BULLETIN No. 18. IgII. PHARMACY SERIES, NO. 4.

Boil h TIN

of the

Im YD LIBRARY
| of

BOTANY, PHARMACY aAnpb
MATERIA MEDICA

i Uew GG. CG. LLOYD
CINCINNATI, OHIO

PHARMACY SERIES, No. 4.

HISTORY

OF THE

VEGETABLE DRUGS

OF THE

Pharmacopeia of the United States
By JOHN URI LLOYD, Phar. M..,

tied einen)

With portraits of Charles Rice, Ph. D., New York, N. Y., elected
Chairman of the Pharmacopeial Committee on Revision, who died

May 13, 1901 (see portrait), and Joseph P. Remington, Ph. M., Phila-

delphia, Pa. (see portrait RUiBOsayscessor as Chairman of the
Revision Committee, u BOEW IE pppeared =
[ + if ee 1s

JUL —t 1836

Gg. ay 4
Ot

INTRODUCTION.

Together with his brother, Mr. C. G. Lloyd, the writer began, in
1884, a quarterly publication entitled Drugs and Medicines of North
America, with the object of considering, consecutively, the American
remedial agents then in use by members of the various professions of
medicine in America. It was planned to give the historical record of
every American medicinal plant, as well as its pharmaceutical prepara-
tions, whether Pharmacopeial or otherwise. The literature on the sub-
ject being largely Americana, the authors believed that they were in a
position to do passable justice to the subject, inasmuch as they had, for
a number of years, given much study in that direction.

This publication was kindly received by the medical and pharma-
ceutical professions of America, as well as by scientists throughout
the world. However, notwithstanding the cordial reception of the
work, its authors became convinced that, before going further in this
direction, much reference literature not then at their command should
be provided. Owing to this fact, and to the increasing cares of busi-
ness, and notwithstanding the additions that were continually being
made to their libraries, the publication was reluctantly suspended with
Number 5 of Volume II, which appeared in June, 1887.

With the hope of again resuming the work thus temporarily (as
it was hoped) laid aside, even more persistent efforts were made to
collect books, pamphlets, essays, travelers’ narratives, and other litera-
ture concerning the American materia medica, as well as foreign publi-
cations, botanical and otherwise, connected with the discovery, intro-
duction, or uses of medicinal plants generally. But now, when the
literature on the subject is at last passably satisfactory, the authors
comprehend that it is too late for them to hope to resume, much less
complete, a work after the nature and plan of Drugs and Medicines of
North America.

This definite abandonment of a plan long so ardently cherished,
is due, not to the cooling of enthusiasm, but to the multiplicity of duties
in other directions, linked with the enervating touch of this writer’s
more than threescore years. It is earnestly hoped, however, that the
connected data brought together in the Lloyd Library through so many
years of earnest effort on the part of its founders, and now donated
to the world of science, may some day be happily utilized in the re-
sumption of this work by persons younger and less burdened by cares.

Disappointment not Altogether Fruitless—However, the efforts
of the authors of Drugs and Medicines of North America were not
altogether fruitless. The publication led to many delightful corre-
spondences with men concerned in like directions, both at home and
abroad. Among these may be named the renowned Professor Friedrich _
A. Fliickiger, (of Strassburg University) Germany, then, perhaps,

: ;

INTRODUCTION.

the foremost pharmacologist of the world. With Daniel Hanbury, he
had just completed the monumental work on European and Oriental
drugs, (including the principal drugs of other parts of the world)
known as the Pharmacographia, and was ambitious to continue, in like
manner, with the medicinal products of North America. In July, 1894,
Professor Fliickiger visited America, where he was the guest of the
renowned American pharmacists, Dr. Edward R. Squibb, of Brooklyn,
and Dr. Frederick Hoffman, of New York City. He had arranged to
visit Cincinnati and consummate here a plan for the detailed study of
the North American pharmacography, but a period of intense heat
then chanced to prevail throughout America, and the aged professor
was forced, reluctantly, to abandon his journey to this city. The writer
then selected and forwarded to Professor Flickiger, for review, several
cases of books dealing with the early American materia medica, such as
domestic writings, early American travels, Eclectic and Thomsonian
literature, as well as publications of primitive days concerning family
medicines and connected preparations. These very much delighted
and even surprised Professor Fliickiger, both as regards variety and
contents. It was then tentatively arranged that a Pharmacography
of North American Medicinal Plants and Drugs should be at once in-
augurated, the responsibility of the chemistry and the correlation of the
chemical and proximate products derived from the American materia
medica being assumed by Professor Fliickiger, as well as the system-
atic research of foreign publications in those directions. He designed,
also, to institute a series of original investigations in his laboratory,
at Strassburg University. The Lloyd Library seemed, even then, com-
petent to furnish the historical data sufficient to establish the records
of the plants considered, this writer (John Uri Lloyd) accepting the
responsibility of the history, including the sophistications and descrip-
tions of the parts used in medicine, whilst the botanical history, re-
lationships, and kindred descriptions were to be the care of Mr. Curtis
Gates Lloyd. The publication was thus to partake of the plan of both
Drugs and Medicines of North America, and the Pharmacographia of
Fliickiger and Hanbury, so well known and so thoroughly established.
The work was accordingly commenced, and several historical articles
were prepared by the writer, a few of which were forwarded to Pro-
fessor Fliickiger. The unfortunate and lamentable death of that world-
renowned pharmacologist, within a very short time after his return
to Europe, terminated the enterprise, bringing to the writer one of the
greatest disappointments of his life.

Of the drug articles thus prepared for Professor Fliickiger, two
were subsequently published in the American Journal of Pharmacy,
one, titled The California Manna,* appearing in July, 1897, and the

* When Prof. Fliickiger visited America (July, 1894), he hoped to obtain
historical data that would enable him to give the records of several interest-
ing American productions. In this he failed, and he then associated in his
behalf the services of the author of this paper. After much of the work had
been done, the death of Prof. Flickiger interrupted the investigation. |

These papers (some of them) passed into possession of Prof. Ed.

oe

ll

INTRODUCTION.

other, The Destruction of Tobacco in America,t in November,
1897.

OT ecient Leads to Renewed Effort.—Notwithstanding
the bitter disappointment in connection with the death of Professor
Flickiger, the effort to complete the record of American drugs con-
tinued. To this end every sacrifice was made in the way of time, as
well as of money investment, in the earnest hope that younger men,
more favorably situated, educationally and otherwise, might ultimately
take up the work begun by the founders of the Lloyd Library in Drugs
and Medicines of North America, their publication of twenty-five years
ago. While in their own direction the accomplishment of this object
seems no longer possible of attainment, comes a no less hopeful and
enthusiastic delight in contemplating what others will yet enjoy in a
future day, when the Lloyd Library will be a contributing factor to
another’s opportunity.

May not the writer, then, be pardoned for repeating that this
struggle of the past has not been altogether fruitless, inasmuch as the
additions to the Lloyd Library have been earnestly studied as they were
collected, thus affording a recreative effort and a stimulus that of ne-
cessity enriches knowledge, broadens views, and enlarges opportunities ?

Credit Be to Whom Credit is Due.—The foregoing, partially
explanatory remarks, touching briefly upon the historical features of the
abandoned work to which allusion has so frequently been made, will
introduce the text of this Bulletin of the Lloyd Library. The history
of such vegetable drugs as are included herein embraces every Phar-
macopeial vegetable representative of the Pharmacopeia of the United
States, Eighth Decennial Revision, 1900. In preparing this work, the
writer has been continually impressed with the fact that the comforts
and the triumphs of man, in the present, are made possible by the
struggles and the sacrifices of men of the past. It is evident, further-
more, that if past events indicate the future’s trend, other links, yet to
be added to the lengthening chain, will leave whosoever is now ccn-
spicuous in this moment of the passing along an empirical pioneer, as
contrasted with the man who stands in the sunshine of the sciences
of the future.

In this connection it may be recalled that, at the meeting of the
American Pharmaceutical Association in Los Angeles, 1909, this writer
contributed a paper put together on the spur of the moment, titied

Schaer, of Strassburg University, who translated into German the accom-
panying work by Professor Lloyd on American Manna, for the pages of
the Berichte der Deutschen Pharmaceutischen Gesellschaft.

We present herein, with the knowledge and consent of Prof. Schaer and
the author, the original paper on American Manna.—Editor Am. Jour. Pharm.

+ When Prof. Fliickiger visited America (July, 1894), he hoped to ob-
tain historical data that would enable him to give the records of several in-
teresting American productions. In this he failed, and he then associated
in his behalf the services of the author of this paper. After much of the
work had been done, the death of Professor Fliickiger interrupted the in-
vestigation. This paper on Tobacco was one of the subjects considered —
Editor Am. Jour. Pharm.

tee

11

INTRODUCTION.

A Plea for Empiricism, in which were embodied pleadings for justice
in behalf of men no longer upon earth, but whose painstaking work has
been far-reaching in its effects. The views then expressed are yet
entertained by the writer, and with no less earnestness.

The record of American as well as of foreign drugs establishes
that to the so-called empiricists of the past must be credited the dis-
covery and introduction of practically one and all the remedial vege-
table agents now in use. To these individuals the professions of medi-
cine and pharmacy are no less indebted than are the people in other
walks of life. These facts also permitted the inference (before men-
tioned) that from the same class, the empiricists, will come other
vegetable remedial agents, destined to serve the needs of suffering
humanity.

This writer, to-day, believes with heartfelt earnestness, that even
the unlettered aborigines of all lands whose products serve civilization,
are entitled to civilization’s lasting obligations. The story is a common
one. Necessity of environment, or accident, led primitive man into
a search of nature’s secrets. Observant pioneers, or adventurers,
applied the discoveries of the aborigines to their own domestic uses.
The man of commerce served next his part in the distribution of such
drugs and foods, and finally systematic, professional students further
elaborated these products that, but for the empiricist of the past, pre-
ceded by the aborigines in the time beyond, might not otherwise be
known.

The Pharmacopeial Vegetable Materia Medica—As before
stated, the pages that follow carry the titles of every vegetable drug
of the Pharmacopeia of the United States, 1900 Revision. Of neces-
sity, only enough is chronicled of each drug’s beginning to point to the
peoples or the individuals who introduced them to medicine and phar-
macy, no attempt being made to follow the details of subsequent manip-
ulation. Brevity in the record is a necessity. References to the Bib-
liography appended to the work, indicate that an attempt at more than
fairly detailed historical credit would have been impracticable, the aim
being merely to establish the general introduction of each drug. Nor
is the first link in the chain often seen. The beginning of the use of
most vegetable remedial agents antedates written history. As a rule,
the earliest authorities cited herein base their statements upon those of
others, the details being now lost in antiquity, or veiled by tradition.
Many worthy compilers, historians, travelers, explorers, and authors,
whose part in the passing along will sometime be duly credited, have
unquestionably been overlooked, and hence unintentionally neglected.
In this connection, a review of the Bibliography of this Bulletin indi-
cates the number of publications cited that, seemingly far from medi-
cine, point to others that are of historic value.

Concerning the Bibliography.—The writer has freely accepted,
especially as regards Old World and Oriental products, the statements
and references of authorities in whom he has full confidence, deeming
it unnecessary to verify bibliographical statements, even though the
original documents were conveniently at hand, unless there were a par-

lv

INTRODUCTION.

ticular reason for so doing. For example, Fliickiger and Hanbury’s
Pharmacographia, and similar works, are accepted as unimpeachable
in their reference facts.

The titles only of authoritative works to which reference might
have been made would comprise a volume. The list has therefore
necessarily been restricted to such as are most important. Whoever
wishes to elaborate any subject herein mentioned, will probably find the
list suggestively ample, for each, as a rule, carries references to others
connected therewith. It will be observed that travelers and explorers,
as well as historians, often first refer to medicines used in the countries
described by them. In this direction it will be seen that the Lloyd
Library is particularly fortunate, as concerns its completeness, there
being at this date 32,434 volumes on its shelves, exclusive of pamphlets.

The writer wishes, in conclusion, to thank, especially, the Librarian
of the Lloyd Library, Captain William Holden, to whose painstaking
care, both in the way of procuring volumes needed and of seeking
references as required, as well as of compiling the Bibliography, he is
much indebted.

To the Assistant Librarian, Miss Edith Wycoff, who has, in this
as in other directions been exceedingly helpful, the writer expresses
his sincerest thanks.

To the writer’s secretary, Miss Margaret Stewart, M. A., are to
be credited the translations from Greek and Latin authors, as well as
continued helpful care throughout the entire work.

Several of the articles herein included (as those on Aloes and
Pomegranate) are condensations of papers previously published by the
writer in the Western Druggist, Chicago. To Dr. Sigmund Waldbott,
then in charge of the Lloyd Library, who was of exceptional service
in the production of these papers, the writer feels no less indebted now
than at the time of their original publication.

For the inspiration of the American Pharmaceutical Association,
the author is very grateful. A synopsis of the work was prepared for
the society at its Richmond (1910) meeting, but owing to illness of
the undersigned was not presented.

This Bulletin on Pharmacopeial drugs expresses so imperfectly the
amount of labor that has been expended in its evolution, as to lead the
author to admit frankly a degree of humiliation because of the paucity
of returns for so great an outlay of time, study, and library research.

Cincinnati, May 10, I9QII. JOHN URI LLOYD.

Pharmacopeceial Vegetable Drugs.

ACACIA

Acacia has been an article of commerce since the most remote
records of historical antiquity. Representations of the Acacia tree,
together with heaps of gum, were pictured in the reign of Ramses III
of Egypt. Acacia was exported from the Gulf of Aden, seventeen
hundred years before Christ. Mention of the gum is of frequent
occurrence in Egyptian inscriptions, where it is referred to as the Gum
of Canaan. Theophrastus (633), in the third and fourth centuries be-
fore Christ, described it, as also did Dioscorides (194) and Pliny (514),
under the name “Egyptian Gum.” It has been employed in the arts
from all time and in domestic medicine and commerce, as well as by
the Arabian physicians and those of the renowned school of Salerno.
During the Middle Ages it was obtained from Egypt and Turkey, be-
ing an article of commerce in the bazaars of Constantinople, A. D.
1340. The drug was distributed through Europe from Venice, as
early as A. D. 1521. Among the most interesting and instructive
recent contributions to the subject are the reports of the Wellcome
Research Laboratory, Kartoum (678), 1904.

ACONITUM

Aconite, Aconitum napellus, was familiar to the ancients as a
poisonous plant, and was used by the ancient Chinese as well as by
the hill tribes of India. In a work published for the Welsh MSS.
Society, 1861, entitled “The Physicians of Myddvai,” (507), aconite
was designated as a plant that every physician should grow.* In
1763, Stérk (617), of Vienna, introduced the drug to medical prac-
tice, from which date it crept into the practice of the dominant school.
Aconite has ever been a Homeopathic favorite.

ALOE
(ALOE SUCCOTRINA.)

The genus aloe comprises a large family of succulent-leaved
plants native to tropical countries. Most of the species have showy

*Physicians of Myddvai. The domestic physician of Rhys Gryg, prince of South Wales,
who died 1233, made a collection of recipes used in medicine at that date in hiscountry. He
was assisted by his three sons, the collection being a valuable historical record concerning re-
medial agents and methods of that date. Of these, twocompilations have been issued, the two
appearing together, 1861, with a translation by John Pughe (470 pp). The original manuscript
is in the British Museum. [See page 761 Pharmacographia. ]

I

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

flowers and many are cultivated in hot-houses. Aloe succotrina
“grows in the Indies, and especially in the Island of Soccotera”
(Lam.), but has long been cultivated in England. It is a shrub five
or six feet high, with a stem marked with the scars of the fallen
leaves. The stem is at first simple, but when the plant is old the stem
is usually divided. At the top of each branch is borne a large cluster
of thick, crowded, fleshy leaves. Each leaf is one and one-half to two
feet long, rounded beneath, flattened on the upper side, the margins
being each a row of white spines. The flowers are in a large terminal
spike-like raceme, proceeding from the center of the leaf cluster.
The flowers are orange-red, nodding, cylindrical, each borne on a short
peduncle, slightly exserted. The pistil has a three-celled, many seeded
ovary and a long simple style.

The earliest history of the aloe plant is somewhat obscured by
the fact that the name aloe, for example as it occurs in the Bible, re-
lates to a substance entirely different from the inspissated juice of the
various species of the modern aloe plant. The aloe of the Bible is
the wood of aquilaria agallocha (Roxburgh) or lignaloes, which was
used among the ancient nations as an incense, and was held in high
esteem on account of its scarcity. With modern cathartic aloes it has
nothing in common except the bitterness.

The aloe plant is considered by modern writers to have grown
wild in India from a very remote period. It was most likely intro-
duced into that country by the Arabs, who probably were the distrib-
utors of knowledge concerning the medicinal virtues of aloes. This
drug was employed by Galen (254a), and later described by the
Greek and Roman writers of the first century, chief among whom are
Dioscorides (194) and Pliny (514), whose descriptions of aloes and its
uses, however, bear much resemblance to each other.

Socotrine aloes appears to have acquired its reputation at an early
date. Clusius (153) in 1593 reports that Mesue, the Arabian pharma-
ceutical writer, “the father of pharmacopeias,” (who died about A. D.
1028), knew of the Socotrine origin of aloes, mentioning Persia, Ar-
menia, and Arabia likewise as sources of aloes of commerce. Ibn
Baitar (1197-1248) (214) speaks of aloes from the island of Soco-
tra as being superior to that of the Arabian district of Yemen.

The name aloe socotrina was undoubtedly derived from the island _
of Socotra off the entrance to the Red Sea. Yet, some authors main-
tain that this appellation was by some given to the inspissated juice
of aloe (succus citrinus) on account of the lemon-yellow color of its
powder.* Not all of the earlier medico-pharmaceutical writers who
afterwards considered the drug refer to Socotrine or any other special
kind of aloes. Hieronymus Bock (1556) (82) merely alludes to the
drug being brought from India and Arabia, a statement already found
in Dioscorides. He relates an instance where the aloe plant is culti-

vated in Germany under the name sempervivum as an indoor orna-
mental plant.

*Usage accepts that Aloe Succotrina is the plant described b La :
Socotrina is the commercial extract derived fiends eertaln species a atoss:, ge Ba Hoo ae
spelling of the latter word have occurred in older pharmacopeias.

2

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Samuel Purchas (1625) (527), however, in his important collec-
tion of travels, gives prominence to Socotrine aloes, and places on
record the commercial transactions of British merchants with the
king of Socotra. One of his contributors (William Finch, merchant)
gives the following interesting information which he gathered about
A. D. 1607, concernng the occurrence and preparation of aloes in the
island of Socotra:

“I could learne of no merchandise the iland yeeldeth, but Aloes,
Sanguis Draconis, and Dates and, as they say on the shore of Aba del
Curia, Blacke Ambergreese. Of Aloes I suppose they could make
yearly more then Christendome can spend, the herbe growing in great
abundance, being no other than Semper vivum, in all things agreeing
to that description of Dioscorides in seed, stalke, etc. It is yet all of a
red pricklie sort, and much chamfered* in the leaves, so full of a rosin-
iuyce that it is ready to breake with it. The chiefe time to make it, is
when the winds blowe northerly, that is, about September, and that
after the fall of some raine, which being then gathered, they cut in
small pieces, and cast into a pit made in the ground, well cleansed from
filth and paved; there it lieth to ferment in the heat of the sunne,
whereby it floweth forth. Thence they take and put it in skinnes,
which they hang up in the wind to dry, where it becommeth hard.
They sold us for 20 Rials a Quintall which is 103 pounds English, but
we were after told that they sold to others for 12, which considering
the abundance and easie making, may be credible.” Elsewhere the
statement is made that “the Aloe of Socotra exceedeth in goodnesse
that which is gathered in Hadhramut of the land of Jaman, Arabia, or
anywhere else.’’ 1800 lbs. of Socotrine aloes were bought at one time
and 2,722 Ibs. at another.

The ancient trade of the island has never increased, and in 1833,
we are informed, only two tons were exported, while at present the
manufacture and export seem to have ceased altogether. No doubt
this results from unfavorable local conditions as well as the intrusive
competition of other countries. In the sixteenth century or perhaps
before, the aloe plant was introduced into the West Indies and was
especially dwelt on by Ligon (1763) (383) as having occurred in Bar-
badoes as early as 1647-1650, which is only about twenty years after
the English came into possession of this island (365). It soon became
an article of export, appearing in the London market in 1693 (239).
In this connection, however, it is strange that J. B. Labat, a French
monk and careful student of nature, having visited the island of Bar-
badoes in 1700, fails to mention Barbadoes aloes among the staples
(365). He says on this point: ‘Formerly much tobacco was planted,
and subsequently ginger and indigo; cotton is now grown up in some
parts of the island, but sugar is at present the only article to which
attention is devoted.” That his omission could not be from ignorance
is shown by his careful reference to aloes when twenty-eight years aft-_
erwards (1728) he refreshingly describes the resources and the people
of Senegambia on the west coast of Africa (365), and strongly advo-

cates the use of aloes that may be made from aloe plants grown in
* Grooved. & : :
3

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

abundance in that district, in the place of aloes from the island of
Socotra which, in his opinion, possessed an imaginary superiority only
“because it comes from afar and costs much.” The three commercial
forms of the drug then known, Socotrine, hepatic, and caballine aloes,
Labat ascribes to one and the same origin, the differences resulting
only from the mode of preparation, caballine “or horse aloes, the lowest
grade, being made from refuse material.”

Yet, Barbadoes aloes is not herein referred to. Whether this
neglect is due to interruption of cultivation or to some other cause
difficult to determine may never be settled. It is established, however,
that Barbadoes aloes was exported from the island both before and
soon after these reports. Samuel Dale, in 1751, expressly states (179)
that aloes is brought to England from the island of Barbadoes in large
gourds and that the inspissated juice has the properties of aloe suc-
cotrina.

From Cape Colony, Africa, where it was made at that date by
Peter Van Wett (239), aloes has been an article of export since 1773.

Curacao aloes was known in the Dutch market in 1847, and ap-
peared in the English market for the first time as late as about 187

ALTHAEA

- This drug (Althea officinalis,) known as Marshmallow, was de-
scribed by Dioscorides (194) under the Greek name signifying to heal.
It has been used in domestic medicine from the earliest periods. Char-
lemagne (A. D. 724-814), over a thousand years ago, demanded that
it be cultivated in his domain. It grows throughout Europe, Asia
Minor, western and northern Asia and adjacent districts, being em-
ployed more or less in domestic medication in all localities. Its do-
mestic use introduced this demulcent drug to early “professional”
medication.

AMYGDALA AMARA

The seeds of Bitter Almonds (Prunus amygdalus, var. amara),
known to be poisonous in the days of antiquity, were yet used medici-
nally throughout the Middle Ages. Valerius Cordus (169) employed
them as an ingredient of trochisci. They are referred to by Scribonius
Largus (589) in the century preceding Christ. Their poisonous
qualities were shown to depend on hydrocyanic acid by Bohm of Berlin
at the beginning of the last century. Bitter almonds have never been
a favorite in domestic medicine, although as stated, used in that direc-
tion. They have been scarcely more a favorite in licensed medication.

AMYGDALA DULCIS

The Almond, Prunus amygdalus, var. dulcis, is one of the trees
mentioned in the Old Testament. In the Book of Genesis the patriarch
Israel commands his sons to the fruit, as a production of Pales-
tine, as a present to Egypt. Theophrastus (633) makes copious ref-
| 4

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

erences to the Almond, and its name threads the stories of the Arabian
Nights (25 and 88). It was mentioned with groceries and spices a
thousand years ago, in a charter granted the monastery of Corbie, in
Normandy, by Chilperic II, king of France (A. D. 539-584). Charle-
magne, A. D. 812, wisely ordered the Almond tree introduced on the
imperial farms. Almonds became an important item of Venetian trade
in the fourteenth century. In 1411, the Knight Templars of Cyprus
(Flickiger) taxed almonds, honey, and sesame seed. Medieval
cookery consumed almonds in enormous quantities, and as a nourish-
ing food in the form of an emulsion the fruit crept into domestic
medicine, and thence into professional use.

_ANISUM

This drug, Pimpinella anisum, is among the oldest known medi-
cines and spices. Theophrastus (633) and later writers, such as Dios-
corides (194), Pliny (514), and Edrisi (221), mention it. Charle-
magne commanded that it be cultivated on the imperial farms in Ger-
many. Its ancient source was the island of Crete, and Egypt. It was
one of the drugs enumerated by Edward I (1305), to be taxed when
carried across the Bridge of London. Anise is mentioned in the ex-
penses of King John of France (A. D. 1319-1364) during his abode
in England. The Grocers’ Company of London had its oversight
(1453). The Royal Wardrobe of Edward IV (A. D. 1480) was per-
fumed thereby. It was used in England as a pot herb prior to 1542,
and during the reign of Charlemagne it was enormously taxed.
‘Throughout all this period anise was employed both as a spice and as
a domestic medicine.

ANTHEMIS

Anthemis nobilis has been cultivated for centuries in English
gardens and used in domestic medicine from the beginning of the rec-
ords. It was introduced into Germany from Spain about the close of
the Middle Ages. It now is grown in favorable localities throughout
every section of Europe and especially in Saxony as well as Belgium
and France. The name Roman Chamomile was given the drug grow-
ing near Rome, by Joachim Camerarius (120) 1598.

APOCYNUM

American “Indian Hemp,” Apocynum cannabinum, is the name
given to various species and varieties of this plant, in contradistinction
to the true Indan hemp of India, Cannabis indica. The root of apoc-
ynum has been used in decoction as an active hydragogue cathartic, and
also as a diuretic, in domestic medicine, since the days of the earliest
settlers, who learned of its qualities from the Indians. ‘Thus intro-
duced into medication, it came to the attention of the profession. As
a remedy in “dropsy” apocynum has been extensively used in home
medication, and thus became known to physicians of American educa-
tion. Finally it was introduced to the pages of the Pharmacopeia.

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

The Eclectic literature of America for nearly a hundred years has been
prolific in the praises of this remedy. (Drug Treatise by Lloyd Broth-
ers, now in process. )

ARNICA

All parts of this plant, (Arnica montana,) were popular remedies
in Germany at a very early period. The early botanists, such as Mat-
thiolus (414), Gesner (264), and Clusius (153) had a knowledge of
its medicinal qualities, as used by the common people. — Franz Joel
(341), of Greifswald, Germany, expressly recommended it in the six-
teenth century. During 1678-’79 arnica experienced an enthusiastic
crusade as a “new remedy” in the cure of fevers, the hope being to sup-
plant Peruvian bark by this domestic drug. Collin (162), of Vienna,
reported a thousand patients in the Pazman Hospital cured of intermit-
tents by the flowers, whilst other physicians were scarcely less enthusi-
astic. The herb was thus recognized in the London Pharmacopeia
(1788) but fell into disuse, regaining in later years a position as an ap-
plication in the form of a tincture for bruises, sprains, etc., in this di-
rection being now commended in modern medical and domestic litera-
ture.

ASAFCETIDA

Under the name “Laser,” a substance supposed to have been asa-
foetida, (Ferula foetida), has from all time been used in India and
Persia, and thence long exported, a duty being levied thereon at the
Roman Custom House of Alexandria. Under the name Hingu it is
mentioned in Sanscrit works, as well as in Susruta (622). Arabian and
Persian travelers of the Middle Ages knew it. Ali Istakhri (337), of
ancient Persepolis, in the tenth century, states that it was abundantly
produced between Sistan and Makran of Beluchistan, and was used by
the people as a condiment. It has ever been employed in Arabic therapy.
Matthzus Platearius (513), nearly a thousand years ago, mentioned it
in his work on simple medicines, “Circa instans.” Otho of Cremona,
near that period, states that the more fetid the drug, the better its quali-
ties. The “Physicians of Myddvai” (507)* valued it highly. Briefly,
this drug drifted into European conspicuity from the Orient, where it
had been empirically used from the remotest antiquity.

ASPIDIUM

_ The root of Aspidium, Dryopteris filix-mas, was used by the an-
cients as a vermifuge. Theophrastus (633), Dioscorides (194), and
Pliny (514) all describe it. It passed as a domestic remedy through
the Middle Ages, was noticed, 1790, by Valerius Cordus ( 169), and
had a place as a drug to be taxed in Germany, in the sixteenth century.
Neglected then, it was subsequently revived as a chief constituent, com-
bined with purgatives, in a secret remedy for tape-worm, one of the
promoters being Daniel Mathieu, an apothecary of Berlin. His treat-

*(See Footnote to Aconitum.)

6

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

ment was so successful that Frederick the Great purchased the formula
for an annuity of thirty pounds, conferring on its originator the dignity
of “Aulic Councillor.” Madame Nuffler, the widow of a surgeon at
Murten, Switzerland, was paid 18,000 livres by Louis XIV for a tape-
worm cure consisting chiefly of powdered fern root. J. Peschier
1825, a pharmacist of Geneva, introduced the ethereal extract, which
was not, however, employed in England to any extent until the middle
of the last century. Its empirical “record introduced male fern to the
orthodox medical profession.

AURANTII DULCIS ET AMARI CORTEX

Sweet and Bitter Orange. ‘The orange, (Citrus), was unknown
to the ancient Greeks and Romans. The Arabs, (Gallesio, 255), are
accepted as having introduced it into Europe, first through Africa,
Arabia, and Syria, from its original home in Northern India. In that
country a wild orange still grows, supposedly the parent of the culti-
vated fruit, be it sweet or bitter. The first specimen to find its way
into Europe was the bitter orange, cultivated in Rome in A. D. 1200,
the sweet orange not being introduced until the fifteenth century, when
it was imported by the Portuguese. The first oranges brought into
England, seven in number, were imported by a Spanish ship in 1290.
An Arabian physician of the twelfth century, Avicenna (30), em-
ployed the juice of the bitter orange in medicine.

BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM

This drug, obtained from the Toluifera pereirz, came to the at-
tention of the earlier Spanish explorers in South America as a sub-
stance commonly employed by the natives as a remedy for wounds. It
constituted a part of the tribute paid by the natives to the Indian chiefs
of Cuscatlan, to whom it was presented in curiously ornamented earthen
jars.* On its first importation into Europe it brought enormous
prices, as much as $45 an ounce, and in Rome 100 ducats, or over $200
an ounce. Pope Pius V permitted the Bishop of the Indies to substi-
tute this Balsam of Guatemala for that of Egypt in the preparation
of the chrism used in the Catholic churches. Various early descrip-
tions of travelers refer to it more or less enthusiastically, between the
conquest of Guatemala (A. D. 1524), and 1628, at which date Hernan-
. dez (314) described the tree. From the domestic use of the drug it
crept into German pharmacy in the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury. In consequence of the fact that the exports of Guatemala came
through the port of Lima, Peru, the misleading name of “Peruvian
Balsam” was in the early days affixed to it, paralleling somewhat the
record of Mocha coffee, which is not grown in Mocha or even there-
about, but was exported therefrom in the early days of Arabian coffee.

_ * This reminds us of the curious jars in which we observed Mastich sold on the island of

Scio by the collectors. These jars, holdin re se et meer
been thus an article of local commerce since 4 since before the Moslem rule.

3

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM

This South American and West Indian drug (obtained from Tolui-
fera balsamum), was in use by the natives on the discovery of those
countries, being to-day collected after the native manner, as is also
Balsam of Peru. Monardes (447) in his treatise, 1574, on West
Indian productions, describes the Indian method of incising the bark
and affixing shells of black wax to receive the balsam, in a district near
Cartagena called Tolu, from which it takes its name.* He adds that
it was much esteemed by the Indians, and later by the Spaniards, who
transported it to Spain. Clusius (153) received, 1581, a specimen
from Morgan, an apothecary to Queen Elizabeth. ‘The price list of
the city of Frankfort, Germany, 1669, gives it a place, while in 1646
it was noticed in the records of the city of Basle. Notwithstanding
that Monardes (447) figured a broken pod and leaflet, and Humboldt
and Bonpland (331) saw the tree in New Granada (1799), it was re-
served for Weir (1863), a plant collector to the Royal Horticultural
Society, London, to obtain the first good specimens of the pods and
leaves, Guerin, 1868, first obtaining the flowers. ‘Thus a complete
description of a drug known for centuries was finally authoritatively
established. The introduction of Balsam of Tolu into medicine and
pharmacy followed the track (as is true of all other natural drugs of
the Pharmacopeia), of its empirical record.

BELLADONNAE RADIX ET FOLIA

The plant Atropa belladonna is native to Southern Europe, ex-
tending thence to the Crimea, Caucasia, and the northern parts of Asia
Minor. About 1504 a book appeared in Paris titled the Grand Herbier,
which carried the first authentic notice of belladonna, although the
term “solatrum furiale,”’ used by Saladinus of Ascoli (570), about
1450, is presumed to refer to it. Its effects, internally, were subjects of
treatises by Amoreaux (20a), Paris, 1760; Daries (184), Leipsic,
1776; Minch (453), Gottingen, 1783 and 1785, and subsequently by
all who wrote comprehensively on medicine. In toxicology, the Ger-
man botanist, Leonard Fuchs, (251) figured the plant as Solanum
somniferum, 1542, fully identifying its poisonous properties, and J. M.
Faber, Augsburg, 1677 (231a), wrote on its poisonous action. But
the people in the plant’s habitat have always been aware that all parts,
even to the berries, were poisonous. In the eye, so far as we can lo-
cate its record, the first study concerning its local effect is that of Him
(317a) of Paris, 1802, although country people in the habitat of bella-
donna, from all time, know that it possesses the power of dilating the
pupil. In “regular medicine” belladonna has a more recent introduc-
tion, due to the commendation of the well-known pharmacist, Mr, Peter
Squire ( 611), of London, who about 1860 commended it as the basis of
a useful liniment, for the relief of neuralgic pains. The drug is now
used chiefly in the making of the alkaloid atropine, and in the prepara-

* This reminds one : method, in Asia lecti ;
plant in the half shell of the clam 7” = 45! Minor, of collecting the juice of byenary -f

8

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

tion of a belladonna plaster that is exceedingly popular, as well as hav-
ing a professional reputation. Johnson and Johnson, New Brunswick,
U. S. A., now use more than 150,000 pounds of belladonna yearly in
the making of plasters.

BENZOINUM

Benzoinum (from Styrax benzoin), curiously enough escaped the
attention of the Greeks and Romans, nor, so far as is known, did those
energetic tradesmen of the tenth to the thirteenth centuries, the
Arabians and Persians, carry it to China. Ibn Batuta (333a)
1325-49, mentions “Java frankincense,” which under the Arabian
name became corrupted into Banjawi, Benjui, Benzui, Benzoé, Benzoin,
and finally even Benjamin. After a hundred years the sultan of Egypt,
Melech Elmaydi, sent it to the doge of Venice among other presents,
and in 1490 a second doge of Venice was presented with a larger
amount by the same sultan of Egypt. Considered still a precious bal-
sam, in 1476 Caterina Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, received from Egypt
15 pounds of “Benzui.” Thence travelers in Siam and the Malabar
Coast, Venetian tradesmen, and others, gave it due consideration, dur-
ing and after which time it became regularly imported into Europe.
Being submitted to dry distillation in rude paper cones over a pan, the
condensed distillate, or flowers, under the name of Flores Benzoés, in
the 17th century, gave origin to the now familiar Benzoic Acid. Thus
from the empiricism of the past this grateful flavoring agent and pre-
servative was introduced to the medicine and. pharmacy of to-day.

BERBERIS

The berberis officially recorded in the Pharmacopeia of the
United States, (Berberis aquifolium, or mahonia), was introduced to
medicine by Dr. Bundy, an Eclectic physician of California, who
brought it to the attention of physicians (467) through the manufac-
turing establishment of Parke, Davis and Company, of Detroit, Mich-
igan. This variety had previously been used throughout the Western
States as a domestic remedy in the direction commended by Dr. Bundy,
and in many respects it paralleled the domestic and official uses of its
near relatives in the Orient and elsewhere.

The Pharmacopeia of India recognizes three species of barberry
under the common name berberis. These species of barberry have do-
mestic records as tonics dating from the earliest times, being used in
decoction or infusion in inflammatory discharges, as well as in appli-
cations for various forms of ophthalmic inflammation. The Arabian
physicians employed this plant. Dioscorides (194), Pliny (514), Cel-
sus (136), Galen (254a), and others recognized it. It was one of the
Indian drugs on which the Alexandrians levied duty, A. D. 176-180.
Among Greek antiquities are preserved small vases of barberry, show-
ing its value in ancient times. A certain Heraclides of Tarentum is
mentioned by Celsus as having a reputation for treating diseases of the
eye, and among the vases of barberry above referred to, is one bearing
the label of this person. In formulas for eye diseases given by Galen

2 9

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

(254a), barberry is authoritatively recognized. — The natives of India
use an extract made from various species growing in Northern India,
this extract being sold in the bazaars under the name Rusot, and used
not only in affections of the eye, but as a tonic and febrifuge. | The
qualities of both the official drug and its foreign relatives are similar
and were introduced by the common people.

BUCHU

The Hottentots of the Cape of Good Hope used the leaves of the
Buchu plant (Barosma betulina) as a domestic remedy, and from
them the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope derived their information
concerning it. Reece (540) and Company, London, 1821, first im-
ported it and introduced it to pharmacy and to the medical profession,
where, as well as in private formule and domestic practice, it has ever
since enjoyed more or less notoriety. Perhaps no “patent” American
medicine has ever enjoyed greater notoriety than, about 1860, did the
decoction of the leaves under the term “Helmbold’s Buchu,” which,
a weak alcoholic decoction, commanded one dollar for a six-ounce vial,
and sold in car-load lots. During the crusade of this preparation the
medical profession of America, probably inspired by the press com-
ments, prescribed buchu very freely. It is still in demand and is still
favored as a constituent of remedies recommended to the laity.

CALAMUS

The use of Calamus, Acorus calamus, in the domestic medication
of India, is recorded from the very earliest times. It is sold commonly
in the bazaars, and Ainslie (7) in his Materia Medica of Hindoostan,
1813, states that in consequence of its great value in the bowel com-
plaints of children, a severe penalty was placed on the refusal of any
druggist to open his door in the night to sell calamus, when demanded.
The antiquity of its use is shown from the fact that it was one of the
constituents of the ointment Moses was commanded to make for use
in the Tabernacle, (Ex. xxx), while the prophet Ezekiel says of the
commerce of Tyre, “Bright iron, cassia, and calamus were in thy mar-
ket.” Theophrastus (633) mentions calamus, and Celsus (136), nearly
two thousand years ago, refers to it as a drug from India. In the six-
teenth century Amatus Lusitanus (16a) reports it as imported into
Venice, and in 1692 Rheede (547) figures it as an Indian plant under
the name Vacha, the same name being still applied to it on the Malabar
Coast. From its tropical home calamus has spread until it is now found
in all temperate climates suitable for its growth, the market supply com-
ing mainly from Southern Russia, through Germany. The thera-
peutic use of calamus in pharmacy and licensed medicine is, as with
other like substances, a gift of empiricism founded in the far distant

past.
CALENDULA

Marigold, Calendula officinalis, has been known, practically, from
the beginning of documentary records in scientific or medicinal lines.
10

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

A native of Eastern Asia, it is found under various names, from Japan
to India, from the Orient to North America, where European colonists
carried it, according to Josselyn (345), before 1670. In early days of
English medizval medication it was employed in decoctions for fevers,
and as a hot drink, to promote perspiration. The juice was also em-
ployed empirically for sore eyes, and as an application to warts. Its
popular use, as heired from a time lost to history, led to its final utili-
zation by the medical profession, and to its position in the medieval
herbals, as also in many pharmacopeias and treatises on European
medicines and medication.

JATEORHIZA CALUMBA*

Persons familiar with our common yellow parilla, Menispermum
canadense, have a good idea of the plant that yields the calumba root
of commerce. Indeed, a casual observer would take an illustration of
one for the other, so closely do they resemble each other in shape of
leaf, stem, and general floral appearance. One author, Roxburgh
(559) (Flora Ind., Vol. 3, p. 807) has placed the plant in the genus
menispermum. ‘The genus jateorhiza as now constituted consists of
three species, all natives of tropical Africa. It belongs to the natural
order menispermacez. The plant which produces the colombo root of
commerce is a herbaceous vine climbing over trees in the forests of
eastern tropical Africa in the territory of Mozambique and Quilimani.
The leaves are alternate, petiolate, cordate, and palmately lobed. As
previously stated, they look very much like the leaves of our common
yellow parilla. The flowers are dioecious and borne in pendulous axil-
lary panicles. The female flowers have six sepals, six petals, six abor-
tive stamens, and three pistils. The male flowers have the same floral
envelopes and six perfect stamens. The anthers, as in yellow parilla,
are four-celled, a structure comparatively rare save in this natural
order. The plants that produce the root of commerce vary much in
the shape of the leaves and in the amount of hispidity in the stem,
and were formerly considered as belonging to two species, Jateorhiza
calumba and Jateorhiza palmata, but later botanists have united them
under the former name.

Calumba (also columbo) root has long been in use under the name
“kalumb” among the African tribes of Mozambique, who employed
it as a remedy for dysentery and other diseases (Berry) (63). Un-
doubtedly the drug was brought by them to the immediate knowledge
of the Portuguese when they obtained possession of that country in
1508. Through the influence of their traders, knowledge of the drug
was slowly diffused among the Europeans during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.

to its healing virtues. Most German and a few English authorities (e. g. Flueckiger, the
name

it with ~ In thi
including the Index Kewensis, and the U. pharmacopeia of 1
nosie, 1886), suggests that the name jatrorhiza, should be used instead of jateorhiza, and
so also does Koehler (Medicinal-pflanzen, 140).

BL

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

The first definite information regarding calumba root, however,
dates from the year 1671, when Franciscus Redi, 1626-1697, (538),
born at Arezzo and physician to the Duke of Toscana, describing it
under the name calumba, made its medicinal virtues conspicuous.

In 1695 the celebrated Leeuwenhoek (376), in his work “Arcana
Naturae,”’ recorded some chemical experiments that he had made with
this root, which he calls radix indica, rays columba. He also intro-
duced illustrations of crystals observed in the study of this drug. Con-
temporaneously with this physicist, J. C. Semmedus (592) (probably
in 1689 or shortiy before) mentions calumba in his writings as occur-
ring among drugs originating from India. This author’s work has
become more prominent in a later edition (1722).

Valmont-Bomare (656c) in the 1764 edition of his dictionary de-
scribes “calumbe” as the root of an unknown tree brought to us from
India. He adds that in Bengal this root is considered a specific in
cases of colics, indigestion, and against the effects of “mort-du-chien,”
which is the old French name for colchicum.

Not, however, until in close succession the treatises on calumba
root by Gaubius (257a), 1771, Cartheuser (129), 1773, and Per-
cival (499), 1773, appeared, was there much general distribution of
knowledge concerning this drug. In this connection it is perhaps of
interest to note that in a previous translation (dated 1755) of Cart-
heuser’s Materia Medica calumba root is not to be found.

Through Percival’s recommendation especially the drug rapidly
gained entrance into European materia medicas, and since about 1776
we find a record of it in many of the pharmacopceias of European
countries. However, the geographical and botanical origin of calumba
root as yet remained a mystery. The Portuguese, as already stated,
having had a monopoly of the trade in this article, seemed to have
been careful not to disclose the origin of the drug and made it a custom
to carry it to India and then to export it to Europe from Indian in-
stead of African ports. Hence, for a long time the general impression
prevailed that the plant was a native of India and that the capital of
Ceylon (Colombo) gave the drug its name.

From about 1770, however, the suspicion that calumba root was of
African origin had been gaining ground. In this year Philibert Com-
merson, a French physician, collected a specimen of a certain plant
which was growing in the garden of M. Poivre in the Isle de France,
which Lamarck in 1797 named Menispermum palmatum, stating that
this menispermum (of which he described the male plant only) per-
haps yielded the root that is brought to us from India under the name
of calombo or colombo root. He adds, however, that “it seems to be
indigenous to India.”

_ An 1805 a distinct advance was made in establishing its African
origin. M. Fortin in this year brought the root of a male calumba
plant from Mozambique to the city of Madras, where it was raised
and cultivated by Dr. James Anderson. From this specimen Dr. Berry
(63), in 1811, published a botanical description in the “Asiatic Re-
searches,” in which he also gives definite information regarding its
origin and uses in its native country. The specimen was transported

12

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

later by him to the Calcutta bontanical gardens. De Condolle in 1818
named the plant Cocculus palmatus. However, the female plant was
still unknown,

In 1825 Captain W. F. Owen brought a male and a female plant
from Oibo, in East Africa, to Mauritius, where it was cultivated and
observed by Bojer. From this source, at last, Sir W. J. Hooker (324)
in 1830 was enabled to describe the whole plant, both male and female,
under the name of Cocculus palmatus, Hooker.

The name of the genus jateorhiza was finally created in 1849 by
Miers. (Hooker, Niger Flora, p. 212.) Chasmanthera columba is an-
other synonym for this plant proposed by Baillon (33). (Nat. Hist.
of Plants, Vol. III., London, 1874.)

CAMBOGIA

Cambogia (Garcinia hanburii) is a production of a Siamese tree
from Camboja, from whence it derived its name. Chinese travelers
over a thousand years ago mentioned it, describing the method of ob-
taining it by an incision in the stem of the tree, whilst the Chinese
herbal “Pun tsao” includes it in its pages, the drug being regarded
by the Chinese as poisonous, its use being chiefly as a pigment. Clusius
(153) described (1605) a specimen of gamboge brought from China
in 1603, after which it drifted into European medicine as a purgative.
It was one of the articles of commerce of the East India Company,
and was recognized pharmaceutically in the shops of the city of Frank-
fort as early as 1612. The date of the introduction of gamboge into
Chinese art and medicine is beyond the records of established history.

CAMPHORA

Camphor (from Cinnamomum camphora) has been made in
China since the earliest record. Marco Polo (518), who visited that
country in the thirteenth century, saw many of the trees producing it.
It was known to the Chinese writers of the sixth century, as well
as were its qualities as a valuable timber. The earliest mention of
camphor occurs in one of the most ancient poems of the Arabic lan-
guage, by Imru-l-Kais, who lived in the beginning of the sixth century.
Camphor was once considered as a rare and precious perfume, being
mentioned in connection with musk, ambergris, and sandalwood as
treasures of the Sassanian dynasty of the kings of Persia. Notwith-
standing all this camphor did not, so far as has been determined, reach
Europe during the classical days of Greece and Rome. Possibly the
first mention of camphor as a European medicine was by the Abbatissa
Hildegarde (316), in the twelfth century. Since its introduction, it has

ways been an article in domestic medication and as a perfume con-
stituent.

CANNABIS INDICA

_This drug (Cannabis sativa) is one of the Oriental products, the
beginning of whose use is lost in antiquity. Its name threads the litera-
ture of Arabia and India, hashish (or bhang) being continually men-

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

tioned in the Arabian Nights (88); e. g., “going up to Gharib, blew
the powdered Bhang into his nostrils, till he lost his senses.” (Burton
edition, vol. vii, p. 76. History of Gharib and His Brother.) Imported
into Europe preceding 1690, it passed into disuse until N apoleon’s
expedition to Egypt (1809-10), when it was again revived by De Sacy
and Bouger. Its introduction into European medicine followed (1838-
39) the experiments of O’Shaughnessy in Calcutta (484), since which
date cannabis and its resin have received a place in most pharmaco-
peias. From the beginning of East Indian history hemp has been
smoked as a narcotic intoxicant, and when surreptitiously added to
sweetmeats and foods, has in Oriental life been employed as a narcotic
with the utmost recklessness. This is shown in the exaggerations of
the Arabian Nights, which portrays so many life habits of those times.
This writer found hashish of several qualities in the bazaars of Asia
Minor and in Constantinople, one specimen ‘‘extra fine hashish” cost-
ing in a Constantinople bazaar over two dollars an ounce.

CANTHARIS (CANTHARIDES)

Spanish Flies (Cantharis vesicatoria). This once popular reme:-
dial agent has lost its position in modern medication. Its use came
hand in hand with medieval medical cruelty, and was an heirloom of
ancient heroic medication. Hippocrates (B. C. 375-400) valued can-
tharides in dropsy and also in amenorrhea, and it goes without ques-
tion that a substance so heroic in its action would once have been
popular in both domestic and professional American medication. Its
use in erysipelas and as a plaster, and to “draw the nervous energy
and the circulating fluid” to the surface, and “thus again relieve irri-
tation and inflammation of internal parts,” are relics of quite recent
American medical authority, all writers in good reputation (Regular)
commending it highly. At present, however, cantharis is in such dis-
favor as to make it a novelty for a cantharis plaster to be prescribed
by a modern physician of any school, and to ignore its use is no longer

a mark of heresy. _ This change from extreme popularity to practical
disuse has come within the experience of this writer.

CAPSICUM

_ This drug, Capsicum fastigiatum, is of American origin, its home
ena? in the West Indies, Mexico, and other tropical countries of
erica i

can medicine. It was introduced into the Pharm
cipally in the form of a tincture, and is now a m

medicas throughout the world. By far the largest amount of capsicum,
however, is consumed in culinary directions.

14

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

CARDAMOMUM

Cardamom (Elettaria repens) has been used in India from a re-
mote period, being mentioned in the writings of Susruta (522). It ap-
pears in the list of India spices liable to duty in Alexandria, A. D. 176-
180. The Portuguese navigator Barbosa (39) first definitely describes
its origin as a product of the Malabar Coast. Since its introduction
from the Orient cardamom has been used, as it has been in its home
from all time, as a flavor and a stomachic. Several forms of the carda-
mom are found in the bazaars of Turkey and Arabia, where it is
brought by means of caravans. It is largely cultivated at the present
time as an article of commerce. This writer found (1907) large carda-
mom seeds strung on strings and sold by number in bazaars in Asia
Minor.

CARUM

Although the home of caraway (Carum carvi) appears to have
been in the northern and midland parts of Europe and Asia, it was
known to the Arabians, and at an early date was introduced into Eng-
land. In German domestic medicine of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
‘turies the word cumich occurs, which is still the popular name for
caraway in Southern Germany. At the close of the fourteenth century
caraway was much used in England, where it was largely employed in
cooking. It was not used in India either in cooking or in medicine,
nor does it appear in the record of the early days among Indian spices.
It has a domestic reach that dominates its every use.

CARYOPHYLLUS

Indigenous to the Molucca Islands proper, cloves (Eugenia aro-
matica) have been an article of Indian commerce since an early date.
Known to the Chinese writers of the Han dynasty, B. C. 266 to A. D.
220, cloves became known in Europe about the fourth century, after
which they became increasingly an article of commerce, although, for
a long time, very expensive. The original home of the clove, the
Moluccas or Clove Islands, now produce no cloves at all. The aro-
matic nature of cloves made of them a great favorite, and they were
therefore used to perfume the breath and to flavor food, as well as
being employed in domestic medicines, such as stomachic cordials. The
well-known Blackberry Cordial of Kentucky is largely spiced with
cloves and cinnamon, its blackberry part being the juice of the ripe
berries, its alcoholic part being whisky. The domestic use of this
pleasant carminative cordial gave it a place in the Pharmacopeia.

CASSIA FISTULA

Galen (254a) mentions a cheap cassia called “fistula,” seemingly
referring, not to this drug, but to a coarse cinnamon, rolled up as a
tube. The fruit now known as Cassia fistula was noticed by Joannes
Actuarius (4), of Constantinople, during the thirteenth century, who
minutely describes it. The drug is also mentioned by writers of the

15 :

PHARMACOPG@IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

school of Salernum. It was a familiar domestic remedy in England
at the time of Turner (656), 1568, and as it is carthartic, it naturally
appealed to heroic medicationalists. Although carried in the Pharma-
copeia, it has never been much used in American medicine.

CHIMAPHILA

Wintergreen, or pipsissewa, Chimaphila umbellata, is a creeping
evergreen vine native to northern latitudes of Europe and Asia, and
found in the United States in shady woods, where it prefers loose,
sandy soil. The Indians of North America considered chimaphila of
importance, using decoctions of it in nephritic, scrofulous, and rheu-
matic disorders. Mitchell (441), in his Inaugural Address, 1803,
(University of Pennsylvania) gave the drug particular attention, whilst
in domestic medicine it was in favor as a tea, in the sections of country
in which it was native, its use being especially in rheumatic and ne-
phritic affections. In these directions it crept into some favor with the
medical profession, and thus anticipated the uses of salicylic acid and
the salicylates, which in structural form are constituents of this plant.

CHIRATA

An annual herb of the mountainous regions of Northern India,
chirata (Swertia chirayita) has long been held in esteem by the Hin-
doos, being frequently mentioned by Susruta (522). It did not attract
attention in England until 1829, and was introduced into the Edinburgh
Pharmacopeia in 1839. It was first described by Roxburgh (559) in
1814. No record of its introduction into Indian medicine nor to its
Original usage is possible, other than that it is a gift of native medi-
cation and is described in Sanscrit writings.

CHONDRUS

: Trish Moss, Chondrus crispus, has been known from an early
period, its use being chiefly as a domestic medicine. ‘The London or
British Pharmacopeia never gave it a position. Todhunter at Dublin
1831, introduced it to the notice of the medical profession. The
method of its employment is yet in decoction or infusion, no attempt
being made to improve upon its domestic form.

CHRYSAROBINUM

This substance, formerly supposed to be identical with crude chrys-
ophanic acid, is derived from Goa Powder, a deposit found in the
cavities of the trunk of the Andira araroba, a South American tree. It
is used in skin diseases in the same manner as the crude Goa powder,
from which it is simply a separated material. Goa powder was em-
ployed in native medication as a remedy in skin diseases, which brought
it to the attention of physicians and led to its introduction into medi-
cine, as well as its final insertion in the Pharmacopeia. :

16

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

CIMICIFUGA (MACROTYS)

Cimicifuga is abundantly distributed in rich woodlands over the
greater portion of the United States east of the Mississippi River, ex-
cept in New England and the extreme South. It is also found in Mis-
souri and Arkansas. Cimicifuga was observed by the earliest European
travelers in America, being carried to England in 1732, and first de-
scribed by Plukenet (514a) in 1696. All pre-Linnzan writers classed
the plant with actza, mostly under Tournefort’s (649) name, Christo-
pheriana. Linnzus (385) gave it the name Actza racemosa, under
which it was classed until Pursh (528) referred it to the genus cimi-
cifuga. Rafinesque (535), 1808, by reason of the fact that the fruit
of the plant does not accord with that of either actea or cimicifuga,
proposed the name Macrotys acteoides, changing the name in 1828 to
Botrophia serpentaria. Eaton (211) in the fourth edition of his
Manual followed Rafinesque, calling the plant Macrotys serpentaria.

Cimicifuga was highly valued by the Indians, who employed de-
coctions of the drug for diseases of women, for debility, to promote
perspiration, as a gargle for sore throat, and especially for rheumatism.
These uses by the Indians introduced the drug to early “Domestic”
American medicine, and it was consequently given much attention by
the earliest writers, e. g., Schoepf (582), 1785; Barton (43), 1801;
Peter Smith (605), 1812; Bigelow (69), 1822; Garden (256a), 1823;
Ewell (230), 1827; Rafinesque (535), 1828; and Tonga and Durand’s
(222) addition to Edwards’ and Vavasseur’s Materia Medica, 1829.
None of these authorities, however, added anything not given by the
Indian, so far as the field of action of the drug is concerned, excepting
perhaps the statement of Howard (329), 1832, who was an enthusiast
in favor of macrotys in the treatment of smallpox, a claim supported
forty years after by Dr. G. H. Norris, 1872, in a paper read before the
Alabama State Medical Association. He reported that during an epi-
demic of smallpox in Huntsville, Ala., families using macrotys as a
tea were absolutely free from smallpox, and that in those same families
vaccination had no effect whatever, so long as the use of macrotys was
continued. (See Lloyd Brothers’ Drug Treatise No. XIII, Macrotys.)

CINCHONA

Tradition states that the medicinal qualities of cinchona (Cinchona
calisaya) were known to the aborigines of South America from the
earliest times. Arrot (Philosophical Transactions, xl, 1737-8, p. 48)
states that the qualities and uses of the bark of cinchona were known
to the Indians before the days of the Spanish conquest. Others de-
clare that the Peruvians distrusted the drug, considering it dangerous;
Markham (406) asserting that the native doctors did not employ it.
Preceding 1739, a Jesuit missionary, however, was cured of fever by
the bark, administered to him by an Indian; a like incident being re-
corded concerning the Spanish corregidor of Loxa, in 1630. In 1638,
the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, the fourth Count of Chinchon, being
attacked by a fever, was cured with the powdered bark, which being
commended by her, gave to it the name, “The Countess’ Powder,” or

17

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

cinchona. Introduced into Spain under the name Jesuit bark, or
powder, as well as cinchona, it passed thence into other European
countries, being largely distributed by the Jesuit Fathers.

Acrimonious discussions, too numerous and too personal to attempt
to record, followed the inroads of this once rankly empirical drug,
which, however, was possessed of qualities sufficient to establish it
finally in the favor of “regular medication.” It was introduced into
England about 1656, commanding then a price many times above that
of opium.

CINNAMOMUM CASSIA

Probably this is the first spice sought in the commerce of the
Orient or from the Indian Ocean, its early record being lost in an-
tiquity. It is mentioned as a precious spice in the Psalms, Proverbs, -
Ezekiel, Revelation, etc., and by the ancient historians Theophrastus
(633), Herodotus (314a), Galen (254a), Dioscorides (194), Pliny
(514), Strabo, and others. No distinction was then drawn between
cinnamon and cassia, the difference being considered one of quality
only. Cinnamon and cassia are mentioned as ranking in value with
gold, ivory, and frankincense, and as being among the most costly of the
offerings in the temple of Apollo in Miletus, B. C. 243. No mention
is made in any old historical document of its being derived from Cey-
lon. It is accepted as being mentioned in the Chinese herbals from
2700 B. C. to 1200 B. C. Many varieties of the tree are found in
India, as well as in Ceylon, in which country, however, no mention
of cinnamon is made prior to the thirteenth century. Cassia and
cinnamon were employed as spices and remedies, especially by the
aborigines, and in the religious services of the early peoples of the
countries mentioned. The aromatic drugs drifted into Europe as ex-
ceedingly rare and valuable products some time before the date of the
East India Company. Cassia was one of the ingredients of the em-
balming mixtures used by the Egyptians (see Myrrh).

COCA (THE DIVINE PLANT OF THE INCAS)*

Erythroxylon coca is a tree native to the eastern slopes of the
Andes, where, especially in Bolivia, large plantations are cultivated.
The leaves have been highly valued, from the earliest records, by the
natives of Peru, Chili, and Bolivia, by whom the tree was called “The
Divine Plant of the Incas.” In 1569, Monardes (447), of Seville, pub-
lished an article on the drug, reproduced, 1577, in London. (Dowdes-
well (196a).) This is among the first references to the drug in print,

own to us, and it was followed by the botanical description, by Clusius
(153), in 1605.
he history of coca, in its many phases, is most exhaustively pre-
sented by several travelers and authors, a large illustrated work of
near 600 pages by W. Golden Mortimer, M.D., under the title Peru.
History of Coca, being of exceeding interest (4514).
seu Published October, 1910,

in the Practical Druggist and Pharmaceutical Review of Re-
18

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

That coca was honored in their sacred ceremonies by the natives
of the lands producing it, is evidenced by the following “recital”
(451a), addressed to the sovereign:

Oh, mighty lord, son of the Sun and of the Incas, thy fathers, thou who
knoweth of the bounties which have been granted thy people, let me recall the

blessings of the divine Coca which thy privileged subjects are permitted to enjoy
through thy progenitors, the sun, the moon, the earth, and the boundless hills.

A plant so regarded necessarily fell under the adverse criticism of
the devoutly religious, early Spanish explorers, who naturally directed
their efforts against everything that, in their opinion, constituted a part
of heathen worship and diverted the natives from the true God. This
is shown by the following quotation from Mortimer:

In 1569 the Spanish audience at Lima, composed of bishops from all parts
of South America, denounced Coca because, as they asserted, it was a pernicious

leaf, the chewing of which the Indians supposed gave them strength, and was
hence: “Un delusio del demonio.”

In this connection the following quotation will indicate how dis-
tasteful are the methods of the natives, even yet, to those whose first
duty consists in suppressing such ceremonies as are therein described:

When the period for departure (on a dangerous journey.—L.) actually ar-
rives, the Indians throw Coca in the air, just as did the Incan priests of old,

to propitiate the gods of the mountains, who, presumably, do not wish their do-
mains invaded.

The native Indian use of coca was exhibited where it was necessary
for men to make the most exhausting physical effort, as the Indian
“runners” of the Andes, carrying with them a modicum of food or
other burdens. A few coca leaves sufficed as a hunger pacifier, and
upon this as a basis the runners underwent the most exhausting and
exacting journeys. It was accepted by observing travelers that the
leaves, being chewed, would yield an abundance of “vital strength.”
The endurance of people thus employing the drug is noted also by the
Jesuit Father Blas Valera (656d) under the name Cuca. After ob-
serving the methods of the Jesuit explorers, he writes as follows:

It may be gathered how powerful the Cuca is in its effect on the laborer,

from the fact that the Indians who use it become stronger and much more
satisfied, and work all day without eating.

Notwithstanding all this, fortified by repeated experiences of trav-
elers, the world of scientific medicine ignored, or even ridiculed, the
drug, until its emphatic introduction in the latter part of the last cen-
tury (about 1870, in England), forced those concerned in authoritative
medicine to give it some recognition. Numerous experimentations on
its composition had been made by Dr. Weddell, in 1850 (671), and
others, succeeding as well as preceding that date, who tried vainly to
discover an energetic constituent of the drug. It was at first believed
that the leaves owed their inherent qualities (if they had any, which
was questioned) to some volatile principle, a supposition that proved a
fallacy, other than in the discovery of the volatile base named by them
hydrine, which did not at all represent coca and which is no longer
mentioned. However, the persistent reports concerning the use of coca

PHARMACOP@IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

and its reputed powers as an empirical substance that was creeping
into the use of practicing physicians, led such chemists as Hesse, Nie-
mann, Stanislas, Martin, Maisch, Lossin, Woehler, and many others,
to repeated chemical examinations of the drug and its qualities, result-
ing in a number of products, such as coca-wax, coca-tannic acid, and
even of several alkaloidal bases, including one named cocaine, this al-
kaloid being discovered in 1860 by Niemann, an assistant in the labora-
tory of Professor Woehler, of Gottingen, Germany.

But notwithstanding the identification, half a century ago, of its
now well-known alkaloid, coca was long thereafter “authoritatively”
considered as inert, or simply a mild stimulant, like tea. Its alleged
properties were deemed legendary and imaginary, its alkaloid similar
to caffeine, both in constitution and qualities. This view prevailed until
Koller, in 1884, confounded the professional world, as well as that of
science, by announcing thte marvelous qualities of cocaine as a local
anesthetic. In this connection we may further anticipate by saying
that previous investigators of coca had already employed the physi-
ological method of injecting the alkaloid cocaine into the veins of the
lower animals, as well as the utilization of other scientific methods of
determining its value, such “authoritative” investigations being accepted
as conclusive evidence of the fact that coca, other than as a mild stimu-
lant, like tea or coffee, was worthless and inert, and that its alkaloid,
cocaine, was similar in effect to caffeine. Physicians using coca were
thus becoming subjects of ridicule, as being incapable of judging a
remedy’s qualities ; pharmacists making preparations of the drug were
tinctured with the odium of being concerned in a fraud, while the na-
tives who employed it in their daily life, as well as travelers impressed
thereby, were regarded as being involved in ignorance and imbued with
superstitious imaginings. Into these classes were thrust such men as
Poeppig, von Tschudi, Scherzer, Stevenson, Weddell, Spruce, Markham,
and others, scientists and travelers, who spoke from personal observa-
tion or experience. Although other pessimists contributed in the same
direction, the most authoritative investigations to discredit coca ap-
peared in the London Lancet, 1876 (196a), and in the Edinburgh
Medical Journal, Vol. XIX, 1873 (55b), which may be summarized
as follows:

__ G. F. Dowdeswell, B. A., of London, England, being conversant
with the record of coca and much interested in the subject, determined
to establish its position unquestionably, by personal experimentation in
a scientific way. With this object, he made a careful study of the rec-
ord of coca (196a) and its reputed action. He took pains to credit
those who had previously made reports, describing in detail the proc-
esses of the native coca users, and including the experiments of Dr.
Alexander Bennett, 1873 (55b), in which the physiological action of
cocaine on frogs, mice, and rabbits gave no therapeutic promise of in-
dividual characteristic other than the suggestion that it paralleled caffe-
ine, theine, and theobromine, the summary (Bennett) being as follows:

When we com this cocaine with theine, caffei
that if it is not identical with ‘heer suniaeiecs, & is intionstely «liana soto te
chemical composition; (p. 324).

20

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

The investigator had not enough cocaine to give completely its
action on temperature and the glandular secretions, but adds that
(p. 235) (55b), as compared with caffeine, theine, and so forth, “in
every other respect cocaine had similar action,’ thus giving it no
quality of its own (55b).

Having reviewed the literature on coca (including Bennett’s physi-
ological investigations on cocaine), Dowdeswell first obtained speci-
mens of the drug, of unquestioned quality. He then interested in his
work such authorities as Ringer (who furnished instruments of “per-
fectly accurate results”) and the conspicuous Professor Murrell, of
University College. The preparations employed were made by the well-
known English chemist Mr. Garrard, referred to by Dowdeswell as

follows:

All of which were well prepared by Mr. Garrard, of University College
Hospital, who has taken much interest in the subject, and who has also very
successfully obtained the alkaloid and the volatile constituent of the leaf, and
is still continuing an investigation of its pharmaceutical properties, for which
his skillful preparations of other previously unknown alkaloids, as of jaborandi,
eminently qualify him.

The preparations made by Garrard were not only such as paralleled
the products of the native users of coca, but also included others, sug-
gested by his own chemical and pharmaceutical knowledge. The ex-
perimentation considered, in detail, bodily conditions, rate of pulse,
temperature, urine, urea excretion, etc., etc., as influenced by coca.
Two detailed tables (p. 666) (196a), give the results, which, to the
utter disparagement of coca, are summed up by Dowdeswell as follows:

It has not affected the pupil nor the state of the skin: it has caused neither
drowsiness nor sleeplessness; assuredly it has occasioned none of those sub-
jective effects so fervidly described and abscribed to it by others—not the
slightest excitement, nor even the feeling of buoyancy and exhilaration which
is experienced from mountain air, or a draught of spring water. This examina-
tion was commenced in the expectation that the drug would prove important and
interesting physiologically, and perhaps valuable as a therapeutical agent. This
expectation has been disappointed. Without asserting that it is positively inert,
it is concluded from these experiments that its action is so slight as to preclude
the idea of its having any value either therapeutically or popularly; and it is the
belief of the writer, from observation upon the effect on the pulse, etc., of tea,
milk-and-water, and even plain water, hot, tepid, and cold, that such things may,
at slightly different temperatures, produce a more decided effect than even large
doses of Coca, if taken at about the temperature of the body.

The result of the investigations of these eminent authorities, in
connection with the physiological experimentations wth cocaine, demon-
strated to the satisfaction of the world of science and the professions
that this drug was, at the very best, merely a something in the line of
the caffeine-bearing stimulants, such as tea and coffee, and, next, that
instead of being of any value whatever, or of possessing any inherent
quality whatever, it was positively inert, having ( 196a )

an action so slight as to preclude the idea of its having any value, either
therapeutically or popular;

that it has no greater effect on the pulse than
oe

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

tea, milk-and-water, or even plain water, hot, tepid, and cold;
that it

occasioned none of those subjective effects so fervidly described and
ascribed to it by others—not the slightest excitement, nor even the feeling of
buoyancy and exhilaration which is experienced from mountain air, or a
draught of spring water.

To this may be added the similar results obtained by Professor
Roberts Bartholow, M. D,, to the effect that “it acts like theine and
caffeine as an indirect nutrient,” etc. (Therapeutic Gazette, July, 1880,
p. 280) (564). : ;

Just at that time the American “New Remedy Craze” of the 70's
was at its height. Among the substances eulogized was coca, which
had received thereby a position in the Prices Current of all the Ameri-
can manufacturing pharmaceutical establishments, as well as the eulo-
gistic commendations of physicians in American medical prints.

Paralyzing to such as these were the adverse “authoritative” re-
ports concerning the worthlessness and inertness of the drug (196a).
All this, together with the variations in the quality of the commercial
article (such variations in quality being confirmed later by Professor
H. H. Rusby, M.D.), very much disturbed the talented, careful, and
exceptionally conscientious chemist, the leading American manufactur-
ing pharmacist of that date, Dr. Edward R. Squibb, of Brooklyn, N. Y.
In the height of the commercial demand for coca he determined to sac-
rifice his commercial opportunities to his professional ideals, and to
accept the provings of “scientific authority,” by excluding all coca
preparations from his pharmaceutical list, commending tea and coffee

in their stead. He writes as follows in his Ephemeris ( 610a), July,
1884:

Almost every purchase (of the crude drug.—L.) has been made on mental
protest, and he (Squibb) has been ashamed of every pound of the fluid extract
sent out, from the knowledge that it was of poor quality; and there seems to
be no more prospect of a supply of a better quality than there was this time last
year, because so long as an inferior quality sells in such enormous quantities at
good prices, the demands of trade are satisfied.

Under this condition of the markets, the writer has finally decided to give
up making a fluid extract of Coca, and has left it off his list, adopting a fluid
extract of tea instead, as a superior substitute, for those who may choose to
use it, and regrets that this course was not taken a year ago.

Dr. Squibb, however, with even more than his usual carefulness
and desire to extend professional courtesy to one and all, perhaps guided
also by a latent questioning of the possibility of paralleling the action
of a drug in abnormal conditions of the human being by a study of the
action of that drug on the lower animals or even on a man in health,
refers to the fact that “authorities are often in error or opposed in opin-
ion,” fortifying this statement in the following words:

Conflicting and contradictory testimony from competent authority is not
uncommon in therapeutics, and the reasons for it are well recognized in the im-
possibility of an equality in the conditions and circumstances of the investi-
aioe, and hence the general decision commonly reached, is upon the principles
of averages.

22

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

And yet, the investigations of Dowdeswell seeming incontrovert-
ible, Dr. Squibb adds as follows:

But there has been no observer on either side whose researches have been
anything like so thorough, so extended or so accurate as those of Mr. Dow-
deswell. Indeed, no other account has been met with, wherein the modern
methods of precision have been applied to the question at all; the other testi-
mony being all rather loose and indefinite, often at second or third hands, or
from the narratives of more or less enthusiastic travelers. But if Mr. Dow-
deswell’s results be accepted as being conclusive, the annual consumption of
40,000,000 pounds of Coca, at a cost of $10,000,000, promotes this substance to
take rank among the large economic blunders of the age.

Now came the “irony of fate!” Scarcely had the ink dried in
the publication (Ephemeris) aforenamed, recording Dr, Squibb’s faith
fore it was announced in a letter to Dr. Squibb, dated September 19,
1884, from Dr. Henry D. Noyes, a physician of New York then in
in the results of the investigations of Bennett and of Dowdeswell, be-
Kreuznach, Germany (Ephemeris, Nov., 1884, p. 685), that a medical
student named Koller, of Vienna, had discovered that a solution of
hydrochlorate of cocaine was possessed of marvelous qualities as a local
anesthetic.

- This letter of Dr. Noyes was immediately given a setting, or ref-
erence was made thereto, in every pharmaceutical and medical journal
of America. Such an authority as Dr. D. Agnew, of Philadelphia,
wrote as follows in the Medical Record, October 18, 1884:

We have to-day (Oct. 18, 1884), used the agent in our clinic at the College
of Physicians and Surgeons, with most astonishing and satisfactory results.
If further use should prove to be equally satisfactory, we will be in possession
of an agent for the prevention of suffering in opthalmic operations of inesti-
mable value.

Came also leading editorials in the various publications on medicine
and pharmacy, of which that from the pen of the then editor of the
Druggists’ Circular, Mr. Henry B. Parsons, brother of the present
editor of the Practical Druggist, is typical. From it we quote as fol-
lows:

For the past month American medical journals have fairly bristled with
reports from various hospital surgeons, and it is pleasing to note that, on the
whole, the claims first made for this remedy have been sustained. It seems to
be proved that, in the majority of cases, the application to the eye of a few
drops of a 2 or 4 per cent solution of this salt will produce a more or less com-
plete, but transient, insensibility to pain, with enlargement of the pupil. Oper-
ations upon the conjunctiva and cornea ordinarily requiring the use of chloro-
form or ether have been performed upon patients conscious of everything
being done, but saved from pain by the application of a weak aqueous solution
of this salt. In several operations for removal of hard cataract, the patients
complained of no pain whatever, the entire conjunctival surface being insen-
sible to repeated pinchings with the surgeon’s forceps. The only sensation
described was that of “numbness and hardness.” After a time the eye returns
to its normal sensitiveness, and there seems to be no troublesome local after-
effects.

Let it be observed that in the beginning cocaine was commended
in operations on the cornea of the eye, its latest application in minor
operations in surgery, dentistry, and elsewhere being at that time not
even a theoretical possibility.

Turning his face to the future, and accepting the facts of the pres-

23

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

ent, Dr. Squibb now threw all his efforts into a new investigation of
coca and its alkaloid, his process of manufacture being yet a standard,
and his writings on cocaine being yet authority. These need but be
referred to as occupying many pages in the Ephemeris, 1884-5. T hey
stand as a lasting memorial to the man who took pleasure in publicly
correcting an error, and whose record in American pharmacy is monu-
mental.

The discovery of the anesthetic qualities of coca marked the be-
ginning of an epoch in medication whose story, in connection with the
past, pleads irresistibly for tolerance of thought and action toward men
who know that which they know by reason of personal experience and
the art of empirical experimentation. Perhaps in no other instance
has the almost hopeless cry for recognition of the facts developed by
empiricism been more prominently illustrated than by the struggle of
this drug. One of the greatest blessings to humanity, it was for nearly
three centuries neglected by men of science and subjugated by profes-
sional prejudices. At last the eminent botanist and pharmacologist
Henry H. Rusby, M.D., was led to undertake a journey to South
America in behalf of science, coca being a dominant factor, in which
enterprise the great pharmaceutical house of Parke, Davis & Co., of
Detroit, who financed the expedition, deserves great credit. The result
of Dr. Rusby’s study is presented in The Therapeutic Gazette (564),
1886, pp. 14-18, and 1888, pp. 1 58-303, and it may be added that this
exceptionally valuable treatise is at this date not less important than
when written.

Needless is it to do more than refer to the marvelous reaction that
followed Koller’s discovery of the power of cocaine as a local anesthetic.
A library would be required to shelve the works devoted, eulogistically,
to the new discovery. A volume would scarcely print the names of the
enthusiastic converts to cocaine, formerly so discredited, and the titles
of their contributions.

Let us now do tardy justice to the prophetic words of the seer-like
poet, who so often foresees that which others either neglect or do not
appreciate. The poet Cowley, 1618-1667 (170a), in his Book of
Plants, published in 1662, not only mentions coca, but sets forth that
marvelous drug in terms that, neglected and discredited for nearly
three centuries, need to-day no apology, as evidenced by the following
translation:

Eulogy of Coca
From Cowley’s Book of Plants,* V : 783-838.
Translated from the Latin by Margaret Stewart, M. A.

The vine departs; and all the deities of the old world applaud,
and with purpled hands seize the clusters. Bacchus, in jesting
a hare Eg a ee ives Cowley describes a feast of the gods, including the deities

erican dei

Worlds. ides, ,
ins, = on heel deiey. Foshemeina the les, and Bacchus offers wine to Omelochi

. a :
what free rendering. Several editions of Cowl s “Sex Libri Plantarum” are on the
shelves of the Li “ i

: _Lloyd brary. The one from x

24

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

mood, brings a generous cup of wine, pressed from many grapes,
to thee, Omelochilus. “Come, drink, comrade,” he said. “If thou
dost taste this wine, no other of the gods will be more fit than thou
to tempt the crude appetites of the cannibals.”

And Omelochilus, not accustomed to the acid Grecian wine,
drinking it, rages in frantic wrath, and would doubtless repay the
jest with blows, but fears the well known strength and courage of
the European deity. Therefore (to be quits with his tormen-
tor.—S.) he bids the fruits advance to strife less cruel. They all
stand forth in beautiful array, displaying their various products,
and like Amazons they advance, with pictured armor.

First in line, dishonored from lack of fruit,* stands Coca, a
little tree, gleaming with slender stem. And Venus scoffs. “Truly,
the race of American husbandmen have chosen with little judg-
ment, coming into a contest as regards fertility with a dwarf eunuch
as their leader.” The gods shout with laughter. But Mother
Pachamama rebukes the bold goddess, and defends her loved Coca.
“How greatly dost thou err, Cytherea! Truly, the lustful fertility
of lovers is alone known to thee. Here, thou art a bad judge. My
realms, lacking sex, are an unknown country to thee. Beyond all
others, everywhere, the land is fertile. This tree at which you
scoff, is perennially fertile, and ever swells with unnumbered fruits.
Do you still laugh? See how full of leaves it is! In every leaf it
bears a fruit. Nor will these leaves yield in usefulness to any
fruits from any tree. These, by the wonderful gift of Pacchamacus
Virococha (who was moved to pity by the coming hardships of the
land, reduced to poverty because of its too great wealth), remaining
for a time in the mouth, the juice trickling thence continuously to
the stomach, restore the weak, made languid by long continued
hunger and lengthened toil, and give back vigor to the limbs and
strength to the weak body, tottering under its burden, in a manner
such as you, Bacchus and Ceres, deities both, could never do. The
Quitoita, carrying three of these as supplies for their journey, will
sometimes endure for twice three days, and feasting abundantly
upon these, will traverse the dreadful Andes, a frightful land, situ-
ated among the highest clouds, the home of winds and rain and
winter storm, and likewise thine, brave Coca, whom the warlike
goddess Venus derides as an insignificant leader. Nor shalt thou
be less esteemed for thy admirable qualities, illustrious Coca, than
for thy services to mankind. The merchant fears not to seek thee
here, to bear thee hence. Yearly he loads the groaning Vicugni
and Paci in countless numbers with thy leaves, bringing a pleasing
commerce to the wretched world.” :

Thus speaks the mother Pachamama, her skin painted with
numberless figures, and with a nod she bids Hovia to advance,
Hovia, bearing fruits stony and despised, but ranking next in value
(to those of Coca.—S.) though of different kind.

*The shrub coca bears a creamy white flower, and a berry somewhat like a small cran-
berry, red when immature. but darkening to nearly black. Of this Cowley was evidently
unaware.—S.

3 25

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

COCCUS

The cochineal insect, Pseudococcus cacti, is native to Mexico and
tropical America, where it feeds on certain species of cactus. These
insects were thence imported into the Canary Islands, where they are
raised in large numbers, as well as in the West Indies and other coun-
tries. They are sources of great profit to the Mexicans, who, so far
as known, have always been acquainted with their quality of imparting
a red color to confectionery and pastry, for which purpose (and as
the source of carmine) they are still chiefly employed. In domestic
medicine they have been commended in whooping cough and neuralgic
affections, but have never been seriously considered by the medical pro-
fession.

COLCHICI CORMUS ET SEMEN

Colchicum (Colchicum autumnale) was known in very early days,
Dioscorides (194) mentioning its poisonous properties. It was used
as a rheumatic or gout remedy by the Arabians, as noted in the writ-
ings of Tragus (650), 1552, who warns his readers against its use in
gout. It was employed empirically in these directions in domestic Eng-
lish medicine, but was, however, in disfavor with the medical pro-
fession, being called by them Colchicum perniciosum, and considered
“very hurtfull to the stomacke.”’ Wedel (672), in 1718, held colchicum
in great disfavor, as indicated by the following quotation: “Velut in
fame habitum et damnatum fuit colchicum, indignum habitum inter
herbas medicas vel officinales.”

Colchicum was mentioned in the London Pharmacopeia, second
edition, 1618, and was given an occasional place in subsequent editions,
but was altogether omitted in the editions between 1650 and 1788, after
which, owing to the investigations of St6rck (617), it was again given
an authoritative place.

COLOCYNTHIS

The colocynth plant occupies the vast area extending from the
west coast of Northern Africa (Senegambia, Morocco, and the Cape
Verde Islands), eastward through the Sahara, Egypt, Arabia, Persia,
Beluchistan, and through India, as far as the Coromandel Coast and
Ceylon, touching northward the Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. At
the Red Sea, near Kosseir, it occurs in immense quantities (239-240).
It is also found here and there in Southern European countries, e. ge;
Spain and the islands of the Grecian archipelago. Isloated specimens
occur in the Cape of Good Hope, Japan, Sicily (57), and it is suggested
that birds of passage have much to do with the distribution of the seed.
Even from our hemisphere we have recent reports of its successful cul-
tivation on a small scale.

In the island of Cyprus the raising of colocynth has been a source
of revenue since the fourteenth century, and it still forms an article of
ae is the Pate time.

ocynth, as already stated, is a characteristic desert plant.
Hooker and Ball (323a) met with it in the oasis of Sicha is

26

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Morocco, and state that this characteristic plant of the desert region in
North Africa rarely approaches the sea shore. The fruit is used in
Morocco for the purpose of protecting woolen clothing from moths;
but according to the testimony of these observers the purgative qualities
of colocynth do not seem to be known to the native doctors.

Volkens (6642) enumerates citrullus colocynthis (L,.) Schrader,
among the plants growing in the Egypto-Arabian deserts, pointing to
its exceedingly rapid development, especially the fruit, which attains a
diameter of ten centimeters. After the vine has withered away the
fruits may be seen lying in the sand of the desert, ten to fifteen in
number, about each plant. Volkens saw the plant in bloom in May
as well as in December, and reports that when the plant is torn from
the ground it withers in a short time, owing, he thinks, to the delicacy
of the microscopical structure of the leaves.

A brief account of the growth of colocynth in Palestine by E. S.
Wallace has more recently appeared in the United States consular re-
ports (1895), from which we abstract the following points of interest:

he fruit grows abundantly between the mountains of Palestine and
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, from the city of Gaza north-
ward to Mount Carmel. The plant thrives without any attention what-
ever on the part of the husbandman, since the climate and soil are
all-sufficient for its perfect growth—the natural requirements being
merely a sandy soil, warm climate, and little moisture. The fruit which
is known in commerce as the Turkish colocynth is collected by the na-
tive peasants (fellaheen) in July and August, before it is quite ripe,
and is sold to Jaffa dealers, who peel it and dry the pulp in the sun.
It is then molded into irregular small balls, packed in boxes and ex-
ported, mostly via England. The average annual shipments are stated
in the consular reports to be ten thousand pounds, but these must
have fallen off considerably during recent years. The reason for
this, as we learn from another source, lies undoubtedly in the ex-
port tax. The report suggests that probably colocynth may be
profitably cultivated in certain parts of the United States.

In this connection we may point to Prof. L. E. Sayre’s paper (Am.
Journ. Pharm., 1894, p. 273) on American colocynth, and the culti-
vation of colocynth in Montreal as reported in 1895 by Prof. T. D.
Reed (Montreal Pharm. Journ., 1896, p. 334).

The drug is imported from Spain, Triest, Smyrna, Mogador, and
elsewhere (501).

CONIUM

Conium maculatum is native to Asia Minor and the islands of the
Mediterranean. It has been naturalized in North and South America
and throughout England and other similar locations. It was known to
the Greeks, who are said to have used it to execute criminals. It was
long known under the name Cicuta, but to avoid confusion with Cicuta
virosa, Linnzeus (385) in 1737 restored its classical name, Conium mac-
ulatum, or poison hemlock, the word hemlock being Saxon, meaning
leek of the border, or shore. Storck (617), of Vienna, in 1760,

a7

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

introduced Conium into regular medicine. Tradition has it that the de-
coction of this plant was the ¢adppaxov drunk by Socrates (334).

CONVALLARIA

Lily of the Valley, Convallaria majalis, is recorded as one of the
earliest of domestic remedies, being accepted by Dr. Squibb (610a)
as “continuously used in medicine for several hundred years (Ephe-
meris, January, 1884). In The British Medical Journal, November,
1883, Dr. Edward Drummond, of Rome, states that in a book of Com-
mentaries on the Materia Medica of Dioscorides, Venice, 1621, Dr.
Pietro Andrea Matthioli (414) speaks as follows of its use in cardiac
diseases :

The Germans use lily of the valley to strengthen the heart, the brain, and
os < haga parts, and also give it in palpitation, vertigo, epilepsy, and apo-
piexy,

This article led Dr. Squibb, in connection with some private in-
formation in a letter from ‘“‘a very careful and close observer” (Squibb),
to favor the drug as a hopeful remedy that in specific and restricted
directions would be better employed than digitalis. To such an extent
was he impressed in its favor as to lead him to write (1879) :

It is to be hoped that the revision committee will recognize it in the forth-
coming issue of the U. S. Pharmacopeia.

The commendations of Dr. Squibb were probably instrumental in

obtaining for convallaria this honor, for in 1900 it obtained official
recognition.
In Russia convallaria was investigated by the medical profession
as early as 1880, having long before been used in dropsy by the people.
About 1883, as already stated, it became fashionable elsewhere, being
generally commended as a substitute for digitalis in certain specific
directions.

A study of the chemistry of the drug antedated “authority” in
medicine, for in 1858 G. F. Walz published an analysis in the N. Jahr-
buch f. Pharm., describing two “most important constituents,” viz.,
convallarin and convallamarin. He states that his experiments were
made long before their publication. It is to be seen that the empirical
use of convallaria unquestionably prevailed centuries before its ex-
ploitation as a “fashionable” remedy by the licensed profession of medi-
cine (1883), the chemist also anticipating its probable employment in
orthodox therapy.

COPAIBA (COPAIFERA OFFICINALIS*)

Copaiba (popularly known as balsam of copaiba) is obtained from
South America, principally from Brazil and Venezuela, being produced
by numerous species of the genus copaifera. This genus belongs to

* ON THE SPELLING OF THE NAME COPAIFERA LANGSDORFFII.
sensed A LETTER BY CHARLES RICE, NEW YORK, TO JOHN URI LLOYD.
can not er to Desfontaines’ original (Mem. Mus. Paris, VII.
to judge from the Kew Index and some other authorities, Desfontaines Bs fd ae
mame Lansdorfii. And from Desfontaines the mistake pissed into many

28

- PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

the suborder of czsalpiniez, of the vast order of leguminosz, and dif-
fers from the ordinary type of the order, as we usually know it, in hav-
ing more regular flowers (papilionaceous), resembling in this respect
our honey-locust (gleditschia triacanthos) and coffee-nut (gymno-
cladus) tree.

_ The various species of copaifera which grow in tropical America
are usually small trees (sometimes shrubs).

Flueckiger traced the record of what is probably the first printed
statement regarding a resiniferous tree other than the pine, dating
back to the last decade of the fifteenth century. He quotes from
Michael Herr, “Die Neue Welt der Landschaften und Insulen,” Strass-
burg, 1534, which contains a report made by Petrus Martyr of Ang-
hiera to Pope Leo X, wherein this tree is mentioned under the name
cope.

The next available record dates from a publication of the year
1625, wherein a Portuguese monk, probably Manoel Tristaon (651a),
of the convent of Bahia contributes an extensive chapter on Brazil and
its products. On page 1308, immediately following the description of
Cabueriba (or Peru balsam tree) he says: “Cupayba. For wounds.
Cuypaba is a fig tree, commonly very high, straite and big; it hath
much oile, within; for to get it they cut the tree in the middest, where
it hath the vent, and there it hath this oil in so great abundance that
some of them doe yield a quarterne of oile and more; it is very clear
of the color of oile; it is much set by for wounds, and taketh away
all the skarre. It serveth also for lights and burne well; the beasts
knowing the vertue thereof doe come and rubbe themselves thereat.
There are great store, the wood is good for nothing.”

The first explicit description and illustration of one of the trees
yielding copaiba is to be found in the joint work of Piso and Marc-
grav (511) (1648), whose statements form the basis of the subsequent
literature on the subject. In this connection it appears rather remark-
able that the Pharmacopceia Amstelodamensis, sixth edition, which an-
tedates this publication, being of the year 1630, distinctly mentions
Balsam copae yvae. Some of the statements of Piso and Marcgrav
have given rise to discussion ; the fact that Piso figured and described
the flowers with five sepals, whereas they are now known to bear only
four, being one of the points. The pod, however, is figured and de-
scribed correctly, and the statement is made that it contains an edible
nut, which the monkeys of the forest are very fond of eating. As re-
gards the mode of collecting the balsam, Piso relates that an incision
books. Even Bentley and Trimen took up the mistake, particularly emphasizing that_Langs-

dorfii is wrong. The mistake was pointed out long ago in the Pharmaceutical Journal,
IX (1879), 773, and also by Flueckiger in Pharmacographia (see 2d ed., p. 228, foot-
note)

noome of the betscies! ste dros star
without making any remarks. us, for instance, : i I
for example, rd Histoire des Plantes, II, 163; also, Rosenthal in his Synopsis Plantarum
Diaphoricarum, p. 1046, etc. They write Langsdorfhi (with g and two f’s). ges
George Heinrich, Freiherr von Langsdorff, was born on April 18, 1773, at Woellstein in
Rhenish Hesse, studied medicine in Goettingen, then went to Portugal, where he remained
from 1797 to 1803. He then participated in Krusenstern’s Russian exploring Ge Sane
Ringe igo Seen eg me Se ee se same ok Seem

an ied at Frei in isgau on June 29, 1852. e wr x
ition, under the title, “Bemerkungen auf einer Reise um die Welt,” 2 vols.

stern's
Frankfurt o. M., 1812.
29

to know better corrected the mistake
Baillon has it right in all his works,

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

is made through the bark deep into the pith, at the season of the full
moon, which causes such an abundant flow of fatty and oily liquid that
twelve pounds may exude in three hours. In case no oil should appear,
the opening is at once closed with wax or clay, and after two weeks
the yield is sufficient to make up for the delay. The fact that the resi-
niferous ducts in these trees often attain a diameter of one inch, as
has been observed more “recently by Karsten, seems to be quite
in harmony with the statement regarding the abundant yield. It is
also related that frequently the balsam accumulates in these ducts and
exerts pressure enough upon the enclosing wall to burst the tree with
aloud report. According to Piso, the copaiba tree is not very frequent
in the Province of Pernambuco, but thrives luxuriantly in the Island of
Maranhao, which, he says, furnishes the balsam of commerce in great
quantity. He also enumerates the many medicinal virtues of the bal-
sam, making the curious statement that its healing virtues are also ex-
perienced as an efficient means to check the flow of blood in the Jewish
practice of circumcision.

Labat (365) reports that in 1696 he had an opportunity to observe
for the first time the tree yielding copaiba in the Island of Guadeloupe.
He relates in detail the manner of collecting the balsam, which he calls
huile de copau. The vessels in which the balsam is collected are made
of the fruit of the calabash, a kind of gourd. The collection, he states,
takes place about three months after the rainy season ; that is, in March
for the countries north of the equator, and in September for the coun-
tries south of this line. The balsam, he states, closes all kinds of
wounds except those inflicted by gunshot. He declares it to be a power-
ful febrifuge, having been used with almost marvelous effect in the
fever epidemics at Rennes and Nantes in 1719.

Nic. Jos. Jacquin (338a), a noted Viennese botanist who traveled
in the West Indies in Linnzus’s time, first observed the tree yielding
copaiba in cultivation in the village of Le Carbet at Martinique, and
subsequently (1760 and 1765) described it under the name of copaiva
officinalis. He states that this tree was indigenous to the continent,
where it grows frequently around the town of Tolu near Carthagena
promiscuously among trees yielding balsams of Tolu and Peru. Jac-
quin described the flowers of this tree as having four petals, and the
calyx as being nonexistent; yet he considers it identical with that of
Piso and Marcgrav, which is, however, emphatically denied by De Tus-
sac (656a) in Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles.

Linneus (385), in 1762, gave Jacquin’s plant the name Copaifera
officinalis.

Until 1821 it was generally believed that copaifera officinalis was
the only tree yielding copaiba; in this year, however, Desfontaines
(189a) added two new species, C. guianensis and C. Langsdorfhi. At
the same time Desfontaines changed the name of C. officinalis to C. Jac-
quini, in honor of its discoverer. The fact that Jacquin’s plant was
foreign to Brazil and yielded a balsam of inferior quality would indi-
cate that it could not well have been the official balsam tree, while by
reason of the publication of Piso’s account Brazil had been generally
considered the geographical source of the official balsam. However,

30

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

the name C. officinalis, Linn., has subsequently been upheld, although
the official copaiba balsam is now considered as being mainly derived
from C. Langsdorffii, the species named by Desfontaines in 1821 in
honor of Mr. Langsdorff, the Rusian consul general at Rio Janeiro,
from whom the specimens were obtained. This name was erroneously
spelled “Lansdorffii” by Bentley and Trimen ( 57), who thus perpetu-
ated what was undoubtedly an error of print in Desfontaines’ original
memoir. Soon thereafter the recorded species of copaiba increased
rapidly. In 1826 Hayne (305a) (Arzney-Gewaechse) published and
described sixteen different species, which, however, all bear resem-
blances, their distinctive features residing mainly in the form and the
arrangement of the leaves. Hayne especially endeavors to place the
species made known by Piso, the difficulty being that this ancient work
stated that the wood is colored as if with minium. The only species
that, in the opinion of Hayne, would answer that description is C.
bijuga, the wood of the branches of which is pale-red, which color
may appear as red in the trunk of the tree. Hayne also states that
copaiva is gathered from all species known to the natives, and con-
cludes that most of the balsam is yielded by C. multijuga in the prov-
ince of Para, a species, however, which is now questioned.

According to Flueckiger (239, 240), the following species are the
principal sources of the copaiba of commerce:

1. Copaifera officinalis, L. (Guiana, Venezuela, Colombia, Trini-

dad).
2. Copaifera guianensis, Desf. (Lower Amazon, lower Rio Negro,
Cayenne, Surinam).

3. C. coriacea, Martius (Bahia and Piauhy).

4. C. Langsdorffii, Desf. (Continental provinces of Brazil).

The number of known species has steadily increased until now the
Index Kewensis recognizes twenty-three American and five African
species.

The copaiba obtained from the vast territory of the Brazilian con-

tinent, along the Amazon and its tributaries, is collected in the shipping

port of Para. Maranhao Island is also a place of export. Other
shipping ports are Maracaibo and Angustura in Venezuela, Trinidad,
Demerara (British Guiana), Cartagena (Colombia), and Rio de Ja-

neiro.

CORIANDRUM

Coriandrum sativum is indigenous to the regions of the Mediter-
ranean and the Caucasus, from which it has spread throughout the
temperate parts of the whole world, even to the Americas. It was men-
tioned by early Sanscrit writers and in the Mosaic books, Exodus and
Numbers, and occurs in the famous Egyptian papyrus Ebers (213).
Its fruit was used by the Jews and the Romans as a medicine, as w
as a spice, in very early days. Cato (132) notes its cultivation ; Pliny
(514) states that it was obtained in very fine quality in Egypt, and it
is frequently mentioned in the book of Apicius Coelius (24), about
the third century A. D. It is also included in the list of valuable

products of Charlemagne.
$F.

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

CROTON TIGLIUM

The genus croton, established by Linnzus in 1737, is extensive,
625 species being recognized in the Index Kewensis. We have a num-
ber of herbaceous species in this country, but none of any economic
importance. - The croton plant is a native of India and is grown all
through the East Indies. It is a small tree fifteen to twenty feet high.

Croton tiglium is considered indigenous to Malabar, Ceylon, Am-
boina (of the Molucca Islands), the Philippines, and Java. Joannes
Scott (588a), in his dissertation on the medicinal plants of Ceylon
(Edinburgh, 1819), states that the seeds of Croton tiglium under the
name of “gayapala” are a most powerful purgative, and also that the
leaves are very acrid, causing an intolerable burning in the mouth and
throat.

Dr. Irvine, in 1848, gave a short account of the materia medica of
Patna (part of the province of Bengal) mentioning “jamalgoota,”
which he stated is derived from croton tiglium and several other species
of croton. The croton seeds furnish a violent purge and are made into
pills with ginger and “kutkaranja or kath karanja seeds,” which he ex-
plains are known as bonduc nut (the febrifuge seed of caesalpinia bon-
ducella, or nicker tree).

More recently, Mr. O. Weynton (682) calls attention to the occur-
rence of croton tiglium in all parts of the fertile and wealthy province
of Assam, especially in the dry districts. He states that the demand for
the drug is small and that the plant has a tendency to spread. Hence
efforts are being made to restrict the growth and keep it within certain
bounds.

The ancient Hindu physicians were not acquainted with the drug,
which seems to have originated in China, from whence at an early day
the seeds were also introduced into Persia (where they are now called
dand), by way of the caravan routes of Central Asia. Subsequently
the Arabs derived their knowledge of the seeds from the Persians, their
name, hab-el-kathai (Cathay seeds), being in turn suggestive of the
Chinese origin (209). Some of the vernacular Indian names, according
to Dymock, seem to indicate that the plant reached India through the
Himalayan province of Nepal (209).

The drug was imported into Europe by the Dutch during the six-
teenth century. The first account of the croton tiglium plant in Euro-
pean literature, however, must be credited to the Portuguese physician
Christoval Acosta, who in 1578 described the wood as lignum pavanz
( or L. panave o1 L. moluccense), and the seeds as pini nuclei moluc-
cani (3). The prominent writings of Rheede ( 1678), who gives the
Malayan name cadel avanacu (547), Ray (1688) and others subse-
quently, gave the drug due consideration, while C. Bauhinus (1671)
differentiated between several synonyms of the seeds and woods that
were then in use. To Caspar Commelyn (1667-1731) is attributed the
first use of the name cataputiz minores for the seeds, while the well-
known synonym grana tiglii is also stated to have been originated in
his time. And yet this author’s work on the Flora Malabarica ( 1696)

32

PHARMACOP@IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

does not record the first term, although the name grana tiglii is therein
accredited to Samuel Dale’s Pharmacologia, (the first edition of which
appeared in 1693) (179).

As regards the use of the oil derived from the seeds, E. von
Hirschheydt, in the exhaustive historical introduction to his disserta-
tion (31842), mentions that Peter Borellus, a French physician (1620-
1689), in 1657 lauds the cathartic virtues of the oil which in as small
an amount as two drops caused purging even when merely rubbed into
the skin. Similar mention of its virtues is made by Rumphius (Her-
barium Amboinense, 1750). Geoffroy (260) in his Materia Medica
(1756) reports that the natives of India use this oil to make what they
call the royal purging apple (poma cathartica), the mere odor of which
is said to purge persons of delicate constitution. The directions for
making this potent “apple” are as follows:

Macerate an orange or lemon in oil of tilli (croton oil) for one
month. Remove it, hold to the nostrils and inhale the breath; soon
afterwards the bowels will move.

About 1750, Cohausen, according to several authorities, employed
the oil with success in cases of tenia.

Although during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the
remedy had been frequently used, it seems that toward the end of the
eighteenth century it fell into oblivion, probably on account of the
dangers attending its administration. However, its use was revived
when in 1812 several English physicians, among them Drs. White and
Marshall, observed the action of the seed in medical practice in India,
and brought the drug again to the notice of the profession in Europe
(209). Ainslie in 1813, and Conwell in 1819, by their publications gave
it further prominence. In connection with its reintroduction we note
the interesting fact that a Mr. Short then brought the drug to Europe
and was so fortunate as to secure the right (license) to its exclusive
sale in England. That it at once became an important drug is shown
by the attention then given it in medical literature. An extensive list
of references to the literature on croton tiglium covering the period
from 1820 to 1835 alone, may be found in Hirschheydt’s disserta-
tion (318a). According to the latter authority (1890) the seeds and
the oil are seldom used in Europe other than in veterinary practice, as he
states, on account of the uncontrollable influence exerted by the pres-
ence of the powerfully toxic ricin (an albuminoid body) in the ee

As already stated, the genus croton was established by Linnaeus in
1737, the name being adopted from the Greek synonym for ricinus
communis, the seeds of which, as also those of croton tiglium, have a
resemblance to a tick (dog-tick, kroton in Greek). As to the origin of
the term tiglium, some authorities ascribe it to the Moluccan island of
Tilho, while others (696) believe it to be derived (by Dale?) from the
Greek word tilos, meaning diarrhea. The botanical and vernacular
synonyms antedating the name given by Linnaeus are numerous and
are generally carried by the older botanico-medical works, e. g. by
Dale (179), Bauhinus (47) and others. The post-Linnaean synonyms
recorded in the Index Kewensis are rarely if ever seen in pharma-
ceutical print and may well be reproduced. They are as follows:

33

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

(1) C. acutus, Thunberg, 1784.

(2) C. jamalgota, Hamilton, 1825.

(3) C. pavana, Hamilton, 1825.

(4) Kurkas tiglium, Rafinesque (Sylva Tellur.), 1838.
(5) Halecus verus, Raf., 1838.

(6) Tiglium officinale, Klotzsch, 1843.

(7) Croton muricatus, Blanco, 1845.

(8) Anisophyllum acutifolium, Bouv., 1860-61.

CUBEBA

Cubebs (Piper cubeba) is the berry of a shrub indigenous to Java,
Southern Borneo, and Sumatra. Masudi (413) in the tenth century
refers to cubebs as a product of Java. Edrisi (221), 1153, mentions
the berries as among the imports of Aden. That they were known in
Europe as early as the eleventh century is evident from the writings
of Constantius Africanus (165), of Salerno, while Abbatissa Hilde-
garde (316) of Germany mentions them in the thirteenth century, at
which time they had become an article of European trade. They were
sold in England in 1284, and at that time, or thereabout, were known
to European countries generally. The price in 1596 was equal to that
of opium or of amber. Cubeb berries were introduced into medicine
by the Arabs of the Middle Ages.

CUSSO

The cousso tree (Hagenia abyssinica) is native to Abyssinia,
where it is generally planted about the villages on the high tablelands,
from 3,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea level. Bruce (105) observed its
uses, 1768-1773, during his expedition to discover the sources of the
Nile, and Willdenow (385), 1799, described it under the name Hagenia.
Its use as a vermifuge was derived from Abyssinian domestic practice,
the decoction being used for this purpose. In early European record
an extraordinarily high price was asked for this substance. It was in-
troduced in 1850 by a Frenchman, who demanded in the neighborhood
of $9 per ounce. ‘This led to its importation in quantities, when the
value soon fell to a normal standard.

CYPRIPEDIUM

Lady’s slipper (Cypripedium pubescens) is found in several va-
rieties throughout the United States, where it is indigenous to rich
woods and meadows. It has been valued as a domestic remedy and
was once a home favorite in the form of a decoction for nervous con-
ditions of women and children. It was thus utilized by the early settlers
as a substitute for valerian, which fact gave it the name American
valerian. Creeping thus into domestic therapeutic use, it naturally re-
ceived the care and attention of the “Indian doctors,” and came grad-
ually to the attention of the medical profession. To give the references
necessary to its American record would cite all the domestic writers

on American medicine of the nineteenth century as well as such author-
ities as King, Wood & Bache, etc. ss

34

PHARMACOPC@IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

DIGITALIS

Digitalis purpurea occurs throughout the greater part of Europe,
being, however, generally absent from limestone districts. It was used
in domestic medicine in early days, and by the Welsh (see note, page 1)
as an external medicine. Fuchs (252) and Tragus (650), 1542, pic-
tured the plant, but remarked that it was a violent medicine. Parkin-
son (492) commended it in 1640, and it was investigated in 1776-9 by
Withering (693), through whose efforts it was introduced into licensed
medicine. Digitalis was originally employed as a remedy in fevers, in
which direction it is no longer used. In 1799, J. Ferriar (233), of
Manchester, England, contributed a treatise concerning the medicinal
uses of this drug, which was also described by Withering (693), Bosch
(89), Moore (450), and other authors of that period. At present it
is largely valued for its poisonous action and is by some standardized
by its physiological qualities when injected into the veins of lower
animals, the United States Government having issued a bulletin on
the subject.

The Eclectic uses of Digitalis are based on its kindly influence,
instead of its poisonous action, the aim being to avoid heart shock.
Consequently the Eclectic Specific Medicine Digitalis has not the
physiological poisonous action that bases the old school drug valu-
ation.

ELATERINUM

Elaterium is the dried juice of the fruit of Ecballium elate-
rium, common throughout the Mediterranean regions, from Portugal
to Southern Russia and Persia, as well as through Central Europe.
The method of preparing elaterium, as described by Dioscorides (194),
is practically that of the present day. The drug is also mentioned by
Theophrastus (633). Elaterium is a powerful hydragogue cathartic,
parallelling Croton tiglium in its vicious action, and has been empir-
ically known from the earliest times to the natives of the countries it
inhabits. Clutterbuck (154), (1819, London Medical Repository, xii,
p. I-9) recommends a process of obtaining elaterium in irregular cake-
like fragments, which is now the form in which it is employed in medi-
cine, hence the common term “Clutterbuck’s elaterium.”

ERGOTA

This drug, from the earliest period, has been known as a disturber
of flour, it having been long since observed that flour made of rye
containing ergot gave rise to the disease now known as ergotism.
When we consider that many of the malignant epidemics and frightful
pestilences recorded in the history of medieval Europe, including an
epidemic occurring as late as 1816, were ascribed to spurred rye, it
can be seen that such old terms as “convulsivus malignus” and “mor-
bus spasmodicus,” once applied to the ergot disease, were well chosen.
Not till 1838, however, was the nature of ergot authoritatively deter-
mined by Quekett (529) in his paper read before the Linnzan Society,

35

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

titled “Observations on the Anatomical and Physiological Nature of
Ergot in Certain Grasses.” Before that date, although recognized as
a fungus, the stage known as ergot was considered a distinct species.

As with all natural drugs, so with ergot. It is a gift of domestic
medicine, and was first mentioned by Adam Lonicer (394), Frankfort,
Germany, who (1565) ascribed to it obstetric virtues, on the authority
of women who considered it of “remarkable and certain efficacy.” The
English botanist Ray (536) alludes (1693) to its medicinal properties ;
a Dutch physician, Rathlaw, employed it in 1747; Desgranges, of
Lyons (189b), praised it in 1777; while Dr. John Stearns* (611a), of
Waterford, N. Y., 1807, under the name “Pulvis parturiens,” highly
commended it in a paper contributed to the Medical Repository, which
gave ergot the American introduction that, supported by other authori-
ties, pushed the drug into prominence. Ergot is a gift of home ob-
stetric practice established over three centuries ago by the German
midwives. (See Lloyd Brothers’ Drug Treatise No. XII on Ergot.)

EUCALYPTUS

Eucalyptus globulus, and other species of eucalyptus, are indige-
nous to Australia, where the leaves are employed by the natives as
a remedy for intermittent fever. It was thus introduced to Europeans
towards the middle of the nineteenth century. Possibly its employ-
ment by the crew of the ship La Favorite, who in the vicinity of Botany
Bay were nearly decimated by fever, from which they recovered
through the use of an infusion of the leaves of eucalyptus, first gave
the drug conspicuity, through the efforts of Dr. Eydoux and M. de
Salvy. Dr. Ramel, of Valencia, however, has the credit of introducing
the remedy to the Academy of Medicine, 1866, thus bringing the drug
to the attention of the medical profession, by whom it is now used in
extract form, in other directions than that for which it was originally
commended. The distilled oil of eucalyptus has now an extended repu-

tation and use. The date of its first use by the natives of Australia is
unknown.

EUVUONYMUS

Euonymus atropurpureus and Euonymus americanus are prob-
ably collected indiscriminately, both varieties being known by the com-
mon name Wahoo. The bark of the root is the part used. This rem-
edy, in the form of a decoction, was once a favorite in domestic medi-
cation, and was introduced from thence to the regular medical pro-
fession, as were other American remedies of like nature. It occupied

_.,"Dr. John Stearns, the man who introduced Ergot to American practice, was born in
Wilbraham, Massachusetts, May 16, 1770. He graduated from Yale in 1789, studying
medicine with Dr. Erastus Sargeant, of Stockbridge, until 1792. He then attended the
University of Pennsylvania, but probably did not graduate, as im 1793 he began to practice
medicine near Waterford, New York, marrying in 1797 the daughter of Col. Hezekiah
Ketchum. _He became enthusiastic in behalf of medical societies, and was a leading spirit
in the passing of the New York Medical Law, 1806. When the Medical Society of the State
of New York was established, Stearns, being a leading spirit, was elected Secretary, filling
the position for several years. In 1812 the regents of the University at Albany (where
he then resided) conferred on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine. He was
elected President of the Medical Society of New York four times successively, 1817, 1818,
we bgt a In 1819 a ag to New a City, where in 1846 he was a

: organizing the New York Academy o edicine, bei elected th
President. He died of blood poisoning, the result of a wound, oP 1848. —

36

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

a place in all the early domestic works on medicine, and seems to be
alike credited to the American Indians and the early settlers. In Eclec-
tic medication wahoo has been a favorite since the days of Dr. Beach.
Under the names “nine barks” or “seven barks” it has a domestic rec-
ord transplanted to proprietary remedies that use these titles. The
Eclectic “concentration” euonymin has been conspicuous in England,
but has since fallen into disuse. (See Bulletin of the Lloyd Library,
No. XII, The Eclectic Resins, Resinoids, Oleo-Resins, and Concen
trated Principles.)

EUPATORIUM

Eupatorium perfoliatum, boneset, or thoroughwort, is indigenous
to the temperate regions of the Eastern United States, and in the form
of an infusion or tea was very popular with the settlers; being found
in every well-regulated household. As a bitter tonic its uses became
known to the early members of the American medical profession, and
was handed therefrom to physicians of the present day. Its American
history is probably paralleled by the record of this herb in other
countries.

FICUS

The fig tree (Ficus carica) is native to Asia Minor and Syria, ex-
tending into Africa and Oriental countries, the Mediterranean islands,
and elsewhere. It is now cultivated in the temperate countries of the
entire world. The fig tree and its leaves are repeatedly mentioned in
the Scriptures, where they are symbolical of peace and plenty. Charle-
magne, in 812, ordered its cultivation in Central Europe, and in the
reign of Henry VIII fig trees still standing in the garden of Lambeth
Palace were brought to England, though the fig was unquestionably
cultivated in England before that date. The fig has been used from
all times as a food and as a confection, and it is repeatedly mentioned
in the Arabian Nights. Its tri-lobed leaf is synonymous with primitive
religions and has occupied a more or less conspicuous place in symbolic
worships from the earliest date.

FOENICULUM

Fennel (Feeniculum vulgare) is indigenous from the Caspian Sea
to the Greek peninsula and other Mediterranean countries, growing
wild over a large part of Southern Europe, especially in the vicinity
of the sea. It is also cultivated in favorable localities, as in Saxony,
France, and Italy. Charlemagne encouraged its cultivation. Its em-
ployment in Northern Europe has been from all time, as is indicated
by the fact that Anglo-Saxon domestic medical recipes dating from
at least the eleventh century give it a place. The use of the seeds in
domestic medication in the form of infusion as well as its employment
in bread-making is too well established to need more than a mention.

37

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

FRANGULA

Buckthorn, Rhamnus frangula, grows in wet places throughout
Europe, Siberian Asia, and the Northern African Coast. From a very
early date it has been known as a cathartic as well as a coloring agent.
A decoction of the bark has been in domestic use both as a dye for
cotton, wool, and silk fabrics, and as a cathartic, in which (latter) di-
rection it is very effective. No written professional record antedates
its domestic use, and perhaps as a “rheumatic remedy” it has no do-
mestic superior.

GALLA

Oak galls (Quercus infectoria) are mentioned by Theophrastus
(633) and other ancient writers, and they were prescribed by Alex-
ander Trallianus (11) as a remedy in diarrhea. They are derived from
varieties of the oak, Smyrna being one of the export points. In that
city we have seen them in large quantities, in process of sorting for
exportation. As an astringent, galls have long been employed in de-
coctions in domestic practice in the countries where they are obtained
as excrescences on the oak.

GAMBIR

Gambir (or gambier) (Ourouparia gambir) is a shrub native to
the countries bordering the Straits of Malucca, being found also in
Ceylon and India. The dried juice of an Indian tree (Acacia catechu
and Acacia suma) is often confused with gambir, and its extract
(catechu or cutch) is only too often substituted therefor. Gambir has
been obtained from the Orient from the beginning of historical records,
and in those countries, mixed with other substances, seems ever to
have been used as an astringent in domestic medicine. Both gambir
and catechu, as these products are often called indifferently, have ever
been articles of export to China, Arabia, and Persia, but were not
brought into Europe until the seventeenth century. They are simi-
larly astringent, and although the U. S. P., 1900 edition, drops the

word catechu, it is questionable as to whether in commerce a close
distinction is drawn in the product.

GAULTHERIA (THE OIL)

The first record of the therapeutical use of this oil, as is often the
case with valuable medicines, is to be found in empirical medicine.
The proprietary remedy, very popular about the beginning of this
century under the name “Panacea of Swaim,” or “Swaim’s Panacea,”
ie it.

: is remedy gave added impetus to our Compound Syrup of
Sarsaparilla, having become so popular as to force itself to the prices
tion of the profession. The Sarsaparilla Compound of the name “Sirup
or Rob Anti-Syphilitica” was closely associated with Swaim’s Panacea
and Ellis, 1843, after giving the formula of “Sirup Rob Antisyphilitica”

38

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

in his Formulary, p. 67, says: ‘The above preparation has been as-
serted, by the New York Medical Society, to be nearly identical with
the noted Panacea of Swaim.”

That oil of gaultheria was a constituent of Swaim’s remedy and
that it was brought into conspicuity therein, may also be seen from
an analysis of Swaim’s Panacea (by Chilton) recorded in the Am. J.
Med. Sciences, 1829, p. 542. The following reprint from an anony-
mous writer in the American Journal of Pharmacy, 1831, establishes
the subject more clearly in that it gives a very fair description of oil
of gaultheria as well as making a statement to the effect that it is
the same as sweet birch oil, and showing further that many different
plants yield the same oil.

Oil of Gaultheria procumbens:—“This is the heaviest essential oil of which
we have any knowledge, for I have found it to be 1.17. This furnishes us with
an easy mode of testing its purity. The wonderful success of Swaim’s Panacea
has brought this oil into great vogue with all venders of Catholicons, Panaceas,
and Syrups of Sarsaparilla.

It appears to be a vegetable principle secreted in plants very widely sepa-
rated by their natural affinities. The Betula lenta or Sweet Birch secretes it
in its bark; the Polygala paucifolia in its roots; the Spirea ulmaria* the Spirea
lobata and the Gaultheria hispidula in their roots and stalks.

But that oil of wintergreen was used somewhat in domestic medi-
cine about that date, and also by Dr. Wooster Beach, the forerunner
of Eclectic medicine, is evidenced, for Dr. Beach in his American
Practice of Medicine, Vol. III (1833, p. 201), concerning Gaultheria
“Gaulthera’ repens, states that “The oil relieves the tooth ache.”

Antedating this paper, I have not succeeded in finding any refer-
ence whatever to oil of gaultheria being used in medicine, although
the plants that contain it were generally recognized in pharmacy, the
oil being distilled by primitive methods and known to druggists. Thus,
as showing that even if used at all it could not have been important
I need only to refer to a few of the many authorities who would not

have overlooked it.
AMa@NITATES ACADEMIC III, Pp. 14, 1787.
“Gaultheria, Kalm. (385) (Gen. 487)—Usus foliorum in infuso,

loca Theae. Dixit plantam Cl. Kalmius a. D. D. Gaulthier, Medico
Canadensi, Botanico eximio.” No reference to the oil.

Benjy. SmitH Barton. Coriections (43), Erc. PH.ap., 1798, P. 19.

“The Gaultheria procumbens, which we call Mountain Tea, is
spread very extensively over the more barren, mountainous part of the
United States,” etc. Does not mention the oil.

PHARMACOPEIA OF THE Mass. Mepicat, Society (503). Boston,
1808

No mention of the oil or plant.

* Pagenstecher described oil of Spirea uJmaria in the Repertorium f. d. Pharmacie, 1834,
Pp. 337, and is credited by Procter with its discovery. But we have in this paper a reference
that antedates him three years. Still, this anonymous writer is preceded thirteen years by
Dr. Jacob Bigelow, as shown in our history.

39

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

W. P. C. Barton, Mar. Mep. I, Pp. 171, 1817. (43a)

Although he describes the medicinal virtues of Gaultheria in detail,
he does not mention the oil. However, as showing that oil of gaultheria
was distilled preceding 1818 I will cite,

BicELow, AMER. MeEp. Botany (69), II, p. 28. Boston, 1818.
Pyrola umbellata (p. 15) is herein called Wintergreen.

Gaultheria procumbens (Partridge Berry) :—“The aromatic flavor of the
Partridge berry, which can not easily be mistaken by those who have once. tasted
it, may be recognized in a variety of other plants whose botanical habits are
very dissimilar.

“It exists very exactly in some of the other species of the same genus par-
ticularly in Gaultheria hispidula; also in Spirea ulmaria and the root of Spirea
lobata. It is particularly distinct in the bark of sweet birch, Betula lenta, one
of our most useful and interesting trees.

“This taste and odor reside in a volatile oil, which is easily separated by .
distillation. The essential oil of Gaultheria, which is often kept in our drug-
gists’ shops, is of a pale or greenish-white color, and perfectly transparent. It
is one of the heaviest of the volatile oils, and sinks rapidly in water, if a suf-
ficient quantity be added to overcome the repulsion of the two heterogeneous
fluids, Its taste is aromatic, sweet, and highly pungent.

“The oil appears to contain the chief medicinal virtue of the plant, since I
know of no case in which the leaves, deprived of their aroma, have been em-
ployed for any purpose. They are nevertheless considerably astringent, etc.

“The leaves, the essence, and the oil of this plant are kept for use in the
apothecaries’ shops.

‘The oil, though somewhat less pungent than those of peppermint and ori-
ganum, is employed for the same purposes,” etc.

In this connection, as indicating that the oil was unimportant,
perhaps simply an article of curiosity to pharmacists, it may be pointed
out that the American Dispensatory of J. R. Coxe, 1825, mentions oil
of gaultheria, but does not say anything with regard to its value or use
in medicine.

The edition of 1818 does not mention the plant or oil at all,

In studying the pharmacopeial record of this oil, in connection
with its materia medica and dispensatory history the fact becomes
apparent that: oil of gaultheria was made in a primitive way by coun-
try people (as is still largely the case) about the beginning of this
century.

It was introduced into the list of known essential oil-bearing plants
of America in the first (1820) Pharmacopeia, but was not described.
Following this, such works as the American Dispensatories and Amer-
ican Materia Medicas gave the oil a complimentary position, but it
was of no importance until brought forward by the analysis of Swaim’s
Panacea. Not until long after 1820 did any European dispensatory
or pharmacopeia give it position.

Summary: Oil of Gaultheria was distilled for druggists previous
to —— but no public description of the apparatus or method was
printed.

The Pharmacopeia of the United States, 1820, gave the first
authoritative method of making it.

It was prominently introduced to the profession by the New York

40

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Medical Society, 1827, under whose auspices the oil was established
as a characteristic constituent of Swaim’s Panacea, the report being
published in 1829.

We know of no pharmacopeial direction for making oil of gaul-
theria from any source whatever which precedes the first (1820) Phar-
macopeia of the United States, and no reference to its being made from
gaultheria or sweet birch preceding Bigelow, 1818.

Thus it is evident that while the plant gaultheria has the advantage
concerning conspicuity of name, the same date of introduction and
same reference (Bigelow) must be ascribed to both oil of gaultheria
and birch.

Swaim’s Panacea.—The important fact elucidated by the foregoing
history of oil of Gaultheria, to-wit, that it first received recognition
in this once popular remedy, leads to a few words concerning this com-
pound. In the beginning of the present century a French proprietary
remedy “Rob de Laffecteur” was very popular throughout France
and her colonies. It was invented by a French apothecary Boiveau,
who affixed to it the name of Laffecteur to make it popular. In 1811
certain New York physicians used this “Rob de Laffecteur” with suc-
cess and Dr. McNevin, who obtained the formula from a French
chemist, M. Allion, made its composition public.

Mr. Swaim, a bookbinder, was treated by Dr. A. L. Quackinboss
and experienced great benefit from the remedy. Procuring the for-
mula from Dr. Quackinboss, his physician, he modified it considerably
and put the mixture on the market under the name Swaim’s Panacea.
This became very popular and at last attracted the attention of the
medical profession, and by the analysis of Mr. Chilton (1829), under
the auspices of the New York Medical Society, it was positively shown
that Swaim had replaced the sassafras of Quackinboss’ formula by
wintergreen oil and had also introduced corrosive sublimate into the
mixture.

Persons interested in this formula and subject will find detail
reports as follows:

American Journal of Pharmacy, 1827, p. 123.

American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 1829, 4, p. 530.

American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 1829, 5, p. 542.

GELSEMIUM

Common Names.—Yellow jessamine, jessamine, Carolina jessa-
mine, wild woodbine, white poison-vine, white jessamine. :

Gelsemium sempervirens is a native of the Southern United
States, being abundant in the swamps, woods, and thickets, from Vir-
ginia to Florida. It is a handsome climber, twenty to fifty feet in
length, blooming in early spring, its flowers being overpoweringly fra-
erant. The name, given by Jussieu, was made from the Italian word
gelsomino, meaning jasmine. But it is not a jessamine, and inasmuch
as there is a true jessamine with yellow flowers, E. M. Holmes, of
London, considers it unfortunate that the term yellow jessamine has
been applied to it. This common name, however, 1s now firmly es-

4 41

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

tablished. Its Italian name, gelsomino, possibly led Eclectic authors
to use the name gelseminum instead of gelsemium, a term found in
early Eclectic literature and but recently displaced. In this connection
it may be said that Professor Scudder invariably used the word gel-
seminum.*

Medical History.—Barton and his co-laborers did not mention gel-
semium, but Rafinesque (535), 1830, gave it a place, stating that
“root and flowers} are narcotic, their effluvia may cause stupor, tincture
of the root is used for rheumatism in frictions,’ a statement taken
almost literally from Elliott’s (227) Botany of South Carolina and
Georgia, 1821. The medical record (King) (356) had its origin
through the mistake of a servant of a Southern planter who was af-
flicted with fever. This servant by error gave his master a decoction
of gelsemium root instead of the garden plant intended. Immediate
loss of muscular power and great depression followed, all control of
the limbs was lost, the eyelids drooped and could not be voluntarily
opened. Death seemed imminent. But the effects finally wore away
and the man recovered, free from fever, which did not recur. An
' observing physician took this experience as a text and prepared from
gelsemium a remedy which he called the “Electrical febrifuge.” which
attained some popularity. Finally the name of the drug concerned
was given to the profession. ‘This statement is found in the first edi-
tion of King’s American Eclectic Dispensatory, 1852, which work ac-
tually presented gelsemium to the world of medicine, although, as will
be shown later, the plant had a recorded position much earlier. King’s
article on gelsemium was copied in substance by the United States Dis-
pensatory, 1854, none of the preceding nine editions of that work hav-
ing mentioned the drug. But the fact is that Porcher (520) com-
mended gelsemium in his report to the American Medical Association,
1849, and, concerning its restricted local use in gonorrhea and rheu-
matism, referred to Frost’s Elements of Materia Medica ( 250) (South
Carolina) as well as to several local journal articles.

For a long time following 1852 (at which date King’s American ©
Dispensatory appeared) gelsemium remained an almost exclusive rem-
edy of the Eclectic school, but in 1860 it attained a position in the
United States Pharmacopeia, although not until 1880 did that work
give place to any preparation of gelsemium. At present the drug is
in much favor with many physicians of all schools, but is generally
classed as one of the Eclectic remedies, being one of the most important
in Eclectic therapy.

GENTIANA

Gentian (Gentiana lutea) is indigenous to the mountainous parts
of Middle and Southern Europe, being found in the air the
Islands of Sardinia and Corsica, the Alps, and elsewhere. It is not,
however, found in the British Islands. It is mentioned by both Pliny

*In an English botanical work in the Lloyd Library, which I can not now |
Ls st a , locate, a long
~~ ey ge = hel at = words. If memory serves me correctly, the decision

pet A the. statement has been made and possibly established that honey from the flowers of
42

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

(514) and Dioscorides (194), its name being derived from Gentius,
a king of Illyria, B. C. 180. Throughout the Middle Ages gentian
was used as a domestic medicine and to antidote poisons, and in recent
times it has been commended as an antidote or substitute for tobacco.
_ Tragus (650) employed the root A. D. 1552 for the purpose of dilating
wounds.

GERANIUM

Cranesbill, Geranium maculatum, is found native to the lowlands
and open woods throughout the temperate Eastern United States. Be-
ing one of the astringent domestic remedies used in the form of in-
fusion or decoction in diarrhea, dysentery, sore mouth, and similar
diseases, it thus came to the attention of physicians, whose use of it
finally led to its place in the pharmacopeia. In Eclectic medication
geranium is much valued, the drug occupying a well-established position
in all the publications of that school of physicians.

GLYCYRRHIZA

Licorice, the dried rhizome and root of glycyrrhiza, is mentioned
by Oribasius (479a) and Marcellus (404) in the fourth century, and
by Paulus Aégineta (494) in the seventh. It was known in the time
of Dioscorides (194), and was commonly known in Europe during the
Middle Ages. Its price in England, in the day of Henry III, was
equal to that of grains of paradise. It was one of the articles paying
duty to aid in the repairing of London Bridge in the day of Edward I,
1305. Saladinus (570), in the fifteenth century, mentioned it as an
Italian medicine, and it was commonly known in the city of Frankfort
in 1450. Mattioli (414), 1574, states that the juice, in the form of
pastilles, was brought every year from Apulia. Indeed, the record of
this substance is to the effect that it has been an article of domestic
use, as a “sweet wood” for chewing, as a constituent of medic-
inal pastes, and in the form of a common water extract, since the
earliest times. It is found in large quantities in the localities where
it is cultivated, in Sicily, Italy, and Spain, while in moderately recent
years we have seen immense amounts of licorice roots annually col-
lected in the valleys of the Hermes and the Kayster, where probably
it has grown wild from all times.

GOSSYPII CORTEX

Cotton Root Bark, Gossypii radicis cortex, is used as a stimulant
and emmenagogue, the decoction being considered, in the days of
American slavery, capable of producing abortion. It was thus intro-
duced empirically by the Negroes, and came from thence into the hands
of the profession, being first employed by physicians of the Southern
United States. Following this introduction, Wallace Brothers, of
Statesville, S. C., at the request of the writer (Eclectic M edical Journal,
February, 1876, p. 70), forwarded to him a barrel of fresh cotton root
bark, preserved in alcohol. This was made into a fluid extract, and
distributed to American practicing physicians, with a request that the

43

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

results of its use be reported in contrast with the dried bark deemed
by some to be inert. A summary of more than forty reports from prac-
ticing physicians, together with remarks concerning the preparation
of gossypium employed, was read before the Twenty-fourth Annual
Meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 1876. The pa-
per, in full, titled, “Fluid Extract of Gossypium Herbaceum,” was
published in the Eclectic Medical Journal, December, 1876, pp.
537-547. This treatise, together with the increasing demand from
physicians throughout America for pharmaceutical preparations of gos-
sypium root bark, led to its introduction to the Pharmacopeia of the
United States. The credit for the discovery of its uses, as before
stated, must be given to the Negroes of the South.

GRANATUM (POMEGRANATE)

Punica granatum has been in cultivation from the earliest histor-
ical times. It is now found in all warm countries of the world, and
frequently as an ornamental plant in this country and abroad, where
it requires protection during the winter season, as it will not endure
the cold. It is recorded, e. g., that in 1838 the pomegranate trees in
the neighborhood of London were killed by the frost. The form gen-
erally grown as ornament is the double variety, and consequently
barren. The fruit of the pomegranate has been esteemed a delicacy
from the most ancient time, and we often see it offered for sale at our
fruit stands. In the West Indies, where the plant would thrive nat-
urally, it is not extensively cultivated, and the writer of this botanical
history (C. G. Lloyd), who has visited all these islands, does not re-
member to have seen it or its fruit there. Like all cultivated plants,
it is liable to variation, and several of its forms have been considered
distinct species and named by several authors; however, they are all
now considered forms of one species.

The pomegranate shrub, according to De Candolle (122), is orig-
inally a native of Persia and adjacent countries, but has been cultivated
and naturalized in the Mediterranean countries at such an early date
that it has even been considered indigenous to these countries.

Pomegranate was included among the vegetables that were held
sacred by the Assyrians (86) and the Egyptians (688) ; the latter
nation made it a custom to place in the graves of the dead fruits of the
field and garden, among them pomegranates, specimens of which are
preserved to the present day (239). The pomegranate had undoubt-
edly an occult significance with the ancient nations. It was frequently
used as a mystical emblem in adorning the capitals of Assyrian (86,
374) and Egyptian (688) columns, and the Bible (1st Book of Kings
vii, 18, 20) tells us that in the building of Solomon’s temple the capitals
of the columns were decorated with a “network of pomegranates.”
Also (Exodus XXvili, 33, 34) the hem of the high priest’s robe was
adorned with imitations of pomegranates in blue, purple, and scarlet,
alternating with bells of gold. The pomegranate was one of the three
fruits brought to Moses by the men that he sent to spy out the land
of promise (302). Many other passages scattered throughout the

44

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Bible refer to our plant (483), and testify to the esteem in which the
tree and the fruit (then called rimmon) were held in ancient times.
The fruit and seed of the pomegranate are often mentioned in the
“Arabian Nights.”

Pomegranates were represented on Carthaginian and Phenician
medals (422) and on the reverse of the coins of the Island of Rhodes
(688). In Greek mythology the pomegranate is very conspicuous
(307, 191, 241), and symbolizes fecundity and abundance. The fruit
was dedicated to Juno, a deity always represerted in sculptures as hold-
ing a pomegranate (191).

The Greek authors, e. g., Theophrastus (633), describe the pome-
granate under the names of “roa” and “roa side; also Dioscorides
(194), who quite explicitly sets forth the medicinal properties of the
different parts of the plant. Among Roman authors who describe the
pomegranate and its uses are Cato Censorius (132), Pliny (514), Cel-
sts (136), and others. Subsequent writers, for example the Arabians,
in the ninth century, also refer to the pomegranate, but seem to have
mainly reiterated the substance of the writings of their Greek and
Roman predecessors (422). The “Arabian Nights” (88) speaks of
the use of the seed cooked as follows: “Every day I cook five dishes
for dinner, and the like for supper; and yesterday they sought of me
a sixth dish, yellow rice, and a seventh, a mess of cooked pomegranate
seed.” (Adventures of Mercury Ali of Cairo, Vol. vii, p. 185.) Of
the writers of the Middle Ages may be mentioned Tragus (650) and
J. Bauhinus (47), the latter giving a most detailed compilation of that
which was known before his time on the subject of the pomegranate,
- including the myths with which it is connected. It was not until the
present century, however, that the literature of the pomegranate was
enriched by the study of its chemical aspects.

GRINDELIA

Grindelia, robusta, a California plant, is, as found in commerce,
of questionable authenticity, owing to the near relationship of very
similar species of grindelia. It early attracted the attention of the
Jesuit Fathers in their mission stations along the coast, it being used
by the natives before the conquest of the country by the Americans.
Dr. C. A. Canfield, of Monterey, Cal., about 1863, called attention to
grindelia as a remedy in the poison of rhus toxicodendron, its native
use in that direction having become known to him. Mr. James G.
Steele, of San Francisco, 1875, contributed a paper to the American
Pharmaceutical Association commending its use in this direction.
After that time the drug rapidly crept into favor with the profession

of medicine.
GUAIACUM

Guaiacum is a low evergreen tree, native to the West Indies and
Southern Florida. Its earliest importation into Europe was from San
Domingo, as recorded by Oviedo (487), A. D. 1526; but that it was
known in Germany previous to that date is proved by treatises by

45

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Nicolaus Poll (517), 1517; Leonard Schmaus (578), 1516; and Ulrich
von Hutten (332), 1518, by whom it is given a place. Oviedo (487),
who landed in America in 1514, observed the tree, which was called
by the natives Guayacan. This drug, and its resin as well, was used
empirically in domestic (native) medicine before its introduction to
the profession. :

Resin of Guaiacum is a product obtained from slow combustion,
wherein, by a crude method, a horizontal guaiacum log, raised from
the ground, is slowly burned, the resin collecting in grooves that are
cut in the logs. It is used more extensively than is the wood.

GUARANA

Guarana, a dried paste from the crushed seeds of Paullinia cupana,
was introduced into France from South America by a French officer
in 1817, as a product of an unknown plant, this paste being made and
used by the tribe of Indians (Guaranis) from whom it took its name.
In 1826 Martius (409) identified the plant, which is called Paullinia
sorbilis in deference to Simon Paulli (493). In 1840, (Am. Journ.
Pharm., pp. 206-208), Dr. Gavrelle presented a specimen of guarana to
the Paris Society of Medicine, the same being analyzed by M. de
Chastetus, who discovered “a crystallizable matter, which possessed the
chemical properties of caffeine.” In 1888 Professor H. H. Rusby
(564) (Amer. Jour. of Pharm., p. 267) authoritatively described the
manner in which the natives prepared Guarana from the seed, and in
their crude way produced the smoked sausage-like rolls familiar in
commerce. The date of its discovery by the Indian tribes whose prep-
aration and use of the substance as “a stimulating substance” led to its
European notice, is lost to record.

HAEMATOXYLON

Logwood (Hematoxylon campechianum, L.) is the wood of a
tree used throughout the civilized world as a dye stuff, in which direc-
tion we find it is most largely consumed. The tree is native to Central
America, being abundant in Campeachy, Honduras, and other sections
of that country. Fliickiger (239) accepts that the wood was intro-
duced into England in the latter half of the sixteenth century, because
in 1581 its use was abolished by act of Parliament, for the reason that
it was considered a poor substitute for better dyes, and was viewed in
the light of a sophisticant. Eighty years later, probably because a
better study of the drug had rendered its use practicable, logwood was
again permitted to enter England. According to De Laet (368), 1633,
one of the names by which it was commonly known, peachwood, was
derived from the town of Campeachy, whence the wood was exported
in quantities to Europe. The accounts of travelers and sailors at the
time of the great excitement produced by the discovery of the abun-
dant sources of wealth in the new world, almost universally men-
tioned logwood. This is evident from the record found in such

narratives as appear in sailors’ descriptions of ‘their voyages, in Cham-
bers Miscellany, and elsewhere.

46

PHARMACOPC:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

In the form of a decoction of its chips, logwood has been a favorite
in domestic medicine, and owing to its mild astringency it has been
used for a considerable time by licensed physicians. In 1746, under
the name of Lignum tinctile Campechense, it became official in the

London Pharmacopoeia.

HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX ET FOLIA

Witch-hazel, Hamamelis virginiana. The decoction and infusion
of the bark as well as of the leaves of this shrub have been in com-
mon use from the days of the American Indian, whose use of the plant
led the settlers to its employment. They also used the leaves as
well as the pounded bark in the making of a poultice for topical use
in inflammations. ‘These domestic uses of the drug led to its intro-
duction by the medical profession at an early date. A mixture of
hydrastis root and hamamelis leaves was held in high repute by Pro-
fessor John King, M. D. (356), as a wash and as an injection. The
preparation known as distilled hamamelis, or distilled extract of hama-
melis, introduced by Pond about the middle of the nineteenth century,
became very popular and has an increasing demand at the present time,
a substitute or imitation being introduced into the pharmacopceia under
the title “hamamelis water.”

HEDEOMA

American pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegicides, is a fragrant herb,
native to America, and generally distributed throughout the temperate
portions of North America. It was used by the Indians in the form
of decoctions and infusions, and was introduced by them to the settlers,
- coming thence to the attention of the medical profession. Its chief use
at the present time is in the making of the volatile oil distilled there-
from. This plant must not be confused with the pennyroyal of Europe,
a small, aromatic herb, Mentha pulegium, common throughout Europe,
extending northward to Sweden, eastward to Asia Minor and Persia,
and southward to Abyssinia and Arabia. The European pennyroyal,
also a common domestic remedy, has fallen into therapeutic neglect by

the profession.
HUMULUS

Hops (Humulus lupulus) is a climbing vine found in thickets
and along river banks throughout Europe, and extending to and be-
yond the Caucasus and Caspian regions. Introduced into America,
hops have become acclimated, and especially in the Northwest are cul-

tivated in immense quantity. Hop gardens existed in France and Ger-

many in the eighth and ninth centuries, and “Bavarian hops” were
esteemed in the eleventh century. It has been asserted that William
the Conqueror, 1069, granted the use of land for hops in England. The
original use of hops was in decoction as a stomachic medicine, whilst
their employment in the making of malted liquors 1s familiar to all.
As a tonic, the hop is still valued in simple decoction and in extract,
both by the people and the profession of medicine.
: 47

PHARMACOP@GIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

HYDRASTIS

Hydrastis canadensis is native to North America. Once abun-
dant in the thick woodlands of the Central West, in the territory bor-
dering the Ohio River from Illinois to Virginia, it is now in its native
home practically exterminated. Hydrastis is known by the common
names, golden seal, yellow puccoon, yellow root, and other similar ex-
pressive appellations signifying its color or applying to its nature. The
root of this plant, of a rich golden yellow, like its companion, san-
guinaria, which, however, has a red color, was used by the Indians as a
cuticle stain, and also as a dye for their garments. Being exceedingly
bitter, it was also useful in repelling insects, when mixed with grease
and smeared upon the skin, and hence served a double purpose in the
use of primitive man. Its first printed conspicuity came from a paper
read by Mr. Hugh Martin (408) before the American Philosophical
Society, 1782, published in their Transactions, 1793, under the title,
“An account of some of the principal Dyes employed by the North
American Indians.” By reason of its red berry, hydrastis was also
called ground raspberry. Although it had been mentioned in various
medical publications, the drug was held in slight repute, and was of
no commercial importance until the advent of the American Eclectics,
who first prepared its alkaloidal salts for professional use (388a). Its
medical history dates from its use by the Indians, who introduced it
as a native remedy to the earliest botanical explorers, and to settlers.
Its therapeutic qualities were overlooked, however, by Kalm (350),
1772; Cutler (178), 1783; and Schoepf (582), 1785; Barton (43) first
bringing it before the medical profession, 1798. He credits the Chero-
kee Indians for its ascribed uses, and in the third part of his work
(1804) he devotes considerable attention to the drug. Rafinesque
(535) (1828) states that the Indians employed it as a stimulant, and
that the Cherokees used it for cancer, in which direction better reme-
dies were to them known. The principal use of hydrastis by the In-
dians, however, and which afterwards crept into domestic practice,
was as an infusion or wash for skin diseases and for sore or inflamed
eyes. It was also employed as a stimulant for indolent ulcers, and as
an internal tonic. Hydrastis may be considered typical of the drugs
that are employed very extensively by the medical profession, through
their empirical introduction, it being recorded that even for gonorrhea
the Indians discovered its utility.

Early authorities on American medical plants, such as Barton (43)
(1798 and 1804), Hand (298) (House Surgeon, 1820), Rafinesque
(535), Elisha Smith (601) (1830), Kost (361) (1851), Sanborn
(571) (1835), give to hydrastis considerable conspicuity, whilst Dun-
glison’s Medical Dictionary (203) pessimistically (1852) states that in
Kentucky only it is used, and then only as an outward application, for
wounds. (See Drugs and Medicines of North America, Pp. 154-5

[389].)
HYOSCYAMUS

_ Hyoscyamus niger is distributed throughout Eur from
Portugal and Greece to Norway and Finland. It is found’ in the

48

PHARMACOPCZIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Caucasus, Persia, throughout Asia Minor, Northern India, and even
in Siberia. It has been naturalized in North America and Brazil, and
in England is a common weed. Dioscorides (194) mentions it among
medicinal plants, and under the name Henbane it has been employed in
domestic medicine throughout Europe from the remotest times. Anglo-
Saxon works gn medicine in the eleventh century give it a place. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages the seeds and roots were much used. Its re-
employment and introduction to modern regular medicine, after it had
fallen into disuse, came through the efforts of Stérck (617). Its quali-
ties were well known to the Arabians, as is witnessed in numerous ref-
erences thereto in the “Arabian Nights” (88), of which the following
is a sample:

“Presently he filled a cresset with firewood, on which he strewed powdered
henbane, and lighting it, went round about the tent with it till the smoke entered

the nostrils of the guards, and they all fell asleep, drowned by the drug.”
(88) History of Gharib and his Brother Ajib, Vol. VII, p. 7.

Had Herodotus not said tree, it might have been accepted that the
volatile intoxicant mentioned by him referred to this drug. Indeed,
the presumption would not have disturbed an author who made errors
more pronounced than the distinction between an herb and a tree, and
who qualified his statement by “it is said.” However, as shown in our
article on Matico, that plant was originally described as “Soldier’s Herb
or Tree.”

“Moreover it is said that other trees have been discovered by them which
yield fruit of such a kind that when they have assembled together in com-
panies in the same place and lighted a fire, they sit round in a circle and throw
some of it into the fire, and they smell the fruit which is thrown on, as it burns,
and are intoxicated by the scent as the Hellenes are with wine, and when
more of the fruit is thrown on they become more intoxicated, until at last
they rise up to dance and begin to sing.” Herodotus (Macaulay), Book I,
p. 99.

In this connection, through tradition probably, its uses in the same
manner came to popular uses. The grandmother of the writer, afflicted
with asthma, found her greatest relief in smoking stramonium leaves
mixed with small amounts of henbane leaves. This was an heirloom of
primitive medication transplanted to the Western American wilderness.

IPECACUANHA

The beginning of the history of ipecacuanha root and the first
study of its virtues is clouded in mystery and fable. It is stated that
the South American Indians were acquainted with the medicinal prop-
erties of the plant, having gained their experience from observing
the habits of animals (409).* A vague yet probably the first source
of information on the subject of ipecacuanha root is found in a work
published in London in 1625, named “The Pilgrimes,” by Samuel Pur-
chas (527), which in five volumes gives an account of many travels
and the natural history of foreign countries. In Vol. IV, page 1311,

_*This fable has a parallel in the quaint description given by Clusius concerning the

_ discovery of the healing virtues of nux vomica bark in cases of

49

PHARMACOPCGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

where Brazilian plants and their uses are considered, the following
passage occurs:

“Igpecaya or pigaya is profitable for the bloudie fluxe. The stalke
is a quarter long and the roots of another or more, it hath only four
or five leaves, it smelleth much wheresoever it is, but the smell is
strong and terrible.”

The subsequent description of its medicinal virtues bears further
evidence that we have here a plant at least closely related to official
ipecacuanha. According to a printed note at the head of that chapter,
the author is believed to be a Jesuit by the name of Manoel Tristaon .
(651a), who probably wrote the treatise in the year 1601.

The first definite information we have of ipecacuanha dates from
the publication of a work by Piso and Marcgraf (511), called “His-
toria Naturalis Brasilie,” Amsterdam, 1648, chapter Ixiv being en-
titled “De Ipecacuanha ejusque Facultatibus.”” Two species are de-
scribed, a white and a brown species, the latter evidently being the true
ipecacuanha plant. An illustration of the plant is added, which Mérat
considers quite a creditable reproduction of the true ipecacuanha. The
entire chapter was reprinted, with French translation, by Mérat (422),
and inserted in his “Dictionnaire,” as a testimony of the extreme ex-
actness of the description given by Piso (511).

The root first came to Europe in 1672 through the agency of Le
Gras (422), who sought to introduce it into medical practice. Keep-
ing a stock supply in the care of an apothecary by the name of Claque-
nelle in Paris, he associated himself with J. A. Helvetius (309), a
physician of German descent, who had graduated under the medical
Faculty at Reims. However, the venture was at first a failure, owing
to the employment of too large doses.

In 1680 a merchant by the name of Garnier in Paris, well ac-

quainted with the medicinal virtues of the root, sent for a supply, ob-
taining 150 pounds from Spain. Through this gentleman, directly or
indirectly, Helvetius (309) secured a new lot of the drug, which he
skillfully managed to exploit by extensively advertising it as “radix
-anti-dysenterica,” the origin of which, however, he kept a secret.
Finally the fame of the remedy came to the notice of Minister Colbert,
who ordered that the remedy be given an official trial in the Paris
municipal hospital.

In 1688 Helvetius (309) obtained the sole license for the sale of
the drug, which proved to be an efficient, or at least popular, remedy
among the members of an aristocratic patronage, including no less a
personage than the dauphin. King Louis the XIV then bought the se-
cret from Helvetius for one thousand louis d’or, and made the remedv
public property. He was induced to do so by the combined influences
of his physician, Ant. d’Aquin, and of Franc. de Lachaise, confessor to
the king. Garnier, the merchant, however, brought suit in order to
obtain his share of profit in the transaction, but was unsuccessful in
his efforts.

After the use of the drug had thus been established in France, the

‘edy was introduced into other countries, e. g., by Leibnitz (378a)

5°

PHARMACOPCGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

(1696) and Valentini (656b) (1698) into Germany, and 1694 by Fried.
Dekker into Holland.

During the first part of the eighteenth century the drug was in
frequent use in the various pharmacies of Germany, as is evidenced
from its being mentioned in several old documents of that age. It is,
for example, mentioned in the authoritative drug list of the Silesian
town of Strehlen in 1724.

However, during the increasing employment of the drug, in the
latter part of the eighteenth century, much confusion arose as to its
botanical origin, insomuch that it became the habit to designate as ipe-
cacuanha any emetic plant, regardless of its botanical source. A long
list of such plants is enumerated, for example, in Martius (409). In
this manner the characteristics of the plant furnishing true ipecacuanha
root became almost forgotten, other plants being substituted for it.
Ray, for example, held it to be a species of paris, and no less an
authority than Linnzus himself thought viola ipecacuanha now known
as tonidum ipecacuanha (684), to be the true ipecacuanha root.

In 1764, Mutis, a celebrated botanist in Santa Fe de Bogota, sent
the younger Linnzus a Peruvian emetic plant with description, which
he thought was the true ipecacuanha root. Linnzus fil. (385) accepted
the statement of Mutis as correct and, moreover, believing the illus-
tration given by Piso (511) of the true ipecacuanha plant to rep-
resent the specimen he received from Mutis, in 1871 gave it the name
psychotria emetica, Mutis.

To Dr. Gomez (271, 272), who in 1800 returned from Brazil, is
finally due the credit of having corrected this error. He re-established
the nearly forgotten botanical character of true ipecacuanha in his
memoir published at Lisbon in 1801, wherein he describes and figures
the plant, and especially distinguishes it from Psychotria emetica,
Mutis.

Having donated some specimens of the plant in his possession to
his fellow countryman, F. A. Brotero (100), professor of botany,
Coimbra, the latter published an account of it (1802) in the Trans.
Linn. Soc., naming it Callicocca ipecacuanha (100), but without giving
credit to the source of his information, which chagrined Gomez con-
siderably (422). Twelve years later Brotero left a copy of his article
with a botanist by the name of Hectot, of Nantes, who communicated
it to M. Tussac (656a), and the latter, in publishing it, gave it
the name Cephaelis ipecacuanha, also laying stress upon its distinc-
tion from Psychotria emetica, Mutis, perhaps without having had any
knowledge of Gomez’s paper written twelve years before,

In 1820 A. Richard (550) again called attention to this distinc-
tion, but, as it seems, also without giving proper credit to Gomez, with
the result that later authorities frequently quote the true ipecacuanha
root under the name of Cephaelis ipecacuanha, A. Richard.

JALAPA

The purgative tuber known under the common name jalap, Exo-
gonium purga, is a gift of Mexico, and by reason of its cathartic
ae

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

qualities naturally became a favorite in Europe in the days of heroic
medication. The early Spanish voyagers learned of its qualities from
the natives, and in the sixteenth century carried large quantities to
Europe. Monardes (447), in 1565, mentions a cathartic under the name
Mechoacan rhubarb, or root, which some believe to have been jalap,
but this Fliickiger (239) discredits, because Colon, an apothecary of
Lyons, in 1619, states that jalap was then newly brought to France.
Fliickiger also accepts that both drugs were well known in 1610, al-
though often confused. Owing to this confusion between the two
bulbs, one was called black mechoacan, while the other was known as
white jalap. Strangely enough, the exact botanical source of jalap
remained a question until 1829, when Dr. Coxe, of Philadelphia,
author of Coxe’s American Dispensatory, identified the drug from liv-
ing plants sent to him from Mexico, and published descriptions, with
colored plates, in the American Journal of Medical Sciences, 1829.
This celebrated cathartic, so much used by licensed physicians and in
domestic medication, is to be credited to the natives of Central America,
whose employment of the drug introduced it to European commercial
adventurers who, as a matter of business, made it known to the profes-
sions of medicine and pharmacy.

KINO

Kino is the dried juice of a handsome timber tree, Pterocarpus
marsupium, a native of the southern parts of the Indian Peninsula
and Ceylon. It is also obtained from several other trees which par-
take of the qualities of an astringent drug. One of these, Pterocarpus
indicus, is a tree of Southern India, the Malay Peninsula, and the Phil-
ippine Islands. The drug, used by natives from time immemorial, was
introduced into commerce by Fothergill (244), 1757. It came from
the River Gambia, in Western Africa, where it had been previously
noticed by Moore (449), who in his “Travels Into the Inland Parts of
Africa,” 1737, mentioned the product under the name kano. Mungo
Park, 1805, sent specimens of the tree to England, and from that date
African kino has been a regular product of the English drug market.
According to Duncan (202) in the Edinburgh Dispensatory, 1803,
kino as found in England was an African product, but he recognizes
a variety, indistinguishable from this, coming from Jamaica. In the
1811 edition of the same work he asserts that the African drug is
out of market, and that the East India Company now supply the mar-
ket from Jamaica and New South Wales. It is evident that, as with
Krameria, many species and varieties of the tree, native to widely
different sections of the world, produce the substance known as kino,
which, aside from the East India tree, Pterocarpus marsupium, are
accepted as being very nearly identical with the material yielded by
the kino tree of tropical Africa. Kino is obtained by incising the
tree and removing the red jelly as it exudes, then drying it by exposure

to the air. It is mildly astringent, and has been used in the manu-
facture of wine.

52

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

KRAMERIA

The shrub Krameria triandra is native to the bare and sandy
slopes of the Bolivian and Peruvian Cordilleras, growing at from
3,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level. It is often found in great abun-
dance, standing in solid beds scarcely a foot high, and peculiarly at-
tractive by reason of its silver-gray foliage and starlike flowers. The
root of commerce comes from the north and east of Lima, and the
northern part of Peru. The Spanish botanist Hipolito Ruiz (562, 563),
in 1784, observed the native women of Huanuco and Lima using this
drug as a tooth preservative and an astringent. On his return to
Europe, in 1796, he introduced the root into Spain, and from that
country it gradually spread throughout Europe. The first that reached
England, however, was as part of the cargo of a Spanish prize, a part
of which came into the hands of Dr. Reece (540), who recommended
it to the profession, 1806, in his Medicinal and Chirurgical Review,
London. There are other species and kinds of rhatany, one being in-
vestigated by the writer of this article some years ago, as found in
Florida, the qualities of which could scarcely be distinguished from
those of the astringent South American drug. This drug was also
noticed by Dr. E. M. Hall, of Chicago, a well-known Homeeopathic
author. Seemingly the species of rhatany are all of similar nature and
are dependent upon a kindly, astringent, red tannate.

LACTUCARIUM

Several species of lactuca, native to the Old World, yield the
juice which, when dried, is known as Lactucarium, an extract known
also under the name Lettuce Opium. The fact that lettuce eaten
frequently induces drowsiness, was known in ancient times, and its
reputation in this direction led Dr. Coxe (171), of Philadelphia, to
suggest the collecting of the juice, after the manner employed in the
making of opium. His experiments were published in 1799 under the
title “Lettuce Opium.” Since that date others writing on the subject
created quite a demand for the lactucarium thus produced. It will
be seen that the introduction of this substance to medicine came
through usual empirical channels.

LAPPA, (BURDOCK)

This widely distributed plant known under several botanical names,
such as Lappa minor (De Candolle) Lappa major (Gaertner) and
Lappa tomentosa (Lamarck) is now official as Arctium Lappa. The
commercial name Burdock seems, however, so expressive as to have
become an universal appellation, and needs no interpretation.

The root of this plant has been ever used in its native haunts, which
cover much of Africa, Europe, and adjacent lands. Like the honey-
bee it follows civilization, and like the English sparrow craves the
company of man. Its burr journeys with man into all inhabited coun-
tries, and whether or not it be a welcome guest, its broad leaves are

53

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

to be found about every dwelling. As already stated, Burdock has
been used in domestic medicine from time out of date. Several va-
rieties, however, have inherited the common name, such works as
Salmon, 1683 (570a) Samuel Dale, 1737 (179) Quincy, 1749 (532)
Lewis, 1768 (382) Motherby, 1775 (451b) testifying thereto. In all
these it is titled Bardana.

LEPTANDRA

Leptandra, Veronica virginica, grows in rich woodlands through-
out the United States east of the Mississippi River, being found in
abundance wherever it is native to a section and the woodlands have
been undisturbed. The various species are known under many local
names, such as black root, Culver’s root, Brinton root, Bowman root,
physic root, etc., as used by the settlers. They derived their knowledge
of the drug from the American Indians, and designated the plant by
the name of the man who used it in his practice, or from its charac-
teristics. The Delaware Indians called the plant quitel, and the Mis-
souri and Osage tribes knew it as hini. Leptandra was employed in
decoction by settlers and savages alike as a violent purgative, and in
the practice of early physicians of the United States it was used for
bilious fevers. Peter Smith (605), author of the “Indian Doctor’s
Dispensatory,” 1813, states that his father used “‘Culver’s Root’’ to cure
the pleurisy, which it did “with amazing speed.” The use of the drug
was confined to domestic medication until the appearance of the
American Dispensatory (356), 1852, which gave it a general intro-
duction to the profession of medicine. Professor W. Byrd Powell, a
physician of high education, valued leptandra very highly, and it was
upon his strong commendation to Professor John King (356), editor
of the American Dispensatory, that it was there given a position.

LIMONIS, CORTEX ET SUCCUS

The lemon tree, Citrus limonum, is a native of the forests of
Northern India, occurring elsewhere through the adjacent countries.
It has been known from the beginning of written history in its native
land, but its mention in Sanskrit literature occurs in more modern
times, rather than in antiquity. The Arabian writers gave it the name
limun, from the Hindu word limbu, or limu. (See extract from
article of Dr. Rice, to follow.) The lemon was unknown to the early
inhabitants of Greece and Rome, but it was mentioned in the third and
fourth centuries A. D., in the Book of Nabathean Agriculture. In
this connection it may be said that the introduction of the lemon paral-
lels somewhat the record of the orange. The use of the lemon as a
grateful acid in drinks and cordials, as well as the peel of the fruit as
a flavoring material in medicine, seems to have been known to primi-
tive humanity. Possibly the most authoritative dissertation on the
lemon, which embodies the history of the citrus family generally, is that
by Dr. Charles Rice (see Frontispiece to this Bulletin), published in
New Remedies, August, September, and October, 1878. With his

54

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

characteristic thoroughness Dr. Rice gives in the body of his work
and in numerous foot notes a world of information concerning the
derivation of the name of each member of the citrus family used in
commerce, together with the record of its products. From his paper
we quote, as follows:

Lemon is from the Arabic limin and this, by way of the Persian, is re-
lated to the Hindu limu, limbu, or nimbu. Adam already in his Hindi-Kosha,
(Calcutta, 1829), translates the Sanskrit mimbu into Hindi limu. ‘This trans-
lation is no doubt correct, but the Sanskrit has evidently coined or adopted
the word from the North Indian vernaculars. In Cashmeer it is still called
nimbu, ‘There are many names in Sanskrit for the Citrus-fruits, a number of
them standing for lemon. The Madanavinoda (explained on p. 231, New Rem-
edies, August, 1878) (399a) mentions two kinds of nimbu (or nimbika), one
of which is sour, and the other sweet. Another native term is nisbu, according to
the Sabdakalpadruma. The Medievo-Greek is leiménion leméné. The lemon is
first mentioned in the book on Nabathean Agriculture, under the name hasia (see

Meyer, Gesch. d. Bot. III., 68).
Dr. Charles Rice, New Remedies, Sept., 1878.

LINUM

Flaxseed, or linseed (Linum usitatissimum) has been cultivated
from all times in the Old World. From the dropping of its seeds
it may become a weed, and thus is found wild in more or less favored
locations throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the globe.
Flax as a fibrous plant has been utilized throughout the journey of
human civilization. The Egyptian tombs carry paintings illustrating
the weaving of flax into cloth; the grave-clothes of the early Egyptians
were made from flax, its record having been traced back to at least
2300 B. C. The seeds of the plant have ever been employed, both as
a food and as a medicine. All the early historians, such as the Greek
Alcman of the seventh century B. C., Thucydides and Pliny (514),
refer to its qualities as a food, reciting that the seeds were used by
the people, both externally and internally, as medicines. Charlemagne
promoted its growth in Northern Europe. The plant reached Sweden
and Norway from its native land before the twelfth century.

LOBELIA

Lobelia, or Indian tobacco, Lobelia inflata, was conspicuously
introduced by Samuel Thomson (638) in the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. It has been, in domestic medication, in the practice
of the Thomsonians, and also of the Eclectics, one of the most valued
remedial agents of the American flora (388b). Following its empirical
use, the first printed record concerning its emetic properties is that
by the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D. (178), who in the American
Academy of Science, 1785, under the title “Account of Indigenous
Vegetables,” mentions it under the name Emetic Weed. Following
this, Schépf (582), 1787, incorrectly ascribed to it astringent proper-
ties, stating erroneously that it was used in ophthalmia, evidently con-
fusing the properties of Lobelia inflata with those of its relative, Lo-
belia syphilitica. The Indians of North America employed lobelia,

55

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

when necessity required, as a substitute for tobacco. The statement
of Lewis and Clarke (381a), to the effect that the Chippewa Indians
used the root of lobelia, refers evidently to the root of Lobelia syphi-
litica, no record concerning the use of Lobelia inflata by the Indians
being found in such publications as the Book of the Indians, 1837, by
Drake (198). It was not named in Indian Medicine, by Browne (104),
(edited by W. W. Beach, 1877) ; Long’s (393) account of the medi-
cines and practice of the Indians of the West, 1819; Nuttall (477),
who informed Dr. Mattson (415) that he had never known the In-
-dians to use Lobelia inflata; Indian Captivities, though prolific as con-
cerns the customs of the Indians; or the American Herbal, by Samuel
Stearns, M. D. (612), 1772, which ignores Lobelia inflata, though re-
ferring to other species of lobelia. Neither Barton (43) nor Rafi-
nesque (535) mention Lobelia inflata, from personal experience, as
an Indian remedy. Catlin (131a) in his Manners, Customs, and
Condition of the North American Indians, omits the drug. However,
Mattson (415), 1841, in his American Vegetable Practice, states that
“there is abundant traditionary evidence that lobelia was used by the
Penobscot Indians, long before the time of Dr. Samuel Thomson, its
reputed discoverer, but with the exception of that tribe, I have not
been able to discover by any researches I have made that the American
aborigines had any knowledge of its properties or virtues.” Samuei
Thomson (638), whose name is so closely linked with that of lobelia
as never to be dissociated therefrom, says, “It has never occurred to
me that it was of any value in medicine until this time (1793),” and
also, “In the fall of 1807, I introduced lobelia, tinctured in spirit, as
a remedy in asthma.” Mattson (415), however, 1841, insists that
its use by the people of New England was long before Thomson’s
time, reciting that “Mr. Phillip Owen, now eighty years old, relates
that when a boy, he was sent into the field by his mother to collect
some lobelia for a child, sick with quinsy, and that the herb, admin-
istered in the usual manner, afforded speedy and entire relief.” The
publication in which this occurs, dated 1841, shows that lobelia was
a domestic remedy in 1770. Other evidence (see (389) Drugs and
Medicines of North America, pp. 83-89) indicates conclusively that
lobelia was a domestic remedy with the settlers of North America be-
fore the day of the noted empiricist Samuel Thomson, who, however,
gave to it the conspicuity it has enjoyed for over a hundred years. It
is this writer’s opinion that lobelia will yet be shown to be one of
the most valuable of all the remedies native to America, and he be-
lieves it would now occupy that position in “Regular” medication but
for its historical connection with their arch-enemy, Samuel Thomson.

LYCOPODIUM

_From the beginning of recorded time the minute spores of Lyco-
podium (clavatum, and other species), known also to the early bot-
anists as Muscus terrestris, or Muscus clavatus, have been commended
for their therapeutic virtues. This plant, the common club moss, is
found throughout Central and Northern Europe, Russian Asia, even

56

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

to Japan, North and South America, the Falkland Islands, and even
to the Cape of Good Hope, being so widely distributed as to have led,
naturally, to its therapeutic reputation in common life in all parts of
the world. The spores of lycopodium have been used in domestic
therapy as an application to fresh wounds, and have thus a reputation
as an absorbent styptic. Official in pharmacy in the middle of the
seventeenth century, the English druggists seem not to have included
the powder in their list of drugs before 1692, nor has it been official
in any of the London pharmacopeias. Lycopodium is employed in
Homeopathic and Eclectic medication, and in connection with shellac
and earthy salts is also used in large quantity in the making of differ-
ent colored signal fires, as well as those for evening celebrations.

MALTUM

The time of the introduction of malt (Hordeum distichon) ante-
dates the lore of systematic medication. Germinated barley, kiln-dried,
has been employed in the making of malted liquors since a very early
date, and malt liquors have been in domestic use, both as a beverage
and an extract, for a very long period. The introduction of malt into
the pharmacopeia resulted from the empirical use of the semi-pro-
prietary “Extracts of Malt,” which a few years after the middle of the
last century became popular in domestic as well as in professional use.
Its introduction to medicine is, however (as with many other sub-
stances of merit or otherwise), due largely to the efforts of manufac-
turing pharmacists. ,

MANNA

Manna of commerce is supplied by the manna ash, Fraxinus
ornus, of the Southern Tyrol, Italy, Switzerland, Asia Minor, and the
mountainous islands of the Mediterranean and countries adjacent. In
Central Europe it grows as an ornamental tree, the foliage being in
great variation in shape of leaflets, and the fruit diverse in form. Ac-
cording to Fliickiger and Hanbury (240), previous to the fifteenth
century the manna of Europe was imported from the East, and was
not derived from the manna ash. In early days manna was a natural
exudation, much scarcer than at present, and much more expensive,
the increase in the production being now artificially increased and also
marked by a decrease in quality. During the sixteenth century the
plan referred to above was devised of incising the trunk and branches
to produce a more copious supply of the gum, thus largely increasing
the amount of the market supply, although the method was strenu-
ously opposed by legislative enactments. The name Gibelmanna,
manna-mountain, by which an eminence of the Madonia range of
mountains in Sicily is known, indicates that this mountain furnished
manna during the days of the Saracens in Sicily. Manna has been
used as a domestic remedy from all time as a gentle laxative, and, as
mentioned in our article on Spigelia, is supposed, in domestic medicine
in this country, to modify the griping qualities of a mixture of senna

M =¥g

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

and jalap. Its domestic use in America came through European home
medication.

Professor Fliickiger (see Preface) arranged with this writer to
give unitedly the record of the American drugs and plants. One sub-
stance considered was “American Manna,” the article being printed
in the Am. Journ. Pharm., 1897, pp. I to Io.

MARRUBIUM

Horehound, Marrubium vulgare, is indigenous to Europe, but
has been naturalized in America, where it is now very common. Its
use as a bitter decoction led to its early introduction into domestic
medicine, as well as to its popular use as a bitter flavor in candy. Prob-
ably the well-known horehound candy may be cited as a domestic
medicine that has become popular as a confection. The date of the
use of horehound as a sweetened domestic tea must have been very
early in the records of European home medication.

MASTICHE

Mastic, Pistacia lentiscus, is an evergreen shrub, native to the
Mediterranean shores, from Syria to Spain, being found also on the
adjacent islands as far as the Canaries. The collection of mastic,
however, is localized to the northern part of the Island of Scio, where
from all time the tree has been known, exuding most abundantly the
resinous tar that, when dried, is known as mastic. The origin of its
use is lost in antiquity. Theophrastus (633), fourth century B. C.,
mentions it, and both Dioscorides (194) and Pliny (514) refer to it,
in connection with the Island of Scio, or Chios. The writer of this
article made a study of mastic during a journey to the Orient, but
as yet has not published the paper. By distiliation with alcohol, mastic
produces a drink, this also being described in the paper in preparation,
the drink being probably of great antiquity, and known to the Greeks
and Romans. The use of mastic in medicine followed its empirical
employment as a breath sweetener (it being sold in all Oriental bazaars
for this purpose) and as a flavor for cordials and other drinks. Per-
haps the first record of its authoritative employment in medicine is
about the thirteenth century, by the Welsh “Meddygon Myddfai”
(507) (see Note, p. 1), as an ingredient of ointments.

MATICO

Matico, Piper angustifolium, is a shrub native to Bolivia, Peru,
Brazil, Venezuela, and other South American countries. Its qualities
are said to have been discovered by a Spanish soldier named Matico,
the legend being that he applied some of the leaves to a wound, and
observed that the bleeding was thereby stopped. This legend, current
in South America, gave to the shrub the name soldier’s herb, or tree.
(See Stramonium.) It is probable, however, that he learned of its
native use by the Indians. In the beginning of the nineteenth century
matico came to the attention of the profession of medicine in North

58

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

America and in Europe, being conspicuously introduced by Jeffreys
(340), a physician of Liverpool, who commended it, 1839, as a styp-
tic and astringent. The introduction of the drug must, however, be
considered as empirical, through the infusion of the leaves used by
the soldier.

MATRICARIA

Matricaria chamomilla, German chamomile, is the cultivated
form of Chrysanthemum parthenium, being cultivated for domestic
use, in which it is distinguished from the Anthemis nobilis, or Roman
chamomile. It has been in domestic use so long as to have made it
familiar to all German housewives, and considerable demand has been
created for it in sections of America where Germans have settled. It
is a home remedy of antiquity.

MEL

Honey is a saccharine substance, generally collected by the honey
bee, Apis mellifera, from the nectariferous glands of flowers and de-
posited in the comb by the insect when it reaches its hive. It is fa-
miliar to all civilized peoples as well as to the natives of many sections
of the world. In some parts of the tropics wild honey is an article of
importance. Crude honey comb was observed by us as one of the
articles of export from Aden, Arabia, coming there by caravan from
the interior of Arabia, as well as being brought from Somali Land,
Africa. The domestic record of honey is lost in antiquity, it being
mentioned in many early works, including the Bible, both New and
Old Testaments, and such Oriental works as the “Arabian Nights”
(88). In the making of confectionery and in domestic empirical
medicine, honey has of course been a constant and a natural sweetener.
Certain kinds of honey, such as the honey made from the opium poppy
(“mad honey,” 388c), or from the flowers of the wild jasmine, possess
more or less narcotic action, which quality has never yet been inten-
tionally utilized in medicine. Such compounds as honey of rose, honey
of borax, and the like, came from the domestic use of honey; such
confections preceded its use by licensed or orthodox physicians. “Zar-
dah (yellow rice) is a word still used in Turkey, and refers to a dish
of rice dressed in honey and saffron.” Burton.

MENTHA PIPERITA

Peppermint is found throughout North America as well as Eng-
land and the Continent. As described by Ray (536), the clergyman
botanist, in his Historia Plantarum, 1704, it is called “Mentha palustris
—Peper-Mint,’ and is recommended by him as a remedy for weak-
ness of the stomach and for diarrhea. Its cultivation was extensive
in some parts of England as early as 1750, the herb being carried to
London for distillation and the making of the oil. Peppermint is a
favorite domestic herb used in decoction as a stimulant and also as a
flavor. Fresh mint is employed to flavor a popular Kentucky alcoholic

59

PHARMACOPCGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

beverage made of whisky, known as mint julep. This should be made
by inverting in the sweetened diluted whisky a small bunch of young
mint sprouts, thus getting the delicate aroma of the leaves, but not the
bitterness of the broken stems.

MENTHA VIRIDIS

Spearmint is common throughout Europe, Asia, and North Amer-
ica, and, escaping from cultivation, is found wild throughout most of
the temperate regions of the world. Parkinson, 1640, speaks of it as
a garden plant only (492), and its mention in early medizeval lists of
plants demonstrates that it was cultivated in the convent gardens of
the ninth century. Turner’s Herball (656), 1568, calls it Spere Mynte.
Its use is largely that of a domestic and popular flavor in confectionery
and as a perfume. In the form of an aromatic tea it has been a great
favorite in domestic medicine, as is true also of its harsher relative,
peppermint.

MEZEREUM

Daphne mezereum is an acrid shrub familiar to persons con-
versant with domestic medicine in medieval English times, being em-
ployed by the herbalists, and also, somewhat, by the medical profession
of that day. It was recognized in Culpeper (175) as an acrid sub-
stance, generally applied externally, although it was given internally
in dropsy and some other affections, about a dram of the dried bark
of the tree being mixed with three parts of water, and taken inter-
nally. Hooper (325) in his Medical Dictionary states that a prevailing
method of preparation was to macerate thin slices of the bark of the
fresh root in vinegar and apply it externally. In Stephenson and
Churchill’s Medical Botany (614a) a Mr. Pierson serves as authority
for a Dr. Russel, who, as did Mr. Pierson, reviewed the uses of the
drug as a substitute for mercury and as an application in scrofulous
and cutaneous affections, but with decided opposition to its use, on ac-
count of its — acridity, a refreshing innovation in former or-
thodox medication. This imported, disagreeable drug crept into the
United States Pharmacopeia and American practice by reason of the
fact that it was made a constituent of the Compound Syrup of Sarsa-
parilla.

MOSCHUS

Musk, Moschus moschiferus, was described by Aétius (6), who
lived about the middle of the sixth century A. D. Benjamin de Tudela
(55a), who traveled through the East about 1160-1 173 A.D., also
mentions musk, stating that its native home is in Thibet. Its sale in
Egypt was mentioned by Leo Africanus (378b), 1526. Its introduc-
tion to medicine, however, came at a much earlier period, its employ-
ment in that direction following the commendation of Aétius (6). Its
therapeutic use was due to its introduction from the Arabians. Taver-
nier (1676), asserted (627) by Eugene Rimmel (552) to be the first
European traveler to mention this drug, reports that he bought 7,673

60

PHARMACOPCGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

pods of the musk-deer, indicating its abundance at that date. The use
of musk as a perfume antedates European record, whilst its introduc-
tion as a stimulant has no record of its origin. This writer learned
during his services in prescription pharmacies that when tincture of
musk was prescribed, the patient was expected to die.

MYRISTICA

The tree yielding nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to New
Guinea and islands of the Malay Archipelago, from whence it has
been introduced to Sumatra, Brazil, the West Indies, and other coun-
tries favorable to its cultivation. It has been asserted that the nutmeg
was not known to the ancients, but von Martius (409), Flora Brasili-
ensis, 1860, contends that it was mentioned in the “Comedies of
Plautus,” about two centuries B. C. The nutmeg has been an article
of import and export from Aden since the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury, and by the end of that century both nutmeg and mace had
reached Northern Europe. This spice came naturally into domestic
culinary use, it being classed with mace, cloves, calamus, etc. Its
use in legalized medicine, also, has been chiefly in the direction of a
flavor to other substances, and followed similar empirical preparations.

MYRRHA

Myrrh, a gum-resin from Commiphora myrrha, has been a con-
stituent of incense, perfume, and such, in ceremonial religious life, as
well as an article employed by the common people from the days of
the most remote antiquity. It was one of the rare and precious gum-
resins in the days of the Bible, being mentioned in connection with
such substances as frankincense and olibanum. That it was highly
valued in the days of Solomon is evident from the fact that it is men-
tioned conspicuously in connection with the gifts brought by the
Queen of Sheba to that monarch. It is yet obtained from Arabia, the
present writer finding it in the bazaars of Aden (and adjacent Arab
bazaars), a city that had an existence as a port of export for Oriental
products in very early days. Theophrastus (633), Pliny (514), and
other early writers mention this drug, which from all times has been
valued in domestic medicine for its aromatic qualities, and as a constitu-
ent of incense in religious ceremonies. In Herodotus (Macaulay,
Book II, p. 153) it is named as one of the substances used by the Egyp-
tians in embalming the dead.

“First with a crooked iron they draw out the brains through the nostrils,
extracting it partly thus and partly by pouring in drugs; and after this with
a sharp stone of Ethiopia they make a cut along the side and take out the
whole contents of the belly, and when they have cleared out the cavity and
cleansed it with palm-wine they cleanse it again with spices pounded up; then
they fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded up and with cassia and other spices
except frankincense, and sew it together again.”

61

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

NUX VOMICA

This drug is the fruit of a tree (Strychnos nux-vomica) indig-
enous to most parts of India, especially the coast districts, and is
thought to have been introduced into medicine by the Arabians. The
natives of India did not, however, value it, probably because of its ex-
ceedingly energetic nature. Although the Hindoos of the present time
employ it extensively, it is probable that they were not acquainted with
it before its introduction into Germany, in the sixteenth century. Its
European employment was originally as a drug-shop poison, for the
purpose of killing animals and destructive birds, such as crows; it
was not until after the days of Parkinson (492), 1640, that its employ-
ment in medicine began. The Pharmacopeia values nux preparations
by the amount of strychnine present, the Eclectics by quality, strych-
nine being subordinated so as not to dominate the product unduly.

OPIUM

The discovery of the medical qualities of opium is lost in times
gone by. Theophrastus (633), the third century B. C., mentions it.
The poppy producing opium is (from a remote period) native to Asia
Minor and Central Asia. The early use of the decoction of the poppy
head, as well as the early use of opium, the product of the poppy, Papa-
ver somniferum, antedates, as has been said, professional medication
and crept into home use as well as professional use at a very early
period. The Welsh physicians of the seventeenth century used a wine
of poppy heads to produce sleep, and prepared pills from the juice of
the poppy. Syrup of poppy was given a position in the first pharma-
copeia, of the London College, 1618. Dioscorides (194) distinguishes
between the juice of the poppy capsule, and an extract from the entire
plant. Inasmuch as he describes how the capsule should be incised
and the juice collected, it is evident that he plainly refers to opium.
Pliny (514) also devotes considerable space to this drug. Celsus
(136), in the first century, mentions it, and during the period of the
Roman Empire it was known as a product of Asia Minor. It is sup-
posed that the prohibition of wine by Mohammed led to the spreading
of the use of opium in some parts of Asia, the drug being then an
import from Aden or Cambay. The Mohammedans introduced opium
into India, it being first mentioned as a product of that country by
Barbosa (39), who visited Calicut in 1511, its port of export then
being Aden or Cambay. The German traveler Kampfer (349), who
visited Persia in 1685, describes the various kinds of opium then pro-
duced, stating that it was customary to mix the drug with various
aromatics, such as nutmeg, cardamon, cinnamon, and mace, and even
with ambergris. It was also sometimes colored red with cannabis in-
dica, and was sometimes mixed with the strongly narcotic seeds of
stramonium. This writer could find no instance of the Turkish people
of the present using opium in any form (388c). A description in
brief detail only of the many kinds of opium and the different qualities
of opium, as well as its sophisticants and adulterants, is herein un-

: 62

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

necessary. It may be briefly stated that this insidiously active drug
came to the attention of the profession of medicine through its well-
known qualities, as established by the people of its native land. Much
the writer recorded concerning opium and its culture as noted in his
travels in Turkey, is to be found in Lloyd Brothers’ Drug Treatise
No. XXII, “Opium and Its Compounds.”

PAREIRA

Pareira brava (Chondrodendron tomentosum) is a climbing
shrub, native to Peru and Brazil, and adjacent sections of South
America. The Portuguese missionaries of the seventeenth century
who visited Brazil learned of its reputed qualities from the natives,
who under the name abutua or butua valued it highly for its thera-
peutic virtues. The Portuguese gave it the name Pareira brava, or
wild vine, with reference to its mode of growth. Its reputed medicinal
qualities, learned from the natives, were made conspicuous by Michel
Amelot, ambassador of Louis XIV to Lisbon, who found it in that
city and carried it with him to Paris. The botanist Pomet (519),
1694, described the plant in his “History of Drugs,” Paris. After an
eventful botanical record embracing considerable discussion as well
as confusion with some other drugs, during which Pareira brava en-
joyed professional conspicuity in Europe, it dropped from general
use, the extraordinary pretensions long made for it being now prac-

tically forgotten.
PEPO

The seed of the pumpkin, Cucurbita pepo, in the form of an in-
fusion as well as in a pulpy mass, has been long a favorite home
remedy for intestinal parasites, which use introduced it to the medical
profession. Although the medical profession has used pumpkin seed
somewhat in this direction, as a rule they now prefer other remedial
agents, santonin being employed for round worms and pomegranate

bark for tape worms.
PHYSOSTIGMA

Physostigma, Calabar bean (Physostigma venenosum), is the
fruit of an African vine growing near the mouths of the Niger and
the Old Calabar Rivers, Guinea, where it furnished one of the ordeal
tests of the pagan tribes of tropical Western Africa. The seed is
therefore known as the “Ordeal Bean,” and was administered in the
form of either an emulsion or infusion, as the case might be. It was
introduced to England by Dr. F. W. Daniel (182), about 1840, its
method of use being again mentioned by him in a paper read before
the Ethnological Society, 1846. Professor Balfour (36), of Edin-
burgh, obtained the plant from the Rev. W. C. Thompson, a missionary
to the west coast of Africa, and described it in a paper read before
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, including it also in his “History of
Plants.” Its power of contracting the pupil of the eye was discovered
by Dr. T. R. Fraser (246) of Edinburgh. Its power of paralyzing the

; be

PHARMACOPG:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

action of the heart, was indicated through its native employment as
an ordeal poison.

PHYTOLACCA

Poke root, Phytolacca decandra, is a handsome plant found
throughout the temperate regions of North America, east of the Miss-
issippi River, thriving in rich bottom lands, fence corners, and woody
pastures. The American Indians used it, powdered to a pulp, as a
poultice. The early American settlers applied it in like manner as
a poultice to inflammatory conditions of the cow’s udder, in the dis-
ease known as garget, a circumstance which has given to the plant
one of its common names, garget plant. Phytolacca crept thence
into more extensive use in domestic medicine, a tincture of the same
being next employed. Following this came its introduction into the
“licensed” profession. In domestic medication the drug was employed
from the date of the early settlers, and in the practice of Eclecticism
it has ever been a valued remedy. To cite American references to this
drug would be to name all the publications of the liberal authors con-
nected with medicines.

PILOCARPUS

Pilocarpus jaborandi is a shrub native to Eastern Brazil, where
Piso (511), of Holland, 1643, first mentions its use as a modifier of
the infusion of ipecac. Plumier, 1693, also (515) refers to the mix-
ture, describing two varieties of jaborandi. Its conspicuous introduc-
tion to medicine occurred in 1874, when Dr. Coutinho (170), of Per-
nambuco, from observing its native uses, made its qualities as a sialo-
gogue known to the medical world. The plant has been cultivated in
European greenhouses since the middle of the last century, but no
“scientific” observer gave it the honor of a thought in therapeutic di-
rections.

PIMENTA

Allspice (Pimenta officinalis) is the berry of a tree native to
Jamaica and other West India islands, where it was found in use as
a spice by the explorers in the days of the enthusiasm of the new world
discovery. It was probably this substance that Garret, a druggist of
London, 1601, gave to Clusius (153), who described it in his Liber
Exoticorum. According to Parkinson’s (492) Theatrum Botanicum,
1567, it was imported into England soon after the beginning of that
century, under the name round cardamom. It has received many dif-
ferent names in its passage through various countries. Its chief use
= as Ay spice, but a distilled water made therefrom has also been em-
ployed.

PIPER
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial, climbing shrub na-
tive to the forests of Malabar and Travancore, whence it was intro-
duced to other tropical countries, such as Sumatra, the Philippines,
West Indies, and the Malay Peninsula. It has been used as a spice

64

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

and as a stomachic remedy by the natives of the afore-named and other
countries since the date of the discovery of the remedy, and probably
from all time preceding. Pepper was mentioned by Theophrastus
(633), who described two kinds. Dioscorides (194) and Pliny (514)
both give it a place in their writings. As early as 64 A. D. it was
mentioned as occurring on the Malabar Coast. The Romans at Alex-
andria, A. D. 176, levied on it a duty. The Arabian authors of the
Middle Ages, twelfth and fourteenth centuries, described it fairly. In
the European countries of the Middle Ages pepper was considered
the most important of all spices, being the foundation of much of the
wealth of Venice and Genoa during their greatest commercial activity.
It has been used as a medium of exchange when money was scarce,
and when Rome was besieged by the Goths the ransom included three
thousand pounds of pepper. In fact the value placed upon pepper in
the records of the past is in itself an indication of its importance to
the people who used it.

PODOPHYLLUM

This handsome plant, Podophyllum peltatum, known also as man-
drake, or may apple, is one of the most attractive features of the early
spring in North America, resisting with remarkable efficiency the ag-
gressive inroads of the agriculturist. It was used by the North Ameri-
can Indians, the Cherokees employing the fresh juice of the root for
deafness, and the Wyandottes made a drastic cathartic, from which the
drug’s harsher qualities were removed by roasting. The once cele-
brated “Indian doctors,” Peter Smith (605) and others, employed the
root as an escharotic, in which direction it came into early veterinary
practice. The early American physicians and writers on medicine
praised its qualities as a purgative, its active cathartic nature having
been known, as has been said, from the days of the Indians. The
vegetable substitute for the once popular antimonial plaster used so
freely by “Regular” physicians was the Compound Tar Plaster of the
Eclectics. This contained podophyllum, phytolacca, and sanguinaria.

PRUNUM

The cultivated varieties of the prune tree (prunus or prunes) are
believed to descend from a wild prune native to Greece, the shores of
the Black Sea, and the Caucasus, reaching even into Persia. Pliny
(514) records the fact that one of the numerous varieties of the plum
tree known in his day afforded a laxative fruit. The pulp of the
prune has been used in domestic medicine as well as by the medical
profession, parallelling (or following) the efforts of those concerned
in early medication. The pulp of the French prune was an ingredient
of the once celebrated Lenitive Electuary. History does not record
the beginning of the use of this fruit in the confections formerly so

popular in domestic medicine.

65

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

PRUNUS VIRGINIANA

The Prunus virginiana (wild black cherry), found throughout
the eastern parts of the United States, has been widely used in do-
mestic medicine since the days of the Indian, being perhaps more
highly valued in this direction than by members of the profession, al-
though it has been recognized in the Pharmacopeia since the first edi-
tion of this work, 1820. No more popular bark of a native tree, ex-
cepting sassafras, is known to home medication. It has a place in all
works on early American domestic medication.

PYRETHRUM

Pellitory, or Spanish chamomile (Anacyclus pyrethrum), is a
widely-distributed plant known in different countries under different
names. According to Pliny (514) it was the herb used by the Magians
under the name parthenium against intermittent fevers, and according
to Dioscorides (194) it is the plant that, under the name anthemis,
was used in the same manner. It is mentioned in the “Arabian Nights”
(88) under the name wkhowan. It is found throughout European
Turkey, and according to Forskal southward to the mountains of
Yemen, where it is called meniat. According to De Candolle (122)
its introduction into Britain was perhaps before the coming of the Ro-
mans. The European colonists carried it, according to Josselyn (345)
to Northeast America before 1669, where it is to be found both under
cultivation and, having escaped therefrom, as a wild plant. Once a
popular remedy in agues, its use is now practically discontinued, even
in domestic medicine. Physicians as a rule neglect it, but it is em-
ployed by them in a few exceptional instances.

QUASSIA

Quassia amara takes its name from a slave of Surinam, named
Quassi (see article Quassia Amara, J. U. Lloyd, Western Druggist,
Chicago, Jan., 1897), who used the plant as a secret remedy, with great
success, in the treatment of malignant fevers common to his locality
and climate. Daniel Rolander, a Swede, became interested in the drug,
and “in consequence of a valuable consideration” purchased from the
slave Quassi a knowledge of the drug composing his remedy. Ro-
lander returned to Stockholm in 1756, when he introduced the drug to”
Europe. In 1760 (or according to another reference, 1761) Carol.
Gust. Dahlberg, an officer of the Dutch army and an eminent botanist,
a pupil of Linnzus (385), returned to Sweden from Surinam, where
he too had become acquainted with the slave Quassi, and through kind-
ness to him had so gained his affection that he revealed not only the
composition of his secret remedy, but even showed to him the tree
from which the drug was derived. Dahlberg procured specimens of
the root, flowers, and leaves of the tree, preserving them in alcohol,
and presented them to Linnzeus, who named the wood Lignum quassie,
in honor of the slave, and established a new genus for the plant, which

66

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

he named Quassia amara. The drug was brought to the notice of the
medical profession by Linnzus’ lectures on materia medica, as well
as through a dissertation written under his direction, in 1763 (385), by
one of his pupils, Carolus M. Blom. Be it known, however, that
more than a little questioning exists as to the exact plant employed by
the slave Quassi. As pointed out by Dr. Wright, the leaves pictured
in the Linnzan Dissertation belonged to another species than the
Quassia amara, an error corrected by the younger Linnzus.

In this connection it may be stated that Philippe Fermin, a French
physician and traveler in Surinam, spelled the name of the slave Coissi,
questioning somewhat the fact of his having discovered the uses of
the remedy, which Fermin states had been used in Surinam as early
as 1714. In this connection it may be noted that, according to Murray,
a spice dealer of Amsterdam, Albert Seba, is said to have had in his
collection a specimen of a bark of a tree named quasci as early as 1730.
Be this as it may, the drug known as quassia under the empirical in-
troduction given by the natives of Dutch Guiana became known to
European civilization, and in 1788 became official in the London Phar-
macopeia. Concerning the origin of the drug, the German Pharmaco-
peia, 1872, demanded that it be the wood of Quassia amara. In the
second edition, 1882, the Picrena excelsa was admitted concurrently
therewith, the latter being the official quassia of the present Pharma-
copeia of the United States.

QUERCUS

The bark of the oak, Quercus alba, is strongly astringent and
has ever been used in domestic medicine where an astringent material
is applicable, as for example, in dysentery, hemorrhages, etc. In the
form of a poultice, a decoction, and as a tincture it has a domestic rec-
ord, probably in common with other species of oak in all countries.
The medical profession has added little, if anything, to the domestic
uses of the drug, as recorded by Rafinesque (535), Porcher (520),
Cutler (178), and the early American dispensatories and works on

materia medica.
QUILLAJA

Soapbark, Quillaja saponaria, named by Molina (444), in 1782,
in his “History of Chili,” is the bark of a South American tree, having
similar qualities to other soap weeds or barks, derived from various
plants and trees, and used by the natives of different countries as a
substitute for soap, or rather as a material for purposes similar to those
of soap. Among the first contributions to the literature of saponaria
is that of Henry, Jr., and Boutron Charlard, Amer. Jour. of Pharm.,
1841, xii, p. 209, in which the now well-known acrid, frothing qualities
of the drug are mentioned, the statement being that the name originated
from the Chilean term quilloan, meaning, to wash. In the American
Medical Intelligencer, Sept. 15, 1840, Dr. Ruschenberger, of the United
States Navy (Am. Jour. Phar., 1841, p. 211), contributes an article
on this bark, which, according to his observations in Chili, 1827, was

67

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

used principally for cleansing purposes. Dr. Ruschenberger returned
from Chili in 1829 with specimens of the bark, stating that as late
as 1833 the extract had not been used in Valparaiso, although in 1835
Dr. J. Stiles, of Valparaiso, is authority for the statement that at that
(1835) date the extract had been made in that city, and was being
used experimentally. The natives of South America employ an in-
fusion of the drug as a wash, which led Dr. Ruschenberger to say,
“From what I have seen of the effects of this cold infusion, I should
be disposed to give it a fair trial as an injection in leucorrhea, with
the expectation of very favorable results.” The nature of quillaia, so
nearly. resembling the qualities of senega, led to the expectation that
it would parallel that drug in its remedial qualities in the direction
of coughs and pulmonary affections. It has not, however, become a
favorite other than as a producer of suds and as a frother for syrups,
in which direction the extract has been employed in the making of
the popular American beverage, the so-called soda-water, which use
the Government has now wisely prohibited.

RESINA, See TEREBINTHINA

RHAMNUS. (RHAMNUS PURSHIANA, U. S. P.)

Rhamnus catharticus (Buckthorn) is of wide distribution, pre-
vailing over Northern Africa, most of Europe, the Caucasus, and into
Siberia. In some instances it becomes almost a small tree, Fluckiger
having a specimen 8 inches in diameter. It was known as a laxative
before the Norman Conquest, being called Waythorn or Hartshorn.
The Welsh physicians of the 13th century ( 507) prescribed the berries,
under the name Syrup of Buckthorn, a title which, recognized by all
writers on domestic or official medicine, still prevails. In the London
Pharmacopeia, 1650, this syrup, aromatized, became official.

The official drug of the Pharmacopeia (Rhamnus purshiana) is
not only related botanically to the above, but is therapeutically
similar, being laxative in small doses and cathartic in large doses.
The tree (Rhamnus purshiana) is distributed over the mountain ranges
of the Western Pacific States, being most abundant in California and
Oregon. Possibly collectors do not distinguish between this species
and Rhamnus californica. To the settlers of that region it has long
been known as Chittim wood, an infusion of the bark being used as a
cathartic.

Dr. J. H. Bundy, an Eclectic physician of Colusa, California, im- _
pressed with its value, brought the bark, under the name Cascara Sa-
grada, to the attention of Parke, Davis & Co., of Detroit, Michigan.
This energetic firm introduced it in 1877, through the columns of their
publication, New Preparations, (1877 and 1878).

The remedy became a great favorite, and within a reasonable
period was in demand throughout the civilized world, becoming of-
ficial in the Pharmacopeia of the United States, 1890.

68

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

The remarkable record of this drug has been a subject of many
contributions to botanical and therapeutical literature, much of interest
even now remaining unwritten. To this writer its journey from the
aborigines to scientific use and therapeutic study appears to parallel the
course of such drugs as coca, jalap, benzoin, sassafras, croton tig-
lium, etc.

Summary.—To Dr. J. H. Bundy, Colusa, California, 1877, is due
the credit of introducing the bark of Rhamnus Purshiana (Cascara
Sagrada) to the medical profession.

To “New Preparations,” Parke, Davis & Co., of Detroit, Michigan,
(1877 and 1878) is due the credit of bringing the drug to the attention
of physicians and pharmacists. The firm of Parke, Davis & Co. in-
troduced to the world the preparations of this drug, of which they
were, for some years, the sole manufacturers.

A descriptive treatise that will record some unwritten phases of
its dramatic history, familiar only to those concerned in its intro-
duction, should not be lost to posterity. The following, contributed
by this writer to the Research Committee of the American Pharma-
ceutical Association (vol. 44, 1896) is a brief summary.

HISTORY AND NAMES OF RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.
(CASCARA SAGRADA)

By J. U. Luoyp.

Contribution to the Research Committee of the American Pharma-
ceutical Association.*

In a paper contributed to “New Preparations,”+ October 15, 1877,
p. 8, the late Dr. J. H. Bundy, an Eclectic physician of Colusa, Cali-
fornia, commended “Cascara Sagrada” as a valuable remedy in the
treatment of constipation. This notice was by means of a brief note
that was part of a paper on Berberis aquifolium, Dr. Bundy promis-
ing, however, to give it further attention, as follows:

“Tt is not my purpose to treat on Cascara Sagrada in this paper,
but using it in connection with the Berberis, I simply make mention
of it. In the future I will introduce the drug to the profession.”

This, so far as the writer can determine, was the first reference
concerning this remedy in pharmaceutical or medical print. Agreeably
to promise, in January, 1878, Dr. Bundy contributed a paper on the
subject, “Cascara Sagrada,” in which he gave the uses of fluid extract
of “Cascara Sagrada.” Following this came many papers from Dr.
Bundy and other physicians, twenty contributions on the subject being
printed in “New Preparations,” 1878, to which journal, with few ex-
ceptions, the subject was confined during 1877 and 1878. Dr. Bundy
stated in his paper (1878) “A description of the Cascara I am unable
to give at this time, but suffice it to say that it is a shrub, and in

#Introductory to a contribution from chemical investigations of Rhamnus Purshiana, under-
taken by Alfred R. L. Dohme. E
ew Preparations, Detroit, Parke, Davis & Co.
tN ew Preparations, January, 1878, p. 1.
69

PHARMACOPG:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

due time its botanical name will be known.” He neglected, however,
to concern himself further in the matter.

In the fall of 1878, Dr. C. H. Adair, of Colusa, California, a
partner of Dr. Bundy, sent the writer specimens of the bark and bo-
tanical specimens of the tree yielding it. These, on identification by
Mr. Curtis G. Lloyd, proved to be Rhamnus Purshiana. This fact
was announced in a paper on “Some Specimens of Western Plants,”
presented to the American Pharmaceutical Association held at the
meeting in Atlanta, Ga., November, 1878, (Proceedings, 1879, p. 707)
and completed the drug’s history.

Names.—Dr. Bundy supplied the drug under the Spanish name
“Cascara Sagrada,” a name said to have been in local use through-
out some sections of California, which soon came to be the com-
mon name of the drug, and will surely dominate all others as long as
the drug is in use. The anglicised name “Sacred Bark” has also been
applied to the drug, and the Scriptural term Chittim bark was also
employed in early days in some parts of California, but these last
names are now obsolete.

RHEUM

Rhubarb (Rheum officinale, etc.) is a gift of the Chinese, who
have used it in domestic practice from all times, as noted in the herbal
Pen-king, probably the production of the Emperor Shen-nung, the
“father of Chinese agriculture and medicine,” about 2700 B. C. As
exported from its home in China, it has been respectively known as
Russian, Turkish, and Chinese rhubarb, in accordance with the country
through which it reaches the market from its native land. As a ca-
thartic and a laxative this drug is sold in large amounts, having been
accepted as a household remedy in syrups and tincture forms the world
throughout. It is a gift of empiricism to the medical profession.

RHUS GLABRA

Sumach, Rhus glabra, is found in most of the temperate parts of
the United States, to which it is indigenous. The North American In-
dians used the powdered seeds to treat piles and as an application to
wounds, the juice of the fresh fruit being used as an application to
warts and in skin diseases like tetter. In domestic medication, follow-
ing the Indians, the roots were used by the settlers for rheumatism, in
alcoholic tincture, as well as in infusion. In domestic medicine the ber-
ries were also employed in a decoction, as a gargle in quinsy, ulceration
of the mouth and throat, and, following the Indian use of the drug, as a
wash for ringworm, tetter, and offensive ulcers. These well-known
uses of the American plant, so ornamental after the frost strikes its
leaves in the fall, led to its introduction into professional medicine.
In Turkey the berries of sumach are used (so this writer was in.
formed) in starting their popular curd food.

7O

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

ROSA GALLICA

The rose, in some form of its many varieties, is indigenous to
the warmer parts of Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, and other
countries. Its use in medicine as well as in perfumes dates from the
earliest times. The Rosa gallica is said to have been introduced into
France by the Count of Champagne on his return from the Crusades
in 1241. In the study of attar of roses made by the writer on the
bottom lands beneath Mt. Olympus in Turkey, the roses planted in
rows appeared much like raspberry fields, the roses being of a rather
insignificant appearance, but very fragrant. The use of the rose in
confection form, in pharmacopeial medicine, once very popular, has,
with the exception of its employment in blue mass (Massa hydrar-
gium), become nearly obsolete. In the “Arabian Nights” (88), rose
water is often referred to, and in Turkish home life it is employed as
a refreshing perfume after bathing.

RUBUS

Blackberry, Rubus villosus, grows abundantly in most parts of
the United States. The roots of the various species as well as varieties
or rubus are more or less astringent and have been used in do-
mestic medicine from the days of America’s first settlement. The
Cherokee Indians (Rafinesque [535]), chewed the root of this plant
and swallowed the saliva for a cough, probably its astringency being
helpful to the throat membranes. They also used a poultice of it for
piles, in which direction its mild astringency seems rationally to adapt
it. A syrup of blackberry root has been a great favorite in some
sections of the country as a remedy for dysentery. This use of the
drug in domestic medication, in which it has always been valued in
America, led finally to its employment by the members of the medical
profession. The juice of the blackberry fruit, spiced and mixed with
whisky, is and has ever been a valued carminative drink in Kentucky
and other parts of the Southern United States, and founded the phar-
macopeial blackberry cordial.

SABAL

Saw palmetto, Serenoa serrulata, Sabal serrulata. The berry
of the saw palmetto, practically unknown in medicine before 1879,
came rapidly into conspicuity, both in pharmacy and in medicine, after
that date. It had been observed by the settlers of the South that ani-
mals feeding on the matured fruit “grew very sleek and fat,” a fact
that was ascribed to the therapeutic qualities of the berries, reasoning
from which they prepared a decoction of the fruit for domestic medi- _
cation. In 1877, Dr. Reed, of the Southern United States, in an ar-
ticle entitled “A New Remedy,” in the Medical Brief, St. Louis (417),
stated that several persons in his neighborhood were using a prepara-
tion of the berry, giving instances of its use in various directions. This
article was reproduced in New Preparations (467), July, 1879, and was
followed in the same publication by another article from the Medical

ris

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Brief, in which Dr. I. J. M. Goss, then of Marietta, Georgia, states
that he had been induced to use the remedy and considered it a satis-
factory one. After this introduction the drug came repeatedly to the
attention of practitioners of medicine. Manufacturing pharmacists
gave it especial attention, and at the present time it is one of the most
important remedial productions of the South. Thus the experimenta-
tion of the people, following its apparent effect on animals, was fol-
lowed in turn by the investigations of the medical profession, and
the remedy was finally introduced to the pages of the Pharmacopeia.
In our opinion the volatile oil and its decomposition products are of
exceeding interest and will yet be a prolific source of detailed research.

SABINA

Sabina (Juniperus sabina) is native to the mountainous portions
of Austria, Switzerland, and some parts of France, being also found
in the Pyrenees, Italy, the Caucasus, and other countries in regions
far above the sea level. It is also found in the northern parts of North
America. Sabina was used in veterinary medicine, as mentioned by
Marcus Porcius Cato (132), a Roman author, 200 B. C. It was also
known to Dioscorides (194) and Pliny (514). The early domestic
leech-books, before the Norman Conquest, gave it a place. Charle-
magne ordered that it should be cultivated on the imperial farm.
Macer Floridus (397), in the tenth century, commended the use of
Sabina in wounds and ulcers.

SACCHARUM

The sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) is cultivated in all
tropical countries, such as India, China, Mexico, the West Indies, etc.
Its native land is probably India, or the Indo-Chinese countries and
islands. As made from the cane, sugar has been known from time
immemorial. It is mentioned by such early writers as Theophrastus
(633), Herodotus (314a), and others, who knew raw sugar as honey
of canes, and in the early Christian era sugar became well known under
the name saccharon. Dioscorides (194), A. D. 77, describes it as ob-
tained from India and Arabia Felix, stating that it resembled salt in
brittleness. Pliny (514) mentions it under the name saccharum, and
an unknown writer, A. D. 54-68, mentions it as an article of import
to the ports of the Red Sea opposite Aden (see Burton for description
of that country, “First Footprints” (113), etc.), but it is doubtful
whether it was brought from the eastern or western parts of India.
It is mentioned by Abu Zayd al Hasan (240), A. D. 850, as produced
on the Persian Gulf, and A. D. 950 Moses of Chorene states that it
was then manufactured in quantities. Sugar was introduced into medi-
cine in the tenth and eleventh centuries by Rhazes (a physician of Bag-
dad and Persia, who died about A. D. 923), Haly Abbas (295), and
others ; but it had ever been employed, as it is still employed, in domestic
medicine for the purpose of disguising unpleasant materials and for
sweetening acrid substances. Burton (113) found crude sugar an

72

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

article of domestic use and preparation (in his journey to Herat) by
several tribes of native Africans. Sugar as a remedy in itself has been
quite often a therapeutic factor in both domestic and regular medica-
tion.

SALVIA

Sage, Salvia officinalis, has been used by the herbalists from all
time, being likewise employed as a flavor in culinary directions. Pliny
(514), Theophrastus (633), and other early writers mention this plant,
which is now cultivated in all temperate regions of the world. It is
still employed in decoctions as a domestic medicinal drink, and when
bruised the fresh herb is applied as a poultice to sprains and swellings.
Its empirical use antedates its employment in systematic medicine.

SANGUINARIA

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, is found throughout the
temperate regions of the United States east of the Mississippi River.
It was used by the Indians as a dye for coloring their garments and
for staining their faces and bodies, in which direction it fulfilled the
double object of a coloring material as well as to keep away insects,
it being disagreeable to them. The Indians also used it as an acrid
emetic and, mixed with other herbs, in the form of an ointment as
an application to indolent ulcers, its action being somewhat escharotic.
The early settlers employed it in these directions, while its efficacy in
coughs and eolds established it as a constituent of home-made com-
pounds such as syrups and tinctures. The professional use as well as
great reputation of this drug and its alkaloidal constituents (388a)
are due to the Eclectic school of medicine, although its qualities had
been well established previous to the systematic efforts made by phy-
sicians of this school. Sanguinaria was mentioned by Barton (43),
Cutler (178), Thacher (631), Schépf (582), Bigelow (69), and other
early investigators, whose recorded statements demonstrate the method
of its introduction to have been as herein described. In connection
with lard, arsenic, and hydrated ferric oxide it constitutes a once popu-
lar cancer remedy. It is a constituent of the early Eclectic Compound
Tar Plaster (see Phytolacca).

SANTALUM RUBRUM

Red sandalwood, red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), is a
small tree native to the southern part of the Indian Peninsula, being
found at Canara, Mysore, and the Coromandel Coast. It is also found
in the Southern Philippines. The wood is obtained chiefly from plan-
tations in the forests of the Kurnool Hills and adjacent localities neigh-
boring to Madras. The beginning of the use of the wood of this tree
for temples and other primitive religious buildings is lost in antiquity.
Marco Polo (518) refers to the fact that sandalwood was impc
into China, distinguishing this variety by the word red. Garcia de
Orta (480), of Goa, in the sixteenth century, distinguishes between

6 73

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

the fragrant sandalwood of Timor and the inodorous red sandalwood.
In this connection it should be remembered that Santalum rubrum, or
red sanders, has none of the qualities of the Santalum album, or fra-
grant sandalwood. And yet it is recorded that all the languages of
India call it by the name red-colored sandalwood. In the Middle ages
it was used in Europe for coloring purposes, being quoted in England,
1326 and 1399, at three shillings per pound, and it was entered on
the accounts of the Monastery of Durham, 1530, along with spices
and groceries. It is used in pharmacy as a coloring agent, after the
manner in which it was employed in domestic economy of the olden
times for the same purpose.

SANTONICA

The “wormseeds” are widely distributed in the northern hemi-
sphere of the Old World, many varieties thereof being familiar to bot-
anists and. subject to much discussion. The unopened flowers of the
head (wormseed) are collected in quantities on the vast plains or
steppes in the northern part of Turkestan, the distributing point being
the renowned fair of Nishni Novgorod, Russia, where, July 1 5th to
August 27th, the celebrated exchanges of the products occur. Worm-
seed, however, is found in the Oriental bazaars, being brought for
native and domestic use from the sections of country named, or from
Afghanistan or Caboul. Dioscorides (194) mentions several species
of wormseed, stating that the small seeds were mixed with honey and
employed by the people as a remedy for ascarides. Alexander Tralli-
anus (11), in the sixth century, commended this drug as a remedy
for intestinal worms. Saladinus (570), 1450, and afterwards several
authors of the sixteenth century, as Ruellius (561) and Dodonzeus
(195), refer to the remedy as a vermifuge for children. Its empirical
use in domestic medication is maintained to the present time, and
from this source its anthelmintic virtues were learned by the profes-
sion. : ,

SARSAPARILLA

The drug sarsaparilla is furnished by the root of a climbing plant
of the genus smilax, which prevails over the northern part of South
America, the whole of Central America, and the west coast of Mexico.
Many varieties contribute the drug of commerce. Its qualities were
made known in early European annals from the commendation of ex-
plorers of the New World. Monardes ( 447) is authority for the
statement that it was introduced to Seville about 1536 from “New
Spain,” but that a different variety soon followed from Honduras.
The “Chronicle of Peru,” by Pedro de Cieze de Leon (151), 1553,
mentions sarsaparilla as growing in South America, where he observed
it between 1533 and 1550. It was recommended as a cure for syphilis
and acute rheumatism, the Spaniards calling it “an excellent medicine.”
In: this connection it may be said that the name applied to it was
zarza parilla, afterward becoming sarsaparilla. Like other remedies
introduced in business channels for commercial purposes from the

74 }

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

wonderful New World, sarsaparilla enjoyed a marvellous reputation,
which evidently was not interfered with by the fact that it returned
great profits to the dealers. A little work issued in its behalf by Giro-
lamo Cardano (123), of Milan, 1559, advocates it most strongly in
the direction of the diseases mentioned. It found its way into phar-
maceutical stores, where it made an eventful record as a new remedy
from the New World. In domestic medicine from the time of its in-
troduction-a decoction has been “authoritatively” considered service-
able as a “blood purifier.” It is not necessary to state that in the
form of a sweetened decoction syrup of sarsaparilla has through sev-
eral decades enjoyed continual conspicuity in the pharmacopeia.

SASSAFRAS

Sassafras is indigenous to the Western Hemisphere, occurring in
Florida, Virginia, and as far north as Canada. It is found as far west
as Kansas, but is there very scarce. Its occurrence in Brazil is recorded
by Piso, 1658 (511). Sassafras was in medicinal use among the na-
tives of Florida long before Ponce de Leon in 1512 set foot on the soil
of this peninsula. It is generally stated and believed that the Spaniards
in 1538, which is the date of De Soto’s invasion of Florida, were the
first Europeans to obtain knowledge of this drug; yet we can find no
record of such a discovery in at least two narratives of this expedi-
tion that are accessible to us. On the other hand, there seemed to be
sufficient evidence of the fact that the Spaniards gained a knowledge of
sassafras and its medicinal virtues through the French Huguenot emi-
grants, who under their unfortunate leaders, Jean Ribault and René
Laudonniére, occupied Florida between the years 1562 and 1564.

To the Spanish physician, Nicolaus Monardes (447), of Sevilla,
in 1574, is to be credited the first detailed description of sassafras and
its healing virtues, his information being gained, however, not from
any actual experience in the sassafras lands but from personal consul-
tation with travelers and from the government records at his com-
mand (239). From Clusius’ (153) version of Monardes, 1593 (447),
it is learned that the drug was imported from Florida into Spain some
years previous to 1574, that the Spaniards in Florida, when overtaken
by fevers and other diseases consequent to miasma and unwholesome
drinking water, were advised by the few remaining Frenchmen to use
this drug, which was called by the French sassafras (for reasons un-
known to Monardes) and “pavame” by the Indians from whom the
French obtained their information. Monardes (in Clusius’ version)
adds that sassafras grows in Florida in maritime places, such as are
neither too dry nor too moist, being especially plentiful near the har-
bors of St. Helena and St. Matthews, where they form whole woods,
which exhale such a fragrance (not true in the experience of this
writer) that the Spaniards who first landed believed the tree to be the
same as the cinnamon tree of Ceylon.

The illustration given by Monardes of the sassafras tree has been
widely copied in the herbals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
among which we name Dalechamps (1 586) (181), Joh. Bauhinus

75

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

(Bauhin, 47) (1650), and Piso (1658) (511), the latter giving it the
‘Brazilian synonym “‘anhuiba.”

Francisco Hernandez (314), another Spanish physician, who trav-
eled through Mexico between the years 1571 and 1577, speaks of the
occurrence of sassafras at Mechuacan in Mexico. His work was trans-
lated by Francisco Ximinez, a monk of the convent of San Domingo
in Mexico, in 1615.

The latter author is quoted at length on the subject of sassafras
by Jean de Laet (368), a noted Dutch geographer (who died in 1649),
whose work, “Novus Orbis, etc., 1633,” testifies to the probably French
origin of the knowledge of sassafras. Having taken the account given
by Laudonnieére as his source, he speaks, in Chapter XIV, concerning
the land and inhabitants of the part of Florida traversed by the French,
and calls attention to the tree as being prominent in the woods and
refers to the exquisite odor of its wood and bark. He says that this
tree is called “pavame” by the Indians and “sassafras” by the French.

Soon after the discovery of sassafras the drug was exported to
Europe, as before stated, and became at once known in Spain and
France. It was well known in Frankfort-on-the-Main as early as 1582,
and in Hamburg in 1587, at which time it was (F. A. Fliickiger, Am.
Jour. Phar., 1876, p. 367) termed lignum pavanum seu floridum, seu
+ylomarathri (fennel-wood). Sailing expeditions to America were
undertaken in those times to secure the wood as well as the root. An
English merchant, Martin Pring, is recorded by Charles Pickering
(510) as having with two small vessels arrived on the American coast
in the beginning of June, 1603. The point named is 43 degrees and 44
degrees northern latitude, among a multitude of islands. Following
the coast south in search of sassafras he entered a large sound, and on
the north side in the latitude 41 degrees and “odde” minutes built a
hut and enclosed it with a barricade, where some of the party kept
guard while others collected sassafras in the woods. The natives were
treated with kindness, and the last of the two vessels departed freighted
on the 9th of August.

In connection with the introduction of sassafras root into Eng-
land, Daniel Hanbury (Proc. Am. Phar. Assoc., 1871, p. 491) un-
earthed the following interesting record contained in the Calendars of
State Papers of the Public Record Office:

“Instructions for suche thinges as are to be sente from Virginia,
1610.

“(1)_ Small Sassafras Rootes to be drawen in the winter and
dryed and none to be medled with in the somer and yt is worthe 50£
and better, p. Tonne,” etc.

But, still, the exact botanical origin. of sassafras was not known
to the writers of the seventeenth century. While they were well ac-
quainted with the peculiar foliage and the other characteristics of the
tree, the flowers and the fruit were expressly stated to be unknown
to such writers as Clusius (153), (Monardes) (447), 1593, Joh. Bau-
hinus (47) (1650), and Piso (511) (1658).

76

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Two early statements concerning the fruit may, however, now be
recorded.

Caspar Bauhinus (48), who named the sassafras tree “arbor ex
Florida ficulneo folio,” in 1623 reports that specimens of the leaves
and the fruit of the tree were sent to him by Dr. Doldius, of Nurem-
berg, and he describes the fruit as oblong, rugose, and attached to very
long pedicels.

Likewise Jean de Laet (368), in the index to the chapter on sassa-
fras of his afore-mentioned book, requests the reader to insert in the
text that the fruits of this tree were brought to the notice of the author
by a person returning from Novo Belgio, and adds that the fruit does
not differ much in form from the berries of the laurel, although it is
much smaller. It contains a white nut of bitterish taste, divided into
two parts.

As far as we can ascertain, Plukenet (514a), as late as the year
1691, was the first to give an illustration of the berry, which, however,
is faulty, because it is void of the acorn-like calyx. The trilobed leaves
are also illustrated, and the botanical name affixed to it by Plukenet
is “cornus mas odorata, foliis trifido, margine plano, sassafras dicta.”

Catesby (130), true to his task as set forth in the title of his
book on the natural history of Virginia, etc., viz.: to correct faulty
illustration of plants by preceding authors, gives (in 1731) a good pic-
ture of sassafras, including the fruit and flowers.

In the middle and latter part of the eighteenth and the earlier part
of the nineteenth century sassafras was studied in its native country
by such celebrated travelers as Peter Kalm (350), J. David Schoepf
(582), F. A. Michaux (433), and Fred Pursh (528). Peter Kalm’s
account especially (350) contains many points of interest.

The author’s boyhood was spent in the country, in Kentucky,
where sassafras abounds. I do not remember to have smelled the fra-
grance of sassafras trees, mentioned by these early authorities, unless
the trees were broken or bruised. I have passed through great thickets
of young and old trees and am sure that the statement that the fra-
grance is wafted far out to sea is overdrawn, as I observed no odor
whatever, and am satisfied that sassafras exhales no aroma. When
land in Kentucky is “worked poor” and turned out to rest it is likely
to spring up in thickets of sassafras, persimmon, and black locust. I
have heard old farmers, in speaking of a farm, say it was “too poor to
raise sassafras,” and no greater reflection could be cast on that land.
No especial value is put on sassafras wood, it is not sought for fence
posts nor is it used to drive away insects of any description. ©

As a remedy the bark is used in the spring to “thin the blood,” be-
ing drunk as a tea. Indeed, I do not dislike it as a beverage, early im-
pressions leading me now to take a package of fresh bark home with me
occasionally for a family dish of sassafras tea. This is made exactly
as coffee is prepared as a beverage, and is sweetened and used with
cream in the same way. That sassafras tea was a very common beverage
in my boyhood days may be shown by the following incident: I was
traveling up the Ohio River on one of the palatial steamers of other

77

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

days, and the waiter asked a Kentuckian at my side who ordered tea,
“what kind of tea” he wanted. “Store tea,” he answered, “I kin git
pleanty of sassafras at home.”

It is not customary for sassafras drinkers to keep the root-bark
separated from the root, the recently dug roots being shaved as the bark
was used. Kentuckians claim that there are two varieties of sassafras,
the red sassafras and the white, distinguished only by the bark. The
white sassafras is not so aromatic and is bitter to the taste, and they
use only the red bark.

In addition to the wood, root and bark, mucilage of the pith is
employed in domestic medicine to bathe inflamed eyes. I find a com-
plete description of the domestic uses of sassafras in Rafinesque’s
Medical Flora, 1830, which for various reasons I[ feel called upon to
reproduce as an ending to this record of sassafras.

Found from Canada to Mexico and Brazil. Roots, bark, leaves, flowers,
fragrant and spicy. Flavor and smell peculiar, similar to fennel, sweetish sub-
acrid, residing in a volatile oil heavier than water. The sassafrine, a peculiar
mucus unalterable by alcohol, found chiefly in the twigs and pith, thickens
water, very mild and lubricating, very useful in opthalmia, dysentery, gravel,
catarrh, etc. Wood yellow, hard, durable, soon loses the smell; the roots chiefly
exported for use as stimulant, antispasmodic, sudorific, and depurative; the oil
now often substituted ; both useful in rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, secondary
syphilis, typhus fevers, etc. Once used in dropsy. The Indians use a strong
decoction to purge and clean the body in the spring; we use instead the tea of
the blossoms for a vernal purification of the blood. The powder of the leaves
used to make glutinous gombos. Leaves and buds used to flavor some beers and
spirits. Also deemed vulnerary and resolvent chewed and applied, or mena-
gogue and corroborant for women in tea; useful in scurvy, cachexy, flatulence,
etc. Bowls and cups made of the wood, when fresh, it drives bugs and moths.

The bark dyes wood of a fine orange color called “shikih” by Missouri tribes,
and smoked like tobacco.

SCAMMONIUM

The dried juice of scammony (Convolvulus scammonia) has
been used in domestic medicine from ancient times. Theophrastus
(633), 300 B. C., mentions it, as well as did Dioscorides (194), Pliny
(514), Celsus (136), and Rufus of Ephesus (561a), a city in whose
neighborhood scammony abounded, as is yet the case near its ruins.
The early Arabians were acquainted with the plant, and in the tenth
and eleventh centuries it was used in Britain, being commended to
Alfred the Great by Helias, Patriarch of Jerusalem. Botanists of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as Brunfels (107), Gesner (264).
and others, described the plant as well as the drug obtained therefrom,
the latter being well described by Russell (566), an English physician
of Aleppo, in 1752.

Scammony is obtained from Asia Minor, near Smyrna, which is
its principal port of export. The resin of scammony, in the form of
a dried juice, was gathered by means of sea shells, within which the
juice collected and dried, a method of obtaining it still practiced in
Asia Minor, Mr, Clark, of Sochia, near Smyrna, obtained the resin
as an alcoholic extract from the dried root, a method of production

78

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

now in use, but which probably yields a product different from the
natural gum (see Manna). Scammony is a gift of the Orient, the
beginning of its use being home medication.

SCILLA

This bulbous plant (Urginea maritima) is broadly distributed
in the islands of the Mediterranean and the countries neighboring, in
the south of Spain and Portugal, and in many instances is found far
inland, even to an elevation as high as three thousand feet above sea
level. It is one of the most anciently recorded remedies, being men-
tioned by Epimenides (294), a Greek writer of the seventh century
B. C., who made such use of it that it became known as epimenidea,
Theophrastus (633) mentions it, Pliny (514) notes its two varieties,
Dioscorides (194) describes the making of vinegar of squills, whilst
preparations of squill with honey were familiar remedies in Arabian
medication. The forms employed by the empiricists of those remote
times seem not to have been improved upon by the pharmacy even of
the present day; indeed, attempts to improve the aqueous or acetous
squill simples of ancient home medication by alcoholic extracts and
tinctures, have resulted in failure.

SCOPARIUS

This woody shrub, Cytisus scoparius, or common broom, prevails
throughout Great Britain and Western and temperate Northern Eu-
rope, but it seems not to climb to any great height on the mountains
of the Alps. According to Ledebour (375) it is native to the eastern
side of the Ural Mountains. Scoparius is mentioned in the earliest
Italian and German herbals under the name genesta, and under the
name broom it was used in Anglo-Saxon medicine as well as in the
Welsh “Meddygon Myddfai” (507). (See Note, page 1.) The Lon-
don Pharmacopeia, 1618, gave it a place, and Gerarde (262) states
that Henry VIII used it as a remedy “against surfets and diseases
thereof arising.” Broom also enjoyed a reputation in other directions,
for example, being the emblem of “The Handsome” Geoffrey, or
“Plantagenet,” Count of Anjou, ancestor of the Plantagenet kings of
England, who wore the common broom of his country, the “planta
genista,” in his helmet. Scoparius in the Pharmacopeia of the United
States seems, like other established foreign drugs, to have heired its
reputation and obtained its position from past records in medizeval
European or Oriental times, instead of from any marked use it has

enjoyed in American medicine.

SCOPOLA

The root of this plant, Scopola carniolica, is now official and may
be substituted for belladonna in the making of the mydriatic alkaloids.
Although of recent introduction in scientific pharmacy, it has an inter-
esting botanical record, reaching back to Matthioli (414), who named
it Solanum somniferum alterum.

Ss | 79

PHARMACOPG:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

This historical record of the plant is made complete by that unex-
celled authority, E. M. Holmes, of London, his paper being published
in full in the Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, London, De-
cember 14, 1889, pp. 468-471. The name by which it is now recognized
was given to the plant by Jacquin (388a) in honor of Dr. Johann An-
ton Scopoli, professor of botany in the University of Pavia, who (1760)
published his discovery of the plant under the name Atropa caule her-
baceo, (See Lloyd Brothers’ Drug Treatise No. X for biographical
sketch.) Many are the names since affixed to it, regarding which Mr.
Holmes remarks as follows: “Jacquin’s name has unfortunately been
several times altered by succeeding botanists.”

The historical treatise of Holmes was briefly condensed as follows
by Professor Maisch:

“The Natural History of Scopola carniolica (Jacquin)” gives a complete
history of the synonymy of this plant, commencing with Matthioli, who in 1563
named it Solanum somniferum alterum. It was further described in 1622 by
Caspar Bauhin under the name of Solanum somniferum bacciferum; in 1651 by
J. Bauhin as Solanum manicum, “quod secundo loco proponuimus ;” in 1760 by
J. A, Scopoli, Professor of Botany at Pavia, as Atropa caule herbaceo folits
ovatis, integris, fructu capsulari; in 1764 by Jacquin as Scopola carniolica;
in 1767 by Linneus as Hyoscyamus Scopolia; in 1794 by Moench as Scopola
trichotoma; in the same year by Schultes as Scopolina atropoides; in 1821 by
Link as Scopolia atropoides ; and in 1837 by G. Don as Scopolia carniolica.

The generic name Scopolia had been applied in 1763 by Adanson for what
is now Kicotia, Lin., Crucifere; in 1776 by Forster for what is now Griselinia,
Forst., Cornacee; in 1781 by Linnzus fil., for what is now Daphne, Lin., Thy-
melacee; in 1790 by Smith for what is now Toddalia, Juss., Rutacee.

Jacquin’s name for the plant being the first binomial one published after
the date of the first edition of Linnzus’ Species Plantarum in 1753, should
supersede the later names given by others. This author repeatedly writes
“Scopola” (not Scopolia) in his published work.

This plant, possessing so much energy, was naturally known to the
early herbalists, but was most cautiously employed by them. Wier
(1515-1588) mentioned it (Maisch), but it was then forgotten until
Dr. Lippich, of Padua (1834-7), used it instead of belladonna. The
record shows that (4102) in Southern Europe (Martius, 1832) the
leaves were used in the same way as belladonna. Kosteletzky (1832)
states (361a) that it has the narcotic qualities of hyoscyamus. Neither
in domestic nor in professional medicine had scopolia any reputation
worth mentioning until after 1880, when its alkaloidal record and its
many complications as a sophisticant for belladonna made such an event

in pharmacy and chemistry as to give the plant a position in the U, S.
Pharmacopeia of 1900.

SCUTELLARIA

Scutellaria laterifiora ( skullcap) was in use as a domestic remedy
before the publication of the first American materia medica, as shown
by Schopf (582), 1785. It was afterward conspicuous in the practice
of a local physician, Dr. Lawrence Van Derveer, of New Jersey, who
discovered the qualities that he believed it carried. At least he made
no mention of any previous therapeutic record ( 388d). Dr. Van Der-

80

PHARMACOPC:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

veer’s use of scutellaria as a remedy in the cure of rabies gave him
great notoriety and introduced the drug to Thacher (631), whose dis-
sertation on “Hydrophobia and Its Cure” involved the remedies em-
ployed in that disease, as well as substances other than scutellaria com-
mended therein. Scutellaria has thus a record both as a secret cure
and as a professional remedy in the treatment of this dreadful disease,
the latter, however, being altogether based upon the domestic use of
the drug. According to Schépf (582), 1785, the plant was used as
a home remedy in the cure of fevers.

SENEGA

Senega, the root of a small North American plant (Polygala
senega), enjoyed very early a reputation as one of the new remedies
produced by America. The Seneca Indians of New York State em-
ployed it as a remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake, which led to
its notoriety in the hands of Tennent, a Scotch physician in Virginia,
who also administered it for coughs. Under the name senega, or rat-
tlesnake root, it came to the attention of Dr. Mead, of London, and
through his efforts and those of others (even Linnzus [385] writing
a dissertation on it) senega root came into great demand. In domestic
American medicine it has been continually used as an expectorant, the
usual form being that of a syrup.

SENNA

Senna leaves are from two species of cassia, one of which is native
to Nubia and other sections of Africa, while the other abounds in
Yemen and Southern Arabia as well as in some parts of India, where
it is cultivated for medicinal use. The cultivated plant, originally the

roduct of Arabian seed, furnishes the leaves known in commerce as

innevelly senna. ‘The drug was introduced into Western Europe by
the Arabians, and in this connection it may be stated that, notwith-
standing its present abundance in some parts of Africa, according to
Isaac Judeus (336a), a native of Egypt, who lived about 850-900
A. D., senna was brought from Mecca to Egypt. In early Arabian
medicine the pods of the senna were preferred to the leaves. Its price
in France, 1542, was about that of pepper or ginger. This writer
found senna in the Orient, carried in shops selling foods and pro-
visions, as well as in the Oriental bazaars, it being everywhere a fa-
miliar domestic cathartic. Its native use introduced the drug to medi-
cine and antedates historical record.

SERPENTARIA

Aristolochia serpentaria is a perennial herb found in woodlands
of the temperate parts of the United States, especially in the Allegheny
and Cumberland Mountains, although it seldom prevails abundantly.
It is by some believed to have been first mentioned in 1636, by
Thomas Johnson, an apothecary of London, who issued an edition of

81

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Gerarde’s (262) Herbal, and it is commonly believed that this was its
introduction to England. Others, however, question whether the
“snakeweed” mentioned in this work was not a species of aristolochia,
from Crete. The early use of serpentaria in America was as a remedy
for snakebite, which gave it the name Virginia snakeroot, but in this
direction it has not, to our knowledge, been used in recent times any-
where in America. The domestic use of this drug has been in the
direction of a stimulant to the organs of digestion, and in the form
of a tincture as a stomachic, it being one of the ingredients of the
old-time popular stomach bitters of American home medication.

SINAPIS ALBA

White mustard (Sinapis alba) seems to be indigenous to the
southern countries of Europe and Western Asia, from which, accord-
ing to Chinese authors, it was introduced into China. Formerly it
was not distinguished from black mustard. Its cultivation in England
is quite recent, but it is now an abundant weed in many sections.
White mustard, in common with black mustard, is an exceedingly pop-
ular, stimulating condiment, and is preferred, on account of its color
as well as its mildness, to the black mustard. ‘The “mustard seed”
of the Bible is the product of a tree (Salvadora persica), and is not
the same as the plant now known under that name. (J. H. Balfour,
Piants of the Bible.)

SINAPIS NIGRA

Black mustard (Sinapis nigra) is an herb found over the whole
of Europe, excepting the extreme north. It also abounds in Northern
Africa, Asia Minor, the Caucasian region, Western India, Southern
Siberia, and China, as well as in North and South America, where it
is now naturalized. It was known to the ancients, Theophrastus (633),
Dioscorides (194), Pliny (514), and others noticing the plant. In
early times it seems to have been used more as a medicine than as a
condiment ; but 300 B. C., Diocletian speaks of it as a substance used
as a condiment in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. During the
Middle Ages, Europeans esteemed it as an accompaniment to salted
meats. The Welsh “Meddygon Myddfai” (see Note, page 1) (507),
of the thirteenth century, commends the “Virtues of Mustard.”
Household recipes of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries constantly
mention mustard under the name senapium. The convent lands of
France produced it as a part of their revenues, A. D. 800. Black
mustard is naturally of great importance, the credit of its introduction
being, as with other substances of a similar nature, due to the observ-
ing “empiricists.” The Bible reference (see Sinapis alba) applies alike
to Sinapis nigra.

SPIGELIA
Spigelia marilandica is an American plant, indigenous to the

temperate regions and thick woods of this country. The Indians em-
ployed a decoction of the root as a vermifuge, thus introducing it at

82

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

an early date to the settlers, the physicians, and the botanists. It was
described by Barton (43), Schdpf (582), and other authorities, but
was never extensively used by the American schools of medicine, either
the Botanic or the Eclectic. As a domestic remedy it was customary,
half a century ago, to use a mixture of pink root and senna, to which
were added a few pieces of manna, a home decoction being given to
children and others afflicted with worms. In our opinion this. home
treatment consumed most of the drug of commerce, which, since the
discovery of santonica, has come to be of minor importance. In
the days of this writer’s experience as a prescription clerk in Cincin-
nati (1865-1880) the mixture was in continual domestic demand as
“pink and senna.”

STAPHISAGRIA

Delphinium staphisagria, a native of waste places of Italy, the
Greek islands, and Asia Minor, is now generally distributed through-
out the Mediterranean countries and the adjacent islands, e. g., the
Canaries. It was known to the ancients, being mentioned by Nicander
(581), Dioscorides (194), Pliny (514), and others, the last-named
author stating that the powdered seeds were used for destroying
vermin of the head and body, in which direction it is still popular.
Throughout the Middle Ages the drug continued in use, according to
Pietro Crescenzio (172), of the thirteenth century. The seeds were
collected in Italy, where the plant is still cultivated, being still in de-
mand in domestic medicine as an insecticide.

STILLINGIA

Stillingia sylvatica is native to the pine barrens of the Southern
States of North America, and in the form of an infusion or decoction
of the green drug has been used in domestic medicine as a purgative
and alterative, creeping thence to the attention of physicians of the
Southern States. It was also employed empirically in cutaneous dis-
eases, and as a constituent of various “blood purifiers” used commonly
by the people of the South. A once popular remedy, Wayne’s Panacea,
was asserted by Rafinesque (535) to depend for its qualities upon
stillingia, which Dr. John King (356-357) in his American Dispensa-
tory most positively controverted. Inasmuch as Peter Smith (605),
the “Indian Herb Doctor,’ neglects stillingia in his Dispensa-
tory, while Rafinesque (535) gives it brief mention in his Medical
Equivalents, it is evident that the drug came to the general attention
of the medical profession by reason of the use made of it by the set-
tlers, about the date of the first edition of King’s American Dispensa-
tory, 1852. Since that period until the early 60’s it was a .conspicu-
ous constituent of the popular American “blood purifiers, _and in the
form of compound syrup of stillingia was used alike in empirical medi-
cation and by the profession.

83

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

STRAMONIUM

Datura stramonium is now found throughout most parts of the
temperate civilized world. It was found in America, where the set-
tlers near Jamestown, Virginia, used it as a pot herb, the resulting
deaths so advertising it as to create the common name, still in use,
Jamestown or Jimson weed. De Candolle (186) decided that stra-
monium was indigenous to the Old World, probably bordering the Cas-
pian Sea, but not of India nor yet of Europe at the time of the clas-
sical period. The herb has been a pain-relieving favorite in domestic
American medicine, in the form of a poultice or ointment made from
the pulp of the bruised green leaves, to ease the pains of bites and
stings of insects. The dried leaf is also smoked, for the relief of
asthma. The domestic use of stramonium in these directions led the
early American physician to its employment both internally and ex-
ternally. (See Hyoscyamus.)

STROPHANTHUS

The genus Strophanthus, which produces this drug, is chiefly
African, belonging to the apocynacez and the tribe echitidez of this
order, distinguished from the other tribes of the order chiefly from
having the anthers united after the manner of the asclepiadacex. In-
dex Kewensis mentions seventeen species, Bentham and Hooker
eighteen species, Pax (495) twenty-five species, and the genus is being
rapidly augmented as the flora of Africa becomes better known. Plants
of the genus have usually woody stems, emitting a milky juice when
wounded, and are generally twining vines. The seed of commerce is
probably collected from various species indiscriminately, which have
been classified and differentiated by Pax (495), Planchon (512), Hart-
wich (304), Holmes (322), Blondel (80), and others. Space will
permit us to mention only the two species which are acknowledged to
be the principal source of the drug.

Strophanthus hispidus, D. C., was one of four species described
by De Candolle as early as 1802, and is the species to which the drug
was first ascribed. Its habitat is Senegambia and Guinea and other
parts of Western Africa. The stem is a twining, milky shrub, with
opposite hirsute leaves. (Hence the name hispidus, Latin for bristly,
hairy.) The seed, which bears a slender style terminating in a plumose
pappus consisting of long hairs,* is the part used in medicine.

As stated before, the genus strophanthus was established by De
Candolle as far back as the year 1802. It was not until the early
sixties, however, that the drug came to the general notice of Euro-
peans as being one of the arrow poisons used among the African native
tribes, there being two kinds of arrow poisons derived from this
source. A poison was prepared on the west coast of Africa (Sene-
gambia, Guinea, and Gaboon) called ince or onaye, which is derived

* Hartwich calls special attention to the fact that the hairs of strophanthus seed are
very sensitive to moisture, spreading horizontally in dry air, and becoming erect in moist

atmosphere. He Suggests that the pappus would thus make an hygrometer sufficiently
Sensitive for practical purposes.

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

from Strophanthus hispidus, D. C. This is on the authority of Hen-
delot, who observed the plant yielding this poison in Senegambia at
the River Nunez (246). A specimen of this arrow poison was sent
to Europe and investigated by Pelikan in 1865. (Comptes Rendus,
1865, vol. 60, p. 1209.)

On the east coast of Africa the kombe or gombe poison was in
use in the Manganjah tribe, located near Lake Nyassa on the banks
of the River Shire, a tributary of the Zambesi River. Consul Kirk in
Zanzibar, in 1861, established that this poison originated from a stro-
phanthus species, and forwarded specimens to Professor Sharpey in
England for the purpose of investigation (246). Subsequently, in
1865, Livingstone’s famous reports brought the kombe poison to a
more general notice among the Europeans (387).

This species of strophanthus was at first considered identical with
S. hispidus, D. C., but the plant was shown by Oliver in 1885 to be
distinct from the latter, and justified the establishing of a new species,
Strophanthus kombe.

The physiological features of the drug as a powerful cardiac were
_ recognized by the first investigators (Sharpey, 1862; Pelikan, 1865;
Fraser, 1871). Livingstone reports the observation of Consul Kirk
that the poison remarkably reduced the pulse, but the drug was not
authoritatively recognized by the medical profession until about the
year 1885. In this connection it is interesting to note that in Somali-
land, Africa, the native, in order to establish the virulence of the
poison, scrapes the skin from his own arm until the blood flows, when
he applies the poison to the lower end of the bloody pool and watches
the coagulating effect, from below upward. To the firm of Burroughs,
Wellcome & Co., London (677-678), is largely due the position that
Strophanthus occupies in the medical lore of the present day, this be-
ing due chiefly to the efforts of Mr. Henry S. Wellcome, through his
friend, Henry M. Stanley, the African explorer.

STYRAX

Styrax is the product of a tree native to the southwestern part
of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands. According to Krinos, of
Athens, 1862, the earliest allusions to styrax were made by Aétius (6)
and Paulus Aégineta (494), 1567. The early Arabian physicians were
acquainted with styrax and its methods of production. The Russian
Abbott of Tver, 1113-15, describes the tree as found by him in his
travels through Asia Minor. Styrax reached China as early at least
as 1368 by means of Arabian caravans, but it 1s now shipped to China
by way of the Red Sea and India. Its use in medicine is restricted
mainly to an external application in skin diseases, combined with
other substances. It has, however, been recommended for internal use.
and in former times it was a constituent of empirical compounds de-
signed for internal medication. (Not official in the eighth revision
Uuos Fa

85

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

SUMBUL

Musk root, Ferula sumbul, was first introduced into Russia as .
a substitute for musk, and was known in Germany in 1840 as a Russian
product. Its history is to the effect that in 1869 a Russian traveler,
Fedschenko (240), discovered the plant producing it in the northern
part of the Khanat of Bukhara, 40° N. Lat. Sumbul has no authentic
position in so-called ‘‘scientific’ medicine other than that it crept into
the British Pharmacopeia in 1867 as a substance that had been rec-
ommended as a substitute for musk in cholera.

TAMARINDUS

The tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a handsome tree indig-
enous to tropical Africa. It is also found throughout India, Java,
and Yemen, and has been naturalized in South America as well as in
adjacent tropical islands, such as the West Indies; also in Mexico,
we having gathered it in La Paz, Lower California. The ancient
Greeks and Romans seem not to have known the tamarind. If known
to the Egyptians, it was neglected by their authors, although Sir
Gardner Wilkinson (688) states that tamarind stones were found in
the tombs of Thebes, a statement not confirmed, however, by speci-
mens of the contents of tombs in the British Museum. ‘The ancient
Sanskrit writings mention tamarind, and the fruit was known to the
Arabians as Indian dates, under which name it was mentioned by early
authors, such as Avicenna (30) and others, including Alhervi (2), of
Persia. Credit is given the Arabians for the distribution of the drug
and its uses, it passing from them, with other Eastern products, into
Europe through the famous school of Salernum. ‘Tamarinds have
been used in their native countries in the making of a cooling drink
much relished by persons afflicted with fevers, in which direction they
have been also employed in medicine throughout the civilized world.
It would be better if the modern physician were more familiar with the
grateful home-made drink that tamarinds afford the parched sufferer
from fever. :

TARAXACUM

The dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) is a plant familiar to all,
being found throughout the whole of Europe, Central Asia, and North
America, even to the Arctic regions. Although the word tararacum
is usually considered to be of Greek origin, there is no authentic record
that the plant was known to the classical writers of Greece and Rome.
The herbal, 1488, of Johann von Cube (173) gives it a position under
‘the name Dens leonis. It is mentioned by Rhazes in the tenth and
by Avicenna (30) in the eleventh centuries, and it was used in Welsh
medicine in the thirteenth century. In domestic medieval medication
and as an ingredient of many popular American “bitters” and “blood
purifiers” taraxacum was employed extensively. It yet enjoys a high
reputation as a home remedy.

86

PHARMACOP@IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

TEREBINTHINA RESINA
Turpentine. Oil of Turpentine. Resin.

The sticky juice of many trees, as the pine, the larch, and other
coniferous trees, is known by the general name, turpentine, qualified
by an adjective descriptive of its botanical origin or the country
producing it; for example, Strasburg turpentine, Canada balsam, etc.
This resinous, balsamic exudation has been used from all times as
a balsam or pitch, or, when the wood of the tree is subjected to the
action of heat, as a product of decomposition known as tar. ‘This
writer (1906) observed a fragrant oleaginous tar brought into Smyrna
in sheepskins from the interior of Asia Minor, which enjoyed a domestic
popularity in that part of the country. The Indians of North America
employed Canada balsam as an application to wounds, it being an
excellent. antiseptic dressing for such purposes (see Indian Cap-
tivities, Guiie’s Narrative (198). The distillate of the natural tur-
pentine, had once a widely known domestic use in America as a
remedy for worms, whilst the resin (rosin), which remains after the
distillation of the spirit, is much employed in domestic treatment of
the horse. All these forms of turpentine, as well as the empyrheumatic
products of many related trees, have been known to the common peo-
ple, as a rule, from the earliest records of history. The last issue of
the Pharmacopeia of the United States, under the title Oleum Terebin-
thine Rectificatum, directs that the spirit obtained from the distillation
of turpentine, usually obtained from the Pinus australis, be purified
by redistillation from a solution of sodium hydrate.

THYMOL

Thymol is a product of Thymus vulgaris, a native of Portugal.
Spain, Southern France, Italy, and the mountainous parts of Greece.
It has for several centuries been cultivated in England as a garden
plant, and has long been known to yield a highly aromatic essential
oil. Under the name camphor of thyme, an apothecary at the court
of Berlin named Neumann, 1725, described this substance, which was
called thymol by Lallemand (369a) in 1853, thus giving a name to
a substance that, in little use in itself, had ever been valued in domestic
medicine as well as by the medical profession in its natural association
and combination as a part of oil of thyme. Under the name oil of ori-
ganum, oil of thyme has been a popular product obtained by the distil-
lation of this herb, being used as an ingredient in domestic liniments
and in veterinary medicine. Its use by the medical profession is even
yet much limited.

TRAGACANTHA

"This: gumm exudation (gum tragacanth) is a gift of Asia Minor,
the shrub wa a it being very widely distributed. To locate exactly
its first use would be to antedate historic records. It has ever been
before the people in the cradle of humanity, where as a natural product

87

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

it has always been employed. Theophrastus (633) three centuries
before Christ, described it and located its origin. Dioscorides, a Greek
writer, and Arabian writers gave it due attention. In fact, it would
perhaps be as difficult to locate the first use of wheat as the first use
of Tragacanth.

However, until a moderately recent period, only the knotty yellow
or brown natural exudation was found in commerce. The natives
learned next that by cleaning the bases of the bushes, incising the bark
with a knife, ribbons of a pure white or semi-transparent nature could
he produced. This is now the favorite form.

Tragacanth comes into Smyrna from the interior of Asia Minor,
and from Persia and Armenia. Professor T. H. Norton described to
us its collection about Harput, Turkey. Tragacanth of commerce is
a conglomerate mixture, good, bad, indifferent, as obtained from the
caravans. In Smyrna it is sorted into grades, based mainly on the
color. This writer took much interest in the Tragacanth problem, and
made many photographs of the Smyrna warehouses, where girls
(Jewish) were engaged in sorting Tragacanth and nugtalls. Dealers
in the one handle the other.

TRITICUM

Couch grass, Agropyron repens, is a weed widely diffused
throughout Europe, Northern Asia, the Caspian region, North and
South America, even to Patagonia and Terra del Fuega. The ancients
were naturally familiar with this grass with a creeping root-stalk, but
it is impossible to determine the species valued by them. Dioscorides
(194) ascribes to the decoction a value in calculus and suppression of
urine. This use of triticum is corroborated by Pliny (514), and again
occurs in the writings of Oribasius (479a) of the third century.
Practically all the medizval herbals figure the plant as in Dodonzus
(195). As a domestic remedy triticum has ever been in common use,
and is still, in the form of a decoction, much employed in mucous dis-
charges from the bladder and in other affections of the urinary organs.

ULMUS

“Slippery elm,” Ulmus fulva, is a middle-sized tree found abun-
dantly in the natural woodlands of the Central and Eastern United
States, from Canada to the South. The Indians and settlers of
- North America valued the inner bark of this tree as a poultice; in
certain skin diseases they used it as an external application, and as a
soothing drink in fevers. In bowel affections they employed a cold
decoction. Schépf (582), 1787, refers to it as “salve bark.” An in-
fusion made by digesting the shredded inner bark of slippery elm in
cold water, has (after the teaching of the Indians) ever maintained a
high reputation in domestic North American medication in fevers, and
especially in diarrheas connected therewith. The mucilaginous quali-
ties render the powdered bark peculiarly adapted to the making of
poultices, in which direction it was known to all the early settlers of
America and was by them introduced to the medical profession.

PHARMACOPCIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

UVA URSI

Bearberry, Uva ursi (Arctostaphylos uva ursi) (Linné), which
takes its name from the fact that its berries are eaten by bears and
other animals, is a low evergreen shrub common to the Northern coun-
tries of Europe and America. The leaves, which are used in medicine,
are an article of commerce in the northern sections of Europe, Amer-
ica, and some parts of Asia. Being used in tanning, in Sweden and
Russia, according to Rafinesque (535), they established the well-
known Russia leather. The astringent leaves were once highly valued
in Europe, but have since fallen into disuse. The domestic employ-
ment of the drug introduced it to American medicine, Drs. Wistar,
Barton (43), and Bigelow (69) recommending a decoction of it as
a wash for leucorrhea and as an injection in gonorrhea and catarrh
of the bladder. For these purposes, as based on its domestic employ-
ment, the plant has its professional record, but has never been very
important in any school of medicine.

VALERIANA

The herbaceous perennial Valeriana officinalis is found through-
out Europe from Spain to Iceland, extending also from the Crimza,
over Northern Asia, into China. It not only grows wild, but in Eng-
land especially is cultivated as a drug plant. It was known to the
Greeks and Romans, and the wild nard described by Dioscorides (194)
and Pliny (514) is supposed to be a species of valerian, of which, in
addition to the Valeriana officinalis, nine species are found in Asia
Minor. The name valerian, however, was not used by the classical
writers, occurring first in the ninth and tenth centuries. It is found
in the Anglo-Saxon names of home remedies, and in domestic books as
early as the eleventh century. Saladinus (570) of Ascoli, 1450, di-
rected that the root be collected in the month of August. In medi-
zval days in England the flavor of valerian was considered by the
common people a delightful addition to broths and pottages, Gerarde
(262) in his Herball, 1567, remarking that the poorer classes of people
in the north of England did not consider such forms of food worth
anything without it. Strangely enough also the odor of valerian, now
considered exceedingly disagreeable, was in the sixteenth century ac-
cepted as a perfume, and as a perfume it is still used in the Orient.
In this connection we will add that we have known valerian to be a
constituent of a perfume very popular with some ladies, but exceed-
ingly unpleasant to some other people. In domestic medicine a tea
from the root of valerian has been employed as a stimulant and
antispasmodic in nervous diseases peculiar to females.

VANILLA

The conquering Spaniards found vanilla in use as a flavor for
cacao among the Aztecs of Mexico, and naturally made this plant
known to Europe. It was then described and illustrated by Hernandez
(314), the “Pliny of the Spaniards,” in his history of Mexico, who de-

7 89

PHARMACOP@GIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

scribed it under both the botanical name, “aracus aromaticus,” and
its vernacular name, “tlilxochitl.” Clusius (153) mentions it in 1602
as “lobus oblongus aromaticus.”” Pomet (519), in 1694, reports the
use of vanilla in France to flavor chocolate and sometimes to perfume
snuff, As early as 1721 vanilla was introduced into the London phar-
macopeia, and in 1739 Mr. Ph. Miller (437) planted some vanilla
specimens (vanilla aromatica, Swartz) in the Chelsea botanical gar-
den. In the West Indies and the adjoining coast of South America
vanilla has also long been known.

In 1724 P. Labat (365), a Catholic missionary, reports (from
hear-say) the abundant occurrence of vanilla in the “terre ferme” of
Cayenne, from which place specimens were forwarded to him in 1697
to Martinique, where he cultivated the plant and observed its habits
for eight years. He also planted vanilla in Guadaloupe. In 1750
P. Gumilla met vanilla in the Orinoco country. To Humboldt (331)
we owe the first authentic and detailed report on Mexican vanilla.
The Mexican Province of Oaxaca supplied the first vanilla export to
Spain, and the bean was discovered in this province by De Menonville
(Gardeners’ Chronicle, May, 1874) in 1777. Vanilla forests, accord-
ing to old archives, have been in cultivation at Papantla, near Vera
Cruz, as early as 1760.

The species yielding the finest-flavored vanilla, subsequently
named vanilla planifolia, Andrews, was imported from America into
England by the Rt. Hon. Charles Greville (Hortus Kewensis, Vol. v,
1813), this flowering in his collection at Paddington in 1807 (57).
Specimens of this plant were later transferred to Paris and Belgium,
from whence the botanical gardens of Reunion (Bourbon) and Java
were supplied. In 1830 Neumann introduced the artificial fecunda-
tion of Vanilla planifolia in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in
1837 Professor Morren did the same at Liege (239). The Java plan-
tation, started in 1841, now supplies the Dutch market solely.

The Reunion plantation, according to Delteuil, was started by
Perrottet in 1839 (239). The cultivation of vanilla for the purpose
of export was subsequently introduced into other French colonies—
e. g., into Mauritius by M. Richard (550), into Guadaloupe (in 1875),
Martinique, Ste. Marie (near Madagascar), and into Tahiti of the
Society Islands. In Jamaica individual attempts to cultivate vanilla
are on record. The cultivation in Calcutta, however, according to re-
ports by Dr. King, seems to be a failure. (Phar. Journ. & Trans.,
Nov., 1876.) Suggestions have been made of a more energetic prose-
cution of the vanilla culture in Jamaica, in Venezuela, and Guiana;
also of an introduction of this article into the extreme southern parts
of the United States, Florida, and Texas. For a historical treatise
Pe all the aspects of vanilla and its cultivation see (388) Vanilla plani-
olia.

VERATRUM VIRIDE
This is quite a common plant in many parts of the United States,

particularly in the eastern states, where it grows in swampy places, wet
meadows, and along the borders of streams. It is usually well known

go

PHARMACOPG:IAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

to the people in sections where it is found, who call it itch-weed, Indian
poke, poke-root,* or American hellebore, swamp hellebore, etc. The
earliest travelers made mention of it. Jossélyn (345) records that it
was used as an ordeal test by the American Indians, somewhat on the
saine order as the ordeals by the negroes of Africa at the present day.
He supposed it was the same as Veratrum album of Europe, and notes
its abundance, stating “that you may in a small compass gather whole
cart-loads of it.” :
Peter Kalm (350) states that it is very common in marshy places
and frequently causes the death of stock which eat the young leaves
in spring; also that the settlers employed a decoction of the root to
poison the seed-corn, to prevent the birds from eating it ;+ and also
that the root was used as an insecticide. ‘
According to Loudon the plant was introduced into Europe in
1742, though most authorities ascribe to Peter Collinson its in-
troduction in 1763 (8). It was named and described in the first
edition of Aiton’s Hortus Kewensis (vol. 3, p. 422, 1789) as Veratrum
viride, and Aiton by most writers is given as the author of the name.
In justice, however, the credit should be given to William Solander,
an English botanist and illustrious pupil of Linnzeus, who (although
no mention of the fact is made in the publication) furnished the de-
scriptions and nomenclature of the new species described in Aiton’s
work.
a ore viride is conceded by all modern botanists to be a dis-
tinct species; it is so close, however, to Veratrum album of Europe
that the early explorers of America and some of the earlier botanists
and travelers—Michaux (433) (Flor. bor. am., Vol. IT, p. 249), Josse-
lyn (345), Kalm (350), David Schépf (582)—thought it was the same
species. Certainly the rhizomes of both plants bear a close resemblance
to each other, even in their microscopical aspects. (E. S. Baslin, Am-

Jour. Phar., 1895, p. 196.)

VIBURNUM OPULUS

High cranberry, Viburnum opulus, known also as cramp bark,
is a shrub growing in swamps and damp localities of the Northern
United States. The bark of this shrub was used by the Indians as
a diuretic, a decoction being freely employed. According to Rafinesque
(535), pills and plasters were also devised from this plant, and the
bark was smoked, instead of tobacco, by some of the Western Indian
tribes. The leaves of Viburnum opulus and other species were used
by the Indians as a tea, and also by the settlers of the Southern States
in early Colonial days. The domestic use of viburnum did not impress
the medical profession to any extent until the day of Beach (49), as
is evidenced by the fact that such conspicuous authorities as Zollick-
offer (706), and even the United States Dispensatory, 1833 edition,
neglected to mention either the plant or its uses.

* A name universally employed for phytolacca decandra. : ae 2

+The statement being that the marauding birds were sickened and did not return.

{Dictionary of National Biography. “Aiton, Wm.” New York, 1885 to date.
gr

PHARMACOPCEIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM

Black haw, Viburnum prunifolium. The bark of this tree was
employed in American domestic medication during the first part of
the nineteenth century. The first authentic reference we have observed
is in the American Family Physician, by Professor John King, M. D.
(356), 1857, where the drug is described and the statement made that
it acts as a uterine tonic, its uses being practically those now recorded
in medical literature. In 1860 Dr, I. J. M. Goss (New Preparations,
1878, p. 61) commended the drug, probably brought to his attention
through the writings of King, as well, possibly, as from its local em-
ployment in his part of the South. He introduced it into his own
practice and commended it to his professional friends. From this date
black haw grew rapidly in favor, and through repeated publications,
in medical as well as pharmaceutical literature, came into extensive

demand, being finally given a position in the Pharmacopeia of the
United States.

XANTHOXYLUM

Prickly ash, Xanthoxylum americanum, is a shrub native to
North America, being somewhat abundant in localities where it is
found, between the Mississippi River and the Western States. Long
a domestic remedy, it became a favorite in the Eclectic school of
medicine by reason of its use during the prevalence of the Asiatic
cholera in Cincinnati, 1849, in which it was employed by them with
great satisfaction. It had, however, as stated, a domestic as well as
a seemingly professional record preceding that date, the same reaching
back to the primitive medication of the Indians. Barton’s Collection
(43), Zollickoffer’s (706) Materia Medica (1826), and other authori-
ties on the domestic remedies of North America mention it conspicu-
ously, the latter writer stating that the berries were used to relieve
the toothache, a decoction of the bark in the treatment of rheumatic
affections, whilst the country people employed an infusion of the ber-
ries in colic. It was therefore a popular remedy, possessed of marked
carminative qualities, that, impressing such men as Barton (43),
Thacher (631), King 356-357), Zollickoffer ( 706), and others, brought
it into professional recognition. Prickly ash berries are used in large
amount in some of the American proprietary remedies.

ZEA (STIGMA MAYDIS)

Corn Silk (Zea, or Stigmata maydis) seems to have crept into
the notice of the medical profession in Europe before it had any con-
spicuity in America. In 1878 (Revista de Madrid), a Dr. Betherand
mentioned it in print. Long preceding that date, however, a tea of
corn silk had been employed in American domestic practice as a remedy
for acute affections of the bladder. Dr. John Davis, a well-known Cin-
cinnati physician, repeatedly informed the writer that, in his opinion, a
decoction of corn silk, together with a decoction of dried pods of beans,
was the most effective of all diuretics he had employed in his practice,

g2

PHARMACOPGIAL VEGETABLE DRUGS.

as well as being most satisfactory in acute cystitis. The Medical News,
August 10, 1881, commended a decoction of corn silk in the afore-
named directions, and in the Therapeutic Gazette (634), February,
1881, Professor L. W. Benson reported that in his practice the remedy
acted very favorably and kindly. Following this, various contributions
appeared in the foreign medical journals, one by Dr. Dufau in the
London Medical Record, spoke of it as a little known, newly intro-
duced remedy. Many commendatory articles followed this in Euro-
pean medical journals, which fact, together with the increased demand
on American manufacturing pharmacists, led to its introduction into
the Pharmacopeia of the United States.

ZINGIBER

Ginger, Zingiber officinale, is a reed-like plant native to Asia,
but has been introduced to most tropical countries, and grows freely in
some parts of the West Indies, South America, Western Africa,
Australia, etc. It was known to the ancients, being extensively used
by the Greeks and Romans, who considered it an Arabian product
because it came to them, among spices from India, by way of the Red
Sea. It was an article of common import from the East to Europe
from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries A. D., and probably for
a long period preceding that time. Ginger was taxed as a spice, in
common with pepper, cloves, galangal, cubebs, etc. It was frequently
named in the Anglo-Saxon domestic works on medicine of the eleventh
century, and was used by the Welsh physicians (507) of the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, being then next to pepper in common use.
Marco Polo (518) observed it in China and India about 1280-90. In
fact, ginger has been a spice and a domestic remedy from the earliest
records, being extensively employed both as a spice and as an aro-
matic stomachic. It is still a popular domestic remedy as well as
a favorite with many physicians.

93

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The text numbers in parenthesis refer to corresponding numbers
in the Bibliography. Other numbers, as a rule, refer to dates.

The Bibliographical references embrace 763 authors and 91g titles.
Many. authors, however, to whom credit might properly be given in
these pages, have been unmentioned. (See Introduction.) But, inas-
much as the majority of the publications herein referred to are now
on the shelves of the Lloyd Library, as is true also of thousands of
others of importance to which reference, for lack of space, has been
omitted, the chain of events, past or present, concerning any subject,
can be completed by taking advantage of the bibliographical references
herein recorded. To Mr. Wm. Holden, Librarian Lloyd Library, is
due the credit of the completeness of these references.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

. Abet, F. J.

Le Chimaphila umbellata (herbe 4 pisser): son action diurétique.
Paris, 1889.

Abu Mansur Mowasik ben Ali al herui.

Liber fundamentorum pharmacologize. Vindobone, 1830-3. (German ed.
Halle, 1893.) :

. Acosta, Cristobal.

Tractado de las drogas. Burgos, 1578. (Later editions in French,
Latin, and Italian.) :

. Actuarius, Joannes.

De medicamentorum compositione. Basilez, [1540?].
Methodi medendi libri sex. Venetiis, 1554.

. Acufia, C, de.

Nuevo descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas. Madrid, 1641.

. Aétius, Amidenus.

Librorum medicinalium tomus primus. Venetiis, 1534. (Greek text.)
Librorum medicinalium, libri xvi. Basilee, 1535. (Later editions.)

. Ainslie, W.

Materia medica.- 2 v. London, 1826.

Materia medica of Hindostan. Madras, 1813.

Aiton, William.

Hortus Kewensis. 3 v. London, 1789.

Albert, P.

Observations sur le chanvre indigéne. Strasbourg, 1859.

Albertus Magnus.

Alberti Magni ex ordine preedicatorum de vegetabilibus libri vii. Bero-
lini, 1867.

Alexander Trallianus.

Alexandri Tralliani medici lib. xii. Lutetiw, 1548. (Greek text.)
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