTOSAURUS STENOPS, Cope, sp. nov.

Indicated by a large part of the skeleton of one individual, and frag-
ments of two others. The first includes a large part of the cranium, with
both quadrates, and fifty vertebra, including the axis. The characters
are similar to those of the preceding species, but all the bones are more
massive, though of the same dimensions.

The teeth are strongly compressed, with cutting edge fore and aft, and
with the surfaces distinctly faceted ; there are seventeen on the mandi-
ble. The palatine bones are stouter than in Z#. tortor, but the teeth are
not larger, and are probably as numerous, as they are similarly spaced.

The vertebra exhibit round articular surfaces, those of the dorsal region
being rather stouter than the cervical, though the difference does not ap-
pear to be so marked as in the preceding species. The anterior caudals
possess wide diapophyses. The articular faces are a vertical oval, a little
contracted above, sometimes by a straight outline. They preserve a

peculiarly elongate form.

The quadrates, like those of the last species, have a very prominent ex~
ternalangle. They present various differences which may be regarded
as individual ; for example, the edge of the great ala isnot expanded out-
wards, but only inwards; the distal articular extremity is wider, the
posteriorly decurved hook is more contracted, forming a deeper external
concavity behind the external angle. Characters of more importance are
the lack of the two ridges which bound the posterior face of the distal
end of the bone, that face being thus convex instead of concave, and the
process below the meatus is isolated and not continued into a ridge, ex~
cept internally, when it gives rise to the heavy ridge which extends to the
base of the great ala. The button on the posterior aspect of the hook is
wanting, its place being taken by a recurvature of the smooth articular
face along the margin.

Length of axis (above)........... cece sees ee eens
eee at
Length of a posterior dorsal........
Diameter bell { Transvetie \-. 20. sssscsscisaslieones
Length caudal with flat diapophysis.................. 033
DSM CUDy dO) Ga eva re oh ans OEE S os 03
WHC CU nee GO at AE Montes BOR AE Ns 03
Length mandible (28 inches). .....00- 616s cesses eee 720
Depth at coronoid process..... OR iiss Tener eenr es 150
bees @ puomiay CHOP OL CENtaLy.: tess se. mes te es O74
a0. 288 Sai stal Us OU ia oP .02

Fierce ge omnmnnir

9
1871.] 269 [Cope

A fine specimen of this species was found by Martin V. Hartwell near
Fossil Spring. Portions of a second were found by Lieut. Jas. H. Whit-
ten on a bluff on Butte Creek.

Both the above species are the most elongate in proportion to their
diameter of the order. They are larger in their dimensions than those
next enumerated.

EDESTOSAURUS DISPAR, Marsh.
Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, June, 1871. Smoky Hill River.

EDESTOSAURUS VELOX, Marsh, 1. c.
Near the North Fork of the Smoky River.

HOLCODUS, Gibbes, Cope emend.

Vertebree without the zygosphen articulation. Palatine bones flat,
alate, its teeth not unequally exposed at the bases, or not pleurodont.

This genus bears the same relation as regards the palatine bones and
teeth, to the genus Liodon that Olidastes does to Edestosaurus, as above
defined. The structure of the caudal vertebrae I unfortunately cannot
ascertain, and therefore do not know whether they are as in Olidastes or
Liodon. It differs from Mosasaurus as it does from Liodon, i. e. in the
horizontal laminiform palatines.

The name which I use for this genus was originally applied by Dy.
Gibbes* of Charleston to a species represented by teeth from the creta-
ceous of Alabama, but of which no other portions were known. The
teeth of the Kansas species now referred to this genus, are very similar
in character to those described by Gibbes, so much go as to lead me to
believe that when other portions of the H. acutidens of that author are
known, they will be found to display the more important features here
regarded as truly distinctive of the genus. Its place is evidently between
Clidastes and Liodon, the pterygoid bones being those of the former, and
the vertical articulations being identical with that characteristic of Lio-
don. In all of the species, traces of the zygosphen appear, but in the:H.
coryphaeus, Cope, the rudiment amounts to a short process directed for-
wards at the base of each anterior zygapophysis.

The species known as yet are of medium size in the order.

HoLcODUS CORYPHAEUS, Cope, sp. nov.

Characters. Cervical and dorsal vertebre with the articular surfaces
depressed transverse, slightly excavated above for the neural canal.
The diapophyses not continued inferiorly to the rim of the cup, on the
cervical vertebre, and not receiving from it a cap of articular cartilage.
Occipital crest much elevated, quadrate bone small, the meatal pit de-
pressed between bounding ridges above and below. Rudimental zygos-
phen not uniting into a keel above. Teeth slender less curved than
H. ictericus.

Description. This species is chiefly based on one specimen, which in-

*The Mosasaurus and allies: Smithsonian Contr. to Knowledge, 1851, 9 Plate.

-stouter, but less strong

270 [Dee. 17,

Cope.)

cludes the greater part of the cranium and seventeen vertebra, with ribs,
Isolated portions of other individuals were also found in the same region

of country.
The disproportion between the diameters of the cervical and dorsal
vertebre ig more marked here than the species of Hdestosawrus. The
te, though with larger diameter. The cranium

ra are less elong
ively much smaller, the teeth absolutely smaller, though the quad-
5 are of equal size. The general character of the species is

rate
‘ly armed, and less elegantly built.

The hypapophysis of the atlas has a short small keel below. The

1 spine of the azis is elongate, but less so than in the two Hdesto-

saurt, truncate behind, with a median groove into which the anterior keel

of the neural spine of the third cervical vertebra is applied. The dia-

ting surface, and is

pophysis of this vertebrae has a short vertical articula

ug
continued into a longitudinal keel, which disappears before reaching the

edge of the cup. The same process of the a

ritudinal paral-
lelogrammic articular surface.

The swupraoccipital is very thick and is roof-shaped, the keel rising
nearly perpendicularly from the foramen magnum.

The suspensoria are directed both upwards and backwards, at about an
che squam-

angle of 45° in each direction, and support on their extremitic

a
osal bones. These are prolonged, forming part of their appropriate arch.
Tho occipital condyle is transversely oval. The sphenoid bone embraces
as usual the basi-occipital protuberances ; it is not earinate on the
median line below. It sends out on each side near the anterior extremity
a sub-horizontal laminar process.

The quadrate bone is much like that of H. ictericus, but is relatively
smaller. While the teeth in that species are smaller, the quadrate is
larger, hence the difference in the species is in this point quite striking.
The external angle is prominent but very obtuse, and is the summit of a
yery thick obtuse ridge which extends to near the distal articular surface.
The posterior hook is much prolonged downwards and has no button-like
process or extension of the articular surface on its posterior face. This
face presents a strong rib along the meatus and disappearing above the
pit, throws the latter into a depression. This isinereased by the swelling
of the external angular rib. A prominent knob very rugose at the ex-
tremity rises beneath the end of the hook, and bounds a concavity be-
tween it and the external rib.

The latter closes the concavity by curving round towards the knob above
mentioned. A keel rises exterior to the rib, and below it, and continues
into the external angle of the articular extremity. Another very promi-
nent keel extends from the knob beneath the hook to the base of the great
ala. The articular extremity is transverse, and in one plane.

The maatilary bone, is marked with shallow longitudinal grooves. It
supports eleven teeth and has a rather steep premaxillary suture descend-
ing in front. The nareal expansion in front occurs opposite the fourth
tooth,

eae ati

|

1871. ] [Cope.

The teeth are rather long slender and incurved and recurved. There is
a distinct cutting edge anteriorly and on a greater or less part of the
length of the posterior face. The crowns are four or five faceted
on the outer face ; the inner face is more numerously faceted, and striate-
grooved. The section at the base is sub-circular ; higher, the outer face

atter, the inner more convex. The apex is acute and the cutting
edges strong.

The frontal is narrow, and differs from the other Holeodi here described
in having the olfactory groove closed by contraction behind. Both
palatines are preserved. They support twelve cylindric conic teeth which
have recurved apices and striate enamel. The section is a flat transverse
oval, where the external transverse process is given off. The shaft of the
bone is much expanded inwardly with a thickened margin ; exteriorly the
margin is thin, and is nearly followed by the series of teeth, whose bases

are exposed externally, and are therefore pleurodont. The emargination

> pterygoid is very deep.

; M.
Dengtl Of axis With OdONUOld..iiis yess. cigs c ds ate 0.074
oy third cervical...... ee gr a en ean ere aM ey he .048

, jac 9
Diameter ball, do. { brace pe ea
Elevation of spine of do. from centrum..........62. .005.. .046
Henoth POStELIOM COUSa cals cree eel sr ate ees hess .068
APE ae 99
Diameter centrum | taneverse-se seve Flea at see
Length basioccipital and basisphenoid.... ..............0. 084
Elevation occipital crest above floor of foramen magnum... .03
Length suspensorium from foramen ovale..........0.2.05. 09
Length Os quadratum. i... A ee OT ee res 073
Width Gistal extremity. iiss cis woe ei ee .036

Length Os maxiwlare. 0. 5 05 ose. EA TOS 21
Depth do.at third tooth. eo... ess. es 036
Length fourth tooth. 202 TEE AOD CE Hea 032
oy OL Grown Of d0.ae.- eres aeRO ES. en ae : .021
Length of palatine bone...... Se ee WA Ot Petr vs 155

This fossil was found by the writer projecting from the side of a bluff
in a branch of the Fossil Spring Cafion near the mouth of Fox Cafion.
The bluff was from 80 to 100 feet in height, and the Holeodus was taken
from a position forty feet below the summit, from the yellow chalk.

Honcopus TECTULUS, Cope, sp. nov.

Established on a number of cervical and dorsal vertebra of smaller size
than those characteristic of the other species of the genus. The centra
have not suffered from distortion under pressure. The articular surfaces
are depressed transverse elliptic in outline, with a slight superior excava-
tion for the neural canal. A well marked constriction surrounds the ball.
There is a rudimental zygosphen in the form of an acute ridge rising from

972,
Cope.] 272 Dee. 17,

the inner basis of the zygapophysis and uniting with its fellow of the
other side forming a production of the roof of the neural canal... The
combined keels become continuous with the anterior acute edge of the
neural spine. Thus the form is quite different from that seen in the last
described species, and constitutes a lower grade of rudiment. The fact
that this zygosphenal roof is separated on each side from the zygapophy-
ses by an acute groove, gives the former a distinctness more apparent
than real.

The fixed hypapophyses are short and broad. The centra are not elon-
gate. Those of the anterior dorsals present an obtuse keel below.

M.
Length of a median cervical. ......+-.++see cece eeee see eees 0.043
: ae WOLMCUIN Top ese trite ee eta. 02
Diameter of ball of do. | eeksievetis Eee oe: 033
Length of anterior dorsal..........6- eee c eee e eee teers 042
Width Of CUps Us ii ete eer ec wero rae rs Qewews tet oo oe 032

Found by the author on a low bluff or ‘‘break”’ on Butte Creek, four-
teen miles south of Fort Wallace.

Hoxcopus IcTERICUS, Cope.

ry

Liodon ictericus, Cope, Proceed. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1870, p. 577. Hay-
den’s Geol. Survey of Wyoming and adj. Terr. 1871.

In adition to the two individuals of this species procured by Professor
B. F. Mudge in one of his geological surveys, the writer obtained a con-
siderable part of a third from a low bluff on Fox Cafion, south of Fort
Wallace. This includes seventeen lumbar, dorsal and cervical vertebra
including axis, with ribs, and a large part of the cranium with both quad-
rates, occipital and periotic regions, etc. Its characters may be briefly
pointed out as follows :

Articular surfaces of dorsal and cervical vertebrae transverse oval, ex-
cavated above for neural canal; diapophyses not extending below to the
edge of the cup, hence not receiving an area of articular cartilage con-
tinuous with the rim. Occipital crest low, oblique. Quadrate bone
larger, the meatus depressed between ridges, A. button of articular sur-
face on posterior face of hook. Scarcely any rudiment of zygosphen.
Teeth small, much incurved, faceted and striate ridged.

Some characters additional to those already derived from the first known
examples may be added. The mandible supports only twelve teeth. The
palatine bone is shorter anterior to the external process, and longer behind
it than in H. corypheus. In our specimen, the posterior extremity is
broken off, yet. shows no indication of the emargination for the ptery-
goid bone an inch behind the position of its anterior extremity in H.
corypheus. There are ten teeth on the part preserved, four in front of
transverse process (six in H. coryphwus), and six (probably seven) behind
(six in H. coryphwus). The plate is more expanded than in the last
named species, especially the thickened inner margin, which only ap-

a

ee ee

‘
!

me
1871.] 2 3 [Cope.
proaches the basis of the last tooth ; (reaches the tooth line at the fifth in
HT. corypheus.)

The occipital crest is low and directed obliquely forwards from the for-
amen magnum. The suspensoria are stout, and directed at an angle of
45° in both the superior ard posterior directions. The basisphenotd is
strongly keeled below. The guadratum is like that of H. corypheus in
its massive external angle and ridge, but differs in the shorter hook and
the non-interruption of the groove between the external angular ridge
and the knob below the meatus. The cervical and dorsal vertebra display
the same disproportion in size, observed in H. corypheus.

M.

Jieniothe os quatinailnins cs oie tiv. sen ieee comes 35k Tm ue 0.081
Wadth. artioulam extremity Of -d0s 0 2 joe KR i oe eee 038
dsenpth Cemtany DONG nia Wits veaginene ssid due Se Sehr sis Sores 4 28

oy toot ol do, = third: from bebitid<:......<..<2. 4... .022

“ CLOW I OBIS «ii seta wah ses cl CM hee siete 1 sae .016

‘& suspensorium from foramen ovale............+--:: .108
otaldength cranium QS Ui en viee, oiias sien en 58

HoLcoDUs MUDGEI, Cope.
81. Hayden’s

oUt

Liodon mudgei, Cope, Proc. Am, Philos. Soc., 1870,
Survey Wyoming, etc., 1871, p. 581.

The specimen of this species obtained by Professor Mudge on the
Smoky Hill River, is the only one known to the writer. The characters
distinguishing it are the following :

Vertebre without rudimental zygosphen. Quadrate bone with plane
surfaces from the proximal articular surface and the external obtuse angled
ridge to the meatal pit ; the latter therefore not sunk in a depression as
the other species.

The frontal bone is like that of H. ictericus, furnished with an open
olfactory groove on the inferior face ; it is wider over the orbits.

A re-examination of the vertebre of the type specimen, which J de-
seribed as having compressed centra, renders it probable that they have
been so modified by pressure as to render their normal shape a matter of
uncertainty.

LIODON, Owen, Cope, emend.

Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., 1870, p. 200.

Vertebre withont zygosphen and zygantrum. Palatine bones separated
from each other, narrowed, the teeth more or less pleurodont. Chevron
bones articulated freely with the caudal vertebra.

This genus embraces several species from the Kansas Chalk, which
range in size from the most usual in the last genus, to the largest known
in the order.

LIODON CURTIROSTRIS, Cope, sp. nov.

Characters. Cervical and dorsal vertebr with transversely oval artic-

ular faces, which are little depressed, and though not continued to the
A. P. S—VOL, XII—2I.

Cope.] 274 [Dee. 17,

neural arch, are scarcely excavated above for the neural canal. The dia-
pophysis with stout inferior horizontal branch, which is capped by an
extension of the articular catilage from the rim of the cup. Occipita
crest elevated, sub-vertical. Quadrate broad below ; pit sunk between
bounding ridges.

Description. There is a great disproportion in the sizes of the cervical
aud posterior dorsal vertebree ; the centra of the latter are rather more
depressed than those of the former. They are similar in proportion to

those of the Holeodi and shorter than those of the Hdestosaurt. The

short axes of the articular faces are sub-vertical. The rudiment of zygos-

phen is seen in the slight anterior prolongation of the roof of the neural

canal. The keel of the hypapophysis of the atlas is short and obtuse.

The greater part of the cranium is preserved. The supra-occipital keel
is vertical and furnished at the summit with a plicate knob for the inser-
tion of a Kigamentum nuchw. The thickness of the walls of the bone is
pheus and the suture is a double squamosal

not equal to that in H. cor
?. ¢. with groove along the middle of the edge. The basisphenoid is but
slightly keeled below, and is distally expanded into a horizontal plate on
each side. The parietals are, as usual, confluent, and send off two light
arches postero-laterally for union with the squamosal bone. Between
their origins are two sub parallel ridges which disappear, the transverse
section of the narrow part of the parietals being rounded. The lateral

ridges within the temporal fossee are obsolete, while the convergent angles
lg thin the temporal fossee are obsolete, while the vergent angles
which bound the parietal table posteriorly are strongly marked: This
table is nearly plane and the foramen partetule is large. The frontal is
narrowed in front, and has an elevated keel along its anterior half. The

olfactory groove is not much contracted behind, but is closed by the apex

of the rugose area in front of the foramen parietale.

The palatine bone is narrow and the external margin is very slight, the
bases of the teeth being exposed in that direction. The inner margin is
8, but not so as to be a vertical plate. The
hinder part of the bone is flat and horizontal, with a long maxillary pro-
cess. The pterygoid notch falls opposite the second tooth from behind,
The whole number of teeth is eleven. :

The jaws are represented by the greater part of all of the tooth-bearing
portions. The maxillary bone is shallowly sulcate on the exterior face.
Its proportions are quite similar to those of the H. coryphaus, but the teeth
it supports are larger and fewer, There are none missing from the ex-
tremities of the specimen, the whole number being ten; in ZH, corphy@us
there are eleven. The crowns are incurved, faceted externally, and
striate-grooved internally ; there are cutting edges on front and rear,
both strongest near the apex ; the anterior continued to the base, the latter
wanting on the basal third on median maxillaries. The anterior nareal
expanse marks the fourth tooth from the premazillary suture. The
premarillary bone is remarkable for its shortness and flatness at the
extremity, this part being depressed and scarcely projecting at the lower
margin in front of the anterior teeth. These as usual number four.

much thickened downwards.

a a

ae

i. 275
1871.] [Cope.
Both guadrate bones are preserved nearly entire. They have the same
general character as those of H. icteriews and H. corypheus, resembling
rather the latter in the great length of the posterior hook, which is with-
out posterior marginal button. The proximal external angle is large and
obtuse, and is continued into a prominent thick ridge. The latter divides
below, the thick extremity turning inwards and ceasing ; an acute ridge
putwards and joining the exterior acute extremity of the dis-
is- broad and thick, and not

‘le forwards on the

continuing

tal articular surface. The submeatal knob
prominent, and its extremity turns at an acute ang

1encement of the gi ala. The articular

inner face and forms the com

expansion on a tuberosity on the

surface is straight cr :
outer face (concave of crescent). The meatal pit is sunk between the

s surrounding, one of which is on the outer margin of the posterior
=

hook.

The mandible is nearly perfect. The dentary bone bears thirteen teeth,

irections, and not prolonged

> which descends from the

and at the extremity is contracted in both d

beyond the base of the last tooth. The ric
cotylus along the inner face of the articular bone, is not nearly so strong

as in the H, mudgev.

M.
Length axis with odontoid.......-.-.+-.+++ sees sees 0.062.
Elevation neural spine of do. at middle.......... 046
Length third cervical (body).....---+.-.-s+sseee reese: 05
Se
Diameter ball ‘ he
Length posterior dorsal...........0..sse sees eee cece .065
Diaaneter bull | Teeiiad viata. povvows tesa ot Oe
Length basis cranii... 06.0... 02sec eee eee -O8
by BUSPONSOMUML © 64 ss esi ty eee eee es 105
Elevation occipital crest above floor foramen magnum. .045
Length tooth line pterygoid..........--..-+-seeee eee 115
= WARIIATY DOME ai ews ee y eten ees cee 221
premaxillary laterally... .... ate ug er erga .085
Width de oC Bl BeCOnG LOOtR. wath vane 041
Length dentary:...0.0-.-- 24 cers ese tees ieee. 245
“ maxillary toOOth..... o...se... ses sbiwan ses O80
ws wee OPO WEL OLLLY xs si onet's 0s oe woe sn 023
bk os quadratum............ ee or Eon 077
Width ‘ = ISTH v0 Suu os oy re 045
Length parietal...... OR Ges ee ee ee 085
se frontal-to nares (Median)... se... es ev sad
Width «¢ ‘between orbits........ Si eneedas Core ene O77
Total length of cranium (18.75 inches)..... se geass eee!

The specimen above described was found by the writer on the denuded
foot of a bluff on the lower part of Fossil Spring Cafion. The posterior
part of the cranium with several vertebree were found exposed, and many

9
Cope.] 276 [Dec. 17.
other bones, including the cranium were found only covered by the super-
ficial washed material. Other portions were exposed on excavating the
blue grey bed of the side of the spur adjoining.

The name has reference to the abbreviation of the head and jaws.
LIoDON GLANDIFERUS, Cope, sp. nov.

This species is represented by portions of two individuals from locali-
ties twenty-five miles apart. These are unfortunately in each case only
a cervical vertebra, but they agree in possessing such peculiarities as dis-
tinguish them widely from anything yet known to the writer.

One is an anterior, the other a posterior cervical. The articular sur-
faces are transversely elliptic, and completely rounded above, that is,
neither truncated nor excavated for the neural canal. Their vertical axes
are oblique, 7. ¢., make less than a right angle with the long axis of the
centrum, and the articular surface of the ball is thus carried forward, on
the upper face, to much nearer the base of the neurapophyses than usual,
in the anterior vertebra nearly touching them. The ball is likewise more
convex than in any other species, having a slight central prominence in
the posterior vertebra. There is no annular groove round the ball. In
both, the articular surface of the hypapophysis is truncate and bounded
by an elevation in front, a peculiarity not observed in any of the species
already described. There is no trace of zygosphen in either. In the an-
terior vertebra the diapophyses are nearly horizontal, the posterior por-
tion slightly thickened and oblique. The anterior portion is thinned out
and very rugose above and below, and does not continue its margin into
the rim of the cup. In the second vertebra, the diapophyses are very
large, vertical and with a horizontal portion rising in a curve to join the
middle of the lateral margin of the cup. Neural spine narrowed upwards
keeled behind.

M.
Length centrum anterior vertebra..................+ 0.064
1D; ask Ba VEDULGOI Vs eR Eos. atu ev coats 03
Diameter ball t erunsvorss Tie Lier! 035
Meme Gh) OM DOSUCHIONs 4 06a (csc a el crs. ee es os es -064

: Rie a OU VOLUIGDIG Vip ccc ees cee ya eee re ene .03

Diameter ball horizontals 2. eas ees ee 043
Expanse of anterior zygapophyses: ::::.:3:..-..52.... 055

The first vertebra was found by the writer at the foot of a bluff on the
lower part of the Butte Creek ; the second was procured by Professor B.
F. Mudge from a point one mile south-east of Sheridan near the North
Fork of the Smoky River.

It is this species that I compared with the Mosasaurus depressus, Cope,
in a report on the collection made by Professor Mudge (Amer. Philos.
Soc., 1871, 168 Proceedings). The size is similar, but the form of the
articular surfaces is very different.

Liopon LATISPINUS, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1871, p. 169.

This is a large species, nearly equaling the Z. mitchellid in its dimensions.

7
1871.] 2 ‘ 7 [Cope.
that is forty or fifty feet in length. The remains representing it consist
of seven cervical and dorsal vertebree, five of them being continuous and
enclosed in a clay concretion.

These display the elongate character seen in ZL. laevis, etc., but the ar-
ticular surfaces are transversely oval, thus resembling the L. ictericus.
they are less depressed than in L. perlatus and L. dyspelor. The cup
and ball of the penultimate cervical are alittle more transverse than those
of the fourth dorsal, and none of them are excavated above by the neural
canal. The last cervical is strongly keeled on the middle line below, and
with a short obtuse hypopophysis marking the beginning of the posterior
third of the length ; the median line of the first dorsal has an obtuse ridge.
There is no keel on the fourth dorsal, but the lower surface is concave in
the antero-posterior direction. The diapophyses on the last two cervical
aud three first dorsal vertebrae have great vertical extent ; the articular
surface for the rib is not bent at right angles on the first dorsal. Neural
arches and spines are well preserved in most of the specimens. There is
no trace of zygantrum. The neural spines are flat, and have consider-
able antero-posterior extent on cervical as well as dorsal vertebre, and
are truncate above. The first dorsal bears a long strong rib.

M.
Transverse diameter cup penultimate cervical vertebra... .051
LY OLGiGMaCHAniOUGh Qu:SUINO. fe vait ly os Cin veh ic nine see 041
Length centrum fourth dorsal, without ball.............. 072
NiCUULGA CAMELTOE Dall foes Merce. hah ice ud, th isn wietee 0455
Transverse DOs Fyiepan base wpe Seen area eds Cel hae GoM -0555
Elevation front margin neural spine penultimate cervical.. .088
Antero-posterior diameter do. do. 0. .,256.:30D

There are smooth bands around the balls, and the surfaces of the centra
are striate to these.

The depressed cups of the cervicals and anterior dorsals distinguish
this species from the L. validus, L. proriger and H. mudgei. The same
elements are much larger and more elongate than in ZL. ictericus.

It differs especially from these species of Holcodus and from Liodon
curtirostris in the elongate form of the anterior dorsals ; in the latter, they
are much shorter and in three of them at least, the inferior limb of the
diapophysis is turned forwards to meet the rim of the cup, while this
feature ceases with the last cervical in L. latispinus. The articular sur-
faces have planes at right angles to the axis of the centrum and are not
prolonged above as in ZL. glandiferus. The last hypapophysis is very
short, with the anterior margin transverse and elevated as in the last
named species.

In size, this species is intermediate between such gigantic forms as L.
dyspelor, and the lesser LZ. curtirostris.

The type specimens were found by Professor B. F. Mudge, one mile
south-west of Sheridan near the ‘‘Gypsum Buttes.”

m)
Cope.] 278 [Dec. 17,

LIODON CRASSARTUS, Cope, sp. nov.

Liodon large species near L. proriger, Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.,
1871, p. 168.

This saurian, which is similar in size to the last, is represented by a
series of dorsal lumbar and caudal vertebree with some bones of the
limbs,

The vertebree are as much distinguished for their shortness, as those of
L. latispinus are for their elongation. The articular faces are but little
broader than deep, and their axes are slightly oblique. They are very
slightly truncate above by the neural canal., The inferior face is some-
what concave in the longitudinal direction. The zygapophyses are stout
and there are no distinct rudiments of zygospen.

The dorsal vertebre best preserved are those in which the diapophyses
reach the middle of the sides of the centra, and have no horizontal limb.
They are narrow and have not extensive articular extremital surfaces.

The lumbars and anterior caudals have round articular surfaces. One of
the latter with strong diapophyses but posterior, is sub-pentagonal in out-
line of cup. The humerus is a remarkable bone having the outline of
that of Clidastes propython, Cope, but is very much stouter, the antero-
posterior dimensions of the proximal extremity being greatly enlarged.
The long diameters of the two extremities are in fact nearly at right
angles, instead of in the same plane ; and the outline of the proximal is
subtriangular, one of the angles being prolonged into a strong deltoid
erest on the outer face of the bone, which extends half its length. The
inner or posterior distal angle is much produced, while the distal ex-
tremity is a flat slightly curved diamond-shaped surface. The fibula is
as broad as long and three-quarters of a disc. The phalanges are stout,

thick and depressed, thus differing much from those of Liodon iectericus.
A bone which I cannot assign any other position than that of femur
has a peculiar form. Itisastout bone, but more slender than the humerus.
The shaft is contracted and subtrilateral in section. The extremities are
flattened, expanded in directions transverse to each other, the proximal
having, however, a lesser expansion, in the plane of the distal end. The
former has, therefore, the form of an equilateral spherical triangle, the
apex enclosing a lateral fossa, and representing probably the great tro-
chanter. The distal extremity is a transverse and convex oval.

This bone is either ulna, femur, or tibia, judging by form alone. Its
‘er length as compared with the fibula, forbids its reference to the
\ the trochanter-like process of the head is exceedingly unlike any
examples of the second bone I have seen. Its reference to femur is con-
firmed by its presence with the caudal-vertebre of a similar species from
near the Missouri River, Nebraska, and its resemblance to the femur of
The dyspelor.

M.
Length HtHMOLUS TY Corre er Anite eH tinn ye sabes 55s tae OR
Proximal diameter do...... Ce ee eit eet Ae ae 095

Distal i (Oy ach vig ae natirnd #4 oc Tis wads po aa 0 Gee 102

|

A

1871.]
Length femur..... iw dei, eevee 1 as oes vas
Proximal diameter dO. ie igs cos ess oe eee ctu c est
Median i ns ee
Length centrum dorsal vertebra without
Transverse diameter cup.............--
Vertical < eek ea
Length of a lumbar (total)..............--
Diameter ball do (transverse).....
Length caudal........---.--

Dept ball Go, io ee ee.

Width d6, Go... 2.04... beets
The form of the humerus is something like that of Ichthyosaurus.
Both this element and the femur are remarkable for their small
of the elements of' the anterior

They are scarcely half the dimensions

limb of Holcodus ictericus, and are even less than those of L. dyspelor in
proportion to the animal’s size.

It is unnecessary to compare this species with any but the Liodon pro-
riger. Of this species, I unfortunately do not possess any of the limb

rison on vertebree alone. The type spcci-

bones, and must rely for comp:

men lacks the dorsals, hence the caudals alone remain for comparison.

This shows that they are three or four times as large as the same propor-
y So <

tions of the Z. crassartus. In a smaller specimen of L. proriger, the

dorsals are preserved, but so crushed as to be little available for measure-
ments. One point besides the greater size is noticeable, their generally
more elongate form, and the distinct superior emargination for the neural
canal.

The remains above described were obtained by Professer

B. F. Mudge,
near Eagle tail, in Colorado, a few miles west of the line separating that
Territory from the State of Kansas.

A series of twenty-nine caudal vertebrae with and without diapophyses,

from a bluff on Butte Creek belongs perhaps to this species. The proxi-

mal specimens at least, cannot be distinguished from those of -
Mudge’s collection. ‘The distal ones cannot readily be distinguisicd from
the terminal ones of L. proriger.
LIODON PRORIGER, Cope.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1869, 123. Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., 1870; 202.

This isthe most abundant of the large species of the Kansas chalk.
The writer found a muzzle consisting of premaxillary, and portions of
maxillary and dentary bones, ina spur of the lower blufts of Butte Creek,
and numerous fragments of cranium and vertebra on a denuded tract in
the same neighborhood. Both of these belonged to individuals of smaller
size than the type, the opportunity of examining which I owe to Professor
Agassiz. The more complete Butte Creek specimen belongs to a huge
animal; the size is grandly displayed by a complete premaxillary bone
with its projecting snout, and large fragments of the maxillary. These

Cope.] 280 [Dec. 17,
furnish characters confirmatory of those already given as above. The
vertebre are remarkable examples of flattening under pressure, without
fracture, some of them having a vertical diameter no greater than one’s
hand. The cervicals are less flattened and give the impression that they
were not transversely elliptic. This is consistent with our knowledge of
the perfect specimen, where it is as described, furnished with vertically
ovate articular surfaces. In this the cup is symmetrical and not distorted,
but the ball is a little compressed by pressure,

The most important addition to the knowledge of this species, furnished
by the Butte Creek specimen, is the character of the quadrate bone.
The external longitudinal angular ridge is very prominent and extends
to the distal end. It supports a hook-like prolongation of the proximal
articular surface, almost as large a one as in Clidastes propython and more
narrowed. The ridge is so prominent as to create a wider face or surface,
behind the basis of the great ala than exists between the latter and the
edge of the articular meatus. This basis is quite convex outward and
embraces a relatively smaller space than in other Pythonomorpha. A
section of the bone at the meatus is subtrilateral with a notch behind.
The distal articular surface is prolonged below the origin of the great ala,
and receives the keeled termination of the external ridge.

M.
Total length quadrate.........5.e eee eee eee eee eee ee 0.153
Length from superior to inferior origin of great ala........ 08
Length external angle from bases of ala............ egret 052

The two usual ridges pass inward and downwards from the meatal
knob.

The above quadrates are flattened from within outwardly by pressure.

A portion of the palatine bone, supporting these teeth, displays the
characters of the type, viz.: the inner face vertical and deeper than the
outer, and forming a strong parapet of bone on the superior or toothless
aspect. The outer face a little expanded laterally : the bases of the teeth
exposed.

It is proper to add, that the locality ascribed to the type specimen
‘“‘near Fort Hays, Kansas,’’? which was given me on inquiry, is probably
erroneous, Fort Wallace being the point intended.

LiopON DyYSPELOR, Cope.

Proced. Amer. Philos, Soc., 1870, 574; 1871, 168, 172.

This large reptile was first described from specimens sent to the Smith-
sonian Institution from New Mexico. Professor Mudge subsequently ob-
tained it in Kansas, and on my late expedition I had the good fortune to
procure a large portion of another, on a sloping bluff on Butte Creek,
fourteen miles south of Fort Wallace. This specimen is one of the most
instructive which has yet bean discovered, including as it does fifty verte-
bre from all parts of the column, a large part of the cranium with teeth
and both quadrate bones; the scapular arch complete, except lack of
coracoid on one side, both humeri, radius and numerous phalanges of

a

9
4871. ] 281 [Cope.

fore limb ; the pelvic arch complete with one hind limb complete to tar-
sus, with phalanges. The premaxillary is wanting, but the adjacent
suture of the maxillary remains.

The fronto-nasal septum is convex in transverse section. The mazil-
lary bone is much attenuated anteriorly, and supports thirteen teeth.
The ramus mandibult is high and slender; the angle is quite produced,
and the median articulation indicates considerable mobility. The pala-
tine bones are narrower than in any of the species previously described.
They are deeply notched for union with the pterygoids, and the superior
posterior process terminates inan acute cone. In front of the articulation,
the bone is a vertical plate slightly concave on the inner side ; the ante-

rior half is subquadrate in section, the outer face subvertical, the inner,
regularly rounded. The inferior surface is marked with a groove which

passes from the inner side to the outer. The portion on the outer side of
this groove, is on the distal third of the bone produced downwards into a
prominent keel or ridge. The anterior extremity is an acute point. Each
bone bears eleven teeth, all of which have the external faces of their roots
exposed. The bones are curved outwardly from the fourth tooth from
behind ; opposite the sixth there is longitudinal concavity on the inner
face.

The occipital region and suspensoria are not present, but both, quadrates
were found perfectly preserved excepting the thin ala. They present
marked characters, being most nearly allied to those of L. proriger and L.
validus. The proximal articular surface exhibits an obliquity in the
transverse direction. It presents a large external angle which instead of
being nearly at right angles to the axis of the main portion of the surface,
is nearly in the same line. The decurved posterior hook is very short.
The distal articular surface has, like that of other Liodons, a small trans-
verse extent, and is divided by a concavity into two tuberosities. The
outer of these receives at its angle the prominent narrow portion of the

external ridge, which extends from the external proximal angle. The

prominence of this ridge is greater than in any other species except Z
proriger ; it is acute throughout its length and has a gentle sigmoid flex-
ure. The basis of the great ala includes a smaller area than usual and is
continuous with a prominent narrow ridge which proceeds from inside the
metal crest. The metal crest takes the place of the “knob” in such
Mesasauri as M. dekayi, it projects strongly backwards and outwards as
an angle of two ridges ; the inferior being acute and curved and termina-
ting above the middle of the distal condyles. The meatal pit is not con-
cealed between ridges, but is external ; its form is peculiar, being a nar-
row oval, three times as long as wide, directed downwards and forwards.
Thus the characters of this element are well marked among those per-

taining to the other species.

The teeth are not much compressed, and have a cutting angle on the an-
terior and posterior margins, which separate nearly equal faces.
The vertebral centra change in form from the anterior to the posterior

A. P. §.—VOL. XII—2J.

282
Cope.] [Dee. 17,
regions. The ball of the axis is round, those of the vertebrae early suc-
ceeding are moderately depressed. The balls of the dorsals are transverse
elliptic with a slight concavity for the neural canal ; the plane a little ob-
lique to that of the long axis, The centra are more depressed posteriorly
where the balls of the dorsals present rounded lateral angles. On the lum-
bars preceding the caudals, the base of the neural canal becomes more
elevated, and the articular faces assume a slightly pentagonal outline.
This form continues as far as our specimens of caudals extend. On three
lumbars, the centra present two longitudinal angular ridges below, at
whose posterior ends the chevron articular surfaces appear on the first
caudals, All present an incised marginal groove to the ball. The sur-
face, especially the inferior, is strongly rugose up to this groove, espe-
cially on the dorsals.

The aais is much shorter than in any other species here noted, where
known. The neural spine has a very oblique superior margin and is ex-
panded behind. The diapophyses are narrow, and continued as vertical
plates to the inferior face of the centrum at its anterior margin. The
diapophyses of the other cervicals have the usual horizontal limb, which
is, however, shorter than the vertical. In the anterior dorsals, they are
directed more obliquely upwards and are longer. These, and all other
dorsals, maintain a connection between the rim of the cup, and the
anterior basis of the diapophysis by a smooth area apparently capped
by cartilage in life, as exists in L. cwrtirostris. As we pass posteriorly
these processes descend, and become narrower, until finally they thin out
and lengthen into the ribless diapophysis of the lumbars. Those of the
caudals are long and subcylindric. Their extremities are deeply striate
grooved. The neural spines of all the vertebre are longitudinaly striate
keeled, The zygapophyses are remarkable for their narrow form and
surfaces. The atlas is shorter on the outer, and longer on the inner face
than in L. validus. This is caused by the fact that the posterior articu-
lar face is not transverse, but very oblique, and instead of being vertical
and narrow, is obliquely longitudinal in its long axis. It is separated
from the inner face by a wide rugose groove behind ; its lower edge sends
a keel downwards. There is no process at the thinned infero-anterior
angle.

The scapular arch was small especially the scapula, which is absolutely
smaller than that of the Holcodus tetericus, a very much smaller reptile.
The posterior margin is thickened, the anterior thinner, and less elevated.
The superior is arched upwards and backwards. The general form is less
oblique than in Z. detericus. The coracoid is twice as large, and is flat
and thin. Its inner margin is regularly convex, the posterior concave
and thin, the anterior thickened. The foramen is present.

The humerus is different in form from that observed in LZ. erassartus, L-
ictertous, Clidastes, etc. It is relatively less expanded proximally and
especially distally ; there is but one deltoid crest, which is proximal and
near one extremity of the articular surface, and disappears into the gene-

1871.] 283 (Cope.

ral plane above the middle of the shaft. The general form is flat, partly
due to pressure. The distal extremity is but little convex and displays
the terminal muscular insertions but little produced. Near the inferior
end there is one external expansion for articulation with the ulna.

The radius is lost. The ulna, or a bone which is like that regarded as
such in several species described by me, has the extremities in different
planes which cross each other obliquely. The proximal is triangular and
very wide, too wide for the humeri in their present state. It is also too
long, leaving but little space for a radius, The distal extremity is as ex-
panded, but much narrower, and presents too articular surfaces, a large
and wide, and a narrow, connected by a wide isthmus. The bone was
taken out near a humerus, but not in position.

The pelvic arch, as above remarked, was found perfect, and with all the
elements in place, with a femur with the head in relation to the acetab-
ulum. The articular extremities are somewhat depressed and do not
precisely fit. The déwm is a straight flattened bone, dilated moderately
at the articular extremity. It is coarsely rugose striate at both extremi-
ties. The dschium is a longer bone than the ilium, is more slender, and
more expanded at the articular extremity, where it is also thickened.
The shaft is curved so as to be sub-horizontal in position ; it shows no
trace of union with its mate. The pudis is a broader bone, with the axis
transverse to that of the body, and sigmoidally curved, first slightly for-
ward then gently backwards. The common suture is about as wide as
the proximal extremity. The posterior margin is somewhat thickened ;
the anterior is produced into a process directed forwards, which is the
homologue of that seen in the Testudinata. Itis connected with the
distal end by a thin concave margin.

The femur is rather more slender than the humerus; the distal ex-
tremity is about as much dilated, the head less so. The great trochanter
is a thick convex ridge with a truncate discoidal articular extremity,
which is nearly separated from the head by a groove. Both extremities
are moderately convex. The jidula is similar to that of other species in
its broad, three-quarters discoidal form. Both articular surfaces are
strongly convex and are continued on the inner side on the thinned inner
border. The external margin is thickened and deeply concave, and with-
out tuberosity. The tibia isa more slender element with sub-cylindric
shaft and much expanded extremities, The proximal is oval and is con-
tinued as a narrow ridge on the inner side, for contact with the corre-
sponding ridge of the fibula. The distal extremity is an equilateral
spherical triangle, of which the inner angle is on a different plane from
the remainder,

The phalanges are slender with cylindric shafts and expanded extremi-
ties, which support oval articular surfaces. Those of the two extremities
appear to be similar. The distal ones are extremely small and flat, with.
expanded extremities,

Of doubiful bones may be mentioned two with flat expanded distal ex-
tremity and thick proximal, bearing an oval articular surface, with an

Cope. ] 284 [Dec. 17,
angulate extremity which terminates in a thin edge. ‘The form is like
that of a narrowed radius of ZL. ¢etericus, but it is much too short for the
ulna, As it was found with the scapula, it is probably a portion of the
fore limb, and hence may be a metacarpal. A somewhat similar but
narrower bone may be metatarsal. A piece which is probably the free
hypopophysis of the atlas, is a transversely elliptic piece with an oblique
smooth articular face at one end. The posterior face rugose, the inferior
with a flat truncate process directed downwards and backwards. If cor-
rectly identified, its great peculiarity consists in its thinness anteropos-
teriorly, and the large process.

In comparing this species with the L. proriger, its nearest ally, I have
already observed the difference in the form of the articular surfaces of
the cervical vertebre, which is in that species vertically oval; the present,
transversely so. The comparison is made between posterior cervicals of
both, which in L. dyspelor are less depressed than the others. As it is
possible that the form in the type example of L. proriger may be slightly
affected by pressure, I compare other points. Thus the palatine bones
are more slender anteriorly, and the outer edge descends lowest in a
ridge ; in L. proriger inner is produced downwards as a longitudinal rib.
In this species there are eleven teeth; in that one, nine. The quadrate
bone of L. proriger presents a longer external angle, and more prominent
external ridge, with smaller space enclosed by the bases of the greater
ala. My statement in a published letter to Professor Lesley, that the ends
of the mandibles were acute, thus differing from LZ. proriger, is an error,
due to my having mistaken the palatines for the dentaries on a cursory
examination in the field. The posterior extremity of these bones in ZL.
proriger is unknown.

The only species whose dorsal vertebrae are known to resemble in the
stoutness of their form those of Z. dyspelor, is L. crassartus ; the mani-
fold differences of the latter will be at once discovered on reading the
description already given.

Measurements.

M.
Atlas length inner articularface:.isc7vitiis eee deve eee 0.065
he reo posterior: ** LOA AE atleast Geena ae 054
“a. depul es ‘4 io Sinese ne ciel a. s eardieys 037
Amie length at middle of Sida) wwixies. iatiageves sori. t 075
i QOpul AUteriOrly? sce is eel vid t ae eee artes ak O81
‘Oselevation NGural Spine ss 68. ci cae ee ec. 075
“* width & £60: (DIAN) eile de dite Mayan eh 2 045,

a Acie Ln a IAS
Cale ee ten ee cane

pe LOTBOMD ees Pisce cui UN Cnc he CET Reece sea 09
Rios doug ‘ ’ VOUUICH 6 Oe cds ees ea 065
nterior dorsal, diameter ball { Horizontal: 7s ees. 3 foe ST

285

1871.) vee [Cope. i
Measurements. M. |
Anterior dorsal, length below (with ball)..............+5- 10 |
. sf eC Id POD UY SISe* ou Vata. ccc eee: 047
x A depth tere a es Sees Cae eet Ss 04
Posterior ‘ length centrum. ......--.sseeteeeceeeeees © 097
ion we Glam ball Corigontal 2s 402 0G0.- AOS
,y = te height neural spine (of another).......... AZ
| Lumbar length centrum. .... 0.0.2... ese cece eee eee e eee « 09
“i Giamater Dell Noricontals vce ffcsccecesessee OO.
Jength diapophysis.......... 050s sce c eee c eee ce eee .096
Caudal (anterior) length centrum..............eeee reece 078
| WOMZOnUal eos th ieee tt ees ore 085 '
! eee | vatican a smeWeel.. 075
vhs <3 length diapophysis...........0seseeeeceee she
| ‘So(posterior): %'» GOMELUMs ci sav esee es ee Sa .067
| cs ee tts GIA POPU YVSIss: tes boss es recs bso cle .10
| Caudal (posterior) height neural spine.............+.++04- .087
| “ ——@iameter ball { Fovizontal sss scssccses 08
MGIUIATY ONS, WON 04 6.5 sis os cone sich ws erie er en's «cn 65
\ 5 he length basis of two teeth (largest).............. » 09
4 Mandible, depth behind cotylus.............cesseeesseees AL i
a length *° mee a eee ee nt Meet ae af i
| WAGtH HASH) RODEO coe hei Vis lv eas one eee newie ct 021 |
: lienoth palatine OM TOO HE 2... 6. ee ie eee .38
Depth ee ab Ube OOud 2fOl IPOluy.. ea sacs ee te 039
Quadiupe IGNOU 8 se ace oo oe re Cue ec vee ens 15 '
oe Fe OSUOMMG) AMVIOL. 6. caw cence teste ce coeeuse 029 |
re width face from meatus to external ridge........ . 029 |
- ‘fared Ob DASIS Of Ud... Secs sci ee csv e ees 04 |
- Wey Bb GONUYVICSi 1 i. 5 ees eae srs Se seers e es 0 i
Scapula, height (axial). ..........-. 0.0. sees ee reeset oee 12
OU POMC. yc 68 os ce CON se os bee urate citne ces 183 ]
OUnCbId ce ene .187 |
VOMOTH. Oo eee eee ee oe +20 |
< ICONS du COUVLUS 6667545 con tec Ce sees ee 027 |
Pirimoerid: lOWg thas s sc secre ee Sete eens ee ee tele 189
A DYOmUMal WIdUN .- <6 fie. sea Bien ss 12
ce distal sbi etn ou Ae cae A ane AR ae ura ae ALPre |
ite, Wa ATR, TI 179 :
tne MMe haman ae ee eles dee ae
. HIGOSS PLOMIINOllys veers ses Vee. se ere aes 06 |
iii; WeHa EH Pe a eee 245 |
Ee Ailinbalrecn oa occu tivciccn een eae
|

286

Cope.) [Dece. 17, 1871.
isch, length Ol Curve-. Ai vi oes es ss Nee aat ee soa ee 7000
aes MONE Tepe gioco. visi ar cst HE
Pubis,. letigth: (straight) ..0.....: ss). CGI i a ee hen 1/3,
a *o.. UO SMGOTLOL DYOCESH:(fxtih). siesyuwes ss . eats 125
ee bh fomarniottar re) See eatin
Benin length. (ss etyew. te) eres S ei tere A vereatay LOD
(Proximal... ......seseee ees ian weeeecees 6098
fc WAG SOMCCIAT ye oo is seen pense 2 ay 064
_ COE i iecceminene 130
Fibula, length 116
ale -4 ape, oe elon ats oN cn teen Neier
oe PLORIMAL UMIGKNOSS: i #.. aso pene eee: poe 052
- MAGUIM WICULe totes ste es ts Gcaret iw e eee, (US
Mapa, LONG, ses is os vos ERS A eters ep erne 103
( Wr ORUINGU TH 0 51 tos afi dew eee SN diet bh ane on es 045
a WAGUE S MOCIaN ys cs baa ves rte EOS. AE ae 025
ddietab cc eae . 4052
tf, Htclenea | Reales ccs cudsectee ecesderess. 5.08)
ialanse (posterior); lemma waiviess te veces tie. cs 08
terminal ert cea ee ec ekens 015
Estimated length, cranium (five feet). i... cece cece 1.510
ee COUAl LONOUNN are ola ok TAR ee eeu %5 feet.

This specimen does not appear to be quite as large as the type, which
came from Fort McRae, New Mexico. The diameters of the vertebral
centra appear to be larger in proportion to the length of the cranium than
in the Mosasaurus dekayt, hence probably the body had a greater diame-
ter. In estimating its length, reference is had to the relations in size of
the caudal vertebra of the type of L. proriger and to the caudal series of
a small Liodon found on the bluffs of Butte Creek. The caudal vertebrae
are quite similar to those of the former ; in the latter, a series of thirty
centra exhibit very little diminution in size. On such a basis the length
would be about seventy-five feet.

Portions of a second individual of this species or of L. proriger, were
found on Fox Cafion. They belonged to a larger animal, one equal to
the New Mexican first described. Professor Mudge has fragments of still
larger specimens.

The principal specimens above described was excavated from a chalk
bluff. Fragments of the jaws were seen lying on the slope, and other
portions entered the shale. On being followed, a part of the cranium was
taken from beneath the roots of a bush, and the vertebra and limb bones
were found further in. The vertebral series extended parallel with the
outcrop of the beds, and finally turned into the hill and was followed so
far as time would permit. It was abandoned at the anterior caudal ver-
tebre, for more favorable circumstances, or amore persevering excavator-

ian

i

287

The outcrop of the stratum was light yellow. The concealed part of
the bed was bluish. Yellow chalk left on the specimens in thin layers
became white or nearly so. The yellow and blue strata are definitely re-
lated in most localities, the former being the superior, but in others they
passed into each other on the same horizon.

Stated Meeting, January 5th, 1872.
Present 14 members.
Joun ©. Cresson, Vice-President, in the chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from Professor
Lewis Strohmeyer, Dec. 8th, 1870 (81,82, Proc. A.P.S.), Boston
Public Library, Dec. 19, 1871, R. Saxon Society, Feb. 8, and
July 8, 1871 (84, 85, Trans., Vol. XTV.,, i. ii.), Natural History
Society, Bremen, Aug. 29, 1871 (83, 84, 85) Professor Fre-
richs, Feb. 8, 1871 (83, 84, 85), R. Bavarian Academy, Sept.
18, 1871 (83, 84, 85, XIV., i. ii), R. Observatory, Munich,
Aug. 14, 1871 (83, 84, 85), Imperial Russian P. C. Observa-
tory, March 18, 1871 (62, 73, 74, 78, 81, 82, Trans. Vols. I. to
IX., and XIIL,, iii.), Bordeaux Society of Sciences, Nov. 16,
1871 (82 to 85), R. Academy, Berlin, Aug. 9, 1871 (83, 84,
85, XII. i, XIV. i. ii.), Imperial Observatory, Prag., Aug. 16,
1871 (83, 84, 85, XIV. i. 11.)

Letters of envoy were received from the Chief of U.S. En-
gineers, Washington, Dec. 21, 1871, and from the Imperial]
P. ©. Observatory, St. Petersburg, Aug. 16, 1871.

Donations for the Library were announced from the pub-
lishers of the Flora Batava, and Dr. Schotel, P. C. Observa-
tory, St. Petersburg, Academy and Observatory at Munich,
Societies at Bonn and Bordeaux, Geographical Society and
School of Mines at Paris, Mr. Stephenson, M. P. Newcastle-
on-Tyne, London Nature, R. Astronomical Society,the Natural
History Society at Bagota, 8. A.,the Massachusetts Historical
Society, Boston Library, Old and New, Silliman’s Journal,

288

Chief of U. 8. Corps of Engineers and Colonel Williamson,
the U. 8. Coast Survey, Dr. Genth, Dr. Hayden, Mr. Thos.
Tennant of San Francisco and Mr. Stephen Olney of Provi-
dence, R. I.

Mr. Chase for the Committee on the Paper on Knights’
Tours, reported progress.

The death of Robert §. Breckinridge, a member of this
Society, at Danville, Ky., on the 26th Dec., 1871, aged 71
years, was announced by the Secretary.

The death of Professor Franz Bopp at Berlin, was an-
nounced by letter.

Mr. Eli K. Price read a paper on some Phases of Modern
Philosophy, the discussion following which was postponed to
the next meeting.

The Chairman of the Finance Committee presented its
Annual Report, and, on motion, the appropriations recom-
mended therein for the ensuing year were passed.

Mr. Lesley was nominated Librarian for the ensuing year.

Pending nominations 679 to 688, and new nomination No.
689 were read.

The Reports of the Judges and Clerks of the Annual Elec-
tion was read, and the following named persons were reported
officers for the ensuing year

President, George B. Wood.

Vice-Presidents, John ©. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick
Fraley.

Secretaries, Charles B. Trego, E. O. Kendall, John L. Le
Conte, J. P. Lesley.

Curators, Joseph Carson, Elias Durand, Hector Tyndale

Councillors t to serve three years, Daniel R. Goodwin, Eli K.
Price, W.S. W. Rushenberger, Henry Winsor.

And the meeting was adjourned.

nig la

mie

Jan. 5, 1872.] [Price.

SOME PHASES OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY.
By Exi K. PRICE.
(Read before the American Philosophie Society, January 5th, 1872.)

“‘T am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls.’”’ So Job was
constrained to say in the hour of his great afflictions : so others now say
induced only by speculative philosophy.

The tendency of much of the modern natural and physical philosophy
is to degrade our humanity, and to dispense with the belief of a Creator.
Delvers in a special field are not content to exhibit what they find for the
use of those who are farther advanced and prepared to take a broader
survey from a more elevated height; but they theorize and make their
inductions from facts too few and inadequate for the conclusions drawn.
The result cannot be truth, but error. Theories so built are raised to be
quickly thrown down. They are the least fit to survive in the struggles
of science.

All carefully observed and true facts philosophy must receive and
register for her legitimate uses. But if philosophers be not certain of the
truth of facts, and have not all that are requisite for truthful conclusions,
they violate the fundamental canon of philosophizing : they necessarily
land in error, and bring reproach and ridicule upon philosophers and
philosophy. Much labor and expense of printing are wasted, while stu-
dents are misled, science is obstructed, and it is made necessary for the
lovers of truth in the next to correct the errors of this generation.

I. The first subject to which I would now ask your attention is that of
Spontaneous Generation. Dr. Erasmus Darwin had, at the close of the
last century, ascribed to Nature the power of spontaneous generation ;
and thus concludes :

‘“‘ Hence, without parent, by spontaneous birth,
Rise the first specs of animated earth ;
From Nature’s womb the plant or insect swims,
And buds or breathes, with microscopic limbs.”
[The Temple of Nature}.
‘Organic life beneath the shoreless waves
Was born, and nurs’d in Ocean’s pearly caves.” —[ Ibid].

But he had the imagination of the poet; and his imagination some-
times assumed his facts.

There is a present effort to go a step further, and prove that life can
be produced by man from matter, without propagation from other life ;
and if you add to this the theory of evolution, by which all complicated
life is derived from first simple forms, we have two theories, which, taken
together, will account for all life, without a Creator. There are, however,
certain things, like perpetual motion, so contrary to nature, as not to be
credible, The fact of spontaneous generation has not yet been satisfac-

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torily proved; and, it is believed by those best enabled to form a correct
opinion, will never be proved. The life produced by the experimenter
is, no doubt, but a process of developing seeds or spores, or of hatching
eggs, that exist invisibly in the atmosphere, and within the tube used in
the experiment, and from which they had not been perfectly expelled.
And well it is that life is not, and cannot be, spontaneous, for, if noxious,
and no law of reproduction restrained the increase, there could then be
no hope of its effectual extermination ; but, if depending upon parental
production, when you destroy the parents, you destroy the pestiferous
succession. This was the basis of the confidence of Pasteur in his suc-
cessful researches and efforts to find out and destroy the parasite that
destroyed the silk-worms in France.

It is also the hope of mankind to escape contagious diseases, that pro-
ceed from germs that ever re-produce the same disease, be it small-pox,
scarlet fever, or cholera, or other plague, for the spread of which the cor-
rupted air becomes the fitting propagating medium.

If new generation were possible, there would result confusion ; it should
be bound by no rule if not produced in the course of nature ; there could
never then be scientific classification into genera and species, and all order
and harmony would become impossible. It is a necessary ordination of
the Author of nature that generation should come from a living parent-
age, and that parents should ever produce their like. Such we know to
be nature’s procedure. Such process must proceed by law, that the pro-
geny shall be like their parents, and of different sexes, and such law and
such sure observance of law, imply an intelligent Creator, who never
ceases to watch over his creation. Life has been on the earth in countless
forms, and in infinite multitudes, through nearly all the geological forma-
tions from water deposition, and ever since; but none of that life has
been thought to be spontaneous, except in the imagination of the poet, or
of the fanciful theorist. All except the first of each kind, for which we
infer a Creator, came by generation, from parental germs and ova, as we
must believe from observation; or by fission, which but subdivides life
and thereby multiplies it. It is, however, now announced in this age of
great discoveries that man can produce life where no life was.

Dr. Bastian has made numerous experiments and written a book on
‘‘The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms,’’ and believes that he has
produced them de novo, ‘‘independently of pre-existing living matter.”’
But his book makes necessary admissions that must go far, if not quite,
to destroy his theory. All the living organisms which he produced had
been before known as existing in the course of nature, and had been
named, They are called Bacteria, Torule, Vibrones, Leptothria. But
why were these, and but these, produced, unless they had a parentage
through germs containing life? Why not something new? Certainly
these were not new creations of life, but something re-produced that had
before their given law; and it is easier for the scientific mind to believe
that the parental germs had not been removed by the experimenter, than
that he had witnessed a new production of life. This view is well con-

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firmed by this statement of the author: ‘‘Bacterta, Torule, or other living
things which may have been evolved de novo, when so evolved, multiply
and reproduce just as freely as organisms that have been derived from
parents,”’ p. 8. Now what living thing or creature in all nature ever
has propagated, or can propagate its kind, except it has inherited that
power from a living parent? From the beginning it has been that the
grass, or herb, and fruit tree, ‘‘whose seed is in itself,” has yielded
“fruit after his kind ;’’? and the living creatures have ‘brought forth
abundantly after their kind,’’ and only so have they replenished the earth.

Professor Tyndall’s article ‘‘ Dust and Disease,’’ is commended to the
student who would learn how all pervading in the air of London are the
seeds of life and of disease. (Fragments of Science, 277.)—Stating the
result of experiments, he says, ‘‘The whole of the visible particles float-
ing in the air of London rooms being thus proved to be of organic origin.”’
(p. 279,) ‘The air of our London rooms is loaded with this organic dust. ;
nor is the country air free from its presence.”’ (p. 285.) And hence, no
doubt, the ova were hatched by Dr. Bastian, or the germs made to grow.

Sir William Thomson in his recent address, as President of the British
Association, (Nature, August 8, 1871,) adds his authority to that of the
opponents of spontaneous generation. ‘‘Science brings a vast mass of
inductive evidence against this hypothesis of spontaneous generation, as
you have heard from my predecessor, (Professor Huxley, ) in the presiden-
tial chair. Careful enough scrutiny has, in every case, up to the present
day, discovered life as antecedent to life. Dead matter cannot become
living without coming under the influence of matter previously alive.
This seems to me as sure a teaching of science as the law of gravitation.”
* * ® “T confess to being deeply impressed by the evidence put before
us by Professor Huxley, and I am ready to adopt, as an article of scien-
tific faith, true through all space and all time, that life proceeds from
life, and nothing but life.’?. Yet he, so true and wise in this induction,
did not close that same address without falling into an egregious blunder,
eliciting instant dissent and derisive laughter, followed by the universal
condemnation of the scientific press. He too would dispense with a
Creator, at least, on this planet, for he made the suggestion that the first
life came to our world by a falling Aerolite, though it came fused by heat !
But that was only to transfer creation to another planet. This suggestion
of course committed the learned President to the extremes of the evolu-
tionary theory, was to say that from such life as could be borne hither by
an aerolite all other life on earth has come and been developed upwards
to man. Of this theory let us next speak, but first pausing to declare
our faith that life came only from God, and by Him alone is ever protected
and preserved.

II. The theory of evolution as announced, seems to have been carried
to an extravagant extreme. Its agencies are chiefly two: natural selec-
tion, and sexual selection. The life that is best fitted to endure will live
the longest ; and the weakest will soonest perish ; and that which man
takes best care of and most propagates is most likely to live in perpetuity,

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while that which he destroys, because hurtful, is most likely to perish ;

and this is natural selection, and to a limited extent, it is obvious to all.
The sexual selection is that which the male or female makes when mating.
The latter influence can have no place in the vegetable kingdom, for in
it there is no will to exert selection ; and there is very little of it, indeed,
below man in the animal kingdom ; for what female is there in it, unre-
strained by man that finds not her sufficing mate, be she beautiful or
plain? Nature is not checked in her purpose of multiplication, when
free, for want of masculine co-operation, for it superabounds. The seeds
of life are always superabundant. All the fanciful writing upon this
subject, the motives for the mating of birds and quadrupeds, by the
attractions of symmetry and beauty of plumage or color, seem quite unim-
portant : where all mate sexual selection effects nothing. The real check
to increase comes from want of food, severity of climate, disease, and
enemies, which spare not symmetry or beauty, and not from any failure
to be selected.

Nothing is more certain, however, than that as far as man exercises

a dominion, by the culture of plants and breeding of animals, he does
greatly increase some in numbers and quality, and he diminishes others.
Fle practices great partially. The flowers and fruits, and vegetables and
grains that best please and nourish him, he will most cultivate, and
destroy all things that most obstruct their growth. The birds, fowls and
animals that are most useful and please him best, he also breeds and
greatly multiplies, and he destroys their enemies. The cattle on a thous-
and hills are justly for its use, because they are bred and fed by himself
to do his labor and be his food ; and his care and skill make it sure that
they shall be the best fitted for his purposes. And this is also called
natural selection ; although it is the result of man’s skill exerted upon
nature and the laws that govern nature. Its effect is great, but is not
unlimited, and is subject to reversal when man ceases to exert his care
and skill.

There is truly a law of nature in propagation, that each species, and’
each pair of individuals shall produce a progeny like themselves. Man
selects the parental pairs of the qualities he desires, and his hopes are
seldom disappointed. He repeats the process until he arrives at the
highest perfection in view that is attainable ; hence our fleet race horses,
our strong draught horses ; and also our finest breeds of cattle and sheep,
selected with a view to their qualities for milking, clip of wool, or beef,
or mutton. Thus the wild animals are inestimately improved! And so
with these and other purposes, and the large indulgence of a capricious
fancy, have pigeons, poultry and dogs been improved, or greatly changed
in their varieties, until it is made a question whether such variations have
not been carried to the length of making new species. The success of
such proceeding has been made the basis of a theory so extreme, that it
at once threatens to destroy the classifications of science, and the religious
faiths of mankind. ‘

It is, indeed, also true, that the like inheritable qualities exist in the

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human species, and if men and women were as eareful in mating, as men
are when breeding their horses, cattle, sheep and pigs, to consider whethe1
those they select are well endowed with bodily and mental perfections,
the physical and moral qualities of families might also be alike improved ;
though the unattractive among mankind would still not be disappointed
in the opportunity of mating, if they have the means of livelihood or
the ability to win it ; the want of which constitutes the most serious check
to matrimony and the increase of population. But mankind are neither
so careful in selecting what shall be the qualities of the father or mother
of their children, as farmers are of the pedigree of their stock ; nor are
men or women so careful of their own training and feeding, and the preser-
vation of their health and beauty by temperance and exercise, so that they
are more derelict in duty to themselves than to their animals, and the
race has not been improved as it should have been. Yet, it may well be
questioned whether the human race is improved in the aggregate by sexual
selection, since generally men and women do marry, and since the women
who fail to marry from the absence of personal attraction, are probably

outnumbered by those whose personal attractions, combined with their

moral weakness, causes them to become the victims of ‘the social evil,”’
of which sterility is one of the retributions. Yet the race, is undergoing
a constant physical and. moral improvement; but it proceeds from
Christian civilization ; a civilization that does believe in an ever-living
watchful Creator, and that would suffer terrible relapse, if that belief were
lost. This is said on the proof of boundless facts.

If we consider the conditions of all life as found in nature, before man
began to reduce it to his dominion, and the methods of his procedure and
its results, just as the evolutionists have described, we shall be able to
value their scientific significance, and to test the truth of the theory
raised upon the narrated facts. Darwin in selecting his illustrations says,
as to dogs and their various breeds, ‘that some small part of the difference
is due to their having descended from distinct species ;’’ “In regard to
sheep and goats I can form no decided opinion.”” The humped Indian
cattle have a different origin from the European cattle, which are supposed
“to have had two or three wild progenitors.’’ With respect to horses he
says, ‘I am doubtfully inclined to believe, in opposition to several authors,
that all the races belong to the same species.’’ As to fowls, ‘it appears
to me almost certain that all are descendants of the wild Indian fowl.”
As to ducks and rabbits, ‘‘the evidence is clear that they are all descended
from the common wild duck and rabbit.’’ ‘‘Great as the differences are
between the breeds of pigeons, I am fully convinced that the common
opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all are descended from the
rock pigeons.’’—Darwin on Origin of Species, p. 30 to 35. Now what
is the import of this? First, that by nature, or the Cause of nature, when
or wherever mau has not interfered to modify, the demarcations of species
have been well and persistently defined. Through all the geological ages
and downward to the time present, the operations of nature, when let
alone were and are simple and true, without tendency to variations, or

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acting under a power that ever corrected them. The wild progenitors
were without variations; in that state new species were not formed by
process of variations ; nor was there transition by gradual change from a
lower to higher species ; nor do geology and history afford the proof of such
change, and the theory depends upon conjecture asserted against the
truth of our observations and just inferences, that nature has always
operated as we see her now do in those vast domains of ocean, mountain
and forest, that lie beyond the interference of man. With the living
ife of the oceans man can do nothing except slightly to diminish the
numbers of whales and fishes, and there the processes of nature go on
without change ; and so has it ever been in the deep recesses of forest and
mountains yet unpenetrated by man, or, if the scientific adventurer has
penetrated, it has been to leave no trace of his power there. It has been
man only that has disturbed the truthful proceedings of nature ; modified
them for his own benefit.

Again, it is to be considered that all that man has done, he must forever
continue to do, otherwise nature will re-assert her dominion, and undo
all that man had done to mar, or pervert, or perfect her works ; and she
will restore them to their pristine simplicity. This we know she is always
doing, from abundant observations; she makes hybrids unfruitful ; her
ban forbids changes that shall endure ; the seedsman and gardener ever
watch their choice crops, fruits, vegetables and esculents, and must do so,
for they know well that nature ever resumes the attempt to ‘‘cry back ;’’
that is, to return to that condition from which the skill of man has forced
her to meet his own wants, or to please his fancy. Who can reasonably
doubt that if man was to cease to be on the earth that his seeds, and es-
culents, fruits, and all domesticated animals would in process of time,
return to their natural conditions? Human care and culture and pro-
visions ceasing, the antecedent causes of nature would again come into
exclusive operation ; and by her own truthful observance of cause and
effect, the ancient condition of vegetable and animal life would be re-
stored as they were on the face of the earth. Without his stores of pro-
vision and provender and shelter, a single severe winter would cut his
before housed and sheltered vegetables and animals, by frost or starva-
tion, down to about the thirty-seventh degree of latitude ; and half the
variations that have grown up under the training hand of man might
perish at a blow. What man has achieved over living nature may, there-
fore, be considered as an artificial work of but temporary endurance. Dar-
win fully admits this when he says, ‘‘ Natural selection is a power inces-
santly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man’s feeble
efforts as the works of nature are superior to art.’? Ib. p. 70. When let
alone she elects to return to her original conditions.

Of the variation produced by selection in breeding and the better care
of animals, Darwin says, ‘‘the key is man’s power of accumulative selec-
tion: Nature gives successive variations ; man adds them up in certain
directions useful to him, In this sense he may be said to have made for
himself useful breeds.’’? Origin of Species, 40. But what does nature do

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when man does not seize upon the offered variations to make them in-
heritable, by bringing together two of different sexes with the like varia-
tions to become parents of a common like progeny, and afterwards pre-
serving only those which most strongly shew the desired variation? The
variation from one parent only would quickly fade out into the normal
character. Those having variations, Darwin says, ‘‘would during ths
first and succeeding generations cross with the ordinary form, and then
they would almost inevitably lose their abnormal character.’’ Tb. 58.
Nature, of herself, does not interpose to seize upon and continue the occa-
sionally occuring variation. She does not select a mate of like variation ;
nor does she develop it to a higher perfection by training or better feed-
ing, and make it the special centre of a favored propagation. Natural
selection, unaided by man, must, therefore be of very limited influence,
if any, towards establishing a change, whether to be called a variation or
a species ; while the change that is wrought by man, would, without his
continuing maintenance, revert to its normal condition much more rap-
idly than it was formed. Again variations left only to nature’s care,
must be such as give increase of strength, otherwise they will die out
from weakness as all monsters do, or breed out to the normal condition.
Tb. 90, 108. The varieties of pigeons have been the products of man’s
care for thousands of years ; but not one-half the eggs of the best short-
beaked tumbler-pigeons would be hatched without his aid to break the
shell. Ib. 38, 90. This shews them degenerate ; a pampered and failing
aristocracy ; who, left to themselves, in a state of nature, would quickly
die out.

And what is the result of the selection of nature even when most as-
sisted by man? Has it produced any new species? For more than three
thousand years before Christ, and ever since, there have been pigeon fan-
ciers who have taken infinite pains in their breeding. Ib. 38. Darwin
says, ‘‘the diversity of the breeds is something astonishing.”” ‘‘A score
of pigeons might be chosen, which, if shown to an ornithologist, and he
were told they were wild birds, would certainly be ranked by him as well
defined species.’’ Ib. 34. Yet are they such? Darwin says, ‘‘the hy-
brids or mongrels from all the domestic breeds of pigeons are perfectly
fertile. I can state this from my own observations, purposely made, on
the most distinct breeeds. Now it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to
bring forward one case of the hybrid offspring of two animals clearly dis-
tinct, being themselves perfectly fertile,” p. 37. Now, if there were a
possibility for nature and man together to create new species, it should
have been in the instance of the long and general experiment with pigeons.
It has at most amounted to producing varieties, in shape and exterior
plumage and appearances, while by the truest test of inter-breeding the
nature of the creature is essentially unchanged. It is probable that the
truth is the same as to dogs, horses, European cattle and fowls, except
as disparity in size has rendered the same test of inter-generation to a
large extent, impracticable. Surely, then, that law which the Creator
has so emphatically imposed upon His creation, He has not himself vio-

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lated, in carrying on all His living creation from simple to higher forms
through infinite processes of generation. He who has forbidden the con-
founding of nearly allied species, cannot be taken to have carried on the
processes of generation, in violation of the ban against the confusion of
species, and in disregard of all the classifications science has adopted from
the study of creation, only the better to describe and understand that
creation, On the contrary, it is to be taken that generation has no part
in the work of creation ; but has only her assigned duty, under regulative
laws, to propagate creatures of the same species, of two sexes, to repro-
duce a progeny like unto themselves. All that we can see and know of
creation brings us to such conclusion. To create is one thing, and to
propagate in the parental likeness another. The propagator but fulfills an
assigned instinet that is essentially imperative, except as man is self-re-
strained by over-ruling moral considerations. His function is a very
limited one. The inception of new life, its gestation and growth, and the
measure of that growth are the work of that Higher Life or Being, that
is, the Giver of all life, as we must logically infer ; for every effect must
have its adequate Cause.

The great distinctions of classes, orders, genera and species, as the
proofs stand in geology, history, monuments and living nature, have ever
remained unchanged and wnobliterated ; while variations within species,
have been permitted for obviously good uses to man. The mules that he
breeds do him good service, but mules are not permitted to breed mules.
A theory that would permit a varying generation to thwart this grand
order of life, and that would traverse all these classes, orders, genera and
species by violations of the ban we know to forbid hybrids to breed, we
may simply set down as contrary to nature and impossible, and such
theory demands the clearest and most indubitable proofs, none of which
have been adduced.

The theory is wholly illogical and inherently inconsistent with itself.
The whole drift of the theory is to make generation build up all created
life, with one or a few exceptions, without a Creator. But why any ex-
ception? Only that there shall be a starting point in life; that there
shall be an incipient generator in this mighty process. But this earliest
life must have had a Creator, and the capacity to generate life through all
kinds must have come from a Creator ; yet this theory demands none, at
the beginning, or in any stage of progression, but it obviously pro-
ceeds upon the ground that generation will suffice for all life, and that
life needs no Creator. Yet there is an overruling power, without which
generation could not proceed, without whom there would be no ban
against confusion, and without whom the required difference of sex would
not come into being in the requisite proportion. The reasonable inference
to be made is, that as a Creator was required for the first life demanded
by the Darwinian theory, and for all its processes of generation, and the
after preservation of all creatures born, the same Creator would him-
self create all the creatures that share his protection, in all their various
species, and do so as the world was prepared for them, and was of the

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temperature and had the food they required. The first creatures had a
delegated power of generation ; but nothing in nature has shown that
they had a mission to carry on creation to higher levels either of physical
structure, or moral excellence, or of intellectual power.

The whole theory is built upon chance variations from the normal
course of nature, occurring at very long intervals of time. It is, there-
fore, presumably, not the method by which the Creator has built wp erea-
tion, from one or a few of simplest forms of life, into all the elaborate
classification in which we now behold it. Thus, Darwin says, ‘Natural
selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations ;
she can never take a sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure,
though slow, steps.’’ Ib. 190. ‘New variations are very slowly formed,
for variation is a slow process, and natural selection can do nothing until
individual differences or variations occur, and until a place in the natural
polity of the country can be better filled by some modification of some
one or more of its inhabitants.’’ Ib. 171. We have seen that the help
that man can give to promote such variations is very limited, and that
what he effects would soon relapse without his continuing maintenance,
and remain but a variety, and result in no new species ; what else but na-
ture, then, when man is not co-operating, is to ‘‘take advantage of the
slight successive variations ?’? And what does she do? If but one parent
has the variation it will very soon run out in the generative process.
This Mr. Darwin readily admits, and candidly stands corrected by the
North British Review, while monster variations seldom live any length
of time. Ib. 93. Thus the aberrations of nature are so few and far be-
tween, and so soon to disappear, as to afford no adequate ground for the
change of any species, much less suffice to produce all the classes, orders,
genera, and species, into which science has arranged all living things,
from one ora few primary simple types. Nature is, indeed, slow to make
enduring changes, but quick to correct her errors. If jostled in her
processes, she does not make the imperfect product the basis of her
further work to enlarge and perfect her systems of life, that all provided
food should have its fitting consumers. Nature is ever truthful and casts
aside all her products that have been marred upon her wheel, and uses
most those which come most perfect from her hand, and thus her pro-
gress is ever steady, or is improvement towards her best standard of each.
created species, under favoring circumstances ; but is degradation where
unfavorable, or man violates the law of his well-being. This is confi-
dently said after such general survey as all who are intelligent may make,
—all who will lift up their eyes and behold the operations of all living
creation, or read the geological records,—not looking too constantly
downward with limited vision as wedded to pre-conceived theory.

Darwin admits the dearth of facts to sustain his theory, and enters into
explanations why they are not found. He says: ‘To sum up, I believe
that species come to be tolerably well-defined objects, and do not at any
ene period present an inextricable chaos of varying and intermediate
links ; first, because new varieties are very slowly formed, for variation is.

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a slow process, and natural selection can do nothing until favorable indi-
vidual differences or variations occur.’’ Ib. 171. But if all the classes,
orders and species come from one or two original and simple forms of
life, there should be everywhere and constantly found intermediate tran-
sition links, at different stages of progress towards the new species, and
presenting an inextricable chaos. This result is parried by the argument
that the process is so slow that it is not seen. The more obvious con-
clusion would seem to be that this transitional process, or “inextricable
chaos,’’ are not seen because never happening. And Darwin candidly
states (Ib. 173), ‘Here, as on other occasions, I lie under a heavy disad-
vantage, for, out of the many striking cases which I have collected, I can
give only one or two instances of transitional habits and structures in
closely allied species of the same genus, and diversified habits, either
constant or occasional, in the same species. And it seems to me that
nothing less than a long list of such cases is sufficient to lessen the diffi-
culty in any particular case like the last.’’ The difficulty was to conceive
how an insectiverous quadruped could possibly have been converted into
a flying bat. But it should seem this would occasion small difficulty to a
theorist who could believe that bats and elephants and man himself,
sprang from an ascidian, a radiate, or trilobite, or some other early sim-
ple form of life. He, in such case, becomes too carefully scrupulous for
his own theory; and he further conscientiously says (p. 198), ‘‘ we have
seen in this chapter how cautious we should be in concluding that the
most different habits of life could not graduate into each other; that a
bat for instance, could not have been formed by natural selection from
an animal which could only glide through the air.’? Let us observe his
wise caution, and doing so we must reject his theory. He gives no proofs
that justify his conclusions.

Again, Mr. Darwin is constrained to excuse geology for affording his
theory but little support. Too few fossil specimens have been obtained ;
too many creatures have perished and left no likeness in the rocks, He
says, ‘‘although geological research has undoubtedly revealed the former
existence of many links, bringing numerous forms of life much closer
together, it does not yield the infinitely many fine gradations between
past and present species required on the theory ; and this is the most
obvious of the many objections which may be urged against it.”? Ib, 415.
But he does not adequately answer this seemingly well founded objec-
tion. He excuses himself by the paucity of facts. Then it may be asked
why has the theory been propounded before adequate facts have been
gathered? Philosophy reserves the privilege of reprimanding her vota-
ries who built their theories upon insufficient facts; and truth compels
her to censure unsparingly. They are not permitted to indulge the am-
bition of theorizing before they have collected adequate materials for
their edifice. Darwin has ranged widely and observantly the realms of
nature, and we follow him interestedly ; but he seems at fault in making
his inductions from the facts he has learned ; has built on an inadequate
foundation ; has made small things important, and overlooked the full

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import of the great. If his theory were true, the facts for its support

should exist by millions, and by billions. That his researches have not

produced the facts he wanted, makes them tell more strongly against
him. If all living life, and all that has been, came from first simple forms
by slow changes, through all being up to the classes, orders, genera and

“Species that we find in existence, and to have existed through all the geo-

logical eras, then intermediate links should have been endlessly abundant,
and if but a hundredth part of the fossil kinds had been exhumed, they
should necessarily have revealed the wanted evidence ; living nature should
also have abounded in ample testimony, by endless and inextricable con-
fusion. To reach existing results, the process of change being gradual,
the transition creatures should have teemed in myriad forms, other than
is now seen in fossil or in life.

But why, if there was such immensity of transition as to account for
the astounding changes wrought ; why, if such endless variations were
started in nature casually, or by chance, without reason or motive ; how

<eame nature to act so wisely as to bring order out of confusion and chaos,

and on that order to take her stand more firmly than the mountains? In
the transitional steps towards all the forms that have existed, of every
shape and size from the little Rhizopod, Ascidian, Trilobite or Radiate,
at the bottom of the ocean, up to the whale, mastodon and man, during
an assumed necessary unimaginable length of time ; how was all life so
marshaled and placed as science now finds and arranges it, and finds it
ever resistant of all change? Intelligence and will, even then, must have
governed the proceeding and guided its purpose so that all should live
and not work confusion. That Intelligence that could do so much in
ruling nature, and could create the earliest life, surely could proceed more

-directly and without disorder, to create the kinds and species for whom

that same Intelligence had provided the land, air, water and food, upon,
in and by which they should all live, in congenial habitation. But Darwin
never recognizes that Being as essential to his theory : No! the theory
makes nature herself a substitute for God. Her forces it was, that from
time to time jostled all creatures into slight variations, and then she her-
self selected the best chance-products of a capricious generation and con-
tinued them, and perfected without intending to perfect them, and the
life of the weak and monstrous was extinguished, merely because not fit-
est to survive. If nature has such power over us and ours, and all living,
shall we not impersonate and worship her as our deity? Men did do this,
in various forms, but it was before science and revelation had dethroned
the heathen deities. They are not likely to be restored to the worship of
mankind, and thoughtful men generally believe in one supreme God.
And why has there been any limit to classes, orders, genera and species ?
And why has the growth of each and all creatures had their normal limit?
Certainly by some intelligent Power that ruled over what are called the
forces of nature. Why cannot the naturalist more frequently elevate his
views to recognize an Intelligence, without whom all that he studies, him-
self included, can have little significance, or philosophy any worthy or

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consistent foundation? God’s order is the source of all science and philoso-
phy. But Darwin neither acknowledges nor denies the ruling of the
Deity ; he invokes not His aid in the processes of nature ; nor yet does he
deify nature, but says this of her: ‘It is difficult to avoid personi fying
the word nature ; but I mean by nature, only the aggregate action and
product of many laws, and by laws the sequence of events as ascertained
by us.”? It is obvious that the effect of the theory is displacement of God
from His works and from the mind of the naturalist. But the laws of
nature could not exist without nature had a Creator, and law a Law
Maker. Darwin admits that the ‘highest intellects that have ever lived,”’
have believed ‘there exists a Creator and Ruler,’”’ but his theory makes
no account of Him. He would make nature Godless.

While Darwin’s theory undertakes to rise from a few simple first forms
of life to higher and more complicated, he denies any purpose of a designer
to perfect his works, or any general tendency in nature to do so. He says,
‘whatever may be thought of this view, in none of the foregoing cases
do the facts, as far as I can judge, afford any evidence of the existence of
an innate tendency towards perfectibility or progressive development.’
Tb. 132. The variations spring from individuals ; but from what cause or
with what purpose is not explained. The mass of the species remained
unchanged, and so live on through many geological periods. He says,
“ Geology tells us that some of the lowest forms, as the infusoria and rizo-
pods have remained for an enormous period in nearly their present state.”
Tb. p. 123. “I believe that many lowly organized forms now exist through-
out the world, from various causes. In some cases, variations or individual
differences of a favorable nature may never have arisen for natural selec-
tion to act on and accumulate. Inno case, probably, has time sufficed for
the utmost possible amount of development. In some few cases there has
been what we must call retrogression of organization.”’ p. 124. All, there-
fore, has come from chance individual variations. Thus all higher life,
man included, has been lifted up, by chance-coming variations, generated
in the lowest and lower forms of animal life, without purpose, design, or
Designer: though the result is the exalted being man !

ITmake this statement with due care: He says, as to the mode of
transition, ‘there is no reason to doubt that the swim-bladder has been
converted into lungs, or an organ used exclusively for respiration. Accord-
ing to this view it may be in ferred that all vertebrate animals with true
lungs have descended by ordinary gene ration from an ancient and unknown
prototype, which was furnished with a floating apparatus or swim-blad-
der.”? Ib. 183. This does not except the vertebrateman. He insists upon
placing man in the order Quadrumana ; says, “Tf man had not been his
own classifier, he would never have thought of founding a separate order
for his own reception.’’ 1 Descent of Man, 183. He further says, ‘‘we
will now look to man as he exists ; and we shall, [ think, be able partially
to restore during successive periods, but not in due order of time, the
structure of our early progenitors. This can be effected by means of the
rudiments which man still retains, by the characters which occasionally’

301 [Price,
make their appearance in him, through’ reversion, and by the aid of the
principles of morphology and embryology. The early progenitors of man
were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes having beards ; their ears
were pointed and capable of movement, and their bodies were provided
with a tail, having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies were
also acted on by many muscles which now only occasionally re-appear,
but are normally present in the quadrumana.”” * * ‘The foot, judg-
ing from the condition of the great toe in the foetus, was then prehensile ;
and our progenitors, no doubt, were Arboreal in their habits, frequenting
some warm forest clad land. The males were provided with great canine
teeth, which served them as formidable weapons.’ Ib, 198. “Inaseries of
forms graduating insensibly from some ape-like creature to man as he
now exists, it would be impossible to fix on any definite point when the
term ‘man’ ought to be used.’? Ib. 226. That is, when he ceased to
be monkey and became man, by physical transformation. Mr. Darwin
has not attempted to show us in geology, in history or in life, aman at
the point of transition, or to imagine or describe what he could be, or
what the essentials to the change ; nor any creature yet in the process of
trasformation.

Thus, it is distinctly avowed that man was the result of this theory of
evolution, and that his ancestor was an ape; whose ultimate progenitor
was some trivial form of life in the bottom of the ocean. Thus by
chance-begotten variations in the process of generation, all the million
forms of life, in all their infinite distinctions, have been formed.
Thus, through an instinct which no creature but man ever controls
or disobeys, all living life has beensbuilt up; nay, all created crea-
tures were. created, except some first simple form, which alone it has been
necessary for this theory to invoke, that there might be an inceptive
speck of life for the beginning of a process of variable generations. But
who gave this power to the first life and all later life to propagate such
variable generations? Who created the sexes and the organs of genera-
tions? Who prepared the germs of life in one sex to be called into being
by the other? Who gave the instinctive desire that starts gestation, and
made the progeny to share the likeness and qualities of both parents ?
Who gave the parental instinct of protection of offspring, and who the
requisite intelligence for their nurture? It is left fairly to be inferred
that a Creator could only make the first simple form, and not the later
higher life ; or that life first came and worked on spontaneonsly. How
could the creature of inferior instinct by generation create that which
evinces the intelligence of the bee, the ant, the beaver and the elephant?
The skill and polity of the bee, that made the ancients ascribe to her a
spark of the Divine intelligence? Mere physical changes could not ac-
count for all these, and yet less for the mind of man. The Intelligence
of instinct, and of mind, are not conceivably the product of matter, spon-
taneously or generatively, but we must ascribe such endowment to Him
who could make the ant wiser than the human sluggard, who forfeits his
manhood and dignity ; to a Being infinitely superior in intelligence than

302

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the highest intellect. If God did not create all creatures and endow them.
with the law of their being, why should He have cared for them as we
perceive throughout all nature? He who ascribes nothing to God does
not answer the question. The questions which our reason inevitably
asks give him no trouble. He is tempted to deify nature but owns no
Deity.

There are, indeed, common necessities to all life, that would go further
to indicate its unity than the ‘‘rudiments’”’ searched out. All must live
upon the food that the earth, sea and air supply. All must have power of
digestion and assimilation, and mostly have hearts, circulations, viscera,
tissues, nerves and brains. The vertebrates have also flesh and bones.
Now, in all this, there is a greater basis of brotherhood in all animated.
nature, than in the few small matters upon which the theory in question is
built. That life in embryo shall start similarly, is as much to be expected
as that the digestion, circulation, secretions and excretions should go on
alike. But whatever be the incipient or embryolic resemblance, the
mature development is always truthful to the demarcations recognized.
by the classifications of science. All that have nerves to feel are objects
of kindness ; but there fraternity ends.

Now, what are the particular things enumerated that declare our
ancestors to have been apes? Here is the inventory of them in the
author’s words: ‘Some few persons have the power of contracting the
superficial muscles on their scalps ’’ 1 Descent of Man, 19. ‘‘One little
peculiarity in the external ear:’’ It is ‘‘a little blunt point projecting
from the inwardly-folded margin or helix,’ p. 21. ‘The nictitating
membrane, or third eyelid :’ which in man ‘exists, as is admitted by all
anatomists, as a mere rudiment, called the semilunar fold,’”’ p, 22-3. Of
the sense of smell in man, Darwin says: ‘“‘No doubt he inherits the
power in an enfeebled, and so far rudimentary condition, from some
early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable and by whom it was
continually used,’ p. 23. ‘*Man differs conspicuously from all the other
Primates in being almost naked: but a few short straggling hairs are
found over the greater part of the body in the male sex, and fine down

on that of the female sex.’’ id “There can be little doubt that
the hairs thus scattered over the body are the rudiments of the uniform
hairy coat of the lower animals.’’ p. 24. And he says, ‘‘ we must consider
the woolly covering of the foetus to be the rudimentary representative of
the first permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are born hairy.’’
p. 25. ‘*It appears as if the posterior molar or wisdom-teeth were tend-
ing to become rudimentary in the more civilized races of man.’’ p. 20.
‘* With respect to the alimentary canal, I have met with an account of only
a single rudiment, namely the vermiform appendage of the caecum.’’ p-
26. The foramen near the lower end of the humerus is said to be found
in one per cent. of modern human skeletons, but much oftener anciently,.
‘one chief cause seems to be that ancient races stand somewhat nearer than
modern races in the long line of descent to their remote animal-like pro-
genitors,” p. 27-28. ‘*The Os coccya in man, though functionless as @-

303 [Price.

1872.]

tail, plainly represents this part in other vertebrate animals.’’ p. 28. ‘‘It
is well known that in the males of all mammals, including man, rudimen-
tary mamme exist.’”’ p. 80, which Mr. Darwin finds it “difficult to ex

plain on the belief of the separate creation of each species.’? Darwin
concludes this enumeration by saying, ‘‘ The homological construction of
the whole frame in the members of the same class is intelligible, if we
admit their descent from a common progenitor, together with their sub-
sequent adaptation to diversified conditions. On any other view, the
similarity of pattern between the hand of a man or monkey, the foot of a
horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing of a bat, etc., is utterly inexplicable.”
p. 81. And this conclusion may be admitted, if we believe creation had
no Creator. But if all creatures had a Creator who endowed them with
power to generate their like, but forbade them to generate their unlike,
the explanation is clear, and makes that of Mr. Darwin wholly illogical.
Was structure so great ever raised on so narrow a foundation ! Indeed,
this small basis for so tremendous a theory, necessarily brings into ques-
tion the author’s logical powers, and causes thoughtful men to set down
much to personal idiosyneracy.

These rudimentary signs of man’s relationship to the beast are of small
things, indeed, but according to Darwin, of mighty significance : but to
common apprehension of less account than the general functions common
to mammal life, and the approximation of form between the ape and
man; yet, all considered, leaving one a beast and the other an immortal
being.

Ts it not competent for the Creator to employ similar physical structures
and functions in animals, and to give to all the benefits of adaptation to
the food they are designed to feed upon, the situations they are to occupy,
and the life they are intended to live, without making the one the offspring
of the other? He who intended the good of all, would give the good in all
to every species, so far as adapted to the welfare of each, and this we can
more logically believe than that the man, the monkey, the horse, the seal,
bat, &c., have blood relationship through a common ancestor. It is not
a welcome belief that whether we eat ‘‘fish, flesh or fowl,”’ we are perpe-
trating a kind of cannibalism, by feeding on distant relatives, though the
degree of relationship cannot be traced, even with the help of Mr. Darwin.

And can science dispense with a Creator? The votaries of science may
grope through special investigations until they cease to see God in His
works. But just so far as they cease to see God as the author of Nature,
they seem to cease to understand the logic of creation, in its pervasive
features, wisdom and magnificence. Yet this theory of a generated
creation, if it could be believed to be true or logical, must still be taken to
rest upon a Creator and an upholder of all nature, and of the Universe, while
it will not own Him as Author of all kinds of life. But life could not be,
nor generation, nor pirth, nor growth without His instant sustentation.
And shall He not create His creation with all the distinctions of class,
order, genera and species as we behold it? Me must have created this
earth, the sun that warms it, the air, water and food by which all life

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youst live ; and He must have adapted all life to these conditions of nature
in which it is placed. He who would deny the Creator in any part of His
works must be prepared to do so as to the whole. Whatever be the pur-
pose of the theory its tendency is to teach men not to believe in God or
their own souls.

The reader will, if he yield his belief in any degree, reason thus, and
say, if I sprang from an almost senseless piece of pristine life; if after
my ancestors had arrived to the stage of evolution next preceding man,
they were no more than monkeys; then, as I believe, these had no im-
mortal souls so have I not an immortal soul: If I only differ from them
by reason of a more perfect physical development, that of itself could
give me no claim to an immortal soul. If I sprang from the beast I must
die the death of the beast! And this idea would be strengthened by the
supposed possibility of a reversal of the process of evolution, under the
suspicion of which I would be brought ; for Darwin admits that although
the ancestral rudiments have become wholly suppressed for want of use,
“they are nevertheless liable to occasional reappearance through rever-
sion; and this is a circumstance well worthy of attention.’ Ib. 18. So,
indeed, it appears if man be not yet sure of remaining man; if he may
relapse to the ape, or become a new variety and be on the road to become
a new species, let those look to the possible consequences who have an
extra finger or toe, or whose canines or last molars, or ‘slightly pointed
ears, show kindred with the ape or donkey. If their descendants should
cease to be man, can they in law inherit a man’s estate? If there was
such a transition upwards there may as likely be downwards. Who can
tell what may be the freaks of nature, if nature be not in the keeping of
God ?

Mr. Darwin, writing in support of his theory does not show the facts
that oppose that theory. He does not show the great differences
that exist between the species that he would approximate. This is so
both when speaking of the physical structure and the mental powers.
When he passes to the admitted great mental and moral disparity between
even the savage man and the most intelligent of the inferior animals, he
advocates the cause of the latter, by stating what they do with their dele-
gated power of instinct, and that they also exhibit instances of a glim-
mering reason. He, however, makes no near approximation, and admits
the difference to be enormous though the comparison be made with the
lowest savage. 1 Ib. 33, 67. The theory is really based but upon the
physical structure, otherwise the ape would not have been selected as the
progenitor of man, but rather the bee or ant, the beaver, dog or elephant,
who are far more sagacious than the monkey.

What do we now behold over the face of the earth? Everywhere there
yet abound the animals through which man is imagined to have descended,
without having suffered variation or change, though exposed to the like
causes supposed to have wrought their fellows into man ; and everywhere
men, savage or civilized, have been dispersed over the earth, and have so
been without any evidence of material physical change, throughout all

) 1)
1872,] 305 [Price.

the ages of their existence. Surely, to do away with this great fact, and
the further fact that all is now proceeding as it did from the dawn of
history, written or monumental, we must, in the absence of all other facts,
except speculative inferences from very small things, called rudiments,
conclude that God made man in the image he now bears, physical and
mental, except as man has educated himself, as no other creature was
ever endowed with the capacity of doing. The great lines of demarcation
between the animal that has always followed only his assigned instinct,
and the higher being that has always had power to invent and make the
forces of nature, and all other animals subservient to his uses,—to invent
language, writing, printing, and to indefinitely accumulate knowledge
and perfect his own character,—have always existed over the earth, side
by side, utterly incapable of fusion, and in extreme contrast, in their
most marked characteristics. "When we study by the microscope we are
not to disregard the great things beheld by the unaided vision. If we
see the mote, we must see the beam also.

So far I have but quoted from Darwin in relation to the theory of evolu-
tion. His simplicity and candor made it easy to answer him by his own
books. A writer in the British Quarterly, for October, 1871, appears to
have been assisted by microscopic observations, and says: ‘‘ Almost every
tissue of the newt, frog, toad, and green tree-frog, has individual char-
acteristics of its own, which could be distinguished by one who was
thoroughly familiar with the microscopic characters of the texture.”
“The nerve fibres in every part of the body of the newt, differ in many
minute particulars from those of the frog.’’? ‘In these animals not only
do corresponding tissues exhibit peculiarities, but entire organs are
totally different.’”? And he points out the differences. ‘‘Again, if we
take the skin of the four animals mentioned above, although it will be
seen that there is a certain general agreement in structure to be recog-
nized, there is not a texture of the skin that is alike in them all,’’ and the
differences are pointed out, with the assertion that ‘these seem to increase
in number the more thoroughly and the more minutely the tissues are ex-
plored.”’ P. 248-9. If this closer test shall continue to be applied, it prob- ;
ably may yet be believed that ‘‘ All flesh is not the same flesh ; but there
if one kind of flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and
another of birds,’’? and that men may safely eat all the others.

Professor Wyville Thomson, in a late lecture in the University of Edin-
burgh, said: ‘‘ During the whole period of recorded human observation,
not one single instance of the change of one species into another has
been detected, and, singular to say, in successive geological formations,
although new species are constantly appearing, and there is abundant
evidence of progressive change, no single case has as yet been observed
of one species passing through a series of inappreciable modifications into
another.”’? ‘‘Nature,’? November, 9th, 1871.

And here I would ask to read the forcible statement of our Secretary,
Mr. Lesley, who adds his authority and force of logic to that of many
eminent naturalists, and, I believe, nearly all the members of this Society

A. P. 8.—VOL, XII.—2M.

Price.] 306 [Jan. 5,

against the Darwinian theory: ‘If there has been a Darwinian develop-
ment of animal life upon the planet, then it looks as if it had been car-
ried out along four lines rather than one. Four stand-points of creative
energy must have been assumed; four startings out of life must be ac-
counted for; four mysteries, four miracles, four beginnings of creation,
to be developed instead of one! But where all is mystery and miracle,
additions are hardly noticeable. It becomes Mr. Darwin’s business, then,
not only to suggest some plausible, rational mode by which one species
could gradually or suddenly pass the short interval which separates it
from another; his explanation must suffice to bridge the awful chasms
which have always kept these four great plans of structure separate,
along the lines of their development. He must show us how an animal
of radial growth could be developed into one of linear growth. Nay, he
must fill up the immense interval between the plant and the animal ; and,
finally, the chasm between the atom of carbon or hydrogen, and the nu-
cleated cell of albumen or fibrin, He must explain the genius of life
itself, before he can make his law of natural selection stand for anything
more than a beautifully worded description of the ills that all flesh falls .
heir to when it is born upon this planet. How it is born upon the planet
is another matter, and remains unexplained by his hypothesis. We do
not get rid of miracles by chasing them back along the ages to the start-
ing point, and concentrating them there. A line of battle is not neces-
sarily vanquished and annihilated when it is rolled up by an attack upon
its flank, when there is a reserved force at the other end.’’? ‘‘Man’s
Origin and Destiny,”’ p. 78.

There is, however, one sufficing explanation of the mystery and miracle
of life—it is this: that there is a God, and that man has an immortal
soul; that this life is but the beginning of an endless being. The good
fruits of this faith is an argument of its truth; and man has consciously
the sense within him that the life eternal awaits him; and he already
here communes with Deity. Such a life and such a soul must have had
a Creator infinitely superior to the being created.

It is a decisive objection to the theory of Darwin that it takes account
only of physical structure, while the greater disparity between man and.
all other animate creatures consists in his high moral, intellectual, and
religious nature. Lyell cites, to sanction Quatrefages in saying, ‘‘ that
man must form a kingdom by himself, if once we permit his moral and
intellectual endowments to have their due weight in classification.”
‘* Antiquity of Man,’ p. 495. ‘It is by something completely foreign to
the mere animal, and belonging exclusively to man, that we must estab-
lish a separate kingdom for him,”’ p. 494. Lyell also quotes to adopt the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Sumner, in saying, that the comparison
should not be taken from the upright form, nor even from the vague
term reason,”’ ‘but from that power of progressive and improvable rea-
son which is man’s peculiar endowment.’”’ ‘‘ Animals are born what they
are intended toremain, Nature has bestowed upon them a certain rank, and.
limited the extent of their capacity by an impassable decree. Man, she

1872,] 307

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has empowered and obliged to become the artificer of his own rank ins
the scale of beings by the improvable gift of improvable reason. ’’—Ib.
496-7. And Lyell himself says, p. 498, ‘‘We cannot imagine this world
to be a place of trial and discipline for any of the inferior animals, nor
can any of them derive comfort and happiness from faith in a hereafter.
To man alone is given this belief, so consonant to his reason, and so con-
genial to the religious sentiments implanted by nature in his soul; a
doctrine which tends to raise him morally and intellectually in the scale
of being, and the fruits of which are, therefore, most opposite in character
to those which grow out of error and delusion.”

The tendencies of the Authors now reviewed is the most unfriendly to
that religious faith on which human welfare essentially depends ; yet
it is believed that good will result from the divulgence of their theories ;
but it will be because of their failure ; because they will have compelled
men to re-examine their faith upon the platform of Science, and thereby
confirm their religion received by revelation. They will find in all truth
an accord showing its source one; and in the constancy of nature the
truthfulness of God. They will find that He who created ever rules His
creation and compels it to obey His ordination. They will find that
only man was made in likeness unto God, and that he was made to have
dominion over all other living creatures. They will perceive that Science
can erect no barrier between man and his immortal hopes ; that the being
of an immortal soul stands elevated above all other animated beings by a
distinction that makes him but ‘a little lower than the angels,” and a
child of his ‘‘ Father in Heaven’’; a Father who condescends to commune
with and be known of His children.

Stated Meeting, January 19, 1872.
Present 20 members.
Vice-President Mr. Fraury in the chair.

A letter of acknowledgment for Transactions XIV. 1. and
Proceedings, 84, 85, was received from the Bureau des Lon-
gitudes, dated Observatoire Nationale de Paris, Dec. 1871.

Donations for the Library were received from the Observa-
tories and Royal Academy at Turin, Signor Denza, the Revue
Politique, and M. A. P. Hovelaque, of Paris, the London Na-
ture, Dr. Freeke, of Dublin, the Montreal Natural History
Society, the editors of Old and New, and the American Chem-
ist, the College of Pharmacy, Franklin Institute and Acad-

“Cope. ] 308 [Jan. 19,
emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the editors of the
Medical Journal, News and Library, and Penn Monthly, Mr.
Hii K. Price, the Secretary of the U.S. Treasury, the De-
partment of the Interior, the Engineer Department, and the
Librarian of Congress.

Mr. B.S. Lyman offered for publication, in the Transac-
tions, a map of the Punjaub Oil region, with explanatory
text. On motion, this paper was referred to a committee, con-
sisting of Dr. Genth, Mr. Lesley and Dr. Horn.

Mr. Cope communicated the following paper on a new
Testudinate from the chalk of Kansas.

On a new Testudinate from the Chalk of Kansas.
By E. D. Corn.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 19, 1872.)

Associated with the remains of Clidastes, and other saurians, and at a
distance of two or three hundred yards from the locality of the fossil
Protostega gigas, were found some vertebre of a Testudinate reptile,
which approaches the type of Vrionye and Chelydra. It ditfers go
strikingly from both, and from all others yet known, as to require no-
tice, and as the parts preserved (caudal vertebra) are those most likely
to recur in a well-preserved state in strata of this age, I propose to
establish a species and genus on them, to aid in the future identification
of both strata and animal type.

The vertebrae have elongate centra concave below, and have well-de-
veloped diapophyses. A more anterior has transversely oval articular
extremities ; in another they are much less depressed. The former is
the more anterior, being known as such by its larger diapophyses and
much smaller articular surfaces for chevron bones ; it appears probable,
indeed, that this one has been without these appendages. It is, there-
fore, from the anterior part of the series, from no great distance behind
the sacrum. Its position being thus determined, it may be described in
detail as follows :

As observed, the centrum is elongate and depressed. The inferior
surface at the cup is flat, but is arched upwards, descending again to the
rim of the ball. The posterior two-thirds has a median groove, which
terminates in a deep notch of the ball, which involves one-third of its
vertical diameter, and widens backwards. The ball is transverse oval,
and only moderately convex; near its upper margin a small deep pit
interrupts its surface, having the appearance of an unusually large liga-
mentous insertion ; its border slightly excavates the margin of the ball.
The cup is a transverse oval, wider below. Its inferior and superior
margins are so deeply (but openly) emarginate, as to reduce the concay-
ity in the vertical direction very much. From the superior emargina-

1872.] 309 [Cope.
tion, a deep groove descends to below the middle, probably for ligament-
ous insertion. The neural canal is subtrilateral. The neural arch is
as usual in this group deeply emarginate in front, and much prolonged
behind. The zygapophyses project beyond the ball, and the arch is con-
tracted in front of them. Its upper surface has neither process nor keel,
but is rugose for ligamentous and muscular insertion. The diapophyses
have a wide base, and are subcylindric.

The surface is delicately reticulate rugose, coarsely rugose on the external
faces of the zygapophyses. There are several small pneumatic foramina,
the largest being in the bottom of the groove of the lower face.

Another vertebra differs in being rather more slender, and in haying
an obtuse keel of the neural arch. The pit of the ball is wanting, and
the inferior emargination. The chevron articulations are larger, and
the groove of the cup occupies the middle, instead of the upper half of
the cup.

Measurements. M.
Length of centrum (greatest). ......... PEA Th Unie e Sh. 0.27
Vonbical wv eon. Ved oink aie Reldate We Adil. 01
eng entrury *
Length of centrum \ Horizontal 214 66 siwes cos vies Set. OLE.
Elevation top neural arch above floor neural canal......... .013
Length of arch on median line above. . veers ese ereer eee 02

Width “ in front of posterior zygapophyses......... .012

A metacarpal or metatarsal-bone, was found near though not with the
vertebra, and probably belongs to the same animal. If metatarsal, it is

much stouter than in Zrionya, but is more likely to be metacarpal, It is..

about as long as the vertebrae, centrum and arch together. The proximal
end is transversely truncate, compressed L-shaped ; the shaft compressed
sub-quadrate, the articular extremely hour-glass shaped, with an inferior
projection for the insertion of a flexor ligament. Length, M. .034; prox-
imal diameter, .013.

These vertebra indicate a genus with elongate tail like that of Chelydra
or probably longer ; but they differ from those in that genus, by their
procoelian character. An approach to the incised margins is to be found
in Trionye ; but in those of that genus, where this character appears, the
diapophyses are largely developed. The genus is evidently quite distinct
from anything known, and we await further remains with interest. The
species is much smaller than the Protostega gigas, and about equal to the
Mississippi Macrochelys.

Tt may be called CYNOCERCUS INCISUS, The remains on which it
is established were found by Sergeant Wm. Gardner, of my geological
expedition in Kansas, in the yellow chalk near to Butte’s Creek, south of
Fort Wallace.

The discovery of this species and of the Protostega constitutes the first
indication of the existence of Testwdinata in the cretaceous formation
of Kansas. The author originally pointed out the existence in -it: of

Cope. ] 310 [Jan. 19,

Sauroptergia and Pythonomorpha, and during the expedition just men-
tioned, obtained portions of pterodactyles and of a crocodilian of the genus
Hyposaurus. The latter order has not been previously known from that
region, and their remains are not common. Prof. Marsh’s exploration in
the Cretaceous of Kansas added Pterosauria, but he has not reported any
Crocodilia, as I once thought, and incorrectly stated. (Proc. Am. Phil.
Soc. 1871, p. 174.) The crocodile may be called Hyposaurus vebbianus in
recollection of Dr. Wm. E. Webb, of Topeka ; it is similar in size to the
H, rogersii of New Jersey.

An anterior cervical vertebra presents the following characteristics : It
is that one in which the parapophysis occupies a position opposite the
lower third of the vertical diameter. In it the centrum is stout in form,
the articular faces but little concave, the posterior a little more so than
the anterior, The anterior is almost regularly hexagonal, the posterior
sub-round, a little deeper than wide. The inferior surface possesses a
strong obtuse median carina, which disappears in front of the posterior
margin. Anteriorly it terminates in a short obtuse hypapophysis. The
suture of the neural arch is very coarse. Surface of the bone smooth.

M.

Suen th: of; Combs vo) 5 ops wees le agai nn alvenjaoietia Hepes is ies 037
Diameter, oh anteriorly, vertical....... MUN ois sa 03
es ON be MOMIZOMGA itive s/s. cevews 031

a: Uh postentorlyyavertiodlyers « cininaie te iain 032

es s i horizontally). aster 031
Length: of:surface of parapophysisi.....c6c.s.ce cece sven OLD

As compared with the H. rogersti of the New Jersey Cretaceous, this
vertebra is shorter and stouter, and the extremities less concave; the
suture for the neural spine is much coarser.

This crocodile was discovered in a bluish stratum, belonging to the
Benton group, or No. 20 of Meek and Hayden, encountered in digging a
well in Brookville, Kansas,* This point is considerably east of the ex-
posure of cretaceous rocks seen near forts Hayes and Wallace. It is
interesting as the first of the Crocodilia found between the Tertiaries of
the Rocky Mountains and the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

It was given me by my friend Dr. Wm. E. B. Webb, of Topeka, to
whom science is also indebted for the polycotylus latipinnis, I have
dedicated the species to him.

Dr. Henry Hartshorne read the following paper on Or-
ganic Physics.

* This stratum is similar to thatin which Dr, Hayden found the fish Apsopeliv sauriformis,
at Bunker Hill,

4872.) 311

(Hartshorne.

ON ORGANIC PHYSICS
By Henry HartsHorne, M. D.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 19, 1872.)

In the title chosen for this paper, there may appear to be something
anomalous or contradictory : organic science and physical science being
commonly regarded as almost incommunicable departments. But as we
have long had, already, organic chemistry and animal mechanics, the ten-
dencies of opinion, and to some extent the clearly rational interpretation
of facts, now favor the re-inclusion of organic natural science under the
wide term physics, from which it became long ago separated upon
grounds of theory, and as it may still continue to be, for the classifica-
tions of convenience.

The proneness for unification, so natural to human intelligence, being
methodically sanctioned under what is called the ‘law of pitaimony,?
the question from period to period in all fields of thought is, how far can
we legitimately get in our simplifications and unifications? Provisionally,
at least, we must mark our steps; as, what is done in these unifications
of science is to aim at the ‘‘reduction of our complex symbols of thought
to the simplest possible’? appropriate ‘‘symbols.’? When the alchemists
thought that they might transmute or reduce all elements to one, they

did not succeed. There are now some theorists who would reduce all our
ideas of law, order, and causation in nature to the one idea of continuity.
I believe that they will not succeed, in the end, better than the alchemists.
This endeavor is, just now, being made especially in the region of life ;
and while, as already said, there is enough to sustain fully the proper
inclusion of vital phenomena along with the other phenomena of nature

.as physical, I hold that there is not enough to establish this ¢dentity or
immediate continuity, in the sense in which it has been asserted by some
biologists. Let us address ourselves for a few moments to the elements
of this question in its recent aspects.

First : What do we mean by life? What is it that we are to rae as
differentiated from, or identified with, the other physical forces of nature ?
We may drop out at once the old idea, that all actions of a living body,
such as digestion, circulation, aeration, and the rest of the special func-
tions, are properly called vital; or that these need to have any peculiar
or specific force, or phase of force, to explain them. Digestion is chemi-
cal ; circulation, mechanical, and so on. By proper exclusion, then, we
come down to this: that only one (perhaps a two-fold) process is truly
vital, in the sense that its facts come under the category of no other force
of nature, under no other name hitherto known to science, but that of
life. And this process is assimilation, with type-formation or definite
organization as its result: the segregation of matter in a peculiar mo-
jecular state, whence comes its assumption of peculiar though rapidly
changing forms; the chemical instability of the matter being in direct

Hartshorne.] [Jan. 19,

correspondence with the mutability of its forms. Life is then a change,
a molecular motion ; and it needs a name for itself as distinctly as heat
motion, electrical, or any other kind of movement. But, is it the direct
resultant of those other movements? Is organic evolution simply in the
line or plane of the composition of the cosmic forces, gravitation, heat,
light, electricity, magnetism, chemism, so as to be the mere outcome of
these? I would say, no. And this is a very different thing from deny-
ing the correlation of the vital and physical forces. They are clearly >)
correlative ; but correlation is not indentity. And the question is a deep
one, what their exact relation is ; it is now one of the cardinal questions
in science. Because of the wide variety of its bearings, let us regard
their most general aspect first.

Grant, as a postulate, the ‘‘conservation of force.’ Then there follows :
Ist, as its corollary, that not only is the total of force in the universe:
never diminished, but, conversely, this totality is never, by physical
causation, ¢ncreased. As apparent exhaustion of force is only its trans-
mutation, so apparent increase of it must also be only transmutation of it.

2d. No change, in the nature or direction of any force, can, in accord-
ance with the second law of motion, be either uncaused or self-caused,
that is caused by the force itself. Every such change must have a special,
sufficient cause. When, then, the laws and tendencies of gravitative,
electric, magnetic, chemical and heat and light forces are known, and »
are found to promote, by preference in all instances, the formation of
compounds of stable equilibrium, by the union of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorts, etc., we must expect this to be wni-
formly the result of their direct action, And, therefore, when we find
conspicuously unstable compounds to be formed of those same elements,
although in the presence of the same general forces, we ought to conclude
the formation of such compounds to be the result of another definitely
acting force. When the force w has been proved always to act in the
line A B, and the force y to act in the line C D, we must be sure that a
force acting in the reverse line B A, or D CG, or in any line intermediate
between B A and DC, cannot be either the force a or the force Yy OF
a force resulting from the composition of X and Y, but must be another

force, say z. Assuming the existence of 2, we may then endeavor to ascer- \
tain its relations to the other forces; and we may also inquire whether '

there may or may not be still other forces of whose composition it is the
resultant. So we ought to conclude that there is a special force, or mode,
or line of force, whose action is the assimilation and new construction
of organizable, protoplasmic, or bioplasmic matter, because the action
so named involves a movement of elements in direct opposition to that
produced by the other known forces, as shown especially and invariably
by the action of those forces upon the same matter, when death occurs.

I may introduce here a remark upon the chemical part of the discussion 3
whether, as a matter of induction, all a priort reasoning apart, we are
warranted in saying that organizable matter is and can be never produced.

eo

asf
1872, ] ee [ Hartshorne.
by chemical or any other general cosmic forces. Since Wéhler’s first for-
mation of urea from carbonate of ammonia, many years ago, this has
been much argued upon. Numbers of organic substances have since
been made by Berthelot and others, by more or less nearly direct syn-
thesis. But mark this. With the single exception, possibly, though
not probably, of neurin (that exception remaining very doubtful yet,
especially as the substance so designated as made by synthesis, is re-
ported to be crystalline or crystallizable), all the compounds so formed
are not organizable, but what I would call post-organie substances, pro-
ducts or educts of retrograde or downward metamorphosis ; excreted or
secreted,—made in animal or vegetable bodies not by their life-force ag
such in tissue formation, but by its ‘“‘composition”’ or balance with other
forces, in the retrogressive metamorphosis, the approach toward waste and
death. It is not germinal but effete formed matter, to use the words of
Beale, Such, for instance, is even quinia, though not yet made by syn-
thesis. Such may be neurin itself, in the form in which we get it after
the death of an animal, since no tissue is more prone to change soon after
death than the nervous. In fact, if with Lehmann, Moleschott and Hux-
ley, chemists should assert that life is only a property of certain sub-
stances, and, as some chemists at least say, that those substances can be
made in the laboratory, then we must hold them to the test ; and deny the
formation of any of those substances themselves, until they wre shown to
manifest all their properties, including life.

Time cannot be allowed in this paper, more than to allude to the present
aspect of the closely connected question as to the evidence of experiment,
in reference to the origination of minute forms of life. After the contro-
versy (which was very active in the day of Crosse’s electrical experiments)
had, by elimination, been narrowed down to a chronic debate between

-asteur and Pouchet, we are now surprised by its assuming larger pro-
portions, with Owen, Clark, Hughes Bennett and Bastian, coming out as
decided heterogenists, or advocates of abiogenesis. Similar observations
and like arguments, however, come up again and again. No better case
has ever been made out for heterogeny than by Charlton Bastian in his
papers in ‘‘Nature,”? 1870. I need not dwell on the known difficulty of
exactness in such experiments, from the first preparation of the appara-
tus down to the last examination of the results under the microscope: a
difficulty, as regards the total exclusion of foreign particles, pronounced
by some experts to be insurmountable.

We need only observe here that Bastian’s protest against Pasteur’s as-
sumption, that the prior weight of improbability is against the heterogenic
theory, is not warranted ; as the burden of proof certainly does rest with
the heterogenists. It being perfectly well known that no experience
exists of the beginning of life of larger forms, however simple, without
parentage, we may say that since nothing larger than of an inch has

1
1000

ever been known to begin life in an entively inorganic medium, the prob-

ability is vast that nothing smaller than ;,5 of an inch diameter ever

does so. While we are not able to say that it is impossible, those who assert
A. P. §.—VOL. XII.—2N,

314 [ Jan. 19,

Hartshorne. ]

it must bring most cogent evidence. And the legitimate alternative, in
regard to all the heating or boiling experiments, is, whether we are to ap-
prehend in them new evidence of the resistance of some low living forms to
the usually destructive influence of heat, or to assume the total effect
of this, and then conclude that a de novo origination of life has
really occurred. There are many facts which sustain the choice of the
former interpretation ; facts, for instance, concerning confervoid vegetation
in boiling springs, and such as those observed by G. Pouchet and others,
proving the marvellous tenacity of rotiferous animalcular life. Jeffries
Wyman’s experiments, moreover, seemed to show, that though four hours
would not, five hours boiling would, probibit the appearance of any vi-
tality in the materials under his examination. Frankland and Calvert
have since strongly confirmed the same conclusion by their careful ex-
periments. No one, however wedded to heterogeny, can say that
we are yet at the end of our knowledge of the limits of vital resistance to
physical agencies, including heat. But note further: that putting aside
(although Professor Huxley does not) as unjustifiable, the supposition
that it was possible for an observer like Bastian to be mistaken as to the
really organic character of the very minute filaments and sporules, ob-
served by him in tartrate of ammonia or other solutions, under restricted
conditions, we must find in them at least something extraordinarily dif-
ferent from the life which we are accustomed to observe ; since a very

important part of the whole process was the entire exclusion of air; so

that if there was life, it was such only as could exist in distilled water,

or in vacuo. And here, just as in the controversy upon the essential dis-

tinctions between animals and plants, since deoxidation and oxidation,

fixation of carbon and its elimination, are directly opposite processes,

though we may not yet find their separating line, still the line must exist
somewhere. And it would be taking for granted a great deal more than

any evolutionist has a right to do as yet, to suppose, not only that Bas-

tian had thus manufactured sporules and filaments living in airless tartrate

of ammonia, but that all he would need would be some greater variety of
conditions and time to evolve from them the whole system of organized
nature. Bastian himself has not yet asserted this.

A word more about the above named opposition between vital and other
cosmic forces. It may be stated thus: According to the nebular theory
mostly accepted now as the basis of cosmogony and evolution, —the form-
ation of the worlds of our solar system has been and is attended con-
stantly by the integration of matter and the dissipation of force. I have,
in this expression, used Hebert Spencer’s words. The spheres in consoli-
dating from diffused nebulous matter give owt force as heat. But, per
contra, organized beings integrate matter, and at the same time accumulate
force. In the language of Professor Barker’s able discourse on the
Correlation of Vital and Physical Forces, ‘‘the food of the plant is mat-
ter whose energy is all expended ; it is fallen weight. The plant-organ-
ism, in a way yet mysterious to us, converts the actual energy of the

315

1872.] [ Hartshorne.

sunlight into potential energy within it. The fallen weight is thus raised
and energy is thus stored up.”’

As Dr. Barker adds, the force which is stored up is undeniably physical ;
but I remark further, that the process by which it is stored is of another
order, and involves a different kind of physical force movement from that
by which it is evolved and expended. ‘

What more can be made out about this mysterious force of life? Not
mtich as yet; but enough, perhaps, to give encouragement to inves-
tigation. Reduced to its simplest element, namely, the cell, or the physi-
ological unit, life is a process of tneretion and excretion. What goes in as
food is made into tissue, and (after functioning) comes out as waste.
The functioning is secondary to it as /ife, though no doubt in itself pri-
mary under the view of purpose. The organic cell converts crystalloid
atoms or molecules into colloid molecules. Now what is the difference ?
not merely in the fact of different degrees of diffusibility, but in the state
of the particles ; the reason why they are colloidal? May we not con-
jecture, that it may be owing to a differentiated movement of the atoms ?
Clausius and others have long since given reason for supposing that the
particles of all gases are in incessant motion among themselves. May not
these atomic movements of the three gases, nitrogen, hydrogen and
oxygen, all of which are associated with carbon in bioplasm, be in some
manner retained in the integration of the organic cell?

Life-motion is probably not wndulatory, like light, heat and electrical
movement, but rotary or cycloidal. For an analogy, I would allude,
somewhat too boldly, to the theory of some astronomers, of the present
constitution of Saturn’s rings ; of multitudinous small masses incessantly
in motion among themselves. And the occasion for brevity in this com-
munication must be the excuse for crowding, before I conclude, yet other
questionable proposals of analogy ; as of the minute microscopic cell, with
its inward, and outward currents through undiscoverable pores, with even
the incretions and excretions of the sun and its photosphere ; whose out-
ward and inward cloud-currents are now being so laboriously studied.
Somewhat less remote, certainly, is the suggestion of analogy (not iden-
tity) of life-actions with effects of some of the other forces of physical
nature. I would regard sexual union which (except in mere dividuation,
such as the life of a tree in its cuttings, or the fissiparous generation of
animals) is, until heterogeny or spontaneous generation be proved, the
only method of the indefinite continuation of life,—I would regard this
Sexual union as the true analogue of chemical union. The importance
of bi-sexual polarity in organic nature has hardly yet been fully appre-
ciated. Carbon and oxygen uniting give out heat, and carbonic acid
which escapes. Organisms of two sexes, say the pollen cells and germ cells
of a plant combine, and evolve life-force, whose products do not escape,
but remain as organizable and organized protoplasmic matter ; develop-
ing new cells in connection with each other. Yet another analogy with
physical force-action may be presented. It is known that phyllotaxis, or

316

Hartshorne. | [Jan. 19,

the leaf and branch arrangement of plants, follows a spiral law, arithmeti-
cally calculable, and showing a striking correspondence with the order
remarked in the successive distances of the planets of our solar system
from the sun, But what this phyllotaxis still more readily recalls to us
is,—the helix of the electro-magnet ; or, rather, of the magneto-electric
apparatus. As the opposite polarities of the magnet are to the current
of the helix of wire, so may be—of course, we do not say is—sexual
bi-polarity to the spiral phyllotaxis. While a spiral tendency or move-
ment cannot be so clearly traced in animals, yet some indices of what we
may call organo-taxis are not wanting. As opposite leaves are held
to represent a double spiral, and whorls two or more, so the bilateral
symmetry of vertebrates, articulates and some mollusks, and the whorled
form of radiates and colenterates, may present or imitate results of a
similar polar force.

Another analogy, with which physicists may have more patience, is of
a reverse kind, with heat. As a spark of fire sets burning an indefinite
amount of combustible matter within its influence, so a spark of life
vitalizes successively an indefinite amount of viable, organizable material
as food. But the difference is, as remarked already, that while the in-
crement of heat-force instigates the continuous reduction of less stable
conditions of matter to those more stable, the increment of life-force
elevates materials from stable into unstable substances, with constantly
transmuted forms.

To conclude: By no such crude analogies as these can any one imagine
that the mystery of life is to be altogether removed. These remarks are
presented mainly to suggest and show that inquiry into life-force and its
attributes may now legitimately follow methods like in nature those used
in studying the other physical forces; and to expand to some extent the
germinal thought, that, while life or life-foree must yet be always differ-
entiated from the other cosmic forces, it is, like them, a motion, or mode
of motion, whose study is a part of physics—organic physics.

I would add that such a view of the correlation of biology with the
other physical sciences no more interferes with a theistic and teleological
view of creation than does the (now familiar) resolution of many once
called vital actions (as digestion, circulation, blood-aération) into chemical
or physical acts, the results of ordinary forces of nature, which are collo-
cated in the animal body under the conditions of vitality. To analyze is
not to create, or even to show how creation was effected ; much less is it
to afford a negation of the fact of creation itself. Yet, to analyze is
always legitimate in science, so long as it is done accurately, step by step ;
and this, whether it point to biogenesis or abiogenesis, to the origin of
types by interrupted appearances or by evolution.

The discussion of Mr. Price’s paper, read at the last
meeting, being in order, Mr. Cope made the following
remarks :

317

1872.] [Cope.

As the essay read before this Society under the above title, adduces no
facts for or against the theory of Evolution not already known, the writer
does not propose to criticise it as a whole. His object is to correct some
statements of supposed fact, which are germane to the argument of the
essay, in which its author has been led astray by the statements of
others, or want of familiarity with the subject.

The erroneous statements are the following :

Ist. That the gradations of variational and specific form seen among
domesticated animals are peculiar to them, not being found among ani-
mals in the wild state ; and are therefore due exclusively to the influence
of human interference.

2d. That fertile hybrids do not exist in the wild state, and that their
existence between domesticated varieties is therefore evidence of their
‘common origin.

3d. That transitions from species to species, as to form and other essen-
tials, occur neither in the present period nor in the succession of geologic
strata.

4th. That the examples of intermediate forms, or supposed transitional
structures, on which the evolutionists rely, are abnormal or monstrous,
or otherwise insufficient for the use made of them.

These are four very natural popular fallacies, and the present seems to
be a suitable opportunity for exposing them.

First. That graded varieties and unstable specific forms do not exist
outside of domestication, and are due to its influence, ete. To find an
unqualified contradiction to this statement, it is only necessary to refer to
the diagnostic tables and keys of the best and most honest zodlogists and
botanists. It is true that these diagnoses are dry reading to the non-pro-
fessional, yet they embrace nearly all that is of value in this part of bio-
logical science, and must be mastered in some department, before the
student is in possession of the means of forming an opinion. The neglect
to do this explains why it is that, after all that has been written and said
about protean species, etc., the subject should be so little understood.
The fact is thus: That in every family or larger group of animals and
plants, there exists one or more genera in which the species present an
ageregation of specific intensity of form; that is, that species become
more and more closely related, and, finally, varieties of single species have
to be admitted for the sake of obtaining a systematic diagnosis, which will
apply to all the individuals. These varieties are frequently as well marked
as the nearly related species, so far as amount of difference is concerned,
the distinction between the two cases being that in the varieties there is
a gradation from one to the other; in the species, none. Nevertheless,
between some of the varieties, transitions may be of rare occurrence, and
in the case of the ‘‘species,’’? an intermediate individual or two may oc-
casionally be found. Thus it is that differences of the varietal and of the
specific kinds are distinguished by degree only, and not in kind, and are
therefore the results of the operation of uniform laws. Yet, according

[Jan. 19,.

Cope. ] 318

to the old theory, the varieties have a common origin, and the species an.
independent one. To cite examples of what is asserted, the monograph
of the Tenebrionide, by Dr. Horn, in the Transactions of this Society,
especially the genus Hleodes, may be mentioned, or the essay on the genus
Piychostomus, in the writer’s ‘Fishes of North Carolina,’’ in the Pro-
ceedings of the Society, may be consulted.

It is true that in but few of these cases have the varieties been seen to
be bred from common parents, a circumstance entirely owing to the diffi-
culties of observation. The reasoning derived from the relations of dif-
ferences appears to be conclusive as to their common origin, unless we
are prepared to adopt the opposite view that the varieties have originated
separately. As these avowedly grade into individual variations, we must
at once be led to believe that individuals have been created independently:
a manifest absurdity.

But variations in the same brood have been found among wild animals
for example, both the red and gray varieties of the little horned owl
(Scops asio) have been taken from the same nest.

As further examples of gradation between species and varieties, found
in nature, I only have to select those genera most numerous in species
and best studied. Among Birds: Corvus, Hipidonax, Buteo, Falco, ete. ;
Reptiles: Hutenia, Anolis, Lycodon, Naja, Caudisona, Hlaps, Oxyr-
rhopus, ete. ; Batrachia: Rana, Hyla, Chorophilus, Borborocoetes, Ambly-
stoma, Spelerpes, ete. ; Fishes: Ptychostomus, Photogenis, Plecostomus,
Amiturus, Perca, and many others.

These protean genera are not the majority of those known to naturalists,
but are quite numerous. That the variability depends on a peculiar con-
dition of the animals themselves, and not on domestication, excepting in
so far as it produces these conditions, is plain not only from the above
facts, but from those observed in domestication. It is well known that
while pigeons, fowls, cattle, dogs, ete., are very variable or ‘‘ protean,”
the pea-fowl (Pavo) has maintained its specific characters with great ac-
curacy, during a period of domestication as long as that of the other
species named. The same may be said of the Guinea (Nwmidia) and the
Turkey (Meleagris). These facts show that domestication is only a
remote cause of variability.

Second. That hybrids do not occur among wild animals, ete. The
affirmative of this question is no more important to the view of evolution.
than the reverse ; nevertheless, if hybridization be regarded by any as
evidence of common origin, as the author of ‘Phases of Modern Philoso-
phy,”’ ete., believes, then some wild species are undoubtedly descended
from the same parents. There are a few fertile hybrids in nature, though
some animals have been stated to be such without sufficient evidence ; for
example, the Oolaptes ayresii (woodpecker) is thought by Professor Baird
to be a permanent hybrid between the Eastern C. ornatus and Californian
C. mecieanus, and as it occupied the region between the two (Upper Mis-
souri) there is every reason to believe that such is the case, especially as

1872.] 319 [Cope.
it mingles and breeds freely with both the others on the borders of their
range.

Third. That transitions from species to species in the present periods
have not been observed ; nor have they been discovered in passing up-
wards through strata of the earth’s crust.

The all-sufficient answer to this statement is to be found in the imper-
fection of our system of classification already pointed out. Thus, if we
first assume with the anti-developmentalist, that varieties have a common
parentage, and species distinct ones, when intermediate forms connecting
so-called species are discovered, we must confess ourselves in error, and
admit that the forms supposed to have had different origin, really had a
common one. Such intermediate forms really establish the connection
between species, but the question is begged at once by asserting unity of
species, and therefore of origin, so soon as the intermediate form is found ;
for, as before observed, it is not degree but constancy of distinction, which
establishes the species of the zodlogical systems. Transitions between
species are constantly discovered in existing animals : when numerous in
individuals, the more diverse forms are regarded as ‘‘aberrant;”? when
few, the extremes become “‘varieties,’’ and it is only necessary to destroy
the annectant forms altogether, to leave two or more species. As the
whole of a variable species generally has a wide geographical range, the
varieties coinciding with sub-areas, the submergence or other change in
the intervening surface would destroy connecting forms, and naturally
produce isolated species. :

Formerly, naturalists sometimes did this in their studies. A zodlogist
known to fame, once pointed out to me some troublesome specimens
which set his attempts at definition of certain species at defiance. ‘‘ These,’
said he, ‘“‘are the kind that I throw out of the window.’’ Naturalists
having abandoned ‘‘throwing’”’ puzzling forms ‘‘out of the window,”’
the result of more honest study is a belief in evolution by four-fifths of
them.

Fourth. That the ‘‘variations’’ or intermediate types pointed to by
evolutionists in favor of their positions, are exceptional, abnormal, or too
few to be available in demonstration of the origin species in general, ete.

The cases of transition, intermediate forms, or diversity in the brood,
observed and cited by naturalists in proof of evolution, are few com-
pared with the numbers of well defined, isolated species, genera, etc.,
though far more numerous than the author of the article criticised is aware
of. Their value in evidence of the nature and origin of the permanent
forms, is, it seems to me, conclusive, and to a certain extent, complete.
By the inductive process of reasoning we arrive at a knowledge of the
unknown from the known, a process which we act upon in our daily
affairs, and one which constitutes the key to knowledge. It rests upon
the invariability of nature’s operations under identical circumstances, and
for its application merely demands that analysis and comparison shall fix
that the nature of that of which something is unknown, is identical with

Cope. ] {Jan. 19, 1872.
that of which something is known. We then with certainty refer that
something which is known, as an attribute of that object of which the
same quality had been previously unknown.

In application to the question of evolution the following preliminary
facts may be assumed :

1. Many species are composed of identical elemental parts which pre-
sent minor differences.

2. Some of these differences have been seen to arise “spontaneously ;”’
that is, characters have made their appearance in offspring of parents
which did not possess them,—or what is the same thing, are known to
exist in individuals whose parentage is identical with others which do
not possess them.

3. The gradation of differences of the same elemental parts is one of
degree only, and not of kind.

4, Induction: Therefore all such differences have originated by a
modification in generation, or have made their appearance without trans-
mission, in descent.

This induction is one of the forms in which the proof for evolution ap-
pears, though a more cogent argument is that already presented in Chap-
ter I, of the paper entitled ‘‘On the Method of Creation,’ etc., Pro-
ceedings A. P. §., 1871.

The fact that in the majority of species, their origin by descent with
modification has not been directly observed, in no wise invalidates the
above argument. Unless they present positive evidence against such
origin, these are absolutely silent witnesses. He who cites them against
evolution commits the error of the native of the Green Isle, who was
present at a murder trial: ‘ Although the prosecuting attorney brought
three witnesses to swear positively that they saw the murder committed,
I could produce thirty who swore that they did not see it done !”’

Finally, it may be asserted that the Theory of Development is the
only theory of creation before the scientific world at the present time.
The author of ‘‘Some Phases,’’ etc., says, in opposition to it, that God
made the species, and that their gradual evolution dispenses with His in-
terferences and authorship. Will our author explain to us how God made
the species independent from the start? No opponent of development
has attempted to do this, and until it is done, there can be no theory or
doctrine in the field other than that of Evolution. The Evolutionists not
only believe with the author criticised, that God made all things, but they
attempt to show in the field of biology, how He did it.

If they are correct in their interpretation of the facts, there can be, and
is, no interference between their views and the purest morality, and the
most faithful religion.

Other members took part in the discussion.

On motion, Mr. Lesley was elected Librarian for the ensu-

ing year.

321

On motion, the nomination of Standing Committees being
in order, those of the preceding year were continued.

On motion, the reading of the Catalogue of Members was
dispensed with.

Pending nominations Nos. 679, 689, and new nominations
690, 691 were read.

Nominations Nos. 678 to 688 were spoken to by Nominors
and ballotted for; and on a scrutiny of the ballot boxes, by
the presiding officer, the following gentlemen were declared
duly elected members of the Society:

Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist of N. Car., Raleigh, N.C.

Mr. La Motte Dupont de Nemours, Wilmington, Del.

Prof. William P. Trowbridge, of Yale College, New
Haven, Conn.

Dr. William Elder, of Philadelphia.

Francis Bowyer Miller, Esq., of the Royal Branch Mint at
Melbourne, Aus.

Mr. Guillaume Lambert, Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Louvain, Belgium.

Mr. Persifor Frazer, Jr., Assistant Prof. Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Mr. George W. Hough, Director of the Dudley Observa-
tory, Albany.

Mr. William A. Stokes, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Edwin J. Houston, Professor in the High School and
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 2d, 1872.
Present, fifteen members.
Vice-President, Mr. FRALEY, in the Chair.
New members :—Mr. Stokes, Dr. Elder and Prof. Persifor
Frazer, Jr., were introduced to the presiding officer and
took their seats.

Letters accepting membership were received from Prof.

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—20.

322

Wm. C. Kerr, dated Raleigh, N. C., January 29th; Prof.
Edwin J. Houston, dated 3603 Chestnut street, Philadelphia,
January 30th; Prof. Persifor Frazer, Jr., dated 137 8S. Fitth
street, Philadelphia, January 28th ; and Mr. Wm. A. Stokes,
dated 2026 Delancey Place, Philadelphia, Jan. 25th, 1872.

A letter of envoi was received from the Fondation Teyler.

Letters enclosing the draft of a memorial to Congress, for an
appropriation for observing the transit of Venus, were received
from Rear-Admiral Sands, dated U. 8. Naval Observatory,
Washington, D. C., Jan. 18th, 1872, and Jan. 30th, 1872.

On motion of Dr. Ruschenberger, a committee, consisting
of Dr. Ruschenberger, Prof. J. F. Frazer and Mr. Marsh,
was appointed to consider the subject of preparing a memo-
rial to Congress for an appropriation for observing the tran-
sit of Venus, in accordance with the recommendation of
Rear-Admiral Sands.

A portrait of D’Alembert, by Rembrandt Peale, was pre-
sented to the Society by Mr. Joseph Harrison, of Philadel-
phia, who purchased it at the sale of the Peale Collection
some years ago. On motion, the Secretaries were instructed
to tender the thanks of the Society to the donor.

The Secretaries laid on the table for the examination of
the members the 87th number of the Proceedings of the
Society, just published.

Donations for the Library were received from the Belgian
Academy, the Revue Politique; Nature; the Canadian Na-
turalist ; Salem Institute; Old and New; Silliman’s Jour-
nal; Journal of Pharmacy; Franklin Institute; Academy
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Chief of U.S. Engi-.
neers; the Smithsonian Institute; the New York Anthro-
pological Society, and Senator Sumner.

The Anthropological Institute of New York; the Voigt-
lindsche Verein fiir Naturkunde, Reichenbach a-V.; the Zo-
olog-Mineral. Verein, Regensburg ; and the Verein fiir Vater-
lind: Naturkunde, Stuttgart, were, on motion, placed on the
list of corresponding Societies, to receive the Proceedings.

The death of Mr. Edward Miller, a member of the Society,

Feb. 2, 1872.] 323 [ Wood.
on the 1st instant, at West Philadelphia, in the 62d year of
his age, was announced by Mr. Fraley, with appropriate re-
marks. On motion, Mr. Solomon W. Roberts was appointed
to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased.

The Committee to which was referred the paper and map
of Mr. Lyman, on the Punjaub Oil Region, reported. in favor
of its publication in the T ransactions.

Mr. Lyman exhibited a large map of the region between
Rawul Pindee and the Salt Range, published by the British
Government, and described the zoological structure and
mineralogy of the country.

Dr. G. B. Wood, referring to his previous communications
of the use of potash salts in agriculture, made some addi-
tional remarks on that subject.

Professor Cope offered for publication in the Proceedings
a paper on “The Families of Fishes of the Cretaceous Form-
ation of Kansas.”

Pending nominations Nos. 689, 690 and 691 were read,,
and the meeting was adjourned.

Influence of Fresh Wood-Ashes on the Growth of Wheat, Potatoes, &c.
By Dr. Grorce B. Woon.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 2d, 1872.)

In a communication made to the Society at their meeting of January
6th, 1871, in relation to the efficiency of fresh wood-ashes in the revival
of prematurely failing fruit-trees, I took occasion to suggest that, upom
the same principles, they might prove equally efficacious in preventing
the failure or deficiency of the wheat crop, so common of late in the old
settled parts of our country. The opinion was based on the large pro-
portion of potassa found in the ashes of the wheat plant, when burned in
the growing state; exceeding as it does twenty times that of common
unleached ashes. Wheat, therefore, requires a very large relative pro-
portion of the alkali for its growth, more than can be derived from an
exhausted soil, even when aided by manure, which, though it contains a
considerable quantity of the salts of potassa, cannot yield enough to the
growing wheat to insure a large crop. But this was mere speculation,
and the question could be decided only by experiment. Accordingly, as
stated in my last communication, I selected an acre of ground, and divid-
ing it into three parts, treated one with ashes alone, another with ashes

Wood. [Feb. 2,
and swamp-muck conjointly, and the third with muck alone; the muck
being applied as ordinary manure, and the ashes sprinkled upon the
ploughed ground at the same time with the sowing of the wheat, and
then harrowed in along with it. This was done early in the autumn of
1870. Even during the same season, the eye could readily perceive the
more luxuriant growth of the wheat where supplied with ashes, and a
line of division between this portion of the lot, and that simply manured,
was very obvious. But the point in question could not be decided until
harvest time next year. Unfortunately, circumstances prevented me from
being present at that time, and I had to depend for the result upon the
report of my agent, in whom, however, I have great confidence. He re-
ported that he gathered the wheat from small and perfectly equal por-
tions of the two divisions, of which one had, and the other had not been
ashed ; finding no such difference between the two ashed portions as to
render it worth while to distinguish them. On separating and measuring
the wheat, he found that the quantity from the ground where the ashes
were used was about double that from the part which had been supplied
with muck alone, and, in relation to general productiveness, was in the
proportion of about 27 bushels to the acre, far exceeding the ordinary
crop, which, though under peculiarly favorable circumstances, it may
sometimes equal 20 bushels to the acre, does not often, according to my
experience and observation, exceed 12 or 15 bushels. It should be men-
tioned that the ground on which the experiment was made was of nearly
equal quality throughout, and very poor.

But I have to mention a fact connected with these proceedings, which
goes still further than anything yet said to prove the efficacy of potash in
the wheat culture. The common poke is a plant abounding in the salts
of potassa, and, therefore, selects for its own growth new and rich soils,
which have not yet been exhausted by cultivation. Upon the heaps of
swamp muck, thrown up on the borders of cranberry meadows in the
process of their preparation, the poke springs up very rapidly and cop-
iously, so as in a short time to completely cover the heaps; and the eye
at once recognizes a muck bed by this luxuriant covering. By gather-
ing and burning this copious crop, we obtained a quantity of ashes re-
markably rich in potassa, containing at least 45 parts of the alkali in 1000
of the ashes, and therefore very nearly equaling in this respect the grow-
ing wheat. To test the quality of some ashes thus obtained, we substi-
tuted it for the common wood ashes in a small space of that division of
the ground which was treated with this material. Within this small
space the wheat grew most luxuriantly, with stems higher and stronger,
and heads longer and fuller than those of the plant in other parts of
the lot; and, when the crop was gathered, the produce was found to
be in the proportion of thirty-eight bushels to the acre, exceeding by
more than one-third that obtained under ordinary wood-ashes. As
the proportion of the alkali in the two kinds of ashes used was the
only point in which they materially differed, the necessary inference
is that the difference in the amount of product was owing exclusively to

—

QO
1872.] ae [ Wood.

the much greater proportion of potassa in the poke-ashes, which
exceeded by more than 20 times that of the wood-ashes; and fur-
ther, that all the effects of ashes in promoting the growth of wheat
are ascribable to the alkali contained in them.

These experiments were made on too small a scale, and. with too little
precision in quantity aud measurement, to authorize any very exact
conclusion as to the effect of ashes upon growing wheat; but they are
sufficient, I think, to prove that the effect is very great, and that the far-
mer may have recourse, with great hopes of advantage, to this agent, if
attainable at a suitable price. If the plan be generally adopted, the ashes
would soon fail; but I have no doubt that commercial potash might be
substituted for them, with at least equal effect; one pound of it being
equivalent, I presume, to about a bushel of the best wood-ashes, Should
the supply of commercial potash fail, recourse may be had to the alkali
as now procured from mineral sources, which will probably prove inex-
haustible.

A few remarks on the mode of using the ashes, or their alkaline substi-
tute, for the promotion of the wheat crop, may be acceptable to those
who, without previous experience, may be disposed to try the measure.

When leached ashes have been used as a dressing for wheat, for which
experience has long showed that they are among the best fertilizers, they
have been applied in the same manner as ordinary manure ; being first
spread upon the surface, and then turned under by ploughing. This method
is correct; because the very small proportion of potassa contained in
leached ashes is in the form of the insoluble silicate, which cannot be
dissolved or carried away by the rains, but which is probably slowly con-
verted, as wanted, into the soluble carbonate by the influence of the root-
lets, which then absorb it. The unleached ashes, containing the alkali in
a soluble state, cannot be treated in the same manner ; as their alkali
would be dissolved by the rain, and carried away, in great measure beyond
the reach of the roots. I have, therefore, caused the ashes to be
sprinkled or otherwise spread, as equally as possible, over the surface of
the ploughed ground at the same time that the wheat is sowed, and the
two then to be harrowed in together. The grain is thus brought into
contact with the ashes, and, when the alkali is dissolved out, is ready to
appropriate it to its own development. But as all the unappropriated
alkali is probably dissolved out, and carried away by the winter rains, I
direct that, in the early spring, another coating of ashes should be
sprinkled over the young wheat, so as to yield it a supply of the alkali
during the growing period.

The same plan, essentially, should be followed in the use of commer-
cial potash. Being extremely soluble, it should first be dissolved in water,
and the solution then sprinkled over the ploughed ground at the sowing
of the wheat, and again in the early spring upon the crop as it is begin-
ning to grow. :

As to the precise quantity of ashes or of commercial potash to be

9)
Wood.] 326 [Feb. 2, 1872.

used, in proportion to the extent of ground, I am not prepared to
say ; but I believe that I have employed from 25 to 50 bushels of the
fresh wood-ashes to the acre. I have no doubt, however, that this
quantity might be greatly exceeded, not only safely but with advantage ;
as shown by the effects, before mentioned, of the poke ashes, which
must have been equivalent in alkaline strength to at least 20 times the
quantity of common unleached ashes.

Every farmer, in whose family the ashes are lixiviated for the preparation
of soft soap, has it in his power to make a little experiment, the result of
which may determine his future course. Let him beg from the women a
bucket full of lye, and, after sowing his wheat in the autumn, let him, by
means of a tin watering can with perforated spout, sprinkle the liquid
equally over a small portion of the field, and repeat the process upon the
same plot of ground when the wheat begins to resume its growth in the
spring. If he find the product of the small plot thus treated greatly in
excess of the average of the field, he may gain confidence to proceed on a
larger scale, and thus perhaps, materially advance his income.

Within about a year, my attention has been attracted to the potato
erop, with reference to the use of fresh ashes in its cultivation, and I
have little doubt that the same treatment may be applied to this as to the
wheat, with at least equal advantage. On consulting the chemical au-
thorities, I found that the stems and leaves of the common Irish potato
are even richer than the wheat plant in the salts of potassa ; their ashes
containing 55 parts of potassa in the 1000, while the proportion of wheat
is only 47. Now the potato crop has of late years, in my neighborhood,
been much more uncertain than formerly ; even, I think, independently
of the disease which has from time to time made so much hayoe with
this crop. It is highly probable that the cause, as in the case of
fruit trees, may be a deficiency in the supply of potassa, and it is
not impossible that the disease which is believed to have its origin in
a microscopic fungus, may, like the worm at the root of the peach,
depend upon the deprivation of the alkali, which may be necessary
to the protection of the plant against these low parasites. To deter-
mine this point, as far as a single observation could do so, I hada
quantity of potatoes planted last spring in rows, a certain number of
which were supplied with fresh ashes in the hills, while the remainder
were treated only with manure. In the rows in which ashes were
used, the plant grew much more vigorously than in the others, and
the product in potatoes was, I believe, about double ; though I cannot
recall the precise figure, in this case.

I have under way, this season, an experiment on the application of fresh
ashes to the wheat crop on a much larger scale than the first ; and my in-
tention is to pursue a similar plan with the potato, at the time of plant-
ing in the spring. Should I be spared to see the results of these trials, il
hope to be able to present a statement about them to the Society. Should
the opportunity offer, I intend also to try how facts will support my

ake

ne oe

Jan. 5, 1872.] 327 [Cope.
supposition, in relation to the use of common potash as a substitute for
ashes.

I cannot close this communication without referring to the original
subject of the revival of prematurely failing peach trees. I have con-
tinued to apply ashes in the same manner as at first, in the autumn or
spring, or both, to the different kinds of fruit trees; and, I believe, with
uniformly favorable results. The peach orchard, which, four years ago,
appeared to be in a dying state, and had for several seasons ceased to bear
fruit, is now in a vigorous state, and last summer yielded a copious crop.
The old apple orchard, which was so wonderfully revived two years since,
continues apparently, except in the case of a few trees dying from old age,
to hold all that it had gained, though we lost the crop last year through
the destruction of the blossoms by a late frost. The pears and quinces
of which the blossoming period differed from that of the apple, so that
they escaped the frost, were full of fruit; and I was particularly struck
with one old quince tree, which, before the use of ashes had borne scanty
crops of a small, imperfect, knotty fruit, but, last year, under the influ-
ence of ashes, was loaded with smooth and well formed quinces.

T have not yet been able to form any positive conclusion in relation to
the protective effect of fresh ashes against the curculio in the plum tree ;
but I am prosecuting some inquiries in this direction, and hope before
long to be able to solve the question either favorably or unfavorably.
I must confess, however, that Iam by no means sanguine of the former
result.

ON THE FAMILIES OF FISHES OF THE CRETACEOUS
FORMATION OF KANSAS.
By E. D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, January dth, 1872.)

SAURODONTID&.
Cope. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, p. 529. Hayden’s Survey, Wyoming,

etc., 1871, p. 414.

A considerable accession of material belonging to several species of this
family, furnishes important additions to our knowledge of their structure,
and enables me to determine their affinities with more precision than
heretofore. The results are of value to the student of comparative anat-
omy, and also to the paleontologist, as they appear to have been the
predominant type of marine fishes, during the cretaceous period, in the
North American seas, and to have been abundant in those of Europe.

The characters already assigned to the family are confirmed by the new
Species discovered, and many additional ones added, as follows :

The cranial structure cannot be fully made out, but the following points
may be regarded as ascertained : The drain case is not continued between
the orbits, and the basis cranii is double and with the muscular tube

Cope.] (Jan.
open. A large lateral cavity is enclosed by the prodtic, the pterotic, the
epiotic, etc. There are no exoccipital condyles, and that of the basioc-
cipital isa conic cup. The pterotic and postfrontal are well developed.
The ethmoid is well developed and slightly narrowed at its anterior ex-
tremity. The parasphenoid is narrowed and elongate; the vomer is
continuous with it and is slightly expanded and then contracted at the
anterior extremity : neither it nor the parasphenoid support teeth in any
of the known genera.

The premaxillary bones are short, and for: but a small portion of the
upper jaw. The maxillary is elongate and simple. The hyomandibular
is rather narrow and does not present an elongate peduncle for the oper-
culum. The symplectic is well developed, entering far into the inferior
quadrate. The latter is a broad bone, largely in contact with the meta-
pterygoid, which is itself a thin plate, not probably attaining the pter-
otic. The superior branchihyals are short rods.

The relations of the supraoccipital, parietals, frontals, etc., cannot yet
be satisfactorily made out, owing to the obscurity of the sutures. Never-
theless the following points may be regarded as probably reliable. The
frontals have a rather broad union with the ethmoid, and are separated
by suture throughout their length. They do not extend much posterior
to the orbits and are succeeded by a rather narrow pair of bones which
extend to above the foramen magnum. ‘These are not united by suture,
but present thickened smooth edges to each other, and appear therefore
to have been separated by a fontanelle. Each is separated by serrate
suture, from a broad lateral bone which is perhaps the pterotic, and cer-
tainly includes that element, as it supports the hyomandibular. It is not
easy to determine what relation the median bones bear to the supraoc-
cipital, but the structure looks a good deal like that characterizing the
Siluride, or, considering the large pterotics, like the Mormyridw plus
the fontanelle. The shorter form of the pterotic in the Oharacinide and
the Cutostomida causes considerable difference in their appearance. There
is no indication of fontanelle between the frontals in Portheus.

Portions of the scapule of Portheus molossus and other species, are
preserved. They have very stout articular surfaces, and although not
complete, have enclosed, more or less, a very large fontanelle. The su-
perior surface is the larger, and is followed below by two others, the up-
per subvertical and small, the lower larger and transverse. These are
surfaces supporting two basilar elements of the pectoral fin. There
were perhaps three basilars, but the base of the coracoid displays no
surface for articulation of a third. The suture with the coracoid crosses
immediately below the lower condyloid surfaces, and passes just below
the scapular fontanelle, leaving in the specimens a fractured surface
which probably supported a precoracoid. There are two fractured bases
of the coracoid, which probably unite below, enclosing a foramen. On
the scapulo-coracoid suture just within the space between the two inferior
condyles is a smooth hemispherical pit of considerable size, Just in front
of it is another of crescentic form. :

|

|
|

29
1872.} nae [Cope,
A partially complete circle of bones convex on one side, concave on the
other, was found with the remains of two species of Portheus and one of
Ichthyodectes. They look like a sclerotic ossification, and as though
moulded on a globe. They are not segmented as in Reptilian sclerotic
ossifications, nor do they seem to have been completed circles,

The femoral bones, or those supporting the ventral fins are preserved
in Ichthyodectes anaides and a Portheus. They are closely united pos-
teriorly, the inner margins gradually approximating to the union, which
is accomplished by the application of the subcylindrie posterior part of
the bones. In Portheus they are united by a coarse suture. There are
no posterior processes, but the anterior are long and slender. Each is
divided, the inner portion being rod-like ; the exterior plate-like. The
outer is probably the shorter ; exteriorly it rises into an obtuse ridge on
the lower side, and the plate then expands backwards as well as outwards
nearly enclosing a large sinus with the base of support of the fin. The
fin-supporting surface is sub-round, with two exterior and one interior
articular surfaces, and a projection in the middle, which has one or two
articular faces of smaller size. The base of the anterior projections is
‘ather broader in Jchthyodectes than in Portheus.

Three kinds of spine-like rays or supports of the fins have been found
in connection with remains of species of this family, and the proper
reference to their positions and species is as yet in some degree uncertain.
First. The elegantly segmented compound rays originally referred to
Piychodus by Agassiz, and described by me under the species Sawro-
cephalus thaumas, appear to be referable to the genus Portheus, and to be
Supports of the caudal fin.* Secondly. Spines composed of unsegmented
rays closely united edge to edge, and arranged like the fulcra at the base
of the external rays of the caudal fin of recent fishes. That is, the first
very short ; those succeeding, increasing very regularly in length to the
last, which forms the apex of the spine. The obliquely truncated
extremities of these rods form a continuous sharp edge, which is coated
with enamel, and may be straight, or interrupted with low knobs. The
former kind belongs probably to Portheus and the latter to Ichthyodectes,
It is nearly related in character to the spines of Hdestes, the enamel coated
knobs of Jchthyodectes rising into veritable teeth in the carboniferous
genus. These spines are unsymmetrical, and belong either to the pectoral
or ventral fins. To which they should be referred, it is not now easy to
decide. The living allies of the Sawrodontide do not possess ventral
Spines, nor do they exist in Physostomous fishes. In the Siluroids, the
Pectoral fins are supported by strong spines, which remotely resemble
the present ones in their compound character,

Third. There are numerous flat, more or less curved, spines or rays, of
Small diameter compared with the length. One surface is covered with a
thin, gene rally striate-grooved layer of enamel, and one edge is trenchant.
One side of this edge is more or less obtusely rugose, or thickened.

*See Hayden’s Report, /.c., p. 423, where this view is held.

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—2P.

330 {Jan. 5,

Cope.)

These rays thin out to the extremity, which in some cases at least is not
contracted. These rays are composed of appressed halves, are unsym-
metrical with basal hook, and belong no doubt to paired fins. If those
already described are pectoral, these are ventral, and vice versa. A series
of them found together had much the form of either of these fins, while
their number would identify them with the ventral. In the rays
found together, the first only had a trenchant outer margin, while
several had a rabbet along one side of the posterior margin. T have
already described such a spine as pertaining to the pectoral fin of Iehthyo-
dectes prognathus.

The vertebra in all the species certainly assignable to this group, are
where known, deeply two-grooved on each side, besides the pits for the
insertion of neurapophyses and pleurapophyses, except in the cervical
region where the lateral grooves are wanting. There are no diapophyses.
The caudal vertebra are rather numerous but not so much so as in Amia,
nor are they so much recurved as in that genus.

Until the structure of the posterior cranial roof and of the scapular arch
are fully made out, it is premature to state precisely the affinities of this
family. So far as known they are Isospondyli with some characters of
the Salmonidw, and some of other significance. The large foramen
behind the prodtic bone is more Clupeoid in character. The femoral bones
are more like those of the Plectospondyli, dividing in a measure characters
of the Cyprinide with those of the Mormyride. The yertebre are
Clupeoid, while the mode of implantation of teeth is peculiar.

SyNOPsIS OF GENERA.
I. Jaws without foramina on the inner face of the alveolar margin.
Teeth of unequal lengths in the maxillary and dentary bones.. Portheus.

Teeth of unequal lengths, cylindric. ...............+.0+- Ichthyodectes.
Il. A series of foramina on inner side of alveolar wall.

Teeth with sub-cylindric Crowns. .......6. ++ eee e eee eee Saurodon.
Teeth with short compressed Crowns........-++-+++e0+ Saurocephatus.

There are some other forms to be referred to this family, whose char-
acters are not yet fully determined. Thus Hypsodon Agass., from the
European chalk is related to the two genera first named above, but as
left by its author in the Poissons Fossiles, includes apparently two generic
forms. The first figured and described, has the mandibular teeth of
equal length. In the second they are unequal, as in Portheus, to which
genus this specimen ought, perhaps, to be referred. Both are Physos-
tomous fishes, and not related to the Sphyranidw, where authors have
generally placed them. Retaining the name Hypsodon for the genus with
equal mandibular teeth, its relations to Lehthyodectes remain to be deter-
mined by further study of the H. levesiensis.

A species of Jehthyodectes, from the chalk of Sussex, England, is figured
but not described, by Dixon, in the Geology of Sussex.

A number of forms, erroneously referred by Agassiz and Dixon, to
the genus Saurocephalus, have been referred by Leidy to a genus he calls

31872. ] 331 {Cope.

Protosphyrena,* with two species, P. ferox and P. striata. The latter
much resembles a Sawrocephalus, having equal teeth ; while the former
probably includes several species, and possibly genera. The teeth first
referred to it resemble those of P. striata, while others resemble those of
Portheus. An examination of the figures of the mandibles of the last in
Dixon’s work, show that the large and small teeth occupy different areas,
separated by grooves ina manner quite distinct from anything seen in
Portheus ; but, should it prove identical, it can scarcely be regarded as
typical of Protosphyrena, which name, moreover, has never been accom-
panied by the necessary description.

Dr. Leidy applied the name of Xiphactinus to a genus indicated by a
spine, in some degree like those regarded above as ventrals of Sauro-
dontide. It is quite distinct from those assigned to Portheus and Ichthy-
odectes, and may belong to Saurocephalus, as already suggested, or to
another genus.

PORTHEUS. Cope.
(Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1884, po 178.)

Teeth subcylindric, without serrate cutting edges, occupying the pre-
maxillary, maxillary and dentary bones. Sizes irregular, the premaxil-
lary, medium maxillary and anterior dentary teeth much enlarged. No
foramina on inner face of jaws. Teeth on the premaxillary reduced in
number. Opercular and preopercular bones very thin. Cranial bones
not sculptured.

The fishes of this genus were rapacious, and, so far as known, of large
‘Size. They constitute the most formidable type of Physostomous fishes
known. Three species are known to the writer, one from teeth only,
from the Miocene of North Carolina, but not certainly known to be an
intrusive cretaceous fossil; and two from Kansas. The latter are rep-
resented by more or less numerous fragments of eleven individuals,
three of which possess large portions of the cranium, one almost entirely
‘complete. Two of the remainder embrace jaws, and one a large part of
the vertebral column, with segmented rays. In one, these rays were
found with the cutting compound ray above described ; while the simple
flat ventral rays occur with several specimens. In none have any traces
of symmetrical spinous rays been found, nor strong interneurals capable
of supporting such. In none of the more perfect specimens with crania
have the segmented always been found, but the fossil of P. thaumas,
where they occur, is represented by a vertebral column and its append-
ages, which do not differ appreciably from those of P. molossus.

In the cranium of this genus, there is a well-marked supraorbital rim.
Each opisthotic forms a prominent angle, directed posteriorly on each
‘Side of the exoccipital. The parasphenoid is a stout and narrow bone,
deeply emarginate behind, for the passage of the muscular canal. It has
a transverse expansion in front of the base of the prootic, which rests on
4 backward continuation of the same. This expansion is pierced behind

* Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1856,

Cope.] er [Jan.
by two round foramina. The shaft is abruptly contracted in front of the
expansion, and is trigonal in se tion. The prefontal extends down-
wards and forwards, and carries inferior and anterior articular faces ;
the latter vertically transverse. The postero-inferior portion of the
ethmoid bears on its posterior extremity a concave articular face, which
opposes that of the prefrontal. The floor of the brain-case in front is
supported by a vertical style, which is bifurcate above, and rests on the
parasphenoid.

Of the teeth, in general, it may be added that their pulp cavity is rather
large at the base, but rapidly diminishes in the crown. The mode of
succession is by direct displacement from below. The young crown rises
into the pulp cavity, and destroys the vitality of the crown, while the
root is absorbed. Numerous empty alveoli are to be found in all the
jaws of this genus, in which examination will often detect the apex. of
the crown of the young tooth.

The vertebra in this genus are rather short, but not so much so as in
sharks. In P. thawmas, nearly eighty dorsals and caudals were pre-
served ; those without lateral grooves, or cervicals, are not numerous.
rhaps, not more than four vertebrae supporting the caudal
ficult to determine, owing to the concealment of the
There are seven hemapophyses in the

There are, pe
fin, though this is dif
terminal centra by bases of radii.
support, all flat except the first, which is like those anterior to it. The
second is articulated freely to its centrum, and is wider than the others.
Tts condyle is characteristic, being double, and with a foramen between
it and the produced extremity of posterior margin of the pone. It is
slightly separated distally from the third, but the remainder are in close
contact. The radii of the superior lobe of the caudal fin extend at least
as far down as near the end of the third haemal spine from below. The

structure of these parts in the P. molossus, are as in P. thawmas, so far as

preserved.
As some of the spines are not referable to their precise species in this
genus, they may be described here. A large compound spine found in
the blue limestone shale in Fossil Spring Cafion, is composed at the base
of about twenty-six narrow double rods. A few appear between the
others beyond the base making thirty-one altogether. They are very
oblique to the general base, but curve so as to pecome nearly straight,
and enlarge distally. They terminate ina thickened portion which bears
an acute edge, which truncates them obliquely, forming the cutting edge
of the spine. This portion is enamelled ; the edge is slightly convex at
the base, and slightly concave at a point probably beyond the middle.

M.
Length of fragment (12 inches)..---. Pee B ITT Drea bios sighs ets 0.80
AW iciGlis tit MASGik ws cubis loc cw retvoces wreewces 604 ss Raa leu dg oilre
Thickness at DAase....1...... eee ta terse ses Hal vais Nias moeas Uae

.007

Thickness at broken end an inch from CO FO seo uid vis wie vie
This is a formidable weapon and could be readily used to split wood in

its fossilized condition.

‘
1872. ] 333 [Cope.

The third form of spine is represented in most of the species, but
one series of rays with spine may not be referable to any of them. The
latter is flat and curved, the convex edge trenchant beyond the middle.
The posterior edge is obtuse but narrow, and exhibits a slight groove on
one side medially ; proximally there is a shallow rabbet whose floor is
transversely rugose. Several layers of the tissue of the spine beyond the
basal portion are delicately longitudinally striate. The distal half is
broken away ; length of fragment, one foot ; width, 1.5 inches ; thickness
at middle, 5 lines.

The species of this genus may be distinguished as follows :

a, Teeth without acute edges.

Large maxillaries five ; second premaxillary larger than the first ; third
mandibular large, behind a cross-groove ; last large mandibular followed
by 16,—8 small teeth....... fey Se ees y ia wetes Ve Cet wa Lo MOLOBBUS.

Large maxillaries, three ; first piemaxillary larger than second ; third
mandibular small, no cross-groove in front of it ; twenty small teeth be-

hind last large mandibular....... Ev HA Oe es Thoms:
ad, Large teeth with cutting angle in front.
Teeth large, not compressed............ eG cdeawes. yb ONGUUaiis.

PoRTHEUS MOLOSSUS. Cope.
(Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 178.)

Represented by four individuals, one from Fox Cafion, near Fort Wal-
lace, with complete cranium, and many vertebre and radii ; a second from
another part of the same ravine with large part of cranium, and a third
and fourth from lower Butte Creek bluffs, both with fragments of cranium
and other portions. In the first specimen the jaws are perfect and denti-
tion complete.

The premavillary is vertically oval, convex externally, nearly flat within,
and more than half underlaid by an anterior lamina of the maxillary,
The anterior or median margin is regularly convex and exhibits no sur-

face or suture for union with the bone of the opposite side. Its posterior -

margin extends obliquely backwards to beneath the superior articular
condyle of the maxillary and has a ragged margin, though the suture is
squamosal. Its superior margin is deeply inflected in front of the con-
dyle and then convex and thickened. The anterior margin is thick and
rugose with tubercular exostoses. There are but two teeth, which are
very large, and directed obliquely forward; the first is two-thirds the
diameter of the second.

The mavillary is a large laminiform bone, with the upper margin con-
siderably thickened proximally but much thinned distally. It is abruptly
contracted at the distal two-thirds its length, apparently for the attach-
ment of a supernumerary bone. The.extremity is curved sabre-shape
upwards, and has an acute toothless edge. The teeth are, four small, five
large, and eighteen small. These teeth, except the largest, have cylindric
‘bases ; the crowns (and bases of the latter) are slightly compressed or

334

Cope.] [Jan. 5,.
oval; they are straight and regular, and lean backwards. The middle one
of the five is largest, being six times as long as the small ones, but little
more than half as long as the large premaxillary or mandibular. The sur-
face of the maxillary is rugose with small tubercles on its lower half, and
has shallow grooves for nutritious vessels running downwards and for-
wards.

The mandibular rami are short and deep, and have but little mutual
attachment at the symphysis. They are not incurved at that point,
and were bound by ligament only. There is no coronoid bone and the
articular is distinct. It is short, of a rather irregular wedge shape, and
supports half the cotylus, above which it sends a short acuminate process.
The angular has a prominent angle, like half an ellipse somewhat con-
tracted at the base ; below it has a rough prominent muscular insertion.
The bone extends in a long sword-shaped process, on the inside of the
ramus to beyond its middle ; externally, it is soon covered by the thin
truncate edge of the dentary. This element is very large. From the an-
gular it rises steeply to a coronoid process, which has a slight outwardly
twisted eminence, and then follows a gently concave line to the symphysis.
The teeth are as follows: two large, a transverse groove ; three large,
four very small, nine medium, and two very small; total twenty. These
teeth have straight cylindric-conic crowns, with enamel without strie or
facets. The larger are a little compressed.

Measurements of Jaws and Teeth.

M.
Inen giles PROIMASILAY DONG e165 ii 08 ww fois vas ve owas 007
Depth i ee ee ne Cer re er 093
Thickness on alveolar margin........... sly Oly Cia as 016
Length crown of second tooth...... fae Cuenca eS 4 te rahe 046
Digmoter dO. :AbWASCs yeni sickens svi 6 sie (een b os 6555 oops 014
Length maxillary bone from premaxillary......... die {iia 270

Depth fe AU: CONDYOni ner a. es cues Ie os 08
OM ys At MMOS? Cy. vrai ice ey sie VEN she sees 046
Length crown third large tooth................ isle sh cre dee 028
DRAMSTEL COrAo DAO. by ves vhs Ce teens ein O11
Length crown second small tooth from large.............- 006
Wpiemister dost baserieuswiiey. Vivi e 8 oe ete es 004
enSbth Pammusemandwull,.. a6 0 wae riniaie wats 390

te Cams. Wit serie ie seas Gaia Mn. Oe

Me Onangular bone anteriorly. 2666666 is es ote oie 08
Depth at coronoid process :se. ies. ss evel WONT RAL TRG wll?

ny St LOUM LOUtysije sa wear evi wets ews Ine .08
eng boro wihiret tO0bis. seuss ei weds aes Gees 038
Diamoter dos at bAseiinwisnowead «vo saws away ron siie mes O11
Length crown fourth, 00th. isis swniieiegl ssa wspcae sae vs 055
Diameter, dOr-at DAB. wey iw essing soy b> An se aeub eS 016

The opercular bones are thin; the operculum broad, the preoperculum.

a al

1872.] 335

[Cope.

rather narrow. The latter is without armature, and has some depressed
grooves radiating towards the circumference. Length of bone vertically,
M. .245; radius from inner curve, .09.

The vertebre display deep lateral grooves; articular faces smooth.
Length centrum, M. .028; diameter, .048. The fan-shaped hemal spines,
or second of the caudal fin is like that of P. thawmas, but smaller. The
last caudals contract in size very rapidly ; the cup of the penultimate or
last is transverse diamond shaped.

The fragments of the sabre-shaped spine display several layers of par-
allel striate dense bone, and the edge is tubercularly dentate, and one
side is much more rugose than the other. At the base, one side is flat ;
the other convex, and there is a transversely rugose band near one edge.

The scales are thin and cycloid, and though large are not remarkably
so for the size of the fish.

Measurements of Cranium.

M.
Length from angle of opisthotic to anterior extremity
OLGUNIMNOIG 0 6 iii ee Cee enw ne cee Cee tey ae 0.30
Length from same to front of prodtic................. 11
es “ postfrontal to prefrontal across orbit..... ed.
‘* oecipital condyle to transverse process of
PANASPUCHO as sie ce veces seco ue tees ee ests tees Ba
Length from do. to bottom parasphenoid emargination .055
na parietal bone On outer stibure...... 006. 07
Widths WO: aio OMOGen a Vaiss 6 tee es nay ee ge .014
be do. to edge pterotic.. eA
ss HVOMUal au MMICUIS OLOLbs: Crees ooaa tee en Cast ce 04
ve pavasphenoid do, = ...2. 2.4 ae a ec ee .08
jiénpth iiferior QUuadrates cs. rere. ees 20)
. CONDYIG OF (00. isin ase ete ss te 0.08
yu AVIMPIECHIO I Ve isn eats ween ts es 064

The gape of the mouth of the Portheus molossus extended the whole
length of the cranium proper, and far beyond the orbits, since the max-
illary reaches to opposite the occipital condyle. The orbits were large.
The lower jaw was deep, and gave the countenance that bull dog expres-
sion from which it derives its name. The body was short or moderately
elongate. As materials for a restoration of this fish exist, I will give
one at a future time.

PORTHEUS THAUMAS. Cope.

(Saurocephalus thaumas, Cope. Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, No-
vember. Hayden’s Survey, Wyoming, etc., 1871, p. 418.)

This large species rests on a specimen without cranium, originally
procured by Professor B. F. Mudge. The parts preserved are not distin-
guishable from the corresponding ones in two individuals obtained by
myself in Western Kansas, which include the greater portions of the jaws

Cope. ] [Jan. 5.
and suspensorial apparatus. These indicate larger animals than those of
P. molossus, and probably indicate the most powerful of the Physosto-
mous fishes, equaling in this respect many of the saurians which were
their contemporaries.

The distinguishing features of the species have been already pointed
out.

The premaxillary is an obliquely oval bone or subpentagonal; the
suture with the maxillary is not toothed, and the anterior or free edge is
smooth, not tubercular as in two specimens of P. molossus. There are
but two teeth, of which the anterior is immense, and the second little
more than half its diameter. The mavillary is stout, and supports in
front four very small teeth, then three very large, of which the median
is largest. The teeth recommence very small and closely placed in the
same line; but as the extremity of the maxillary is lost, the number
cannot be stated.

The dentary is similar in form to that of P. molossus, but has rather
more numerous teeth. Counting from the front there are two large, one
rather small, two larg
smallest from third to ninth, inclusive. None of the crowns are pre-

re, and eighteen small and medium following, the

served, but the alveoli are round or nearly so. The large tooth of the
premaxillary if proportioned as in P. molossus must have projected M.
-0755, or three inches above the alveolus ; the fourth mandibular was but
little smaller.

Measurements of Jaws.

M.
PCM UOMO sich sta oto s veas oe sas retvas fre sUsD
Depth ee Gees ccs ee cere ee -09
Depth maxillary at condyle................. ee 408
Thickness ‘**: just behind condyle.......... Siler y ea eOeD
Length dentary...633. 0... 20
Depth se at symphysis 08

The various portions of cranial bones preserved are much like those of
P. molossus, but stouter. The hyomandibular is nearly perfect : it is
thin, but has a convex rib extending to its acuminate extremity at the
posterior-inferior angle of the metapterygoid and the superior extremity
of the symplectic. The preoperculum is attached bya thickened grooved
margin, and is not overlapped by the hyomandibular. It extends in a
curved form round towards the angle of the inferior quadrate. Three
elongate bones, closely appressed, I suspect to be part of this bone, with
interoperculum and superior ceratohyal. The last is rather narrow,
and with smooth distal articular surfaces, without suture. The superior
branchihyals are a little like phalanges of Mosasaurus in form, being
sub-similar and expanded at the ends, and quite alternated. The para-
sphenoid is similar to that of P. molossus. The position of the hyo-
mandibular is vertical to the axis of the basioccipital; the superior part
directed forwards.

Sor

ise)
[S)
~I

1872. ] [Cope.
M.
Length basioccipital to end muscular foramen............. 0.077
by HyOManiGibilar 2 Lseae ser as Peas ee 226
re inferior quadrate (Oblique) ....... 400 Ss Ae
a condyle of quadrate..... A RS a zo iiss ABO
Ks preopercurlum preserved........ oe OS hu. 7 Ue

A portion of one of the flat unsegmented spines preserved exhibits an
irregular rabbet on each edge of one side ; width, .042 M. The sclerotic
bones are as already described.

A second specimen is still stouter in proportions, as the following meas-
urements show :

M.
Dismeter masilary condyle; < 36672 2.605 ee any oe se. 084
Diameter maxilla above, behind condy le eats ee ae 035
Length angle jaw (exteriorly):...2.... 0.2.2.6. 0 22s e ee 056
Diameter parasphenoid at middle of predtic.......... Ses 5s QUO
Diameter dorsal vertebra (crushed)....-. 2... agus... sve 6004

The diameter of the vertebra must be a little corrected by reduction.

The largest fish vertebree obtained may be here mentioned. They are
peculiar in having numerous concentric grooves on the articular faces, as
in Ischyrhiza. They are otherwise as in this genus. Length, M. 04;
diameter, .062.

A peculiarity of dentition is observable in the two specimens first de-

scribed, and in less degree in P. molossus. A considerable number of
alveole support no functional teeth (though included in the enumera-
tion), but are occupied at some point by successional teeth. In some
cases the mouth of the alveolus appears to be narrowed by ossification,
even where the tip of the young tooth is in sight ; in one case so far de-
veloped as to close up to the projecting apex. In other cases the orifice
is entirely stopped by the ossification, which presents the appearance of
a scar, with radiating lines of pores.

The type specimen was discovered in a denuded area among the lower
bluffs of Butte Creek. The flat cranial and jaw-bone occupied the sum-
mit of a cone of twenty or more feet in height, a relic of the ancient blue
limestone spared from the surrounding denudation. The flat bones had
shed off the water, which, running off on all sides, had formed the cone.
The second specimen came from the Fossil Spring Cation, near the
remains of Liodon curtirostris.

PoRTHEUS ANGULATUS. Cope.

The crown of the tooth which indicates this species is slender, com-
pressed, and curved backwards, and alittle inwards. The circumference
is divided by two edges, the anterior acute, the posterior obtuse ; the
convex faces separated by these are not equal, that towards which the
crown is curved laterally, ¢. ¢., the inner, being somewhat more extensive,
and considerably more convex

A, P. §.—VOL. XII.—2Q.

29
Cope.] 338 {Jan. 5,.

Enamel smooth, without sculpture; anterior cutting edge without
crenations, more curved backwards than the posterior, which has but
little curvature. Inward curvature slight.

Lines.
Diameter (anteroposterior) at middle crown .......... 0.2.06. 5
ae transverse. ab Middle crown ese. euvig tind ives Ue 4
se ae TOHAR UII os cs ENG oe gk, oe eee ae 3
es AUGOTOMPOSHOTION NOAC TDS ss ive ek bone rede oe 2

Discovered by Prof. C. Kerr, State Geologist of North Carolina, in the
Miocene marl, Duplin Co., North Carolina, with Polygonodon rectus,.
and Ischyrhiza antiqua, Leidy.

ICHTHYODECTES. Cope.

(Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, Nov. Hayden’s Geol. Survey, Wy-
oming, ete., 1871, p. 421.)

Teeth equal subcylindric, in a single row, sunk in deep alveoli. Pre-
maxillaries short. No foramina at the bases of the teeth on the inner
alveolar walls. Vertebree deeply grooved laterally.

The species of this genus are, so far as known, smaller than those of
the last ; and as their remains are more perishable than those, they form
a less striking object among the fossils of Kansas. They are neverthe-
less, very abundant, especially in species, five of which are now described.
In originally describing this genus, the vertebrae were regarded as not
grooved, in consequence of such vertebre having been discovered along
with the bones and teeth of J. ctenodon. Further examination has satisfied
me that this union is erroneous, and that the bones, if found together,
were accidentally so.

Spines similar to those of the Porthei, but presenting certain differ-
ences, may be referred to this genus. The compound segmented spines
cannot be ascribed to it, but the compound fulcrum-like spines are similar,
though composed of fewer and stouter rods. Each of these, as it termi-
nates at the cutting edge, give rise to a projection, giving it an obtusely
and remotely serrate character. It is rugose with enamel deposit, and
constitutes as effective a weapon of defense as that of Portheus. One,
which is nearly perfect, contains fifteen pairs of rods, which expand at
the base, as do the rays of a pectoral fin. Total length, M. .235; width,
at base, .04; thickness beyond base, .006.

The femoral bones have already been described. The maxillary is not
contracted at the end for a supernumary bone, as in Portheus.

The form of the inferior quadrate is like that of Portheus ; in I. anaides,
the groove for the preoperculum extends low down, and the symplectic
has a wider exposure on the outer face than in Portheus.

In a series of vertebree similar to those of this genus, those included im
the basis of the caudal fin are not more than three in number.

1872.] 339 [Cope.

The species are distinguished as follows :

Premaxillary teeth five ; second most prominent ; max-
illary not concave ; dentary with 80 teeth and bi-convex
alveolar border, with obtuse extremity............... aoe I. anaides.

Premaxillaries (?); maxillary straight, large, with 40
teeth ; dentary straight, not produced at end; teeth 26.... I. etenodon.

Premaxillaries five; first most prominent; maxillary,
narrow concave; teeth small; dentary with a hook at
APOX$ GEOG B0..oy ine ee rep ae eo) ecren oe esate ates ecote I. hamatus.

Premaxillaries seven ; first most prominent, compressed ;

BMAL CE occas tet ok ee i NG ees ei ster ee 9 Pe ese eee I. prognathus.

Premaxillaries twelve ; second most prominent, the bone
thuch narrowed above-;- SMaller. ..... cis cts ee eee ete I. multidentatus.

The English species of this genus is figured by Dixon in the Geology of
Sussex, pl. xxxii.*, figs. 9 and 9*. I can find no letter-press or name re-
lating to it, and cannot determine its specific characters from the frag-
mentary character of the piece of mandible figure.

ICHTHYODECTES ANAIDES. Cope. sp. noy.

Indicated by two individuals, one with both dentary bones and teeth,
with vertebrae, the other with many portions of cranium, fin rays, verte-
bre, and other elements more or less separated. The latter were all taken
from the upper face of a spur of a limestone bluff, elevated about five
feet from the ground level, where they were denuded and exposed as on a
table, prepared for the use of the geologist.

It is the largest species of the genus, and the anterior premaxillary
teeth are larger than the posterior. The premavillaries are oblique ovoids,
very convex on the external face, thinning laterally and above. The
superior margin presents a thickening, bearing an articular surface, while
behind it is an open gutter-like inflexion. The large teeth are quite
cylindrical. Both these bones are preserved. But part of the right maa-
illary remains. It is thickened above in front of the condyle and is regu-
larly convex at that point. The teeth are small, there being 10.5 in an
inch. The margin is not concave.

The mandibular rami are preserved almost entire. They are short and
deep, and haye a short angular process, which is relatively shorter than in
Portheus. The margin rises steeply to the dentary, which presents a
narrowed rectangle behind. The alveolar margin has two convexities
with a depression between ; the symphyseal angle is not prominent. The
lower posterior angle of the dentary is quite prominent for muscular in-
sertion. The crowns of the teeth are cylindric, slightly curved inwards.
The dentary bones of the second specimen coincide with these in all
respects.

Thirty-three vertebra are preserved, all deeply two-grooved on the sides.
The ribs are articulated by a sigmoid surface to a broad short element of
a sigmoid form which is inserted in the lateral groove of the inferior face,
or articulated by gomphosis.

340 {Jan. 5,

Cope.]

The spines already noticed are quite flat, without serrate edge, but with
some rugosities near the edge on one side only. There are no grooves on
the upper side, but the dense bone is delicately striate ; distally grooved.

Measurements.

M.
Leneth premaxillary. each caries Shoe tiecs STOR OME RIE fa be bee 0.033
Depth ME Sn Carpe Fa AN Rabe Ret fe apihs re eters 0.045
Depth maxillary at condyle............se eee seen eee 037
Thickness ‘ just behind condyle...... esd sabes a eOLe
Length mandibular ramus.......-++.+.+- pean ee
ee angular process..... Wasi vie JReredcn give doe dati pn
Depth at coronoid process...... ae? aeapeee ie Saeed hee 058
fry o SYMIPD YSIS. s fice ese os Diced eel ae Wan eitenets 3 O41
Length of eight vertebra..........2. cece ee ees <atha 212
Width of articular face.... .030
ee MOT a sears s cet 004.
“flat spine at middle Na ade AD
Length “¢ @ragment). . DD
“ condyle inferior quadrate....... PR Oe be ver OR

The scales associated with this species were thin and cycloid, and dif-
ficult to preserve.
From near the

moky Hill River, Kansas.

IcHTHYODECTES CTENODON. Cope.

(Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, Nov. Hayden’s Geol. Surv., Wyoming,
etc., 1871, p. 421 part.)

Found by Professor Mudge on the North Fork of the Smoky Hill River ;
common in many other localities.

ICHTHYODECTES HAMATUS. Cope. sp. nov.

Represented by a considerable number of remains of an individual
from the blue cretaceous shale near Russell Spring, on the Smoky Hill
River.

The characters which distinguish this species from J. anaides, are
numerous, but they are less marked when compared with those of J. cten-
odon, partly because the premaxillary bones of the latter have not been
preserved. In the first place, the dentary bones of the two are of equal
length and support the same number of teeth; it is concave at the prox-

imal part of the tooth line, but is straight in the corresponding part of

I. ctenodon. The end of the dentary is furnished with a strong obtuse
process or hook, directed upwards and forwards, not seen in I. ctenodon.
The maxillary behind the premaxillary is, in this species, thickened, and
with two articular surfaces, the proximal looking outwards, the distal
inwards and separated by an oblique ridge from the condyle. In J. etenodon

872. | 341 [Cope.
there is but one smooth surface gradually narrowing with the thinning of
the bone from the condyle.

The premawillary is less extended antero-superiorly than in the species
already described, but supports, as in it, an articular face. There is no
groove behind it, as in L. anaides and Portheus. It displays a surface for
osseous articulation to near its extremity on the inner side, while below
it, and on the external face, near the basis of the first and second teeth,
the surface is rugose ; maxillary teeth 43. The dentary supports 25. The
anterior hook is obtuse, and rises abruptly to above the apices of the
crowns of the teeth. It is knobbed above, and supports a tooth not
larger than the others.

Allthe cranial bones. preserved are not sculptured.

Portions of the thin flat spines display the delicately-grooved striation
already observed, while the trenchant edge is bordered on one side by
raised longitudinal strie. The other side is minutely pitted.

The vertebra are anterior, and without lateral grooves. Three of
them are M. .06 in length ; an undistorted one is a little wider than deep,
and the cup is .026 across.

Measurements.

M.

Length ramus mandibuli.....-.--+-- ie ti es a ae
Depth at symphysis......---- pacutestt Side 5 5 uate ee es)
“ premaxillary (oblique).....---- ser ote tee 043
Length be ie Satine eer cites os UO.
Depth maxillary at condyle...-.--+++++++++> pe as
ee ae polind . 7%. 5 6. sk casts oe ce ene 038

ce < near middle...........+22++- rea ee
Width flat spine. .....25--.+s sere eee tes Peicee hee .031

This species, and the two preceding, were not very unlike in size; the

two following are smaller.
ICHTHYODEOTES PROGNATHUS. Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Society, November, 1870. (Sawrocephalus.) Hay-
y ( i NE
den’s Geol. Survey, Wyoming, etc., 1871, p. 417.)

In this species the premaxillary is more rhomboid in outline than in
the others, and is less convex externally. Of its more numerous teeth,
the first is not larger than the last, differing thus from all others of the
genus, and it is in line with the nearly straight anterior margin of the
bone. It is more compressed than in the other species, whence I origi-
nally placed it in Saurocephalus. To this genus it doesnot belong, as the
absence of marginal alveolar foramina shows. The surface of the bone
is peculiar ; in a minute sculpture of impressed lines, or lines of puncte.
There is a very small articular surface on the superior extremity.

From the North Fork of the Smoky River.

342

Cope.] {Jan. 5,

ICHTHYODECTES MULTIDENTATUS. Cope. sp. noy.

Here we have again the convex premavillary of the larger species, with
more numerous (12) teeth than in any other of the genus. These in-
crease in size to the first three, the last being small. The second and
third are about equally prominent, and more so than the first. The bone
is much contracted above, there being an excavation on the anterior
border and contraction from behind. The superior edge is thin, and
without trace of articular surface. Alveolar edge somewhat rugose. The
maxillary is both narrow and thin, but is only partially preserved. It
bears five teeth on M. .01. One of these, with complete crown, displays
a longitudinal angle on the antero-interior face.

No other remains were preserved.

M.
Lienru Ole premumllanyec ys.) ogi ty. ere are 0.089
Depth i (OOMQUGIT : Fries Paes Ph Or +023
HONS Ol POOUN LMG. iis VS s, HG ts eels fess oe 025

From near Fossil Spring, W. Kansas.
SAUROCEPHALUS. Harlan.

Leidy has pointed out the mode of implantation of the teeth in the
typical species of this genus. The mode of succession of the teeth has
not yet been indicated, but is well displayed in a specimen of the jaw of
S. arapahovius, Cope. It is known, from Harlan’s description, that a
large foramen issues on the inner wall of the jaw, opposite each root.
The fractured ends of the specimen exhibit the course of the canal which
issues at this foramen. It turns abruptly downwards between the inner
wall of the jaw and the fang of the functional tooth, and not far from
the foramen. Its course is interrupted by the crown of the successional
tooth. This is situated obliquely as regards the long axis of the jaw.

It is thus plain that, the successional appearance of teeth is different
in this genus from what I have described in the two genera preceding.
In them the foramen is wanting, and the young crown rises within
the pulp cavity of the functional teeth, as in the Crocodilia. In
this genus, on the other hand, it is developed outside of the pulp
cavity and fang of the old tooth, and takes its place as in many
Lacertilia and in the Pythonomorpha, by exciting the absorption of the
latter. The obconic form of these fangs in Saurocephalus is appropriate
to such a succession, and their great length seems to preclude the nutri-
tion of the young tooth from their bases. The use of the foramina on
the inner face of the jaw is thus made apparent, viz., the nutrition of the
successional teeth from without. I cannot trace the canal below the
crown of the young tooth to the base of the pulp cavity of the old tooth ;
and there are canals in the jaw, below the latter, one of which probably
carried the dental artery.

Species of this genus are less abundant in the part of Kansas examined
by me than those of the preceding genera. Two only have been observed
up to the present time, as follows :

843

1872.] [Cope.

SAUROCEPHALUS PHLEBOTOMUS. Cope.

(Proceed. Am. Philos. Society, Nov., 1870. Hayden’s Geology, Wyoming,
etc., 1871, p. 416.)

Solomon River Region. Prof. Mudge.
SAUROCEPHALUS ARAPAHOVIUS. Cope.

Established on a portion of a maxillary bone, with a part of a suture,
perhaps for attachment to a supernumerary maxillary. The size of the
species is nearly that of S. lanciformis, and the crowns of the teeth are
rather short, as in that species, and less elongate than in S. phlebotomus.
The teeth are very closely set, and the alveoli are separated by very nar-
row septa. The crowns are expanded, so that the edges overlap in some
cases. The form of these is much compressed, width about equal to
height, the edges convex and acute. The enamel is smooth and without
facets. The roots are without the facets, shown by Leidy to exist in
8. lanciformis, and appear to be longer than in that species, exceeding
the length of the crown nearly four times. None are, however, perfectly
exposed for complete measurement. As usual, there is a large foramen
opposite each fang, below the inner alveolar margin, and between the
latter and the series of foramina the surface is slightly convex and mi-
nutely rugose.

M.
WEP OF DONC sx. aui vee secede be eke hese eae Nee cw aces 035
Thickness at rugose band ......... see se reece eee e eee es 0055
Total length of a tooth (?) ........e eee e cece ete e eee eee .02
Length of @ CroWD... 1.2... 22. sees eee eeees dp os Ra RAR 0048
Width eer es ee 0086
Number, etc., in am inch. ...... ee cee eee cee eee eee eee ee eee 8.

The size of this fish was probably about equal to that of Ichthyodectes
anaides above described. Found loose on a cliff of blue shaly limestone,
fifteen miles south of Fort Wallace, Kansas.

PACHYRHIZODONTID &.

This family of Physostomous fishes differs from the last in the nature
of its dentition. Instead of elongate conic fangs sunk in deep alveoli, it
has shorter and stouter fangs occupying alveoli, of which the inner side
and part of the anterior posterior walls are incomplete. The teeth are,
in fact, more or less pleurodont, but the extremity of the root is received
into the conic fundus of the alveolus.

The premaxillary bones are well developed, but the maxillaries are
more so, and enter largely into the composition of the border of the
mouth, There is a well-developed angle of the mandible, but no coro-
noid bone is preserved in the specimens. The coronoid region is, how-
ever, broken in all our specimens. The other characters of the family
are not determinable from our imperfect materials.

Cope.] [Jan. 5,

PACHYRHIZODUS.

Dixon’s Geology of Sussex, 1850, p. 374.

This genus was established by Prof. Agassiz, on a jaw fragment from
Sussex, England, with avery brief description. The Kansas remains
resemble this fragment in their corresponding parts, and I refer them to
the same genus for the present.

The genus as seen in our fossils, is defined as follows :

Muzzle flat; premaxillary bones rather long, with two large teeth to-
gether, near the anterior end, behind the usual external series. Maxil-
lary and mandibles with a single series of simply cylindric curved teeth.
Mandibular rami closely articulated by ligament.

The teeth in this genus bear a superficial resemblance to those of a
mosasauroid genus. Their mode of succession appears to be as follows :

The crown of the young tooth was developed in a capsule at the base
of the crown, or on the inner side of the apex of the thick root. The ab-
sorption which followed excavated both the former and the latter, but
the crown was evidently first shed. Finally, the old root disappeared,
and when the new one occupied the alveolus, it left a free separation all
round, Finally, on the accomplishment of the full growth of the root,
it became anchylosed to the sides of the alveolus. The pleurodont posi-
tion of the tooth facilitated the shedding of the root very materially.

The genus Conosaurus, Gibbes, from South Carolina, is, perhaps allied.
to this one. Its dentition is fully described by Leidy, who changes the
name to Conosaurops, mainly on account of the inappropriateness of the
Greek Luvpos toa fish. This word was, however, employed by the an-
cients to designate a fish, and the only use made of the word out of com-
position, by modern zodlogists, is for species of that class, so that it does
not seem improper to use it here.*

Three, perhaps four, species left their remains in the strata examined
by the expedition.

PACHYRHIZODUS CANINUS. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on portions of, perhaps, two individuals, which embrace
one nearly complete maxillary bone, two premaxillaries of opposite
sides, two nearly perfect rami of the mandible, with numerous other por-
tions in a fragmentary condition.

These indicate a cranium of about a foot in length, by six and a half
in width, oval in outline, with moderately obtuse muzzle. The man-
dibular teeth are directed somewhat outwards ; the premaxillary is hori-
zontal in front, and the maxillary narrow. From these facts I derive
that the head was probably depressed, as in the modern Sauri, and very
different from the prevalent compressed form of the Porthed and allies.

*The case appears to me to be different with the name Jschyrosaurus, which I proposed to
replace with Jschyrotherium (Leidy). The latter was given to a genus of saurians, under the
supposition that it belonged to the mammalia, and the termination, theriwm, devoted to this
group of animals by meaning and custom, cannot be applied toa sauriam by any stretch of
metonymy or charity,

1871.] 345 [Cope.

The premavillary is several times longer than wide; posteriorly it
is a subvertical plate ; anteriorly it terminates in a narrow obtuse por-
tion. Just behind this portion it is enlarged on the inner side, forming a
knob, whose upper surface supports the articulation with the ethmoid.
It bears the two large teeth below, on a common elevation of the jaw.
The outer margin of the bone supports ten sub-equal teeth, which are one-
third smaller than the posterior pair. The outer alveolar ridge is a little
more elevated than the inner, though a little less so than on other bones
which support teeth. The external face of the bone is nearly smooth,
and the inner unites with the maxillary by striate squamosal suture.

The maxillary preserved is nearly perfect, and may belong to another
animal; its depth coincides with that of the premaxillary. It is quite
elongate, about nine times as long as deep, perhaps a little more. It sup-
ports forty-two closely packed teeth, not all in functional service at once.
The distal end is contracted and grooved and ridged on the inner face, as
though for union with a supernumerary bone. The external face is lon-
gitudinally striate on the posterior half, the striz running out to the mar-
gins, forming sharp rugosities on the alveolar border. The superior
(palatine) articular surface is more than one-fourth the total length from
the anterior extremity ; it is narrow and somewhat lens-shaped. Both
behind and in front of it, strong striae run from the outer to the inner
side of the superior margin, sub-longitudinally. Posterior to the superior
articular surface on the outer face is a swelling like a muscular impres-
sion, from which grooves and keel extend posteriorly. The bone is con-

“cave on the outer face in front, to accommodate the os premaxillare.

The mandibular rami are abruptly incurved at the symphysis, which is
not serrate, is sub-round, with an emargination entering from the inner
inferior side. The dentary bone is much narrowed behind. The angular
bone extends anteriorly on the inner face to the end of the posterior, two-
fifths of the dental line. The ramus is not very deep at the coronoid
region. The articular cotylus is composed more largely of the angular
than the articular. Its long diameter extends inwards and backwards,
and is strongly convex ; in the transverse direction, slightly concave.
Below and in front of it the lower margin of the jaw is acute. The angle
is oval and rather small, it is prominent on the middle line on the inner

‘Side, the edges are thin, the upper curved outwards, concealing part of

the cotylus. There are twenty-nine teeth on the dentary, whose sizes
diminish towards its extremities. Their roots are very large and longitu-
dinally striate and porous. Opposite the interval between the first two
teeth, there is a tooth exterior to the general row, and another on its in-
ner side. They are not enlarged.

No teeth are preserved except on the maxillary. These are not very

» elongate cones, with round section, and well curved inwards. Dense ex-

ternal layer entirely smooth.
n + : e “of : . .
This species differs from the type P. basalis, Dixon, in that the radical
Portion of the tooth is less swollen, and more conic, and does not project

above the exterior alveolar wall as in that fish.

A. P. §.—VOL. XII.—2R

Cope.] 346

[Jan. 5,
Measurements.

M.
Total length mandibular ramus............... 0267
me of tooth line..... Selig see VORY eC ee 7A0,
Transverse diameter of symphysis....... a8 . iat 8
oe 4 base of tooth. aed ou wee. 004
Length. premamxillarys<sise il... tid do Hates 03) 068

is i to large ool: a etd : bdesnOb
Greatest depth ‘ a es ie euricit018
Diameter large tooth at ioe Be A oe LOOY
Length maxillary to first tooth.... Ae : ae ela
Depth a Abe t i ARIS cA 68 in er 010)
2 n atlast. ‘fa. 2 + deed 401A:

es articular surface. (orm hi ete ee ane 0245

Found by the writer near Fossil Spring, near Fort Wallace, in Western:
Kansas.

PACHYRHIZODUS KINGII. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on the proximal portion of a maxillary bone with the articu-
lar surface, and bases of twelve teeth. It is a species of nearly the same
size as the last, but the bone contracts more rapidly than in that one, and
presents a stronger interior longitudinal ridge. The superior articular
face is smaller and narrower, being sub-crescentic, while the insertion-like
tuberosity is nearer to it, and on the inner edge of the outer face, and con-
nected with the articular face by a ridge, not separated by a groove as in
P. caninus. The outer face is depressed below the articular face much
more than in that species, so that its lower portion becomes more convex.
The roots of the teeth are of the same length as in P. caninus, and as they
are more numerous, they are more closely packed and more cylindric.
Their pleurodont character is also more strongly marked. ‘The superior
surface of the bone is striate grooved longitudinally, and transverse or
obliquely.

M.
Total depth of bone at-articular face... 4s «e+ sicareies ow eee On. O22
Dept Ab TEMGO TOO cigs 9 s,s senpecoe singles, ME he flee Eueaye) ants ® 0155

This species was found near the preceding. It is dedicated to Doctor
William Howard King, Post Surgeon at Fort Wallace, to whom, and not
less to his excellent wife, I am indebted for hospitality and other assist-
ance of a kind essential to the success of my explorations in Western.
Kansas.

PACHYRHIZODUS LATIMENTUM. Cope. sp. nov.

Represented by a right ramus mandibuli with the angle and cotylus
deficient. The posterior portion of the dentary is also wanting, so that
the number of teeth it supported is not ascertainable. The general form.
appears to have been deeper than in the P. caninus, while the size of the
teeth is similar. The external face of the bone near the alveolar border
is convex, and not particularly rugose. The external alveolar wall is
well elevated above the inner. Below the latter, the dentary bone ex—

1872.] 347 * [Cope..
hibits a strong longitudinal ridge. The extremity of the dentary takes
a wider curve from the symphysis than in P. caninus, giving a broader
chin (whence the name) and muzzle. The symphysis is smooth transverse
trilobate, the two outer lobes being separated by an emargination in the
position of the foramen mentale. This form is very different from that
in P. caninus where the symphyseal surface is sub-round.

The anterior teeth are smaller than the median, and have the inner
alveolar wall nearly as much elevated as the external. The crowns are
scarcely distinguishable from those of the P. caninus, being curved conic,
with round section and smooth cementum. They form a single incurved
row next the symphysis. Number of teeth in an inch at middle of ramus,
4.5.

From a caiion near the Smoky River near to the Jethyodectes anaides m.

PACHYRHIZODUS SHEARERI. Cope. sp. nov.

Associated with the bones of the P. caninus is a slender bone of oval
section, which is marked on one edge by twenty-two transverse alveoli
whose outer margin are a little higher than the inner. No teeth pre-
served. It may belong to a fish of this genus, and is probably a superior
maxillary bone. Constantly with this position its outer extremity is
more compressed than the proximal, the thickening being especially seen
in the superior margin. <A shallow concavity passes obliquely across this
border from within outwards and distally as in P. caninus, but the articu-
lar face is not preserved. There is a longitudinal angle on the external
face, and the superficial layer of bone is nowhere grooved or rugose. The
pleurodont character of the tooth attachment is more marked proximally.
Length of piece, M. .041 ; vertical diameter, .007; greatest transverse do.,
-0033.

This species is dedicated to Doctor Shearer, Assistant Post Surgeon, to
whose interest in the subject, the Geology of Kansas is indebted for many
useful discoveries.

EMPO. Cope.

In this genus the character of the teeth is quite similar to that of the
preceding group, but the arrangement on the maxillary bone is different.

The characters are :

Maxillary teeth anteriorly in two series, an external marginal of sub-
equal teeth, and an innerand superior of probably small extent, but which
‘terminates anteriorly in two large canine teeth.

Only one species is known to me.

EMPO NEPAHOLICA. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on a portion of the right maxillary bone of a single individ
ual. It displays the anterior squamosal suture for the premaxillary, and
not far posterior to this on the superior margin, a concavity for contact
with palatine, pre-frontal or other bone as the case may be. The pos-
terior portion is lost. The premaxillary sutural margin extends at right

‘Cope.] .

angles to the alveolar edge to beyond the middle line of the side of the
maxillary. Above this point a process of the latter extends above the
premaxillary for half an inch; it has a broad inferior sutural face ; its
upper margin is thin and oblique. A short truncate process rises behind
the superior cotyloid surface. The teeth are cylindric conic, slightly in-
curved; on a margin of .035 M. there are five teeth and five vacant al-
veoli. The teeth of the inner row are much smaller, and on .017 M., there
are cight bases. The bases of the two large teeth occupy .014. Depth
of maxillary at large teeth, .019; at fractured end, .014, The anterior
teeth of the external series are not larger than those of the inner.

The precise locality of the Niobrara chalk where this species was found
has been mislaid. There is a possibility of its belonging to the Pachyrhi-
zodus latimentum, but the smaller relative size seems to contradict the
supposition. Should it be verified, the latter species must be referred to
the genus Hmpo.

STRATODONTIDA.

In this group I have arranged several genera which resemble Hnchodus,
the longest known of its forms. They are Physostomous fishes as indicated
by the relations of bones of the superior arch of the mouth ; the absence
of spinous dorsal radii; the cycloid scales, and the general relationship to
Esoxv. Agassiz and others have regarded some of them as allied to Sphy-
rend; this opinion was probably derived from the consideration of the
forms of the teeth which to some degree resemble those of Sphyrenide
and Trichiuride. This is, however, like many other minor characters, one
of those which appear in both of the great groups of osseous fishes.

The premaxillary is small, and supports a large tooth in Hnechodus ; in
Stratodus it is also short and supports numerous teeth. In Stratodus the
maxillary supports a few teeth, in Ovmolichthys a larger number. Rela-
tionship to Hsow is displayed by Stratodus, which has broad flat palatine
bones closely studded with teeth ina brush, and where the maxillary teeth
are reduced in size and number. The teeth are attached by the anchy-
losis of the base to the alveolar face of the jaw, resembling thus existing
fishes, and differing materially from the families of Pachyrhizodontide
and Saurodontide already considered,

he genera known to me are the following :

Premaxillary with numerous small teeth, maxillary with
a few of thé same; palatines covered with brushes of
similar teeth, all with pulp cavity. ........-.e.e eee ree ne Stratodus.

Premaxillary (?) Maxillary with a single series of large
teeth which have one cutting edge at base and two at
apex. Dentary with inner series of large teeth which do
not enlarge distally, and some series of exterior smaller
ROBT Lee. 40) orviine. lnenosaua coltalin old. erslQanolichthys-

Premaxillary with a single large tooth; danitaly with
an outer row of small and an inner row of large teeth,
which are much larger at the distal end........-.. 0.060065 Enchodus-

348 [Jan. 5,

349 [Cope.

1872.]

STRATODUS. Cope.

This genus is well characterized by its dentition, which is remarkable
for the small size and large number of the teeth, and their peculiar form.
I possess one premaxillary, a considerable part of the maxillary, and
nearly the whole of both palatines, besides other bones of one species.
These were found not very far from the remains of the Cimolicthys
semianceps m. and it required some investigation to determine the rela- :
tionship between them. Ihave, however, portions of the maxillary and
premaxillary of Cimolichthys, and both of these elements are so very un-
like those in Stratodus, that there can be no doubt of its independence.
T have, unfortunately, no dentary bone of Stratodus, and the outer row
of palatines resembles in some measure those figured in Odmolichthys
levesiensis, Leidy, by Agassiz.

The premavitlary teeth are in two series. They are stout at the base
and oval in section, and are contracted and flattened rapidly upwards.
On this basis is set an oval sharp edged flat, or spade-shaped crown, the
long axis of compression being placed at right angles to that of the com-

pression of the apex of the base. This gives a barbed appearance. The
muxillary teeth are similar in form, but are in but few rows. The pala-
tine teeth are constructed on the same plan, but they are longer, and the
bases are subcylindric and slightly curved. All the teeth possess a large
pulp cavity.

The premazillary bone displays some of the density of composition seen
in Lnchodus. Its upper anterior surface meets the inferior of an acute
angle. It is a broad oval, and is slightly concave. The inner face forms
a truncate rim round the bases of the inner teeth, and terminates in a
vertical crest of dense bone. ‘The external face is, on the other hand,
perpendicular, and extends obliquely upwards and backwards. An acute
anterior angle of the maxillary under-runs it below, so far as to exclude
all but one or two of the premaxillary teeth from the outer row. The
external lamina of the premaxillary forms an extensive squamosal suture
with this part of the maxillary by overlapping it from above.

This arrangement shows a certain similarity to Hsox, especially in the
large number of palatine and small number of maxillary teeth. It dif-
fers materially in the lack of articular surfaces between the maxillary,
palatine, etc., in the upward prolongation of the premaxillary, and the
peculiar forms of the teeth.

STRATODUS APICALIS. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on one incomplete individual, as above mentioned.

The maxillary teeth are mostly smaller than the premavxillaries, and
diminish in size posteriorly ; there are four or five series of them an-
teriorly, Seven to nine rows on the palatine bones ; they are slender and
curved downwards from oblique bases, and cylindrie in section ; they
contract to a neck and then expand into the ovate spade-shaped cutting
apex. They are in every respect the largest of the teeth, some making

350 [Jan. 5,

{[Cope.

ahalf inch in length. Those on the inferior or outer margin are most
slender ; those of the inner stouter and more conic. All the spade-like
apices are black in the specimen, while the shanks are pale, except the
premaxillaries, The palatine bones are flattened in one plane, and con-
tracted at both ends. At the anterior, there is an external concavity
perhaps for maxillary or premaxillary. <A ridge divides the upper sur-
* face lengthwise ; the outer edge is thin posteriorly, and there are two
long grooves which extend to the posterior extremity, probably for sutural
union with the pterygoid. The premazillary bears a slight resemblance
to the mandibular bone of a Chimeroid turned upside down.

M.
Length portion of an 08 palatinwm.........00+-.e006 0.128
Do. restored ........ Ss ae ie VEU sas oto Pwncdp sail tae, 1 Lao
Greatest swiGthl ist. . iannie od. husks i} lathe J Siero nv sa Vitae
ef thickness on margin “itsicn 008
Length premaxillary, fragment. Hib DAS
bi *g dialer side: chistes ted Gaines 025
Me Rg outer to maxillaryy ss gsi 1.64 -012
Width ce infront above iis ns Hewaoie gO
Hength premaxillary, tooth. . wk neatey odes wales 005

This fish was considerably larger than Hsow reticulatus or H. lucius. In
the lack of mandible its habits cannot be fully inferred, but the armature
of the superior bones of the mouth is less powerful relatively than in
those fishes.

Found by myself in the blue limestone shale on Butte Creek, south of
Fort Wallace, Kansas.

CIMOLICHTHYS. Leidy.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856, p. 202. Trans. Amer. Philosoph.
Soc., 1856, p. 95. Saurodon, Agassiz, pt. Poiss. Foss.

In this genus the principal teeth are stout, and have a compressed apex

with a prominent anterior cut
one. There are several series of smaller teeth external to the large ones
in the lower jaw, while in a portion of an upper jaw of one of the species
these are wanting. Where present, they are more acute than the larger
ones. The large teeth diminish gradually in length to the symphysis, a
circumstance which separates these fishes from Hnchodus, where one or
more of the anterior teeth are elongate. In the species here described,
the bases of the teeth are enlarged and deprived of cementum coat, but
there are no true roots.

The maxillary bone terminates in a narrowed extremity with obtuse
termination as in Stratodus. The vomer in one of the species is acumi-
nate at one end, and supports a short series of teeth, the middle portion
ina double row. All the teeth are without pulp-cavity.

The only indication of the mode of succession of the teeth is furnished
by the specimen of C. anceps. Here a small excavation appears on the

ting edge, and a less extended posterior

21872.] : [Cope

inner side of the basis of the tooth. The absorption commencing at this
point no doubt removes the bases so that the crown falls away.

The name used was applied by Dr. Leidy to a fish erroneously referred
by Agassiz and Dixon to Sawrodon, Hays. He did not characterize it,
and until the barbed palatine teeth characteristic of it are discovered in
our species, their reference to it will not be fully established. In the
parts preserved they appear to be identical. ;

The general affinities of the genus will receive new light from materials
now in my possession and not yet developed.

The Sphryiena carinata, Cope (Hayden’s Rept. Wyoming, etc., p. 424),
probably belongs to Cimolichthys.

CIMOLICHTHYS SULCATUS. Cope. sp. Noy.

Indicated by a left dentary bone with attached parts of angular, etc.
The fragment supports thirteen teeth at equal distances, the intervals
often presenting traces of tooth bases. The bases of the teeth are round
and the crowns become compressed to the tip. They are strongly curved
backwards and acute: The anterior margin is particularly convex and
acute, forming a cutting edge, but there is no edge on the posterior face.
The surface is rather finely striate-grooved on the inner and posterior
faces. The teeth of the exterior series are in several rows, that next the
large teeth being considerably larger than the others. They are curved
inwards and are flattened, having cutting edges on both anterior and
posterior margins. Cementum smooth. The external smaller teeth are
shorter in relation to their length, not curved, and two-edged.

The dentary bone contracts irregularly to the symphysis, and has a
thickened inferior margin. The symphyseal surface is small, and pre-
sents a marked fossa, The external face of the bone is divided by a deep
longitudinal groove which is overhung by the produced extremity, and
which gives exit to the mental foramen. The external face of the den-
tary has an impressed groove along its lower third anteriorly, and its
surface is sculptured with deep longitudinal sulci, which often run

together.
ogether af
Length of fragment. ....... eee eee eee eee eee eee Coes 0.18
Depth of first tooth....... siiiae us Sarai eaigd waist eee aU
Ce. Seventh “GU akates Geos ts les a aca vie -028
¢. *bentbid, “cihiws fae get oi ik LTO CR 045
Total elevation of fifth tooth......... linniionh will anole

The restored cranium of this fish is about one foot in length.
From near the Smoky River in Western Kansas.
CIMOLICHTHYS SEMIANCEPS. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on remains of two individuals. One of these embraces

vertebrae, portions of vomer, maxillary, mandibular and other bones with

some scales. The other consists of a dentary bone with symphysis and
teeth,

Oya)
Cope.] 352 [Jan. 5, .

These indicate smaller individuals than that typical of C. sulcatus, but
the principal difference is to be seen in the teeth. These are rather more
elongate, and they have a cutting edge on the posterior aspect of the -
apex as well as on the anterior. It extends but a short distance while
the anterior rises near the base, and is strongly convex. The tooth curves :
backwards; the base is round in section. The convex posterior and
the inner faces are rather finely striate-grooved. The larger teeth of the
external series are convex on the inner face ; they are two-edged, and
slightly incurved.

The outer face of the dentary bones is strongly longitudinally parallel
suleate. The inner face and the surfaces of all the other bones are minutely
striate exactly asin some of the Mosasuuroids, Clidastes propython, for
example. The anterior extremity of the muazllary is straight on one
side, and obliquely beveled on the other to an obtuse compressed apex.
The bevel becomes sub-horizontal posteriorly, indicating a rather shallow
bone. Two of its anterior teeth are a little larger than those that follow.
The supposed vomer is narrowed to a beak posteriorly (2), and presents an
elevated longitudinal and obtuse ridge on the middle line. This supports
a row of nine teeth, five of them having mates. The bone expands at
the other end for a squamosal articulation with other elements. The
vomerine teeth are smaller than the larger dentaries.

The vertebre are elongate and much contracted medially ; the rims of
the cups are thickened, and the cups themselves very deep. There is a
trace of a single median longitudinal groove. The neural and hamal
arches are represented by broad longitudinal lamina in the specimens.
The vertebra are thus very different from those of the Saurodontida, and
bear more resemblance to those of Cyprinodontide.

In the ramus with symphysis, the characters of the latter resemble
those in (. sulcatus. It is very small, and does not exhibit the fossa of
the latter species. The mental foramen does not continue as a groove to
the edge, while there is a deep groove on the inner face opposite to it, not
seen in O. sulcatus.

The first described specimen would have been, perhaps, a twenty-five
pound fish in life. Both specimens were from near Butte Creek, at some
distance apart.

CIMOLICHTHYS ANCHPS, Cope. sp. nov.

Established on portions of a right maxillary bone of one individual,
and, perhaps, the premaxillary of a second. The former supports six
teeth and four empty alveoli.

In accordance with characters derived from study of OC. semianceps,
there is no external series of smaller teeth on the maxillary. The maxil--
lary has a flattened anterior extermination, somewhat as in Stratodus
apieatis, the superior face being excavated and widened and gradually
descending to meet the inferior. The line of junction, where also the
premaxillary commences, is oblique from before inwards, and backwards.
The anterior tooth is a little larger than those following. The form of.

RQ
1872.) 353

the teeth differs much from that seen in the species just described.
They have an oval section at base, but speedily become much compressed
in a direction oblique to the long diameter of the bone, and develop cut-
ting edges opposite to each other, and separating equal faces. The crown
is a little more conyex on one edge than on the other, and has a slight in-
ward curvature. The apex is sharp. The cementum of the crown is
smooth, but the surface of the basal portion below the commencement of
the cutting edges is minutely striate-grooved, some grooves being deeper
than others, the surface having a silky lustre.

The surface of the bone where preserved is without special sculpture.
The upper margin is grooved for articulation with a supernumerary
maxillary.

M.
"eet in Wa. Oi, UWO.sc. sss cess MER ae lea es pests
Length of last maxillary tooth.......... etree any . 0,008
WWONS CiaMeter OF DASIS OL” oli ye oes ec es Peres be 3004
Depth maxillary bone at “ ...... Eee Ole ever es ye 3 ULE

The premaxillary bone belonged probably to a smaller fish. It has the
characters seen in Hnchodus but is shorter and deeper than in the known
species. The lateral groove is here subvyertical and on the anterior face
extending to near the basis of the tooth. The inferior face behind the
tooth expands gradually to its base, which is marked by the narrow cres-
centic scar of the older tooth seen in H. pressidens, The crown of the
tooth was searcely as large as that of the maxillaries, but is lost. Its
basis is fluted, and the surface finely striate. Length of bone, M. .015.
This specimen was not found with the preceding. The latter was dis-
covered on the same bluff that produced the C. seméanceps and the Stra-
todus apicalis, at some distance from them.

CIMOLICHTHYS GLADIOLUS. Cope. sp. nov.

Represented by a single elongate tooth which is intermediate in char-
acter between those of the two species last described, but much larger
than either. It is too large for an anterior maxillary tooth of C. anceps
and should it pertain to the end of the mandibular series, will in so far
resemble the genus Hnchodus. But the cutting edges are opposite to
each other, and not, as is usual in that genus, on one side, leaving the
inner face very convex. In this species the crown is rather slender and
compressed above the base. The anterior cutting edge extends to the
bottom, while the posterior reaches only half-way down ; there is no barb.
The section of the base exhibits an angle in continuation of the latter.
The inner face is a little more convex than the outer; its posterior half
is rather coarsely striate keeled. The posterior half of the outer face is
finely striate. The inner posterior aspect of the root presents a cavity of
absorption for the successional tooth, as in C. anceps. The cutting edge
and top of apex are glossy black. Length from fossa, M. .019 ; diameter
at do., .006.

From a locality at a short distance from that of 0. anceps.

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—2s

[Cope. -

«Cope. 354 [Jan. 5,

ENCHODUS. Cuvier.

Remains of species of this genus occur in the eretaceous strata of Kan-
sas. I discovered a tooth belonging to one of them, in the matrix be-
neath the vertebrae of Hlasmosaurus platyurus. Dr. Leidy describes a
species* from the cretaceous formations of the Upper Missouri region,
which he called #. shumardti. The premaxillary of a rather large spe-
cies was obtained by my expedition, but the species is not determinable.
The diameter of ‘the basis of the tooth is M. .012. The long tooth of a
species of medium size was detected, as follows:

ENCHODUS CALLIODON. Cope. sp. nov.

Finchodus sp. Cope. Hayden’s Sury., Wyoming, etc., p. 424,

The tooth on which this species rests is especially elegant. It is quite
slender, and gradually contracts to the acute apex. The cutting edges,
which extend to the base, are on one side, and are separated in one
direction by a narrow, slightly convex, and perfectly smooth face. The
inner face is strongly convex, being more than half a cirele from the mid-
dle of the length downwards. This is also smooth on its anterior and
posterior aspects, but on the inner, there are nine sharp delicate keels
which disappear as the tooth contracts, the last terminating with the
third quarter of the length. Total length, M. .02 ; longitudinal diameter
at base, .0025; transverse do., .0035. The apex of the tooth is black.

From near Fossil Spring, Western Kansas.

@)
ANOGMIUS. Cope.
(Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 170.)

This name was applied to a genus supposed to be allied to the Sauro-
dontida, and represented by vertebra: only. One species was named A.
contractus, Cope, 1. ¢., which was found by Professor Mudge. I have
seen nothing resembling these vertebrae among either of the three fami-
lies above described, and cannot ascertain their exact affinities without
further investigation. It is clear that they are not referable to the known
genera of Sawrodontide nor of Stratodontide. They present a marked
character in the crowding together of those caudal vertebres which pre-
cede those that support the caudal fin. The centra are shortened and
the prolonged neural and hemal arches and spines lie one on the other,
forming a fan-shaped body. The arches do not, at the same time, become
anchylosed. This structure is seen in the A. contractus and in a second
and smaller species. It finds a parallel in the caudal vertebre of the
genus Ischyrhiza of Leidy from the green sand of the New Jersey creta-
ceous, where all the elements of this fan-shaped body, centra, spines, ete.,
are coossified into a solid mass. This will define family. A species
haying the same structure is common in the Miocene of Maryland. In

* Enchodus shumardii, Leidy, Proc. Ac, Nat. Sci., Phil., 1856, p. 267. isa smaller species
than any of the Cimolichthyes here described,

~1872.] 355 [Cepe.

Anogmius, the sides of the centra, though lacking the grooves of other
genera, are striate-grooved and reticulate. So are those of Ischyrhiza,
and both in this resemble the recent genus Hsox. Add to this the fact
that the teeth of Ischyrhiza are almost exactly like those of Hsox, espe-
cially as to their large fissured fangs, and half pleurodont insertion, some
relationship to the Hsoeidw may be predicated. This is the first hint I
know of as to the affinities of Ischyrhiza.

Anogmnius contractus was about the size of Ichthyodecies prognathus;
the second Anogimius is not more than one-third the size, the caudal ver-
tebres are more aggregated, and the neural spines after leaning backwards
are turned upwards. The specimen came from Lower Butte Creek ; no
parts of cranium or fins were found. The vertebrae originally described
by me as pertaining to Ichthyodectes etenodon belong either here or to
Ischyrhiza; they agree with the latter in most respects, having the neuro-
pophyses codéssified with the centrum. They are several times larger
than those of A. contractus and relatively shorter, being about equal to
those of Ischyrhiza mira, Leidy.

I do not name these species, as they may be Pachyrhizodontide, and
will be in any case better identified from cranial and fin remains.

SELACHII.

Remains of sharks and rays are far less abundant in the cretaceous of
Western Kansas than in New Jersey, and are much exceeded in abund-
ance by the Physostomus Actinopteri, as the present account indicates.
In the region near Fort Hays and Salina, sharks’ teeth are more fre-
quently found. Those from near Fort Wallace belong to but two species

of the genus.
GALEOCERDO. Mill. Henl.
GALEOCERDO CRASSIDENS. Cope. sp. nov.

Established on two teeth of the type of G. aduncus, Agass., 7. ¢., with
one cutting edge much more convex than the other. The processes of
the fang are rather narrow, that beneath the convex cutting edge the
most so. The apex of the tooth is very short, entirely plane, and stands
over the middle or inner edge of the wider process of the fang. The
shorter cutting edge is straight or convex to near the base, where a short
divergent keel develops itself. The anterior edge is strongly convex, and
all the edges are denticulate. One side is more convex than the other.
No denticles. Cementum smooth.

M.
Length basis........ fates ie He alive 0.014
Height crown....... SEOs sate oe dae Sisal hls een Ot
TOON one ve scmes AP ee eee a Payee sth Ree) .005
Width tooth at contraction.....-- ae BRB Bel eae FRCS Te

GALEOCERDO HARTWELLII. Cope. sp. nov. :
This species is of the edgertonti group, ¢. ¢., with the cutting edges
» sub-equal and symmetrical. The basis is broad and with convexities of

Cope. ] 356 [Jan. 5,
the fang instead of the processes of the last species. The external parts
of the cutting edge rise slowly from the base, and then rise more steeply
at an obtuse angle. They are convex on each side above, and meet sym-
metrically, forming a little less than a right angle. No denticles ; ce-
mentum smooth. Edge everywhere denticulate. One side of crown
plane, the other convex.

M.
Henpiltbasis Pow), £0. ose end disoc BEER PPAVARI HOODS
= Pan gs4s, 2s, PEI OdO ABC) S37 0K 49 EGE MUNRO . 0495
Elevation of apex (from concavity)... 0.0... oe, 0145
Width crown at contraction. .... POUQIOE HEA owe GAL, DIOLD

This tooth is stouter and larger than that of G. edgertondi, and was
found beneath the bones of the Protostegu gigas. Itis named after Martin
Y. Hartwell, a member of my expedition, to whose acuteness and industry
I owe many specimens.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
The following species have now been described from the cretaceous
formation of Kansas :
SAURODONTID a.
Portheus molossus. Cope.
Portheus thaumas. Cope.
Ichthyodectes unaides. Cope.
Ichthyodectes ctenodon. Cope.
Ichthyodectes hamatus. Cope.
Ichthyodectes prognathus. Cope.
Ichthyodectes multidentatus. Cope.
(?) Xiphactinus audax. Leidy.
Saurocephalus phlebotomus. Cope.
Saurocephalus arapuhovius. Cope.

PACHYRHIZODONTID A.
Puchyrhizodus caninus. Cope.
Puachyrhizodus kingit. Cope.
Pachyrhizodus latimentum. Cope.
Pachyrhizodus sheareri. Cope.
Eimpo nepuhollica. Cope.

STRATODONTID A,
Stratodus apicalis. Cope.
Cimolichthys sulcatus. Cope.
Cimolichthys semianceps. Cope.
Cimolichthys anceps. Cope.
Cimolichthys gladiolus, Cope.
Cimolichthys (2) carinatus. Cope.
Hnchodus calliodon. Cope.

357

1872.] [Cope.
Fam (?)
(Apsopelix sauriformis. Cope. Hayden’s Report, Wyoming, 1871, p. 423.)

SELACHIT.

Galeocerdo crassidens. Cope.
Galeocerdo hartvellti. Cope.

Of the preceding twenty-four species, the greater part are Physostom-
ous Actinoptert, and there is no species of a Physoclystous family in the
list.* No trace of spines or scales of fishes of the latter character have
been yet discovered in strata of this pefiod in the West, though one
(Beryzx insculptus, Cope,) has been discovered by Dr. Lockwood in the
green-sand marl of New Jersey.

In the second place, it is of importance to observe that the genera have
nearly all been obtained from the chalk of Europe. Porthews is repre-
sented perhaps by some specimens referred to Hypsodon ; one species of
Ichthyodeetes is figured by Dixon from Sussex, and one of Cimolichthys
and Pachyrhizodus each. Hnchodus has long been known from Holland,
ete., Apsopelix, Hmpo and Stratodus being so far the only ones not found
in Europe. This is of much interest in every respect, and points to the
synchronism as generally understood, between the chalk formations of
Kansas and of England.

Stated Meeting, February 16, 1872.
Present, 16 members.
President, Dr. Woop, in the Chair.

A carte de visite photograph and letter, acknowledging
receipt of diploma of membership was received from Prof.
Charles H. Hitchcock, dated Hanover, N. H., February 3d,
1872.

A photograph was received from Rey. E. R. Beadle, dated
1824 Delancey Place, Phila., Feb. 7th, 1872.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of diplomas of member-
ship were received from the Rev. E. E. Hale, dated Roxbury,
Mass., Feb. 5, and from Mr. Edward Quincey, dated Ded-
ham, Mass., Feb., 1872.

*In describing Hlasmosaurus I state that remains of six species of Physoclystous fishes were

found in the matrix surrounding the bones. This statement was founded on the assumption of
previous authors, that the forms of fishes above described were related to Sphyraena.

358

A letter accepting election to-membership was received
from Prof. G. W. Hough, dated Dudley Observatory, Albany,.
Feb. 1, 1872, sending also a donation for the Library.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Publications of
the Society were received from the I. Academy at Vienna,
Jan’y 7, 1871 (XIIL, iii. 81, 82); R. Society at Upsal, Nov. 1,
1870 (77, 78, 80, 81, 82); R. Library at the Hague, Aug. 27,
1870 (XIIL., iii. 82); July 15, 1871 (XIV.,i., iii. 84, 85);
Holland Society at Harlem, June, 1871 (XIV., i., i1., 84, 85);
Batavian Society at Rotterdam, Sept. 23,1870 (CXIIL, i
82, 83); July 26, 1871 (XIV. 1, i., 84, 85): Royal eaitethe
at Amsterdam, Dee 15,,, 1863 (ALL. 112, 81, 82488); b.
Academy at Brussels, Aug. 30, 1870 (82, 83); July 15, 1871
(ADVs ay 84 ae Society of Pliysies &, at Geneva, Oct. 1
1871 (XIV. i, ii, 84, 85).

Letters announcing the envoy of publications to this So-
ciety were received from the Im. Academy at Vienna, Sep. 26,
1871; R. Society at Upsal, Nov. 1, 1870; Observatory at Prag.,
Sep. 22, 1871; Geological Society at Dresden, Oct. 15, 1871;
Central Scie nie Bureau at Har lem, July 30,1871; Batavian
Society at Rotterdam, May, 1871; R. Academy at Amster-
dam, Oct. 24, 1870; R. Academy at Brussels, July 25, 1871.

Donations for the Library were received from the Socicté
Imp. des Naturalistes at Moscow, Royal Society and Observa-
tory of the University at Upsal, Royal Prussian Academy,
Verein fiir Erdkunde at Dieiden, Natural History Society at
Bamberg, K. IK. Observatory at £-Pragae, M. et Holland
Society at Harlem , Royal Academy at Amsterdam, Batavian
Society at Rotterdam, Royal Academy and Obsatnatoity at
Brussels, M. Quetelet, Physical Society at Geneva, Geological
Committee of Italy, Signor Anianelli, of Naples, Geographi-
eal Society at Paris, Bureau des Tronigitudiey; Revue P olit.
ique, M. Chabas of Chalons sur Saéonc, the Essex Tnstitute,
Boston Public Library, Dudley Observatory, Mr. W. W.
Mann, of New York, Medical News and Library, Half
Yearly Abstract of Medical Sciences, Penn Monthly, U. 8.
Secretary of the Interior, and Prof. J. 8. Newberry, of the
Ohio Geolog. Survey.

359

The Committee on the observation of the next transit Ob:
Venus, made a report, with a memorial to Congress, to be

‘signed by the officers of the Society, and another, of like im-

port, to be signed by members of the Society, and others who
may be disposed to join in the object proposed.—The report
was accepted, and the Committee discharged, and the memo-
rial directed to be signed by the officers of the Society.

A-paper was read by Mr. P. E. Chase, on the Correlation.
of Cosmical and Molecular Forces, which was reterred to a
Committee, consisting of Profs. J. F. Frazer, ki. O. Kendall
and 8. J. Gummere.

Prof. Cope laid wpon the table certain fossil remains from
Utah, and presented a paper descriptive of their geological
positions and relations, entitled, “ On Bathmodon, an extinct
genus of Ungulates.”

A memoir on the Geology of West Virginia, by J. de
Stevenson, was presented by J. F. Frazer, and referred to the
Secretaries.

Pending nominations Nos. 689-691, and new nomination
No. 692, were read, and the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 1, 1872.
Present, 18 members.
Vice-President, Prof. J. C. Casson, in the Chair.

A letter was received from Mr. 8. W. Roberts, accepting
his appointment to prepare an obituary notice of Mr, E..
Miller.

A letter of envoy was received from the R. Society of An-
tiquaries, London, Feb. 26, 1872 (XIV. iii. 87); Boston Public
Library, Feb. 28, 1872 (XIV. iii.); N. York Hist. Soc. Feb.
26,1872 (XIV. iii.); Mass. Hist. Soe., Feb. 26, 1872 (XIV. ii1.).-

360

Donations for the Library were received from the R. Bel-
gian Academy, Revue Politique, London Nature, Royal So-
ciety, R. Astronomical, Chemical and Antiquarian Societies,
and Society of Arts and Institutions in Union, H. M. See. of
State for India, Greenwich Obser ratory, Geological and Poly-
technic Society of West Riding of Yorkshire, Leeds Phil.
and Lit. Soe., Belfast Flax Extension Association, New Bed-
ford Public Library, Prof. C. H. Hitcheock, Boston-Old and
New, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, New York
American Chemist, Philadelphia Journal of Pharmacy,
Bureau of Secretary of War at Washington, and the Uni-
versity of Virginia.

The Committee to which was referred Prof. P. E. Chase’s
paper on the Correlation of Cosmical and Molecular Forces,
reported in favor of its publication inthe T ransactions, which
was so ordered.

Mr. Lyman presented, for the Transactions, a description
of a part of the Coal region of Southern Virginia, with an
accurately surveyed map of the same, which was referred to
a Committee, consisting of Mr. Lesley, Prof. J. F. Frazer
and Dr. Genth.

Prof. Cope read, by title for the Proceedings, two papers,
entitled, “On two new Ornithosaurians from Kansas,” and
“On the genus Protostega, a’ form of Extinct Testudinata,”
which were referred to the Secretaries.

Mr. Price read the first portion of a Communication en-
titled, “ Another Phase of Modern Philosophy.”

Prof. Stevenson’s paper, read at the last meeting, was, on
motion of the Secretary, referred to a Committee, consisting
of Dr. Genth, Mr. Lesley and Prof. Fraz ar, Jr., to report on
the propriety of publishing it in the Transactions of the
Society.

The Report of the Treasurer of the Trustees of the
Building Fund was read by Mr. Marsh.

Pending nominations, Nos. 689 to 692 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

March 1, 1872.] 361 [ Price.

ANOTHER PHASE OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY.
By E. K. PRIcE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 1st, 1872.

“All flesh is not the same flesh.”” “There is one flesh of men and an-
other of beasts.”? ‘What is a man profited if he shall * * * lose his
own soul?”

Those who have lived through nearly three-fourths of the Nineteenth
Century, and witnessed the many useful and brilliant discoveries that
have illustrated the past two ages, may not safely venture to discourage
the boldness of any investigations that are legitimately pursued. Nor
will any one properly criticise or censure those who in the main are doing
good service to science, unless he clearly perceives that the great canon of
philosophizing, which all must acknowledge, has not been duly observed.
When such case occurs in matters of highest importance, it then becomes
the duty of the humblest to speak out in the correction of what he believes
to be error, in the name of an all-pervading philosophy, and in behalf of
our common humanity, according to his own conviction and ability.

The first lesson the scientist should learn is that of the limit of the
human understanding, beyond which it is useless to attempt to investi-
gate ; and to recognize as inviolable those secrets which the Creator has
chosen to reserve to Himself, and to which there is no response to interro-
gation. The second, is to make sure of all the facts requisite to the
ascertainment of truth, and thence to draw only such conclusion as the
known facts will justify.

The physicists of this century have studied life from its physical basis,
and have too often made the life and the mind of man the product of
matter. I propose to discuss this theory, particularly in review of Pro-
fessor Huxley’s Physical Basis of Life, both to show that he has drawn
his conclusions upon inadequate facts, and that he has left out of view
the facts that show the distinctive nature and operations of the life and
of the mind.

Let us first consider a few of the subjects having a bearing upon his
theory, wherein the limit to knowledge is recognizable, beyond which
further research is sure to be baffled. Nothing is more familiar to us
than our own life. It is that self we should best know; and we can and
do know many things about it; indeed all about it, except the mystery
how it can possibly be, and can carry on its own functions. We can see
and dissect our bodily structure of bones, joints, muscles, tendons ; brain,
nerves, tissues; heart, arteries, veins, etc. We see and feel the body’s
functions as they are carried on. We see how it is fed with food, and
how the circulations are kept going and the strength is maintained ; and
know that the food taken is transmuted into the living being. We are
invited to eat and drink to appease hunger and thirst, and thereby we
both avert greater pain, and enjoy pleasure. The food is dissolved by the
gastric juice secreted by the stomach, and is then chyme. This in its de-

A. P. S.—VOL,. XIT.—2T

°;
362 [March 1,..

Price.]

scent receives the juice of the pancreas, and the bile from the gall-bladder
of the liver. The action of the stomach keeps its contents in motion ;
and one portion, unfitted to enter the life-process, is rejected into the
draught ; the other called chyle, is a milky fluid, which the Jacteals open-
ing into the intestines imbibe and ‘carry to the thoracic duct and into the
venous system. The heart propels the crimson blood that is returned to
it by the veins, together with the contributions of chyle, upon the lungs,
where it meets the oxygen of the air, is decarbonized, and becomes scar-
let ; and this bright red blood, being returned to the heart, is propelled
through the arteries to the extremities of the body, freighted with all the
material the system demands; the corpuscles for bone, muscle, tendon,
tissue, etc., and delivers them as and where wanted, and from the ex-
tremities the blood is returned through the veins to the heart. The pro-
cess of life is carried on by ceaseless pulsations. The heart throbs; the
arteries expand and contract; the stomach, the diaphragm and chest
expand and contract; the lungs are kept in play, and we breathe ; the
intestines are operated by the peristaltic motion, and the glands and
absorbents are ever at work. All this we perceive, or the anatomist or
physiologist does for us, and to him all is as familiar as things of daily
observation. But can he tell us what life is, or how it acts with an intel-
ligence surpassingly wonderful? We see in this process that the food
has become part of the living being ; and it will remain such so long as it
is useful to the creature, and when any part becomes useless in the animal
economy it is rejected, so that after a few years the whole system is com-
posed of new materials, but the same life of identical consciousness has
ges of the life-mo-

survived, and may survive more than ten entire cha
lecules. It is the life in the body, and only the life that has had power to
take in, digest, and assimilate the organic food we eat, and make it part
of itself. Why or how the thing we call life can do all this, no micro-
scope reveals to our sight ; no skill of dissection can reach it ; no cunning
of thought can teach us. We only witness the process and the fact of
life. The Power that created the life, and endowed it with its wonderful
intelligence, has chosen to keep this secret to Himself; and though it is
ourself, and we are always conscious of its presence and action while we
live, we can never tell what it is, or how it lives. We must accept it as
an ultimate fact ; but from that fact we may, if we are logical, infer that
it had an Author, who could create it, and yet permit us never to know
His secret, though that secret be our own life. The unknowable is thus
dwelt upon not only to heighten our conception of Deity, but to show
where time and labor would be spent in vain ; and also, because it is salu-
tary that all who investigate science should do so with the humbling
consciousness that all that is known bears a very small proportion to that
which here cannot be known. Yet, from the known, from the evidence
of its design, and power, and beneficence ; its obedience to law, and har-
monious movements ; its grandeur and glory, we surely infer a Creator,.
Almighty and Omniscient.

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Let us go back a stage in the being of this life, whose source and nature
we are invited by Dr. Huxley to investigate. From a vitalized ovum,
seemingly but a speck of jelly, the fotal being is developed into a body,
with every part prepared to begin the hardening process of breathing life.
Until birth it derives its nourishment from the mother by the umbilical
cord attached to its navel. In due time it is expelled, by nature’s timely
effort, that child and mother may continue to live. The physical liga-
ment that united them is severed, and the separate life begins. The
child now breathes for itself, and takes food into its own stomach. Still
the nourishment comes from the mother, and nature has provided it, as
wanted, in her breast. At those fountains the child drinks by a process
its instinct has already taught it. Its food is that adapted to enter into
its circulation and nourish its life. The lacteal ducts absorb the milk and
carry it into the current of life. Why this should all be, we readily un-
derstand ; but how this harmonious process takes place, with such sure
observance and beneficent end, we cannot penetrate. We say that nature
and instinct do that we so admiringly behold. But if nature had an
Author, then it was God who does it, tocontinue our race. Yet He re-
tains the secret He chooses not to reveal.

But we must recede yet further to reach the physical beginning of life.
In animals and vegetables of highest organization, we find that there are
two sexes requisite to the reproduction of life. We will take the illustra-
tion from the vegetable kingdom, whence the inference may be made to
the animal, including man. When the sun’s varmth revisits us, and
spring has come with her showers, we have also the flowers. These are
not only for our pleasure and refinement of taste, but they are nature’s
bridal habiliments. The two sexes may be found in the game blossom ;
or in separate blossoms on the same, or different trees. The base of the
pistils contains the female ovules, made but to perish in sterility unless
they shall receive the pollen formed in the anthers of the stamens ; but
are not permitted to perish, for the breezes are ever transporting the dust
of the pollen to the awaiting ovules ; and the busy bee and insects, as they
flit from flower to flower, assist in nature’s requirement. Inthe speck of
male dust is the beginning of life, to find its necessary receptacle in the
female molecule of matter. The ovules are fructified ; the flower fades
and dies, for it has fulfilled its office ; but the seed grows and matures, and
is the germ of another life, that shall be like unto the parent. All thisis
watched, aud surely observed; it is beautiful to behold, and. of most
beneficent purpose, for without it all vegetable and animal life would
cease upon the earth. But the ultimate secret who can find out? Why
the pollen should be requisite to fructification ; how it should have the
power thus to impart life, man has never found out, and probably will
never discover. We have looked upon the renewed vernal life of the
vegetable kingdom with sympathy, and in that sympathy we have invested.
nature with our own feelings, and she has seemed to us sensient of joy..
And now, returning to ourselves, as subjects of the like process, we behold:

364 [March 1,

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the fruit to be not only new life, but in its consequences to be man’s chief
resource for all his happiness ; for hence spring, the comforts and refine-
ments that belong to the family ; the love of wife and children ; intellec-
tual culture, developed affections ; and the training of human souls. We
have been thus led by a pleasurable instinct, and a virtuous obedience, to
continue our race, and have found therein our best welfare and highest
excellence. God has done this, yet has kept His secret.

But science will ever interrogate nature ; does so boldly but not blam-
ably. She will with telescope ceaselessly sweep the heavens ; she will
with microscope untiringly explore a boundless life that everywhere teems
unseen by the naked eye ; she ever applies her chemical tests and analyses
as keen as the sharpened human intellect. Her researches are well re-
warded ; but she may not know all. For often it happens, that ‘Seeing
ye shall see, and shall not perceive.’”? With the microscope and scalpel
the sources of life are explored, and science announces that all life, in the
higher organizations, comes and is maintained by the blood propelled from
the heart. Thence came the parental germs that have mét and started
the embryonic life; thence has come every increment that has given the
body growth from the gelatinous germ to the mature man. You have
traced the physical being back to nearly its starting point, and found its
component parts all to have been molecules of matter, or corpuscles, or
cells in the blood. These the physiologist declares to be the physical basis
of life. We may not venture to deny this conclusion, for his dissections
and magnified sight have revealed what he describes, and it comports
with our observations. But chemical tests can but imperfectly verify his
observations, for they can only be applied to matter dead, and when life
has ceased to resist nature’s chemistry, that chemistry is quick to change
the material which had been the living source of life’s supply. The as-
sisted eye has seen in that crimson current, says Huxley, ‘‘ innumerable
multitudes of little, circular, discoidal bodies, or corpuscles, which float
in it and give it its color, (and) a comparatively small number of colorless
corpuscles, of somewhat larger size and very irregular shape.’? Huxley
speaks of these as marvelously active, changing their form with great
rapidity, as if independent organisms ; and their substance he calls proto-
plasm. These he calls the units of the human body, and says: ‘ Beast
and fowl, reptile and fish, mollusk, worm and polyp, are all composed of
structural units of the same character, namely, masses of protoplasm
with a nucleus.’? ‘Thus it becomes clear that all living powers are cog-
nate, and that all living forms are fundamentally of one character.’
Thus while Darwin would make all living beings related by descent from
a common parent, Huxley would make all to be related as creatures of
the same blood.

Now the only reliable basis for such conclusions seems to be the mag-
nified vision, limitedly applied, revealing similarity of looks and activities.
The elements of the universal protoplasm are stated to be ‘carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.”’? But it is not shown or said that these

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1872.] 365 [Price-
exist in the like proportion in the protoplasm of different creatures,
which might explain much of the difference there is in their structure.
Thus if the proportion of oxygen in the air was considerably increased, all
life would be burnt up ; and if the proportion of nitrogen were consider-
ably increased in the atmosphere we breathe, all life would be extin-
guished, Without much more observation than appears to have been
made, science cannot insist upon the sweeping generalization Dr. Huxley
has made, that all living creatures are cognate. His facts are few, and
the theory deduced runs counter to the common observations of men,
Likeness in the looks of the white corpuscles, without showing of what
they consist, or actually do, is not proof adequate to the induction. The
ova in the ovarium of living creatures, and the initiate particle that vital-
izes them, may appear much alike under the microscope; but from the
ovum of one comes a fish, from another a fowl, from another a beast, and
from another man. It is inferable that from the germ upwards the struc-
tures of these creatures have had various elements and in differing pro-
portions. Were it not so, creatures so diverse in form and nature, it
seems not reasonable to believe, could be the result. This objection Hux-
ley does not attempt to explain.

Again, the different kinds of food that animals live upon show that the
nourishment that feeds their life, in its first vitalized stage, called by
Huxley protoplasm, must vary in the nature and proportions of its ele-
ments. Some live on animal food only ; others upon grasses and grain
only ; man upon animal food, grain and vegetables. Some can eat with

impunity things poisonous to others. Some, too, secrete deadly poison
from the material within them. The qualities of the things eaten or
drank must enter into the circulation and growth, and these must furnish
molecules or cells of qualities such as the body demands. Portions of
food are to be rejected ; first without entering the circulation, and after-
wards through the secreting glands, The breath of the drunkard shows
that alcohol has entered his circulation and is exhaled from his lungs; it
is shown in the capillaries of his face ; and by dissection, it is perceived in
the brain. The nursing mother, who has taken medicine, transmits a
portion of it to her child, by the milk secreted from her blood. Many
medicines are administered with the view to their effect through the blood-
circulation. These enter the vital current and produce their known effects.

The cold-blooded and warm-blooded animais, the edible and poisonous,
cannot be taken to be creatures of the same substance ; and though they
may have been built up from a fluid circulation, it cannot reasonably be
inferred that they have been composed of the same elements ; and if not
of the same elements, the protoplastic theory to unify life becomes base-
less: ‘All flesh is not the same flesh.”’

3ut if the vitalized ova and protoplasm that start and build up life
were homogeneous, or approximately so, only the more wonderful must
be the power of the life which can construct creatures of the diversity we
behold in sea, or air, or upon the land, from the same elements. From

2
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countless globules the work is done. But each living creature is to re-
produce its like, and is ever to reproduce only that; such is its mission,
and it unerringly fulfills that mission. Hither the life does this, or He
that created the life. It is no known property of matter to produce life.
And the more the elementary materials are alike, the more each life must
do; the more it must rule over the materials to produce the diversified
results ; and the less the materials could have had mastery over them.
We know well what the life appears to do, for she does all under our eyes
and within us ; yet she dwells herself in impenetrable mystery. What

she is, and how she can carry on her operations, no man may fully know.
The keenest in scrutiny are not agreed as to the import of what they see,
and Dr. Huxley has not explained whence the colorless corpuscles he
calls protoplasm are derived ; does not say whether they are particles of
food or chyle in transition to blood corpuscles, as that which is more
vitalized, or whether they are derived from the latter; or whether red
blood contributes any material for the construction of the body. The
proportion of the colorless corpuscles to the red is less than three in one
thousand (Dr. Carpenter’s Physiology, sec. 15). To make the few color-
less corpuscles suftice for the consummation witnessed, seems cause inade-
quate to the results; and is to make the vastly greater mass of red blood
useless in the process, except it be merely as a tide to bear along the vital

corpuscles to the places of destined use. He gives no reason why the
white should be the exciusive material; or as he compares it, why the clay
or brick, with which the house is to be built, is alone to be used, though
that house is to contain also all other requisites to comfort: the plastering,
doors, windows, floors, furniture and upholstery. It appears to be an as-
sumption requiring proof, that the few white particles alone contribute to
form and repair the different parts, the bone, muscle, tendon, tissue, ete.,
and contrary to different ends to be subserved, and to the universal econ-
omy of nature that does nothing uselessly. These different parts demand
particles of like nature to each respectively. We know, too, that the
flesh may be changed in color and quality by the material fed, as the
feeders of stock well know; and this seems proof that the elements that
nourish and fatten are not protoplastically the same in substance or color.

Dr. Carpenter speaks of the red corpuscles as ‘especially concerned in
preparing pabulwm for the nervous and muscular tissues, the former of

which is distinguished by the presence of phosphorized fats, and the
latter by the remarkable predominance of the potash salts ; and this view
derives further confirmation from the fact that a flesh diet seems to have
a decided effect in the formation of red corpuscles.’ (Physiology, Sec.
160.) And he devotes some paragraphs to show that the colorless cor-
puscles are but another stage of the evolution of the red corpuscles. (Sec.
163, etc.) Again he says, ‘‘That the corpuscles, however, both red and
colorless, are living cells, and that, like other cells, they possess vital en-
dowments peculiar to themselves, is not now questioned by any one.’’

(Ib. Sec. 196.)

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1872.] 307 [Price.

We are to go deeper than a certain likeness in protoplasms, to under-
stand so much of life as we are permitted to know. Dr. Huxley in his
article entitled, ‘‘ Yeast,’’ disclaims having said anything new in his lecture
upon ‘The Physical Basis of Life.’ He is, however, responsible for
what he adopts, and for the breadth and length of his deductions. Pro-
toplasm he considers the basis of life, and that it is a physical basis ; and
he assigns no other than this as cause of life, and makes the life but a
property of the protoplasm. He says: ‘(If the properties of water may
be properly said to result from the nature and disposition of its compo-
nent molecules, I can find no intelligible ground for refusing to say that
the properties of protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its
molecules.’”? Nature is deemed exuberant of one aliment, called proto-
plasm, that supports all the life of the world, whether received by the
roots into the circulation of the trees, or by the stomach into the cireu-
lations of animals; ‘‘a unity of power or faculty; a unit of form, and
a unit of substantial composition ; does pervade the whole living world.”
He continues, ‘‘ All the multifarious and complicated activities of man
are comprehensible under three categories : either they are immediately
directed towards the maintenance and development of the body, or they
effect transitory changes in the relative positions of parts of the body, or
they tend towards the continuance of the species. Even these manifes-
tations of intellect, of feeling and of will, which we rightly name the
higher faculties, are not excluded from the classification.” “ This pro-
toplasm exhibits the phenomena of life.’”” These extracts, and the drift
of the lecture show that the author is not merely showing what is the
physical basis of life, but is attempting to show that life is but a property
of matter which accounts for all bodily and mental activities. He makes
life a property of protoplasm ; and protoplasm a thing composed of car-

bon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; as water is a thing composed of
hydrogen and oxygen ; and that as ‘ aquosity ’’ cannot be said to exist to
produce the water from said two gases, so is ‘‘vitality’’ not to continue
to be spoken of as something existing in the living matter, which had no
representative in the non-living matter which gave rise to it. But the
water is a chemical compound, and protoplasm consists of parts not
chemically united ; but united by that thing called life that resists chemi-
cal action ; that has properties of a nature other than chemical, and is in
all nature peculiar and discriminated. We see that he would thus sink
the life into protoplasm, and make it and the intellect but a property of
matter. But others should make better observation and induction.

It may well be asserted from all that we can observe and know, that
matter cannot originate life; nor life matter. Each logically demands a
Creator. Life cannot originate itself; but only continue the previously
created life, by a power conferred on life to continue life. Dead matter
may be vitalized and thus become part of the living body; but the life.
must first be, to appropriate matter for its uses, to vitalize it, and to build
up the living body and to continue it in life. In all time, only life has

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initiated the beings of the successive generations. We have only to con-
sider all we know to be assured of these truths. No protoplasm could
now exist, unless life had produced it. It never has been chemically or
otherwise than by life produced, except as first created. It is only found
in the vital current produced from dead food. The immediate cause of
it there must, therefore, be the preceding vital processes, endued with
power to impart life to dead matter. In this result, Dr. Carpenter con-
siders the liver and spleen perform important service.

The interest of science and truth require that we here take a yet closer
view of life’s origin and perpetuation. Our love of truth and our rever-
ence for God will preserve us from every unhallowed thought. No obser-
vation or philosophy can account for the first pair of each living species,
otherwise than by the logic that all that we behold must have had a
transcending Creator. Our race must have had its Adam and Eve, or
first parents, ungenerated. Judging from ali that observation, and
science, and history can teach us, every subsequent being has had its
incipient germ of life from a male parent, but only to become another life
when that germ has met the prepared oyule in the mother that is to afford
the offspring its nourishment and growth. It is only that seminal germ
that is the incipient life, that first unites with the ovules and afterwards
appropriates every other particle of matter that enters into the life of the
new being. How nourished from the mother, we have noticed. In due
time, but by coarser food, the man and the woman of each generation
are built up to their mature perfection. But it was the life, beginning as
a speck, that began and has completed the structure by employing the
subservient molecular matter. /The matter of itself could have taken no
step in the process ; it could have sent not a cell to form the growin
living structure, if the pre-existing life had not prepared that cell from
matter drawn by the-life-process into the life-current, and afterwards
placed it where the life-builder required its service. That which was
dead in the stomach took life in the blood ; for the life-blood had power
to impart its life to the elements it needed for the body’s growth.
It is true now as when Moses gave his commandments, ‘‘The blood is
the life ; and thou mayest not eat the life with the flesh.”

Dr. Carpenter says: ‘After the Chyle and Lymph have began to flow
into the circulating current, the continued generation of red corpuscles is
due to the progressive metamorphosis of the corpuscles of those fluids,
is an opinion that has come to be very generally received by physiolo-
gists.” (Ib. Sec. 168.) ‘Looking, again, to the undoubted vitality of
the corpuscles, and to the strong ground for regarding fibrin also as an
instrument of vital force, we cannot but perceive that the life of the
blood is as legitimate a phrase, and ought to carry as much meaning in
it, as the life of a muscle.”’ (Ib. Sec. 221.) “*Thus then, we seem justified
in the belief that the Blood, like the solid tissues, has a formative power
of its own, which it exerts in the appropriation of the new material sup-
plied to it from the food.’’ (Ib. 222.) ‘‘There is not, in fact, a more

1872.] 369

remarkable indication of ‘the Life of the Blood,’ than is afforded by its
extraordinary power of self-recovery, after having undergone the excessive
perversion which is consequent upon the introduction of the more potent
zymotic poisons; and every philosophical physician is ready to admit

that, in this ots medicatrixy nature, rather than any remedial agency’

which it is in his power to apply, he must look for the restoration of
his patient.” (Ib. Sec. 282.) It is the Life that is thus potent to carry
on her work ; to repel injury, and to cure.

Let any one look back upon the origin of life and its perpetuation, and
he must say, in the retrospect, ‘‘Between me and the first man of my
race the thread of life has never been broken. I am more than link of a
chain; I am part of that first life, never yet severed. As his was from
God, so is mine that of an ancestry of one continuous life.’? At the
inception of each generation that has preceded each of us through many
thousands of years, life was but an inherited speck ; but that speck was
part of the next preceding life—commissioned to seize upon matter for
its growth, in manner to fulfill the design of the Creator of the first life,
and no other—and bound to arrest its own growth when that design
should be filled out ; but yet continue the nurture of the normal being
until its strength should be spent by its assigned lapse of years, or sooner
termination by disease, or casualty. If it has left offspring, the continuous
line of life may never be broken,—as certainly it will not have been as
to any survivors of the race, whoever they may be; for between them and
the first parent, at any future age, their genealogy, their life, will never
have been severed. But the elements of matter that have composed the
bodies of the countless ancestry will have been dissipated ten thousand
times, and gone the many repeated rounds of life and death; yet one
continuous line of life has connected all the generations by a continuity
more complete than a chain of many severed but interlocked links—by an
actual physical and vital portion transmitted from every parent to every
child; being as truly one continuous life, as that the planted willow slip
continues the life of the parent tree. "

Let not, then, the materialist persuade us that matter has done all this
by matter’s inherent power. The ceaseless life has done it, compelling
inert matter to obey it; and thus will it use matter to carry on all the
life of earth, while the world shall last. The dead matter so used could
of itself exert no such power; could not initiate life ; could exercise no
cunning of construction; but only life can continue, carry on, and per-
petuate life ; so transmute dead matter to living, and make it part of that
life, whose stream in humanity commenced with the first created man,
and will only end with the last. All this is sure induction from bound-
lessly observed facts ; and reverses the theory of the materialist. And all
that life has done so wonderfully and so intelligently, it has done and
ever does without a conscious will of its own. It must, therefore, do it
by a will and Power that is above it, and that rules the life ; the Power
that gives and rules the instinct of the animal; the Power that gives the

A. P. S,—VOL,. X17.—2U

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mind of man and also rules it, except as He has conferred upon it free-

will, within permitted limits.

The author of the essay on the Physical Basis of Life, carries his induc-
tion beyond animate life. He makes matter cause of life, and he places
vegetable life on the same basis with the animal, and makes the like
protoplasm the source of both. Both, indeed, have their circulations in
which are contained material elements for growth, but elements of a quite
different nature and derivation. The animal lives on organic matter ;
dead matter that has had life in it; the vegetable derives its supply fresh
from inorganic matter in the earth or air. This leaves us justly to infer
that the elements of growth are of different kinds ; and if so, that there
then can be no protoplasmic kindred, and nothing is gained by the theory.
The fluid in the thistle and other plants have a contractility that gives
movement to the circulation and diffuses the molecules or protoplasm.
That shows a different impelling force from that of the heart of the
animal ; and rather indicates a want of identity of protoplasmic material,
while the wants of the two growths demand different material. The

animal’s circulation constantly repeats its rounds, while the plant’s growth

depends upon a single fluid transmission from root to leaf, and from leaf
to root, as the seasons change. Huxley would confound the two great
kingdoms of nature, because there is a very limited agreement in the
appearances and behavior of the tluid supply of both. Contrasting plants
with the lowest animals, he says, ‘‘it may well be asked, how is one mass
of non-nucleated protoplasm to be distinguished from another? Why
call one ‘plant,’ and the other ‘animal’?”? The answer naturally would
be because they are of different natures, showing that their protoplasm
should be different in elements, and because the animal has sensation, the
plant none ; and usually other obvious distinctions. .'To call the supply
of vitalized food by the same name, without proof that its elements are
the same, seems to be a summary way of breaking down distinctions
between the difterent kingdoms of beings and things of life.

Continuing our attention to vegetable life, let us judge the tree by the
fruit. Can anybody imagine the resin of the evergreen to be identical
with the sap of deciduous trees? The inflammable turpentine to be the same
as the watery sap that would extinguish fire ? Can the oak and hemlock,
whose bark contains tannin, have the same base as the sap of the sugar
maple and sugar cane? Can the tea and coffee trees, producing theine,
come from the same elements as the palm and olive trees? The gums of
commerce, the varnishes, the resins; the spices, cloves, nutmegs; the
vegetable coloring matters ; tobacco, opium, hashhish ; and cinchonia and
all vegetable drugs; it is impossible to believe that all these, and plants
that produce deadly poisons, had the same base with our farinaceous food,
and edible fruits. Theory that attempts to destroy these distinctions by
a few observations so narrowly based as that in question, must meet with
deserved incredulity, by mankind. The canon of legitimate induction is
violated. A similtude of molecules presented to the vision by the micro-

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scope, that tells nothing of their inherent properties or proportions, can-
not determine the base of plants to be the same, when their qualities as
medicines, coloring material, or nourishing food, or poisons, are infinitely
varied and the opposite of each other.

This physical basis of life that is thus extended so broadly, Huxley, in
a measure, defines, by saying, ‘‘that as all protoplesm is proteinaceous,
or, as the white, or albumen of an egg is one of the commonest examples
of a nearly pure proteine matter, we may say that all living matter is
more or less albuminoid.’? Well, that may be, if sufficient latitude be
allowed to the words ‘‘more or less,’’ and yet all be as different as the
things above enumerated, with many other things of contrary elements
constituting their ‘living matter,’’ for all that is not albumen must then
be something else, and be part of the living matter that came with the
albumen, or protoplasm, into the composition of the living being or thing.
And this lets the theory fall to the ground. A partial similitude will not
necessarily constitute identity. The theory demands too much when it
requires identity of elements of growth in plants and animals of what-
soever kind.

The plant unsentient, without mind or will of its own, is said, by
naturalists, to affect its habitat, that is, to choose where it likes to grow.
This but means that it flourishes where circumstances most favor its
growth, and does not elsewhere. In its life inhere wonderful mysteries
that we can only refer to something above it, as we have for the life and
instinct of animate beings. Its seeds are boundlessly strewn; but which
shall grow and flourish, will depend upon their relative power and mastery
over competing plants. This contest and its results we readily understand.
But how the fibres of the roots have their gift to select from the soil only
those particles of nourishment which suits the plant’s growth ; how the
plant can convert silt into flowers ; how it can send the vital current, against
the law of gravitation, to the topmost branches of the oak and pine, sur-
passes our comprehension. We say, in part explanation of the latter,
that the resin and sap pass upwards by capillary attraction, as we see
water rise a limited distance in very small tubes, or through a sponge, or
among the hairs of our shaving brush. This, in part, may suffice, but
there must be help from vital action, as certainly there seems to be where
life is employed in the fresh growth of annual plants, and the new
branches of trees. The vital force must do the work, as when that is
quiescent nothing is done. Asin all animate nature we can only continue
to look upon all vegetable life as a continuing, insoluble mystery ; but of the
highest beneficence. Trees and plants, ever true to the life and duty assigned
them, will furnish to man, beast, fish, reptile, bird and insect, the food
they require ; and to man the medicines, gums, dye-stufis, and spices he

wants ; and also the blossoms, flowers, and scenery he loves and enjoys
with an ever-refining enjoyment. In truth, directly or indirectly, all the
animate life on land, or in air or sea, is supported by the seemingly self-
sustaining life of the vegetable kingdom. The latter is created that the
» former may live ; and all, that human souls may crown the creation. Yet

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all vegetable life, as all animal, now existing, judging by all we see or
know, are the continuous threads of the first created life of their respec-
tive species, kept forever unbroken and unentangled.

And as every species in vegetation selects and assimilates different
elements from the soil or air, and for different parts of itself, as wood,.
bark, leaf and flower, so does every different species of animal select
those essential to its own well being, and to complete the creature that
the life is busy in constructing, and it does construct, but that the parent
was. These ends demand differing elements; and however seemingly
alike their protoplasm and blood, those ana whatever else is tributary to
the varied growth and differing developments, must be equally different.
It is vain for science to say to the common sense of mankind that the cells
that compose the bone and cartilages, tendon and muscle, the tissue, skin,
hair, all opaque, and transparent eye, are identical in material, more than
in shape or function, or fruit. The sight, the tests of chemistry, com-
mercial scrutiny and scientific classification, alike contradict the theory,
and tell us it cannot be true that the protoplasm or blood of animal and
vegetable, and every kind of each, can be the same. The young of the
mammalia drink milk drawn from the mother : and the milk of the dif-
ferent kinds may look much alike, yet not be identical, and not alike be
suitable to nourish the young of all. We may take leave to regard it as
a myth that Romulus was suckled by a wolf; but will implicitly believe
that neither ‘“‘do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles.’’

It is of necessity that all animals and vegetables that have a vital circu-
lation must take their food into their circulations in finid form, that it
may thereby traverse the body, and in sufficient, minuteness supply its
wants of growth and repair where needed. The stomach of the animal
elaborates the solid into fluid; the roots of the vegetable take up the
material it wants, assisted by the rains and water that gives the required
transporting fluidity. But that each process sends into the circulation
the same elements for animal and tree, there is not furnished the begin-
ning of any proof, while the different natures of the growth indicate very
surely that their wants are not the same, that their supplies are different,
as their products are infinitely diverse. It must, therefore, be mislead-
ing to maintain the theory ‘that all living powers are cognate, and that
all living forms are fundamentally of one character.’? There is yet a
vegetable kingdom and an animal kingdom, and those infinitely diversi-
fied. ‘There 7s one flesh of man, and another of beasts.’’

Seems it tedious and unnecessary thus to have traveled over the grounds
of this theory in so much detail? The conclusion to which it is carried
shows how important it is to have carefully considered every foundation-
stone of the superstructure. It concerns man the most deeply of all ques-
tions to know what he is and what he isto be. That such question is
involved, is shown by the conclusion at which the theorist has arrived. In.
his own estimation he has proved the protoplasm of the vegetable and
animal, animal including man, to be the same. Thus Professor Huxley

.

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says: ‘¢As I have endeavored to prove to you, their protoplasm is essen-
tially identical with, and most rapidly converted into, that of any animal,
I can discover no logical halting place between the admission that such
is the case, and the further concession that all vital action may, with
equal propriety, be said to be the result of the molecular forces of the
protoplasm which displays it: And if so, it must be true, in the same
sense, and to the same extent, that the thoughts to which Tam now giving
utterance, and your thoughts regarding them, are the expression of molecular
changes in that matter of life which is the source of our other vital phenom-
end.”’? Is there anything of uncertain sound in this? He expects from
it the outery of ‘‘ gross and brutal materialism ;’’ and then confesses that
“most undoubtedly the terms of the proposition are distinctly materialistic.”?
What more he next says, I will show hereafter.

Thus the logical climax of the theory, the capstone of the edifice, ap-
pears to be that the thoughts and mind of man, being derived from the
same protoplasmic source as the lower animals and the plant, and the
physical organization being thence built up, it is consequently to follow,
that when the life of this body shall be dead, there will be no mind, no
soul, to survive ; that it can only with truth then be said, ‘‘the bubble of
life has burst!’ Such would be the natural conclusion of mankind from
such premises. And if such be the import of human life, what then is the
worth of creation ! Must the dignity of man, and the glory of the universe,
and the exalting faith of the immortality of the soul be thus cast down,
and shorn of their grandeur, and of their logical significance, because the
works,of the Almighty show some faint resemblances in the early pro-
cesses of life? That because He makes matter subservient to life, and life
to the mind or soul, that, therefore, all must be matter, and all but matter?
If such be the logic of creation, as only now found out by very limited
applications of the microscope, it would seem to be wise in us to wait a
thousandfold further applicatious of that instrument to the invisible
elements of life ; and not the while refuse to use our eyes and the telescope
as to what they can see, and also to use our understanding and its logic
as to what they can clearly know, before we surrender our faith in all
that humanity, in its best conditions through the centuries of time, has
taken to be the import of our being and the meaning of the universe.

Happily, however, for our relief, so far as his authority will avail, Dr.
Huxley makes the admission that, while he is logically carried to a ma-
terialistic conclusion by his philosophy, he is, in truth, no materialist, and
that materialization would ‘‘ paralyze the energies and destroy the beauty
of life.’? He has perceived within himself a.nobler sense of the import of
his being, that arrests his individual conclusion, and deflects his logic, so
confidently asserted, into an opposite direction. That is well, and some
comfort ; but may we take his mere opinion as adequate counterpoise to
a theory he has advocated with elaborate detail and apparent earnestness
of conviction? Those who love skepticism will continue to abide by his
theory, which he has not himself controverted.

874

ETCC.] [March 1,.
tn one half paragraph he confesses to a contradiction—to two opposite
conclusions : that the theory he has announced as logically true, he him-
self does not believe! Thus he says: ‘And, most undoubtedly, the
terms of the propositions are distinctly materialistic. Nevertheless, two
things are certain : the one, that I hold the statements to be substantially
true ; the other, that I, individually, am no materialist, but, on the con-
trary, believe materialism to involve grave philosophical error.’”’ Dr.
Huxley has not said this to accommodate himself to the orthodox
opinion of men. He who takes occasion frequently to encounter and
brave that opinion cannot thus have insincerely conformed to it. He is
obviously too candid and too brave for that. He seems in all his conduct
to follow what he takes to be the truth, fearless of consequences. But
what, then, must be our judgment of him? Can it be other than this:
that he is possessed of a truer logic, based upon vastly more facts than
the few embraced in his protoplastic theory ; and that his individual be-
lief, for which he has not given us the grounds, contains the actual truth;
and that, consequently, we have Huxley’s authority to condemn em-

phatically Huxley’s theory, built upon ‘‘the Physical Basis of Life.’? But

who will answer for his insincerity to the truth of science? For the con-
sequences of the infidelity he has preached in his sermon? He proposes
to conduct his hearers out of the slough, into which he confesses he had
plunged them, and meant to plunge them ; but we read on to the end of

the discourse in the vain expectation of finding the stepping-stones that

would conduct us out of the slough to the firm land. Does he not in this
trifle with his own and the understandings of men? His philosophical
speculation is one thing ; his individual opinion is another. He describes
no mitigated materialism that represents his own conviction. That which
he has explained makes his uttered thoughts but matter; for these, he
says, ‘‘are the molecular changes of that matter of life which is the
source of our other vital phenomena.’’ And this is his hopeful and con-
fident assertion: ‘‘And as surely as every future grows out of past and
present, so will the physiology of the future extend the realm of matter
and law, until it is co-extensive with knowledge, with feeling, and with
action.’”’ ‘Thus the science of the physical basis of life is to absorb the

mental and emotional, and make all one, all physical ;—all to have but a
physical basis and a physical consummation. And yet, again, he con-
fesses to two hopeful beliefs, but flagrantly at variance with his preten-
sion for physiology : ‘‘The first, that the order of nature is ascertainable
by our faculties to an extent which is practically unlimited ; the second,
that our volition counts for something as a condition of the course of
events.”? Yet neither of these could, logically, be a true belief, if man
be but the product of matter and law, and these be taken as sole sources
of his knowledge, feeling, and action; for all would yet be fatalism as
well as paralyzing materialism. Indeed, there could be no thought, if all
were matter. Mere changes of molecular matter could not be means to
expand our knowledge, or rule the course of human events. What would
it be to the world and its events, that the material of my brain had un-

v7
1872.] 375 [Price.
dergone molecular change? Thoughts are not material growths ; are not
buds or sprouts; are not protuberances or indentations, or eng caved
lines ; or secretions or excretions of matter, or the shifting of any: mo-
lecular living particles, by any testimony ever presented to the human
mind. Men cannot conceive that matter can be thought, or thought
matter; and all its phenomena declare it unlike all else in created nature,
and without element of matter. The mind of man has, indeed, a like-
ness unto God.

Dr. Huxley says, “the fundamental doctrines of materialism, like
those of spiritualism, and most other ‘isms,’ lie outside the limits of
philosophical inquiry ;’’ says, ‘‘it is also in strictness true, that we know
nothing about the composition of any body whatever as it is.’ But is

not all knowledge within the limits of philosophical inquiry? And,
though we cannot know how matter, or life, or mind can be, or what, in
essence they are, yet we certainly can and do know much of the prop-
erties and actions of each and all of them, and of their differences from
each other. We must not become so far positivists as to refuse to know
all that is knowable; and especially may we not ignore the human mind,
It is our duty to search after all attainable truths, and when we haye
come to the limit of our faculties, there reverently to pause, in the pres-
ence of an infinity of knowledge known only to God. To seek knowledge
only of things physical, and things of life, and there to set the limit of
y, seems but the prudery of scientific caution, that can win no
credit for wisdom, nor increase our trust in the authority of the teacher.

inqt

In this discourse we have assumed that, in its origin, life hada Creator,
upon the logic that such effect must have an adequate and a far-trans-
cending cause. As matter and life logically demanded a Creator of each,
and neither produced the other, so does the mind or soul, by even higher
claim, logically demand a H savenly Father. Its nature is too dis-
tinguishable and transcending to be confounded with matter or life. Life
dominates matter, mind dominates them both, and God them all. The
soul asserts a higher than a generated parentage, and a large immunity
from. the mutations of matter. Matter ever slides from under mind, but
its integrity is untouched. The matter that has sustained the life of one
as old as the writer, has wholly passed away from his body more than
ten times ; and the more rapidly changing parts have been eliminated with
vastly greater frequency. Yet the mind in this body has a memory of
conscious identity from the year next before the first of the current cen-
tury. Such imperishable mind can have no element of ever-shifting mat-
ter in it; and must be a being of different origin and nature, both from
the material of this body and the life of this body. That material is
ever changing, and is often renewed, until the body’s death ; and when
the life that maintained the organization shall have succumbed, and have
ceased to exist, except as it has been continued in a living progeny, we
justly infer that the mind, or soul will outlive the organization and the

life, and will return to its Giver, to share His pleasure, or meet His.

376

Wrice.] [March 1,

-eondemnation, as deserving. This is inferred from what we know of the
nature of mind, and the induction that creation must have an adequate
significance. The great truths of Scripture are inductively reattested by
the truths of philosophy.

Thus, then, stands the phenomenon of our being. The matter that

- enters the body may be, in itself, for all we know, imperishable, but is cer-
tainly transient in each living body; remains there until effete, and is
then dismissed by the vital process; or at death passes into vapor and
ashes, and enters the further rounds of chemical change and vegetable
and animal growths. The organized being of one generation of the life
of an unbroken continuity from the first parents has come to an end,
except as continued by offspring ; but the individual, ungenerated, im-
material mind, that was neither the matter nor life of the body, lives on
forever.

We have seen the life assert a dominating power over all the material
that has built up the organized body. This life process is essentially one
independent of the mental will. During gestation this is plainly so;
and is so through life, except as the mind has power to refuse to conform
to the laws of health, and may mar life’s healthful functions and dura-
tion, even to the perpetration of suicide. The circulation, digestion,
assimilation, and eliminations go on in health almost without our con-
sciousness; but we are compelled at intervals, by hunger and thirst, to
keep up the needed supply of food and drink. ‘The brain and nervous
system are also thus nourished, as the rest of the body,—though it is the
system especially subjected to the instant dominion of the mind or will.
The material brain and nerves are not the mind, nor do they produce it,
but are servants of the mind. Mind is other than the brain and nerves,
and is other than the life ; and it alone can rule, and must give account
of itself,—the body, and the life. The vegetable carries on all its given
life-processes, without sensation and without mind. The animal below
man does the same, except as it has a limited mental development that
we call instinct; has also, limitedly, brain and nerves, and senses ; all of
wonderful fitness for its preservation, which we may not now pause to
consider. The life of plant or animal will grow to its assigned limit; will
cure its own wounds, and reproduce its kind; but is other than the
instinct of the animal, yet more remote from the mind of man: it alone,
of all beings, has moral responsibility.

Among the hundred or thousand wonders of the life, whose casua
explanation can be in Deity alone, and over which mind had no formative
power, is the fact that every kind of nerve has been fitted for its special
duty, and can perform no other. There is, in this, admirable design to
prevent confusion. The nerve of sense can give sensation to, but can
impart no mandate from the mind. The nerves that execute command
will give back no sensation. One of each is attached to each serving
muscle, but neither can do the appointed work of the other. The nerves

-of sight, hearing, taste, and smell, can neither of them perform the func-

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1872. | 377 [ Price.
tion of any other. The brain, the commonly supposed seat of all feeling,
has in itself no feeling. Sir Charles Bell says: ‘‘The brain is as insensi-
ble as the leather of our shoe ; that the brain may be touched, or a por-
tion of it cut off, without interrupting the patient in the sentence he is
uttering.’”? The brain and the sensitively perceiving mind must, therefore,
be different. The one is cut ay yay ; the other suffers thereby no interrup-
tion of thought or its expression. One feels; the other does not. One
commands ; the other obeys. The muscle is moved by the will and exerts
great power, but through a brain and a nerve without muscle, or physi-
cal power, so far as is seen. Apparently an immaterial mind says to
every muscle, do this; and it doeth it, but by the word of command.
Truly, the body, life and mind, each, is very wonderful, and most won-
derful is their combination ; a combination of dissimilar things, made to
act in antagonism, and yet bound to act in harmony, for the welfare of
all. Awake, the mind is to regulate all for the common good, yet may
not, without injury, much interfere with the life-process of the bodily
organization. Asleep, the physical reacts, taking a limited advantage of
the unwatchful mind that has let drop the rein of discipline. The mind,
in the semi-consciousness of dreams, ranges through bright scenes and
beautiful images, if all be well with mind and body ; but if either be un-
happy or disordered, a dark change comes over the happy dream, and
then threatened dangers and startling incidents awake the mind to resume
its discipline; happy then to find its troublous adventures “buta dream.”’
Yet, in the sleeping and waking experience, the mind and body have
acted and reacted, both as united, and often as opposing powers.

The materialist sometimes ventures even to liken life to a process of
crystallization or chemistry, or mechanism, and mind as well. Crystal-
lization follows one law, and, the world over, does one thing, and forms its
crystals and gems of each kind on the same angle ; her ultimate particles
of the same kind being of the same shape, and obeying one law of attrac-
tion, The chemical affinities act under laws as certain, and under the
same circumstances act always inthe same way. Living things are more
‘complicate ; and the process of growth is carried on by an apparent choice
as to the selection of material and in the deposit of different particles, for
the growth of the several parts, differently from crystallization and chem-
istry. Life is not molecular, or magnetic, or chemical attraction ; but is
a vital process that employs various materials ; utilizes them, and dis-
poses of them differently to perfect the common economy. It employs, it
is true, chemical processes in breathing, etc.; and inthe heart, eye and ear,
and in the action of the muscles, mechanical structures and powers ; but
all is moved by and independent upon the life that has made from matter
living molecules, and with them constructed the creature. But all this,
though subservient to, gives no explanation of, the mind ; shows no kin-
dred to it ; gives no information why we have consciousuess, how we can
feel and think. No proof is offered, nor can, it is believed, be adduced,
to show that the mental action consists in but physical changes. The

A. P. §.—VOL. XII.—2v

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brain, as the arm, may show weariness when overtasked by the mind;
may suffer waste of material, of phosphorus, if you please; but that will
not prove mind to be brain, or brain mind.

The all-transcending importance of this subject demands our yet further
patient consideration. On the discrimination of the mind of man from
the body and from the life, depends our truthful apprehension of the
great problem of what we are, and what we are intended to be,—the most
important consideration that can occupy the human mind. Can we, as
rational beings, live over threescore years and ten, or more, and not de-
vote much of our time to reflect upon this subject, the highest of philoso-
phical studies? This is not an ‘‘ism’’ lying outside philosophical inquiry.
No religion can begin her task, no philosophy can consummate her study,
that has not persistently dwelt upon it and made it the theme of habitual
thought. It is the necessary climax of all the study that can give us the
solution of the problem of the universe. In this age of materialistic skep-
ticism, that respects no time-honored opinions, or sacred traditions, we
must begin where the physicists begin, but may not stop where they are
wont to stop; may not refuse to know the ultimate significance of all
created things and beings, body and soul, as they are constantly presented
before our senses, and demand interpretation from our reasoning intellect.
We may not fail to examine and consider all the true facts that the natu-
ralist and physicist make the basis of their theories, nor all other facts
that must be taken into view, for a true solution of the problem. No «@
priori assumptions may be admitted as bases of induction; and it must not
be allowed the skeptic to say, as he is sure to do, that he only builds truly
upon certain facts ; that his faith alone stands in inductive truth ; that
religious faith will not bear the test of induction from asertained facts.
And we must not permit him to make his inductions from less than half
the facts that define our being, and these the less important.

The mind’s thoughts are not propagated as things of physical growth.
We but borrow, in relation to the mind, the language of the garden, and
use it figuratively, when we speak of sowing mental seeds, or propagating
ideas. The thoughts I am speaking, I do not lose ; and your gain, if any,
is not a material acquisition; nor, so far as you or I can ever know, has
the effect been produced by molecular changes in our brains ; and if
such changes do take place, they are a life process of the brain, and can-
not, conceivably to us, be the thoughts that enter into and exercise your
minds; thoughts that, as believed worthy, or as your minds may make
them worthy, may become permanently your thoughts, after the mo-
lecular particles moved, if any such, will have long passed away. The
mind may, indeed, for aught we know, and we may so conjecture it prob-
able, put the brain in motion, as we know it will thrill the nerves, and
can hurry the blood ; as the wind can heave the water into waves, but the
cause and the effect are different, and continue ever after as distinct as
before.

Physiology teaches us that the mind is seated in the brain ; for with the

1872.] 379 [ Price.
brain is connected every nerve that gives to the mind the sensations re-
ceived by it ; and with the brain is connected every nerve that executes
the will of the mind upon every muscle of the body movable by the will.
A ligature round the nerves of sensation will prevent the mind receiving
sensations by them from a point beyond the ligature ; a ligature round the
nerves that obey the will, will paralyze its power to command the muscle
to which the nerve is attached. The perception and command are inter-
cepted at the ligature ; and beyond mental power has ceased. The mind,
that is the light of our being, sits enthroned in a chamber of life-long
darkness, cushioned upon medullary matter; moved by no muscle, vet
moving every motor muscle as bid to obey its will. The eyes are called
its windows ; but that is to speak figuratively, for no ray of light ever
enters there ; the senses are called its portals, through which we learn all
we know of things without us, but no sense ever lets into the mind one
particle of matter.

We have seen that the life of the body is fed by material food taken
into the stomach, The mind is not so fed, nor fed by any material food.
The mind, or a mental capacity, exists ina child at birth, underived from
sensations, for it must pre-exist to receive the first as all after sensations.
Though we may not know how it can exist ; of its nature and operations
we can observe and know as much as of matter and life ; and we have no
more right to refuse to know all that we can understand of it than of
them. It is the nobler part of our being, and that which is most charac-
teristic and most prophetic of the purpose of existence.

The immaterial mind is fed but with immaterial food. It draws this
from sensations without and within; and thus learns the nature and
qualities of all perceived things. It digests that it receives; forms con-
ceptions or ideas by its inherent power ; has capacity of comparing, think-
ing and judging, and thus is also self-fed from within by immaterial
thoughts as no life is fed. Thus we may observe the mind to be developed;
the mind that can frame the constitutions and laws that preserve human
society, and that can administer them ; that can wield the physical arms
and resources of the nation; and can develop the truths of philosophy
and religion. All this is done by thought, only by thought; by thought,
indeed, sometimes inspired ; and the quieter the body and the brain, the
more surely truthful is the mental judgment and the might of its power.

Now let us consider some of the sensations that the mind notices as
perceptions and conceptions, and stores as ideas, to be used in thought
and judgment, and see if they own a material source. The eye opens
upon all visible things, and by a lens the picture of them is represented on
the retina, or back part of the globe of the eye ; a picture the reverse of
that in the outside world, upside down, right side left. The retina is the
expansion of the optic nerve leading to the brain, that gives to the mind
@ perception and conception of the image on the retina ; not that the im-
age can itself be taken through the round opaque tubular nerve ; not that
there is any material picture on the retina, any more than the reflection
from the mirror is a real picture on its surface : but the mind has capacity

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to reach forward and take perception of the picture truthfully, but takes
it restored from its reversals by the convex lens to its true position, as

yas the outside reality; up-side up, and right-side right, as is at once
verified by the outreached hand. This power of perception is something
more, and quite different from, the materially-fed animal or tree. There
is no protoplasm here. The perceptions, and the ideas thus derived
through all the several senses, are alike immaterial. Through the eye,
the ear, the touch, taste, or smell, it is not perceptible, nor conceivable,
that outside matter enters into the brain, yet less into the perceiving
mind. It seems more reasonable to infer that the mind, which by its will
can command and put in action the many muscles of the body, through
the nerves of command that extend from the brain to them, can also reach
through the distinct system of the nerves of sensation, wheresoever im-
pinged upon, and take note of all sensation. Thus doing, the mind is
filled with perceptions, conceptions, ideas. But when it perceives, thinks,
compares its ideas, recalls its memories of long past years, forms new

judgments, and the will sends forth its mandates, we are not to believe it .

is carrying on material operations, before the muscles have acted; that
thoughts are the bubblings or heavings of medullary matter; or as elec-
tricity they are elicited by material friction ; or as the chemical corrosions
of a battery; or are any other material production. There appears no
evidence of any such processes, and these indicate no relationship with
mental action. The memory of half a century ago cannot be a recalling
of the matter of the brain of that time; the perceptions taken into the
mind contained no material element, and the mind’s elaborations of im-
material perception cannot be elaborations of matter, or produce mate-
rial thoughts. Thought that ranges instantly over creation cannot be
bound by the limitations of matter. Whatsoever is matter must have the
bounds of matter; matter must have the properties of matter. Thoughts
are not so subject. It is not in the nature of matter to range beyond
itself ; to look to the past or future, or in imagination to survey the world
and universe, and all that in them is. It is not in the nature of thought
to be subjected to mechanical or chemical tests. If thoughts be but
matter, they must be eliminated by the body’s ever busy absorbents as
waste material, and there could be no memory of them; but the mind
holds not her rich treasures by so slight a tenure. The intellect would
then sit upon a throne whose base would be incessantly undermined ; nay,
be rapidly swept away, since the new tissue supplied to the brain by the
life-process would not replace the lost ideas. Immaterial thoughts, the
immortal mind, is not carried off as waste and effete matter; as sewage
through the sewers of the hody. Newly-deposited brain tissue from the
blood would not restore thought that has vanished. Memories are not as
characters written on the sand, to be washed out by ever refluent waves.
The memories of a well-preserved old man, whose strength has not failed,
nor his eye grown dim, make him a being compounded of the characters of
three generations ; with mind informed by the pressures and knowledge of

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1872. ] 381 [Price.
them all; with gathered experiences and forethought that make him
largely prophetic of the future. So the poet’s vision has seen and de-
scribed such an octogenarian ; or knew him, and sketched him from life :
“Age had not tamed his eye: that, under brows

Shaggy and grey, had meanings which it brought

From years of youth; which, like a Being made

Of many Beings, he had wondrous skill

To blend with knowledge of the years to come:

Human ; or such as lie beyond the grave.”

— Wordsworth.

As the visual picture entered not the brain, so will not the vibrations of
sounds in the air. The speaker’s mind is filled with thoughts which he
is earnest to inculcate upon his hearers, and vocally he gives them to his
thousand listeners. I do not say transfers them, for he has not parted
with one idea, though they have got all he has spoken. No phosphorus,
or any other matter has left his to gointo their minds. His voice has but
made vibrations in the elastic air, which otherwise has been unchanged.
These vibrations have spread concentrically from their centre, with their
ten thousand distinctions of modulated words. These sounds have reached
the ears of the listeners, and their perceptive minds have reached forward
through the auditory nerve, whose extension by delicate fibres floating in
the water of the vestibule of the ear have been stirred, and given to the
mind the perception of every variation of the voice of the speaker ; of its
formed words, its inflections, cadences ; its tones of earnest pathos and its
joyous or sad emotions ; and all its varied meanings. But no vibration
of the air has reached the interior of the brain ; indeed, no material idea
had traversed the air to reach the hearers, Air-borne wavélets of words,
or conventional signs of ideas expressed only by distinctions in sounds,
have reached the easily moved hairy fibres of the auditory nerve, and im-
parted motion to them ; but there the material motion has ended, yet the
perceptive mind has caught the many distinctive meanings. But no
motion, no sound, no matter, has entered the brain by the auditory nerve ;
for the nerve there embedded is constricted in passing through a narrow
orifice in the skull ; is not itself floated, or tensioned, to transmit vibra-
tory motion ; but cut off from the air, the vibrations of which have been
spent upon the drum of the ear and the wonderful apparatus, and water
within the vestibule ; and were this not so the vibrations of the air are not
transmissions of matter ; but when the voice has sounded, the air and the
ear are again as if no voice had spoken. The mind has taken the per-
ception of the distinctions of sound from the fibrous extension of the
auditory nerve. Had the same words, or conventional representations of
thoughts, been written or printed, and then been read by others, these
would have received their characters pictured on the retina, without the
charms of vocal expression, and alike without the reception of any ma-
terial element in the brain.

It is obviously the same as to the sense of touch. The finger will give
the perception of the shape, density, temperature, etc., of the object

382

[Mareh 1,

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touched, but no matter or thing will be transmitted into the brain. The
mind, by its perceptive power in the brain and nerve, will have taken
notice of the properties of the object, and formed an idea of it. By no
sense has the brain or mind been materially fed. Here we should recol-
lect the physical condition of the brain. It fills the chamber of the skull ;
is always dark, is always silent. Therein is the source of all the intel-
lectual light in the world, yet not one real spark, or beam of light has
there ever glowed. No ray of light can depict a picture therein ; no
vibration can carry a sound within it ; no tasted food, or touched thing,
nor aroma of incense, can enter there. But the nerve of each sense has
been affected by an outward object, and the perceptive mind has reached
to notice the action of the outward thing upon the nerve. In the eye it
is a picture thrown by the light on the retina and it is there perceived ;
in the ear vibrations have stirred the floating fibrous extension of the
auditory nerve, and there they have been perceived with their varied dis-
tinctions; and by the other nerves of smell, touch and taste, the per-
ception has been at the point of contact. The mind’s command reaches
by the motor nerve to the remotest muscle : sensation by touch may reach
as far; and there appears to be no reason why the mental perception has
not reached to the point whence such sensation is said to have come.
The mind wills to move the toe, and it has at the same instant the per-
ception that it has moved. Indeed, each nerve of sensation has its local
duty to inform the mind instantly of every impingement’upon the surface
over which its fibres are spread. This it can only do by the mind’s taking
notice of it, sothat sensation implies perception. The nerves at the stump
of an amputated leg, when irritated there gives the perception as at the
foot or toe to which the nerve when unsevered had been attached, for that
had been its established duty in its relation with the mind; and the per-
ceptive mind yet adheres to its original consciousness, and still takes its
perception as from a living foot, where now there is none. The percep-
tion that had formerly reached the extremity of a perfect nerve comes to
consciousness as from that point, though the nerve has been touched mid-
way. And when the optic nerve is involved by disease, its illusive visions
produced by disease, appear as they would, if truly pictured on the retina ;
and so if the auditory nerve be so involved, the illusive sounds appear to
enter the ear. And so, too, as to those bright visions and hymning tones by
which the dying are often preternaturally visited, showing them, in ad-
vance, celestial scenes and companionships such as they are about to enter,
their outward senses seem to them still to have served them, and they
wonder that their surrounding friends have not seen and heard all that
they have so intensely enjoyed ; but no outward sense had seen or heard
allthat the mind had directly perceived. The appropriate nerve always
ministers to the mind according to its original appointment, and responds
as the faithful sentinel, only from the assigned post of duty, and there itis
that report is made to perception. Sensation and perception appear to
be synonymous and simultaneous, and at the same point ; but the cencep-

tion of ideas, and the mental processes of thinking, comparing, imagin-

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ing, judging and willing, are carried on in the superior brain, by which
man is distinguished aboye all other creatures. Physiologists speak of
the sensorium or central ganglia, below the cerebrum, as the common
centre of sensation; but our own consciousnes when thinking, and our
penal headaches for over-much thinking, plainly say to us that the crown-
ing and frontal hemispheres of the brain are the seat of thought and
mind. It is the mind in that little space that rules the world.

The reflective anatomist as well as others, is struck with wonder when
contemplating the human brain as the seat of thought and sovereign will ;
yet as poet he must speak figuratively. He exclaims as he looks upon it,

‘Then mark the cloven sphere that holds
All thought in its mysterious folds:
That feels sensation’s faintest thrill
And flashes forth the sovereign will;
Think on the stormy world that dwells
Locked in its dim and clustering cells!
The lightning gleams of power it sheds
Along its hollow glassy threads !”’

—Dr. 0. W. Holmes.

Such combination of body, life, mind and feeling, are indeed, more won-
derful than miracle, and justify the anatomist and poet in his prayerful
conclusion :
“O Father! grant Thy love divine
To make these mystic temples thine.’’—Ib.

The great fact is never to be forgotten, that the body is fed only by
material food ; that the brain and the nerves are also fed as the residue of
the body from the living blood; but that the mind is ever and only can be
fed by immaterial perceptions of outward and inward material things,
and as it is self-fed by its own immaterial thoughts and inherent emotions.
How amply the physical brain is fed by the blood, is apparent when physi-
ologists tell us, that its proportion to the whole body is as one to thirty-
six, while one-fifth of the whole volume of blood is in circulation there.

There is another test we may also daily observe in others and in our-
selves, showing that mind and body are not alike nourished, namely, that
the gross feeding that expands the body, does not enlarge, but obscures
the mind. That the mind is usually clearest and most effective when
men are abstemious and temperate, provided only they eat enough to
keep up their normalstrength. Many bright minds that have enlightened
the world, would never have been its shining lights, had not their bodies
been frail and their physical organization delicate ; indicating, not that
the body and mind were one, but that the body’s grossness had not oyer-
laid or obstructed the free thinking and reasoning mind.

The power of mental consciousness and his capacity to think, constitute
man’s great distinction. Mind makes him man, and lifts him above all
other creation. It is the mind that yields him all his purest and truest
pleasures. We say that the eye sees, andthe earhears. These senses are
but inlets to outward sights and harmonies ; it is only the mind that per-

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ceives and enjoys. The transporting prospect we look upon; the land-
scape of lawn, trees, river and mountain; or the music that charms us
with indefinable delight, are pleasures inherent in the mind, inborn of the
soul. Led by the great dramatist, we willingly say with him,
‘* Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music
Creep into our ears: Soft stillness and the night
Become the touches of sweet harmony !’
“Such harmony is in immortal souls.”
And such inner sense of the beautiful; our moral sense ; our sympathy
with our fellow beings ; our emotions in worship ; ‘‘our sense of an end-
less being ;” are all inborn of the soul, and assure us ours is the harmony
of ‘immortal souls.”’ Necker, statesman of France, also reassures us of
what Shakespeare so beautifully said: ‘‘The whisper of the gales, the
murmur of waters, the peaceful agitation of trees and shrubs, would con-
cur to engage our minds, and affect our souls with tenderness, if our
thoughts were elevated to one Universal Cause.’’ It is thus in ‘thought
and emotion that alone we can rise to commune with our higher self, with
the highest endowments of our friends, and with Deity.

The materialist supposes he hasadvanced his theory when he tells us, that
it has been found, after a speaker has used extraordinary mental exertions,
an analysis of his urine shows an increase of phosphorus ; and this is in-
ferred to be a material residuum of the speaker’s spent thoughts! The
idea must be that phosphorus is the matter most likely to be mind. Let
us apply another test, not material, to this supposed experiment: the
scrutiny of the thinking mind itself. The exertions of the speaker were
probably much more physical than mental, and the result, if true, would
be more properly assignable to physical causes. The ideas of the speaker
are commonly formed in advance, in his study, in quietude, and the best of
them in the wakeful hours of the night, when the body is in perfect repose.
The delivery of them so far as the intellect is tasked, is more the easy ex-
ercise of memory than the formation of new ideas. But to make the de-
livery of them impressive, the orator exerts his voice ; gives violent play to
the lungs ; uses earnest gesture ; accelerates the circulation ; produces
perspiration ; and it would be an obvious consequence, even if there were
no inerease of the phosphoric deposit, that as much of the water in the
blood has gone out through the pores of the skin, which would otherwise
have diluted the urine, that the phosphorus appearing in it is found in
larger proportion.

Though matter be essential to the growth and transmission of all life ;
though matter and life be essential to sustain the mind in its manifesta-
tions in this world ; all these three are of very distinctive nature. In the
plant there is life, but no brain-or nerves, nor feeling or mind. These,
therefore, are not necessary to the phenomenon of life. It is the nourished
blood of other composition than vegetable protoplasm that must flow and
bear the life-sustaining material of the animate being, and that for brain
and nerves as well as the residue of the body. You may intercept the
mind’s perception, aiid life will go on; but intercept the blood’s circula-

pe
1872.] 385 [Price.
tion and the excluded part is killed. Sir T. C. Morgan, M. D., says: ‘If
the supply of blood be cut off from a limb, by means of ligatures made
upon its arteries, sensibility of all kinds is in a very short time extin-
guished ; and the part dies, and undergoes the same changes, as supervene
on the death of the whole body.” ‘‘ If, on the contrary, the circulation
continue uninterrupted, and the ligature be cast round the nerves of the
limb, so as to cut off its communication with the cerebral centre, the other
tissues will continue their functions uninterrupted by the accident.’’
““These counter-experiments clearly demonstrate that the nervous system
is not the fountain of life to the rest of the economy ; but receives its ani-
mation, in common with all other tissues, from the action between its own
vessels and the circulating fluids.”’ (Philosophy of Life, 217.) Thus the
incomprehensible life requires matter as the vehicle of its manifestations;
and the incomprehensible mind requires matter, including brain and
nerves, as well as the life, for its manifestations ; but the distinctly mani-
fested actions of both are full of diversities and contrarieties. As life
sannot account for and produce matter, nor matter life ; so do neither, or
both together, account for, or produce mind, but only subserve it. For
each the Cause can only be logically sought in a Creator; and for their
wonderful combination, and concurring, or counter-actions, in the being
man, we can, in reason, only refer ourselves to Him who transcends all
and knows all, even the thoughts and mind of man. That mind that is not
matter nor the life, but is above these; that has no likeness on earth ;
proves itself of all we know the most like unto God who is a spirit. It
alone in nature reviews its own consciousness, as under an inevitable
sense of moral and religious duty and accountability, and asks and an-
swers the question, ‘‘ My soul, is it well with thee?” If there be another
such being in the universe, it can only be an angel in heaven. ‘
Xavier Bichat, who studied and wrote at the end of the last century,
and until the second year of this, and had much experience in surgical
practice during the French Revolution, was certainly the profoundest
physiologist of his day. He did not fail to perceive that the human mind
was something different and higher than the brain and the nerves, which
he regarded as but material instruments of the mind. He considered a
want of harmony in the two superior hemispheres of the brain as cause
of imperfect perception, not by the brain, but by the mind or soul, say-
ing, ‘‘for the brain is to the soul what the senses are to the brain; it
transmits to the soul the impressions conveyed to it by the senses, as the
senses convey to the brain the impressions made upon them by external
objects.” (On Life and Death, 80-31.) ‘If both (the hemispheres) do
not act alike, the perception of the mind, which ought to be the result of
the two sensations united, will be inexact and irregular.’’ (p. 31.) He
inquires, whence arises the facility which our sensations have of under-—
going so many modifications, and answers: ‘‘ To conceive of it, let us first
remark that the centre of these revolutions of pleasure, of pain, and in-
difference, is by no means seated in the organs, which receive or transmit
the sensation, but in the soul.’’ (Ib. 49.) Thus imperfect perception and
A. P. 8.— VOL. XII.—2W

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apprehension, and, indeed, imperfect intellectual powers come from defects
in the material instruments that serve it; but it is to be said that the
defective structure produces deficient mind only in the sense that it has
served the mind with imperfect perceptions, and hence with erroneous
conceptions for its use. The nature of the mind may thus be the same in
all, though furnished with perceptions and ideas, and exercised and de-
veloped, as variously as the number of human beings. Then, again, the
physical constitution and the animal passions, as well as the emotions and
effections, social, moral and religious, will also differently affect the sensa-
tions, perceptions, and powers of reasoning ; our thoughts, imaginations,

judgment and character, and yet not be the mind that thinks, reasons,

judges, and acts. They are most important parts of the being; but the
physical can be no part of the mind.

Yet Mr. Huxley tells us that our thoughts ‘‘are the expression of mo-
lecular changes in that matter of life which is the source of our other
vital phenomena ;’’ but he states no reason why this should be so; why
matter or life, separately or together, should produce thoughts. He
takes no notice of their contrary nature and operations from matter.
Now, as we have seen, the process of life gives its own proofs, immeasur-
ably surpassing in accuracy that of the microscope, as to all that enters
into the composition of the plant or animal, as attested by products in-
finitely varied, and thereby has proved all protoplasms not to be bases of
the same nature, and that life uses other elements in her structures ; so
the different natures and actions of thoughts and mind from life and mat-
ter, must be taken as proof that they are not one with, nor can be pro-
duced by matter, or yet be the life that has subjected matter to her uses.
The life, instead of producing mind, is made subject to the mind; as to
its uses, what it shall be; whether it be more worthless than the fester-
ing charnel heap, or in purity, perfection, beauty, and glory, it shall be
the fitting companion of immortal immaculate beings.

Professor John Tyndall, always ardent and hopeful in scientific dis-
covery, does not leave the materialist without hope in the future, yet
does state this: ‘I do not think he is entitled to say that his molecular
groupings and his molecular motions explain everything ; in reality they
explain nothing.’ ‘The problem of the connection of body and soul is
as insoluble in its modern form as it was in the prescientific ages.”
“The passage from the physics of the brain to the corresponding facts of
consciousness is unthinkable.’’ (Fragments of Science, 119.) True, the
manner of the connection is unthinkable, but the fact of such connection
between very dissimilar things, all must admit who do not deny the evi-
dences of their senses, the proofs of experiment, and of the mind’s testi-
mony unto itself; and the higher significance of mind and emotion seems
equally obvious.

The mind is placed in closest alliance with the body, but is of different
constituency and power. Set over the body to rule it, her throne is in the
brain, whither the nerves of sensation are ever giving information from
without and within; whence her judgments are ever issued, and executed
through the nerves of command. Would you liken this to the telegraph ?

1872.1 337 [Price.
—you must carry the comparison to include both operator and sender of
messages ; must note that in the centre is the mind that thinks, and that
receives, and sends the messages, and commands and executes as well.
There is still the mastery of mind, ever asserting her power over matter,
and her own likeness unto God. And though so small a speck, there is
nothing known to man that will so bear to be put in comparison with our
conception of Deity, who is a spirit, as the immaterial mind of man.

It is not to be doubted, after the experiments and observations of Prof.
Matteucci and Drs. Du Bois-Reymond, Carpenter and Radcliffe, that
electricity pervades the nerves and muscles of the body ; the precise ser-
vice of which awaits further development, but is supposed to be identified
with the ordinary force and action of the nerve and muscle. Dr. Rad-
cliffe says, as the result of his investigations, ‘‘ There is reason to believe
that all kinds of electricity act upon nerve and muscle by way of charge
and discharge, the charge antagonizing, the discharge permitting, the
state of action.’? Whatever may be further ascertained as to the agency
of electricity in the animal economy, of this we may be assured, that it
will act subserviently to life and to the will. So it is found in the electri-

cal cel and the torpedo fish, in which life largely accumulates it, and the
will discharges it upon an enemy, in electric shocks, but only so long as
the supply lasts, when the belligerent thus armed must await renewal of
supply by natural recuperation. With all animate creatures rest after
fatigue is the appointed means for renewal of strength to muscle and
nerve, to become fitter instruments of the will; and that is to say, after
the exacting will has ceased to enforce wasteful action, the life process
works on during reposé to restore the strength, and the more perfectly if
wesleep. The strength or electricity would not be given us without the
life gave it, and neither is to be identified with the life, or mind, or will.

I suppose there are few of active mind who have not the consciousness,
when going to sleep, of those sudden nervous throbs that tell us that a dis-
turbed electricity is seeking its equilibrium in the body, and thus several
times defeating the desire to sleep. This occurs at the moment of dblivi-
ousness ; Showing that the mind had until then restrained electrical action ;
put which ensues as a physical action in the body, as soon as the atid
ceases torule. Many materials concur to build the human temple and to
subserve the life. The blood alone has its more than dozen elements ; its
water, albumen, fibrin, sodium, lime, magnesia, iron, &e.; and heat and
electricity may warm the body, and aid the vital functions, yet be not mind,

And our minds
‘* Are not wholly brain,
Magnetic mockeries;’?’ * * *
‘¢ Not only cunning casts in clay :
Let science prove we are, and then
What matters science unto men?”
—Tennyson.

Prove man is worthless, then is science worthless all.

One so practical and learned as Dr. Carpenter, and so fully informed
upon the results of modern scientifie investigation, and himself writing
as a life-long teacher of physiology, regards the brain as the instrument

1

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Price.] 388

{March 1,

of mind other than itself. ‘The physiologist knows full well, that the
immediate operation of the will is not upon the muscle but upon the
brain.’’ ‘We have not only evidence of the excitement of nerve-force
by mental agency ; the converse is equally true, mental activity being
excited by nerve-force.’? And he proceeds to say, ‘‘it is obvious that the
view here taken does not in the least militate against the idea, that mind
may have an existence altogether independent of the material body through
which it thus manifests itself.’’ ‘In the control and direction which the
will has the power of exerting over the course of the thoughts, we have
the evidence of a new and independent power, which is opposed in its
very nature to all the automatic tendencies, and which accordingly as it
is habitually exerted, tends to render the individual a free agent.’’ (Physi-
ology, Sees. 585, 586, 588.)

The capacity of the body is limited. Its growth cannot be forced. It
can add not a cubit to its stature. But no limits can be assigned to the
acquisitions of the mind. While he has life, man may learn. True,
students, ardent and ambitious, will often sacrifice their lives in the pur-
suit of knowledge ; but that is not because the mind has taken into itself
more than it will hold, but more rapidly than the frail body will bear, and
in manner violating the laws of health; those laws that require the
exercise of the muscles, the play of the lungs in breathing fresh air, and
an accelerated movement of the circulations, of the assimilative process,
and of all life’s functions ; and due rest and sleep. The versatile and
boundless ranging mind must wait upon the limited conditions of its sub-
servient companion ; by wisely doing which this life may last long, and
the mind ceaselessly acquire increase of knowledge and power. But ever
the master mind must be doing, or naught is done.

Dr. Carpenter, as a purely scientific teacher, also speaks of the soul’s
relation to the Infinite ; and of its constituting one of the most distinc-
tive peculiarities of man, and as the main-spring of human progress.
He says the desire for improvement grows by what it feeds upon; ‘‘in
the higher grades of mental development there is a continual looking up-
ward, not towards a mere elevated human standard, but at once to some-
thing above man and material nature.’’ He desires to participate in a
spiritual existence, of which the germ has been implanted in the mind
of man, and which, developed as it is by the mental cultivation, * * *
has been regarded by philosophers in all ages as one of the chief natural.
arguments for the immortality of the soul.’? (Physiology, Sec. 7.) And.
he concludes his work on Animal Physiology, in these words: ‘‘ The
philosopher who has attained the highest summit of mortal wisdom, is he
who, if he use his mind aright, has the clearest perception of the limits
of human knowledge, and the most earnest desires for the lifting of the
veil that separates him from the Unseen. He, then, has the strongest
motives for that humility of spirit and purity of heart, without which,
we are assured, none shall see God.’’

While I would thus elevate mind to its truthful distinction and pre-
eminence, I would say nothing to disparage the material and living crea-
tion. While physicists ascribe all to matter,—all matter, all life, all mind,,

41872. ] 389 [ Price:
—and nothing to God, I ascribe all to Him ; yet regard matter as essential
means to all life, and to the exhibition of all mind upon this earth. We
see God’s good design in physical nature, and that design we must rever-
ence, and learn to adore Him in the sublimity of his works. Without
this material earth, and sun that lights and warms it, there would be none
of the life that we behold—would not be human souls to people heaven.
Climate, it is to be admitted, does make the Esquimau and the Negro
what they are. Unfriendly to life and its happiest physical development,
it is also unfriendly to intellectual, to moral, and religious culture ; and it
also fails either in the productions needful for man’s uses and improve-
ment, or produces animal and vegetable life so rankly as to over-master
the unskilled native, until he shall be helped by the stronger and more in-
ventive man of the temperate zone. But it follows not that the mind is
the production of the surrounding physical causes, but only that these
have not so well developed the instrument the minds must use ; and con-
sequently the mind itself is not so fully developed.

The mind it is that is ever conquering nature and moulding matter and
ruling life. It reclaims the earth to culture, fells the forest, drains the
morass, destroys wild beasts; mines the fuels and metals; makes and
applies iron to its ten thousand uses ; constructs railroads and telegraphs;
ereates the arts and sciences; educates mankind generally unto a higher
civilization, and makes a large proportion almost what they should be ;
that is to say, learned, temperate and wise, lovers of man and worshipers
of God; and all are advanced in moral conduct, except the irreclaimably
vicious. The task remaining before our humanity is to endeavor to cause
the people to approximate the standard of perfection; and if, peradventure,
we get a majority of such, the world will have made inestimable progress.
And why should we not all strive for such consummation ? In every branch
of business, men exert a wonderful amount of common sense and acute-
ness of thought, and achieve admirable success. Half the like assiduity and
culture directed upon their own minds would produce a transformation of
character and increase of intelligence, that would excite their wonder and
the admiration of the world. Mind only can do it, but mind can work the
consummation; and that is the great hope of all thoughtful, good men.

In all ages men have spoken of matter and mind; of the flesh and the
spirit ; of body and soul, as things of contrasted nature, and as at strife,
until one has attained the rule over the other; and if that rule be of the
flesh or the sensual passions, it is a dominion of sure degradation and
early destruction; but if it be of the truthful mind, then is it a dominion
of peace and wisdom. Paul said: ‘‘I see another law in my members
warring against the law of my mind ;’’ with the sin in those members his
sense of duty was also at war: and to desist from fulfillment of the sense
of duty, was to him intolerable woe. Mankind have always made such
contrast, and adopted their lesson of discipline from the requisition of an
exacting conscience, and by induction from surely observed facts. And
when our friends are with us in life, what is it that so much engages our
attachment and love and veneration for them? Not surely the body, ex-
cept slightly by association, since it is the temple where higher excellence

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dwell; but it is the intelligent mind, the loving heart, the well-tried vir-
tues. And when death has taken our friend, for what is our sorrow? Not
for the body, so little distinguishable from other bodies, but for the intel-
lectual and social companion, who had requited our love, but may never
again ; that instructor and adviser with whom we took wise counsel, but
shall no more on earth forever. It is for the social and good and generous
mind that we grieve with a grief that refuses to be comforted, except as
we find it in the faith that assures us we shall meet again, never again to
be separated ; a necessary faith of human consolation, and therefore proof
to ourselves that our minds and virtuous affections shall be immortal,
This was the testimony of Buckle, as to his own experiences and reflec-
tions after he had witnessed the slow decline and death of his beloved
mother; testimony that refuted the skeptical philosophy of his life ; and
has redeemed his memory from apparent heartlessness, and ‘made it very
beautiful to those whose philosophy grasps the immortality of the soul.

Matter and life are always undergoing changes, and both, in the human
body, kept in health, will live through length of happy years ; but at some
time they will hasten towards dissolution, and come to the end of their
organism ; and the life will only thereafter continue as it has been im-
parted to offspring. But mind or thought is everlasting, if there can
only be found imperishable material to hold its expressions. If the
printed page, or the canvas, or marble will endure, the thoughts of the
author and artist will last forever. The eternal thought can then only be
assailed through its allied perishable material 3 and that mind shall never
perish, it only needs an imperishable, a “celestial body;’’ and that it should
be translated into one, or live independently of one, should be no more a
mystery to philosophy than that the human soul has existed in its mortal
habitation ; is not more questionable as within the power of the Almighty
and His fulfillment of the logic of Tis creation, than the fact that a blade
of grass shall grow, or that this body is now the habitation of a human life.

The subject of this discourse might be continued through volumes, and
the writer be all the while dealing with as veritable realities as those that
occupy the physicist or naturalist, whose great, deficiency so often is, that
he becomes so wedded to the material that he disregards the mental and
moral in his philosophizing, and is, therefore, possessed of but half the
facts needful as a basis whence to make induction of all the great truths
of Creation. He needs to know more to become wiser and more chavi-
table ; and the metaphysician and theologian also need to know all the
truths of physical nature the former can develop, all of them God’s truths,
that they may become more fully informed, and, perhaps, more chari-
table ; that they may clearly know the physical works and laws of the
Creator, and the more perfectly love and adore Him. Each class is in
possession of numberless invaluable truths, but neither possesses so many
as it should know ; and this is partly owing to the wall of partition their
hostility has erected between them. While it is natural that each should
cling strongly to its convictions, these convictions must be based upon all
facts requisite to truth, that they may endure.

And here let me not be understood as making a general charge of

1872. ] 39] [Prices
materialism against physicists, for I am happy in believing that the great
majority of physicists are not materialists. I give credit to all who dis-
avow a materialistic faith, including Dr. Huxley ; giving credit to the like
disavowals here, there is no materialist known to me in this Society. I
have been enabled to use the authority and facts furnished by eminent
physicists, with great advantage, to sustain the views expressed in this
essay, as those of Bichat, Morgan, Carpenter, Holmes, and Tyndall.
While the drift of Professor Huxley’s lay sermon favors materialism,
there is that in ‘systematic materialism ’’ that repels him as something
pernicious. The last words of the sermon are these : ‘‘The errors of
systematic materialism may paralyze the energies and destroy the beauty
of life. He has some other faith, therefore, which preserves him from
the deadly influence he deprecates, and the loss of the sense of the beauty
of life which he loves. It can only be a more elevating philosophy, by
his concession, that can preserve to us a sense of the beauty of life ; may

o>

we not say, ‘‘the beauty of holiness?’? Such good fruit must be proof of
the greater truth of the higher philosophy he conceives and believes, yet
does not explain or advocate, but has sought to supplant. Now how only
do men attain their highest sense and example of this ‘“‘beauty of life?”
It is by a belief in the immortal life, and by cherishing the highest ideal
of perfection, which that belief ever presents to our apprehension, with
an obedience to the injunction to strive to be perfect as the higher per-
fection ; even looking to the perfection ‘‘of our Father in heaven.”’ That
sannot be the truth of life that could “‘ paralyze the energies and destroy
the beauty of life.”’
demns itself? Why seek to establish a theory at which our given sense
of truth and beauty revolts? Why seek to entomb the mind in matter,
and thereby lose our own soul? The useful, the beautiful, and the per-
fect in God’s creation attest the truths thereof and thatit is His. It re-
mains ever to be a sure test, by their fruits are all things to be known.

I would now leave it, as the testimony of one who has lived longer than

Why then seek to build up a philosophy which con-

the allotted three score years and ten, not unobservant of men, nor unre-
flecting upon the question of the wherefore of our being, with a mind
consciously open to the reception of every truth presented, for all that the
conviction of one mind may be worth,—that the doctrine of materialism
cannot be adopted as a belief of mankind, until men shall become capable
of confounding things the most opposite in nature ; until they can believe
that light can be darkness ; good be evil ; right, wrong ; not until men can
dissever effect from its due cause ; logic from reason ; creation from its
Creator. Not until then, will they confound mind with matter. All
nature demands a broader and truer interpretation, wherein every part
shall have assigned to it its just significance, and unto the whole its ade-
quate import be ascribed. Each and all imply no less than that there isa
Creator, and that the human soul has a lifeimmortal. Ifthe soul of man
has not this significance, then, truly, Creation is without adequate motive
or result for all eternity. But if we be children and heirs of God, there
is a sufficient solution of the purpose of our being, and an object worthy
the glory of the universe.

2Q9
Chase. | 392 [Feb. 16,

CORRELATIONS OF COSMIGAL AND MOLECULAR FORCE.
By Purny Earie Crass,
Professor of Physics in Haverford College.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 16th, 1872.)

If it be granted
1. That all forms of terrestrial organic energy are transformed modifica-

tions of solar radiation ;

2. That centrifugal and centripetal energies tend continually to equilib-
rium ;

3. That the kinetic energy of a perfectly elastic medium under constant
pressure, bears a definable ratio to its kinetic energy under constant
volume ;

Then the kinetic energy of dissociated water should be, approvimately, to
the kinetic energy of terrestrial revolution, as the mass of the earth, is to
the mass of the sun.

And the energy of hydrocarbons should be, upproximately, to the energy
of dissociated water, as elastic energy under constant volume, ts to elastic
energy under constant pressure.

For the measures, of the energy of gaseous combustion, and of the
energy of orbital revolution, are, respectively, the mean height of oscilla-
tion excited by the igneous energy of the combustible compound, and
the mean distance from the sun at which the earth is sustained in its
orbital revolution. It is evident, from the well known laws of elasticity,
that if a perfectly elastic body were lifted, in vacuo, to any given height,
and then let fall, it would rebound to the height from which it fell, and
this oscillation would be perpetual, unless disturbed by extraneous forces,
in the same way, and for a similar reason, that the earth continues its
elliptical oscillation about the sun. Inasmuch as the total radiating force
is considered in each instance, [the time consumed in storing up and in
liberating the accumulated solar energy being left entirely out of ques-
tion, | the element of velocity is not involved in the preliminary deter-
mination. It may, however, be subsequently ascertained, if desired, by
the formula,

avo gh.

It is evident that the dissociated oxygen and hydrogen tend to expand,
in consequence of any liberated interior energy, under constant exterior
pressure, while the hydrocarbons are restrained by the cohesive forces
which tend to maintain a constant volume.

For the purpose of testing the accordance, both of the postulates and
of the conclusions, with the facts of observation and experiment, it might
be deemed sufficient to confine attention exclusively to the lightest and
most elastic gas, and to the lightest and most volatile liquid. But I
believe the same principles, with simple modifications, are applicable to
all forms of matter, and I have already extended the investigation, with
some encouraging results, to inorganic elements and compounds. I sub-
join, from Muspratt’s Chemistry, all the elements and products involved

292
1872.] beni [Chase.

in the unstable equilibria of organic life, for which I have been able to
find any recorded experimental value. In all cases which have been tested
by more than one observer, the kinetic ratios represent the mean of all
the latest and most authentic results. For convenience of expression, I
employ the following symbols :

d=length of terrestrial day.

y’=duration of orbital revolution of the earth.

me “« the moon.

y= 6“ 6c“

Y= oe a 3 “a hypothetical satellite at the sur-
face of the earth.

9=32.0874877 feet.

-radius of the earth=20, 923, 654 feet.

ce’, c/’.... Cxyi= combustible (hydrogen, ether, ....carbon).

~~ ae —nr >+ Pa 45

La(77-+++7xvi =product of combustion.

ty (t/, ’....txyi >=thermal units, or number of pounds of water heated
1° C. by the combustion of 1 pound of ¢7,

J—=Joule’s equivalent, ;1°,%, mile

pounds.

weight of 72+ weight of cy.
74—mean height at which the earth is suspended under the centrifugal

force of the sun.
Wo Ne se moon ‘‘ ne centrifugal force of
the earth.
Ay—=mean height at which 7; would be suspended, in the oscillation
maintained by combustion and gravitation=J><ty+ 2w,z.
y -hy—=ly, approximation to solar mass in units of earth’s mass,
furnished by cy.
kg—kinetic ratio of eg—=4—l"
/Pa=ratio of experimental to theoretical value of i.
m!, m!', m'''==mass of sun, earth, moon.

Ca Symbol. ye ky pa Authorities *
1 Hydrogen H HO 1.000 1.000 D, H, G, F&S, A
2 Ether C,H,O 4CO,,5HO 1.494 1.004 D., F&S.
3 Olive Oil C,)H,0. 10CO,8HO. 1.495 1.004 D.
4 Terebene Oe 10CO,,8HO 1.508 1.010 F&S.
5 Marsh Gas CH, CO,,2HO 1.518 1.020 D., G., A., F&S.
6 Amylic Ether. C,,H,O 10C0O,,11HO 1.521 1.022 F&S.
7 Phosphorus ee PO; 1.529 1.027 A.
8 Olefiant Gas CH CO,, HO 1.534 1.080 D., G., F&S., A.
9 Oil of Turpentine C,H, 5CO,,4HO 1.542 1.086 G., F&S.
10 Oil of Lemons © jE; 10C0,,8HO 1.545 1.088 F&S.
1i Fusel Oil C,,H,,0, 10C0,,12HO 1.596 1.072 F&S.

*A., Andrews. D., Dulong. F&S., Favre and Silbermann. G., Grassi. H., Hess. I

reject Dalton’s determinations of k,, for camphor (2.808), because in nearly every instance he
obtained much higher values than any later experimenters. Further experiments with that sub-
stance (C10HsO, yielding 10C02,8HO) would be interesting, and perhaps suggestive.

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—2x

QOA
Chase. ] 394 [Web. 16,

12 Alcohol C,H,O, 4C0,,6HO 1.601 1.076 D., G., F&S., A.
138 Cyanogen O.N 200,,N 1,647 1.106 D.

14 Acetone C,H,O 3C0,3HO 1.681 1.129 F&S.

15 Wood Spirit C,H,O, 200,4HO 1.792 1.157 G., F&S.

16 Carbon C Co, 1.853 1.245 D., G., H.

The following examples indicate the manner in which the several values
are determined :
193 . 34533
TOWNES ae 0) e STAw oe
=J Xt! +20 = 13207 9829 =280.5 miles.

198 _ 895911
1820°° 2x41
kyjahxja=1.596

If an elastic fluid is lifted above the earth’s surface, subject to the
(nearly) constant pressure of gravity, the superficial pressure varies as

nth 2 nt H\ 8, eas
(—’) >and the volume as (=) The value of 4 for HO being, as

De

=17

ee [SCE in ee
hgj ed X type Og}

we have seen, 561 miles (or twice /,, which represents the mean height of

i
oscillation), if we call 7 (earth’s mean radius) 3956 miles, ( mo) = 1.4886.

This corresponds approximately to the experimental valuation adopted.
by Tyndall (1.421), and is almost identical with the experimental kinetic
ratio of ether (1.494).

yl = 22 1+ 7 -y=d074 seconds.

y'=27 dys, 7h., 43 min. 12 s.
afl y!)% X= 287937 miles.
By my hypothesis,

ob
Weyl: Milas Avail a

And, according to well known mechanical laws,

Hys yl!! 2
Ay nieve Tes
m/=m a ( y )

Solving the equations, we obtain the following values :
Sun’s mass 330, 260
*¢ distance 92,639,500 miles.

* If ¢ represents the extreme excursion of the exploded gases, the centre of gyration, consider-

‘ Fi 4 ae
ing the earth’s surface as the axis, being =, the secondary centre of oscillation, on the return
3

Coy 5e icy .
towards the centre gris at 9° and 9 OF B45; 533° C, 345339 F,

wo
©
oe

[Chase.

THE HERSCHELL-STEPHENSON POSTULATE.
By Purny Harte CHAsE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 1st, 1872.)

Of the three postulates which I submitted to the Society at its last
meeting, I presume the first will generally be considered the most ques-
tionable. The hypothesis of Herschel and Stephenson, that the coal con-
sumed under our boilers merely imparts, to the steam, solar energies .
which have been imprisoned for ages by the molecular attraction of the
carbon particles, has been commonly accepted as a beautiful poetical
fancy, having, perhaps, some indefinite foundation in truth. Few per-

sons, however, can have indulged the expectation that so vague asurmise

would ever yield any satisfactory numerical results, and it will not be
strange if even the close coincidences to which it has led me, may be
regarded by many as merely accidental.

The following comparisons show the character of the agreement
between estimates of solar distance, mass, and parallax, based upon
various chemical and astronomical observations :

I. By FLuame ANALYSIS.

According to Experiments of Distance. Mass. Parallax.
/
PTO W Sia. t ccna sto 93,631,000. - 340, 950
Favre and Silbermann. . 92,471,000 338, 430
Gigssi 2 we 92,466,000 328,870
DUONG cde ens es 92,363,000 327,290
EIGES etc ee ee ae 92,298, 000 326,590

II. By AstrRonomicaL COMPUTATION.

According to Calculations of Distance. Mass. Parallax.
ad
BNCKO ess are res is cee 95,811,000 359, 630 8.576
lias Si. ee ce 93,309, 000 337,440 8.76
INGWCOMID) <6. .05 60.3% 92,380,000 327,480 8.848
ep eee deectth 92,152,000 325,040 8.87
Stone, corrected........ 91,945,000 322,900 8.89
Hansencis; <seiec ass 91,672,000 319,990 8.9165
StOH6. vos es ieee 91,512,000 318,320 8.932
Leverrier 91,329, 000. 316,470 8.95

91,186,000 314,930 8.964

My own faith in the significance of such coincidences, and in their sug-
gestive value as indications of an instructive, intelligent as well as intel-
ligible, purpose in nature, inclines me to the acceptance of speculations,
based on thermodynamic, spectroscopic, and analogous theories, even
before all their premises have been recognized as either axiomatic or
rigidly demonstrable. The desirableness, however, of completing the

Chase. ] 396 [March 1,
proof as soon as possible, must be admitted, and I now submit some
further considerations, which, in my own judgment, impart a more strictly
mathematical character to my fundamental postulate.

It is well known that the velocity acquired in falling towards an
attractive centre, depends upon the attracting mass and the distance
fallen through. In other words,

Rh Bh im

VXV 2h XV @ d \2h

It is moreover evident that in any perfectly elastic particle, oscillating
perpetually in a compound orbit, about two centres of attraction, as in
the hypothetical case of water vapor, set in motion by the force of
chemical combination, if ‘

mu & 2h,

the proportionate velocity communicated by gravity varying as Va’ the
d

proportionate living force will vary as The mean amounts of living

2h
d-
force imparted by each of the two attracting centres will then tend con-
stantly to equality, thus counteracting any indefinite expansion or con-
traction towards the centre ‘of prepondering attraction, which would
otherwise gradually draw the oscillating body to itself. This exigency
can be satisfied, and a perpetual oscillation maintained by the conjoint
action of gravity and elasticity, only when 2/ has the proportional value
here indicated.

The question may be approached in another way. The sustaining vis
vivog of the earth in its orbit, having been acquired by a virtual fall through

i

)

a

the half-radius Be i, let it be required to find the proportionate part

of the possible fall which will sustain the elastic oscillation.
Since the attracting forces (or the virtual masses acting at the point of

. Wd . . 7 ~ . Vb
disturbance), vary as a) the virtual centrifugal forces will vary as i"
a" ¢

Then iy keep?

Me nl a ae

Wend
Nal galt nai
OFI) m''d! ™m nN" 9
210 Se $m & 2h & a.

ae
m! 2h a!

At whatever distance from the centre the elastic particle encounters an
obstacle, a portion of the force must be communicated to the obstacle,
originating new molecular motions, which, if they could all be known,
would show that the aggregate amount of force is still maintained. The
following attempt to trace a portion of the transmitted forces of inter-

3897
1872. ] ta [Chase.

rupted oscillations, may perhaps suggest others that will be more com-
plete and satisfactory :
m! siim’s mass :
Let —= 5 =314,000*
m'’ earth’s mass
d’/=91,828, 000
d!//=8, 962.8

vi} q/
MC
this ae = 290.85

7
Vd
= hourly velocity of a body revolving at the distance d’/ from the
sun’s centre, or at the distance /’’ from the earth’s centre, = 65,062. 4
miles.

In consequence of the solidity of the earth, the hypothetical perpetual
oscillation of the combined H and O through the major axis 2///, must be

maintained at d// instead of at h/’ from the earth’s centre. Its maxi-
Ohl!

mum velocity is therefore only qi of v’, which —9609.36 miles —9.24™
the equatorial superficial velocity of rotation, or 9.0165>< the velocity at
the centre of oscillation of the semi-axis /.

The reaction of the elastic atmospheric particles, in their continual re-
bounds from the earth’s surface, under tidal, thermal, chemical, and
molecular influences, should contribute, in connection with the motion of
revolution, to a rotary motion in the earth itself. The following coin-
cidences, at the boundary lines of the interior (Telluric) and exterior
(Jovian) planetary systems, seem to render it probable that a reference to
centres of oscillation may ultimately account for the masses, order of ar-
rangement, and times of rotation, of the several planets and satellites, as
well as for their period of revolution.

If we assume, in the sun, as well as in the oscillating H,O, a virtual

y
centre of oscillation at the distance q from the diametrical centre, the

oscillating centre will move about a cme which has a volume, propor-
tioned to that of the solar sphere, as 1 to 9

[f all the asteroids, satellites, comets, meteors, and undiscovered planets
in our system constitute an aggregate equivalent to the mass of Uranus,
the mass of the sun is 729 (—9") < the planetary mass. (a.)
729+ (—9*) solar radii = distance of Mercury. (0.)

YROS<1 (2208)= ‘¢ —. distance of farthest asteroid. (c.)
720529 (e204) & «¢ —= distance of Neptune. (d.)
Theoretical. Observed. Theoretical Error.
a .0013717 -00138584 009
b 3 “430,000 85,353, 000 3027
¢ 309,870,000 312,888,000 —.008
d 2,788, 833, 000 2,74 3,216,000 O17

* The values are taken from Norton’s Astronomy.

——

398

Chase. ] [April &.

FURTHER APPROXIMATIONS TO THE SUN’S DISTANCE.
By Puiny EarLe CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 5th, 1872.)

If it be true, as is commonly and very plausibly supposed, that molecu-
lar and cosmical laws have many significant analogies which are yet un-
discovered, it may be well to seek for such analogies wherever we may
reasonably hope to find them.

The height of oscillation which I have assumed as the measure of the

igneous energy of combustibles, is less, and the resulting estimate of

solar mass and distance is greater, if the. combustible is dense, composite,
or of small specific heat, than if it is rare, simple, or of great specific
heat. It seems likely that even hydrogen, the most volatile of all known
substances, may have undergone some condensation and loss of specific
heat, and that, therefore, my first estimates by flame analysis * were all
slightly in excess. This opinion is the more probable, from the fact that
the mean of the most recent astronomical estimates of solar distance, is
nearly one per cent. less than the mean of the flame estimates.

In searching for some clue to the coéfficient of condensation in hydrogen,
if we accept the hypothesis that the luminiferous ether is a perfectly
elastic material medium, we may, perhaps, be able to detect some im-
portant relations between the velocity of luminous or thermal undulations,
and the velocity of oscillations which are directly traceable to gravitating
action. In the primary radiation and subsequent double concentration
of exploding hydrogen, there is not only a joint attraction of the gaseous
particles for each other and of the whole for the earth, but there is also
a generation of luminous vibrations, with a velocity such as would be

2
produced by a gravitating force g = . . Equivalent velocities may be
generated by masses of different magnitudes, provided the motion is
orbital with radii varying as the masses, or the fall is virtually continued
to the centre from heights equivalent to twice those proportionate radii.

With these preliminary considerations I invite attention to the following:

coincidences :
1. At the centre of oscillation of the extreme excursion of exploding
1,0 before its fall towards the centre of condensation, (% of 1009.877

miles from the commencement of the fall, or 4 1009.877—336.626 miles.

above the earth’s surface, ) the velocity imparted by terrestrial gravity in one
32.0894377 >< 31558150 eee 336.626) 3 : ;
sa : a o 30 28

( 5280 902.818) = 184130 mites )

would be closely coincident with the velocity of light. If the coincidence

Qn

is exact, 7 (the Sun’s distance) is 497.827 184,130—91, 665,370 miles.

year

J , : oe ays 2gt? 7?
The value of h corresponding to this distance gf =

which is 1.0215 times the experimental 7 (561.043 m).

* Ante, p.. 395.

== 573.099 miles,.

1872.] [Chase.

2. In consequence of the equality of velocities at 7 and Ao, ¢ (the time

of revolution) xh. If the mass (G+ ))=81, (82) °<561.043-—571.436.
In other words, the actual : the experimental value of i : : the virtual time
of revolution of the Earth’s centre, relatively to the Moon : the virtual
time of revolution of the centre of gravity of the Earth and Moon. If
ir ig

this proportionality is exact, the value of 7 is-— Aor = 91,798,500
miles.

3. The greatest distance of the Moon from the Earth is about 637, and

h
A-+-r
4—91,818,400.

4. The velocity acquired by falling through /, from the distance 7--A,
is nearly a mean proportional between the velocities of terrestrial
rotation and revolution. If 4—569.363, 7—91,965,500 and the hourly

QR~

velocity of revolution is 2>3.14185><91,965,500 ~ 8766 .153 = 65,911.77 ;

: : 1 : : ; i pan oe
is nearly equivalent to N58 If this equation is exact h=571.25 ;
1)

h+r : ae :
3600 y 2gh—> : 8,280.6, which is a mean proportional between

65,911.7 and 1,040.8. I can find no indication, in any of the planets or
satellites, of a greater rotation-velocity than is thus indicated, and as it is
difficult to conceive the possibility of such a velocity, I am inclined to re-
gard this as the upper limit of possible value for 7, and to believe, there-
fore, that the Sun’s mean distance cannot be greater than 91,965,500
miles.

ib : ; ipa ;
5. If we take h/ a third proportional to 7 and h (h’= a ) the vis viva
7, ?
of rotation of an elastic particle at the Earth’s surface : the vis viva at
h! :: the force of gravity at h’ : the force of gravity at the Earth’s
surface : : the velocity of light : the velocity which would be communicated
by superficial gravity in one sidereal year.

r+h! 2 wr Bp
497.827 gt ( —— fH}
197. 827g¢--( — )=y NS :
EERE p+h’)2
*, ANT. 82Tx xT 2g. = ee :
Vy
72 RY yy Ler 2 OYA - F,/—88 1399 - (r op — R22 970 4-
dati eat RT eA
f h

491,595,960.

We thus obtain five independent determinations, each of which is based
upon considerations, some of which are necessary resultants of known
mechanical laws, while others are expressive of actual circumstances of
equilibrium, the greatest difference between any two of the results being
less than one-half of one percent. The experimental determination from
the combustion of hydrogen (1), which differs less than one-hundredth of

400 April 5,

Chase. ]

one per cent. from Hansen’s estimate, and only one twenty-fifth of one
per cent. from the mean of all the estimates, may, perhaps, be reasonably
regarded as entitled to the greatest weight. The narrow compass within
which they are all embraced, and the close approximation to the mean of
the best astronomical computations, may be seen in the following table :

Newcomb (mean of two estimates)................. 92, 266,000
TERRESTRIAL ROTATION (upper limit).......... 91,965,500
LUNAR DISTANCE 91,813,400
LUNAB MONTH. cee 91,798,500
MEAN OF MECHANICAL ESTIMATES............ 91,767,736
Stone (Mean OL two Gstimates) ase we ee 91,728,500
PloMSOHee are ee, oe, ee Ee ee 91,672,000
HYDROGEN EXPLOSION (ly. 22. 30. 91,665,320
Mean of. Astronomical Estimates.................... 91,636,800
VELOCITY OF LIGHTS...) ss 91,595,960
EVERIGE . ace eo gis conde 6 eth oi 91,329,000
WHO CG. itn cp che ac tee pL ous 5 6 eee es 91,186, 000

Is it possible that there can be anything deceptive in these figures,—
that any bias of unsuspected prejudice may have blinded me, or that I
have been misled by mere fortuitous resemblances? The question
whether there is not some conception of force which will unify centrifugal
and centripetal, luminous, thermal, and gravitating action, is continually
recurring ; the accordance of Faraday’s ‘‘lines of force’’ with lines of
perfect fluidity, and the fundamental equation of oscillation, favor an
affirmative answer; the increasing popularity of the theory that matter
is nothing but force, prepares the way for every conceivable approxima-
tion and identification of molar and molecular laws.

If the undulations of light have any influence upon the gravity of
bodies, the velocity of light being nearly uniform, its influence should
tend to communicate a velocity as nearly like its own as gravity and.
' inertia will allow, a tendency which is presumably most manifest in the
most tenuous forms of matter. The gravitating velocity,

Ta I Me i :

————1/24gh KX — ——1/2mh, being a maximum. when 75—/ and hocm
i Ve J 5 D >

r+h rh

it does not seem unreasonable to look for analogies between the extreme

excursions of planets, satellites and gases, or between times, ve.ccities,

and living forces, in the direction of that maximum.

GENERAL RELATION OF AURORAS TO RAINFALL.
By Prrny Harte CHase.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 5th, 1872.)

In order to ascertain if the parallelism, which I have pointed out be-
tween the daily rainfall and the frequency of auroras, can be traced in the
annual curves, [ have constructed the following table of normals, from
data furnished by Lovering’s Catalogue of Auroras, and Loomis’s Meteor-

sian

401 [Chase.

ology. The tendency to increase of auroras in clearing weather, and
diminution in falling weather, is shown in the Auroral and Pluvial

General Means :

AURORAS. RAINFALL.
Ho Be —— 5
aa an
Jan. 89 96 107
Feb. 100 107 125
March, 112 112 136
Aprile 10g, 103 116
May, 90 86 73
June, 84 rage 42
July, 92 85 45
AUG 10) 103 7)
Sept. 120 118 1

1
Oct. 118 17 13
Nov. 96 103 121
Dec. 81 93 1

INFLUENCE OF METEORIC SHOWERS ON AURORAS.
3y Pror. Puiny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 16th, 1872.)

Professor Lovering’s discussion of the periodicity of the Aurora Borealis
(Trans. A. A. 8. V0. X., Part I.), not only exhibits maxima and minima
of frequency at periods corresponding to general minima and maxima of
rainfall (see above), but it also furnishes evidence of a tendency, in other
great atmospheric disturbances, to increase auroral displays.

In preparing the following table, I first took the second means of
Lovering’s Table LIT. (containing 10816 auroras, arranged according to
their frequency on each day of the year). After grouping the results in
five-day periods, I calculated the ratio of each ordinate to a mean ordinate
of 100. Against each ordinate which corresponds to a supposed meteoric
period, I set the initial K. (Kirkwood’s ‘‘ Meteoric Astronomy’’), or W.
(Wolf, cited by Lovering, p. 221).

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—2Y

%)
Chase. | 402 [May 16.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF AURORAL AND Merroric DispLays.

Jan. 3, 110K., W. Mar. 19, 144 June 2, 44 Aug. 16, 76 Oct, 30, 126
8, 110 W. 24, 138 7, 44° W. 21, 88 Noy. 4, 120
13, 114 29, 138 W. 12, 41 26, 95 9, LAL NY.
18, 113 Aple 8, 188 di, 80 31, 102 Tay dad” Big We
28, 110 8, 130 W. 22, 31 Sep, 5, 112 19) 127 Ws.
28, 11 18, 131 27, 36 10, 123 W. 24, 113
Feb. 2, 113 W. 19,115 Kis. Ws, July 2, 40 Dy sk Wy 2000 iis WW.
gee. We 23, 94K. 7, 46 20, 138 Dec. 4, 115 W.
12, 125 28, 79 12, 44 25, 142 2 ay
d/; 1e3 Ky W. May 35-76 17, 40 W. 139 W. Si VV
8, 66 22, 89K, Oct, 6, 133 W.
13, 61 27, 45 K., W. 10, 129
Mar. 18, 57 Ate. 1,40 IS, 4 WV. c 15, 129 K,
2, 51 GO bl ig Wa 20, 133 K.
28, 47 LLY 6010.7 WV: 25, 132

The table, as well as the accompanying curve, exhibits the following
peculiarities :

1. The principal maxima occur near the equinoxes, and are apparently
due to the favorable position of the earth for the development of circulat-
ing electric currents.

2. There is an evident grouping of meteoric displays in the vicinity of

the maxima and minima.
3. The grouping is more strongly marked upon the ascending, than om
the descending sides of the inflections.

£.

j———————}_____|

| |
FER. | MAR. | APRIL
i ifs

ocr. nov. | DEC.

4. The principal secondary maxima (in February, October, November
and December), exhibit the most striking accordance.

5. Nearly all of the apparent exceptions to this general accordance are
occasioned by the rapid decline of the general curve, which is so great as
to veil the subordinate maxima, when five-day means are taken.

Of all the meteoric ordinates suggested by Kirkwood, including those
which he regards as doubtful, three correspond with auroral minima,
eight with increasing auroral displays, two with maxima, and only two:
with ordinates of diminishing auroral frequency. The two exceptional

ihanacaissiscions

ee

403

[Chase.

ordinates become normal if we examine the daily curve of second means,
which shows subordinate maxima on April 19th and April 24th.

Of the meteoric ordinates suggested by Wolf. four correspond with
minima, nine with ascents, seven with maxima. and six with descents in
the auroral curve. Of the six apparently abnormal ordinates, only two,
those of March 31st and Nov. 19th, are on descending inflections of the
auroral daily curve of second means.

There seems, therefore, good reason to look for an increase of auroral

displays, soon after every meteoric shower.

PLANETARY ILLUSTRATIONS OF EXPLOSIVE OSCILLATION.

By Puiny EARLE CHASE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 16th, 1872.)

The secondary centre of gyration in an exploded gas, on its return

towards the centre of gaseous mass, being, as I have shown, at “i

(h representing the extreme excursion consequent on the explosion), we

may reasonably expect, by referring the planetary masses to similar

} primary and secondary centres, to obtain evidence relative to the proba-

bility of the hypothesis of molar and molecular correlations. Whether the

nebular hypothesis be true or false, the planets are oscillating under the

combined action of centrifugal and centripetal forces. In their continual

virtual fall towards the Sun, they are subject to such disturbances as arise

from their mutual interaction, and should, therefore, tend to arrange

themselves somewhat like the particles of an exploded gas. I submit the

following exemplifications of such a tendency, the calculations being

generally based upon the hypothesis that the planets are either in con-
junction, or nebulously diffused along the entire line of their orbits.

: ‘ dh
1. Mercury is near the theoretical mean excursion es ) of the centre

of gravity of the intra-asteroidal belt of planets.

5 Mercury* 35> .8871— 1.2903
Venus 25 .7233—18.0832
Earth 8l.8d5cl. 31.85
Mars 1.5237== 5.079

63.52 .8864—56.3025
2<,8864—.4924 from the centre of gravity, or .3940 from the Sun, the
true distance being .3871 ; $249—=1.0178.
2. The actual eccentricity of Mercury’s orbit : the theoretical eecen-
tricity if the oscillation were referred primarily to the intra-asteroidal

:
i
|

* The values of the astronomical elements are taken from Norton’s Astronomy, unless
a otherwise stated.

Chase. ] 404 [May 16,

centre of gravity, nearly :: the actual : the theoretical mean excursion
from that centre of gravity.

Theoretical Abia imran 2 « (§—t) 3 .205515-+-2—=. 92482.
(.8864—.3871)-+-3—=.89874 ; 224 sape.029.
3. Neptune is near the ftisctotioal eeeploutve centre of the centre of
gravity of the three exterior pence
[2847.4 9.539-+-416.7>< 19. 182639 co <30.087]=
532.5] =-18.472 ; 13.472 --( 8) 30.812

30.812-+-30. 037 1.009

4, Neptune’s orbital centre of oscillation is near the orbit of Uranus.
20.02465

[2847.44-416.7-4

of 30.03697—20.02465 ; Foasamy — 1.0439.

5. The orbital centre of oscillation for eae is near the centre of
gravity of the three exterior planets. The mean orbital radius of Uranus
is about twice eu of Saturn.

3.472 (See No. 8) +-(25<19.182639) —1.05345.

G, Lue thea, mean excursion for an explosion from the Sun to
Uranus, is near the centre of eravity of Uranus and Saturn.
® of 19.18264 10.657 ; (2847.4><9.539 416.7><19.18264) = (2847.44-416.7)

10.7697 ; 10.7697-+-10.657—1.0106.

+’ The theoretical mean excursion for an explosion from the Sun to
Saturn, is near the orbit of ee
& of 9,.589==5.299'; 5.299--5.208=1.018.

8. The centre of gravity of stepttiee and Saturn is near Saturn’s orbital
centre of gyration.

2

2847.4
(9.538852) (Fepepg 4.83609 45.2028) — 1.0226.
\ Leloe.4 /

9, The theoretical mean excursion from Jupiter to the Sun, is near the

inner limit of the asteroidal belt.
(1—8)<5.2028:-==2.31236 ; 2.31286 +9 2014=-1.0b.

10. The centre of gyration of Jupiter’s orbital radius is near the exterior
limit of the asteroidal belt.

2 of 5.2028 5.4686 ; 3.4686 3.4205 —1.01406.

11. If all the known primary planets were aggregated at Jupiter’s
orbital centre of gyration, the centre of gravity of the solar system would
be near the Sun’s surface.

. 3.4686 214.86 —745.248 ; 759.46 +745.284——1.01908.
12. The centre of oscillation for aks exterior asteroid, is near the orbit
of the inner asteroid.
% of 38.4205 =2.2808 ; 2.2803 2.2014 1.03584.

13. The centre of oscillation for the theoretical inner asteroid, is near

the orbit of Mars.
2 of 2.2808=1.5202 ; 1.528691--1.5202—1.0028.
4. The centre of oscillation from Mars to the Sun is near the orbit of

the Harth.
2 of 1.5287-—-1.0158.

1872.1 405 [Chase.

15. The theoretical mean excursion from Mars to the Sun, is near the
orbital centre of oscillation for the Earth.
(18) 1.5237—=.6772 5 .6772--.6667—1.01575.
16. The theoretical mean excursion from the Sun to the Earth is nearly
midway between the orbits of Mercury and Venus.
(.8871-+.7233)= 5552 5 3+-.5552—=1.0006.
17. The theoretical mean excursion from Mars to the Sun, is near the
centre of gravity of Venus and Mereury.
Gb» .38'71-+ 25 .'7283)-— (82+ 25)—. 6838 ; .68388---.6772 (See No. 15) =1.01.

The theoretical mean excursion from the Earth to the Sun,
- near the extreme excursion or aphelion of Mercury.
.4666-—-(1—3)==1.05.
. The theoretical mean excursion from Venus to the Sun is nea
seg s perihelion.
(1—8) X. 72833 —.32148 ; .82148+.3075 1.04542.

20. The theoretical mean excursion from Pe, to the Sun is near
the limit of the Sun’s possible atmosphere (the limit at which the
equatorial centrifugal force is equal to gravity)

[(1—3)X.3871] 365.2564 26.065 ;* 26.065 -+25.187—1.085.

21. If the several planets were aggregated precisely, as they are ap-

proximately, at aikbet or reverse centres of oscillation, the centre of in-

ertia of the entire planetary system ()/ mr? im) would be near the
orbit of Saturn.
(8412 -+-25><2?+4.31.85 «32-32 42 +9307 18? +-2847.427? + 416.7
542+-5382.5><812)+-(34 +25 + 31.85 +384 -+9307-+-2847.4-| 416.7+4.532.5)

27.282 ; 27.28--27—1.0104.
22. Notwithstanding the variations from centres of oscillation, con-
sequent upon mutual planetary interactions, the centre of planetary
inertia is still near the orbit of Saturn.
Smr? (1,150, 671, 134) 3m (13167.12)—9.848? ; 9.5389 9.348 —1.0204.

23. The distance of the Moon’s orbital centre of oscillation from: the.

centre of the Earth, is very nearly a mean proportional between the limit
of the Earth’s possible atmosphere and the Moon’s orbital radius.

(4)? of 288,800 =26,538 ; (24-1. 40937) 3962.818 —26, 230 ;
26,533 +-26, 230=1.01155.
24. The vis viva of revolution at the Earth’s surface : the equatorial
vis viva of rotation, nearly :: Earth’s orbital radius : twice Moon’s radius
of orbital gyration.

38, 800

98

4
(17,066--1040.3)2-+ (91,328, 000 — ———_——_ ) —_ 1.00545

2
oO

* The approximate coincidence of this period with Hornstein’s magnetic cycle (2614 days.
Vienna Academy, June 15, 1871) is noteworthy,

406

[May 16,

SOLAR AND PLANETARY ROTATION.
3¥ Puiny EARLE CHase.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 16th, 1872.)

The similarity in the length of day, between the principal and sub-
ordinate planets, both in the intra and the extra-asteroidal belt, is so
obvious, that many attempts, of which Kirkwood’s is the most satisfactory,
have been made to formulate it.

Ihave long thought that there is some simple explanation for the
rotation, as well as for the revolution of the heavenly bodies. My recent
investigations of explosive gyration, have yielded some interesting results,
which, from their relation to the most important bodies of our system,
encourage me to hope for further and more minute developments of a
like kind.

1. The sidereal revolution of the Moon : the sidereal rotation of the
Harth, nearly :: the equatorial value of g at the Sun : the equatorial
value of g at the Earth.

27.3669--27.292—1.00275.

2. The action of terrestrial superficial gravity against a uniform
opposing force for a sidereal half-day, would be sufficient to give a
velocity equivalent to that of a planet near the Sun’s surface.

43, 0827—261.8164 miles ; 265.5184 :261.8164—1.01414, which is nearly
equal to 1+-the Earth’s orbital eccentricity.

3. The action of the superficial gravity of Jupiter for a sidereal half-
rotation, would also be sufficient to give a velocity equivalent to that of
a planet near the Sun’s surface.

18,863 2.419—=276.247; 276.24'7-+-265.5184. 1.0406; which is nearly
equal to 1+Jupiter’s orbital eccentricity.

4, The action of solar superficial gravity for a sidereal half-rotation,
would give nearly the velocity of light.

2 Of 25.1868 86, 4007 —180,465 ; 183,454 + 180,465 — 1.0166.

5. The action of terrestrial gravity, near the Earth’s surface, for a
sidereal year, would also give a velocity equivalent to that of light.

31,558, 150g—191,792 ; 191,792+183, 454 1.04545, which is nearly equal
to 1+-Jupiter’s orbital eccentricity.

6. The orbital radius of Saturn : Mercury’s orbital radius, nearly :: time
of sdlar rotation : time of terrestrial rotation.

9.53885 +. 3871 24.642 ; 25.187-+-24.642—1.0221.
- The distance of Neptune from the Sun, is nearly equivalent to one-
fourth the orbit of Uranus.
19.1826397

Go

+ 80,037 — 1.00233.

9
a
8. The mass of the Sun : the mass of the Earth, nearly :: cube of
Karth’s orbital radius : cube of Sun’s semi-circumference,
(214.86 +7)8 319,894 ; 319,894 + 314,000—1.01878.

a

ising iimnesioie

4872.] 407 [Chase.
9. The velocity of planetary revolution at the Sun’s surface : velocity
of solar rotation, nearly :: Earth’s orbital radius : Sun’s radius.
955, 870-4, 421.7—216.178 ; 216.1738+214.86—1.00613.
10. The square of Jupiter’s orbital radius : square of Earth’s orbital
radius, nearly :: g at Sun : g at Earth.
27.2925. 20282—1.00824 (Compare No. 1).

AATHEREAL DENSITY AND POLARITY.
By Piiny EARLE CHASE.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 16th, 1872.)

If the conditions of equilibrium in a perfectly elastic gas have been
‘disturbed by explosion, in the restoration of equilibrium, the particles
will simultaneously rush towards each other, and towards the attractive
centre m. If h is the extreme excursion consequent on the explosion,

2h
the centre of oscillation of each exploding particle being at ——, the centre

oO

of gyration of its return towards the centre of gaseous mass ( ) is at

a

Siie) : : j ae dh :
ac The centre of gyration of the fall from Ton to the Earth, is at

4 4
5h : : : Oh Oo -
above the Earth’s surface, or at 7--——— from the Earth’s centre.

a7 a7

e s
‘ dh : ees : dh aes
If i :7+—— :: the orbital vis viva about a diameter 90° the vis viva

‘ .

: : 5h
which would be communicated by virtual fall through Sees i: 4s we

have 27r—108/ ; = d!--577.113 miles ; {91,345,800 miles ; —
68666
78666
estimated velocity of hydrogen (6050, Clausius; 6055, Joule) to, this
theoretical velocity, seems to indicate that the elasticity of hydrogen is
nearly perfect. The inference is strengthened by the close approxima-
tion of my first estimates by flame analysis, to the mean of the best
astronomical estimates of the Sun’s distance.

Let d/—density of luminiferous ether; d//—density of hydrogen.
Calling the velocity of sound in hydrogen 4163 feet, and the velocity of
light 183,454 miles, if the elasticities are the same we have the proportion,

ad! : da!’ +: 4168? : (188,454<5280)? 2:1 : 54, 180,000,000.
Upon the hypothesis that gravitation is an incidental result of sethereal

6.8666 ; y 2gd’ —6103 feet per second. The approximation of the

408 [May 16,

Ohase. ]

elasticity, Professor Norton has found* that ‘‘at the distance 807 the
repulsion becomes very nearly the same for all the assumed values of

Wy, : : LOE ; c : oe
”? 7 and m being centres of origination for the interior and exterior

Me

wave systems of the wthereal atomic envelopes. Now if 7—Sun’s radius,
L
4

and 7! —Mereury’s orbital radius, 7’ is nearly equivalent to 807 (see. 3f le

mm

he second factor may be deduced in the following manner :

If we suppose a collection of spherical atoms of equal magnitude, ea sh
of which has condensed around it an wthereal envelope, to be arranged
in the most compact manner possible, the lines joining the centres of

three contiguous particles will form an equilateral triangle. If the
envelope is of such density as to allow the indefinite rectilinear trans-
mission of waves between adjacent particles, one-half the distance
between the centres of two adjacent atoms, will be a mean proportional
between the radius of the atom and the distance between an atomic
centre and an adjacent sthereal centre ; the ratio of the atomic radius to
the half-distance, and of the half-distance to the inter-central distance,
being each equal to the ratio of radius to sec. 30°. In the accompanying

figure,

ABYAC ss: ACG: AD: > rad. ;

According to the hypothesis of Mossotti, that the ethereal particles are
infinitesimal in proportion to the atoms, the sphericity of the atomic
surface may be disregarded, and the virtual radius of the ewthereally-
enveloped atom may be supposed to vary asthe mass. But in atoms of

* Amer. Jour. Sci., May, 1872, p. 340.

1872.] 409

| ;
} . : 3 * . we > *
uniform density, ram’, therefore it need not surprise us if we find in

[Chase.

toe

different relations of cosmical masses, the three factors, sec. 3(

), (see. 80°)

(sec, 300)"
1. Mercury’s orbital radius being, as I have said, 7’ = 807><(see. 300)3”
1
Neptune’s orbital radius is 80°7, or 807’ (sec. 30°)
nt
3
[807 (sec. 80°) ]-+-(.8870987 x 214.867) —1.00126.
(80.03697 214.867) + 64007—1.0084.
2. The distance of the exterior orbital limit of the asteroidal belt
(Cybele) is nearly a mean proportional between the distances of Mereury

t and Neptune. 4
(.8870987 <30.03697) +3.4205—1.003115.

: 1
3. If the Moon’s mass is 33 029 of the Earth’s mass, her distance is
90.058 1

analogous to that of Mercury, being 80> (sec. 30°) ><the distance of the

Earth’s centre, from the centre of gravity of the terrestrial-lunar system.

The mean of five recent estimates of the Moon’s mass, given by Denison,
1

83.127-+ 83.032—1.001156.

4. The year of Mercury : Neptune’s year :: the velocity of a planet
near the Sun’s surface : the velocity of light, or nearly :: sec. 30° the
mass of the planetary system : the mass of the Sun.

(60126.72 + 87.969258)~ (183, 454 + 265.5184)—1.01088.
(60126.72><sec. 30°) + (87.969258 x 759.46)—1.00617
Venus may be regarded as an exterior satellite of the Earth, at a
limit analogous to that of the solar system. For 80? Earth’s radius
utr shag: distance at perigee.
<3962.818=25, 362,050 ; 25,362,050 + 25,268, 0CO=1.0037.

6. The year of Uranus divided by (see. sor is equivalent to the
month of a terrestrial satellite near the perigee distance of Venus
(omitting considerations dependent upon solar acceleration and satellite-
mass). 3 4
4 (25, 268, 000 + 238,800) - 27.82166 (sec. 30°) + 30,686.821—1.006
7. The mass of the intra-asteroidal planets : the mass of all the planets,

2

3 :
nearly :: Sun’s radius (sec. 80°) : Earth’s orbital radius.

(63.52 : 18167.12)-+[(see. 30): 214.86]—1.00131.

My experiments in the years 1864 and 1865,* the most important of
which were repeated before the Society, demonstrated that the simple
mechanical action, of such elastic vibrations as are excited by the con-
joint influence of solar radiation and terrestrial rotation, would not only
produce polarity in a needle susceptible of similar vibrations, but it

*Proc, Amer. Philos. Soc. ix., 359; x., 151saq.

A. P. S,—VOL. XIT.—2z

410

would also cause such daily and annual fluctuations as those of the
magnetic needle. Professor Norton says* that ‘‘no conception has
hitherto been formed of possible atomic movements capable of originating
the electric forces, and producing even the simplest of the electrical
phenomena.”? The dependence of the polarity of the compass upon
electrical currents encourages the belief that all the ‘possible atomic
movements capable of originating the electrie forces,’’ may be traceable
to some arrangement of elastic ethereal particles like the one I have
above suggested. The mutual attraction of the atoms A and E is only
one-third as great as that of the atoms F and G, and under the influence
of centrifugal force, the several lozenges AFEG would yield most readily
in the direction EG.

THE SUN-SPOT CYCLE OF 11.07 YEARS.
By Puiny EARLE CHASE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 16th, 1872.)

The most recent and careful discussion of the observations upon the
amount and frequency of Sun-spots, by De La Rue, Stewart and Loewy, |
assigns to the principal cycle a duration of 11.07 years. Kirkwood
(ante, vol. xi., p. 100) had previously given nearly the same esti-
mate (11.072 years). If the spots are attributable to disturbances
produced by gravitating action, the maj O8 axis of the revolving dis-

cobs

turbing force should be [(11.07+11. 862) ]j=.955x<Jupiter’s, or 4.969
<the Earth’s major ax

The mean radius vase of perturbation is,

therefore, n yin equivalent to Jupiter’s mean perihelion distance

(.951843/, or 4.952) as well as to the mean distance of the centre

of gyration of the planetary sytem.

2 sng <.3871 +25. 7233 +31.85 1+ 3: 37-+-9807 5, 2028 + 2847.4
uA 7 X<19.1826-+532.5 >< 80. oo + (B4+-254-31.85-4 oT |-9307-- 2847.4

5.101 3 5.101-+4.969—1.0265 ; 4.969--4.952—=1.00385.

The theoretical mean excursion between ie s perihelion and his
mean distance, corresponds very nearly with the above value of the
planetary centre of gyration.

4,952 4-2 (5.2028 —4.952)==5.091 ; 5.101--5.091—1.002.

If Jupiter’s aphelion distance yepredentl the aphelion distance of the
ak care, or forces which produce the Sun-spots, the disturbance-peri-
helion is (2.955 —1.048)—=.862 2/’s, or 4.485 @’s radius vector. This
corresponds very nearly with the linear centre of oscillation, of the mean

* OG, Cite D. an0s
t Proc. Roy. Soc., Dee. 21, 1871; Phil. Mag., May, 1872.

se.] {May 16,

ac cialseiacaeia

aise

1872.] 411 [Chase.

action of allthe planets, except Jupiter, upon the Sun’s surface. Accord-
ing to the values ey in Norton’s Astronomy, (1—3)x(Smd+3mB,
2,8, dy kh, 6, VU) 4.422; 4.485 4.422—1.015.

The closeness of ae harmony, pointed out by Kirkwood, between the
Woltfian and Mercurial cycles, is very interesting. In some respects the
position of Mercury is more nearly pivotal than that of either of the
other planets. Its centre of explosive oscillation, relatively to the Sun,

is near the limit of the Sun’s possible atmosphere. (4.887
365.2564 +-25.187—=1.036. Its mean radius vector (.8871) is not much
greater than the radius of the centre of oscillation (.3333) of the Earth’s
disturbing action upon the Sun. That centre of oscillation is, in its turn,
near the centre of the counterpoising moments of inertia of the Sun and

Qo

the planetary system. For Sm(d—.3333)?+-Sim—9.0776? ; 759.46 +-9.07762
=.9294 5 .3333+.8294—1.012. It may be well to observe that this
approximation is nearly identical with the one above noted (1,015) be-
tween the virtual centre of gravity of the Jupiter-disturbing planets, and
the Sun-spot disturbance-perihelion,

In order to form an estimate of the extent, to which circumstances
favoring the generation or disturbance of ethereal waves affect the amount
of spotted surface, I would suggest a preliminary examination of ob-
servations with especial reference to the following planetary configura-
tions :

1. When the Sun is near the linear centre of oscillotion (3) of two
planets in heliocentric opposition : ¢. y., near the opposition of Mercury
and Venus, especially if Mercury is about 60° from perihelion ; of Venus
and Mars, when Mars is about 40° from perihelion ; of Jupiter and Saturn,
eee Saturn is near aphelion ; of Saturn and Uranus.

When one of two planets in heliocentric conjunction is near a linear
centre of oscillation of the longer radius vector : ¢. g., near the conjune-
tion of the Earth and Mars; of Mars and Mercury, if Mars is near peri-

we
ox

helion and Mercury near aphelion ; of Jupiter and Mars, if Mars is near’

aphelion; of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, (the centre of gravity of
Jupiter and Saturn being at about 3 of the distance from Uranus to the
Sun); of Saturn and Neptune, when Saturn is near aphelion ; of Uranus
and Neptune

3. When one of two planets in heliocentric conjunction is near a centre.
of explosive oscillation (3): @. g., near the conjunction of Mercury and
Venus, if Mercury is at somewhat more than its mean distance from the
Sun ; of Mercury and the Earth, if Mercury is near aphelion ; of Mercury,
Venus, and the Earth or Mars; of Jupiter a es Saturn.

ATHEREAL OSCILLATION, on PRIMORDIAL MATERIAL,
FORCE.

By Puirny EARLE Cuase.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 19, 1872.))
In any explosive or other analogous action along a given diameter,
cardinal points occur at } radius and § radius (—the distance from

A19
412 {July 19,

Ohase.]

2

radial terminus to a centre of*explosive oscillation), at 4 and 3 (=dis-
tance to a centre of linear oscillation), at } (distance to linear centre
of gravity), and at 4 and % (distance to a centre of reverse or direct ex-
plosive oscillation). The various possible combinations of these numbers
favor phyllotactic and other systematic arrangements to such a degree,
that the very wealth of planetary illustration becomes burdensome and
perplexing, and the attempt to trace the development of our cosmical
system to simple laws seems almost hopeless.

If the primitive disturbance is accompanied (as it must almost neces-
sarily be), by rotation, the ratio 1 : 9 assumes special importance, inas-
much as it represents the proportionate distance of the centre of rotation
from the rotating centre of explosive oscillation. Assuming 7—Sun’s
radius, as our fundamental unit, we are at present unable to determine
whether there is any permanent limit at 9r, that point being within the
sphere of solar atmospheric retardation ; but I have shown in my com~-
munication of March 1, 1872, that there are important divisions,

Near 97, the inner limit of the planetary system.............+++++- @
Near 97, the dividing mean between the intra- and the extra-aster-

oidal planets..... PI WOE UE UOTE a ahs
Near 9*7, the outer planetary limit...............- See ue es was r
The other ratios are exemplified by the positions of

Haburm and INSptine, £23......5. 06.0... Py woe aee spy ae 0
[Db nadib epee AN nds PIeONG | ees areas ere ee riroe a bu eeu gin Ua eee
MAUURM AOC WiaMUSi 2a a. ee ee ys eine ies ante Fle Nines es
Uranus and Neptune, from Saturn, 4:9......... see v ene e eet eeeeee H
Uranus and Jupiter, trom Neptune,4 59 ..40....05 ca. te oe 0
grupiter and Satming 5390 wo Oe es ae, See apes as ee

Ido not find so much evidence of the marked cosmical influence of
centres of linear oscillation, as I do of centres of direct and explosive

; : : une 4p 4p :
oscillation. The positions rm and 9X g? we both within the sphere of

: 4p
retardation ; but at 92> 5 ==367, we are near the centre of explosive oscil-

lation between Mercury and the Sun, and also near the limit of the Sun’s
possible atmosphere,* which is probably not less than 35.597 (according
to Spérer’s estimate of the time of solar rotation), and not greater than
37.227 (according to Hornstein’s estimate of the 264 day magnetic cycle). x

et
Near 9° 5 ==B247, we find ili glatiet Mars. 0.2... .0..5.eese sevens A
: ’
se ON ay ne . ; i A .
9*x 9 29167, isa centre of explosive oscillation between Uranus
gnd Saturn Mae ene cast Peal ere bse Ie

* The limit of equal equatorial centrifugal and centripetal force.

isaac

415

1872. ] [Chase.
The ratio > is the unit factor for the explosive centres of oscillation of
a, 8, and a
The combined ratios of direct and reverse centres of oscillation,
20, determine the following interesting positions :
: 207 207 nae
Near 9x Sem) is the centre of gravity of the solar system, at
f ¢
heliocentric conjunction*...... Pen eG nee y

207 : . i ; :
Near 9? asl 207, is the centre of explosive oscillation, between the

2

limit of solar retardation and the Sun’s surface.......-....-..... E
is eur : : : ‘ 2
Near 9° “31 =180r, is the centre of gravity of Mercury, Venus, and
tit Dart de a ce ata es ema oc ae ect ov teat o
207

Near 9'X< 8i 16207, is the centre of gravity of the planetary system. z

€ a

Near 9° ie 145807, is a point which I will designate as the reciprocal
of gravity for the solar system..........---++-- ee i ae Veins 0

If the centre, of explosive gyration from the Sun to Neptune be
taken as a unit, and a point at a distance of 9 of those units =328057 be
regarded as the seat of a new explosive action, the point » is near the
centre of explosive gyration towards the solar system. Tf the centripetal
is equal to the radial or centrifugal action, and if gravity is a resultant of
wthereal oscillation, the square of the periodic time being 32 times as
great asthe square of the time of fall to an attracting centre, the modulus

of light, relatively to the Sun, should be 32> $< 328057—4669607...... S
The closeness of this estimate is shown by the following calculation :
log. v? 10.527057+
«gat Sun 7.219737
“light mod. 11.307820
need: 5.628452
{ mod,--7 5.678868

>, modulus of light =477384. 67.

The half-modulus is the height of virtual fall required, during or bital

revolution at the Sun’s surface, to acquire the velocity of light, if there

were no ethereal resistance. Its relation to three cardinal positions in
our system, is expressed in the following proportion :

+ modulus : 2/’s rad. vec. :: @’s rad. vec. :.©’s rad.
The approximate value of the Earth’s radius vector, as thus determined,
AS QELS 0487, us ae ee Bah seas 0 en ones Cs

* Whenever I have occasion, in the present paper, to speak of the centre of gravity of two
or more planets, they will be considered as in heliocentric conjunction, and at their mean dis~-

tances from the Sun,

+ The values of the astronomical elements are taken from Norton’s Astronomy.

Chase.] 414 [July 19,
The same modulus-ratio is also nearly equivalent to the ratio of the
aggregate extra-asteroidal, to the aggregate intra-asteroidal planetary
BULABSOR sie eiaes Ol NGA Wn ileus a. CUE ete ve a nue es v
If Mercury be regarded as having its mean distance at a direct ex-
plosive centre of oscillation, its perihelion distance is at the reverse ex-

DIOKIVe CONDO. ua. OSs ee eds, ea eae Nae Oe en Y
The combination 37, furnishes the following planetary positions.
Dy
r 3 wor * > ‘ > .
Near. 9° “Si 2257, is the centre of gravity of the Earth and Mars. +
; , 207 Boe eee
Near 9*x 3] e—<Ueo?, 18 the OFDit OF SAbUIN 65... ie ce classes cee ¢

The foregoing approximations are embodied in the following synopsis :

TABLE I.

Centrifugal Evidences of Planetary Explosive Oscillation,

(A) Theoretical. (B) Observed. (B—A)--A. Basis.
a 81. 83.17 027 9?
B 729. 734.93 008 9°
V4 5561. 6453.73 .016 94
) 3838 3149 2055 ¥
£ 6667 6563 -016 %
€ 5 4973 —.005 k
0 4444 4705 059 4
0 4444 4371 016 4
He 5556 5454 018 5
x 36. 36.96 027
A 324. 326.59 008
7 2916. 2970.43 .019
y 2.2222 2.17 —.025
é 20. 20.48 -022
0 180. 182.83 016
x 1620. 1625.69 004
p 14589. 14841.64 016
¢ 466560. 47 7384.6 028 ;
r 213,54 214.86 .006 F
v 213.54 206.29 034
¢ 8 7945 007
4 225. 225.46 002
yy 2025. 2049.51 01

The importance of combining the centres of direct and reverse explosive
gyration, in forming the units of the series which is to contain the
modulus of equal universal action and reaction, is obvious.

cine

1872. ] 415 [Chase.
teversing our procedure, and commencing at the centre of oscillation of
the reciprocal of gravity (7), we find the following relationships :

$o istiear the mean position Ob Neptune: 4-100. 5 has ie cas &
eee the-é. Stave of Nepbune and UTANUS. 5. 2a cts ce ce. yx
Jee = Me of Neptune, Uranus and Saturn...... ie ores Oo
oO a ole Ghe (OUT Outer Planeisa.. 2-6. ies oc. AS
PAE 44 6é

MOAN POSLLION Of PM SL. es Ae ce ee eG

The centre of linear oscillation, therefore, appears to have had an im-

portant influence in determining the positions of Neptune and Jupiter,
and the centre of explosive oscillation in fixing the places of the inter-
mediate planets. Neptune’s position is also near the reverse centre of

2

explosive oscillation of the reciprocal of gravity, 3 of 3 being equivalent

o
fo}

to ¢.

From the excess of the observed over the theoretical value of the modulus
of light (ps in the foregoing table, as well as from the fact that the theoreti-
cal modulus best satisfies the hypothesis of explosive positions in the
outer planetary system, I infer that the mean velocity of light between
Neptune and the Sun, is retarded a little more than one per cent. by
the condensation of ether towards the Sun.

5 ¢’ is near the centre of gravity of the principal asteroids, and also

near the centre of explosive oscillation from Cybele to Flora...... ae
3 7 is near the mean position Of MATS Ue er ee ad. a
5 g' is near the centre of gravity of the three interior planets.......... a
6,’ is near the linear centre of oscillation of Venus .........../...... ze
fay isneac Mercury.s POmMGlOni ss (sie ool 86 Ne Sale) ca es A

5 )’is near the explosive centre of gyration, which limits solar atmos-
pheric retardation........... ig TLSAN CAG A AEs AU es TLE te u.
This second series of coincidences is grouped in the following table :

TaBLe ITI.
Centripetal Evidences of Explosive Oscillation.
(A) Theoretical. (B) Observed. (A-B) +A Basis.
ie 9720 7; modulus.
i red 6480 6453.72 604 Ba!
i ¥ 5400 5429.62 005
Oo 3000 2894.57 .085
e 1633.33 1632.69 .000
Gs 1088.89 ily soi 027
7 604.94 588.07" .028
“ 589.41 026
q os 336.08 326.59 029 5
| z 186.71 182.83 021 by
i x 103.73 103.61 004 I
i av 57.68 56.07 027 sy/
y! 32.02 32.564 .011 5 yf

* Mean radius vector of Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.

8 ob ee 2g : : . ty ‘ i

+ 9 of 36.4; 36.4 being the mean of the two extreme values, derived from Sporer’s and Horn- ai
stein’s estimates,

[July 19, 1872:

y+ r==modulus of light+ ee

There are, therefore, NINH principal planetary orbital divisions, deter-
mined mainly by centres of explosive gyration ; NINE successive centres
of linear oscillation between the modulus of light and the reciprocal of
gravity ; NINE similar centres between the limit of the Sun’s possible at-
mosphere and the Sun’s surface; and finally, NINE successive powers of
NINE, that exert important centrifugal determinations. For we find :

At 9“? the fulcrum of the solar system, if the planetary masses were
concentrated in a point at 7.

At 9 7 is the seat of an explosive oscillation, which would tend to de-
tach a nebulous ring, with a mass 9 m, provided the centre of oscillation
of the ring were at the present geometrical planetary mean, 9* 7. For,
in order that the separation should begin, the velocity of nebular rota-
tion at the surface of the central body should bear such proportion to
the mean velocity of revolution in the ring as the radius of the central
mass to the radius of the ring’s centre of oscillation, and as the velocity
of virtual revolution at the central surface, to the like velocity at the seat

of explosion, (1 + 812" )
At 917, a planetary mass which was in nebulous condition in the above
ase, having acquired sufficient central condensation for the detachment
of an interior planet, would have its fulcrum at the Sun’s surface, if its
centre of gravity were at the distance of Mercury. The combined effect
of these two primitive hypothetical breaks is perhaps recorded in the
solar rotation, which occupies nearly, if not precisely, §X+<729, * the
planetary orbital time at the Sun’s surface.

At 9° 7 is the Sun’s surface, the probable seat of many of the explo-
tions which have lately attracted so much attention.

At NINE 7, is the first theoretical exterior limit of explosion, in which
she Sun is central and its opposite surfaces are centres of alternate direct
and reverse explosive oscillation. Here is, perhaps, the limit of an im-
portant solar envelope.

Near Nine times the first exterior limit, or 9’, is the orbit of Mercury.

Near NINE times the second exterior limit, or 9’7, is the asteroidal
limit.

Near NINE times the third exterior limit, or 9'7, is the orbit of
Neptune.

Near NINE times the fourth exterior limit, or 9°7, is the centre of Sun-
ward explosive oscillation which determines the reciprocal of gravity.

Such considerations, conjoined with the observed increase of spotted
surface on the side of the Sun next the Earth and most remote from
other disturbing planets,* seem to furnish a clue to the seclution of the
Sun-spot mystery. Even if all the planets were so arranged as to be
either in mutual heliocentric conjunction or opposition, their combined.

xT

De La Rue, Stewart and Loewy. Proc. Roy. Soc., xx., 210, sqq.

ie ss

Feb. 16, 1872.] 417 [Cope.

influence would not suffice to raise a tide of a quarter-inch at the Sun’s
surface. But variations of inertia (m d*) and of power to produce local

oscillations (- oi ) may be much more important, in their influence on
ae

fluid bodies, than differential tidal variations ( se) At the very out-
set of my cosmical investigations (wite, ix., 287), I gave a method for es-
timating the Sun’s distance by comparing the atmospheric inertia rela-
tively to the Earth, with the same inertia relatively to the Sun. The re-
markable coincidence of the disturbing focus of the Wolfian cycle with
the centre of linear oscillation in the planetary system, seems to render
it probable that solar explosions and spots are also determined by laws of
inertia and local oscillation.

ON BATHMODON, AN EXTINCT GENUS OF UNGULATES.
By Epwarp D. Cope.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 16, 1872.)

The present form embraces some of the largest Perissodactyles, or odd-
toed Ungulata, of our Tertiary Strata. It is represented by remains of
two species, which include portions of the cranium, with teeth and frag-
ments of jaws; vertebrae, fragments of scapular and pelvic arches and
bones of the limbs. The distal end of the tibia is wanting, but that of
the fibula indicates an odd-toed animal, and the third trochanter on the
exterior ridge of the femur confirms the reference.

There are probably four superior molars, though three only are pre-
served. Two premolars only remain of the superior species, but the frag-
ment of ramus mandibuli, referred to the same species, exhibits four pre-
molars ; from a consideration of the sizes of the superior premolars it is
probable that there were four of these also. There are three strong inci-
sors in each premaxillary. No canine tooth is preserved, but the pos-
terior suture of the premaxillary bone is so wide as to point to an equally
stout anterior part of the maxillary, fitted to support such a tooth. The
dental series increases regularly in size, from befo:e backwards, the last
being a little larger than the penultimate. The crowns of the molars
exhibit on the outer margin a single, acutely-angled crescent, directed
inwards, with a conic lobe alongside of, and anterior to its base, repre-
senting a second external crescent. The crescent lobe proper is large and
very obliquely directed, so that its external face is almost horizontal.
The apex of its companion cone is continuous with its posterior margin,
so as to be undistinguishable from it in some cases. The inner crescents
are represented by a wide angular ridge, which is at a lower level than the
exterior, and is little or not developed on the posterior side of the crown.

A. P, S.—VOL. XII.—3A

Cope.] 418 [Feb. 16,
Its inner-plane face is horizontal, or even ascending in one species. In i
the premolar teeth of B. radians, the external crescent lobe is single and
symmetrical. As the crown contracts inwardly, a second inner crescent
lobe has a trihedral form, while in one more anterior, the inner is much
reduced. The inferior premolars are all two-rooted, and form an unin-
terrupted series. The basis of the molar part of the zygomatic arch orig-
inates opposite the adjacent parts of the penultimate and last molars.
The premaxillary bone is massive, and with but little area for attachment
with its fellow in front. The incisor teeth are large, with subcylindric
roots, and their alveoli are well separated. In one, perhaps superior,
the crown is expanded transversely, with convex cutting edge.

In the humerus, the deltvid hook is developed, but is not much elevated
above the plane of the head. It originates from an external expansion of
the head, which bears a shallow cotylus, separated from the head by a
low, curved, subtransverse ridge. The condyles of the humerus do not
support any trochlear ridges. An almost perfect femur of B. radians is
preserved. The third trochanter is not very prominent. The little tro-
chanter is little developed; the great trochanter is large but does not
equal the head. The latter is subglobular, and the ligamentous fossa ex-
tends to its rim. The distal trochlear surface is prominent, the inner
edge more so than the outer. Its articular surface is broadly continuous
with those of the condyles; a slight emargination of the outlines only
marking the usual constriction on each side. In this it resembles Cernide
and some Antilopidw. The inner condyloid surface is cut off by the
emargination in Towvogen and Bos bubalus ; the emarginations are deep,
but do not cut off either in Hquus, Camelopardalis and three species of
Bos ; while they are so deep as to cut off both in Rhinoceros, 5 sp., HHip-

popotamus, Bos brachycerus, B. sonduicus and B. sebynicerus and in Ca-
toblepas.
i
BATHMODON RADIANS. Cope. Sp. nov.

tepresented by portions of several individuals, which indicate an ani-
mal varying from the size of the ox to that of the Javan Rhinoceros.

The transverse diameters of all the molars exceed their longitudinal.
In the penultimate, which may serve as a type, the superior or outer
plane of the inner crescent ridge extends along about .66 of the pos-
terior of the outer crescent. In the last molar this surface is very wide
on the posterior and inner side of the external crescent ; it then contracts,
and expands again on the posterior side, its outer bounding crest reach-
ing to the external margin of the crown.

Besides these points, the molars possess a strong cingulum along the
anterior base of the crown, which unites with the surface near the
inner proturberance of the latter in the penultimate ; in the last molar it
reappears, forming a short lobe on the posterior face. The enamel where
not worn is slightly rugose.

' A posterior premolar has a cingulum on the inner obtuse apex. The
crest of the inner crescent, descending on each side of the apex of the

. 419
1872. ] [Cope.
outer, forms a cingulum-like ledge at its base as far as the angle formed
by the descent of the apex of the outer crescent. The outline of the
corner of this tooth, viewed from above, is narrow cordate, with obtuse
apex. The convexity of the outer crescent inwards is verystrong, and
the base of the crown is externally two-lobed. Enamel striate rugose
In amore anterior premolar (with three roots) there is no internal cingu-
lum, and the crest of the inner crescent is not carried to the external
basis of the tooth, and is entirely wanting on the posterior face of the
tooth. The external crescent is more vertical and less concave. Outline
of crown subtriangular.

The premaxillary bone is elongate, flat, and with a sloping superior

face, which rises gently inwards. The bases of the incisors stand obliquely
outwards. The inferior surface is flat, and the basis of the broken
palatal spine is rather small. An incisor tooth has a transversely dia-
mond-shaped crown, slightly twice concave on the inner face, strongly
convex on the outer, with a faint external cingulum near the external

angles. Enamel obsoletely striate.

MEASUREMENTS. | (NO. fa)

Longitudinal diameter last superior molar

Transverse = ee

Longitudinal Te OMIA UO el 6 ano peg see 7
Transverse ae fe ahacictap chet Wise niaeel gl as .039
Longitudinal ‘* posterior premolar... 024
Transverse My ie 3
Longitudinal “_aaiterior ~ **

Transverse ie a He

Length premaxillary bone.. -
Transverse width posterior suture....

Width premaxillary at middle “‘ ......... : 043
Length basis last two inferior premolars.......... woe UDG

Transverse diameter edge of mandible at first premolar .017 .

Diameter condyles of femur 104
be heads great trochanter... . 130
ie Wed B1ONOk 2! aa a ee oe +... 062
ee shaft with third trochanter O76
Supposed length femur (16.75) inches 415

Transverse diameter head of tibia...

Antero-posterior ‘“¢ internal...
oe ep qichwot ie Gian Selene ye ee
(2) INO <.
Longitudinal diameter head of humerus.............. 138
. " of outer cotylus and tuberosity. .055

The other remains of this animal will be more fully described and the
whole figured, shortly. They were discovered by Dr. F. V. Hayden, in
tertiary beds of the Wahsatch Group, near Evanston, Utah.

|
|

9)
Cope. ] 420 (March 1,.

BATHMODON SEMICINCTUS. Cope. Sp. nov.

This species differs from the last in several particulars of dentition..
The interior ridge (homologous with the inner erescentic) bounding the
middle plane of the superior molars, is not continued on the posterior
face of the tooth, but curving inwards joins the outer crest at its apex.
The outer crest terminates in a conic tubercle anteriorly on the external
face, the rudiment of the anterior crescentic ridge appearing as a low
ridge from the side of the posterior one, and rising to a point on the an-
terior margin of the crown. There is no cingulum round the anterior
base of the crown. The latter is as long as wide. The inner crest is
reduced to a mere angle, and its posterior face is not basin-shaped
but rises to the crest of the inner crescent. The outer face of the latter
is sub-horizontal with rising apex, and is concave transversely. Its an-
terior outer base is narrowed but is less elevated than the posterior.

Measurements. M.
Length basis crown....... Le, Vl Oe Paes a he 0225
Width ee ESE) LES RE Er a 022
ig exterior crescent...) iss: vere ig pie s O18
Depth “4 e Dien ae velar, Ae eee 02

This animal was not more than half the bulk of the last; its size was:
about that of the Tapirus terrestris. The differences in dentition which
it presents are so marked as compared with the last species, as to induce
me to believe that it will be found on fuller acquaintance to belong to»
another genus. This may be called Lovolophodon. Other remains belong-
ing to these species, or relating to it in size, are contained in Dr. Hayden’s
collection, but cannot now be referred to with certainty.

From the Wahsatch Beds, near Evanston, Utah.

Especial interest attaches to these fossils from the fact that, they belong
to the oldest of the tertiary periods of North America. The Wahsatch
Group, according to Dr. Hayden, underlies the Bridger Group, which has.
yielded so many mammalian species to the researches of Leidy and Marsh.
These have been supposed to be Eocene, so that the age and species
here described is not later than that. The character presented by the
molar teeth are very peculiar, and indicate not only a new genus, but
anew family. This has a remote affinity only to the group of Palwosyops:
Titanotherium, ete.

ON TWO NEW ORNITHOSAURIANS FROM KANSAS.
By Epwarp D. Copn.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 1, 1872.)
The species about to be described resemble, in their large proportions,.
the large pterodactyles of the English chalk and green sand. The speci-
mens at my disposal consist chiefly of portions of the anterior limb, of

metacarpals and phalanges. Some of the phalanges of the claw-bearing

digits are remarkable for their relatively large diameter, a peculiarity

q
|
|
/
|
;

inicio

iia OE

y, (9)
1872. ] 421 [Cope.

‘stated by Seeley to be found in the species of his genus Ornithochirus.

As it is not likely on other grounds that the species of the Niobrara cre-
taceous strata belong to the genus Pterodactylus of Cuvier, which is
chiefly known from the Jurassic period, I place the Kansas species for
the present in Ornithochirus, as established by Seeley.

ORNITHOCHIRUS UMBROSUS. Cope.

Represented by the distal portion (ten inches) of the wing finger meta-
carpal ; the proximal portion (eight inches) of the first phalange of the
same digit, with two phalanges of claw-bearing digits. The distal con-
dyles of the first named bone are separated by the usual deep groove above
and below, and wind separately to their terminations on the inferior face.
The narrow base which supports the inner condyle is bounded posteriorly
by an acute edge ; directly outside of the base of this ridge is a deep
groove or foramen, which is bounded next the external condyle by an-
other ridge which rises to the base of the inner condyle on the trochlear
side. The transverse diameter of the condyle is M. 0.043 or 17 lines.

The proximal end of the first phalange is perfect, but flattened by pres-
sure. It presents the two usual cotyloid cavities well separated by an
elevated ridge. Anteriorly, it presents an elevated crest for muscular
insertion. This terminates abruptly, and is followed distally by a deep
notch. Distal to this is another prominence of the bone also probably an
insertion. Antero-posterior diameter (flattened), 24 lines.

The claw phalange is short and wide ; both its articulations are simple
and concave. Both outlines are keeled, one very strongly at one end,
and at the other presenting beyond the articular surface, a wide pro-
longed process for muscularinsertion. Length phalange without process,
thirteen lines; process, four lines; diameter, widest extremity, eleven
lines. This indicates a very stout digit. The other digit is penultimate,
and is remarkable for its small size, perhaps indicating an external rudi-
mental digit. It is only supposed to belong to the anterior limb, from its
having been found with the preceding bones. It is more slender than
the other, and differs in having convex distal articulation, divided by a
trochlear groove, and the concave proximal one in like manner divided by
a trochlear carina. Length, nine lines ; proximal depth, three lines.

This species is the largest Pterodactyle as yet known found on our con-
tinent, the end of the wing metacarpal exceeding in diameter that of the
species described by Professor Marsh, from the same region, by 4. lines.

From near Butte Creek, from the yellow chalk.

ORNITHOCHIRUS HARPYIA. Cope.

Established on wing metacarpals and phalanges of three individuals.
The articular extremities indicate a species from one-half to two-thirds
the size of the last named. Those of the metacarpal are very prominent
above as well as below, and there is no distinct ridge in the trochlear
groove between them. The inner condyle does not stand ona base with
an acute posterior ridge, but overhangs a rather obtusely-edged support.

422
Cope. ] oe [March 1,

There is no second ridge on the outer (trochlear) side of it. The same
condyle terminates abruptly posteriorly on the superior face of the shaft..
Width of condyles in No. 1, eleven lines ; in No. 2, thirteen lines ; verti-
cal diameter, inner condyle, eleven lines (No. 1); transverse diameter
shaft above, eight lines.

The proximal articular surfaces of the proximal wing phalanges are
deeply concave, the inner protected by an elevated margin behind ; that
of the outer, much lower. They are separated chiefly by a deep emargin-
ation, but on their short adjacent portions by a low ridge. The process
for ligamentous insertion is well developed. The distal extremity is
slightly widened, and its articular surface is wedge shaped with very con-
vex base. Its surface is slightly concave in both directions and without
median ridge. The margin of the shaft terminates in a short tuberosity
bearing articular surface. Transverse diameter, sixteen lines. Length
of shaft preserved, but incomplete, nine inches, one line.

This species is about the size of the Pterodactyle found by Professor
Marsh in the same region,* and probably belongs to the same genus, and
possibly to the same species. This, however, cannot be definitely ascer-
tained as his species is imperfectly described, all the characters adduced
except the measurement being generic. The name given by Professor
Marsh has also been previously used, both in this genus and in Pterodac-
tylus, and must therefore be given up.

Remains of the two Ornithochiri above described are not rare in the
yellow chalk of the Niobrara Group, and those obtained were mostly from
different parts of the course of the blufts of Butte Creek.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS PROTOSTEGA, A FORM OF
EXTINCT TESTUDINATA.
By Epwarp D.‘Corkg.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 1st, 1872.)

The present article introduces to the system a new form of Testu-
dinata of a character not heretofore found in a fossil condition. Its af-
finities will be more fully discussed at the end of the description, but they
appear to belong to the Sphargidide. This family is represented, in
our present knowledge, by but one genus and one species of the recent
seas. It is one of the most generalized, or in special characters, the most
aberrant of the order of the tortoises, and the discovery of an extinct ally,
even as far down in the series as the cretaceous period, is not surprising.

The remains preserved belong to a single individual, and include many
portions of the cranium, five vertebree more or less incomplete, the scap-
wlar arches of both sides with the coracoid bones ; both humeri perfect,
with nine phalanges, ten ribs, one vertebral (2), and ten marginal bones ;
parts or wholes of four large lateral (?) dermal bones, with five distinct

*See Am. Jour. Sci. Arts, June, 1871.

1872.] 425 [Cope.
bones of unknown reference. There are also some slender curved bones
which probably pertain to the plastron.

As the bones were exposed by excavations in the yellow cretaceous
chalk, sketches of their positions and relations were made, which aid ma-
terially in the restoration of the animal. The upper layer of bones were
those of most irregular form, as cranial and limb bones. Mingled with
these, but often beneath them, were the ribs, while underlying all, were
the large flat pieces here described as dermal. Adhering to the inferior
surface of these was a layer of thin oyster shells with parallel striate sur-
face, perhaps Inocerami. The ribs presented their heads upwards; so
that taking all points into consideration, there is little doubt that the
reptile was entombed on its back.

The texture of the bones is peculiar. There are nowhere to be seen
medullary cavities, and the bone is spongy, but very finely so, the tubules
at the largest being equal in diameter to an ordinary pin, and generally
considerably smaller. They are arranged in concentric series. There is
no thick dense layer of the bone as in other tortoises, but an extremely
‘thin one, which is hard and sculptured on the surface with minute grooves
or pits. The tissue of the bone is very fragile, and has a fracture like
the mineral enclosing it. Many of the bones, especially those of the
dermal skeleton, are extremely attenuated on the margins, being no
thicker than writing paper.

There are twelve marginal bones. They are all characterized by their
laminar form. The thinnest are those furthest removed from the middle
of the sides. They consist of a single lamina slightly thickened within
the margin, producing a slight convexity of the lower side. The proxi-
mal part of the bone is an extremely thin plate with radiating ossification,
and consequently more or less serrate margin. It extends some distance
over the extremity of the rib, whose apex is received into a half pit or
acuminate groove with abrupt termination, about one-sixth the width of
the bone from the margin. :

In following the marginals to the middle of the side, the edge, as usual,
increases in thickness. The lower side becomes more convex, and the
upper slightly concave. The edge is acute, and a very open interior en-
tering angle at the middle. The lateral extremities of the marginals are
irregular, terminating ina double series of closely packed digitations,
which terminate freely, and enter into no suture. The pit receiving the
extremity of the rib approaches the margin, which now develops an in-
ferior lamina of bone. This encloses the end of the rib, and thins out
laterally in contact with the superior plate. At first the inner lamina is
Short ; later it is almost as extensive as the outer part of the marginal
plate, causing the double appearance when fractured. As the marginals
thicken, a distinct inferior plane becomes distinguished, separated from
the interior face by an obtuse angle. The upper face near the margin is
more concave. In the thickest and inferior face is also somewhat concave,
and the edge quite acute. The lateral extremities consist as before of
packages of digitations which easily break out.

424 (March 1,

Cope. ]

A single nearly bi-lateral bone of this series appear to be either nuchal

or caudal, but as it has no sutural connection with any other it is not

easy to determine which is. Its marginal length is much less than its
transverse extent, which consists chiefly of a flat lamina. The marginal
part is a little thickened and bi-laterally concave below, and correspond-
ingly convex above. The margin is thin and acute. A few grooves rad-
iate at a distance from the middle towards the margin. The lack of con-
cave excavation of the margin would incline the balance in favor of the
view that this bone is the caudal.

A very long gently curved bone is probably the marginal extending on
one side of the nuchal. It is nearly twice as long as the others, and has
anextensive and thin superior lamina. Its (?) anterior part is in one plane,
but the margin soon thickens and displays a rather wide infero-external
face. It appears to have had an inferior lamina on its posterior half,
which made an angle with the face just described. An oval cavity in-
cluded, looks as though designed for the apex of the rib.

The variation in the lengths of these marginal bones is noteworthy. I
give measurements, premising that a few lines may be added to the ex-.
tremities of some for lost digitations:

M.
Length of long anterior (11 im.)........... 5... eee es 0.28
Wadth = CC y (SOMC 1OSb) ei ee 5. ee. 6s 135
Length of lateral with inferior face........ Pie sei Real ila)
Width = COUCH ORO eee, ee fe ald
Length ‘‘ with narrower inferior face....... » 1 08
Width (Ganka MOOI cote amet tie 6s ces o 115

Length of one with interior lamina..... Se an eee en ek
Width =~ (SOME TOS) ee eed ores ote. 050
Length of a thinner, no inferior plate.....-........ a eve
Length still thinner, “ vy Ler BONG Oe
Width of ~ (DIOKGW) iccuns sive ties e ase ee ee ao .
Ajenoth thinnest, .. 6... 6s fe ee tee eu ah, LOR
Width (Oe (early, COMplOte):. sues eg vce. ALOU
(?) Caudal lerigth,............. a ana! es et
re WAQUMG coe Serene oe ester CO Stat) Patae 150

The shortness of the marginal with large interior lamina is noticeable.
as also the same peculiarity in the caudal. As compared with marine
turtles, difference is to be observed in every particular. Such are the
lack of sutural union, the laminar character ; the great extent of the
superior and distinctness of lower lamina. There is no trace of epi-
dermal sutures visible anywhere.

A single symmetrical plate appears to have belonged to the middle line
of the back or nape. It was sub-triangular in outline, all the margins
yery thin, and with an obtuse keel extending on the middle line, on the
posterior (or anterior) two-thirds to the apex. This ridge disappears in
(?) front by a gradual expansion. The surface is marked by lines of minute

1872.] 425 [Cope.

pits and grooves, which radiate from the base at the (?) front of the ridge.
Length, M. .185; width, .21.

The lateral dermal bones preserved, are two entire, and large parts of
one or of two others. They have an irregular oval outline and are slightly
dished on the inferior surface or that next the ribs. The upper surface
is more convex longitudinally, from the thickening of the bone. The
margins are irregular from the projection of many digitations. Some of
these are broad and flat, others are narrow. They are frequently two
deep, and the fissures separating them occasionally extend far towards
the middle of the bone. The convexity assumes the form of a low ridge
towards one end of the bone. At the point where this reaches the mar-
gin, the latter is in all the four plates, thickened, and composed of several
layers of packed osseous radii. When found, the ribs laid across these
shields ; one of them occupying the position of a radius to one of them.
These shields are much larger than the marginal bones,

M.
lhength ‘No. 10 (21 in¢hes).. v.72 50.0705, Hebei. 0.585
Width f (broken) yt 0 oa Wale 6 etal 4400
dnicknessabamiddler wc 000. . ae eae eae, 014
hemath> “INOnOC ant ee ae 530
Width ‘* (much broken)...... PO, A 580
Thickness at the middle....... aes eA TO Gn .013

The lengths and breadths given are a little below the truth, owing to
the loss of the exceedingly thin margin.

Turning to the endo-skeleton, the vertebra deserve mention. There are
more or less complete examples of five of these : in two, both centrum
and neural arch ; in two, neural arch ; and in one, centrum, are preserved.
These have been recognized chiefly by their neural arches, which are sep-
arate. They are in form something like an X, the extremities of the
limbs carrying the zygapophysal surfaces. The only point of contact
with the centrum is a wide process which stands beneath the anterior
zygapophysis, and spreads out foot-like obliquely forwards and outwards,
to beyond the line of its anterior margin. Its surface extends nowhere
posterior to the surface of zygapophysis above it, but a little further
inwards. Its outer margin rises ridge-like to the under side of the neural
arch, and each one forming a semi-circle forms the boundary of the neu-
ral canal, and turning outwards forms the inner boundary of the posterior
or down-looking zygapophyses. The space between these apophyses is
roofed over, so as to produce a shallow zygantrum, which, however, only
seems to roof over the deep emargination of the neural arch of the verte-
bra immediately following. The anterior zygapophyses are often broken
away, so that the neurapophysial supports look like the missing pair,
when the difficulty ensues that both pairs look downwards. The top of
the neural arch is in two cases broad and flat ; in two others there is an
obtuse keel.

The centra apart from theix arches are puzzling bodies, especially since

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—3B

AYE
iq Cope. J 426 {March 1,
: inthe present case they are somewhat flattened by pressure. They differ
materially in size, one of them being twice the size of the others. The 4

smaller ones are of the ball and socket type and have a deep longitudinal
groove on each side. The thicker portion of the centrum forms the in-
ferior boundary of this pit-groove, while a thinner portion, possibly a dia-
pophysis limits it above. It is, however, thin, and had no great length.
There is no sign of chevron bones and articulations, so that these verte-
bree may have been cervical. Their bodies are, however, shorter and oy
wider than in those vertebre of any known tortoise. A groove on the
upper surface represents the neural canal ; while a flat portion on each side
i in front, supports the neurapophyses. The large centrum exhibits the
i superior groove, and antero-lateral platform for support of the neural
arch. One end is eupped obliquely, while the other is nearly plane, with
|
}
}
|

{

the same obliquity and a slightly raised margin. Its outlixe is sub-tri-
| angular. The lower side of this centrum possesses a short keel posteriorly.
The sides exhibit no pit, but have a thin edge, which is concaye behind
the middle, and then turn outwards. I can see no articulation for a rib.

if The forms and characters of these vertebra resemble Sphargis more |
i i g' |
i than anything yet described. Hither the large or the small, or both must 1
| be referred to the dorsal region ; in this case the concavity of one extrem- a}

1 ? i

ity is a new feature among tortoises, sofaras known. The great freedom
of the arch from the centrum is very peculiar, while it is probable that the
articulations of the ribs were to the middle of the side of the body, and
| not to the adjacent parts of two bodies, and may have been (see below)

to processes or diapophyses.

M. |
Length medium centrum....... wea laimioers NN ib viuas ORL |
Width is ee dso On. iiwd. 0060 |
Length between margins of zygapophyses do.......... 060 |
Width “* anterior se N ; 070
4 << posterior... i ae rani 087 4
a “ anterior basis of arch...... ee EG 070 1
i & voreh ab mMiddles... srsviewd. uoias ee Ni ee 028 :
! Length ‘ rriehe Airiy lake sysree lee de oe ie 040 ‘I
a Width posterior zygapophyses, No. 2..... asi ite tS babes .048
" €C e1Of ACh, Hid ial lomonwtnws.. < onlerintemi de 025
; deenoth, asiscadius Sie ulrhueocoe odineneeaena eedrore ia ag 025
| i ofanterior foot (oblique)... ...66 ics. eqns eats UR,
Length centrum,oflarge-0ne.iiiia.e cose erie ve hi ee 06

Width i ec ef

66

neural canal ‘‘

Ten ribs were recovered. These are slender and rather flatter than in
| most reptiles, but without the peculiar form, characteristic of tortoises
and turtles. They are most expanded proximally, the bone spreading
into a lamina, from the tubercular region, extending laterally and prox-

»)
1872.] 427 [Cope.

imally some distance beyond the head. The superior plane of this expan-
sion is continuous with that of the rib, and is flat ; the head of the rib
therefore turns downwards and inwards from it, to join the vertebra.
Now the extent of the inner part of the lamina is such that, were the
head articulated to any of the centra discovered, the former would inter-
fere or overlap. They may, therefore, have been articulated to diapophy-

ses. The expansions are serrato-digitate on the margins, and exhibit |
| radiating grooves and ridges in some places, on the superior aspect. The |
| lengths of these ribs are not so great as the proportions of some of the ;
| other bones would indicate. i

Width at head
“¢ oa

M. iy
{ Length. fGNo. Vda, 6 inches) ssiwe asa ewes weak: 0.510 i ,
!
es at middle

he AiWOX UL OMNUY CR s@s -earats Gek a ye eee 040, i
deengtle ONO ies i ee oe eng kage 890 Hi
Width tt = just: below. the head... 3. eat. es .100 Hi

pep gab midlets on Cee ioe. Cee ee 037 | |
VEteha fend aby Nes Ree ee tegee r er .880

<em-proximal to head... sista dla cote dt «cae ake .060 il
Myddlchy ai mal Glew ss fo ots 8 oo ee a 08 i

In the rib ‘‘No. II.” the head is turned obliquely to one side, indicating )
that the rib diverged at a strong angle from the vertebral column, in fact |

not more than one of 45°, Thisis then an interior or posterior rib, prob-
ably the latter, since the shell is usually expanded chiefly in that direction.
All the ribs are flat above, and convex inferiorly.

Both sides of the seapular arch are complete, except the sutural portions
of coracoid and scapula of one side. The scapula and procoracoid make
a very open angle with each other, both being stout; the scapula the
longer, with grooved sculpture at its proximal end. The procoracoid is a
little the shorter. The glenoid cavity and coracoid suture are almost
sessile at the union of the scapula and procoracoid. The coracoids are
very elongate, almost equal to the ribs, and not stouter except at the ex-
tremity. It is expanded into an oblique head proximally ; the shaft is
flat, one edge thickened or truncated, the other thin. The distal portion
is scarcely expanded, being more slender than in any recent Testudinate
known to me.

M.
Length scapula ‘to glenoid cavity... 2.262... 0.213 ‘ :
Width Me PDEOMLINGILY, < See co ee 045 |
Length procoracoid to articular surface............... 106 t
Width fs. a doaballpiny cache au Ga eet 060 H
Henin: COraCOMcd nccch see 2t Soccer e 400 | il
FN ACG OLE YO ORAM YEH oe hak ae ee nD 086 i
pe INCOR TIR es Se ee ae eran aren Ce te ae 047 |
rs distally .080 a i
' |

Cope. ] 428 {March 1,

The elongate coracoid resembles most, among recent Chelonians, the
marine genus Chelone, while the sessile glenoid cavity and short pro-
coracoid with open angle are entirely different. In these points this genus
is more like terrestrial forms as T'estudo, or less like Hinys.

Both humeri ave entirely preserved. They appear to have been some-
what flattened by pressure ; but when unaltered they were no doubt flat,
with stout proportions. They have a globular head with an immense
trochanter which projects much beyond it proximally. The shaft is there
much contracted, and expands again distally to the broad and very convex
articular extremity. Opposite the narrow part of the shaft, the small
trochanter appears on the inner side, forming an elongate ala. The long
axis of the humerus is not straight, the proximal and ‘distal portion
making an angle of 110° with each other.

M.

Total length. humerus (1 ft.) straight............ 2905105300
Length i from -head.: 02.00.05. Re Pie Al, 296
Wadthoat head: cei is. maa err Aes ee Cee 166

be OL ce Or, A ERE WE Ra Ae OFF
Least -width shaft... .....0.... roe ise ens BARES 076
Greatest: distal width. c1-.. cocci ee Pains foe UBS
Length basis little trochanter.......... POA ewe se 080
Thickness at shalt. 00s bobs ecu ve ce woreteete PEL ORAS

The flatness of this element and situation of the large trochanter in
the general plane are characters of the Sphargididw ; the great constric-
tion medially and expansion of both extremities remind one of the Mosa-
saurotd humerus,

Of bones of the fore arm there may be one, but the bones next in size to
the humerus look more like metacarpals or metatarsals. Two of them
were found together in position and their relative positions were not like
those seen in the fore-arm of sea-turtles. They measure over seven inches
in length, and are strongly concave on their adjacent sides. One of them
is slightly concave on the outer side, the other convex, the convexity being
at 2 the length from one end. The ends of both are a little expanded
and one end of one displays a double or trochlear extremity. The same
end of the other is injured by pressure. A. still larger metacarpal-like
bone is relatively more expanded at the ends. The articular surface of
one of these is wide at one end, and much narrowed at the other. The
smaller bones, undoubtedly phalanges, are six im number. They are
quite slender, a little expanded at the ends, and flat.

M.
Lenoth largest... ...55...: Yen sites atentente ee gee men Ua ols)
Width do. at extremity...... Poe aes soy 00D
ede ae Pei nt tee Sneie ec alpete eee Ube
ength longest of pain. 60. ei. ieee eu a rerelds sie VOU:
Width, CXGremliy ssc .vetes cbse stes cee tid reg ale gc OU

ee shat, oc. ee eee Gas cen y ersOR

sce

1872. ] 429 [Cope.
M.
Length phalange.... rs : 032
Width, extremity : 032
ss shaft. . : .018
Thickness shaft, 26. .<5.. 2 Sheen O11

These measurements indicate for the fore limb a total length of 4.52
feet (M. 1.347) if proportioned as in Chelone ; this would give an expanse
of 11.3feet. If, however, it was constructed on the plan of Sphargis, the
expanse would be nearly seventeen feet.

Several instructive cranial bones were preserved. These are the max-
illary and distal part of the dentary of the left side ; the posterior part of
the left mandibular ramus ; quadrate bones and adjacent pterygoids and
squamosal, one side with the columellar plate also; right post-orbital
bone and part of the left. Also some probably hyoid elements.

The maxillary bone and dentary present a considerable extent of the
alveolar margin. This is remarkable in being thin, sharp and elevated,
without horizontal portion. The former bone is but little incurved to the
premaxillary suture ; its anterior outline is elevated and vertical, the nos-
trils entering opposite the probable middle of the orbit. The palatal plate
of the maxillary has no great antero-posterior extent, so that the inner
nares are opposite the anterior part of the orbit. The latter presents
only the anterior and inferior outlines in the specimen. The part of the
maxillary below it is very narrow, and weaker than either Sphargis or
Chelone. The cutting edge has a very open sigmoid flexure, suborbital
part being turned inwards, the anterior part a little outwards. The os-
seous rim of the orbit projected considerably beyond the plane of the max-
illary anteriorly.

The dentary bone is very deep anteriorly, and like the maxillary is a
thin vertical lamina. The lower anterior angle is truncated by an acute
concave margin. This is the anterior extremity of the symphysis. This
suture occupies the inner face of a triangular area which extends but a
short distance on the lower margin of the -ramus, and then passes up-
wards and backwards for a short distance on the inner face of the ramus.
That portion above the symphysis diverges outwards, thus producing a
deep notch at the symphysis, as though designed to receive a beak-like
projection of the premaxillaries. The cutting edge has a slight sigmoid
flexure corresponding with that of the maxillary ; it rises into a projecting
angle.

The posterior part of the ramus displays the cotylus, and in front of it
a deep long fossa behind the articular bone. There is no angle nor coro-
noid bone, as in all marine turtles. The superior margin of the dentary
is thicker posteriorly than in front, and its outer wall is produced back-
ward as a thin lamina, covering the surangular almost to the posterior
end of the ramus. The angular is, as in recent forms, a narrow wedge-
shaped piece below the dentary and surangular.. The posterior edge of
thesurangular projects behind the dentary and exhibits an acute convex

Jope. } 430 {March 1,
edge rising forward. It supports a small part of the articular cotylus on
its inner face. Most of this portion occupies the extremity of the articu-
lar. The latter sends a stout lamina obliquely upwards and forwards to
the lower posterior part of the dentary.

The quadrate bones are of a peculiar form. They exhibit the usual pos-
terior curviture above, with shallow funnel-like fossa for the tympanic
cavity. It presents two strong ridges anteriorly, an inner and an outer
which encloses a deep vertical concavity. The inner exhibits the suture
with the pterygoid bone, the outer with the zygomatic. The superior
border of the quadrate within the sqaumosal is massive and not inflated.
Its surface is thickest where the usual articulation with the opisthotic
exists. The posterior horizontal is short and deep. The transverse part
of the bone which supports inferiorly the exterior part of the condyle is
thin, and disappears above the antero-posterior portion. From its middle
upwards it supports the zygomatic. The latter has no great extent an-
teriorly to its malar suture, and its inferior margin arches high above
the line of the condyles of the quadrate.

The pterygoid bones are subtriangular in outline, with concave sides, an
emarginate base, and a very obliquely truncate apex, which articulates
low down on the quadrate bone. Both margins are thickened and rounded,
the superior as boundary of the foramen ovale. The posterior margin of
the plate-like columella overlaps it on the inner side, deeply notching it ;
on the outer side, the suture is zigzag and transverse. The superior part
of the bone is produced like a flat rod, and at its end exhibits a squamo-
sal suture for union with what is in the snapper a postero-inferior rod-
like prolongation of the columella. No such process of the columella
appears to exist in this species. The colwmellar plate is half as large as
the pterygoid, and exhibits the oblique suture in front for the descending
lamina of the parietal.

The postfrontal bone of the left side is preserved entire, and the inferior
portion of that of the right. The inferior margin for the malar is the
longest and is straight. The orbit is excavated in part from its anterior
margin, while the supero-posterior is a continuous curve. The inferior
suture is a groove, whose inner bounding wall is convex, but rises past
the straight outer to an inner ridge, which probably approaches the ee-
lopterygoid region. <A large sutural face for the zygomatic exists at the
tower posterior angle, and an elongate one above for the parietal. The
inner face is concave, indicating a large temporal fossa as in Sphargis and
Chelone.

Two bones of opposite sides of the cranium are either those portions of
the pterygoids which bound the temporal fossa below in front, or those
portions of the maxillary bounding the palatine foramen. As the free
margin is much thickened they are probably the former. Their inner or
thinner lamina is marked for squamosal suture with other bones, perhaps
columella and palatine.

Measurements of Cranium. M.
Depth premaxillary suture of maxillary. ..............0.06

Length from do. suture to inner nares................ .068

ts

ee

451

1872.] [Cope.

M.

Depth maxillary below orbit.............. wth, atv vii). OSD.

“. » identany. at SyMphYsisi. <i. vise ci Litas oo 078

“¢ notch of do. COs Gee. 0% WATPO tere. ada 048

“« dentary behind symphysis......... is PA .angi ene 095

i $$: JeaipCOrOmOl@TeplOme ci... G61). Casa Ob. .e 085,

‘¢. ramus abt front:of, cotylus....... iW aa le lass 2.0061
Length pterygoid fossa of do.....-....... PUGH » se 206
“¢ cotylus GOH 283). (eso. HEE ee: 07

“¢ postfrontal on inferior suture.........+.++.+-+ «195

Depth oC ati boundary: of. orbit... sisosce oi i G7 a186)

Thickness ‘‘ Lower, suture i. eit .6). J). sey 019

Lengthifrom orbit (oblique):.... 2.5.00 s ss. i 115

Length right quadrate............ ores tein ah ai eau 140

Woidihy(amtero:posterion) «. ls cic.uswss. ei. rs at - ALO

ice OlsCONO Wile aio Gat tiie bi Uap Lp. oe tae 064

Length right pterygoid superiorly..... Abe aalewene 2 @kbD

Depth do. at inner columellar angle.................. 100

Length (oblique) of columella......... Ds 508s 1 os ashi. 08D

Restoration. Better materials exist for the restoration of this species
than is usual in the case of most extinct Testudinata. The cranium was
.50 M., or 24
it, as in the genus Chelone, the total would be as follows :

5 inches in length. If the neck and carapace were related to

Inches.

Gansu ...vclig 297. Reet cee ene 4) Gis loses 248
Neclsand: carapace in itcan Sees oo eidd ails er. teee ek 1582
POtal 12.88 tects... ss eee is Ee ers a toys 1544

an extent not far from the expanse of the flippers above given, viz., 11.30
feet. The shortness of the cervical vertebra indicate that the proportions
of the neck were not dissimilar to those of the existing marine genera.
The flippers were probably similar to the same ; of the hind limbs nothing
can now be stated. The shortness of most of the ribs considered in con-
nection with the length of the carapace, is remarkable. Thus the long-
est rib measures .51 M. or 16 inches; width of lateral marginal beyond
apex of rib 2.25 inches ; width of vertebra 8 inches, which is, however,
vovered by the expansion of the rib, included in this case in the length
16 inches. Total width of carapace at middle, 36} inches. Length of
carapace 118 inches; or wide 3 feet 4 inch; length 9 feet 10 inches.
This outline, three times as long as wide, is justified in measure by the
size, especially the lengths, of the marginals, which if placed end to end,
would measure on one side of eleven pieces, if each were as long as the
median, 8.5 inches K 11 = 7.8 feet. Some of the posterior marginals. are
shorter than 8.5 inches, while some of the anterior appear to be longer.
The length 8.5 may then be taken as an average. But they formed the
circumference of an open are, so the axial length of the carapace should
be placed at a lower figure than the aboye. This proposition may be off-
setted by the fact that the marginals were not united to each other and

Cope.] 432 [March 1,

exhibit no indications of contact. ‘The length of 7.8 feet, for the cara-
pace is not then too much, and estimating from the size of the head is
too little. We can then safely conclude that the carapace of this turtle
is more elongate and narrowed than existing forms. Thus in Chelone
mydas the carapace is six-eighths as wide as long.

It remains to discuss the question of the age of the specimen. It
might be objected that the absence of carapace, and the radiate character
of the margins of many of the bones indicate that our type specimen is
young. To this it may be replied (1), that it is in the (?) sternal bones
unlike the young of any known type, when certain of their bodies do at
all times exhibit smooth margins as boundaries of the points of exit of
the limbs; moreover, it is possible that these plates were dorsal. (2)
The superior or inner extension of the marginals exceed that of any
known tortoise in the adult condition. (8) The articular bone is ossified.
(4) Separate ribs should be discovered among extinct tortoises as an
adult character, on theoretical grounds, the more as it exists in one re-
cent genus (Sphargis, vide Wagler).

Afinities. In discussing these, one point heretofore left doubtful may
be first considered. The large flat elements described as lateral dermal
bones ; are they ossifications of the dorsal or ventral integument? They
were found below all the other bones, and nearly all the ribs laid on them
with their heads turned upwards. This rendered it probable that the
shields were dorsal, and that the animal was entombed on its back, and
a coracoid, which was afterwards found lying immediately on the largest
bone (No. 10), crossed in its course parts of two ribs. This could not
have been the case had the shields been ventral. An examination of the
shields does not reveal any conformity to any known type of Testudinate
plastron. The bones radiate in all directions, leaving no margins for fore
and hind limbs, or for a median fontanelle, still less for suture with each

other.
Should these bones then be regarded as dorsal, they constitute a char-

acter not previously noticed in the order, but one whose homologue is
seen probably in the dermal shield of bony tesselated plates seen in
Sphargis. The other points of affinity to Sphargis are the distinct ribs ;
the thin laminiform jaws with cutting edges; the quadrate bone with
such a strong anterior concavity ; the elevated position of the zygomatic
bone ; the form of the humerus. Points of special resemblance to Chelone
are: the short posterior superior portion of the quadrate ; the entire
edge of the maxillary bone ; the deep dentary. The points in which it
differs from both, are numerous. They are: the dorsal shields, the mar-
ginals, the notched symphysis, etc. ; the shortened articular end of
scapula ; the elongate form of the carapace, ete.

The constant separation of the ribs, and the short vertebra, are char-
acters which are more like those possessed by other reptiles, than those
characteristic of Testudinata. The presence of dermal dorsal bones is
of the same kind. The genus Protostega then belongs near the Spharg-
idid@ in the suborder Athecw, and is in some points to be approximated
to the Chelonidida.

ii

1872.] 4355 [Cope.

Distribution. This fossil was found near Ft. Wallace, W. Kansas. It
was entirely recovered by excavating. The edges of one of the large
/ bony shields were seen projecting from a bluff near Butte Creek, and was
7 followed into the chalk rock with pick-axe and shovel with the result
already indicated. The large bones were exposed in an entire condition,
but were much fractured in the attempt to lift them from their bed.
Though carefully packed, the transport of 1500 miles still further injured ili)
\ them, and the portions described were reconstructed of over 800 pieces
by myself. One of the bony plates was broken into 108 pieces, the ribs |
into 183, the marginals into 146, ete. |
This species may be called Protostega gigas, Cope.* A second species ap- I |
pears to have existed during the Cretaceous period, as indicated by a i]
humerus from near Columbus, Miss., sent by Dr. Spillman to the i)
Academy of Natural Sciences. With it were received bones of the
Mosasauroid Platecarpus tympaniticus, and Dr. Leidy, who described
. them,{ regarded all as belonging to one animal. On this basis he ex-
pressed the opinion that the fore limbs of the Pythonomorpha were i
natatory. That this view was correct I proved by study of the skeleton
of Clidastes propython, and it now appears that the fore limbs of the latter i
were the first ever described. a
The humerus of the Mississippi Protostega (see Leidy, 1. ¢., Pl. viii.,
Fig. 1-2) is more elongate than that of the P. gigas, and is less contracted |
medially. The (great trochanter or) deltoid crest is longer and stouter, i
and the process answering to the little trochanter is more prominent,
rounded, and proximal in position. It indicates a rather smaller animal
than the Kansas specimen, and may be named Platecarpus tuberosus.
A third species is represented by a humerus found in the cretaceous

green-sand of New Jersey. lt was a huge animal, exceeding not only |
j the species just described, but even the Indian Colossochelys atlas.
i usually regarded as the largest of the order. It was regarded by Leidy
| as pertaining ‘‘to the great Mosasaurus,”’ but Agassiz regarded it as
Chelonian in affinities, naming it <Atlantochelys mortonii.t Its great
trochanter is very prominent, as in P. tuberosus, but the lesser one is
smaller and nearer the condyle or head. The shaft is still more slender
and not flattened, but subcylindric. It may be called Protostega neptunia.
‘ It is figured by Leidy, 1. ¢. Pl. viii. fig. 8, 4. In this connection may be
recalled the vertebrae of a gigantic animal from the New Jersey Cre-
taceous, described by the writer as belonging to an extinct species and
genus under the name of Pnewmatarthrus peloreus. Tt is quite likely
that these belonged to a turtle still larger than the Protostega neptunia.
(See Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1870, p. 446.)

*Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1871, p. 173.
+ Cretaceous Reptiles of North America, p. 42. Smithson, Contrib. 1864, 4
+ This name was unaccompanied with the necessary description, and is hence useless to

seience,

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—3C Hi

434

Stated Meeting, March 15, 1872.
Present, 12 members.

Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the Chair.

Prof. Edwin J. Houston, a newly elected member was pre-
sented to the presiding officer and took his seat.

Photographs for the album were received from Mr. George ‘
Davidson, U.S. Coast Survey, and from Prof. O. C. Marsh,
of New Haven.

A letter requesting exchange of publication was received
from Prof. C. F. Chandler, Editor of the American Chemist,
/ dated School of Mines of Columbia College, corner of 49th
\ St. and Fourth Avenue, New York, March 12,1872. On
motion, the American Chemist was ordered to be placed on
the list of correspondents, to receive the Proceedings.

A circular letter was received from the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Belgium, inviting the Society to assist at its
5 d 5 e
Centennial Anniversary, May 28th and 29th next ensuing.

i] 7g J ren)

Letters of envoy were received from the P. O. Society at
Konigsberg, dated July 10, 1871, and from the Central Bu-
reau of Statistics at Stockholm, dated Nov. 4, 1871.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Central
Bureau of Statisties at Stockholm (81 to 85). Le Bureau des
Longitudes, at Paris, dated Nov. 19, 1871 (82, 83); Feb. 14,
1872 (86). The Smithsonian Institute, Feb. 28, 1872 (87),
and the Congressional Library, March 5, 1872 (XIV iii.).

Donations for the Library were received from the ©. B. of
Statistics of Sweden, the Society at Konigsberg, the Royal
Academy at Berlin, the K. K. Geological Institute and
Anthropological Society at Vienna, the Royal Library at

to) d ) d d
i Munich, the Montsouris Observatory and Bureau des Logi-
tudes at Paris, the Revue Politique, the Royal Geological
Society of Cornwall, the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
d ? Od
Cambridge, Mass.; the American Journal of Science, the
Oo? y. 9
New York Lyceum of Natural History, the Albany Insti-
i s 2 by
| tute, Prof. Chandler, the New Jersey Historical Society, the
American Pharmaceutical Society, the Medical News and
?

§
i,

March 15, 1872.] 435 [ Kirkwood.
Library, the Franklin Institute, the Penn Monthly, the Li- j
brarian of Congress, the Chief of U.S. Engineers, Senator
Charles Sumner, and Prof. F. V. Hayden.
The death of Christian Olrik, of Denmark, a member of
the Society, was announced by the Secretary.
The committee to which was referred the paper of Prof.
Stevenson, on West Virginia Coal Measures, reported in fa-
vor of its publication in the Transactions, which on motion

was so ordered.

: A. communication entitled, On some remarkable relations
between the mean motions of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune, received by letter from Prof. Daniel Kirkwood,
dated Bloomington, Monroe County, Ind., March 11, 1872, |
was read by the Secretary.

On soME REMARKABLE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MnAn Morions oF

JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, AND NEPTUNE.

By Pror. Danie Kirkwoop.
i

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 15th, 1872.)
It was noticed by the writer several years since, that 85 periods of
Jupiter are nearly equal to 12 of Uranus,* and that 149 periods of Uranus
If, therefore, nV, mvi, nvii and

are approximately equal to 76 of Neptune.
PI ‘ I

i nviii denote the respective mean motions of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and |
| Neptune, these relations are expressed as follows : i
i te ry +s see ti
J 12nv -—85vii — 76vii — 149 vill, nearly ; ah
J : ne 2 , : : yy
| or, 12nv —161nvii + 149nvili -—y, . .. . . (fh).
i
With Neweomb’s value of nviii and the values of nv and nvii adopted hi
|
in the American Ephemeris, we find y = 390/’.. The equation, i
MS. Z2nvi — 153nvii + 121nvili — — 7 f , OQ),
| was obtained by a process somewhat similar. Subtracting (2) from (1), i
| and dividing by 4, we have /
:
| Snv — Snvi — anvil + Tnviii — 0, ‘ : i : (8).4
i
. : : L at oF © dees ¥ . i
This equation, like that which exists between the mean motions of i
Jupiter’s first three satellites, is doubtless exact. The mean motion of
d Neptune is less accurately known than those of the old planets. If we
assume, then, that the received values of nv, nvi, nvii, are correct,
* Runkle’s Mathematical Monthly, January, 1860,
+ Equation (3), without any account of its discovery, was given in Silliman’s Journal,
March, 1872, !
t

Kirkwood. ] 436 [March 15, 1872.

the value of nyiii, found by equation (3), is 7863//.983, differing from New-
comb’s value (7864//.935) by less than 1//.
The corresponding relations between the mean longitudes of the four
outer planets are sufficiently obvious. Thus,
3lv — 8ivi — Qivil + Yiviii — ,--aconstant . ; . (4).
With a slight correction of the elements, it will probably be found that
x = 135°.
Again: the equation,
17nvi — 228nvii + 21inviii — 0, i ‘ Os
found in the same manner as (1), is believed to be exact. Combining (38)
and (5), we obtain

68nvi — B25nvii + 257nviii — 0, ‘ : 7 (6);
Winv — 844nvi + 587nvii — 0, d 3 oui)
B25nv — 912nvi + 587nviii — 0, : ; <6).

These equations indicate that in a cycle of about 11657.2969 Julian
years, the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune return to the
same relative mean longitudes. The equations are all satisfied by the
following values. The received values are given for the convenience of

: j 1296000
comparison. In column first 0” —
I == 11657.2969 «

RECEIVED

| THEORETICAL VALUES. | vs var ; | DIFFERENCES.
| | VALUES. | |
|
|

| Le aE
| nv == 109256//.719 109256’7.719 | 07.000

nvi —= n¥— 5879” — 43996.971 | 43996.127 +0/7.844 |
| vil — mv — 8449” —= 15424.986 | 15424509 | -+0/.477
viii n¥— 9199” == 7865.083 | '7864.985 | +0/7.148

The received value of Jupiter’s mean motion is here assumed to be
correct. Any change would produce a corresponding variation in the
remaining values. A revision of the theory of the orbits will, of course,
result in some slight modifications. I believe, however, that the relations
expressed by the preceding equations will be found strictly exact. If so,
it must follow that no three of the four outer planets can ever be in con-
junction at the same time.

Buioomineton, Inv., February, 1872.

aii

437

q Stated Meeting, April 5, 1872.
Present, 21 members.
Vice-President, Prof. Joun C. Cresson, in the Chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were reecived from the Royal
Academy, Lisbon, Feb. 16, 1872 (XT ins 61.82); The
Royal Institution, London, Feb., 1872 (XIV. iii. 87—XIV.
ii. wanted); The Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
t and Ireland, London, March 21, 1872 (XIV. iii. 87); and i
the New York Lyceum, N. H., March 25, 1872 (XIV. 1040). i)
Letters of envoy were received from the U.S. Naval Ob-
servatory, Washington, March 25, 1872, and the New Jer-
sey Historical Society, Newark, March 30, 1872.
Donations for the Library were received from the Russian ua
Geographical Society, the R. Prussian Academy, the R. Bel-
gian Academy, the Paris Geographical Society and Revue 4
Politique, the Royal Astronomical Society, Meteorological |
! Office, and Editors of Nature; the Argentine Astronomical
Observatory, American Antiquarian Society, Essex Institute, |
Boston Old and New, American Journal of Science, Ameri-
can Chemist, Prot. James Hall, New Jersey Geological Sur-
vey, New Jersey Historical Society, Philadelphia Water
Department, American Journal of Pharmacy, Gen. Hector
Tyndale, the Franklin Institute, U. 8. Naval Observatory,
and Minnesota Historical Society.
Mr. Sol. W. Roberts, pursuant to appointment, read an
obituary notice of the late Mr. Edward Miller.
The death of Mr. Samuel Jackson, on the 4th instant, in
Philadelphia, aged 85, was announced by Mr. Fraley. |
The death of Dr. Samuel H. Dickson, on the 31st ult., in !
Philadelphia, aged 72, was announced by Mr. Fraley.
The death of Mr. Elwood Morris, on the 2d inst., aged 59, |
was announced by Mr. Roberts.
The death of Prof. 8. F. B. Morse, on the 3d inst., aged hi
81, was announced by Prof. Cresson. We
|
i

ee

Mr. T. B. Brooks, State Geologist of Michigan, read a
paper on “ Magnetism of the Rocks of the Marquette Re-

438

gion,” near Lake Superior, which was referred to a Commit-
tee, consisting of Prof. Lesley, Dr. Genth, and Mr. Lyman.

Mr. Eli K. Price presented for record a notice of the
Aurora of February 4th.

Mr. Chase communicated a note of new relations between
the distances of the Moon from the Earth, and those of
Jupiter and the Earth from the Sun.

Pending nominations, Nos. 689, 690, 691, 692, were read,

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 19th, 1872.
Present, 25 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the Chair.

A letter, acknowledging receipt of Diploma, was received
from Major R. 8. Williamson, U. 8. C.8., San Francisco,
April 10th, 1872.

A letter, acknowledging the receipt of Transactions XIV.
ii., and Proceedings No. 87, was received from the London
Society of Antiquaries, Somerset House, March 28th, 1872.

Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Carl
Neuman, of Leipzig; SS. Mantegazza and Finzi, of Florence
(Archivis Anthro. e Eth.); M. Delesse, of Paris; the Revue
Politique, London Nature, R. Geological Society of Ire-
land, Rev. Samuel Houghton, the Boston Society of Natural
History, American Numismatic and Archeological Society,
Prof. O. C. Marsh, of New Haven; American Journal of the
Medical Sciences, News and Library, Penn Monthly, Ameri-
cau Iron and Steel Association, Dr. Elder, Mr. Eli K. Price,
Mr. George Davidson, the Coast Survey, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and University of Virginia.

Prof. J. F. Fisher mentioned the death of the distin-
guished Genevan, M. Pictét de la Rive.

The Committee to which was referred the map and. paper
on a Coal District in Southern Virginia, reported recom-

pepoereprmmemmitirg canis

Mei

a aaa ic hie ici dasiicinsiinuncn

t

a

439

mending the publication of the same in the Transactions ;
which was so ordered.

The Committee to which was referred the paper on the
Magnetism of Rocks, &¢., by Major T. B. Brooks, reported
that, since the Legislature of Michigan had recently made
an appropriation for the publication of the whole Report of
the Survey of Major Brooks’ District, they recommend that
the Secretaries be requested to prepare an abstract notice of
the paper for the Proceedings. The report was concurred
in.

Prof. Chase, according to notice given, gave an explana-
tion of his method of estimating the Sun’s mass and dis-
tance by the energy of flames, with diagrams and tables.

Prof. Persifor Frazer, Jr., communicated the results of his
spectroscopic observation of the late Auror:

Dr. R. E. Rogers exhibited the capacities of « fine Holtz
Electrical Machine, and described his proposed modification
of its form for purposes of instruction.

The prime plate is replaced by horizontal plates, laid upon wine glasses,
or upon removable rubber stand-

Med ft fo les lec Sete. ards. The rotating plate is made
By RE Rogers MD. to rotate horizontally over them,

its axis passing vertically down-
ward through the table, the driving
wheel being underneath. Two
standards carry the. combs, ete.,
and can be swung round out of the
way. Every part of the machine
can be removed in a charged state,
to be tested and compared with its

condition before removal.

The Secretary exhibited a water-color picture of a geo-
logical sectional | model of Morrison’s Cove, in Middle Penn-
sylvania, painted by Mr. J. W. Harden, C. and M. Engineer,
of Philadelphia, and invited attention to the highly artistic
style and beauty of the work.

Pending nominations, Nos. 689 to 692 were read, spoken

to, and balloted for. New nominations, Nos. 693 and 694,
were read. There being no further business, the ballot-boxes

440

were scrutinized by the presiding officer, and the following
gentlemen declared duly elected Members of the Society: j
M. Jean Baptiste Léon Say, Prefect of the Seine, Paris.
Mr. Lorin Blodget, of Philadelphia.

Dr. D. Hayes Agnew, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Adolph E. Borie, of Philadelphia.
And the meeting was adjourned. y

Stated Meeting, Muy 3d, 1872.
Present, 18 members.

Vice-President, Prof. Crussoy, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. D.
Hayes Agnew, dated 1611 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia,
April 22, 1872.

A Circular Letter, signed by the Mayor of Strasburg and
others, requesting donations to the Municipal Library of
that city, destroyed August 24, 1870, was read.

On motion, the request of Prof. Stevenson, to print a note
to his Memoirs in the Transactions, was granted.

Donations to the Library were announced from the Royal
Academies at Berlin and Brussels, the Geographical Society
and Political Review of Paris, London Nature, the Canadian
| Naturalist, Old and New, Silliman’s Journal, American
i Chemist, Prof. Mayer, the Franklin Institute, College of
Physicians, Pennsylvania Historical Society,and Dr. Hayden.
The death of John P. Brown, a member of the Society, at
Jonstantinople, on the 28th ult., was announced by the
! Secretary.

The death of Dr. W. W. Gerhard, a member of the So-
a ciety, at his residence, 1206 Spruce Street, Philadelphia,
April 28th, aged 68, was announced by the Secretary.

| Dr. Rogers explained to the members present his improved

441

Galvanic Battery; and also an improved method of analyzing
irons and steels for their contained carbon, by the use of
bichromate of potassium:

The wood-cut represents a trough, on which stands the battery of cups.
A pair of tubes descend from each
Snproved Galvanic Battery, by RE Rogers WI. cay, through the lid of trough, into
' 5 ‘
each side of the diaphragm. The
lid of the trough is made air-tight,
by the following arrangement: A
the under side of the lid near the edge. The groove being half filled
with mercury, the joint is kept air-tight by the weight of the lid and bat-
tery. An India-rubber pipe enters the trough, and the breath (or a bel-
piece of the India-rubber tube, and the liquors fall back into the trough.
The lid and battery can then be removed and washed.
Mr. Lesley described the faulted structure of the district
and another of the ores of North Carolina.
Prof. Cope described the sightless fauna of the Mammoth,
Wyandotte, and other Caves.

; the liquids. The trough is divided
: lengthwise by a diaphragm. The

tubes of each pair descend one on

a ;

groove is sunk in the upper edge of

of the four walls of the trough, and a bead to fit the groove runs round
lows) is sufficient to cause the liquids to ascend into the cups of the bat-
tery during work. After work, the cork is withdrawn from the mouth-
around Embreeville, in East Tennessee; and exhibited a
suite of European iron ores, owned by Mr. Thomas Graham,

Pending nominations, Nos. 693, 694, 695, were read,

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 17th, 1872.
Present, 18 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Fraury, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Pro-
fessor Guillaume Lambert, dated Bruxelles, Rue Traversiére,
No. 78, April 30, 1872.

A letter acknowledging receipt of Transactions, XIV., i.ii.,
and Proceedings, 78-85, was received from Professor Paolo
Volpicelli, dated del Campidoglio, Roma, Reale Ace. d.
Lincei, December 12, 1871.

A. P. §—VOL. XII.—38D

442

Donations for the Library were received from Gehe & Co.,
of Dresden, the Revue Politique, London Nature, the R. As-
tronomical Society, Cambridge Museum of Comparative
Zodlogy, Boston Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo Young
Men’s Association, Dr. Geo. B. Wood, Mr. Sol. W. Roberts,
the Medical News, Penn Monthly, Petroleum Monthly,
Wilmington Institute, and U. 8. Corps of Engineers.

Professor Chase exhibited an annual Auroral Curve and
explained its relations to the periodic maxima and minima of
meteoric displays, &e.

Professor Chase exhibited a drawing to illustrate the
capacity of Mr. Holman’s pen to draw continuous lines of
any length and thickness.

Professor Chase then gave in tabular form, various recently
calculated planetary relationships.

Dr. Rodgers described his manner of obtaining an unlim-
ited supply of electricity by the steam jet from a high-
pressure boiler, not insulated, and in all weathers.

This gave rise to a discussion of electrical phenomena /
during voleanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Pending nominations, Nos. 693 to 695, and new nomina-
tion, No. 696, were read,

And the meeting adjourned.

Stated Meeting, June 21, 1872.
Present, 8 members.

Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the Chair.

Photographs for the Album were received from Dr, Ed.
Jarvis of Dorchester, Mass., Dr. Elisha J. Lewis of Philadel-
phia, and Judge W. H. Lowrie, of Meadville, Pa.

A letter accepting membership was received from M. Léon
Say, dated Paris, 10th May, 1872.

Letters, acknowledging receipt of publications, were re-
ceived from the Hungarian Academy, May 4, 1872 (XIIL,

443
33, XIV., 1, 2: 81-86); Herr G. Von Frauenféld, Vienna,

2, 1871 (82); Astronomical Society, Leipsic, February 20,
1872 (86); Royal Library, Berlin, March 1, 1872 8) Royal
Society, Gottingen, January 10, 1872 (XIV., 1, 2: 83, 84,

85); Royal Academy, Lisbon, Garueris 5 1871 (XIV., IE by
84, 85); and the Smithsonian Taytuution, Washington, May
4, 1872 (XIV., 3).

Letters of envoy were received from the R. Society, Got-
tingen, January 10, 1872; the Central Statistical Bureau,
Stockholm, April 8, 1872; Royal Saxon Society, Leipsic,
October 31, 1871; Dr. ee Jarvis, Dorchester, Mass.,
June 12, 1872;.and the U.S. War ‘Deemnnont: Signal Ser-
vice Officer Albert J. Meyer, May 31, 1872.

Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Ed.
Jarvis; also, from the Swedish Central Statistical Bureau,
Russian Academy, Dorpat Observatory, Moscow Society of
Naturalists, Austrian Geological Institute, Prussian Acad-
emy, Saxon Society, Lausitz Magazine, Gottingen Society,
Zoological Garden at Frankfort, Vaudoise Society, Geo-
logical Committee of Italy, Montsouris Observatory, French
Geographical Society, M. M. Delesse & Laparent, National
Society of Antiquarians (Paris), Anthopological Society, So-
ciety of Acclimatation, Bureau des Ponts, &¢., Revue Poli-
tique, Bordeaux Society of Sciences, London Royal Society,
Royal Institution, Astronomical Society, Meteorological Com-
mittee, Chemical Society, Entomological Society, Cobden Club,
Sir Henry Holland, Nature, Royal Society Dublin, Rev. L.
Haughton, Essex Institute, Massachusetts State Library,

3oston Publie Library, Old and New, Silliman’s Journal,
Professor O. C. Marsh, American Chemist, Professor B. C. E.
Anthon, Professor James Hall, Franklin Institute, College
of Pliannsey, Medical News, Penn Monthly, Isaac Lea, J.
©. Cresson, Lorin Blodget, ae Secretary of the Interior,
Census Bureau, Signal Service Bureau, and the California
Academy of Sciences.

Dr. Emerson desired to. have placed on record the destruc-
tion of Norway Fir, Arbor Vite, and Osage Orange, as far

Lesley.] 444 [May 8,
south as the latitude of Philadelphia, either by cold or long
drought, or both.

Professor Trego gave an account of the destruction in
Germantown.

Mr. Blodgett added his notes of the Meteorology of March
5th, 6th and 7th, during which a cold, dry gale prevailed, to
which he ascribed the loss of these plants. J ruit trees,
when their time for flowering arrived, showed an inability
to blossom for several weeks, as if paralyzed; the dryness
of the gale of March seemed to have exhausted the sap.
Many of the White Pines of the Alleghany Mountains were
also killed.

Pending nominations, Nos. 693 to 696, and new nomina-
tion, 697, were read,

And the meeting was adjourned.

Nore ON A FINE UptHrow FAvuLT AT EMBREEVILLE FURNACE IN
East TENNESSEE.

Bx. J.P. 2 GEsiey.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 3d, 1872.

In a late visit to the works at Embreeville, on the Nolichuckee River,
in Washington County, East Tennessee, I made a compass and barometer
survey of the river valley and Bompas Cove, connecting the Furnace with
its flux quarry and ore banks, tram road, washing ground, slack-water
channel, ete., which will be found delineated on the accompanying map,
drawn.on a scale of 4,000 feet to the inch, with contour lines of 20 feet
elevation to express the topography.*

*The accompanying map was hastily sketched for reproduction by Mr, Bien’s photo-litho-
graphic process. It merely shows the character of the topography of a portion of the property.
But it is accurate so far as regards the course of the river, the hills which enclose it, the sand-
rock outcrops, the north end of Bompas Coye, the grade contours of the railway and ravines,
the elevation of the mines, &c. All the rest, ineluding the heights and contours of the moun-
tains, must be considered merely approximations to the truth. The contour lines represent
elevations of 20 feet successively above tide-water, commencing at about 2,000 feet. The sec-
tion below the map represents the geology along the river, above and below the Furnace, The
scale was originally 1,000 feet to the inch. It was photographed down to 3,000 to make a plate.
That plate was lost in the fire which rendered a second edition of this Number of the Proceed-
ings necessary. An original copy from the first plate was then photographed down to 4,000 feet
to the inch, to make the present plate.

a ——— os ~ an —
= Seeeeaea SS - cats
= Sao = a ——— = see.

445

1872.]

WX

7 <a TTT, = as
WN Tih; :

WY y y . ra : e
Y\ NCS YN oe

HH I..WW\\ So Whe Ics

<— A Ses ey Uf seo

So= ae GIS =

Z,
NY

S
SSS

Scale 4000 ft. to the inch.

446 [May 3,

Lesley.]

The Furnace stands in the gap which the Nolichuckee makes through
the last range of mountains on its way out from the North Carolina High-
lands to the Great Limestone Valley of East Tennessee. A double rib
of massive sandrock here forms a natural dam and mill-race, affording
unlimited water-power, protected by projecting fragments of the sand-
rock outcrop from the most violent freshets. It is a scene of rare beauty,
and a remarkably favorable location for any kind of industry requiring
power. A broad terrace affords ample room for several furnaces and their
dependent outworks, a village, mills of different kinds, and, in fact, for a
Rolling Mill of the first class.

At present there stands here one Furnace, of small size, making 61 (six
and a quarter) tons of metal per day at the time of my visit, a saw mill,
an ochre mill, a village, store, church, and Superintendent’s mansion.

A rope-ferry communicates with the State Road on the opposite shore.
Jonesborough—the capital of the county, and oldest settlement in the
State, on the Hast Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad, 82 miles
from Bristol, 98 from Knoxville, 210 from Chattanooga, 236 from Lynch-
burg, 440 from Norfolk, and 391 from Richmond—is eight (8) miles
distant from the furnace by this State Road. <A railway could be made
without difficulty over these eight miles, along smooth yales of limestone
land, which head up towards Jonesborough. My barometer along the
State Road gave me 290, 300 and 340 feet as the summit elevations above
the river at the ferry. The intervals were from 50 to 100 feet lower.
Railroad grade at Jonesborough was something under 200 feet above the
ferry. A line might be located with maximum gradients of 50 feet to
the mile, and with little or no cutting and filling, except for the first half
mile below the furnace in the gap. Ten or twelve thousand dollars a
mile ought to be quite sufficient to build the road. The bridge at the
Furnace would be 200 feet long, but would need no piers, nor abutments:
these being provided by nature in the shape of colossal sandrock outcrops
rising fifty feet above the river bed.

The metal made at the Furnace goes chiefly to the Tredegar Works at
Richmond, 400 miles from the Furnace, costing $3.25 a ton to haul to Jones-
borough, in the present state of the roads. In dry seasons, the limestone
roads become smooth and hard.

Up the river to the south and east, locked in among hills of irregular
trend, steep slopes, and bluffs of crumbling rock, from 600 to 1,000 feet
high, lie two limestones coves: Bompas Cove, drained by Bompas Creek,
flowing north into the river at the Furnace washing ground, two miles
from the works ; and Greasy Cove, drained by streams flowing southwest-
ward to the river, and about six miles from the works.

Bompas Cove is an oval valley three or four miles long, by one and a-
half wide at its widest part, surrounded by mountains about a thousand
feet high, on the inner slopes of which rest terraces or hill-spurs of
decomposed limestone (Lower Silurian) holding masses of brown hematite
iron ore of two varieties; the lower series (and outer, or closer up to the

447

1872.] [Lesley.
mountain wall) being silicious and cold-short, and the upper series being
argillaceous and red-short. The cove is nearly encircled by the cold-short
deposits, which have been opened in a number of places, and a good deal
mined, towards the head of the cove, for an old furnace further south.
The red-short hematites are extensively spread out more in the middle of
the cove, where they are capped by lead-bearing members of the Lime-
stone formation.

There are a few fertile farms in the cove; but an uninterrupted forest
covers all the mountain country around it, most of which is included
within the limits of the estate. :

Greasy Cove is a large and nearly level limestone plain, more than
twenty miles long by five miles wide, similarly surrounded by shale
and sandstone hills nearly 1,000 feet high and backed by the State Line
Range of the Unaka (Sub Silurian) Mountains more than twice as high.
The Nolichuckee enters this cove from the mountain country to the south,
and leaves it by a gorge, the south wall of which is a towering cliff of
sandstone 500 or 600 feet in vertical height, called the Devil’s Looking
Glass. It flows thence three miles straight north-northwest towards the
mouth of Bompas Cove, where it makes an ox-bow, and then flows north
to the Furnace, as shown in the map.

This interval of three miles is made through forest-covered hills.
Paddy’s Creek and Broad Shoals Creek form narrow forest-covered valleys,
entering the river valley from the southwest. Another stream of equal
size forms a similar valley on the northeast. All this is good coaling
ground for iron-works; and depots of charcoal can be established at
different points on the two banks of the river, down which the fuel can
be safely and cheaply boated. Two large charcoal furnaces at Embree-
ville could be erected in view of a constant supply of charcoal by the
organization of an extensive system of coaling depots up the river. A
forest surrounds the head of Greasy Cove and passes in an unbroken belt
across all the hill country back of the river bottoms, over to the Dry
Oreck Valley, and Buffalo or Cherokee Mountain, north-northeast and east
of the Furnace. This is on the east side of the river. On the west side,
as I have said, many square miles of forest-covered hill country surrounds
Bompas Cove.

This forest consists of white oak, spruce pine, poplar, hickory, ete.,
most of it in its original condition. Some tracts have been coaled off
once, others twice. After fifteen or twenty years they are ready for coal-
ing again. I saw a few trees two feet in diameter ; but the forest trees
are lighter than I am accustomed to see in Pennsylvania. They will
probably yield, on an average, 40 or 50 cords to the acre, while some
ravines will go up to 100.

The charcoal used at the Furnace is good and strong, but by the haul-
ing over steep roads, and several handlings, the waste amounts to 25 or
30 per cent. Most of this could be saved under a more extensive and
complete organization of this part of the business, and by the use of

448

Lesley. ] [May

large baskets on trucks. The coal floors are near enough the Furnace to
allow the carts to go to it twice a day; some, however, ean be reached
but once a day. The dependence of extensive works must be on a river
navigation and coaling depots above, as has already been said.

One hundred and ten bushels of charcoal go to the ton of iron at this
furnace, making, say, six tons. An enlarged stack could easily make ten
or twelve. The Shelby Furnace in Alabama, sixty feet high, is making
at the present moment, with charcoal, sixteen (16) tons, by information I
have indirectly from the keeper, although it is reported she has made
twenty. The report is incorrect ; she has never exceeded sixteen. But
this shows what can be done with charcoal and brown hematite ore. In
smelting rich fusible lump ore, one ton of metal requires from one-third
to one and a-quarter tons of hard charcoal, or from one and a-half to three
tons of soft charcoal.

Coke, however, is the future dependence of Embreeville Works on an
extensive scale. The Cumberland Mountain, west of Knoxville, (Coal
Creek, Cove Creek, ete.,) has numerous workable beds of good bitumin-
ous coking coals. The Knoxville and Kentucky Railroad is already car-
rying these coals from the mines to the factories and ironworks of Knox-
ville and other towns along the East Tennessee Railroad, including
Jonesborough, Contracts can be made for the delivery of any amount of
Cumberland Mountain (Waldron Ridge) coal at Jonesborough, for $3.25
to $3.50 per ton. If the eight mile branch to Embreeville were built,
costing with bridge and rolling stock, say $150,000, the coal could be
landed at the Furnace at a cost of something under $4, and there coked ;
or, which would be better, coking establishments could be organized in
the Cumberland Mountains, along Cove Creek, and the coke be deposited
at Embreeville for about $4.50, owing to the fact that—1. One-half the
weight of the car-load would be saved by carrying it in the form of coke ;
2. The waste in dust would be saved; and, 3. The slake waste at the
mines would be coked with the lump.

Now, 6} cents a bushel is paid at the Furnace for charcoal, or, 64110
= $6.873, to make a ton of metal.

Coke furnaces require from 1.1 to 2.3 tons of coke to make 1 ton of
iron, according to their size, shape, and especially the quality of ores em-
ployed. For brown hematites it would not be safe to assume less than 14,
and it might go up to 1? tons of coke to one of metal. If coke could be
got at Embreeville for $4.50, the coke for 1 ton of iron would still cost
$6.75, as against $6.87} for charcoal.

But while a charcoal furnace is producing 45 tons of metal a week, a
coke furnace with hot blast is producing from 150 to 200 tons a week.

It would be unwise to erect more than two first-class chareoal furnaces
at a point like Embreeville, in view of the extensive and complicated sys-
tem of coaling and boating required. These would make 10 tons a day
sach, or 140 tons of metal per week. Whereas four coke furnaces might

ee

inti

a

449

1872.] [Lesley.

be put in blast safely, making together (with one always out for repair,
ete.), say 3150450 tons of metal per week ; or even 600 or more.

On the other hand, no profit could be made on coke bought at the
mines; and no profit on coal, but only on the coking of the coal at the
Furnace, by supplying store goods for wages ; whereas, the 64 cents per
bushel paid for the charcoal is paid in stores, and a large saving accom
plished.

The same is true of other labor, at the Furnace and at the mines ; but
this would not be changed by the substitution of coke for charcoal.

Another consideration, and one of importance, is the change in the

quality of metal produced. So long as the lowest beds of the Cumber-
land Mountain system are mined, the coal will be second rate, and even
if the best precautions are taken, the coke will not be so good a fuel as
charcoal. Quality of metal would have to be sacrificed to some extent for
the sake of quantity. The metal made at Embreeville could hardly be
better than it is ; exceedingly strong in the pig and much esteemed for
car-wheel use. The price of such iron must always be high, whatever be
the state of the seaboard and foreign markets, because of the limited
amount of it made, and always to be made. Much, if not most, of the
Tennessee iron must always be cold-short on account of the wide dis-
tribution of cold-short ores through the country.
; The Brown Hematite, or limonite, deposits of Bompas Cove exactly re-
semble those of Morrison’s Cove, Nittany Valley, Kishicoquilis, and other
Lower Silurian limestone valleys of Pennsylvania and Virginia; and
those of the long line of the north flank of the South Mountain (Blue
Ridge, Smoky Mountain range) from the Hudson River to Alabama. They
are in’ fact situated geologically just like the Allentown, Carlisle, and
Chambersburg deposits.

These ores are irregular masses of ochreous clays and loose sands, full
of shot and balls and pipes of the hydrated sesquioxide of iron ; with
coatings of the black oxide of manganese, and traces of the original sul-
phide of iron, sulphide of lead, and sulphide of zinc, held by the lime-
| stone strata before these were dissolved and made cavernous by the drain-
} age waters which have packed the clay sand ore into all the holes and

, crevices, caves and water-courses thus made.
| The general dip of the limestone beds in Bompas is about 10° north-
northeast, against a fault which crosses the mouth of the cove and
seems to run in.a line about N. 15° W., S. 15° E. All the rocks to the
east of this line—the rocks in which the river flows—are of an older age,
and dip 60° S. 40° E., in very st raight bold outcrops, as represented on
the map and in the section accompanying it.

This gentle dip of the limestone has exposed several square miles of the
ferruginous lower limestone to decomposition ; and the quantity of ore is

correspondingly great.
The limestone has been cross-cleft ; its cleavage planes dipping 45°,
more or less. The dissolution has followed these cleavage planes. The

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—3E

450

Lesley.] [May 3,

ore-clays are packed in descending cavities sloping at that angle. The
massive ore seems to dip 45° therefore, instead of 10°. But as several
hundred feet of the nearly horizontal limestone beds has converted itself
more or less into ore, the quantity of ore is immense.

The series of ore pits from which the furnace has supplied itself, ranges
up the side of a steep hill, beginning at an elevation of about 200 feet
above the river (one mile from it), and ending at an elevation of 350 feet.
But the ore continues up the hill a hundred feet higher ; and descends
also below the lowest pit. No system has been observed in mining the
ore. Everything has been done hap-hazard and in the most expensive

yay.

The stripping varies from a foot or two to twenty and thirty feet. The
solid ore-ground, consisting of from one-half to four-fifths fine ore, the
rest balls, with occasional masses of clay, and occasional masses of solid
hard limestone rock (left in its original condition, but with all the edges
dissolved round), has been dug into toa depth of ten, fifteen, twenty feet
and more in places, without r saching bottom.

I judged that I saw along the line of pits over the end of the tramway,
about one million of tons of ore.

The ore can be followed over the top of the little hill and down its
northern side.

Abundant evidence of ore covers the long slope of the hill towards the
south for a quarter of a mile.

The same limestone beds take into the isolated hill to the west ; and on
both sides of this hill near its top are old diggings of the ore, from which
the original furnace was supplied for a good many years, and abandoned
when that furnace was abandoned, and the new Furnace wag erected at
Embreeville. The old furnace was situated on Bompas Creek, about half
a mile southwest of the present ore mines, and just opposite the lead
mine shown upon the map, but inconyeniently far from the river.

There must be millions of tons of iron ore in the more central part of
the cove, in the low hills composed of the almost horizontal ore-bearing
limestone strata, which everywhere show the dissolving action of the ore-
collecting waters, and are covered in many places with ore-ground.

The books of the Furnace show that after the ore has been washed and
the large lumps roasted to make them more easily broken to pieces, the
lowest percentage of ore to pig metal is 49, and the highest 59. The
practical average of pig iron obtained from the thus prepared ore is fifty-
five per cent.* :

>

* Analysis of Brown Hematite ore from Bompas Cove, E. T., made by Prof, Fisher, of U. 8.
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md, :

Water and organic matter, - - - - - - 13515
Phosphorie acid, - - - - - - 4 ~ i. 09
Silica, . Fr - ms = < . i 8.05
Alumina, - - - = iS - - i i 1.28
Sesquioxide of manganese, - - - - - cS oaT
Sulphur, - - - - “ < . i - 203
Peroxide of iron, . . > i . c ie 82,27
100, 313

82, 27 peroxide of iron equals 57.6 per cent, pure iron,

1872.] 451 [Lesley.

The weight of the washed ore when dry is one and a half (13) tons to
the cubic yard. The weight of the lump ore is about 1; tons to the cubic
yard. One car-load of 44,919 cubic inches measurement, thoroughly dried
wash ore, weighed 3,042 Ibs. One cubic yard = 46,656 inches. The lump
ore of one car weighed 2,570 Ibs.

Very little flux is required by the Furnace, and this is obtained from
bold outcrops of blue limestone on the State Road two-thirds of a mile
north of the ferry. There is so much lime in the wash. ore and in the clay
of the ball ore, and so heavy a charge of manganese in the ore deposit
that the fluxing of the stock scarcely adds to the expense of its smelting.
The cinder is excellent and the waste of iron is evidently small.

Avound the inside lining of the tunnel head for about four feet down
from the lip of the filling-hole, there forms a coating of concentric layers
of a very solid and heavy substance, consisting chiefly of metallic zine, in
alloy with metallic lead and a small quantity of metallic iron.*

The upper and more solid blue and white limestones of Bompas Cove,
exposed along the banks of the creek, opposite the old furnace site, con-
tain a good deal of disseminated galena. This is decomposed into car-
bonate of lead, filling crevices which have been followed down by shafting
operations during the late war. The two ores of lead were taken in cars,
on a tram road a few hundred yards long, down the creek to a lead mill
erected by General Jackson, and there smelted for the use of the Confed-
erate army. The works are now abandoned, and the shafts filled with
trash or water.

Brown hematite iron ore deposits have also resulted from the decompo-
sition of the limestone beds over the lead-bearing strata.

Greasy Cove is a district of limestone similar to, but much more exten-
sive than Bompas Cove, and carries the same brown hematite iron ore de-
posits of probably equal size. The hills overlooking the flat land of this
cove on the northwest and within half a mile of the river, are red with ore.

* Analyses, by Persifor Frazer, Jr., Assistant Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Pennsylvania, of—

I, Furnace product from Embreeville Works, N. C., taken from within four feet of the tun-
nel head: A hard, brittle, gray solid, with occasional streaks of green, but in powder is grass-
green. Specific gravity, 5.6.

Under the magnifying glass it shows minute metallic scales which impart a metallic lustre to
the streak when the product is seratehed, and yet bear such a small proportion to the whole
mass that they are almost indistinguishable with the naked eye.

Silica, = = = : = = - % 0. 28
Iron (calculated as sesquioxide), - - - - - - 4.12
Zine (oxide), - - - = = - - - 84, 26
Lead (metallic), . v 5 4 - - = - 6.18
Carbon (as finely divided coal dust determined by loss), - - - 5.16

Il. Lining stone of Embreeville Furnace, N.C. A yellow sandrock used for the lining of
the Embreeville Furnace, and remarkably lasting, was proved to contain:

Silica, - - - = a iz - - 76.99
Alumina and Iron (latter under 2p. ¢. Fe203), - i = 8 16.12
Magnesia, - - - > ns - - - 2. 63
Lime, - - - . : 5 - - - 1.44
Undermined, - - - - - - - “ - 2.88

Considerably more than 50 per cent, of the Silica given above seems to exist as free Silica, or
sand,

Lesley.] [May 3,

These details are not only interesting in themselves, but necessary for
familiarizing the observer with the scene of a geological action, common
enough in our Appalachian region, but rarely exhibiting itself in so bold
and telling a way as at Embreeville.

A fault—an upthrow and overshove—a collapsed synclinal at the edge
of the thrown-down mass—all this is presented to the eye of the struc-
tural geologist, as he stands on the steps of the little Church of Embree-
ville and looks across the river eastward. Hundreds of feet of limestone
outcrop, in part natural cliffs, in part quarry work, demonstrate the
problem of Cambrian overlying Silurian—the Quebee Group overriding
Trenton Limestone—by drawing it in a grandly visible diagram, a mile
long, by 800 feet high.

The solid plates of limestone are bent round in the synclinal without
fracture (other than at the great cleavage planes) as though they had
been as plastic as wax. A slight anticlinal roll immediately precedes the
sudden upturn to a vertical followed by a declining angle in the reversed
sense. ‘I'he exact place of the fault is obscured by a general crush and
sheet-covering of the finely broken shale and very thin bedded shaly
sandstone layers which make the rest of the mountain mass.

Up through these sandy shales, dividing them into an upper and lower
system, rise the bold outcrops of two conglomerate beds, each about 20
feet thick. One of them, forming the crest of the mountain east of the
river, descends in a dyke to the water, sinks under the valley, and reap-
pears to face the slopes at the bend at the mouth of Bompas Creek. The
other forms a dyke along the foot of the mountain from the Furnace
southwest to Bompass Cove. These two coarse sandrocks or finely brec-
ciated conglomerates are shown in the diagram at the foot of the map on
page 445, above.

It will be noticed that another set of sandrocks, not at all conglome-
rate, but semi-crystalline in texture, and (with alternations of softer
kinds, and shale bands) at least 100 feet thick, come in above and (being
nearly horizontal) cause that hog-back topography seen in the horseshoe
bend of the river. It willbe noticed also that above these last sandrocks,
lies a third or uppermost system of sandy shales. These constitute (with
some still higher intercalated massive sandrocks) the bulk of the inwall-
ing river hills (600-800 feet high) all the way up (about 8 miles) to the en-
trance into Grassy Cove; that is, to the next parallel fault throwing
down the Silurians.

It will be evident to those familiar with this characteristic structure of
East Tennessee and Southwest Virginia, that the Nolichnckee River ex-
poses a nearly transverse cross-section of a long prism of earth-crust com-
posed of sandy shales, sandrocks and conglomerates, at least 600 feet
thick, elevated between enclosing sunken countries of Lower Silurian

Limestone.
There is no sign of squeeze and distortion along the southern (G reasy
Cove) fissure, for the uplifted upper shales abut there horizontally against
) ? y ag

453 { Lesley.
the down-thrown limestone prism to the south of it. Whereas in the
Embreeville (or northern) fault, the lower part of the shale prism has
been lifted and thrust violently against the limestone prism to the north,
so as not only to override it, but to curl up the ends of its beds into a col-
lapsed synclinal. The force has therefore come from the south, and acts
northward, or north-northwestward. This is not only in accordance with
the law of anticlinal structure, made out in Pennsylvania by the survey
under Prof. H. D. Rogers, 35 years ago, but with nine-tenths of the fault
exhibitions in Virginia aifd Tennessee.*

What the rock system is, a prism of which has thus been upheaved be-
tween the two Lower Silurian districts of Jonesborough to the North,
and Greasy Cove to the South, is still a subject for discussion. Mr. Saf-
ford, State Geologist of Tennessee, gives it the name of Chilhowee, with-
out identifying it closely with any of the great Formations of the
Northern States. It probably underlies immediately the Lower Silurian
Limestones.

One thing is remarkable: its apparent total lack of iron ore and
limestone. There is no appearance of metamorphism throughout the
6,000 feet of rock trenched by the Nolichuckee.

The cross-fault of Bompas Cove, on the west side of which the L. Silu-
rian Limestones are dropped to water level in an almost undisturbed
(horizontal) condition, is, perhaps, the most interesting feature of the dy-
namic scene I am trying to portray; but it must remain for some geologist
to study who has more time at his command than I had, in my hurried
visit to Embreeville. Y,

These cross-faults are incidentally mentioned by Mr. Safford, on page
200 of his Report of the Geology of Tennessee for 1869, when he says:

«484, At the ends of these mountains, the sandstones which form them
are suddenly and curiously cut off, and wholly disappear. The moun-
tains and their rocks, of course, lie generally immediately on the south-
east side of a fault. The sandstones, broken in wide blades, appear to
have been thrust up endwise to the northwest, through the overlying
formations. ‘The displacement is, in some cases, very great. In the case
of Chilhowee Mountain (see section page 190), the sandstones, or, rather,
Ocoee conglomerates, have been brought up and abutted against Carbon-
iferous Limestone.”

The expressions used in the above description are calculated to obscure
the picture to the eye of the reader. The sandstones are prominent
objects in the landscape ; but they are integral and very subordinate
items in the mass of the upthrown (and often but slightly tilled) prism of
earth-crust. To a depth unknown to the observer, the earth-crust in all
this region of Virginia and Tennessee has been cracked along straight,
parallel lines of great length (some of them a hundred miles), but of no

*T have recently exhibited to the Society cross-sections of this structure, in Tasewell, Wise,
ginia, which, when published in the next Number of these Proceedings,

and Scott Counties, V
will make this law sufficiently comprehensible.

Lesley.] 454 [May 3,

great width, seldom over five miles, In Mr, Safford’s Section (page 190),
across Eastern Tennessee, from the carboniferous table-land, southeast-
ward to the Metamorphic Azoic Mountains of the North Carolina line,
52 miles, there are eight of these faults noted, making the average width
of each prism (supposing no fault has been omitted) 6} miles.

The upthrow or override of the side face of each prism against the
prism to the northwest of it, varies from fifteen thousand (15,000) feet (as
in the Chilhowee Mountain Fault above cited, and in the Montgomery
and Wythe County Faults of Virginia) down to five thousand, as in the
case of the Embreeville Fault, and others of alike kind, in the same
range, where the bottom measures of the Chilhowee, or top measures of
the Ocoee, Formations abut against the Trenton Limestones.

The tilt of a prism, five miles wide to an elevation of only one mile on
its northwest border, gives an average dip of 1 in 5, or 10°. But the tilt
has been produced by a thrust from the southeast, violent enough not
only to produce the tilt, and thrust the prism forward and upward, but to
rub up the broken edges of the layers of the down-tilted next prism, and
to rub down the broken edges of its own layers ; and, moreover, to bend
the whole body of the prism along its northwestern limit. Consequently
we have there dips of 45°, whereas the dips everywhere else (with trifling
exceptions) are scarcely more than 5°.

It may be said, therefore, if astonishment be expressed at the vastness
of these upthrows, considering the weight of the prism, that, in fact,
there has not been so much ipward movement after all.

On the other hand, in the sections J have made across sets of these
faults, in other parts of the region, and where the uptilt is of lower Si-
lurian Limestone against Coal Measures, repeated again and again, the
proportion of horizontal to vertical is as 5 miles to 3 miles, and a dip of
30° pervades the entire body of the prism, and of each prism, from side
to side.

This is a very astonishing state of things. And it characterizes a re-
gion of country fifty miles wide by five hundred miles long, roughly
stated. 2

What supports these long untilted prisms of earth-crust ?

We cannot imagine an underground Pre-silurian topography arranged
with such regularity, as to allow the settlement of the sections of Pale-
ozoic series, in straight lines, hundreds of miles long, and always on one
side, the southeastern.

It seems to me evidently necessary to assume a (in some sense) plastic
underground, on which these wonderfully regular prismatic rods of Pale-
ozoic rock have been able to roll one-third over and adjust themselves.

The alternative must be, that the vacancies (of triangular section)
have been filled with the debris of the lower crushed edges and bottoms
of the prisms,—a most unsatisfactory suggestion—especially unsatisfac-
tory, because the regular over-roll of all the prisms in one direction

.
.
if

1872.] 455 [Lesley.
proves that the laterally acting energy (whatever may have been its origin)
was acting ona great plate of Paleozoic rockmass, at least (counting in
the coal measures) fowr miles thick ; solid, although flexible, itself ; but
free, when broken, to slide on its foundations, as the broken up flakes of
ice slides over the water which supports them.

That there was no absolutely fluid (lava?) underground beneath them
is evident from the total absence of volcanic rocks at the present eroded
surface, along these faults, even when the uppermost Sudsilurian rocks
appear in one wall. (The numerous warm springs connected with the
Virginia faults are explicable on chemical principles, no doubt.) But be-
neath the uppermost Subsilurians are vast formations, all more or less
metamorphosed, and many converted into granites and other crystalline
forms. Here we have the plastic mass we need, over the surface of which
(of course, an eroded surface, but, probably, eroded to a plane containing
no Alpine or even Subalpine inequalities) the Paleozoic deposits, consoli-
dated by time into a consistent, but never yet dried, sheet, seven miles
thick in Pennsylvania, five miles thick in Virginia, three miles thick in
Tennessee, moved with a certain freedom, under a lateral pressure, from
the southeast, at the close of the Coal Era.

I have formerly taken occasion to ascribe the difference of effect ex-
hibited by this pressure in Pennsylvania and in Tennessee to the differ-
ence in the thickness of the Paleozoic mass. In Pennsylvania it was
folded ; in Tennessee dislocated. But the difficulty which pressed on
Mr. Rogers to explain the sustentation of the vaults of our Northern an-
ticlinals, is encountered equally by the Southern geologist who will explain
the stable equilibrium of his tilted prisms.

To return from this digression to the cross fissures, which cut off the ends
of the Chilhowee and other mountains (and an example of them is given
in my map of Bompas Cove), it must be understood that they do not obey
one law, as do the principal and parallel dislocations of the country.
They sometimes run square across from one of these to or towards
another ; seldom cutting a prism entirely off; usually cracking its north
western edge fora certain distance into its body. It is a subordinate and
secondary system of faults. But by means of it most of the Appalachian
ridges or mountains, of Middle Silurian and Upper Divonian age, are
swallowed up and ended at the surface ; just as are the mountains of
Chilhowee sandstones, in such cases as that described by Mr. Safford above.

The section accompanying my map will, perhaps, be compared by some
reader of this paper with Mr. Safford’s section on page 202, and they will
be seen to be very different. It is only needful to explain that my section
was made with instruments on the ground under favorable circumstances,
and carefully drawn to the same horizontal and vertical seale ; whereas
the section on page 202 is like Mr. Safford’s other sections, drawn to a ver-
tical scale at least twenty times greater than the horizontal, and, as he
says, ‘‘it is not intended to be accurate in detail.’’

In fact nothing can be more erroneous than the impression on the mind

Lesley.] 456 [May 3,
of a young geologist produced by the section. It not only distorts the
facts, but bars the way to a right understanding of the structure not
only of this locality at Embreeville Gap, but of similar localities along
the Unaka Mountain range.* There are no such synclinals as are there
represented. There is nothing which in the remotest sense resembles the
anticlinal there drawn under the letter D. hat interval is essentially
and wholly monoclinal.

Every student of American geology must acknowledge his great in-
debtedness to the assiduous and judicious State Geologist of Tennessee,
who has done so much to elucidate one of the most interesting regions
of the United States. Among the many valuable columns of thicknesses
which he has published, the following (in § 489) justifies the statement I
have made relative to the amount of rock visible along the river above
Embreeyville. It represents the Chilhowee Group, in Doe River Gap,
Carter County.

Top of Section :—Quartzose sandstone...............- vee. s00 LCL.
PADOSUOMES Amc ASHAlGRG! ees oh ae Hp
Quartzose Sandstone........ osetia y de oe eee)
Sandstone and Sandy Shales......... Fe eee ee . 200
Quartzose: Sarldstones . 0. a. B85
Sandstones and Sandy Shales................... - 870
Quartz0se;Sandstoners 330850. Lae .. 40

Thick and thin bedded Sandstone, generally dark col-
ored, occasionally Sandy Shales, and but little fine
COMPLOMETALG 765.0 a Hees OE. LV 0

Bre ore eo a Gy

Sandstones and fine conglomerate with two Quartzose
DAMS skal. Peelers aL Pe,

Heavy bedded Quartzose Sandstone. ... 0700
Sandstone notiwell seensg... 6s010c. A Ba 86
Heavy Gray Quartzose Sandstone, with unimportant

layeus ot ‘fre: Conglomerate). 4.2) yon 80
Sandstones with conglomerate, dark and even bedded. . .44.
Heavy Gray Quartzose rock, mostly sandstones with

fine, conslomerate.7... i... 608. 2 ola omeld SU Wis
Some of the Sandstone hard and Quartzose....

The lower part of my Embreeville Section consists of between one and
two thousand feet of sandy shales, with two very massive plates of con-
glomeratic sandstone, about twenty feet thick. Two or three thousand

* With the highest respect for the distinguished services rendered our science by the State
Geologist of Tennessee, [ cannot refrain from expressing regret that the weight of his stand-
ing in the science should be thrown into the scales on the side of the slovenly and mischievous
fashion of distorted drawing in vogue among geologists until recent years. A section is worse
than worthless which is not well and truly drawn, It is sure to manufacture and perpetuate
false views.

1872.] Ai 7 [Lesley.
feet more, higher up, consist of massive sandstones and heavy beds of i
shale alternating. Just overlying the upper conglomeratic sandstone lk
plate are variegated clay slates. /
It is impossible not to see the significance of the immense develop- |
ment of sandrocks and pebble rocks, in the Ocoee and Chilhowee systems,
underlying the Lower Silurian Dolomites, and hugging the flank of the
backbone of the Continent, for a thousand miles through Virginia, North |
Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia, as in New Jersey and New York. It
is a shore deposit on an immense scale, in a shallow sea, with a steeply
inclined margin, and an Alpine range inland. No glaciers ; for the con-
glomerates consist of rolled shingle stones; but torrents, innumerable
and vehement. No large rivers ; for no delta deposits of any size are
apparent. A rapid degradation of the mountains was followed or stopped i
by a partial submergence, which deepened the sea, made the sand deposits |
finer, and permitted the deposit of the Lower Silurian limestones.
The reason therefore why the massive Quebec Group (Potsdam, Chil-
howee and Ocoee) formation does not come up to daylight in the faults |
which break the middle and northwestern parts of the floor of the region
under discussion, is because it thins away rapidly seaward, that is, west-
ward, towards the Coal Area. And in this it only sets an example after-
wards followed by the sandstone and conglomerate members of the great '
Paleozoic system : Nos. IV, [X, X, and XII the Millstone Grit.

Stated Meeting, July 19, 1872.
Present, five members.
Mr. Ext K. Pricn, in the Chair.

A photograph for the Album was received from Prof.
Thomas Chase, of Haverford, Pa.

Letters acknowledging receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Royal Society, London (86, 87). The Royal
Saxon Society (86); the Zoologico-Botanical Society, Vienna i
(Vols. 8 to 11 Proc.,and Trans. Vols. XTI, XIII, GEV, i, ats |
with a request to have the set completed. On motion, re- i
ferred to the Librarian); and from Dr. Hornstein, Prag. (86). i

Letters of envoy were received from the Observatorio de
Marina de 8. Fernando, and the Physico-Medical Society in
Erlangen. |

A. P. S.—VOL. XII.—3F

458

Donations for the Library were received from the Belgian
Academy, French Geographical Society, Italian Geological
Commission, London Chemical, Geological, Asiatic and An-
tiquarian Societies, Meteorological Office, Nature, Old and
New, Dr. Samuel Green, Silliman’s Journal, American
Chemist, Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, F vatik-
lin Institute, Penn Monthly, American Journal of the
Medical Sciences, Medical News, Baltimore Peabody Insti-
tute, Washington Philosophical Society, and Petroleum
Monthly.

A paper entitled “On the Tertiary Coal and Fossils of
Osino, Nevada,” by Prof. Cope, was referred to the Seecreta-
ries.

Prof. Chase read a paper on “ &therial Oscillation, the
Primordial Force,” and stated that certain of his predictions
had been verified, which were based on his observations of
the rainfall at San Francisco.

Pending nominations, Nos. 693 to 697, and new nomina-
tion, No. 698, were read.

Nominations, 693 to 696, were balloted for, and the follow-
ing persons declared duly elected members of the Society :

Rey. Starr Hoyt Nichols, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Coleman Sellers, of Philadelphia.

Dr. Robert Peter, of Lexington, Kentucky.

Dr. Richard J. Lewis, of Philadelphia.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, August 15, 1872.

Letters of acceptance was received from Dr. Robert Peter,
dated Lexington, Ky., August 8th, and Mr. F, B. Miller,
dated Royal Mint, Melbourne, May 6th, 1872.

Letters acknowledging receipt of publications were re-
ceived from Mr. Peter Turner, dated Leoben, Oct. 12, 1871

45Y

(83, 84, 85); the Observatory at Prague, June 12.18 (2
(86); the Royal Society, Rotterdam, Aug. 1, 1872 (86); the
Royal Society, Stockholm, May 8, 1872 (XIII, i, tis, Oe.
i, i, 71 to 77, and 80 to 85), and the Royal Society at Up-
sal, April 15, 1872 (XIV, i, ii, 88 to 85.)

Letters of envoy were received from the Royal Societies
at Upsal and Stockholm, April, 1872; the Obsery ratory at
Turin, May 12, 1872, and the Hungarian Academy at Perth,
Sept. 16, 1871:

Donations for the Library were received from the Hunga-
rian, Prussian, Swedish, Belgian, and American Academies of
Science; the Societies at Moscow, Upsal, Copenhagen, Bre-
men, Frankfort, Offenbach, Lausanne, Liverpool, and Salem,
Mass.; the Bureau des Ponts, Montsouris Obser yatory and
Revue Politique at Paris; the Royal Astronomical, G-eo-
graphical and Asiatic Societies at London; Nature, he Pub-
lic Library and Old and New at Boston; the American Jour-
nal of Science, Prof. Dana and Prof. Marsh, at New Haven:
the New York Lyceum, Prof. James Hall and R. P. Whit-
field, at Albany, the Franklin Institute, Journal of Phar-
macy, apa en News and Penn Monthly, at Pl hiladelphia ;
and the U. 8. Bureau of the Interior.

The Libre arian announced the reported death of Mirza
Alexander Kasem Beg, Dr. Bujalsky (1866), and D. C. Dwor-

jak, of St. Petersburg, members of this Society.

The following communications were received from Prof.
E. D. Cope:

On a New Genus of Pleurodira, from the Eocene of Wyo-
ming.

Descriptions of New Vertebrata, from the Bridger Group
of the Eocene.

Second Account of New Vertebrata, from the Bridger
Eocene.

And the meeting was adjourned.

Cope.)

460 [Aug. 15.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW VERTEBRATA FROM THE
BRIDGER GROUP OF THE EOCENE,
By E. D. Cops.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 15, 1872.)

MESONYX OBTUSIDENS, Cope.

Represented by a large part of the skeleton of an individual of about
the size of the wolf (Canis lupus). The lumbar vertebra display the
short acuminate, and anteriorly directed diapophyses, characteristic of
carnivora, while the astragalus resembles that of the same group. The
claws are flat and not curved. The molar teeth exhibit two principal
lobes and a thin rudimental at one extremity. The middle lobe isa com-
pressed cone, the posterior, a cutting edge, but medially placed, and less
acute than in Hyenodon, and the sectorial teeth of other carnivora, form-
ing a less specialized cutting apparatus. The canines are well developed.
A premolar is stout conic, with rudimental tubercle at base.

we

M.
Length of a sectorial (crown).....-..++.+++5 Peet eee OLOLO
Greatest width, .. Pie Ses OAL UIC Heike Canora eg vie 00S
Elevation of crest Cane dpueieas .006
Length of crown of a second....... CHOPS Mra eb tes O15 i
AWICU ies for tee ba eG es ee ee as .0065
Elevation of middle lobe............. ae Toe is . O14
Length of crown Of GamanGie ees. a AEG UNE 026 i
Dinniober Dear DASG.A ss ariel. eee e. pert Fee Onl:

‘he number of the teeth cannot be determined, owing to the injured
condition of the jaw bones. The enamel is entirely smooth.

Found on the bluffs of Cottonwood Creek, Wyoming.

TRIACODON ACULEATUS. Cope.

Established on two teeth of the molar and premolar series. The molar
is subtriangular at the base of the crown, one side being convex ; the op-
posite angle nearly right, and the two remaining sides flat. The crown
is divided into three elevated trihedral cones, one at each angle. Their
adjacent angles are acute, and the angle of union is fissured, like the same
point in the sectorial tooth of a carnivora. The smaller lobes are of equal |
elevation, but the crown of one is expanded so as to be slightly spade-
shaped. The enamel is smooth.

Elevation of highest cusp...
a“ ee BNONURI Ss Oe cat 4 3
Long diameter base of crown...
a ALO BUG sie cass aaa

The premolar is smaller, with shorter cusps, and one of the laterals re-

duced to a rudiment.

This species is near the 7. fallax of Marsh, but the tooth he describes
is narrower in proportion to its length, and has the anterior lobe little
over half as high.

1872.} 461 [Cope.

Hyorsopus pyemaus. Cope.

represented by a portion of the right mandibular ramus with the
penultimate and ante-penultimate molars in perfect preservation. These
teeth present four cusps, of which the inner are crescentoid in section,
the outer conic. They are all elevated, and the outer anterior is in both
teeth compressed and bifid ; it receives an oblique ridge from the inner
posterior. Enamel smooth.

Lines.
Length penultimate molar. ................ eae Gy tee ee
WHOtH ye Ne ee ee Hecaey cS cosae Re Meee res ib,
Depth of ramus at do........ So aeey ad is socal eer oe iS

This is a small species of the genus, being about equal to the Hyopso-
dus paulus L. The penultimate molar in the allied species, Lophio-
therium ballardii, Marsh, measures 3.2 lines in length.

ANOSTIRA TRIONYCHOIDES. Cope.

This species is about the size of our existing Chrysemys picta. It dif-
fers from the A. ornata, Leidy, in various respects. Thus the sculpture
of the costal bones is pit-like, as in some species of 7réonya, instead of
striate-ridged. There is no keel on the pygal bone behind. The first
marginal bone is longer, and does not exhibit the prominent shoulder
seen in A. ornata. he marginal bones are not unlike those of that
species, having central small tubercles, and radiating ridges. The species
is not uncommon in the Bridger beds on Cottonwood Creek, Wyoming.

ANOSTIRA GEDEMIA, Cope.

This species is nearly twice the size of the last. It is distinguished by
its peculiar ornamentation, This consists of bosses or swollen portions
of an oval shape, which stand transversely to the long axis of the body,
from a quarter to a half an inch apart. They sometimes form short
ridges, surface otherwise smooth. Locality same as the last spogies.

ANOSTIRA MOLOPINA. Cope.

This species is intermediate in size between the two last described.
It is distinguished from both by its ornamentation. This consists of a
delicate and rather scattered impressed punctation, on the costal bones.
Across this extend oblique ribs extending in a diagonal direction out-
ward near the extremities of the costals. The width of one of the cos-
tals is M. .023. The costals in this species display no suture for the mar-
ginals, and the extremity of the rib projects a very little.

TRIONYX CONCENTRICUS. Cope.

This species is not uncommon in the Bridger sandstone. It is well
characterized by its sculpture, which is coarsely and distinctly pitted.
Across the costal bones run parallel ribs, which enclose between them
from three to one row of pits.

M.
Width of a costal bone near the middle............... 02
Thickness & ae S es eS . .008

462 [Aug. 15,

Cope.]

The carapace is thin, Besides being smaller than the 7. gutiatus,

Leidy, this species differs in its longitudinal ribs.
TRIONYX THOMASII. Cope.

This tortoise is again distinguished from all those known by its sculp-
ture, this being very delicate and obscure when compared with the thick-
ness of the carapace. It consists of small tubercles of more or less elon-
gate form, which may or may not inosculate ; eight may be counted in
M. .01. Width of a marginal costal, .02; thickness on suture, .0050. So
in T. concentrica. The costals have very little curvature. The faintness
of the ornamentation is a marked character.

Dedicated to my former teacher, Joseph Thomas, M. D., author of Lip-
pincott’s Biographical Gazetteer, the Pronouncing Gazetteer of the
World, Baldwin’s Gazetteer, and other important works.

Found with the Z. concentrica, on Cottonwood Creek, Wyoming.

AXESTUS BYSsINUS. Cope
tenus et species nove Trionychidarum.

This genus is represented by a species which is allied to Zrionyz, but
which differs in some important respects. The sternal bones are pro-
vided with an enamel stratum exterior to the usual dense layer of the
bone, which is not sculptured. The post-abdominal bone has no sutural
connections, but sends out tooth-like processes at its angles. The caudal
vertebre are procolian, furnished with stout diapophyses and not very
elongate ; ball depressed, undivided. The cervical vertebree are elongate
and relatively very large. The claws are very large, and one at least flat
and straight; the phalanges have broad trochlear surfaces, which indi-
cate a moderate amount only of vertical movement. Both humerus and
femur are curved and with extensive trochanters. The procoracoid and
scapula are of equal lengths and the coracoid is much dilated distally.

Char. specif. The portions of plastron preserved are thin for the size
of the animal, and all the bones are especially dense and smooth. The
(2) post-abdominal has the free margins acute and serrulate. There is an
(2) external gently convex edge with a long process extending backwards;
and one long narrow one inwards. The enamel is white and is marked
with decussating lines of osseous deposit, as in woven linen. This is not
the result of wearing. The cervical vertebra is without spine ; it is com-
pressed in the middle and is without any pneumatic foramen.

M.

Length cervical vertebra....... PEP e eRe ees .068

Diameter at middle 020

es ME OHCs .085

e paul dG. ab Wall ee ieee ee ee ee ee os O10
Length oe ae

ue of an ungueal phalange.........-+..++-- PETA 043

Proximal depth OOp 8 aa ees 0138

Length post-abdominal (broken).......+++-++.+++++++- 186

Width do. eerie re aU

Locality of the last.

ee

1872. ] 463 [Cope.

BAENA HEBRAICA. Cope.

Established on a large and nearly complete fossilized tortoise, which
lacks the posterior lobe of the plastron, and a corresponding part of the
carapace. The component elements are codssified.

The costal seuta are very wide, excepting the first pair, whose posterior
margin is sigmoidally flexed. The anterior vertebral is concave behind,
and has convex lateral margins. The marginal scuta in front are very
narrow, but the fourth on each side is suddenly widened in front to meet
the suture between the first and second costal scuta. The sutures are all
perfectly regular. There are only four inframarginal scuta, of which the
t, forming, with the third, an angle project-

second from front is the large
ing inwards.

The carapace and plastron are smooth, excepting in the lines of the
sutures of the costal bones. In this position-there is, in each case, a series
of short pit-like grooves parallel to each other, and transverse to the axis
of the bone, forming figures like some Hebrew letters, the Greek //, etc.

The borders of the carapace are obtuse, and the general form is almost
round. The diameter is almost eighteen inches.

This species may only be compared with the B. wndata, Leidy, with
which it agrees in having the humeral scuta crowded to the front of the
plastron, and haying a common centre with the gulars, which they little
exceed in size. It differs in having four instead of five inframarginals,
regular sutures, a differently formed first costal, wider lateral marginals,
| and in the smooth carapace with the peculiar sculpture mentioned.

TESTUDO HADRIANA. Cope. Spec. nov.

Indicated by two individuals, one nearly perfect, the other chiefly rep-
resented by a complete plastron.

This proves the existence of a very massive species of the terrestrial
genus Testudo. The plastron presents a short wide lip in front, which is
turned outwards, forming a strong angle with the plane of the upturned
front of the lobe. This lobe is bordered by a thickening of the upper
surface, which cuts off the basin from the lip, as a high ridge. The pos-
terior lobe is deeply bifureate, each post-abdominal projecting as a trian-

gle. There is a notch at the outer angle of the femoral scute. The
\ hyposternal bone is ereatly thickened within the margin above, and an

elevated ridge bounds the basin of the plastron behind, as before. The
middle of the plastron is thin.

The carapace is without marked keel or serrations. It is remarkable
for its expanded and truncate anterior outline, which is nearly straight
between two lateral obtuse angles.

Length carapace, M. .750 = 29 inches; width, .630.

The marginal scuta are narrow, and there is a large nuchal plate.

Same locality as the last.

PALAOTHECA POLYCYPHA. Cope.

This genus and species of tortoises are indicated by vertebral, costal

=

2
Cope.] 464 [Aug. 15,

and marginal bones of very small individuals. These bones are, how-
ever, not only thoroughly ossified, but are very stout, indicating tlie adult
age of the animal. The deeply impressed scutal sutures and heavy pro-
portions, as well as the elevated carina of the carapace, indicate affinity
with Cistudo, or perhaps, Testudo. As another generic character, it may be
noted that the vertebral bones are subquadrate, and support the neural
canal without intervening lamina.

The carina of the carapace is abruptly interrupted occasionally ; some-
times with, sometimes without, a pair of pits, one on each ade. The
marginal bones are well recurved, and the scutal sutures are deeply im-
pressed on them.

M.
Length of vertebral bone.......--. Ce dee ere ens ase Het 000
Width °° o cues write dase Sen ee tao Gs ae. sU0GD
Length marginal “ a ELM o Se MUSEO TE TURN ee 4 ive se a0

This is the least of the tortoises of the ‘Bridger Formation.
PALMOTHECA TERRESTRIS. Cope.

Represented by three individuals, one of which may be regarded as the
type. They are all thinner than the P: polycypha, and larger, being
about equal to the Aromochelys odoratus of our ponds.

In the type specimen the carina of the vertebral bones is interrupted
by a deep sutural groove, which is less pit-like than in P. polyeypha.
The bone itself is broader than long, being, perhaps, from the hinder
part of the carapace. The clavicular (episternal) bone is preserved. It
is characterized by the considerable and abrupt projection of that part
enclosed by the gular scutum, which resembles what is sometimes seen
in Testudo. The edge of this part is entire and aeute. The posterior
part of the projection forms a step-like prominence behind, on the supe-
rior or inner face. The bone is almost as wide as long, and the mesos-
ternal causes a very slight median truncation, but overlapped much on
the inner side. The gular dermal suture does not reach it.

M.
Length vertebral bone........3.. Sige aie ss pete oes 1 00U
Width. ee CCG eb iea tua cre cua outs vee ie CULO
CRON OPIStOrHal s. 4 cs hee seis csi etek eee se. - 302
Width “¢ (transverse to axis of body)........ LL
Width of a costal......... Coa) Ta aN ear eees cere. (ULL
PLHICKMGNS PLORLIIAILY ne sces ce sete esse sc peeus stance, 60UD

In a second specimen, a strong groove is seen to bound the lip of the
front lobe of the plastron as in the species of Motomorpha. In it the
marginal is seen to be stout, a little recurved, and sharp-edged, A ver-
tebral differs from those described in being longer than wide.

In a third individual the gular lip is not so prominent as in the type,
and the mesosternal bone truncates the clavicular extensively giving it
thus a more elongate form. The gular scuta expands to its front margin.
The marginal bone is stout and sharp edged, and is not so deeply im-
pressed by the dermal suture, ax in P. polycypha.

1872.] : 465 [Cope.

Length, opistertial-cs.4s sar ts seb reer saw ees aontingels dott -016
Width Nee or ee ee 026
iON Mmanoinal ies ice leds tow nie lovers O11
Width Eras iate OME SAL NP clay Sean. eee 016

The three specimensare from the bluffs of Cottonwood Creek, Wyoming.
NAOCEPHALUS PORRECTUS. Cope.
Gen. et. sp. nov: Lacertiliarum.

Established on an incomplete cranium, with vertebrae found associated.
No teeth are preserved, nor any part of the mandible. The remaining
portions of the cranium are, however, highly characteristic.

The occipital descends posteriorly, and bears a pair of lateral ridges,
which converge rapidly posteriorly. This bone is united with the pari-
etal by suture, which is transverse ; its outline is rectangular, so as
almost to reach the frontals, which are prolonged backwards on each
side the parietal, leaving but a narrow exposure of the posterior processes “
the parietal. These extend backward, and are broken off in the spec
men, but they probably formed parts of arches. The parietal is single,
and there is no parietal fontanelle. The bone is triangular in outline
with the apex anterior, dividing the frontals. These are contracted at
the orbits, and have a projecting superciliary head ; anteriorly they are
thickened. The postfrontals are of remarkable form. They are mas-
sive, and compressed from before backwards; they rise considerably
above the level of the front, and bear on their summits a cotyloid cavity,
which is transverse to the axis of the cranium ; the use of this projection
is obscure. There isan exoccipital foramen, and a large one in the poste-
rior part of the frontal opposite the postfrontal elevation.

The sphenoid is a compressed keel-shaped bone, rounded below, and
with broad alee along much of its length. The occipital condyle is sub-
cordate depressed in outline, with a vertical obtuse angle in the middle
and the sides somewhat plane.

A dorsal vertebra preserved has a single vertical capitular process, and
a short hypapophysis. The neural canal is large, and the neurapophyses
are attached by sutures. The cup is nearly round, very slightly trans-
verse, and in vertical plane.

The cranium is smooth above, except the anterior part of the frontals,
which are finely rugose.

This genus is more or less allied to the Thecoglossa, but better material
will be requisite to decide the question of affinities fully.

Found with the preceding specimens.

M.

Waidth cranium postirontals ss. 0. . ei ea is .072
cto pariotalsOOMIGy . senre cel rs ts c ress eee eon .012
De poh posumroutal eds ce ver Cee een Oe Melee eee 018
ct prosphenold amuCnlOny vr ecers ree... UPDOCE OAS 014
Diameter dorsal vertebra (Cup)... 6.66. ee .007

This genus differs from Glyptosaurus, Marsh, in the total lack of era-
nial shields, and from Saniva, Leidy, in the nearly round vertebral centra.
A. P, 8§—VOL. XII.—36@

i
i
i

Cope.] 466 [Aug. 15,

SECOND ACCOUNT OF NEW VERTEBRATA FROM THE
BRIDGER EOCENE.
By Epwarp D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 15, 1872.)
HELOTHERIUM PROCYONINUM. Cope. Spec. nov.
This species is distinguished from those already known as pertaining
to this genus, by its small size, as it did not much exceed the raccoon in
dimensions. The size of a right superior molar is as follows:

M.

bengths 3... <i; Pia i NEAR Sin eT a ruber s Lateeacie y ly 37 01007,
Width; posterior i cicad ov. Ne Te a sl Eawliats shies .0085

ee BULELION ii. 0 5) s Os yon er ee ee ae pare ts OG

The crown presents four tubercles, of which the inner are flat on the
posterior, the outer flat on the external side. The posterior external has
a small posterior supplementary lobe, and a low tubercle intervenes be-
tween the two posterior. An anterior and a posteriorcingulum. Enamel
smooth.

STYPOLOPHUS PUNGENS. Cope.
Gen. et spec. nov.

This genus is supposed to embrace a small species of carnivorous ani-
mal found by the writer in the Eocene formation of the Bridger Group.
It is represented by the posterior portion of the left mandibular ramus,
which contains the last two molars.

The generic characters are seen in the composition of these molars,
which have but two roots, and a posterior table, as is seen in tubercular
molars of some mustelidw. The anterior two-thirds of the crown is com-
posed of conic cusps. On the last molars these are in two series, two
lower, of the inner, and one more elevated, of the outer, opposite the in-
terval between the outer. Its outer face is regularly convex, but its
posterior forms, with that of the outer series, a single flat vertical plane,
which forms a sharp angle with the inner and outer faces of the cusps.

The structure is, in general, somewhat like that of Mesonyx, Cope, but
the lack of cutting edge on the posterior lobe, and the two rows of tuber-
cles separates it at once. Dr. Leidy describes Stnopa as having a sec-
torial tooth, as in ordinary Carnivora, with an interior cusp, hence it is
not probably the present form, although this species was about the size
of the 8. rapaw.

The enamel is smooth. The measurements are :

M.
Depth ramus at last molar........ SON aoe es ors tvcse 0.014
dgength lasthmolarss sist cei. ee Oe cee ne 0072
Width He POBUCTIOLLY:s 416. ¥ sou lot Ure re .0040
Height inner tubercle...... dV op MM Aas Bh hd ots eos ns .0062
#f Sxtommals.“s(ANteniOl s.. i00 ia atest 4 tedie eve aaa

This species was about the size of the gray fox.
From the bluffs of Cottonwood Creek, Wyomin

1872.] 467 [Cope.

PANTOLESTES LONGICAUDUS. Cope.
xen. et Sp. nov.

This form is one of those mixed types which are so abundant in the
Bridger Group. Its dental formula is M. 3, P. M. 3; ¢. 1, incisors un-
known. The molars in the only specimen known are so worn as to pre-
clude exact description. They evidently possessed anterior and posterior
lobes, separated by a valley, which was most expanded on the inner side.
The last molar exhibits a projecting keel posteriorly, which probably
supported a small tubercle. The three premolars are all two-rooted and
compressed in form. The last presents a crown composed of one large
anterior compressed cusp, and a much lower posterior one. There is a
slight cingulum in front. The canine is lost, but its alveolus indicates
that it was a stout tooth.

So far as the known dental structure goes, this genus resembles nearly
the WNotharctus of Leidy (Limnothertum of Marsh), but possesses one
premolar tooth less.

The mandibular ramus is quite slender, and there is a large foramen
below the first true molar. The masseteric fossa is pronounced.

M.
Length of dental series to canine.........-. eed eles 0.0280
e SUNOCO IMOIHER fe 0c siee eae tite als olds syd seins .0140
on (o sogGna Ce 0041
Wadtbic = Ae .0030

There were found associated with this jaw some caudal vertebra of
very attenuated form, which point to the possession of a long tail by this
animal. One of these displays six short processes arranged round the
articular extremity, the neural arch not being completed.

M.
TiOnStH 6 fs5iees Te Ric EW van on esi caws toe 016
‘Prowl AMEE is Oe ve A aces es eg elias .003
Median ML es bea WS Pepe cuneate FS ra .0018

PsEUDOTOMUS HIANS. Cope
Gen. et sp. nov.

This form is interesting as the only member of the Edentate order yet
discovered in our earlier Tertiary formations. It is represented by a
species of which a nearly perfect cranium is in my possession. This is
about the size of an agonti, and is of a depressed form. It has a thin
molar and zygomatic arch, but no postorbital. There is a large suborbital
foramen. The dentition consists of two pairs of long curved teeth, hav-
ing much the form and position of the cutting teeth of Rodentia. These
are placed widely apart in the upper jaw, allowing space for the greater
portion of the premaxillary between them. The mandibular cutters are
less widely separated by a narrow prolongation of the symphysis. The
exposure of the tooth is lateral, its direction nearly anterior. It projects
anteriorly very little beyond the symphysis, and has a horizontal triturat-
ing surface below the level of the latter. Neither pair of cutting teeth

Jope.] 468 ‘ [Aug. 15, 2872.

are faced with enamel, but have only smooth cementum without sculpture.
There are no molars, but the inferior face of the maxillary bone is
rugose as though alveoli had been absorbed. There are traces of very
shallow alveoli.

The cast of the brain indicates smooth oval hemispheres which leave
the cerebellum and olfactory lobes entirely exposed. The latter are ovoid
and expanded laterally.

The cranium is depressed, and has a trace of interparietal crest. The
anterior margin of the temporal fossa is marked by a curved angle on
each side of the frontal bone. The supra-orbital arch is very short.

This curious animal reminds me of asmall Megalonyw with flattened
cranium. The cutting teeth above are, however, more like those of
rodents.

M.
Denoth: cranium (8.0106). 6. 6. ve isis ses Sura eas ...0.090
Width Coe (WAUHOUn Ay ROME ds s/n salve cence or) 040
i “near end of nasals..:.... Poe ioe Corin’ Carlie
Go UPDer CuutinO LOGI ga. a1... HOA Y GAGS fone ny oO
Depth bad o TS alas Pade WOE Vn bags UUDD
Length exposed part lower tooth........ Veneeee gn ONG
Width Gs ies eS Pe ee ee 006 |

Gen. et sp. nov.

This is a genus of true Testudinida, designed to include those with
double anal scuta, and posterior lobe of the plastron bifurcate. In addi-
tion to the species above named, the HZ. quadratus (Testudo hadriana,
Cope), and probably the species to which belongs a small piece named by
Leidy, 7. corsont, pertain to the genus.

The ZH. octonarius is distinguished from its congener in many ways.
It is of elongate form, strongly contracted at the bridges, but expanded
and arched above the limbs. The carapace in quite convex. The plas-
tron has the posterior lobe emarginate rather than bifurcate, as seen in
H, quadratus. Fach projection represents a right-angled triangle rather
thana wedge. The anterior lobe presents an elongate lip, which is ex-
panded, and slightly emarginate at the end. The mesosternal bone is
heart-shaped, the posterior emargination being wide and deep.

The anterior margin of the carapace is somewhat flared above the
limbs. The nuchal scutum is very narrow transversely, but elongate.
The carapace descends and is incurved in the middle of the posterior
margin.

eer

M.
Wbensth (below). ........... Wie aio en eee Utica pirat 730
Width at middle...... wihey ce ie eta oa Apa oe 5 4.
7 ean, Ss. 6. Sree Pole oee eee Fee Geile: 525

This species differs from the H. quadratus in many important points.
It is perhaps the largest of our extinct land tortoises, and is founded on
a beautifully perfect specimen from the bluffs of Cottonwood Creek.

—

Sep. 19, 1872.] 469 {Cope.

THIRD ACCOUNT OF NEW VERTEBRATA FROM THE BRIDGER
EOCENE OF WYOMING TERRITORY.
By Epwarp D. Corr.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 19, 1872.)
SryPOLOPHUS INSECTIVORUS. Cope. Sp. nov.

Represented by a posterior molar and a premolar of the right side of
an animal less than half the size of the S. pungens, Cope. The molar
presents three anterior trihedral acute tubercles, of which, one is exterior
and more elevated than the others. Its posterior plane forms one trans-
verse face with that of the inner posterior. The posterior tubercular
heel is low, and supports an oblique ridge which bounds a deep groove
behind the outer cusp, no doubt to receive that of the upper jaw. This
arrangement is not seen in S. pungens. The premolar is a flat cone with
faint traces of a tubercle behind and cingulum on inner side.

M.
Length crown molar. .... 26... eee e sere cence ener 0.0050
Height immer cusp........ +22 s- esses sec e es eeeeseees 0040
Length Reel... .. 6. eee se ese eer ess te te Scenes tes eee 0025
WOU GLOW . ss ikets eee oie Usa oe tities Ve sie .0030
Height crown premolar...........-. cece cece eee tenes 0040
Length - BO aie tease ose asa eee wb 0040

Found in the Eocene Bad Lands of Black’s Fork, by the writer,

SryPOLOPHUS BREVICALCARATUS. Cope. Sp. nov.

Established on a portion of the left mandibular ramus, containing the
penultimate and ante-penultimate molars, of an animal of larger size
than the type of the genus 8S. pungens. The molars have the general
characters of the corresponding ones of that species, but differ in their
greater elevation in comparison with their length, and the greater convexity
of the outer side. The shortness is occasioned by the abbreviation of the
heel, which in the last molar present, is very small and flat, without keel
or tubercle on its surface. That of the molar preceding it is larger,
and presents in its elevated outer margin, a trace of the keel seen in the
smallest species. Enamel smooth.

M.
Length of two molars.....+. 666s esse eee cee eee eee ee 0.016
fe ‘¢ penultimate Crown.............. ee eee eee .008
Width = SORE ARR eR NAY CV UU Ea OW ee 0047
Length ‘ < MOGlis Rhian eee Cees seat 002

There is some relation between Stypolophus and T'riacodon, Marsh. If
the heel of the molars of the former were wanting, they would be those
of the latter. The premolars might be supposed to have this structure,
but the form seen in S. insectivorus disproves this view. In fact, [ have
seen both molars and premolars of Trtacodon aculeatus, Cope, and the
former lack the heel of the Stypolophi entirely.

0 [Sept. 19,

MIAcIS PARVIVORUS. Cope. Gen. et sp. nov.

tions of three molars, the penultimate being perfect. As in Canida, the
molars diminish in size posteriorly, the last being single-rooted, the
penultimate being two-rooted. The structure of that tooth is approx-
imately that of Stypolophus, ¢. e., with three trihedral cusps in front and
a heel behind, but the cusps are of equal height, and their point of uniom
not raised above the surface of the heel. This is a valley bounded by a
sharp margin which is incurved to the outer cusp, leaving a vertical
groove on the outer side, as in Stypolophus sp. This genus further
differs from that one in the single-rooted small tubercular posterior molar,
which is wanting in that one. The ante-penultimate molar is much
larger than the penultimate. The crown of the latter is laterally ex-
panded, and bears a cingulum at the base antero-externally.. Enamel

i Established on a portion of the right ramus mandibuli, containing por-
|
|

smooth.
M.
Depth ramus at penultimate molar....... Cars iaaeile 0,0080
Length crown of ies Oo epee scale Evie ss | -0040
Elevation ie ny Bila. ota ta ee ie Mera ae 0025
Width ce ee een OR Ce a Be 0083
Found on Black’s Fork of Green River. <An ally of Stypolophus and
Triacodon.

TOMITHERIUM ROSTRATUM. Cope. Gen. et sp. nov.
229

Allied to Notharetus, Leidy. Dental formula 777%, in an uninter-
rupted series. Last molars with five tubercles, others with four; all
low and slightly alternating, the outer wearing into crescents. Canines
quite small. Incisors very prominent, the median pair with transverse
cutting edges. Symphysis codssified, projecting in front.

I base the distinction between this genus and Wotharctus on the small
canine, and the sub-horizontal position of the incisors; believing that
when other portions of the skeleton are studied, other differences will
appear. This, I have the opportunity of doing with material now in my
hands,

The adjacent horns of the two outer crescents unite with the anterior
outer tubercle ; the posterior outer is insignificant. There is a projection
but no tubercle in front of the outer anterior tubercle. The first and
second premolars have but one root, the base of the second being about
the size of the base of the canine. The latter are cylindric at base. The
incisors form a parabolic outline, and have entire edges, the middle pair
transverse ones. Enamel generally smooth, premolars somewhat striate ;
an indistinct inner cingulum.

M.
Length of entire dental series (straight)............... 0.044
« AY MODMY SIS MANGO UOUIE. i. 6k a, cs eee me a ey 020
Depth ramus at second molar...... ii nas Wee sge dees ULO

Length crown of — ‘ OO are arity eye oh eenrrl i,

1872.] A471 [Cope.

M.
Width crown of second molar.......... Ge ay ase .. .0045
“ “between two ‘‘ Bie sa wae et ee Va 014
ss cs £6 GAMINON as Vide ulstiye re nr ee .005

From near Black’s Fork of Green River.

I would refer to Notharctus, my Lophiotherium vasachiense, adding the
aifth species to the genus. These are NV. gracilis, Marsh, N. tyrannus,
Marsh, WV. tenebrosus, Leidy, N. robustior, Leidy, and N. vasachiensis,
Cope.

HADRIANUS ALLABIATUS. Cope.

This large land tortoise is nearer in general form to the H. quadratus
than to the H. octonarius, but differs from both in the absence of the pro-
jecting lip of the anterior lobe of the plastron, which is thus simply
truncate. The mesosternum is not cordate, but has much the shape of
that of H. quadratus, that is, rhombic. The scutal sutures are deeply im-
pressed. The plastron is strongly concave. Carapace without irregu-
larities of the surface. Length eighteen inches.

From the Bad Lands of Cottonwood Creek, Wyoming.

EMYS8 LATILABIATUS. Cope.

Represented by a perfect specimen of a tortoise of a broadly oval form,
and somewhat terrestrial habit. Its prominent characters are to be seen
in the plastron, of which the posterior lobe is deeply bifurcate, The an-
terior lobe is peculiar in the unusual width of the lip-like projection of
the clavicular (‘‘episternal’’) bone, which is twice as wide as in #. Wyo-
mingensis, and not prominent. Bones all smooth; margins of lobes of
plastron thickened. Length of shell, one foot.

M.
Width-or lip of plastromis 3... esis census 5 eek ees .06
Depth of posterior notch............ er re ounce -02

From near Black’s Fork of Green River.

PROTAGRAS LACUSTRIS. Cope.
Gen. et sp. nov.

A serpent of about the size of the existing ‘‘ Pine Snake” (Pityophis
melanoleucus), and allied to the water-snakes of Tropidonotus and allied
genera.

A vertebra before me has the longitudinal hypapophysial groove of that
group, which terminates in a very obtuse point. The ball looks exten-
sively upwards. The upper articular extremity of the parapophysis is
short and obtuse, and the inferior equally so, and directed shortly down-
wards. The articular face being continuous with each other. It sends
an obtuse keel backwards, which terminates in front of the ball. The
angle connecting the diapophysis and zygapophyses is strong, while
the former was narrow ; in the specimens it is broken.

Cope.] 472 [Aug. 15,

M.

leone Lu OL centrum DOlOW.;.24 neice eas 0.009

Depth to base neural spine, in front.................- Dia
WECUN GUUS tay aie eo els Ginn ta erie eco 0054
DeDU, cter ee Ot a e 0045

iixpanse parapophyses above... ........:... cesses ee. 012

nf ie DOLOW Cr ree tert ie. 008

ON A NEW GENUS OF PLEURODIRA FROM THE EOCENE
OF WYOMING.

By Epwarp D. Corr.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Aug. 15, 1872.)

The following observations are made with a view of establishing the
stratigraphic position of the genus of tortoises described below. They
were made by the writer while prosecuting a palacontological investiga-
tion of the Tertiaries of Wyoming for Dr. F. V. Hayden’s Geological
Survey of the Territories,

The strata exposed along the northern and eastern shores of Bear River,
consist of alternate sandstone, argillaceous, and conglomerate rocks of
the Wahsatch Group of Hayden. They dip to the northeastward. At
the coal mines below (7. ¢., N. W. of) Evanstown, the series is capped by
a heavy bed of conglomerate. At a point seven miles above (7. ¢., S. E.
of) Evanstown, the strata appear in the following order: (1.) an argilla-
ceous rock just appearing above the river level at high water ; (2.) 25 feet
of sandstone ; (3.) a nodular argillaceous rock of a red and ochreous
color, 15 feet; (4.) 10 feet of coarse conglomerate; (5.) 80 feet of sand-
stones and clays,

At a point eleven miles above Evanstown, the conglomerate has
descended from view, and the bluffs of 800 feet in height, consist of the
upper members of the group, viz.: red and white argillaceous beds;
sandstone four to six feet in thickness; a red and white argillaceous
stratum, at least forty feet ; sandstone 3-4 feet, and a capping of a hard,
brittle, ash-colored clay rock on the highest points. Ascending five miles
further to the N, E., the strata are observed to dip in a direction opposed
to those at Evanstown, rising gently to the N. E. One of the heavier
sandstone strata is exposed about half way up the bluffs, and is visible
in the side ravines. Crossing one of these, and climbing the opposite
spur, a sandstone identical lithologically with those just described, is seen
standing vertically ; and succeeding spurs are crowned with the edges of
the succeeding sandstone beds standing high inthe air. Nearly opposite
Beartown, a mile eastward on the Union Pacific Railroad, these vertical
sandstones pass into a conglomerate, one of the strata being composed
equally of both, a gradual lithological transition being exhibited.

1872.] 473 [Cope.

The nature of the flexure of these strata is somewhat obscure. The
succession of vertical strata is quite similar to that alre: ady noted as seen
in the bluffs of Evanstown, and the conglomerate would thus be regarded
as the superior member. Dr. Hayden, however, describes them as con-
tiguous to cretaceous strata further east.

We are assisted in concluding as to whether these beds which descend
abruptly belong to the Wahsatch Group, by a consideration of the curious
strata exhibited in the two railroad cuts just N. W. of Beartow n, already
described and figured by Dr. Hayden, in his report on the Geology of
Wyoming, 1870, p. 150-158. In these, numerous thin strata, horizontal
on the western end of the exposures, are suddenly decurved and become
vertical to the eastward, both directions coinciding with those of the
heavier and higher beds which compose the bluffs and ridges eo
described. That the whole is an anticlinal with the opposite strata of ¢
very unequal dip, is rendered probable by the miniature exhibition seen
in the section of the lower beds in the railroad cut.

The Wahsatch beds have been described by Dr. Hz vyden as wanting in
vertebrate fossils. My assistant, Professor Garman, and myself succeeded,
however, in discovering a number of species in the upper red and w hite
strata on the bluffs eleven miles 8. E. of Evanstown, or near the bend of
Bear River. They occurred here on the upper, and upper middle portions,
of the exposure. Extending our observations to the ridges of bluffs
further to the southward, we found the same strata producing similar;
and in several cases the same, fossils. They appeared lower down on the
exposures, consistently with the dip of the strata, though a few were
found near the top of these, also.

The species obtained were as follows :
1. Part femur of an ungulate, as large as Paleosyops paludosus.
2. End tibia of a Perissodactyle mammal.
3. Notharctus vassacctensis, Cope, sp. nov.
4, Dermal scuta of crocodile.
5. Fragments of a Crocodilian, perhaps (. wiphodon.
6. Fragments of a Trionya, near Tr. guttatus.
7. Notomorpha testudinea, gen. nov. of tortoises.
8. 4 gravis, sp. nov.
9. oe garmantt, sp. noy.
10. Fragments of an unknown reptile.
11. Lepidosteus scuta, perhaps like L. glaber.
2 and 13. Two species of Unio.

The specimens are all more or less fragmentary, and vary in color from
nearly white to iron-rust color. The only ones whose specific characters
are sufficiently preserved for description are those of the new genus
Notomorpha. The facies resulting from the association of Lepidosteus,

C

C. wiphodon and the mammals, is that of the Eocene of the Bridger
Group on the eastern side of the Wahsatch. The new genus described
has no Tertiary or Cretaceous rel: utionships ; yet the only Pleurodira yet

A. P. $.—VOL. XII,—3H

Cope.] 474 [Aug. 15,

found on this continent are Cretaceous, and the mode of attachment of
pubis in these species resembles nearly that seen in Notomorpha, both
differing from most recent genera in this respect.

NOTHAROTUS VASACCIENSIS. Cope. sp. noy.

Represented by a portion of the left ramus of the lower jaw, containing
one tooth in perfect preservation. The structure of this indicates it to
be the second true molar, and presents certain features of distinction
from the same tooth of the Lophiotherium syloaticum, described by Dr.
Leidy. The crown presents four tubercles which are arranged in pairs, the
separation between the right and left lobe of each being slight, thus giving
the tooth the appearance of having two transverse crests as in Hyrachyus.
The two anterior and outer posterior tubercles are fissured by wearing,
but the inner posterior consists of two acute crests which meet, presenting
an acute angle towards the adjoining tubercle. The outer posterior
tubercle sends a descending crest obliquely to the base of the inner
anterior tubercle as in ZL. sylvaticwm. A small tubercle occupies the
space behind the interval between the posterior tubercles and gives
origin to a cingulum which passes round the bases of the outer tubercles.
It extends round the front of the tooth to the outer anterior tubercle.
Wear would produce small angular crescents from the two posterior and
the outer anterior tubercle. Greatest length of crown, M. 0.008 ; width,
.006. The enamel of the tubercles is rugose.

This ungulate was of about the size of the L. syloaticum, or equal to
the raccoon. It differs considerably from that species in the less isolation
of the tubercles of the molar, and the crescentic form of the inner pos-
terior.

Found by Samuel W. Garman, in the strata of the Wahsatch Group,
N. E. of Evanstown, Wyoming.

Noromorpua. Cope.

This form is one of the Plewrodira, and differs from most of those
already known in the recent and fossil states, in having many features
relating it to a terrestrial rather than an aquatic life. The elements of
the carapace and plastron are massive, and the former was well arched ;
both exhibit well defined grooves for the sutures of the dermal scuta.
The mesosternum is broad ovate, and the bones of the plastron are united
by immoveable sutures. The elevated lateral processes of the hyo and
hyposternal bones, are not broad, and unite by suture with the lower
plate of the first and last bridge-marginal bones. They are thus recurved
in both cases, but none of the ribs indicate any sutural union, as is seen
in various genera. The costal bones unite with the marginals by serrate
suture.

In one species a large intergular scutum has left its impression, the
gulars being lateral and rather small, The anterior lobe of the plastron
is emarginate.

The sutural union of the pubis with the xiphisternum is by an elongate

1872.] 475 [Cope.

groove in a longitudinal elevation of the bone, much as in the Cretaceous
genus, Taphrosphys, Cope. The point of attachment of the ischium is
not observed nor is the posterior lobe of the plastron observed in any of
the specimens. The external part of the hypoxiphisternal suture extends
very obliquely backwards. The pubic suture-groove diverges very little
from a line parallel with the common xiphisternal suture.

Of limb bones several fragments were found in connection with the J.
testudinea, but are too large to be referred to that species. One is the

xtremity of a femur, which had a round shaft and but little curvature.
The other is a proximal end, with a flat, wide trochanter, separated from
the head by a deep notch, and with a slender curved shaft.

The genera of Pleurodira, which simulate land tortoises most, are
found in Africa. They are Sternotherus and Pelomedusa. They are dif-
ferent enough from Notomsrpha, the former in its hinged, ten-plated
plastron, the latter in its intercalated bone of the plastron. The present
form is, therefore, of interest in various ways. It is the first Pleurodira
tortoise found west of New Jersey, and is the first of that division known
to exist in the Tertiary formations of North America. As compared
with those from the Cretaceous, it is distinct in many respects.

Specimens of this genus are more abundant than any other fossils in
the localities in question. In two of the individuals, both xiphisternal
bones are preserved ; in one, the mesosternal; in two, the episternals,
ete. Three species appear to be represented by my specimens, which
vary from the size of the salt-marsh terrapin, Malaclemmys palustris, to
that of the Mississippi snapper, Macrochelys lacertina.

NOTOMORPHA TESTUDINEA. Cope. spec. noy.

Represented by portions of four or more individuals. In one of these
the anterior lobe of the plastron is in part preserved. The mesosternum
is a transverse oval, the posterior margin regularly convex, the anterior
with three equal borders. The median of these is concave. The sutures
are radiating, and the groove separating the humeral scuta, appears to
traverse the entire length of the bone. The outer surface is gently con-
vex. The free margin of the episternal and hyposternal bones is acute,
and with an internal thickening, as in Cistudo, Testudo, ete., forming a
ridge, with abrupt inner face. This face extends backwards as a groove,
to the axillary process of the hyosternal, forming a characteristic mark.
Although the extremity of the episternal bone is lost, and the mesosternal
exhibits no trace of the intergular scute, the outer sutures of the gular
scuta are so far posterior, as to render it highly probable that the inter-
gular plate existed. At the point where this suture reaches the margin,
the latter is openly emarginate. The posterior suture of the humeral
scute crosses the margin half way between the axilla and the episternal
suture, and is not marked by a notch. The last named suture is trans-
verse. On the xiphisternal bones the groove of the anterior suture of
the anals is plainly visible. It is regularly convex forwards and in one
specimen is double.

1
i
|

Cope.]

[Aug. 14,

In a second specimen of about the same size, parts of two costal bones
are preserved, They are thick, and display the usual costal and vertebral
scute-sutures. The latter one in a groove, for the middle of the vertebrals
is elevated, and the costals project shoulder-like just outside the groove.

In a third specimen a little larger, xiphisternals with several marginals
are preserved, A free posterior marginal is regularly recurved, and the
seute-sutures are deeply impressed. The marginal scuta have evidently
been marked with concentric grooves within their margins. The first
marginal bone of the bridge has a very obtuse edge.

In none of the specimens are the surfaces sculptured.

Measurements.

No. 1. M.
WIG DIARDEOM ay ARIA nae hens ev eure syn 720,080
Length plastron from axilla (approximate)......... fie. UD
Thickness hyosternal at mesosternal.......... ie ae AUUU
ud ot ~ yposterntl, ain, . 5. ae ce sOUGD
Width mesosternal.....1..5.% Mogae ee ey Te marge AUL3)06
Length Bee ah etiy tes Pisa eebtN eee ee ae we Ue
Thickhessrofa vertebral. ssi vas vices seen ees 006
os ‘Oy Xiphistermal (morn) / ic. ce s7 v. ona. e004
“ AG UDI ees lass sie ces .007
No. 2.
Thickness costal at hump.......... Vinee iat Wine Glens 0075
Width of costal...... Daal esti Bs ant oka Geren vara 0175
No. 3.
Width Of postenonr Marcitial.. 6.6.05. von. tinea ud. 027
Length Be Hae ea re nue n chee ae Voeeee ED

The mesosternal, though found with No. 1, do2s not fit it exactly and
does not belong to it.

NovToMoRPHA GRAVIS. Cope. species nova.

This species is known by portions of one, and probably of other speci-
mens, The typeis larger than any of the last described, and equalled some
of the Cheloniae of the ocean indimensions. The tight hyosternal bone
indicates both resemblance and difference from the NV. testudinea. The
former is seen in the internal thickening parallel to the margin, bounded
behind by a deep groove extending to the axilla. <A peculiarity, in which
it differs from the NV. testudinea, is seen in the posterior position of the
humero-pectoral dermal suture, which originates at the axilla. The epi-
hyosternal suture is concave. The thickened portion of the episternal
margin is shorter and wider than in the species just named, the width
being to the length as 2.5 to 2; in WV. testudinea, as 1.5 to 2.

M.
Thickness of hyosternal anteriorly........... ere bees QOL
Width of costal, (?)second specimen.............. He O08

Surfaces not sculptured.

Atty
1872.] 47 é [Cope.

NoToMORPHA GARMAN. Cope. spec. nova.

Represented by numerous fragments from a bluff, six miles north of the
Bear River. There are numerous bones of the carapace and plastron. A
characteristic piece is the episternal bone. It displays marked difference
from the same element in the type of the genus, in lacking the acute edge
and internal thickening. The margin is obtusely rounded and the suture
with the hyosternal is convave. The anterior margin is truncate. The
dermal sutural grooves are well marked. There is a large intergular
seutum, which evidently encroached considerably on the mesosternal (a
piece not preserved) and probably subtriangular in shape. The gulars
are reduced to triangular areas on the outer anterior angles, the suture,
with the humeral, being in front of the middle point between the angle
and the hyosternal suture. The margin is less distinctly emarginate at
this suture than in JV. testudinea.

The marginal bones belong to both bridge and free edge. They are
all much thickened medially, but with thin proximal sutural margins.
The free ones are well recurved, and with regular, rather thickened
margins. The bridge marginals have very obtuse margins. Their
general massiveness is in contrast to the thinness of the costals of which
there are numerous fragments. Portions of vertebral bones are inter-
mediate in thickness. There is no thickening or ridge on each side of the
vertebral scuta. The seutal grooves are everywhere well marked. The
surface of the marginals and episternal is obsoletely rugose, somewhat as
in some species of Taphrosphys, from the Cretaceous.

This species was about the size of V. gravis, and differs from it in the
episternal bone, etc.

Measurements. M.

Length of.episternal (approximate)... ................ 0.04

ce from posterior suture do. to gular scute....... .02
"Phickness episvermal, WEMING. wet in ss as oie oes c O11
Length, Of ¢, marginal DONG. 6e0 6s suki since: .. 042
Width of same “ Se ee ie lew s cosas 045
Thickness ** — ‘* ne ea tunes ee ae ce Sees O15

Width of a bridge-marginal....... oan Cinis i ge One
SUIGinOss OF AeVOLLOUrale io. Gece t ial sss sea 007

This species is dedicated to my assistant and friend, Prof. Saml. W.
yarman, of Chicago, whose eye detected the fragments which teach its
character.

Ata future time it is hoped that a fuller account of the fauna of this
lake basin, now enclosed between the Eastern and Western ranges of the
Wahsatch Mountains, may be given.

478 [July 19,

Cope.]

ON THE TERTIARY COAL AND FOSSILS OF OSINO, NEVADA.
By Epwarp D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 19, 1872.)

The locality of the exposure of these coals is in the northeastern por-
tion of Nevada, twenty-five miles northeast of Elko, on the Central Pa-
cific Railroad. The outerop is on the south side of the low mountain
range, bounding Humboldt Valley on the north. The beds are exposed
in a drift and adjacent cutting, and a shaft 200 feet in depth. The
strata are argillaceous, and in some degree calcareous, and are very thinly
laminated ; so much so as to resemble thin brown or black paper in some
portions of the series. They are highly carbonaceous, and burn freely ;
some of them with the odor of amber, which appears as a gloss on some
of them. Descending sixty or more feet through these shales, we
reach a bed of solid argillaceous material, of a dark green color. This
can be removed with the pick, but hardens on exposure to the atmos-
phere. It contains fresh-water shells. The first bed of coal is two and
a half feet in thickness, with one or two lamine of slate. The second
bed is twelve feet deeper, and is about three feet in thickness. In qual-
ity, both resemble cannel, but have more lustre.

Masses of the laminated shales resemble the braun-kohle of Bonn,
Prussia, and they contain fossils disposed in the same way. ‘These con-
sist of multitudes of leaves, mostly of dicotyledonous plants ; of molluscs,
insects, and fishes; the last two often in a fine state of preservation.
The molluses present forms similar to Planorbis, Vivipara, ete. The
insects are mostly Diptera, and some of them are Nematocera. The
fishes are fresh-water forms, of which, perhaps, four species were pro-
cured. I have made an examination of two of these, and find them to
represent both species and genera new to science. One of these is of in-
terest, as furnishing the first evidence of the appearance of the Catostomid
type, now so extended in North America; the other is allied to a genus
which has been discovered in the Eocene shales of Green River.

The shales are considerably less indurated in general than those of
Green River. They have been greatly disturbed by the elevation of the
ranges bounding Humboldt Valley, as they dip nearly south, at an angle
of forty-five degrees, at the mine.

The same shales are exposed in the avines on the south side of the
valley, dipping at one point where a drift has been run, at an angle of
forty-five degrees to the northeast. They contain at this place plants and
shells similar to those of the north range.

The descriptions of two of the species of fishes are appended, with re-
marks. Further investigation will, no doubt, determine the age of this
series.

Extensive beds of a highly silicious amorphous rock appear near to
these shales, one series being exposed in a nearly horizontal position in
the valley, but little below the coal shales, and apparently occupying a
higher horizon. They are filled with huge silicious concretions, and in
many places assume the appearance of sandstone. Similar strata of sil-

ae

i

1872.] 479 [Cope.

icious rock cap the foot-hills of the range, forming their southern slopes
with the southern dip, appearing to be nearly conformable to the shales.
Their escarpments are to the northward, and the outcrops are fissured
in every direction, the debris being scattered over the lower levels. On
one of these rather elevated valleys I found abundant remains of the
trunks of ancient forest trees, completely silicified. Many of the trunks
must have measured five feet in diameter, and display the concentric
laminz of the dicotyledonous type. They were variously altered ; some
becoming chalcedony, and others opal; portions being black, red, yellow,
purple, or white, of great purity.

At another outcrop of the silicious strata, a few miles distant from the
above locality, the rock was found to be variegated by concentric bands
of red, yellow, black, and white. Though fine in texture, it is not suf-
ficiently translucent to constitute a valuable agate, which it otherwise
resembles.

The connection between these silicious strata and the silicified wood
seems apparent. The silica deposited in sufficient quantities to form
strata of from twenty to forty feet in thickness, would suffice to impreg-
nate submerged forests. That these strata are of sedimentary age is not
settled, but they seem to be conformable to, and later than the tertiary
shales just described.

TRICHOPHANES. Cope. Gen. nov.

Allied to Erismatopterus, Cope, and to the family of Cyprinodontide.
Dorsal and anal fins short, each with a long and short spinous ray on the
anterior margin. Ventrals beneath the dorsal. Operculum, with a
longitudinal keel above. Mouth with wide gape, extending beyond orbit.
Scales wanting, represented by rigid fringes or hair-like bodies.

Several important characters of this genus are not very distinctly dis-
played by the specimen described. This is especially the case with the
maxillary region. The premaxillary bone evidently forms a large part
of the arcade of the mouth, but whether the whole, is not certain. The
presence of teeth, and number of branchiostegal radii, cannot be stated.

Other points, more definitely exhibited, are a preoperculum without
serrations, directed a little obliquely backwards ; a coracoid of little
width; an inferior postclavicle with a superior (proximal) conchoidal ex-
pansion and long, slender shaft, extending to the anterior extremity of
the femora. The latter are quite slender and acuminate anteriorly, and
grooved to the apex, but apparently not furcate. They do not present
any marked posterior union. Vertebree not elongate.

Caudal fin furcate. Interneural spines wanting in front of dorsal fin ;
those of the anterior rays very strong. Interhemals of the anterior anal
rays similarly strong. Caudal fin embracing one vertebra, and sup-
ported by separated hamal spines.

The characters which separate Trichophanes from Hrismatopterus, are
seen in the large mouth and short muzzle, and in the peculiar covering of
the body. Inthe former character it resembles some of the Scopelt,

———————

Cope.] 480 [July 19,

while the latter is not seen in any genus. The bristle-like bodies are
seattered over the whole extent of the fish, excepting the head and the
fins, and are arranged in little aggregations, which are irregularly dis-
posed. The processes themselves lie irregularly together, as though
free from each other, and are evidently not the impressions of keels of
the scales. Traces of other scales are not visible, and the bodies described
would suggest the existence of an ossified ctenoid fringe on a less fully
calcified scale, or possibly without such basis.

TRICHOPHANES HIANS. Cope. Sp. nov.

Vertebre, D. 9; C. 15; six between interneural spine of dorsal, and
interheemal of anal fin. Radii, 1. IE. (?) 6 (soft rays somewhat injured) ;
A. II. 7; V. and P. not all preserved; caudal rays numerous, forming a
deeply bifurcate fin. The ventrals reach a little over half way to the
anal, and the latter about half way from its basis to that of the caudal
fin. The dorsal fin, laid backwards, reaches the line of the base of the
first analray. The first dorsal ray is a little nearer the end of the muzzle
than the origin of the caudal fin. The muzzle is very obtuse, and if the
specimen be not distorted, not longer than the diameter of the orbit.
The gape extends at least to the posterior line of the orbit. The subor-
bital region deep posteriorly.

In its present somewhat distorted condition the specimen measures in

M.

Total length..... Bet OP Nee er eee OE oa 0.059
LGA sea tiaies EOP ial eae. at pa wares 016
Vertebree ...... Corea: DCT Lo cs We eS Seca CO ricas 029
Cod aliines 25475 s5, ses PDS ies es ee ees .0142 -
Lienopidorsal: spies 6 ses ies ou MOS ee eee fence 008

af AAs aCe te ieee es .008

bie Ot Wires Bodies et. ia de ses an 220005

Amyzon. Cope. Genus novum Catostomidarum.

Allied to Bubalichthys. Dorsal fin elongate, with a few fulcral spines
in front, and the anterior jointed rays osseous for a considerable part of
the length. A few short osseous rays at front of anal fin. Scales cycloid.
Caudal fin emarginate. Mouth rather large, terminal.

The characters of this genus appear to be those of the Catostomide.
There are three broad branchiostegals. The vertebra are short, and the
hemal spines of the caudal fin are distinct and rather narrow. In one
specimen a pharyngeal bone is completely preserved. Not having it
before me at the moment, I merely observe that it is slender, and with
elongate inferior limb, The teeth are arran ged comb-like, are truncate,
and number about thirty to forty. This and other portions of the struc-
ture will be more fully described when the whole series of specimens is
investigated. The bones bordering the mouth above are a little dis-
placed, and the lower jaw projects beyond them, and is directed obliquely
upwards. The dentary bone is slender and toothless, and the angular is

1872.] 481 [Cope.

distinct. The premaxillary appears to extend beneath the whole length
of the maxillary. Should this feature be substantiated, it will indi-
cate a resemblance to Cyprinidz. The maxillary has a high expansion
of its superior margin, and then contracts towards its extremity. Above
it two bones descend steeply from above, which may be out of position.
The preoperculum is not serrate. The superior ribs are well developed.

This form approaches, in its anterior mouth, the true Cyprinide
through Bubalichthys. It is the first extinct form of Catostomidee found
in this country.

AMYZON MENTALE. Cope. Species nova.

This fish oecurs in considerable numbers in the Osino shales, and nu-
merous specimens have been procured. Two only of these are before
me at present. They are of nearly similar length, viz., M. O. .12 and
.105. The most elevated portion of the dorsal outline is immediately iv
front of the dorsal fin. From this point the body contracts regularly »
the caudal fin. The dorsal fin is long, and is elevated in front and con-
cave in outline, the last rays being quite short. They terminate one
half the length of the fin in front of the caudal fin. The interneural
spines are stout in front and weak behind. Radii, III. 26, and (?) IT. 23.
There are about twenty-three vertebre between the first interneural
spine and the end of the series in the former specimen, in which, also,
there are no distinct remains of scales. In the second, scales are pre-
served, but no trace of lateral line; there are six or seven longitudinal
rows above the vertebral column. The anal fin is preserved somewhat
damaged ; the rays are not very long, and number II. 7. The anterior
interhemal is expanded into a keel anteriorly. Ventral fins injured.

The ribs and supplementaries are well developed. The inferior quad-
rate is a broad bone, with deep emargination for the symplectic. Depth
No. 2 in front of dorsal fin, M .025. Length basis of dorsal, .026.

ON THE EXISTENCE OF DINOSAURIA IN THE TRANSITION
BEDS OF WYOMING.
By Epwarp D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 19, 1872.)

During the present season, F. B. Meek, of Dr. F. V. Hayden’s Geolog-
ical Survey of the Territories, discovered some large bones near Black
Buttes Station, on the Union Pacific Railroad, fifty-two miles east of
Green River, and near the Hallville Coal Mines. Shortly afterwards I
visited the spot with a branch expedition, and commenced excavations
with a view to the recovery of the remainder of the animal. The posi-
tion was discovered to be between the thinner or lower strata of the
Bitter Creek series of coal, which at this point, occupy a position of
elevation and crop out high on the bluffs. Two strata appear above the

A. P. §8.—VOL. XII.—3I

Cope. ] 482 [Sept. 19,

sandstone in which the bones occur, and one below it. The portions of
the skeleton found, rested in the midst of vegetable debris, as sticks and
stems, and was covered with many beautiful dicotyledonous leaves, which
filled the interstices between the bones. The plant-bed gradually passed
into a shell-bed, containing numerous thin dimyaria, and close by, some
oysters were found. The whole question as to geologic age and aqueous
conditions during which these beds were deposited, being unsettled, I
gave especial attention to the recovery of the bones, with the view of
reaching a definite conclusion on these points.

We succeeded in recovering sixteen vertebre, including a perfect
sacrum, with dorsals and eaudals; both iliac and other pelvic bones,
those of one side nearly perfect ; some bones of the limbs, ribs and other
parts not determined.

The vertebrae are large. The dorsals are short, with vertically oval
centra, and small neural canal. The diapophyses originate well above
the neural canal, diverge upwards, and are triangular in section. The
neural spine is very much elevated, and the arch short antero-pos-
teriorly. The zygapophyses are close together in both directions, those
of the same aspect being separated by a narrow keel only. They no not
project, but consist of articular surfaces eut into the solid spine. The
latter is flat and dilated distally. The articular faces are nearly plane
with a slight median prominence.

The ribs have two articular surfaces, but I found no capitular pit on
the dorsal centra.

Elevation of centrum, 7.5 in. ; width of the same, 5 in. 7.5 lines ; length
of do. 3 in, 8.5 lines. Total elevation of a dorsal vertebra, twenty-eight
inches three lines. The sacrum consists of five vertebra, the anterior
centrum not depressed. They give out huge diapophyses which are
united by suture. They are themselves united distally in pairs, each
pair supporting a longitudinal convex articular face for the ilium. Each
pair encloses a perforation with the centra. The first diapophysis goes
off from the point of junction of the first and second vertebra, the second
from the third only, and is more slender. The total length is 25 in. ;
and the width 30 in. Its vertebrae are flat below, with latero-inferior
angles. The last centrum gives off a simple diapophysis.

Another vertebra exhibits a diapophysis as low as the floor of the neural
canal and united by coarse suture. Others posterior to the sacrum are
more elongate with slightly compressed centrum, and with diapophysis
opposite floor of canal and not united by suture. Centra flat below ; no
chevron bones discoverable. Length centrum, 4 in. 4 lines; depth of
articular face, 4 in. ; width of do. 4 in. 8 lines.

The iliac bone is extended antero-posteriorly. One extremity is thick
and rather obtuse, but of little depth. There is a large protuberance
above the acetabular sinus. The other extremity is dilated into a flat
thin plate of rather greater length than the stouter extremity. From

Q
1872.] 483 [Cope.

one of its margins, a rod-like element projects. Its total length is about
four feet, of which the acetabular sinus measures about 8.10 inches.

A short bone pertaining to the limbs has the articular surfaces at a
strong angle to each other, hence the shaft is twisted. It is deeply
grooved on one side near the extremity. The other extremity bears a
rather flattened hour-glass shaped articular face, and below it on one
angle is a crest. The convexity of the surface is not great, and this
extremity resembles that of a Dinosaurian or Crocodilian reptile. Its
length is, however, only eight and a quarter inches ; apparently too small
for a humerus, though this is not certain, while it is decidedly too small
for a metatarsal of such an animal.

From the above description, it is evident that the animal of Black
Buttes is a Dinosauran reptile, the characters of the sacral and iliac
bones alone sufficing to demonstrate this point. If the reader will
compare the measurements given for species of this group already known,
he will observe that those of the present animal exceed those yet described
from North America. It is possible that if the corresponding parts of
Hadrosaurus tripos, Cope, or Thespesius occidentalis, Leidy, are dis-
covered, they may approach it.

It is thus conclusively proven that the coal strata of the Bitter
Creek Basin of Wyoming Territory, which embraces the greater area
yet discovered, were deposited during the Cretaceous period, and not
during the Tertiary, though not long preceding the latter. It ap-
pears that the forests that intervened between the swamps of epochs,
during which the coal was formed, were inhabited by these huge mon-
sters. That one of them laid down to die near the shore of probably a
brackish-water inlet, and was soon covered by the thickly fallen leaves of
the wood. That continued subsidence of the level submerged the bones,
which were then covered by sand.

The form of the ilium differs very materially from that of Hadrosau-
rus, and the vertebre are plane, thus differing from Thespesius. The
limb bone is distinct from anything in Lelaps, which, moreover, probably
resembles Thegalosaurus in its ilium. The present form recalls rather
Cetiosaurus. As it is evidently new to our system, it may be called
AGATHAUMAS SYLVESTRIS.

NOTICES OF NEW VERTEBRATA FROM THE UPPER WATERS
OF BITTER CREEK, WYOMING TERRITORY.
By Epwarp D. Cops.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 19, 1872.)
SyYNOPLOTHERIUM CANIUS. Cope. Gen. et sp. nov.
This genus possesses the dental formula so far as known, I.}¢.5M ¢. in
the only specimen with molars, the crowns are much worn, but in all,
the antero-posterior much exceeds the transverse diameter, and consisted

sr

Cope. ] 484. [Sept. 19,
of two lobes. The posterior molar had no more lobes, and is smaller
than the penultimate. The first is two-rooted, and is separated by a wide
space from the inferior canine. The superior canine is of disproportion-
ately large size, and issues a little behind the premaxillary suture.~ The
incisions are crowded closely together, and are of conic form. The ex-
terior is several times as large as the others. The inferior incisors are of
huge size, project upwards after the manner of rodents, and are inserted
by a short base into the solid symphysis. They are separated by a short
interspace, which is without alveoli.

The fore foot possesses four digits, of which the inner is considerably
the shorter. Phalanges not slender ; ungueals flat, deeply fissured above.
Caudal vertebra slender.

This most remarkable genus is not at present. referable to its proper
order, The superior anterior teeth are of carnivorous type; the opposing
teeth look like those of rodents, while the molar teeth differ from both.
It is allied to Anchippodus, Leidy, which is only known from mandibles.
This form Dr. Leidy has called the “onawing hog,’’ but, as it probably
exhibits a structure similar to that seen in the present genus, it is obvi-
ous that the huge symphyseal teeth were not designed for gnawing in
the usual sense. I suspect these animals to have lived largely on turtles, *
and that the structure in question was adapted for crushing their shells.
This is the more likely from the prodigious number of turtles which must
have existed contemporaneously with them. There are twenty species
described from the Bridger formation, and their numbers are legion, as
already described by Professor Marsh. Their bones are alw: ys in sight,
and six or eight are not unfrequently found lying together.

Char. specif. The mandibular rami, posterior to the symphysis, are not
heavily constructed. The symphyseal teeth are very stout, and exhibit
two longitudinal grooves on the outer and outer inferior face; the shaft is
compressed, and the worn surface is on the outer side, as produced by
the canines, and on the extremity, produced by the outer incisor. The
superior canine is compressed, and as large as that of a grizzly
bear. The outer incisor is nearly straight, and with conic crown. A
large part of its shaft is exposed at the bottom of a wide vertical
groove, which extends upwards between the canine tooth and a ridge de-
scending from the edge of the nares. The external nareal opening is en-
tirely anterior, and is narrowed below, in accordance with the narrowing
of the premaxillaries.

M.

Length of interior dental series to bases of symphyseal
HQOUM a os es A. vas erie a ar OE ae err 0.170
Depth ramus at last molar........ id tha dapat aver Fees 050
Length symphysis... 06.0% iba coe ea MDE rae A 060
Cee OIA: ARON CAIITO asd cacy os FUME Ree ines Ail
Length symphyseal tooth projected........ Halles oo eee LO)
Diameter & a + ina caren od ous MORO
a canine ef = Sepia Hutwees nay 6028

* This view was already expressed in The Friend, Philada., 1872, Winter

1872.] 3) [Cope.
If the body of this animal were of usual proportions as relates to the
skull, it was about the size of the black bear (Ursus americanus). The
worn condition of the teeth indicates an old animal, and one that had
lived on hard food.
EOBASILEUS CORNUTUS. Cope.
Gen. et sp. nov.

Established on remains of five individuals of the average size of the
Mastodon ohioticus. These indicate clearly a form of proboscidian not
before recognized. The structure of the tibia and ustragalus, clearly
indicate that the species is not artiodactyle, while the perfectly simple
femur is not perissodactyle. The posterior part of the cranium, and the
short stout phalanges are proboscidian. The existence of horns on the
frontal bones separates it at once from Dinotherium, Mastodon, Stegodon,
or Hlephas, and indicates a remarkable combination of structure not

before known to naturalists. The gigantic size of the typical species
adds to its interest, and shows it to have been the monarch of the remark-
able fauna disclosed by recent researches in Wyoming,

The distal extremities of both humerus and femur are flat, the former
with oblique trochlear face and shallow olecranar fossa. The great tro-
chanter of the femur is flat and not recurved ; little trochanter wanting.
Spine of tibia very obtuse ; distal extremity little excavated. Distal
extremity of phalanges not divided by trochlear ridge.

‘Articular extremities of vertebrae plane ; the cervicals very short.

Cranium with vertical occiput with broad convex superior outline.
Temporal fosse lateral, posteriorly small. Horn-cores obtuse, com-
pressed, most at base ; direction divergent.

NuMBER 1. M.
benath:of horn-cores: (6 inches)... tis. ee. 0.152
Elevation occiput from foramen magnum.............. -180
Width across supra-occipital crest.............. RS ree 815
«of condyles with foramen....... ot a ely
ts te DaratiaStOld PLOGeSs........... Cha od Pea COST

NUMBER 2.

Transverse diameter condyles humerus....... ash istastes (hs .185
NUMBER 38,

Diameter extremity tibia (transverse)................ 6386

& De ‘¢" (antero-posterior)... sc. is. 096

6 head Pe CULANS VOTING) 4% 6G. occa ace .140

6 glenoid cavity scapula............ pees sss Se

Further details of the structure of this animal will be sought for with
interest. From the manner of its occurrence, it probably went in families
or herds.

CROCODILUS CLAVIS. Cope.

This is a large species with a muzzle of narrowed proportions and
sufficient depth to give it a broad oval section. The nasal bones appear
to have reached the nareal orifice. The anterior superior teeth are very
large, especially the canine. The inferior tooth corresponding is large,

Cope.] 486 [Sept. 19,

and occupies an emargination which approaches near to the nasal suture.
The pitting of the muzzle is fine, and the swollen interspaces much the
wider, The teeth have stout conic crowns, with well-developed cutting
edges and coarse striate sculpture. The mandible is acuminate to the
narrow extremity, and has a long symphysis, which extends to opposite
the third tooth behind the notch. The cervical vertebra preserved, have
round cups; they have a simple elongate hypapophysis with a pit. behind
it ; shoulder very prominent.

M.
Menoth, OL TamMUS With << S6Cth.. 6. <b. sees se ws os
ey eo OY MUNMULV. GIG Riba av ies eaturs Gy 0 iis Hers vee PSN eC mee 310)
WAGED <0 seit CLG OL SV ILD IV ALS saa Giubeydy, die sick 0 085
ee alkoy hee eipoite na(Cull alts iam youre i ey elaeetan reer ry) 0)210)
re Marley: ve uit TOOUM DOVE... 1%. y.54s 6s cals «1s -060
rt Lo NOUN ADOVEG) 64 erent Witetes srs ripe e020

This species has a more slender muzzle than those described by Marsh
and Leidy, and is of larger size.

RHINEASTES PELTATUS. Cope.
Gen. et sp. noy. Nematognathorum.

Established on cranial and other bones, with spines of a siluriform fish
of the size of the largest species of Amiurus. The form, in the excessive
rugosity of the external long surfaces, reminds one of some of the Bra-
zilian Dorades. The frontal fontanelle is closed, though very distinctly
marked by a groove of the surface not rugose. The rugosity consists of
innumerable, packed osseous, papille. The cranial ossification is con-
tinued posteriorly as a shield, which is strongly convex from side to side.
The spine is symmetrical, and probably dorsal. It is compressed and curved
antero-posteriorly, and is deeply grooved behind. Laterally it is closely
striate grooved ; the anterior face is narrowed, obtuse, and minutely ser-
rate with cross ridges ; each side of it is rugose with several irregular
series of pronounced tubercles, arranged transversely.

M.
Width frontal bone near front of fontanelle........... 0.012
Thickness at do. ~ 4.3. aseurace 3 et ae ia 004
es & Of CASQUC) Os. ai cee ss Piet Gua aies 004
Width Spine: sss ..0., A Cade nates MERIC an s 005
Depiicia iwes rare ar ere flee 009

RHINEASTES SMITHII. Cope.

Indicated by a dorsal spine of an individual of smaller size than the
type of the last named. It is less rugose, and more firmly striate, and
possesses a row of short reverted spines in its posterior groove. The
anterior edge is furnished with a finely serrate keel, which has a groove
on each side at the base. ‘The section is oval, the posterior face not being
flattened as in the last species. Antero-posterior diameter near middle
M. .005; at base .006; width behind above base .006.

Named for my respected friend, Daniel B. Smith, of Germantown ;
many years Principal of Haverford College, and a student and lover of
the Natural Sciences.

1872] 487 [Cope.

D NOTICE OF EXTINCT VERTEBRATES FROM BITTER
CREEK, WYOMING.
By Epwarp D. Corn.

SECC

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 19, 1872.)
PALAOSYOPS VALLIDENS. Cope. Sp. nov.

Represented by the dentition of one maxillary bone with other bones
of one individual; a portion of the same dentition of a second ; with
both rami of the mandible with complete dentition of a third. The spe-
cies is distinguished by the details of the dental structure, and by the
superior size. It exceeds, in this respect, the Palwosyops major, Leidy ;
while the three posterior lower molars measure 4.5 inches in length, the
same teeth of the present animal measure 5.25 inches. The last superior
molar of another specimen measures 2 inches in length ; in the third the
first true molar is 1.5 inch in length, while the last inferior molar is 2.25
inches long. The peculiarity in the structure of the superior molars consists
in the existence of two strong transverse ridges, which connect the inner
tubercle with the outer crescents, enclosing a pit between them. These
are most marked on the premolars, where also is found the peculiarity of
the almost entire fusion of the outer crescents into a single ridge. These
united crescents are narrower than in P. major, and the summits of all
the crescents are relatively more elevated. The number of inner tubercles
is the same as in that species; all the teeth have very strong basal cin-
gula, which rise up on the inner tubercle. The last inferior molar is
relatively narrower than in P. major, and the posterior tubercle is larger
and longer, and is an elevated cone.

This species is, after those next described, the largest mammal of the
Wyoming Eocene.

LoxoLOPHODON. Cope.
(Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., Feb. 16, 1872.

The discovery of the remains of numerous animals of this genus, con-
firm the propriety of its separation from Bathmodon. The characters are
as follows :

Type of extremities Proboscidian. Femur without third trochanter,
toes short, stout. Dentition: 1.1; C.0; P.M.4; M.2. The premax-
illary is at the posterior margin of that bone, and is a large recurved
trenchant tusk. There is a long edentulous interval between it and the
first premolar, which is smaller than the others. These support an outer
crescent and a small inner tubercle. In the anterior premolars, the cres-
cent is nearly straight, in the posterior more curved. With use, the cres-
cent and tubercle wear together and form a short lance-head surface.
The crescent is angular, and occupies the whole crown in the molars, and
the tubercle is small and not symmetrically placed. The teeth on the
maxillary bone are remarkably small for the size of the animal. Lower
jaw not observed.

The cranium presents a remarkable appearance on account of the pro-

Cope. ] 488 [Sept. 19, 1872.

longation of the muzzle. In front of the zygomatic arches, the form is
compressed and roof-like above. Above the tusks the nasals expand, and
are produced to a great distance, terminating in osseous prominences.,
The premaxillaries are also much produced ; their anterior part is slender
and toothless, and does not extend so far as the nasals.

The orbit is not inclosed behind, and has no marked superciliary or
other margin. Above it, on each side, a horn-core is given off, the pair
diverging from approximated bases. Occiput vertical.

The affinities of this genus are not close to any known, excepting Bath-
modon. This has the six premaxillaries of nsual proportions, at least
three true molars, and the posterior premolars with three crescents. The
general relationships are proboscidian, and associated in some measure
with Synoplotherium, Auchippodus and Pseudotomus.

Besides the L. semicinctus, Cope, originally described, the researches
under Prof. Hayden’s Geological Survey, have determined the existence
of two or three other species of much larger size.

LOXOLOPHODON CORNUTUS. Cope.

Hobasilus cornutus. Cope.

Established on portions of several skeletons, including one with femur,
pelvis, scapula, vertebrae and cranium, The latter measures about thirty-
four inches in length. The horn-cores are very stout and sub-triangular
in section at base and with a rudimental knob on the inner side ; height
seven inclies about. A massive protuberance of a recurved lobate
outline rises on the anterior margins of the nasal bones on each
side. They meet, leaving an emargination in front, giving the nasal
bones a bi-lobed outline. The iliac bones are very wide, the expanse of
both together being fifty-four inches. The centrum of a sacral vertebra
is four inches in diameter.

LoxoLOPHODON FURCATUS. Cope.

This species is indicated by portions of the nasal bones. These have
differed in form materially from those of the L. cornutus. The convex
protuberances seen in L. cornutus were here represented by processes of
singular form. They were compressed, narrowed at the base, and
expanded distally into a flat spatulate body. The whole process measures
seven to eight inches in length, and three and a-half in width distally.
The animal could not have been materially smaller than the L. cornutus.

LOXOLOPHODON PRESSICORNIS. Cope.

Established on numerous remains, including horn-cores of species sim-
ilar in size to the last. Its marked peculiarity, as first noticed, consists
in the compression of the horn-cores throughout the proximal half of
their length, with their more acuminate form, than in L. cornutus. They
measure also about seven inches in length.

The affinities of these remarkable animals will be shortly discussed.

They were the gigantic mammals of our Eocene period, representing
the Elephants and Mastodons of the Miocene, which they equalled in

size.

Seen

April 21, 1871. 489

[ Lesley.

THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE oF TAZEWELL, Russe AND WISE
COUNTIES, IN VIRGINIA.

By. J. P. Lesuny.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 21st, 1871.)

I was called upon recently to examine a part of the Alleghany Moun-
tain Range, between the New River (Kanawha) in Middle Virginia and
the north line of the State of Tennessee, for the purpose of determining
the nearest possible approach to a workable coal region of a contemplated
Railway from Harper’s Ferry on the Potomac to Knoxville in Tennessee.

The geological structure of this part of the United States is so peculiar
and so nearly unknown to geologists, or at least unnoticed in any pub-
lished memoirs, that I have taken some pains to portray it, believing that
it will be an acceptable contribution to the literature of the science and
to the proceedings of this Society. The present paper is, however, a
virtual continuation of my description of the South Virginia Coal region
of Montgomery and Wythe Counties, read before this Society in 1862,
and published in Vol. IX of its Proceedings, pages 30 to 38.

Professor William B. Rogers, State Geologist of Virginia, is well
acquainted, no doubt, with the essential facts about to be described, and
probably has materials for a more extensive description of the central
belt of the Appalachians among the unpublished archives of the State
Geological Survey of Virginia; but I doubt that any sections have been
constructed which express more clearly the state of things in a geological
sense, than those which I have this opportunity of making known.

Professor James M. Safford, State Geologist of Tennessee, has studied
the Southern continuation of the belt, and describes it in his Geology of
Tennessee, Nashville, 1869. But the sections given in that valuable work,
which has cost its author so much time, skill and labor to prepare, and
for which American Geologists are most grateful, are only adapted for
general description, not being drawn to a natural scale, and are not of
use-for the critical study of the dynamic problem here offered to the con-
sideration of structural geologists.

The map which accompanies this paper was made to show the railway
avenues through the region above named, by bringing out clearl y its
main topographical features. I have colored it to show to the eye its
main geological features, especially those due to the lines of Downthrow,
which are also the lines of limit for the Coal Measures. I have confined
the coloring within narrow limits so as not to obscure the prime facts.
No distinction is made therefore between the Calciferous, Trenton, Birds-
eye, Black River and Hudson River formations, all of them being colored

A. P, §S.—VOL, XII.—3s

490 April 21..

Lesley.]

blue, representing the Uimestone valley formations, Lower Silurian, Nos.
ILand IIT of the Pennsylvania nomenclature.

The Oneida Conglomerate, Shawngunk Grit, and Medina Sandstone,
Middle Silurian, No. IV, are left uncolored, to make their mountain
character more conspicuous. The Upper Silurian, Clinton, No. V, carry-
ing the Dyestone, Fossil Iron Ore, is colored red, to catch the eye, because
of its practical importance for railway purposes, and because it is the red.
formation of the North, par excellence, although it is not so marked in
nature along its southern outcrops. If the native coloring of the soil
were to govern the tinting of the map the Hudson River slates (No. I{1)
would require this pigment.

The Devonians are represented by a Vandyke brown wash (Nos. VITT..
IX, X), and the Coal Measures by a wash of Payne’s gray. No color is
allowed for No. XI., which shows so prominently on the geological map:
of Pennsylvania in red, because its outcrop is feeble here and not espe—
cially ved.

The main features of the topography are quite correct (except near its
sastern end, of which I can say nothing); and it distinctly shows how
the mountains are made, by the downthrows, to run in pairs, with a ‘poor
valley’? between each pair, consisting of Devonian Sandstones and Upper
Silurian shales containing the Clinton, Dyestone, oi Fossil Iron Ore ; and.
how the pairs are separated by wider Lower Silurian limestone or ‘rich’
valleys, contéining the villages and farms of blue grass and scattered:
and probably extensive deposits of Brown Hematite [ron Ore, which I
have not colored.

The black lines 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., show where the vertical geological sec-
tions in this report are to be looked for on the map.

There is no map of this country worthy of the name. [ have copied
the State map and then changed its details according to my observations.
The geology is perfectly simple, when one has the key to it. The key to,
it is given by the pairing off of the mountains along the Downthrows.

[ begin then with this curious and all important phenomenon. Fig. 1,
shows it in a purely ideal way ; but reference must be made to Sections
1, 2, 3, 4, &c., for its actual representation in different places.

Fie 1.

IDEAL CROSS SECTION, SHOWING THE CRACKS OR DOWNTHAOWS

What the power was, which cracked the anticlinal and synclinal curves,

1871.] 49]

[Lestey.
. 4

and shoved the 10,000 feet of Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian Form-

ations over each other, like cakes of ice in a river freshet, it would be

premature here to discuss.

The consequence has been, that along the straight lines of these cracks
—lines running for fifty or a hundred miles,—the coals at the top of the
system abut against the limestones near its bottom.

Another consequence has been that no coal is to be found but on the
north side of each crack. The whole mass of rocks above the line A—B
has been removed (it is needless to describe the process, which is still
going on and can be studied by any observer), so that the vast coal field
which once covered this country is no longer in existence ; and the only
remnants of it left are long stripes, a few hundred yards wide, running
alang the north lip of each crack.

A third, and equally important consequence, has been, that even this
poor remnant of the Coal-Measures, where it is left, consists of only the
very lowest bed or the two lowest keds of the Coal Measures, the poorest
of all the coal beds of the system. Fig. 2 will show how this result
occurs :

eee
rei
SSS LOWER SILUR,
LIME STONES.

It is not until, going north 30° west, several such downthrows with
their comparatively worthless coal fields (so to call them) have been
passed, that the real coal field of the country is reached. Its southern
edge runs along a straight downthrow lying just north of the Clineh
River.

I shall first take up this line at Guest’s River, in Wise County,
and follow it northeastward, ascending Clinch River ; and I will give see-
tions of its Coal Measures, wherever I studied them.

Stone Mountain, which is the south border of the Guest River Coal
Fields, in Wise County, is cut throughby Powell’s River at the Big Gap!
Some miles further east its summit is notched by a wind-gap (Little
Gap), through which the turnpike from Wise County Court House
(Gladesville) to Scott County Court House (Estillville) passes. The
lowest coal bed is opened on the side of the road a quarter of a mile before

Qs
Lesley.] 492 {April 21,

reaching the gap ; thatis, high up the southern face of the mountain. The
coal bed is 4 feet thick, and vertical. The core of the mountain is a ver-
tical Conglomerate Sandrock. On the south face of the mountain are
cliffs of Lower Silurian limestone. <A fault, therefore, runs through the
mountain lengthwise, thus :

No.1] SECTION LINE ON THE MAP.

Stone Mtr,

Aga TROUGH CAG

ia

ae

erm en met ae en ea Sa
|

i

4 oe

This section, however, I did not myself see ; but the information from
which I construct it was given to me so clearly, and agrees so exactly
with what I saw myself further east, that I have no hesitation in assign-
ing it a place in this report, without endorsing it more specially.

On the west side of Guest River, two miles below the mouth of Tom’s
Creek, a two-foot coal bed is mined; it lies nearly flat, under cliffs of hori-
zontal conglomerate rock. Below this place, the river enters the canon,
through which it rushes for two miles before entering the Clinch River.
Vertical walls of conglomerate, hundreds of feet high, stand opposit>
each other. This is the natural gate for a railway line to the Wise

Jounty and Kentucky Coal Field.

SECTION 2 ON THE MAP.

s
&:
Roberts S
hy Butt ii
s a h s Stone Mon
& homes Catton
; ee MOI, Goal bec Guest River
irae gf Vet a bed

Coal beds are opened up and down Tom’s Creek and its branches.
One coal bed, from 5 to 6 feet thick, runs through the bases of all the
hills, nearly at water level, and almost horizontal. It is mined for family
use in the guiches back of Guest’s Station (an old log fort, now a store
and, although half a mile from the mouth of Tom’s Creek, overflowed
whenever Guest River is in high freshet), and by Mr. Jessee, and for
several miles still higher up Tom’s Creek. It is mined up Little Tom’s
Creek, and oh Crab Orchard Creck, as a fine six (6) foot bed of rather
handsome flaming coal, solid enough to wagon over rough roads, and
not making much ashes or clinker in the grate. It is at least equal to

1871. } 493 [ Lesley. |

‘} i (actly '

Lesley.] 494 {April 21,

the general run of the Lower Coal Measure coals in the Bituminous
Coal Basins of the Susquehanna West Branch and the Conemaugh. I
saw no other beds here; but there must be others both below it and
above it; for the beforementioned two-foot bed ought to be above it, as
the above section (2) shows.

I made a measured section of one of these hills, called Robert’s Butt
(over 700 feet high, and capped with a fragment of the great conglom-
erate sandrock which once covered all the country), as a specimen of the
barriers which separate all these streams from one another, in the coal
field, and to show how impracticable any railroad line must be which
does not follow closely the great water-courses.

The following section up the side of Robert’s Butt, half a mile north
of Guest’s Station, was made with an aneroid barometer. It shows the
Sheep Rock Conglomerate Sandstone to be about 700 feet above the
(Newberry, Robinet, Grier, Jessee, Gc.) Six-Foot Coal Bed :

woo -| Shale #

The © foot Coal bed.

was Hevel of Niyhest mater in Guest liver, when tt banks Tom's C. back to Gues

At one place where the bed has been dug a little into, it yields the best
kind of bituminous coal, fat and caking, but friable, with no appearance
of sulphur, and making no clinker. It is good blacksmith-coal, and no
doubt will make good coke. <A piece of ill-made coke from what is, per-
haps, the same bed, near Gladesville, shows that the best coke can be got
from it.

On Russe’s Creek this coal bed is also at water level and has been
mined by Robert P. Dickenson in the bed of the creek, near his house,
and in a run a quarter of.a mile further east, where a horizontal gang-
way has been commenced. About 5 feet of the coal is visible ; the bottom
is not reached, being in water. Roof: a shaley clay, without distinct
plant impressions. Upper part of the bed bituminous, and somewhat
bony. From the first 12 inches downwards, solid, and somewhat like can-
nel. Coal in some parts slightly granular, reminding one of the sand-
coal of Montgomery County. Bottom coal very good for blacksmithing ;
makes a hollow fire; but cakes little and goes out before morning ; not
much ashes ; ashes white; makes a yellow blaze; no sulphuret of iron

visible; no fossil leaves. Streaks of Goal through the bed showing

te
871.] 495 (Lesley.

numerous minute discs of sulphuret of iron in the fissures ; so that an
zanalysis of the bed as a whole will give a notable percentage of sul-

COAL BEDS on RUSSELL'S CRE
FOOT SURVEY sv J.P.LESLEY, A ‘i
Oct . 1870. Rarssedl Co, ¥™ A \

Ve
))N

)

y

y

WT / /

: \ \ Contour lines
RQ feet verticat qpart,
» Seale 480 yds to one inch.
.s
WSs

phur ; and it will be extremely difficult to pick the coal, if mined exten-
sively, so as to furnish it free of sulphur. It is, however, on the whole, a
satisfactory bed ; and its harder benches will bear carriage well.

Lesley.]

The bed dips at least
much over a larger area.

AGG
496 [April 21,

rO

5° southward at this precise place ; but not so
Over it are thin slabs of shaley sandstone, with

large calamites and stigmaria stem impressions ; and over these again a
small coal beds which cannot lie more than 20 feet, if that, above the
other bed.

I made a careful survey

No.3 SECTION on THE MAP.RUSSELLS CREEK.

se8

ei

Summit
Tur.

North Wast.

Run.

at R.P Digkenson’s

Fadler of Russell O-

gf be

Openix:
Tae coal dad.

—

Sazle, Vertical and Horizontel.the same; and the same
as in the preceding Map : 480 yids. to / inch.

of the hill to the south of this place, the sum-
mit of which is made by south-dipping con-
glomerate sandrocks (Sheep Rock of the last-
section); and found two coal beds outerop-
ping on its north face, and two more on its
south face, descending Whetstone Run to-
Clinch River. This run has a conglomerate
terrace on its left bank, and is rendered very
rocky by the descent of fragments of rock.

Section No. 3 on the map is the most instruct
ive I could obtain in this district of the region,
and requires no explanation. It shows that
the distance from the Six-Foot Bed up to the
Sheep Rock Conglomerate is everywhere about
700 feet, and contains at least two coal beds ;
and that there is one more coal bed above the
conglomerate. I had no means of determin-
ing the size or quality of any one of these three
beds ; but they are all, probably, under 3 feet.

The above sketch-map and this accompanying
cross-section (No. 3) were measured on the
ground and drawn to scale. They enable me
to speak of only ove coal bed above the Sheep
Rock Conglomerate, with two outcrops on this
road, looking like two coal beds. Further
east, as will be seen, this bed (?) has several
others over it.

The section renders it doubtful whether the
coal dug at lowest water in the bed of the
Clinch at the mouth of the Whetstone be the
six-foot bed. It looks more like the second
bed above it. But the southeast end of the
section is a little obscure, and I had no time
to study the exact character of the Down-
throw of the Coal Measures against the lime-
stones* at this point. It runs through an iso-
lated hill, quite surrounded by a bend of the
river, as shown in the sketch-map on the next
page.

* Query.—Do these belong to an outcrop of the subcarboa
jferons limestone issuing from the fault ?

1871.] 49% [ Lesley.

The map below will give a better idea than any verbal description of the
difficult nature of the ground for railroading purposes down Clinch Val-.
ley. The hills are from 200 to 300 feet high and present bold and massive
cliffs of Lower Silurian limestone to the river.

It will also illustrate the general law that the principal rivers and large
streams of this region of Virginia run in the lower members of the Lower
Silurian limestone system, as they habitually do elsewhere, near the edge
of the Freestone Carboniferous land. The cause of this is evident. The
surface of the country as it is at present has been produced by the
remoyal of all the geological formations above that which now forms the
surface. When the Downthrows were first formed the drainage of the

SKETCH MAP or CLINCH RIVER,
where tt strikes the al Measures and rebounds,
at Lick Rus.

SSS ES u

= Ay

AY
ASS
NN

SS

country was down the face of the Coal Measures to the crack and then
along the crack sideways. This produced a very slow erosion of the
Coal Measures, because of their numerous massive bed of sandstone.
But the drainage along the cracks produced great erosion into the face of
the sandy and magnesian limestone exposed by it. The drainage from
above also produced caverns in the limestone. Out of these caverns
issued streams which swelled the rivers which ran along the cracks. The
formations over the limestone were worn rapidly away. The face of the
limestone wall of the crack was worn back. And so, by the time the
present surface level was reached, the rivers, which originally flowed on
the Coal Measure side of the cracks, had got their valley-beds fairly
established on the limestone side of the cracks; and, sometimes, at a
considerable distance on that side.

As the lower limestones are massive and very soluble all the streams
of the region which flow through them have extremely rough and tortu-

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—3K

4 me
Lesley. ] 498 [April 21,

ous valleys, walled in at intervals with cliffs. The smaller streams head
up in smooth valleys (of the upper limestones and slates of the Lower
Silurian system) admirably fitted for railroad locations. But near their
mouths, where they cut rapidly down through the lower limestones to
flow into the cross streams, their beds are full of jagged rocks and their
valleys difficult for cheap railroading.

It is among these lower limestones that the beds of brown hematic iron
ore lie.. For instance, the cliff at the river bank, just where the road
from the west along the north bank comes to the ford at the mouth of
Lick Run, is a mass of sandy limestone, near the bottom of the Lower
Silurian system. Further up the north bank of the river, east of Lick
Run, is a long limestone hill on which many pieces of the ore are scat-
tered, some of them very large. There is a good chance here for the ex-
istence of a valuable iron-ore deposit on a large scale. The ore is good.

THE COAL FURTHER BAST.

I made no detailed examination above Lick Run for a good many
miles; and I have mentioned in a Summary Report the streams crossed
by the coal beds in this interval. I will only add here, that some of these
beds were reported to me as ten (10) feet thick. The six-foot bed may
become thicker at points which I did not visit than it is where I saw it.

The ‘Mouth of Indian’”’ is a thriving little village on the north bank
of the Clinch where it enters Russell County. I surveyed this neighbor-
hood carefully, because the coal beds here have been opened more exten-
sively than elsewhere ; because they stand at a higher angle and give a
series ; and because the downthrow is exhibited in a most curious and
instructive manner. The river breaks through limestone just above In-
dian Creek mouth, forming bluffs called the Cedar Bluffs. A dam was
built here forty years ago out of red cedar logs which has never needed
repairs. It is fifteen feet high and backs the water two miles. Middle
Creek descends from the north and enters just below Indian Creek.

Up Middle Creek are the coal mines. See the following map :

armed

pal B48 creek
: ale cre

Two miles further down the river, Big Creek runs across the upper end
of the wide and fertile bottom called the ‘Rich Lands,’”’ at the farm of
Mr. Gillespie.

Two miles further west, a salt well, 354 feet deep, was sunk at the
north edge of the river bottom, on Mr. Kendrick’s land, twenty-two (22)
years ago, and, at 337 feet, went through 6.7 (six feet seven inches) of

Qo
1871. siti Lesley.
499 [Lesley

coal. Six feet at the top of the well was mud. All the rest was ‘‘sand-
rock,’’ without coal.

Petroleum.—There was enough oil to grease the rods. The well was
plugged up. Recently the plug was knocked out, when fresh water spouted
from the 34-inch hole to a height of three feet, but soon subsided. A. film
of oil stands on the water, which is very cold and too brackish to taste per-
fectly good, although cattle go to it in preference to drinking other water.

Salt.—The spot selected for the well had been a famous deer and buf-
falo lick. The ground had been eaten away by the animals. Thirty or
forty deer used. to be seen at one time at this lick ; and spoonfuls of salt
could be collected. It must be borne in mind that the salt wells of East-
ern Kentucky get their water from the conglomerate at the base of the
Coal Measures. There must, therefore, be a saltwater-bearing formation
several hundred feet below the coal bed at the bottom of this well; sup-
posing, 1, that it is the Six-foot Bed of Wise County ; and supposing, 2,
that the Sheep Rock Conglomerate Sandstone is not the true Conglom-
erate Base of the Coal Measures. But even if the latter supposition be
wrong, and the Six-foot Bed be one of the Sub-Conglomerate Coal Beds
of Eastern Kentucky, which is quite a possible thing, there remains a
stiJl lower ‘‘Knobstone,’”? or Devonian Saltwater-bearing Formation,
from which the salt water must find its way to the surface through the
Great Downthrow and cross-fissures connected with it. This Devonian
Saltwater-bearing Formation is that which supplies our deep salt wells in
Western Pennsylvania, and is also the same as the Petroleum-bearing
Formation of Venango County.

THE COALS at MOUTH of INDIAN.
( Section No.6 of the Map.)
Stoney Ridge ..

The Six-foot Coal Bed, here, has been opened and mined for the use
of the neighborhood by Mr. Scott, at (~) about 1} miles up the creek from
its mouth ; and again at (>) a quarter of a mile further up, on the same
south dip. At both (@ and 6) it shows a disturbance represented in
diagram on the next pages.

The bed is here, really, but 2} to 3 feet thick. It is covered with a
plate of sandstone which is several feet thick ; and, although the pres-
sure produced by the Great Downthrow, which runs along at a distance
of about half a mile due south of the locality of the mine, has folded the
coal bed with the sandrock back upon itself, yet the sandstone of the
rock, thus caught in between the walls of the fold of the coal, is perfectly
solid and does not show the slightest trace of disturbance. This is a
striking, but well-known phenomenon. The coal itself is bent round,
and shows sharp tongues, in the fold.

|

siete] 500 [April 2t,,
At (0) the same sandrock is equally folded and unbroken, as the follow-
ing diagram (looking in the opposite direction, 7. ¢. east) will explain.
Here, also, the bed, which when doubled measures 5 or 6 feet thick,
is really but a three-foot bed. There is nothing, in fact, to identify it
with the ‘‘Six-foot’’ coal of Wise County. But it may very well be the
6.7 coal

at(b)
on Middle Cr.

Russell Co.
Va.

It is opened again at (¢) some hundred yards higher up the creek, and
ona north dip of 50°. The Confederate army mined it pretty exten-
sively. It is here three feet thick, in three benches each a foot thick.
The top and bottom benches good, the middle bench bony. Over it are
three or four feet of slates, and then comes a one-foot bed of bony coal.
The report goes that the miners found these two coal beds close together,
down. below ; making thus one very fair fowr-foot coal bed. A diagram
on the next page shows the whole exposure in position,

All this is not very encouraging for the coal trade. But the same bed
has been opened at (d), directly on the crest of the anticlinal, which has.
here sunk (running in an easterly direction) to the level of the creek. Here

1871.) 501

[Lesley.

the coal lies flat in the water; and several pits, sunk through it, are
deeper than the height of aman. The bed must be nearly, or quite, six
feet, and yields good coal (as indeed it does at the other openings); but
what its constitution may be I do not know. It is probably subdivided
into benches of different qualities ; and, no doubt, has some of the slate
of the above last section running through it. Its position on the anticli-
nal will make mining difficult.

, AN
. \ \ .
‘ SANS, N
q \ \ L\VA
N \ WS . oe) 2, \Y
on AXE
| M/DDLE CR’ ANAS 3) se
b Ose eee a5 ‘ MMA AY AS No Q
The anticlinal disturbance at Scott’s Mines on Middle Creek must be
‘local ; because the topography around the Salt Well shows that the Coal
Measures there come up to the Downthrow in a flat and undisturbed con-
dition ; and the dying down of the crown of the anticlinal in the Six-foot
bed so rapidly that the bed lies flat in the creek only a few hundred
yards above where it plunges at angles of 40°, 50° and 60° proves the
same thing.

throughout the body of Stony Ridge makes the whole disturbance of con-|
siderable magnitude ; and I have no doubt that when it is well examined
to the eastward, it will be found to run in that direction some miles ; not,
perhaps, as an anticlinal but as a downthrow ; and it may very well be
the Abb’s Valley Downthrow, of which more hereafter.

5O2
Lesley. ] 502 [April 21,

LAUREL RUN COALS,
Leaving the curious topography of the Big Creek, Middle Creek, and
Mouth of Indian Downthrow to be described hereafter, in connection
with Paint Lick Mountain and its Iron Ore, and going east up Indian
sreek Valley, I can only report coal mines on Laurel Run, a side branch
coming into Indian from the northwest. Mr. Christian has here opened
several beds, one of which is reported to be much over six feet thick.
The coal is wagoned to the county-town of Tazewell, Jeffersonville, fifteen
or seventeen (15 or 17) miles distant. The following sketch will show
how the coal comes out to market—two miles to James Smith’s, on the
3aptist Valley Road (beautifully engineered, at low grades), formerly a
turnpike, and still the highway between East K entucky and Middle Vir-
ginia; two miles to the Clinch Valley Road ; thirteen miles by either of
these two roads to Jeffersonville :

tony Ridge (curisrians tuse {
MINES

soe

ea) :

TnALb are Creek. :

eT a Ld on
ESTES rc eek
.. a as Smsacay

or op IES go heiaree oek
Clinch Riper

What the character of the Christian Coal is I do not know by personal in--
spection ; but it must come from the same beds, and be essentially similar
to the Scott Coals, and also to the Abb’s Valley Coal next to be described.

Just east of the Christian Mines runs a limestone valley, along the
south side of the Downthrow, in which the waters sink into caverns. Tt
is called ‘Sinking Waters.”? Any one familiar with Abb’s Valley (15
miles further east) will see at once, that the formation is the same ; but

I will show that Stony Ridge separates the two valleys and that the
coal areas which I have been following all the way from Wise County are
cut off, or whittled down to a fine point, opposite Jeffersonville. The next
cross-section, No. 8, will show how this is done, and also how the Abb’s
Valley coal beds are brought down to the present surface by quite a dif-
ferent Downthrow from the one we have been tracing thus far, all the
way from Guest’s River in Wise County ; a Downthrow bchind and to
the north of this one ; as the map in colors will also help to show.

The Clinch Valley Downthrow, going east from Indian Creek, catches
in its jaws a less and less number of beds and width of coal ground, until
at last, on crossing the great road from Jeffersonville north to Tug Fork
of Sandy, it holds but the lowest coal bed, standing at a high angle and
very little of it left.

This is seen on the Section No. 8, marked Captain Frank Peery’s Coal.
How far east along this crack this coal can be traced. I do not know ;
but nothing of value can be expected from it ; which is a great pity ; for
at this point easy access to the back country ends.

Fey
505 [ Lesley.

To get over into the Abb’s Valley Coal Fields, two mountains must be
crossed, or, rather steep stony hills, consisting of all the formations from
the coal down to the limestone ; especially Sandrocks X. (Catskill) and
IV (Shwangunk) here much diminished in thickness ; which accounts for
the comparative lowness of these mountains when compared with the

high mountains formed by the increased outcrops of these formations in
the Northern States.

The deep rapid rocky bed of Mud Fork of Bluestone lies between the
two mountains and descends eastward. Where the turnpike crosses it
it is 400 feet below the notch in the crest of the first mountain, X (s ¥
550 feet below the crest itself); and 250 feet below a slight notch in the
This crossing of Mud Fork is, by

crest of the second mountain, LV.
barometer, on a level with the Jeffersonville Court House, and about 100
feet higher than the Clinch. two miles east of Jeffersonville, at the west
end of Wolf Creek Valley.

( Cross Section No 8,0n the Map)

SHOWING THE ABBS VALLEY DOWNTHROW.

Section S.20°E, N. 20° W, through Jeffersonville,Va. s 3
= : Sy = x ek
= ~ > a oy ieee By)
¥ 3% x Sy sak Soe Rae Se
aot RY SSy Wrights SRE ass = 835
Wes re Se ho vatiey * (S58 aes 3 Rs s

w §ge 3 NES : RAN SS # gS QTR
ee 353 3 SRs oi gts mae |
8 = cos 2. | iv Se AVON av
&
2

An,

N S

gir 0S he UME ree
f a, zit ake

RY of iron

VB. IV. means Matna Sandstones | Llaruloverygr
X. means Caltskill Group of New Xorg.

LIM

LOWER SILURIAN

The turnpike summit crossing the first mountain (X) is 300 feet above:
Captain Frank Peery’s, on the head-waters of Clinch (6$ miles north of
Jeffersonville). Clinch and Bluestone run in opposite directions along
Wright’s Valley; Clinch westward, Bluestone eastward. The divide
between them is about 14 miles east of the turnpike, at Frank Peery’s,
and say 100 feet higher in level. This route from Greenbrier to Tazewell
is feasible, but it is needless to try to get coal out that way.
Be een RE
Wr

rch Weters.

S > : I a ee es
Pie Binion. “RY. wea
Yee:
t

SS Gp of Peery

Level af (Linch at Jay rey elle

Mud Fork of Bluestone heads up rapidly westward of the turnpike,
and yet the valley between X and TV must continue on between the two-
ssities of the case.

Stony Ridges from the very nec

Lesley. ] 504 [April 21,

Abb’s Valley is produced by a great upthrow of the Lower Silurian
limestone against the Coal Measures. The turnpike enters it almost at
its head, or western end. From the notch in TV through which the road
passes, to the Dry-water course in the centre of the valley is a descent
(by barometer) of only 110 feet. Westward the valley rapidly fills up,
and that is the course to take in locating a railroad from the mines out to
Jeffersonville. A feasible route may be obtained, I think, by keeping up
Abb’s Valley to and over its divide, and down Cavyitt’s Run to the Clinch,
two miles west of Jeffersonville.

The cause of the heading up of Abb’s Valley and Mud Fork Valley so
suddenly westward, and against what seems to be the main body of the
Tug Fork of Sandy Coal Measures, is a most interesting and important
affair, which should be investigated. I can only conjecture it. I take it
to be likely that the Abb’s Valley Upthrow of limestone starts across the
Measures southwestwardly, becoming less and less of an upthrow, and
thus swallowing down from the surface first, the Lower Silurian lime-
stones of Abb’s Valley, and then the shales and sandstones of the two
stony ridges IV and X; and that it finally merges in the Clinch River
Upthrow. At all events, such a geology would result in a topography of
this sort : The limestone and shale valleys would head up suddenly against
a ridge composed of Coal Measures Conglomerate or Sandrocks,

My advice is, that no coal-freight railroad line be sought for in the
direction taken by the Jefferson and Tug Sandy Turnpike. But, on the
contrary, that a line be sought further west, more down the Clinch, viz. :
up Cavitt’s Creek. Let the coal beds there be carefully explored, and a
line be found across the divides beyond the west line of Abb’s Valley.

ABB’S VALLEY COAL.

Wifty feet below the summit of the hill, shown in the ‘‘Local Map’’
on the next page, and nearly 150 feet above the coal bed at its base, is
a layer of very coarse, gray, friable sandstone, weathering yellow, with-
out pebbles. Over it a tree has turned up a coal crop.

The coal bed below is, perhaps, the only workable bed of this district.
For, after descending, at a slope of one or two (2°) degrees, south 20°
east, through the base of the hill, and getting under water level, it seems
to turn up suddenly and quite vertically, and to outcrop along the bottom
of a little valley. It has been mined a little close to the turnpike (0)
and Mr. Smith reports it to be ‘‘as wide as a room.”’

Ten miles east of this, and in a similar position, a coal bed is mined,
which I judge to be the same one, and it is called ten (10) feet thick.

In the openings at the foot of the hill (at a) it has been merely thrown
out from the water of the little Hy Peegits

dug coal all through this re-
gion, gives its thickness as (5)
five feet of coal in 5? of space.
A dirt bed, four inches thick,
separates the lower bench of
very fine coal from the upper and main body of the bed.

: BN5
1871.] 505 [Lesley.

This coal bed is dug into by the farmers, at several places on the hill-
sides of Laurel Fork, from half a mile to several miles north of Smith’s
coal, It is called six feet thick. Cochrane says he has dug it on Laurel
where it was good seven feet.

LOCAL MAP of ABB'S VALLEY CCAL.
(Properly Biwe Stone Gal)

*
!g COAL 8ED IN CROP.
iS SANDROCK.
>
:&

COAL BED (mined)

The level of the coal opening is (by barometer) 115 (one hundred and
fifteen) feet above Smith’s house ; which house is 125 feet below the
summit of turnpike crossing, Stony Ridge (No. IV). [See p. 504.] The
coal and the turnpike summit are, therefore, nearly on a level.

From these coal outcroppings just back of Abb’s Valley the coal field

A. BP. S.—VOL. XII.—3L

Lesiey.} 506 {April 21,
of West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky extends, without a break, to the
Ohio River. And the south edge of this coal field is the north ridge of
Abb’s Valley. The coal beds can be opened anywhere in the hills, just
north of Abb’s Valley ; and several low windgaps, similar to that at Mr.
Smith’s, give the people of the valley access to the coal field. But, as I
have said before, the railway line which passes through Tazewell must
approach the coal field from the west—not from the south ; around the
head of Abb’s Valley, from Cavitt’s Creek. This will also subserve the
interests of any railway projected from the Ohio River up Tug Fork of
Sandy to Jeffersonville.

(N. B.—I do not feel entire confidence in my geology of the sandstone
ridges at Smith’s,—the ridges which form the north boundary of Abb’s
Valley. They need much more careful study than I could give them.)

THE IRON ORES OF IL AND V.

The valleys of Tazewell and Russell, in Virginia, being geological, as
well as geographical, prolongations of the interior limestone valleys of
Pennsylvania, such as the Nittany, Morrison’s Cove, and Kishicoquilis,
contain necessarily the same kinds of ore, inthe same formations, and inthe
same conditions. I mean that the unbroken ground is at present covered
with patches of brown hematite ‘ blossom,’ just as the ground used to

-be where our charcoal furnaces stand ; and that the color of the road and

field soil is the same as that of our best iron ore banks; the limestone
rocks project in the same style, have the same internal composition, and
exhibit the same corroded and-dissolved surfaces ; and potholes, caverns,
and sitks abound along certain lines of outcrop. All these things are
now known to bear an intimate relationship with both the original setting
free of the mineral iron from the limerocks, and its subsequent deposit
and consolidation. And it seems to be becoming clear to our geologists,

that while there are regularly stratified beds and belts of the ore at two

or three distinct horizons in the Lower Silurian Limestone Formation,
which may be traced for many miles along the strike of the rocks, there
are also vast accumulations of this brown hematite ore along anticlinal
axes, especially wherever these are fractured ; or degenerate into pure up-
throw faults. It stands to reason that such a line of fracture, with a high
wall on one side of it, should, in the course of thousands of ages, have
collected vast quantities of the peroxidized iron which was being, through
all these ages, set free in the slow dissolution of the limestones and the
reduction of the whole mass of upheaved country to its present level. To
say nothing of the facility afforded by such fissures to the decomposing
and recomposing agency of drainage waters.

It is along the great upthrow fissures, then, that we are first to seek the
iron ore deposits of this section of Virginia. And such a spot was
pointed out to me near the mouth of Lick Run, on the hills bordering the
north bank of the Clinch River, in Russell County, at section line No. 4
upon the map. Large masses of ‘blossom ” lie scattered about the
fields.

Similar shows of ore occur in other places. The hills southeast of Jef-

1871. 507 (Lesley.

fersonyi lle, just outside the town, show the existence of ore beneath the
surface. Great quantities are reported two miles east of the town; and
still more abundant exhibitions in the cove of Wolf Creek, behind Buck-
horn Ridge, north of the forks of Wolf Creek, and opposite Rocky Gap.
Immense shows are reported in Wolf Creek Valley, inside of (or south
of) Rocky Gap.

I have myself no doubt of the correctness of these reports, so far as
surface exhibitions are concerned. And it is an old and good iron mas-
ter’s maxim, that where there is plenty of blossom there will be plenty of
good ore. The fact is geologically exact. For the blocks of ore on the
surface of limestone land (like the masses of white quartz on the surface
of a mica slate country) are the undissoluble parts of the original country
left behind by the slow and imperceptible mouldering away and
removal of the softer material.

A downthrow fissure, also, traverses Wolf Creek, at the foot of Clinch
Mountain, as shown in the following continuation of section 8, and this
fissure brings the No. IV sandrock of the mountain (which surrounds
Burke’s Garden) at a dip of 380°, down against the limestone of the val-
ley. How far this fissure extends eastward I do not know ; but certainly
beyond Rocky Gap.

CONTINUATION of SECTION No.8 (or raz map) SOUTHWARD ,

& $ N s
Sas § é 5 Yay s
= K t t ® 2 y
a ee ae eae 8 ® 3
pans rege 3 § <a ee eS rere

Neer g es : ‘ Maks yh}
SEN mesa § sy |
i s % S : aS |
os &. 8 sy eg

me qe

Ther ulley
of the Clear Fork of Wolf Creek, and this would favor the accumula-
tion of iron ore. Another traverses the cove behind Buckhorn Ridge,
cutting it off from East River Mountain. It is on this anticlinal that the
Wolf Creek Cove ores exhibited.

But there is another important fact not to be lost out of view. Through
out Southern Pennsylvania, and as far eastward (along the belt of which
we are treating) as the Lehigh and the Delaware, and so on th rough New
Jersey in the one direction, and through Maryland and Virginia in the
other direction, the horizon (or formation level) of the bottom of the
Lower Silurian (formerly called ‘‘ Hudson River ’’) Slates, No. III, and the
top of the Lower Silurian Limestones, No. IT, is a plate of brown hema-
tite iron ore-bearing rocks. Many of our best and oldest mines, like the
Balliott and the Moselem, between the Schuylkill and the Lehigh, are on
the outcrop of this horizon, at the top of the limestone formation. Where

Lesley.] 508 [April 21,

the dip is low and the slates of No. III are thick, this line runs through
the middle of our limestone valleys. Where the dips are steep and the
Slate Formation No. III is not so thick, the latter forms the flank of the
mountain, and the iron ore line runs at the base of the mountain. Where
a closely folded anticlinal makes the valley so narrow that the two bases
of the opposing No. III Mountains touch each other, and the ridge of the
limestone formation No. II, juts up along the water course, or does not
quite come to the surface (as in the three valleys at the left hand side of
the above Section No. 8), the iron ore deposits must be abundant.

Holding these simple principles of structure in mind, it is evident that
the great iron bearing formation, at the base of the No. IIT Slate Forma
tion, keeps its character all through Middle and Southern Virginia, and
will be as rich and certain a basis for large iron mining and iron
smelting operations as any other and better known section of the Appa-
lachian Mountain Belt between New York and Alabama.

An old forge at the west end of Paint Lick Mountain (between Leba-
non and Jeffersonville) used this top-limestone-horizon ore ; and I have
no doubt of its abundance in many other places. It is more con-
stant and regular than the ores further down and near the bottom of the
Limestone Formation No. II. And these, moreover, are often swallowed
up to such a depth by the downthrows as not to be attainable for many
years. ‘

It remains to notice a quite different variety of iron ore, which, I hope,
will prove sufficiently abundant at a few points along your line of road.
It is the Fossil Ore of V ; the Paint or Dye-stone Ore of Tennessee.

To describe the situation of this ore, I must refer to the map accom-
panying this paper. I have colored Formation No. V, the red shales of
the Clinton Group, with the color which I gave it on the State Geological
Map of Pennsylvania. This color, however, is not appropriate to the
formation in Southern Virginia; for the red soil and reddish (Upper Si-
lurian) sandstones which mark the slope sides of our Pennsylvania Moun-
tains (of No. IV), gradually disappear as one goes south from the Poto-
mae, giving place to a gray soil and very slightly, often not at all, red-
dened sandstones and slates. On the other hand, the opposite side of the
mountain, where the basset edges of the (Lower Silurian) slates of No.
III crop out, is very red. A Pennsylvanian geologist floating over the
country in a balloon would naturally make the mistake of just reversing
the geology of the mountain, and would descend upon the wrong side of
it to seek for the well-known and highly prized fossil ore bed of Danville
and Frankstown.

In spite of this change of color in the formation soils of the region, I
have thought it best to retain the red color for No. V upon the map, see-
ing that it represents the blood-red color of the fossil ore itself. One may
see, then, by tracing the lines of color on the map, where the fossil ore
bed ought to be; whether it be there or not. Very extensive and costly
explorations have been necessary in Pennsylvania and Maryland. No
doubt much research of the same sort will be called for in Virginia. But
the ore is there ; and, as in Pennsylvania and Tennessee, it will run for

509 [Lesley.

1871.]

miles together in a workable condition as to size and posture, and prove
a source of wealth.

The principal use of this ore is to mix with other varieties,—with the
blue carbonate lean ores of the Coal Measures, especially ; but also with
the inferior grades of brown hematite. The time will come when it will
be smelted in connection with the primary ores of the Blue Ridge Range
and Smoky Mountains.

The forge which stood many years ago at the west end of Paint Lick
Mountain, in Russell County, used this ore, and obtained it from the sum-
mit of Short Mountain to the south.

Paint Lick Mountain is named from an exposure of this ore on its sum-
mit. The situation is one of peculiar interest to the geologist and to the
antiquarian.

CROSS SECTION AT THE ROAD FROM THE CHURCH TO CLINCH RIVER
ABOVE CEDAR BLUFFS; AT LYLES GAP.

RP, j. .
Pauw Lick Mtn. minis AL
Desking Min. N.20°W. —~»

Pourrdtiug.

Ren Vad

A cross-section, at the road over the mountain, through a notch called
Lyle’s Gap, will show the cause of the appearance of this ore in so singu-
lar a position. It is confined to the very summit of the mountain for
some distance midway between the two ends, and to the west of the place
where the road crosses. Its thickness and extent is unknown, nor do I
think that more than a few thousand tons of it are to be expected. The
ore stratum has been swept away from all other parts of the ridge of the
mountain, and no trace of it has been left upon Deskin’s Mountain ; from

PAINT LICK MTN,FROM THE SOUTH; CLIFFS AND ORE.

eZ

ne -— =. 5
2 eens PO esl BO
Ve @ indian PLES 6, fossil paint oFe

which, indeed, the great sandrock No. IV has almost disappeared ; a few
house and barn-like masses being left standing at its western end in most
picturesque style. House and Barn Mountain is a prolongation of Paint

Lesley,] 510 [April 21,

Lick synclinal westward and is named from two masses of No. IV,
left upon its summit, visible from all the surrounding country. Dial
Knob (East River Mountain) and Buckhorn Mountain are prolongations
of Paint Lick and Deskin’s synclinals, eastward beyond Jeffersonville,
and Dial Knob may have a good deal of fossil ore left upon it in the cove,
behind the Dial Cliffs ; but Buckhorn has lost the ore. So has the whole
range of Rich Mountain, from Rocky Gap west, to Morris’s Knob, which
is terminated by one ofthe most remarkable cliffs of No. IV I ever saw
(see its profile below). Short Mountain is a prolongation of Rich Moun-
tain westward, broadened by a shallow synclinal which must hold large
quantities of the fossil ore. The synclinal of House and Barn Mountain
is prolonged westward (past Lebanon, far down Clinch River) as a down-
throw of the No. V Formation against the limestone of No. IT; and all
along the south side of Copper Ridge there runs a south dipping plate of

.RPEMENT OF No. IV, 200 Fr. WALLS,

! Of RucbMountair, Morris Knob, Bz

the fossil ore, which has been opened, in old times, at one point, and used
in a now abandoned forge. There must be immense quantities of the
ore in this ridge. It is known to the inhabitants, however, only as a
paint. But this will be a sufficient guide to the iron master.

The Indians used the outcrop of the fossil ore bed to paint their faces
and lodges. The deposit on Paint Lick Mountains was a famous locality
among the Aborigines. On a smooth perpendicular wall of sandstone,
facing southward, and visible from General Bowen’s house and the
Maiden Spring, there remain numerous pictures and symbols of men and
animals in red paint, fresh as when first made, and older than the settle-
ment of the country by the whites. I give above a view of this long wall
of sandstone cliffs as I saw it from the Lebanon—Jefferson turnpike ; and,
when taken with the cross-section, it will explain without further words
both the structure of this (and other similar mountains) and the cause of
the small amount of fossil ore left upon its summit, and the total disap-
pearance of the last remains of the ore deposit from the summits of
House and Barn, Desmit, Buckhorn, and Rich Mountains.

But there are extensive outcrops of the fossil ore of No. V along Poor
Valley ; in fact the deposit (whether rich or not remains to be discovered)
runs uninterruptedly more than a hundred miles in an almost mathemati-
cally straight line along the south flank of the Clinch Mountain from

Bil (Lesley.

Tennessee, past Moccasin Gap, back of Saltville, past Sharon Alum
Springs, to Hunting Camp and Kimberling Creeks, and so on, eastward,
across New River towards the James River country. No doubt some
sections of this line hold the ore bed in a lean and, perhaps, unworkable
condition ; but it is quite incredible that other sections will not have it

1871.)

both thick and rich.

Now it is along this Poor Valley and its outcrop of iron ore that Gen.
Haupt locates the line of railway.

Even if the Clinch River line be adopted, for the sake of the coal and
for other reasons, a branch road must certainly be made up Hunting
Camp Creek to the Plaster Banks, at Saltville ; and this branch will have
the ore crop of Poor Vailey, and the ore deposits of Tumbling Run, on
top of Short Mountain, at its command. It can bring the fossil ore for-
ward to the Forks of Wolf Creek, where are the before mentioned large
deposits of brown hematite ore ; and where it will meet the coal coming
across from the Clinch River. Here, or somewhere lower down Wolf
Creck, perhaps at its mouth, will probably be located one of the princi-
pal future iron-works of Southwestern Virginia.

THE PLASTER (@YPSUM) BANKS, AT SALTVILLE.

A sound theory of the origin of the gypsum can be, for the present,
our only guide to a correct estimate of its quantity, where it is known to
exist, and to its discovery elsewhere.

typsum may be produced by the action of free sulphuric acid on lime-
stone ; or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen gas on limestone. One
or the other, or both of these agents combined, have acted on the lime-
stone rocks along the banks of the N. Fork Holston River, from Saltville,
eastward for a number of miles, converting them into gypsum. The
acid, whether in a fluid or in a gaseous form, has undoubtedly passed
along between the walls of the great fissure which has thrown the
Lower Coal Measures of the Poor Valley (Little) Mountain 15,000 or
20,000 feet down against the limestones ; has soaked into the walls of
the fissure ; and has changed the limestone to gypsum for many yards
on each side of the crack. Shafts have been sunk through solid masses
of gypsum rocks thus formed to a reported depth of 500 and 600 feet,
finding no bottom to the gypsum.

The story of this shafting as given tome by General Bowen is as follows :

3 ° ; ge
Saltville. Up 8 the >. Holston River: oa y
= nS ; § §
» Ss
Vs i ais % :
< iy 7 ok 1
Ves ee 88s ny £
B54 ee dah § %
ads oa § 8
sbis3 s g S x
Ss & 33 Y Ny a 3 Ry
aA BS 3 Sak i) x
5 :
Per Cua Smiles. Lr about 70 miles Pitino
ve ;
Ea
a
s&
us
§

fd
Lesley. ] 512 [April 21,

Captain Smith and his son-in-law Mr. Robinson many years ago sank
a line of shafts across the (tertiary or postertiary) plain on which Salt-
ville stands, and all of them through gypsum all the way down. Others
were sunk by Smith & Robinson, Campbell, Taylor & Bowen, Meik and
others at other places in the Holston Valley for a length of twenty (20)
miles, more orless, and up Cove Creek four or five miles still further east.
No attempts were made to get the plaster further on towards Sharon Alum
Springs; but there is nothing to intimate its non-existence except the
absence of outcrops through the soil, These outcrops naturally exist-
ing, or accidentally exposed in farming, or by the railroad cuttings south
and west of the village, have alone (as it seems) determined the search
after gypsum in the valley. And as the Saltville people alone have any
proper machinery for sending it to market, a stop has been put to all
exploration elsewhere.

Moreoyor, seeing that Capt. Smith struck a copious brine in two of his
wells, the opinion early prevailed that the salt and the gypsum were
geologically connected. This opinion induced a number of persons to
sink in the gypsum outcrops not for gypsum but for salt water. As salt water

_ was obtained in no single instance other than Capt. Smith’s two wells, all
hope of obtaining brine and making salt elsewhere than at Saltville has
been long since abandoned ; and consequently all exploration of the gyp-
sum rocks, which had no commercial value to the salt-well borers.

It is therefore probable that the limestone wall (the south wall) of the
Holston River Downthrow (Upthrow of limestone) will in course of time
be discovered to be converted into gypsum at other points besides those
specified above ; and that the gross quantity of gypsum existing beneath
the surface along this part of the Holston River far exceeds any estimate
which [ can make from the gypsum banks already opened. And for the
same reason it is probable that the limestone walls of the other Upthrows
of the region will be found turned into gypsum, at least in certain places,
and in very considerable abundance.

The appearance of brine in such quantity and of such strength must
be considered as a local phenomenon explainable without reference to the
gypsum. Such an explanation may be found in the very curious lake-
deposit of the little triangular plain of Saltville; a deposit evidently
made in a deep little lake or pond basin filled with red mud saturated

. In this mud the salt-water

ksalt deposit now rises the

with salt-water, gypsum drainings, &c., &
has deposited rocksalt, and from this
copious discharge of brine which furnishes all the supply needful for the
extensive salt works. The salt lies in solid form, mixed and inter-strati-
fied with compact red marl or clay, 200 feet below the water-level of the
Holston ; and the borings..have gone down (at the Salt Works) 176 feet
further without reaching the bottom! On the top of the deposits of salt
and mud is a stratum of blue slate more than 100 feet thick. Over the
blue slate lie 60 or 80 feet of gypseous clays. The limestone country being
cavernous to great depths, and especially along the face of the Down-
throw, it is not surprising to notice that the level of water stands the
same for ali the wells and shafts sunk at Saltville and rises and falls in sym-

1871.7 513 (Lesley.

pathy with the Holston River. This accounts for the inexhaustible supply of
liquid. The heaviest pumping has no perceptible effect in lowering the level.

In 1853 the salt yield was 300,000 bushels; 50 Ibs. to the bushel, and 6 bush-
els to the barrel ; at 50 cents a bushel. Five furnaces were then running
24,000 gallons of brine pumped daily ; 10,000 cords of wood burned yearly.

During the Civil War, four wells were pumped night and day for six
months, and yielded 1,000,000 bushels of salt during that half year.
There were then sixty-nine different ‘‘ blocks of kettles”? going. These
kettles, broken and rusty, lie scattered about the valley for six miles,
half buried in piles of burnt and broken down walls which represent the
various works then in full operation. Some of the salt water was carried
in railway tanks nine miles to Glade Spring Station on the Virginia and
Tennessee Railroad, and boiled there.

At present there are three ‘‘blocks,’’ of 80 kettles each, (5 bushel to a
kettle) per 24 hours, making 360,000 bushels per year, of 800 days.

Preston’s gypsum banks yielded 2000 tons in 1854; the cost at the
mines, in lump, being $3, and in flour $5; eighty miles distant $20.

What the yield has been since and what it is now, I do not know. Ope-
rations are vigorously carried on at four or five shafts. Plaster is now
sold at the mines for $2.50 the ton; at Sharon Alum Springs, 35 miles to
the eastward, at $10, in wagons; and is carried forty miles further east
for use upon the soil. Its virtues are well known and highly prized. It
doubles the grass crop and grain, and greatly improves corn. One bushel
of 100 pounds is sown to the acre.

A railway from Saltville east would find a market for all the plaster it
carried. Plaster would go east to the Wolf Creek Fork Junction, and re-
turn by the other line to be used on the pasture lands of Tazewell and
Russell and Wise Counties. But its greatest commercial outlet would be
towards Staunton and Winchester.

Although the gypsum rocks have not the regularity of a coal bed, and
some difficulties, of a kind peculiar to this district will be encountered
when mining operations are extended to cope with the demands of com-
merce along a great trunk railroad, yet I see no practical limit to the
eapacity of the gypsum belt for exploration. Shafts five and six hun-
dred feet deep have permitted the miners to feel the gypsum masses for
fifty yards in width. Such a mass, limited by such a shaft, weighs six or
seven hundred thousand tons, provided the gypsum be solid the entire
depth of the shaft, &c., &c. This is not the case ; neither, on the other
hand, is the width of the column of gypsum limited to fifty yards, or to
any other figure. Nothing can be more irregular than the masses of gyp-
sum underground—unless it be the course to be taken to get it out to the
surface. In spite of all mining difficulties the value and scarcity of
the mineral in all other parts of the country must make its mining in this
district always extremely profitable, and its railway carriage over long dis-
ances inevitable. It must always be in demand; can always pay a high
freight charge, and cannot meet with competition from the Nova Scotia
plaster until it arrives within a hundred miles or so of tidewater. Westward
and southward it may go five hundred miles without meeting competition.

514

Stated Meeting, Sept. 20, 1872.
Present, nine members.
Vice President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair.

A Photograph was received from Mr. A. H. Worthen,
dated, Springfield, Ill., August 31, 1872.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Con-
gressional Librarian, Sept. 5th (Proc. Vol. 1. Catalogue
I., IT.), the Boston N. H. 8., May 15th (XIV., iii. 86, 87,) and
the London Geological Society (XIV., iii. 86.)

A letter of envoy was received from the New York State
Library, dated August 30.

A letter describing the Museums and Libraries of Ox-
ford, England, was received from Mr. W. A. Smith, Pro-
fessor of Moral Philosophy in Columbia, Tennessee, Athen-
xum, dated, Sept. 14th, 1872.

A letter was received from D. C. H. Stubbs, dated July
8th, 1872, respecting the purchase of copies of Photographs
of Indian Sculpture. On motion the Secretary of the even-
ing was authorized to purchase a set after due examination
of their value.

Donations for the Library were received from the Horti-
cultural Society in Berlin, the Prussian Academy, the
Observatory at Turin, the Geographical Society, Revue Poli-
tique, and Lartét family at Paris, the Edinburg Observatory,
the Meteorological Office in London, Nature, the Canadian
Naturalist, Essex Institute, Old and New, Dr. 8. A. Green of
Boston, American Antiquarian Society, American Journal of
Science, and Professor O. C. Marsh of New Haven, American
Chemist, Mr. W. W. Mann, the Dudley Observatory, New
York State Library, N. J. Historical Society, Franklin
Institute, Medical News, Journal of Pharmacy, and Prof.
Kdwin J. Houston of Philadelphia, the Petroleum Monthly,
the U. 8. Observatory, Bureau of the Interior, Prof. F. L. O.
Rohrig, the Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of U. 8. En-
gineers, and the Wisconsin Historical Society.

The death of Mr. Jacob R. Eckfeld at Haverford, near

515

Philadelphia, August 9th, aged 70, was announced with
appropriate remarks by Mr. Patterson.

On motion, Mr. Dubois was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

The death of Dr. John Bell of Philadelphia, August 19th,
aged 77, was announced by the Secretary.

On motion, Dr. B. H. Coates was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

Sommunications were received from Prof. EH. D. Cope
under the following titles:

Third account of New Vertebrata from the Bridger Eocene
of Wyoming Territory.

Notices of New Vertebrata from the upper waters of

Bitter Creek, Wyoming Territory.
Second notice of Extinct Vertebrates from Bitter Creek,
Wyoming Territory.

On the existence of Dinosauria in the Transition beds ot

Wyoming Territory.

On the Dentition of Metalophodon.

The Secretary announced that he had received a telegram
from Prof. Cope, dated Black Buttes, Wyoming Territory,
August 17th, announcing the discovery of Lefalophodom
dicornutus, bifureatus, and excressicornis, Cope.

Prof. Edwin J. Houston called the attention of the Society

to a remarkable instance of the acoustic sensitiveness of

matter. “While visiting a number of water-falls on Adam’s
Brook, Pike Co., Pennsylvania, I noticed one in which a
scanty supply of water was dripping, in thin delicate streams,
from the moss covered walls of a precipice. The day was
unusually calm, and the veins were remarkably free from
ventral segments for a considerable distance from the fila-
ments of moss from which they issued. Struck with this
circumstance the idea occurred to me to test the sensitive-
ness of the stream to sound pulses. J made the attempt, and
after several trials found a note, a shrill falsetto, to which
they would respond.

The experiment was one of extreme beauty. At one point

516 [Sept. 20,

Chase. ]

of the falls, there were no less than one hundred of these
streams, and on sounding the required note the groupings
of the drops and the positions of the ventral segments in-
stantly altered in quite a marvellous manner. This case of
acoustic sensitiveness is one of the most extensive I have
ever noticed.

A. second fall was found that would respond to certain
notes, though it was not equal to the first in sensitiveness.

Though not able, from a sudden flooding of the streams,
to discover the exact conditions for success, I believe the
explanation of the phenomenon to be the same as that now
generally given for sensitive smoke and water jets, viz: that
the sound pulses produce a vibration of the orifice of the jet,
by which the constitution of its issuing stream is altered.
The orifice in the case is replaced by the thin moss filaments,
which are surrounded by the stream instead of surrounding
it. rom their shape and position their filaments, acting as
reeds, readily accept the motion of the sound waves and so
alter the constitution of the vein.”

Prof. Chase communicated observations on Daily Auroral
and Meteoric Means, and on some new correlations of stellar
and Planetary distances.

Mr. Lesley described a newly observed terminal moraine
crossing the Walkill Valley at Ogdensburg near Franklin,
Essex county, New Jersey.

Pending nominations, Nos. 697 to 701 and new nomina-
tion No. 702 were read.

The meeting was then adjourned.

DAILY AURORAL AND METEORIC MEANS.
By Purny Earur Case.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 20, 1872.)

The apparent influence of meteoric falls upon auroras, which is indi-
cated by the five-day means, (ante p. 402), renders more minute observa-
tions desirable, in order to ascertain to what extent a similar influence
may be traceable in the daily means.

The only available observations that have fallen under my notice,
from which any satisfactory approximation can be made to the daily
meteoric curve, are embodied in Baumhauer’s table of the recurrences of
meteoric stones and fire-balls, quoted by Lovering, (‘‘on the Periodicity

Sa

1872.] 517 [Chase.

of the Aurora Borealis,’’ p. 220). Lovering observes that the days sig-
nalized by the frequency of these phenomena are also days which, accord-
ing to Quetelet, are distinguished by extraordinary numbers of shooting
stars. Ihave grouped the second means of Baumhauer’s numbers in
five-day periods, and calculated the ratio of each ordinate to a mean or-
dinate of 100, in order to justify the following comparison with the auroral
ordinates, which were similarly computed from Lovering’s table. 1

Se

Frve-Day AURORAL AND Mrerroric NoRMALS. |
(A.—Auroral, Lovering. M.—Meteoric, Baumhauer.) H
A. M. A. M. /
January 3, 110 119 July 2, 40 35 |
«“ 8, 110 128 “6 i, 4G 51
ee 1 114 116 ‘ 12, 44 3
«“ 18, TS = 2-90 ee 40 118
Co oe: 110 89 3, 39 124
eo 198, 1d 98 cg ON, 45 121
Feb. es 113 111 August 1, 49 136
“ ip 116 115 ‘ 6, 51 160
7 lO, 125 105 et, , 60 160
“ ie 133 91 1G, 76 134
} Re ie D8, 134 90 ae ocopak 88 103
dy xt 132 97 cc 06; 95 14.
March 4, 129 1038 a 3 102 65 |
‘“ 9, 138 106 Sept. 5, 112 86 |
eee 145 = 101 ts, 1238 =: 110 i
tela 10 144 88 ee als 131 106 |
ed. 138 82 20, 188 88 ]
Cr 91 <i ie 86 |
Apt. 3 133 103 ‘ 30, 139 99 |
‘“ 8, 130 108 October 5, 138 108 |
ee: 131 98 ver 10; 129 108 i
cc Fig, 118 16 1b, 129 108 I
7 08 94. 68 co 20 188 111 i
as ols) 79 66 st 132 105 7
May 8, 76 69 <i oe 95 |
\ “ 8, 66 1 Nov. = 4 120 106 |
fe 61 86 “ 9, 121 148 :
er ae 57 100 ce id: 129 170 |
« 23, 51 96 oe 19, 127 156 q
98, 47 88 qk. 113 182 |
June 2, 44 85 Se uh 109 125 |
“ y 44 82 Dec. 4, 115 125 |
“eB rel 73 tc. det, ae |
Hos eile 35 By 4s 127 123
e 22, 31 38 . 19, 125 JA |
: aT 36 31 m3 24, 114 99 i
4. Swe We. |

Ckase.] 518 [Sept. 20,

Tn each curve there is a tendency to monthly maxima, the tendency be-
ing least evident in the summer months.

The principal minimum in each curve is in June.

There are nine marked maxima in each curve, of which those in the
months of January, February, March, April, September, October and
November, are the most nearly accordant. These maxima are as follows :

A, Jan. 13, Feb. 22. Mar. 16., Apr. 13.°.<:.. July 7)... . Sept.:25.
Oct. 20. Nov. 14. Dec. 14. ‘

M. Jan. 8. Feb. 7. Mar. 9. Apr. 8 May 18. .... Aug. 6. Sept. 10.
Oct. 20. Noy. 14.7.0 ..

Two of the maxima are synchronous in the two curves ; three occur in
the auroral ordinate which follows the meteoric ordinate ; two occur in
the third subsequent ordinate, one of the two being midway between a
precedent and subsequent meteoric ordinate. The accordances and the
discrepancies may perhaps be explained by the hypothesis of lunar per-
turbations.

The daily curves present a similar accordance in the number of
maxima and minima, but in consequence of the frequent uncertainty
whether the auroral or the meteoric should be regarded as the precedent
influence, they do not seem to furnish any additional data for satisfactory
conclusions.

By variously grouping the auroral observations on each side of the
days that have been designated by Wolfe and Kirkwood as rich in meteoric
displays, or on each side of the middle days of meteoric periods, a variety
of curves may be formed, of which the three following sets of ordinates
furnish examples :

Days. —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 41424844 +5 +46 +7
a 100 99 100 102 104 106 106 104 103 105 107 108 106 101 99
B 99 99 97 97 97 99 101 101 100 101 102 102 104 104 102
7 103 102 101 98 97 98 98 99 101 101 101 103 105 101 98

These curves indicate a connection of meteoric displays with increasing
auroral displays, together with a slight subordinate tendency to auroral
maxima within one day of a meteoric display.

Although the wthereal disturbance, which is manifested by the auroras,
appears to follow, more often than it precedes, meteoric falls, it seems
probable that both phenomena are often dependent upon lunar pertur-
bations or other extraneous causes. In such cases, the auroras may be-
come visible before the meteors have reached the carth’s atmosphere, and
been made incandescent by friction.

STELLAR AND PLANETARY CORRELATIONS.
By Pror. Purny EARLE CHase.
(Lead before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 20, 1872.)

Merecury’s mean distance may be grouped with the mean distances of
other primary planets, so as to form the two following series :*

*In each table, C denotes the logarithm of the computed value; O, the logarithm of the ob-
served value; Lk, the percentage of error in the computed value; 4, the limit of retardation by
solar rotation aud of possible solar atmosphere; M, modulus of light. The fundamental unit

is the suus’s radius, The origin of the co-ordinates is taken at the intersection of the axis and
the directrix, ‘

1872.] 519 [Chase.

(L.) (IL)

Cc. Us EK OF Oo. EB.

.178852 115730

467972 .732849

786253 28 T, 1.335803 1.888858 +.003
8 T, 1.188195 1.135183 —.004 % 1.924592 1.919997 +.011
8 4.508798 1.509949 —.008 J 2.500216 2.513999 —.082
% 1.913062 1.919977 —.016 Y 8.062175 3.048392 +.082
@2 345987 2.882155 +.082 & 8.610469 3.615068 —.011

2.807573

kh 3.297820 3.311651 —.032

W 3.816728 3.809811 -+.016

If the limiting radius of solar retardation (L 36.4, see ante, p. 415) be
regarded as also a limit of explosive oscillation, and if radii terminating
in the cardinal points of the explosive excursion (4, 4, 3, 4, 4, 2, §) be
employed for determining a parabolic series, the mean distances of
Venus, Earth, and Jupiter, will be represented by succeeding abscissas
of the same series, as in Table IIT.

(IIT.)
C O E
127899
291712
-453089
1 L 612030 606859 $012
ae » 768535 - 782950 ~.084
pe .922604 . 907889 +-.084
1“ 1.074237 1.083980 -.028
eee 1.228484 1.208919 1-.084
a 1.870195 1.885010 .085
ae 1.514520 1.509949 1.011
1.656409
1.795862
1.932879
2.067460
Q 2.199605 2.191493 1.019
@ 2.829314 2.332155 007
2.456587
2.581424
2.708825
2.823790
2.941319
y 8.056412 3.048392 +-.019

Ifthe determining series be modified by substituting L for § L, and em-
ploying 4 L for the succeeding determining abscissa, Mercury’s perihelion

Chase. ] 520 [Sept. 20,

and aphelion, and the mean distances of Venus, Mars and Jupiter, will
be represented by succeeding abscissas of the same series, as in table IV.

(IV.)
C (6) E

.047818

187943

.830020

474049
1 .6200380 .606859 +-.081
6 - 767963 . 782950 —.085
Ze .917848 .907889 +-.028
4 6 1.069685 1.083980 —,088
pe 1.223474 1.208919 +.034
Z «6 1.879215 1.885010 —.014
has! 1.536908 1.561101 ae UK
fs 1.696553 1.686040 +-.025
oe 1.858150 1.850507 +.018
Su 2.021699 2.021443 +-.000
f°) 2.187200 2.191493 = 1010
2@* 2.354653 2.353070 -+.004.
A 2.524058 2.513999 +028

2.695415

2.868724.
y 3.043985 3.048392 1010
y— wt 3.221138 3.211038 +..024

In a communication which I presented to the Society, May 16th, 1872,
I indicated some simple relations between the superficial gravity and the
times of rotation of the Sun, Jupiter and the Earth. If those relations
are, as I believe, determined by an influent force, we may reasonably look
for some analogous relations between our own and other stellar systems.

In the solar-foeal parabola which passes through ¢ Centauri and has
its directrix in a linear centre of- oscillation of a solar diameter, twenty-
seven successive abscissas may be taken in regular progression,

[ey = 0), EO) om)

between the star and the Sun’s surface, nine of which will be extra
planetary, nine will be in simple planetary relations, and nine will be
intra-planetary.

The upper extra-planetary abscissa bears nearly the same ratio to the
modulus of light, as I bears to solar radius.

The limiting abscissas of the planetary series are determined by com-
pining diametral centres of oscillation (2><3), with centres of explosive
condensation ($), and of explosive oscillation (3).

The planetary series, between these limits, is } 9, 2 @, 3%, 4 mean
asteroid, § 2/, $ kh, $ 6.

€ Mean centre of gravity of % and @ at heliocentric conjunction,
+ Mean centre of gravity of all the planets, at heliocentric conjunction.

BF a

1872.) 52)

[Chage.

AY
nearly equivalent to the co-efficient of the exterior intra-asteroidal ab
scissa (? 4 ).

The co-efficient of the inner limiting planetary abscissa (4 & 5 8) is

The co-efficient of the outer planetary abscissa {¢ X $ W) is nearly the
reciprocal of the co-efficient of the inner extra-asteroidal abscissa (3 2J).
The middle abscissa of the planetary series corresponds very nearly with
the inner limit of the asteroidal belt (Flora = 2.674854), as well as with
¢ of the mean distance of the three principal central asteroids 2.672519),
5 I ( ?
and with 4 of the geometrical mean between Flora and Cybele 2.683640).
5 g y

Between modulus and the influent centre of solar explosive oscillation
(4 L) there are fifteen abscissas, of which § kh is the middle one,

Between the Saturnian abscissa and jr, there are fifteen abscissas. of
which 4 L is the middle one. :

The abscissas representing centres of effluent or influent explosive
condensation (§ M and } L), are similarly situated with reference to the
intermediate planetary belt,

No probable values can be assigned to the cardinal abscissas (4 Centauri
and § L), which will produce deviations ef the theoretical from the ob-
served values of a higher order of magnitude than the planetary eccen-
tricities.

Henderson’s first estimate of the parallax of g Centauri was 1//.16.
Maclear’s observations, in 1839-40, gave /’,9128, and his more extended
series, 1839-48, gave //.9187. Norton adopts ’,918 ; Lockyer, /’.9187;
Denison, without assigning any reason, /’.976. We may reasonably re-
gard Norton’s and Denison’s estimates as the limits of probable value,
and compute the logarithmic 7 and ¢ from each estimate by the following
equations.

E+ 20% +400 £ = 7.686009 (N), or 7.657096 (D)
&= 4L = 1.208919.

b= yn + C—=-1.221849

% ea et
mee G

d

Solving these equations we obtain :

= .211401 +, or .210702 +

vf
F = .005622 +, or .005585 4
‘In the following table, C’ contains the abscissas accerding to Nor-
ton; C’’, according to Denison; C’’’, according to the actual planetary
mean distances. The degree of accordance, between the parabolas which
are computed from stellar and solar data and the one which is computed
from planetary data, and the evidences of «ethereal condensation which
are furnished by the gradual lengthening of the observed abscissas, are
especially noteworthy.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—3N

9)
Ohage,| 522 (Sept. 20, 1872.

(V.)
(Os or ov oO
¢ Cent. 7.686009 7.657096 7.654826
LXM — 7.255828 7.228566 7.218310 7.215776
6.835882 6.811207 6.801940
6.427687 6.405019 6.396716
- 6.030788 6.010001 6.002638
’M 5.645084 5.626153 5.619706 5.627715
5.270576 5.273476 5.247920
4.907363 * 4.891970 4,887280
4.555395 4,541 654. 4.537786
4,214673 4.202470 4,199438
4<8 W 8.885196 3.874475 3,872236 3.883597
46 3.566964 3.557654 3.556180 3.557071
6h 3.259978 3.251999 3.251270 3.244704
ay 2.964237 2.957515 2.957506 2.969211
49k 2.679741 2.674204. 2.674888 2,672519
a% 2.406491 2.402063 2.403416 2.389060
20 2.144486 2.141093 2.143090 2.156064
+9 1.893726 1.891294 1.893910 1.890463
4x$ ¥ 1.654212 1.652665 1.655876 1.643972
1.425948 1.425207 1.428988
41, 1.208919 1.208919 1.213246 1.208919
1.003140 1.003802 1.008650
808607 -809856 -815200
2 625319 627081 .632896 606858
458216 ADBATT 461738
.292479 -295042 .801726
142927 145779 152860
.004620 .007686 .015140
i 1.877559 -1.880764 ~1.888566 ~1.890856
1.761743 ~1.'765013 —1.773188
1.657172 ~1.660432 ~1.668856
~1.563847 ~1.567023 ~1.575720
1.481767 —1.484783 ~1.493730
1.410932 ~1.413714 —1.422886
1.351348 ~1.353816 -1.363188
i ~1.303000 ~1.305089 -1.314636 1.301030
1.265902 °° -1.267532 ~1.277230
1.240049 ~1.241146 ~1.250970
~1.225441 1.225981 ° 1.235856
~1.222078 ~1.221886 ~1.231888

1.229961, d&c. 1.229011, &c. -1.239066, &e.

Re
July 19, 1872.) 523 rohade.

CYCLICAL RAINFALL AT SAN FRANCISCO.

By Purny Ear_e CuAse, PrRoressor oF Puysics In HavERFORD
COLLEGE.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 19th and October
18th, 1872.)

Although I know of no good reason for admitting that the question,
whether the moon exerts an influence upon the weather, is still an open
one, there is, undoubtedly, considerable uncertainty as to the value of any
predictions that may be based upon such influence, liable, as it is, to local,
accidental and variable disturbances, partly of a known and partly of an
unknown character. On this account, I think it desirable to collect and
discuss all accessible records of observations extending over a period of
ten or more years, especially in the neighborhood of sea-coasts and large
bodies of water, in order to find how the lunar weather-curves are modified.
by the forms of continental relief, the average hygrometric condition of
the air, the changes of wind, and other obvious or more obscure sources
of perturbation. I am willing to devote all the time I can spare from

TABLE I.

Different and non-correspondent Rainfalls at San Francisco, in Lunar and Solar
periods, from ‘July 1, 1849, to July1, 1872. R= Total fall; N= Normal percentage of
rain,

LUNAR MONTHLY || SOLAR YEARLY.

; A | -
Noy. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.-Oct. Yr. || 1849+3n* 1850}82 185143n Ay.

RA? S| alas Wag * CNT ae | SERS REREACEE| ——A-— —— sales atta |
eee Oe ee ee es ae a eee
6.67 84 816 124 126 69 97 || 22.85 319 16.01 287 12.19 273 2097
4.93 83 12.69 128 474 81 97 |} 28.41 314 14.94 264 6.12 194 267
6.58. 82.) 6.16- 150 -5.07 — OF Oh 4 26.26 260 1115 242 9.84 155 228
6.61 98 6.81 105 5.88 98 92 || 5.20 190 1445 238 390 165 198
8.562 109 9.26 99 3.18 90 96 14.98 169 13.67 227 11.97 202 194
4.73 121 564 84 4.49 92 104 16.81 163 9.97 200 14.57 220 189
9.74126 279 75 6565 101 107 7.67 140 9,94 171 4,97 213 169
7.96 125 7.55 86 455 111 108 10.08 117 8.50 140 15.382 203 147
9:00 320-787 ST. 6:78 119 107 911 97 4.41 108 804 158 117
7.08: Jib = 16 92° 0.51 116 403 4 438 69 5.63 84 2.58 86 78
8.12 104 604 79 3.86 lll 97 3825 42 329 62 30 46 49
$.91 115° 3.54 67 615 117 99 146° 238. 1,56: 44 4.07. 37. 35
13.40 188 446 72 700 129 110 we dhe 2 St 30, 2L 20
9.47 148 6.89 91 562 148 125 | 10 5 FO LO 08 8 9
9.65 1387 7.84 1138 960 172 138 | Pa ly g 2 06 5 05 1 3
9.41 118 10.79 126 11.10 169 134 i 00 ae 4 1 200 1 1
3.87 86 803 128 4.98 183 1165 |! -00 0 00 1 +21 2 1
407 78 9.40 126 342 111 105 || 05 0 02 Ue. 00 1 1
7.92 861006 118 815 110 104 |} 01 af 02 0 .04 2 1
6.34 86 6.69 101 3.99 97 96 28 2 300 ly 200 5 2
6.17 82 647 92 3.67 72 85 ak 2 04 3. 419 9 4
B.6l 84 6.96 94 226 55 88 || (eS us a
Test 80 6.88 J00 Tiel 57 86 |) 0B 8 do 8 0B ye
2 | 2.14 25 OL UL 2at 3r e

4.31 89 5.52 93 392 76 85
9.29 103 9.53 105 5.12 85 93

. 21.8L 260 351 203 8.28 233 235
7.09 105 6.94 1138 443 77 96

26.52 300 20 82 261 25.381 307 290

¥ 1849, °52, 765, °58, °61, ’64, '67, °70; 1850, °53, °66, ete., 1851, °54, °57, °60, ete.

¢
Chase.] 524 [duly 1.

daily duties, te such investigations ; but the field is so large that I would
gladly welcome the co-operation of all who may feel an interest in studies
that promise new and satisfactory results as a reward for diligent labor.
The success of the Signal Service Bureau* has demonstrated the im-
portance of careful attention to the most minute indications of possible
law, and the influence of the physical geography of our continent upon

‘the weather has been so well ascertained that we may reisonably hope
for similar success from a like careful study of astronomical influences.
The well-known tendency to weekly metecrological cycles has never been
attributed to any more obvieus or probable cause than lunar modifications
“of solar actien, and such evidences of cyclical uniformity as have already
rewarded my limited researches, encourage me to hope that much of the
apparent discordance and supposed accidental irregularity, by which
meteorologists ave still perplexed, will be finally shown, by broad generali-

TABLE IT,

Correspondent Rainfalls at San Francisco, in Lunar and Solar periods,

oO LUNAR MONTHLY. | SOLAR YEARLY.

— ae fai
1864-72 Av. 1849-57 1857-64 1864-
RIS, eo Aik ers ci

N. R.

16.98 266
14.01 233
12.98 184
6.03 159
9.87 187
20.62 218
8.63 200

7.55 186
7.64 104
2.95: 72
3.48 44
62 1
03 7
05 2
12 1
00 mf
02 0
OL a
00 4
62 9
Mle de
69 «21
8.37 85

8.82 168 6.97 168 16.56 192 172
9.59 208 11.03 202 12.96 5
20.09 254 18.35 254 89.21 349 290

* Captain Toynbee’s recent discussion, for the British Meteorological Committee, ‘‘ of the me-
teorology of the part of the Atlantic lying north of 30° N., for the eleven days ending 8th Feb-
ruary, 1870,’’ gives very flattering evidence of the estimation in which this success
abroad. On page 164, he sa: **This paper only deals with eleven days of rather exceptional
weather, when a southerly wind prevailed on our coasts, It can only be considered as a first
attempt at the style of work which is needed to connect the excellent observations now being
‘éuken in America with these in Europe,

s held

$

heal

FOR
1372. ] 525 [Chase.

zations, to be as completely subject to ascertainable laws as are the mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies.

About a year ago, I showed, by my discussions of the Lisbon rainfall
(ante pp. 178-190), that it is possible, uuder favorable circumstances, to
obtain satisfactory evidence of lunar influence upon the weather, even
from a comparison of the rainfall in different cycles of less than six
years’ average duration. My subsequent discussion of the monthly
means of Tennent’s San Francisco observations (Journal of the Franklin
Institute, lxiii. 204-6), led me to hazard certain predictions relative to the
tidal rains on the opposite shores of continents, and the influence of
opposite winds, or of upper and lower tidal currents. Mr. Tennent has
gcnerously furnished me a copy of his'daily observations on the rainfall,
which so fully corroborate the first and third of those predictions, that I
hope to obtain from him an equally complete record of the direction of
the wind, in order to have the requisite data for similarly testing the
other two. Governor Rawson W. Rawson, C. B., has also kindly con-
sented to provide me with a transcript of observations at Barbados, a sta-
tion within the belt of the trade winds, and, therefore, favorably situated
for such comparisons with the San Francisco observations as may serve

TABLE III.
Normals of Rainfall in Synodic years of Jupiter.

SAN FRANCISCO. LISBON,
A

c r es.

oi : 3 3 2 al
ms Se ae a 8
2S ia 2 B ee ee a
| # 3 8 S a io = bt 19
n a a = 4 tar) x a na se
te 80 150 131 132 120 93 118 16 81
oe 116 154 141 151 146 98 136 17 88
S$: 157 11 117 133 144 112 182 18 99
ae? 166 64 81 97 116 124 BEE 19 108
ee 157 50 68 84 87 142 99 20 110
62 142 58 70 97 62 150 96 21 99
T.. 110 64 65 101 49 117 85 22 86
Sie 81 63 57 97 46 70 71 23 84
ony 87 68 60 112 51 60 76 24 96
119 99 89 127 94 86 108 25 107
138 144 128 144 158 113 141 26 112
120 159 133 182 170 111 141 27 118
81 149 98 122 132 91 118 28 115
60 146 75 7 105 82 107 29 120
72 131 79 120 95 94 104 30 122
83 90 7 90 17 100 87 1 117
71 63 64 63 62 82 67 2 108
55 70 57 58 64 71 63 3 86
55 81 65 61 70 78 69 4 76
71 75 78 57 86 79 73 5 76
92 68 93 55 100 83 79 6 81
1038 69 104 3 93 106 84 7 88
98 78 107 75 80 121 87 8 93
84 97 114 90 81 110 90 9 103
; UE 114 129 102 95 94 98 10 108
5 101 125 157 109 126 107 114 i 118
ees 132 127 Li7 116 148 122 129 12 116
28.. 124 114 157 109 153 110 119 13 112
29... 93 102 120 91 108 96 98 14 98
ee Soper oe oe 15 nA Ws 11 98 101 95 98 15 84

6) J
Chase. } : 526 [July 19,

to strengthen the inferences which 1 have already published, and, per-
haps, supply additional data of a novel character.

The accompanying tables and curves are constructed on the same plan
as those in my previous meteorological papers. The scale and the degree
of smoothing by successive means are uniform ; the comparative influ-
ence of the sun, moon and Jupiter can, therefore, be readily seen ata
glance. The vertical lines (0 to 7) in each set of diagrams indicate the
mean hour at which the moon or planet is on the meridian, as follows :

0 12M: aor, Mi. 4 12P.M. 6 6A. M.
to Py ve. 3° 9P. M. be ok Me Ur ALM.

The tidal influence, therefore, co-operates with the maximum direct
solar influence, in the atmosphere as a whole, and especially in the
upper currents, at 0 and 4; in the lower atmosphere and with the surface
winds, at 2 and 6. The positions of Newton’s theoretical high tides
(Principia, B.1., Prop. 66, Cor. 20) are at Land 5 ; the low tides at 3 and 7.
My theoretical low barometer is synchronous with Newton’s high tide ;
high barometer, with low tide.

The moon’s influence is most marked in the heavy rains (a) ; least, in
the frequency of rainfall (y). The principal maximum both in frequency
and amount, is near the time of full moon, when the local atmospheric

TABLE Ivy.

Number of Rainfalls,and amounts of heavy rains (one inch or more), at San Francisco,
on Lunar days.

NUMBER OF RAINFALLS. | AMOUNT OF HEAVY RAINS.
cK hae eno! @
1857-64. 1864-72, Av. 1849-57. 1857-64. 1864-72. Av.

| AEN TEER (oa pete ee
No. N.: No N,N, Ay NG HAR CIN oat ING SING
16 108 4 91 89|| 3.26 118 1.73 84 «2.38 TS 92
IT? 102. 36 96 91|) 289 104 4.10 95 00 66 87
12 oT) 620 107 97 || 2.20 79 00 66 4.21 81 17
15 99 21 . 109 101]; 1.04 61 00 6h 161 92 74
17-208 it 0% = 101) 39 64 3.69 4114 212 111 97
Tat 106: <b 99 100}) 2.08 73 3.29 144 6.29 124 116
UW7s 11. oe 106. 104)):4.04 208 «2.67, 148.114... 118. dy
19, 116 22 Ji@ L07)1.00. 0d 2 142. 38.22 100 1G
16 115 18 109 106/| 287 1138 350 141 3849 106 118
18 110 20 98 99 || 4.88 120 246 122 2.75 91 110
Zoe 108) ul 87 93 || 2.45 103 2.28 87 «1.45 79 90
18/7102 16 85 95 || 1.85 17 00 64 1.05 116 88
18.- 130 “15 93 106 )| 1.21 78 1.80 SU £70) 18h UG
17° «121 «19 «©6105 «6118 |) 2.46 128 2.60 128 6.09 207 154
91, 126 20. M17 12h ao, to. 1s 166 00. 190 176
00 116 26 (117 =~ 319 1 609° 2 baa 80 Ob Boa" © 166
ale 98 16 104 107/| 2.30 126 246 152 00 218 . 181
4 89 «14 98 102 00° 180° 2g 100, 4b iE ay
13 87 «21 101 .,105)|,.980 169. 1.07 68 454 103 112
138 87 18 100 104|| 2.27 129 00 60 -00 68 87
13 86 14 95 97 00 83 2.99 86 «1.60 49 12
13 87 «18 97 92 || 3.63 78 71:00. HT 162 55 80
13 89 «619 98 92 || 2.20 12 OG 12h: 8d 66 83
14 89 15 93 94. 00 59 00 98 3.08 66 72
14 81 15 90 93 || 2.54 67 = =2.02 90 1.02 48 67
8 ta NG 93 89 |) 2.38 15 2.79 93 00 31 63
10 78). 046 98 89 || 1.42 69 1.49 70 1.68 44 60.
16 95 19. 1038 94 || 1.38 73 00 41 00 94 72
1% 108.19 108 97 || 2.80 96 1,25 32 8.46 138 94.
oe a 96 94) 341 116 OO 48 1.67 119 98

1872.] 527 [Chase

oscillations from lunar influence are most antagonistic to solar action ;
the principal minimum, near the time of new moon, when the oscillations
tend most strongly to reinforce solar action. These laws have such gen-
erality, that, at every station which I have hitherto examined, their influ-
ence is distinctly traceable.

Next in importance to the moon’s modification of solar meteorologie
influence, appears to be its modification of atmospheric pressure. I first
called attention to the importance of this perturbation, in the third and
seventh inferences of my paper on the ‘tidal rainfall of Philadelphia’’
(ante vol. x. p. 581), and showed that at Philadelphia it was more im-
portant than the direct and simple tidal energy. This modification, like
the foregoing, is also traceable in all my previous lunar tables, and its
prominence in the San Francisco curves (on lines 1 and 5, 3 and 7, in diagram
y, and on lines 5, 3 and 7, in a, (7) is specially noticeable.

The second inference in the paper above quoted, that the tidal rain-
fall is, ‘‘like the ocean tides, more marked in low, than in high lati-
tudes,’’ is illustrated by diagrams 7 and 9, If further confirmation is
desired, it may be found in the tables accompanying my previous dis-
cussions of different European, Asiatic and American observations.

My first prediction, that ‘‘the tidal rainfall will generally be found
more strongly marked on the western shores of the several continents,
than in the same latitudes on the eastern shores,’’ is confirmed by the
similarity in the amounts of average monthly fluctuation at San Fran-
cisco and Lisbon, and the smaller fluctuation at Philadelphia (f, 0).
This difference should of course be greatly modified in the regions of the
monsoons, and reversed in the trade-wind regions.

My third prediction, that ‘‘a certain degree of apparent opposition
will be found to exist between the lunar influence upon the upper and
lower cloud strata, dependent upon the normal difference of position in
the tidal crests of deep and shallow fluid envelopes,’’ is partially verified
by the tendency to maxima at quadrature as well as at syzygy (2 and 6,
Oand 4, a, f, 7). The syzygy influence before new moon is manifested
by the maximum after high barometer (7), but it is interrupted by the
lunar intensification of solar action at new moon. If I succeed in obtain-
ing such a record of the San Francisco winds as is necessary for the com-
plete substantiation of the second, third and fourth predictions, I shall
expect to find that the maxima at 2 and 6 are dependent upon the
surface winds; those near 0 and 4 upon the upper atmospheric currents.

I still feel some doubt with regard to the certainty and character of
Jupiter’s influence upon the weather, but the amount of agreement be-
tween the curves for three independent periods of eight, seven and eight
years (£), the resemblance between the curves at Lisbon and at San Fran-
cisco (7), when the origin of the ordinates is taken at opposition in one
case and at conjunction in the other, and the character of the contrast
between the lunar and Jovian curves at Lisbon (ante, p. 181), all tend to
impress me with the belief, that at least one of the primary planets is

i

seer:

i

Obase.} 528 [July 19,

the source of important meteorological perturbations. I shall not be sur-
prised if the Barbados records, when I receive them, furnish data for
settling the question definitely in the affirmative. Ican think of no more
probable reason for the opposition between the Joviam curves at San
Francisco and Lisbon, than the opposite directions of the ocean currents
near the two coasts.

The local disturbances are evidently greater at Sam Francisco than at
Lisbon, but in spite of them all the two sets of lunar curves at the former
station, (¢, 4), each set covering three entirely distinct and independent
periods, exhibit striking points of similarity, and their differences are no
greater than might have. reasonably been anticipated, in view of the
variations in the solar curves (a). The same may be said of the
monthly curves of heavy rainfall (0) and of frequency of rain (x) in dif-
ferent periods. '

Interesting special resemblances at different stations are shown at
Greenwich and Philadelphia, in Fig. 4, ante. vol. x., p. 585; at Philadel-
phia, Lisbon and San Francisco, in all the lunar curves on p. 182 and in
the average annual rainfall at Philadelphia on p. 181 (Table IV.) of the
present volume, as well as in the accompanying curve which depicts the
frequency of rain at San Franeisco from 1849 to 1857 (2) continuous line, )*
The maxima in my Philadelphia annual curve are, somewhat more
strongly marked than those in Schott’s diagram (Pl. III., Tables and re-
sults of the precipitation §c., in the U. S.), on account of the different
methods employed in computing the ordinates. Schott’s were calculated
from the monthly means (op. eit. p. 124), mine from means which cover
only s; of a year, and therefore show the characteristic features of the
curve more nrinutely, besides being better suited for comparison with
the thirty ordinates of the lunar curve. My anticipations (Jour. of the
Franklin Inst., Ixiii, 205) that the San Francisco ‘‘daily records may
probably furnish materials for more minute and detailed profitable inves-
tigation,’ having been thus satisfactorily realized, I now await the ar-
rival of the Barbados records, with the expectation that their discussion
will exhibit evidences of lunar, and possibly of planetary action, analo-
gous to those which I have found at other stations, but still more promi-
nent and more decisive than any that have ever hitherto been published.
If there are any observations, extending over a long series of years, mear
the Gulf of Fonseca or on the Southwestern coast of Peru, I think they
will furnish indications of the special importance of the lunar aetion on
the barometric pressure, similar to those which I have found at Philadel-
phia, but that such indications will be more marked on the Peruvian
coast, than on either coast of North America.

*Indieations of a general maximum near full moon, with a diminution at the precise time of
solar opposition, are to be found im the majority of the curves which I have computed.
They afford, as I think, further confirmation of my third prediction. The surface tidal eur-
rents have their greatest Eastward velocity, and the upper atmosphere has its greatest
Westward lagging, when the sun is onthe upper andthe moon on the lower meridian, The
blending of currents is therefore peculiarly favorable for the precipitation of moisture, but the
intense meridian heat appears to partially counteract the precipitation by re-ewaporation.

1872.}

(Chase:
EXPLANATIONS OF DIAGRAMS.
The average rainfall in each figure is represented by the broken hori-
zontal line.

The lunar curves begin and end with the day of new moon ;
the solar curves with Jamaary Ist ; the Jupiter curves, at conjunction for

SC
=

y
’
»
C
>
.
‘

oa

San Francisco, at opposition for Lisbon. The vertical lines divide each
cycle into octants. All the curves are for San Francisco, except in dia-
grams $ and 7.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—30

Chase. ] 530 {July 1%.

SaX WR

0.

eR

Diagrams of rain in lunar months.

. Heavy rainfall. Table TY.

. Average rainfall. Tables I, II.

. Frequency of rain. Table IV.

. Average rain at Lisbon ; continuous line.

‘Philadelphia ; broken line.
. “ Surrey, Eng.; dotted line.
Heavy rains, Table IV.
& 1849-57 ; continuous line.
& 1857-64; broken line.
of 1864-72 ; dotted line.

. Average rains. Table I.

Nov.—Dee.; continuous line.
Jan.—Feb.; broken line.
Mar.-Oct.; dotted line.

. Frequency of rains. Table IV.

1849-57 ; continuous line.
1857-64 ; broken line.
1864-72 ; dotted line.

. Average rains. Table II.

1849-57 ; continuous line.
1857-64; broken line.
1864-72 ; dotted line.

Diagrams of annual ram.

. Table I.

1849, °52, °55, &c.; continuous line.
1850, ’538, °56, &c.; broken line.
1851, °54, °57, &c.; dotted line.

. Table II.

1849-57 ; continuous line.
1857-64 ; broken line.
1864-72 ; dotted line.

Rainfall in Synodic years of Jupiter.

. Table III.

Nov.—Dece.; continuous line.
Jan.—Feb.; broken line.
Mar.-Oct.; dotted line.

. Table III.

At San Francisco ; continuous line.
‘« Lisbon; broken line.

[Tennent.

oe coe
Day, ais Aug Sep. Oct.
| | | |

aie ] ; “
| Apr. |May. 'June. Total

|

July ist, 1849, to June 30th, 1850.

0.46! | | 33.10

|
Feb. | Mar.

| | |
Apr. | May. Sates ioe
| | |

ODNMATRONDH

July ist, 1850, to June 30th, 1851.

02

ent

13
-06

-04 .06)

|
|
|
|

|

0.54)

1.94! 1,23] 0.67; | _-7.40

SAN FRANCISCC

I RAIN-FALL.

no

i)
COMMUN WNH

1, to June 30th, 18

i)

st, 18

July 1

{ } | |
Day. July Aug Sep. Oct.

Oe CoD ee

ws

, to June 30th, 1833.

2

5

c)
a
Za
qn
ica
s
ha

|
/
|
|

18

03

| 0.80

37
03
04

21

ea
‘Novy.

Sep. Oct. INov.. Dec.

| Jan

May.' June. ‘Total

.63
135,
125

me
|

| |
Dee. |
| |

02

5.31 18,20

—_

1872.)

Juty Ist, 1853, to June 30th, 1854.

58.

July ist, 1864, to Jane 39th, 18

533

SAN FRANCISCO RAIN-FALL.

rTennent.

Day. July Aug Sep.| Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. | Feb. |Mar. Apr. May. June.

Foo Aa ar cob et

et ea
NHOG

7 O9 b

Day. July Aug | Sep.

04,

0.15

10

Oct. Nov.

2.41

0.34

05 22
01 51
.16

20 70
1,35 52

| pe
li}* 50) 1.06
0217 1,22

10 ond
BE | .05]

91)
OL). 44.01|+ 140

Dec. | Jan. | Feb.

| uh. 26))° 109
Ae
04; 80
bo ie

i ee

| 08

O28

.29

| AY

to
Oo KS

0:81} 3.67] > 4.77

bo
o

Total

3.12

0.02

| Apr. | May.

10

505

95

0.08

June.

23.64

Total

23.68

SAN FRANCISCO RAINFALL.

COAST M WD

July 1st, 1866, to June 30th, 1856.

Sep.

loot. Nov.

Dec. | Jan. | Feb.
| |

1

|
Mar. | A’

i} | |
pril May. ao
| |

hae Buby Aug

OWNOoRWOHH

July Ist, 1856, to June 30th, 1867.

ea | | |
| | |
| | | |
a Sl |
o bog |
| | | | |
| |
| .02!
| |
| ,05! |
| 1.02,
| | |
| 0) | £28
| (BB! | |
10) | 08,
121) | 40
AB | |
| |
| |
08 02} 05 |
| 10, |
.08 | 20) |
| 23, |
| | 0.67 | 0.50| 1.60, 2.94/ 0.76. 0.03| 21.66
| \ | | |
Sep. Oct. lyvov.| Feb. | Mar.|April) May.'June.
| | | |
ec! | | 4
ie! |
| .37) |
43! | |
| 1
BL |
03) |
.02 07 02
105 105)
‘31|
153
01 4.27 | |
16 1.30 |
.02] 06 84 |
103] .20 i |
04
104 | |
.90 | | |
-17| | 418) |
70: |. .03} |
i | | |
108] .22, 87; .29) |
LIT | |
85
eal .36) |
.06 Ld |
182 | | |
| 02)
1.18] 05
0.07| 0.45| 2.79 8.59| 1.62! 0.10!

535 {Tennent.

i872.]
SAN FRANCISCO RAINFALL.
| | { |
ee aa Aug | Sep.| Oct. Nov. Dec. | Jan..| Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.| Total
| ee eee |
POU
1 | | | 42
2 | 10) | |
3S | +85) | |
4 \-488| 15] | QT
5 | | ic nol 20
. 8 17 | 26) | |
38 7 | 44 | | 08.08 ps
a 8 .82 | | | | 14
a 9 | 22; | |
AN .08 | S948) 5.25) |
8 1 | | 1.63] ‘37,
2 12 | | [penile AD j2 0m
3 13 | | 2501| G05
Fe ae | | | 80%
& 415 44
is 10 | | ae
BS 17 | pe ‘25! oa!
m8 | | .05
10 .20, | 23
vt 20 | |. 88. 2 15 “08
b 21 | 66] | | .05
s | 1.42 |
8S | | | |
| A | 15) .98 40
25 | | 49, | |
| 26 Pl eid | | a7]
21 | | beat | 1.80,
. 28 .02 | 04! | 60)
29 oa [e BBlae | Ve 1) 185} | |
30 | | +05, | | | | |
31 Fee ee | |
Sum| | 0.05} | 0.98| 3.01) 4.14! 4.36] 1.83| 5.55| 1.55] 0.34| 0.05! 21.81
| | | | | | | |
Day.'|July| Aug |Sep. | Oct. |Nov. Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. Apr. | May. June.) Total
Rc Gi ae Ra eee oe |
| oo | ce ee
it | 24) | 38
2.) eo | 1.07]
3 | 21 |
4 07 .29
5 | 27 |
; 8 16
g 7 .08) .20
& 8 (4, 420) | 8
9 | aa
=. 10 | | | 1.80 12 03
Sit | | 1.02 62! 202
o 12 08 78)
5 13 | 14
rm ie 104 17|
’ ) 15 | 34
516 | 14
= .06 1.04.
a 218
10 27)
a 20 .80} .20| Bi
Be 21 2.06) .14| 05 1.07
p22 04 313 .06
moe Ab} 42 13 “04
prt 26 64 84
25 12
26 12 04 +28 -08 .03
PH 02 1.04 05) 111 04
28 03 .20 py 4i +23,
29 .03
30 aly .0T
31 | 04) 85 .09
Sum| 0.05] 0.16 2.74| 0.69 6.14] 1.28) 6.32) 3.02] 0.27| 1.55| 22.23

Tennent.)

SAN FRANCISCO RAINFALM.

TJuly 19,

Day. July, Aug Sep. Oct. Noy. Dee. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. Apri May, June. Total
| | | | | | | |

SOMNAMSKhaEHH

Ss

a

a

ai

Boat |
- 2 |
B13

ine ie

Ae i)

gs 16

Rs) 17 |
ass 18 |
= 10 | |
a 20 |

Be 21 |

= 2a |
5

Sum)

| |
Day.' July, Au
|

July 1st, 1860, to June 80th, 1861.

0,62, 0.03) 0.05; 7.28

2
g

02

03

3.99; 3.14

05

L517,

08
07
24
21
56

1.64

1.60

A0 49

2.8

8.09; 22.24

Sep. Oct. Nov.) Dec. | Jan.| Feb. Mar. April’ May.’ June. Total

02

21)

16
15

-10
04

4

68
+25

1.00; 0.08 19.72

|
}
.

587

1872.) ['Tennent.
SAN FRANCISCO RAIN-FALL.
] ] l l ] l | l | | ]
Day. July Aug Sept Oct. Nov.) Dec. | Jan. | Feb. subi ‘April May. June. Total
| | | | | | ee
a ees ol ines oe | 12s | |
| i |
1 | | 05, | | a .02
2 .02 | | | .79 18} 68
3 | | 07] £07)
4 | | | |
6 | | Bie |e 2 004 01)
fe 1.02) 1.49, | | | i
a c .29 | 02 |
a 8 | 1.65, 1.35 300)
4 9 [> SSL8}< 8,50) OU 2.17),
Se 10 27 | 2.46) bed |
Se aul | | 1.25 | =-xb7|) 2,01)" 08), -.05
eo de 74 +18 ad
bs .29 0,22 .02|
ait 05) 25) le
= 16 .08| 49 cit
a 16 .89} 01} 2.46 .12
8 17 22 | 2)64 |
e318 | | be 02) i
sy 10 56 joer dd) |
00 | 1.69} | |
Be ot | _.55| 2.09] |
Bi 22 03) 1.00, 80) |
23 1.06, 84) |
24 56 33] |
25 | 1.49 |
26 | .48] 2.02 .38 |
27 60; 28) 04) 83
28 AT 07
29 M08): 201: 4076 .20
30 84) 1.25) .55 .20
31 25
Sum! | | 0.02] | 4.10] 9.54! 24.36] 7.53} 2.20| 0.78| 0.74
|
Day Fay Ang Sent Oct Noy.| Dee. | Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April/May. tens oe
ed | |
| |
1 ext |
2
8 aa
4 Aa
5 46) 44
3 6 Sue 16
Ss Tf .02 .05
mt 8 wk 19
ii. O 19
S 10 .02
Soles aki 15) -.16
q- 12 rt
5 13 3
2 sul 10
£ 15 -38
ws 16 40 82
o 1 58} 16 |
18 az AT 3 19 14
= Jo 06] 74 ad .09
4 20 182/86 66] 24
ee Oi 1.01 .05 10
fel 22 AT 76
23 14} .06
24 £04
25 07
26 88} 12
27 04.
28
29 .02
30 88 22
31 18
Slee ee ee
Sum| | | | 0.40] 0.15} 2.86] 3,63] 93.19] 2.06| 1.61| 0.29]

A. P. 8. VOL, XII.—3P

18.62

July ist, 1864, to June 30th 1865.

Tennent. ]

July 1st, 1863, to June 30th, 1864.

SAN FRANCISCO RAIN-FALL.

:
Day. July) Aug) Sep, Oct. Nov.

|
| |
|

IRUPWONHOOMNOMPwODH

fet ee pa ee

2 .03) |

Sum! | 0.03, | 2,65

| | | | |
Day. July Aug./Sep. |Oct. |Nov.|
| i | | |

|
|
|

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

he

QBAAoPwNe

Pive

538

Dee. | Jan. | Feb.

(July 19,

Mar. [April May. June. Total

| | | |
ep et ap
.33) 12) | |
| | | | .B5
|. 28
bw ae ee
| | |
Lal oo
| | |
| 01}
| 10,
| | | |
27] | | i201)
| 11)
| ld | - .08 | |
| | | | |
| | .04 | 56
| P80 | |
| | |
02) |
my | | | |
52 | | |
-09, | | |
| | | 08 |
| | }>2 306 |
| aa
37] ie 209)
| ed |
(tS Baek | |
1,80, 1.83 fe 1boleleoT | UNS | 10.08

| | | | |
Dec. | Jan. | Feb. |Mar, | April) May. | June. Total
es ie
Po a) | |
+33 | |
13) | es | |
.08 | | .88 |
204, | | | |
+92) 08 | 21 i
| | | 62 |
Pie fe Wee |
| | | | aid | |
O01 | | | |
1.05) | | | |
2.56} | .07
.99 Pe 8.80 |
| | 10 |
04 I 08 | |
21 | 12 |
07} 40 AB
| ls al 08 | a8] |
| | | | |
| | | |
38) | |
| 07) |
AT; 88 |
81} .88/ |
| “74 05 | :
102| we O1; = ).05 | |
04, | | |
30) | |
162) 1:60 | |

Sum) | 0,21) 0.01] 0.13! 6.68)

8.91) 5.14) 1.84! 0.74 | 0.94] 0.

1872.]

OWOWAR TP whe

Sega g= rere
OD LD

July Ist, 1865, to June 30th, 1866.

bob is)
S

July ist, 1866 to June 30th, 1867.

: Day.

SAN FRANO ISCO RAINE

539

ALL.

July Ave

04

| 3.95] 15.16! 5,

che 7 Ja
| |
ne
e703 |
| |
iP BO}
page
| ||
| 104) 1.51
| | {
| [4240}
| 46
| > 460
18/6406, < 60
.37 |
07 | 23
1.03 2.17
27
06 sul
.06 2:22
.63 1.14
W42| 04" 2.15}
1 Oh O 08
[25/8
.02
40)
i}
0.58 10.88,
| |
Noy.) Dee. | Jan. |
| .
fe 408
.13}
| 18
265
ee BL
|
07 |
| j
‘sal a
01) 7 75
05
.63|
26] *48)
Vee 0b
.02| 4.28] 28
8.62} .18|
64 58]
381] Ail (
| 440
88} 06] 85,
A) Ra al |
5281 © bbl 78
| (82)
} +63) |
14) 40} |
-53 | 42) 19

16

| |
| Feb. | Mar. |

Apr. - ny,
|
| |
.36| |
“16| | |
43
19) |
22, .02 |
} 2 |
| .66| |
-16} 80) |
.06
.02
oa
Al
23 |
| | | 06
| 329
| |
| .36 | 1.05
101
07 | | 05
AT | be S07
02). 1a |
ali
12 dG)
2.12| 3.04} 0.12) 1.46
| | |
Feb. | Mar. | Apr. |May.
| |
| ee
es al)
| |
| |
|
| 40)
|
| 6
| 49) |
15! |
2.12
i 8h
30
08 |
14 |
1.02 |
68) |
| .05/ |
| .380 |
7.20/ 1.58] 2.36|

[Tennent.

f

June,

04

0.04;

June.

Total

Sum

29.92

Total

| 34,92

Tennent. ]

SAN F

540

[July 19,

| | | ra | |
Day Deapidhg tidy, oct. lov. Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. April] May.|June. Total
teal et ee ee | | | |
| | | | | | |
. 02; -.93) 56 i208
2 18] .83| 20 | |
8 | 12 1.56) .10 | |
4 | 16 55
5 20.62 |
; 6 | 75 |
S 7 | 15 |= 108 .20
4 8 55.66
: 0. | | 124 3
3 0 | 83 130 |
it a2 Se |
S12 | .87 I 0llo | 105
B 18 | 43 .56] —.06}
meen) | 0d 44) .04
oe “14!
eo 18 04
ee. 17 Wyo) 18 |
= «18 aCe. aL .02 |
eo 0 79 | 48 |
> 20 | 48] 64 16 |
bl | 175] _-84| 641.05) |
Bw | 1.68) 1.08} .54| 90 08)
Fore | Hal e001. 14) .09)
24 Ad| 508} 84) 86 |
25 06} 1.35) .36) 69 |
26 | | dn02) 1.60 |
27 1.02 |
28 BT | |
20 .06 .20 |
30 21 06, |
31 | | 1.45) | |
10.69] 9.50] 6.18] 6.30, 2.31] 0,03} 0.28; 38 84
| | | | | | |
Aug |Sep.| Oct. /Nov.| Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April May. |Tune, Total
| Oy ae eos eae
| | | Pee ae
i .06 1.28) |
2 08) 53] 44 |
aed | 80 | |
a | 0b 05). 2,01 |
iy | | i
hae | |
3S 7 =10| 200) 28 |
| ee | |
Hg | 18 | |
S46 01, 1.67 |
@ it 107) = 15 |
ea: | | | | .05 | |
Be 18. | | .08 |
Bei | | .08 10) | 02
a 15 | 14) | |
eg 16 | | 83.45)
2 ie | | .05 | 55 69) i
a iis | | .80] .65 18] 68|
19 | .64| | | 48} .09|—.06
ma 207 | | | 67 |
ta ZL | | | 07)
pee) SLSt) 510 .02
ro D8 1.20) 1465 |
24 29] 18 01!
25 W08|< 147) 2225 |
26 12) 20 10 |
27 Jal |
28 54 |
29 Th ie). 20 16 |
30 1BZ| 3.26 |
81 10 |
Sum 0.16| 1.18} 4.34} 6.35] 3,90/ 3.141 2.19] 0.08] 0.02] 21.36

|
|
|

541

1872,] [Tennent.
SAN FRANCISCO RAINFALL.
Day.| July| Aug |Sep. | Oct. Nov.) Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May.|J une, /Total
ee | |
por tea EN Ey | | |—_|__
| |
1 bed |
2 48
3 21 02
4 -09
5
: 6 14
J ve AL |
& 8 1.10 01
= Gi 41
4 10 4 65 13 -09 02
Soy, 201 1s Sd 16
© 12 205 14 14 .58
E 13 05 85
lar) 14 +53 11)
S 15 +31 oe
2 9
ete | ion
wo ‘ | piers |
a 19 | 02 - 76) | |
ee old 1.03) .08} 18
mm 730 -36 27; £86)
mb 424 74 15
5 22 22) = 30 -90}
oe 28 46) Lb 227
24 51) -10)
25 1.34 | |
26 | |
oT} 04 |
28 -06 | |
29 | |
30 | | .01) |
Si 3 | | | |
ees ae ee ae ee a ee ey
Sum) | 0.12] 1.29] 1.19] 4.81] 3.89] 4.78! 2.001 1.58! 0.20 19.31
| | | | | | | | |
aa hi baud a La | Oct.|Nov.| Dee. | Jan. | Feb. Mar. Apr.| May.' June. Total
| | | | | | | | | |
=e] ee poe.
1 | | | 59 | | |
27 | 257 | | |
2 | | | .06
4° | | 01) {37 | | |
5 | 1p de | | 147
a 8 0215 2.12) 2 28 | |
BT 22) 82 | |
a 8 | 02 | |
a8 42 | | |
= 2 - ae
| | |
Bi | | | a jal | |
= D4 | bec oUe |
S 14 | he 2 13] | | |
+ 45) | 67 | 04 |
e016 | {7.08 29 |
ai 21 | 08 sad: |
goes nt | 78 | |
% ie | .86 | |
20 | 412 | |
Boy | 1.02 le
13 22 28, 28 33 | |
23 | 62 29 37) | |
24 | | | | |
25 | | | |
26 | | | | {ooo Od: |
21 es fee he | ee
28 | | 44 ( | (ler
29 | | 18 | | | |
30 | | [.03] | | | | | |
Bi
Sum) | | 0.03! 0.49) 8.581. 3.071. S46 100. 10s 0a) 14.10

542 [July 19,

‘Tennent. J

SAN FRANCISCO RAINFALL.

a os : —— f oe 2s
Day. July Aug Sep. Oct. Nov. | Dee. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | aprit| May.|June. Total
| | | | | | |

1 | | 1 102) ie | |
2 | | | i ae [i 06 | |
8 | 19 86.14} | |
4 | | | | 0S 17 01)
5 | | | | 17 |

a 8 | | 10) | |

i 7 | | | | | a8. «BS | i

a 8 | | | 285) 80 id |

4. | | 03 34] 82] .06

e3,, 10 | .21|

Se in | ily ave 285

oy 12 | | | .02 118] .05

Bie | | 02 .02|

re? a? | | As | 12 o10 |

S16 22 | 16 od i 8b

= 16 : 25 ees]

Rly 01 28 bi. 208

= 18 | .02 |

as 19 | OL)

re 20 | | | | |

LS cenl | | | 61 | |

Bi 22 | | 44] 02 }

Bie. OB | bee. 16 | |
24 02} .85 to at | 08
25 ho | 216 | | |
26 | 1.67] 15] | | 16 |
27 | OO: 09) Wek re [00 oH0di 102, |
28 | 193 23! | | | | }
29 | | 1.04 | | |
30 | | 18 | | 02 |
31 | 14) | wht
Sum, | 0.03) 0.11) 4.22| 6.97| 1.64, 1.10; 0,16’ 0.01] 34.70

72! 16.74

ON THE DENTITION OF METALOPHODON.
By Epwarp D. Cope.
' (Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 20, 1872.)

This discovery of a second species allied to Bathmodon, Cope, repre-
sented by more complete remains of dentition than that on which that
genus was originally established (B. radians), renders it possible to en-
large our knowledge of its characters.

It may be premised that the new species may belong to the group
Loxolophodon, and, as its characters differ from those of the large species
Hobasileus cornutus, furcatus and pressicornis, 1 must retain the last
named genus with characters ascribed in my last paper to the former,
and withdraw the species from the former, to which I at that time re-

ferred them. It appears that this name, used first for a section of
?

Bathmodon, was, perhaps, based on mandibular teeth alone, which in
Metalophodon, differ remarkably from the maxillaries. The cranium of the
new species to be described was so decayed as to be irrecoverable, but
the teeth obtained were in place, and in close proximity, so that there
can be no reasonable doubt that they belong to the same animal.

The species differ considerably from the B. radians. 'The most promi-
nent are: first, the failure of the lateral or straight limbs of the

ry
1872.] 543 [Cope.

crescent of the tooth-crown to meet at the apex, in the molars proper 5
second, the presence of two lobed premolars only, the three lobed found
n Bathmodon not being represented in any series. The first character
appears to me to be of generic importance, hence the name applied to it
at the head of this article. It may yet prove to be Loxolophodon, as no
generic character distinguishes the inferior molars of the two. It remains
however, to determine whether that name applies to Bathmodon, ora
genus different from it, as the present. In the meantime the new species
may be called Metalophodon armatus. It is as large as the Indian
Rhinoceros, or perhaps larger.

The incisors are well developed, those of the premaxillary subequal in
size. The crown has a convex cutting edge and flat inner face. The
outer face is convex. In some the inner face is more concave, and is
bounded by a cingulum next the root.

The premolars present a single external crescent of acuminate ontline,
and a smaller, more transverse one, within. A cingulum bounds the
crown fore and aft, but is wanting at both base and apex of the trian-
gular base. Inthe more posterior the crescent is more open, and the

crown less transverse.

Tho molars present an increase in transverse extent of the external
crescent, and the interior one is wanting. In the posterior two the
anterior ridge curves round at the apex, but issseparated by a consider-
able interruption from the posterior. The latter is shortened, and
terminates externally in a conic tubercle, which approaches the outer
extremity of the anterior ridge. In the last molar the posterior ridge
is shorter, nearly straight, and terminating in a cone at each extremity.

The canine is damaged, but was of large size, amounting in one or
the other of the jaws to a tusk. The probably superior is compressed,
with acute edges. The inner face gently convex, the outer more strongly
so, with an acute ridge on its anterior convexity, inclosing an open
groove, with the interior cutting edge. This surface of the dentine when
exposed has a transversely wrinkled character, but no trace of engine-
turning in the fractures.

In the mandible, premolar and molar teeth are recognizable; the
character of the incisors remaining uncertain. As usual in ungulates,
they possess a relatively smaller transverse diameter than do the cor-
responding teeth of the maxillary. They change very materially in
form from the front to the terminus of the series, and in connection
with the superior molars, are very instructive as to the genetic connec-
tion of different types of dentition.

The pecularity of the premolars consists in the fact that besides the
single external crescent exhibited by those of the upper jaw, they have
a rudimental second one in the position it should oceupy in correspond-
ing teeth of Palwosyops. The inner border of the crown is convex, and
extends from apex to apex of the crescents. There are no cingula to
these teeth. The rudimental crescent diminishes anteriorly, its angle

Oope.] : 544 : [Sept. 20.

becoming first obtuse, and then disappearing. Posteriorly the reverse
process takes place, and proportions increase. But in the last molars
they do not assume the proportions seen in Palwotherium and allied
forms. They increase in the elevation of corresponding ridges of the
crescents, and decrease in the others, so that the resultant form is
nearly like that of Dinothertwm or perhaps Lophiodon. The outer ridge
of one crescent appears as a cingulum, which sinks to the base of the
crown from the apex. This is rudimentalin the genera just mentioned.
The corresponding bounding ridge of the other crescent is reduced to a
rudiment extending diagonally across the valley between the remaining
crests, as is seen in not a few genera of the Eocene.

We have thus an explanation of the heretofore obscure question as to
the origin of the crescent-bearing tooth of the Artiodactyles. From the
two crested type of Tapirus, the two-angled form developes itself by the
growth of the cingulum and diagonal crest just described. This is seen
completed in Palwosyops. The elevation of the ridges and deepening of
the intervening valleys, would result in the ordinary Ruminant type.
The same process increasing transverse crests only, derives the Mastodont
from the Tapiroid form, and the deepening of the valleys of this, again
results in Hlephas.

In comparison with Bathmodon semicinctus, Cope, the crowns of the
premolars are of similar size, but considerably less elevated.

The measurements cannot be given with exactitude, but are approxi-
mately as follows: Superior incisor crown, width. 75 inch; elevation .60
inch. Canine 1.25 inches from apex, inner face .75 inch. Premolar
length. 76, width 1.1 inch. Molar length crown 1.1 inch, width 1.25 inch.
Inferior premolar, length of crown 1 inch, width .75 inch. Posterior mo-
lar, length 1.30 inch, width .9 inch. The crests of the last mentioned are
quite elevated, one more than the other; the lower with a strong cingu-
Jum at the base, which rises to what is homologous with the base of a tri-
angle, or outwards; none on the inner aspect of the base of the crown.
The cingula of the superior molars are only anterior and posterior.

This large ungulate was found in a stratum below those of the Green
River Group of Hayden, or in the lower beds of that series, near Black
Buttes, Wyoming. Obtained by the Geological Survey under direction of
Dr. F. V. Hayden.

In a line of banks or low blufts, immediately below that in which the
Metalophodon was found, dermal scutes of a small crocodilian are abun-
dant. The discovery of the greater part of a cranium of one of these
enables me to point out the existence of a species of Alligator of still
smaller size than the smallest of the Caimans at present inhabiting
South America, This species, which I call ALLIGATOR HETERODON,
possess several peculiarities. The anterior and posterior teeth differ
exceedingly in shape ; the former are flattened, sharp-edged, and slightly
incurved ; the edges not serrate. Those of the premaxillary bone are
subequal in size, while one behind the middle of the maxillary is larger

1872. J 545 [Cope.
than the rest. The posterior teeth have short, very obtuse erowns
with elliptic fore and aft outline. They resemble some forms seen
in Pycnodont fishes, and are closely striate to a line on the apex.
The upper surface of the cranium is pitted, the frontal and parietal bones,
with large, deep, and closely plaeed concavities. The former is per-
fectly plane, and the latter is wide. The squamosal arch is also wide,
and the crotaphite foramina are large and open. The dermalscuta are
very large for the size of the animal, and were net united by suture.
They are keelless, and deeply pitted, with smooth margins.

The vertebral centra found with other specimens are round. The
codéssified neural arches indicate the adult age of the animal.

MEASUREMENTS.

M.
Height crown premaxillary tooth.......-.,..++-+eeeee eee 004
Width oh ie Bt Pase sot or rset wre ee ce as 0035)
Long diameter erown of a maxillary..-.....--0. see ee eee 005
Short * oe Cae ee eee ei each ob ts oes 0035
Width Paricbals. 50. ce sie cae ee eee tie teeter css 009
Wadulitroubal<ts.. 645.0006 { depen an ae ae pe
Width molar beloweye-.- 2... ere eee eee uaa et 008

The variation in the form of the teeth is a slight exaggeration of that
seen in the dentition of various species of crocodilians.

Stated Meeting, Oct. 4th, 1872.
Present, 29 members.
Viee-President, Mr. Frauny, in the chair.

A letter, aceepting membership, was received from the
Rey. S. H. Niehols, dated 415 South Fifteenth Street, Phil-
adelphia, September 26th, 1872.

An engraved portrait of William Smith, D.D., first Pro-
vost of the College of Philadelphia, was presented by Mr.
Horace W. Smith.

A circular letter, announeing the death of Signor Felice
Finzi, dated Firenze, 4th September, 1872, was received from
his relatives.

A letter of envoy and acknowledgment (Proc. 81 to 85)
was received from the Geological Society of St. Petersburg.

Donations for the library were received from the Revue
Politique; the Meteorological Committee of the London R.

A. P. S.—VOL. XIT.—8Q

546

8.; London Nature, Old and New; American Academy of
Sciences ; American Oriental Society; Prof. O. C. Marsh ; M.
Alph. Loubat; the Franklin Institute; Academy of Natural
Sciences; Journal of Pharmacy and Penn Monthly, of Phil-
adelphia, and the Petroleum Monthly.

An obituary notice of Mr. Eckfeldt, by Mr. Dubois, was
read by appointment by Mr. Patterson.

The death of Mr. Ralph Ingersoll, of Connecticut, a mem-
ber of this Society, August 25th, aged 83, was announced by
the Secretary.

Mr. Lyman offered for publication in the Transactions, a
paper and map of his researches into the geology of the Sta-
ley’s Creek Coal and Iron region of Virginia, which he de-
scribed summarily. On motion, they were referred to a
committee, consisting of Prof. J. ¥. Frazer, Mr. Lesley, and
Professor P. Frazer, Jr.

Pending nominations, Nos. 697 to 702, were read, and
new nominations, Nos. 703 to 705.

On motion, the West Virginia University, at Morgantown,
was ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents to re-
ceive the Proceedings.

On motion of Mr. Price, it was resolved that the Curators
be authorized to deposit the arm-chair, now in posession of
the Society, one of those used by members of the Continental
Congress, in the Hall of Independence: provided the authori-
ties of the City of Philadelphia will agree, by Ordinanee, to
return it to the Society, whenever so requested by it.

Dr. Elder asked and received permission to deposit in the
Hall of the Society a chair, left in his care by Mr. Washing-
ton, who fell at Vicksburg ; said chair having been occupied
by Judge Bushrod Washington, presiding in the Circuit
Court of the United States.

And the meeting was adjourned.

aq

jm
Oct. 4, 1872.] 54 ]Dubois.

Obituary Notice of Mr. Jacop R. Ecxrenpr.
By Mr. Dusors.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Oct. 4th, 1872.)

Jacob R. Eckfeldt, late Assayer of the Mint, was the son of Adam and
Margaretta Eckfeldt, and was born in Philadelphia March —, 1808. He
was, therefore, in his seventieth year, at the time of decease, August 9th,
1872.

He early developed a studious mind, and a fondness for solid informa-
tion, especially in the domains of physical and mechanical science. He
was mainly educated at the classical academy of Dr. Wylie and Mr.
Engles, celebrated in those days.

When he was grown up, and old enough to engage in business, he was
placed in Mr. Greiner’s Cotton Mill, at Trenton, as a subordinate mana-
ger, where he continued for several years, until that enterprise proved
unsuccessful. After that, he was employed by Mr. Cloud, then Melter and
Refiner of the Mint, to attend to the parting room.

In the Spring of 1832, Mr. John Richardson, who had been Assayer
about one year, and did not find the employment congenial to his tastes
(withal a man of good parts and highly esteemed), informed Mr, Eckfeldt
that he intended to resign, and wished him to prepare to take the place.
Mr. E. shrank from this responsibility and declined. But some of his
friends who had influence with President Jackson presented his name
with a strong recommendation and he was appointed without being
asked as to his party preferences. This occurred on the 380th of April,
1832. He has therefore held the office over forty years.

When he entered upon the work, he had to encounterZsome embarrass-
ments. The apparatus was old-fashioned, and not calculated for nice
results. The silver assay had been well performed, without going to a
close figure, for many years ; but gold was little known in the country or
at the Mint, and it is not surprising that its assay was incorrectly per-
formed. Add to this, there was the coarse and cumbrous nomenclature,
brought from the old country, of carats and grains for gold fineness, and
so many grains to the pound for silver fineness.

Close upon all this, that is to say, in June, 1834, came the celebrated
reduction in the standards of our gold coin, one of the chief measures
of the Jaekson administration. This changed gold from a curiosity to a
currency ; bullion and foreign coin flowed to the mint, and accuracy of
assay was more than ever needful. Mr. Eckfeldt was equal to the emer-
gency ; and resolutely introduced reforms, which, at first, made the older
officers stand in doubt. At this crisis he was taken down with small-pox;
and shortly after, his valued foreman also. Both, however, recovered.

In those days, about the time the new mint edifice on Chestnut street
was finishing, Mr. Peale was sent to London and Paris to observe the
methods of assaying and refining, and to procure a new apparatus. We
were thus supplied with French beams, weights, and cupel furnaces, and

FAQ
Dubois. ] 548 [Oct. 4.

with the appliauces of Gay-Lussac’s humid assay, and the printed details
of the process. Soon after, Mr. Saxton, famous for his skill in construct-
ing balances and other delicate instruments, returned from a long
schooling in that line in London, and was employed in the Mint. Thus
furnished, Mr. Eckfeldt felt, himself ‘set up,’? and able to compete with
the foreign assayers, and if he was ever more precise, it was because he
disregarded certain allowances which had become a time-honored custom.

A large importation of fine gold bars from France, known as the
French Indemnity, and which came because President Jackson declared
he ‘would submit to nothing that was wrong,’”’ gave a fine opportunity
for testing and comparing foreign assays; and it was generally found that
these bars were somewhat below the alleged fineness. Still the deficit
was inconsiderable ; but it is characteristic of French gold coin, as well
as bars.

It is not surprising, that he felt at first the inconvenience of passing
from one form of nomenclature to another, though to a better one. A
friend remarks, ‘‘T recall conversations with Mr. Eckfeldt, showing how
ser‘ously he felt the revolution. He would think in carats, and report in
decimals. And I often recur to this as illustrating the kind of difficul-
ties which would arise incase of a decimalising of weights and measures.”’

For some years prior to 1842, Mr. Eckfeldt and his assistant, in addition

to their ordinary duties, engaged in the preparation of an original and
comprehensive work on the Coins of all Nations; on the Varieties of
sold and Silver Bullion; on Counterfeit Coins, and on other subjects
related thereto. This was published in 1842, and has long been regarded
as a standard authority. In 1850, they issued a supplementary smaller
work, and again in 1852.

As the United States increased in commerce, wealth and population,
the Mint of course increased in work. In particular, Mexican dollars
came in great quantities for recoinage. Not only were our vaults full,
but our entries and corridors were at times crowded with rows of kegs.
Every day, for years, we had the constant task of sixteen melts of silver
ingots to melt and assay ; and it was a great advantage and satisfaction to
be supplied with the hamid apparatus.

The success of gold mining in our Southern States, and the increasing
commerce of New Orleans, gave rise to the establishment of three branch
mints at the South, in 1837; and it devolved upon Mr. Eckfeldt to become
schoolmaster, and educate the three assayers appointed for those places.
The same had to be done again at a later date for other mints and assay
offices.

In December, 1848, came the first lot of gold grains from California ;
and with the opening of the next year the tide set in most powerfully.
I shall not here speak of this great turning-point in metallic currency
any further than as it affected the mint, or rather the labor which it laid
upon Mr. Eckfeldt and his department. As is well known, the lots were
numerous, and the aggregate amount was enormous. Instead of making

1872.} 549 : [ Dubois.

gold assays by dozens, we had to go through with hundreds, every day
following the arrival of each steamer. We procured young men as opera
tors in the weigh-reom and additional workmen in the laboratory ; and
in spite of all the help we were all overworked. Here let me say that
the persons who have been educated by Mr. Eckfeldt to this profession
have done credit to the selection that was made, not only by skill, dili-
gence, and good character while here, but wherever they are now scattered
to other mints and assay offices, or to different pursuits. No doubt they
receive with profound serrow the tidings of the decease of their instruc-
tor.

The gold pressure continued for about five years, when it was relieved
by the creation of a government assay office in New York, and a branch
mint at San Francisco. But directly sequent to this came the change
of standard in silver coin, causing an immense recoinage in small pieces,
Thus our daily assays continued to count by hundreds. This lasted for
some years. When it began to slacken off, a law was passed for calling
in the large copper coins and issuing in their stead pieces of copper-nickelk
alloy of much smaller size,

The analysis of Nickel alloys was net well laid down in the books, and.
the European or other assays which came with purchased lots showed
an incorrect determination. Mr. Eckfeldt was therefore obliged to study
out and perfect this assay, which is more tedious and laborious, though
of less consequence, than the assay of the precious metals,

But it was his habit to be as scrupulous in minor matters as in major ;
and after the routine was well settled it went on with the same clock-
work regularity as the other branches of assaying. I need not say that
this nickel coinage imposed another heavy pressure upon the mint for
years.

After this came the substitution of the Brenze alloy ; and this called
for another process of assay, and brought us a great deal of work.

I thus hastily review this sequence of gold, silver, nickel, and bronze,
not only as an interesting part of Mint History, but to show the varied
and abundant services of the untiring, energetic Principal Assayer, and
the masterly skill with which he met every obligation.

His nervous system, naturally not one of repose, was a good deal im-
paired by the cares and labors of the first period just reviewed, and in
1853 he had to seek relief by travelling southward, ‘This had a beneficial
effect, but from that time onward, although he continued to be very
active, there was a marked deterioration of health. Early in the Summer
of 1870 he had a serious spell of illness, in which an affection of the
heart was developed. This, by degrees, culminated in a dropsical state of
the system, and on the 26th day of April, 1872, he was at the mint for
the last time. :

I would not undertake to define his various traits of character, pro-
fessional or personal ; but a few remarks in that way may be in place.

In every character we may observe apparent or real opposites ; and in
respect to Mr. Eckfeldt, there were two notable instances,

wen
Dubois.] 550 [Uet. 4.

First, he was not ready in the use of language. There was wealth of
thought, but not freedom of expression. This was always to some extent
his embarrassment. If, with his stores of general and scientific know-
ledge, he had also possessed the powers of a speaker or writer, he would
have made a larger impression. And yet he was communicative and
sociable habitually. In his daily rides in the car, part-way to his house in
the country, he was glad to find those with whom he could converse along
the road. This is only an instance of his social temper, at home and
abroad.

Again, it cannot be said that he made what might be considered in-
ventions or discoveries of new processes. Inventors are really few; and
they are generally much indebted to those who come after them and im-
prove upon them. And yet his skill and success as an Assayer and
Analyst largely consisted in his power of finding out what was defective
or erroneous, and in applying the proper remedy. It often seemed that
what was a puzzle to others was to him a matter of quick insight.

* In the assays of certain complex alloys, and of low grades of gold and
silver, he contrived various methods which are not in print, but which
are of great use in the daily manipulations.

And here I may state that he not only introduced great accuracy and
precision in the assays, but carried special investigations to a delicacy
almost incredible. This was partly to be credited to the progressive im-
provement in assay balances, by which, after discarding the old silken
cords, we had Deleuil’s beam with steel stirrups; then Saxton’s palladium
beam with drop supports, then the more sensitive and more complicated
Oertling, and at last the simple and complete Becker. So that, instead
of weighing to a thousandth of the normal weight as formerly, we now
have indications to the tenth of a thousandth, or even less.

If, therefore, curiosity or the promotion of science led him to inquire
how much or rather how little silver there was in a certain kind of lead
or gold in an ordinary brick or pile of gravel, he would begin with a
pretty large sample, then carefully concentrate the precious metals, if
any, and finally bring his visible speck to the balance, to determine a
proportion in millionth parts. Only lately he found in a bar of Spanish
lead, which is remarkably free from silver, the amount of one-third of an
ounce of silver, in a ton of lead,—and much interest was excited by a
publication some years ago, both in this country and across the Atlantic,
of his experiment upon the brick-clay which underlies our city. Taking
two samples from the center of the town and the suburbs he found they
contained gold at the rate of nearly 12 grains (say fifty cents) to the ton
of clay in its ordinary moisture. Other experiments went to prove the
very general diffusion of gold, in infinitesimal proportions.

Some analysts, through want of exactitude, or for the pleasure of
making a sensation, may produce very curious results ; but Mr. Eckfeldt
was conscientious, I may say, nervously scrupulous, about stating any-
thing he was not sure of. Partly for that reason, partly for the very love

1872.] 551 [ Dubois.
of work, he was laborious to a fault, all his life long. It can hardly be
said to have shortened his days, for he well nigh attained to the limit and
double the average of human life.

Although he did not take the same interest in rare and curious coins
that his father did, and was not a student of numismatics, yet he had a
cultivated taste in this way, and a fine appreciation of the principles and
art by which a perfect piece is made.

He was baptized and confirmed in the Lutheran Church, and afterwards
united with the Presbyterian Church in Ninth 5t., near his father’s house.
He was soon elected to the Eldership, and he was no honorary or nominal
Elder, but fulfilled the duties of the office, and was valued for his solid
judgment. He was moreover active in the Sunday-school, the Bible
Society, and other modes of benevolent operation. Some years after he
became a member and elder in the Arch street Church ; and since his
residence in the country has belonged to Marple Church, in Delaware
county.

He was elected a member of this Society in January, 1843,

He was a man of feeling, as well as of principle ; affectionate, as well
as exact. He made new friends and cherished old ones. This disposition
even increased with his years, and was not diminished when his mind had

lost its power. There were many proofs of this, which may not here be

repeated, But the writer may be excused for stating an instance in his
own experience. As he stood by the bedside, one of the family asked
Mr. Eckfeldt if he knew who it was. The very question started an agi-
tation which was almost convulsive, and with extreme difficulty he said,
«‘Do—you—suppose— Do—you—suppose——”’ and could say no more.
But it was easy to supply the rest. ‘Do you suppose I should not know
him, having been with him for thirty-nine years?” :

In harmony with his religious sentiments he was aman of pure speech,
of upright dealing, of modest demeanor, of benevolent heart, and of
patriotic spirit. How could any one fail to recognize the advantage of
daily association for many years with such a man ?

I shall venture only one line as toa kind of dying testimony which we
all value. In the few last weeks his mind was much clouded, and his
speech nearly cut off, by the force of disease. Yet in a clear interval he
was overheard to express his unreserved self-dedication to his Lord and
Saviour.

The concluding remark may be offered that the Mint has sustained a
great loss in losing so much skill, so much experience, so much exact-
ness, such probity, and superiority to reproach, as were concentered in
this one man. We cherish the remembrance of his name and services
which impart dignity and character to the history of this Institution.

Immediately after the fact of his decease meetings were held at the
Mint in Philadelphia and at the branch Mint in San Francisco, at which
addresses were made by the present director of the Mint and two former

directors, and other gentlemen, expressive of strong regard and esteem

552 [Oet. 4, 1872.

Dubois. }

both official and personal ; and resolutions of the same tenor were unani-
mously adopted by the officers and workmen,

To this I will only add in conclusion, the unsought testimony, just re-
ceived, of a gentleman who, after a service of fifty years in the Royal
Mint at London, lately retired from the post of Queen’s Assayer, which
he had filled with great ability.

“JT have to express my unfeigned regret at this loss to science, and
especially our branch of it. I was not personally known to Mr. Eckfeldt;
but I can say, his name and his works will live forever in the wide world.

I sympathize in the loss his relations will have to sustain,”

Stated Meeting, Oct. 18th, 1872.
Present, 17 members.
Dr, Emerson in the chair,

Dr. Agnew and Mr. Goleman Sellers, newly elected mem-
bers, were introduced to the presiding officer, and took their
seats.

Letters accepting membership were received. from Mr.
Coleman Sellers, dated Philadelphia, October 12th, and from
Dr. R. J. Levis, dated Arch and Thirteenth ‘Streets, Phila-
delphia, October 14th, 1872.

A letter of envoy was received from the Imperial Acad-
emy at Vienna, dated May 8tb, 1872.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were
received from the Asiatic Society of Bengal, June 15th,
1872 (83 to 85, XIV. i.); the Imp. Academy, Vienna, Novem-
ber 7th, 1871 (83, 85, 86, XIV. i, ii.); the Zoological Society,
London, 87 Hanover Square, September 30th, 1872 (83 to 88,
XIV. i. and iii.); the Royal Soc. Edinburgh, March 18th, 1872
(82); the Lyceum ot N. H., New York, October 7th, 1872, (88).
the University of Virginia, October 7th, 1872 (88); the
American Academy, Boston, October 8th, 1872 (88); the
Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, October 7th, 1872
(88); the University of the City of New York, October
10th, 1872 (88); the New Jersey Historical Society, Newark,
October 8th, 1872 (88); the Maine Historical Society (88),
announcing also the decease of Mr. Ballard; the Essex Insti-
tute, Salem, October 11th, 1872 (88); and. the Georgia His-
torical Society, Savannah, October 9th, 1872 (88).

553

Donations to the library were received from the Acade-
mies at St. Petersburg, Vienna, Brussels and Boston; the
Observatories of Dorpat and Montsouris; the Societies at
Gérlitz, St. Gall, Frankfort, Falmouth and Edinburgh; the
Italian Geological Committee at Florence; the Geographical
Antiquarian and Anthropological Societies, and M. Delesse,
at Paris; the Meteorological, Geographical, Chemical, Geo-
logical and Zoological Rouioties , at London ; the Revue Pol-
itique and Nature; the Peabody Museum, at Boston ; Silli-
man’s Journal ; the American Chemist ; the American Jour-
nal of Medical Sciences and Medical News; the American
Journal of Pharmacy; Dr. Gross, of Philadelphia; Penn
Monthly ; and the Smithsonian Institution.

The death of Prof. John F. Frazer, 2 member of the So-
ciety, at the University, on ee October 12th, in the
Bist year of his age, was announced by Professor Kendall
On motion, Dr. LeConte was apes to prepare an obitu-
ary notice of the deceased.

A paper for publication in the Transactions was presented,
entitled, “On the Physical geography and geology of the is-
land of Santo Domingo, with a map and four sheets of sec-
tions, by W. M. Gabb.”

On motion, it was referred to a tate oy consisting of
Prof. Lesley, Dr. Leidy and Prof. P. E. Chase.

Communications were received ie Prof: C ‘ope, on a new
Vertebrate Genus from the northern part of the Tertiary
Basin of Green River, and descriptions of new Extinet Rep-
tiles from the Upper Green River Eocene Basin, Wyoming.

Professor Chase explained his views of the values of his
published comparative rainfall tables, and of the predictions
permitted by his discussion of the same.

Pending nominations Nos. 697 to 705 were read. Nos.
697 to 702 were spoken to and balloted for.

Mr. Price read a letter from the Hon. W. 8. Stokeley,
Mayor of Philadelphia, in reference to the deposit of the
Continental chair in the Hall of the State House.

The ballot boxes being scrutinized by the presiding officer,

A. P. 8. —VOL. XII.—3R.

Cope. } 554 (Oct. 18,
the following named gentlemen were declared to be duly
elected members of the Society :

Mr. Andrew Jackson Cassatt, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Clarence King, U. 8. Geologist.

Mr. Iloratio Hale, of Canada.

M. Paul Broca, M.D., of Paris.

Herr Franz Joseph Lauth, of Munich.

Dr. Isaac Norris, Jr., of Philadelphia.

And the meeting was adjourned.

ON A NEW VERTEBRATE GENUS FROM THE NORTHERN PART
OF THE TERTIARY BASIN OF GREEN RIVER.
By Epwarp D. Corn, A.M.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Oct. 18, 1872.)

ANAPTOMORPHUS AOMULUS. Cope.
Dentition of the ramus mandibuli, In. 2, C. 1, P.M. 2, M.:3, total, 16;
identical in number to those of Simia and Homo. It differs in many re-
is no interruption in the series near the canine,

spects from these ; there
Further details

and the symphysis though massive, is not co-ossified.
the last molar is three-lobed and elongated behind. The composition
ns of the preceding molars consists of four opposed lobes, which
or in

are,
of the crow
are very stout, and connected transversely by a thin ridge behind,
tact in front. The premolar tooth which is best preserved, is a

close con
hich

perfect second, which, while having two roots, possesses @ crown W
stands almost entirely on the anterior, presenting a curved sectorial crest

forwards and upwards.

Measurements. M.
Length dental lime, 61-5: -- ea 0.0148
ee OLAS WNOLAIs ssi s Sok ed Ce cior acti Boe eee iae .0030
a (eambe-pemtllte: . ie aes eae ee EY -0025
Width of Ue hed 1s oe ene Es ees 0020
Length of three molars PYESCrVed......-sseeesereees 0070

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW EXTINCT REPTILES FROM THE
UPPER GREEN RIVER EOCENE BASIN, WYOMING.
3y E. D. Cops.
Crocopitus (ICHTHYOSUCHUS) SUBULATUS. Jope, sp. nov.
Some of the cervical vertebrae without hypapophyses. Their cups
round. Dentition peculiar. One or two very long smooth compressed
teeth in the front of the ramus mandibuli. These are followed
th of not one-fourth the

straight
abruptly by a closely set series of sub-equal tee

)

BBA
1872. ] : v09 [Chase

size, varying little to the back of the jaw. The long teeth have sub-
compressed crowns with opposed cutting edges, and are smooth except
at their bases. These are distantly sulcate, the separating ridges being
acute. The smaller teeth are perfect cones and resemble those of Gars
without their sulci.

There are more long teeth in the premaxillary bone than below. Pit-
ting of cranium distinct, elegant. Length of skull about one foot.
Length of long teeth 1.25 inches ; of small ones .5 inch.

CROCODILUS SULCIFERUS. _ Cope, sp. Nov.

A medium sized species with cranium deeply and roughly pitted. The
chief character is at present visible in the teeth. The larger of these
are of sub-cylindric and short conic crown, which is superficially grooved
from basis to near apex ; sulci coarse, open.

ANOSTIRA RADULINA. Sp. nov.

Based on two marginal bones one from the front, the other from the
rear, of the carapace of an animal of twice the bulk of the largest Anostire
yetfound. Apart from size, the sculpture is peculiar. It consists in the
anterior of closely packed vermicular ridges which run out flat on the
posterior and upper edge. In the posterior, it consists of only closely
placed minute tubercles over the whole surface.

M.
Length front one on free edge. ............ 0c cele 0.025
Width - Sy eee I, Paes -02
Length posterior on free edge.... 2.32... 02.0050..20.. 025
Width ay is Ph ee ey -025

RECENT MONTHLY RAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES.*
By Puiny Harte Caasn,
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, November 1st, 1872.)

General Myer has kindly favored me with a transcript of the monthly
reports of rainfall at the several Signal Service Stations, from October:
1871, to September, 1872, both inclusive. The reports were arranged, at
my suggestion, in six groups, in order to exhibit the local influence of
proximity to the great lakes, the gulf, or either ocean, and of situation
on opposite sides of the Mississippi Valley. In the interpolations (which
are all enclosed in brackets), for months in which the Bureau received no
returns, I have usually given more weight to the general rainfall of the
section than to the local precipitation. The deficient Philadelphia re-
port, for October, 1871, was supplied from the records at Pennsylvania
Hospital.

*Published by permission of Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer, U.S. A,

and A
Chase. J 556 LNov. J,

Having thus completed the tabular data, | computed the normal per-
centages from the fourth successive means, in accordance with the gene-
ral plan of my previous meteorological papers. The resemblance be-
tween the lake curve and the two interior curves is more striking, and
the lake influence is less marked than I anticipated ; the opposition be-
tween the Pacific and interior curves exhibits the effects of differences of
temperature between polar and equatorial currents, in the air and ocean,
at opposite seasons ; the differences between the Atlantic, the Pacific, the
Gulf, and the land curves, are quite as striking as any of the differences
between the curves of Junar-monthly rainfall at different stations ; and a
larger proportion of the solur than of the lunar influence is disguised, by
aggregating the accompanying six sets of solar normals, and the seven
sets of lunar normals in the foregoing communication,

Monthly Rainfall of 1871—2 at United States Signal Service Sigfions,

GULF STATIONS,
1872, | a | | | |

|
Feb. | Mar.) Apr. May June July Aug Sep.

STATIONS. ies | Low Dec. | y nl |
| | Jan. | |
ie | | | | |

mm Le |
Indianola ...... (2.27) (1. 61) 3) We 25) oe 2) (2.10) ) 49); 1.08) . 86/ 1.49 2.84) 0.81

(.73
tGralveston. 17.81 i oa | 2.40 bedtt 5.96 | | 2.21 3.39) 0.34, 2.63) 2.33
New Orleans...| 9.09 | 4 | 1.46 5.10 | ria | 9% a 5.01 | 3.14, 5.34) 6.43) 3. 75} 2.10
Shreveport... ..} (6.18)) 5 “os | 1.80 | 5.25 | 5.89 | 4.1 7.18 | 9.10) 2.70) 1.62) 0.40) 2.91
| 782 L779 3.82; 2.11! 0.49] 0.72

Vick Sbure . :.1( dele) 7,08) 2.05 | 8.247), 6.8¢-| |
; | 6.33/13.57| 1.69

Mobile. . 6.68 | 1.36 | 3.69 | 8.00 |12.76 | 4.35 | 3. 2A
Lake City: 5,03 | 3.99 | 2.05 | 241 | 3.02 | 9.59 | 1.90 | 0.20) 5.29) 8.86) 5.25) 4.53
Punta Rasse 1.80 | 0.98 | 2.68 | 2.64 | 2.71 | 0.69 | 1.54 | 2.88) 7.16 8.68 8.97) 5.14

\ 6.92) 4.89 _B.15

Key Webt......| 3:25 | 1.90 |

54.89 (38.04 [17.35 [29.79 |40.91 {50.06 135. 30 (36.63, Le 37.08)45..02 0225.4

3,32 | 1.60 7.19 | 10k | 0.0 0.08 sa 24

LAKE STATIONS.

Milwaukee...:.j 3.37 | 2.54; 1.55) 0.90, 0.34 0.53) 1.84) 2.92, 3.67, 1.98 1.89, 8.72
Chicago... ..| (2.29); 3,62 3.44, 0.68 0.84 3.78! 3.03) 2.76| 3.45, 3.09 2.59, 6.43
O@iro.s.. 6s 3.81 | 2.98) 4.25) 1.44): 2.26: 2.02) 4.52) 5.00, 1.79, 3.45 2.56
Indianapolis,...) 1.54 3,62) 2.89) 117; 1.41! 1381! 3.26 | 3,22) 3.28 10.95 2.81
Oleveland...... 0.60 2.42; 0,84, 2.00, 0.80, 2} 3.99, 2.68; 6.19 3.47
Toledo +2) 0.78 | 1.48 1.91) 1,20); 1.10} 3.97) 3. 96| 5.76 | 3.3

Cincinnati ef 1.80 | 4.38P 8.27) 0.60). 1.67) | 4.70] 3.81) TOL 1.62
Marquette,.....| 2.97 |. 0.65 0,88/. 0,39" 0.31) 6.60, 3.82) 4.79 | 8.3

Fseanaba...:.. 2.94 | 1,94 1.41) 0.90; 1.19 7.21! 2.46, 7.11 | 8.97
Grand Haven..| 1.75} 2.33) 1.88) 1.54 0.64 2.94, 2.27, 1.46 9.37
Detroit.......4. 0.69 | 2.76} 1.88) 1.05) 0.69 5.64, 2.85, 2.63 3.84
Buffalo. > 1.64 | 3,60) 2,55] 1.94) 2.21 2.23) 3.62) 1.66 4.34

2.18, 5.35) 2.56
9,72| 4.48! 1.84
3.59, 3.68, 7.27,

Rocheste 2.00| 840) 82. 2, 3T 1.28
Oswego... vat Aaa} 2,98) 1:3) 1.48) 1.17
Burlington.....| 2.75 | 0,73) 0.78 0,42, 0.18

| 30.96 | 38.70) 29,10, 18,08 16,04 22,92 34.47 59. 67 ats: 67.75! 44.02: 66.35 35
\

a
| je | ie les Sie

PACIFIC STATIONS.

Portland, O...--| (2.59)) 2.77) 7.62) 6.56, 12.13) 6.28] 2.96) “0.92| 1.62) 0.20.13) 1.28
San Francisco. . [! 07|. 2.81] 14.36} 4.03] 6.90]. 1.59] 0. 81) 0.18} 0.04] 0.01} .00} 0.0
San Diego.....- | (.64)}. 1.19] 1.39] 0.99] + 1.63] 0.46) 0.26) 0.12} .00} .00| .18] .00

(3.80 | 6.77| 23.37] 11.58] 20.66) 7.83' 4.03) 1.22} 1.56 .21| .31| 1.80

rR
1872.] 557 (Chase.
WESTERN INTERIOR,

STATIONS. | sn, Nov. Dec | ee | Feb. Mar. Apr. |M pani any Aug: Sep.
| | | | |

; 0.67 | 064 114° 4.62 0.61 1.82
0.35 | 1.78 0.74 2738 060 0.28
1.43 | 2.66 0.47 0.11) 1.04
1.61 | 1.99 1.84 3.90 2.05
2.09 | 3.74 2.07 2.69, 1.65
5.14 | 0.45 2.44 2 62 2.98

Fort Benton....| (117)| (1.15) 130 | 0.27] 0.34 |
Virginia City..| (.98)} (.96) 1.48 | 1.45 | 0.79
OOMane,...... <3 0.35 | 3.22) 4.04 | 0.70 | 2.42

|

a

0
Cheyenne .| 0.24 | 0.66 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.27
Denver City... ats 67)| (1.63) (1.04 | 0.55 | 0.22
Santa Fe, 97 | 1.95)P 61+] 0.384) 0.20

Omaha. : ‘| 2.06 | 4.22! O91 | 0.09 | 0.48 8.84 | 3.91 6.35,..6;36! 1.78
Fort Sully......] (1.76,| (172) (1.10 | 1.35 | (.49,) (1.78), 2.98 2,384 6.48) 1.53
Leavenworth | 4,25 | 3.94 | 0.73 | 0.13 0.87 2.98 | 7.91 4.75 9,92 6.56
DUO. veg ces 4.19 | 1.47 | 2.05 | 0.86 | 0.46 180 | 4.62 4.46 5.83! 2.84
Breckenridge...| 2.85)| (2.30, (1.48 | (46) 1.66) (1.41)) (2.37) 4.05 6.10 6.01 1.78
St. Paul 1.41 deo 0.28 | 0.26 1.69.|. 5.71 3.81: 4,28 3.52

NRE OM ESO, oS
PODRpHDO@RHUwWOND
a ee

|
1.90 |
Davenport. | 3.19 | 3.33 | 1.61 | 0.13 | 0.10 5.06 | 4.46 3.78 3.80 8.91
Keokuk. . «| 5.22 | 2.89 - 1.46 | 0.07 | 0.89 | | 3.66 | 3.70 5.81 6.77, 1.97
St, L008 2 sea3 | 2.07 | 1.83 | 1.17 | 0.64 | 1.15 | $ 3.17 | 5.97 4.28 4.41 0.93

132.37 31.68 |20.29 | 6.34 | 9.05 19.44 |32.64 54.7 49.38 70.48 48 38. 75'36. 60

EASTERN INTERIOR,

Nashville......| 1.31) 213) 1.65/ 2.32 l 2.41 |
Knoxville .....- 5 9 | 224

591) 3.00! 5.17] 4.90 1.65! 4.50
3.61) 2.86] 6.68; 2.29 6.27) 3.89

Louisville. 1,85, 8.40 4.49) 6.19 3.67 2.45) 4 41
Memphis. . 4.04 6.99 4.16) 4.44! 4.23' 0.54 3,62
Pittsburgh sl. 2.66 Be .88| 2.61] 2.35 7.10, 2.81 2 64
Philadelphia... 4,86, 4, 09) 3.67; 2.60) 3.15 ae 4.29 9.20, 7.81: 3.66

19. 00) 16.87) “43.40 12.46 |12.94 17.78 28.89, 20.88) 20,12 31.99 21,53 53 22.6 62

ATLANTIC STATIONS,

Portland, Me...| 6.55] 6.37) 3. 00) 0.77) 035) 1. Ad) 5, 2.87 697, 3.12
Bostontos. tel. 5.88} 6.42] 388] 2.11! 92.31 4.00 10.68 6.04
5.50; 2.78) 248 0.96 5.35 608 6.98

New London....| 8.35!
New Yorks ..< 7.07) 8.76} 1.19) 2.34! 144)
Baltimore......| 811} 324/ 1.90] 0.88! 1.46]
Cape May......| 4.91] 6.42) 2.90} 2.99’ 2.99;
Washington....| 1.50) 4.85) 1.36, 0.23! 0.93
Lynechburg.....| 1.60) 3.76} 1.12} 2.08 1.99

158 459 5.06
3.27 3.09; 4.51
0.82 5.72) 3.92
1.56 227) 1.26

Norfolk’, 4a. 4,14! 6.76) 2.18; 2.91) 7.83) $08.5) 20, 2.40
Wilmington....| 302 446, 3.90) 362, 56.20, | 4 ; 5.54 11 15) § 20
Charleston..... 18) 4.09, 3.67; 3.78] 6.18 6805-187, 2:80 7; 81\ 7 88
Savannah : 2.22, 1.59, 2.09) 4.65 4,36 12.31] 3.52

4.20 5.87
8.44! 2.70, 7.32

6.87 4.10} 1.33
2.92 6.41 | 10.65

54.53 90.44| 68.35

Augusta. . é
Jacksonville,...

37.60 60) 33.90) 43.31 78.5

MOE Percentages or Habeie

[od vi 4 | a

SR Se ae) } q
ge |e | ae | 4 a2
jes /Ss| és \4 S5
[ta | io | a | [A

| oes recccteeac) tbe ae
Tanttary ves Hisceea it tietoe be evel GAD) BOs 230 93: «99
February | 87, 107; 209 97
March. | 95, 416 143 08
April 89, 110) 73 101
May 87, 104 34 100
June 99 105) 18 104
July 116-100; 10 103
128 90) 12 108

August. | . 2 i
Septembe 126 95) ie AO. 1 108 98 104
October... 115 107) 70 107 98 93 98 95
November . 100 98} 147; 87 83 81. 99| 95

Mecetiber wee sce Se SL EB 70) 80 TOP Ort OR

* The twelve normal ordinates of the Mean Lunar curve are obtained from ‘‘ Aggregate B,’
in the ‘* Normals of Lunar-Monthly Rainfall. ’’ The aggregates for two and a half days are
added together, to obtain the normal pee for one-twelfth of a month, and the normal per-
centages compnted from the results. E. g. 3 the ist day, added to three-fourths of the sum of the
30th and 2d days, gives the abrmal agerevate for the Ist twelfth; the 3d and 4th days, added
to one-fourth of the sum of the 2d and Sth days, gives the normal aggregate for the 2d twelfth

558 {Nov..1

Ay

Chase. }

LUNAR-=CYCLICAL RAINFALL IN THE NORTHERN TEM-
PERATE ZONE,
By Pirny Earue Case,
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Nov. 1, 1872.)
My discussions of lunar-monthly vainfall, (ante, x., 489, 538 ; xii, 208";
xii., 179, 523,) embracing observations in Europe, Asiaand America, near
eastern and western shores of oceans, in regions of monsoons and return

" trade-winds, near equatorial and polar currents, seem to be sufficiently
varied in their character to justify a first approximation to the normal
curve for the Northern Temperate Zone. The stations are so well dis-
tributed that the influence of local “establishments”? must be, to a great
extent, eliminated, and it seems reasonable to presume that the residuals.
represent, with some degree of accuracy, the precipitation which is occa-
sioned by the lunar modifications of the average atmospheric currents.
I.have given equal weight to the normals for each station, but as the
Toronto observations cover only nine years, and those at Chiswick are of
the same general character as those at Surrey, I give two complete aggre-
gates: A., embracing stations 2 to 6 inclusive, and B., 2 to 8 inclusive ;
and one partial aggregate, C., for all the stations.

NORMALS OF LUNAR-MONTHLY RAINFALL

Cy : S
“ © eet o o fa) i
, Dis (heed < “ A S *
a aa Ge -e Sa 3 3 en iS a
an) poe i mw AA g Es q :
feo Og. aha C8 C8. )) the. oe 1
Bi IS =} 3 vw Sey Ce :
3 Se oe ee, oe Of nO os 6)
x Si She Om Bee HA 2m Be ae
aS BO HO Dae 'og i a0 BS Soiic, So
= i 4H mo ‘mce o mt HA
wl at ver ral qd al ~
} 4 rs iS
if]

86 93 200 104 97 104 498 104 oF
93. 98 100 97 103 491 105 104
96 97 98 94 98 4838 105 1038
100-100 98 92 91 481 105 94
10): 102° 160 96 86 485 108 92
99 102 103 104 81 489 100 100
97 100 107. 107 81 492 96. ke
115. 97 101 107 = 108 85 498 OF. 1 827
OF 105, 101 107 OL 501 102" 10

98 107 93 «103 4 106, 98
98 104 8T oT 116 105 91
9%; 101 85, 9 128 103, 95
95 98 8% =6110)=—-128 101 405
92 OT 90 125 128 98 110
89 98 90 18 116 98 104
¢ 98 91 80k

a Rd ge boa BE 85 = 104 1097 10;
407 «#104 110 83 82 108 = =104
B18 = 105—Ss «101 106 86, 69 101 103 T84
105. 98 = =102 88 70. 95° 10
102 go 99 89 We 93 108
98 101 9m 86. 84 94 «10%
100 100 103 81 89 94 Ol
103 99 ©=109 85 95 95 91

95° 101. 108 96 102.502 101 8

Each of the complete aggregates indicates an excess of rainfall during;

187%. | 509 [Chase.
the half-month of lunar opposition ; a pretty regular increase of rain
from the first°octant, when the moon is on the meridian at the time of
greatest solar heat, until nearly the fifth octant, when her dircct merid-
ional influence is exerted at the time of morning low barome‘er ; average
fain when that influence is felt at sunset, or at the morning barometric
maximum 3; a principal maximum, near the morning barometric minimum,
and a principal minimum near sunrise, when the nocturnal precipitation
is over; other minima soon after sunset, after the maximum heat of the
day, and after midnight. These features all seem so natural and so sim-
ply explicable, that I am unable to regard them as other than typical.

I regret that Mr. Hennessey’s observations at Mussoorie were commu-
nicated only for the days of quarterly change. They appear to indicate
a curve still more strikingly similar to that of the solar-hourly rainfall,
and the indication is corroborated by their influence on the general aggre-
gates, as shown in Aggregate C.

It would be possible, even with the data now at my command, to form
interesting approximations to the normal lunar curves for each calendar
month, but I prefer to wait for observations from a much larger number
ot stations, before undertaking any more minute calculations than I have
embodied in the accompanying table. Even these normals may be em-
ployed in connection with barometric and thermometric normals in the
study of weather changes ; provided such allowances are made as are
obviously required, for the blending of currents over or near the great
Lakes, the Gulf, and the ocean. Such limited use of them as I-have
already made, has strengthened my conviction that the day is not far
distant when the normal lunar influence will be ranked among the im-
portant elements for calculating the disturbances, and the tendencies
towards equilibrium, which determine all meteorological fluctuations,
and render satisfactory forecasts practicable.

Stated Meeting, November 1, 1872.
Present, 16 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair.

The Rev. Mr. Nichols, a newly elected member, was pre-
sented to the presiding officer and took his seat.

A circular letter in-reference to a new table of logarithms
was received from Mr. Ed. Sang, dated No, 2 George strect,
Edinborough, Oct. l5th, 1872.

A letter was received from Dr. William Elder, addressed
to the Curators, dated No. 1824 Mount Vernon Street, Phil-
adelphia, Oct. 81st, 1872. On motion the Curators were

560

desired to acknowledge the donation of the Bushrod Wash
ington Chair, described in the letter, and to return the
thanks of the Society for the same.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the
Rhode Island Historical Society, (Proc. 88) and Yale Col-
lege Corporation (Proce. 88).

Donations for the Library were received from the Revue
Politique, and London Nature, the Geological Survey of
New Hampshire, Silliman’s Journal, and the Franklin In-
stitute.

The Committee to which was referred Mr. Lyman’s map
and description of the Staley’s Creek Iron Ore District, re-
ported in favor of its publication in the Transactions. The
report was accepted and the publication ordered.

The Committee to which was referred Mr. Gabb’s Memoir
on the Geology, &c., of Santo Domingo, reported in favor of
its publication in the Transactions. On motion the report
was accepted and the publication ordered.

The death of Mr. Constant Guillou, at Philadelphia, the
20th ult., was announced by the Secretary.

Mr. James desired to place on the minutes that he had
duly returned the MSS. letter of Dr. Franklin and the map
accompanying Pursh’s MSS., Botanical Journal, which he
had been permitted to borrow from the library.

Dr. Emerson exhibited one of the bricks of a chimney
scattered by lightning in the storm of the 25th ultimo; a
chimney belonging to a house in which he was sleeping at
the time.

Mr. Lesley desired to place on record authentie data re-
specting fourteen oil wells sunk by the Brady’s Bend Iron
Company, at and near their works, on the Allegheny River;
and explained the importanee of facts, so obtained, when
comparable, in view of the general inaccessibility of the
Sub-carboniferous formations underlying the Oil Regions. A
discussion of oil theories and of the history of the oil dis-
coveries followed, in which Mr. Lyman, Mr. Gabb, Dr. Le
Conte, and other members took part.

561

Mr. Chase offered for publication in the Proceedings a
first approximation to a curve of Normal Temperature in
the Northern regions of the Continent.

Mr. A. H. Smith described his observations of the Sub-
alpine botany of the North Shore of Lake Superior, in the
Summer of 1871, and of ifs absence in the Lake Nibbegong
region, further north, which he had explored in the Summer
of 1872; this change of flora he was led to ascribe to the
fact that the waters of Lake Superior were much colder
than those of Lake Nibbegong. His collection of mosses
he had placed in the hands of Mr. James for examination.
He described the ascent of the Nibbegong River and the
thousand islands in the lake itself, which has scarcely been
visited by any observers who could report scientific facts.

Mr. Gabb instanced an analogous change of flora from the
coast to the interior of the northern part of Lower Cali-
fornia.

Dr. Le Conte said that he woudl assign a hygro-metric
cause for this difference, and added that a similar difference
was known to exist between the faune of the coast and the
interior as far across as to the banks of the lower Rio
Grande; and that the line of distinction was sharp and
sudden, being drawn along the summit of the coast range
of mountains, a barrier not more than 3000 feet high at the
place to which he referred. It was evident that the wet
winds of the west flank of this barrier and the dry air of
its easteru, which made the change in flora and fauna.

Professor Haldeman introduced the topic of the Rhyme-
law of the Sonnet in European literature. Tle had made
extensive collections of Sonnets and studied their construe-
tion for the purpose of discovering a normal rhyme arrange-
ment. So far from that, he had already tabulated 600 (six
hundred) arrangements of the sonnet with a prospect of
adding to his tables more.

Pending nominations, Nos. 708 to 707 were read.

And the meeting was adjourned.

A. P, 8. —VOL. X1t.—38.

mee
Lesley. ] 562 [ Nov. 1,

A Recorp oF FouRTEEN Orn WELLS AT Brapy’s BEND, ARMSTRONG
County, PENNSYLVANIA.
By. J. P., meumy.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Phila., Nov, 1st, 1872.)

Having recently requested Mr. Persifor Frazer, Assistant Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, to examine for new esti-
mates of quantity the coal areas which have escaped erosion, in the
country on the two sides of and closely adjoining the Allegheny River,
at the remarkable ox-bow bend in its course, 70 miles above Pittsburgh
and 60 miles below Oil City ; he brought back with him a MSS. report of
ot the wells bored by the company on the river banks and along the beds
ot the ravines descending to it from the west. We owe this report to the
kindness of Stephen Halbrook, Esq., Superintendent of the Brady’s Bend
Tron Works.

It is needless to recapitulate the history of the oil discoveries, and the
gradual extension of the oil producing districts from Titusville and the
line of Oil Creek eastward to the Tidioute district, southeastward to the
Clarion, westward to French Creek, and southward via Oil City, Franklin,
Parker’s Landing, and Brady’s Bend, to the neighborhood of Butler,
where the last discovery excitement is now raging. ‘It is only necessary
to refer to my report on the geological grounds for believing the middle
Allegheny River districts to be productive oil country, published in the
Proceedings of this Society, in 1865.* In that paper I have sufficiently
described the locale of the wells now to be described. These records may
also be compared with similar records communicated to the Society and
published in its Proceedings of April, 1865.

The ‘‘ Engineers’ Datum’’ of the following table is an assumed level,
one hundred feet lower than a mark made on the Brady’s Bend Iron Com-
pany’s warehouse, on the river bank, showing the extreme height réached
by the great and disastrous freshet of March 17, 1865.

Height of

well
mouth
above Depth below First yield in
Eng. Depth of river, highest barrels Present yield
No. datum. well, water mark. per day. per day.
1. .. 96 feet. i ? iz 1 bbl.
2. 202 1,400 1,268 : no sand rock.
Fe. 97.62 uiaatala| Lila 5+ bbls. {.bbl.
4.. 97.69 1,262 1,264 abandoned.
5. .100.31 1,105 1,105 7 bbls. 2 bbls.
6. .300.48 1,290 1,090 54 bbls. 4 bbls.
7. 487-41 1,414 L077 9 bbls. 8 bbls.
vole at eal fo) 1,845 1,066 840 bbls. 150 to 200 bbls. -
9. 101.38 1,065 1,066 44 bbls. , 3+bbls.
10. .880.27 1,300 1,070 1 bbl. abandoned.
Mio ELL 1,200 1,189 powerful gas blow.
12. .216.50 1,212 1,0954 12 bbls. 13 bbls.
13. .426.88 1,402 1,076 3 bbls. 2 bbls.
14. .859.89 % to be sunk to Ath sand.

* See Proc. A. P. 8., vol. 10, p. 61.

as
1872] 563 [Lesley.

From the above table, it appears that all the oil-producing wells men-
tioned in it get their supply from one stratum lying in an undisturbed
and horizontal position, varying in their actual depths below a fixed
datum level from 1,118 to 1,066 feet, a difference of only 40 feet. This
difference is due to three causes, viz. :—1. The different depths in the
sil-besring stratum penetrated by the bottom boring of the wells ;
2. The slight inequalities in the upper surface of the stratum ; 3. And

s, both from the northwest and

chiefly, to a general slight dip of the ro
from the southeast, in towards the centre line or axis of the trough or
basin which here crosses the Allegheny River in its northeast-south west
eourse ; and also to a still slighter and almost insensible decline of the
axis of the basin itself southwestward.

The table also confirms what was prover years ago, long before the fact
was acknowledged by oil men, namely, that it makes no difference whethe
a well is started in the valley bottom or on the hill tops, provided it goes
down to the uniform and nearly horizontal oil-bearing sandrock. For
some of these wells have their mouths at elevations more than 300 feet
greater than others. Some on the river bank, and others high up at the
heads of side ravines. The great No. 8 well was commeneed at an eleva-
tion (379—96-—) 283 feet higher than those on the river bank whieh yield
only from one to three barrels a day.

The following table shows the thickness of the third sandroek where it
was passed entirely through :

No. 2.—No sandrock found and no oil.

-Sandrock, 26 feet ; hard fine white sand.

No. 5.—Sandrock, 27 feet ; fine pebbles.

No. 6.—Sandroek, 16 feet ; with slate partings.

No. 7.—Sandrock, 27 feet ; pebbles pretty coarse.

No. 8.—Sandroek, very coarse and open.

No, 9.—Sandroek, pebble very fine and close, very little gas.

No. 10.—Sandrock, 10 feet; pebbles pretty fine, except in one thin

streak.

No. 11.—To sandrock, no oil, but great gas blow, doubtless from a
fissure.

No. 12.—Sandrock, 17 feet, all pebbles ; steady flow of oil.

No. 13.—Sandrock, 18 feet ; coarse open pebbles; and a fair amount of

yas.

No. 14.—Sandrock, 18 feet ; large coarse pebbles ; fair amount of gas.
Other noteworthy facts are as follows :

No. 1 well, on the river bank, one half mile above the rolling mill,
begun March, 1865, finished 1 866.

No. 2 well, at the mouth of Cove Run, May, 1866—June, 1870.

No. 8 well, on the river above the mill, commenced August, 1868—
pumping in September, 1872, 1 barrel a day.

No. 4 well, on the river above the mill, May, 1869—March, 1870. Cost
£10,405. Record of: strata given below.

——s

Sa

eee

564. Nov. 1,

Lesley.]}

No. 5 well, on the river above the mill, June, 1869—April, 1870. At
981 feet struck so powerful a gas vein, that the bore-hole was deluged
with water and abandoned for four months. In June, 1871, athree quart
nitro-glycerine torpedo was exploded without increasing the production
of oil. Th pebble rock was almost as fine as sea-sand.

No. 6 well, on Queenstown Run; August, 1870-—April 5, 1871; drilled
with the water cased out; all the previous wells were drilled in water ;
casing commenced at 357 feet ; not much gas.

No. 7 well, on Queenstown Run; August 7, 1870—March 1, 1871; water
eased out at 512 feet ; seme gas at 1,050; commenced pumping about 9
barrels a day, and has produced up to September 7, 1872, 4,183 barrels.

No. 8 well, on Queenstown Run; June 26, 1871—September 22, 1871 -
water cased out; first show of cil September 22, and began to fill up very
slowly. At 12.35 A. M., September 23, struck a vein of gas and oil
which spouted over the top of the derrick, and was fired by the nightlamp
hung in the derrick, burning the rigging down. The spouts occured
every two minutes. At 9 A. m. the fire was extinguished and the oil
began to fill the tank at the rate of 35 barrels an hour, but gradually
calmed down to about 60 barrels a day during the first month, and October
22 ceased to flow. Tubeing and sucker rods were then put in, and she
began te flow again at the rate of 150 barrels a day.

This well has been cleaned out many times to keep her in good rwnning
order. Immediately after any one such cleaning she produces from 70
to 90 barrels a day, and gradually falls off to about 20 to 25, when it is
anderstood that she again needs cleaning. In fifty weeks she has pro-
duced 9,505 barrels. ‘There is not much gas except when flowing.

No. 9 well, on. the river opposite Catfish; June 24, 1871—October 24,
1871; water cased out; cost $5,750.

No. 10 well, on Lower Campbell Traet; July 10, 1871—May 22, 1872;
water cased out. After passing through third sand at 1,300 feet, put in
a 4 quart torpedo, which seemed to have very little effect. Sand pumped
for two days afterwards and found that she filled up with less than a bar.
rel of oil per day, and therefore concluded it was useless to tube her.
Not much gas at any time.

No. 11 well, on river haif mile below the mill; August 24, 1871—June
24, 1872 ; water cased out at 437 feet, Struek very heavy vein of gas at
858 feet.

The gas from this well, by calculation, would supply fuel to run the
rolling mill and machine shop boilers, being therefore equal to'100 tons
of coal per week.

The pressure of gas would sometimes lift the tools 20 or 30 feet in the
hole, tools weighing 1,700 pounds and repe 3800 pounds. ‘The flow of gas
is enormous and continuous.

No. 12 well, on Queenstown Run; December 9, 1871—April 12, 1872;
water cased out at 394 feet, Struek heavy vein of gas February 2, at

°

1872. | 565 [Lesley.
725 feet, which caused a flow of water until March 1, when casing was
put in and the water stopped off.

Struck oil at the top of third sand April 4, at 1, 183 feet, the rock being
nearly all good pebble rock ; after passing through it (1,200 feet) drilled
12 feet into slate for a pocket ; tubed well April 12 ; commenced pumping
12 barrels a day, and the well is now doing 13 barrels. Much gas all the
time. Cost $6,557.

No. 18 well, on Queenstown Run; January 2, 1872—May 8, 1872;
water cased out at 290 feet. Best show of oil at 1,390. Cost $6,671.

No. 14 well, on Queenstown Run; June 11, 1872—September 2, 1872 ;
water cased out at 227 feet. Little oil in third sand ; will push it deeper.

It only remains to give vertical sections of the Measures passed through,
premising, that the Great Conglomerate No. XII, the base rock of the
Coal Measures forms the low cliffs at water level in the river valley ; all
the hills being built up of the nearly horizontal Lower Coal Measures or
Allegheny River System, and the underground of Sub-Carboniferous and
Devonian.

The following records of wells No. 4 and No. 5 of the foregoing descrip-
tion were made from labels on sample bottles, marked daily by the well
drillers, and are not supposed to be perfectly reliable, but are neverthe-
less for the most part accurate notations of the character of the Sub-car-
boniferous and Upper Devonian Measures penetrated in reaching the
oil-bearing strata.

RECORD OF OIL WELL NO. 4,

Struck the ‘mountain sandrock”’ at a depth of 59 feet.

Got through it ato... cence ence ee ee eee tees 240 feet.
Frey sand ab... cece ese cee eee eee eect ete eee e ee nee teens 898 <‘
Grey Sand at... cee cece cee e eee e renee teen ee cee tees ees 988 4
Gwey sand ate... - 12s sector cere tees eten eee ments age tt 940 <*
Dark gray Sand... 66s esses eect rene etter etre nesses tees sees 944 ¢
Place slate << eee atl eee ed 2 te Sch re ee 947 *
Dank, LOCK. pce yee ce Fe Foie en on ria eee Ot A eeithee ete ost no Ope
Davle rOCk Gc tae ote oss shrine eee coe hye ides sas see ee 955. SS
Fray SAND... cece cece eee e eee ee eee t ee tet nce s eee eee ee nenes 965 **
Slate LOCK: . cece cee es ec eh enh ste ne ema eciaey cise rite seme ee igs S16. s
Black rochkese qucsck sue cbaseeees o* Mca RENE oe hres eee naicyse O90, **
Black sand ...-.s:s.-e+e0 Pee EL URES VG TN ps es) NANOS Vues 993, &
Grey sand....----+- ele Sede es oe ha oi cs pe 1,008 , 2
Grey sand....+++++++++ ie seis i ee Sees ee cs eee 1,008 7
Blue sand, hard... ..-.--2e-see eect eerste cere eee eee eens 1,005... *

=

li
i

SSS

———

=

SS

tL a Rr Mri ie ee ee 710

r
Lesley.] 566 [Nov. 1,

BANOLOCK ae re POST Pe ere ite ie ee ean aE 1,100 feet
heed pandstone: 4). eee see si eye ere eas L2G
BSCR Sans yess rth Susi isel cid: crane he ae 1,140 *
OHCy Sands. 37 Svea esc ee ie ie cae tee ee eG eet
rey SANG Vy 0 iy. Te ae Ce ee 1,148 «
MUG aa, SNe eer ees aaa ee Cae ver Tes 1,144 “
Blue Slates ye: sererierr? 2 oils obi Ae eee 1,145 «!
OL SIAtG: Any Ae hore cere ns op are aE ah erate ary hs ik L146 *
MOLEC SIBUG anc hoes oe teers. baie ate eal re ira
HOU Y ose laces oes ee eet es ki ee eae ty hase
LADO cs ace Ess eat ses Ue tne Seeds ee rik kere oat o aa 9 ai
RUG LOCK cree sees crest, eet is el ee ee ee L162. 4
Pe NaN ewe ca ts PUSR aes ens CON ee he ee 1162 07
PF ara GA A ea Cea os Os ee ee Ly L650
BOUL y OC Lae ocelot, hens eet i oe ie,
DIMUGMOC Nae eeu van cwan ser youl tore. ho ee Li:
Se GO hE ee eee Ske hae
tibia eee NR ee ae 1,188
SNE SOG oh ESA aA Cu ceed Voth eur ue Ta Pee I As as
DIGG SUING, os) ee et ele ee ee 1,94 <*
si Ne Oe i
DHGIV LOCK, satel iv int Gee o sue erase) el a Lowi
UACENOL OU i wen ne ic oe Lpeeu eo
RG ge A ae i 1,285. ¢*
LUC cm seems cae ls fle eae 1,248
WATNBIULO) ea atic ver ass cov eon ty i ee Oe 1202 ¢
Pigves Wet MDANCONOC Ati see: crane cl Re See Enea gs ee ryeo0rrrs
RECORD OF WELL NO. 5.

_ pituck*the-mountainvsandnock abs. 6.605 oc. ose.c 45 feet
Got tiouehit ateniy sian ycirce on Cae ener ee ee mio”
DUCY SONG. siete eres aes Be ee he 850 ¢*
PLMUG TOGIE is ia rai Oeste Chto Rew vd aie nce 400 «

i OE OG eee ee eee 440
MOLUMILS LOO ia Mtr ee surrey eee 460 “
GREY MOC ates Ree arouses oe Sela. a ees pd eee eee 490 “
SIAe LOC ie rxc cesses sas Ree calor rien te LU" *
LAO BHO US i yuo re obese 1UT Ves pois ou yee 530“
Slate rock: ...... ee ee ee Ce 560“

i ae Le ee 580.“

EMERG VPs oe 5k 1 ois 955 ba eens see | 620°
Shell roclkyri svar wren. es ves DEES 640°“
IALOMOC wire erry) Preys iia, aay skies ee 660“

BE NORTE EE TE EE Es AN OPEL ERODE TORT ET 670“

Veta ea Ue uu Ue 690 °**

ee aim mtn nicotene i moat

1872.] 567 [Lesley.
Sule ole ae ae wa rss wri Sk ts, ee car tae we a ate 715 feet.
Oe Soca po caco an $i At elu (Arenal bane Wace hs w wee) Sader sc ndouelap hPa pean asnokoduere 720. =
MEAD i yxe)s cer eretunate Re i ld 6 a Acie ee Gat oe 0s.
Siabemoek......c--csevees TR ee ne 745‘
REE DORE Oe oe wie we beeen ee abo. +
Pebble rock.....- ee ee Ti <*
GANONOGI is rs re oe Se eee ey ern tee gle ss, oa ie yer sk
ee FSO: ss
OO 8 oe ee ee eo Go des ba vias de ee FOO, Af
Slate rock. ..... ee OO Fad ie os ce Ge ees (96; 66
Sandtocks 134. ce 4 3% ee eee (1805
Red rock—
PO VERATIG 50g ee Cae ES ee eta s es ee tee oe 808: *
Gandroglk cos. sa bee Cet a ee ee oe ease 2s 812.4
66 a a i ee ee a es S1bi7ss
Me a et we ees 820.‘
OT gS ee eae etree Les gre rohan vena ear eae B2Q 4°
< Packs OF ee realy ea ow ols oa Cie Olea a Se eee 824 <<
Pet. ue ws bas 5 co Ose se see Gr sae ee hs Ce eee ees oe 826 “
Red rock—
Whiteman... ios i ak de Seo **
ROCK G00 ee ee gs eee FS ee he 830.5
es et er as Ge Oi ee a 840 *
GYGY BANG 1c eee A a he ov en Neel i eed 844“
is i a a hn ee eee . Bal
ag ee oe ee es se dae Seri iat 848) -4
Sandrocle: sie ie ee ais en AC Cae en Gs ed 850.‘
pI LOCK Gs 0 ae ae. TES PEC ER abn, cata s 855 +‘
Gandnocks. <2. 5 ee ee ees ee 860
Pinch Sands. foots a ccs uc cies Wises arenas Ee 865 4°
SinncOck srk Fees oss OU. Gee oo ee Os ON ee 896 <*
eas at ae eh a ee Ss ess oi ee ere re eS O80..55
red rock—
Qe OUOU cf 5 as ees re Sa Oak 939 ¢
OV AG ees OO eiiy eb ee bee tse es Satu. oa tn a ees 940 **
CO esa ee BAS Ove ad ae Oe ee ets ees OR eee ee 941. <‘s
OG Pa Ti Re i en a Ae err ee 943.‘
Shelly rock. .... 2... eee eee eee eee eee teeta teen eens O45. <
Roget es Ta ee Seas oat OBL, 3
Oe ee ae a Pe eee 954 *
RIAbG ROG 6. ose oa ee eee cttw ls roo 965 “
Paget ai. Fk a ee es 972265
team etle c ek LR eye oie wo eile Ce SR ae 986. <¢
Rh cha og bi ee ct wees caw eee rt i eh ee 998“
ByeOC lee) a. Coon i ss Gas a ee 1,048: <°

RodeGanarGeh. vo cores ke de te Leas eee: 1,026 “

Lesiey.] 568 (Noy. 1,

DONO 5G ig 4 ise lS wnee'n SUE ieee ee eae Un Pees 1,050 feet.
MO ULY, VOC les gia) ipa ein shee oi cee Gules vibes se ae ce 1,055“
Buen DS ALINE) TOC ion ase tu a ese ce nein civtadanies oe os VaR 6 1,078. **
WAROUOC seat ec ieae dors ie clues ues al ceil a es 1,076:

J ara eC eR en er are as, 1078.4
live atid Sey. «ies ois ia gus Wie Gea ses oe eae 1,084 ‘*
Ee ODDAG OCG si ces ag otic i Ge ona so ee re I 1085" £¢

Ke ea 1,090 *
WOSACUO GE 1-05 alba: cists watlive ghieeee eel waite TIUAG ew weiner nc Pau MEw eT 1,092 +‘
tf UDCA Welle civ aaes | ae ie. an eis 1, 100.2 &

and began pumping about 7 barrels in 24 hours.

It is a pity that the above records are so defective. The intervals
between the numbers given are in many cases large and not noted, and
must not be taken as the thicknesses of the rocks named.

There is, however, a positive value in allsuch records, however defective, ~
as may be noted by the recurrence of the red rocks in the above lists.
These may define the position of the great red formation of the Paleozoic
series No. IX of the Pennsylvania State Survey, the representative of the
Old. Red Sandstone of English geologists, and the Catskill Formation of
the New York geologists.

In Well No. 4 it is noted once only as being struck at 1,126 feet.

In Well No. 5 it appears at 750, 805, 826, 930, 972 and 1,026 feet.

The thickness of the Conglomerate No. XII is accurately determined
in Well 4 at 190 feet, and in Well 5 at 170 feet.

The thickness of the Conglomerate No. XI1 in the salt well 45 miles
further down the river, as determined (not with entire accuracy) from
the Record, published on p. 65, vol. X., of the Proceedings A. P.&.,
April 1865, is 4944-3843 == 160 feet; or, if the top of XII be placed at
the ‘‘White Sand’’ 4404 and all the ‘‘Gray Sandrocks”’ be included
down to 666//11, == 220 feet.

At Sligo Furnace on the Clarion (p. 68, vol. X.), the Conglomerate No.
XII, seems to be only 117 feet thick, soft red slate of XI under it only
3 feet thick, and the red and blue slates of [X lie 786—183 = 603 feet
below its base, or 720 feet below its top.

The resemblance of this to the record of Weil No. 5, given above, is
very observable. Thus, in Well No. 5, the red rocks of IX are first
struck at 750—45 — 715 feet beneath the top of the Conglomerate.

In the Sligo Well (15 or 20 miles to the northeast of it), the top of the
red rocks is 786—66 = 720 feet beneath the top of the Conglomerate.

In the Well No. 5, the redrocks are noticed at intervals from 750 to
1026 = 276 feet.

In the Sligo Well, the red rocks occupy an interval of only 118 feet.

It must be taken into consideration, however, that the lowest red rocks
of the well No. 5 may represent not No. IX, but the Red Beds of VIII,
described in my report to Professor H. D, Rodgers, in 1841, and pub-
lished in his Final Report of the Geology of Pennsylvania, under the

1872.] 569 [Lesley.

head of the Geology of the Wellsborough Valley or Tioga River District
in Tioga County. To trace the thinning away of these calciferous and
ferriferous red beds of VIII (Lower Divonian) on their way towards Ohio,
underground, is one of the desiderata of American geology.

Other well-boring records are published on pages 227 ff, vol. X, Proc.
A. P. §., but most of them are confined to the Coal Measures. Those on
p- 288 ff, however, penetrate the Deyvonians to considerable depths and
show the red rocks in positions analogous to those described above.

In one well, at the head-waters of the Clarion, the mouth of the well
being 3870 feet below a coal bed, and also below the bottom of XII, the
red rocks of IX (?) occur from 216 to 415 —an interval of 200 feet,
which is abont the normal thickness of IX in this zone of its decresence
westward, The Manchester (Tioga river) red beds (?) were struck at in-
tervals from 925 to 956 = 41 feet, 7. ¢., with an interval of 510 between
their top and the bottom of IX.

In the Glade Well near Pithole (page 241, vol. X), in the Oil Creek
country, the red slates were first struck at 196 and got through at 318,
the interval being 122 feet. Some red shale was then struck near the
well bottom (abandoned, no oil) at 612, 7. ¢., 294 feet below the bottom
of the upper red shales.

These also probably represent UX and the Manchester red beds, with a
diminished interval due to westing.

These red rocks correspond to the Marshall group of Michigan, of
Winchell (Proc. A. P.8., vol. XI., p. 74), the Gritstone redrocks above
and the Chocolate shales below (the latter just over the Hamilton) in
Ohio (Idem, p. 75), and to the Brown shales of the Keokuk group of
Indiana. They are very noticeable to the traveller on the railways cross-
ing Northern Ohio.

Norr.—l have received the following letter of explanation respecting
the wells at Brady’s Bend :

Sr. Lours, Mo., November 13, 1872.

Dear Sir:—The detailed surveys were begun and mostly made under
my direction, and the wells Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 were located by me. This
would be of no interest to you or the public were it not that the location
of these wells was the result of a long, carefully pursued, and at least
apparently successful investigation into the laws of the distribution of
the oil in the ‘‘sandrocks.’’

You had already shown that these rocks existed there and at what
depth, and had also shown that the general stratography of the district
rendered it reasonably certain that oil would be found there, and this had
been confirmed by the results of boring in the case of two of the five wells
sunk,

I tried to find the law of distribution in its application to narrower
limits, so as to decrease to the utmost the risks, and inerease to the
utmost the chances in sinking wells.

Of the five sunk before I went there, two were productive ; of the four
sunk since I left, one is productive; of the four I located, namely, Nos.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—3T

—

meter mop as

sea

sere

ded
Lesley. 570 [Nov. 1, 1872.

6, 7, 8 and 9, all are productive. No. 9, which is the least productive of
the four, was located under restriction to the Lower Campbell tract.
No. 8, the most productive, was the last one I located without restriction.
Nos. 6 and 7 were both down before any other well was started in the
Whiskey Run or Queenstown Run field. The same principles which
guided the locating these wells, led me to advise the Brady’s Bend Iron
Company against trying the Upper Campbell tract, and the results of
boring there by other parties have confirmed their correctness, and there
have been so many confirmations that my confidence in the principles
amounts to conviction.

In opening the Whiskey Run or Queenstown Run field, I simply fol-
lowed the general line of strike from the Armstrong Run field; but in
locating individual wells I sought lines and areas of deposition of coarse
pebbles in the ‘“‘sandrocks”’ out of broken condition of the ‘‘sandrocks.’’

[ had not so far completed the research into the laws which govern the
‘direction and position of these lines and areas that I felt free to com-
municate them when I left the oil country, but hope to push ‘the inves-
tigations further hereafter. Meanwhile it may be of some -interest that
the above results have followed an effort.pursued by scientific methods
to find and apply such laws.

Yours, very respectfully,
JAMES E. MILLS,
Vice President Big Muddy Iron Company.

Stated Meeting, November 15th, 1872.
Present, nine members.
Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the Chair.

A photograph ‘of Mr. H. M. Phillips was received for in-
‘sertion in the Album.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr.
Isaac Norris, Jr., dated Philadelphia, October 31st, 1872,
and from Mr. A. J. Cassatt, dated 2030 Delancey Place,
Philadelphia, November 6th, 1872.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the
Smithsonian Institution (Proc., No. 78), and the Nat. Verein
at Bremen (87), September 7th, 1872.

Donations for the Library were reported from the St.
Petersburg Observatory; Antiquarian Society at Copen-
hagen; R. Academy at Berlin; German Anthropological
Society; Museum of Natural History at Paris; Paris An-
thropological Society ; Annales des Mines; Revue Politique;
Nature; L. & H. 8. Quebec; Boston 8. N. H.; Yale College;

—

ee

i REA i

571

American Chemist; Penn Monthly; Am. J. of Pharmacy ;
Medical News; Academy of N. 8. Philadelphia; and Dr.
Jarvis, of Dorchester, Mass.

The death of Gen. George Gordon Meade, on the 6th in-
stant, at Philadelphia, aged 56, was announced by Mr. Trego.
On motion, Gen. A. A. Humphreys was appointed to pre-
pare an obituary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Gabb described the results he arrived at in making up
a summary from tables of undoubted Miocene fossils, col-
lected. by him during three years of exploration in Santo
Domingo. These tables double the fauna hitherto de-
scribed. Instead of the normal percentage of extinct to
recent species according to Lyell’s formulas, it appears that
the San Domingo Miocene holds 217 extinct and 97 living
forms; these living forms existing on both sides of the
present barrier of Central America, on top of which barrier
lie Miocene rocks. Mr. Gabb stated that he had just. fin-
ished the study of the Miocene Fossil Mollusea, collected
during his recent geological examinations in Santo Domingo.
He found 217 extinct species, and 97 which he recognized’
as living; 15 of these latter are peculiar to the “Panama
Province,” having disappeared from the Caribbean waters
since the Miocene period. One or two are found in the
Eastern seas only, and others are now living on the opposite
side of the Atlantic, or on the Atlantic coasts of North and
South America; while still others are closely allied to-spe-
‘ies or belong to genera only living at present in the seas of
Australia and Southern Asia.

The most interesting feature connected with these fossils,
however, is that notwithstanding the proportion of liv-
ing to extinet forms is about one-third, yet, from the “ facies”
of the collection, from the presence of antique types among
the genera, and from the vertebrate remains, such as Car-
charodon, Megalodon and other well-known Miocene species,
there seems little doubt but that the formation was correctly
referred to that age by previous writers, such as J.. Carrick
Moore, Etheridge, and Duncan.

Lyell established the rule many years ago, that the typi-

572

cal Miocene contains but 17 per cent. and the Pliocene from
35 to 50 per cent. of living species. But that rule, while i:
applies perfectly well to the local deposits on which it was
based, is too empirical to be followed elsewhere, except in a
very general manner and where the other data are in accord.

An essential objection to the numerical rule exists in the
different values that students place on specific characters.
No two writers agree on this subject. Besides, as regions
become more thoroughly worked up, discoveries of additional
fossils, or the finding of living species, previously known
conly as fossils, vary the proportions constantly. The general
deductions, therefore, drawn by an experienced palseontolo-
gist from large collections, are safer guides than any table

of percentages

fem,

Mus. Comp. Zoouoey, \
Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 3, 1872.
My Dear Pror. LEsLey:

The steamer did not sail on Saturday and I
have availed myself of the delay to run up here. It was very fortunate,
since I have had the opportunity of seeing Dr. G. A. Maack, and of
learning from him some of his geological results on the late Selfridge
Expedition on the Isthmus. Please have the following. note added to
my paper, with the permission of the Society :

The results of the explorations of Dr. Maack last year, on the Isthmus
of Darien, put at rest the question of the late geological origin of the
Isthmus. He found three late Tertiary strips extending entirely across,
proving three channels at least in the Miocene, and some of the deposits
indicate a much later era of elevation. One of these, 10 miles inland
from Panama, evidently Post Pliocene, is at least 150 feet above the tide.

In a very cursory examination of his fossils I detected the following
species, also found in Santo Domingo :

Melongena melongena.
Murex recurvirostris.
Malea ringens.
Terebra robusta.
Conus pyriformis.
Natica sulcata.
Jerithium plebium.
Turritella.
Cypreea exanthemata (v. cervinella).
Venus paphia,
Jardium Haytense.
Pecten papyraceus.
Dr. Maack in his report calls the older beds of Panama, Pliocene. They

maQ
(a9)

5

seem to me nearer in age to the rocks which, in Santo Domingo, I called
Miocene, but whatever be their real age, the one fact is well established :
The Isthmus was elevated at a period not remote from the age of the
great volcanic outflow of the Sierra Nevada.

Yours, sincerely,
W. M. GABB.

The minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were
read. :

Pending nominations, 703 to 707, and new nominations,
708, 709, 710, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, December 6th, 1872.
Present, 13 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr.
Broca, dated Paris, November 14th, and Mr. Hale, dated
Clinton, Ontario County, Canada, November 26th, 1872.

Photographs of Mr. B. 8. Lyman and Mr. W. M. Gabb
were received for the Album.

A letter desiring the establishment of correspondence, was
received from Mr. W. A. Smith, Secretary of the Tennessee
Philosophical Society, dated Columbia, Tennessee, Novem-
ber 21st. On motion, the Society named was ordered to be
placed on the list of correspondents to receive the Pro-
ceedings.

A letter from M. de Koninck, dated Liége, September 3d,
requesting the Society to supply deficiencies in his suite of
its Proceedings, was read, and, on motion, the request
granted.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Caro-
linian University,at Lund, August Ist (XIV.,i.11.,73 to 85)
the Physical Society, at Berlin, September Ist (X1V..,1. 11.,88
to 86); the Society at Bonn, August 6th (84 to 86); the

aa

gpa es

574

Batavian Society, at Rotterdam, August 29th (XIV.,1i1., 87) ;
the Holland Society, at Harlem (86), requesting a supply of
deficient parts; the R. Library, at the Hague, July 24th
(XIV., iii., 87); and the Rhode Island Historical Society,
Providence, November 19th (88).

On motion, the request of the Holland Society, at Harlem,
was referred to the Publication Committee, with power to
act. A

Letters of envoy were received from the University of
Lund, August Ist; the Physical Society of Berlin, Septem-
ber Ist ; the Royal Academy, at Amsterdam, September 15th ;
the Batavian Society,at Harlem ; and the Holland Society, at
Harlem, December 28th, 1871, and June Ist, 1872.

Donations for the Library were reported from the Im-
perial and Royal Academies at St. Petersburg, Turin, and
Amsterdam; the Societies at Moscow, Bremen, Bonn, Har-
lem, the Hague, Leeds, Quebec, and Salem; the Geological
Institute at Vienna; the Physical Society and German Geo-
logical Society at Berlin; Dr. C. F. Naumann at Leipsic; the
Astronomical Observatory at Turin; the Revue Politique;
London Nature; Lund University; M. L. de Koninck at
Liége; the Royal Astronomical Society ; Old and New; Amer-
ican Journal of Science; the American Oriental Society ; the
Cornell Era; the Franklin Institute; the Medical News;
and the Philosophical Society of Washington.

The death of Mrs. Mary Somerville, a member of this So-
ciety, aged 92, was announced by the Secretary.

A letter was read by the Secretary from Mr. Gabb, dated
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., De-
cember 8d, giving additional imformation respecting the
date of the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama, in a note
to be added to his memoir on the Geology of Santo Do-
mingo.

The Annual Report of the Treasurer was read.

The Annual Report of the Publication Committee was
read.

Pending nominations, Nos. 703 to 710, and new nomina-
tions, Nos. 711, 712, were read.

V5
(

Or

The following resolution was offered by Mr. Price and
agreed to, and the accompanying letter ordered to be placed
upon the minutes:

Resolved, That the Curators be authorized to deliver the Continental
Congress Chair to the Mayor, taking an acceptance of it from Councils,
that it shall be placed in Independence Hall, subject to be reclaimed at
any time by this Society.

To Hon. William 8. Stokely, Mayor of the City of Philadelphia :

We herewith deliver into the custody of the City of Philadelphia an
Arm Chair used by the Continental Congress, now belonging to the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society, that it may be placed in the Hall of Indepen-
dence, and accepted by Councils, subject to be at any time reclaimed by
said Society.

(Signed) JOSEPH CARSON, }
ELIAS DURAND, | Ourators.
HECTOR TYNDALE, |
December, 1872.

The Librarian stated that a large number of books and.
brochures needed binding; that the book-cases had again
become overcrowded by accessions; that certain classes of
books were seldom or never referred to; that the catalogue
in MS. of the Theological books and pamphlets was nearly
finished; and suggested that the book-cases might be re-
lieved and a benefit be conferred on learning by depositing
the Chemieal, Mineralogical, and Geological books, tempo-
rarily, in the new building of the University of Pennsy|-
vania.

On motion of Mr. Ruschenberger, it was

Resolved, That the Committee on the Library be requested to consider
the expediency of depositing in the library of the University of Pennsyl-
vania certain books now in the library of the Society, which are not much
called for ; and in ease they shall deem the same expedient, then to report
a plan for carrying the same into effect, which will insure tie use of the
books to the members of the Society, and also provide for the safe keep-
ing of the books so deposited, and their return to the Society when ealled
for.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, December 20th, 1872.
Present, 18 members.
Vice President, Prof. J. Crusson, in the Chair.

A letter from the Librarian of the Pennsylvania Ilistori-

eal Society, dated Philadelphia, Dec. 13, was read , requesting
the completion of their set of Transactions and Probedines
A. P.S., which on motion was granted, and the Librarian
authorized to act accordingly.

Letters of similar import from the Cornell University and
State Normal School at Fredonia, were on motion referred
to the Publication Committee with power to act.

A letter of envoy was received from Mr. Thomas Bland,
New York, 42 Pine Street, Dec. 16th, on the part of ay.
Rawson, of Barbadoes, presenting to thé Society’s Library
a copy of his report on the population of the island.

The death of a member, Mr. Thomas Sully, at Philadel-
phia, on the 6th ult., aged 89 years, was announced by the
Secretary.

The death of a member, Dr. René La Roche, at Philadel-
phia, on the 9th inst., aged 77 years, was announced by Mr.
Fraley, and on motion, Dr. Carson was appointed to prepare
an obituary notice of the deceased.

The death of a member, Dr. Samuel L. Hollingsworth, at

Philadelphia, on the 14th inst., aged 57 years, Was an- _

nounced by Mr. Fraley.

Mr. Cope desired to place on record an abstract, which he
communicated orally, of a paper on the Zoological Divisions
of the Earth, as proposed by Slater, Huxley and others,
giving his preference to that of Slater, and citing the num-
bers of species, ete., already described.

Dr. Wilcox exhibited a Japanese Magie Mirror, the prop-
erty of E. C. Bittinger, U.S. N., and carrying on its back
side the inseription “ Elevation—In the dust.” He read two
letters written by Prof. John Tyndall to Mr. Alex. Johnson,
in answer to a request for an explanation of the physical
phenomena of these mirrors, used in the Buddhist cultus.

Prof. Marsh gave a short account of the more remarkable
resul's of his explorations in the Rocky Mountains since

ce

O77

1870, viz.: His discovery of the first American fossil ptero-
dactyles, cheiroptera, marsupials, birds with biconcave ver-
tebree, monkeys (eocene) of low type, and dinoceria, a new
order of horned proboscidians with canine teeth.

Prof. Cope dissented from the propriety of at present
erecting the proboscidians so discovered into a separate order,
merely on the ground of their possessing horns and canines,
and gave his reasons.

Prof. Marsh also gave an interesting account of Mr.
Clarence King’s detection and exposure of the “ Arizona
Diamond Fraud,” and his own observations of the locality,
which is actually in Colorado, and not in Arizona. Had the
fraud not been exposed by the prompt energy of Mr. King
before the setting in of the deep snows, great suffering and
loss of life and a vast plunder of property would have ensued.

The Report of the Committee of Finance was read by its
Chairman, and the appropriations for the ensuing year
recommended therein, were on motion ordered :

Salaiiv.Ob sen nominns sais ais ge eiien et eco s .s cea y occ $700
Silaby Of Assisualy WIPPAMONG aces. es. s 6. as eee cic ve 800
Ae ye Oe ANTUOD Ms Ssoroctee sal. Ces MEPS Sth ete 100
Binding, Books iam aris Pores Sone oni sthd. 14d dk ad 200
Subscription, to.) ournalss: .y. svi et ot en vgs ets 50
Insurance. <sacueen os eee Shree ee. Clee Gees 200
Hall: Commmittee?.:s645 cee. te. 06 eee seas roe a ess 200
Petty expenses of Libravian. 2005. .0es i. see 150

Publications in addition to the interest on the Publication
(BOG cagure cea on ik fae oe ees oe eh ea a 2,500

General Expenses, including the Commissions of the Treas-
COTY oe Tan oye oUt a oe ee ees 860
$5,310

Pending nominations, Nos. 703 to 712, and new nomina-
tions, 713, 714, were read.

Mr. Fraley reported the receipt of fr. 694.50 from Drexel,
Hayes & Co., agents of the Society in Paris, being interest
on French Rentes placed to the credit of the Michaux Leg-
acy Fund, of which fund, he explained, $300 had already been
paid to the Park Commissioners to defray expenses in estab-
lishing the Michaux Grove in the City Park at Fairmount.

The meeting was then adjourned.

A. P. 8. —VOL. XJI,.—3U

ee

Marsh. ] 578

COMMUNICATION ON THE DISCOVERY OF NEW ROCKY
MOUNTAIN FOSSILS,
Maver sy Pror. O. 0. Marsu
At the meeting of the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 20, 1872.

Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale College, gave a brief account of some
of the more important results of his paleontological researches in the
Rocky Mountain region during the last three years. He had directed his
attention mainly to the extinct vertebrates of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations, and had obtained morc than 200 species new to science, about
150 of which he had already described. Among the new types of fossil
vertebrates thus discovered, were Pterodactyls, or Ornithosaurians, the
first detected in this country. He had described three species of these
from the Cretaceous of Kansas, all of gigantic size. Prof. Cope’ had
subsequently redescribed two of the species in the Proceedings of this So-
ciety (Vol. XII. p. 420), but the names Pterodactylus occidentalis, Marsh,
and P. ingens, Marsh, given in the American Journal of Science (Vol. III.
p. 241) had priority. A second and quite unexpected discovery of great
interest was that of the Ichthyornide, or eretaceous birds with biconcave
vertebrae, two species of which Prof. Marsh had recently described. A
third discovery was that of fossil Cheiroptera, or Bats, not before ob-
served in this country. The three known species were found in the
Eocene of Wyoming. <A fourth new type was that of extinct Marsupials,
also from the Eocene. A fifth discovery of great importance, was that
of fossil Quadrumana, several genera and species of which he had found
in the Eocene. Prof. Marsh stated that he had obtained indications of
fossil Monkeys in this formation more than a year before, but had de-
layed announcing the discovery until the evidence was conclusive. A
sixth new type of animals, and perhaps the most interesting of all, were
‘the gigantic Eocene Mammals, which he had recently assigned to the
new order Dinocerea. These animals had limb bones somewhat like
those of Proboscidians, as stated in the original description of the type
species, Tinoceras anceps, Marsh. The skull, however, presents 2 most
remarkable combination of characters. It is long and narrow, and sup-
ported two, and possibly three, pairs of horns. The top of the skull was
concave, and on its lateral and posterior margin there was an enormous
crest. There were large decurved canine tusks resembling those of the Wal-
rus, but noupperincisors. The six premolar and molar teeth were quite
small. Several species of these remarkable animals have already been de-
seribed, but at present they cannot all be distinguished with certainty. In
addition to the type species already mentioned, Prof. Cope has given the
name Lovolophodon semicinetus, to a single tooth, which may possibly be-
long to this group. Dr. Leidy has described a characteristic specimen as
Vintatherium robustum, and a canine tooth, apparently part of the same
animal, under another name. The remarkable feature of the skull in
this group was first indicated in the name Ténoceras, which the speaker
had proposed for one of the genera. Prof. Cope subsequently proposed
the name Hobdasileus, but was mistaken in regard to the main char-

i
|
|
i
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lard
5 ‘ 9 [Frazer.

acters of the skull. What he called incisors are canines; and the
large horns are not on the frontals, but on maxiliaries. The top of
the skull moreover is not convex, but concave, and the occiput is
oblique, and not vertical. Prof. Marsh stated that he had described
several species of this group, one of the most singular of which, Dinoceras
mirabilis, Marsh, was represented in the Museum of Yale College by
a nearly perfect skeleton, and portions of several others. In all of
the species the limb bones differ considerably from those of Probos-
cidians, while the skull is so totally unlike anything hitherto known,
that he could not refer these extinct animals to that group, and hence
had proposed for their reception the order Dinocerea.

ON A SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF THE AURORA OF
APRIL 10, 1872. ,

By PrerstFror FRAZER, JR.
(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 19, 1872.)

On the night of April 10, 1872, a very beautiful Aurora was seen from
Philadelphia, spreading over 25° or 30° of the Northern Heavens.

The night was clear, and the wind was from N. W. and slightly cool.
A heavy bank of cloud covered about one-sixth of the horizon to the
north, and from the crest of this bank the Aurora seemed to proceed,
shooting up fitfully in sprays and bundles to near the zenith, and travers-
ing from west to east and back again with average rapidity. One de-
tached streamer crossed the zenith from N. E. to 8. W., and remained
permanent in position, giving only occasional fluctuations of light.

Observations were commenced with a Browning angle measuring spec-
troscope, the light condensed through a 18 foot focus, 9 in. diam. lens.

The observations were made solely with reference to the green line in
the Aurora, and the purpose in view was to verify or not the observations
of Piazzi Smith in regard to its coincidence with the green hydro-carbon
line seen at the base of every candle and illuminating gas-flame.

Four observations gave the following results :

dicaGineen linen Of AUN OT As. htc. vie 00! os cece ein eS bbl 0/1
2, “ ee ee 92°. .35/ 017
3. “6 ut Fe ee ae DOL es be cet DOSk AB O
4, ““ 66 os a 5a eds aad tas le gle age meee ae 929 20’ 0”

The line became exceedingly faint during the 8d and 4th observations

|
:
|
|

Jope. | 580

80 as to present great difficulties in placing the cross wires on it, but as
the mean of these deviations, great as it is, is very nearly the two first
recorded, I have proposed to let the late observations stand, and rate
their value as 1 each, that of each of the first two being called 5.

This would give the value of this line as............. 929 34/ 49.8”
A series of careful observations in the D lines and
the F line, gave as a mean of the former.......... 919 527 380!
POMC tOr the latter ti edia ss eiken ss eo eeek aes 95° 13/ 0/
The angular distance between D and F........... Se) 7203 380%

A curve was projected on the plan now generally adopted by observa-
tions on some ten lines, and by reference to this parabola, the mean length
of the green line was found to be 563.

It would correspond to 66 of Roscoe or 176.88 Kirchoff, Lines in Rb,
and Cs, and Ba, lie very near it, but none exactly coincides with it, nor
#3 there any absorption line in the Solar Spectrum which does.

NOTICE OF PROBOSCIANS FROM THE EOCENE OF SOUTHERN
WYOMING.

By Epw. D. Corr.

(Telegram dated Black Buttes, Wyoming, August 17, 1872, read by the

Secretary at the meeting of the American Philosophical Society, Septem-
ber 20th, 1872.)

Ihave discovered in Southern Wyoming the following species : Loxo-
LOPHODON, Cope. Incisor one, one canine tusk ; premolars four, with
one crescent and inner tubercle ; molars two ; size gigantic. L. cornutus,;
horns tripedral, cylindric ; nasals with short convex lobes. TL. Surcatus,
nasals with long spatulate lobes. IL. pressicornis, horns compressed sub-
acuminate.

(Signed) EDWARD D. Corr,

U. S. Geological Survey.

[Note by the Secretary.—The above telegram was so badly transmitted
by the operators as to be read with difficulty, and the precise forms of the
specific names could not be certified until the return of Prof. Cope from
the field. ]

ii

581

[ Roberts.
Oxsrruary NOTICE OF EDWARD MILLER, CiviL ENGINEER.
?

Prepared at the request of the American Philosophical Society, and read at
a meeting of the Society, April 5, 1872.

By Sotomon W. Rozerts, Civil Engineer.

dward Miller was born in Philadelphia on the 6th of January, 1811.

He was the third son of William Miller, who was the Secretary of the
Philadelphia Marine Insurance Company, and had been Commissioner
of the Revenue of the United States at the City of Washington. He was
a gentleman of the old school, remarkable for his punctilious politeness,
and for a high sense of honor; and was held in high esteem by many
prominent citizens of Philadelphia, and in particular by Mr. Nicholas
Biddle, with whom he was very intimate. Mr. William Miller and his
family were connected with the first Presbyterian Church of Philadel-
phia for many years.

Edward Miller was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, where
he graduated, with Mathematical Honor, when seventeen years of age.
Immediately afterwards he entered the Engineer Corps on the Lehigh
Canal, of which Canvass White was the Chief Engineer. Mr. White had
been one of the Principal Engineers of the Erie Canal of New York, and
he was a gentleman of fine character and much experience. He had
made pedestrian tours along the lines of the principal canals of Great
Britain, and he was a man of sterling integrity and of great industry.
When Edward Miller joined the corps, the Resident Engineer was Syl-
vester Welch, a man of remarkable energy of character, who planned the
Portage Railroad and directed its construction across the Allegheny
Mountain, and who was afterwards the Chief Engineer of the State of
Kentucky. With him was his brother, Ashbel Welch, since the Chief
Engineer of various important works in New Jersey, and for several
years, until the leasing of the lines, the President of the United Com-
panies of that State. On the Lehigh at the same time were W. Milnor
Roberts, now the Chief Engineer of the Northern Pacific Railroad ; Solo-
mon W. Roberts, now Chief Engineer and Superintendent of the North
Pennsylvania Railroad; A. B. Warford, Geo. E. Hoffman, Benjamin
Aycrigg, and several other well known engineers. It was a good school.

Canvass White had been an officer of volunteers in the war of 1812,
and had been badly wounded at Fort Erie. He was a strict disciplina-
rian, and set a fine example of conscientious discharge of duty, even when
suffering from ill health and much bodily weakness. Henry Clay, when
recommending him for Engineer of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, said;
«No man is more competent, no man more capable ; and while your faith
in his ability and fidelity increases, your friendship will grow into affec-
tion.?? He died in 1834 of pulmonary disease, when 44 years of age, and
is buried at Princeton, New Jersey, where he had resided as Chief En-
gineer of the Delaware and Raritan Canal.

Roberts. ] 582

The principal manager of the business of the Lehigh Canal and Navi-
gation Company at that time, was Josiah White, a member of the Society
of Friends ; a man whose abilities and great public services in develop-
ing the resources of Pennsylvania, were worthy of a more fitting memo-
vial than they have yet received.

From the time when Edward Miller joined the corps at Bethlehem, on
the Lehigh, in 1828, until the canal was completed in the following year,
he was much liked by his comrades, and an intimacy grew up between
him and the writer of this notice, which lasted without interruption until
his death, a period of more than forty years. In the autumn of 1829, they
entered together the service of the State of Pennsylvania, on the western
division of the State Canal, of which Sylvester Welch had been appointed
the Principal Engineer.

That work was finished in December, 1830, and early m 1831 Edward
Miller went abroad and passed some months in England, where he care-
fully examined the Liverpool and Manchester, the Cromford and High
Peak, and other railways in Great Britain. He was provided with excel-
lent introductory letters, and he acquired a large amount of valuable
professional knowledge. Soon after his return home, Sylvester Welch,
who had become the Principal Engineer of the Portage Railroad over the
Allegheny Mountain, appointed Edward Miller to be his Principal Assist-
ant in charge of the Machinery of the Inclined Planes. Mr. Miller de-
signed the stationary engines and other machinery for ten inclined planes,
and superintended their construction in Pittsburg. The plans were novel
and ingenious, and the rapid manner in which the planes on the moun-
tain were worked, as compared with those elsewhere, showed their great
superiority. In the spring of 1834 the railroad over the mountain was
opened for public use, the rise from the canal-basin at Hollidaysburg to
the summit being 1,400 feet in a little over ten miles. The work at-
tracted much notice, and many persons of distinction visited it. It served
its purpose until it was superseded by the improved line of the Penn-
sylvania Railroad.

Throughout his career, Edward Miller illustrated the advantages of
literary and scientific training to a man of business. He surrounded
himself with good books and made good use of them. He turned his
attention to Geology, and studied it with reference to its influence upon
topography, and upon the contour lines of the country ia which he was
engaged in railroad explorations and locations, and especially with refer-
ence to the region of the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania, of which
he traced a crest line for more than forty miles. Soon after he grew up
to manhood he wrote an essay on this subject for publication.

The first work of which he had the independent charge as Chief En-
gineer, was the Catawissa Railroad. At that time locomotive engines
had been but a few years in use for miscellaneous traffic ; they were much
lighter and less powerful than those now used, and high speeds and long
trains were very little known. The ponderous engines, weighing thirty

i
|

Wigan ears e aI

5R* :
583 { Roberts.

or forty tons, with steel tires and steel fire-boxes, burning anthracite
coal, and rushing along over varying grades with a speed and a power
which continue to impress the imagination even of those whose daily
duty it is to direct their course, had then no existence.

The Catawissa Railroad has a summit-tunnel about 1,200 feet long, ex-
cavated through rock. The rise from the Susquehanna at Catawissa to
the tunnel on the head-waters of the Little Schuylkill, is very nearly
1,000 feet in about thirty miles. Mr. Miller fitted his line to the ground
with very great care, and in such a way that the road has no grade ex-
ceeding thirty-three feet in a mile, so as to economize locomotive power
to the greatest possible extent. This necessitated the building of several
very high bridges to carry the grade across lateral ravines entering the
main valley. This road continues to be in successful use. The location
was a very bold one, nothing like it having been attempted in the country
before, and it showed a very considerable degree of originalty and self-
reliance on the part of the young engineer who made it.

In June, 1886, while living at Catawissa, Mr. Miller was happily mar-
ried to Miss Jessie Patterson Imbrie, of Philadelphia. His wife survives
him with a large family of children, and their eldest son, Mr. James
Imbrie Miller, now holds a high position in British India, as Chief En-
gineer of the Government Railways in Rajpootana, a large district of
Central India, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers.

Soon after his marriage, Edward Miller was, for some time, the Chief
Engineer of the Morris Canal of New Jersey.

Before the completion of the Catawissa Railroad, he left it to become
Chief Engineer of the Sunbury and Erie Railroad Company, of which
Nicholas Biddle was then the President. He proceeded to explore the
country between Sunbury and Erie, much of which was a wilderness. It
was said at the time, that in the wildest part of it there was but one
house near the line for sixty miles. A considerable time was occupied in
preliminary surveys, but the construction of the work did not go on until
long after, on account of the failure of the United States Bank and the
temporary collapse of credit that ensued.

The people residing in the southern tier of counties in the State of
New York, were resolutely bent on having a railroad from the Hudson

River to Lake Erie, to rival the Erie Canal. <A charter was obtained and
the work undertaken. Thus arose the New York and Erie Railroad
Company, which has had such an extraordinary history since, a history
which, to one familiar with it, seems like a romance.

By its charter the company was prohibited from locating any part of
its road outside of the territorial limits of the State of New York. The
long line was cut up into several parts, with independent Engineers upon
each, and confusion followed as a matter of course. Edward Miller was
employed as a Consulting Engineer to write areport upon what was going
on. This he did so much to the satisfaction of the Board of Directors,
that he was soon after appointed Chief Engineer of the whole line from

Roberts. ] 584

the Hudson to Lake Erie. When it is considered that he was a citizen of
Pennsylvania, and only thirty years of age, it is remarkable that he
should have received such an appointment.

The location of the railroad was materially changed, additional legis-
lation was obtained, a part of the line was laid within the limits of Penn-
sylvan.a, on the Upper Delaware ; and Mr. Miller continued to be the
Chief Engineer tor about three years, and until the work was suspended
for the want of funds. The first division of the road was opened for
public use while he had charge of it.

It may be remarked, in this connection, that a great change has come
over the general tenor of legislation in the several States of the Union,
on the subject of internal improvements,

Men change and die, but the mountain ranges remain and the streams
flow on in their old channels. The arbitrary lines drawn upon the map
as political divisions, cease, more and more, to act as barriers to obstruct
the construction and use of railroads, which the people feel that they
need to facilitate their free intercommunication, and thus the railroads
of the country become one of the most powerful means of securing a
more perfect Union.

After leaving the New York and Erie Road, Mr. Miller returned to Phil-
adelphia, and became President of the Harrisburg and Lancaster Com-
pany, which post he held for two years, and while holding it he visited
England as financial agent of the Company. In 1845 he was the Chief
Engineer of the enlargement of the Schuylkill Navigation, a work by
which the tonnage of the boats upon the Schuylkill River and Canal has
been considerably more than doubled.

On the 18th April, 1845, Edward Miller was elected a member of the
American Philosophical Society.

In 1856, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company was chartered. The
prompt construction of a continuous railroad from Philadelphia to Pitts-
burg was demanded by public opinion ; and, in the face of much opposi-
tion, the City of Philadelphia, in its corporate capacity, subscribed five
millions of dollars to the stock of the company.

Mr. John Edgar Thomson, now the distinguished President of that
powerful and prosperous corporation, was appointed its Chief Engineer.
Mr. Thomson is a native of Pennsylvania, born in Delaware county, and
his great success as a railroad engineer in Georgia, recommended him for
his new post of professional honor and responsibility. How worthily he
was to fill it is best shown by the annual reports of the Pennsylvania
Railroad Company for the last twenty-five years. Edward Miller became
the Associate Engineer of the Western Division, the most difficult part
of the line, and under his supervision the surveys and location of the
road from Altoona to Pittsburg were made, under Mr. Thomson as Chief
Engineer. After Mr. Thomson became President of the Company, Mr.
Miller succeeded him as Chief Engineer,

How efficiently these gentlemen aided each other, and thus promoted

mich
O85 [ Roberts.
the great interests confided to their care ; with what freedom from pro-
fessional jealousies they acted, and what magmanimity characterized
their intercourse, is well known to the writer of this imperfect tribute to
the memory of one whose loss we now deplore, and who considers it to
be a worthy example to young men entering upon the arduous life of a
Civil Engineer.

Mr. Miller remained in the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad Com-
pany for about six years, and in 1852 he visited England on business of
that corporation.

In February, 1853, he became the Chief Engineer of the North Penn-
sylvania Railroad, and continued upon that line until June, 1856, in that
year being President of the Company. He located the railroad from Phil-
adelphia to Bethlehem, and part of it was completed while under his
charge. A continuous line was also located from Bethlehem to the State
line of New York at Waverley, and various other surveys were made to
the Delaware Water Gap and elsewhere.

In 1856, Edward Miller removed to Missouri, having been appointed
Chief Engineer of the Pacific Railroad of that State. He held that post
for a few years ; and, having gone to reside on a large farm near the Mis-
souri River, about six miles from the Kansas line, the war broke out, and
he found himself with a large family in a position of great peril. The
progress of the railroad had stopped, and a terrible, irregular warfare
filled all Western Missouri with fear. After enduring the evils of this
position fora time, Mr. Miller returned to Philadelphia, leaving that home
in the West which he had done much to improve, and which had fo1 a
while lost its value.

Although many millions of dollars had been disbursed under his direc-
tion on various public works, his accumulations, after many years of labor,
had not been large. He was proud of his professfon, looking upon it as
the art of directing the great sources of power in nature to the use and
benefit, of man, and he considered the Civil Engineer to be not only the
interpreter between the man of science and the mechanic, but also a cap-
tain of industry, bound in honor to set a good example to those
under him of all uprightness and integrity

working

He had reached the age of fifty years, and he felt the importance of
making a more adequate provision for his family. Through the kind as-
sistance of Mr. John Edgar Thompson, he became a partner in a large
contract for the completion of the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad, which
proved to be profitable, and he was afterwards interested as a contractor
on the Warren and Franklin and Kansas and Pacific Railroad. The
favorable results of these undertakings enabled him to leave his family in
2asy circumstances.

In January, 1871, he was sixty years old, and about that time he found
himself suffering from serious disease, the symptoms of which had begun
to develop themselves some time before. An internal tumor, of a cancer-
ous nature, was found to exist and to be increasing, and the resources of

A. P. 8.—VOL. XII.—3V

586

Roberts. J

medical science and skill failed to remove it. He lived for about a year,
after the nature of his disease became known to him, and at times he
suffered great pain. In the latter part of the time he could take but little
food, and his strong frame, more than six feet in hei :ht, became very
much emaciated. He was nursed with the tenderest care ; and a supply of
the bark of the Cundurango plant from South America was obtained for
him, which has been highly spoken of as a remedy for cancerous diseases,
but which failed in this case.

The Christian character of Edward Miller was beautifully exhibited in
his last illness, and he was a fine example of ‘‘the power of religion upon
the mind in retirement, affliction, and at the approach of death.” He had
long been a member and an elder of the Presbyterian Church, Although
a person of very positive opinions, and free in the expression of them, he
was a broad-minded man, and some of his nearest friends were not of his
religious communion. At the last, he passed away serenely to his final
rest, full of Christian faith and hope.

He died on the first of February, 1872, in the sixty-second year of his
age, at his house in West Philadelphia, and was buried at Woodlands

Cemetery.

591

Other Verbal Communications.

BaIRnp. Page.

On the Decline of Vegetable Vitality in Fruit Trees since 1860...............4. 168
BLODGET.

On the Destruction of Trees, Marth 6-7, 1872... 2... 6.0. scene eseedctecessteces 444
BRIGGS.

On Movements of Suspended Matter... 7.6.0... e cece cet e ceca nsesescsecthoesess 111
Brooks.

On the Magnetism of Rocks at Marquette, WHGHIS ONG C05 Cvs esses creeds 487, 439
BurcK.

Mexican’ Vocabulary. .06. .0sea ss tole Sees e ks es ieee PRT ee re eae 118, 114
CHASE.

On an Annitlal Auroral OUrve, SOs iic6hi sis tic blind sale ese ceeasccyssvaccess 442

On a Method of Estimating the Sun’s Mass by the Energy of Flames......... 439

On the Pluvial Indications of the Meteoric and Sunspot Cycles..............-. 159

On Accommodations for the Observations of the Signal Service Bureau.. 38

Methods of the Meteorological Board of the Royal Society............-..2+.008 2
CopE.

Telegram Of AUSUSLIT.......6..-seeee cece etecneeecec onset eetetenesesessecseens BID

On the Sightless Fauna of Western Caves. . 441

Gye the Bone Cave near Pott Mienncdy cis ice sete ies aio whee es eel eee 109

On Specimens of Teeth and Portions of the Jaw of a new Mososauroid ; also

Fossils of a new Species of Batrachian, and a new Reptilian Genus.......... 87

On a new Genus of Fish from Green River Country........c..ccseeeeeeeeecees ary

On WGNeil’s Researches in Panama... o,f... c is ese oe cove ccc cevewcns oa 1D
COxE.

On the Uncovering of Ancient Hearths and Large Vases at Baker’s Run...... 17

Cresson, (J. C.)
On the Growth of Plants through Hard Gravel Walks

On tae PaieMount Park Mapes ieee visi ee cece cts ees.
EMERSON, (G.)
On the Destruction of tees, in March, 18(2e. i.e os oes oe ences anne scecukenseess 443
On the: Storr Of October 25 655 ie ra eck cess sick e ee Nci sug seu esos tunes 560
GENTH.
On Pseudo morph COLUMG UIs ce reesei cee e ene cssawecene su eeceewes 1
Hatprman, (8. 8.)
Ou the Riyme Baw of the Sonnet, <<... eae cee eee ce etees 561
Le Conrs, (J. L.)
On the Fauna and Flora of the Mexican Boundary..........c.cceceeeeeeer coon 661
Lusiey.
* On the Alleged Discovery of a Hewn Orypt in Towa...........eeee cece eee tenes 16
On a Recent Exposure of a Solid Brown Hematite Iron Ore Bed.........--..++ 16
On the Discovery of a Cross Anticlinal in the Cumberland Mountains of Ten-
FOSROG sii cece cso ccepees see covisc vies sets suacseeihievises cep ecoue crys retiree « 111
On John Fulton’s Discovery of a Mammoth Fossil Ore Bed in Tussey Moun-
HAN, PO.cc ress cece eset es teeswe esc sscesenscceseweterccsnsnostsotcestptausas casas te
On the Comb Hieroglyph

On some Supposed Egyptian Letters in the Dolmen of Manelud.......------+- 168

On Lauth’s Gold Mine Papyrus, ....... ccc ccc cette were eee csccsecerneeneseres 160

ON, enhiy- SUM) MAEDICS lic ce. cr aet reais renuswiesuse+ se Reet Ty aren 160

Gn & Model of Wiortison’s O0ve, Pain. civics cies erste one's 439

On a Terminal Moraine near Franklin, N. J.......cceceee rene teres ccsecerereecs 516
LYMAN.

Map of Rawul Pindee and Salt Range Structure.........-+ee+ seesereerrererss 823
MAYER.

Photographs of Lines of Magnetic Force. ........-eceeeeeecenecserereeseeecetes 109

4

592

Price, (E. K.) Page.
Aurora of February 4... isceccse.s 6 VSepea weds is eee ise mahae Mi ateaieaath eae Oe wien 438
Situ, (A. H.)
On the Fauna of Lake Superior and Lake INIDDO ONE. i ia Ce seecase OOL
Roars, (R. E.)
On an Improved Holtz Machine,......c......cscs0505 wiles geisha ane ee 439
On an Improved Galvanic Battery..............0...-¢ A Leia shld hee paste epi «. 441
On a Method of Obtaining Continuous Electricity for Class Lec 442
List of Correspondent Socteties. —A dditions.
Atmenicin Ohemist, New York. Proceedings. 2.5.0. iii .ccieyee ec elec es oebel ccs 434
Anthropological Institute, New York. Proceedings................ 322
American Institute of Civil Engineers. Proceedings - 160
Meteorological Office at Washington. -Procecding8......... 066. 0cecesecesliccunenees 160
Tennessee Philosophical Soelety,: Proceedings...) 00.6.5 55 ee. Ge esi cs eee vaay ONO
Southern University at Greensboro’, Alabama. MOLOULGd i ian Kine c A enema Le 194
Verein fiir Vaterl. Nat. at Stuttgart. Proceedings..... one Vio tess 322
Voigtlind. Verein fiir Naturkunde. Proceedings. 322
West Virginia University at Morgantown. Proceedings...........ccsenececesecccecs 546
Zoolog: Mineral: “Verein at Regensburg, Proceedingg.........0.cceeesscesccceccsdes 822
Deficiencies Order to be supplied.
Pennsylvania Historical ad MEMEO ENT ges os 6c ce ey 86s 6 uae EBM : 576
Wee avo meominele, ict TbOROey ai viedo vs is Mae ilivs os cs Seiie voce cede 573

Jornell University, T..... oe
Fredonia Normal Schooly cots. ss ceteiays be os
Holland Society at Harlem...

Zoolog. Botan. Society at Vienna
Proceedings Published.

Of Officers and Members in Council..
Of Standing Committees...

Reports of OTe ers and Committees.

TECOSULOR cela. coed a bs Bone Hewisminiwisiie ere Csivia

, STA

Finance Committee. 5 OUT
Publication Committee , 74
DDURTION es cece esa oa 575
Treasurer of: Trustees of Building Funds: 0c. oe. tek c eaek meme Sree eieiaa cue 360
Committee on the Michaux Legacy.... . 64, 114, 167, 194, 229, 577
Oommittee on the Next Thansit of Venus... 00. 6i0.52. 2 alloca es 322, 359

Quasi Céim ate Tiinois 223
Portrait of William Smith .. 545
Portrait of D’Alembert...... Mage Rolae canoe dwt le 0S CVC se OEVa Gy Old ven clia te eee MeO 822
Pursh’s MSS. and Map........ 560
Stubb’s Indian Sculpture............. . B14
Appropriation for Cope’s Meg. Bellicosa............. m 114

SOMEONE UL Mig Buy Oley ISLURCLION, ; 66:6 eee ois t pacaserere) os manne sSe.ee, PPT nr rae 434

'Y

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\
NS

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Wey

xy
YY
XX

Jefferson a
azewell C ‘H.

“Glade Springs

MYTH CO.

13 N° V Clinton ( Fossil Dye-stone Iron ore ) Formation,
[2 N°2&3 Lower Silurian Limestones & Slates.
[27 N° XI, XI, Coal Measures

Ga «N° VI, IX,X. Devonian.

J.Bien Lith
" _

INDEX FO VOLUME XLT.

Members Elected.

* Members who have accepted by letter. + Who have taken their seats,

Page. Page,
* Abbe, (Cleveland).......+-++seeseeees 159 | King, (Co)ereeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeeer eee 554
* Agnew, (D. H.)..------ 440 sree ac le ee ee ee 321
% , i BO. sAUtD, (EB. Se). cece cece cee ee cee nee ns SOF
Andrews, ( : a 3) ae
*Barnard, (F. A. P.) ee (Re Se)eve recesses eeeeeeereees 3
tBlodget, (Lorin)...-..-. ie age eedNG saeetues seb eiccenue 112
Borie, (Ay Ws). 26 sess CACO (Bisa comical cs busses 18
*Broca; (P:)..<2 MIVIOOHUN, (Le) cca soiverssocssccs aeee 13
#Jasanth;, 43): PMN GY (ORB). vice cusses So 321
*OAttELY GW Oops sasssee sss lout cee 13 nl ce TE) cevewesvccsesestinaued 458
Dupont de Nemours, (La Motte). Hy, B21 Norris, Gh) Iti cc.u yes . 554
*Dutton, (Cy Bs)... see te ase chess 13 Parien, (Esquirox de)... 13
PUGS CW sic s scan taee niece cuens 821 *Peter, (H.)-...esesss ie 458
*Bliot, (C. DW 5) cap sive Ue tee Cer Vereen 112 Phillips, (H. M.).. 13
wiiraver, (P.) ITevise oe ives sc oc sss ues 821 *Roepper, (Ww. T.). 13
*Goodfellow, (Hid.)......secesseeceeees 13 *Say, (J. B. Léon). 440
MEPALO. (UL) cus Guests vc ec vex e ee sr .. 664 | *Sellers, (C.).....-...000e . 458
Haupt, (erman).:..2..02...5.. $e 112 | Sie ae (Ww. a nye ee pie
*Hough, (G. W.).. 821 | *Tilghman, (B. C.)........6se.+sseeeee rg
*Houston, (E. J.). sacoel | Drow bridwe, (We B.). oss. us ceases ss 321
Werr, (We Onis ice baie ewes ates $21 |. Woolsey, (1. D.).:.... Sugdeiu faveus Fa 112
Member Resigned.
JONAS, (Di Ba)is odes che suave wees eel un ve weil y claw edie p eeu se esw tiles eveveveWceveson’ 1
Members Deceased.
Barnes, (A.)..cc.ceceescsccececcccesens 2 | Hodge, (J. T.)..... Ne vivasghb vevesieedioe « AE
Bell, (Ij. . B16 HOLDrools, (Js Bee) veces ccs es ss ceteccees, 198
Bopp, (FranZ)...cees cscs eee sere eeees 288 |. Hollingsworth, (S. Ia)......0.cccceees 576
Brdyley, (he Wed sesss eewtevesyevnees 193 | TNWORsOll; (Hales sees e cise cdavecsescs 546
Breckinridge, (R. S.).......seee se eees « 288 DBGEBONY (Sue ce vce isceess ccuv eee cases 437
Bro wily (da Pa) oc. v sce oe hose ee nec tee M10) Samos CS. Benes cree sack eases 16
BUjals ys COT e466 604 os an hin os cin hae ais 459 | Kasem Beg, (Alexander).............. 459
Oliativenet, CWay es ieee ics cee e es 4 Bae OCHO GiWe sek cies Cee des oaks souk S 576
Ooheny (i Gucci ses es hey secon 2 ARCO Uy (A gs den sok teak eeces RUS, cues 110
Colwell, (Stephen)... .......0..rcsee0ss 8 | Mboad ey (Gh Ge). esses io0 cas ces cen ie 571
Conyngham, (Judge)...........0..ees 64 WLIO T: (ines pes sis Sous hc Naas duc eee: 323
Dickson, (S. H.)..........-00-eeseeeess 437 | Morris, (EB. DF ck ws wiewess iy va sauces se ox 437
Dyworjak, (D. O.). 000.1052. 0. eee s 459 | Morse, (8. FB.) 437
HiGreldt, (J. Bi). cise ccs cts a seen s 514 | Murchison, (R. L.)... LTT
WIT, GE GLICO). ose sees oon to oe, ures 545 Nulty, (i). .t.... + 159
Hraer ¢ Ae ee eure ate 553 | Olrik, (Christian) ... . 485
i Gasparin, (A. E. de)..... lous 228 aot me ‘ fi oe es ; 8
GorhaxrdyCWs Wa )ccccs vy. 00 . 440 iv6, (Pictet de la). .32. acs +s 488
GHIMOa (Ca cite. B60. |» Somervilte, (Mi). .ccc esos. sin cs .. 674
Hligidingery CW ices. ccs es. 110 | UY, (DOs cas eae is swore a caves 576
Hamilton, (We J o)iia.. sess ue Ol TAGEMOL, (Ga) cs cis cece evs sce cecceg aces 15
RLOYsGnel,; (Jak Ws cade. Sones * 160 | Wetherill (Oy NE) ach ies ee este 64

588

Obituary Notices Reads

Page.
Colwell, . 195 Miller, (i
Eckfeldt, J. 547 Rhoads, .E.)....6« Vege Wen {04 ite sents
ELGreGhely Jb. Wi)icns. sss. 08 re aU al

Obituary Notices Appointed.

Belly Ch. aia Oana oie niuoenes 515 La Roche, RK. 576
MAU OD SE, CW iis cases ie heating a 15 Meade, (G. G.... 57]
Conyngham, (Judge .. 2s... ens bse 64 Wetherill, (OG. M.)...0.....cceeese 64
Frazer, (0. Be): cee Lace OP rT 7 en a
Photographs of Members for the Album.

BCH; (Hie We ic cee cele rece sdane vei + 357 Corvis; Heyl. cide cheeses cues eles Vey sa 442
Peat, CA iii ihs tian cde ee ce AT Ahad 110 Julien, Stanislaus). 161
MOAN CIO). jinn ites “aire tetev cert 192 TB WiA CB J ic\iavecsass ccs. otts 442,
PUB CLs codes ccc caves cord ice eineed 157 Lowrie; (Ws H.)s. 0. eis0 5. e ee ae ase 442
Cohen, ‘J. I DayMGN CB. So)esco sees ccsty ¢ ieee tes Ole
Cohen, (M. J.) .. WEATSH, (Oy Ol) ani cents ce 4 oar ede dss 434
Oook, (Geo, H.)...4. Weiler; CMR); css. cece ces usec sma a 161
WAVIGHONG (GE) ia Chadee sede trois dna c8t 434 Phillips, (HM) cece roads cries ed vee . 570
WAVIGBON, (I otic ee: ‘ Rochrigy (OQ. FB. Lijec ce tec erst evens 159

Fisher, ‘G. Sandbers
(BUDD; (Wo VG, ei cecawniesss cece Wace ned 673 Saxon, (<
MPU Vy ec inds cb tocnsernecuiels bee edieee cs 68 Seidensticker, (On .i..6el cs co 158

FRILGH COG (OL) so sees ane avs nie 8357 Worthen, (As Ta )icececcetecss. ve 514
Povratords (Bu Nu)... ides- dees se. ceves LOFT
Memoirs for the Transactions.

Gass, (W. M.)

On the Physical Geography and Geology of Santo Domingo, with a map and

BECtIONS.. ...05 00%: Oe aiacat PAE ee CO es ce oes (oi 008, BOO

LyMan, (B. §.)

On the Punjab Oil Region, with map....... PGE Perl ho Ee OCR IL a 808, 323

On a Coal Region of S. Virginia, With Maps.....s. cece cece eee eee eee e eee 360, 488

On the Staley’s Creek Iron Ore, with map...... 546, 560
STCHOULEPNEKOFF.

On the Tours of the Chess Knight..ic..cccccccc cece ea ens tee ceeebensetegees 198, 288
STEPHENSON,

On the Geology of N. W. Virginia... .6.. ccs eeee ee denne etree steer ees 359, 3860, 485, 440
Woop, (H. C.)

On the Fresh Water Algee of the United States. ..0.. cs. cceeae cece eens eteeenee 3

Verbal or Written Communications published in full or in abstract

in the Proceedings.
Bianp, (T.) yy

Notes relating to the Physical Geography and Geology of, and the Distribu-
g \ Pr) ‘

tion of Terrestrial Mollusca in certain of the West India Islands.......-..-+ 56
Canny, (Hi. C0.)
Obituary. Notice of Stephen Colwell, TES... scscccceveeeccesvaeececereetecessces 195
Onapas, (1.)
Note ot the Footmark in the Hieroglyphic Script... ...cceeceee eect erersenees 19%
Case, (Pri)
Etiropean and American Rainfalls.... ce. secses esse eee eeee et en ee tes tenes gene es 38
AUOriGhi W GAtTOr NOGCB iii ee ee eee e caves det fecdi ae clase ete ss se 56 40

Winds of the United States.

589

Crasp, (P. E.) Page,
Resemblance of Atmospheric, Magnetic and Oceanic Currents io. 68
On the relation of the Auroras to Gravitating Currents... He At
Winds of Turope.............4. SOG en See oer eeea an 123
Oyclical Rainfalls at Lisbon..............-+-..eseeeee Lemar pene Wee TALS
Correlations of Cosmical and Molecular Force............. South le sesame 392
The Herschell-Stephenson Postulate...........+ . 305
Further Approximations to the Sun’s Distance.... 398

General Relation of Auroras to Rainfall............. 400
Influence of Meteoric Showers on Atroras............. 401
Planetary Lilustrations of Explosive Oscillations... 403
Solar and Planetary. Rotation.......ccccseccsseecee - 406

A&thereal Density and Polarity..... bee ales tac cia ote 407
The Sun-spot C yele Of 11.07 years... ..... 410
Axthereal Oscillation the Primordial Material Force...........+ i aeeetes isin sabe 411
Daily Auroral and Meteoric Means. wows 516
Cyclical Rainfall at San Francisco. CUR ice Likes auras. soy en eon uig, oe 523
Recent Monthly Rainfall in the United Site. uote 555
: Lunar-Cyclical Rainfall in the Northern Temperate Zone........ tence as, .. 558 |
Cork, (E. D.) 4
The Port Kennedy Bone Cave............ccceeseree devia g cers doe cemualvebinye 15 |
Supplement to the “ Seuopaiade ‘the E xtinet Batrachia and Reptilia of North 1
America” bie iis Seg ay 41
On Two Extinct Forms of Physostomi of the Neotropical RePION .. sven deed es 52
On the Occurrence of Fossil Cobitides in TIdaho...........0.6 seeceseeceeesencee 55
Preliminary Report on the Vertebrata discovered in the Port Kennedy Bone
Sketch of an ere in the Valley of the Smoky Hill River 4a Kansas. . d }
Observations on the Extinet Batrachian Fauna of the Carboniferous of fuinton, 4
Ohi decree cies ec scees rea van Die biaceul crv cohen SUE CEN Ly uae aia. 117 ]
Remarks-ow Ei yttis Oollechion: a: uichiccis ots ein whee eee hresen Uw treed sia <2
Observations on the Distribution of certain Extinct V ertebyata { in North Caro-
LARD rere ec a Severo 165 Se ee ow Od ee EOSIN es wc t See eu es one an Uae ess
Dhe Method of-Oreation- of. Oroanic: POrms: sci ctas iti seaveevereeccetesteaieces |
Catalogue of the Pythonomorpha found in the Cretaceous strata of Kansas |
On anew Testudinate from the Chalk of iansas:.... is... n cis ees eds 308 |
Remarks on Mr. Price’s ‘‘ Phases of Modern Philosophy’ vesweees DLE j
On the Families of Fishes of the Cretaceous formation of Kansas.............. 327
On Bathmodon, an extinct genus of Ungulatesy. is o.6 ce os via Gp votes ta da ay 417
On EWo new Olt nonuniPinis fPOMl ICGnsas, osccer st. beck olek cts br dl es vee: 420.
A Description of the Genus Protostega, a form of Extinct Testudinata.. ..... 422

Descriptions of some New Vertebrata from the Bridger Group of the Eocene.. 460

i Second account of New Vertebrata from the Bridger Eocene of Wyoming Ter-
BACOPY: 1 vious Nb od scat op sree sb ee set ecm lee bub ele eee ne acl eee ne biecte nce eecue MOU,
On a new genus of Pleurodira from the Eocene of Wyoming......... sae vee ete. cere
On the Tertiary Coal and Fossils of Osino, Nevada,........0.......005 deeececea 478
On the existence of Dinosauri in the Transition Beds of Wyoming............. 481
Notices of New Vertebrata from the Upper Waters of Bitter Creek, Wyoming
MOGIMIEOLY Gall is eee ices csuea vce teled aidesiney Widest sso ctuslvee tae Gia ape 483
| Second notice of Extinct Vertebrates from Bitter Creek, Wyoming............ 487

On the Dentition of Metalophodon
On a New Vertebrate Genus from t
Green River..

Felegram of Augest 17

590

Dusors, (W. E.) : Page.
On a Quasi Coin reported found in a boring in Illinois....0......cc.sssssseecdee 224,
Obituary Notice of J. R. Eckfeldt, Msq. 547

Dourton, (C. E.)

The Causes of Regional Elevations and Subsidences..........cccceessereeccnees 70

EMERSON.

On Lunar Influence upon the Conditions of Wet or Dry Weather.............. 17

FrELD, (H. W.)

Obituary N otiee Of Sit J..He We HOtsGhGl iis ous Goi ines vas a eeevGine sas ae cans eds © 217

FRAZER, (P.)

Spectroscopic Examination of the Aurora of April 10th, 72.....-...-.e+eseeeee 579

TABB.

Pables of Miocene Fossils in Santo DomIn GON. sscc sweet ee si ves iectecs es 571
List of Fossils common to Panama and Santo Domingo...........cccec see cneees 572

ITARTSHORNE, (H.)

OpmuRrY NOtICe Or BE URNORGR, MOD Sais cece ype ci csa se cdcces ener Ssdcensess 171
Oi Creal PHYSICE ieee ccs reese sesh eecesss pass csadSeeeceecesincracvticeuss 311

Haver, (H.)

Computation of the Wilect of GTCdionts. .. 06.6... c ss cee w ees secettctercenssescs 9

Houston, (EH. J.)

On a Waterfall Sensitive to the Human Voice........ cc ccescceeasescseescccees 515

HELLER.

A Heller and Brightley’s New Transit........ OES HASTE RCs INV cer eer aad. 115

KrrKwoop, (D.)

On the Formation and Primitive Structure of the Solar System................ 163
On some Remarkable Relations between the Mean Motions of Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, afd Neptune... cscs icees cesses sceesectseecenscevccceccesrscoucsscons 435
Luster, (J. P.)
On an Apparent Violation of the Law of regular progressive Debituminisa-
tion of the American Coal Beds coming East. Somerset Co,, Pa 125
On the Titaniferous Iron Ore Belt, near Greensboro, North Oarolin: 1389
On a fine Upthrow Fault at Embreville Furnace in East Tennessee,....-...... 44d
On the Geological Structure of Tazewell, Russell and Wise Counties in Vir-
ZUMA. eee ccc nee e ene eee eee nese eta ce ees eee sees senses tteeeatenanesanenees 489
Record of Fourteen Oil Wells at Brady’s Bend, Armstrong County, Penn-
BYIVAMIA....ccecceesseseeeerescncsenrsssesecesees sUeeWees abe bel besideueeddes wees 004

Marsg, (O. C.)

Fossils of the Rocky Mountains found in 1870-2..........0..ccceeeeesseeeeee 576, 578

PrprEr, (W.)

A Case of Universal Hyperostosis, associated with Osteoporosis, with a de-
scription of the Specimens... . 2.65. sce eeee ees e essen eee w eee r eer ee tense eeeeee 19
Prick, (EH. K.)
Nome euases oF Wlodern PRIORO POY isccveses Cees cctbabavecsescssubeeuass vevnes 289
Another LE hase Of WOdEIN PUIOBODHS ics csevgtdcssassecvecesse debe cuiyecaeawes 361
Rurp, (J. D.)
Sketch and Description of a Carved Rock on the bank of the Monongahela
11

Roserts, (8. W.)

Obituary Notice of Is, Miller, ©. Bu... ss ceclnsacedivcssesasevsesversess sesh evs 823

WILcox.

WLAQAG MATTOL. 66. ccc rectecc sens rtavnssesvarsreestenshecessssssengenesssreeectsers 576

Woop, (G. B.)

Mevivaror PROG TYCO; MO. iicc ce ius ce ee teen Vea src s debs been cueeW ous hauemN es

Influence of Fresh Wood-ashes on the Growth of Wheat, Potatoes, &c