MEMOIRS 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACADEM Y 


OF 


ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


NEW SERIES. 


NOL. VIAL. PART I. 


\ 


Mo. Bot. Garden, 
1897. 


CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON: 
WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY, 


PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 


1861. 


MEMOIRS VE 
p € Y $e) 
AMERICAN ACADEMY 

ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
NEW SERIES. 

VOL. VIII PART I1 72 
vo Mo Bot. Garden, 

1897. 


CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON : 
WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY, 


PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 


1861-63 


A. 


NIE 


XII. 


CONTENTS. OF PARI 2. 


An unpublished Grammatical Fragment. — Petronius Arbiter De Antiquis Dictioni- 
bus. By CHARLES BECK. 


On the Alloys of Copper and Zinc. By Frank H. STORER. 


On the Impurities of Commercial Zinc, with special Reference to the Residue insolu- 
ble in Dilute Acids, to Sulphur, and to Arsenic. By CHarLes W. For and 
Frank H. Storer. : 


Remarks on the Latest Form of the Development Theory. By Francis Bowen. 


On the Secular Variations and Mutual Relations of the Orbits of the Asteroids. By 
SIMON NEWCOMB. 


Plante Wrightiane e Cuba Orientali (Polypetale et Apetale), a A. GRISEBACH 


Filices Wrightiane et Fendleriane,— nempe in Insula Cuba a CAROLO WRIGHT et in 


Venezuela ab Auve. FENDLER, ann. 1854 — 60, (nonnullis Panamensibus etc. inter- 


jectis,) Enumerate cura DANIEL C. Eaton, A. M. 


L On the Light of the Moon and of the Planet Jupiter. By GzonaE P. Bop. . 
E Comparison. ot the Light of the Sun and Moon. By Genen P. Bonn, . 


A Catalogue of the e eege of 532 Stars culminating near the Zenith of the 


Observatory of Harvard College, Cambridge. By T. H. SAFFORD. 


The Lumbar Enlargement of the Spinal Cord. By Jonn Dean, M.D: (With Four 
Plates.) : ; ; 7 : 


On some of the Relations of Salts of Zinc and Alumina to Soda and Potassa. By | 
- E. N. Horsrorp. : 


e PAGE 


158 ~ 


193 


287 


OFFICERS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY, 


FOR THE YEAR BEGINNING MAY, 1860. 


President. 
JACOB BIGELOW. 


Vice- President. 
DANIEL TREADWELL. 


ASA GRAY, . e : ; ; . Corresponding Secretary. 


SAMUEL L. ABBOT, . : « ; Recording Secretary. 


EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH, ó . Treasurer. 
JOSIAH P. COOKE, . : ; ; Librarian and Cabinet- Keeper. 


STANDING COMMITTEES. 


Rumford Committee. Committee on the Library. 
EBEN N. HORSFORD, AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, 
DANIEL TREADWELL, WILLIAM B. ROGERS, 
JOSEPH LOVERING, - GEORGE P. BOND. 

lex ee Auditing Combnittee. 


MORRILL WYMAN. 
CHARLES E. WARE, 


THOMAS T. BOUVÉ. 


Committee of Publication. 2 : 
Committee of Finance. 


JOSEPH LOVERING, | - JACOB BIGELOW, ez officio, 
JEFFRIES WYMAN, EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH, ex officio, 
C. C. FELTON. J. I. BOWDITCH. 
COUNCIL. 
Class 1. e Class YI. 
JOSEPH LOVERING, LOUIS AGASSIZ, 
EBEN N. HORSFORD, JOHN B. S. JACKSON, 
J. I. BOWDITCH. JEFFRIES WYMAN. 
Class IIl. 


JAMES WALKER, 
HENRY W. TORREY, 
NATHAN APPLETON. 


MEMOIRS 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACA D E M Y. 


An unpublished Grammatical Fragment. — Petronius Arbiter De Antiquis Dictionibus. 


Bx CHARLES BECK. ` 


Communicated September 13th, 1859. 


Waite engaged in Europe in a search after manuscripts of the Satyricon of Petronius - 
Arbiter, I found, in November, 1858, in the Biblioteca Riccardiana at Florence, a 
quarto volume of about two hundred pages containing, among other works, as Prisci- 
anus de Ponderibus, Fulgentius, Homeri Vita, Francisci Petrarchi "Testamentum, also 
a grammatical fragment entitled Ex Petronio Arbitro. On the inside of the cover is. 
this statement: * Membrane. fragmentum. inferius appositum ex veteri attrito tegu- 


mento huc translatum. est die 19 Juli, 1716. 2: EE a Sie? a modern. copy of im | E 


unm older AS which, from. ge: or ne, was in danger of | ecoming ; 


uidit When, e Ev dtd te r, in n the passat of my object, I wh, through 


the kind aid of the Laien Minister, Mr. Stockton, access to the Vatican Library, 


and, through the kindness of the Prince Buoncompagni, the numbers of two manu- 


scripts bearing the name of Petronius, I found that one of them contained the same > E 
fragment which I had poned i in posue. Of this, a a made a | careful n While eu 


» "Those SDE reacio Soot dug itid: iet SORE Reg authors. S alae E 


that, in an earlier manuscript, this fragment followed the Satyricon of Petronius, and being without the name 


of an author, or at least without the second name Arbiter, an ignorant « or careless copyist ascribed the frag- E E 


ment to the author of the preceding Satyricon. 
= Uh (1 ee QU R5 


9 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


in Italy, I had neither the time nor means to ascertain whether the fragment was 
already published, but upon a somewhat more careful investigation since my return, 
I have come to the conclusion that it is an avéx8orov.* The contents, although of no 
great importance, are yet of sufficient interest to justify the publication of the frag- 


ment. 
attempt at a reconstruction of the text. 
Petronius. 


Biblioteca Vaticana. 


PETRONIUS ARBITER DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 


Nitrum dicitur a nitra prouincia: ubi 
si estate prolixa pluuia terram infuderit: 
rapida ui solis aquam concoquit.in petram 
salis et niui simillimam sed nihil frigoris 
uel salsi humoris habentem que salis uel 
caumate durescit uel pluuioso aere lique- 
scit. hoc indigene ad lauandum utuntur. 

Kyrogrillus animal non maius ericio 
simile muri uel urso in cauernis petrarum 


habitans in Italia abundans. 
Caparis herba que fallitur. plautus in 
Gurgulione. Ne oliuas aut pulpamentum 


aut caparum. et alibi Caparis et putri 
cepas allece natantes. 

Hepicima laus de uictoria. 

Exedre thalami seu cellule seu potius 
cubilia aut sedes. Cicero de oratore. In 
eadem exedra. 

Scalptura quod usitatius scalpturam dici- 
mus: tunc histriaca dicitur: quod qui histo- 
rias sel gesta aliqua exprimunt histriones: 


- * The only indication which I find t that the contents of the fragment, or a part of them, were pre 


The copy of the two manuscripts will be followed by some remarks, and an 
I shall, for convenience’ sake, retain the name 


Biblioteca Riccardiana. 


Ex PETRONIO ÁRBITRO FRAGMENTUM INCIPIT. 


Nitrum dicitur a nitra prouincia: ubi si 
in aestate pluuia terram infuderit rapida ui 
solis aquam concoquit in petram sali ex 
riuis simillimam : sed nihil frigoris uel salsi 
humoris habentem: quae salis more uel 
caumate durescit: uel pluuioso aere lique- 
scit. hoc indigenae ad laudandum utuntur. 

Cyrogrillus animal non maius ericio 
simile muri et urso in cauernis petrarum 
habitans in italia abundans. _ 

Caparis herba que salitur. Pinus in 
curgulione voltis ne oliuam aut. pulpu- — 
mentum aut caparim: et martialis Caparim 
alibi et putri cepas alece natantes. 

Epirima laus de uictoria. 

Exedrae thalami seu cellulae seu potius 
cubilia aut sedes. et actoris nomen accepe- 
runt. Cicero in eadem exedra. 

Scalptura quod usitatius sculpturam dici- 
mus tunc histriaca dicitur tam historias uel 
gesta gis exprimunt histriones. 


known, is contained in C. G. Anton's edition of the Satyricon, 1781, p. 490, where he gives among the Frag- 
ments of Petronius the following: * Petronii Grammatici Fragmenta. Horatius: Quis te redonavit Quiritem 
. diis patriis? cuius nominativus est hic Quirites. — Classica a calando, id est vocando.” To this is added the 
note: * Classica. Daniel. invenit in vet. Cod. in explicatione classicum haec ita expressa: et classica auctore 
Petronio à ee etc. 


DE ANTIQUIS 


Mulsum uinum melle decoctum. Plau- 
tus in Asinaria et cantaro mulsum date. 

Peribolus templi est ipsius circumposita 
munitionum constructio. 

Coloquintis agrestis cucurbita et uehe- 
menter amara: que more cucurbite per 
terram flagella defundit. Foliorum uero et 
fructus usualis instar cucumeris. Rotun- 
ditas coloquintis nomen indicit. 

Classica sunt cornua: que conuocandi 
causa facta erant: et a calando id est uocan- 
dodicta. Virgilius. classica iamque sonant. 

Sinaxis concilium uel auditorium uel hora 
conueniendi dici potest. 

Amagliffi celature. 

Musach sababi arca: ubi reges templum 
ingressuri elemosinam imponebant. 

Carpasinus color est aureus sicut et 
citrinus. 

Lurica seu cancellus est murus cenacu- 
lorum seu quorunlibet edificiorum oram 
ambiens ab iniuria lapsus inibi defendens. 


Reuma est eruptio uel fluor. 

Scutra sunt uasa aenea equalia in fun- 
do et ore late ad calefaciendum uinum. 

_ Amule uero ad offerendum uinum uasa 
enea esse dicuntur. — 
- Catalogus ordinarius sermo. 

Auarus quasi auidus eris. est littera in 
iunctura detracta uel forsitan simplex de- 
riuatum ab aueo. 

Locuples est qui pleraque tenet loca id 
est multas possessiones. 

Lex est generale iussum populi aut plebis 
rogante magistratu. 

Populus est omnis pars omnisque ordo 
ciuitatis. 

Plebs uero dicitur: in qua gentes patri- 
ciorum non insunt. 


DICTIONIBUS. 9 


Mulsum uinum melle decoctum.  plau- 
tus in asinaria et cantaro mulsum date. 

Peribolus templi est ipsius circumposita 
munitionum constructio. 

Coloquintis agrestis cucurbita et uehe- 
menter amara quae more cucurbitae per ter- 
ram flagella diffundit. foliorum uero et 
fructus uasualis instar cucumeris rotun- 
ditas coloquintis nomen dedit. 

Classica sunt cornua quae conuocandi 
causa facta erant: et a calando id est uocan- 
do dicta. Virg. Classica iamque sonant. 

Sinaxis concilium uel auditorium uel 


| hora conueniendi dici potest. 


Anaglifa relatura. 

Musach sababi arca. ubi réges templum 
ingressuri elimosinam imponebant. 

Carpasinus color est aureus sicut et 
cetrinus. 

Luria siue cancellus est murus cenacu- 
lorum seu quorumlibet aedificiorum oram 
ambiens ab iniuria uus mihi incedentes 
defendens. 

Reuma est eruptio uel Fu 

Scutra sunt uasa aenea aequalis in fundo 
et ore latitudinis ad calefaciendum uinum. 

Annile uero ad offerendum uinum uasa 


aenea esse dicuntur. 


- Cathalogus ordinarius sermo. 

Auarus quasi auidus eris et est littera 
iniunctura detracta: uel forsan zi pm de- 
riuatum ab aueo. 

Locuples est qui pleraque na loca id 
est multas possessiones. : 

Legem generale iussum salia nit plebis 
rogante magistratu. 

Populus est omnis pars omnisque ordo 
ciuitatis. 

plebs uero ea dicitur in qua gentes pa- 
triciorum non insunt. 


4 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


Plebiscitum est lex illa; quam plebs.non 
populus sciuit. 

Priua dixerunt antiqui: quod singula 
dicimus: unde priuilegia: quod non ab 
uniuersis ciuibus: sed a singulis conceptum 
uisumque est fieri: Inde etiam translatiue 
singulares specialesque cuiusque dignita- 
tiseius priuilegia appellamus. hec omnia 
generali nomine rogationes appellantur: et 
confuse per se inuicem hec ponuntur. 

Italia dicta est: quod in ea magna boum 
copia fuerit: qui greca ueteri lingua itale 
uocitati sunt. 


Elegantia apud ueteres non de amoeniore: 


ingenio sed nitidiore cultu ac uictu diceba- 
tur: nec in laude nec in uitio ponebatur. 
unde M. Cato in libro qui inscribitur Car- 
men de moribus. Sumptuosus cupidus ele- 
gans ititiosus irritusque habebatur. Unde 


apparet elegantem dictum antiquitus non 


ab ingenii elegantia; sed qui nimis lecto 
amoenoque cultu uictuque esset. postea 
elegans uituperii desiit esse: sed nulla 
laude dignabatur: nisi cuius elegantia erat 
moderatissima, 

Qui mendacium dicit: fallitur. Qui 
mentitur: ipse non fallitur: alium fallere 
conatur. 

Lictorem dicit Valerius a ligando appella- 
tum esse: eoque qum magistratus populi ro- 
mani uirgis quempiam uerberare iussisset : 
crura eius ac manibus ligari a uiatore solite 
sunt. Is qui ex collegio uiatorum officium 
ligandi habebat: lictor est appellatus. Tyro 
uero lictorem a lino uel a licio: quod idem 

est dici scripsit. Litio enim transuerso qui 


ministrabant. inquit magistratibus cincti 


erant. 
Intra Kalendas dicitur fieri: quod non 


Plebiscitum est lex illa quam plebs non 
populus sciuit. 

Priua dixerunt antiqui quod nos singula 
dicimus. Unde Priuilegium quod non ab 
uniuersis ciuibus sed a singulis conceptum 
uisumque est fieri. Inde etiam translatiue 
singulares specialesque cuiusque dignitatis 
eius priuilegia appellamus. Haec omnia 
generali nomine rogatio appellantur: et con- 
fuse per sunt inuicem haec pronuntiantur. 

Italia dicta est quod in ea magna boum 
copia fuerit: quod uetere graeca lingua ita- 
los uocati sunt. 

Elegantia apud ueteres non de ameniore 
ingenio : sed nitidiore cultu ac uictu diceba- 
tur: nec in laude nec in uitio ponebatur. 
Unde M. Cato in libro quod inscribitur car- 
men de moribus: sumptuosus: cupidus": ele- 
gans: uitiosus: irritusque: habeatur. Unde 
apparet elegantem dictum antiquitus non 
ab ingenii elegantia: sed qui nimis lecto 
amenoque cultu uictuque esset. Postea 
elegans uituperii desiit esse. Sed nulla 
laude dignabatur nisi cuius elegantia erat 
modestissima. : 

Qui mendacium dicit fallitur. Sed quod 
mentitur ipse non fallitur. alterum fallere 
conatur. . 

Lictorem dicit ualerius a ligando appel- 
latum esse. Eo quod cum magistratus po- 
puli romani uirgis quemquam uerberari ius- 
sissent crura eius ac manus ligari a uiatore 
solitae sunt. is qui ex collegio uiatorum offi- 
cium ligandi habebat lictor est appellatus. 
Tiro uero lictorem a linio uel licio quod 
idem est dici scripsit licio enim transuerso ` 
quod ministrabant inquit "— 
cincti erant. 

Intra calendas dicimus fieri quod non 


DE ANTIQIUS 


ante Kalendas: sed in Kalendis est: id est 
eo ipso die: quo Kalende sunt. 

Pomerium est locus intra agrum effatum 
populi romani totius urbis circuitum pones 
muros regionibus certis determinatum: qui 
facit finem urbani auspicii. 

Humanitas proprie est eruditio institu- 
tionum : que in bonas artes dicimus: quas 
sinceriter capiunt: appetuntque hi qui sunt 
maxime humanissimi. Huius enim scien- 
tie cura et disciplina ex uniuersis animan- 
tibus uni homini data est: idemque hu- 
manitas est appellata. 

Manubias quidam predam que manibus 
capta est appellari existimant. Sed omnino 
aliud est preda: aliud manubie. Nam preda 
dicuntur corpora: que capta sunt: Manu- 
bie uero appellata est pecunia a questore 
ex uenditione prede redacta. 

Faciem hominis quidam putant esse os 
tantum et oculum et genam: qum facies sit 
modus et factura quedam totius corporis 
a faciendo dicta: ut a specto species: et a 
fingendo figura. Unde pacuuius faciem 
hominis dixit pro statura. etate inquit in- 
tegra feroci ingenio facie procera uirum. 
Nec solum hominum sed etiam rerum cu- 
iuscunque modi aliarum facies dicitur: Nam 
et montis et maris et celi facies dititur. _ 

Profligare est deperdere et destruere. - 

Vestibulum a ue particula que tum in- 
tensionem tum minutionem significat et a 
stando componi uidetur. Qui enim am- 
plas domos antiquitus faciebant: locum 
ante ianuam uacuum relinquebant: qui 
intra fores domus et uias medius esset, In 
eo loco qui dominum eius domus saluta- 
tum ueniebant: priusquam admitterentur 
consistebant: sed neque in uia neque intra 


DICTIONIBUS. 5 


ante calendas sed in calendis est. in eo ipso 
die quo calendae sunt. 

Pomerium est locus intra agrum et satum 
populi romani totius urbis circuitum pone 
muros regionibus certis determinatis quod 
facit finem urbani auspicii. ; 

Humanitas proprie est eruditio institu- 
tioque in bonas artes; quas qui sinceriter 
capiunt appetuntque ii sunt maxime hu- 
manissimi. huius enim scientiae cura et 
disciplina ex uniuersis animantibus uni 
homini data est. Ideoque humanitas ap- 
pellata est. 

Manubias quidam praedam quae mani- 
bus capta sit appellari existimant. Sed 
omnino aliud est praeda: aliud manubiae. 
Nam praeda dicitur. corpora quae capta 
sunt. Manubiae uero appellata est pecunia 
a quaestore ex uenditione praedae redacta. 

Faciem hominis quidam putant esse os 
tantum et oculos et genas cum facies sit 
modus et factura quaedam totius corporis 
a faciendo dicta: ut a specto species et 
a fingendo figura. Unde pacuuius dixit 
faciem hominis pro statura. Aetate inquit 
integra feroci ingenio: facie procera uirum. 
Nec solum hominum sed etiam rerum cuius- 
cunque modi aliarum facies dicitur. Nam 
et montis et maris et coeli facies dicitur. 

 Profligare est deperdere et destruere. 

Vestibulum a ue particula quae cum in- 
tentionem tum minutionem significat a 
stando componi uidetur. Q ri n. amplas 
domos antiquitus faciebant locum ante 
ianuam uacuum relinquebant. qui intra 
fores domus et uiam medius esset in eo 
loco qui dominum eius domus salutatum 
ueniebant priusquam admitterentur consi- 
stebant: et neque in uia stabant neque in 


6 


edes erant. Id illa ergo grandi constatione 
. quasi quadam constabulatione supra dicta 
spacia sunt appellata. 


Vescum quoque ex ue particula et esca 
compositum: et diminutionis uim capit. 
Aliter enim Lucretius uescum salem dicit 
ex edendi intentione. Aliter Lucilius ap- 
pellat cum edendi fastidio. 

Foenerator a foenore: Foenus a foetu 
dictum aiunt et quasi a quadam foetura 
pecunie parientis atque crescentis. 

Assiduus ex ad et sedeo : uel asse et dando. 
et ita frequentem uel locupletem significat. 

Quin coniunctio aliter dici putatur: qum 
quasi increpantes uel orantes dicimus: ut 
quin uenis: quin legis. Aliter qum dici- 
mus: non dubium est: quin M. Tullius 
sit eloquentissimus. Aliter qum sic com- 
ponimus: quasi priori uidetur contrarium. 
Non idcirco causam hanc non defendit So- 
crates: quin utile et honestum existimarit. 

Soror dicitur quasi seorsum in heredi- 
- tate non mansura. 

Frater quasi fere alter. 

Humilitas est modestia mentis: que non 
effertur supra se in elatione. 


Mansuetudo est manuum assuetudo: ut 
puta qum que natura fera sunt manu trac- 
tari possunt. D i 


_ Deuotio est, post dasecatini uitiorum ru- 


jiginem purum boni desiderium. | 

- Misericordia est affectus subueniendi ex 
compassione proximi consurgens munditia 
cordis nec presentium delectatur: nec > pre- 
teritorum recordatione. — ! 


PETRONIUS ARBITER 


aedes erant. Sed illa ergo grandis loci cum 
astatione quasi quadam cum constabula- 
tione supradicta spatia uestibula sunt ap- 
pellata. 

Vescum quoque ex ue particula et esca 
compositum et diminutionis uim capit. 
Aliter n. Lucretius uescum salem dixit ex 
edendi intensione. Aliter lucilius uescum 
appellat cum edendi fastidio. 

Foenerator a foenere: foenus a fetu dic- 
tum aiunt, et quasi a quadam foetura pecu- 
niae crescentis ac parientis. 

Assiduus ex ad et sedeo: uel asse dando 
exita frequentem et locupletem significat. 

Quin conuinctio aliter dici putatur cum 
quasi increpantes uel exhortantes dicimus 
quin uenis quin vadis. Aliter cum dicimus. 
Non dubium est quin M. Tullius sit elo- 
quentissimus. Aliter cum sic componimus: 
quod quasi priori uidetur contrarium. Non 
iccirco causam hanc non desendit socrates 
quin utile et honestum existimauerit. 

Soror dicitur quasi seorsim in hereditate 
non mansura. 

Frater quasi fere alter. 

Humilitas sm quosdam est modestia 
mentis quae non effertur supra se in elatio- 
nem. Sm uero consuetudinem latinorum 
est popularis quaedam ignobilitas seu de- 
terrimum quod graeci dicunt. | 

Mansuetudo est manum assuetudo ut 
puta cum quae natura fera. sunt manu trac- 


tari possunt. 


Deuotio est post diis: niil ru- ` 
biginem purum boni desiderium. dan 
Misericordia est affectus subueniendi ez 
compassione proximi consurgens munditia : 
cordis nec praesentium delectatione | nec 


; praeteritorum recordatione, + iasi: 


DE ANTIQUIS 


Pax diuersam habet significationem: 
aliter enim qum significat requiem animi: 
aliter qum propitiationem. 


Dipsas genus aspidis est grece: que 
latine dicitur Situla. Quencunque hec 
momorderit: siti perit: que adeo est 
parua: ut qum calcatur: non uideatur: 
cuius uenenum extinguit: quam sentiatur: 
nec tristitiam sentiat moriturus. 

Adeo particula que aliquando non ad- 
uerbii loco ponitur: ut Virgilius. Non adeo 
obtusi gestamus pectora poni. Rursum pro 
etiam ponitur: ut Senatus et adeo populus. 
ponitur etiam pro coniunctione completiua. 

Iobel grece id est dimittere: unde Io- 
bileus id est remissus. 

Peta impetus gladiorum. 

Crusta est glacies. 

Hilarum letum, iocundum, ridens, plau- 
dens, gaudens, gestiens. 


DICTIONIBUS. 1 

Pax diuersam habet significantiam: Ali- 
ter enim cum significat requietem animi. 
Aliter cum propitrationem. 

Pax est requies animae interiorum bono- 
rum consideratione. E 

Luctus uel dolor est uiuificatio mentis 
ex primo sensu boni uel mali consurgens, 

Dupas genus aspidis est graecae: quo 
latine dicitur stula. Quemcunque haec mo- 
morderit siti perit; quae adeo. est parua 
ut cum calcatur non uideatur. Cuius ue- 
nenum ante extinguit quam sentiatur. ne 
tristitiam sentiat moriturus. 

Adeo particula aliquando aduerbii loco 
ponitur: ut non adeo obtusa gestamus pec- 
tora teneri. Rursum pro etiam ponitur, ut 
senatus et adeo populus. Ponitur etiam 
coniunctione completiua. 

Iobel graece id est remittere. 
Iubilens id est remissus. 

Peta impetus gladiorum. Unde cicero 
crusta est glacies. 


Unde 


FINIS. 


kb 


Notes to Petronius Arbiter De Antiquis Dictionibus. 


1. Nitrum. The description of the manufacture of natron, agreeing to some extent 


with that given by Pliny, Nat. Hist. 31, 10, 


46, 109,* seems to indicate that the author 


speaks of the Egyptian article. This opinion is corroborated by the name nitra pro- 
vincia (perhaps nitrosa or mitraria provincia), meaning the district of Naucratis and 
Memphis where natron was produced. Cf. Plin. Nat. Hist. 31, 10, 46, 111.1 The name 


* «In Aegypto autem multo abundantius sed deterius; nam fuscum lapidosumque est. Fit paene eodem 
modo quo sal, nisi quod salinis mare infundunt, Nilum autem nitrariis; haec cedente Nilo madent suco nitri 
XL diebus continuis, non ut in Macedonia statis. Si et imbres adfuerunt, minus e flumine addunt statimque 
ut densari coeptum est rapitur, ne resolvatur in nitrariis.” 

T * Nitrariae Aegypti circa Naucratim et Memphim tantum solebant esse, circa Memphim deteriores." 


8 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


nitra provincia may possibly be’ an attempt to render in Latin what Strabo, 17, 803, 23, 
calls vous verpuoTAs Or veTpLOris. 

2. Kyrogrillus or Cyrogrillus is undoubtedly a corruption of bone är. It is the 
porcupine, hystrix, which resembles the hedgehog, ericius. If we except the expres- 
sion *simile muri vel (et) urso," the description, though brief, is correct. Cf. Plin. 
Nat. Hist. 8, 35, 58, 125: “ Hystrices generat India et Africa spina contectas ac erina- 
ceorum genere, sed hystrici longiores aculei et cum intendit cutem missilibus ora 
urguentium figit canum et paulo longius iaculatur; hibernis autem se mensibus 
condit, quae natura multis et ante omnia ursis,” This last clause of Pliny furnishes, 
perhaps, an explanation of the expression “ simile muri vel urso.” If we take simile 
in the sense of similarity of habit, as well as similarity of form, the expression may be 
considered the substance of the definition, which, in the author from whom Petronius 
copied, was probably more full. e 

9. Caparis. The passage of Plautus occurs in Curculio, 1. 1, 90: * Voltisne olivas 
aut pulmentum aut capparim." ‘The second quotation from Martial occurs in 3, 
77, 5: * Capparin et putri cepas halece natantes." The expression * quae salitur" is 
explained by Dioscorides, 2, 204: tapuyevetas 98 d kavXos aurís Kal d kapzrós eis Bpdow. 

4. Hepicima or Epirima. The writing of the Cod. Ricc. contains the elements 
of the true reading, viz. Epirima, which is to be corrected into Epinicia, ém/«a, the 
letters rim containing as many strokes as nici. The word is used in the sense ascribed 
to it here, in Soph. Elect. 692: rovrov éveyxov mavra ramwixta. | 

5. Evedre. 1 follow the reading of the Cod. Vat. It is easy to understand how 
the copyist of the Cod. Ricc. should change de oratore into et actoris, but not how the 
words nomen acceperunt crept in. If the words de oratore be correct, the following in 
eadem exedra should be changed into in eam exedram. See De Orat. 3, 5,17: “in 
eam exedram venisse." 

6. Scalptura. There is evidently in both manuscripts a mixing up of two articles, 
the one on sculptura, the other on histrio, the second being incomplete. The form 

histriaca, which both manuscripts have, for histrica, does not occur anywhere else. — — 
= ^. Mulsum. The quotation from Asin. of Plautus is 5, E 56: * Pueri plaudite et 
mi ob iactum cantharo mulsum date.” ` 
e Peribolus. Y have not found any passage in S nich the word, precisely in the 
- meaning given, occurs. Suidas gives the definition ó rás vgds. Strange to say, Vitru- 

vius does not use the term. 

: .9. Colog tintis. "The reading dedit, of the Cod. Ricc., in the last sentence, seems to 

be the true one. Coloquintis i is undoubtedly the Latinized form of the Grek oh éent 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 9 


Or koXokvvÓg Or koXokwvrg, from xóxos, rounded off, truncated, the reverse of oblong. 
The etymological remark, * rotunditas coloquintis nomen dedit," indicates some knowl- 
edge of Greek on the part of the author, or of the source from which he drew. Cf. 
Suidas: oXox/vr9: papirn. Kai mapowwa* xodoxvvtns vyvecrepos. — The reading usualis 
seems to be the true one, in the sense of common, ordinary. I should prefer the 
 vasualis of the Cod. Ricc. if there were any other authority for the word. 

10. Classica. The quotation from Virgil is in Aen. 7, 637: “ Classica iamque so- 
nant; it bello tessera signum." Besides this, and a few other poetic passages, there 
is no instance of classicum meaning the instrument, with the exception of Pseudo- 
Asconius to Divin. Verr. 17: “Sed quia hic in classe dixit, possumus intelligere ad 
hoc symphoniacos capi solere, ut in classe pugnantibus classicum canant: unde ipsi 
tibiae classis nomen est positum classicum." 

ll. Sinaxis. This is, of course, the Greek cvvafis, and should therefore be written 
synaxis. I know of no instance of the word being used in the sense of hora con- 
veniendi. ; : 

12. Anaglifi or anaglifa. While the Cod. Vat. gives the correct definition, the 
Cod. Ricc. approaches nearer to the correct form of the word. The word is from the 
Greek avayrwgpr, embossed work, and avayħvġos, embossed. The adjective dvdyrvda 
being sometimes used substantively * for avayAvdy, I infer from the definition celaturae 
(plural), that the genuine text is anaglypha. In the later Latinity, the substantive 
anaglypha (dvayWg) occurs, as well as the adjective anaglyphus. — 

13. Musach. This is undoubtedly the Hebrew word :]D32. Both manuscripts 
are evidently wrong in the word sababi ; it should be sabati, "30 JOY, the porch 
of the sabbath ; or, as the English version has it, “the covert for the sabbath.” Cf 
2 Kings xvi 18. I know of no other passage in which the custom of the kings 
of Israel depositing alms in this porch when entering the temple . is mentioned. The 
article is therefore of interest to Jewish antiquarians.. 

14. Carpasinus. The word is probably identical with the Greek xaprdcwos, made 
of fine Spanish flax (cf. Strab. 7, 294: xapracivas éparridas hike pl eae) and 
signifies here the color of this flax. - 

15. Lurica or luria. The text, in both manuscripts, is andoubledly corrupt. I 
entertain no doubt that the correct reading is lorica. In the last clause, the Cod. Ricc. 
seems to have in part the better reading; incedentes, if not indispensable, rendering 


* Cf. Isid. 19, 14: “ Anaglyfa, quod superius sint sculpta. Graeci enim ¿vo sursum, yAvpyy sculpturam 
dicunt, id est sursum sculpta.” 
VOL. VIII. 9 


10 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


the sense clearer. The change of inibi into mihi is easily explained. — Lorica is not 
infrequently used in the sense of enclosure for protection. Cf. Ammian. 24, 5, 18: 
* Erat etiam in hac eadem regione extentum spatium et rotundum loricae ambitu cir- 
cumclausum destinatas regiis voluptatibus continens feras." Apul. Met. 6, 30, 448: 
* Iam domus eorum extremam loricam perveneramus;” Hildebrand explaining the 
word by ambitio or vepígoxos. Vitr. 2, 8, 18: “Cum enim in tecto tegulae fuerint 
fractae aut a ventis deiectae, qua possit ex imbribus aqua perpluere, non patietur lorica 
testacea laedi laterem sed proiectura coronarum reiiciet extra perpendiculum stillas, et 
ea ratione servabit integras lateritiorum parietum structuras.” The definition of Petro- 
nius has perhaps special reference to the application of lorica or loricula in trans- 
lating the Hebrew term qb ny, or the ereód»» of the LXX., in Deut. xxii. 8. 
Cf. J. Lipsius, Poliorc. 2, 2.* 

16. Reuma. The word should of course be written rheuma, being the Greek 
pedua in its medical signification. 

17. Scutra. The Cod. Ricc. has undoubtedly the correct reading. "The word occurs 
in Cato de R. R. 157, 11: * ubi in scutra (al. scutea, scrutha, schutra, chutra) ferve- 
feceris, foetae sub sellam supponito pertusam ;" and Plaut. Pers. 1, 3, 8: * Bene ut in 
scutris (stutris, strutris, strutheis) concaleant.” There being in both passages a variety 
of readings, this article tends to confirm the reading scutra. 

18. Amulae or Annile. The Cod. Vat. gives the better reading; the change in the 
Cod. Ricc. of amulae into annile is easily explained. The word should, however, be 
written amullae, being the Latinized form of the modern Greek ayovara, bottle, vial, 
which is unquestionably derived from ampulla, or the vulgar form amula t or amulla, 
a corruption of ampulla. It appears probable in general, as indicated in this instance, 
that.many words of the modern Greek were derived from the lingua rustica. That 


the term amullae is, in meaning, closely connected with scutra, is apparent from the 
connecting particle vero. 


e Most Latin translations of the Old Testament € the Hebrew term by murus or septum. | Së 
mus translates, “facies murum tecti per circuitum ;” Osiander, 4 facies murum, peribolum, tecti per cir- ` 


 euitum." The translation of Imman. Tremellius and Franc. Junius has “facies loricam ad tectum tuum,” ae 


and adds in a note, “ vel loricationem, i. Opiyropa sive mepiBodor, ut Graecis appellatur, i in solariis et planis. | d 
aedificiorum tectis, ut tecta Palaestinae sunt, necessarium," The LXX translates: «al momes orepávy : 


ze Sópart. Rosenmüller, i in his Scholia, Me the word ; Moya: 6 ambitus, lori ca, septum peribolum des 
cumcirca, a radice "py, — retinuit;" Gesenius, in his Thesaurus, “lorica, qua | teet om | EST 
nequis delabatur.” 


t Cf. Du Canges Glossarium, s v. —Á 


- DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 11 


19. Catalogus or cathalogus. Slight difference between the two manuscripts in the 
spelling of the word; none in the definition. What is ordinarius sermo? Does it 
signify * regular customary language," a meaning which does not belong to catalogus, 
or does it mean * a treatise or book in which a certain order is observed, a list”? I 
am in favor of the latter interpretation, although I cannot support it by any other 
authority. 

20. .Avarus. Slight difference, in the text, between the two manuscripts. This 
word, as well as several others, may furnish somé clew to the source of the material 
of this fragment, if not to the author. Cf. Aul. Gell. N. A.* 10, 5: * Avarus non sim- 
plex vocabulum sed iunctum copulatumque esse P. Nigidius dicit in commentariorum 
undetricesimo: * Avarus enim, inquit, appellatur qui avidus aeris est. Sed in ea 
copula e litera, inquit, detrita est. Item locupletem dictum ait ex compositis 
vocibus, qui pleraque loca, hoc est, qui multas possessiones teneret. Sed pro- 
babilius id firmiusque est, quod de locuplete dixit; nam de avaro ambigitur; cur 
enim non videri possit ab uno solum verbo inclinatum, quod est avet?” There is 
great similarity, in the substance of the informatioh, between Petronius and Gellius, 
although the former expresses himself more concisely. What does this similarity 
indicate? that Petronius borrowed from Gellius, or that both drew from a common 
source? "The work of P. Nigidius Figulus (a contemporary of Cicero, and distinguished 
as a mathematician and astronomer, as well as grammarian), which had the title Com- 
mentarii Grammatici, was probably a collection of lexicographical, grammatical, and 
etymological observations, gathered without any attempt at a systematical arrange- - 
ment, from which our fragment may in part have been taken. Compare the ridicu- 
lous etymology of avidus in Festus. : ] 

91. Locuples. The two manuscripts agree. It is apparent that this article is de- 
ES from the same source as the preceding. | 

22. Lex or legem. With the exception of the form of “the mont itself, there is no 
difference between the two manuscripts. Genuine Roman definition of the word, such 
as might be given by Nigidius or any other well-informed man, who knew from expe- 
rience the institutions of the republic. CL A, Gell. N. A., 10, 20: * Ateius Capito 
publici privatique iuris peritissimus, quid lex esset, hisce verbis definivit. * Lex, 
inquit, est generale iussum populi aut plebis rogante magistratu." It is apparent that 
the definition of Petronius is copied verbatim from that of Capito.t 


* I quote, in this and all other citations from A. Gellius, from the edition of M. Hertz, 1853. 
t C. Ateius Capito, a distinguished lawyer and rival in the science of the law of Q. Antistius Labeo; 
Consul Suffectus 6 p. C., 759 U. C.; he died 22 p. C., 775 U. C. 


EK PETRONIUS ARBITER 


23. Populus. The two manuscripts agree. The definition of the word, as of the 
preceding, is genuine Roman. See the following note. 

24. Plebs. There is a trifling difference only between the two manuscripts. As to 
the definition, cf. A. Gell. N. A. 10, 20: * Plebem autem Capito in eadem definitione 
seorsum a populo divisit, quoniam in populo omnis pars civitatis omnesque eius ordines 
contineantur; plebes vero ea dicatur, in qua gentes civium patriciae non insunt. Ple- 
bisscitum igitur est, secundum eum Capitonem, lex, quam plebes non populus accipit." 

25. Plebiscitum. Agreement of the two manuscripts. Capito, according to Gellius, 
has accipit for scivit. What may be inferred from this difference, the definition being 
essentially that of Capito? The difference may be owing to the circumstance that 
Gellius, in copying Capito, substituted accipit for scivit. If the change was made by 
Petronius, it would prove his accurate knowledge of the language, since scivit is quite 
as good as accipit. 

26. Priva. There are several, although not very important, differences between the 
two manuscripts. In connection with * singulares specialesque cuiusque dignitatis," 
a substansive, perhaps leges, is to be supplied. Cf. A. Gell. (who draws from Capito), 
N. A. 10, 20: * quocirca privilegia potius vocari debent, quia veteres priva dixerunt, 
quae nos singula dicimus. . . .. Nam et plebisscita et privilegia translaticio nomine 
legis appellaverunt, eademque omnia confuso et indistincto vocabulo rogationes dixe- 

t" The clause, * Inde etiam translative singulares specialesque cuiusque dignitatis 
eius privilegia appellamus,” is not comprehended among the various explanations of 
Capito, as given by Gellius, and may have been taken directly from Capito. This 
circumstance goes far to prove that, although Petronius has in several instances defi- 
nitions which are also given by Gellius, he drew directly from the sources which were 
also used by Gellius. 

27. Italia. Some slight differences between the two manuscripts. Festus gives the — 
general substance of this definition, but adds also another: “ Italia dicta, quod magnos 
italos, hoc est boves, habeat. Vituli etenim ab Italis itali sunt dicti. Italia ab Italo 
rege." Gg dci mm. 

28. Elegantia. With the exception of habebatur (Cod. Rice. habeatur) and modera- 
tissima (Cod. Ricc. modestissima) the two manuscripts agree. I am inclined to think that 
the clause, “nec in laude nec in vitio ponebatur," is not in its proper place, the unde a 
evidently referring to the nitidiore cultu ac victu, and not to the clause nec in laude, Suc. S 
This clause may be placed after moderatissima, repeating in other words the same i l 2 
As to the definition, it is interesting to compare A. Gell. N. A. 11, 2: “ Elegans I omo : 
non dicebatur cum laude, sed id fere verbum ad aetatem M. Catonis vitii non audis. fuit. 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 13 


Est namque hoc animadvertere cum in quibusdam aliis tum in libro Catonis, qui in- 
scribtus est Carmen de moribus. Ex quo libro verba haec sunt. ‘ Avaritiam omnia 
vitia habere putabant; sumptuosus, cupidus, elegans, vitiosus, inritus qui habebatur, is 
laudabatur;' ex quibus verbis apparet elegantem dictum antiquitus non ab ingenii 
elegantia, sed qui nimis lecto amoenoque cultu victuque esset. Postea elegans re- 
prehendi quidem desiit, sed laude nulla dignabatur, nisi cuius elegantia erat modera- 


tissima." 

29. Mendacium. Slight differences between the two manuscripts. The reading of 
the Cod. Ricc., alterum for alium, is better. As we learn from A. Gell. N. A. IL IE 
our author gives in a very concise and pithy manner the substance of a definition of 
Nigidius: * Verba sunt ipsa haec P. Nigidii, hominis in studiis bonarum artium prae- 
cellentis, quem M. Cicero* ingenii doctrinarumque nomine summe reveritus est. 
*Inter mendacium dicere et mentiri distat; qui mentitur, ipse non fallitur, alterum 
fallere conatur: qui mendacium dicit, ipse fallitur" Item hoc addidit: ‘Qui men- 
titur, inquit, fallit, quantum in se est: at qui mendacium dicit, ipse non fallit, quantum 
in se est.’ Item hoc quoque super eadem re dicit: * Vir bonus, inquit, praestare 
debet,ne mentiatur: prudens ne mendacium dicat: alterum incidit in hominem, alte- 
rum non." i 

30. Lictorem. Some trifling differences between the two manuscripts. The matter 
is derived from the work of Valgius Rufus, whom our manuscripts erroneously call 
Valerius, and Tiro. Cf. A. Gell. N. A. 12, 3: * Valgius Rufus in secundo librorum, 
quos inscripsit de rebus per epistulam quaesitis, lictorem dicit a ligando appellatum 
esse, quod cum magistratus populi Romani virgis. quempiam verberari iussissent, crura 
eius et manus ligari vincirique a viatore solita sint, is, qui ex conlegio viatorum officium 
ligandi haberet, lictor sit appellatus; utiturque ad eam rem testimonio M. Tullii verbaque 
eius refert ex oratione, quae dicta est pro C. Rabirio: * Lictor, inquit, conliga manus.’ 
Haec ita Valgius. Et nos cum illo sentimus, sed Tiro Tullius, M. Ciceronis libertus, 
‘lictorem vel a limo vel a licio dictum scribsit; licio enim transverso, quod limum 
appellatur, qui magistratibus, inquit, praeministrabant, cincti erant." This article, 
unless it be copied from some other unknown compiler, — not Gellius, — would seem 
to be the work of Petronius, who collected his materials from various sources, in this 
instance from Valgius Rufus and Tiro, and not necessarily borrowed from Gellius. 
As to Valgius Rufus, it is probable that he is the same person with C. Valgius Rufus 
who was Consul Suffectus in 742 U. C., 12 a. C., and known as a poet. 


* Cicero several times mentions P. Nigidius as his friend and stanch politieal supporter; of his learning 
he speaks, Fam. 4, 13, 3: * Nunc P. Nigidio, uni omnium doctissimo . . . . ne benigne quidem polliceri possum." 


14 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


31. Intra Kalendas. 'The explanation seems to be taken verbatim from Apollinaris 
Sulpicius,* according to A. Gell. N. A. 12, 13: “intra Kalendas igitur non ante 
Kalendas est sed in Kalendis, id est, eo ipso die quo Kalendae sunt.” ‘There is a 
trifling difference in the text of the two manuscripts, which is easily explained, the 
copyist of the Cod. Ricc. misapprehending the abbreviation .i. of his original (which 
is in the Cod. Vat.), and changing it into in. 

39. Pomoeriwm. "There is some slight difference in the text of the two manuscripts. 
Cf. A. Gell. N. A. 13, 14: * Pomerium quid esset, augures populi Romani, qui libros 
de auspiciis scribserunt, istiusmodi sententia definierunt ; * Pomerium est locus intra 
agrum effatum per totius urbis circuitum pone muros regionibus certeis determinatus, 
qui facit finem urbani auspicii'" The definition of Petronius may have been taken 
from the same source, viz. the Libri de Auspiciis. However this may be, the passage 
quoted by Gellius enables us to correct the errors of both manuscripts. 

33. Humanitas. 'The text of both manuscripts is very imperfect. The passage 
in A. Gell. N. A. 13, 16 enables us to some extent to reconstruct it: * humanitatem 
appellaverunt id propemodum, quod Graeci zaiBeíav vocant, nos eruditionem institu- 
tionemque in bonas artis dicimus. Quas qui sinceriter percupiunt adpetuntque, hi sunt 
vel maxime humanissimi. Huius enim scientiae cura et disciplina ex universis animan- 
tibus uni homini datast, idcircoque humanitas appellata est." This is an important in- 
stance to show that Petronius, in part at least, borrowed from Gellius; for the above 
definition, evidently identical with that of Petronius, seems to be original with Gellius, 
in expression at least, if not in substance. For this reason, I have not only in those 
passages in which the two manuscripts differ followed that which agrees with Gellius, 
but I should not be disinclined to adopt the reading of Gellius percupiunt, although 
both manuscripts have capiunt. The double superlative * maxime humanissimi” is to 
be noticed. 

34. Manubias. . Almost perfect agreement of the two manuscripts. C A. Gell. 
N. A. 18, 24: “Quid igitur? Simile est, inquit, apud eundem (Ciceronem) in praeda 
et manubiis? Nihil, nihil profecto istiusmodi est. Nam neque ornatius fit additis manu- - 
biis neque exaggeratius modulatiusve; sed aliud omnino praeda est, ut in libris rerum 
| verborumque veterum scribtum est, aliud manubiae. Nam praeda dicitur corpora ipsa 
. rerum, quae capta sunt; manubiae vero appellatae sunt pecunia a quaestore ex ven- | 
Ke praedae redac ees evident that the — S quoted here by Favorinus; | 


ec. Sulpicius Apollioaris, a poet and grammarian, lived in the middle of the Mund century o of p 
during the reign of the Antonines. Se ue 
T Favorinus was a ve Ae of the Zeie Hadrian. 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 15 


as taken from the. * libri rerum verborumque veterum," is the same as that of Petro- 
nius. It is possible that in other instances also, in which Gellius or his interlocutors 
do not mention, or even allude, to their sources, the definitions are not their own, but 
derived from earlier sources (* libri rerum verborumque veterum "). Nay, I am inclined 
to go a step further, and suppose that, in many instances in which Gellius communi- 
cates certain information, or puts it in the mouths of other persons, contemporaries 
and friends of his, the information belonged neither to these interlocutors nor to 
Gellius, but was derived from earlier works. In case Petronius's independence of 
Gellius can be at all maintained, this hypothesis may meet the difficulty presented by 
passages such as the preceding on humanitas, in which the information given appears 
to proceed from Gellius. This kind of integrity of acknowledging the sources of 
information, was not so clearly understood among the ancients as it is now. Pliny 
the elder furnishes a striking illustration. Although he took the material of many 
articles from the work of Dioscorides of Anazarbus, and sometimes copied him 
verbatim, yet in one instance only is he supposed to refer to him, 36, 20, 37, 144: 
* Schistos et haematites cognationem habent. Haematites invenitur in metallis, ustus 
mini colorem imitatur; uritur ut Phrygius, sed non restinguitur vino; adulteratum 
haematiten discernunt venae rubentes et friabilis natura. Oculis cruore suffusis mire 
convenit; sistit profluvia mulierum potus; bibunt et qui sanguinem reiecerunt cum 
suco Punici mali; et in vesicae vitiis efficax; bibitur et in vino contra serpentium ictus. 
Infirmiora omnia eadem in eo quem schiston appellant; in iis commodior croco similis, 
peculiaris explendis oculorum lacunis in lacte muliebri, procidentisque oculos praeclare 
cohibet. Haec est sententia eorum qui nuperrime scripsere." Comparing the two 
sections of Diosc. 5, 144 and 145, epi aiparírov and "epi oyioroù, it will be found that 
the description of Dioscorides, besides being much fuller than that of Pliny, contains 
all the particulars mentioned by the latter: 76 xiwvaBdper éowviav — xalerar de éudepós TH 
Dpvyio Mp TOD olvov rrepinpnuevov — arredéyxeras de 6 Kexaxoreyvnpevos 7pÓrov pev tals dia- 
deet — xai úpaipois opOarpois — rivera De adv otvo pos Óvaovpiav Kai poixas Kai pos alpa- 
Tos mAúces on xvXQ poids — Braum Ze THv avTHY TO aipariry eiedhiperat, TH evrovía povov 
Aevrrdpevos aúrod — úpioros Se elvas Boxel d wapaxpoxitwv Th xpog — TAnpo? de Kal koikopara 
yuvarxei@ Siebes yadaxte kai TPOS TpoTTHcES. | 

35. Faciem. The two manuscripts differ in a few unimportant forms only. As 
to the matter, cf. A. Gell. N. A. 13, 29: * Animadvertere est pleraque verborum 
Latinorum ex ea significatione, de qua nata sunt, decessisse vel in aliam longe vel in 
proximam, eamque decessionem factam esse consuetudine et inscitia temere dicentium, 
quae cuiusmodi sint, non didicerint. Sicuti quidam faciem esse hominis putant os tantum 


16 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


et oculos et genas, quod Graeci rpóworov dicunt: quando facies sit forma omnis et 
modus et factura quaedam corporis totius a faciendo dicta, ut a (b a) spectu (Gronov. ab 
aspectu) species et a fingendo figura. Itaque Pacuvius in tragoedia, quae Niptra scri- 
bitur, faciem dixit hominis pro corporis longitudine: * Aetate, inquit, integra, feroci 
ingenio, facie procera virum. Non solum autem in hominum corporibus sed etiam in 
rerum cuiusquemodi aliarum facies dicitur. Nam montis et caeli et maris facies, si tem- 
pestive dicatur, probe dicitur. While the general agreement of Petronius and Gellius 
in this article is apparent, some striking differences in the language, as specto — spectu, 
statura — corporis longitudine, cuiuscunque — cuiusquemodi, are not to be overlooked. 

36. Profligare. There is no difference between the two manuscripts. Cf. A. Gell. 
15, 5: “Sicut alia verba pleraque ignoratione et inscitia improbe dicentium, quae non 
intellegant, deflexa ac depravata sunt a ratione recta et consuetudine, ita huius quoque 
verbi, quod est profligo, significatio versa et corrupta est. Nam cum ab adfligendo et 
ad perniciem interitumque deducendo inclinatum id tractumque sit, semperque eo verbo, 
qui diligenter locuti sunt, ita usi sint, ut profligare dicerent prodigere et deperdere, - 
profligatasque xes quasi proflictas et perditas appellarent: nunc audio aedificia et templa 
et alia fere multa, quae prope absoluta adfectaque sunt, in profligato esse dici, ipsaque 
esse iam profligata.” There is similarity of sense, but great difference in the mode of 
description. ; 

37. Vestibulum. Without taking into consideration some variations between the 
two manuscripts, this article belongs to the more imperfect as regards the text. Cf. A. 
Gell. N. A. 16,5: “Quod Sulpicium autem Apollinarem memini dicere virum eleganti 
scientia ornatum, huiuscemodi est: Ve particula, sicuti quaedam alia, tum intentionem 
significat tum minutionem. Nam vetus et ve(he)mens, alterum ab aetatis magnitudine 
compositum elisumque est, alterum a mentis vi atque impetu dicitur. Vescum autem, | 
quod ex ve particula et esca copulatum est, utriusque diversae significationis vim capit. 
Aliter enim Lucretius vescum salem dicit ex edendi intentione: aliter Lucilius vescum 
appellat cum edendi fastidio. Qui domos igitur amplas antiquitus faciebant, locum ante : 
januam vacuum relinquebant, qui inter fores domus et viam medius esset. In eo loco 
qui dominum eius domus salutatum venerant, priusquam admitterentur, consistebant, 
et neque in via stabant, neque intra aedes erant. Ab illa ergo grandis loci consistione 

et quasi quadam stabulatione vestibula appellata sunt, spatia, sicuti diximus, grandia 
ante fores aedium relicta, in quibus starent, qui venissent, priusquam in domum in- 


tromitterentur. " The substance of the definition, and, to some extent, eren th ] lan- Ee 


guage, are the same, the principal difference being in the order of the two articles : 
vestibulum et vescum, ` 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. : 17 


38. Vescum. The two manuscripts differ but slightly. As to the matter, compare 
the passage from Gellius in the preceding paragraph. 

39. Foenerator. A slight difference only in the text of the two manuscripts. Cf. A. 
Gell. N. A. 16, 12: * Faenerator enim, sicuti M. Varro in libro tertio de sermone 
Latino scripsit, a faenore est nominatus; faenus autem dictum ait a fetu et quasi a ` 
fetura quadam pecuniae parientis atque increscentis.” Whether the definition of Petro- 
nius is directly derived from Varro or from Gellius is a question difficult of settlement, 
as the third book of Varro de Lingua Latina is no longer extant. 

40. Assiduus. A slight difference between the two manuscripts. As to the definition, 
ef, A. Gell. N. A, 16, 10: * Adsiduus in XII tabulis pro locuplete et facile facienti 
dictus aut ab (assiduis ab) aere dando, cum id tempora reipublicae postularent, aut a 
muneris pro familiari copia faciendi adsiduitate.” Cf. Fest. : “ Assiduus dicitur, qui in ea 
re, quam frequenter agit, quasi consedisse videatur. Alii assiduum locupletem, quasi 
multorum assium, dictum putarunt. Alii eum, qui sumptu proprio militabat, ab asse 
dando vocatum existimarunt." The similarity of these three definitions is not sufficiently 
great to prove the fact of one being borrowed from the other ; it rather points to a com- 
mon source. The difference between Petronius and Gellius is especially to be noticed, 
as having possibly some bearing on the general relation of the two. In this instance the 
resemblance between Petronius and Festus is greater than between Petronius and Gellius.* 

41. Quin. The text of the two manuscripts differs in some particulars. As to the 
matter, cf. A. Gell. N. A. 17, 13: “ Quin particula, quam grammatici coniunctionem 
appellant, variis modis sententiisque connectere orationem videtur. Aliter enim dici 
putatur, cum quasi increpantes vel interrogantes vel exhortantes dicimus: *quin ve- 
nis? quin legis? quin fugis?' aliter, cum ita confirmamus: *non dubium est, quin 
M. Tullius omnium sit eloquentissimus, aliter autem, cum sic componimus, quod 


* It may be interesting to compare the other “loci classici" relating to this word. Cic. de Re Publ. 2, 22, 
40: *In quo etiam verbis ac nominibus ipsis fuit diligeris, qui, cum locupletes assiduos appellasset ab aere 
dando, eos, qui aut non plus mille quingentum aeris aut omnino nihil in suum censum praeter caput attulissent, 
proletarios nominavit," etc. "Top. 2, 10: Cum lex assiduo vindicem assiduum esse iubeat, locupletem iubet 
locupleti : locuples enim est assiduus, ut ait Aelius, appellatus ab asse dando.” M. Ter. Varro de L. L. 7,99: 
* Apud eundem (Plautum, Cistell. 1, 1, 7) quod est: ‘Mihi frequentem operam dedistis; valet assiduam. 
Itaque qui adest, assiduus." M. Fab. Quint. Inst. Or. 5, 10, 55: * Praeterea finimus aut vi, sicut superiora, 
aut érvpodoyig, ut si assiduum ab aere dando, et locupletem a locorum, pecuniosum a pecorum copia.” Charis. 
1, 58: “ Adsiduus quidam per d scribunt, quasi sit a sedendo figuratum, sed errant. Nam cum a Servio Tullio 
populus in quinque classes esset divisus, ut tributum, prout quisque possideret, inferret, ditiores, qui asses 
dabant, assidui dicti sunt. Et quoniam soli in negotiis publicis frequentes aderant, eos qui frequentes adsunt, 
assiduos ab assibus dixerunt." Caper de Verb. Dub.: “ Assiduus, non asseduus, ab assidendo.” 


VOL. VIII. 3 


+ 


18 M PETRONIUS ARBITER 


quasi priori videtur contrarium ` ‘non idcirco causas Isocrates non defendit, quin id 
utile esse et honestum existimarit. " Gellius extends his article further; but both 
from the beginning, — * quam grammatici coniunctionem appellant," — and from the 
concluding clause, — * Quod quia longioris dissertationis est, poterit, cui otium est, 
repperire hoc in P. Nigidii commentariis, quos grammaticos inscripsit," — it is evident 
that the material of this article is not original with Gellius, but drawn from the work 
of Nigidius; and Petronius, having evidently a practical object in view and aiming at 
great conciseness, was satisfied with even a smaller portion of the definition of Ni- 
gidius, containing the three principal meanings and applications of quin. This article, 
again, is a strong reason for supposing that Petronius did not borrow from Gellius. 
The difference in the reading, Socrates and Isocrates, is to be noticed. Petronius 
appears to have the better reading, Nigidius undoubtedly referring to the reasons which 
influenced Socrates in not employing legal aid at his trial.* : | 

42. Soror. There is no important difference between the two manuscripts. As to 
the matter, cf. A. Gell. N. A. 13, 10: * Praeterea in libris, quos ad praetoris edictum 
scribsit (Labeo Antistius), multa posuit partim lepide atque argute reperta. Sicuti hoc 
est, quod in quarto ad edictum libro scriptum legimus: * Soror, inquit, appellata est, 
quod quasi seorsum nascitur separaturque ab ea domo, in qua nata est, et in aliam 
familiam transgreditur' Fratris autem vocabulum P. Nigidius, homo inpense doctus, 
non minus arguto subtilique érvu@ interpretatur: * Frater, inquit, est dictus quasi fere 
alter.” The difference between the definition of soror of Labeo and Petronius is such 
that it is probable that Petronius borrowed from — rather than Labeo in the 
article soror as wellas frater. 

43. Frater. There is no difference between the two manuscripts. The circumstance 
that the article frater follows the article soror in Petronius, as in Gellius, might 
be viewed as a reason for supposing Petronius to be a borrower from Gellius; but 
the juxtaposition of these two words, on account of the intimate connection of mean- 
ing (bearing in mind, too, that even those writers, grammarians or lexicographers, 
who adopt, in general, an alphabetical arrangement, do not in every particular strictly 
adhere to it, e. g. Festus and Nonius), may have existed in the works of Labeo and 
N Lgs. from which Petronius and Gellius drew. Cf. Fest: “Frater a Graeco | 


* The anecdote alluded to in this e is, with some slight modification, related by Diogenes Lenger - 
2, 40: 6 8 ad diddcogos Avaiov ypáavros dmoXoy(av aird Brayvods £y, Kadds pev 6 dyos, à. Avola, où pay dppórroy : 
epot» Schaf yàp hy Tò mhéov Bixavixos Y épndiNónodos ` eiróvros de rod Avotov, Dës, el kaAós éorw ô Aóyos, ok dy co 


áppórroi; Ze, Oé yàp kai indria kadá kal úrodiuara etr dv ¿uol dvápuocra; The change of Socrates into Isocrates 
by a careless copyist was an easy and natural one. 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 19 


dictus est do/rpy, vel quod sit fere alter.” Cf. Non.: * Fratrum proprietatem Nigidius 
accuratissime dixit, * frater est, inquit, dictus quasi fere alter. " 

44. Humilitas. There is a considerable difference between the two manuscripts, the 
Cod. Vat. giving one definition only, the moral, while the Cod. Ricc. contains a sec- 
ond, the political or social It is remarkable that neither Festus, Nonius, nor Gel- 
lius mentions the word, although a good Latin word, and used by the best writers 
both in the moral and political sense. The fact that Gellius neither in the extant part 
of his work, nor, as far as we can judge, in the lost eighth book, mentions the word 
humilitas, settles the question that Petronius did not in this instance, and perhaps not 
in any other, borrow from Gellius. 

45. Mansuetudo. There is no difference between the two manuscripts. Gellius does 
not speak of the word. Cf. Fest.: * Mansuetum ad manum venire suetum. Alii aiunt 
mansuetum dictum neque ex misericordia maestum neque ex crudelitate saevum sed 
modestia temperatum." Cf. Non. 59: “ Mansuetum dictum est quasi manu adsuetum, 
quod omnia, quae sunt natura fera, manuum permultione mitescant.” From the agree- 
ment of Petronius and Nonius it is to be inferred, either that they drew from a common 
source, or that one borrowed from the other. If Petronius be the borrower, it is not easy 
to determine from this circumstance alone the age of Petronius, as there is a great differ- 
ence of opinion as to the age to which Nonius belongs, some placing him at the close 
of the second century, and others at the commencement of the fifth. 

46. Devotio. There is a slight difference between the two manuscripts; the Cod. 
Ricc. undoubtedly gives the better text. The definition seems to indicate a Christian 
source. The word is certainly not used in this sense by any classical writer. 

47. Misericordia. Slight difference between the two manuscripts; the Cod. Rice. 
giving the better reading. These, too, appear to be definitions proceeding from a 
Christian source, especially the second. x pe ae 

48. Pax. Great difference between the manuscripts. The first definition appears to 
be of Christian origin: * perhaps also the second, if we supply dei instead of deorum 
after propitiationem. The third definition, contained in the Cod. Rice. only, is of the 
same description. 

49. Luctus vel Dolor. This term, with its definition, i is contained in the Cod. Ricc. 
only. The definition is evidently of Christian origin, but too comprehensive, inasmuch 


* Cf. Comment. Hieronymi Lib. III. in Epist. ad Ephes. c. vi.: “inter haec (dona) pax non minimum pos- 
sidet locum, quae superat omnem sensum et custodit corda intellectusque sanctorum, serenitas quaedam atque 


tranquillitas animae quiescentis." 


20 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


as it describes not merely dolor and luctus, but also their opposites. The language 
itself (vivificatio *) shows the late age of the definition. 

50. Dipsas. There is some difference between the two manuscripts. The word is 

in the Cod. Ricc. incorrectly spelled. Cf. Solin. 27, 31: * Plures diversaeque aspidum 
species verum dispares effectus ad nocendum: dipsas siti interficit; hypnale, quod 
somno necat teste etiam Cleopatra, emitur ad mortem.” It is apparent that Petronius 
has derived his description, which is more full than that of Solinus, from another 
source. Cf. Dioscorid. Ther. 13: Tots Se dnx0ciow úro Supddos arreyvos dyKos éyxevtas 
kat Sos ériretapevov ¡oxupús, wate amdjpwrov kal adidherrrov elvas. 
. 51. Adeo. There is some difference between the two manuscripts. F estus gives 
simply the etymology of the word: “Adeo duas habet significationes. Nam cum prima 
acuta effertur, idem significat, quod accedo, ut cum dicimus adeo praetorem. Cum 
autem secunda, idem quod usque eo, non quidem secundum rationem, quia ad praepo- 
sitio accusativis accommodata est, sed vetusta quadam loquendi consuetudine."  Prisci- 
anus, L. 16 de coniunctione, speaks of a coniunctio completiva.t The passage of 
Virgil quoted by Petronius is ZEn. 1, 567: * Non obtusa adeo gestamus pectora Poeni." 
Whence the material of the article is taken I am not able to say; e from 
Nigidius. | | 

52. Iobel. There is some difference between the two manuscripts. Petronius i is of 
course mistaken in calling the word Greek; itis Hebrew, bai, a shout, from the verb 
GH to shout. The word has not etymologically the signification of dismission or 
release, but received it in consequence of one of the special Jewish customs connected 
with the year of jubilee WE DA. so called because it was announced by the sound 
of trumpets) in which the hired servants were freed (Lev. xxv. 41) The Vulgata 
translates the term annus jubileus ; but whether the word jubileus is in any Christian 
writer used in the sense of remissus, released, I am not able to say. The signification 
which approaches nearest to that of Petronius occurs Isidor. 5, 37: “ Jubileus inter- 
pretatur remissionis munus. Est enim Hebraicus et sermo et numerus, qui septenis 
annorum hebdomadibus, id est quadraginta novem annis, texitur, in quo clangebatur 
tubis, et ad omnes revertebatur antiqua possessio, debita — confirmabantur 
libertates." : 


53. Peta. There is no difference between the two manuscripts. — Sur 


.* Cf. Augustinus in Psalmum xl. : “ Sed vivificationem nobis illam promittit, de qua dicit apostolus," eta. 
t * Completivae sunt vero, autem, quidem, equidem, quoque, enim, nam, namque et fere quaecunque. con- 


iunctiones ornatus causa vel metri nulla significationis necessitate ponuntur, hoc nomine oc This, of 
course, is not the place to speak of the inadequacy of Priscian's definition. 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 21 


spelling of the word be correct, it may be a popular or military slang-word, derived- 
from petere. | 

54. Crusta. Both manuscripts agree as to the word and its definition ; but the Cod. 
Ricc. has between gladiorum and crusta the words Unde Cicero. Whether they belong 
to the words immediately preceding, and were intended to introduce an illustration, or 
to some sentence lost, I am not able to say. 

55. Hilarum. This article is in the Cod. Vat. only. The neuter form of the adjec- 
tives and participles is to be noticed. Whence the definition is taken I do not know. 


After this brief examination of the several articles of the fragment, some general 
considerations on the plan, age, and sources of Petronius suggest themselves. The first 
is as to the plan and object of the author in making his compilation. It appears most 
probable that the compilation owes its existence to the circumstance that the author, in 
the course of his reading, made notes of such expressions as seemed to him of interest, 
and that whatever traces of a plan or systematic arrangement may be discovered are 
owing to the plan or order of reading pursued by the author, rather than to the inten- 
tion of furnishing a glossary arranged according to some system. The fifty-five arti- 
cles of which the collection consists may be divided into the following seven classes: — 

I. Natural History: 1, Nitrum; 2, PES 3, Capparis; 9, Coloquintis; 50, 
Dipsas. 

- II. Technical Tesi 4, Epinicia; 5, Exedrae ; 6, Scalptura ; 1, Mulsum ; 8, Peri- 
bolus; 10, Classica; 11, Synaxis; 12, Anaglypha ; 14, Carpasinus ; 15, Lorica ; 16, 
Rheuma; 17, Scutra; 18, Amullae; 19, Catalogus; 31, Intra Kalendas. Test 

III. Hebrew Terms: 13, Musach ; 52, Iobel. 

IV. Etymological: 20, Avarus; 21, Locuples; ; 26, Priva; 27, Italia ; 28, Elegantia ; 
30, Lictorem ; 33, Humanitas; 35, Faciem ; 36, Profligare; 37, Vestibulum ; ; 98, Ves- 
cum ; 39, Foenerator; 40, Assiduus; 42, Soror; 43, Frater ; 44, Humilitas; 45, Man- 
suetudo ; 46, Devotio; 47, Misericordia; 48, Pax; 49, Luctus and Dolor; 53, Peta; 


54, Crusta. 
V. Political Terms: 22, Lex; 23, Populus; 24, Plebs; 25, Plebiscitum; 32, Po- 


merium. 
VI. Synonymes: 29, Mendacium and Mentiri; 34, Manubiae and Praeda; 55, Hi- 


larum. 
VII. PEEL E o 41, Quin ; 51, Adeo. 


22 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


In several of these classes, especially the fourth, traces of a regular series, although 
with some exceptions, are perceptible. If we unite the last five classes — the third, 
fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh —into one group, calling it the linguistic, dnd the first 
two into another, the realistic, we have two nearly complete series, the regularity of 
which is disturbed by two expressions only, viz.: 31, Intra Kalendas, and 50, Dipsas, 
which belong to the first instead of the second series. Whatever importance may attach 
to these traces of a regular arrangement, it is certain that the compiler aimed neither at 
perfect regularity nor completeness. Even a glance shows that there is no attempt at 
an alphabetical arrangement. : 

As to the age of the compiler, a late period must undoubtedly be assigned to him. 
Both the language and contents of some of the articles point to Christian sources, and 
if these are the writings of such men as Hieronymus and Augustinus, as appears prob- 
able, the author of our fragment, whether his name be Petronius or not, cannot be 
placed earlier than the end of the fourth or beginning of the fifth century of the Chris- 
tian era. 

Not the least interesting question, however, relates to the sources of our author, and 
especially his relation to Gellius furnishes a curious problem. If we examine the 
arrangement of those words which occur in Gellius as well as Petronius, they form, 
with one exception, an uninterrupted series of twenty-three words, viz.: 20, Avarus; 
21, Locuples; 22, Lex; 23, Populus; 24, Plebs; 25, Plebiscitum ; 26, Priya; 28, 
Elegantia; 29, Mendacium ; 30, Lictorem; 31, Intra Kalendas; 32, Pomerium ; 99, 
Humanitas; 34, Manubiae ; 35, Faciem ; 36, Profligare; 37, Vestibulum ; 38, Vescum ; 
39; Foenerator ; 40, Assiduus ; 41, Quin; 42, Soror; 43, Frater. The exception referred 
to is the article 27, Italia, which intervenes between 26, Priva, and 28, Elegantia. It 
will not be denied that this circumstance is by itself a strong, although not irresist- 
ible, argument in favor of the opinion, that Petronius borrowed in all these articles 
directly from Gellius; that while reading the work of Gellius he copied, with more 
or less completeness and accuracy, the definitions of Gellius. This view is strength- 

ened by another circumstance, namely, that Petronius, with two exceptions, follows in 

these twenty-three articles the order of Gellius, the two exceptions being the articles 
42, Soror, and 43, Frater, which in Gellius occur in lib. 13, 10, earlier, therefore, than 
the ten preceding articles, from 32, Pomerium, to 41, Quin. Another less important 
departure from the order of Gellius may be mentioned, viz. 40, Assiduus, which i in 
- Gellius precedes, while in Petronius it follows, the article 39, Foenerator. . 

On the other hand, it should not be overlooked that in some of these articles, a as has | 
been pointed out, the agreement between Petronius and Gellius is less striking, and 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 23 


that Petronius has definitions of some terms which he could not have borrowed from 
Gellius, because they are not contained in the work of the latter, and that, as he 
borrowed in these instances from other, perhaps the original sources, he may also have 
done so in those in which apparently he agrees with Gellius. While, then, the opinion 
that this portion of our fragment is nothing but excerpts from Gellius rests upon some 
strong arguments, it is opposed by some not inconsiderable difficulties. But whatever 
the decision of the question, — whether Petronius borrowed directly from Gellius, or 
whether both drew from a common source, above indicated in the several articles, — the 
importance of the fragment of Petronius in establishing, in a few instances, the text of 
Gellius (for instance, the reading Socrates in the article 41, Quin), remains the same. 


Corrected Text. 


1. Nitrum dicitur a nitra provincia ; ubi si in aestate prolixa pluvia terram infuderit, 
rapida vis solis aquam concoquit in petram salis et nivi simillimam sed nihil frigoris vel 
salsi humoris habentem, quae salis more vel caumate durescit vel pluvioso aere liquescit ; 
hoc indigenae ad lavandum utuntur. 

2.,Choirogryllus, animal non majus ericio simile muri vel urso in cavernis petrarum 
habitans, in Italia abundans. 

3. Capparis, herba quae salitur. Plautus in Curculione: voltisne olivas aut pulmen- 
tum aut capparim, et Martialis : Capparin et pum cepas halece natantes. 

_ 4. Epinicia, laus de victoria. * 

. 5. Exedrae thalami seu cellulae seu potida cubilia aut sedes. Cicero de Oratore: in - 
eadem exedra. ` zuo s Ce 

6. Scalptura, quod usitatius sculpturam dicimus; tunc histriaca dicitur; tum qui 
historias vel gesta aliqua exprimunt, histriones. : 

1. Mulsum vinum melle decoctum. Plautus in Asinaria: et cantharo mulsum date. 

8. Peribolus templi est ipsius circumposita munitionum constructio. 

9. Coloquintis agrestis cucurbita et vehementer amara, quae more cucurbitae per 
terram flagella diffundit; foliorum vero et fructus usualis instar cucumeris. Rotunditas 
coloquintis nomen dedit. : 

10. Classica sunt cornua, quae convocandi causa facta erant: et a calando, id est 
vocando, dicta. Virgilius: Classica iamque sonant. 

11. Synaxis concilium vel auditorium vel hora conveniendi dici potest. 


> 


. conatur. 


24 PETRONIUS ARBITER 


12. Anaglypha, celaturae. 

13. Musach, sabati arca: ubi reges templum ingressuri eleemosynam imponebant. 

14. Carpasinus color est aureus sicut et citrinus. 

15. Lorica seu cancellus est murtis coenaculorum seu quorumlibet aedificiorum 
oram ambiens ab iniuria lapsus inibi incedentes defendens. 

16. Rheuma est eruptio vel fluor. 

- 17. Scutra sunt vasa aenea aequalis in fundo et ore latitudinis ad calefaciendum 
vinum. 

18. Amullae vero ad offerendum vinum vasa aenea esse dicuntur. 

19. Catalogus, ordinarius sermo. 

20. Avarus quasi avidus aeris; est litera in iunctura detracta, vel forsitan simplex 
derivatum ab aveo. 

21. Locuples est, qui pleraque tenet loca, id est multas possessiones. 

22. Lex est generale iussum populi aut plebis rogante magistratu. 

23. Populus est omnis pars omnisque ordo civitatis. 

24. Plebs vero ea dicitur, in qua gentes patriciorum non insunt. 

25. Plebiscitum est lex illa, quam plebs non populus scivit. 

26. Priva dixerunt antiqui, quod nos singula dicimus: unde privilegium, quod non 
ab universis civibus sed a singulis conceptum visumque est fieri. Inde etiam translative 
singulares specialesque cuiusque dignitatis eius privilegia appellamus. Haec omnia 
generali nomine rogationes appellantur: et confuse per se invicem haec ponuntur. | 

27. Italia dicta est, quod in ea magna boum copia fuerit, qui graeca veteri lingua itali 
vocitati sunt. : 

28. Elegantia apud veteres non de amoeniore ingenio sed nitidiore cultu ac victu 
dicebatur: nec in laude nec in vitio ponebatur. Unde M. Cato in libro, qui inscri- 
bitur Carmen de moribus: Sumptuosus, cupidus, elegans vitiosus irritusque habebatur. 
Unde apparet elegantem dictum antiquitus non ab ingenii elegantia: sed qui nimis 
lecto amoenoque cultu victuque esset. Postea elegans vituperii desiit esse; sed nulla 
laude dignabatur, nisi cuius elegantia erat moderatissima. 

29. Qui mendacium dicit, fallitur. Qui mentitur, ipse non fallitur; alterum fallere 


_ 90. Lictorem dicit Valerius a ligando appellatum esse ; eo quod cum magistratus populi 
romani virgis quempiam verberari iussisset, crura eius ac manus ligari a viatore solitae 
sunt. Is, qui ex collegio viatorum officium ligandi habebat, lictor est appellatus. Tiro 
- vero lictorem a lino vel a licio, quod idem est, dici scripsit. 


Licio enim transverso, qui 
ministrabant, inquit, magistratibus, cincti erant. E | 


DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 25 


31. Intra Kalendas dicitur fieri, quod non ante Kalendas sed in Kalendis est; id est 
eo ipso die, quo Kalendae sunt. 

32. Pomerium est locus intra agrum effatum populi romani per totius urbis circui- 
tum pone muros regionibus certis determinatus, qui facit finem urbani auspicii. 

33. Humanitas proprie est eruditio institutioque, quas in bonas artes dicimus; quas 
qui sinceriter capiunt appetuntque ii sunt maxime humanissimi. Huius enim scientiae 
cura et disciplina ex universis animantibus uni homini data est; ideoque humanitas est 
appellata. 

34. Manubias quidam praedam, quae manibus capta sit, appellari existimant. Sed 
omnino aliud est praeda, aliud manubiae. Nam praeda dicuntur corpora, quae capta 
sunt; manubiae vero appellata est pecunia a quaestore ex venditione praedae redacta. 

35. Faciem hominis quidam putant esse os tantum et oculos et genas, cum facies sit 
modus et factura quaedam totius corporis a faciendo dicta, ut a specto species et a fin- 
gendo figura. Unde Pacuvius faciem hominis dixit pro statura: Aetate, inquit, inte- 
gra, feroci ingenio, facie procera virum. Nec solum hominum sed etiam rerum cuius- 
cunque modi aliarum facies dicitur. Nam et montis et maris et coeli facies dicitur. 

96. Profligare est deperdere et destruere. 

91. Vestibulum a ve particula, quae tum intensionem tum minutionem significat, et 
a stando componi videtur. Qui enim amplas domos antiquitus faciebant, locum ante 
ianuam vacuum relinquebant, qui intra fores domus et vias medius esset. In eo loco, 
qui dominum eius domus salutatum veniebant, priusquam admitterentur, consistebant, 
sed neque in via neque intra aedes erant. Ab illa ergo grandis loci constatione quasi 
quadam constabulatione supra dicta spatia vestibula sunt appellata. 

38. Vescum quoque ex ve particula et esca compositum et diminutionis vim capit. 
Aliter enim Lucretius vescum salem dicit ex edendi intensione. Aliter Lucilius ap- 
pellat cum edendi fastidio. 

39. Foenerator a foenore. Foenus a foetu dictum aiunt, et quasi a quadam foetura 
pecuniae parientis atque crescentis. | 

40. Assiduus ex ad et sedeo, vel asse et dando, et ita frequentem vel locupletem 
significat. 

41. Quin coniunctio aliter dici putatur cum quasi increpantes vel exhortantes dici- 
mus, ut quin venis, quin legis. Aliter cum dicimus; non dubium est, quin M. Tullius sit 
eloquentissimus. Aliter cum sic componimus, quod quasi priori videtur contrarium : 
Non idcirco causam hanc non defendit Socrates, quin utile et honestum existimarit. 

49. Soror dicitur quasi seorsum in hereditate non mansura. 

43. Frater quasi fere alter. 

VOL. VIII. 4 


26 PETRONIUS ARBITER DE ANTIQUIS DICTIONIBUS. 


44, Humilitas secundum quosdam est modestia mentis, quae non effertur supra se in 
elationem. Secundum vero consuetudinem Latinorum est popularis quaedam igno- 
bilitas seu deterrimum quod Graeci dicunt. 

45. Mansuetudo est manuum assuetudo; ut puta cum quae natura fera sunt, manu 
tractari possunt. 

46. Devotio est post defaecatam vitiorum rubiginem purum boni desiderium. 

47. Misericordia est affectus subveniendi ex compassione proximi consurgens, mun- 
ditia cordis nec praesentium delectatione nec praeteritorum recordatione. 

48. Pax diversam habet significantionem ; aliter enim cum significat requiem animi; 
aliter cum propitiationem. — Pax est requies animae interiorum bonorum considera- 
tione. — Luctus vel dolor est vivificatio mentis ex primo sensu boni vel mali consurgens. 

49. Dipsas genus aspidis est graecae, quae latine dicitur situla. Quemcunque haec 
momorderit, siti perit; quae adeo est parva, ut cum calcatur, non videatur ; cuius vene- 
num ante extinguit quam sentiatur, nec tristitiam sentiat moriturus. 

50. Adeo particula, quae aliquando adverbii loco ponitur, ut Virgilius: Non obtusa 
adeo gestamus pectora Poeni. Rursum pro etiam ponitur, ut Senatus et adeo populus. 
Ponitur etiam pro coniunctione completiva. i 

51. Iobel graece id est dimittere. Unde Iobileus id est remissus. 

52. Peta impetus gladiorum. 

53. Crusta est glacies. 


54. Hilarum, laetum, iocundum, ridens, plaudens, gaudens, gestiens. 


Norte 1. — Page 3, read Anagliffi for Amagliffi. 

Note 2. — Page 8: xyoipoypvAAos. Professor Sophocles suggests that the correct form of the word is ` 
xowoypóXMos. The weight of evidence is unquestionably in favor of this form. The LXX. has xorpoyp/Xuos, 
and Hieronymus gives this explanation : * Animal non maius hericio habens similitudinem muris et ursi: unde 
et in Palaestina dprropús dicitur. Suidas s. v. yudwos says: dor: dé kal (Gov $ karovpevos yowoyp)Mos. On 
the other hand, we find in Suidas, s. v. yp/AXos : kal ypiAXos ó xoipos, and in a scholion to Aristoph. Pax 520: 
(wAékos) for. Ai (Gov ò radeiras ind pap xoipoypÜMos * ¿ori de (Gov 0d pépynrar Zen “Hpáxheis mviyos yoddy ri * 
gore Ai A kaXoópevos bd zue xoipóyAvos (xorpsyptdXos) ; which passages seem to indicate that the termination of 
the word was not uniform. This, taken in connection with the circumstance that both manuscripts, however 
different in other respects, agree in the form of the termination, led me to adopt the form youpdypuAXos. 


11. 


On the Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 


By FRANK H. STORER. 


(Communicated November 9, 1859.) 


Tuis research was undertaken in order to ascertain what, if any, definite chemical 
compounds could be detected among the alloys of copper and zinc. 

Several chemists had already been led to believe in the existence of two or more 
definite alloys, and at the commencement of my own labors I was strongly inclined 
to accept this view. A more extended investigation, however, has convinced me 
that no such definite compounds exist. On the contrary, I am confident that all the 
alloys of copper and zinc are simply isomorphous mixtures of the two metals, capable, 
as I shall proceed to show, of crystallizing at any point, from copper with only a 
trace of zinc, down to alloys containing but thirty per cent of copper, or even less, 
under favorable circumstances. 

The misconceptions of previous observers* have evidently arisen either from the 
great tendency to separate into layers, instead of immediately forming a homogeneous 
mixture, which the metals exhibit when fused together; or from certain striking 


* T must in this connection refer to, and except, the valuable memoir of Karsten (vid. Karsten u. v. 
Dechen's Archiv für Mineralogie, u. s. w. 1839, XII. 385), whose conclusions in regard to these alloys 
appear to be perfectly correct, with the exception of a few unimportant details. As is the case with 
the able research of the elder Mallet, the details of which are to be found only in the Report of the 
Tenth (Glasgow) Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, p. 258, the very 
meagre abstracts of this memoir which are given in the chemical journals and text-books fail to convey a 
correct idea of the results which have been obtained, — a fact which may serve to explain the ignorance 
which has been exhibited in regard to them by subsequent experimenters. 


28 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


peculiarities of structure and of superficial coloration which occur among the different 
alloys. To these points I shall again allude. 

The method which I have used in preparing the alloys has varied slightly according 
to the amount of copper contained in them. Those in which the proportion of copper 
was large were prepared by projecting granulated zinc by small portions into the mol- 
ten copper, the crucible which contained it having been previously removed from the 
fire, the mixture being thoroughly stirred after each addition of zinc. This method 
succeeds very well when only a small amount of zinc is to be combined with the 
copper, perfect combination of the metals being readily obtained while the loss of zinc 
from volatilization, though considerable, is, if proper care be exercised, much less 
than would be at first sight supposed. But for alloys containing even as much as 
50 or 55 per cent of zinc, this method becomes uncertain. 

It is in this case necessary to bring the copper to a high degree of heat before 
adding the zinc; yet in spite of this precaution, and of the utmost care in adding 
the zinc only by small portions, which have previously been made as hot as possible, 
the mass contained in the crucible will often become chilled, and require to be again 
placed in the furnace in order to be remelted. Since the portion of zinc last added 
remains uncombined with the copper, and exposed at the surface of the mass, a great 
deal of it is lost during this operation. 

In preparing alloys containing more than 50 per cent of zinc, I have melted the 
copper and zinc in separate crucibles, and have subsequently poured the zinc upon 
the copper. It is necessary to remove from the fire the crucible which contains 
the latter, and to cover it carefully, with the exception of a small opening through 
which the zinc may be poured; for violent ebullition and projection of particles 
of the melted metal occur during the first moments of combination. After thorough 
stirring * in either case, the mass was allowed to cool until a crust had formed on the 
surface of the alloy. This crust was then pierced, and the fluid matter beneath 
it poured out. The cup thus formed, having been removed from the crucible, was 
sawed in two, and portions of the crystals upon its sides cut off by means of a cold- 
chisel, for analysis. The sheets obtained from the fluid alloy poured off were also 
retained, and were subsequently analyzed. 

The weight of alloy obtained in each experiment varied from two to six pounds. 
By operating in the manner described, it is easy — especially after a little practice 


* I have found that a rod of soapstone eight or ten inches in length, cut somewhat tapering towards 


its point, screwed into a piece of ordinary one-inch iron gas-pipe, forms a very convenient stirrer. It should 
be ignited to expel moisture before Mnt used. : 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 29 


has enabled one to judge when the crust is ready to be pierced — to obtain perfect 
cups lined with well-formed crystals. 

The chief difficulty which presents itself depends upon the fact that the alloys 

containing more than 80 to 85 per cent of copper solidify much more rapidly on 
top than upon the sides or at the bottom of the crucible. It is therefore necessary 
to allow a very thick crust to form before piercing, or no cup at all will have been 
formed, and the alloy will flow out entirely in the fluid state, with the exception 
of the upper crust. 
. Fine cups are formed by all the alloys between 80 and 45 per cent of copper, 
the largest crystals being obtained when the crust is pierced while still quite thin; 
while the white alloys containing less than 40 per cent of copper solidify, if anything, 
more rapidly on the sides and at the bottom of the crucible, rendering it necessary 
to pour out what alloy is still fluid almost as soon as a crust begins to form on top. 
All the white alloys are liable to pass suddenly into a pasty plastic state similar to 
that assumed by zinc or by soft-solder while solidifying. On account of this pecu- 
liarity, it is exceedingly difficult to crystallize them. I have succeeded, however, in 
obtaining crystals of alloys as low down as 30 per cent of copper, and have no doubt 
that, by repeated trials, they might be obtained from alloys still richer in zinc. 

These crystals are all octahedral, usually somewhat elongated and apparently 
much modified by the circumstances in which they have been formed. The edges 
of all of them are rounded. The octahedra are in general more largely developed 
upon one side than upon the other, apparently upon the side from which the last 
drippings of the melted metal fell. They are, moreover, combined together with 
parallel axes, which give to the crystals a striated appearance (see Figs. 1l, 2, and 3); 
these strie are not sharply defined, but their edges have the rounded character 
of the edges of the crystals. This general character is maintained throughout 
the whole series of crystals, from those of pure copper down to those of the lowest 
white alloys which I have obtained. No doubt can possibly be entertained of 
the complete resemblance of these crystals to each other throughout the series, while 
the striking similarity to the well-known crystals of pure copper (obtained by fusion) 
which they exhibit, strongly indicates that they belong to the regular system. 
As it is of course impossible to measure the angles of such crystals, they cannot 
be crystallographically determined; but the most obvious conclusion is, that they 
are monometric. This opinion, however, must be based rather upon analogy than 
on any distinct measurements. ` 

Upon the assumption that the crystals which I have described belong to the 


30 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


regular system, as well as upon the fact, which will appear in the sequel, that 
none of the crystals have been found to contain any larger quantity of either of 
their component metals than was contained in the remainder of the molten liquid 
from which they had separated, I have based my conclusion that the alloys of 
copper and zinc are isomorphous mixtures * of the two metals. 

On this hypothesis it is of course presumed that both copper and zine are capable 
of crystallizing in the regular system. Copper, as is well known, always occurs in 
forms of the monometric system. But in regard to zinc this has not been so satisfac- 
torily proved. Not only, however, does analogy indicate that zinc should be mono- 
metric, — for, so far as is known, all the metals of the Three Series of Cooke t 
allied to it crystallize in forms of this system, — but Nicklés f has actually observed 
an instance in which it occurred in the form of pentagonal dodecahedrons. 

I am well aware that this is an isolated example; that the angles of the crystals 
were not measured. It is not to be supposed, however, that a chemist so well versed ` 
in crystallography as M. Nicklés could have been mistaken regarding the form of 
his specimen. We know, moreover, from the analyses of Favre,§ that the zinc was 
almost absolutely pure. Gustav Rose|| has urged against this observation, that the 
form of the crystals is an improbable one, since no other instance is known of a metal 
crystallized in pentagonal dodecahedrons. I cannot myself perceive the force of this 
argument; few facts are more thoroughly established, than that the crystalline form 
of bodies may be largely modified by the influence of the circumstances under which 
they are formed, — witness, for example, the crystals of common salt obtained from 
solutions containing organic matter,€8| — while almost all the crystals of metals with 
which we are acquainted have been prepared by a single process, — igneous fusion. 

Rose has also maintained that the crystals of Nicklés are similar to the rounded 
or irregularly crystallized masses formed in an atmosphere of zinc vapor which he 


* It must not be supposed that this view supports in the least the idea of the older chemists, that alloys 
were mere “mixtures” of their component metals. For the experiments of Karsten (loc. cit., S. 398, 400) 
have already shown that the comportment of the alloys of copper and zine towards acids, and the solutions 
of various metallic salts, is that of chemical compounds, being entirely unlike that of a simple mechanical 
mixture of the two metals, or of a mixture of several alloys. 

— t Memoirs of American Academy, (New Series) V. table to p. 256. 

i Ann. Ch. et. Phys, (3.) XXII. 37. ; 

$ Ibid., X. 170. 

| J. pr. Chem. (N. F.) LV. 292. 

Y Vid. Robin et Verdeil, Traité de Chimie Anatomique, (Paris, 1853,) II. 198, et Atlas, pl. 1. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 31 


has himself obtained from the receiving-vessels of the Silesian zinc furnaces, and 
which are, for that matter, familiar enough to those who have often had occasion to 
fuse zinc in covered crucibles. I would, however, suggest, that the circumstances 
under which these mammelons are formed are by no means identical with those 
in which Nicklés's crystals were prepared,* viz. in an atmosphere of hydrogen, at a 
lower heat, and doubtless with less rapid volatilization.T 

On the other hand, the very fact which I have myself observed, namely, that most, 
and probably all, alloys of copper and zinc may be crystallized in octahedrons, is in 
itself strong presumptive evidence that zinc is capable of assuming a similar form. 
Indeed, in the absence of any marked tendency in these alloys to separate by eliqua- 
tion, there remains no hypothesis other than that of isomorphous mixture by which 
to explain their composition. 


* Vid. Jacquelain, Ann. Ch. et Phys. (3.) VII. 204; and Favre, loc. cit. 

f I have endeavored to defend Nicklés's observation, the more especially because it is certainly as 
well entitled to be received by chemists as the experiments of Noeggerath (Pogg. Ann. XXXIX. 323) 
and Rose, which go to prove that zinc may crystallize in forms of the hexagonal system. Neither of 
these observers has analyzed the crystals which he has described, all of which were accidental products 
of smelting-works. Now we know from the researches of Cooke (Memoirs of the American Academy, New 
Series, V. 353; also, Am. J. Sci. (2.) X X. 225), that zinc, which contains only three or four per cent, and prob- 
ably even a smaller quantity, of antimony, has a strong tendency to crystallize in the form of rhombic prisms 
of the compound Sb Zn; with excess of zinc. We have also the statements of Laurent and Holms (Ann. Ch. 
et Phys. 1835, (2.) LX. 333), that zinc containing three or four per cent of iron crystallizes in rhombic prisms ; 
and of Warren de la Rue (Phil. Mag. J. (3.) XXVII. 370; also, J. pr. Chem. (N. F.) XXXVII. 126), who 
has obtained and measured rhombic prisms of composition, — 


Zinc > e ; í ; 3 i S 90.00 

Iron S S P 3 S e e ; sae 

Lead i . è e S : b e 6.00 : 
Duis e x wl ll... JE. 


100.00 
% 
A. Erdmann (Berzelius, Traité, IT. 620) also has analyzed acicular crystals of zinc which were detached 
from a bit of distilled zinc which had been used to decompose a quantity of chloride of silver. These 


needles contained, — 


. Zine wil s , . » 4 ale : 93.193 
MON . : e i . e e EE EE PME 
Lead $ A è . : . : : 0.283 

100.000 


In view of all these data, showing the very great influence which the presence of a small amount 
of impurity may exert upon the crystalline form of zinc, the importance of the fact that we have no 
evidence whatsoever of the purity of the crystals described by Noeggerath and Rose is manifest. 


92 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


I must observe in this connection, that G. Rose* has quite recently described 
a specimen of crystals, labelled * Mengepresse," — a term applied to an alloy prepared 
from one pound of copper from Lauterberg, and two pounds of calamine, — which 
exists in the Royal Mineralogical Museum at Berlin, having been obtained from 
the collection of Klaproth. These crystals, in the opinion of Rose, appear to 
belong to the monometric system; but since Prof. Rose has published no analysis of 
them, we not only have no clew to their probable quantitative composition, but 
are left in doubt whether they are really a compound of copper and zinc; though 
the facts which I have here brought forward render the supposition an extremely 
probable one. E 

Notwithstanding this, and in spite of the fact that his alloy is only a single 
isolated example, Rose has urged, in direct opposition to his previons opinion, that 
it proves that zinc must belong to the regular system. In point of fact, however, 
the observation of Rose, taken by itself, evidently proves nothing of the kind. For, 
admitting that his crystals are really brass, he has offered no evidence to show 
that they do not belong to one of several possible definite alloys ; only after proving 
that such crystals do occur through the whole series of alloys, as I have shown is 
really the case, and demonstrating that no definite compounds exist, could the idea of 
isomorphous mixture be entertained. 

The crystals obtained by myself vary in size; some of them being more than half 
an inch in length, while others are quite minute. In general they are smallest in 
those instances where the greater part of the alloy had solidified before the crust 
= was pierced. 

Fig. 1, which is a copy of a portion of the crystal- 
line crust, from the alloy containing 94.38 per cent 
of copper, may serve to give a general idea of the 
character of these crystals. | 

In a few of the specimens of alloys, the crystals 
have exhibited a tendency to assume a somewhat 
tabular form, — a single face of an octahedron being 
largely developed, to the exclusion of the other 
faces, as may be seen in Fig. 2, a; while in other 
specimens separate individual crystals have occurred, Fig. 2, b and c. Both of these 
peculiarities presented themselves in the alloy of 83.72 per cent of copper, portions - 
of which are represented in Fig. 2. 


* Pogg. Ann., July, 1859, CVII. 448. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. : 33 


As a rule, however, all of the crystals obtained closely resemble those delineated 
in Fig. 1, Indeed, this figure might be used to represent almost any specimen 
in the long series of alloys which I have prepared. 
Very fine groups of crystals were obtained from those 
alloys which contained only one or two per cent 
of zinc. It is worthy of note, that, although these 
crystals have the same form and general appear- 
ance as those prepared by the same method from 


an equal quantity — three or four pounds — of pure 
copper, they are nevertheless much larger and more 
perfect. Since they may, for all practical purposes, 
be considered as crystals of copper with slight impurity of zinc, and are easily to be 
obtained, it would almost seem advisable to add one or two per cent of zinc to the 
metal employed in preparing specimens of crystallized copper for the cabinet. A simi- 
lar case is presented by lead, which is very readily crystallized when it contains a little 
antimony: a fact well exemplified by the beautiful cups of crystals of Kriútzblei 
which are prepared by partially cooling the metal in ladles, at the Frankensharner 
smelt-works near Clausthal, and doubtless at other localities in the Hartz. 

Since the crystals rich in copper which have just been described do not possess 
in any marked degree the yellow color peculiar to brass, they are somewhat less 
interesting than those obtained from alloys containing more zinc. Crystals of 
the latter can be obtained with the greatest ease by remelting old brass, or, better, 
by filling a Hessian crucible from the molten metal of the pots of a brass-founder, 
in which case all annoyance from the formation of a false crust of mixed ox- 
ide of zinc and metal is obviated. I mention these details, because I have myself 
found it somewhat difficult to acquire the knack of obtaining at will good crystals, 
when the alloys were prepared directly from the pure metals; having frequently 
been compelled to repeat a single experiment three or four times before satisfactory 
results were obtained. This is owing to the different degrees of rapidity with which 
the alloys cool, a fact to which I have already alluded. 

The most perfect individual crystals were obtained from a quantity of brazier's 
solder which had been prepared at the foundery of the Revere Copper Company 
in Boston by fusing together 50 parts of copper with 50 parts of zinc. When 
an alloy of about this composition solidifies, and especially if it be suddenly cooled, — 
as happens when itis poured into iron ingot-moulds, — it assumes, as is well known, 
a highly crystalline structure, consisting almost entirely of a mass of coarse fibres 


VOL. VIII. 5 


34 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC, 


which shoot out from the points at which the alloy comes in contact with the 
cold metal of the mould. In the instances which have fallen under my notice, 
the ingots being from an inch to an inch and a half in depth, the fibres have 
shot up three quarters of an inch, or more, from the bottom of the ingot, leaving 
only a sheet of metal about a quarter of an inch in thickness on top, which had 
cooled more slowly by contact with the air. 

Fig. 3, a, represents in section a frag- 
ment of one of these ingots. One side— 
d seen at the right — as well as the bottom 
Y of the portion figured having been in direct 
| contact with the iron mould in which the 
ingot was cast, the crust just alluded to 
may also be seen above the fibres: On 
removing portions of this upper layer, its 

Fig. 8. inferior surface will be found studded with 
crystals, often of great beauty, — Fig. 3, c conveys but an imperfect idea of a portion 
of one of these, — while others frequently occur impacted among the fibres themselves. 
Indeed, these fibres, although described by Calvert and R. Johnson * as prismatic 
crystals, indicating that the alloy Cu Zn is a definite chemical compound, are evidently 
nothing more than collections of octohedral crystals, similar to those which form 
the fibres of sublimed sal-ammoniac and of several metals.+ 

By comparing the striations on these fibres with those upon any of the crystals 
of the series, it is impossible to resist the conviction that the former are mere 
aggregations. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that the individual crystals 
which have been just mentioned as occurring above and among the fibres are evidently 
parts of the same system as the latter. Fig. 3, b represents a portion of one of 
the fibres somewhat magnified. It often happens that this alloy, known as brazier's 
solder, is run into cylindrical moulds of two or three inches in diameter, pierced 
in earth; in this case the fibres shoot out from all sides towards the centre, leaving 
at the middle of the bar a sort of neutral ground in which tolerably well-formed 
crystals frequently occur. The solder is prepared for market by warming it slightly, + 


* Journal of the Franklin Institute, (3.) XXXVIL 200. See also Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 
CXLVIII. p. 367. 


+ Vid. Savart, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, (2) XLI. 65. 


1 It must not be heated above a very moderate temperature, for, like metallic zinc at certain temperatures, 
it then becomes somewhat tenacious or pasty, and cannot be powdered. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 95 


and then pounding it in an iron mortar till it is reduced to a somewhat coarse powder. 
With the fibres, this result is easily obtained, since no great effort is necessary to 
tear asunder the numberless little crystals of which they are composed; but the larger 
individual crystals which occur in the crust and core, as just described, are much more 
refractory; they are removed from the finer powder by sifting, and are subsequently 
remelted. Among these rejected * kernels" very good crystals may often be found. 

The tendency to shoot out into fibres, which has been alluded to, and which 
deserves something more than a passing notice, extends over quite a space, from 
alloys containing 57 or 58 per cent of copper, or even more, down to those containing 
49 or 44 per cent, where it gradually disappears, as I have proved by casting a series 
of ingots. Although it does not altogether prevent one from obtaining crystals 
by the method of pouring off the still fluid portion of the alloy from that which 
has been allowed to solidify, still the crystals which I have obtained in this way 
within the limits of its influence are in general less perfect than those of the 
alloys containing more copper; indeed, on remelting the solder from which the 
finest separate crystals were obtained, and pouring off a portion of it after the 
rest had become solid, only indifferently good specimens could be procured. The 
alloy appearing to pass so quickly from the liquid to the solid state, that the crystals 
have but little time in which to form. It is remarkable that this inclination to 
form fibres is strongest in those alloys which contain nearly equal equivalents 
of zinc and copper, being less clearly marked as one recedes in either direction 
from this point, until a stringy texture analogous to that of copper is reached on 
the one hand, and the peculiar pastiness of zinc on the other. In preparing crystals, 
this pastiness manifests itself decidedly in the alloys immediately below those 
which are fibrous, becoming more strongly marked as the alloys are richer in 
zinc;—at least, so far as my own experiments have extended, i. e. to 30 per cent or 
less of copper. The fracture of these white alloys is for the most part vitreous. 
The pasty condition appears to depend to a certain extent on the manner in which 
the alloy is cooled, being less apparent when this process has been rapid. I have 
repeatedly obtained fine cups lined with tolerable crystals from alloys, which in other 
trials afforded nothing but a mass of paste. The transition, however, from com- 
plete liquidity to the pasty condition, when the latter is assumed, is very rapid. 

'The fact that the alloys just mentioned take on the fibrous texture when cooled 
under ordinary circumstances has, moreover, a very important practical bearing ; — 
alloys at the upper limit of this fibrous tendency being the lowest—i. e. richest 
in zinc — which can be rolled or subjected to the various processes by which metals 


96 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


are wrought. Singularly enough, at a point just beyond the limit at which the fibres 
cease to be apparent, viz. at 60 per cent of copper, an alloy of peculiar homogeneity 
occurs ; — its fracture, as seen when small bars are broken, being smooth and compact, 
and entirely unlike either the coarse, irregular, stringy fracture of alloys richer in 
copper, or that of alloys containing only a little more zinc, upon the fracture of 
which small bundles of fine crystalline fibres are often apparent. 

This alloy readily admits of being rolled, either hot or cold, and may be subjected 
to the operations of hammering or drawing without detriment, while alloys con- 
taining only a few per cent more copper can be rolled hot only when the sheets 
are raised to a very high temperature. Even then it is exceedingly difficult to 
obtain thin sheets without cracking their edges. 

On the other hand, alloys containing somewhat less than 60 per cent of copper 
cannot well be rolled hot, since, when the ingots are heated, the exterior — especially 
at the corners — is liable to become pasty before the centre is soft enough to admit 
of being rolled. 

In the preparation of the alloy of 60 per cent of copper, now so extensively used 
for sheathing vessels, under the name of Muntz's sheathing or yellow-metal, — also 
known as malleable brass,— it is the custom of founders to reserve a portion of 
the zinc which has been weighed out for a charge, until the alloy in their pots 
or furnace has become sufficiently hot;* the last portions of zinc are then added 
in small pieces, a sample of the alloy being tested after each such addition. This 
is done by dipping out a small portion of the melted mass and pouring it into 
a mould; a little ingot, five or six inches long by an inch or less in thickness, is 
thus obtained, which, after cooling, is broken on an anvil, and its fracture observed. 
If this does not exhibit a smooth and homogeneous surface, more zinc is added 
to the alloy. The accuracy with which an experienced workman can thus obtain 
the desired alloy is truly astonishing, the more especially since this homogeneous 
alloy is confined within very narrow limits. 

It is stated by founders that the alloy of 60 per cent of copper and 40 per cent of 
zinc will present almost precisely the same homogeneity of fracture, whether the test 
ingot prepared from it be cooled slowly, by exposure to the air, or rapidly, by plung- 


* The temperature to which the alloy is brought before pouring is considered to be a point of much 
importance by founders. In their opinion, a very inferior alloy would be formed if it were not heated much 
more strongly than would be necessary to maintain it in the liquid state. Compare Bolley, Zur Kentniss 
der Moleculareigenschaften des Zinks, Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., XCV. 302. This subject is evidently connected 
with the phenomena of tempering described in another part of this memoir. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 91 


ing it into cold water, while alloys containing either more or less than 60 per cent 
of copper are liable to assume different structures, according as they are cooled 
with greater or less rapidity. Two ingots are therefore sometimes cast, on each 
trial of the alloy, one of which is cooled in water and the other in air, for uc. 
This double test is, however, deemed superfluous by skilful workmen. 

I may remark, in this connection, that I have repeatedly obtained crystals, by the 
method of partial cooling, from portions of melted yellow-metal taken from the founder's 
pots at the moment it had afforded them a satisfactory test. These crystals are in no 
wise different from those obtained by myself from alloys of almost identical composition. 

Although, as has been stated, the tendency to form fibres seems to have ceased 
at the alloy containing 60 per cent of copper, I cannot but think that the limit 
of its influence is less clearly defined than the “test” of yellow-metal founders would 
seem to indicate. In the circumstances under which this test is applied, it is doubtless 
true that no fibres are formed; but it is a matter of experience with manufacturers of 
yellow-metal, that the texture of the large ingots from which the sheets of sheathing 
are rolled is no longer so homogeneous as that of the small test ingot; they affirm 
also that this texture may vary greatly, according to the conditions in which the 
ingot is allowed to cool It is evident, therefore, that during the processes of hot 
and cold rolling, and of annealing, to which the alloy is subsequently subjected, its 
texture may undergo various changes; while it is certain that the comparative dura- 
bility of the sheathing, when exposed to the action of sea-water, must in great measure 
depend upon its relative compactness. If it be open and porous, as would be the 
case if a trace of the fibrous structure were present, it is clear that the sheathing 
would soon be destroyed; — not only because the salt water would come in contact 
with its interior portions, but also since the individual crystalline fibres of the 
alloy would doubtless resist its action more completely than the amorphous matter 
attached to them or contained in their interstices; from this a galvanic action 
would be produced, which could not fail to promote the corrosion of the alloy. 

One of the most common complaints against yellow-metal arises from a tendency 
which some specimens of it exhibit to become so friable, after an exposure of 
longer or shorter duration to sea-water, that the sheets may readily be broken 
in pieces, sometimes even between the fingers. Attention has recently been called to 
this subject by Bobierre,* who would refer such cases more particularly to chemical 


* Theses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences de Paris. 
Thèse de Physique: Des Phénomènes électro-chimiques qui caractérisent l'Altération, à la Mer, des 


Alliages employés pour doubler les Navires. Nantes: Imp. Busseuil. 1858. p. 61. 


38 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


conditions depending, as he thinks, upon the too great proportion of zinc which 
is used in the preparation of the alloy, yellow-metal, as well as to changes of 
composition produced by hot rolling. 

I cannot agree with this conclusion. In my own opinion, the other alterna- 
tive which Bobierre has suggested, namely, peculiar arrangement of the molecules 
of which the alloy is composed, furnishes the true explanation of the difficulty. 
It is, however, possible, that at times, when the temperature of the reverberatory, 
in which the alloy is heated before passing to the rollers, is not properly regulated, 
zinc may be burned off from the exterior portions of the sheet, and that the alloy 
richer in copper which would thus be formed may subsequently be pressed into the 
body of the sheet during the operation of rolling. An alloy destitute of homogeneity 
would result from this treatment which could hardly be durable in any event. 
Instances of this sort must nevertheless be rare, for no part of the process is watched 
by the manufacturers more scrupulously than this. 

It must also be borne in mind, that, of the enormous quantity of yellow-metal 
which is now used by the merchant-vessels of Great Britain and of this country, — 
all of which is composed of sixty parts of copper and forty parts of zinc, and rolled 
hot, — only a comparatively small portion passes into the friable condition to which 
I have alluded. 

In most cases the alteration which the sheathing undergoes is gradual and regular, 
and the portion which remains after the wear of several years is still malleable. Indeed, 
the absolute amount of sheathing which becomes friable is entirely out of proportion 
with the annoyance to which it subjects ship-owners; * for it rarely happens, even 
in the worst instances, that more than one third of the sheets upon a vessel become 
friable, the remainder being in good condition. 

The friability is therefore a purely accidental occurrence, and by no means a 
necessary consequence either of hot rolling or of the presence of 40 per cent of 
zinc in the alloy, as has been implied by Bobierre. Iam strongly of opinion, that 
it might be in every instance entirely obviated by methodically annealing or tempering 


* Whenever the destruction of a portion of the sheathing requires that a ship be hauled up for repairs, 
it is customary, since this operation is an expensive one, to resheathe the vessel entirely; for as the friable 
sheets are interspersed among the others, and since all the sheets are somewhat worn, it would be bad 
economy to attempt any partial repairs. Of course the owner of the vessel regards the entire suit of 
sheathing as being worn out, and forms his opinion of the durability of yellow-metal in accordance with 
this view. 


f Thises p. 77. —— 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 39 


the sheets of alloy in such a manner that no fibres could form in them, and that 
their structure should be homogeneous. 

Bobierre, in his very able thesis, to which I have already alluded, has urged that 
it would be well to discontinue the use of the alloy containing 60 per cent of copper, 
which admits of being rolled hot, and to substitute for it sheathing prepared from 
alloys containing about 66 per cent of copper, which can only be prepared by a 
most laborious process of cold rolling. It is true that the fibres which I have 
described would in this case probably never be encountered. Still there are several 
important objections to the proposition of M. Bobierre. Not only would the method 
of cold rolling consume a much greater amount of time and labor; but it would 
be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to procure any alloy the composition 
of which could be maintained so nearly constant as is the case with yellow-metal.* 
It is not probable that a test like the one applied to this alloy could be found 
anywhere else in the whole series. 

It is frequently stated in chemical text-books that yellow-metal is always prepared 
from “ best-selected” copper, and one is led to infer that a metal of peculiar purity 
is alone used in its manufacture. This may once have been the case; but since 
the immense increase in the use of this alloy, it would no longer be practicable 
to obtain a sufficient quantity of copper of uniform character, or indeed of any one 
kind, from which to prepare the large quantity of sheathing which is used. In an 
establishment where expense would be a secondary consideration, as, for example, 
in a government workshop, it might still be possible to prepare an alloy constantly 
from the same sorts of copper and of zinc, in which case, although the amount of 
zinc lost would probably be subject to considerable variations, one might, nevertheless, 
soon be able to control the process, and to prepare an alloy of the composition 
proposed by Bobierre, so that only trifling variations should occur in the composition 
of the product. But in ordinary practice manufacturers are compelled to make 
use of the most varied kinds of copper, not only because the supply of the best 
sorts is limited, but particularly from the fact, that, owing to the competition 
which exists between the various founderies, — or rather, by force of the laws which 
regulate supply and demand,— they are obliged to remelt larger quantities of 
old copper sheathing,t the origin of which is unknown to them, and which may 


have been originally prepared from copper of inferior quality. 


* An alloy of constant composition might, however, possibly be prepared, by adding known quantities 
of melted copper to determined volumes of molten yellow-metal which had been prepared by the usual method. 

+ The popular notion, that a better — “more compact” — product is obtained by remelting any alloy, 
may also have some connection with this custom. 


40 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


Now since many of the impurities of copper are eliminated when it unites 
with zinc, being thrown up on the surface of the melted metal as a crust or scum, 
which is removed by the workmen,* and as no two samples of copper contain 
the same kind or quantity of impurity, the amount of it removed, or, what is the 
same thing, the amount of copper left to unite with a given weight of zinc, T must 
continually vary. 

From this it may easily be seen how very difficult, if not impracticable, it would 
be to obtain anything like constant results, unless some test were found by which the 
workmen might ascertain at least approximately the composition of his alloy. + 

That it is of the first importance that every alloy used for sheathing shall 
possess some one constant composition, so that it may endure equally well on 
all parts of the vessel, and that no galvanic action may occur between the metal 
of different sheets, is a point too obvious to be mentioned. 

It might still be urged against yellow-metal, that the admixture of other metals — 
of kinds capable of mingling with it — which may have been derived from the copper 
used in its preparation, is a serious objection to its use. This is true, and the remark 
applies with equal or even greater force to all the alloys used for sheathing; 
it must always depend upon the condition of copper metallurgy. It would apply 
more forcibly, for example, to the low-grade brass which Bobierre has proposed 
to substitute for the ordinary sheathing-metal; for since the “test” by means of 
which founders are enabled to prepare the alloy — yellow-metal — of constant com- 
position cannot be obtained if metals are present which are incapable of mixing 
in all proportions with this alloy, in which event small particles of the foreign 
substances would be found irregularly disseminated upon the fractured surface of 
the test ingot, manufacturers are enabled to ascertain at once whether or no a given 
sample of copper is suitable for the preparation of yellow-metal ^ Whenever it is 


* This explains the remark of Karsten (loc. cit., S. 386), that perfectly pure copper can take up from 
1.5 to 2.5 per cent more zinc than impure, and still afford a product of better color, more tenacious and 
more malleable. 

f Much zine also is lost in this case, both by alloying with the foreign metal and by uniting with 
any oxygen which may have been combined with the latter. As the workmen say, impure copper 
* burns up" a great deal of zinc. 

f It must be well understood, however, that as a rule manufacturers of xn of copper and zinc always 
use the best copper they can obtain, since it is generally more economical for them to do so. For the 
purer this metal is, so much the greater will be the total amount of alloy obtained by the use of a given 


weight of it, or, in other words, the loss, mentioned in the preceding notes, which would occur from 
elimination of impurities, will be smaller. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 41 


found that satisfactory tests cannot be obtained, the copper is immediately rejected 
by the founders, and applied to some other use. No similar means of controlling 
the purity of the brass in question are known. 

It does not appear—at all events it has never been proved — that any serious 
injury results in practice from the use of the most varied kinds of copper, so 
long as they afford the desired homogeneous alloy containing 40 per cent of zinc. 

I do not wish to deny that hurtful impurities may at times occur in yellow-metal, 
in spite of the test to which I have so frequently alluded. Most probably the 
very rare cases in which this alloy wears out irregularly, portions of the sheet 
being much corroded, while other parts are scarcely at all acted upon and have 
preserved their original color and malleability, may be referred to the irregular 
diffusion of such impurities throughout the mass of alloy of which the sheet 
was formed;* but their influence must be regarded as being of very slight im- 
portance in comparison with the changes of structure which have already been dis- 
cussed. 

The following is a list of the alloys which I have prepared. Crystals were 
obtained from all of them, with the exception perhaps of one or two of those lowest 
in the series, where the tendency to assume a pasty state during solidification renders 
the crystallization obscure. | 

The amount of copper contained in both the crystals and the portion of fluid 
alloy poured off from above them was determined directly by assay in each instance. 
The copper used in the preparation of the alloys was a very pure article from 
Lake Superior; it contained only a certain amount of suboxide of copper and 
traces of silver. : 

The zinc was from La Vieille Montaigne, containing as its principal impu- 
rity a small amount of lead. -Both metals were granulated for convenience 
in weighing. The lead and other impurities have been neglected in stating my 


results. 


-* Tt is not impossible that the small amount of silver which, as is well known, is precipitated from 
sea-water upon the metallic sheathing of ships, can accumulate to such an extent in yellow-metal which 
has been repeatedly used and remelted, that the durability of the latter may be seriously impaired thereby. 
It is, however, equally probable, and perhaps more so, that the greater part of this silver is eliminated 
in the preparation of the alloy, when the old metal is fused with zinc. 


VOL. VIII. 6 


49 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


Per cent Per cent 
Number Per cent of Per cent of Copper found Number Per cent of Per cent of Copper found 
of the Copper put into | of Copper found | in the portion of the Copper put into | of Copper found | in the portion 
Experiment. the Alloy. in the Crystals. of Alloy Experiment. the Alloy. in the Crystals. of Alloy 

poured off. poured off. 

X 97.38 99.14 98.68 21* 62.30 

2 96.50 95.57 97.40 22 60.29 61.16 61.99 

3 94.38 95.06 95.04 231 60.92 61.36 

4 94.38 94.30 93.82 24T 60.77 60.88 

5 91.38 90.77 91.49 251 60.42 60.24 

6 88.38 88.86 88.78 — 26 56.69 57.82 58.66 

7 85.38 86.10 85.74 27 53.09 54.22 54.45 

8 79.38 83.72 83.61 28 51.00 52.62 52.11 

9 82.38 82.89 82.52 29 49.00 49.51 49.55 

10 79.38 80.34 80.73 30 47.00 49.43 48.26 

11 76.38 77.32 78.92 31 45.00 47.49 46.79 

12 73.38 75.03 74.27 32 43.00 44.41 43.63 

13 74.38 75.71 14.94 33* 43.64 44.01 

14 72.38 74.52 73.61 34 41.00 41.48 42.19 

15 70.00 71.48 71.68 85 39.00 88.57 38.77 

16* 69.20 36 37.00 . 38.09 37.71 

17 67.40 68.93 67.37 37 35.00 35.33 36.71 

18 65.94 67.12 38 33.00 32.98 32.79 

199 66.94 39 27.31 29.67 29.07 
20* 65.56 40* 29.07 


In determining the amounts of copper contained in these alloys I have employed 
a method which has been used for a long time by many of the copper assayers 
of this country, by whom it is highly esteemed. It is essentially the old Swedish 
method $ of precipitating the copper from its solution in acid, by means of metallic 
iron; with, however, several more modern modifications and improvements.|| Since 
several of the details of this process have never, to my knowledge, appeared in 
chemical literature, I shall make no apology for describing it at length in this 
connection, 

In choosing samples of the alloy for analysis, I have been careful to select those 
portions of the cup which were best crystallized, avoiding always the upper crust, 


* The instances in which the amounts of metal used in preparing the alloy are not given, refer to crystal- 
lized products which were obtained accidentally during the course of the research. 

T Yellow-metal from founder’s pots, said, from appearance of test ingot, to require a little more zinc. 

i Yellow-metal which had afforded a satisfactory test. : 

$ Vid. Bergman, Physical and Chemical Essays, translated from the olifindr Latin by E. Cullen, 
M. D., (London, 1788,) Vol. II. p. 443. Described more fully by Kersten, in Karsten u. von Dechen's 
Archiv für Mineralogie, u. s. w., XIL 567; also by Kerl in Bodemann's Probirkunst von Bruno Kerl, 
(Clausthal, 1857,) S. 216. 

| For information concerning these I am indebted to Mr. G. J. Dickinson, chemist of the copper 
works at Point Pose near Boston. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 48 


which had lost zine by volatilization while cooling; from the sheets into which 
the fluid portion of the alloy was cast, I have taken pieces near the edge, which 
were free from any admixture of fragments of the crust. 

Pieces of the alloy weighing from four to twelve grammes, accordingly as they 
contained a greater or less amount of copper, which had been carefully cleaned by 
filing and brushing, were placed in covered porcelain dishes, and dissolved in strong 
nitric acid on the sand-bath, the usual precautions to avoid loss from spattering 
being observed. To the solution thus obtained, sulphuric acid — which had been 
freed from its impurity of lead by dilution with water and subsequent partial 
concentration — was added, and the mixture evaporated to dryness over the water- 
bath; more sulphuric acid being added, and the solution again evaporated until 
all the nitric acid was expelled, or till no trace of blue crystals remained. I have 
rarely found it necessary to evaporate the solution more than twice in order to 
effect this. 

It is of importance that the nitric acid shall be thoroughly removed, for in 
the presence even of a mere trace of this acid it is exceedingly difficult to precipitate, 
by means of iron, the last portions of copper from its solution. 

After all the nitric acid had been expelled, the mixed sulphates were dissolved 
in hot water, and the sulphate of lead (from impurity in the zinc of the alloy) 
allowed to settle; this was then separated and washed with acidulated water, by 
decantation. 

The solution, which had been collected in a capacious beaker, was now largely 
diluted with water and placed upon a sand-bath, the heat of which was regulated 
so that the solution could attain a temperature nearly equal to boiling, without, 
however, coming into actual ebullition. A sheet of the purest iron obtainable 
was next placed in the solution, leaning against the sides of the beaker so that 
the largest possible amount of its surface should be exposed, in order that the 
iron might be attacked equally at all points by the acid, and that the copper 
should be precipitated in even sheets upon it. 

The solution should be acid enough to insure a slight evolution of hydrogen 
during the precipitation. Care should, however, be taken to guard, in the first 
instance, against the addition of too great an excess of acid, lest the iron be cor- 
roded to an unnecessary or even ruinous extent. It is of course desirable to avoid 
dissolving any more iron than is necessary to insure regularity and completeness 
in the precipitation, for in this case a smaller portion of its impurities will be 


exposed, and its surface will remain smoother. 


44 . ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


After the introduction of the iron, the beaker is to be covered with a glass 
plate, and left to itself until the copper is entirely precipitated, which occurs at the 
end of an hour or two at farthest. Having proved that no more copper is con- 
tained in the solution by testing a small portion of it with sulphuretted-hydrogen 
water, the beaker is removed from the sand-bath, and the clear acid solution 
decanted off as completely as possible from the copper and iron. 

If this solution be diluted with a large quantity of hot water, it immediately 
becomes yellow, then turbid, and in a few minutes deposits a bulky flocculent 
precipitate of a basic salt of peroxide of iron, although the supernatant liquid 
is strongly acid. Since a quantity of this solution remains adhering to the 
metals, it is well, in order to avoid the precipitate which would form if they 
were treated at once with hot water, first to pour a small quantity of cold water 
upon them. The piece of iron is then to be taken from the beaker, and any 
particles of copper which may be loosely attached to it removed by means of the 
wash-bottle; the iron being carefully preserved for subsequent examination. The 
copper, having been once more rinsed with cold water, is now to be treated with 
boiling water, which should be decanted off into a large clean beaker, without 
waiting for all the copper to be deposited, as soon as the liquor assumes a yellow 
color. After two or three additions of hot water, the subsalt of iron is no longer 
precipitated, and the copper may be allowed to subside at its leisure. Any par- 
ticles of copper which are found adhering to the sheet of iron which was used for 
the precipitation must now be removed by gently rubbing them with the finger, 
care being taken not to disturb the black coat* which is found adhering to the 
iron, any more than can be avoided; they are then to be washed into a small 
porcelain capsule, into which is also brought the mixed deposit of subsalt of 
iron and particles of copper collected during the first rapid washing of the copper. 


* The black crust which forms on the iron beneath the layer of copper contains a small amount of 
carbon and some silica, but consists for the most part of what appears to be a compound of silicic acid 
and oxide of iron; this substance, called Slag by Morfit and Booth in their very able * Report upon the 
Chemical Analysis of Cast-Iron Gun-Metal" (vid. Report of Experiments on Strength, &c. of Metals 
for Cannon, by Officers of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army, (Philadelphia, Baird, 1856, 4to,) ` 
p. 408,) is but sparingly soluble in dilute chlorhydrie acid; slowly soluble in cold, more rapidly in hot 
concentrated chlorhydrie acid; easily soluble in concentrated nitric acid, especially when hot; with sep- 
aration of silica in both cases. It is slowly decomposed by strong soda lye. This “slag” is formed in 
considerably larger quantity when sulphuric acid is used than when chlorhydric acid is substituted for it 
in the assay. As it usually adheres, however, to the iron with considerable firmness, the copper can 
generally be rubbed off without disturbing it materially. : 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 45 


The contents of the capsule are now treated with dilute chlorhydric acid, in which 
the subsalt is readily soluble, washed with water, and added to the original copper, 
the washing of which is to be continued till the last traces of acid are removed. 
The copper, having been transferred to a porcelain boat,.was dried at 100? C., 
ignited in a current of hydrogen gas, and subsequently weighed. 

The iron used in these assays was that known as the “best Russia sheet" In 
order to obtain the best possible pieces, I have followed the custom of copper assayers 
in allowing a sheet-iron worker to cut up a number of pounds of Russia sheet into 
bits of about two and a half by three and a half inches, this size having been found 
well adapted to the work at hand, smaller pieces being unequally corroded; from 
this supply only those pieces which presented a perfectly smooth and even sur- 
face were selected for use. Those pieces which are at all corrugated or uneven 
ought to be rejected, for such are acted on unequally by the acid, and copper 
would be lost in the cavities thus formed. 

Since the sharp angles of these rectangular bits of iron are liable to be corroded 
very much by the acid, in which case particles of iron might drop off and con- 
taminate the copper, it is best to remove them by means of a rasp, and to make 
the corners round and smooth. 

The glazed coating which occurs upon the surface of Russian sheet-iron, and 
which, according to Wells,* consists of silicate of iron, is readily removed by di- 
gestion in moderately dilute chlorhydric acid, in which it soon falls off in flakes. 
After washing with water, the bits of iron are dried and preserved for use. 

In conducting the assay it is of importance that the solution should be dilute, 
since the precipitation of the copper in this case goes on more regularly, and is 
sooner completed; it should be warm, not only that the copper may be precipitated 
more rapidly, but in order to avoid the formation of a basic iron salt, which is 
very liable to contaminate the copper when it is precipitated in the cold. This 
basic salt frequently forms during the precipitation, even in warm solutions, if they 
are not sufficiently acidulated. If a solution be at the same time somewhat con- 
centrated, and not sufficiently acid, it often happens that a portion of the copper 
becomes so firmly attached to the iron that it cannot be rubbed off. This accident 
will rarely occur, however, to any one accustomed to the assay. 

It is remarkable that no one who has written upon this process has, so far as 
I can ascertain, appreciated the necessity of igniting the dry copper in a current 


* Proceedings of Boston Society of Natural History, IV. 296. 


46 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


of hydrogen before weighing it. That this operation is of the first importance 
is, however, well known to the analysts of this vicinity, who have long been 
accustomed to apply it in practice.* It is necessitated less, as it appears to me, 
by the oxide of copper formed during drying, — for the bright surfaces of the 
copper precipitated by this method remain untarnished when rapidly dried at 
temperatures even as high as 110° to 115°,—than by an impurity consisting of 
organic matter derived from the iron; either carbon, or perhaps some one of the 
offensive hydro-carbons which are generated during the action of acids upon iron, 
which may adhere to the spongy copper. At all events, if a portion of the pre- 
cipitated copper which has been dried at 100^— or at any temperature lower than 
that at which oxidation occurs — be placed, as was suggested to me by Mr. Dick- 
inson, in a bulb tube with narrow outlet, such as is used in testing for arsenic, 
and heated in the flame of a spiritlamp, it will be found that a quantity of 
water collects in the narrow part of the tube, while the copper becomes lustrous 
and assumes the bright red color proper to it. At first sight it would appear 
as if this behavior was produced by the reaction of a portion of the spongy copper 
upon the oxide of copper with which it might be soiled, in which event a small 
quantity of suboxide of copper would be formed, the color of which could hardly 
mask, to any extent, that of the pure copper. But on examining the reaction 
more attentively I have found that carbonic acid as well as water can readily 
be detected in the atmosphere expelled from the tube in which the copper is 
heated ; a distinct empyreumatic odor is at the same time perceptible. I have 
also several times observed traces of ammonia. This gas is always evolved in 
considerable quantity when the dirty copper is heated in an atmosphere of hydro- 
gen; the aqueous vapor driven off in this case being strongly alkaline from its 
presence. Organic matter must therefore have been attached to the spongy copper, 
and the lustre which the latter acquired when heated may have been occasioned 
by the simple expulsion of the impurity, or in part by the reduction of oxide 
of copper by it. | i 
That the phenomenon does not depend upon the presence of free carbon seems to be 
proved by the fact that portions from the exterior of a mass of spongy copper, which 
had been protected from contact with the iron by a layer of copper nearly an inch in 
thickness, were found to exhibit reactions similar to those just described, water and 
empyreuma being evolved when the dry copper was heated in a closed tube. Indeed, 


* In lieu of this, some assayers convert the precipitated copper into oxide, and weigh the latter. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 47 


the formation of water in any case in Mr. Dickinson’s experiment with the arsenic- 
tube is an insuperable objection to this explanation, as well as to the idea that 
mixed copper and oxide of copper have reacted upon each other. 

I have determined the quantity of this impurity in some fifty or sixty instances: 
it was found to vary from 1.5 per cent or less to 4 or even 5 per cent, in excep- 
tional cases, of the copper dried at 100°; ordinarily it was from 2 to 2.5 per cent. 
These remarks refer to copper precipitated from sulphuric acid solutions, which is 
usually in a porous spongy state. When precipitated from chlorhydric acid solutions, 
it is usually crystalline and compact, and doubtless contains less impurity. It is said, 
however, that a certain amount of loss will invariably occur, even when the best 
samples of copper precipitated by iron are heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen. 
Even in copper precipitated by pure zinc I have observed that an appreciable loss 
occurs, — varying in my experiments from 0.5 to 2 per cent of the dry copper, — 
when it is ignited in hydrogen gas. It would appear that, while copper may be 
determined with great accuracy when precipitated by pure zinc in a platinum vessel, 
as recommended by Fresenius,* even when the precipitate is dried only at 100^, for 
in this case the copper is deposited in a condition so compact that little or no im- 
purity can adhere to or oxide form upon it, yet it can hardly be determined with 
nicety when precipitated in the spongy state, unless it be ignited in a current of 
hydrogen, or converted into oxide before weighing; it is necessary also to exercise 
the greatest care that none of the smaller particles of copper, are lost during the 
washing, for many samples of copper, when precipitated as sponge by zinc, are 
peculiarly liable to this accident. 

' In regard to the assay which I have attempted to describe, I would remark that 
I have used iron instead of zinc,t simply because I was, at the time, unable to 
procure a sufficient quantity of the latter in a state pure enough for analytical 
purposes. The assay by iron, as I have used it, is clearly not an accurate analytical 
process, but, on the other hand, it is in several respects preferable — as an assay — 
to the method by zinc, and will be found, after a little practice, to yield satisfactory 
results. It is doubtless as good a method as any which we possess, wherever 
absolute accuracy is not required, and where a large number of determinations must 
be made. Admitting that the results obtained by it may vary among themselves 
within the limits of one per cent, or in exceptional cases even to the extent of one 


* Anleitung zur Quantitative chemischen Analyse, (Braunschweig, 1858,) S. 247. 
f Method proposed by Vauquelin, Annales de Chimie, (1798,) X XVIII. 50. 


48 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


and a half per cent, I have still deemed it sufficiently accurate for the work to which 
I have applied it; for it must be remembered that these differences are much 
smaller than the variations in composition which may occur in different parts of 
the same cup of alloy, from partial volatilization of the zinc, or from incomplete 
mixture of the metals of which it is composed. 

I may also remark, that although this assay was not adopted by myself until 
after thorough trial of several other processes which seemed to be applicable to the 
special case with which I was occupied, I now consider it a very valuable method. 

It deserves mention in this connection, that the assay by iron has been entirely 
misunderstood by some writers. Thus, Mitchell* directs that the whole of the iron 
added shall be dissolved in chlorhydrie acid, just as if it were zinc, after the copper 
has been completely precipitated ; the absurdity of which procedure is manifest. 

In concluding the subject, I may observe that American assayers are accustomed 
in practice to use a mixture of nitric and chlorhydric acids as a solvent in the 
first instance of the sample to be assayed, and to expel the nitric acid by evaporating 
twice to dryness with an excess of chlorhydric acid. The copper being then pre- 
cipitated from the hot chlorhydrie solution. Some of them collect the copper upon 
a filter, instead of washing by decantation, and rinse it once or twice with very 
dilute chlorhydric acid before washing with water. 

This process has the advantage, that a larger portion of the impurity of the iron 
is soluble in chlorhydric than in sulphuric acid, hence there is less chance of the 
copper being contaminated by it; basic iron salts are also less liable to form; 
the evaporations, which are conducted over the sand-bath, consume somewhat less 
time than when sulphuric acid is used; and the copper, being precipitated in a 
crystalline state, is easily washed without loss, and is not liable to be attacked 
by the acid solution.f 

On the other hand, in the process by sulphuric acid, — which I have used merely in 
order to remove the lead which is contained in the alloys, — the last traces of copper 
seem to be somewhat more readily precipitated from the solution, and the accident 
of the copper adhering too closely to the iron occurs, perhaps, more rarely. 

Of the special precautions which must be taken when this assay is applied to 


* Manual of Pract. Assaying, (London, Bailliére, 1854,) p. 257. 

T The assay undoubtedly affords more accurate results with chlorhydrie acid than when sulphuric acid is 
used. Mr. Dickinson assures me, that in his hands variations so great as 0.5 per cent are entirely excep- 
tional, the usual difference between any two assays of a — sample of ore not being larger than 
0.2 to 0.3 per cent. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 49 


the various impure ores of copper, I cannot here speak. Many of them have been 
already described by Kerl* I would, however, mention the fact, that, in cases 
where arsenic is the only impurity, it has been found advantageous in practice to 
precipitate it upon iron with the copper, and to expel it subsequently when the 
latter is heated in the atmosphere of hydrogen. 

It is a well-known fact, that the combination of copper with zinc is attended 
with ebullition of considerable violence, so that portions of the melted mass are often 
thrown to a distance of several feet from the crucible. Yet it does not appear to 
have been previously noticed by chemists, that this action is much more energetic 
while the first portions of zinc are being added to the copper, and that the loss of 
zinc by volatilization is far greater at this time than at any subsequent stage of the 
operation ; indeed, when the alloy has become somewhat rich in zinc, it takes up an 
additional portion so quietly, that scarcely any action is to be observed. The fact 
is, however, well known to brass-founders, who are in the habit of first melting a 
quantity of old brass with the copper in their crucibles before adding any zinc 
as such. 

A very violent action will also occur, if, after allowing the zinc to melt and remain 
floating above the copper, as it will do if the mass is not agitated after each addition 
of zinc, the two metals are suddenly stirred together. This action is apparently 
analogous to that observed by Levol,t which occurs when layers of melted silver 
and gold are mixed.  Levol ascribes the violent ebullition which ensues when these 
metals are stirred together to the escape of oxygen which had been absorbed by the 
molten silver, and which would be expelled as soon as this metal unites with the 
gold. This hypothesis, however, does not in my opinion satisfactorily explain the 
phenomena which occur in the case of copper and zinc. Another explanation is 
afforded by the experiments of Person, who has shown that in the formation of 
certain alloys a large amount of latent heat is evolved. 

The apparent energy with which the combination of copper and zinc occurs, is 
often mentioned in treatises on chemistry, as if it indicated the existence of strong 
chemical affinity between the two metals. Yet it is easy to separate the zinc com- 
pletely from any of these alloys by heat. Indeed, Bobierre$ has devised a method 


* Op. cit, S. 219. 
+ Ann. Ch. et Phys, (3.) XXXIX. 168. 
1 Ibid, XXIV. 146. ; 
$ Thèses, p. 57; also, Compt. Rend., XXXVI. 224. 


VOL. VIII. 4 


90. - ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC, 


for their quantitative analysis, by heating the sample of alloy in a porcelain tube, 
through which a current of hydrogen is made to flow. 

In preparing the alloys, it may readily happen, if the mass be not very frequently 
stirred, that a small portion of the copper, or of an alloy rich in copper, may become 
chilled and solidify at the bottom of the crucible, while a quantity of easily fusible 
alloy, rich in zinc, has formed and remains liquid above it. Accidents of this 
nature happened to myself very frequently during the earlier part of the research. : 
They occasioned no inconsiderable loss of time, since it was in every instance 
necessary to prepare a new sample of the alloy on account of the enormous waste 
of zinc which would occur if one attempted to remelt the chilled culot; and were 
especially vexatious, from seeming to indicate the existence of definite alloys having 
little or no affinity for each other. Similar accidents sometimes occur in brass- 
founderies, but are evidently less liable to take place here, where the amount of 
melted metal is large and the heat well regulated, than in the small crucibles and 
furnaces of the chemical laboratory. It is worthy of remark, that many brass- 
founders refer them to some peculiarity of the particular sample of copper used. 
If any trouble of this kind is experienced, a portion of common salt is usually 
thrown into the crucible, it being regarded as a remedy. It is very probable that 
the presence of some foreign metal may prevent or retard combination; on the 
other hand, copper which still contains a portion of sulphur is thought to combine 
with zinc with peculiar facility. In my own experiments these occurrences appeared 
to depend entirely upon irregular heating of the furnace, or upon insufficient stirring. 
D. Forbes* has analyzed such specimens which were produced accidentally in the 
ordinary process of brass-making. They consisted of a white alloy containing 
46.51 per cent of copper, and of a yellow alloy containing 56.91 per cent of copper. 
From my own experience, I am satisfied that layers containing almost any proportion 
of the two metals may form. | 

It is doubtless this tendency of the metals to remain unmixed in, separate layers, 
when not subjected to agitation, which has led several chemists to believe that the 
alloys of copper and zinc are apt to separate by eliquation into two portions re- 
spectively rich in copper and in zinc; from which they have inferred, as I have 
previously remarked, the existence of definite compounds. Although in my own 
experiments I have been unable to detect any eliquation, I would by no means 

* Report of 24th (Liverpool) Meeting of the British Association for Advancement of Science, 1854, p. 67. 
See also Liebig and Kopp's Jahresbericht. 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 51 


assert that a certain amount of such.separation may not under some circumstances 
occur. The method of analysis which I have adopted is not delicate enough, nor 
will the very conditions of the case itself admit of an accurate determination of this 
point. My results are, however, as I think, sufficient to show that any tendency 
towards eliquation which may exist must be very slight, although they do not 
prove that a small amount of it may not be produced by gravity, or by some other 
force acting against the comparatively feeble affinity of the metals for each other. 
Experiments upon this subject which have been recorded by previous observers have 
evidently been exposed either to the error of insufficient mixing in the first instance, 
or to the loss of zinc by volatilization from those portions of the alloy which were 
in contact with the air, or to both of these causes. Some of them appear to have 
also been influenced by the presence of foreign metals in the alloy. 

The most contradictory statements have been made by different observers in 
regard to variations of color among the alloys of copper and zinc. In the speci- 
mens which I have myself prepared, no abrupt change, or peculiar modification, of 
the true color is to be perceived, although some very striking superficial characters 
present themselves. Starting from the red of pure copper, the color of the alloys 
is less red and more yellow in proportion as they contain more zinc, until an alloy 
containing 75 or 80 per cent of copper is reached, the color of which is almost 
pure yellow; beyond this point, as the proportion of zinc contained in them is 
increased, the alloys become less yellow, with perhaps a tinge of green, and more 
white continually, and this by the most gradual stages, until the well-known 
white alloys are reached. 'These remarks refer to the color of polished surfaces, 
as obtained by the use of a fine file. Each of the alloys enumerated in the list 
upon page 42 having been carefully compared with the chromatic scales of Digeon.* 


In several of the alloys, especially in those containing about equal parts of copper 
and zinc, a beautiful yellow or sometimes gray iridescent film forms upon the surface 
of the metal during the process of cooling. On fracturing it, moreover, the fibres of 
which the mass is formed present the same yellowish or grayish iridescence. This 
is removed at once by filing, when the true color of the alloy is made manifest, as 
has already been observed by Guettier} in regard to hard-solder. With the exception 
of Guettier, most modern observers have described this alloy, prepared by fusing 


* Cercles Chromatiques de M. E. Chevreul, reproduits au Moyen de la Chromocalcographie, par R. H. 
Digeon, Paris, 1855. Chez Digeon, Rue Galande, No. 65. 
t Loc. cit., S. 207. 


52 og THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


together 50 parts copper with 50 of zinc, as being of a deep yellow color; while 
Karsten * states that it is considerably darker and redder than ordinary brass.j 
They have evidently all been misled by the superficial coating just described, the 
color of. which is completely analogous to that which occurs upon the crystals of — 
metallic bismuth, now so often to be found in chemical cabinets; or by the color 
of an almost equally superficial layer of yellow alloy, which forms upon those parts 
of the ingot which are suddenly cooled. To these changes produced by “tempering” 
I shall presently again allude. That the surface color is most probably mainly due 
to oxidation, however, would appear from the fact that not only has the brilliant 
yellow coating of my specimens of braziers' solder, and of other iridescent alloys, 
not been dimmed by exposure during several months in a damp cellar, where 
ordinary polished brass soon became tarnished, but in several instances in which 
it had been removed by filing, a somewhat similar yellow coat has reappeared after 
exposure to moist air. Although this iridescence is very strongly marked in the 
aloy known as braziers solder, yet an instance perhaps still more striking pre- 
sented itself in the alloy containing 41.48 per cent of copper. Being very brittle, 
a specimen of this alloy was accidentally broken into several fragments before it 
had become thoroughly cold, when a beautiful, glittering iridescent film of a light 
yellow color at once formed upon its surface. As the alloy was very compact and 
fine-grained, it could at first sight hardly be believed that the coloration was only 
superficial; but on breaking the mass after it had become cold, its true color was 
found to be a very light gray, — indeed, almost white, — as was also proved by filing 
off a portion of the yellow film. The ingot obtained from the liquid portion of 
this alloy, having been suddenly cooled, was nearly white, and presented no appear- 
ance of iridescence. Upon its under surface, however, which had been instantly 
solidified by contact with the cold stone upon which it was poured, a thin layer 
of yellow, malleable, tempered alloy was found. In another instance, the ingot 
obtained from a white alloy containing about 30 per cent of copper having been 
broken while still warm, the fractured surface instantly assumed a permanent bright 


* Loc. cit., S. 394. : thes 

1 When a piece of solder is heated prec it assumes at first a light : id color, which subsequently 
passes to violet, or even to blue violet; a beautiful play of colors, alternating between green, yellow, and . 
violet, succeeds, as the temperature becomes more elevated, until at length, after the lapse of some time, the 
specimen becomes tarnished with a thick, dull coating of oxide. Since in the founderies where it is prepared 
this alloy is often taken directly from the ingot-moulds and pounded to powder without having first been 
allowed to cool, the observation of Karsten admits of ready explanation. | 


. ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. ^29 


blue-violet color. Indeed, it would appear as if, by properly regulating the process 
of cooling, a series of colors as varied as those assumed by steel, according to the 
different degrees of heat at which it is tempered, might be obtained. Alloys con- 
taining about 45 per cent of copper exhibit a dull gray coloration on fracture, 
which, combined with their other physical properties, often causes them, when un- 
polished, to resemble, as was remarked by Karsten,* metallic sulphides far more 
.than metals. 

Although the iridescence which I have described is perhaps seen to best ad- 
vantage in the alloy from equal parts of copper and zinc, and may perhaps be 
produced most readily upon it and the neighboring alloys of a fibrous texture, 
it is by no means confined to these. I have noticed beautiful yellow coatings upon 
alloys containing 60, 53, and particularly on the one of 90.77 per cent of copper. It 
may probably occur upon any of the yellow alloys, and is doubtless produced at will 
upon some of them by manufacturers of ornamental brass castings. 

In this connection, it may be mentioned that the color of the oxidized surface of 
the thin sheets of alloy obtained by pouring upon stone varies from a grayish black, 
tinged with blue, in the specimens containing about 90 per cent of copper, to a dirty 
dark yellowish-green, as in the alloy of 65 per cent of copper; and from a dull lead 
color (alloy of 38.5 per cent of copper) nearly to white, in the alloys rich in zinc.t 

Marked changes, not only of color, but also in other of the physical properties of 
some of these alloys, may be produced by varying the conditions in which they pass 
from the liquid to the solid state. These changes are very peculiar, and are evidently 
. of great importance, not only in their practical bearing, but also from affording 
another instance of the phenomena of “tempering,” which may possibly be of con- 
sequence in the study of this most difficult subject. 

In preparing the white alloys containing less than 45 per cent of zinc, I have 


* Loc. cit., S. 396. 

f Observations upon the color of the alloys of copper and zinc which accord very nearly with my own 
are those of Guettier (Dingler's Polytech. J., CXIV. 204, (from the Moniteur Industriel, 1848), and of Lewis 
(Chemical Works of C. Naumann, Abridged and Methodized, with Additions, by W. Lewis, (London, 1759,) 
p. 65), who long ago wrote: “The proportion of Calamine and the increase which the Copper receives 
from it are different in different works: hence the deeper or paler colour of Brass. I have observed in a 
large set of experiments on this subject that a little of the Calamine, that is, of the Zinc contained in Calamine, 
dilutes the colour of the Copper and renders it pale; that when the Copper has imbibed about one twelfth ` 
its own weight, the colour inclines to yellow; that the yellowness increases more and more till the proportion 
comes almost to one half; that on further augmenting the Calamine, the Brass becomes paler and paler, and 


at last white." 


54 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


frequently observed, upon the under surface of the sheet obtained by pouring off 
the liquid alloy, a thin layer of a soft, tenacious, malleable alloy, of a yellow color. 
The formation of this singular sheet was at first attributed to eliquation; but as it 
was difficult to conceive that an alloy apparently richer in copper should remain at 
the surface of the melted mass in the crucible, — which must have been the case 
in order that it should form the bottom of the ingot, — it was thought possible 
that volatilization of the zinc might have increased the proportion of copper at the 
surface of the melted alloy. In order to decide this question, a new series of alloys 
was prepared, extending from the one obtained by melting together 40 parts of- 
copper plus 60 parts of zinc, to the mixture of 56 parts of copper and 44 parts 
of zinc;— each alloy being made from a mixture containing one per cent more 
copper than that used in preparing the preceding. After thorough stirring, the 
alloys were cast into ingots of about five pounds’ weight. In the first four of ` 
these alloys — from 40 to 44 per cent of copper — the yellow film was very clearly 
defined on the three sides of the ingot which had come in contact with the metal 
of the mould, while on the upper surface of the ingot, which had cooled in contact 
with the air, no trace of it could be detected. This yellow film is usually of extreme 
tenuity, hardly exceeding one sixteenth of an inch in thickness in any of the instances 
which I have observed. It is, however, so very clearly defined in the white alloys 
containing 40 to 45 per cent of copper, being readily bent, cut, or filed, while the 
remainder of the alloy is exceedingly hard and brittle, that no question as to its 
identity can possibly be entertained. In the alloys containing more than 50 per 
cent of copper, which are naturally of a yellow color, it is not so easy to detect a ` 
similar film. In the series of ingots just mentioned, it could nevertheless be traced 
as far up as the alloy prepared from 54 parts of copper plus 46 parts of zinc. 

An experiment made in order to ascertain whether this soft modification of the 
alloys could be obtained at will, afforded no positive result. An alloy of 42 parts 
of copper plus 58 parts of zinc being prepared, a portion of it was poured by 
small drops into a large mass of cold water. The surfaces of many of the granules 
thus obtained were covered with a yellow film, and this was especially true of the 
smallest pieces; but the film was exceedingly thin, and the interior of the granules 
consisted entirely of brittle white alloy. Other portions were thrown out upon 
cold iron plates, so as to form very thin sheets. A thin yellow film occurred, it - 
is true, upon the inferior surfaces of these sheets, but above it the alloy was white 
and brittle. Another portion of the melted alloy was cast in an iron ingot-mould 
which had previously been heated “black-hot.” The yellow film was still formed 


ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 55 


where the alloy came in contact with the ingot-mould; it was, however, exceedingly 
thin. On pouring some of the remaining alloy into a cold iron mould, a yellow film 
of the usual thickness was obtained. 

Although the phenomena of tempering exhibited by these alloys are more readily 
perceived among those the normal color of which is white, it is highly probable that ` 
all the alloys are liable to have their physical properties influenced to a greater or 
less extent from this cause. ‘This would appear, not only from the evident analogy 
of these phenomena with those which are known to occur with alloys of copper 
and tin;* but Dussaussoy f has already shown that ordinary brass, copper 65 to 
10 per cent plus zinc 30 to 35 per cent, is rendered softer, less tenacious, and less 
dense by tempering it;—a fact which Mallet f has very properly urged in explana- 
tion of the differences between several of the specific gravities of alloys of copper 
and zinc observed by himself, and the numbers which had been previously obtained 
by other experimenters. I would here suggest that it explains equally well the very 
great variations among the specific gravities of the different alloys studied by Mallet 
himselfS It is also the most probable explanation of the alloys of abnormal color 
which he has described. I should observe in this connection, that in the alloys of 
light yellow color the yellow appears to be made much deeper when the alloy is 
strongly compressed, as when cut with a cold-chisel or hammered. I may also 
incidentally mehtion, that in the series of alloys which I have prepared, a constantly 
increased degree of hardness has been observed, in proportion to the amount of 
zine contained in the alloy, — at least as far as the brittle white alloys, which are 
so hard that an ordinary file makes little or no impression upon them; || a result 


* Vid. d'Areet in Dictionnaire de l'Industrie Manufacturiére, etc, X. 500, Art. Tam-tam (Paris, 
Bailliere, 1841) ; also, Ann. Ch. et. Phys. (2. LIV. 331. See also Dussaussoy, Ann. Oh. et. Phys., (2.) 
Y. 225. 

T Loc. cit., p. 226, et Tableau No. 5. 


1 Loc. cit., p. 264. 
§ I have found it impossible to construct a curve of any regularity from the observations of this chemist, 


although it is tolerably clear that the greatest condensation is at a point somewhere below the alloy com- 
posed of equal equivalents of copper and zine, and that between this point and pure copper the specific 
gravity gradually increases with some degree of regularity in proportion as the amount of copper increases. 
. Among the observed specific gravities of the white alloys rich in zine, there is no regularity whatsoever. 
The determinations of Mallet are, nevertheless, unquestionably the best which have ever been made; 
possibly they are the best which could be made in any case. At all events, few chemists are in the posi- 
tion to improve upon the method of preparing alloys which was employed by this distinguished observer. 
| From this category the alloys modified by tempering must of course be excepted. 


56 ON THE ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 


which agrees with those of Karsten,* of Mallet,t and of Guettier.f Calvert and 
Johnson $ have recently attempted to express these differences numerically. The 
alloy containing 54 per cent of copper, which is still so tenacious that small bits 
cannot readily be broken from it, was found to be exceedingly difficult to cut 
with a cold-chisel; for though stil so soft that it could be filed without any 
very great trouble, it destroyed at once the edges of cutting instruments, though 
the latter were well tempered. ‘This peculiarity appears to be connected with the 
fibrous structure of the alloy. 


In conclusion, I must express my gratitude to my friend, Professor J. P. Cooke, 
of Cambridge, who has kindly invited me to make use of the admirable laboratory 
in which this research has been conducted. By his suggestion, moreover, my atten- 
tion was first directed to the subject. Nor can I omit to mention the fact, that I 
am indebted to Messrs. J. Davis, Jr. and John Revere, officers of the Revere Copper 
Company of Boston, for the gratuitous use of the large quantities of metal which I 
have employed. I have also been permitted by them to make free use of the fur- 
naces and other appliances in the extensive founderies of the company. For the 
valuable aid and uniform kindness of these gentlemen, I would here return my 
warmest thanks. 


* Loc. cit., S. 393. 1 Loc. cit, passim. $ Loc. cit., p. 199. 
T Loc. cit, p. 307; also Gmelin's Handbook, (Cavendish Soc. Edit.,) V. 479. 


HARVARD COLLEGE LABORATORY, 
September 1st, 1859. 


ALL, 


On the Impurities of Commercial Zinc, with special Reference to the Residue insoluble in 
Dilute Acids, to Sulphur, and to Arsenic. 


- 


By CHARLES W. ELIOT aw» FRANK H. STORER. 


(Communicated May 29, 1860.) 


WHEN common zinc is dissolved in dilute acids, as in the ordinary process of pre- 
paring hydrogen, a finely divided black substance remains undissolved, sometimes 
floating, sometimes sinking in the liquid. . The blackness and apparent lightness of 
this residue from zinc dissolved in dilute acids seem to indicate that it is carbon, which 
may perhaps account for the widely spread error that carbon is the chief admixture in 
crude zinc, as it is in cast-iron. This error has been often corrected, but the infor- 
mation on the whole subject lacks precision and certainty. The statements of the best 
authorities in regard to the impurities of zinc are for the most part loose, inaccurate, 
and sometimes contradictory.* To obtain precise and definite knowledge, if possible, 
of the chief impurities of this important metal, this investigation was undertaken. 


* The black residue was observed and experimented upon be HeLLoT (Mémoires de l'Academie des Sci- 
ences, 1735, [Mem.] p. 18, et seg.) and by De Lassone (Ibid. 1777, [Mem.] p. 11 et seq.) 

BERGMANN says, in his Physical and Chemical Essays, translated by Cullen, London, 1788, II. 321, that 
pure zinc is extremely rare, and commends the zinc brought by Grill from China as containing scarcely half of 
one per cent of lead; the zinc of Goslar is stated to contain somewhat more lead, but neither of these zines 
contained the smallest particle of iron. 

Fourcroy. For an express statement that this black powder is plumbago, see Fourcroy's Elements of 
Natural History and Chemistry, translated from the Paris edition of 1789, London, 1790, II. 289. 

Proust. “It is commonly thought that the black powder, which separates from its (zinc's) solution in sul- 
phurie acid, is charcoal or a carbide of zinc: it is nothing but arsenic, mixed with a little lead and copper, 
which the reducing power of the zinc precipitates in the metallic state." Savans Étrangers, [2.] I. 211 
(Paris, published in 1806). “Iron is found in very large quantity in it (zinc), and sometimes manganese." 
Ibid. 212. It should be remarked, that the precipitate produced by sulphuretted hydrogen, and called arsenic 


YOL. VIII. 8 


58 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


In order to make the results obtained as general as possible, we have examined au- 
thentic specimens of all the commercial zincs which we were able to procure. These 


ac. 


by Proust, was most probably cadmium, — a metal not discovered till 1817. (See Gilbert’s Annalen der Phys., 
1819, LX. 193.) This consideration is important, as it may serve to explain the very loose statements about 
arsenic in zinc which have since prevailed. 

VAUQUELIN, in reporting on this memoir of Proust, says: “It has been, and still is generally thought that 
the black powder...... consists of carbide of iron.” Annales de Chimie, 1800, XXXV. 51. 

See also a remark by Proust, similar to that above quoted, on the impurities of zinc, in Annales de Chimie, 
1803, LI. 72. 

FourcroY. “In proportion as this solution (in sulphuric acid) takes place, we see a small quantity of 
very black powder in a state of extreme division floating in the liquid, which has long been mistaken by chem- 
ists, and which is nothing else than carburet of iron or plumbago, existing originally in the zinc.” Systéme 
des Connaiss. Ch., V. 377. See also the English translation, London, 1804, V. 533. 

Voce. “The black residue (from the sulphuric acid solution of commercial zinc) consists of carbon, iron, 
and sulphate of lead. French zine contains neither copper nor arsenic, but a small quantity of lead.” 
Schweigger’s Journal fiir Ch. u. Phys., 1814, XI. 418. This observer expressly contradicts the statements of 
Proust and Thomson [wide infra] in regard to copper and arsenic. 

BERZELIUS and DuLonG give the impurities of commercial zinc as follows : — lead, tin, copper, iron, cad- 
mium, and sulphur. Ann. de Ch. et Phys., 1820, XV. 388. 

Hovrton LABILLARDIBRE says: “ I have examined several times the residue which the zinc of commerce 
leaves when dissolved in weak sulphuric acid; I have always found that it was formed of tin and of traces of 
iron; I have never encountered lead, although it is possible that some sorts of zinc contain it.” Thenard’s 
Traité de Chimie, Paris, 1824, V. 307. 


Tomson. “It (the zinc of commerce) is never quite free from carbon; ..... it contains, likewise, small 
quantities of several metals.” First Principles of Chemistry, 1825, I. 52. 
W. Henry. “The zinc of commerce is never pure, but contains charcoal, lead, and sulphur...... Even 


after careful distillation, zinc is still liable to contain a small quantity of charcoal.” Elements of Exper- 
imental Chemistry, 11th edition, 1829, II. 16. 

These statements of the impurities of zinc have been extensively copied. “The common zinc of commerce 
generally contains a portion of lead, copper, iron, traces of arsenic and manganese, and a little plumbago : 
these impurities chiefly remain in the form of a black powder when it is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid." 
BrANDE's Manual of Chemistry, 3d edition, 1830, II. 42. 

De La Rive and PLANCHE. “Commercial zinc contains traces of tin, lead, and sometimes more than one 
per cent of iron; also, a considerable amount of cadmium.” From the Bibliothèque Universelle, in Pogg. 
Ann., 1830, XIX. 234. See also Ann. de Ch. et Phys, XLII. 437. 

SCHLINDLER has found in commercial zinc, iron, lead, arsenic, copper, nickel, cobalt, manganese, carbon, 
and a small amount of uranium.  Berzelius's Jahres-Bericht, 1832, XI. 126. This determination of uranium 
has been doubted by all subsequent observers. : 

“The following impurities in commercial zinc occur : — lead, arsenic, iron, copper, cadmium, antimony, man- 
ganese, nickel, cobalt, sulphur, and carbon.” Brandes, in reporting on the prize essays of BONNET and others 
upon the oxide of zine. Ann. der Pharm., 1834, IX. 184. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC, : 99 


l. Silesian zinc. 
2. Vieille Montagne (Belgian) zinc. 
9. New Jersey (American) zinc. 


WACKENRODER, in an excellent paper on the oxide of zinc, maintains that the principal impurities of Sile- 
sian zinc are lead, cadmium, and iron. He found no arsenic in his own experiments, but admits the possibility 
of its occurrence in small quantities. "Traces of copper he believes to exist in this zinc, but neither cobalt, nickel, 
nor manganese, as had been intimated by Hermann (Gilbert's Ann. der Phys., LXVI. 284). He observed 
the development of sulphuretted hydrogen from zinc treated with dilute chlorhydric acid ; but doubts the occur- 
rence of carbon in zinc, except as minute, accidental splinters, thus contradicting Foureroy. Ann. der Pharm., 
1834, X. 53. 

Turner. “lt (zinc) frequently contains traces of charcoal, sulphur, cadmium, arsenic, lead, and copper; 
and iron is always present." Elements of Chemistry, 5th edition, 1834, p. 543. 

Farapay. “Most zinc leaves, when dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, more or less residue, which contains 
various metals in the metallic state, as copper, lead, tin, iron, cadmium, Ae" Ann. der Pharm., 1836, 
XVII. 21. 

"WirrsTEIN says that the metals with which common zinc is contaminated are iron, cadmium, tin, and lead. 
Cited in Ann. der Pharm., 1836, XX. 179. 

Kane. “The zinc of commerce is impure ; it contains traces of carbon, iron, cadmium, and often arsenic.” 
Elements of Chemistry, 1842, p. 602. 

BARRUEL says that he analyzed a quantity of the residues from zincs dissolved in dilute acid, which had 
accumulated in the laboratory of the Sorbonne during some years, and found in this mass (of very question- 
able origin) 58.5 tin, 34.5 lead, 5.5 sulphur, besides traces of iron, manganese, &c., which he did not determine. 
Wishing to verify this result, he examined the residue from some other zinc, and inferred that it was chiefly 
tin; but his own statement of the process employed would not lead to this conclusion. Comptes Rendus, 1842, 
XIV. 724. 

ERDMANN and MARCHAND cite this observation in their journal, and remark in a note that an examination 
of similar residues gave them lead and tin, with traces of iron, carbon, and cadmium. Journal für pr. Chem., 
1842, XXVI. 384. : | 

A. ERDMANN noticed the occurrence of lead in zinc, and the impossibility of completely separating the lead by 
redistillation, because of the partial volatilization of the lead. Annalen der Ch. u. Pharm., 1844, L. 437. 

BERZELIUS. “It (the zinc of commerce) contains often iron, lead, arsenic, copper, and charcoal" Traité 
de Chemie, Paris, 1846, II. 604. “We are ignorant to what extent zinc combines with carbon, but the 
zinc found in commerce always contains some” Ibid., 616. 

Ure. “The ordinary zinc found in the market is never pure; but contains lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper, 
iron, and carbon, from some of which it may be freed in a great degree by distillation; but even after this pro- 
cess it retains a little lead, with all the arsenic and cadmium." Dictionary of Arts, &c., 4th edition, Boston, 
1853, II. 994. 

PrLouzE and Fremy. “The zinc of commerce is never pure. It contains about a hundredth of its weight 
of foreign bodies, which are chiefly lead and iron ; carbon, copper, cadmium, and arsenic are sometimes found 
in it" Traité de Chimie Générale, 2° édit., 1854, III. 35. 

W. A. MILLER. “Commercial zinc contains a small quantity of lead and iron, and of a peculiar carbona- 


ceous matter.” Elements of Chemistry, 1856, Part IL 847. 


60 : ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


Pennsylvanian zinc (Pennsylvania and Lehigh Zinc Works, Bethlehem, Penn.). 
Vieille Montagne zinc, such as is used at the United States Mint. 

A zinc labelled * Zinc pur," Rousseau Fréres, Paris. 

A sheet zinc of unknown origin, obtained in Berlin ( Prussia). 

An English zinc, made near Wrexham, North Wales. 

. An English zinc, from the Mines Royal, Neath, Glamorganshire. 

10. An English zinc, from the works of Dillwyn and Company, Swansea. 

11. An English zinc, from the works of the Messrs. Vivian, Swansea. 

Our specimens of the first three spelters were obtained in blocks or ingots from the 
Revere Copper Company of Boston, by the kindness of John Revere, Esq.; we received 
our specimens of the fourth zinc in ingots, through Professor Brush of New Haven, 
directly from the manufacturers; the fifth zinc was procured in Philadelphia, by our 
friend, Professor J. P. Cooke, from the purveyors to the United States Mint. The sixth 
specimen was bought as pure distilled zinc, in 1856, at Paris, of MM. Rousseau Fréres, 


OMIA TE 


dealers in pure chemicals. The four samples of English zinc are authentic specimens, 
for which we are indebted to the kindness of the Hon. Edward Twisleton of Lon- 
don. The eighth specimen is a spelter made * from silicate of zinc" at Minera, near 
Wrexham in North Wales; Belgian retorts are used in its manufacture, but no other 
details of the process are known to us. 

A qualitative examination of the residues left by these zincs when treated with 
dilute acids, showed that they chiefly consisted of metallic lead. It will appear in the - 
sequel, that lead is the chief impurity of commercial zinc, and that the carbon, tin, 
copper, iron, arsenic, and other impurities found in it by previous observers, occur 
either in very minute quantities, or rarely, and doubtless accidentally. 

Lead. — We have determined quantitatively the amount of lead in each of the zincs 
above specified by the following process: — A weighed amount of each zinc was dis- 
solved in dilute sulphuric acid, saturated with sulphate of lead. This acid was pre- 
pared by diluting common sulphuric acid with four parts of water, and allowing the 
mixture to settle for some days before decantation. "When the zinc was dissolved, the 
black residue was in each case separated from the solution by decantation, treated with 
a few drops of nitric acid, and gently evaporated to dryness. The white residue thus 
obtained was then washed with the same dilute acid into the original solution of the 
zinc, which was filtered after standing forty-eight hours, and the precipitated sulphate 


of lead was weighed on a tared filter. The results of these analyses are given in the 
— table: — 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 61 


TABLE I. 
a (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) 
Name of Zino. abe ong PbO BO. Weight iol of Land. e ox 
grammes. gramme. per cent. 
Silesian i ʻ S 23.8066 0.5082 0.3472 1.46 
Vieille Montagne " "25.2796 0.108 0.0738 0.292 
New Jersey . . , 28.672 0.033 0.0225 0.079 
Pennsylvania. . 26.522 No residue. 0.0000 0.000 
Mint. 1 e ` 24.5308 0.1768 0.1212 0.494 
Rousseau Fréres 24.3432 0.0379 0.0259 0.106 
Berlin . ` $ e 23.074 0.4381 0.299 1.297 
Wrexham A ? 29.999 0.5235 0.3569 1.192 
Mines Royal ‘ S 38.8276 0.469 0.3197 0.823 
Dillwyn & Co. . ` 31.6425 0.771 0.5256 1.661 
Messrs. Vivian . S 27.724 0.6165 0.4203 1.516 


Two points in the process required examination. In the first place, it was unadvisa- 
ble to use pure sulphuric acid, because sulphate of lead is not absolutely insoluble 
in dilute sulphuric acid; but the question suggested itself, whether by employing acid 
saturated with sulphate of lead, we might not introduce lead which would subse- 
quently be weighed as sulphate. The following experiment answered this question. 
0.2198 gram. of pure lead (Probirblei from the laboratory of Professor Plattner in 
Freiberg) was dissolved in pure dilute nitric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, 
the residue so obtained dissolved in hot water, and precipitated as sulphate in 250 c. c. 
of our dilute sulphuric acid (one part of commercial acid and four parts of water.) 


gramme. 
Weight of pure lead taken 0.2198 
ei * sulphate on a tared filter 0.3219 


*  * lead in 0.3219 gram. Pb O, SO, 0.2199 


After weighing the sulphate on a tared filter, we ignited the filter and precipitate, 
and, following the method of determining sulphate of lead which is prescribed in most 


text-books, again weighed the sulphate after ignition. 
gramme. 
Weight of pure lead taken 0.2198 © 
e * sulphate of lead after ignition — 0.3123 


«  * lead in 0.3123 gram. PbO, SO, 0.2134 


This result conclusively proved that none of the minute quantity of lead in the sul- 
phuric acid was weighed as sulphate at the close of the analysis. Secondly, it was 
necessary to inquire whether the insolubility of the sulphate of lead was diminished 
by the presence of a large amount of sulphate of zinc. To determine this point, a 
weighed amount of acetate of lead was dissolved in water, and added to a solution of 


62 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


95 gram. of pure sulphate of zinc in 100 c. c. of water acidulated with 5 gram. of 
pure sulphuric acid. The precipitated sulphate was first weighed on a tared filter, and 
afterwards ignited, and again weighed. The results of two experiments are given in 
the following table: — 


TABLE II. 
(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) 
Weight of Weight of Weight of Excess of Pb O in Col.2 | Loss of PbO in Col. 3, 
PbOA PbO, 80; Pb O, 80s over Calculated Pb O from Calculated Pb O 
taken. on Tared Filter. after Ignition. in Col. 1. in Col. 1 
gramme. gramme. gramme. gramme. gramme. 
1.1013 0.8838 0.8692 
No. 1. containing containing ` containing 0.0021 0.0087 
0.6484 of PbO | 0.6505 of PbO 0.6397 of PbO 
1.0164 0.8159 0.8053 
No. 2. containing containing containing 0.002 0.0058 
0.5985 of PbO | 0.6005 of PbO | 0.5927 of PbO 


The filtrates from the sulphate of lead precipitates in these two experiments were 
saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas during forty hours, but not a trace of lead 
could be detected in either case. These experiments sufficiently prove that the ac- 
curacy of the determination of lead as sulphate is not impaired by the presence of 
sulphate of zinc, or, at least, that, if there be any error, it is an error on the safe side, 
causing a loss of lead, and not a gain.* | 


* The results given in Table II., and in the immediately preceding statement of the experiment with Pro- 
birblei, illustrate a fact which we have had frequent occasion to observe; viz. that the sulphate of lead can 
be weighed more accurately on a tared filter than by any process which subjects the filter and precipitate to 
ignition. There is an unavoidable loss in igniting this precipitate, in consequence of the volatilization of the 
sulphide of lead, which is reduced from the sulphate by the paper of the filter. The common objection to 
weighing this precipitate on a tared filter, is the difficulty of removing the last traces of the sulphuric acid 
used in washing; but careful washing with alcohol will overcome this difficulty, whereas no care can prevent 
the loss consequent upon ignition. We ignited 1.4004 gram. of absolutely pure sulphate of lead with a fine 
Swedish filter 10 centimetres in diameter, cut into small pieces, moistened, and mixed with the sulphate of lead. 
The sulphate, after ignition, weighed 1.3826 gram. 


Amount of lead in 1.4004 gram. PbO SO, = 0.95654 
Loss  “ by ignition (022001216 
yi e = in per cent — 1.271 
In this experiment the amount of sulphate of lead used was considerable; if this amount be small, the loss 
by ignition will be proportionally increased. It may be objected, that it is not usual to ignite the filter with 
the mass of the precipitate; but, on the other hand, it is often the case that the filter ashes cannot be burnt 
white on the crucible cover, and moreover the process of filtration produces a very intimate contact between 
the paper and the fine particles of sulphate of lead which is not imitated in the above experiment. - 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 63 


To verify the results stated in the third column of Table L, we determined the 
sulphuric acid in each precipitate of sulphate of lead, by the method described by 
Fresenius.* Each precipitate of sulphate of lead was digested with a solution of pure 
bicarbonate of soda prepared from the oxalate, and the sulphuric acid determined in 
. the usual manner in the filtrate from the washed carbonate of lead. A comparison of 
columns 3 and 5 in Table IIT. made it at once clear that the precipitates of column 
2 consisted only of sulphate of lead. 


TABLE II. 
a) QJ (8) (4) (5) 
Sulphuric Acid Sulphurie Acid 
Name of Zine. Dog in the Given Weight of P0 s oc in the ound, Weight of 
gram 

Silditad geg 0.5082 0.1341 0.3954 0.1359 
Vieille Montagne . 0.108 0.0285 0.0845 0.029 
New Jersey . A S 0.033 0.0087 0.035 0.012 
Mint k e e 0.1768 0.0463 0.1356 0.0466 
Rousseau Fréres 0.0379 0.0100 0.0306 0.0105 
Berlin S 0.4381 0.1156 0.3331 0.1146 
Wrexham $ 0.5235 0.1382 0.4282 0.1469 
Mines Royal . 0.469 0.1238 0.3659 0.1255 
Dillwyn & Co. 0.771 0.2035 0.5962 0.2045 
Messrs. Vivian . 0.6165 0.1627 0.4780 0.1640 


Cadmium and Tin. — The filtrates from the precipitates of sulphate of lead obtained 
from the zincs in Table L, except the Pennsylvania zinc, were saturated with sulphu- 
retted hydrogen for twenty-four hours or upwards, and the small precipitates which 
separated were filtered off, washed quickly with sulphuretted hydrogen water, dried, 
and ignited ; they were then treated with a few drops of nitric acid, again evaporated 
to dryness, ignited, and weighed. The color of these precipitates was yellowish-brown, 
with the single exception of the precipitate obtained from New Jersey zinc, which was 
blackish. When this blackish precipitate from this zinc was moistened with nitric acid, 
the blue-green color of the partial solution suggested the presence of copper, and a 
separate determination of the amount of copper in this zinc was therefore made, and 
will be given hereafter. The color of the precipitates from the other zincs excluded all 
the metals of the group precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, except arsenic, anti- 
mony, tin, and cadmium. The first two of these metals do not exist in zinc, as we 
shall hereafter show, except in exceedingly minute quantities, and even any such minute 
quantity would probably have been driven off by the ignition, twice repeated, of the 


$ Anleitung zur Quantitativen Analyse, Braunschweig, Vierte Auflage, 1858, p. 286, $ 132, IT. b. f. 


64 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


precipitates. The small precipitates weighed must therefore have consisted of the 
oxides of tin and cadmium. The results of these analyses are given in the following 
table. The numbers in the fourth column show what per cent each weight in column 
3 is of the corresponding weight in column 2. 


TABLE IV. 
(1) e) (3) (4) (5) 
Weight of the Precipitate| In per cent of the Zinc : 
Name of Zinc. Weight of Zinc taken. | by HS, ignited with taken, these precipitates Result of the Blowpipe test for Tin. 
NO; * equal. : 

: grammes. gramme. ; 
Silesian 23.8066 0.013 0.0546 No tin, or but very uncertain traces. 
Vieille Montagne 25.2795 0.0071 0.0281 Distinct spangles, probably tin. 
New Jersey 28.672 0.1285 O41. |i sraa or AE 
Mint 24.5308 . 0.0024 0.0098 | Notin. 
Rousseau Frères 24.8432 0.0099 0.0406 Faint traces of tin. 
Berlin 23.074 0.0041 0.0178 Distinct spangles, probably tin. 
Wrexham 29.999 0.0021 0.0070 No tin. 
Mines Royal 98.8276 0.0016 0.0041 A very uncertain trace of tin. 
Dillwyn & Co. 31.6425 0.0011 0.0035 Faint traces of tin. ; 
Messrs. Vivian 27.724 ` 0.0079 > m 


If it be remembered that the weights given in the third column are not the weights 
of the metals themselves, but of their oxides, it will be apparent that tin and cadmium 
together form but a very insignificant impurity in commercial zinc. In none of the 
ten samples analyzed, except the New Jersey zinc, can the sum of the tin and cadmium 
amount to one twenty-fifth of one per cent. The precipitates whose weights are given 
in column 3 (except New Jersey, which alone gave indications of copper) having been 
moistened with nitric acid, were digested with distilled water, and then filtered. 
Through the filtrates sulphuretted hydrogen was passed, producing in each case a dirty- 
yellow cloudiness, which was too small in amount to be further examined. That por- - 
tion of each precipitate which was insoluble in water, and therefore remained on the 
filter, was examined before the blowpipe by incinerating the filter and precipitate on 
charcoal, and fusing them with neutral oxalate of potassa in the reducing flame. The 
fused mass was ground up in an agate mortar, and examined for metallic spangles ; 
when these were sufficient in amount, they were dissolved in chlorhydric acid, and the 
solution tested with terchloride of gold. The result for each zinc is stated in the fifth 
column of Table IV. For Silesian zinc, the Wrexham (English) zinc, and the zinc 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 65 


used at the United States Mint, the results were negative. To confirm these re- 
sults, 25 gram. of Silesian zinc and 20 gram. of Mint zinc were separately dissolved 
in dilute chlorhydric acid, and the residues separated from the solutions just before the 
zinc had completely disappeared, in order to collect in the residues all the tin which the 
zines might contain. Each residue was then treated with strong chlorhydric acid; the 
chloride of lead formed was separated by decantation, and the solution tested with 
terchloride of gold. No trace of tin could be detected in either case. 

The precipitate produced in the solution of New Jersey zinc by sulphuretted hydrogen 
weighed after ignition 0.1285 gram. (see Table IV.), and gave evidence of containing 
copper. To determine whether it also contained tin, the precipitate was treated with 
nitric acid, and the matter insoluble in nitric acid was collected, and found to weigh 
0.0389 gram. When this insoluble residue was reduced on charcoal before the blow- 
pipe, it yielded metallic globules, the acid solution of which gave the characteristic 
reaction for tin with terchloride of gold. 

Copper. — No spelter except that from New Jersey gave the slightest evidence of 
. the presence of copper. We determined the per cent of copper with which that zinc 
was contaminated by the following method: 17.9452 gram. of the zinc were dissolved 
in pure chlorhydric acid, and the residue, having been treated with nitric acid, was 
added to the original solution, through which sulphuretted hydrogen was then passed. 
The precipitated sulphide of copper was filtered off, washed with sulphuretted hydrogen 
water, dried, and separated from the filter. The filter was then burned, and its ashes, 
wet with sulphide of ammonium, were added to the previously separated sulphide of 
copper; the whole was then ignited in a current of hydrogen, and the resulting disul- 


phide of copper weighed. 
` Weight of zinc taken . .  . 17.9452 grammes. 
* e disulphide of copper .  . 0.0292 “ 
*  * copper corresponding : 0.0233 * 
Per cent of copper E ma. 01298 


In what way copper was introduced into this zinc, we do not undertake to explain. 

We subsequently examined, in connection with our experiments on carbon in the 
residue from zinc dissolved in dilute acids, the precipitates produced by sulphuretted 
hydrogen in the chlorhydric-acid solutions of several different spelters. The experi- 
ments simply served to corroborate the results which have been already stated, as 
obtained with sulphuric-acid solutions of the different zincs, only one new fact being 
developed, the presence of a trace of cadmium in the Pennsylvanian zinc. From 


VOL. VIII. 9 


66 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


previous experiments made by Prof. Brush we had learned that some specimens of this 
spelter contain noticeable quantities of Cadmium. 

Tron—is usually to be found in commercial zinc, and enough quantitative deter- 
minations of the amount of this impurity have been already published to show 
that it very rarely exceeds in amount two tenths of one per cent, and that, more- 
over, it is an impurity introduced into the zinc from the iron moulds in which the 
spelter is generally cast. Karsten, in his admirable memoir on the “ Admixtures which 
diminish the Tenacity of Zinc," has sufficiently proved that the zinc takes up iron from 
the moulds, by determining the iron in the zinc before and after the process of casting. 
It is true that Karsten experimented upon Silesian zinc alone, but the same contami- 
nation of the spelter would be produced in any works in which the process of casting 
in iron moulds was used.* We have made determinations of the iron in three samples 
of zinc volumetrically by permanganate of potassa,t but have thought it not worth 
while to multiply analyses upon a point already sufficiently clear. , 


1. New J eid zinc gave 0.2088 per cent of iron. 


e Aude To anou oq wee Rg Wy nt 
3. Mint vilo? - 7 «00085 e « 
din eio BRE ODODE e « 
5. Berlin zinc (sheet) * ^ 0.0674 ei S 
RI de EE DEER EN 


Besides the metallic impurities which have already been mentioned, it has been 
stated by previous observers, in places already cited, that nickel, cobalt, manganese, 
arsenic, and antimony are sometimes to be found in the zinc of commerce. The pres- 


* Karsten determined the iron in three samples of * Werkzink," by which term he designates the zinc 
which is the immediate product of the distillation, —a mass of drops partially fused together; and again de- 
termined the iron in the same samples after they had been east into cakes, and converted into the crude zinc 
(Rohzink) as it is found in commerce. His results may be tabulated as follows : — 


Iron in the Iron in the 
Werkzink. Rohzink. 
Bei -. : ` . 0.03 per cent. 0.154 per cent. 
we 2, Ld . . H 0.04 « ed 0.180 € S 
“3, . S . e 008 "*. 4 Cae 2% 76 


Karsten also shows that the refined zinc, obtained by remelting the crude zinc on the hearth of a reverbera- 
tory furnace, is almost absolutely free from iron. Archiv. f. Mineralogie, Karsten u. Dechen., 1842, XVI. 
623. Also, Dingler’s Polyt. Jour., 1842, LX XXVI. 193. 

t For the description of the method, see Mohr’s Lehrbuch der Titrirmethodo, Zweite Abtheilung, p. 234. 


A sample of zinc from Stolberg gave Mohr 0.0442 per cent of iron, anda sample from Linz, on the Rhine, 
contained 0.126 per cent of iron. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 61 


ence of very small quantities of arsenic, and possibly of antimony, in many of the 
zincs of.commerce is undeniable, but (he amount of these metals present is so infini- 
tesimal, that they can only be detected qualitatively by the most delicate tests, and a 
quantitative determination of either of them we regard as so nearly impossible as to 
be untrustworthy and incredible. A full discussion of the subject of arsenic as an 
impurity in commercial zinc will be found below. The occurrence of nickel, cobalt, 
and manganese in zinc has been denied just as often as it has been asserted, but it 
is of course impossible to assert the universal negative, that these metals are never to 
be found in any spelter, for zinc is an article of commerce which is manufactured in 
many different places, by various processes, from several different ores. Thus much 
. may be safely asserted, that if nickel, cobalt, and manganese are ever to be found in 
commercial zinc, they occur there accidentally, exceptionally, abnormally, and in quan- 
tities hardly to be appreciated, and utterly insignificant. 

But few quantitative determinations of the impurities of zinc are recorded, but we 
can confirm the results we have obtained with Silesian zinc by referring to the previous 
analyses of German zincs by several chemists. Thus Wackenroder,* in the memoir 
already ‘cited, maintains that the principal impurities of Silesian zinc are lead, cad- 
mium, and iron ; and after him, Karsten draws the same conclusion from a considerable 
number of analyses of zincs from different works. In thirty-two analyses of Silesian 
zincs made by this eminent metallurgist, the amount of lead found varies from 0.24 
per cent to 2.36 per cent.t A few other analyses we cite below.f 


* Ann. der Pharm., 1834, X. 53. 
.f Archiv. f. Mineralogie, Karsten u. Dechen, 1842, XVI. 597. Also in Dinglers Polyt. Jour., 1842, 


LXXXVI. 193. |. 

į An East-Indian zinc, which Bonnet analyzed, contained, i in 100 parts, 0. 43 of lead, and 0.24 of iron. Ann. 

der Pharm., 1834, IX. 184. Jansen obtained a black residue weighing 2} ounces from 8 pounds of Silesian 

zinc. He states the result of an analysis of the residue as follows. (Ibid. 191.) The statement does not 
admit of any verification, is unintelligible and incredible. 

WOU . — 5 e e 297 

DEPO. —. | 3) s» € ^ -.* 1.88 

« “Copper, . . 156 

FON |C40 . ooo PA V^ a808 


Carbide of Zinc, . i » 05,08 
Silicium, . d d 3 š i e ^ t . 13.77 
DEUM - i PN OI Jas 2.26 
Residue of Sand and Cast g e d A . . 18.00 
1038.36 


Wittstein found in one sort of Austrian zinc as much as 34 per cent of lead. Cited in Ann. der 


68 : ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


Carbon. — With reference to carbon as an impurity of zinc, we have attempted to 
determine this single point, — Does it occur in the residue insoluble in dilute acids, 
as has been generally believed, but never to our knowledge proved? One fact alone 
renders the occurrence of carbon, or of any other non-metallic substance, in this residue 
extremely improbable. We have observed that the residues from the Silesian, New 
Jersey, Rousseau Fréres, Berlin, and Mint zincs are completely dissolved in perchloride 
of iron, acidulated with chlorhydric acid. If carbon or silica were present in any 
appreciable quantity, complete solution of the residue in this reagent could not be 
expected. In testing the residues from our various spelters for carbon, we adopted 
the following process. 

From thirty to forty grammes of the zinc to be tested were dissolved in pure dilute 
chlorhydric acid, the black residue thoroughly washed with hot water, and dried at a 
heat much below one hundred degrees. The dry, grayish powder was then ground up 
with fused chromate of lead, and the mixture was introduced into a small bulb, blown 
in a tube whose diameter was not quite a centimetre. Ata short distance from the 
bulb, this tube was drawn down to a diameter of one or two millimetres, and the ex- 


Pharm. 1836, XX. 179. Two other samples of Austrian zinc gave Wittstein, — 


| (8.) 5st GA 

Lead, pant te-  . .. 0,27 per cent. .... 0.91 per cent. 
Cadmium, pa x ^ i at po ct t 
Bon vai . trace. , €t 


Otto's Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, Dritte Auflage, III. 139. 
Jacquelain obtained from a specimen of French zine, — | 


Carbon, os cs . 4 05 —— —— — T DE 
lé." ^ e E nm PT 
Lead, 0.685 


Ann. de Ch. et Phys., 1843, [3.] VII. 208. 


The following additional analyses are cited from B. Kerls Handbuch der metallurgischen Hüttenkunde, 
Freiberg, 1855, I. 225. The original sources from which these determinations were derived by Kerl are not 
stated. 


, Lead. Tron, - Cadmium. Carbon. 
1. Belgian zinc (2d quality) . . 04 0.4 
2. Silesian “ x S 5 ‘ 0.47 0.28 R 
: | 0.2 00.97 | m" 
3. u cz x S S . 045 0.32 0.75 
4. Iserlohn “ š i : i 0.30 0.35 


a. of « s ; e e 0.25 0.41 
6. Chinese ^ (bad quality) . 0.80 1.50 
4. Lower Hartz zinc, Kin uos tue’ AO 0.73 (Also contains arsenic.) 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 69 


tremity of the fine tube placed under lime-water in a small test-glass. The bulb was 
heated till the chromate of lead was fused, and if any carbon had been present in the 
residue, the evolved gas would have caused a cloudiness or precipitation of carbonate 
of lime in the lime-water. In this manner we first tested our chromate of lead by 
itself, and found no cloud or precipitate in the lime-water. We next inserted the 
smallest possible particle of carbon into the bulb with a little chromate of lead, and 
obtained a large distinct cloud of carbonate of lime in the lime-water in the test-glass, 
and in the capillary tube which delivered the gas. Having thus proved the purity 
of the reagent employed, and the extreme delicacy of the test, we tested in succession 
the residues from Silesian, Vieille Montagne, and Berlin zincs, and from the zinc of 
Rousseau Fréres. As precisely the same result was obtained with each of these zincs, 
it may be stated once for all. 

On heating the mixture of residue and chromate of lead till the chromate fused, 
there appeared in each case a very slight deposit on the upper surface of the lime-water 
column in the fine tube. This deposit could not have been smaller and yet been visi- 
ble; it was incomparably less than that produced by the atom of carbon which was 
purposely introduced into a similar tube, and was undoubtedly caused by the slight 
dust which collected on the residues during the processes of washing and drying, and 
which no possible precautions could entirely avoid. It is obvious from these experi- 
ments, that the often repeated statement, that the insoluble residue from zinc treated 
with dilute acids is carbon, rests on no adequate foundations, and that carbon is not 
an invariable constituent of crude zinc, as it is of iron. ' But on the other hand it is 
impossible to assert that carbon does not sometimes occur in commercial zinc as an 
accidental and wholly abnormal impurity. Thus in the specimen of New Jersey zinc 
which we examined, there were certain small cavities lined with black, as if a bubble 
of some carbonaceous gas had been decomposed within them, and the residue from this 
zinc, when tested as above described for carbon, produced a distinct cloudiness in the 
lime-water, which was sufficient evidence of the,presence of a trace of carbon in this 
spelter; but the amount of this impurity was infinitesimal, and not ab: all to be "- 
pared in quantity with the lead and other metallic pum of which the residue 
mainly consisted. "The presence of a little copper in this zinc may perhaps be con- 
nected with the occurrence of this trace of carbon. The — im three of the 
English spelters also gave distinct reactions for carbonic ee in the lime-water; but, 
judging from the exceedingly small cloud of carbonate of lime producer the amount 
of carbon in these zincs is even less considerable than that detected in the New Jersey 
zinc. The other English zinc (that from the works of Messrs. Vivian) yielded but the 


f 


10 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


merest trace of carbonate of lime, — a little larger deposit, perhaps, than that obtained 
from the Silesian, Vieille Montagne, and other zincs first experimented upon, but not 
more than may easily have been derived from the invisible dust which undoubtedly 
collected on the residue. From none of these zincs could we obtain nearly as much 
carbonate of lime in the test-glass as we got from the smallest possible atom of carbon 
heated with chromate of lead; and it is quite clear that there is never anything more 
than an infinitesimal amount of carbon in the considerable residue which remains when 
thirty or forty grammes of commercial zinc are dissolved in dilute acids. 

Against the common opinion that carbon is one of the principal impurities of zinc, 
we would refer to the previously quoted statement of Wackenroder, who considered 
carbon only an accidental and mechanical impurity, and to the exact experiments of 
Karsten, who endeavored to determine the carbon in Silesian zinc by decomposing 
chloride of silver and chloride of copper by zinc, but * could find no trace of carbon in 
either the hard or the soft kinds of zinc." * 

Sulphur. — It has been frequently stated that sulphur is a common impurity of zinc, 
and that it even occurs in the insoluble residue in combination with lead. We first tested 
the insoluble residue from Silesian zinc for sulphur, by dissolving about 30 grammes 
of the zinc in pure chlorhydric acid, separating the black residue, and dissolving it in 
pure nitric acid. It dissolved without any appreciable residue (another evidence of the 
non-existence of tin in this spelter), and the diluted solution gave nó precipitate what- 
ever with nitrate of baryta. With 40 grammes of Vieille Montagne zinc, we obtained 
precisely the same result. 'The Pennsylvanian zinc leaves no residue when treated 
with dilute acids, and is therefore free from lead, and certainly contains no carbon or 
sulphur which manifest themselves as an insoluble residue. The New Jersey zinc 
gave an exceptional result. The blackish residue, from 32 grammes of this zinc, could 
not be completely dissolved in boiling nitric acid. The partial solution gave no pre- 
cipitate with nitrate of baryta; the undissolved portion was fused before the blow- 
pipe with carbonate of soda free from sulphur, and gave a distinct reaction, first. 
for sulphur, and secondly for tin. The presence of tin in this spelter has already 
been demonstrated, and a minute trace of ibd must also be counted Along 
its impurities. x 

In addition to this negative evidence, that no precipitation is produced by barium 
salts in the diluted nitric acid solution of the residues from the various zincs, we would 


* Archiv. f. Mineralogie, Karsten u. Dechen, 1842, XVI. 607. Karsten also says: «I have cemented 


sheet zine with coal for many days, and then melted it; but in the resulting mass of zinc I have found no trace 
of carbon." Ibid., 608. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. YA 


adduce positive experiments to show that any compound of sulphur with a metal, which 
might be present in the zinc, would, in all probability, be decomposed in presence of an 
excess of zinc and free acid. , 

Wackenroder, in the memoir already cited, distinctly states that.the black residue 
from zinc is sulphide of lead, — a statement-at first sight sufficiently plausible, but 
really inconsistent with ti. facts of the case. When precipitated sulphide of lead is 
mixed with a large excess of granulated zinc (Silesian, Vieille Montagne, or Pennsylva- 
nian), and treated with moderately dilute sulphuric or chlorhydric acid, the black sul- 
phide soon entirely disappears, while torrents of sulphuretted hydrogen are evolved. 
If, after all the zinc has been completely dissolved, the insoluble residue is fused before 
the blowpipe with carbonate of soda free from sulphuric acid, the mass thus obtained 
will not blacken silver. 

If powdered galena be substituted for precipitated sulphide of lead, the same effects 
will be produced, though much more slowly. The sulphide of lead, therefore, suffers 
complete decomposition in presence of an excess of zinc and free acid, and it is of 
course absolutely impossible that this substance should be found in the insoluble 
residue.* 

The presence of sulphur in the insoluble residue from zinc is, without doubt, very rare; 
but it is also an unquestionable fact, that a certain amount of sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas is generated whenever commercial zinc is treated with dilute acids. This phenom- 
enon has been often observed. Thus Blancard f remarks, “that the sulphur often 
contained in commercial zinc may be shown by bringing paper wet with acetate of lead 
in contact with the gas developed therefrom.”  Fordos and Gélis f say, that “ the for- 
mation of this gas (sulphuretted hydrogen) can only be attributed to the partial reduc- | 
tion of the sulphuric acid by the nascent hydrogen.” Subsequently Jacquelain,§ 
doubting this supposed reduction of sulphuric acid, attributes the production of sul- 
phuretted hydrogen to the presence of sulphurous acid or other compounds of sulphur, 


* We have observed that the sulphides of tin and copper are also decomposed when mixed with an excess 

of zinc and dilute acid. The sulphide of copper was rapidly decomposed, and the residue, after all the zinc 
. had been dissolved, yielded only a very uncertain trace of sulphur before the blowpipe. Precipitated bi- 

sulphide of tin was decomposed much less readily, and when all the zinc had disappeared, the residue gave in- 
dications of sulphur before the blowpipe. Although this might have arisen from some impurity in the tinfoil 
from which the sulphide was prepared, yet it was evident that the decomposition of the sulphide of tin is 
effected with much greater difficulty than that of the sulphides of lead and copper. 

+ Jour. de Pharmacie, 1841, p. 543, in Dingler’s Polyt. Jour. 1841, LXXXII. 425. 

{ Comptes Rendus, 1841, XIII. 437. 

$ Ann. de Ch. et Phys., 1843, [3.] VIL 189. 


12 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC, 


with which the sulphuric acid is contaminated. Every specimen of zinc in our posses- 
sion develops sulphuretted hydrogen when treated with dilute sulphuric or chlorhydric 
acid, as may be manifested by placing a slip of paper moistened with alkaline acetate 
of lead in the neck of the flask which contains the zinc and acid. But the ques- 
tion recurs, What is the source of the sulphur which is necessary for the generation 
of this gas? Is it contained in the zinc, or is it derived from the acids used in the 
experiment? To obtain a satisfactory solution of this problem, it is necessary to use 
an acid which does not contain sulphur in any form. Sulphuric acid will not answer 
the purposes we have in view in this experiment; for though it is undoubtedly possi- 
ble to prepare sulphuric acid free from sulphurous acid, yet the doubt would still re- 
main concerning the reduction of the sulphuric acid by the hydrogen, — a reduction not 
impossible at certain temperatures and in certain states of concentration. In testing 
for a minute trace of sulphur in zinc, it is evidently undesirable to employ a reagent 
which contains sulphur, in however stable a combination. Sulphuric acid being then ex- 
cluded, will chlorhydric acid answer the purpose? It is easy to prepare chlorhydric acid 
which gives no precipitate with baryta salts, but it is very difficult to prepare this acid 
from common salt and sulphuric acid, so that, while containing no chlorine, it shall be. 
absolutely free from sulphurous acid, or some lower compounds of sulphur. Loewen- 
thal's* test with sesquichloride of iron and ferricyanide of potassium will reveal the pres- 
ence of such compounds of sulphur in chlorhydric acid, made with the utmost care, and: 
in other respects pure. By means of chlorine or some similar oxidizing agent, these com- 
pounds of sulphur may undoubtedly be oxidized, or at least the larger part of these ad- 
mixtures may be converted into sulphuric acid; whether their last traces can be oxidized 
in this way is a point by no means beyond a doubt. But if the chlorhydric acid has been 
treated with chlorine to accomplish this oxidation, it becomes necessary to remove from 
the acid the excess of the oxidizing agent, for sulphuretted hydrogen would not be de- 
veloped from zinc, contaminated with sulphur, by an acid which contained free chlorine, 
or any substance of like properties. Thus common chlorhydric acid very often contains 
free chlorine, and no zinc will yield with such acid anything more than a very uncer- 
tain reaction for sulphur on lead-paper. To obtain chlorhydric acid which was above 
suspicion, and unquestionably free from every trace of sulphur, and from every oxidiz- 
ing agent which might interfere with our reaction for sulphur in zinc, we found so 
difficult a task, that we finally rejected this acid “altogether, and resorted to the follow- 
ing process. A solution of chloride of calcium, free from every trace of sulphur, was 


D 


* Jour. pr. Chem., LX. 267. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 18 


first prepared by dissolving carbonate of lime in chlorhydric acid, adding ammonia 
in excess to the boiling solution, filtering off the precipitated oxides of iron and alu- 
mina, adding to the filtrate chloride of barium, and evaporating to dryness. "The resi- 
due was dissolved in distilled water, and in this solution a slight excess of chloride of 
barium was present, as was proved by the precipitate produced by a solution of sulphate 
of lime. Oxalic acid free from sulphur was then prepared by the following process: a 
quantity of commercial oxalic acid was treated with enough cold water to dissolve about 
half of the acid taken, and the cold solution thus obtained was partially evaporated 
and crystallized ; the mass of crystals was washed with a saturated solution of a portion 
- of the crystals, and was finally dissolved in distilled water. In these two reagents, 
the chloride of calcium and the oxalic acid, so prepared, no sulphur could be detected, 
either by barium salts, Loewenthal's test, or by the blowpipe reaction on silver. 

We applied to every zinc in our possession the following test for sulphur. 10 or 15 
grammes of zinc were introduced into a small flask, and a portion of the solution of 
chloride of caleium and of oxalic acid added thereto; hydrogen gas was freely de- 
veloped, and was tested for any sulphuretted hydrogen which it might contain, by 
placing a slip of paper moistened with alkaline acetate of lead in the narrow neck 
of the flask. In every case the paper was immediately and strongly blackened, 
showing conclusively that every one of the following zincs contains sulphur in a 
quantity extremely minute, but distinctly appreciable if a sufficiently delicate test 
be applied : — 

Vieille Montagne zinc (in two distinct samples). 

Silesian zinc. 

'The United States Mint zinc. 

Pennsylvanian zinc. 

Rousseau Fréres zinc. 

Berlin sheet zinc. 

Silesian zinc (subjected to Meillet's * process for purification from arsenic). 
New Jersey zinc. 

Sg * (reduced by us from the New Jersey white zinc oxide). 
English zinc (in four distinct samples). 

These results are not in accordance with the statements of some previous observers. 
Thus Karsten, in the memoir previously cited, infers that sulphur is not contained 
in Silesian zinc, from the fact that he obtained no precipitate in passing the gas gen- 


Se oag mS mr 


EI 


* Dingler's Polyt. Jour., 1842, LXXXIII. 205, from Jour. de Pharmacie, 1841, 625. 


` got, VIII. 10 


VM 


4 


14 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


erated by this zinc through a solution of acetate of lead. But it must be remembered, 
first, that we have no evidence that Karsten’s acids were free from oxidizing agents, 
and secondly, that the reaction for sulphur on lead-paper is a more delicate test than 
any process of causing the gas generated to bubble through a liquid, even though the 
best form of apparatus be employed to secure as far as possible thorough contact of 
the gas with the fluid. Moreover, Karsten subsequently mentions that a delicate black 
precipitate is produced when the hydrogen from zinc is passed through nitrate of 
silver; this precipitate was probably sulphide of silver, and not metallic silver, as 
Karsten conjectured. 

Again, Jacquelain, in the memoir already referred to, concludes that sulphur was not 
contained in the specimen of French zinc which he examined, because a complete 
solution of the zinc-in aqua regia gives no precipitate with chloride of barium. But 

obviously the precipitation of sulphate of baryta in aqua regia is by no means a suffi- 
| ciently delicate test for an amount of sulphur at best exceedingly minute. In the same 
paper, Jacquelain, criticising the observation reported by Fordos and Gélis of the gen- 
eration of sulphuretted hydrogen from zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, implies that 
there is no sulphur in zinc by stating that the development of sulphuretted hydrogen 
from zinc may be avoided by using properly prepared acid. The acid which Jacque- 
lain used had been saturated with chlorine gas, in a process of which the principal 
object was the purification of the sulphuric acid from sulphurous acid. That this acid 
occasioned no development of sulphuretted hydrogen from the zinc is not to be won- 
dered at, but it is not to be argued from this fact, that there is no sulphur in zinc. 
With regard to sulphur in the zinc from New Jersey, Alger * has remarked that the 
New Jersey zinc ore is known to contain no sulphur; but, on the other hand, Jackson t 
observed the sulphuret of zinc in the mine of red oxide of zinc in Franklin, Sussex 
County, New Jersey, and a simple experiment demonstrated to us the existence of 
sulphur in that ore. 10 or 15 grammes of the red oxide of zinc, not entirely free from 
the gangue of carbonate of lime in which the ore occurs, were reduced to a fine powder, ` 
and treated with moderately dilute pure sulphuric acid. A vigorous evolution of sul- 
phuretted hydrogen was the immediate result. | : 

Arsenic. — The general opinion that arsenic is a very common impurity in commercial 
zinc may, we think, be traced back to the confident assertion of Proust, near the be- 
ginning of this century, afterwards extensively copied and generally believed. But it 
is quite clear that Proust, and probably many other of the early chemists, were led 


* Am. J. Sci, XLVIII. 253. + Proc. Am. Association, 1850, IV. 336. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. T9. 


into error by the close external resemblance of the sulphide of arsenic to the sulphide 
of cadmium, which last metal, not recognized till 1817, has since been shown to be a 
very common admixture in the zinc of commerce. The invention of Marsh's apparatus, 
in 1835, gave to chemistry a test for arsenic of most wonderful delicacy; and Marsh * 
himself, in his original memoir, describing his process, remarks, that “the only am- 
biguity that can possibly arise in the mode of operating above described, arises from 
the circumstance that some samples of the zinc of commerce themselves contain 
arsenic.” But Marsh, thus careful to suspect his zinc, says not a word about the 
purity of his acid, and many observers since Marsh have been more ready to attribute 
the infinitesimal trace of arsenic, which his process has enabled them to detect, to the 
zinc, than to the acids they have used. Schauefele + has actually attempted to deter- 
mine quantitatively the per cent of arsenic present in French, Silesian, and Vieille Mon- 
tagne zincs, and his results have been quoted in many recent handbooks and treatises 
on toxicology. 

The conclusions at which we have arrived, after a long course of experiments with 
many different zincs, and various acids, are these: — first, that much of the zinc of 
commerce is free from arsenic, or at least contains no arsenic that can be detected by 
the most delicate tests known for that metal; secondly, that the sulphuric and chlor- 
hydric acids found in commerce do very often contain arsenic, and are always so liable 
to contain it as to be utterly unfit for use in Marsh's process without special purifica- 
tion for that purpose. The steps by which we were led to these results, and the evi- 
dence on which they are founded, we proceed to describe. We have used exclusively 
"Marsh's process for the detection of arsenic, applied with the apparatus and with 
all the precautions recommended by Otto.f Our apparatus consisted of a flask 
provided with a funnel-tube, and a tube bent at right angles, with which were con- 
nected by connectors of sheet India-rubber, first,.a tube of the form of a chloride of 
calcium tube, filled with asbestos; secondly, a similar tube, filled with pumice-stone 
soaked in caustic potassa; and thirdly, one filled with chloride of calcium. Through 
these three tubes, in the order in which they are named, the gas generated in the 
flask was obliged to pass before it arrived at the reduction-tube, which was of hard 
German pus about one centimetre in diameter. The reduction-tube was drawn 


* Edinburgh Now Phil. Jour., XXXV. 235. 
f Extract from a thesis presented by M. Schauefele. Jour. de Chimie Médicale, [3.] VI. 173; also in 


Dingler’s Polyt. Jour., 1850, CXVI. 248. 
i A Manual of the Detection of Poisons. 


Bailliére. 1857. 


Translated from the German by Elderhorst. New York: 


16 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


down to a fine bore, and during the progress of an experiment was heated by one of 
Bunsen's triple gas-burners. To prevent any elevation of the temperature in the flask 
during an experiment, it was immersed in cold water, and the dilute acid used was 
always cold, and added in small quantities, With this apparatus (which for conven- 
ience we shall designate as Otto's apparatus), taking every possible precaution to insure 
its perfect cleanness, we made several experiments upon Silesian zinc. 200 grammes 
of this spelter, carefully granulated, were used in each experiment, and the sulphuric 
acid employed was a commercial acid made in this country from Sicily sulphur. We 
were not unaware of the fact, that arsenic is almost invariably found in the foreign 
sulphuric acid made from various impure sulphurs of unknown origin, or from 
pyrites;* but it is a common impression that the American acid manufactured directly 
from Sicily sulphur is free from arsenic. Positive statements to this effect have been 
made by chemists who have had mainly in view the common use of sulphuric acid in ` 
the preparation of chemical compounds used in pharmacy, and the assertion has enough 
plausibility to command ready and general belief. Using such acid and 200 grammes of 
granulated Silesian zinc, we obtained, at the end of the hour during which the reduc- 
tion-tube was heated, a deposit of arsenic perfectly distinct, though not bright enough 
to be called a mirror. Our next experiment was made with the same acid upon 200 
grammes of an excellent sample of Vieille Montagne zinc, perfectly clean and carefully 
granulated. At the end of the hour during which the gas was passed through the 
reduction-tube, a brownish, volatile coating was found in that part of the tube where 
the bore was smallest. These experiments on Silesian and Vieille Montagne zincs 
were several times repeated, and always with the same result; the deposit in the reduc- 
tion-tube was often too thin and slight to be positively identified as arsenic, but it 
could not be distinguished from the deposit of that metal, and would have been per- 
fectly fatal in a medico-legal investigation, or in any case in which absolute purity of 


* On the subject of arsenic in foreign sulphuric acid, the following authorities may be referred to: — 
Martius, Schweigger's Jour. f. Ch. u. Phys., 1811, III. 363. 
Wackenroder, Ann. der Pharm., 1834, XII. 189. 
Wackenroder, Ann. der Pharm., 1835, XIII. 241. - 
Vogel, Jour. f. pr. Ch., 1835, IV. 239. 
Ficinus, Ann. der Pharm., 1835, XV. 77. - 
Berzelius, in his Jahres-Bericht, 1841, X X. 192. 
Brett, Philosophieal Mag., 1842, [3.] XX. 404. 
Schnedermann and Wöhler, Jour. f. pr. Ch., 1845, XXXV. 186. 
Dupasquier, Comptes Rendus, 1845, XX. 794. 
Cameron, Chem. Gazette, No. 320, p. 75, in Jour. f. pr. Ch., 1856, LXVIII. 64. 


LÀ 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. Ti 


the materials was desired. Not convinced that the zincs were the source of the arsenic, 
we desired to prepare a quantity of sulphuric acid in which the presence of arsenic 
could not.possibly be suspected. To attain this object, we subjected a specimen of 
American sulphuric acid to the following process. The acid was first boiled with a 
little flowers of sulphur, as proposed by Barruel,* in order to free it from the nitrous 
fumes which the common sulphuric acid almost always contains; a small quantity of 
pure chlorhydric acid was then stirred into the cooled acid, which had been carefully 
decanted from the free sulphur, and the whole again boiled; to the acid, again cooled, 
a second addition of chlorhydric acid was made, and again the acid was heated till 
dense white fumes had been escaping for upwards of half an hour. During this 
process, the volatile chloride of arsenic is completely driven off, the second addition of 
chlorhydric acid being made, as has been recommended by H. Rose,t in order to insure 
this result. Lastly, a portion of chlorine-water was added to the cooled acid to oxidize 
any sulphurous acid which might be contained in it, and after a third boiling, the 
acid, cooled and diluted with three parts of water, was ready for use. This method 
of purifying sulphuric acid is a combination and modification of several well-known 
processes. Buchner} has described in full the process of purifying sulphuric acid by 
means of chlorhydric acid, and the use of chlorine as above described was recom- 
mended by Jacquelain.§ The whole operation can be performed in a shallow evapo- 
rating-dish, and presents no serious difficulties of any kind. "With the acid thus pre- 
pared, we tested 200 grammes of Vieille Montagne zinc, and after passing during more 
than an hour a continuous, gentle stream of gas through the reduction-tube, of which 
about four centimetres were maintained at a bright red heat, we found that there was 
absolutely no deposit whatever in the cool and narrow part of the reduction-tube. 
With the same acid and apparatus, 200 grammes of Pennsylvanian zinc (which had been 
proved to be altogether the purest zinc in our possession) gave absolutely no deposit of 
any kind in the fine reduction-tube at the end of one hour, the time during which, in all 
our examinations for arsenic, we maintained a steady flow of hydrogen through the 
red-hot reduction-tube. We had now demonstrated that two different spelters, of 
which we were fortunate in possessing considerable quantities, were free from arsenic, 
or, more strictly, that in the given quantities of metal, and in the stated times, Marsh's 
infinitely delicate test could not detect arsenic in these two zincs. It was also rendered 


* Dingler’s Polyt. Jour., 1837, LXIV. 55; from Jour. de Ch. Médicale, 1836, No. 4. 


+ Pogg. Ann., 1858, CV. 571. 
1 Ann. der Ch. u. Pharm., 1855, XCIV. 241. 


§ Ann. de Ch. et Phys., 1843, [2.] VII. 191. 


ê 


78 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


very probable that the sulphuric acid with which we first experimented contained 
arsenic, inasmuch as we had obtained a distinct deposit of arsenic from that acid and 
the Vieille Montagne zinc, which subsequent experiment had proved to be free from 
that impurity. In order satisfactorily to establish these conclusions, it was necessary 
to prove by frequent repetition that the same result might always be expected from 
these two zincs, and that their freedom from arsenic was a property shared by the 
whole sample, and not an accidental peculiarity of a particular fragment. At sundry 
times we therefore repeated again and again the long and careful test for arsenic above 
described with these two samples of spelter, and invariably arrived at the same con- 
clusion; namely, that no deposit of any kind could be obtained in the reduction- 
. tube from these zincs and purified sulphuric acid. 

Delicacy of the Test. — To prove the sufficiency of our apparatus, and the absence of 
every substance which might be supposed to prevent the formation of the arsenic 
mirror, and, moreover, to obtain mirrors from known quantities of arsenic with which 
roughly to compare deposits obtained in experiments in which the arsenic was the un- 
known quantity, we made the following experiments: — 

1. 200 grammes of Vieille Montagne zinc, about 200 c. c. of purified dilute sulphuric 
acid, and 20 drops of pure chlorhydric acid, were first thoroughly tested for arsenic, 
and found to be perfectly pure. 

2. 200 grammes of Vieille Montagne zinc, and about 200 c. c. of purified sulphuric 
acid, were thoroughly tested, and gave no deposit in the reduction-tube. Into the 
flask whose contents had been thus proved, two tenths of a milligramme of arsenious 
acid (weighed on a Plattner's assay balance, made by Lingke of Freiberg), dissolved in 
20 drops of the same chlorhydric acid used in the first experiment, were introduced. 
An enormous mirror of arsenic appeared instantly in the reduction-tube. To get the 
greatest effect, the arsenious acid should be thoroughly dissolved, and its solution should 
be effected without the use of any but a very gentle heat. 

3. Using the same zinc and the same acids, in the same quantities which were em- 
ployed in the foregoing experiments, and proving the materials as in the last experi- 
ment, we obtained, in half an hour, a very large and distinct mirror of arsenic, by in- 
troducing into the flask one tenth of a milligramme of arsenious acid. 

. 4. 200 grammes of Pennsylvanian zinc and about 200 c. c. of purified sulphuric acids 
were tested for one hour, and proved to be perfectly pure. One milligramme of arseni- 
ous acid had been dissolved in 20 drops of the pure chlorhydric acid which had been 
used in the first experiment, and the solution diluted with distilled water to the bulk 
of 50 c. c. One cubic centimetre of this solution was introduced into the flask whose 


^ 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 19 


previous contents had been proved as above described, and at the sod of three quar- 
ters of an hour a distinct deposit of arsenic was found in the reduction-tube. The 
amount of arsenious acid actually placed in the flask was two hundred-thousandths of 
a gramme (.00002 gram.). 


0.00002 gram. arsenious acid = 0.000015 gram. arsenic. . 


Ratio of the arsenic present to the zinc — 0.000015 : 200 — Laera, 


« « «oc D * — amount of liquid in the flask — about i Late 


Our apparatus was therefore competent to detect a quantity of arsenic less than one 
ten-millionth of the weight of the zinc used, or of the amount of fluid in the flask. This 
quantity of liquid necessarily varied somewhat, in consequence of the slight additions 
of acid necessary to maintain a constant current of hydrogen, but only varied to be 
increased, never diminished. Remembering the wide limits of error in many chemical 
processes, the comparative coarseness of most chemical tests, and the many unavoidable 
inaccuracies in weighing and measuring, is not the assertion perfectly safe, and in strict 
conformity with the general use of language in other qualitative or quantitative deter- ` 
minations, that a specimen of zinc*is free from arsenic, which does not show the 
slightest trace of that metal in an apparatus abundantly capable of detecting the ten- 
millionth part of arsenic? We are aware that this is not the limit of delicacy * of 
Marsh's test, but, assured of this delicacy, we rest satisfied with it as sufficient for our 
present purpose. The more delicate the test, the stronger is our present argument, 
and the greater need is there of exceeding caution in applying this test in the investi- 
gations of medico-legal or pharmaceutical chemistry. 

- . In connection with these experiments on the delicacy of the test, we ; Would call 
Se to the fact, that the sulphuretted hydrogen, which we have shown in our exam- 
inations for sulphur to be always developed from commercial zinc, does not prevent the 
exhibition of such a very small amount of arsenic as 0.000015 gram. Chevallier,t 
and more recently Blondlot + and Leroy,$ assert that the presence of the insoluble sul- 
phide of arsenic cannot be recognized by Marsh's test, and that arsenic may therefore 
be concealed by being converted into the sulphide. This is the natural and general 


. * M. Signoret (Taylor on Poisons, 2d Edition, 1859, London, p. 396) states that he has procured 
metallic deposits with only the 200,000,000th part of arsenic in the liquid; but it is not clear from such a 
statement what the exact amount of arsenic in the apparatus was which enabled him to obtain deposits, — 
a very material point. 

f Jour. de Ch. Méd., [2.] V. 380, in Berzelius's Jahres-Bericht, 1841, X X. 192. 

1 Comptes Rendus, 1857, XLIV. 1222. 

$ Ibid., 1859, XLIX. 469. 


80 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


4 
opinion, though Marsh, in his original memoir, distinctly says, that “ the presence of 
arsenic in artificial orpiment and realgar, . . . . . and in sulphuret of antimony, may 


be readily shown by this process, when not more than half a grain of any of those com- 
pounds is employed." * When the amounts of arsenic and of sulphuretted hydrogen 
' are alike minute, it is quite certain that the reaction for arsenic is not affected by the 
unavoidable presence of this gas. 

Arsenic in American acids. — We bavé tested four different kinds of American WE 
phuric acid, of which two were commercial oil of vitriol, and two were sold as chemi- 
cally pure acids. The test applied to these acids was always the same, and may be 
described once for all. 100 grammes of Pennsylvanian zinc, from the same bar which 
in many trials had been shown to be free from arsenic, was placed in the flask, and the 
acid to be tested was used instead of the purified acid which was always employed 
when the zinc was the suspected substance. In every experiment, the gas was passed 
through the reduction-tube at least one hour. In experiments several times repeated, 
the sulphuric acid made at Providence, Rhode Island, invariably yielded a distinct 
deposit in the narrow part of the tube. It should be stated, however, that the Provi- 
dence acid used in these repeated experiments all came from one carboy. In a sample 
of the acid manufactured at Waltham, Massachusetts, we detected a similar trace of 
arsenic. 'The deposits obtained from these two acids were hardly larger than that pro- 
duced by the 0.000015 gram. of arsenic used in the fourth experiment on the delicacy - 
of the reaction, but, on the other hand, only a small quantity Jes 25 to 50 c. c.) of the 
acid could be employed in a single experiment. 

The arsenic which is eliminated from these acids during the process of purification 
with chlorhydric acid may easily be collected, and exhibited by Marsh's test. For this 
purpose, the sulphuric acid should be heated with the chlorhydric acid in a flask or 
retort, from which the gas generated is conducted into a small quantity of distilled 
water, kept constantly cool The volatile chloride of arsenic condenses in the water, 
and the arsenic in the solution is readily manifested in Otto's apparatus. The chlor- 
hydric acid used in this experiment must be absolutely free from arsenic; such acid may 
be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through chlorhydric acid prepared from 
‘salt and pure sulphuric acid. Moreover, the sulphuric acid in the flask or retort must 
be kept fuming during at least half an hour, in order to secure the complete volatili- 
zation of the chloride of arsenic. r 

The chemically pure sulphuric acid, so called, manufactured by Rosengarten, of 


* Edinburgh New Phil. Jour., XXXV. 235. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 8l 


Š 


Philadelphia, was purer than the commercial acid with reference to arsenic as well as to 
lead; indeed, in one experiment it yielded no sensible deposit in the reduction-tube, but 
in several subsequent experiments with pure zinc, in which we attempted to use Rosen- 
garten's acid instead of that purified by ourselves, we obtained faint deposits which pre- 
cluded its use, and showed it to be untrustworthy in such delicate examinations for arsenic 
by Marsh's process. To the “chemically pure" sulphuric acid made by Powers and 
Weightman of Philadelphia, precisely the same remarks apply ; it is unfit for use in any 
research where scrupulous accuracy is necessary, and of which the results are worse than 
worthless if they be not certain and impregnable. It may be granted that the amount 
of arsenic in any small quantity of these acids is really too minute to be of any conse- 
quence, except in the most refined experiments. On the other hand, it must be remem- 
bered that in some pharmaceutical processes, and in many chemico-legal examinations for 
arsenic, in which a large amount of acid is often necessarily used, the whole of the arsenic 
contained in the reagents employed is, by the very nature of the process, concentrated and 
condensed into a very small compass. For example, in a poisoning case in which the chem- 
ist is obliged to destroy by acids any considerable portion of the body, as is often the case, 
it may be necessary to use many pounds of sulphuric or chlorhydric acid, and the very 
care and pains with which the chemist labors to concentrate every grain of arsenic in 
that organic matter into the small glass of liquid, which he finally tests by Marsh's 
; process, also concentrates into the same glass all the arsenic contained in all the reagents 
which he has employed in the whole process. Under such circumstances the existence 
of any arsenic in sulphuric acid, capable of exhibition from a few cubic centimetres of 
the acid, becomes a fact of the utmost moment. From neglecting this arsenic in sul- 
phuric acid arose the long controversy concerning normal arsenic in the animal body. 
To the objection that Marsh's test is too delicate, and that we should find all the ele- 
ments everywhere if we had for each of them a test as refined as Marsh's for eme it 
may be replied, first, that Marsh's process is not thought too delicate to base vital con- 
clusions upon in difficult examinations for arsenic in poisoning cases, and secondly, 
that facts are not to be met by a theoretical objection, which is at any rate purely 
speculative, and furthermore is no objection if, as is certainly possible, the theory be 
true. 

We are aware of the common opinion, that sulphuric acid made from Sicily sulphur 
contains no arsenic,* and we do not propose to explain the source of the arsenic found 


* For a strong statement of this opinion, see Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Ae, 4th edition, Boston, 1853, 


Vol. Il. pp. 791, 799. 


VOL, VIII. 11 


82 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


* in American sulphuric acid, further than to suggest that its presence seems not unnatu- 
ral when we remember that the sulphides of arsenic are often associated mineralogically 
with the sulphur from which the acid is made. Long ago Pfaff,* in commenting upon 
the observation made by Martius of arsenic in sulphuric acid, said that the sample 
analyzed by Martius was probably made from sulphur containing orpiment or realgar, 
minerals which are found with sulphur in the solfataras. Stromeyer y detected arsenic 
in the mixture of salammoniac and sulphur, which is one of the many volcanic 
products of the Lipari Islands, and there seems to be no good reason for supposing ` 
that the sulphur, which is exported from the same locality, would escape contami- 
nation with arsenic. Daubrée ¢ has remarked that arsenic, as sulphide, occurs in the 
fissures of the lavas at Etna, at Vesuvius, and at the solfataras of Pouzzoles and of 
Guadeloupe. Scacchi§ also states, that among the subtances found in the fumaroles 
of the solfataras are pyrites, realgar, mispickel, and dimorphine. Orfila,|| and before 
him Vogel, of Munich, imply that the leaden chambers in which sulphuric acid is 
made communicate arsenic to the acid. 

Whatever we have said with regard to the American sulphuric acid, applies with 
still greater force to the commercial chlorhydric acids. "That common chlorhydric acid 
contains chloride of arsenic, is a fact which was long ago observed, and has been fully 
discussed by Wackenroder 9 Dupasquier,** Otto,t+ and many others. We have ex- 
‘amined two different samples of chlorhydric acid made in this country. Dilute chlor- 
hydric acid, instead of sulphuric, was used in Marsh's apparatus with 200 grammes of 
pure Vieille Montagne zinc, and before the hydrogen generated had been passing through 
the heated reduction-tube fifteen minutes, there appeared in the fine part of the tube 
a brown deposit, which in an hour increased to a,large and distinct mirror of arsenic, 
readily verified by other tests. Both samples of acid gave the same result, and we 
may add that, even on a small scale, we found great difficulty in preparing from salt 
and sulphuric acid a specimen of chlorhydric acid perfectly free from arsenic. The 
thorough purification of the acid by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, as recommended 


* Schweigger's Jour. f. Ch. u. Phys., 1816, XVIII. 283. 

t Ibid., 1825, XLIII. 452. E 

i Ann. des Mines, [4.] XIX. 680. 

$ Journal f. pr. Ch., 1852, LV. 54. 

| Ann. d'Hygiène Publique, XXII. 408. ` 

*| Ann. der Pharm., 1835, XIII. 241. 

** Comptes Rendus, 1841, XIII. 630. 

TT Ann. der Ch. u. Pharm., 1856, C. 39. 

11 See also Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c., 4th edition, (Boston, 1853,) II. 248, Art. Muriatic Acid. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC, 83 


by Otto, is therefore an absolutely necessary preliminary to the use of chlorhydric acid 
in any examination for arsenic. 

From the examination of so few samples of sulphuric and chlorhydric acids, we do 
not pretend to have established the affirmative proposition, that there is always arsenic 
in these acids; their impurity was only. an incidental difficulty in this research, 
and we strayed thus far from our main subject, only because of the great impor- 
tance of trustworthy information upon this point to the pharmacist, and to the 
chemist who has to do with poisoning cases. Our observations, in connection with 
the facts long since established regarding the contamination of foreign sulphuric and 
chlorhydric acids with arsenic, may well lead the pharmacist and the analytical chemist 
to distrust his acids, till accurate experiments have proved them to be above suspicion ; 
and we believe that careful investigations will hereafter show that arsenic is introduced 
into pharmaceutical preparations by the acids employed in their manufacture to an 
extent far greater than would now be credited. The task of the chemist who is called 
upon to examine a human body or organs of the body for arsenie, is a simple one 
when the poison is found in its original condition, unabsorbed and unaltered, but in 
difficult investigations of this kind, when the poison has been absorbed and diffused 
through a large mass of organic matter which must be destroyed by acids, the pre- 
cautions insisted upon by Gaultier de Claubry,* and by Galtier,t and other modern 
toxicologists, should be strictly observed. Not only should all the reagents to be em- 
ployed be thoroughly tested à blanc, but furthermore, an experiment parallel with the 
actual examination of the-suspected organic substances should be carried on with the 
same reagents in the same quantities, in a similar apparatus, and in all respects under 
like conditions, upon a quantity of normal animal matter equal to the weight of the 
suspected substances. In this way only can the chemist avoid the fatal uncertainty 
consequent upon the employment, in large quantity, of reagents whose purity is not 
above suspicion. 

We return to the examination of other zincs for arsenic. With the same purified 
acid used in our previous experiments on Pennsylvanian and Vieille Montagne zincs, 
we tested 200 grammes of Silesian zinc, carefully granulated, and perfectly clean. For 
half an hour, the hydrogen passed steadily through the red-hot reduction-tube without 
leaving the slightest deposit in the fine tube beyond the heated portion, but on con- 


* Briand, et Chaudé, et Gaultier de Claubry, Manuel ae de Médecine Légale, 5me édition, (Paris, 


1852,) p. 752. * 
+ C. P. Galtier, Traité de Toxicologie, (Paris, 1855,) Tom. I. p. 362. 


84 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


tinuing the operation beyond this time (indicated by Otto as sufficient for the testing 
of the materials à blanc), a faint but perceptible mirror gradually formed. ‘This result 
indicates, first, that this sample of Silesian zinc was not perfectly free from arsenic, 
and secondly, that it is dangerous to conclude that the zinc and acid, which have given 
no reaction for arsenic during half an hour in Otto's form of Marsh's apparatus, will 
therefore give no mirror in the next half-hour, even though no arsenical compound be 
added to the apparatus. In any delicate examination for arsenic, this is a point to be 
carefully borne in mind. Our results with this zinc were corroborated by several simi- 
lar experiments. | 

The zinc of Rousseau Fréres was next submitted to the same test, with the same 
acid. 75 grammes of this zinc yielded in half an hour a brown deposit, hardly to be 
called a mirror, although covering a considerable portion (2 centimetres) of the tube. 
The final result of the experiment was not distinguishable from the result of the test 
of Silesian zinc. : | 
. With the same acid and apparatus, 200 grammes of New Jersey zinc gave a distinct 
mirror of arsenic, so large in amount, that the arsenic could be easily recognized by 
its characteristic odor. The mirror began to form at once, and gradually increased 
during the hour, which was the duration of the experiment. 

Having at hand a quantity of the ore from which this zinc is extracted, we extended 
our search for arsenic to the red oxide of zinc, which is the source of this spelter. 
Several grammes of the red oxide, finely powdered, were moistened with 30 drops of 
pure nitric acid, and treated with a measured quantity of pure chlorhydric acid, pre- 
pared from common salt and sulphuric acid free from arsenic. The solution, with the 
very slight- residue, was then gently evaporated to a small bulk, with a small measured 
quantity of Rosengarten’s sulphuric acid. The imperfect solution thus prepared was 
introduced into the flask of our apparatus, whose previous contents of zinc and acid 
had been thoroughly tested for one hour, and found perfectly pure. In ten minutes 
a distinct deposit of arsenic was obtained, which in half an hour increased to a large 
and unmistakable mirror. To prove beyond a doubt that this arsenic came from the 
oxide of zinc, and not from the acids employed in preparing the solution, we tested in 
a clean apparatus with fresh zinc and acid, which had been proved pure by a test of one 
hour in duration, the same quantities of the same acids evaporated together as in the 
experiment above described. At the end of one hour (the second hour during which 
the apparatus had been at work) a deposit, perceptible on close inspection, was dis- 
covered in the narrow part of the reduction-tube. This deposit was, invisible on 
any cursory examination, and bore no comparison with the very decided mirror of ` 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 85 


^ 


arsenic obtained in the previous experiment. In two other similar examinations of 
the red oxide of zinc, we obtained the same strong evidence of the presence of arsenic 
in this ore, and the associated mineral, Franklinite, yielded, in the single careful test to 
which we subjected it, a mirror of arsenic sufficient to give the smell and all the other 
characteristic reactions for arsenic. To obtain satisfactory results, the solution of the 
oxide must never be heated above 100°, and the small quantity of nitric acid which is 
used to facilitate solution must be completely driven off before the liquid is introduced 
into the apparatus.* 

If any further evidence of the presence of arsenic in the New Jersey spelter and its 
ore were needed, it might be found in the following experiment with a zinc which we. 
ourselves prepared by reducing the New Jersey white oxide of zinc with charcoal, in 
a refractory retort such as are furnished by the dealers in chemical apparatus at Paris. 
20 grammes of this zinc, tested in Otto's apparatus with purified sulphuric acid, yielded 
in five minutes a distinct deposit of arsenic, and in half an hour a large mirror.t 


* We have also found arsenic in no inconsiderable quantity in the white zine oxide, prepared from this ore 
for use as white paint. Two different samples, bought of authorized dealers, yielded large mirrors of arsenic, 
many well-marked spots on porcelain, and other of the reactions for arsenic. Moreover, a large precipitate 
of sulphide of arsenic was produced by sulphuretted hydrogen in their solutions. The qualitative examina- 
tion of these two samples showed also the absence of lead and copper, and the presence of distinct traces of 
cadmium, iron, tin, and perhaps of antimony. It has been supposed that the superior quality of the French 
white zinc oxide was attributable to the presence of sulphur in the American article. To settle this question, 
we have determined, in two samples of New Jersey white oxide of zinc, the amount of matter insoluble in 
chlorhydric acid, and the per cent of sulphuric acid which they contained. 


I. d II. 
Matter insoluble in chlorhydric acid, . . 0.0006 percent. . +. 0.00033 per cent. 
OM ot oii oi 0536 « 


PE V eis “ sulphuric acid, . xod 
These impurities are obviously too insignificant to account for the difference between the American and the 
French zinc-white, a difference probably due to the different mechanical conditions in which the oxide is ob- 
tained by the different processes employed in this country and in France. In a letter from Mr. John M. 
Ordway, weshave the results of examinations of these paints made by this chemist in 1855: “The French 
oxide when dissolved in chlorhydric acid left a little coarse dirt; the colorless solution treated with ammo- 
nia in excess gave a very slight white precipitate, soluble in potash and in acids, haps alumina. There 
was also a very faint trace of iron and of sulphuric acid. The American oxide afforded a somewhat colored 
solution, a little fine soot remaining undissolved. The solution gave a brown precipitate of peroxide of iron 
when treated with ammonia, and also yielded a considerable precipitate with chloride of barium.” 

t A further qualitative examination was made of this zinc, as follows. About 10 grammes were dissolved in 
pure chlorhydrie acid; a considerable black residue remained, which was separated, dissolved in nitric acid, 
and the solution évaporated nearly to dryness. The flocculent precipitate which separated was filtered off and 
fused before the blowpipe with carbonate of soda which contained no metal. Ductile spangles were obtained, 


86 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


To ascertain whether the Pennsylvanian and Vieille Montagne zincs were always 
free from arsenic, we procured and tested another sample of the zinc manufactured at 
the Pennsylvania and Lehigh zinc works, and a second sample of Vieille Montagne 
spelter. The Pennsylvanian zinc was, as before, remarkably free from lead, leaving no 
residue when dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; but on testing 200 grammes of it in 
Otto's apparatus with purified acid, it gave in half an hour a slight deposit in the 
reduction-tube, which in an hour increased to a distinct brown coating. A similar 
result we obtained in testing the second sample of Vieille Montagne zinc; 200 grammes 
of it with pure acid yielded a deposit in the reduction-tube, fatal to its use in any 
delicate experiments. It should be stated, that the external appearance of this spelter 
indicated very clearly that its quality was inferior to that of the sample first examined. 
It is obvious from these results, that zinc manufactured in the same works, and from 
the same ore, may not always contain the same impurities, or rather that it never is to 
be expected to contain the same percentages of the same impurities. From the nature 
of the process of reduction, it would naturally be the case that the more volatile impuri- 
ties should be present in the zinc which distils first in greater quantities than in the 
zinc which is reduced from the last part of a given charge of ore. Thus it is easy to 
imagine that the zinc which comes over first should be contaminated with arsenic, while 
that which is last reduced might be perfectly free from that impurity. The same prin- 
ciple explains the variations in the amount of cadmium contained in different samples 
of the same spelter, and indeed accounts in great measure for the varying per cents 
of all the impurities found in different specimens of any zinc, though made by the 
same process from the same ore. 


which on solution in chlorhydric acid, and treatment with terchloride of gold, gave the reaction for tin. To 
the filtrate from the precipitate just mentioned, pure dilute sulphuric acid was added, and an abundant pre- 
cipitate separated at once; this precipitate, reduced on charcoal with carbonate of soda, gave a large bütton, 
which was dissolved in nitric acid, and tested with chromate of potassa, a voluminous precipitate of chro- 
mate of lead separated immediately. No traces of copper were detected. H 
About 250 grammes of the oxide of zinc had been placed in the retort in which the reduction was to be 
effected, but only about 50 grammes of zinc were obtained, because the experiment was prematurely ended by 
the melting of the retort, caused by a combination of the oxide of zinc with the silicates of which it was made. 
These 50 grammes were only a fourth of the quantity of zinc which 250 grammes of the oxide should yield, and 
it is interesting to observe that lead and tin, as well as arsenic, accompanied this early product of the distil- 
lation. The source of this lead is uncertain ; it is not inconceivable that the glaze of the retort should contain 
it, though to all appearances it was not a lead glaze; but the fact that lead was found in these first portions of 
the distilled zinc is perhaps none the less interesting, if it did come from the retort. The process of prepar- 
ing pure zinc by reduction from the oxide on a small scale, is at best very laborious and uncertain. (Compare 
Neumann in the Abridgment of his Chemical Works by Lewis, London, 1759, p. 116.) 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 87 


Lastly, we submitted our four specimens of English zinc to the test for arsenic. 
With purified acid, 200 grammes of the zinc made by Dillwyn and Company began to 
show a deposit in the reduction-tube within ten minutes of the commencement of the 
experiment, and in twenty-five minutes this deposit increased to a very perceptible 
mirror. A similar result was obtained from 200 grammes of the Mines Royal zinc. In 
fifteen minutes the stream of hydrogen from this zinc began to deposit arsenic in the 
reduction-tube, and at the end of three quarters of an hour, a thin but perfectly dis- 
tinct mirror extended over three or four centimetres of the fine tube. On the label 
which accompanied the specimen of the spelter made at Minera, near Wrexham, it 
was stated that the zinc was manufactured from silicate of zinc, and we therefore 
expected to find this spelter purer than the ordinary English zinc made from blende; 
but, on the contrary, it contained a large amount of lead, and the test for arsenic showed 
it to contain more of that impurity than either of the two specimens before examined. 
100 grammes of the Wrexham zinc began to show a deposit in the reduction-tube in ten 
minutes from the beginning of the experiment, and at the end of an hour a mirror 
had accumulated large enough to be identified by the arsenical odor. But of the four 
samples of English zinc, that of the Messrs. Vivian contained the most arsenic; 200 
grammes of this spelter yielded an enormous mirror of arsenic in less than ten minutes, 
and in a few minutes more a second mirror, large enough to give the characteristic 
odor. With regard to English zinc, therefore, our observations do not agree with 
those of Brett,* who states that he has examined many specimens of English and 
foreign zincs, and could never obtain any indications of arsenic when the sulphuric 
acid was pure. The explanation of this discrepancy is to be found in the fact, that 
the test applied by Brett, although essentially Marsh's test, had not the extraordinary 
. delicacy which is insured by Otto's form of Marsh's apparatus. 

This question now suggested itself: In presence of an excess of zinc, is not arsenic 
retained in the black residue (lead) from zinc dissolved in dilute acids, in such a con- 
dition, that it is not attacked by the acids or by the hydrogen, and therefore escapes 
detection? To determine this point, if possible, we dissolved 40 grammes of the Vieille 
Montagne zinc, which had showed no trace of arsenic by Marsh's test in dilute sul- 
phuric acid, free from arsenic. The residue obtained was washed, treated with chlor- 
hydric and a few drops of nitric acid, and the solution gently evaporated to*a small 
bulk in presence of a little pure sulphuric acid. The mixture thus obtained was 
- washed into the flask of Otto's apparatus, whose previous contents of zinc and acid had 


. 


* Philosophical Magazine, 1842, [3.] XX. 404. 


88 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


been thoroughly tested à blanc and found pure. At the end of the second hour, a very 
slight deposit was discernible on close inspection in the fine tube, but the result was ` 
too doubtful to warrant the assertion that arsenic was contained in the insoluble resi- 
due. We next tried the same experiment with Silesian zinc, in which Marsh's test had 
detected arsenic. The residue from 40 grammes of this zinc, submitted to the process 
just described, produced in the reduction-tube in fifteen minutes a brown deposit, 
which in half an hour became well marked, and at the end of the hour afforded suf- 
ficient evidence of the presence of arsenic in the residue, it being well understood that 
the zinc and acid used in this experiment had been previously tested for one hour and 
found pure. The only conclusion to which these experiments point is, that when a given 
sample of zinc contains arsenic, a portion of that arsenic will escape combination with 
the hydrogen generated by the solution of the zinc, and will remain in the insoluble 
residue. It was useless in this connection to examine the residue from New Jersey 
zinc, because that spelter itself contained arsenic, and its residue contained metallic ` 
copper, which would inevitably retain arsenic, as in Reinsch’s test. The Pennsylvanian 
"zine gave no residue with acids. 

The absolute necessity of obtaining a zinc free from arsenic for many chemical in- 
vestigations, renders any process for purifying zinc from arsenic a matter of consider- 
able interest and importance. We therefore tried the process of purifying zinc by 
fusing it with one fourth of its weight of saltpetre, a method fully described by 
Meillet,* but previously suggested by Orfila. 760 grammes of Silesian zinc were finely 
granulated and mixed with one fourth this weight of saltpetre, by placing the zinc 
and nitre in alternate layers in a Hessian crucible. The mixture was heated till de- 
flagration ensued, when the melted mass was poured into cold water to separate the 
slag, caustic potassa, and any arseniate of potassa which might have formed. The 
washed mass was remelted, and again granulated. ‘The loss of zinc during the process is 
very large ; we obtained only 200 grammes from the original 160 grammes. Of this zinc 
170 grammes were tested in Otto's apparatus with pure acid, and in twenty minutes there 
began to form in the reduction-tube a brownish deposit, which, at the end of three 
quarters of an hour, was a sufficient evidence of the presence of arsenic. The deposit 
was as large as that obtained from the same Silesian zinc, before it had undergone this 
processeof fusion with nitre. It has been already stated, under the appropriate head, 
that this process did not disembarrass the zinc of the sulphur which it contained, and 

* Dingler's Polyt. Jour., 1842, LXX XIII. 205 ; from Jour. de Pharmacie, 1841, p. 625. : 

i Annales d'Hygiene Publique, 1839, XXII. 427. : : 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 89 


there seems to be little reason for expecting the complete removal of the arsenic, inas- 
much as the fused saltpetre can only be brought in contact-with the external surface 
of the zinc, however finely the metal may be granulated. It is not inconceivable that 
a trace of arsenic in a zinc should be eliminated by Meillet's process, and that a sam- 
ple, priginally almost absolutely free from arsenic, should be so improved as to afford 
no perceptible mirror; thus Stein * could not detect arsenic in a sample of zinc purified 
by this method, but as a general rule it will not be safe to rely upon this process for 
the conversion of arsenical commercial zinc into zinc fit for use in Otto's apparatus. 

On this subject of arsenic in commercial zinc two opposite errors demand notice. 
On the one hand, not a few chemists have maintained that commercial zinc almost 
invariably contains arsenic, and that Marsh's test is untrustworthy on this account. 
Thus Persoz T states that the greater part of the zinc sold in Strasbourg contains 
arsenic, and in a previous paper, condemning Marsh’s process, he remarks with truth, 
that even distilled zinc may give spots of arsenic. The opinion that all zinc contains 
arsenic, finds support in the quantitative determinations by Schauefele of the amount 
of arsenic in French zinc, Silesian zinc, and Vieille Montagne zinc respectively. These” 
determinations have been quoted in almost all the modern text-books, and have had in 
our opinion much more weight than they are really entitled to. Schauefele determined 
the arsenic in his samples of zinc by two methods. The first was that of Villain, and 
consisted in counting the number of arsenic spots obtained from a given weight of 
zinc, and estimating the corresponding amount of arsenic by means of the following 
absurd rule: — one milligramme of arsenious acid will give two hundred and twenty- 
six arsenical spots two millimetres in diameter. The utter unfitness of this process for 
exact experiments is too obvious to need any illustration. In applying this singular 
: method, Schauefele completely dissolved one kilogramme of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, 
but in this connection says not a word about the purity of the acid, of which he must 
have used at least one kilogramme and a half. The second method used by Schauefele 
was essentially that described by Jacquelain, and consisted in passing all the hydrogen 
generated by a given weight (from 320 to 800 grammes) of zinc through a solution of 
chloride of gold; this solution was partially decomposed by the arseniuretted [sulphu- 

retted ?] hydrogen, and when the zinc had been completely dissolved. the chloride of 
gold solution, which was supposed to contain all the arsenic of the zinc in the condi- 
tion of arsenious acid, was further decomposed as completely as possible by means of 
sulphurous acid, and the precipitated gold separated by filtration. In the filtrate there 


* Jour. f. pr. Chem., 1851, LIII. 40. 
f Ann. de Ch. et Sait, [3.] 1844, X. 507, note. 
12 


1 Ibid., [2.] 1840, LXXIV. 432. 


VOL. VIII. 


90 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


still remained a small amount of chloride of gold, which had escaped reduction by the 
sulphurous acid, and to separate this chloride from the solution of arsenious acid, dis- 
tillation was resorted to. The retort in which the residue from the distillation re- 
. mained was washed out with water acidulated with cAlorhydric acid, and the liquid so 
obtained was added to the original distillate, through which sulphuretted hydrogen was 
then passed. The precipitated sulphide was collected on a filter, dried, and redissolved 
in ammonia ; this ammoniacal solution was then evaporated to dryness, and the residue 
weighed as sulphide of arsenic. As the result of this complicated process, which in- 
volves the use of so many different reagents and vessels, Schauefele obtained a quantity 
of arsenic which varied between two thousandths of one per cent of the weight of 
the original zinc, in that sample which contained the most arsenic, and two five-thou- 
sandths of one per cent in that which contained the least. The weight of the sulphide 
of arsenic, which was the final result of the analysis, in no case exceeded ten milli- 
grammes. ‘There is no certainty that this very small amount of arsenic was not de-* 
rived from the acids used in the process, for Schauefele merely states that his sulphuric 
‘acid, of which he used a very large quantity, was “absolutely free from arsenic,” and 
the other reagents are said to be pure. The methods by which he insured this ab- 
solute purity are not even hinted at, and we therefore have no opportunity of judging 
for ourselves of the sufficiency of the processes employed to eliminate the arsenic from 
these reagents, of which two at least almost invariably contain appreciable amounts of 
that impurity. Quantitative determinations, in which the original weights are kilo- 
grammes, and the final weights milligrammes, are trustworthy only when the processes 
are short and simple, and the reagents employed are proved to be above suspicion. 
The process of M. Schauefele was long and complex, and his reagents, so far from 
being proved to be above suspicion, were in all probability the source of the arsenic 
which he attributed to the zinc. In the valuable paper which we have before cited, 
Karsten distinctly states that the Silesian zinc is free from arsenic, basing this state-. 
ment upon experiments which in their general method closely resembled those of 
Schauefele; he endeavored to decompose a solution of nitrate of silver by a stream of 
hydrogen generated by the zinc under examination, but though his process was analo- 
gous to that of Schauefele, he was led to the diametrically opposite conclusion. Again, 
Schauefele’s second method was essentially the process which has been thoroughly 
studied by Jacquelain, who claims for it a delicacy * equal to that of Marsh's process; 
and yet in Jacquelain's own hands this method detected no arsenic in the specimen 
of zinc which he examined.t We cannot avoid the conclusion, that the determina- 


* Ann. de Ch. et Phys, [3.] IX. 490. | T Ibid., 1843, [3.] VII. 189. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 91 


tions given in M. Schauefele's thesis have no general significance, and have gained 
more credit than they deserve. Our observations conclusively prove that there are 
zincs in commerce which are not contaminated with arsenic, and it should be noticed . 
that, while one of our pure samples (the Pennsylvanian) was of a zinc which is not 
yet manufactured in large quantities, the other was a specimen of the Belgian zinc, 
one of the most common and abundant of the commercial spelters. 

We turn now to the discussion of the opposite error, namely, that arsenic is very 
rarely to be found in the zinc of commerce. On this point we need only quote the 
strong statements of the highest authorities. Regnault, in the Report * to the French 
Academy on Marsh's process and its modifications, wrote: ** It is easy to procure in com- 
merce zinc and sulphuric acid which give no arsenic in Marsh's apparatus.” With the 
proper understanding of what is here meant by “ Marsh's apparatus,” this statement 
is as true now as it was twenty years ago. The committee relied chiefly upon the pro- 
duction of arsenical spots on porcelain, and though they recommended a form of ap- 
paratus adapted for heating the arseniuretted hydrogen to redness, yet in this apparatus 
the reduction-tube was not drawn down to a fine bore beyond the heated portion of the 
tube, and the committee in their own experiments seem to have preferred the arsenical 
spots as affording the best evidence of the presence of arsenic. They completely dis- 
solved 500 grammes of commercial zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and obtained from the 
hydrogen evolved no sensible arsenical spot; the black residue they did not examine. 
The test to which we have submitted our acids and zincs is more delicate than that 
applied by the committee of the French Academy; Otto's apparatus is more sensitive 
than that used by this committee, and will detect the presence of arsenic in quantities 
too small to produce sensible spots. It is self-evident that the continuous deposition 
of arsenie from a stream of hydrogen as it flows steadily through a very fine tube for 
an hour or more, would exhibit an amount of arsenic too minute to give the slightest 
perceptible spot in the instant during which the porcelain surface is held in the e 
ing jet of gas. The first reaction is prolonged and accumulative, the second is inter- 
mittent and instantaneous. Blancard,t in commenting upon the statement regarding 
the ease of obtaining pure zinc, which is above quoted from the Report, has remarked 
with truth, that many zincs of commerce, which give no spots by Marsh's apparatus, 
nevertheless contain sometimes antimony, sometimes arsenic, sometimes both. 

The same explanation should accompany the statements of Orfila, with regard to 
arsenic in commercial zinc and acids. This distinguished toxicologist, in a very valua- 
ble paper on * The Means of being assured of the Presence of Arsenic," after remark- 


* Comptes Rendus, 1841, XII. 1076, and Ann. de Ch. et de Phys, [3.] II. 159. 
t Dingler's Polyt. Jour., 1841, LXX XII. 425, from Jour. de Pharmacie, Sept. 1841, p. 543. 


92 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


ing * that the sulphuric acid and the zinc of commerce sometimes contain arsenic, 
nevertheless implies T that he has never obtained decided arsenical spots on porcelain 
. from a commercial sulphuric acid, and subsequently makes this explicit declaration : 
“T declare that I have made this experiment (the test for arsenic by the production of 
arsenical spots) more than five hundred times with the sulphuric acid and zinc of com- 
merce, bought of various manufacturers of chemical products, and have only found 
arsenic three times." t Our own experiments confirm the truth of this statement; of 
all the specimens of zinc which we have examined, not more than two contained 
enough arsenic to give spots on porcelain, and not a single sample of our sulphuric acid 
would have afforded that reaction for arsenic. So long as the chemist, employed upon 
a poisoning case, sought for arsenical spots alone, the little arsenic which his zinc - 
might have contained could do no harm; it is only when important conclusions are 
to be drawn from more refined experiments, with a more delicate apparatus, that the 
arsenic so often present in zinc and acids becomes a matter of very serious concern. 
Our experiments prove that arsenic is contained, not in all samples of commercial zinc, 
but in a large majority of them; and it will be perceived that we arrive at this result 
without impugning in the slightest the accuracy of the experiments upon which the very 
distinguished chemists whose words we have above quoted based opposite conclusions. 


General Remarks. —Yn all commercial zincs metallic lead is the principal impurity, and 
the only one which deserves quantitative determination, if we exclude those exceptional 
cases in which the zinc is only an incidental product, or in which a very bad ore yields 
a zinc contaminated by some special impurity. Such exceptional zincs have only a 
local interest, for they are produced in very small quantities. The zincs which find 
their way into commerce in large quantities are the Silesian and the Belgian, the 
French, English, and American being used at home. 

Silesian Zinc. — The greater part of the zinc sold under this name is made from 
carbonate and silicate of zinc, and from these ores zinc of great purity can be obtained ; 
but wherever blendiferous ores are worked, or zinc-oxide, obtained as an incidental 
product in some other process, is mixed with the ores used, the resulting zinc may be 
expected to contain arsenic. The zincs which we may call collectively German, have 
been more thoroughly studied than any other of the zincs of commerce, and this must 
be our excuse for having examined so few samples of these spelters. It had been 
established by the analyses of Karsten, Wackenroder, Kerl, and others, that lead was 
their chief impurity, and that cadmium often occurred in them in noticeable quantities. 
We have demonstrated the presence of minute quantities of sulphur and arsenic in 


* Annales d'Hygiène Publique, 1839, X XII. 404. t Ibid., 411. $ Ibid., 424. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 93 


those samples which we have examined, of the spelters which are produced in the 
largest quantity from the best ores. An extended examination of the zincs produced 
on a small scale at different works throughout Germany, would in all probability detect . 
the same impurities; * but the labor of the investigation would be out of all proportion 
to the interest and importance of the facts to be observed. 

Belgian Zinc. — There is a very noticeable difference in the purity of different sam- 
ples of Belgian zinc. The ore is a mixture of carbonate and silicate of zinc, and 
yields with care an excellent spelter, which contains but a small amount of lead and 
no arsenic. We have found other samples of the zinc that were not free from arsenic, 
which they probably derived from the blende and its associated minerals, which occur 
with the silicate and carbonate of zinc constituting the great bulk of the ore. Careful 
selection of the ore is evidently necessary for the purity of the resulting metal. 

English Zinc. — Much of the English zinc is made from blende, and is therefore 
more impure than the zinc of other countries made from better ore. Our analyses 
show that the English zincs, on the average, contain more lead than any spelter except 
the Silesian, and we also found much more arsenic in them than in any other zinc, 
except perhaps the New Jersey. One specimen of English zinc yielded a clear but 
slightly colored solution in dilute sulphuric acid, and our subsequent analysis gave no 
explanation of this color; its general appearance suggested the possible presence of 
some organic matter in the solution, and we mention the circumstance, because it is 
the only clew which we have been able to find to Miller’s remark previously quoted, 
namely, that zinc contains a peculiar carbonaceous matter. , 

American Zinc. — The New Jersey zinc is made from the red oxide of zinc, mixed 
with Franklinite, and from the published analyses of these minerals the natural in- 
ference would be that they should yield a zinc of excellent. quality. Accordingly, we 
found that our sample of this spelter contained less lead than any except the Penn- 
sylvanian zinc; but on carrying further the analysis of the zinc, we were surprised to 
detect the presence of copper in a quantity sufficient to admit of quantitative determi- 
nation. The analyses of the ore afford no clew to the source of this copper, and we 
are unwilling to believe that it is a natural and necessary admixture in zinc prepared 
from this ore. The amount of arsenic contained in this spelter was unusually large, 
but is fairly derived from the ore, in which we detected distinct traces of arsenic. 
This zinc was also contaminated with sulphur, carbon, and tin, and on the whole was 
one of the most impure spelters which we examined. 

* For example, it would be difficult to imagine how a zine free from arsenic could be made from the oxide 


collected on the * Zinkstuhl? in the process formerly used in the Hartz, or from the arsenical blende now 
worked at Freiberg (Saxony). 


94 ' ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


The purest of all the zincs which we have analyzed is that manufactured at the 
Pennsylvania and Lehigh Zinc Works, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. This spelter dis- 
solves in dilute sulphuric acid without leaving any appreciable residue, and therefore 
contains no lead; indeed, a trace of cadmium is the only impurity whose presence 
in the zinc we could confidently assert. The ore from: which this spelter is made 
is the hydrated silicate of zinc (electric calamine), and it is not surprising that this 
mineral should yield zinc of singular purity, if the ore be carefully selected. We 
have stated above that our first sample of this zinc was free from arsenic, but that 
the second sample was not pure in this respect. At these works the oxide of zinc is 
manufactured, as well as the metal, and we learn from a letter addressed to Professor 
Brush by Mr. Wharton, the director of the works, that the crust from the oxide fur- 
naces has now and then been worked into spelter, and that the ore used in making the 
oxide is less carefully selected than that which goes to the spelter-furnaces, and is 
much more likely than the latter to contain both blende and pyrites. This fact may 
account for the occurrence of arsenic in some specimens of this spelter, while the 
greater part of it, manufactured from carefully selected silicate of zinc, is perfectly free 
from that impurity. There seems to be no reason why zinc of uniform purity should 
not be obtained from this excellent ore. e 

Pure Zinc. — We have already referred to the difficulty of obtaining a pure zinc by 
reducing it from the oxide on a small scale; nothing but the direst necessity could induce 
us again to attempt the operation, although it has been recommended by many high 
authorities. Nevertheless it is by no means difficult to prepare a pure oxide of zinc, 
and manufacturers of pure chemicals, working on a larger scale than it is practicable 
for the chemist to do, might undoubtedly prepare from this oxide at moderate cost a 
really pure zinc. There are some processes of chemical analysis in which the contami- 
nation of zinc with metallic lead is a matter of importance, because it affects the accu- 
racy of the results; but in these cases the difficulty can generally be avoided by dis- 
carding zinc altogether, and resorting to other methods of analysis. But in order to 
use Marsh's process for the detection of arsenic, the chemist must procure zinc free 
from arsenic, and there is no escape from this necessity ` redistillation will not disem- - 
barrass zinc of its arsenic, and the process of reducing zinc from a pure oxide is very 
laborious and uncertain; how then can zinc free from arsenic be obtained? There is 
but one satisfactory answer to this question. Pure zinc might certainly be made from 
the oxide by the manufacturing chemist, but at present the zinc labelled “ pure” by 
those who sell chemicals is not to be relied upon, and the chemist must therefore test 
samples procured from the dealer in metals, until he finds a specimen of the pure zinc 
which is manufactured on a large scale, and is to be obtained in commerce. 


ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 95 


Note on the Precipitation of Zine from Acid Solutions by Sulphuretted Hydrogen. — In the earlier steps 
of this investigation, we were somewhat embarrassed by the precipitation of sulphide of zine, when sul- 
phuretted hydrogen was passed for several hours through solutions of sulphate of zinc containing a consid- 
erable excess of sulphuric acid. In studying the best method of avoiding the difficult ; We made a series 
of experiments which seem to us to reconcile statements of previous observers which were apparently at 
variance, and to put the subject in a clearer light than that in which former observations had left it. From 
nine experiments with an aqueous solution of sulphate of zinc acidulated with sulphuric acid, and nine similar 
experiments with chloride of zinc and chlorhydric acid, Calvert * inferred that “zinc, even in very acid liquors, 
was freely and sometimes completely precipitated from them by sulphuretted hydrogen,” and that “the old 
method for the separation of salts of zinc from those of copper must in future be rejected as completely in- 
exact.” On the other hand, Grundmann f has deduced from four experiments with a solution of sulphate of 
zinc, acidulated with chlorhydric acid, a rule for the prevention of this precipitation of zinc by sulphuretted 
hydrogen, and he also maintains that the separation of copper or cadmium from zine can be satisfactorily per- 
formed by repeating two or three times the precipitation of the copper or cadmium by sulphuretted hydrogen, 
and taking care to maintain in the solution a certain specified excess of acid. Grundmann used in ath of 
his four experiments, 10 c.c. of a solution of sulphate of zinc (containing 0.2118 gram. of oxide of zinc in 
10 c. c.), and 100 c. c. of water; to this mixture he added in the first experiment 1 c.c. of chlorhydric acid 
(Sp. Gr. = 1. 1.) ; in the second, 2 c. c. ; in the third, 3 c. c.; and in the fourth, 4 c. c. In the first experiment 
all the zinc was precipitated, but in the last none. The following tables contain a series of experiments which 
we devised in order to prove what might be inferred from some of Calvert’s experiments ; namely, that this 
precipitation of zine by sulphuretted hydrogen was dependent, not so much upon the relation of the amount of 
' free acid to the zinc-salt in the solution, as upon the degree of dilution of the solution, and that the mere ad- 
dition of water might determine this precipitation in a solution which remained perfectly clear before such 
dilution. For convenience of comparison, we have used in the experiments of Table I. chlorhydric acid, and 
a solution of pure,chloride of zinc of the same strength, and in the same quantities which were employed by 
Grundmann, but have substituted for the sulphate of zinc which he used chloride of zinc, in order to avoid 
bringing together in the same solution the sulphate of zinc and free chlorhydric acid, — a complication which 


seemed unnecessary and undesirable. 


TABLE I. 
1 Solution; .2118 gram. : ` Remarks. 
Sp. ico LL m Zn Om 10 c. "deren Water. : 
S No precipitate at the end of half an hour; after 15 hours 
1 f 100 c. c. d an abundant but not complete precipitation, 
9 ee 10 c. c. l 200 c. c. At the end of 15 hours all the zinc was precipitated. 
i : The precipitation began in two hours, and when néxt 
3:13 500 c. c. d gien (us the end of 24 hours) was complete. — 
r No precipitate in 4 hours; in 24 hours there was a large 
4 200 c. c. d but not complete precipitate. 
No precipitate in 1 hour; after 18 hours an abundant 
5 Ir 2ac i 10 c. c. : 500 c. c. Í bl not complete precipitation. 
6 S e 1000 c. c. In 18 hours all the zinc was precipitated. 
J ; 
S HS was passed three times, and the last time during 18 
T H 100 c. c. consecutive hours; no precipitate. 
H S was passed twice; the last time during 12 consecu- 
451 Bee 10 c. c. 1 200 c. c. d tive hours; no precipitate. 
"diee Ea Began to precipitate in 3 hour; in 18 hours there was 
9 1j E 500 c. c. d a large but not complete precipitation. - 
: HS was passed three times, and the last time during 
10.11 ; f 500 c. c. d 18 consecutive hours; no precipitate. 
; H S was passed twice, during 15 hours each time; no 
1 |» 4ec 10 c. c. 4| 1000 ee, | precipitate. ` 
B to precipitate in 1 hour, and gave a dense but 
12 l) [| 1500 cc. d ee Ley precipitate. 


* Report of British Association for Adv. Sci., 1855, pP. 51. 1 Jour. f. pr. Ch., 1858, LXXII. 242, 


96 ON THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ZINC. 


TABLE II. 
Sp. Eti d eA TOC Water. Bees, 
H S was passed for several hours, and the solution satu- 
1 3 c. c. Dee 0 rated with the gas stood over night; a slight cloudi- 
r : ness, not amounting to a precipitate, appeared. 
2 5 c. c. 9 c.c. 0 Do. do. . do. 
3 ZUG * 5 c. c. 0 Do. do. do. 
HS was passed steadily for 24 hours.  Precipitate 
4 3 e. c. : 5 e.c. 25 e. c. | larger than before dilution, but still very slight. 
5 5 c. c. 5 c.c. 25 c. c. Do — do. do. 
6 8 e. c. bet 25 c. c. Do. do. do. 
H S was passed steadily for 28 hours, producing a dis- 
7 10 c. c. 5 e.c. 0 | tinct cloudiness. A 
HS produced in 6 hours a marked cloudiness, which at 
8 15 c. c. 9 c.c. 0 d the end of 40 hours had somewhat increased. 
$ HS was passed steadily for 28 hours, producing a dis- 
9 20 c. e. 5e. oi - 0 d tinet cloudiness. : 
HS was passed 6 hours and over night; a perceptible 
10 25 c. c. 5 e. c. 0 d but very small precipitate. : 
Five experiments, of which the results were not distin- 
11-15 | 30-50 c. c. 5 c. c. 0 guishable; H S was passed thoroughly, and in each 
, case a very slight precipitate was produced. 
16 10 e. c. 40 c. c. 0 H S was passed steadily for 40 hours, producing a very 
i : slight precipitate. : 


The experiments of Table I. sufficiently prove that this precipitation is caused by too great dilution, and that 
an amount of free acid which prevents the precipitation of zinc from a concentrated solution becomes insuf- 
` ficient when the solution is very much diluted. The precipitates produced in dilute solutions are readily soluble: 
in strong acid. This precipitation of zinc from acid solutions seemed a more serious difficulty to Calvert than 
it did to Grundmann, because Calvert's solutions were, on the average, very much more dilute than Grund- 
mann's, both with regard to the acid and to the zinc-salt which they contained. Calvert’s strongest solution 
contained only as much free acid as Grundmann's weakest, and hence in Calvert's experiments there was al- 
ways a free precipitation of zine which was often complete, while Grundmann soon found a limit beyond which 
the precipitation was too trivial to be noticeable. | | 

The precipitates obtained in the experiments of Table II. were so minute, that they could not be certainly 
proved to be sulphide of zinc, and were utterly insignificant in comparison with the amount of zinc-salt con- 
tained in the very concentrated solutions. The gradual increase in the amount of free acid from the first 
experiment to the fifteenth, did not prevent the formation of this slight precipitate, and in the sixteenth ex- 
periment, the cloudiness produced was no greater than in the fifteenth. In a concentrated solution, therefore, 
a small amount of free acid will practically prevent the precipitation of the zinc. We have observed that in 
almost all cases, even when there is no actual precipitate, sulphide of zinc is deposited on any scratches on the 
sides of the beaker, and forms an adhering ring at the end of the tube which delivers the sulphuretted hydrogen. 
With regard to the value of the process of separating copper or cadmium from zinc by means of sulphuretted . 
hydrogen, it seems perfectly possible to avoid such a dilution of the solution under treatment as would cause 
the precipitation of the zinc, without falling into the opposite and equally dangerous error of having too much 
free acid in the solution. Martin * has shown that copper, and several other metals of the same group, are not ` 
completely precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen in presence of a certain excess of concentrated acid. Be- 
tween these two extremes, it is undoubtedly possible to find a safe mean, which may be rendered doubly sure 
by resorting to the tedious reprecipitation recommended by Grundmann and by Fresenius; but in most cases 

other methods of analysis can be used with less trouble and greater accuracy. : 


* Jour. f. pr. Ch., 1856, LXVII. 371. f Anleitung zur Quantitativen Chem. Analyse, 4te Aufl., 1858, p. 423. 


. Caxenrpor, May, 1860. 


LY, 
Remarks on the Latest Form of the Development Theory. | 


Br FRANCIS BOWEN, 


ALFORD PROFESSOR OF NATURAL RELIGION, MORAL PHILOSOPHY » AND CIVIL POLITY 
IN HARVARD COLLEGE. 


(Communicated March 27, April 10, and May 1, 1860.) 


Ir is a familiar truth in paleontology, that the various races or species of animal 
and vegetable life which now tenant the earth, or have formerly tenanted it, did not 
originate all at once, but have been introduced at different and widely separated epochs. 
Those of which the remains are entombed in the earlier fossiliferous strata are now all, 
or nearly all, extinct; only a very few among the Invertebrates have living represent- 
atives at the present day. And ag the process of extinction was not sudden or sweep- 
ing, but gradual and protracted, so the new species appeared in succession, after long 
intervals of time, to fill the vacant places. “It appears," to adopt Sir C. Lyell's lan- 
guage, “ that from the remotest periods there has been ever a coming in of new organic 
forms, and an extinction of those which pre-existed on the earth ; some species having 
endured for a longer, others for a shorter time ; while none have ever reappeared after 
once dying out.” The species which are now in existence belong, geologically speak- 
ing, to comparatively recent times; indeed, none of the p orders among them are 

found in a fossil state at all. 
= Only two theories are possible as to the origin of all the species which have thus 
been successively introduced upon the earth. The one refers the beginning of each to 
a special act of creative power. The work of creation, upon this view, was not begun 
and ended at one time, but has been frequently renewed and extended, no period being 
without some manifestations of it in the appearance of new forms of life. This doc- 
trine rests upon the fact, confirmed by all observation, that, in the ordinary process of 
reproduction, each species gives birth only to those of its own kind. It is contrary to 


VOL. VIII. 18 


98 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


universal experience, in the case of well recognized and perfectly distinct species, that 
fertile offspring, capable. of continuing their own race, should be specifically different 
from their parents. Accordingly, if a new form or species appears, it cannot have been 
produced by ordinary generation, but must have been specially created. 

The other theory, resting mainly upon obscure and anomalous cases, or upon pro- 
cesses supposed to be of so great length that man cannot have witnessed the beginning 
and end of them, assumes that various species have been developed out of one another 
by ordinary descent, the progeny appearing, either immediately or after many genera- 
tions, specifically different from their parents or ancestors. According to this view, 
the multiplication of species takes place by a process perfectly analogous to that of the 
multiplication of individuals of the same species, though it is more infrequent or re- 
quires a greater length of time for its completion. This is the Development Theory, 
so called, which has been maintained, with various modifications, by Maillet, in a work 
called the * Telliamed,” by the French naturalist, Lamarck, by the English author of 
the “ Vestiges of Creation," and in its latest form by Mr. Charles Darwin. The earlier 
forms of it have been rejected by the wellnigh unanimous verdict of the scientific 
world; the latest has been urged with so much ability and candor, and has already 
found so many adherents, that it merits distinct and respectful consideration. 

Mr. Darwin's theory of the origin of species by development really consists of five | 
distinct steps or processes, which need to be sharply distinguished from each other, 
though two or more of them are often confounded under the same name. 

1. Individual Variation. — It is a well-known fact, that individual plants and animals 
are occasionally found to vary by slight peculiarities from the general type of the race 
or breed to which they belong. ‘The offspring is made a little bigger or a little smaller 
than its parent; or some organ, member, or limb is abnormally repeated or deficient, 
or wrongly placed, or unusually developed whether by excess or defect. 

2. Inherited Variation. — Generally, these abnormal traits are found only in the indi- 
viduals in which they first appear, the offspring of these reverting immediately to the 
ancestral or common type. Sometimes, they are continued by descent through two or 
three generations, and then finally disappear. Less frequently, if at all, they are con- 
tinued by inheritance indefinitely, so as to become the distinguishing mark of a peculiar 
breed. Mr. Darwin’s theory rests exclusively upon those which are thus perpetuated 
by inheritance; *any variation," he says, * which is not inherited is unimportant 
for us." S 
..9. Cumulative Variation. — One peculiarity having been perpetuated by inheritance, 
it is assumed that another may be superinduced upon it by a perfectly analogous 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 99 


process, and then a third, and so on indefinitely; so that the divergence from the 
parent stock, at first slight and unimportant, may be extended as far as we please, 
till it will bridge over the interval between the two extremes of animal life. Thus, 
if time enough be allowed for the process, we can account for the development of man 
himself out of a zoóphyte. 

4. The Struggle for Life. — Every species of animal and vegetable life, the human 
species included, can multiply its own numbers without end, this capability being 
always exercised according to the law of a geometrical progression. If it were ex- 
erted to the utmost, without any check from external circumstances, any species might 
be so multiplied that it would soon need to occupy the whole face of the earth. But 
as this power is possessed by all, there must be perpetual competition between them 
for the ground and for food. A battle for existence is constantly going on, the stronger 
species always tending to push out the weaker, the one better adapted to the locality 
or the strife forever usurping the place of its less qualified rival. Hence the extinction 
of the countless races whose existence is now known only from their remains imbedded 
in the rocks. | 

5. Natural Selection. — Through the three processes of Variation, Nature is per- 
petually furnishing fresh combatants for this unceasing strife; and any peculiarity, 
however slight, of one of the new races, may be a source of strength or weakness, 
and thus lead to victory or defeat in the contest, — that is, to the preservation or ex- 
tinction of one or more parties to it. Each variation, if it be an improvement in the 
adaptation of an organ to a function, or of a species to its locality or environment of 
circumstances, will tend to preserve the race; if the opposite, to kill it out. Thus 
the nicest adaptations of means to ends are accounted for, without any necessity of sup- 
posing that they were intentional or designed. The success, however insured, of any 
new-comer over its immediate competitor, is often attended with a train of consequences 
fatal to the continuance of a whole set of pre-existent species, and favorable to the 
ultimate introduction of new ones in their place. à 

It appears from this analysis, that the appellati niin e Darwin has given to 
his own theory is a misnomer. He calls it * the Origin of Species by Midas of Nat- 
ural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life.” But 
it is evident that the origin of species is fully accounted for, if e all, by the vets "on 
steps of Variation, which alone explain the introduction and indefinite multiplication 
of new forms of life; of the two remaining steps, one, the Struggle for Life, is of — 
only to account for the extinction of species formerly in mene: and the other, Natural 
Selection, is adduced merely to explain that nice adaptation of means to ends, so ap- 


100 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


parent throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms, which has been held to prove 
design, and so to evince the intelligence of the Creative Cause. A theorist who denies 
the necessity of any intervention of such a Cause at any period subsequent to the 
introduction of the first poor germ of life upon the earth is, of course, bound to show 
how these adaptations became so numerous and so perfect; and Natural Selection is 
the very ingenious hypothesis which Mr. Darwin has framed for this purpose. 

The state of the evidence upon each of these five points, and the bearing of each 
upon the main question, may be briefly summed up as follows: — 

1. Individual Variation is the one admitted fact upon which the whole theory rests, 
but which, considered in itself alone, does not aid us at all in the attempt to explain the 
introduction of new races of being. It accounts for the appearance of new individuals. 

2. Inherited Variation is more questionable, the general rule undoubtedly being 
that peculiar and anomalous features — deformities, monstrosities, or lusus nature, 
as they are often termed — are either not transmitted at all by descent, or disappear 
in the course of two or three generations. Whether they disappear because a con- 
genital peculiarity, like an acquired one, such as a scar, a callus, or a stiffened joint, 
not affecting the organs of reproduction, has no tendency to reproduce itself in the 
offspring ; or because the monstrosity is itself a sign or a consequence of some weak- 
ness or defect of constitution, whereby the varying individual is rendered less capable 
than others of continuing its kind; or because the necessary crossing of the altered 
breed with one that is unaltered soon reduces the abnormal growth to nothing; or 
that breeding in and in, which results from the avoidance of crossing, so weakens the 
stock that it soon ceases to be fertile; or whether several of these causes combined 
hasten the work of extinction, — certain itis that Nature makes haste to eliminate these 
departures from type, and to preserve her own.original stamp unchanged. Art may | 
to some extent, and with much painstaking, counteract Nature, laboring to preserve 
and continue the abnormal developments which happen to suit man’s convenience 
or fancy through enforced isolation and regimen, diligent culture, or multiplying or 
changing the food; but the very necessity of adopting these expedients shows the 
tendency of Nature to be the other way, towards the extinction of the forced growth. 
As Mr. Darwin himself remarks, “ sterility is the bane of our horticulture;” and with 
all the care and skill of the most expert breeder of cattle, the progeny of his best 
specimens often disappoint his p and show an unmistakable SEN to 
revert and degenerate. 

-. Of course, it is admitted that nhà are ‘called PRSE he Varieties g Bec ESCH 
with but few precautions, may be made to: breed true; but that these so-called ** Varie- 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEYELOPMENT THEORY. 101 


* 


ties " originated in Individual Variations perpetuated by inheritance, or that they were 
not just as much original or special creations as the Species themselves under which 
they are ranked, is matter only of hypothesis and conjecture. With respect to the 
numerous “ Varieties” of our dogs, horses, sheep, goats, pigeons, &c., Mr. Darwin 
u believes," or is * doubtfully inclined to believe," or is “fully convinced," that they 
came either from one wild stock, or from several; or he “ can form no opinion” on the ` 
subject. But science cannot be made to rest on mere “opinion.” That we cannot 
trace the history of these Varieties ab origine is confessed. We cannot trace the stream 
to the fountain-head ; but we can follow it far enough to be sure that it has remained 
unchanged for thousands of years. The greyhound existed under the form which it 
now bears at least as early as some of the oldest sculptures in Egypt; and various 
“breeds” of pigeons were pets of the Pharaohs about five thousand years ago. 
3. But with whatever success the doctrine of Inherited Variation may be applied to 
explain the existence of Varieties, it is certain that the origin of Species can be ac- 
counted for on the Development Theory, if at all, only by Cumulative Variation, — 
that is, only by supposing a vast number of Inherited Variations to be successively 
superinduced one upon another. Doubts have been raised upon this point only on 
account of ambiguity in the meaning of words, or from want of agreement as to the 3 
principles of classification. Many races, both of animals and vegetables, appear to be 
80 nearly allied to each other, that certain naturalists consider them as mere Varieties ; 
then persist in considering them as so many distinct Species. Mr. Darwin himself re- 
marks (pp. 49, 50, Am. ed.), that the distinction between Varieties ont Species is “ en- 
tirely vague and arbitrary”; and says, in reference both to plants and animals, “ that many 
forms, considered by highly competent judges as Varieties, have so perfectly the character 
of Species, that they are ranked by other highly competent jndges a good and true 
Species." Fortunately we do not need, so far as our main question is concerned, to ` 
enter into the intricacies of this discussion. The advocates of the Development Theory 
undertake to prove that all Species of animals, even those differing most widely from each 
other, * have descended from at most four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal 
or lesser number." Putting aside altogether, therefore, the much Genie Lem 
“whether the several races of men are only Varieties, or are so many distinct Species, 
and the same question with respect to dogs, there is no doubt that men and dogs be- 
long respectively to different. Species. And ' generally, | ps tdi the quptón 
whether the offspring of certain races when crossed are entirely esie or only partially 
so, there is no doubt that animals or plants belong to distinct Species when they can- 
not be crossed or made to interbreed at all. It is. enough to say, then, that only Cumu- 


102 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 
e 


lative Variation — and that of a vast number of successive steps — will account for 
the common origin of animals which will not copulate with each other, or of plants 
which cannot be crossed. 

Now, on this cardinal point, which contains the essence of the Development Theory, 
since all the other questions involved in it are of no substantive importance, so far as 
what may be called the Philosophy of Creation is concerned, the direct evidence fails 
altogether, and we are left exclusively to the guidance of conjecture and analogy and 
estimates of what is possible for all that we know to the contrary. It is not even 
pretended that we have any direct proof, either from observation or testimony, that 
two Species so distinct that they will not interbreed have yet sprung from common 
ancestors. On the contrary, Mr. Darwin's own supposition is, that the process of de- 
veloping two entirely distinct Species out of a third is necessarily so gradual and pro- 
tracted as to require a quasi eternity for its completion, so that only a small portion 
of it could have been accomplished during the limited period of man's existence upon 
the earth. 

In the absence of any direct proof, then, it remains to be inquired if there are 
sufficient grounds of probability, reasoning from analogy and the principles of in- 
ductive logic, for believing that all Species of animals and plants may have originated 

from three or four progenitors. In speaking of the amount and frequency of Individ- 
ual Variation, Mr. Darwin and his followers abuse the word fendency. After heaping 
up as many isolated examples of it as they can gather, they assert the legitimate in- 
ference from such cases to be, that the species tends to vary, leaving out of view the 
fact that a vastly larger number of individuals of the same species do not vary, but 
conform to the general type. And though only one out of a hundred of these Indi- 
vidual Variations is transmitted by inheritance, yet, after collecting as many instances 
of such transmission as they can find, they affirm that a Variation fends to become 
hereditable. But it is not so. Tendency is rightly inferred only from the majority of 
cases; a small minority of favorable instances merely shows the tendency to be the 
other way. Thus, the cars do not fend to run off the track, although one train out 
of a thousand may be unlucky enough to do so; but the general law is, that they 
remain on the track. Otherwise, people would not risk their lives in them. ‘So a 
considerable number of children have been born with six fingers on each hand, and a 
still greater number with harelips. And yet we say that the tendency is for-each hand 
to have only five fingers, and for the upper lip and palate to be closed. The advocates 
of the Development Theory violate the first principles of inductive logic, by founding ` 
their induction not, as they should do, on the majority — the great majority — of cases, 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 108 


but on the exceptions, the accidents. Their whole proceeding is an attempt to estab- 
lish a philosophy of nature, or a theory of creation, on anomalies, — on rare accidents, 
— on lusus nature. i 

This single objection is fatal to Mr. Darwin’s theory, which depends on the accumu- 
lation, one upon another, of many successive instances of departure from the primitive 
type. For if even Individual Variation appears only in one case out of a hundred, — 
and all naturalists will admit this proportion to be as large as the facts will warrant, — 
and if, out of the cases in which it does appear, not more than one in a hundred is 
perpetuated by inheritance, then should a second Variation happen, what chance has it 
of leaping upon the back of one of the former class? The chance is one out of 100 
X 100 x 100 = 1,000,000. And the chance of a third Variation being added to a 
second, which in turn has been cumulated upon a first, will be one out of 100 raised 
to the fourth power, or 100,000,000. It is not necessary to carry the computation any 
further, especially as Mr. Darwin states (page 90) that the process of development can 
be carried out * only by the preservation and accumulation of infinitesimally small in- 
herited modifications." Of course, the interval between two Species so distinct that 
they will not interbreed could be bridged over only by a vast number of modifications 
thus minute; ànd on this calculation of the chances, the time required for the devel- 
opment of one of these Species out of the other would lack no characteristic of eternity - 
except its name. But the theory requires us to believe that this process has been re- 
peated an indefinite number of times, so as to account for the development of all the 
Species now in being, and of all which have become extinct, out of four or five primeval 
forms. If the indications from analogy, on which the whole speculation is based, are 
so faint that the work cannot have been completed except in an infinite lapse of years, 
these indications practically amount to nothing. The evidence eager needs to be 
multiplied by infinity before it will produce conviction, is no evidence at all. o 

4. What is here called the * Struggle for Life” is only another uano for the pus 
fact, that every Species of animal and vegetable life has its own Conditions of Existence, 
on which its continuance and its relative numbers depend. Remove any one of these 
Conditions, and the whole Species must perish ; abridge any of them, and the = 
of individuals in the Species must be lessened. The intrusion of a new race widok is 
more prolific, more powerful, more hardy, or in any —— gc the senti 
ay gradually crowd out some of its predecessors, or restrict them within comparatively 


bi bounds. Thus the introduction of the Norway rat has banished the former 


familiar plague of our households and barns from many of its old haunts, and probably 
reduced the whole number in this Species to a mere fraction of what it once was. 


104 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


Civilized man also has successfully waged war against many ferocious or noxious. 
animals, and probably exterminated some of them. But the appearance of a rival or 
hostile race is not the only cause of such diminution or extinction. A change in the 
physical features of a given district may partially or entirely depopulate it, without the - 
necessary introduction of any new-comers. The drying up or filling up of a lake is 
necessarily fatal to all its aquatic tribes. The gradual submergence of an island or 
a continent must exterminate, sooner or later, all the native Species which were peculiar 
toit. And at the utmost, the failure of any Condition of Existence, whatever may be 
its character, only leaves vacant ground for the future introduction or creation of new 
forms of life, without tending in the slightest degree to bring such new forms into 
existence. | | | 

9. Natural Selection, also, as already remarked, has nothing to do with the origin of 
Species, and, in its abstract form, is only the statement of a truism. Of course, when 
two or more Species crowd each other, the more prolific or the more vigorous, other 
things being equal, is more likely to gain possession of the disputed ground, and thus 
to diminish the numbers of the other, or oblige it to migrate, or, in rare cases, to kill 
it out altogether. But this last supposition is a conceivable rather than a probable 
result. All observation goes to show, that every Species retains a very persistent hold 
upon life, however feeble may be the tenure of existence for its individual members. 
Its numbers may be materially diminished ; it may be forced to shift its ground, and 
to suffer in consequence some slight change in its habits; (Mr. Darwin himself tells 
us of upland geese and of woodpeckers where there are no trees;) it may be driven 
into holes and corners; but somehow it still survives. Utter extinction of a Species 
is one of the rarest of all events; not half a dozen cases can be enumerated which are 
_ known to have taken place since man's residence upon the earth. And these, surely, 
are a very insufficient basis on which to found a theory embracing all forms of life. 
Yet man is the greatest exterminator the world has ever known. His physical powers, 
coupled with the use of reason by which they are multiplied a thousand-fold, enables 
him to wage internecine war with comparative ease against nearly every race that 
molests him. Only the insect tribes, through their immense numbers and their little- 
ness, can successfully defy him ; and these not always. In Ais Struggle for. Life, all 
other creatures, animal or vegetable, must retreat or perish. Yet how few has he 
rooted out altogether! But the Development Theory requires us to believe that this 
process of extinction, guided by Natural Selection, has been repeated wellnigh to in-: 
finity. Not only all the races which are now found only in their stone coffins, bot 
countless others, — “the interminable number of intermediate forms which must have 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 105 


existed " as connecting links, and a still greater crowd of other Varieties not interme- 
diate, but gross, rude, and purposeless in their formation, — the unmeaning creations 
of an unconscious cause, — must all have perished, each through its own peculiar repe- 
tition of a series of events so infrequent that we can hardly compute the chances of 
their happening at all. 

It is easy to see why the extermination of a Species, even upon the conditions of 
Mr. Darwin's theory, should be so infrequent. He holds that all the races which have 
originated upon the earth since the primeval act of creation first grudgingly threw 
only four or five seeds of existence into the ground, have been shaded into each other 
by gradations so slight as to be nearly imperceptible. Differing so slightly from each 
other, the advantage possessed by any one of them in the Struggle for Life must have 
been almost indefinitely small. But a peculiarity important enough to preserve those 
who have it, while whole Species must die out because they have it not, cannot be thus 
trifling in character. It must have been one of grave moment; not a slight Variation, 
but a jump. The successive development of new races — itself, as we have seen, an 
extremely slow process — must have been continued through numerous steps, before 
the divergence resulting from it could have been serious enough to enable one of the 
divergent stocks to overcome and exterminate the other. Numerous Species of the 
same genus now coexist, often within the bounds of a not very extended territory, 
without any one of them showing any tendency to supplant or exterminate another. 
Thus, South Africa is the country par excellence of the antelope; about fifty species 
of this animal have been found there, many of them very abundant, notwithstanding 
the numerous Carnivora that prey upon them, and yet none of them showing any 
tendency to die out before civilized man came thither and brought gunpowder along 
with him. 

Natural Selection can sima only upon races previously brought into being by 
= other causes. In itself, it is powerless either to create or exterminate. In the Devel- 
opment Theory, its only function is, when the number of different Species is so far 
multiplied that they crowd upon each other, and the extinction of one or more becomes 
inevitable (if we can conceive of such a case) then to make the selection, or to deter- 
mine which shall be the survivors and which the victims. As individuals of the same 
Species, the same Variety, and even of the same flock, certainly differ much from each 
other in strength, swiftness, courage, powers of endurance, and other qualities, Natu- 
ral Selection has an undoubted part to play, when the struggle comes for such a flock, 
in determining which of its members shall succumb. But that it ever, plays a narto 
sponding part in the grand contest of Species imagined by Mr. Darwin, is a supposition 


VOL. VIII. 14 


106 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


resting upon no evidence whatever, but only upon the faint presumption afforded by 
the fact, that certain Species at widely separated times have become extinct, through what 
causes we know not; and therefore, for all that we know to the contrary, Natural Selec- 
tion may have had something to do with their disappearance. This is to found a theory, 
not upon knowledge, but upon ignorance. If such reasoning be legitimate, we are 
entitled to affirm that the moon is inhabited by men * whose heads do grow beneath 
their shoulders." It may be so, for all we know to the contrary. 

This review of the state of the evidence upon each of Mr. Darwin’s five points is 
enough to show that the testimony fails entirély just where it is most wanted. Facts 
and arguments are accumulated where they are of little or no avail, because the con- 
clusions to which they tend, when properly limited and qualified, are admitted and 
familiar principles in science. But the theory of the Origin of Species by Cumulative 
Variation, which is all that is peculiar to this form of the transmutation hypothesis, 
rests upon no evidence whatever, and has a great balance of probabilities against it. 
Individual Variation, the Struggle for Life, and Natural Selection, each within clearly 
defined limits, are acknowledged facts, which still leave the main question in the phi- 
losophy of creation precisely where it was before; and even the doctrine of Inherited 
Variation relates only to the origin of Varieties, which is a distinct question, and one 
of subordinate importance and interest, except to naturalists. Mr. Darwin has invented 
a new scheme of cosmogony, and finds that, like other cosmogonies, it is a blank . 
hypothesis, not susceptible either of proof or disproof, and needing an eternity for 
its development. There is nothing new in such a speculation of what is possible in an 
infinite lapse of years. This latest form of the speculation has no advantage over the 
one first propounded some three thousand years ago ; — that a chaos of atoms, moving 
about fortuitously in infinite space, may have happened, in an eternity, to settle into 
the present kosmos; for the chance of order and fitness is at least one out of an in- 
finite number of chances of disorder and confusion; and in an infinite series of years, 
this solitary chance must sooner or later be realized. Mr. Darwin begins, not with a 
crowd of inorganic atoms, though consistency required him to do so, but with four or 
five primeval organisms very low down in the scale, — say zoóphytes and mollusks; 
and supposes these to multiply and to vary their organization at random, each Variation, 
if an improvement, being preserved, and if useless or injurious, being killed out by 
Natural Selection ; and thus, in an eternity, the present kosmos of animal and vegeta- 
ble life may have been perfected, not exactly out of chaos, but out of very few and poor 
rudiments, without the necessary intervention anywhere of an intelligent Creative 
Cause. ne | 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 107 


. Every such speculation must be rejected, because it is self-contradictory. It pro- 
fesses to develop a Theory of Creation, — to explain the beginning of things; and in 
order to do so, itis obliged to assume that the present or ordinary succession of phe- 
nomena, the common sequence of causes and effects which we every day witness, has 
continued from eternity ; — that is, that there never was any Creation, and that the 
universe never began to be. It professes to untie the knot, and ends by denying that 
there is any knot to untie. Mr. Darwin is too imaginative a thinker to be a safe 
guide in natural science; he has unconsciously left the proper ground of physics and 
inductive science, and busied himself with questions of cosmogony and metaphysics. 

We are at liberty, then, to consider the relations of this Development Theory to the 
great doctrines of philosophy and theology, without shifting the question or seeking to 
place it upon any other grounds than those upon which the author himself bases it; — 
above all, without seeking to build up an argument ad invidiam, a purpose which is 
here emphatically disclaimed. 

Most interesting and important among these relations is its bearing upon the 
doctrine of Final Causes. The denial of such Causes — that is, the doctrine that 
purpose, intention, or design is nowhere discoverable in organic nature — has been 
reproachfully urged against some naturalists, on account solely of the tendency of 
such denial to weaken the arguments of the theist. Of course, it does have such an 
effect, for what has ever been the principal, most intelligible, and most popular argu- 
ment for the being of a God rests entirely upon the assumption that adaptations, 
especially if nice and complex, prove design, or must have been intended. But it is a 
mistake to suppose that Final Causes have no use or meaning in philosophy and 
science, apart from this application for a theological purpose. Aristotle ftrst described 
and designated them, distinguishing them from the three other sorts of causes (Material, 
Formal, and Efficient) without even hinting at their bearing on the doctrine of the 
theist; while Harvey successfully used the assumption of a Final Cause as an instru- 
ment of discovery, and Cuvier did the same; and it is in reference only to such use, 
viz. as instruments of physical research, that Lord Bacon condemned the study of 
Final Causes. 

And here it may be observed, that paleontologists, like Mr. Darwin and Sir Charles 
Lyell, cannot, without gross inconsistency, repudiate the doctrine of Final Sen "e 
in so doing, they deny the justice of the very inference, or assumption, call it which 
you may, on which their whole science is based. Geologists have no better reason, 
and no reason of a different kind, for affirming that fossil animals and plants did once, 
millions of years ago, exist as living animals and plants, than philosophers and theolo- 


108 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


gians have for declaring that the animal and vegetable kingdoms — i. e. God's works 
— show purpose and intention just as clearly as man's works do. No direct proof is 
possible in either case. The only argument is from analogy and an appeal to common 
sense. The sceptic may defy Mr. Darwin to prove directly, that the Silurian fossils did 
not exist primarily, ab origine, in the rock where:we now find them, — composed of 
stone, as they now are. For, take the doctrine of Democritus and Epicurus, which, 
as already intimated, is the progenitor of this Development Theory. If the mere 
fortuitous concourse of atoms, in the lapse of a past eternity, can have formed a living 
tree, fish, or elephant, then, we say, that same rudderless and purposeless crowd of 
primeval atoms, in the lapse of a past eternity, can have formed, what is much easier, 
a fossil tree, fish, or elephant, as fossils. 

Yet Mr. Darwin assumes the previous existence of dë fossils in a living state, as 
a means of building up a theory which shall enable him to assert that “a structure 
even as perfect as the eye of an eagle might be formed by natural selection yes that 
is, without any special design or intention to create an organ of vision. He admits 
that “it is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye to a telescope. We know that 
this instrument has been perfected by the long-continued efforts of the highest human 
intellects ; and we naturally infer that the eye has been formed by a somewhat analo- 
gous process.” But he asks, “May not this inference be presumptuous? Have we 
any right to assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like those of man?” 
(p. 169.) But this is not the question. There is just as much “ presumption” 
in assuming to determine that the Creator ought mot to work in a given manner, or 
through certain *intellectual powers," as in taking it for granted that he would or 
must employ such means. In either case, this is assuming to set bounds to Omnipo- 
tence, and to prescribe how Infinite Wisdom ought, or ought not, to act. Our only 
business, as students of natural science, is to follow the evidence wherever it may lead 
us, and to be consistent in the inferences which we draw from it, leaving it to philoso- 
phers and theologians to reconcile, if they can, our conclusions with their preconceived 
ideas of what is becoming to the Creator. If they cannot reconcile them, so much the 
worse for their preconceived ideas. Our only question is, Whether it is consistent to 
infer, from a general analogy of structure with living forms at the present day, that 
certain fossilized skeletons were living organisms millions of years ago, though we 
confidently deny, in spite of the far more striking analogy between an eagle's eye and 
a telescope, that an intelligence presided over the formation of the one similar to that 
which we know to have concurred in the production of the other? Can we justly 
infer life from a general analogy of structure, while we refuse to infer intelligence from 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 109 


a far more obvious analogy in the adaptation of means to ends? Mr. Darwin and 
Professor Baden Powell answer this question in the affirmative; and it is for them to 
defend their consistency as they may. | 

The purpose of the Development Theory, in any of its forms, is to exclude the 
necessity of believing in any special creative act, or any exertion of intelligence and 
will and to refer all physical phenomena, the first appearance of new and distinct 
races included, to the continuous and uninterrupted action of what are called secondary 
causes or natural laws. In pursuance of this purpose, even the primitive act of 
creation, by which the universe was first evolved out of nothingness or out of a 
chaotic mass, is either denied, or, what is the same thing, is removed to an infinite dis- 
tance. An absolute beginning, either of the universe, or of any Species of animal or 
vegetable life in the universe, is, on this Theory, an impossible or inadmissible concep- 
tion. Alluding to the opponents of this doctrine, Mr. Darwin observes (p. 418), “ These 
authors seem no more startled at a miraculous act of creation than at an ordinary birth. 
But do they really believe that, at innumerable periods in the earth’s history, certain 
elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash into living tissues?” And 
Professor Powell still more distinctly remarks, ** that strict science offers no evidence of 
the commencement of the existing order of the universe. It exhibits, indeed, a wonderful 
succession of changes, but however far back continued, and of however vast extent, 
and almost ittconceivable modes of operation, still only changes ; occuring in recondite 
order, however little as yet disclosed, and in obedience to physical laws and causes, how- . 
ever as yet obscure and hidden from us. Yet in all this there is no beginning properly 
so called: no commencement of existence when nothing existed before: no creation in 
the sense of origination out of non-existence, or formation out of nothing. Even with- 
out referring to that metaphysical conception, or more properly metaphysical contradic- 
tion, to imagine anything which can be strictly called a beginning, or first formation, 
or endowment of matter with new attributes, or in whatever other form of expression 
we may choose to convey any such idea, is altogether beyond the domain of science, 
as it is an idea beyond the province of human intelligence." * 

Still it might be maintained that, although science gives 00,29 glimpse of a Creator, 
it does point to an Architect of the universe, in so far as it discovers and analyzes the 
innumerable and marvellous adaptations of means to ends by which p earth is ren- 
dered a fitting and convenient habitation for all the tribes that tenant it, and by which 


* Rev. Baden Powell’s “Order of Nature,” (London, Longmans, 1859,) pp. 250, 251. In this quotation 
the words are italicized as in the original. 


He — ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


the organization of each plant and animal is nicely adjusted to the place which it 
occupies, and the work which it has to perform. To rebut this conclusion, Mr. Darwin 
brings forward his improvement of the transmutation theory, in which, as already re- 
marked, the office of Natural Selection is to explain and account for all natural adap- 
tations and adjustments, even the nicest and most complex, without any necessity of 
supposing that they were intentional or designed, and consequently without any need 
of referring them to the action of an all-wise Architect. | 

A careless thinker might yet argue, that Natural Selection itself is only an agent of 
the Deity, or a law established by Him for the very purpose of effecting the adaptations 
which are ascribed to it, and which would therefore still be properly regarded as the 
work of Him by whose will and instrument they were fashioned. But such an argu- 

ment would betray only confusion of thought. For Natural Selection is neither a 
created thing, nor a cause, nor a law dependent on the volition of a lawgiver; but it is 
an abstraction and a generalization. It is not N atural Selection that kills out one or 
more Species and preserves others; but climate, food, space, enemies, — or the want of 
them, — these do the work of killing or preserving. God no more created or enacted 
the law of Natural Selection, than he created or enacted the Binomial Theorem. 
The Binomial Theorem is the necessary result of the necessary relations of numbers, 
and even Omnipotence could not abrogate it. Just so, Natural Selection is the in- 
evitable result of the relations of animals to their conditions of existence; or rather, 
it is a general expression for these relations themselves; and thus Omnipotence could 
not abrogate it. Change the climate, food, space, enemies, &c., and Natural Selection 
would still act, but would kill where it now preserves, and preserve where it now 
kills. Thus, the results of the Theory are necessary or fatalistic ; they ca God out 
of creation everywhere.. 

... Moreover, in regard to the peculiarities, or Individual Variations, on which the Theory 
is based, and on which this principle of selection is to operate, there is an equal ex- 
clusion of intelligence and will, and even of law and order. As already explained, 
these peculiarities are the exceptions and monstrosities, — the phenomena which least 
of all admit of being reduced to law, or referred to the action of any uniform cause. 
These aimless and exceptional lusus nature, as they appear to most observers, form the 
chaos or rude matter of the Development Theory, on which the principle of Natural 
Selection, like the deus ex machina, is to operate, and evolve order out of confusion and 
complex adaptations out of accident. In fact, this principle would have nothing to 
do, — it would not be selection, —if the Individual Variations were not multiplied at 
random, and were not purposeless in character. The essence of the hypothesis is, that 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 111 


“there is a power always intently watching each slight accidental alteration," (p. 169,) 
and finding a use or fitness where none was intended ; just as a savage, wandering on a 
sea-beach, may, after long search, find a stone which has a rude semblance of a chisel 
or an axe, and use it as such. Hence Mr. Darwin speaks consistently (p. 79) of « giving 
a better chance of profitable Variations occurring; and unless profitable Variations do 
occur, Natural Selection can do nothing." But they will occur, for * Variation will 

cause the slight alterations, generation will multiply them almost infinitely, and Natural 

Selection will pick out with unerring skill each improvement," (p. 169,) separating it 

from countless others which are not improvements, but, as useless or injurious, are to 

be eliminated. “ Mere chance, as we may call it, might cause one variety to differ in 

some character from its parents." (p.104.) True, it is afterwards explained that chance, 

as here used, does not negative a cause. No one supposed that it did; but it does 

negative any purpose or intelligence in that cause; and Mr. Darwin intimates nothing 

to the contrary. | 

_ There can be no mistake as to the character of such a scheme of cosmogony as this. 

. Creation denied, or pushed back to an infinite distance, and a blind or fatalistic prin- 

ciple watching over a chaos of unmeaning and purposeless things, and slowly eliciting 

from them, during an eternity, all the order and fitness which now characterize the 

organized world. 

* It cannot be objected that there has not been time sufficient for any amount of 
organic change; for the lapse of time has been so great as to be utterly inappreciable 
by the human intellect." (p. 402.) Having cited the speculations of the “uniformi- 
tarian" geologists upon the long roll of ages, “the millions on millions of years " 
needed for the explanation of geological phenomena, according to their mode of reading 

them, it seems a trifling matter for him to ask us to admit, that ages of equal or even 
greater length may have elapsed, of which we have no record in the rocks ; — that, be- 
sides the eternity of which we have some sort of geologic evidence, we should acknowl- 
edge the probable lapse of another eternity that has left no legible traces behind it, 
‘but which happens to be necessary for the purposes of his theory. * Consequently,” 
he says, “if my theory be true, it is indisputable that, before the lowest Silurian 
stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, 
the whole interval from the Silurian age to the present day; and that during these 
vast, yet quite unknown, periods of time, the world swarmed with living. creatures.” 
(p. 268.) “At a period immeasurably antecedent to the Silurian epoch, continents may 
have existed where oceans are now spread out; and clear and open oceans may have 


existed where our continents now stand.” (p. 270.) 


112 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


Such speculations as these appear to be rather exercises of fancy than sober in- 
ferences of science. A mere hypothesis of indefinite Cumulative Variation, resting upon 
analogy, in the absence of all direct proof, must be allowed also to create its own 
evidence of the inconceivable lapse of time requisite for its development, instead of 
drawing that evidence from distinct and independent sources. 

Professor Powell, in his advocacy of the Development Theory, argues at length 
against the doctrine of Final Causes ; but there is only one sentence in Mr. Darwin's vol- 
ume from which we can infer the nature of his objections to the same doctrine. Speak- 
ing of the facts included under the general name of Morphology, he says, “ Nothing 
can be more hopeless than to attempt to explain this similarity of pattern in members of 
the same class, by utility or the doctrine of Final Causes" Admitting for the moment 
the correctness of this assertion, what does it amount to? Surely it will not be main- 
tained, that because Final Causes cannot be discovered everywhere, therefore they do not 
exist anywhere. No one will contend, that because we cannot see the use of the rudi- 
mentary mamme in the male, therefore the corresponding organs in the female are not 
adapted to the suckling of her young. As well might it be argued that the rain does 
no good in moistening the parched earth, because other rain-drops are seemingly 
wasted by falling into the sea. To the reflecting theist, the general similarity of struc- 
ture declares the unity of the Creator, without contradicting the lessons taught by 
special adaptations respecting His benevolence and forethought. To borrow Mr. Dar- 
win's own example: — * What can be more curious," he asks, *than that the hand of 
a man formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of a horse, the paddle 
of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, 
and should include the same bones, in the same relative position?” (p. 377.) Of 
course, by *the same" pattern, * the same" bones, and * the same " relative position, 
Mr. Darwin means a similar pattern, similar bones, position, &c.; that is, that the 
pattern, bones, and position are alike in part, and different in part. Granted, then, 
that the doctrine of Final Causes will not explain the likeness; will that of Mor- 
phology explain the difference? The typical anterior limb is modified in many dif- - 
ferent ways, so as to become adapted to the wants of animals with different habits ; 
it becomes a hand for man, a shovel for a mole, a paddle for a porpoise, and a 
wing for a bat. The similarities in the pattern or groundwork are referred to one - 
principle in science, Morphology; the peculiarities in each special adaptation, to an- 
other principle, that of Final Causes. Both the like and the unlike are constituent parts 
of one structure; they are referred respectively to different, but not contradictory prin- 
ciples; and since neither of these principles is competent for the explanation of the 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 113 


whole work, we see not why one of them should be accepted to the rejection of the 
other. Guided by the doctrine of Homologies, the comparative anatomist searches for 
corresponding parts in different animals; guided by that of Final Causes, whenever he 
finds a marked peculiarity in one part, he suspects there is a special use or function to 
be subserved by it; and by persevering in the search, he usually finds out what this 
use is. Thus, Harvey found that the valves in the veins and arteries opened in oppo- 
site directions ; and assuming that this difference could not be without a use or pur- 
pose, he discovered the circulation of the blood. Homologies may be the better guide 
to systems of classification of parts and members, though naturalists are not agreed 
upon this point. But the principle of Final Causes more frequently leads to discov- 
eries in physiology, which science, indeed, has been built up almost exclusively by 
its aid. | 

The theist believes, it is true, that a Creator of infinite wisdom and benevolence has 
made nothing in vain; that there is a use for everything, and a use which it was in- 
tended to serve. But he cannot assert that he has discovered this use and fathomed 
this intention in every instance, without assuming that he possesses infinite wisdom 
himself. And the naturalist who, because he cannot discover the use, affirms that it 
does not exist, is guilty of similar presumptuous folly. Looking at the works of finite 
intelligence, indeed, we find that a purpose is seldom unaccompanied by a want of pur- 
pose; that chance appears, so to speak, as the residuum of design. ‘Thus, we often throw 
a stone, not intending to hit anything with it, but only to toss it out of the way. The 
throwing was intentional, the hitting was accidental. Every act is attended with sev- 
eral immediate results; and as all of them are not necessarily in view of the agent at 
the time, those which do not enter distinctly into his purpose are ascribed to chance. 
They are caused by him, but not intended by him. A mechanic cannot fashion a 
machine, an artist cannot chisel out a statue, without leaving behind him a heap of 
chips, dust, and refuse matter. A chip is struck off at every blow; but neither its 
shape, nor the position in which it falls, is designed by the artisan, who is thinking 
only of the work from which he has pared it away. But because we cannot discern 
either use or purpose in that heap of refuse matter, we are not to conclude that the 
finished machine or statue by the side of it is destitute of both. Absence of purpose, 
then, may often be affirmed of the results of human labor; but it can never be de- 
clared with certainty of the works of creation. Infinite wisdom leaves no residuum 
for chance, and that which is not subservient to one purpose may have been intended 
for another. ` TE not useful to the organism in which it is found, it may answer some 
higher object in the economy of creation. It may be a means, and intended as such, 


VOL. VIII. 15 


114 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


for the higher education of man, or for the attainment of moral as well as physical 
ends. 

The same remark is applicable for the explanation of another difficulty mentioned by 
Mr. Darwin. He objects that “ all the contrivances in nature are not, as far as we can 
judge, absolutely perfect, and some of them are even abhorrent to our ideas of fitness.” 
(p. 409.) And he cites, as instances, the sting of the bee causing the bee’s own death, 
the hatred of the queen-bee for her own fertile daughters, and the ichneumonide that 
feed within the bodies of live caterpillars. He might as well have adduced the exist- 
ence of all the Carnivora, man himself included, together with the frequent occur- 
rence of pain and death. We are not wont to hear the old problem respecting the 
existence of evil alleged as an argument in favor of a novel speculation in zoólogy. 
But when certain arrangements are declared to be imperfect or unfit, we have a right to 
ask by what standard they have been tried. Perfect for what end? Fit for what 
purpose? If the only conceivable intention were to guard the life of every individual 
bee, perhaps a more effectual means might have been discovered than that of furnishing 
it with any sting at all. Many insects exist in vast numbers that have no such weapon. 
Human knowledge, also, is so far from comprehending the whole plan of creation, and 
all the purposes of its Author, that it seems reasonable to admit the evidences of | 
design where they are so obvious that they cannot be overlooked, and to refer all other 
cases to our limited means of observation and the imperfection of our faculties. The 
difficulty, moreover, may be retorted upon the advocates of the Development Theory. 
As Natural Selection preserves only the useful, and kills out all worthless and noxious’ 
Variations, how comes it to have left, in a weapon otherwise so perfect, this one fatal 
defect, that it cannot be once used without causing the death of its owner? 

The necessities of his theory compel Mr. Darwin to maintain that the most complex 
instincts, as well as the nicest adaptations of structure, can have been produced only 
* by the slow and gradual accumulation of numerous slight, yet profitable, variations." 
But he has seemingly failed to observe that instinct and structure are nicely correlated 
to each other, and must be so correlated, or the animal would perish. Consequently, 
the variations of structure and instinct must have been simultaneous and accurately 
adjusted to each other, as a modification in the one, without an immediate correspond- 
ing change in the other, would have been fatal. He has also failed to remember, that ` 
the highest and most complex instincts are generally found in very low structural 
forms; for instance, among bees, ants, and spiders, rather than among vertebrates, 
and in birds more than in mammals. The progress of improvement, then, in the two 
cases, cannot have been always by equal and corresponding steps; for the development 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 115 


of instinct stopped long ago, while the organic structure has advanced from a spider's 
up to a mans. It is not a law of nature, then, that a change of the organism should 
always be accompanied by a change of instinct nicely adapted to it ; consequently, the 
Development Theory can offer no explanation of the fact, that the organism must al-* 
ways have harmonized precisely with the instinct, while the latter was slowly perfected 

by innumerable variations. It is impossible that so nice a correspondence, maintained 

between the two during countless independent changes of each, should have been 

purely accidental or unintentional.* 

Those who deny that there has been any special act of creation since living forms 
first appeared upon the earth, are bound, of course, to account for the origin of the 
human species, just as much as for that of the lowest insect. Mr. Darwin confesses as 
much when he says that, after the general reception of his system, * psychology will 
be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power 
and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown upon the origin of man and his 
. history." (p. 423.) He is bound, therefore, to find the means of bridging over, by 
innumerable slight gradations, the immense gap which now separates man from the 
animals most nearly allied to him, — a gap not only between the two structural forms, 
which, however dissimilar, may still be affirmed to be of the same kind, but between 
reason and instinct, where nearly all psychologists are agreed that the difference is 
in kind, and not merely in degree. As Sir C. Lyell remarks, “the sudden passage 
from an irrational to a rational animal is a phenomenon of a distinct kind from the 
passage from the more simple to the more perfect forms of animal E EN and 
instinct" T cj 

Here an didam objection occurs, founded upon the comparative ion of the 
time during which man has been a resident upon the earth. “Man,” says Lyell, 
« must be regarded by the geologist as a creature of yesterday, not merely in reference 
to the past history of the organic world, but also in relation to that particular state of 
the animate creation of which he forms a part.” { Even the questionable evidence 
recently obtained from the discovery of flint knives and arrow-heads in localities where 
their presence is difficult to be accounted for, does not enable us to ascribe to the 
human race a higher antiquity than that of the later post-Tertiary formations. Then 
the interval of time, within which far the broadest chasm which we have to contem- 


* Here, and elsewhere i in this Memoir, a few remarks have been repeated, i in an abridged form, which were 
first published in an article contributed by me to the North American Review for April, 1860. 
+ Lyell’s Principles of Geology, Am. ed. 1853, p. 148. 
-1 Ibid, p. 182. ` a 


116 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


plate in zoólogy is to be filled up by innumerable transitional forms, is certainly the 
shortest which geology has revealed. As the most recent, also, it is one the history of 
which is most perfectly known. During this period, certainly, it is in the highest de- 
“gree improbable that innumerable species should have lived and died out without 
leaving behind them any trace of their existence. The few fossil monkeys that have 
been discovered are not so near approximations to the human form as several anthro- 
poid species that are now living. How, then, can man have been developed during ` 
this short epoch, by the indefinitely slow process of Cumulative Variation and Natural 
Selection, out of a monkey? and where are the countless extinct types that should 
mark the steps of his progress? How many varieties must have existed as strict 
transitional forms to fill up this broad gap, — to say nothing of the greater, infinitely 
greater number of variations which were not improvements, but which must also have 
appeared and died out under a liability to change having no direction or purpose but 
that of chance! Geology can find no traces of them. The latest chapter of the Stone 
Book, which is far the best preserved, and which ought to be nearly filled with varia- 
tions upon this single theme, does not record a single form intermediate between man 
and the chimpanzee. | : j 

. Moreover, if reason has been diaii dul £ of instinct, these innumerable forms be- 
tween the Quadrumana and the Bimana must have had an enormous advantage in the 
. Struggle for Life over their less intelligent competitors, so that the total disappearance 
of their remains becomes still more inexplicable. Bones of their brute contem poraries, 
hyenas, bears, rhinoceroses, elephants, and even a few monkeys, are found by the 
cart-load in many localities. But a crowd of half-reasoning animals, developed out of 
orangs, chimpanzees, or gorillas, furnished with tools and weapons, and capable, if we 
may judge from their other semi-human attributes, of adapting themselves to a wide 
. range of circumstances, and which ought, consequently, to have multiplied without 
stint, because they were sure to triumph over their brute rivals in every contest for 
the ground or for food, have yet perished so entirely, that not a vestige of their 
skeletons has been anywhere discovered. 

The doctrine that reason has been developed out of instinct, dais adimi upon 
the assumption that these two faculties differ from each other in degree only, and not 
in kind. If psychology is to be placed upon a new foundation, as Mr. Darwin assures 
us, *that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by grada- 
tion," there must be a conceivable transition from instinct to reason through a number 
of steps, every one of which must be an improvement. Here we are at once met by the 
difficulty, that the power of instinct, in many cases, quite transcends that of reason; if — 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 117 


it differs from human intelligence in degree only, it is in these instances undoubtedly 
the superior. Man may go to school to the spider, the ant, the wasp, and the bee, but 
he can never equal his teacher. Compare the habitations, the nets, and other structures 
of these insects, with those of the lower savages, such as the Hottentots and the native 
Australians, and say which are the more artistic and the more nicely adapted to their 
purposes; especially when we add the necessary qualification, that the insect works 
without any tools except those which are parts of its own body. Man has had bitter 
experience enough in the matters of government and social organization, and the wis- 
dom of thirty centuries has been exhausted in pondering upon the several problems of 
social philosophy ; but he is still unable to form a society which, in point of orderly 
arrangement, harmony, and effective co-operation for the general good, even approaches 
the excellence of a hive of bees. Since the latest form of the Development Theory 
allows no variation to be preserved and perpetuated, except it be an improvement, since 
Natural Selection inevitably kills out every change except it be for the better, how 
comes it that human reason has deteriorated in all these respects ever since it began to 
be built up from the narrow foundations of an insect’s instinct? It is no answer to say, 
that reason is still immeasurably the superior in the number, comprehensiveness, and 
ductility of its endowments, and especially in those powers of adaptation and invention 
by which it is fitted for all emergencies. The question still remains, Why, if it has 
improved in so many respects, has it deteriorated in any ? 

But the difficulty of accounting for the transmutation of instinct into reason becomes 
vastly greater, when it is remembered that a leading characteristic of the former is, that 
it admits of no variation whatever, — that, as far as human observation has extended, 
it is absolutely unchangeable, both in the individual and in the race. Instinct, it is 
true, has a certain degree of pliability, enough to provide for the ordinary and per- 
petually recurrent emergencies of the special occasion for which it was created. Other- 
wise, the faculty would very seldom answer its purpose, or be competent for its destined 
work. Thus, the spider which always fashions a circular web, as it can seldom or never 
find a nearly circular opening in which to suspend it, must be able to change the length 
and direction of the suspending threads, so as to hang the structure easily and eco- 
nomically in an opening of any shape, triangular, quadrangular, or altogether irregu- 
lar, such as it may best find. But the absolute invariability of the instinct appears 
even here, in the fact that the web of this spider is always circular and curiously sym- 
metrical, though so much contrivance is thereby needed to suspend it with proper 
stiffness; and though a triangular web, such as is always spun by an allied species, 
would remove all difficulty and answer every purpose. The range of this pliability, 


118 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


also, is always confined within very narrow limits. The instinct is invariably pliable to - 
the same extent, and that a very limited one. Bees and wasps build cells very nearly 
on the same pattern, which is curiously elaborate and symmetrical; they even change 
this pattern a little, so as to fit together the cells of different sizes which they need, or 
to hang securely the topmost or innermost row of cells to the top or side of their habi- 
tation; always returning, however, to the typical form of the cell as soon as pos- 
sible. Bees build invariably with wax, wasps invariably with a paper-like substance, 
though an interchange of these materials would often be convenient, and a capacity 
of changing the material on an emergency would certainly conduce to the animal's 
preservation. 

A true variation, such as this Theory requires, would be the manifestation by an 
individual in the wild state, or undomesticated, of some feat, quality, or degree of in- 
stinct, however slight, totally unlike anything that had been manifested by its fellows. 
. Of such variation the observations of naturalists have not afforded us a single instance. 
The architecture and internal economy of a beehive or a wasps’ nest, so far as known, 
marvellously complex and elaborate as they are, have not varied by a hairs breadth ` 
since the days of Aristotle: Bees have been carefully watched by man for over two 
thousand years; they have been carried. by him to a vast. number of localities beyond 
those originally inhabited by this insect. The whole continent of America has been 
populated by the ordinary hive-bee from Europe. Thus the experiment, whether 
change of circumstances might not possibly induce variation, may be said to have been 
fairly tried. There are from 15,000 to 20,000 bees in every healthy hive; and the 
number of their hives, taking all parts of the world together, almost defies calculation. 
This enormous stock of them has to be renewed at short intervals, as the bee's life does 
not usually exceed a single year. And yet the typical bee cell, with all its marvellous 
symmetry and complexity, finished with the precision of a 100,000th part of an inch, 
has not changed the length of one of its lines since it first excited the astonishment of 
man. With this known amount of invariability, how great is the time that would be 
requisite for developing the instinct of a bee into human reason ? 

But here it is necessary that instinct should be sharply distinguished from some of 
the other powers with which it is generally accompanied. No one denies that the 
brutes have certain mental endowments in common with men. They have appetites, 
propensities, desires, affections, memory, simple imagination or the power of repro- 
ducing the sensible past in mental pictures, and even judgment of the simple or in- 
tuitive kind. They compare and judge, as when the dog or cat decides correctly what 
height or breadth it can safely jump, or how large an orifice must be to admit the pas- 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 119 


sage of its body. But they cannot judge by inference, or through the intervention of 
a third term; that is, they cannot reason. They cannot generalize their experience, 
and thus form premises from which many conclusions can be drawn. Their judgment, 
as intuitive, is always of the particular case presented to their senses, and never as an 
inference from a general rule. The only end which they can pursue, or even contem- 
plate, apart from the guidance of instinct, is particular and immediate, dictated by the 
appetite or impulse of the moment. Hence, they cannot combine means for the attain- 
ment of a future or general object, and thus their modes of operation are never altered 
or improved. 

Instinct is the power given to compensate for these deficiencies, which would other- 
wise be fatal to life or destructive of the species. It appears as a substitute for reason, 
not as a lower degree of it; it answers the same purpose, but by totally different 
means. Instinct is the performance by an animal of some act (the construction of a 
nest or cell, or the laying of a stratagem for catching its prey) which man could not 
perform without intelligence or reason, properly so called; that is, without experience 
or instruction, the observation of effects, the induction of a rule or law from them, 
and the consequent future choice and adaptation of means to ends. This act the 
animal demonstrably performs without either experience or instruction, but just as 
blindly as the bird tucks its head under its wing when going to sleep, without knowing 
why. The act does tend to some usÉful end, though the animal knows not of it. 
Foresight it has none, unless it be the foresight of a god rather mes a man ; for human 
prescience is nothing but the reflectión of the past upon the mirror of the future. 
Neither reason nor instinct supplies an object of endeavor, but only points out the 
means of attainment, the former relying exclusively upon experience, the latter appear- 
ing, at least to human observation, to be guided by inspiration. A blin pupung 
induces the duckling to take to water ; instinct teaches it how to — The tiigri- 
tory bird is urged by a vague impulse at the proper season to change " country ; og 
stinct turns its flight in the right direction. Surely it would be no improvement in 
either of these cases, no development of a higher faculty out of a tower one ot the 
same kind, if reason were substituted for instinct, the — «es — teachings of 
experience for the instantaneous and unerring guidance of inspiration. That power or 
faculty, call it what we may, bears not the remotest semblance of human reason Parm 
teaches a wasp, born only after the death of its pans, = q. up food of a kiia 
which it never uses for itself, for the use of its young which it is never to see. i P 
a propensity nor an appetite is an instinct, though all three are equally blind. For 


LJ 


120 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


man also has both propensities and appetites which need not the promptings of intel- 
lect, but are awakened before reason is born in him.  Tastes, smells, and sounds are 
pleasant or odious to him as a matter of original constitution, and not because his ` 
reason tells him that these ought to be sought, and those to be avoided. 

This is not an arbitrary definition or limitation of the meaning of the word instinct ; 
for if, as Mr. Darwin says, human reason is to be developed out of the brute's endow- 
ments, be these what they may, — if man is the son of a monkey, and the grandson of 
a horse, and the remote descendant of an oyster, — then reason must grow out of some- 
thing which has at least some characteristic of reason, or which does the work of 
reason; and not from something which even now, in man, has no resemblance to in- 
tellect properly so called, and no dependence upon it, and which appears fully even 
in an idiot. Tell me that reason has been developed out of instinct as it has now been 
defined, and at least I know what you mean; but to say that it has been evolved from 
an appetite or a propensity, is as incomprehensible as to allege that an idea has been 
developed out of a football. No conceivable variation of a football will approximate 
it to reason. Mr. Darwin’s supposed cases of incipient, altered, or lost instincts are, at 
best, only instances of the development or disappearance of blind impulses or appe- 
tites, which relate only to the selection of ends to be obtained, and not to devising new 
means, or improving old ones, of obtaining them. He has not adduced « one case of the 
variation of instinct properly so called. 

Any form of the Development Theory rests ultimately. upon the assumption, that 
the origin of species by a direct act of creation is inconceivable, or at best grossly im- 
probable. Mr. Darwin, as already mentioned, speaks with wonder of those who are 
“no more startled at a miraculous act of creation than at an ordinary birth.” And 
Professor Parsons, in a communication upon the same subject to this Academy, declared 
that, whatever difficulties might impede the reception of the transmutation hypothesis, 
“T should accept them all unhesitatingly, rather than the notion that the first horse, 
or dog, or eagle, or whale flashed into being out of nothingness, or out of a mass 
of inorganic elements which had been drawn together in due proportion for that 


purpose." 


In opposition to this view, it is here maintained that a direct act of creation is no 
more inconceivable, and not inconceivable in any other sense, than an ordinary birth. 
It excites more wonder, it is true; but only because it is less frequent, or because it is 
believed to take place more abruptly. A new individual — a new being — is the result 
in either case; but to assert that the beginning of this new existence is more explicable 


ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 191 


by ordinary generation than by direct creation, is equivalent to saying (if the folly and 
irreverence of the expression may be pardoned), **that a horse should create a horse is 
conceivable; but that God should create a horse is inconceivable.” The beginning of 
all life is in a nucleated cell of microscopic size. The original formation of such a 
cell, and the subsequent enlargement or rather multiplication of it by the epigenesis of 
other similar cells, are distinct acts of creation properly so called, whether preceded or 
not by a generative union of the parents. That the generative act should be ordinarily 
followed by the vivification of such a cell, is a law of nature, which, like other natural . 
Jaws, does not explain the phenomena, nor throw any light upon them, but merely de- 
‘scribes and classifies them ; and if naturalists were once led to believe the union of two 
sexes to be a necessary or invariable antecedent of the vivification, the discovered fact 
of parthenogenesis has convinced them of their mistake. The first appearance, then, 
of this living cell, is an indubitable case of an organized individual at once “ flashed 
into being," not indeed “out of nothingness,” but “out of a mass of inorganic ele- 
ments drawn together in due proportion for that purpose"; and special or miraculous 
creation, which appears so incredible or inconceivable to the advocates of the Develop- 
ment Theory, is in fact constantly going on all around us. Whether we call it creation 
or ordinary generation, the process — the mode in which inorganic particles are sud- 
denly bound together into an organic living whole — is wholly inexplicable. Science 
throws down her microscope before the process in despair. But inexplicable as it is, 
we are not able to deny that it is a law of nature which is perpetually verified before 
us. We cannot tell how a blade of grass grows; but we do not therefore affirm that 
it does not grow. 7 die, | i 
No one who understands the case will assert, that either the. scale on which the phe- 
nomenon takes place, or the frequency of its repetition, or the length of time within 
which it is completed, is a radically distinguishing circumstance which prevents us from 
identifying ordinary reproduction with direct creation. Frequent repetition, indeed, 
wears out wonder; but it does not make the process one whit more explicable than 
if it occurred only once in a millennium. One microscopic germ may be slowly de- 
veloped into a giant pine, which may reckon its years by Sara ; and another may 
give birth to an insect that completes its whole cycle of being in a single penson, But 
science knows as little of the process in the one case as in the other, and justly classes 
them both under the same name of generative development. “If an animal or a vege- 
table,” says Dugald Stewart, “ were brought into being before our eyes in an instant of 
time, the event would not be in itself more wonderful than their slow growth to matu- 


VOL. VIII. 16 


122 ON THE LATEST FORM OF THE DEVELOPMENT THEORY. 


rity from an embryo or from a seed. But on the former supposition, there is no man 
who would not perceive and acknowledge the immediate agency of an intelligent 
cause; whereas, according to the actual order of things, the effect steals so insensibly 
on the observation, that it excites little or no curiosity, excepting in those who possess 
a sufficient degree of reflection to contrast the present state of the objects around them 
with their first origin, and with the progressive stages of their existence." 


y. 


On the Secular Variations and Mutual Relations of the Orbits of the Asteroids. 


By SIMON NEWCOMB. 


( Communicated April 24, 1860.) 


Wuen we consider the number of members of which the group of asteroids is com- 
posed, and the narrow limits within which they are included, it is impossible to avoid 
the conclusion that their proximity is the result of a common element in the deter- 
mining reasons which fixed the respective positions of their several orbits, which com- 
mon element has some special relation to that portion of space in which the orbits of 
the asteroids are found which it has not to other portions of space. 

The object of the present paper is to examine those circumstances of the forms, 
positions, variations, and general relations of the asteroid orbits which may serve as a 
test, complete or imperfect, of any hypothesis which may be made respecting the cause 
from which they originated, or the reason why they are in a group by themselves. 
It may not, however, be out of place to begin with some general considerations respect- 
ing these hypotheses, and the nature of the methods by which they may be tested. 
Every a posteriori test is founded on the supposition that the hypothesis to be egen 
necessarily or probably implies that certain conditions must be fulfilled by the asteroids 
or their orbits. 'The tests consist in observing whether these conditions are fulfilled. 
The conditions may be divided into two general classes, — those which are rigorous and 
necessary, and those which are merely probable. The former class consists of those 
which follow immediately and necessarily from the hypothesis itself; the latter, of those 
which are deducible from it by the principle of random distribution. The nature of 
the latter conditions will be clearly seen from the examples which will be given of 


their deduction from hypotheses. : 
Two hypotheses worthy of consideration have been promulgated respecting. the 


124 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


origin of the asteroids; one, that they are the fragments of a single planet, which was 
shattered by the operation of some unknown cause; another, that they were formed 
by the breaking up of a revolving ring of nebulous matter. 

The first of these is the celebrated hypothesis of Olbers. It has the advantage of 
accounting for the phenomena, considered in their more salient aspects, in a very re- 
markable manner. The normal solar system is still the solar system as we should 
expect it to be in the absence of any knowledge of the planet or planets revolving be- 
tween Jupiter and Saturn. The phenomenon (abnormal on this hypothesis) of the 
place of a single large planet being filled by a collection of small ones of varying 
brilliancy, large inclinations and eccentricities, and slightly different mean distances, is 
precisely what might be expected as the result of a force which should break the 
planet into fragments, each very small in comparison with the original planet. But 
we shall see hereafter that when we carry the results of this hypothesis to numerical 
exactness, the observed phenomena are very far from agreeing with these results. 
Moreover, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to imagine how any known natural cause, 
or combination of causes, should produce such a result as the shattering of a planet. 
But since the limits of our knowledge are not necessarily the limits of possibility, this 
objection is not fatal, and it is difficult to say what weight ought to be assigned to it. 

The second hypothesis, that the asteroids were formed by the breaking up of a ring 
of nebulous matter, is not at all improbable if the nebular hypothesis is true, but it is 
subjected to most or all the uncertainties of that hypothesis. The ring must have 
been considerably inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, or none of its fragments could 
have fallen into orbits much inclined to that plane; and it could not have revolved in 
its own plane, else all the fragments would have had nearly the same inclination to the 
invariable plane of the solar system; and it must have been somewhat eccentric, else 
all the fragments would have had about the same mean distance. Now it is remarka- 
ble that the two last circumstances would cause a tendency in the ring to break into 
fragments, while a circular ring, revolving in its own plane, would have no such ten- 
dency. We should then expect, in case a ring should break up, that its fragments 
would present some at least of the phenomena presented by the asteroids. But the 
hypothesis is not equally susceptible with that of Olbers of a posteriori tests. 

To apply rigorous tests to either of the above-mentioned hypotheses, we need rigor- 
ous expressions in terms of the time for the values of the eccentricity, inclination, lon- 
gitude of perihelion, and longitude of node, of each asteroid used in applying the test. 
For the probable tests we need the mean and the limiting values of the same elements, 
and to obtain these the same expressions are necessary. ` ` 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 125 


The subject may be arranged under the following heads : — 

§ 1. Computation of the rigorous expressions in terms of the time of the elements of 
the asteroids. 

§ 2. Of the possibility that the orbits of all the asteroids once intersected in a com- 
mon point. 

§ 3. Have the elements of the asteroid orbits ever been materially affected by a re- 
sisting medium? - 

§ 4. Of the relations among the mean distances, eccentricities, and inclinations of 
the orbits of the asteroids; and between their masses and the velocities wath which 
they must have been projected, if Olbers’s hypothesis be true. 

§ 9. Of certain observed relations among the asteroids which are the necessary or 
probable result of known causes, and therefore throw no light on the origin of the 
asteroids. 


$ 1. Computation of the Rigorous Expressions in Terms of the Time of the Elements of certain of the Asteroid 
Orbits, or of the Secular Variations of those Elements. 


To obtain the required expressions, we shall start from the expressions given by 
Laplace in the Mécanique Céleste, Liv. II. §§ 55 & 59. 


GE $(0,1) ch (0.2) ^ (0,3) T &c.i 1 —[0,1] P e [0,2] D — ée, (1) 
T = — 0:1) + (03) + (0,8) + &e4 A 01] + [02] W + &c. 
Y — —4(01) + (0.2) + &e§ g + (0,1) g + (02) e" + dec. | " 
7. 4(0,1) + (02) + do] p — (0,1) g — (02)  — &c. 
where 
À — e sin z, i= e cos sy 
p=isin Q, q = i cos 8. 


The unaccented symbols relate to the disturbed planet, which, in our present investi- 
gation, is supposed to be an asteroid ; the accented quantities relate to the disturbing 
planets. The expressions given by Laplace for the quantities (0,1) and [0,1] are 


8 m' n at 0) 
(04) — — 3 4= rg 

3am' n Í(14-d) 99 Hrd. 
[0,1] = — 2 (1— d , 


a representing the ratio of the mean distances of the disturbing planet and the as- 
teroid, and the other symbols being used in their usual signification. 


^ 
D 


126 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


These equations may be so simplified as to materially facilitate the computation of 
the required quantities. The following equations are given by Laplace in § 49. 


p 
= a) 


Ia G—D Q4) MC? tee tts 
5.3 (i—s)a 


—3b — A 


ECE (0) . 
= Dé D (1—a ya r4 4 


By a comparison of these equations with the values of (0.1) and [0.1] given above, 
the latter reduce to 


s 


WE) 


al = "2^ e s [05] = 222 a oP. (3) 

With these equations we can obtain the numerical values of (0,5) and [0,2] with 
great ease, provided that we have tables which give the values of AO for different 
values of a, such as those published by Runkle in the Smithsonian Contributions to 
Knowledge. 

To integrate the equations (1) and (2), we shall suppose all the accented quantities, 
V, U, K, &c., p', &c., d, &c., given in terms of the time. This is admissible, because we 
neglect the action of the asteroids on the larger planets, and also on each other; we 
may, therefore, use the expressions for the elements of the larger planets in functions 
of the time, which are obtained in neglecting the action of the asteroids. These ex- 
-pressions are of the following form: — | 


M = N, sin (gt + 8) +, sin (gt + 8) + N, sin (get + &) + &e. 
| = N', cos (gt + 8) + IN, cos (811 + 8) + No cos (gt + &) + ec. 


h" = Ny sin (gt + 8) + N sin (gt + fi) + &e. > (4) 
i" = N",sin (gt + 8) + IN", sin (git + p) + &c. 
« &c. &c. 


p' = M sin y + M, sin (kt + 7) + M^ sin (Lat + ya) + &c. 

ql = M cos y + Mi cos (kit + 71) + Mi cos (k, t + 73) + &c. 

p" = M sin y + M", sin (t + n) + &c. (5) 
&c. &c. gon "n 


In the second members of these equations, all the symbols, except t, represent Kees 
constants. If we substitute the expressions (4) in (1), and put for brevity 


E, = [0,1] IN, + [02] N" + [0,3] IV", + &e. 
B= [0.1] Ni + [02] IP, E [038] 1, + ae. E 
&c. &c. | eat 6) 
b = (04) + (02) + &c. 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS, 127 


the equations (1) reduce to 


Ai d 
7) 


S p= bh E, sin (gt + 8) + E, sin (mt Hp) +.... 
The integrals of these equations may be expressed in the form 


h= p sin tHe T sin (git +f) -+....-+ A sin (bt +B) 


(8) 


I = 2 eos (8148) pe eos (git + fi) + >. + Acos(bt4 B) 


i and B being arbitrary constants, depending on the values of h and lat a given epoch. 
The integral values of p and q may be obtained by a similar process. By putting 


1,=(0,11) M +(02)M --(03) M +....=3M l 


I, — (0,1) M, + (02) M", + (0,3) AE .... (9) 


&c. &c. 
we have from (2) and (5) 
dt 
a= bp Isa y E (ht 3-7) ken (ty) — A, 
The integrals of these equations are 
p= M sing peg sin (ht +7) + pigs (at +) +- + KE sin (bt 4- 0) | 
(11 
q = M eos y + yq cos (ht +7) keine t +72) db ses + Koos (—bt + 0) 


2 = bq + I, cos y + Å cos (kt + y) + Locos (lat + y) +.. d 
(10) 


K and C being arbitrary constants, depending on the values of p and q at a given epoch. 

To give a clear idea of a geometrical construction of these equations, suppose a 
sphere described around the sun as a centre, and let the radius of this sphere be taken 
for unity. Let the point in which the pole of the ecliptic (or other plane of reference) 
cuts the surface of the sphere be taken as an origin of co-ordinates. From this origin 
draw on the sphere a radius vector equal to M, and making an angle equal to y — 90° 
with the axis of w, from which we suppose the longitude to be reckoned. From the 


I, : 
end of the first radius vector, draw another equal to FEE and making an angle equal 


to yı, — 90° with the axis of x, and so continue through all the terms of the second 
member of (11) The end of the last radius vector, K, will be on the point in 
which the pole of the orbit of the asteroid intersects the sphere at the origin of 


198 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


time. If, now, we suppose the radius vector pi move around the end of M 
1 


^ 


> ‘ : D - : 
with a uniform angular motion equal to E, Pk to move around with an angular 
2 e 


motion of k,, and so on to K; the end of K will continually be on the point in which 
the pole of the orbit of the asteroid intersects the surface of the sphere. 

M and y are the same for all the planets and asteroids; the end of M may therefore ` 
be taken as an origin around which the poles of the orbits of all the planets and aste- 
roids move. This point is evidently the mean position of the pole of each separate 
planet and asteroid during all time,* and the plane of which it is the pole may be 
regarded as the mean position of the plane of the orbit of each heavenly body during 
all time. This plane is the invariable plane of maximum areas; as may be seen from 
the fact that the constant M vanishes when we take that plane as the plane of reference.T 

This plane ought, also, to be the probable mean position of the orbits of the several 
asteroids at any one time, in so far as the positions of the separate orbits are inde- 
pendent of each other, and to the same degree, the nodes on this plane ought to 
be distributed at random. We shall return to this subject when considering the 
distribution of the nodes and perihelia in longitude. : 

In the above investigations and constructions, quantities of the third order with 
respect to the eccentricities and inclinations have been neglected, and we have there- 
fore made no distinction between the distance from the origin of the poles of the 
orbits on the surface of the sphere, and of the points in which these poles intersect 
the tangent plane, or the secant plane which passes through the point, and is parallel 
to the tangent plane; or between i, sin 7, and tang i. 

In the above construction, the distance of the final point, or pole of the orbit 
of the asteroid, from the pole of the ecliptic, will be equal to the inclination, and 
its longitude increased by 90° will be equal to the longitude of the node. If, then, 


en I * 
one of the radii vectores bb 0 K is longer than the sum of all the others, it 


is evident that the amount by which it exceeds that sum will be an inferior limit of the 
inclination, and that the mean motion of the node will be equal to the coefficient of + 
in the angle which corresponds to the longest radius vector. 

Let us now apply the formule given above to the numerical computation of the 
elements of the asteroids in terms of the time. Many of the required quantities being 


* In other words, if we mark on the plane tangent to the sphere, and parallel to the invariable plane, the 
points in which the pole of the asteroid orbit intersects it at equidistant intervals of time, to infinity, the point 
of tangency will be the centre of gravity of all these points. 

t Méc. Céleste, Liv. II. No. 62. 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 129 


functions of the mean distances only of the asteroids, it will be convenient to tabulate 
them for different values of that element; and by means of such tables, the equations 
required can be obtained for any asteroid whatever, of which both the eccentricity and 
inclination are small, with very little labor. In the computation I use the following 
values of the masses of the disturbing planets. 
Venus sgoov; Earth cade; Mars sggbes7> Jupiter Tos 
Saturn syr Uranus ` un, Neptune 44yg. 

The direct action of Mercury is neglected, it being entirely insensible. 

Making use of these values of the masses, and of the usual values of the mean 
distances; calling (0,1), [0,1], the coefficients between an asteroid and Venus, (0,2) 
[0,2], between an asteroid and the Earth, and so on, we have the following values of 
those coefficients in seconds, the unit of time being 3651 days. 


den (0,1) (0,2) (03) | (04) (0,5) (0,6) (0,7) 
2.2 0.102 0.268 0.184 31.076 1.156 0.022 0.007 
2.4 0.073 0.183 | 0.104 38.359 1.345 0.025 0.008 
9.6 0.053 0.131 0.066 47.372 1.550 0.028 0.009 
2.8 0.040 0.096 0.044 58.727 1.775 0.032 0.010 
3.0 0.031 0.073 0.032 73.315 2.021 0.036 0.011 
3.2 0.025 0.057 0.023 92,495 2.291 0.039 0.012 

a pu] | rg | tos] | t4 | ros | tos] | wa 
2.2 0.041 0.148 0.148 16.036 0.331 0:003 0/001 
2.4 0.027 0.093 0.078 21.485 0.419 0.004 0.001 
2.6 0.018 0.062 0.046 28.587 0.523 0.005 0.001 
2.8 0.013 0.042 0.029 37.930 0.644 0.006 0.001 
3.0 0.009 0.030 0.019 50.381 0.784 0.007 0.001 
3.2 0.007 0.022 0.013 67.277 0.947 0.008 0.002 


We next require the numerical values of the quantities represented in (4) and (5) 
by N and M. These are obtained by the simultaneous integration, for the larger 
planets, of the systems of equations (1) and (2), a process so laborious, that only three 
or four astronomers have ever attempted to carry it through. It seems to have been 
done most completely by Le Verrier, before the discovery of Neptune, as he then gave 
the differential coefficients of the several quantities with respect to the masses; and he 
| has since taken into account the action of that planet, but has not given these differ- 
ential coefficients, nor has he considered in what way the action of Neptune might be 
modified by that of the planets inside of Jupiter. Still, it is quite possible, that the 
inaccuracies thus introduced are no greater than those which proceed from the neglect 
of terms of the third order, and we shall therefore use throughout the values given by 


VOL. VIII. 17 


130 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


Le Verrier in the second volume of his Annales de l' Observatoire. They are condensed 


into the following tables. The quantities omitted are presumed to be insensible. 
Some of them are known to be so; the remainder are certainly very small, and no data 


for their computation are given by Le Verrier or any other writer. 


n N; Ne AN P. d A I 
0 --.00048 +.00053 +.0007 +.003057 4.00274 +.031 
1 +.01679 +.01661 +.0191 +.042675 +.03334 —.048 
2 —.00038 4.00237 4.0152 —.015509 +.04831" |  —.002 
3 +.01689 +.01062 +.0017 —.000020 —.00002 pd: 
4 —.02383 —.01892 —.0033 --.000012 --.00001 

5 —.01301 +.01178 +.0292 —.000001 —.00001 

6 -]-.01534 —.01691 --.0730 —.000001 —.00001 

1 iv ee M +.000095 +.00011 
n M; M! Mu MN" My MY My" 
1 | +.0025 | +.0023 | +.0017 | +.001159 .00093 | —.0176 
2 | +.0003 0027 | +.0093 | —.006306 .01580 
3 | +.0209 | +.0146 | +.0030 | —.000040 | —.00005 T 
4 | +.0099 | +.0083 | +.0018 | —.000011 | —.00002 TEP 

| 5 | —.0075 | +.0054 | +.0485 | —.000002 | —.00002 baa 

6 | +.0244 | —.0243 | -+).0338 ies siis bas as 
7 dés SSES oue —.001514 | —.00145 ina +.0111 


From these data we find the following values of Ep E,, &c., I, h, &c., and b. 


a E, E, E; E; E, E; E, E, 

2.2 0.0502 | +0.7012 | —0/2301 | 40/0022 | —0.0041 | +0.0055 | --0.0089 | mme 
2.4 | +0.0670 | +0.9341 | —0.3116 | +0.0011 | —0.0024 | +0.0030 .0045 | +0.0021 
2.6 | +0.0890 | +1.2394 | —0.4173 | +0.0005 | —0.0014 .0018 | --0.0025 | -1-0.0028 
2.8 | +0.1179 | +1.6413 | —0.5568 | —0.0001 | —0.0007 .0011 | +0.0016 | +0.0037 
3.0 | +0.1564 | +2.1768 | —0.7431 | —0.0005 | —0.0002 .0007 | +-0.0010 | +0.0049 
3.2 | +0.20 5| +2.9030 | —0.9974 | —0.0010 | --0.0002 | +0.0005 | +0.0006 | Lane 
a I, I, I, I, I L I, b 

2.2 | +0.0379 | —0:1753 | --0-0052 | +0.0031 | +0:0095 | +0:0023 | —0/0486 | 39'%15 
2.4 | +0.0460 | —0.2192 | +0.0029 | +0.0020 | +0.0054 | +0.0008 | —0.0599 | 40.097 
2.6 | +0.0564 | —0.2733 | +0.0012 | +0.0012 | +0.0034 | -L0.0003 | —0.0738 | 49909 
2.8 | +0.0695 | —0.3456 | —0.0001 | +0.0006 | +0.0022 | +0.0001 | —0.0913 | 60724 
3.0 1 —0.4209 | —0.0012 | +0.0001 | +0.0015 | +0.0001 | —0.1138 | 75519 
32 .1089 | —0.5467 | —0.0024 | —0.0003 | +0.0010 | 0.0000 | —0.1432 | 94949 


In the computations of the quantities E and J, we have a test of their accuracy, 
because they ought to fulfil the conditions. 


E, + E, + eee [01] (Not IN. + ....) + [02] (N+ I, 4E...) +80, 


L+h +ht+-.--= (0,1) (Mit M+...) (02) UL Mat...) + ke. 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 131 


We omit the terms dependent on M, in the values of J, because in the final result 
they will bring out kọ — M, as in the equation (9). 


n M, S . 

jag PE and to obtain the numerical values of 
these quantities we shall use the following values of g, g, &c., ky, hy, &c., which are 
deduced from the data given in the work of Le Verrier above referred to, and are par- 


tially corrected for the terms of third order. 


We shall now put e, = 


‘g = 2901 os 515 k= 0.0 k, = — 7.086 
gı = 3.808 g; = 17.153 k, = — 3.166 k; = —17.468 
g, = 22.828 gs = 17.863 k, = —96 568 ks = —18.568 
g = 5.299 g = 0.693 ky = — 4.795 k, = — 0.756 


We thus obtain the following values of £ and x for every .05 in the value of a be- 
. tween the limits of the mean distances of the asteroids. 


Tame l.— For Eccentricities and Perthelia. 


a € E, £a £3 Es Es Es $, 


2.20 |-L.001679 | +.024174 | —.023044 |+.000079 | —.000162 | +-.000352 | +.000597 | +-.000049 
2.25 | .001710 | .024567 | .021326 | .000064 | .000133 | .000269| .000448 | .000050 
2.30 | .001741 | .024960 | .019984 | .000052 | -000109 | .000209 | .000343 | .000051 
2.85 | .001772 | .025352 | .018913 | .000041 | .000089 | .000164 | .000262 | 000059 
2.40 | .001802 | .025743 | .018043 | .000033 | .000073 | .000131 | .000203 | .000053 
2.45 | .001832 | .026133 | .017329 | .000026 | .000060 | .000105 | .000159 | .000054 
9.50 | .001862 | .026593 | .016735 | .000020 | .000050 | .000085 | .000196 | .000055 
2.55 | .001893 | .026912 | .016237 | .000015 | .000041 | .000069 | .000100 | .000056 
2.60 | .001999 | .027299 | .015817 | .000011 | .000034 | .000056 | .000081 |  .000057 
2.65 | .001951 | .027685 | .015463 | .000007 | .000027 | .000046 | .000066 | .000058 
2.70 | .001980 | .028070 | .015162 | .000004 | .000022 | .000038 | .000054 | .000059 
2.75 | .002009 | .028454 | .014906 |+.000001 | .000017 | .000031| .000045 | .000060 
2.80 | .002038 | .028837 | .014688 |—.000001 | .000014 | .000026 | .000037 | .000061 
9.85 | .002067 | .029218 | .014502 | .000003 | .000011 | .000022 | .000030 | .000062 
2.90 | .002196 | .029598 | .014346 | .000004 | .000008 | .000018 | .000025 | .000063 
2.95 | .002225 | .029977 | .014214 | .000006 | .000006 | .000015 | .000021| .000064 
3.00 | .002153 | .030355 | .014104 | .000007 | .000004 | .000012 | .000017 | .000065 
3.05 | .002181 | .030732 | .014017 | .000008 |—.000002 | .000010 | .000014 | .000066 
3.10 | .002309 | .031107 | .013935 | .000009 | .000000 | .000008 | .000012 | .000067 
3.15 | .002237 | .031481 | .013875 | .000010 |-L.000001 | .000007 | .000010 | .000068 
3.90 |-L.002265 |-+.031854 |—.013831 | —.000011 | -+.000002 |-|-.000006 | +.000008 |-+-.000069 


Taste II.— For Inclinations and Nodes. Tate III. 


a ad EE ZE %3 X4 X5 


2.20 | +.001277 | —.028054 |--000185. | +.000122 -4.000616 |--.000165 —.001516| 32.815 
| 2.25 gea .023416 | 000150. T oin .000475 | .000110 | .001518| 34.488 
2.30 | .001961 | .020246 | 000123. | .000086 | .000373 | .000074  .001520| 36.256 
2.35 | .001254 | .017946 | 000101. | .000072 | .000296 | .000052 | .001522) 38.123 
2.40 | .001247 | .016200 | 000082. | .000060 | .000237 | .000037 | .001523) 40.097 
2.45 | .001941 | .014831 | 000065. | .000049 | .000191 | .000027 | .001523| 42.184 
2.50 | .001935 | .013729 | 000051. | .000040 | .000156 | .000020 .001524 44.394 
2.55 | .001930 | .012824 | 000039. | .000033 | .000129 | .000014| .001524| 46.732 
2.60 | -+.001225 | —.012070 |-1-000028.:|-1-.000028 |-+.000106 |-+-.000010 |—.001524| 49.209 


132 : ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


a X, Aa X3 X4 X5 X x, b 


2.65 | +.001220 | —.011432 |-+.000018 | +.000023 |-|-.000087 | +.000007 | —.001524 | 51.833 
2.70 | .001216 | .010886 | .000009 | .000018 | .000071 | .000005 | .001524| 54.619 
2,75 | .001212| .010413 |-+.000003 |. .000014 | .000059 | .000004 | .001524| 57.577 
2.80 | .001208 | .010002 |—.000001| .000011 | .000050 | .000003 | .001523| 60.724 
2.85 | .001204 | .009640 | .000003| .000008 | .000043 | .000002 | .001523| 64.074 
2.90 | .001201 | .009320 | .000006 | .000006 | .000037 | .000002 | .001523| 67.641 
2.95 | .001198 | .009036 | .000009 | .000004 | .000031| .000001| .001593| 71.450 
3.00 | .001196 | .008782 | .000012| .000002 | .000026 | .000001| .001592| 75.519 
3.05 | .001193 | .008555 | .000015 |-+.000001 | .000022 +.000001 | .001592| 79.875 
3.10 | .001191 | .008350 | .000019 |—.000001 | .000018 | .000000 | .001522| 84.543 
3.15 | .001189 | .008164 | .000023 | .000002 | .000015 | .000000 | .001521| 89.555 
3.20 | +.001187 | —.007996 | —.000027 | —.000004 |—.000013 | ..000000 |—.001521| 94.942 


The following are the values of 8, Bı, &c., y, 7, &c., and M, supposing the time to 
be reckoned from 1800, and the longitudes from the equinox of 1850.0. M — .027460. 


8 = 98 30 28 y. 106 50 18 
& = 26 32 23 n = 135 41 7 
fa = 127 17 9 ya = 126 42 20 
Bs = 86 27 45 | y = 28 20 25 
B. = 36 18 43 y. = 262 48 16 
Bs = 335 28 27 ys = 297 28 24 
fs = 315 11 1 y = 73 53 49 
B, = "14 214 o = 202 15 43 
If now, we put for brevity, 
(0) — 8 +gt : 
(1) = A+ at [1] = 7+ kt 
(2) = k+ gat [2] = n+ ht 
(7) = & + art [7] = +. + krt 


we shall have, for the elements A, l, p, and q of any asteroid in terms of the time, 


h= «sin (0) + a sin (1) + e sin (2)-+....4 & sin (7) + Asin (B 32) 
l = ecos (0) + 4 cos (1) + sz cos (2) + +... + & cos (7) + A cos (B+ 51) 
p= M sin y + » sin [1] + sin [2] +... -+ «sin [7] + K sin (C — bt) (12) 
q = M cos y + x, cos [1] + x cos [2] + .... + x; cos [7] + K cos (C — bt) 
A, B, x, and C being fixed by the values of h, l, p, and q at a given epoch. The 
quantities £, £ &c., %, %, &c., M, and b, are taken from Tables 1, 2, and 3, by entering 
with the mean distance of the asteroid as the argument. 
Let us now apply these data to those asteroids the elements of which are determined 
with sufficient accuracy, and the eccentricities and inclinations of which are sufficiently 
small. The latter class may be presumed to include all those for which each of these 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 133 


elements is less than 11^. The uncertainty in the present mean values of the elements 
is such, that no advantage will result from any attempt to carry the results to more 
than four places of decimals; which are, moreover, quite sufficient for our present 
purposes. The following are the assumed values of the longitude of perihelion, lon- 
gitude of node, eccentricities, and inclinations, for January 1, 1850, of such of the 
asteroids fulfilling the above conditions as I have to the present time (March, 1860) 
been able to obtain accurate elements. 


Name. Symbol, m 3 e i 

o o o I 
Ceres 149 12.5 80 49.0 0.0803 10 36.5 
Vesta 250 23.1 103 19.5 0.0902 7 81 
Astrea. 134 35.6 141 24.8 0.1900 5 19.6 
Flora 32 57:2 110 18.3 0.1567 5 53.2 
Metis 70 51.2 68 30.0 0.1284 5 35.9 
Hygea 227 44.0 287 39.7 0.1005 3 47.2 
Parthenope 315 57.1 125 2.6 0.0988 4 36.9 
Irene 179 15.0 86 38.8 0.1652 9 74 
Psyche 12 24.1 150 32.0 0.1363 3 3.9 
Thetis 259 12.8 125 26.5 0.1268 5 35.6 
Fortuna 30 8.7 211 24.9 0.1578 1 32.2 
Massilia 98 16.0 206 40.2 0.1438 0 41.0 
Lutetia 326 58.4 80 26.8 0.1620 5 53 
Themis 137 37.6 36 14.3 0.1177 0 49.1 
Proserpina 235 4.2 45 53.2 0.0875 3 35.7 
Euterpe 87 25.4 93 36.8 0.1730 1 35.5 
Bellona 122 16.1 144 43.3 0.1544 9 22.5 
Amphitrite 56 52.4 356 26.8 0.0725 6 8.0 
Urania 30 47.5 308 13.0 0.1268 2 6.0 
Pomona 194 12.0 220 48.9 0.0824 5 29.0 
Circe 149 48.3 184 47.3 0.1083 5 26.5 
Fides 65 56.1 8 10.7 0.1749 8 T3 
Leda 100 99.5 296 27.8 0.1556 6 58.5 
Laetitia. 1 48.0 157 20.5 0.1110 10 20.8 
Harmonia 1 63 93 29.5 0.0462 4 15.8 


From these elements, and from the preceding tables, we obtain the following expres- 
sions for h, l, p, and q, in terms of the time, for the above asteroids. 


Ceres. (1) 
h = .0020 sin (0) + .0286 sin (1) — .0148 sin (2) + .1102 sin (158° 51’ -++ 58".58 1) 
1 = .0020 cos (0) + .0286 cos (1) — .0148 cos (2) + .1102 cos ues DU + ein 
p= M sin y +.0012 sin [1] —.0103 sin [2] +.0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] + .1652 sin er ee t) 
M cos y + .0012 cos [1] —.0103 cos [2] + .0001 cos [5] — .0015 cos [7] + .1652 cos (80? 11.— 58,58 t) 
| Vesta. (4) 
h = .0018 sin (0) + .0254 sin (1) — .0188 sin (2) — .0001 sin (4) + .0002 sin (5) + -0003 sin (6) 
+ .1048 sin (231° 29' + 38".56 1) | 
= .0018 cos (0) + .0254 cos (1) — .0188 cos (2) — .0001 cos (4) + .0002 cos (5) + .0003 cos (6) 
| + .1048 cos (281° 29' + 38".56 1) 


q= 


134 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


p= M sin y + .0013 sin [1] — .0176 sin [2] + .0001 sin [3] + .0001 sin [4] + .0003 sin [5] — .0015 sin 
[7] + -1123 sin (107° 5' — 38”.56 1) 

q = M cos y + .0013 cos [1] — .0176 cos [2] + .0001 cos [3] + .0001 cos [4] + .0003 cos [5] — .0015 cos 
[7] + -1123 sin (107° 5’ — 38".56 t) 


Astrea. ©) 


h = .0019 sin (0) + .0271 sin (1) — .0160 sin (2) + .0001 sin (6) + .2146 sin (140° 31' -+ 48.703 £) 
| = .0019 cos (0) + .0271 cos (1) — .0160 cos (2) + .0001 cos (6) + .2146 cos (140° 31’ + 48.03 1) 
p = Msiny-+-.0012 sin [1] —.0125 sin [2] + .0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] + .0830 sin (151° ae 48.032) 
q = Mcosy--.0012 cos [1] —.0125 cos [2] +-.0001 cos [5] — .0015 cos [7] + .0830 cos (151° 38’'— 48".03 t) 


Flora. 
h = .0017 sin (0) + .0242 sin (1) — .0230 sin (2) — .0002 sin (4) + .0003 sin (5) + .0006 sin (6) 
+ .1823 sin (43? 27' + 32.86 1) 
| = .0017 cos (0) + .0242 cos (1) — .0230 cos (2) — .0002 cos (4) + .0003 cos (5) + .0006 cos (6) 
+ -1323 cos (48° 97/-- 32.86 t) 
p= M sin y + .0013 sin [1] — .0280 sin [2] + .0002 sin [3] + .0006 sin [5] + .0002 sin [6] 
— .0015 sin [7] + .1021 sin (116° 37' — 32”.86 t) ` 
q = M cos y + .0013 cos [1] — .0280 cos [2] + .0002 cos [3] + .0006 cos [5] + .0002 cos [6] 
— .0015 cos [7] + .1021 cos (116° 37’ — 32".86 t) 


Metis. 
h = .0018 sin (0) + .0256 sin (1) — .0183 sin (2) — .0001 sin (4) + .0001 sin (5) + .0002 sin (6) 
+ .1187 sin (86° 19 + 39.52 1) 
l = .0018 cos (0) + .0256 cos (1) — .0183 cos (2) — .0001 cos (4) — .0001 cos (5) + .0002 cos (6) 
+ .1187 sin (86° 19’ + 39.52 t) 
p= Msiny +.0013 sin [1] —.0168 sin [2] + .0008 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +.0837 sin (67° 10’— 39".59 t) 
q = M cos; +.0013 cos [1] —.0168 cos [2] + .0003 cos [5] — .0015 cos [7] + .0837 cos (67° 10’— 39.522) 


Hygea. (0) 
h = .0022 sin (0) + .0315 sin (1) — .0139 sin (2) + .1307 sin (216° 7 + 88".95 t) 
| = .0022 cos (0) + .0315 cos (1) — .0139 cos (2) + .1307 cos (216? 7 + 881.95 t) 
p= M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0082 sin [2] — .0015 sin [7] + .0869 sin (286° 6’ — 88.95 t) 
= M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0082 cos [2] — .0015 cos [7] + .0869 cos (286° 6’ — 88.95 t) 


Parthenope. @) 
h = .0018 sin (0) + .0262 sin (1) — .0173 sin (2) + .0001 sin (5) + -0002 sin (6) + .0775 sin ` 
(298° 2 + 42".30 t) : 
| = .0018 cos (0) + .0262 cos (1) — .0173 cos (2) + .0001 cos (9) + .0002 cos (6) + .0775 cos 
(298° 2’ + 42”.30 t) 
p = Msin y +-.0012 sin [1] —.0148 sin [2] + .0002 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +.0694 sin (134° 7/— 42.30 t) 
q = Mcos y + .0012 cos [1] —.0148 cos [2] + .0002 cos [5] —.0015 cos [7] + .0694 cos (134° 7. — 42.301) 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 135 


Irene. @ 


h = .0019 sin (0) + .0272 sin (1) — .0159 sin (2) + .0001 sin (6) + .1990 sin (178° 57' + 48".68 t) 
Z = .0019 cos (0) + .0272 cos (1) — .0159 cos (2) + .0001 cos (6) + .1990 cos (178° 57' + 48".68 t) 
p = Msiny+-.0012 sin [1] — 0123 sin [2] + .0001 sin [5] — .0015 sin [7] + .1407 sin (86° 57 — 48.681) 
q = Mcosy + .0012 cos [1] — 0123 cos [2] + .0001 cos [5] — -0015 cos [7] + .1407 cos (86° 57 — 48.”68 t) 


Psyche. 
h = .0022 sin (0) + .0298 sin (1) — .0143 sin (2) + -1013 sin (13° 37 + 69."35 t) 
L = .0022 cos (0) + .0299 cos (1) — .0143 cos (2) + .1013 cos (13° 37’ + 69.35 t) 
p = M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0092 sin [2] — .0015 sin [7] + .0453 sin (173? 21 — 69".35 t) 
q = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0092 cos [2] — .0015 cos [7] + .0453 cos (173° 21' — 69,35 1) 


Thetis. @) 


h = .0018 sin (0) + .0263 sin (1) — .0171 sin (2) + .0001 sin (5) + .0002 sin (6) + .1368 sin 
(244° 30’ + 43".22 t) 
l = .0018 cos (0) + .0263 cos (1) — .0171 cos (2) + .0001 cos (5) + .0002 cos (6) + .1368 cos 
(244° 20 + 43.22 t) 
p= M sin y + .0012 sin [1] —.0143 sin [2] + .0002 sin [5] — .0015 sin [7] + .0858 sin (132? 57 — 43.29 t) 
q = AM cos y+ .0012 cos [ 1] —.0143cos [2] +-.0002 cos [5] — .0015 cos [7] + .0858 cos (132° 57’ — 43.22 t) 


Fortuna. (9) 


h = .0018 sin (0) + .0261 sin (1) — .0174 sin [2] + .0001 sin (5) + .0002 sin (6) + .1302 sin 
(37° 23 + 41".84 2)} 
1 = .0018 cos (0) + .0261 cos (1) — .0174 cos [2] -+ .0001 cos (5) + .0002 cos (6) + .1302 sin 
(37° 23" + 41".84 t) 
p = M sin y + 0012 sin [1] —.0151 sin [2] + .0002 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +.0383 sin (230° 34/— 41".84.) 
q = M cos y + .0012cos[1] —.0151cos [2] +-.0002cos[5] —.0015cos[7] -++-.0383 cos (230° 34/ —41".84:) 
Massilia. Gg 
h — .0018 sin (0) + .0258 sin (1) — .0179 sin (2) + .0001 sin (5) + .0002 sin (6) + .1535 sin 
(110° 11’ + 40".49 2) 
1 = .0018 cos (0) + .0258 cos (1) — .0179 cos (2) + .0001 cos (5) + .0002 cos (6) + .1535 sin 
(110° 11’ + 407.19 2) | 
p= M sin y +.0012 sin [1] —.0159 sin [2] + .0002 sin [5] — .0015 sin [6] + .0238 sin (237° 58—40",49 t) 
q = M cosy +.0012cos [1] —.0159 cos [2] + .0002cos[5] — .0015 cos [6] +-.0238 cos (237° 58'— 40".49 t) 


Lutetia. @ 


h = .0018 sin (0) + .0260 sin (1) — .0176 sin (2) + .0001 sin (5) + .0002 sin (6) + .1342 sin 

(318° 48' + 41".56 t) i 
1 = .0018 cos (0) + .0260 cos (1) — .0176 cos (2) + .0001 cos (5) + -0002 cos (6) + .1342 cos 

(318° 48’ + 41.56 t) 4 g 
p= M sin y +.0012 sin [1] — .0152 sin [2] 4.0002 sin [5] — .0015 sin [6] + .0384 sin — =m .56 t) 
q = M cosy +.0012 cos [1] — .0152 cos [2] + .0002 cos [5] — .0015 cos [6] +.0384 cos (79° 54'— 41".56 t) 


136 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


Themis. 
h = .0022 sin (0) + .0315 sin (1) — .0139 sin (2) + .1441 sin (147° 40' + 89".55 t) 
1 = .0022 cos (0) + .0315 cos (1) — .0139 cos (2) + .1441 cos (147° 40' + 89".55 t) 
p= M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0082 sin [2] — 0015 sin [7] + .0187 sin (318? 53’ — 89".55 2) 
q = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0082 cos [2] — 0015 cos [7] + .0187 cos (318° 53’ — 89".55 t) 


Proserpina. 
h = .0019 sin (0) + .0277 sin (1) — .0155 sin (2) + .1115 sin (220° 23/ + 527.15 t) 
Z = .0019 cos (0) + .0277 cos (1) — .0155 cos (2) + .1115 cos (220° 23'-- 52”.15 £) 
p = M sin y + .0012 sin [1] —.0114 sin [2] -]-.0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] + .0514 sin (31? 35’ — 52.15 t) 
q = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] —.0114 cos [2] + .0001 cos[5] —.0015cos[7] + .0514 cos (31? 35' — 59".15 t) 


Euterpe. (7) 
h = .0018 sin (0) + .0253 sin (1) — .0189 sin (2) — .0001 sin (4) + .0002 sin (5) + .0003 sin (6) 
+ .1772 sin (98° 2 + 38".02 t) 
| = .0018 cos (0) + .0253 cos (1) — .0189 cos (2) — .0001 cos (4) + .0002 cos (5) + .0003 cos (6) 
+ -1772 cos (98° 2 + 38".09 £) 
p — M sin y + .0013 sin [1] — .0181 sin [2] + .0001 sin [3] + .0003 sin [5] — .0015 sin [7] 
+ -0157 sin (110° 14’ — 38".09 t) 
q = M cos y + .0013 cos [1] — .0181 cos [2] + .0001 cos [3] + .0003 cos pis 0015 cos [7] 
+ .0157 cos (110° 14’ — 38”.02 i) | 
Bellona. (83) : 
h = .0020 sin (0) + .0286 sin (1) — .0148 sin (2) + .1665 sin (181° 37' + 591.13 2) 
1 = .0020 cos (0) + .0286 cos (1) — .0148 cos (2) + .1665 cos (131° 37’ + 59/.13 t) 
p = Msin y + .0012 sin [1] —.0102 sin [2]+-.0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +-.1517 sin (151° 11’—59”.132) 
q = Mcos y +-.0012 cos [1] —.0102 cos [2] +-.0001 cos [5]— .0015 cos E+ 1517 cos (151° 11—59".13 t) 


Amphitrite. 69 


h = .0019 sin (0) + .0269 sin (1) — .0162 sin (2) + .0001 sin (6) + -0603 sin (83° 44’ + 46”.97 t) 
| = .0019 cos (0) + .0269 cos (1) — .0162 cos (2) + .0001 cos (6) + .0603 cos (83° 41’ + 46”.97 o 
p= M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0128 sin [2] + .0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] + .1088 sin 
(347° 59’ — 46".97 t) A i 
q = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0128 cos [2] + .0001 cos [5] —.0015 cos [7] + .1088 cos 
(347° 59' — 47".97 1) 
Urania. (0) 
À — .0018 sin (0) E 0256 sin (1) — .0186 sin (2) — - 0001 sin (4) 4 0002 sin © E 0003 sin © 
+ -1005 sin (41° 26’ + 38.67 t) — 
. l = .0018 cos (0) + .0256 cos (1) — 0186 cos (2) — .0001 cos (4) 7 .0002 cos (5). ra -0003 cos (6) 
+ -1005 cos (41° 26’ + 38".67 t) 
p= M sin y + .0013 sin [1] — .0174 sin [2] + .0001 sin [3] + .0003 sin Ms .0015 sin [7] ; 
+ -0466 sin (295° 24’ — 38.67 1) ES uium 
(S Moos y + 0013 cos [1] — .0174 cos [2] + .0001 cos [3] T 0003 cos [5] — .0015 cos [7] 
+ .0466 cos (295° 24' — 38".67 t) : 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 137 


Pomona. @3 
h = .0019 sin (0) + .0272 sin (1) — .0159 sin (2) + .0001 sin (6) + .1157 sin (189° 52’ + 487.66 t) 
Z = .0019 cos (0) + .0272 cos (1) — .0159 cos (2) + .0001 cos (6) + -1157 cos (189° 52’ + 48".66 t) 
p = M sin y + .0012 sin [1] —.0123 sin [2] + .0001 sin [5]+.0015 sin [7] +.1080 sin (228° 37/— 48".66 t) 
q = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0123 cos [2] + .0001 cos [5] -- .0015cos [7 ] +.1080cos (228° 37/— 48".66 1) 


Circe. 


h = .0020 sin (0) + .0280 sin (1) — .0152 sin (2) + .1379 sin (156° 58’ + 53".97 t) 
| = .0020 cos (0) + .0280 cos (1) — .0152 cos (2) + .1379 cos (156° 58’ -+ 53.97 £) 

p= M sin y +.0012 sin [1] — .0110 sin [2] + 0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +-.0975 sin (196° 39— 53".977 t) 
q = Mcos y + .0012cos[1]—.0110cos[2] + .0001 cos[5]—.0015 cos [7] + -0975 cos (196° 39’— 53.97 2) 


Fides. (7 


À — .0019 sin (0) + .0277 sin (1) — .0155 sin (2) + .1625 sin (75° 58’ + 51^.55 1) 

l = .0019 cos (0) + .0277 cos (1) — .0155 cos (2) + .1625 cos (75° 58' + 517.55 1) 

p = M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0115 sin [2] + .0001 sin [5] — .0015 sin [7] +-.0555 sin (349? 37/.— 517.55 D 
q = M cosy + .0012cos[1] — .0115cos[2] + .0001cos[5] — .0015 cos [7] + .0555 cos (349? 37/— 51".55 t) 


Leda. (8 


h = .0020 sin (0) + .0284 sin (1) — .0150 sin (2) + .1630 sin (111° 43' + 56".97 t) 
1 = .0020 cos (0) + .0284 cos (1) — .0150 cos (2) + .1630 cos (111° 43’ + 56".97 t) 
p = Msin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0105 sin [2] 4- .0001 sin [3] + .0015 sin [7] + .1393 sin (294° 5/ — 56".97 t) 
q = Mcos y + .0012 cos [1] —.0105cos[2] + .0001 cos[3]+-.0015cos [7] +.1393 cos are 567.97 t) 


Letitia. (9 
h = .0020 sin (0) + .0286 sin (1) — .0148 sin (2) + .0766 sin (359° 4% -+ 587.80 2) 
1 = .0020 cos (0) + .0286 cos (1) — .0148 cos (2) + .0766 cos (359° 42’ -+ 58".80 £) 
p = Msin y +.0012 sin [1] —.0102 sin [2] 4.0001 sin [5] —.0015 sin [7] +-.1720 sin (163° 59— 58/,80 2) 
q = Mcos y + .0012 cos[1]—.0102 cos [2] + 0001 cos [5] —.0015cos [7] --.1720 cos (163° 59'— 58".80 t) 


Harmonia. (9 
= .0017 sin (0) + .0247 sin (1) — .0208 sin (2) — .0001 sin (4) + .0003 sin (5) + .0005 sin (6) 
| + .0126 sin (25° 27 + 35/.09 1) ` S 
] = .0017 cos (0) + .0247 cos (1) — .0208 cos (2) — .0001 cos (4) + .0003 cos (5) + .0005 cos (6) 
+ .0126 cos (25? 27/ + 35/.09 t) | 
p= M sin y + 0013 sin [1] — .0223 sin [2] + .0001 sin PE .0001 sin [4] + .0005 sin [5] 
+ .0001 sin [6] — .0015 sin [7] + .0656 sin (99° 41' — 35/.09 1) 
q = Mcos y + .0013 cos [1] — .0223 cos [2] + .0001 cos [3] + .0001 a, + .0005 cos [5] 
+ .0001 cos [6] — .0015 cos [7] + .0656 cos (99° AU — 35.09 1) 


From the preceding expressions, we easily deduce the following conclusions : — 
1. Harmonia is the only asteroid, among those whose elements are well determined, 


18 


VOL. VIII. 


138 | ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


the orbit of which can ever approach indefinitely near the circular form. Doris may 
possibly be found to be an additional asteroid in this class. 

2. Euterpe is the only known asteroid the orbit of which can ever approach indefi- 
nitely near the invariable plane of the planetary system. 

3. The perihelion of each asteroid (Harmonia, Doris, and Euterpe excepted) revolves 
nearly in the same time as its node, the time of revolution varying from about 15,000 
to 40,000 years. : 

4. The following are the greatest and least values which can be attained by the 
eccentricities and inclinations to the invariable plane of the orbits of the asteroids 
included in the preceding tables: — 


Asteroid. Greatest Eccentricity. Least Eccentricity, Greatest Inclination. Least Inclination. 

o D o D 
Ceres 0.1556 0.0648 10 13 8 43 
Vesta 0.1514 0.0582 7 38 5 13 
Astrea 0.2598 0.1696 5. 38 8. 53 
Flora 0.1823 0.0823 7 40 4 2 
. Metis 0.1648 0.0726 5 56 3 39 
Hygea 0.1783 ... 0.0831 5 yá 4 929 
Parthenope 0.1231 0.0319 5-0 2 58 
Irene 0.2441 0.1539 8 56 T 19 

Psyche 0.1476 0.0550 3 17 i 55- 
Thetis 0.1823 - 00913 5 54 SR 56 
Fortuna 0.1758 0.0846 3 14 1 10 
Massilia 0.1993 0.1077 2 96 0 l7 
Lutetia 0.1799 0.0885 3 12 Ss 
Themis 0.1917 0.0965 1 42 0 27 
Proserpina 0.1566 0.0664 3 46 2 8 
Euterpe . 0.2238 - 0.1306 2. T7 0 00 
Bellona 0.2119 0.1211 9. 26 T Ul 
Amphitrite 0.1054 0.0152 T f 5 20 
Urania 0.1471 0.0539 3 51 1 29 
Pomona 0.1608 0.0706 4 8 5 20 
Circe 0.1831 0.0927 6 93 4 48 
Fides 0.2076 0.1174 4 0 9 99 
Leda 0.2084 0.1176 8 45 "o j3 
Lætitia 0.1220 0.0312 10 36 9 Y 
Harmonia 0.0607 0.0000 5 15 2 16 


§ 2. 


We now have the necessary data for investigating the questions referred to in the 
beginning of this paper. Since it is deducible from Olbers’s hypothesis that the orbits 
of all the asteroids once intersected each other in a common point, we may first find 
whether it is possible or probable that there ever was such intersection. I have consid- 
ered this question in Gould’s Astronomical Journal, No. 129, with reference to the aste- 
roids Vesta and Hygea, and there shown that, although the aphelion distance of Vesta. 
sometimes exceeds the perihelion distance of Hygea, an intersection of their orbits is 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS, 139 


not possible so long as the equations (12) of the preceding section will give nearly 
true values of the elements by attributing any values whatever to the angles (1), (2), 
(3), Ee In order that any conclusion that one may draw respecting this question may 
rest on as broad a foundation as possible, we shall now consider the same question 


with respect to other asteroids. 
In the paper referred to, it is shown that an intersection of the orbits is not possible 


unless their elements and secular coefficients are such as to fulfil the condition 
(Eh — k hy + (11 — k1)? > (k — k}, 

K' representing the semi-parameter of the outer orbit, and & that of the other. Substi- 
tuting for h and / their expressions in the preceding section, and putting B + bt = N, 
B + bt = N', this inequality will take the form 

— 2 kk AA! cos (N' — N) — 2 5, k A’ (k's, — K e) cos (IN! — (n) ) 

+2 zx, E A’ (k's, — k e'n) cos (N — n) + 2 En X, (Ke, — ke'm) (Ke, — k e'n) cos ( (m) — (n)) (13) 

> (E— by — z (Ke — key — p? A3 — BAY, 

If A and A’ are both small, the eccentricities of the orbits will likewise be small, and 
k and E will be subject to only very slight variations. If we suppose k and E con- 
stant, the maximum value of the first member of the above inequality will be, after 
transposing the last three terms, 

$E A+ E A! 4 z (k's — ke’)? 
and by finding the value of this expression, using the mean values of the parameters 
E and k, and so taking the doubtful signs that the value of this expression shall be 
the greatest possible, we may at once find whether an intersection of the orbits is 
possible, by observing whether the condition K A+ k A 4 £ (Ke — ke’) > KE—k 
is fulfilled. 

If A and A' are both large, the first member of the above inequality can attain its 
greatest magnitude only when we have very nearly N! — N — 180°. If this condition 
is fulfilled, the eccentricity of the one orbit will be at its maximum when that of the 
other is at its minimum. The second member of (13) will attain its least magnitude 
when the eccentricity of the outer planet is at its maximum, and that of the inner one 
at its minimum; that is when we have 

(0) =(1) = T = (5) = (6) = (1) = a (14) 
(2) = (4) = N= 180 — IN 


But, since Az — kz’ has in general the same sign as e, it is evident from an inspection 
of (13), that these conditions will also make its first member attain its least magnitude ; 


140 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


and, as the change is in each member of the same order of magnitude, the planets having 
large eccentricities can be treated without great error in nearly the same manner as those 
for which this element is small. We may, however, obtain a more simple inequality 
than (13), which will have the advantage of enabling us to ascertain how near any 
number of asteroids could ever have come to a common point of intersection. Suppose 
the conditions (14) to be fulfilled. "Then suppose any one of the angles (0), (1), (2), to 
vary, and let it differ by the quantity a from its first value. Then the second member 
of (13) will, in consequence of the change in the eccentricities of the planets, change 
its value by a quantity very nearly of the form u cos a, and the change in the first 
member will evidently be of the same form, and may be represented by v cosa. w and 
p are one half the changes which the first and second members of (13) respectively 
undergo by a change of 180° in the value of the angle. Hence the state of the orbits 
most favorable to (13) will be found either when « = 0, or when a = 180°, according 
to the relative magnitudes of u and w. The perihelion of the outer planet will then 
have the same longitude as the aphelion of the inner one; and since in the state supposed 
the eccentricities of the orbits are equal to (A +. +s +é... .) and(A FEF 
F. . . .), it follows that the condition of possibility of intersection will be ` 
a(lAtiata....En) >a(1—AFEF.).... Fe); (15) 
the corresponding ce having opposite signs in the two members, and being so taken 
as most to favor the condition. From Table I. it is evident that e, «,, and e, should be 
taken negatively (without regard to their signs in the Table); while & £j, &c. should 
be taken positively; and & is doubtful, but would generally have to be taken positively, 
e, Eu and e, must therefore be regarded as positive, and the other es as negative. 

From this, and from the preceding numerical expressions for the secular variations, ` 
we deduce the following system of values of the eccentricities, and consequent peri- 
helion and aphelion distances of certain of the asteroids which lie near the extreme 
limits of the zone, as being those most favorable to the intersection of their orbits in a 
common point. | 


OUTER ASTEROIDS. INNER ASTEROIDS. 
Eccentricities. Perihelion Distances. Eccentricities. . |Aphelion Distances. 
Hygea .1505 208 Vesta .0968 2.58 
Themis ` - .1639 9.63 Flora .1304 9.49 
Psyche .1190 9.58 Metis .1101 9.65 
Letitia ` ` .1094 9.49 Urania .0925 9.58 
Harmonia ` .0077 9.29 


From these values it follows that while the coefficients e, &, &c. and A have the 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 141 


values assigned to them in the preceding investigation, the orbit of Hygea could never 
have intersected with that of Vesta, Flora, Metis, Urania, or Harmonia; the orbit of 
Themis could never have intersected with that of Vesta, Flora, Metis, or Harmonia; 
and that of Psyche could never have intersected with that of Flora or Harmonia. 

It is also to be remarked that the angles (0), (1), (2), &c. are entirely independent of 
the circumstances of the explosion, being functions of the time alone, and that there- 
fore the chances are tens of thousands to one against their all having had, at the time 
of the explosion, values near those which have been here assumed for them. 

The question now arises whether this result can be considered conclusive against 
Olbers’s hypothesis. ‘Three possible sources of inaccuracy are to be considered : — 

1. The effect of the quantities of the third order, neglected in the analysis and 
computations. 

2. The effects of the mutual attraction of the asteroids. 

3. The possible action, on the asteroids, of other forces than that of gravitation. 

The quantities of the third order would not probably affect the eccentricities by a 
greater amount than two or three units in the third place of decimals. If so, they 
would not materially change the character of the preceding result. 

Two asteroids might, by their mutual attraction, change each other’s mean distance 
very materially, provided that they passed sufficiently near each other. Two asteroids, 
taken at random, might be expected to pass within 10,000 miles of each other about 
once in four hundred millions (400,000,000) of years, and therefore some two asteroids 
might be expected to pass this near each other about once in 250,000 years. If the 
magnitude of the largest asteroids is, as we might judge from their brilliancy, the 
hundred-thousandth part that of the earth, an approach of another asteroid within ten 
thousand miles of it would be sufficient to cause a material change in the mean motion 
of the latter. It does not, therefore, seem possible absolutely to disprove Olbers’s 
hypothesis, by an attempt at rigorous computations of the secular variations of the 
asteroids. ) 

The only force besides the attraction of gravitation which it will be Wm while to 
consider, is the resistance of a medium. If, as Encke supposes, tiè celestial spaces 
are pervaded by a very rare resisting medium, it does Lus seem at all ae Es 
during the millions of years which may have been iio does by the — in moving 
through it, their orbits may have been so altered by its aen e to invalidate our con- 
clusions, drawn from reasoning in which the effect of this action has been neglected. 


Our next question will then be that of the third section. 


142 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


§ 3. 


Have the Orbits of the Asteroids ever been materially affected by a resisting Medium ? 


It is highly probable that all the asteroids are of nearly the same density ; it is at 
least highly improbable that there exists any relation between the density and the 
magnitude, by virtue of which the smaller asteroids are more dense than the larger 
ones. If, then, these bodies are retarded by the action of a resisting medium, we may 
expect to see its effect more manifest on the small ones than on the large ones; the 
resistance being proportional to the superficial area, while the inertia is proportional 
to the mass, and probably to the volume. If, then, the large and small asteroids were 
originally arranged indiscriminately with respect to their distance from the sun, the 
effect of a resisting medium would be manifested in a tendency among the smaller 
asteroids to be nearer the sun than the larger ones. If we represent the mass of an 
asteroid by m, and the number of asteroids by n, the condition of indiscriminate 
arrangement would be 

Zma Za 


= SES: 


23m n 


in which 8 is a quantity of the order of magnitude of the chance errors of distribu- 
tion; which diminishes inversely as the square root of n ; and therefore vanishes when 
n is infinite. A tendency in the smaller asteroids to be near the sun will be manifested 


ma 
=m 


a tendency in the larger asteroids to be near the sun will be manifested by the same 


by the quantity = z being greater than any probable value of B, and vice versa, 


expression being negative, and greater than any probable value of $. 

Unfortunately, however, if we apply this method to the actual case now in question, 
we shall fall into error from a cause which seems unavoidable. In fact, an asteroid 
near the sun will be more easily discovered than a more distant one of the same mag- ` 
nitude, owing to its greater brilliancy ; and this circumstance is of itself sufficient to 
cause a tendency in the smaller known asteroids to be near the sun, though no such 
tendency should exist in the whole group, known and unknown. We could eliminate 
the effects of this cause, provided that we knew the general law which connects any 
assumed magnitude with the number of asteroids of that magnitude. But such a law - 
can be derived only from observation, and the discussion of the observations will be 2 
subject to the same difficulty with the application of the test. Still, we may make 
some deductions respecting the effect of a resisting medium by considering its different 
effects on bodies of different magnitudes. : 


» 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 143 


Judging from its brilliancy, Atalanta is the smallest known asteroid. Its brilliancy 
is only about -4y as great as would be that of Vesta at the same distance. Its mean 
distance is 2.748, — considerably greater than the average. Supposing that by the resist- 
ance of a medium it was brought from the farthest limit of the zone of the asteroids 
to the position in which we find it, it would have been caused to approach the sun by 
the amount .407. The brilliancy of different asteroids at equal distances being pro- 
portional to the squares of their diameters, while the effect of the resisting medium 
is inversely proportional to their diameters, the effect of the medium on Vesta would 
be only 41, as great as on Atalanta; the mean distance of the latter would, therefore, 
have been diminished by 0.034; and this we may regard as the extreme limit of the 
possible change in the mean distance of Vesta from this cause. 

Hygea is smaller than Vesta, and Themis smaller than either Vesta or Flora. Hence, 
if these asteroids have been affected by a medium, the former positions of their orbits 
were more unfavorable for a common point of intersection than their present ones; 
hence our conclusions respecting the possibility of a common point of intersection are 
not invalidated by our not having taken into account the action of this possible cause. 
Moreover, one effect of the medium would be to increase the eccentricities of all the 
asteroids, and for this reason the former forms of the orbits were less favorable to in- 
tersection if this cause has acted. 


§ 4. 


Of the Relations between the Masses of the Asteroids and certain Elements of their Orbits. 


On any probable hypotheses that we can make respecting the cause of an explosion 
of a planet, the smaller fragments ought, on the whole, to be thrown off with a greater 
velocity than the larger ones. Moreover, when, as in the case of the asteroids, each 
fragment is very small compared with the original mass, it seems at least highly prob- 
able that the velocities of those thrown in any one direction would be nearly the same, 
on the whole, as the velocities of those thrown in a direction at right angles to that of 
the first. 

Thus we have two probable tests of Olbers's hypothesis. To apply them, we shall 
first deduce certain relations between the velocity with which a fragment would be 
thrown, and the elements of the orbit in which it would afterwards move. 

For this purpose, take, for the axis of X, a line passing through the sun and the 
position of the planet at the time of the explosion, let the axis of Y be in the plane of 
the orbit of the planet, and that of Z perpendicular to it. Represent by a, the dis- 
tance of the planet from the sun, and by ¿ and ¢ the velocities of the projected fragments ; 


144 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


in the direction of the axes of X and Z respectively; and by y the velocity in the 
direction of the axis of Y relatively to that of a planet moving in a circular orbit at 
the distance a. E y, and £ will then be equal to the velocities of projection of the 
fragment in the directions of the corresponding axes, plus the velocities of the planet 
in the same direction over and above those due to a circular orbit. | 

The only elements which we can determine are the eccentricity, inclination, and the 
amount by which the mean distance differs from a, In determining these, we may, in 
a rough approximation like the present, neglect all quantities of the second order with 
respect to the velocities of projection E y, and £. Represent by da the difference be- 
tween a, and a, the latter being the mean distance of the fragment after its projection, 
by v, the velocity of the planet in a circular orbit, and by v the actual velocity of the 
fragment after projection. We then have 


1 21 a, 


ico osi P= HHH 


a 


We then obtain by suitable reductions, neglecting quantities of the second order, 


and observing that v — e DEE 


SCH (16) 


k here representing the Gaussian constant. 
Representing for the present by p the parameter of the orbit, we have 


pateo 


DG SE ay Y 
P Ze ELE 

2 at 
f= Dee aE d ug) 


But by the conditions of circular motion 


e—1— 
— B+ 3a ci — EL 0, 
Wherefore 
gë (20 lie 4208 SHE ERC, 


Developing the expressions within the parenthesis to quantities of the second order 


3 
inclusive, and observing that x == B , we find 


on Hi, BEIGE YS i 


For the EEN we easily find , 
e EE (18) 
If the eccentricity of the planet before the explosion were small, the mean values 
of &, y, and ¢ would be very nearly the mean velocity of projection of the fragments. 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 145 


Representing by 2, 2’, and 2” the angles which the direction of projection of any frag- 
ment makes with the axes of co-ordinates, by « the velocity of projection, and by ¿,, 
20 and & the velocities of the planet in the direction of the three axes relatively to 
the velocity due to a circular orbit, we have 


E = &-+acosi 
n = m + «cos Y 
E = & + cos 2". 


Since by hypothesis cos A has all values at random between +1 and —l, and & and 

% are small compared with e, any small positive value of £ will diminish the absolute 

numerical values of £ for the several fragments for which « cos 4 is negative nearly as 

much as it will increase those values for the fragments for which « cos A is positive, 

and vice versa. A similar remark will of course apply to y and £. On the whole, 

however, the mean values of é, y, and £, taken without regard to their signs, will be 
a b 


2 
increased by a quantity of the order of magnitude of », uo respectively. 


A comparison of (11) and (18) shows that the mean value of the eccentricities of 
the fragments ought to be nearly 4/5 times as great as that of the inclinations; and 


that the mean value of = should be about twice as great as that of the inclinations, or 


a little less than that of the eccentricities. 
From the equations (16), (17), and (18), we easily obtain expressions for £, 7, and 
tin terms of the elements. They are, 


S I A 108. — LT 


To apply these equations rigorously, we should know the values of the eccentricities 
and inclinations of the several fragments immediately after the explosion. But from 
the equation (15) of § 2, it appears that the eccentricities of the fragments must im- 
mediately after the explosion have been quite near their mean values ; moreover, the 
eccentricities and inclinations are subject to but comparatively slight variations, as they 
will very rarely approach either of the limits given on page 138. We shall, therefore, 
use the mean values of those elements for the asteroids whose secular variations are ` 
given in $ 1, and the present values for those which are not there included. 

The mean of the perihelion distances of the outer asteroids givén in the Table in 


$2 is 2.60, and the mean of the aphelion distances of the inner ones is 2.52. The 


mean of these may be taken as the most probable value of a, which we shall therefore 


put equal to 2.56. — | 
VOL, VIII. | E 19; 


146 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


Symbol. [2] da = E Gi “ft 
€» 0.114 +0.21 0.08 0.04 0.17 
0.239 +0.21 0.23 0.04 0.57 
0.256 +0.11 0.25 0.02 0.22 
0.108 —0.20 0.27 — 0.04 0.12 
0.218 +0.02 0.22 0.00 0.08 
0.202 — 0.13 0.19 — 0.03 0.26 
0.231 —0.17 0.22 —0.03 0.10 
0.136 — 0.36 0.09 a/—1 —0.08 0.10 
0.122 —0.17 0.11 —0.03 0.11 
0.134 +0.59 0.15 A/—1 0.10 0.09 
0.084 — 0.11 0.07 —0.02 0.07 
0.219 — 0.23 0.20 —0.05 0.15 
0.085 +0.02 0.08 0.00 0.30 
0.201 -+0.03 0.20 0.01 0.14 
0.187 +0.08 0.18 0.02 0.21 
0.106 -+0.36 0.06 4/—1 0.06 0.05 
0.140 —0.09 0.14 — 0.02 0.09 
0.217 —0.26 0.18 — 0.06 0.18 
0.134 —0.12 0.13 —0.02 0.04 
0.157 —0.15 0.15 —0.03 0.03 
0.138 — 0.12 0.13 — 0.02 0.04 
0.104 — 0.06 0.10 — 0.01 0.24 
0.232 -+0.07 0.23 0.01 | 018 
0.147 -0.59 | 0.14 ./=1 0.10 0.03 
0.253 —0.16 0.25 —0.03 0.37 
0.115 +0.10 0.11 0.02 0.08 
0.183 —0.21 0.16 — 0.04 0.03 
0.170 +0.22 0.15 0.04 0.15 
0.068 — 0.01 0.07 —0.00 0.11 
0.105 — 0.20 0.07 —0.04 0.05 
0.216 -+0.60 0.14 0.10 0.46 
0.119 +0.03 0.12 7 0.01 0.11 
0.337 +0.31 0.32 . 0.06 .| 0.03 
0.131 +0.13 0.12 0.03 0.10 
0.221 +0.42 0.17 0.07 0.14 
0.298 -+0.19 0.29 0.04 0.33 
0.165 +0.08 0.16 0.02 0.06 
0.166 -+0.18 0.15 0.03 0.14 
0.092 +0.21 0.05 0.04 0.17 
0.035 — 0.29 OL wi — 0.07 0.07 
0.202 —0.16 0.19 — 0.03 0.28 
0.223 —0.13 0.21 —0.03 0.15 
0.168 — 0.36 0.05 — 0.08 0.06 
0.147 — 0.13 0.14 — 0.03 0.07 
0.085 +0.18 0.05 i 0.03 0.12 
0.169 +0.22 0.17 0.00 0.04 
0.128 0.32 0.04 0.06 0.09 
0.077 0.55 0.18 Zen? 0.09 0.11 
0.238 .53 0.16 0.09 0.06 
0.287 | ---0.09 0.28 à; 40,09 0.05 
0.063 —0.18 0.05 J/—1 —0.04 0.18 
0.102 +0.54 0.15 Ze? 0.09 0.13 
0.180 +0.05 0.18 0.01 0.09 
0.188 | -+0.16 0.18 0.03 0.20 
0.134 +0.22 0.11 0.04 0.13 
0.203 —0.03 0.20 —0.01 0.13 
0.106 +0.59 0.17 wt 0.10 0.96 (0.99) 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 147 


The computation of £, y, and £, with the data necessary thereto, are given in the 
preceding table. 

In this I have also included the quantities necessary for finding whether there 
exists any relation between the magnitudes of the asteroids, and the quantities 
é y, and č, or the velocities with which they were projected. The second 
column gives the value of the eccentricity used in the computation; and the third 
the difference between the actual mean distance of the asteroid and 2.56. Then follow 
the values of a! $, a*y, and a*t, as given by the formule (19). The seventh column 
contains the values of atv, which is proportional to the probable absolute velocity of 
projection of the asteroid, v being equal to y$} „>F Æ To express these velocities 


in ordinary astronomical units, they must be multiplied by EN If we take the 


earth's mean distance, and the solar day, as the units of space and time respectively, 
this factor will be .0107 ; and if for these units we take the English mile and the solar 
second, the factor will be 11.95. The eighth column gives the absolute velocity of 
projection of the asteroid, in miles per second. These numbers are not to be regarded 
as absolutely accurate, being separately subjected to possible errors of 4 or 5 in the 
last place. But from what precedes, it will be seen that the mean of a considerable 
number of them will be nearly exact. When £ is imaginary, its value has been sup- 
posed zero in computing v, and the latter has been put between parentheses. 

The column marked M gives a series of numbers proportional to the superficial 
area of the asteroids, as deduced from their brilliancy. The square roots of these 
numbers will therefore be proportional to the diameters of the asteroids. In obtaining 
the values of M, I have used the table of apparent magnitudes published by Mr. Pogson 
in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, for January, 1859. 

The column headed m, gives a series of numbers showing the order of magnitude of 
the forty-eight asteroids contained in Mr. Pogson's table. 

It will be observed that a considerable number of the values of £ are imaginary. 
These values pertain to those orbits of which, with the tabular eccentricity, the peri- 
helion distance is greater, or the aphelion distance less, than 2.56. The real values of 
é are on the whole very nearly the same as those of 7; if we regard the imaginary 
values as zero, é will on the whole be sensibly less than ¢ Still their agreement is 
quite remarkable, and this favors Olbers's hypothesis, since, as before remarked, it is 
what might naturally be expected if this hypothesis were true. But the values of y 
are far less than those of E and £, which indicates that those fragments which were 
projected in the direction of the line of motion of the planet were thrown with much 


148 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


less velocity than the others. To the smallness of y is alone due the fact, that the 
eccentricities are not as many times larger than the inclinations as would be required 
on the hypothesis of explosion. Now this smallness of y may be accounted for on 
Olbers's hypothesis, if we reflect that all the asteroids for which aj is greater than 
.120 would be thrown without the limit of the zone in which they are now found; 
and that owing to their consequent frequent approach to Jupiter when in their 
aphelion, or to Mars when in their perihelion, their orbits might be entirely deranged. 

We may now determine whether there exists between the masses of the asteroids, 
and the velocities with which, on Olbers's hypothesis, they were thrown, any relation 
in virtue of which the smaller asteroids were thrown with greater velocity than the 
larger ones, or vice versa. This question would be solved with most theoretical rigor 
as follows: — If n asteroids be numbered in the order of their magnitude, and also in 
the order of their velocity of projection, if m, represents the number of any asteroid in 
the order of magnitude, and v, in the order of velocity of projection, then will the 
condition of no relation between these two classes of numbers be, when » is large, 

A zm, Y. 

n 4-1 

B being a small quantity of the order of magnitude of the chance errors of distribu- : 
tion, or of »*. But a more simple method will give a result practically quite as good. 
If we take the forty-eight asteroids of which both the magnitudes and velocities are 
given, we find that the average velocity of projection of that half of which the mag- 
nitude is greatest is .209, or about 2.49 miles per second ; and of that half of which the 
magnitude is least, .217, or about 2.59 miles per second. This difference is much less 
than that which might result from the chance inequalities; hence no relation like that 
sought for exists between the masses of the asteroids, and the velocities with which they 
were projected, if Olbers's hypothesis be true. 

The velocities 7 are, some positive, others negative, which indicates that the frag- 
ments must have been projected both backward and forward with respect to the direc- 
tion of the planet's motion. The signs of § and £ it is not possible to determine, since 
the eccentricity and inclination of a fragment would have the same value, whether these 
quantities were positive or negative. - 

In finding the values of £, no allowance could be made for the latitude of the planet 
at the time of the explosion. This must have been very small relative to the invariable 
plane, else the inferior limits of the inclinations of none of the asteroids could have been 
nearly zero. | | 


cw WM 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 149 


§ 5. 


Of certain observed Relations among the Orbits of the Asteroids, which are the Result, in whole or in Y 
of known Causes. 


It has frequently been noticed by writers on the distribution of the asteroids, that 
the perihelia and nodes of these bodies are very unequally distributed in longitude. 
For about two thirds of the asteroids, these elements are found in the first semicircle 
of longitude. 

These inequalities of distribution proceed principally from the fact that some of 
the principal terms in the expressions for h, l, p, and q, given in $ 1, have common 
angles for all the asteroids, and that the coefficients of each of these angles have the 
same sign for the different asteroids. "Thus in the expressions (12) the terms 


e sin (0) + e, sin (1) + e, sin (2) + .... + e, sin (7), 


¿Cos (0) + s cos (1) + &cos (2) + .... + & cos (7), 


and 


are common to all the asteroids, the different «’s all having the same sign when they 
are of appreciable magnitude. The average value of the first of these expressions is 
about +.0011; and of the second, about .0314. These common terms, therefore, 
cause a tendency in the perihelia to be near the longitude of which the tangent is 
yy, or very nearly 0. About 33 of the 57 known asteroids have their perihelia 
within 90° of this point of longitude. This is but one more than the probable number 
which we should expect as the effect of the above-mentioned tendency. The perihelia | 
are distributed in the four quadrants as shown in the second column of the following 
table. The third column shows the probable number, taking into account the above- 


mentioned tendency. 


1 22 16 
2 15 13 
3 9 12 
4 11 16 


'The excess of the number in the first quadrant over that in the fourth, and of the 
number in the second quadrant over that in the third, proceeds from the unequal dis- 
tribution of the angles B around the circle; and this again is merely a chance tempo- 
rary accumulation of those angles in the first two quadrants, which, from their expres- 
sions in $ 1, will evidently not be permanent, but will wear away in the course of a 
few thousand years, and which did not exist a few thousand years ago. ` 


150 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


The expressions for p and q of all the asteroids contain the common terms 
M sin y +h sin [1] + k sin [2] +.... + E; sin [7], 
M cos y + k, cos [1] + k cos [2] + .... + & cos [7]. 


The mean value of the first of these is about +.0180, and that of the second very 
small. Hence a common tendency exists among the nodes of the asteroids to be in 
90° of longitude. The second and third columns of the following table exhibit the- 
real and the probable distribution. 


and 


1 15 15 
2 "c 16 
3 13 13 
4 9 13 


The excess of the number in the third quadrant over that in the fourth proceeds from 
a cause similar to that which produces the excess in the perihelia, above referred to. 

In the general expressions for the eccentricity, inclination, longitude of perihelion, 
and longitude of node of Jupiter, the principal terms are 


Ae = + .0031 sin (0) + .0427 sin (1) — .0155 sin (2) 

ly = + .0031 cos (0) + .0427 cos (1) — .0155 cos (2). 

Pry = M sin y + .0012 sin [1] — .0063 sin [2] — .0015 sin [7] 
diy = M cos y + .0012 cos [1] — .0063 cos [2] — .0015 cos [7]. 


The comparison of the coefficients in these terms with the values of the correspond- 
ing e's and x's given in Tables I. and II. of $ 1, show that the corresponding quantities 
have the same signs, and that the different ratios of their magnitudes do not differ 
very materially from each other. The cause of this relation is, moreover, evident from 
an examination of the process by which the values of s and x were obtained. It 
follows from it that the general law of grouping of the nodes and perihelia of the 
asteroids may be expressed by saying that there is always a tendency in the perihelia 
of the asteroids to coincide in longitude with the perihelion of Jupiter, and in their 
nodes to coincide in longitude with the node of Jupiter. Sometimes, however, this 
tendency may be more than compensated by the circumstance of a number of the 
angles B+bt and C— bt having values nearly 180° different from the longitude of 
the perihelion, or longitude of the node of Jupiter. It will be most manifest in those 
asteroids which have small eccentricities and inclinations; thus the perihelion of Har- 
monia will very rarely be as much as 90° distant from that of Jupiter. For a similar 
reason the mutual inclination of the orbits of Euterpe and Jupiter will always be quite 
small, it being represented very nearly by V (p’—p)?+ (g — gy : 


ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 151 


The fact that the orbit of every asteroid, or nearly every one, is interlinked with the 
orbits of one or more other asteroids, so that if they were material we should by re- 
moving one carry off all the others with it, has sometimes been adduced as indicating 
a connection of some sort between these bodies. Let us examine the conditions of 
such interlinking. Suppose that one orbit of any pair is revolved around its node on 
the other orbit, as an axis, till the planes of the two orbits coincide. If their elements 
: fulfil the condition (13), 

(kU — kl)? + (kh! — Kh} > (e — ky, 

the orbits will then intersect in two points. If, on this supposition, they do not inter- 
sect, it is evident that they cannot interlink; hence the preceding condition is one 
which must be fulfilled to render it possible for them to interlink. It is also necessary 
that, in the position supposed, these points should fall on opposite sides of the line of 
nodes. Now, in view of the small differences of mean distances, and considerable 
eccentricities of the asteroids, it cannot be regarded as at all singular that a large num- 
ber of pairs should fulfil these conditions. As the orbits pass through their secular 
variations, some pairs which now interlink will cease to do so, and others which now 
do not interlink will do so. A change of this kind in some pair of orbits my be ex- 
pected to occur in nearly every century. Hence the fact of interlinking does not 
indicate any relation among the asteroids other than their being found together in a 
continuous zone; and can throw no light whatever on the question of their origin. 

In looking over a table of the elements of the asteroids, it is quite noticeable that the 
inclinations have a much wider range than the eccentricities. "Thus, while there is but 
a single asteroid the eccentricity of which is less than .06, there are ten or twelve whose 
inclination is smaller than this quantity. Again, several of the inclinations considerably 
exceed the superior limit of the eccentricities. This may be seen by the following 
table, which exhibits the distribution in magnitude of the eccentricities and inclinations 
used in the preceding section: — 


es vs 

t From .00 to .05 1 8 
.05 to .10 7 15 

.10 to .15 90 16 

.15 to .20 10 7 

.90 to .25 14 4 

.25 to .30 4 3 

Above .30 1 4 


It will also be observed, that there is a relative deficiency in the number of the above- 
mentioned elements having small values. The latter fact is easily accounted for. In 


159 ON THE ORBITS OF THE ASTEROIDS. 


the first place, if we consider the planet at the origin of its orbital motion, we see that, 
in order that its orbit may be very nearly circular, two independent improbable con- 
ditions must be fulfilled ; — firstly, that the direction of its motion shall be very nearly 
at right angles to the line passing through the planet and the sun; secondly, that its 


velocity should be very nearly equal to T r representing the distance of the planet 


from the sun. If we regard the probabilities of these separate circumstances as small 
quantities of the first order, the probability of their concurrence will be a small quantity 
of the second order. The probability that the eccentricity does not exceed a small 
quantity, c, will therefore be proportional to d so long as ø does not exceed a certain 
narrow limit. 

The same reasoning can be applied to the inclinations. In order that the inclination 
of the orbit of a planet to a plane taken at random shall be very small, it is requisite 
both that the planet should be very near this plane, and that the line of direction of its 
motion should be very nearly in this plane. 

To show the same result in a general form, we observe that h and / represent the 
. negatives of the co-ordinates of the centre of the ellipse in which the planet is moving, 

when the mean distance of the planet is taken for unity. If now we project the positions 
of these points on the plane of the ecliptic, we might expect to find those near the sun 
distributed nearly at random. If we draw a circle with a small radius, o, another with 
a radius 29, &c., around the sun as a centre, and if the centres of the orbits are equally 
distributed, the space between the first and second circles will contain three times as 
many centres as the inner one, the space between the second and third five times as 
many, and so on. It will be perceived that there is really a deficiency of small eccen- 
tricities, and a superabundance of small inclinations, though neither irregularity is 
greater than what might result from chance deviations in distribution. 

It has been suggested by an acute astronomer that the excess of small inclinations 
proceeds from the fact that observers generally look for asteroids very near the plane of 
the ecliptic. Considerable weight is given to this supposition by the circumstance that 
most of the asteroids-have been near their node at the time of their discovery. 

It seems highly probable, from this circumstance, that the mean inclination of the 
whole number of asteroids, known and unknown, is very much greater than that of 
the known ones. If so, the fact furnishes an additional argument against the hypoth- 
esis of explosion, since £ must then be much greater than ¿. 


y E 
Plante Wrightiane e Cuba Orientali (Polypetale et Apetale), a 


A. GRISEBACH. 


(Read August 14, 1860.) 


[Tn collection of dried plants of which Professor Grisebach has here commenced to give the determi- 
nations, with diagnoses of the new genera and species, was made by Mr. Charles Wright, in the eastern part 
of the island of Cuba, partly in the years 1856 and 1857, and partly in 1859 and the beginning of 1860. 
The specimens were mainly gathered in the high country and mountains behind Santiago de Cuba and Cobre 
(mostly within a moderate distance of Filanthropia, the hospitable country residence of George Bradford, 
Esq.), and especially in the elevated district back of Santa Catalina de Guantanamo, where the collector’s 
principal station was Monte Verde, a coffee-plantation and residence of the most estimable and hospitable M. 
Lescaille ; from which place as a centre Mr. Wright is still prosecuting and extending his herborizations. That 
the field is a rich and promising one, the great number of interesting and new species, enumerated in this and 
the following papers, abundantly show. In the distribution of these materials, the fullest set of the collection of 
1856-57 was assigned to Professor Grisebach, in order that they might be studied by him, along with the 
materials of his Flora of the British West Indian Islands, now in course of publication. This set, enriched by 
the collector’s valuable memoranda, was unfortunately lost on its way to Göttingen. As it could be only par- 
tially replaced, certain species of the first distribution have not been examined by Dr. Grisebach. Such of 
these species as I could name, more or less confidently, I have ventured to intercalate, always enclosing such 
additions, and other brief annotations I have had occasion to make, within brackets. When extracts from 
Mr. Wright’s memoranda are given, they are placed within quotation-marks. Determinations of the Mono- 
petale, &c. will follow.— Asa Gray.] 


RANUNCULACE, 


CLEMATIS DIOICA, L. (No, 1, 2.) 

CLEMATIS FLAMMULASTRUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): scandens, superne pubescens; foliis bis 
vel semel ternatisectis, segmentis parvis (6 — 2 lin. longis) ovato-lanceolatis integerrimis 

VOL. VIII. 20 


154 PLANTA WRIGHTIAN E, 


glabrescentibus ; corymbis 5-(3 — 1-) floris; floribus albis hermaphroditis; sepalis cune- 
ato-oblongis expansis pubescentibus (4 — 6 lin. longis); antheris filamento multo brevi- 
oribus; ovariis plumosis. — Habitus C. Flammule, que sepalis juxta marginem glabris 
et antheris elongatis differt; antheris nostra cum C. dioica, L. convenit. (1561.) 


MAGNOLIACEZ. 


ÍLLICIUM PARVIFLORUM, Michx. — *In monte Loma del Gato dicto; Dec. Frutex 
10-pedalis, petalis virido-luteis, staminibus rubris." (3.) 


Tatauma Power, DC. “Arbor minor: sepala rubescentia: petala alba.” (1100.) 


ANONACEJE. 


UVARIA NEGLECTA, Rich. — “ Arbor mediocris, sylvicola, ramis strictis, floribus viridi- 
bus seu viridi-luteis.” Petala velutina, oblonga, semipoll longa. Specimina a descr. 
Rich. paullo recedunt foliis angustioribus obtusis, carpidiis monospermis. Semina ut 
in U. Brasiliensi, sed arillo destituta. (1103.) 


OXANDRA LAURIFOLIA, Rich. Cub. t. 8. “Flores albi: fructus viridis.” (4, 489, 
1101.) 


OXANDRA viRGATA, Rich. — Syn. O. punctuata, C. Wright, mscr. “ Vulgo Lance- 
wood. Arbor parva, foliis eximie punctatis, floribus albis.”  (1102.) 


[Axona muricata, L. (5.) ] 


MENISPERMACEZ. 
CoccuLus DomINGENSIS, DC. (1105, flori£) [23, fructif. ] 
CissaMPELos PAREIRA, L. (21.) Var. y. C. Caapeba, L. (22.) 


PAPAVERACE. 


[Bocconia FRUTESCENS, L. (6.)] 


CRUCIFERÆ. 
NASTURTIUM OFFICINALE, R. Br. CO 


NASTURTIUM BREVIPES, Griseb.: annuum; caule brevi folia rosulata subæquante sub- 
aphyllo; foliis pinnatisectis, segmentis oblique subrotundis obtusilobis subæqualibus ; 
floribus parvis pedicellatis ; siliquis oblongo-linearibus pedicello quadruplo longioribus 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIAN E. 155 


(3 - 4 lin. longis); stigmate subsessili. — An N. palustre, e brevipes, DC.? e Portorico. 
* In humidis ad vias prope Santa Catalina de Guantanamo, Jan. — Feb. Flores luteoli." 


(1562.) 


CAPPARIDEZ. 
[CLeomkE potyGama, L. (9.) ] CAPPARIS CYNOPHALLOPHORA, L. (10.) 
[Capparis J AMAICENSIS, J acq. Syn. C. emarginata, Rich. (9%) ] 


[CAPPARIS AMYGDALINA, Lam. (9”.)] MORINGA PTERYGOSPERMA, Gertn. (1588.) 


BIXINEA. 


Luxania Grayt, Griseb. (Pl. Amer. Trop. p. 26): foliis ellipticis obtusiusculis basi 
acutis et e basi ipsa trinerviis; pedicellis flore longioribus supra basin articulatis cum 
axi racemi puberulis; stigmate obtuso subintegro. (1110.) [Etiam 468? coll. 
1856-7. “Arbor parva, gracilis, sylvicola."] 

LUNANIA RACEMOSA, Hook. “ Arbor gracilis, 30 — 50-ped., floribus albidis." (1563.) 


XYLOSMA INFESTUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): spinis gracilibus patentissimis folio duplo brevi- 
oribus; foliis coriaceis glabris ovalibus obovatis oblongisque obtusiusculis subsessilibus 
superne obtuse serratis, serraturis paucis distantibus; floribus dioicis fasciculatis; pedi- 
cellis paucis brevibus flori &quilongis ; calyce 5-partito, segmentis ciliolatis ; staminibus 
12—16 breviter exsertis; stylis 3; bacca ovata acutiuscula. — Frutex, * floribus viri- 
dulis, baccis rubris," a H nitido, As. Gr. differt foliis rigidis, petiolo brevissimo, et 
spinis. “In preeruptis prope villam Nouvelle Sophie" (1109.) | 

[Species sequentes duas imperfecte cognitas, a cl. Grisebach omissas, addo: — 

" [Xxroswa BUXIFOLIUM, A. Gr. (m. sp.): inerme, glabrum ; foliis obovatis retusis 
rigide coriaceis integerrimis margine revolutis, venis fere obsoletis; floribus dioicis 
fasciculatis, masculis ignotis, foemineis calyce 4 — 5-partito, segmentis angustis acutis 
eciliatis pedicellis multo brevioribus; ovario 4-ovulato, stigmate sessili bifido; bacca 
ovata. — * Prope Monte Verde, Dec. Frutex circa 10-pedalis.” Folia cum petiolo 
brevi subpollicaria, obtusissima vel retusa, levia sed opaca. Pedicelli pauci, 11-21 lin. 
longi. Calyx parvus, fere 1 lin. longis. Discus annularis crassiusculus. Ovarium 
ovatum, placentis 2 biovulatis. Bacca 3 lin. longa, 1 — 2-sperma. (1465.) 

[XYLOSMA SCHEFFERIOIDES, A. Gr. (n. sp.): inerme, glabrum; foliis obovato-cuneatis 
retusis subintegerrimis utrinque lineato-venosis; floribus dioicis fasciculatis, formineis 
ignotis, masculis calyce 4-partito, segmentis ovato-rotundis ciliatis; staminibus 12 — 16 


156 PLANTAE WRIGHTIANS. 


longe exsertis pedicello duplo brevioribus. — ** In scopulosis prope Monte Verde, Aprili. 
Arbor sat magna, trunco pedem diametro; flores flavidi.” Folia pollicaria vel sesqui- 
pollicaria, obtusissima, ssepius retusa vel emarginata, nunc obliqua seu repando- 
undulata, supra nitidula, subtus pallida, utrinque venis gracilibus prominulis ascenden- 
tibus anastomosantibus, modo Schefferie sed crebrioribus strictioribus, percursa: petiolo 
11-2 lin. longo. Pedicelli masculi in fasciculo plures, 3 lin. longi. (1464.) | 

L&TIA TERNSTREMIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis coriaceis obovato-oblongis integerri- 
mis obtusis vel emarginatis petiolatis glabris; corymbis pedunculatis axillaribus 3 — 7- 
floris; sepalis 7 — 8, interioribus (4 —5) petalinis; fructu velutino ovoideo-globoso ; pla- 
centis 3. — * Frutex 10-pedalis, seu arbor gracilis 15 — 20-pedalis, flores albi," habitu 
Ternstremie, affinis L. Thamnie, Sw.: folia punctis et lineolis pellucidis notata. (1107.) 

Toon: LÆTIOIDES, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 22. “Arbor 40-pedalis; folia sub- 
complicata; flores viriduli.” Placente in fructu demum trivalvi valde incrassatee, 
“ succo viscido”; semina arillata. (1108, fL, 1111. fr.) 


Tniux (PmockiA) crucis, Griseb.. Pl. Carib. p. 17. (11.) 
VALENTINIA ILICIFOLIA, Sw. (12.) 


Casrarra syrvmsrRIS, Sw. (17.) Var. foliis subopacis. (1112.) [594 — 17. 595, 
inter 17 et 1112.] 


CASEARIA STIPULARIS, Vent. [Fruct. in coll. 1859 — 60 globosus, parvus.] (16.) 


CASEARIA HIRTA, Sw. (15.) Vars. glabriores vel glabelle. (13*, 18.) [Huc forte 
no. 14.] 


GUIDONIA SPINESCENS, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 24. (18, fl. in coll. I.; fr. in 
coll. IT.) 


[SAMYDA SERRULATA, L.? ex char. (19, fr.)] 


VIOLACEJE. 


HsawTHUs Havanensts, Jacq. (114.) Tonipium stricrum, Vent. (20.) 


POLYGALEZ. 
PotyeaLa ANGUSTIFOLIA, H. B. K. (112.) 


PHLEBOT ANIA, n. gen. Sepala 5, bina lateralia multo majora, colorata. Petala 3. E 
Stamina monadelpha, 8: anthere uniloculares, foramine rotundo introrso-terminali. - 
Stylus lingulatus, labio stigmatis inferiori distante. Fructus ignotus. — Frutex glaber, 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIAN X. 151 


habitu Polygale ; folia coriacea, venis rectis utrinque prominulis valde approximatis 
reticulato-striata; racemi breves axillares; pedicellis cum sinu rhacheos articulatis ; 
bracteolis deciduis. — A. Polygala differt staminibus monadelphis et poro anthere in- 
trorsum declivi. 

PHLEBOTENIA CUNEATA, Griseb. — Syn. Polygala cuneata, Griseb., in litt. olim. Folia 
rigida, cuneato-spathulata, apice emarginato-subtruncata, pollicaria, venis crassiusculis 
trabeculis distantibus invicem connexis. Racemi folium subzquantes, subsessiles, axi 
puberulo crassiusculo, sinubus denticulato; pedicellis 3 —4 lin. longis florem subequan- 
tibus. Sepala minora oblonga; ale petala includentes, ovales, roses, illis quadruplo 
majores. — Prope urbem Santa Catalina de Guantanamo, 1856. (113.) 


BapnreRA Domincensis, DC. (115.) SECURIDACA VIRGATA, Sw. (1175.) 


SECURIDACA Lawancxrir, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 30. (116.) 


EUPHORBIACE. 


TRICERA GLOMERATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis glaucescentibus elliptico-lanceolatis mu- 
cronato-acutiusculis (pollicem longis); floribus glomeratis; petiolo pedunculum brevis- 
simum superante; calycis 4 segmentis ovatis filamenta brevia multo superantibus ; 
ovario e calyce 2 exserto stylis longiori. —“ Frutex 3 -—4-pedalis in scopulosis prope 
Nouvelle Sophie villam, Oct." (1676.) 


Hirronyma CLUSIOIDES, Griseb. — Syn. Stilaginella, Tul. (580.) : 
SAVIA SESSILIFLORA, W. — Syn. Phyllanthus laurifolius, Rich. (587, 588, 1674.) 


SAVIA ERYTHROXYLOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.) : ramulis glabris ; foliis coriaceis obovatis 
v. ovalibus obtusis margine integerrimo revolutis glabris; ovario pubescente; stigma- 
tibus brevibus reflexis bipartitis, segmentis crassiusculis. — * Frutex 6 — 10-pedalis, 
patens, in sylvis umbrosis pr. Monte Verde." — Eandem speciem pr. Matanzas fruti- 
cemque 4-pedalem dixit Rugel A precedente differt glabritie ramulorum, foliis 
rigidis basi attenuatis, capsula juniori pubescente. Flores dioici, in axillis glomerati. 
Calyx 5-partitus. Petala 5, in 4 partim aut omnino abortiva. Discus minutus, 5- 
lobus. Stamina 5: rudimentum pistilli in ¢ 3-partitum vel minutum. Capsula tri- 
cocca ; coccis dispermis, seminibus levibus ecarunculatis. (4 1434, 9 1433.) 


DRYPETES GLAUCA, Vahl. “ Fructus ruber." (593.) 


Cicca ANTILLANA, Juss. Var. a, GLAUCESCENS, foliis subtus glaucis. [Cicca scandens, 
C. Wright in sched. “Climbing to the height of 30 to 50 feet, and spreading about 
among the branches of trees. La Perla, Monte Verde, Aug. 22.”] (1437.) 


158 PLANTA WRIGHTIAN E. 


Var. B. virens ; foliis concoloribus. * Frutex 5 — 10-pedalis; floribus virididiavies 
fructu albido.” (583, 584.) 

Var. y. PEDICELLARIS; foliis subtus glaucescentibus; bacce pedicello longiori (8-4 
lin. longo). * Arbor gracilis, 40-pedalis. Nouvelle Sophie, Oct. Semina ceruleo- 
purpurea." (584*.) 

PHYLLANTHUS NUTANS, Sw. (582, 1436, partim: specimina floribus majoribus.) 

PnuvrirAwTHUs Niruri; L. (590, [591,] 1675.) 


PHYLLANTHUS (ANISONEMA) JAMAICENSIS, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 34. (1436, 
partim,* specimina floribus minoribus.) 

PHYLLANTHUS (ANISONEMA) MYRTILLOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosus; foliis obovato- 
rotundatis sepe mucronatis glabris subtus glaucis breviter petiolatis; stipulis e basi 
lanceolata setaceis marcescentibus ; pedicellis subsolitariis paucisve fasciculatis folium 
dimidium subequantibus; floribus utriusque sexus mixtis; calycis segmentis 6 ovali- 
bus; staminibus 3 exterioribus distinctis columnam equantibus E columna centrali 
breviter trifida triandra; antheris breviter ovatis rima longitudinali dehiscentibus ; stylo 
gracili ad medium trifida ; stigmatibus breviter bidentatis ; capsula globosa. — Habitus 
et magnitudo floris ut in P. nutante. Folia 10 —4 lin. longa. Character sectionis Ani- 
sonematis columna integra aut breviter trifida amplificandus est. “ Frutex diffusus, 6 — 
9-pedalis. Fl. masc. albi, foem. albidi. Prope Monte Verde, Dec.” (1438.) 


PHYLLANTHUS (ASTERANDRA) JUGLANDIFOLIUS, W. (586.) 


PHYLLANTHI sp. aut var., specimina tantum 9 indeterminata, sunt 1430, 1431, 1432: 
* arbuscule.” 


JATROPHA HASTATA, Jacq. (575.) [JATROPHA GOSSYPIFOLIA, L. 576.] 
[ALEURITES TRILOBA, Forst. Arbor Oceanica, nunc in Antillis spontanea. (577.) ] 


Croton (CascARILLA) STENOPHYLLUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis foliisque subtus fla- 
vescenti-tomentosis, his anguste linearibus acuminatis vel apice obtusiusculis integer- 
rimis supra verruculoso-scabris basi eglandulosis in petiolum brevem attenuatis, venis 
crassiusculis obliquis supra sepe impressis subtus prominulis; racemis terminalibus ; 


seminibus oblongis. — “ Frutex gracilis, 6 — 10-pedalis, prope Cobre et Nouvelle Sophie. 
Stamina alba." (560, 1669.) 


.. Croton (CAsCARILLA) VIMINALIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis sn subtus luteo- 
lepidotis, his lineari-lanceolatis obtusiusculis integerrimis supra glabris basi eglandulosis 


* [Magna pro parte.] 


PLANTE WRIGHTIAN X. 159 


breviter petiolatis, venis crássiusculis transversis supra impressis subtus sepe promi- 
nulis; racemis terminalibus; seminibus oblongis. — ** Frutex gracilis, 6 — 12-pedalis, 
floribus albidis; pr. Monte Verde." (565.) 


Croton (CASCARILLA) DIscoLOR, W.  * Prope Santa Catalina de Guantanamo.” 
(564.) - ; 

Croton (CASCARILLA) PACHYSEPALUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis scabro-pubescentibus ; 
folis parvis oblongo-lanceolatis obtusiusculis insequaliter eroso-crenatis supra stellato- 
pubescentibus subtus tomentosis basi biglandulosis, glandulis subsessilibus, petiolo 
 erassiusculo; racemis paucifloris in ramulo brevi terminalibus subsessilibus ; calycis 9 
segmentis incrassatis. — Affinis C. betulino, Vahl. “In collibus prope Cobre; fru- 
ticosa.” (559.) 


 Cnorow (CASCARILLA) CORYLIFOLIUS, Lam. (566.) 
Croton (AsTrAOPSIS) LUCIDUS, L., var. GLANDULIFERUS, Vahl. (567.) 
Croron (LasroGYNE) ASTROITES, Ait. : forma depauperata, stylis minus divisis. (1670.) 


Croton (Micnocnorow *) SERPYLLOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): caulibus suffruticosis cæs- 
pitose decumbentibus filiformibus foliosis foliisque stellato-pubescentibus (v. demum 
glabrescentibus), his minutis orbicularibus integerrimis breviter petiolatis (2— 1 lin. 
diam.); racemis paucifloris monoicis (v. abortu sexu distinctis) floribus d superi- 
"oribus 2—5, 2 subsolitario longius pedicellato. (Eandem speciem prope Havanam leg. 
Greene, ej. coll. 7.) 569.) 


[Croton sp. indeterminata. Specimina pauca, manca. (563.) ] 
[Croron (GEISELERIA) GLANDULOSUS, L. (568.) ] 

ARGYTHAMNIA CANDICANS, Sw. Styli variant 2 — 8-partiti. (570.) 
ADELIA RICINELLA, L. (581, 1435.) 


BERNARDIA VENOSA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis lanceolatis ovatisque obtusiusculis mar- 
gine calloso crenato-serratis supra glabris subtus in reticulo venarum prominulo ramu- 
lisque strigosis stellatoque-pubescentibus; amentis d  abbreviatis petiolo tomentoso 
brevioribus sessilibus, calyce tripartito; amentis 9 breviter pedunculatis, calyce biseri- 
atim 6-partito, stylis 3 — 4-partito-laceris. — Differt a B. carpinifolia foliis inter venas | 


* Sectio MICROCROTON. Calyx 5-partitus, valvaris. Petala in 4 5,in € nulla. Stamina 5, petalis 
opposita. Ovarium glandulis 5 calyci oppositis cinctum : styli 4-partiti, apice involuti. Semina ovalia, sub- 
compressa, rhaphe distincta, caruncula minuta. — Habitus Codonocalycis; folia exstipulata; racemuli termi- 
nales vel laterales. 


160 = PLANTA WRIGHTIANZ. 


secundarias prominulas glabratis, serraturis crebris callosis, pube rigente. Glandule in 
foliis subtus ocellate nunc sparse, nunc deficiunt. “Prope Monte Verde. Frutex 
ultra-orgyalis, floribus viridibus." (1425.) 


BERNARDIA INTERMEDIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis ovato-lanceolatis obtusiusculis mar- 
gine calloso crenato-serratis supra scabriusculis subtus ramulisque molliter stellato- 
pubescentibus, reticulo venarum prominulo; amentis 4 petiolum «quantibus subses- 
silibus, calyce tripartito; capsulis solitariis subsessilibus. — Venis secundariis subtus 
prominulis cum B. venosa, pube cum B. carpinifolia, Griseb. convenit. — “ Frutex 8 — 
12-pedalis, in scopulosis prope Nouvelle Sophie, Nov." (1671.) 


Levcocroton (n. gen.) Wien, Griseb. Pl. Amer. Trop. p. 21.— Syn. Croton 
Wrightii, Griseb. olim. “ Arbuscula, in sylvis densis prope Monte Verde; Maio 2, 
Junio 17." (561, 562, 1424.) 


ALCHORNEA LATIFOLIA, Sw. (5'/9, 1668.) ACALYPHA ALOPECUROIDES, Jacq. (571.) 
` ACALYPHA REPTANS, Sw. (1426, 167 2.) À 

[Acanvena, sp. foliis parvis. Var. precedentis? (572.)] 

PLATYGYNE URENS, Merc. — Syn. Acanthocaulon pruriens, Kl. (557.) 

Taxol Ka eege, L. (558,1423.) | 

SAPIUM LAURIFOLIUM, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 49. (518.) | 


SAPIUM ADENODON, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis obovatis vel rhombeis obtusiuscule apicu- 
latis basi exquisite cuneatis supra basin margine glandulifero regulariter glanduloso- 
serratis levibus minutissime pellucido-punctatis, venis inconspicuis, petiolo eglanduloso; 
stipulis cordato-subrotundis ; spicis 4 axillaribus interruptis, calyce bifido, filamentis 2 
e basi monadelpha divergentibus; pedunculis 2 (in distinctis ramis) bracteiferis in flo- 
rem terminalem abeuntibus, stylis abbreviatis. — ** Frutex gracilis, orgyalis et ultra, in 
preruptis prope Monte Verde, Aug." (1428.) 


DITTA, n. gen. Flores d —, 2 nudi, glomerati. Ovarium biloculare, loculis uni- 
ovulatis, ovulis pendulis: stigmata 4, sessilia, conica, nuda. Pericarpium subdru- 
paceum, endocarpiis binis lignosis rugosis ab epicarpio tenui et septo solutis. Semina 
Ric pr — Frutex resinosus, habitu Myrice, glaber: folia glandulis marginalibus 
Sapii instructa: flores sessiles in axillis congesti. — Genus Bonanie, Rich. Cub., a cl. 
Baillon ad Sapium reductz, affine videtur florem situ: a stylis in duplicem conum. = 
basin divisis nominantur. 


Drrra myricomEs, Griseb. — Folia approximata, lanceolata, obtusiuscula, superne 


PLANTA WRIGHTIANA. 161 


repando-denticulata, basi in petiolum brevem attenuata, bi—sesquipollicaria: stipule 
nulle vel sub resina effluente inconspicua. Ovaria bracteis subrotundis (v. calycis rudi- 
mento ?) distincta, lineam longa, 5 vel pauciora in plerisque axillis; stigmatibus mar- 
gine protrusis divergentibus obtusiusculis. Drupa subglobosa 2 lin. diametro. “ Prope 
Monte Verde, Jan. 3. Frutex vel arbuscula.” (1429.) 


[ExcacArIa (GYMNANTHES) LUCIDA, Sw. (585, fructif.) ] 


EXCŒCARIA (SEBASTIANIA) PALLENS, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis coriaceis lanceo- 
latis supra basin remote serrulatis vel subintegris basi attenuata supra canaliculata a 
petiolo distinctis; amentis androgynis folio duplo brevioribus interruptis breviter pe- 
dunculatis ; bracteis $ margine incurvo glandulosis trifloris; floribus tri-(2-—4-)andris» 
centrali squamulis 4 angustis stipato, antheris breviter exsertis filamentum subequanti- 
bus; floribus 9 1—2 in basi amenti sessilibus aliisque ex distinctis axillis pedicellatis 
solitariis; stylo tripartito; capsule valvis coriaceis apice cohwrentibus; seminibus 
ovoideo-globosis, caruncula obsoleta.— * In scopulosis prope Monte Verde. Frutex 
patens, 6 — 10-pedalis.” (1427.) 


Excc&cARIA ERYTHROSPERMA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis lanceolatis vel elliptico- 
lanceolatis supra basin remotiuscule glanduloso-serrulatis ` amentis — ; seminibus semi- 
ovoideis facie interiori convexis arilo rubro inclusis, caruncula obsoleta. — Similis E. 
lucide, semine rubro et caruncula evanida distincta. — “ In monte La Guinea, Dec. 
Frutex 10- 15-pedalis.” (1673.) 


PEDILANTHUS LINEARIFOLIUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis elongato-linearibus basi attenuatis 
apice mucronatis (3 — 4-pollicaribus, lin. 2 fere latis); pedunculis umbellatis vel cymo- 
sis; bracteis 2 ovatis involucrum ante anthesin includentibus; involucro «quali apice 
truncato uniglanduloso, glandula maxima rotundata, appendice dorsali foveata crasse 
marginata labiiformi, margine apice emarginato inferne in calcar brevissimum apice 
subdidymum producto; ovario exserto; capsula lwvi.— Sectionem generis involucro 
truncato distinctam format magisque quam genera Klotzschiana a ceteris recedit. — 
“Tn scopulosis ad Nouvelle Sophie, Nov. Fruticosa, 6 — 9-pedalis, bracteis involucri- 
busque rubellis.” (1677.) > 


EuPHorBIa pioica, H.B.K. (547.) EUPHORBIA PROSTRATA, Ait. (548, 549.) 
EUPHORBIA PILULIFERA, L. (550, 551.) EUPHORBIA HYPERICIFOLIA, L. (552, 1422.) . 
EUPHORBIA HETEROPHYLLA, L. var. PRUNIFOLIA, Jacq. (554.) 


EUPHORBIA PUNICEA, Ait. [Semina globosa, levia, opaca, albida-variegata, caruncula 
haud manifesta.] (556.) 
VOL. VIII. 21 


162 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


Evrnonsia aff. E. heterophylle, L. in DC. Prodromo a cl. Boissier mox edenda. (555.) 


EUPHORBIA MONANTHA, C. Wright, mscr., a cl. Boissier describenda. “Inter saxa in 
rivis desiccatis prope Monte Verde, Junio. Radix tuberosa.”  (1421.) 


[ EvpHorsi, sp. aphylla, articulata, siccitate ramulis acutissime pluricostatis. (553.) ] 


CARYOPHYLLEZ. 
DRYMARIA CORDATA, W. var. DIANDRA. (24.) [CYPSELEA HUMIFUSA, Turp. (596.) | 
MoLLuGO NUDICAULIS, Lam. (25.) TALINUM PATENS, W. (26.) 
PHYTOLACCEA. 
PHYTOLACCA OCTANDRA, L. (1392.) Puyronacca ICOSANDRA, L. (470.) 
Rivina Lzvis, L. et vars. (469.) RIVINA OCTANDRA, L. (471.) 


PETIVERIA ALLIACEA, L. (1391.) 


AMARANTACEZ. 
IRESINE CELOSIOIDES, Linn. (474.) [IresiskE ELaTIOR, Rich. (473.) ] 
[Iresive (PHILOXERUS) SERPYLLIFOLIA, Moq. ex char. (475.) ] 
[Cuamissoa arrissima, H.B.K.) (472.) ] : > 


WW«HLERIA SERPYLLIFOLIA, Griseb., Pl. Amer. Trop. p. 10.* « Prope Monte Verde in 
fissuris rupium.” (1396.) | 


NYCTAGINEJE. 


B@RHAAVIA SCANDENS, L. (467.) 


Pisonia NIGRICANS, Sw.! (non alior.) Syn. P. pedicellaris, Griseb. olim. (465 pro 
parte, 466.) 


[Pisonia ACULEATA, L. (465 pro parte, coll 1856-7, 1859 — 60, fruct. glandulis 
pedicellatis ornato.) ] 


* *WGEHLERIA, n. gen. Calyx tribracteolatus, quadrisepalus, sepalis subequalibus lana destitutis. 
Stamen unieum, hypogynum, sepalorum alteri interiorum oppositum ; filamento filiformi basi minute bidentato ; 
anthera subglobosa uniloculari. Ovarium uniovulatum: stigmata 2, filiformia, sessilia. Pericarpium utricu- 
lare. — Herba minuta, filiformis, diffusa, radicans, glabra, habitu /Mecebri v. Lithophile ; folia opposita, sub- 
rotunda, petiolata ; capitula in ramulis terminalia, alba, minuta, demum oblongata, pedicellata ; sepalis scariosis 
bracteas multo superantibus." Griseb. 1. c. 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 163 


PISONIA OBTUSATA, ŠW., var. RUFESCENS: foliis junioribus subtus cymisque rufo- 
tomentosis. — “ Arbor sat magna, floribus viridulis." (464.) 


MALVACEA. 


MALVASTRUM SPICATUM, As. Gr. Bot. Pacif. Expl. Exped. 1, p. 147. (27.) 
SIDA CARPINIFOLIA, L. (1115.) Var. BrevIcusPIDATA, Griseb. Fl. W. Ind. (1565.) 


SIDA GLOMERATA, Cav. (1566.) Sipa Jamatcensis, L. (29.) 
SIDA RHOMBIFOLIA, L. (1116.) [Sina spinosa, L. (28.) ] 

SIDA URENS, L (1564, 30°.) SIDA HEDERIFOLIA, Cav. (1567.) 
SIDA PANICULATA, L. (1569.) SIDA PYRAMIDATA, Cay. (1570.) 


[SIDA ULMIFOLIA, Cav., forma subglabra. (30.) | 

SIDA nervosa, DC. Lusus pedicellis infra medium articulatis. (1568.) 
SIDA CORDIFOLIA, L., var. S. ALTHÆIFOLIA, Sw. (31.) 

[ABurTILoN ( WISSADULA) PERIPLOCIFOLIUM, Don. (32.) ] 

ABUTILON (BELGRE) CONFERTIFLORUM, Rich. Cub. (1572.) 

ABUTILON (BEL@RE) PERMOLLE, Don. (1571.) 

[MarACHRA CAPITATA, L. var. ALCEIFOLIA, Griseb. (36.) ] 

MaracHRA RADIATA, L. (35, 1578.) URENA SINUATA, L. (1114.) 


PAVONIA TYPHALEOIDES, H.B.K., Syn. P. Pseudotyphalea, Griseb. olim. Arista 
media quandoque breviori a forma vulgari recedit. “Flores albi.” (33.) 


Pavonia SPINIFEX, Cav. (34.) Var. involucello calycem excedente 6 — 10-phyllo. 
(1113.) " 

Hisiscus (Kermia) CRYPTOCARPUS, Rich. Cub. “ Fruticosus, ultraorgyalis, corolla 
atro-rubra.” (1575.) | 


Hisiscus (BoMBICELLA) PHENICEUS, Jacq. non. Cav. (1574.) 


THESPESIA POPULNEA, Cay. (1576.) PARITIUM TILIACEUM, A. Juss. (37.) 


BOMBACEA. 


CARPODIPTERA, n. gen.— Calyx bi - trifidus, persistens, lobis subinzequalibus val- 
vatis. Petala 5, hypogyna, sinistrorsum contorta, late unguiculata, bina majora. Stamina 


164 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


16 — 13, hypogyna, basi monadelpha; filamentis inzqualibus; antheris unilocularibus 

terminalibus reniformibus seu obliquis sursum vel introrsum dehiscentibus. Ovarium 

liberum, sessile, biloculare, loculis uniovulatis ; ovulis supra medium loculum affixis pen- 

dulis: stigmata 2, sessilia, effigurata, crenato-multilobulata. Samara bilocularis, car- 

pidiis utrinque latere (ad modum Hiree) alatis, alis 4 divergentibus. Semina compressa, 

orbicularia, apicibus comata; testa coriacea. — Arbor, ramulis petiolisque stellato- 

puberulis; foliis glabrescentibus subpenninerviis ovato-oblongis acuminatis basi 5-nervi 

minute subcordatis integerrimis; stipulis deciduis; cymis pedunculatis corymbiformibus 

axillaribus; calyce stellato-tomentoso; corolla rubra [seu “ pallide purpurea"] glabra. 
— Genus ovulis pendulis heteroclitum, Myrodie paullisper affine. 


CARPODIPTERA Cusensis, Griseb. — Folia 2—3-pollicaria, cymas duplo superantia, 
petiolo 6-4 lin. longo. Calyx subglobosus, lineam latus, petalis majoribus duplo 
superatus. Stamina inclusa, ovarium equantia. Carpidia samare connexa, calycem 
duplo superantia, alis semi-obovatis stellato-expansis 8 lin. longis. “Arbor 30 —50- 
pedalis, in sylvis prope Santa Catalina, in declivibus prope villam Nouvelle Sophie 
dictam, Aug. et Oct.” (1117.) | ; 


Ocuroma Lacorus, Sw. (38.) 


BUETTNERIACEZ. 
GUAZUMA TOMENTOSA, H.B.K. (47.) BurrrNERIA MICROPHYLLA, L. (41.) 
MELOCHIA TOMENTOSA, L. (40.) [Mxrocura NODIFLORA, Sw. (39.) ] 


[WaALTHERIA AMERICANA, L. (42.)] 


TILIACEA, - 
TRIUMFETTA SEMITRILOBA, L, (43.) TRIUMFETTA GROSSULARIFOLIA, Rich. (44.) 


ConcHoRus siLiQUOsUS, L. (45.) 
MUNTINGIA CALABURA, L. [Ex cl. Wright “ Placente axiles inter se libere.”] (46.) 


SLOANEA CURATELLIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis petiolis stipulisque puberulis ; 
foliis ovali-oblongis (6 —8 unc. longis) sinuato-denticulatis glabris, petiolo apice tumido 
(8 —12 lin. longo), stipulis elongato-acuminatis deciduis; pedicellis lateralibus; calyce 
persistente 5-partito velutino, segmentis ovatis vel ovato-subrotundis ovario breviori- 
bus; staminibus —; stylo trifido, ramis filiformibus acutis erectis; capsula ovoidea 
setis ejus diametrum transversalem superantibus pubescentibus rectiusculis. — ** Arbor 
excelsa, Achiote incolarum, in sylvis prope Monte Verde, Jan." (1118.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 165 


SLOANEA AMYGDALINA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis puberulis glabrescentibus ; foliis parvis 
(sesqui — bipollicaribus) obovato-oblongis leviter emarginatis superne subcrenato-repandis 
glabris, petiolo zequali (4—2 lin. longo); stipulis deciduis; pedunculis axillaribus bi- 
trifidis; pedicellis «equilongis; calyce 4-partito intus velutino, segmentis deltoideis ; 
staminibus pubescentibus breviter exsertis, filamentis brevissimis, antheris oblongo-line- 
aribus infra mucronem terminalem subrecurvum loculo triplo breviorem foramine ovali 
- dehiscentibus ; stylo brevi simplici apice incurvo obtusiusculo; ovario setuloso; cap- 
sula —. Affinis S. quadrivalvi, Seem., * per exsiccationem amygdalas amaras spirat." 
[Capsula globosa, quadrivalvis, setulis brevissimis creberrime vestita.] * Arbor magna, 
trunco basi in laminis latis excurrente. Prope Monte Verde in sylvis; Junio." (1119.) 


RHAMNEZ. 
COLUBRINA FERRUGINOSA, Brongn. (1139.) CoLuBRINA RECLINATA, Brongn. (76.) 
ZizyPHUS Havanensis, H.B.K. Specim. fructif. (1298.) 


GoUANIA TOMENTOSA, Jacq. var. PUBESCENS. (15.) 


AMPELIDEA?. 

Cissus sicyorpes, L. (74.) Et forma parvifolia. (1136.) 

Cissus TRIFOLIATA, L.: «, foliolis pellucido-punctatis ovatis acutis superne remote 
incumbenti-serratis. (72.) Forma floribus luteo-rubris. (72, partim.) [Forma foliolis 
promisse acuminatis, 70. ] 

Var. B. caustica (C. caustica, Tuss.): foliolis pellucido-punctatis cuneato-ellipticis ` 
obtusiusculis superne remote serratis. “Flores coccinei" (1137.) 

Var. y. INTERMEDIA, (C. intermedia, Rich.): foliolis opacis cuneato-ellipticis obtusis 
superne remote denticulato-serratis vel subintegerrimis; pedicellis hirsutis vel glabres- 
centibus; bacca obovata. (71, 73.) 

Var. à. opovata (C. obovata, Vahl): foliolis demum opacis spathulatis obtusis inte- 
gerrimis vel repando-paucidenticulatis. (1138.) 


Vitis Canigza, DC. (69, specim. florif. & fructif.) 


TERNSTRUEMIACEA,. 


TERNSTREMIA OBOVALIS, Rich. (T. meridionalis, Swartz, etc. non W.) “Corolla 
alba" (1125.) 


166 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


TERNSTREMIA ELLIPTICA, Sw. (T. meridionalis, W. non Sw. T. peduncularis, DC.) 
Ludit foliis emarginatis et obtusis. (1577.) 


TERNSTREMIA cLUsrrFOLIA, H.B.K. “Corolla pallide lutea." (1124.) 
CLEYERA THEOIDES, Planch.; Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 103. (1126, 1145.) 


FREZIERA HIRSUTA, Sw.; a forma Caribea recedens petiolo longiori et serraturis folii 
minoribus. (49.) ; 


LarLacea Wricutt, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis glabris ; foliis spathulatis apice emar- 
ginatis integerrimis subsessilibus glabris, nervo mediano subtus glabrato ; sepalis sericeo- 
velutinis; capsula 5-angulari lineari-oblonga, loculis trispermis. — Proxima L. Curtyane, 
^ Rich., foliis glabris emarginatis distincta. “ In sylvis prope Monte Verde. Arbor gra- 
cilis, floribus albis, antheris extrorsis." (48.) 


OCHNACEZ. 
GOMPHIA ALTERNIFOLIA, Rich. Drupæ obovate, “leete cyanee.” (58.) 


GOMPHIA REVOLUTA, C. Wright, mscr. (n. sp.): foliis parvis elliptico-oblongis spathu- 
latisque obtusis integerrimis margine revolutis breviter petiolatis, venis tenuissimis ; 
panicula laxa corymbosa; pedicellis gemmam ovatam obtusam duplo superantibus ; 
sepalis ovali-oblongis corolla paullo brevioribus; antheris levibus; drupis subglobosis 
basi contractis. — Prope Monte Verde. (1128.) 


GUTTIFER. 


TovomITA cLusiorpEs, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis obovatis obtusis integerrimis basi obtu- 
siusculis (2 31 poll. longis), venis primariis rectis crassiusculis utrinque prominulis, 
petiolo brevi crasso; cyma terminali pauciflora foliis superata, pedicellis tetragonis ; 
sepalis 2 deciduis; petalis 6; staminibus plurimis; filamentis superne dilatatis; an- 
there loculis breviter oblongis lateralibus. — Habitu accedit ad Clusiam venosam et T. 

havetioidem. Flores * albi," fom. ignoti — “In pinetis prope Monte Verde. Arbus- 
cula.” (1121.) He 


Crusia mosEa, L. (50.) Crusrà ALBA, L. (51.) CLUSIA FLAVA, L. (52.) 
RHEEDIA, Griseb. n. gen. Flores hermaphroditi.* Sepala 2, persistentia. Petala 


4, imbricativa. Stamina plurima, infra gynophorum inserta: anthere minute, globose, 


_[* Flores non revera hermaphroditi, sed in spec. coll. 1856 — 7 ovarii abortu steriles, staminibus validioribus ; 
in coll. 1859 fertiles, subhermaphroditi, staminibus minoribus. Folia pleraque angustiora, lanceolata.] 


PLANTEH WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 167 


introrse. Ovarium gynophoro mamillari suffultum, 4-loculare, loculis uniovulatis : 
stigma late depressum, convexum, obsolete 4 lobum, sessile. Pericarpium drupaceum. 
Testa lignosa. — Frutex habitu florum Berberidis, foliorum Rusci, ramis triquetris vel 
tetragonis ; folia parva, rigida, mucronato-aristata, opposita vel terna. Pedicelli axillares 
solitarii, exserti. — Genus Mammee affine, gynophoro et flore hermaphrodito ab ejus 
sectione Rheediandra (Rheedia, L.) distinctum, habitu inter Clusiaceas peculiare, cui 
nomen reductione Rheedie Linneane e systemate expulsum redditur. | 


RHEEDIA RUSCIFOLIA, Griseb. — Folia subpollicaria, lanceolata-oblonga, rigida, mar- 
ginata, venis primariis crassiusculis, petiolo brevi incrassato. Pedicelli folia vulgo duplo 
superantes. Petala (21 lin. diametro) subrotunda, calyce plus duplo longiora. Drupa 
ovoidea. — * In pinetis prope Monte Verde. Arbuscula, ramis horizontalibus, succo 
resinoso flavo, floribus pallide luteis. Ovarium triloculare." (53.) 


CALOPHYLLUM Carasa, Jacq. (1122.) 


MARCGRAAVIACEJE. 


MARCGRAAVIA UMBELLATA, L. (54, 1123.) 


HYPERICACEZ. 


Marita RACEMOSA, Sw. (1120.) 


ERYTHROXYLEZ. 


ERYTHROXYLUM OBTUSUM, DC. (86, 1149.) 


MALPIGHIACEZ. 
BYRSONIMA spicata, Rich. (82.) Byrsonima LUCIDA, Rich. (1150, 84°, fruct.) 


BYRSONIMA BIFLORA, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosa; foliis spathulatis obovatisque in 
petiolum brevem angustatis margine revolutis glabris supra lucidis venis teneribus re- 
motiusculis ; racemis in ramulo terminalibus in corymbum bi — pauciflorum contractis, 
pedicellis folio demum brevioribus, bracteis ovato-lanceolatis subsequalibus ; petalis 
rubris; anthere loculis glabris connectivo apice subrecurvo subequalibus; ovario 
glabro. — Affinis B. lucide, inflorescentia in genere singularis. (84.) 


BuwcnHosia MEDIA, DC. (89.) [No. 87 est eadem fructifera; 88, florifera.] 


MALPIGHIA GLABRA, L. (90.) [Marerenra PUNICIFOLIA, L. (85, SECH) 


168 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


MarPiGHIA oxycocca, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 117. Drupa obtusangula. (88, 
1583.) 

Marricmia Cnipa, Spreng. (100.) 

Daten cocciGERA, L.? foliis anguste oblongis. (99.) ] 

STIGMAPHYLLON MICROPHYLLUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis parvis (5 — 8 lin. longis) oblongis 
utrinque rotundatis apice mucronulatis supra glabris subtus ramulisque puberulis, glan- 
dulis 2 infra apicem petioli collocatis stipitatis; pedicellis infra medium articulatis et 
bibracteolatis; stigmatibus 2-1 foliaceis, binis aut tertio compresso-truncato. — Fructus 
ignotus. (93.) 

STIGMAPHYLLON SAGRAANUM, Juss. (97.) 

BANISTERIA PAUCIFLORA, H.B.K. (95, 1584.) 

HETEROPTERIS LAURIFOLIA, Juss. (92.) 


TRIOPTERIS RIGIDA, Sw. — Glandule in basi folii adsunt, sed evanescunt. (96.) 


[TrrRAPTERIS sp. indeterm. 94. Malpighiacea indeterminata, fruct. ignot. 98.] 


SAPINDACE.E. 


SERJANIA LUCIDA, Schum. “ Flores coccineo-rosei"  (109.) 


SERJANIA DIVARICATA, Sw.: forma foliolis versus apicem pauciserratis, serraturis 
obtusis. “ Caulis scandens, sectus succum lacteum effundit. Flores albi.” (1587.) 


SERJANIA CRENATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis biternatis pellucido-punctatis ramulisque 
glabratis, foliolis ellipticis vel elliptico-oblongis grosse crenatis, petiolo communi 
anguste marginato; racemis compositis; samara glabra, ala semi-obcordata basi ad ` 
medium carpidium usque producta. — * Ad Monte Verde, Nouvelle Sophie, etc. Alte 
scandens ; flores albi.” (108*.) ; 


PauLLinia Curassavica, Jacq., Sw. (107, bis, 119, 1172.) 
PAULLINIA PINNATA, L. (104, 1171.) 


CUPANIA GLABRA, Sw. “Arbor excelsa, gracilis," (1165, 1586.) [No. 105 est 
' eadem, fructu maturo. | 


CupAania Americana, L. (108, 1166.) 


CUPANIA TRACHYCARPA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis hispidulis glabratis ; foliolis abrup- 
tim 8-jugis suboppositis oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis integerrimis glabris, venis ten- 


PLANTZ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 169 


uibus 6 — 10-jugis; racemis simplicibus axillaribus ; capsula globosa ecarinata subsessili 
scabro-tomentosa; semine subgloboso-trigono arilo involuto.— Flos ignotus. [Folia 
interdum impari-pinnata; capsula glabrescens. (103.) 


BLIGHIA sarina, Keen. “Culta.” (1170.) 


RATONIA APETALA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1, p. 126. [Polygamo-dioica: adsunt in fl. 
masc. “ petala minuta, albida," crassa, discum vix superantia. Folia sepissime dis- 


juncta.] (1604, fl. masc., 1151, fr.) 
SCHMIDELIA Cominta, Sw. (106, 1161.) ScHMIDELIA RIGIDA, Sw. (1164.) 
SCHMIDELIA OCCIDENTALIS, Sw. (102, 1162, 1163.) 
[THourwia TOMENTOSA, DC. ex char. (106, bis.) ] 
THOUINIA NERYOSA, Griseb. Syn. Schmidelia nervosa, Rich. Cub. t. 29. (1173.) 


Meticocca sisuea, L. (1167, 1168.) HYPELATE PANICULATA, Camb. (1169.) 


STAPHYLEACE. 


Turra OCCIDENTALIS, Don. (111, 1174.) 


MELIACEA. 


[TricHiLIa sSPONDIOIDES, Sw. (101.)] 

MoscHoxYLUM TRACHYANTHUM, Griseb. (n. sp.) : ramulis petiolisque strigilloso-pubes- 
centibus ; foliolis parvis rigidis 9 — 7 ovalibus rotundatis glabratis utrinque reticulato- 
venosis; paniculis racemiformibus folio superatis; pedunculis partialibus brevibus in 
corymbulos subtrifloros divisis; corolla extus strigillosa 5-partita calycem triplo super- 
ante, segmentis oblongis obtusiusculis patentibus; ovario sericeo-tomentoso. — Prope 
Monte Verde. Sept. (1134.) 


GUAREA TRICHILIOIDES, L. (63, florif., 107, fruct.) 


SwIETENIA Manacowr, L. (1153.) 
CEDRELA ODORATA, L. (1152, florif., 1582, fruct.) 


AURANTIACE E. 


Cirrus AURANTIUM, L. “Bitter Orange: in sylvis ubique." (1127.) 
VOL. VIII. 22 


110 PLANTA WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. 


OXALIDEA. 


OXALIS vioLACEA, L. “In fissuris rupium prope Josephina, Nov. Flores albi seu 
leviter purpurei" (1579.) 


[Oxanrs CORNICULATA, L. (55.) Var. wmricRoPHYLLA ! (56.) ] 


à ZYGOPHYLLEA. 


- [GUAIACUM OFFICINALE, L. (57.)] 


RUTACEZ. 
RAVENIA SPECTABILIS, Planch. — Syn. Lemonia spectabilis, Lindl. (61.) 


RAPUTIA HETEROPHYLLA, DC. — Ad Galipeam videtur reducenda. Specimina exstant 
tantum fructifera, foliis trifoliolatis et simplicibus, oppositis et sparsis variantia, racemo 
simplici, carpidiis a dorso arcuatim costulatis. [Reperi flores nonnullos, corolla 
5-petala, stellatim patentissima, atro-rubra, estivatione valvata: discus, genitalia, 
semen, embryo, etc. omnino Pilocarpi. Ergo PILOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS. Ex cl. 
Wright * frutex 10— 15-pedalis; prope Monte Verde, coll. Dec. 25.”] (1129.) 


ToBINIA EMARGINATA, Desv. — Syn. Zanthoxylum coriaceum, Rich. Cub. t. 34. (62.) 
ZANTHOXYLUM Crava-Hercuus, L. — Syn. Z. Caribeum, Lam. (1132, 1132*.) 


ZANTHOXYLUM AROMATICUM, W. (1131.) 


FAGARA DUMOSA, Griseb. — Syn. Zanthoxylum dumosum, Rich. Cub. Proxima F. 
microphylle, Desf. ; differt foliolis tuberculo basilari destitutis ternatis vel abortu binatis, 
et petiolo spathulato-oblongo apice subtus aculeifero. (1605.) 


BRUNELLIA COMOCLADIFOLIA, H.B.K. (60, 1133.) 


PrcRAMNIA PENTANDRA, Sw. (64, 65.) 


ERICE. 


CLETHRA BYRSONIMOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis petiolis axibusque racemi rufo- 
villosis ; foliis obovato-oblongis integerrimis vel superne serrulatis glabris, venis 6 — 8- 
jugis; racemis simplicibus vel in apice rami aggregatis; bracteis lanceolatis deciduis 
pedicello refracto brevioribus; petalis apice erosis calycem tomentosum paullo super- 
 antibus; antheris obovatis basi breviter mucronatis, loculis lato poro dehiscentibus ; 

stylo incluso. — * In Monte Lomo del Gato dicto, Dec. Arbor gracilis, floribus albis." 
(343.) A F 


PLANT WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 171 


[ Anpromepa (Lyonia) JAMAICENSIS, Sw. var.? In declivibus prope Cobre, Jan. (1635.) ] 
Vaccintum (Vitis-ip£a) CumsENsE, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis glabriusculis; foliis 
obovatis obsolete mucronulatis margine cartilagineo integerrimis vel obsolete serrulatis 
glabris; pedicellis axillaribus solitariis flore longioribus supra basin bibracteolatis ; 
calycis limbo 5-partito, segmentis deltoideis; corolla ovata glabra, lobis patentibus 
tubo duplo brevioribus; genitalibus inclusis; antheris e dorso biaristatis, aristis 
tubulo triplo brevioribus. — * Ad Lomo del Gato et Monte Verde. Arbuscula, corolla 
saturate rubra." (342.) 


CYRILLEZ. 
CYRILLA ANTILLANA, Michx. (1320.) 
PuRDIZA STENOPETALA, Griseb. (Pl. Amer. Trop. p. 45): sepalis exterioribus 3 ovato- 
oblongis obtusis corollam longitudine equantibus latitudine excedentibus, 2 interioribus 
minoribus ovato-lanceolatis acutis corollam dimidiam superantibus; petalis oblongis 


mucronato-obtusiusculis. Ceterum P. nutanti simillima, — “Ad Lomo del Gato et 
Monte Verde.” (341.) 


CELASTRINEJE. 


SCHJEFFERIA FRUTESCENS, Jacq. (17.) 

ELZ0DENDRON ATTENUATUM, Rich. (1144.) Forma foliis superne serrulatis. (1585.) 

MYGINDA LATIFOLIA, SW., var. Recedit ramis teretiusculis et foliis vulgo angustiori- 
bus. “Flores albi. Frutex 10- l5-pedalis et ultra. In monte La Guinea dicto, 
Dec.” (81.) : 

Et Boss CUNEIFOLIUS, n. Sp. In monte La Guinea et in pinetis prope Monte 
Verde ; Aug. florif, Dec. fructif Arbuscula; flores albi.” C. Wright mscr. — Folia 
fere exacte angustioris forme precedentis, spe paululum crassa basi longiusque at- 
tenuata; inflorescentia, etc. simillima. ` Ovarium bilobum. Fructus bi- vel abortu 
uni-follicularis ; pericarpio coriaceo levi oblongo-obovato subcurvato intus dehis- 
cente. Semen unicum, erectum, loculo conforme, arillo cerino cupuleeformi semitec- 


tum. (1140.) 
ILICINEA. | 
ILex MONTANA, Griseb. — Syn. Prinos montanus et P. sideroxyloides, Sw. (78, 79.) 


ILex porca, Griseb. — Syn. Prinos dioica, Vahl. Forma foliis basi attenuatis, bacca 
4-pyrena; flores ignoti. (1143.) 


172 PLANT WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


ILEX cELAsTROIDES, H.B.K. ex diagn. (1141.) 


ILEX REPANDA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis (2 —21-pollic.) obovatis apice emar- 
ginato-rotundatis supra medium remote obtuseque serrulatis vel subintegris supra lucidis 
subtus venosis pallidis breviter petiolatis; floribus fasciculatis; pedicellis baccam sub- 
sequantibus petiolo longioribus; calyce 4-lobo; bacca obovata (2 lin. longa) levi 4- 
pyrena. —“ Arbor parvula, ramis virgatis. Prope La Perla, May 28.” (1142.) 


HIPPOCRATEACE. 


HIPPOCRATEA SCANDENS, Jacq. (1147.) 


HIPPOCRATEA OVATA, Lam. (80.) Var. paniculis contractis folio multo brevioribus. 
(1148.) 


ANTHODON VERRUCOSUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): glaber; foliis crassis ovali-oblongis utrinque 
rotundatis integerrimis politis (sesqui —bipollicaribus), venis seepe inconspicuis, petiolo 
brevi crassiusculo demum annulatim verrucoso; pedicellis brevibus solitariis vel fasci- 
culatis; flore majusculo (4 lin. diam.); petalis obovato-orbicularibus integerrimis calycis 
lobos breviter rotundatos multo excedentibus ; staminibus intra discum insertis. — Syn. 
Salacia verrucosa, C. Wright mscr.; sed ex antheris apice transversim dehiscentibus 
loculis confluis non Salacia. — * In sylvis umbrosis prope Monte Verde, scandens ; Aug. 
Flores dilute miniati.”  (1146.) 


[Cuarrteria spec. C. cubensi proxima est no. 1299. Flores desiderantur. ] 


URTICACEÆ. 
CELTIS TRINERVIA, Lam. “Folio pellucido-punctulata.” (1441.) . 
CELTIS ACULEATA, Sw. (524 & 526, pr. parte, fructif.) 
SPONIA MICRANTHA, Desc. (525.) 
Sponta Lamarcxiana, Desc. “ Arbor 20-pedalis et frutex orgyalis." (1442.) 
Ficus (Urostiema) surrocans, Herb. Banks. “ Arbor excelsa.” (543, 1445.) 
Ficus (UrosTIGMA) CRASSINERVIA, Desf. (541.) 
Ficus (Urostoma) TRIGONATA, L. “Arbor magna, fructibus læte rubris.” (1444, 
1685.) 
` Ficus (UrosTIGMA) LÆVIGATA, Vahl. (544, 1684.) 


Ficus (UrosTIGMA) LENTIGINOSA, Vahl. (1686.) UOS. 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. è 173 


Ficus (URosTIGMA) DIMIDIATA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 151. * Arbor parva patens, 
vel majuscula, fructibus miniatis.” (542, 1683.) 


Ficus (Urostiema) exuptica, H.B.K. (= Fendl. coll. Venezuel. no. 1763.) (1443.) 
Ficus (UrosTIGMA) PERTUSA, L. (545.) 

CECROPIA OBTUSA, Trec. “ Arbor excelsis, sylvicola.” (1440.) 

Tropuis AMERICANA, L. (589, 592.) 

MACLURA TINCTORIA, Don. (1439.) 


DorsTENIA TUBEROSA, C. Wright, mscr. (n. sp.): acaulis; foliis (6 — 12 lin. diam.) 
cordato-orbicularibus repando-integerrimis glabrescentibus, nervis subtus petiolisque 
pilosiusculis; receptaculis cyathiformi-orbicularibus denticulatis peltatis; pedunculo 
petiolo (pollicari) superato. — * Ad rivos prope Monte Verde; Julio. Planta tenella, 
violeefolia, rhizomate tuberifero." (1446.) 


DonsrENIA CRENULATA, C. Wright, mscr. (n. sp.): acaulis; foliis (6 —8 lin. diam.) 
cordato-subrotundis repando-crenatis subtus margineque pilosiusculis; receptaculis 
cyathiformibus subintegris peltatis; pedunculo petiolum (1 — 2-pollic.) subeequante vel 
superante.— * Ad rivos umbrosos prope Monte Verde; Sept. Rhizoma filiformis, ut 
in precedente tuberifera" (1447.) 


FLEURYA UMBELLATA, Wedd. “In sylvis opacissimis.” (1453.) 
URERA BACCIFERA, Gaud. (527.) 


PILEA MICROPHYLLA, Liebm. (538, 1452.) Var. HERNIARIONDES, Lindl. (536, 1456, 
1679.) Var. PEREGRINA, Griseb.: foliis orbicularibus (semilineam diam.) subciliatis, - 
rhaphidibus obsoletis. (1458.) | | 


 PILEA HETERONEMA, Griseb. (n. sp.): diffusa, ramosissima, minutifolia ; foliis rhombeo- 
cuneatis acutiusculis integerrimis triplinerviis subciliolatis ; majoribus (3 lin. longis) 
in jugo longius petiolatis, rhaphidibus in utraque pagina linearibus vagis; floribus 
glomeratis in axilla subsessilibus. — In sylvis umbrosis et juxta rivulos prope Monte 
Verde. Caulis 1 — 4-pedalis" (537.) 


PILEA GNIDIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; caule tenui stricto pauciramoso ; foliis 
parvis (3-4 lin. longis) lanceolatis acuminatis integerrimis uninerviis margine incras- 
sato revolutis in petiolum brevem attenuatis, rhaphidibus copiosis supra obliquis subtus 
sepius mediano parallelis; cymis simplicibus contractis monoicis vel dioicis pedunculo 
folia subeequante suffultis. — * Ad saxa in sylvis; Junio. Flores purpurascentes.” 
(1451.) 


174 PLANTA WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


Pitra LucrDA, Bl., 8. cunerFOLIA, Wedd. “ Capitula mascula rubra vel rosea.” (1448.) 
— Var. sERRULATA (P. Cubensis, Wedd.) (1448*, 1451, ex Griseb.) 


Prea wuDrCAULIS, Wedd. (528.) Var. saLiciroLta, Wedd. (530.) 

Prea Parrerarta, Bl. (529.) 

PILEA CORYMBOSA, Bl. (1449.) 

Dora Swanrzu, Wedd. (533.) [Eadem est 534 et var. anisophylla? 540. | 

PILEA NUMMULARIFOLIA, Wedd. (1455.) 

PiLEA DEPRESSA, Bl. ; forma foliis minutis, 2 lin. fere diametro. (1678, 1682.) 

PILEA ROTUNDATA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ.; var. foliis subintegerrimis. (1457, 1680.) 

Pira Wentrnt, Bl. (535.) 

Dr REPENS, Wedd. (539, 539*, 1454.) 

GYROTZENIA, n. gen. Flores dioici; 4 glomerato-spicati, calyce 4-partito; 9 
nudi, dense glomerati, glomerulis fasciam gyrosam in rhachi complanata carnosa demum 
revoluta efformantibus, involucello exiguo diphyllo. Stigma penicillatum, sessile. 
Achenium nudum, rectum. — “ Arbor parva," folis alternis trinerviis serratis, stipula 


axillari persistente. — Genus Procridearum Pileam cum Myriocarpa, cui inter Boehme- 
rieas accedit, connectens, inflorescentia foeminea ab omnibus distinctum. 


GYROTJENIA MYRIOCARPA, Griseb. — Rami et petioli hirsuti. Folia lanceolato-elliptica 
seu elliptica, acuminata vel acuta, eroso-serrata, rhaphidibus ovoideis supra scabra, 
pubescentia, glabrata, pilis in nervis subtus diutius persistentibus, 83 —1 poll. longa. 
Spice utriusque sexus fere pollicem longa; rhachis foeminea demum lin. 2 lata: 
achenia minuta, creberrima. [Ex. cl. Wright * achenia innumera in rhachi pulposa 
‘subpellucida albida pl. m. lobata nidulantia. In sylvis prope Monte Verde, rara." 
(531*, masc., 531, fem.) 

BanwxniA CYLINDRICA, W., var. LITTORALIS, Sw.! (1450.) 

PouzoLsIa REPENS, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule suffruticoso diffuso radicante; foliis parvis 
(2-6 lin. longis) oppositis ineequalibus ovatis acutiusculis petiolatis sparsim pilosis 
supra basin serratis, serraturis utrinque 2-6; glomerulis monoicis axillaribus vel foliis 
caducis interrupte spicatis; calyce 4 4-partito, 9 adnato breviter bidentato, fructifero 
levi ovata. — “ In muris, ad Monte Verde, Dec.” [Ex adn. cl. Wright calyce 2 minutim ` 
3-dentatus.] (1459.) 


Doraus URTICIFOLIUS, Wedd. [sed floribus pentandris]. (592). 


RoussELIA LAPPULACEA, Gaud. (1681.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 175 


POLYGONE2. 


CoccoLoBA TENUIFOLIA, L. Bacca ovoidea, inferne tricarinata. (1395.) [Hujus 
var. ? foliis supra nitidis, no. 1668°.] 


CoccoLosa Lrocanensis, Jacq. [Venæ primariæ subtus prominentes.) (1393.) 
CoccoLoBA PUNCTATA, L., var. PARVIFOLIA, Griseb. (1394.) Forma foliis supra politis. 


(462, 462.) 


z PIPERACEZ. 


PEPEROMIA NUMMULARIFOLIA, Kth. (520,521.) [Eadem species est 518. ] 
PrErEROMIA EXILIS, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 164. (519.) 

PEPEROMIA TENELLA, Dietr. (523.) 

PEPEROMIA GLABELLA, Dietr. (506.) 

PEPEROMIA ACUMINATA, Miq., non R. & P. (504.) 


PEPEROMIA DENDROPHILA, Schlecht. (505.) Forma fructu stipitato. (503.) Forma 
parvifolia, foliis obtusiusculis. (1688.) 


PEPEROMIA HIRTELLA, Mig. (512.) [Huc 511, quoad coll. 1856- 7.] 


PEPEROMIA IONOPHYLLA, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule succulento puberulo ascendente ramoso 
inferne radicante; foliis (pollicaribus vel sesquipollicaribus) subcordato-deltoideis ob- 
tusiusculis puberulis demum glabrescentibus 5-nerviis epunctatis petiolum 3 - 4-plo 
superantibus; amentis axillaribus densifloris; ovario ovoideo-oblongo apice stigmati- 
fero; stigmate minuto. — “ Prope Monte Verde, in truncis presertim caducis sylvarum 
repens.” (516.) . : | Pe 

PEPEROMIA REPENS, Kth. (517.) 

PEPEROMIA HERNANDIFOLIA, Dietr. (497.) 

Peperomia PRODUCTA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 166. “In sylvis opacis, scandens.” 
(501, 508, 1420.) 


PEPEROMIA DISTACHYA, Dietr. (499, 1419.) Forma foliis longius acuminatis. (502.) 
[PzrrnoMrz spec. indeterminata est 498.] 


Peperomia OBTUSIFOLIA, Dietr. (509, 510.) Forma grandifolia. (1689.) Var. 
CUNEATA, Mig. (511, quoad coll. 1859.) 


116 PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


PEPEROMIA ALPINA, Dietr. (507.) [Huc forte pertinet 500.] 
Pereromia Myrtitius, Mig. (522.) 

Peperomia OBVERSA, Dietr. (515.) 

PorHomorPHE PELTATA, Miq. (496%, coll. 1859 — 60.) [— Pl. Fendl. Chagres, no. 264. ] 


PorHowonPHE UMBELLATA, Miq. (496.) [= Pl. Fendl. Venezuel. 1147. —No. 1146 
ejusdem coll. — P. speciosa.] 


Encxea Amataco, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 169. (513.) Var. 8. mimrELLA. (514.) 
ARTANTHE SCABRA, Miq. (493.) 

ARTANTHE GENICULATA, Miq. (1417, 1418.) 

ARTANTHE ADUNCA, Mig. (494, 773, 1687.) 


OTTONIA SPHAROCARPA, Griseb. (n. sp.): dichotoma, glabrescens; foliis (3 —2 poll. 
longis) ellipticis acutis basi subobliquis chartaceis pellucido-punctatis ; baccis depresso- 
globosis sessilibus. — Recedit a typo generis ovariis baccisque foveæ rhacheos insertis 
. sessilibus et semine globoso; convenit staminibus 4 circa ovarium insertis, stigmatibus 
4 sessilibus: bractee minute, basilares, deciduæ. — “ Prope Monte Verde, in sylvis 
densis. Frutex 2— 5-pedalis, ramis patentissimis, spicis floriferis albis." (495.) 


CHLORANTHEZ. 7 
Hepyosmum NUTANS, Sw. — “ Caulis suffruticosus circiter orgyalis.” (491, 1416.) 


HEDYOSMUM ARBORESCENS, Sw. — Amenta mascula oblonga, obtusa, fere pollicaria, 


demum nutantia, structura cum precedente conveniunt.  * Frutex 4- 6-pedalis." 
(490, 1415.) 


TEREBINTHACE.E. 
Bursera GUMMIFERA, L. (1155.) 


Icrca Corar, Rich. “ Arbor gracilis, floribus pallide flavis.” (1156, 1157.) 


Ictca HEPTAPHYLLA, Aubl. (1603, florif: “arbor gracilis, floribus luteo-albis ; " 
1158, fructif.: * frutex debilis, 10 — 15-pedalis, subscandens.") 


AMYRIS MARITIMA, Jacq. (66.) Forma foliis basi cuneata rhombeis. (1580.) 
AMYRIS SYLYATICA, Jacq., var. foliolis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis. (1581.) 


AÀMYRIS BALSAMIFERA, L. “Frutex odore rutaceo.” (1606.) 


PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 171 


AMYRIS LINEATA, C. Wright, mscr. (n. sp.): foliis sparsis unifoliolatis; foliolis coriaceis 
- lineari-lanceolatis ensiformi-acuminatis integerrimis, venis parallelis approximatis utrin- 
que prominulis rectis angulo acuto a costa ad marginem cartilagineam decurrentibus ; 
petiolo gracili apice nodoso; corymbis paucifloris; petalis subrotundis; antheris glo- 
bosis; bacca globosa. — Species in genere heteroclita, structura tamen non recedit, nisi 
disco intra stamina in carpophorum distinctum elevato et pericarpio molli. — “In præ- 
ruptis prope Monte Verde, Feb. Arbor gracilis * 40-pedalis, ligno lentissimo." (1154.) 


[MaxarreRA Inpica, L. Nat. (68.)] Anacarpium OCCIDENTALE, Le (67.) 


AMENTACEZ. 


Myrica PUNCTATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis lanceolatis integerrimis (vel paucicrenu- 
latis) glabris subtus dense aureo-punctatis; amentis dioicis, masculis breviter cylindricis 
gracilibus (1-2 lin. longis); fructu minuto subgloboso (lineam diam.). — Affinis M. 
microcarpe, Benth. — “ In saxosis prope Monte Verde, Feb. Frutex 10 — 15-pedalis." 


: LEGUMINOSJE. 
CROTALARIA LOTIFOLIA, L. (118, 1589.) [CroTALARIA INCANA, L. (119) ] 
[CrRoTALARIA RETUSA, L. (117.) ] ‘TEPHROSIA CINEREA, Pers. (120.) 
JEscHYNOMENE BrAsILIANa, DC., var. (123.) 
. ZESCHYNOMENE AMERICANA, L. (124 aut 125, lomento glaberrimo; 1590, lomento 
hispido.) 
- Dssmoprum ADSCENDENS, DC. [Stipule in speciminibus sepe inferne connate, 
lomentum margine dorsali fere ad suturam sinuato!] (1176.) [=127.] 


DesmoDIuM INCANUM, DC. [Stipule in specim. distinctee; lomentum minus quam 
in precedente sinuatum! Cf. char. in Fl. Ind. Oce.] (126.) 


[DesMoDIUM TRIFLORUM, DC. (124 v. 125.) ] DEsMODIUM AXILLARE, DC. (128.) 

STYLOSANTHES PROCUMBENS, Sw. (1589, bis.) STYLOSANTHES viscosa, Sw. (122.) 

Brya EbBenus, DC. (1597.) [Aprus PRECATORIUS, L. (121.) ] 

RuvwcHosrA PHASEOLOIDES, DC. (133, forma glabrata; 134, foliolis subtus velutinis 
reticulatis.) 

RHYNCcHOSIA PARVIFOLIA, DC. (132.) [RuvwcHosiA minima, DC. (132*.) ] 


Cuitoria TErNATEA, L. (1592.) CentrosemA PLumMIERI, Benth. (129.) 
VOL. VIII. 23 


178 PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


_CENTROSEMA PUBESCENS, Benth. “Flores rosei, centro purpurei" (130.) 
CENTROSEMA VIRGINIANUM, Benth. (131.) Var. anaustirotium, DC. (1177, 1178.) 
CENTROSEMA HASTATUM, Benth. “In sylvis umbrosis: flores viriduli.” (1591.) 
TERAMNUS UNCINATUS, Sw. (138.) 


GALACTIA (SWEETIA) ANGUSTIFOLIA, Kth.: forma stylo rectiusculo et foliolis spe 
solitariis. “Ad urbem Guantanamo. Flores rubri.” (1179.) 


GALACTIA PARVIFOLIA, Rich. Cub. “ Ad Villam Nouvelle Sophie: volubilis; flores 
purpurei"  [Specimina perpauca, vix florifera, haud distributa. ] 


GaLACTIA BRACHYODON, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule volubili; foliolis 3 ovati-oblongis 
obtusis vel emarginatis puberulis vel subtus glabratis, petiolo ipsis equilongo seu lon- 
giori; racemis folia equantibus vel superantibus; calycis dentibus ovatis imbricatis 
tubo breviter campanulato duplo brevioribus, superiori rotundato, ceteris acutiusculis, 
lateralibus paullo brevioribus; legumine (juniori) villoso arcuato. — * Prope Monte 
Verde. Corolla pallide purpurea." (135, 1180.) 


GALACTIA FILIFORMIS, Benth. (136, 1593.) 

VIGNA UNGUICULATA, Walp. ex Jacq. Vind. 1, t. 23. (1594.) 
ViGNA LUTEOLA, Benth. (1182, 1595.) 

PHASEOLUS sEMIERECTUS, L. (137.) 


CANAVALIA Cusensis, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; caule volubili; foliolis coriaceis sub- 
rotundo-ovalibus mucronulatis utrinque reticulato-venosis; calycis labio superiori late 
bilobo tubum subzequante, inferiori minimo integro; vexillo reflexo obsolete biauricu- 
lato; carina erostri apice incurva obtusa alas superante ` legumine stipitato compresso 
oblongo, costis juxtamarginalibus. — Corolla purpurea, 2 poll.longa: legumen et semina 
C. gladiate, DC. — ** In sylvis, arbores alte scandens." (139.) 


DiocLEA RUDOLPHIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliolis parvis (pollicaribus) lanceolato- 
oblongis obtusis margine revolutis glabris; racemis longe pedunculatis; bracteis brac- 
teolisque minutis; calyce pedicello brevi multo longiori, lobo superiori ovato acuto, 
inferiori lanceolato, utroque tubum subequante ; vexillo obovato exauriculato alas 
carinamque levem «quante; antheris omnibus fertilibus; legumine 10 — 15-spermo 
rufo-villoso compresso leviter arcuato. — Vexillo ecarunculato ad Rudolphiam accedit. 

— “ In pinetis prope Monte Yade; florif. Junio, fructif. Sept. xe calyx, 
etc. atrorubentes: corolla coccinea.” (1181.) 


Mucuna PRURIENS, L. (140.) EnvrHRINA CoRALLODENDRON, L. ( 1183.) 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. : 179 


LONCHOCARPUS LATIFOLIUS, Kth. (142 [et 141], 1184.) 
LONCHOCARPUS SERICEUS, Kth. (1185, 1186.) 


ANDIRA MICROCARPA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliolis 3—4-jugis late oblongis (3-4 poll. 
longis) utrinque rotundatis supra lucidis subtus glabratis; racemis in paniculam amplam 
laxam digestis, ramis inferioribus distantibus pubescentibus; calyce campanulato basi 
acutiusculo pubescente, dentibus late triangularibus; petalis subsqualibus (4 lin. 
longis); staminibus $; ovario breviter basi attenuato ad marginem piloso; legumine 
subsessili semi-ellipsoideo compressiusculo levi (6 lin. longo). — Similis A. retuse, Kth., 
cui flores breviores; preterea ovario stipite brevi latiusculo marginumque pube, calyce 
multo breviori fructuque nostra differt. — “ In preruptis prope Monte Verde. Arbor 


elata: corolla pallide purpurea." (1187, 1188.) 


BELAIRIA MUCRONATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliolis 9-3 lineari-oblongis mucronatis gla- 
bris. — Specimen fructiferum leguminibus subfasciculatis membranaceis venosis indehis- 
centibus stipitatis cum B. spinosa, Rich. Cub. convenit, nec nisi foliolorum forma ab 
ejus descriptione recedit. Genus Leptolobiearum foliis e gemma axillari folii abortivi in 
spinas longissimas stipulares reducti oriundis singulare. — “In preruptis ad Monte 
Verde, Oct. Frutex ultra-orgyalis.”  (1598.) | : 

Porto procera, Presl. “ Arbor parvula." (145, 1596.) 

HAMATOXYLON CAMPEACHIANUM, L. (143.) 

Cassia FisruLa, L. [Culta; specimina haud distributa.] 

CASSIA LIGUSTRINA, L. (149, 1190.) ` 


CASSIA DECIPIENS, Desv. Specimen fructiferum: species sectionis Chamesenna, foliolis 
3 poll longis et vix lineam latis singularis, glandula petiolari tereti acuminata a basi 
infimoque pari «equidistante, diagnosi Desv. nimis succincta incerti nominis. — “In 
rupibus ad Nouvelle Sophie, Nov.: 2—3-pedalis." (1601.) 

CassrA Domincensis, Spreng. (150.) 


CASSIA OBTUSIFOLIA, L.; var. foliolis oblique elongatis subretusis mucrone destitutis 
puberulis. (1602.) 


CASSIA LINEATA, ŠW., var. BRACHYLOBA. — A specimine Swartziano differt caule suf- 
fruticoso, foliolis 4 — 6-jugis, legumine breviori 4 — 6-spermo. (146.) 


CASSIA SERICEA, Sw. (148.) CASSIA SERPENS, L. (147.) 
Cassia NICTITANS, L. (1599.) Cassia PATELLARIA, DC. (1600.) 


Hymenza Coursarit, L. (1189.) 


180 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


ATELEIA CusEsis, Griseb. — Syn. Swartzia multijuga, Rich. Cub. t. 42. «In rupibus 
prope villam Nouvelle Sophie. Arbor parvula: corolla albida vel luteola.” (144.) 


CALLIANDRA COLLETIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): Eucalliandra, spinis stipularibus patenti- 
bus folia multo excedentibus armata, glabrata; pinnis unijugis glandula petiolari dis- 
tinctis; foliolis minutis (vix lineam longis) 3 - 2-jugis obovatis glabris; capitulis globosis 
breviter pedunculatis; corolla strigosa calycem striatum glabrum triplo superante; 
staminibus 10 purpureis corollam quadruplo superantibus in tubum gracilem corolle 
subzequalem connexis; legumine recto a medio ad basin attenuato oligospermo pubes- 
cente, valvis chartaceis intra margines prominulos planiusculis. — Affinis videtur C. 
hystrici (Inge, Rich.) et C. pauciflore (Acacie, Rich.) “In preruptis montium prope 
Nouvelle Sophie, etc., Oct. Frutex 6 — 8-pedalis: stamina punicea.” (153.) 

CALLIANDRA GRACILIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): Eucalliandra, inermis, glabra; pinnis bijugis ; 
foliolis (12-6 lin. longis) 8 —3-jugis inzquilateris obovatis vel obovato-oblongis suba- 
cutis obtusisve basi in latere exteriori truncatis, inferioribus decrescentibus ; eapitulis 
pedunculatis ; legumine recto lineari basi attenuato glabro, valvis chartaceis ad semina 
tumidis. — Flos ignotus. Legumen 4-3 poll. longum, 3 lin. latum, margine prominulo 
cartilagineo. [In speciminibus coll. 1860 flores pauci adsunt, pallidi, glabri; petalis 
estriatis infra medium connatis calycem profunde 5-fidum duplo superantibus staminibus 
sub-40 basi monadelphis 3 — 4-plo brevioribus. Ex cl. Wright, “ frutex 6 — 10-pedalis, 
in preruptis.”] (151. [154 videtur eadem.] 


PITHECOLOBIUM FILICIFOLIUM, Benth., var. Recedit a vulgari forma pinnis 9 — 3-jugis. 
(1191, 1191*.) 


[Mimosa runica, L. (152.) ] 


CHRYSOBALANEZ. 
CHRYSOBALANUS Icaco, L. (1607.) HIRTELLA TRIANDRA, Sw. (155.) 
ROSACEZE. 
Prunus OCCIDENTALIS, Sw. (156.) PRUNUS SPHAROCARPA, Sw. (1193.) 


Prunus PLEURADENIA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. Specimina fructifera. (1192.) 


MYRTACE. 
GowrpEZIA LinDENIANA, Berg in Linnea, 29, p. 208. “In monte Lomo del Gato. 


Arbor parvula" (162.) 


CALYPTRANTHES CuYTRACULLA, Sw. (163, 172.) 


PLANTEZ WRIGHTIANZE CUBENSES. 181 


CALYPTRANTHES CALYPTRATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis cylindricis pedunculis foliisque 
novellis rufo-strigosis ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis in acumen obtusum longe protractis opacis 
petiolatis, mediano supra impresso subtus prominente, venis inconspicuis ; pedunculis 
axillaribus simplicibus petiolo duplo longioribus [nunc folio dimidio tantum brevi- 
oribus] glomerulo florum terminatis; bracteis elongatis supra gemmas in calyptram 
rostriformem connatis basi circumscissis; floribus sessilibus; calyce ovoideo obtusi- 
usculo rufo-strigoso. — Folia pollicaria vel sesquipollicaria, 6—3 lin. lata. Pedunculi 
2 [- 6], calyptra 4, flores 1, lin. longi. (165.) 


CALYPTRANTHES DECANDRA, Griseb. (mscr. in pl. Rugel.): ramulis cylindricis parce 
puberulis glabratisque; foliis obovatis (v. spathulato-lanceolatis) obtusis glabratis opacis, 
venis arcu connexis tenuibus vel inconspicuis; pedunculis trifidis folio superatis; flori- 
bus ternatis subsessilibus ; calyce subgloboso mucronulato puberulo; petalis nullis ; 
staminibus vulgo 10; bacca globosa limbo calycis repando coronata. — * Arbor" 
(Rug.): folia 14-1 poll. longa, 12(- 5) lin. lata, pube minuta adpressa, mox glaber- 
rima. Calyx semilineam longus. [Ex cl. Wright *arbor parvula, gracilis, in sylvis 
prope Monte Verde, Jan." Fructifera.] (1203.) | 


CALYPTRANTHES PUNCTATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis cylindricis rufo-pubescentibus 
demum glabratis; foliis rigidis lanceolato-oblongis obtusis opacis supra impresso-punc- 
tatis subtus adpresso-puberulis glabratisque, venis tenuibus supra inconspicuis; pedun- 
culis axillaribus simplicibus crassiusculis ancipitibus folium subequantibus glomerulo 
florum terminatis; bracteis ovato-rotundatis flore sessili multo brevioribus; calyce 
minute mucronulato, mucrone obtusiusculo. — Affinis videtur C. Thomasiane, Berg.: 
folia 18— 10 lin. longa, 6- 23 lin. lata: calyx 1i lin. diam. — * Arbor parvula vel 
frutex, secus rivulos prope Monte Verde; Junio." 4 1204.). 


CALYPTRANTHES RIGIDA, Sw. (166) 


CALYPTRANTHES ROSTRATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; ramulis biangulatis; foliis rigi- 
dis ovatis obtusiusculis basi rotundatis opacis, venis arcu connexis tenuibus ; pedunculis 
tri — unifloris; pedicellis crassiusculis flore multo brevioribus; calyce ovoideo abruptim 
rostrato, rostro obtuso; petalis nullis; bacca globosa, limbo truncato.— Folia 1— 21 
- lin. poll. longa, 8-12 lin. lata. Pedunculi 4, calyces 2, lin. longi. — “ In sylvis densis 
prope Monte Verde; florif. Junio, fructif. Jan. Frutex vel arbuscula: alabastra viridula 
demum badia: stamina flavida." (174, 1216.) 


CALYPTRANTHES ROTUNDATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; ramulis biangulatis; foliis 
rigidis elliptico-rotundatis obtusiusculis opacis, venis tenuibus vel inconspicuis ; baccis 


182 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. 


globosis solitariis sessilibus. — Flos ignotus, sed ex semine et ramulis biangulatis vix 
dubie preecedentibus congener. Folia 12 — 10 lin. longa, 8 — 6 lin. lata, basi rotundata. 
— “In preruptis prope Monte Verde, Dec. Frutex 8-—12-pedalis; bacca rubra.” 
(1215.) | 

Myrcra’ CORIACEA, DC., var. RETICULATA, Griseb.: glabra; folis pellucido-punctatis 
vulgo utrinque reticulato-venosis ; pedunculis 3— 15-floris. (1197, 1198, 1199, 1201.) 


MyncrA sPLENDENS, DC. (170.) 

EUGENIA REVOLUTA, Berg! Syn. E. heterophylla, Rich.? (167, 1212.) 

EUGENIA BUXIFOLIA, W. (168, 1210 [1213], 1214.) 

EvarNIa LATERIFLORA, W. (1613.) 

EUGENIA GLABRATA, DC. (1206, 1207.) 

EucEnIaA CINCTA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis pilosiusculis ; foliis glabris rigidis obovatis 
obtusis vel ovalibus (14 — 8 lin. longis) basi subacutis opacis subtus punctato-rugulosis 
et callo juxtamarginali crasse prominulo ab arcu venarum distante cinctis, venis dis- 
tantibus parum subtus prominulis; floribus glomerulatis; pedicellis longioribus petio- 
lum subsquantibus; bacca globosa. — *In sylvis prope Monte Verde, secus rivulos, 
Junio — Julio. Frutex ultra-orgyalis, floribus albis, baccis rubris." (1205.) 


EUGENIA VIRGULTOSA, DC. (171.) 
EUGENIA PALLENS, DC. (1211. [Huc 91, florif.] 


 EvezwiA Domincensis, Berg. Proxima E. eruginee, DC., distincta bacca globosa. — 
* Arbor elata, in sylvis opacis circa Monte Verde. Flores albi. Ovula in loculis 4 — 5, 
pendula. Bacca matura lutea.” (164, 1202.) 


EUGENIA procera, Poir. (1612.) [Huc forte 173, fructif.] 
EUGENIA LIGUSTRINA, W. (169, 1908.) 


Evcenta BercIana, Griseb. Syn. Stenocalyx pseudopsidium, Berg. — Bacca globosa, 
pleiosperma, seminibus trigonis. Nostra forma E. lineate, DC. similis, sed floribus - 
pedicellatis lateralibusque distincta: bracteolis longioribus et calycis lobis acuminato- E 
lanceolatis apice obtusiusculis parum a descriptione cl. Berg recedit. “In pinetis et 
preruptis prope Monte Verde. Frutex 6- 10-pedalis; flores albi; Julio.” (1194, 
1200.) | 

[EvcENIA FLORIBUNDA, West? Myrciaria floribunda, Berg? In sylvis opacis prope 
Monte Verde, Aug. (florif.); in preruptis ad Nouvelle Sophie, Nov. (fructif.): bacca 


PLANTA WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 183 


nigra, grate acida. Arbuscula.” Char. omnino Myrciarie, Berg, nisi ovarii loculis 
circiter 5-ovulatis. Species a Grisebachio casu omissa. (1209, coll. 1859 florif., coll. 
1860 fructif.) ] 


Eveenta $ Myrciaria? aff. precedenti; differt foliis ovatis subcoriaceis magis 
punctatis, bacca arcte sessili, ovario deflorato depresso, pedicello brevissimo percrasso, 
loculis bi-ovulatis. “ Frutex 4-—6-pedalis in collibus prope Nouvelle Sophie, Sept. 
(fructi£) Bacca rubra.” Etiam a Grisebachio neglecta. (1610.) ] 


[PIMENTA OFFICINALIS, Berg. (479.) ] 


PsrpruM CALYCOLPOIDEs, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrum; ramulis compressiusculo-cylin- 
dricis; foliis chartaceis elliptico-oblongis vel obovato-oblongis basi plerumque acutis 
levibus pellucido-punctatis (2-8 poll. longis); pedicellis lateralibus fasciculatis demum 
ancipitibus (4— 8 lin. longis); calycis lobis 4 ovato-oblongis obtusis ; antheris subglobosis. 
— Affine P. cordato, Sims: semen generis. — ** Arbor gracilis, in sylvis umbosis, Junio — 
Julio." (1195, 1196.) 


MOURIRIA SPATHULATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis tetragonis demum cylindraceis ; 
foliis spathulato-oblongis seu ovalibus obtusis basi in petiolum brevem attenuatis, venis 
tenuibus demum subtus conspicuis; fasciculis corymbisve 3 — 4-(— 1-) floris petiolo lon- 
gioribus axillaribus seu lateralibus, pedicellis infra medium minute bibracteolatis ; calycis 
tubo campanulato, dentibus deltoideo-rotundatis; anthers loculis calcare recurvo obtuso 
multo longioribus. — “La Perla, Maio.  Arbuscula, floribus albis.” ^ Eandem leg. 
Linden (pl. Cub. 2147). (1234.) 


> MOURIRIA LANCEOLATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis tetragonis demum cylindraceis ; foliis 
lanceolatis acuminatis apice obtusiusculis vel mucronulatis basi in petiolum attenuatis 
aveniis; pedicellis geminis vel solitariis petiolo multo longioribus infra medium minute 
bibracteolatis axillaribus seu lateralibus; calycis tubo turbinato, dentibus mucronulato- 
rotundatis margine laceris; anthere loculis calcare recurvo obtuso duplo longioribus.— 
* Prope Monte Verde in preruptis. Frutex 10-pedalis.” (1235.) 


MELASTOMACEJE. 

CALYCOGONIUM sTELLATUM, DC. Forma foliis basi acutis subtus rufescenti-lepidotis. 
Calyx cum icone Bonpl. plane convenit, dum cl. Naudin diagnosis ad C. Cubensi magis 
accedit. (190.) 

Catycoconium CuBENsE, Rich., var. — Non differt ab icone Rich. nisi flore sessili in 
axilla solitario; sed unicus tantum flos in specimina exstat. (1226.) 


184 PLANTA WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


CALYCOGONIUM HETEROPHYLLUM, Naud.! * Frutex ultra-orgyalis, in sylvis opacissimis 
prope Monte Verde. Flores purpurei: fructus atro-purpureus." (1220.) 


CALYCOGONIUM WRIGHTIANUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrum ; foliis ellipticis seu elliptico- 
oblongis obtusiusculis triplinerviis, nervorum axillis subtus glanduliferis; pedicellis 
axillaribus solitariis calyce longioribus; calyce inferne subtetragono, lobis superne fili- 
formi-triquetris tubum subequantibus; stylo filiformi; stigmate minuto. — Affine C. 
Lindeniano, Naud. et C. glabrato, DC. — * Prope Monte Verde secus rivulos; fl. Julio; 
fr. Dec. Frutex 6 — 16-pedalis: petala rosea: bacce ceruleo-atre.” — Idem leg. Linden 
(pl Cub. 2134). (192, 193.) | 


CALYCOGONIUM INVOLUCRATUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis puberulis; foliis elliptico- 
oblongis seu ovali-rotundatis obtusis triplinerviis, nervorum axillis subtus barbatis, 
venis transversis subtus prominulis ; glomerulis subtrifloris pedunculatis; bracteis ovali- 
bus pluribus glomerulum cingentibus; calycis tubo hispido subgloboso lobis foliifor- 
mibus longiori. — * Prope Monte Verde. Frutex elata: petala rubra.” (194, 1225.) 


CALYCOGONIUM ECHINATUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis nervoque foliorum subtus rufo- 
puberulis; foliis lanceolatis apice obtusis vel emarginatis uninerviis, venis tenuissimis 
subremotis; pedicellis axillaribus solitariis petiolo brevioribus ; calycis tubo globoso ` 
setis mollibus echinato lobis dentiformibus lanceolato-linearibus obtusiusculis multo 
longiori. — Flos ignotus, sed ovarii vel bacc: junioris structura cum ceteris congrua. — 
* Prope Monte Verde, in sylvis; Dec. Frutex 6—10-pedalis" (1221.) 


Oss#a PUNCTATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis nervisque foliorum subtus rufo-furfuraceis ; 
foliis elliptico-oblongis mucronato-acutiusculis basi acutis integerrimis triplinerviis 
glabris subtus rufo-punctatis; fasciculis paucifloris; flore— ; bacca quadri-loculari. — 
Proxima et simillima O. fasciculari, Griseb., que pube hispida differt. — «Prope 
Monte Verde, in sylvis densis; Dec. Arbor 20 — 30-pedalis." (1223.). 


Curpemia Lima, DC. (189, 1233.) 
CLIDEMIA CAPILLARIS, Griseb. Syn. Sagrea capillaris, DC. (1229.) 


CLIDEMIA SCABROSA, Griseb. Syn. Ossea scabrosa, DC. ` * Petala rosea, filamenta 
cerina, antherz fere albe.” (1232.) E 


CLIDEMIA LANATA, Griseb. (non DC.) Syn. Sagrea lanata, Naud. C. scabrosa, var. ` 
Griseb. olim. Paullo recedit specimen cl. Naudin originarium (coll. Linden) foliis 
supra brevius strigillosis subtus densius villosis et nervis lateralibus magis basi approxi- 
matis: pube villosa imprimis a C. scabrosa differt. — “ Prope Monte Verde. Frutex 
. circa 4-pedalis, fructu leete cyaneo.” (177.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 185 


CLIDEMIA RUBRINERVIS, Griseb. Syn. Sagrea rubrinervis, Naud. Glomerulo uni- 
laterali bracteis incluso longe pedunculato connectit Staphidiastra cum Staphidio habi- 
tumque preecedentium sequitur. —** Petala rosea: baccee atropurpuree.” (1230, 1231.) 


CLIDEMIA HIRSUTA, Griseb. Syn. Sagrea hirsuta, DC. “ Frutex sat elatus, in sylvis 
densis. Petala rosea." (1228.) 


CurpEMIA Wricuti, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis et petiolis pube rufa adpressa furfuraceo- 
puberulis; foliis ovatis acutis preter nervum juxta-marginalem eximie triplinerviis 
denticulatis supra glabris subtus ad nervos venasque transversas furfuraceo-puberulis ; 
petiolo cymam trifidam furfuraceam subxequante; calycis tubo globoso, dentibus 4 
rotundato-mucronatis abbreviatis; petalis — ; bacca 4-globosa. — Proxima C. Swartzii, 
Griseb., que pube differt: nervi laterales a basi folii 6 lin. fere distant. — “ Prope 
Monte Verde in sylvis densis, Julio. Frutex orgyalis, fructu ceeruleo-purpureo.” 
(1219.) 


CLIDEMIA PENNINERVIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis obsolete tetragonis foliosis petiolisque 
sparsim pilosis; foliis lanceolato-linearibus acuminatis uninerviis supra glabris subtus 
glabrescentibus vel in nervo pilosis, venis transversis; pedunculis capillaribus uni — 
paucifloris folio 3— 4-plo superatis ; bracteolis breviter linearibus; calyce tubuloso 
dentibus 4 subulatis longiori; petalis — ; bacca globosa; stylo filiformi. — Affinis C. 
capillari et haud dubie ejusdem sectionis. — * Secus rivulos prope Monte Verde. 
Frutex gracilis, ultra-orgyalis: bacce lete cerulee.” (175.) 


CLIDEMIA HIRTA, Don. (176.) [Var.? foliis longe tenuiter acuminatis est 178.] 
HETEROTRICHUM NIVEUM, Don. (188.) DirLocmITa SERRULATA, DC. ( 180.) 
TErRAZYGIA SEMICRENATA, Griseb. Syn. Conostegia semicrenata, Sw. (182.) 
TETRAZYGIA ELAAGNOIDES, DC. (1222.) | 

MICONIA IMPETIOLARIS, Don. “ Bacce atropurpurem." (1224.) 

Micon LEVIGATA, DC. (184, 185.) 


Miconta EURYCHANIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis obtuse tetragonis petiolisque 
rufo-lepidotis ; foliis ellipticis cuspidatis basi obtusiusculis integerrimis trinerviis supra 
nitide glabris subtus aurato-lepidotis, nervis lateralibus margini quam mediano magis 
approximatis venisque transversis subtus prominulis ; panicula trichotoma rufo-lepidota ; 
floribus breviter serialibus; calycis tubo ovato leeviusculo, dentibus obsoletis; antheris 
10 clavato-linearibus basi bituberculatis, poro terminali rotundo duplici; stigmate 
capitulato; bacca triloculari oligosperma. — Syn. Eurychenia punctata, var. latifolia, 

VOL. VIII. vo 


186 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


Griseb. olim. Simillima Eurychenie punctate, que foliis angustis ramisque cylin- 
dricis differt: antherz porro structura, que est Miconie, in quo genere sectionem 
propriam (Pseudoeurycheniam) sistit, antheris versus apicem paullisper dilatatis et fructu 
Eurychenie distinguendam. Semina convexo-trigona, gemina in loculis matura exstant. 
Eadem species in Venezuela (Fendl. no. 1841) occurrit. “In monte La Guinea dicto, 
Dec.- Jan. Arbor gracilis, 20-30 ped. alta: eee alba versus apicem purpureo 
tincta.” (183, 1614.) 


CREMANIUM TETRANDRUM, Griseb. Syn. Tetrazygia rA DC. “Arbor 40- 60- 
pedalis.” (186, 1227.) 


CREMANIUM AMYGDALINUM, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 261. (1218.) [Spec. nostra a no. 
181 plane diversa videtur. “Flores” (calyces deflorati) ex cl. Wright “læte rubri," 
longe pedicellati, corymbi e ramis annotinis orti.] — Forma angustifolia. ** Petala alba." 
. (181.) 


CATACHENIA ALTERNIFOLIA, Griseb. Pl. Amer. Trop. p. 55. Specimina serius accepta 
folia opposita preebent, tamen nomen jam editum mutare nolui. — “In pinetis prope 
Monte Verde. Frutex 10-pedalis. Petala rubentes." (179.) 


CHARIANTHUS OBLIQUUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis obsolete tetragonis glabris vel fur- 
furaceis; foliis e basi obliqua ovatis rotundatis integerrimis glabris epunctatis tripli- 
nerviis; pedicellis solitariis folio parum superatis ; calycis limbo brevi obtuse 4-lobo ; 
flore— ; capsula 4-loculari globosa carpophoro brevi suffulta. — Fructus congenerum, 
sed, donec flos innotescat, locus speciei in systemate dubius; folia 11— 1 poll. longa, 
chartacea, pauca in ramulis abbreviatis cito in truncum lignosum abeuntibus. — * In 
pinetis prope Monte Verde, Aug. Frutex humilis"  (1217.) 


GRAFFENRIEDA BRACHYCENTRA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis ovato-subrotundis basi ` 
obliqua subcordatis quintuplinerviis apiculatis ` cymis corymbiformibus pedunculatis ; 
calycis lobis 4 e basi subulata patula filiformibus obtusiusculis; anthere calcaribus 


rudimentariis. — Habitus Davye ascendentis, Griseb., sed magis accedit ad Cycnopo- 
dium. (191.) 


ARTHROSTEMMA LANCEOLATUM, Griseb. — Syn. Chetogastra, DC. (187.) 


|  LYTHRARIEX. 
: GixonrA AMERICANA, J acq. (160. ` [Asmann LATIFOLIA, d E 161°, i 
[Curnea DECANDRA, Ait. (334.) ] CurHEA Parsons, R. Br Kä: une) 


PLANTÆ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 187 


ONAGRARIEZ. ! 
ISNARDIA PALUSTRIS, L. (157.) [Jusstza REPENS, L. (158.)] 


JUSSLEA SUFFRUTICOSA, L. var. LIGUSTRIFOLIA, H.B.K. Syn. J. octonervia, Lam., non 


DC. (159. 
[ComBRETACEZ adhuc indeterminate, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1240, 1609.] 


THYMELE.E. 


LINODENDRON, n. gen. Flores polygami, fertiles et steriles mixti. Calyx hypo- 
craterimorphus, tubo basi tumidulo vel demum latere rumpente intus sericeo-piloso, 
limbo 5-partito imbricato. Squamule hypogyne 5, pilis longissimis sericeis barbatz. 
d Stamina 10, exsertee, fauci inserta, 5 breviora, antheris oblongis seu ovalibus, filamentis 
longiusculis. Ovarium sterile sericeo-barbatum, stylo longissimo. 2 Anthere in fauce 
subsessiles, abortive. Ovarium maris, ovulo ex apice loculi pendulo, stylo infratermi- 
nali pubescente longissimo exserto, stigmate obtusiusculo cylindraceo-conico. Fructus —. 
Arbores Cubenses, libro Lagette reticulato pulcherrimo, foliis sparsis, capitulis pedun- 
culatis in corymbos terminales dispositis exinvolucratis receptaculo discoideo suffultis 
albo-tomentosis. 

Daphnopsis Cubensis, Meisn., secundum descriptionem auctoris optimam altera 
generis species est, foliis angustioribus et calycis tubo lobos duplo superante distin- 
guenda. 


. Linopenpron Lacerra, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis lanceolato-oblongis vel elliptico-oblongis 
brevissime petiolatis glabris (8 — 6 lin. latis) H calycis lobis oblongis acutiusculis intus 
puberulis tubo (10 lin. longo) quadruplo brevioribus; antheris oblongis filamentis 
staminum longiorum equilongis. — * In sylvis prope Monte Verde; Dec., Jan. Arbor 


` elata: flores purpurascentes, odori. ^ (1397, 1397*.) £ 


H 


LAURINEJE. 
Pua@se MONTANA, Griseb. Syn. Laurus montana, Sw. (476, 1406, 1407, 1411.) 


PH@BE TRIPLINERVIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis oblongis seu elliptico-oblongis 
apiculatis triplinerviis, nervis subtus prominentibus axilla barbatis ; racemis subsimpli- 
cibus petiolum parum excedentibus; pedicellis patentibus flore longioribus; staminibus 
sterilibus deltoideis fertilium serie interiori paullo superatis; bacca —. Folia 4 — 5-pol- 
licaria, venis subtus minus quam nervi conspicuis. Calyx lineam longus, glaber, in- 


188 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


fundibuliformis, 6 fidus, lobis patentibus: anthere exteriores oblonge, in filamentum 
attenuate. — “ Prope Monte Verde, Maio. Arbor parvula, floribus viridulis.”  (1400.) 
[No. 482 est pl. foeminea, bacca immatura oliveeformi calyce majusculo stipata.] 


HUFELANDIA PENDULA; Nees. (485, 486, 1402, 1403, 1414.) 
AcRODICLIDIUM JAMAICENSE, Nees. ( [481,] 1401, 1410.) 
NECTANDRA SANGUINEA, Rottb. (484.) 

NECTANDRA LEUCANTHA, Nees. (480, 1399.) 


NECTANDRA CUNEATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis paniculisque rufo-tomentosis; foliis 
coriaceis (5 — 3 poll. longis) cuneato-obovatis spathulatisque obtusis supra glabris opaco- 
levibus subtus pube brevissima tandem evanida rufo-tomentosis, venis primariis 
novenis — duodenis subtus parum secundariis non prominulis; calycis segmentis ovatis 
obtusatis (sesquilineam longis); antheris oblongis in filamentum «equilongum attenua- 
tis, 3 interioribus juxta basin biglandulosis; staminibus sterilibus lanceolato-linearibus 
rufo-pilosis eglandulosis; cupula cupuliformi bacca oblonga demum duplo breviori. — 
In no. 1413* bacca monstrosa disco fere ad apicem obvallatur, sicut a Neesio in N. 
sarcocalyce exponitur. —“ In sylvis densis; prope Monte Verde (florif.), floribus flavo- 
viridulis, Aug. Prope La Perla Maio (fructi£) Arbor grandis.” (1412, 1413.) 


STRYCHNODAPHNE FLORIBUNDA, Griseb. — Syn. Nectandra floribunda, Nees. Speci- 
mina mascula prius ignota exstant, que staminum structuram eandem, que in Fl. Ind. 
Occ. de fom. describitur, exhibent, nisi quod anther ovoideo-globose, 4-valvares, 
loculis 4 penitus exsculpte filamento duplo breviores sunt. Bacce vero in specimini- 
bus prius descriptis nondum mature erant: mature (1409) ovoideo-globose sunt ac tum 
lobi cupule incremento tubi obsolete fiunt, ita ut genus, nisi dioicum esset, Nectandre 
magis accedat. (1404, 1405, 1408, 1409.) 


~ 


OREODAPHNE LEUCOXYLON, Griseb. — Syn. Laurus, Sw. Ocotea puberula, Nees. (477, 
[etiam forte 483, 487, ] 1398.) 


[Cinnamomum ZEYLANICUM, Breyn. Cult. (478.) ] 
[CassvrA Americana, Nees. (488.) ] 


HERNANDIA Cusensis, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis paniculisque puberulis; foliis ovatis 
obtusiusculis basi rotundata brevissime aut non peltatis petiolo subequilongis glabratis; ` 
sepalis 4 ovali-oblongis stamina superantibus; antheris ovalibus filamento zequilongis ; 
drupa levi.— Proxima H. Guianensi Aubl., que suadente ic. Aubl. staminibus longe 
exsertis, filamentis antherz multo longioribus et drupa 8-sulcata differt. Vesica 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 189 


drupam includens in nostra ovalis, pollices 2 fere longa. Anthere loculis margine 
soluto aperiundis Laurinearum structure satis accedunt, ut genus eidem familie ad- 
numerari possit. — * In sylvis prope Monte Verde. Arbor gracilis, 90 —50-pedalis, 
ligno albo tenero, floribus albis." (1390.) 


GARRYACEZ. 
FapvEeNiA Hooxrnr, Endl. — Syn. Garrya Fadyenii, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 333. (492.) 


CUCURBITACEA. 


CIONANDRA RACEMOSA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 286. — Syn. Bryonia racemosa, Sw. 
(1243.) 

CIONANDRA GRACILIFLORA, Griseb. 1. c. — Flos masculus 7 — 8 lin. longus ; calycis limbus 
cyathiformis, dentibus cyathulo equilongis linearibus, ipse strictura abbreviata ab ovario 
eequilongo separatus. (1241.) 

[MzrorHRiA PERVAGA, Griseb. (195.) ] Momorpica CHARANTIA, L. (1244.) 


ANGURIA POLYPHYLLOS, Schlecht. (196.) FEUILLEA corDIFOLIA, L. (1242.) 


PASSIFLOREA:. 
PASSIFLORA MINIMA, L. (197, 1245, pro parte.) 


PASSIFLORA ANGUSTIFOLIA, Sw. (197, 1245, pro parte.) 
[PASSIFLORA MALIFoRMIS, L., var. foliis eximie aristato-cuspidatis. (199.) ] 
PASSIFLORA RUBRA, L. (201,133”",) PASSIFLORA SEXFLORA, Juss. (200.) 


PASSIFLORA PENDULIFLORA, Bert. (198.) PaAssIFLoRA OBLONGATA, Sw. (198°, 1615.) 


TURNERACEÆ. 


TRIACIS MICROPHYLLA, Griseb. — Syn. Turnera microphylla, Desy. [Est Bohadschia 
humifusa, Presl. Rel. 2, p. 98, t. 68, a Grisebachio prætermissa.] (210.) 


TURNERA ULMIFOLIA, L. (209.) 
HOMALINEA. 


: HOMALIUM RACEMOSUM, Jacq. (1106.) 


LOASEZ. 


MENIZELIA ASPERA, L. (208.) ' 


190 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


ARISTOLOCHIEZ. 


ARISTOLOCHIA (GYMNoLOBUS) TRICHOSTOMA, Griseb. (n. sp.): scandens, cirrhifera, gla- 
bra; foliis cordatis pedatinerviis rotundato-obtusis subtus inter nervos glaucescentibus 
exstipulatis, sinu basilari late aperto; calycis tubo supra basin inflatum cylindrico 
(unciam longo lineam diametro) versus medium rectangulo-inflexo abruptim unilabiato, 
labio ovali-rotundato apice emarginato tubo quadruplo breviori utrinque a basi ad 
apicem longe fimbriato, fimbriis sparsis flexuosis (2—3 lin. longis) — Ex sectionibus 
Klotzschianis Brachychilo accedit. — * In sylvis prope Monte Verde.  (463.) 


CACTEA. 
CEREUS ERIOPHORUS, Link. (207.) [Perrescia PORTULACIFOLIA, Haw. (205.) ] 


Rurpsatis Cassyta, Geertn. ( 206.) 


SAXIFRAGEZ. 


WEINMANNIA PINNATA, L. “In pinetis prope Monte Verde, et in monte La Guinea 
dicto. Arbor 30 — 40-pedalis.” (1250.) 


BEGONIACEA. 
Brconra Cusiwcora, A. DC. n. sp. (203, 204, 1249.) - 
Breconta WkIiGHTIANa, A. DC. n. sp. (202, 1246.) 


BrEGONIA, n. sp, monographo A.DC., relinquenda, affinis B. Wrightiane. “In 
preruptis umbrosis inter Tiguabos et Montem Taurum, Junio. Flores fere albi." 
(1247.) 


. BEGONIA n. Sp. ..... affinis B. Lindeniane, A. DC. “In rupibus cum precedente. 
Flores pallide rosei.” (1248) 


ARALIACEJE. 
ScIADOPHYLLUM JACQUINI, Griseb. — Syn. Hedera arborea, Sw. (212.) 


PANAX SPECIOSUM, W. (211.) 


: UMBELLIFER E. 
Hyprocoryie spicata, Lam. (213.) ` [Hyprocoryie UMBELLATA, L. (MES 
[Envweruw rar, L. (215.)] | 


PLANTEZ WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. : 191 


 BALANOPHOREJE. 


PHYLLOCORYNE JAMAICENSIS, Hook, f. “In sylvis opacissimis prope Monte Verde. 
Planta cespitosa, rubens." (546.) 


OLACINEJE. 


MAPPIA RACEMOSA, Jacq. var. Forma a Jamaicensi recedens racemis simplicibus 
petiolo vix longioribus et drupa paullo breviori subglobosa (semipollicem longa). 
(1389, 1578.) 


LORANTHACE. 
LORANTHUS PAUCIFLORUS, Sw. (1255, 1303.) ` 
PHORADENDRON HEXASTICHON, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum hexastichon, DC. (1252.) 


PHORADENDRON MARTINICENSE, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum Martinicense, DC. (1251, 
foliis 3 — 5-nervatis.) 


PHORADENDRON LATIFOLIUM, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum latifolium, Sw. (216, 217, 1251*, 
foliis enerviis.) 

PHORADENDRON TETRASTACHYUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis compressis demum cylin- 
dricis ; foliis obovatis apice rotundatis in petiolum attenuatis obsolete pauciveniis, venis 
a mediano infra medium secedentibus; spicis in axilla solitariis folio 2 — 4-plo breviori- 
bus, articulus quadrifloris; floribus tetrastichis ; baccis e basi ovata oblongatis. — Syn. 
Viscum tetrastachyum, C. Wright, mscr. —“ Prope Monte Verde in Guettarde sp. 
parasiticum.” (218, 1300.) - 

PHORADENDRON RUBRUM, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum rubrum, L. (1302.) 


PHORADENDRON MACROSTACHYUM, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum macrostachyum, Jacq. Spec. 
cum no. 220 ? mixta. ! 


PHORADENDRON MYRTILLOIDES, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum myrtilloides, Sw. In Faramea 
odoratissima parasiticum. (1253.) ; 

PHORADENDRON BUXIFOLIUM, Griseb. — Syn. Viscum buxifolium, Lam. A precedente 
differt ramulis teretibus et spicis folia avenia subæquantibus. (220, 220°, 222, 219, 223.) 


 PHOoRADENDRON SESSILIFOLIUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis ramisque tetraquetris; foliis 
obovato-oblongis obtusis basi lata sessilibus aveniis (8 — 10 lin. longis); spicis solitariis 
folium subzquantibus, articulis 3 —4 subremotis; floribus tetrastichis ; bacca ovato- 
oblonga. — “ In arboribus prope La Perla." (1391.) : 


192 PLANTÆ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


PHORADENDRON CONSTRICTUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis ramisque subcylindricis ; foliis 
minutis crassis ovalibus spathulatisque in petiolum brevem contractis enerviis (8 — 4-lin. 
longis); spicis folium subzquantibus, articulis 2 — 3 bifloris; floribus distichis ; bacca 
oblonga. —Syn. Viscum constrictum, C. Wright, mscr. — “ Prope Monte Verde; in 
quodam fruticem Rubiaceum. Spice inter flores eximie constricte. Flores auran- 
tiacei.” (220°.) 

PHORADENDRON SERPYLLIFOLIUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): nanum; ramulis striato-cylindricis ; 
foliis minutis ovalibus enerviis petiolatis (1-2 lin. longis), inferioribus abortivis; spicis 
folium subeequantibus, articulis 2 — 3 contiguis plurifloris; floribus tetrastichis. — * In 
Euphorbiacea ? quadam, prope Monte Verde. Flores virides." (1254.) 

[Var.? aphyllum. Parasiticum in Euonymo cuneifolio et Myginda latifolia. (224.)] 


AncruTHOBIUM Errviscum, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis compresso-tetrapteris ad nodos - 
constrictis, internodiis oblongo-linearibus rotundato-truncatis; squamis obsoletis de- 
ciduis; spicis 2 moniliformibus 2 — 3-articulatis, articulis ovoideis plurifloris; floribus 
distichis. — Syn. Viscum Epiviscum, C. Mes mscr.  Parasiticum in Phoradendro 
 buaifolio. (221.) 


Viscum Domincenss, Spreng. (225.) 


Eremoteris Wricurn, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis angulatis levibus; foliis alternis 
obovato-oblongis ovalibusque 3—5-plinerviis subsessilibus ; floribus 9 glomeratis; calycis 
limbo 4-partito. — Parasiticum in Hufelandia pendula, etc. (226.) 


*,* Specimina incompleta, non determinata. 


No. 59 (coll. 1856 — 7): Connaracea. 
1130. 
1159, 1160.  [ Connaracee.] 


Valida 


Frogs Wricuttanz er FENDLERIAN JS, — nempe in Insula Cuba a Caroto Wricur 
et in Venezuela ab Avo. FrwpLER, ann. 1854 — 60, (nonnullis Panamensibus etc. 
interjectis,) Enumerate cura 


DANIEL C. EATON, A. M. 


(Read August 14, 1860.) 


I. POLYPODIACEZ. 


Tris. E ACROSTICHACEZX. 


Genus I. ACROSTICHUM, L. 


$ I. RHIPIDOPTERIS. — 
1. A. rum, Swartz. Syn. Fil. p. 11. Rhipidopteris peltata, Fée, Hist. Acrostich. 
p. 8.  (Fendl No. 361. Wright, 927.) V WS E. SE 
2. A. SPHENOPHYLLUM, Kunze, Anal. Pterid. p. 11, t. 6. — (Fendl. 263.) 


$ II, ELAPHOGLOSSUM. 


3. A. Hermintert, Bory & Fée, Hist. Acrost. p.43, t. 11. (Wright, 971. Dr.S$. 
Hayes, in Isthmo Panamensi, 23.) 

4. A. LATIFOLIUM, Swartz ; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 42. (Wright, 790, 791, 970.) 

Species quinque sequentes mihi dubie sunt, quarum plures, cel. Hookero (L e) 
suadente, nescio an A. latifolio conjungende. 

5. A. PACHYPHYLLUM, Kunze in Lin. 9, p. 26. Hymenodium Kunzeanum, Fée, l c. 
p. 90, t. 58.. (Fendl. 293, 296.) 

6. A. Lixcva, Raddi, Nov. Gen. Bras. p. 5, t. 15. (Fendl. 285.) 

VOL. VIII. 25 


194 ; FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIAN &. 


7. A. ATTENUATUM, Kunze ex Metten. in litt. (Fendl. 290.) 
8. A. sPonADOLEPIS, Kunze ex Metten. in litt. — (Fendl. 287 ?, 294.) 
9. A. ALISMAFOLIUM, Fée, l. c. p. 28, t. 3. (Wright, 966, 969.) 

10. A. Lrorwsre, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 65. ^ (Fendl. 286.) 

11. A. Wricutt, Metten. (sp. nov.): caudice elongato scandente paleis integris ovatis 
onusto; frondibus sterilibus remotis spathulatis vel obovato-lanceolatis in stipitem 
paleaceum brevem angustatis acuminatis margine undulatis utrinque paleis minutis 
laxissime conspersis subtus ad rachin paleis majusculis ovatis subintegris obvelatis, 
fertilibus minoribus ceterum consimilibus. Acr. Lloensi proxima, sed frondibus spa- 
thulatis, caudice crassiore, stipite breviore distincta. Frondes 7 -— 12-pollicares, sesqui- 
pollicem late, stipiti 1— 2-pollicari insidentes. Caudex ad truncos scandens, crassitie 

-penne corvine. (Wright, 965.) 

19. A. xANTHONEURON, Kunze ex Metten. in litt. — (Fendl. 280.) 

13. A. TovarEnse, Moritz ex Metten. in litt. ` (Fendl. 292.) 

14. A. sTENOPTERIS, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 420. — (Fendl. 282.) 

15. A. Krorzscur, Moritz. Acr. Aubertii, Desv. simillima; an eadem?  (Fendl. 

. 265, 281.) 

16. A. Marrinicense, Desv. ; Fée, l c. p. 45, t. 18. (Wright, 789, exempl. anno 1856 
lecta.) 

17. A. LEPTOPHYLLUM, Fée, l. c. p. 45, t. 17. (Fendl. 277.) 

18. A. ERINACEUM, Fée, l. c. p. 41.  (Fendl. 264.) | 

18. A. Morrrzianum, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 423. — (Fendl 362? 266. Wright, 
1040.) 

19. A. PROCURRENS, Metten. (sp. nov.): pusillum; caudice filiformi longe repente 
paleis lanceolatis acuminatissimis dense vestito; frondibus sterilibus obovatis obtusis 
basi cuneatis in stipitem brevem alatam attenuatis paleis angustis undique ciliatis, 
fertilibus minoribus stipite longiore. — Frondes opaco-virides, 1 — 6-pollicares, obovate, 
basi longe cuneate. Stipes et frondes precipue ad. margines paleacei; paleis fulvis e 
basi ovata in cilias denticulatas longissimas productis. — Ab. Acr. Moritziano, cui prox- 
ima, caudice elongato frondibusque minoribus satis distat. (Wright, 793.) 

20. A. PILOSELLOIDES, Presl. Rel. Henk. p. 14, t. 2; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 99. ` (Fendl. 
267, 268. Wright, 194. Hayes, 30.) 

: 21. A. srricrum, Raddi, Nov. Gen. p. 49; Martius, Ic. Crypt. Bras. p. 84, t. 22. 
. (Wright, 789, pro parte, anno 1859 lecta.) E : 

.22. A, Messeng, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 427. (Fendl. 269.) 

23. A. PERELEGANS, Fée, l c. p. 55, t. 23. (Fendl. 466.) 


- 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANE. 195 


24, A. RUBIGINOSUM, Fée, l. c. p. 47, t. 5, 18. (Fendl. 273, 274. Art. Schott in 
Isthmo Darien. n. 82.) 

25. A. viscosum, Swartz ; Hook. $ Grev. Ic. Fil. t.61.  (Fendl. 272, 275. Wright, 
189, pro parte, anno 1859.) : 

26. A. apopum, Kaulf. Enum. p. 59; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 99.  (Fendl. 430. 
Wright, 967.) 

27. A. BELLERMANNIANUM, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 426.  (Fendl. 270.) 

28. A. cuspripatum, Willd.; Fée, l c. p.57,t.14. ` (Fendl. 271.) 

(AcrostIcHt species incerte sunt Fendl. 276, 278, 279, 295, 391, 463, Wright, 


968.) 
§ III. Aconropreris. 


29. A. LONGIFOLIUM, Swartz ? Aconiopteris longifolia, Fée, l c. p. 80,1. 41. — (Fendl. 


283, 284.) 
$ IV. ANETIUM. 


30. A. CITRIFOLIUM, L. Amen. Acad. 1, p. 269. Antrophyum citrifolium, Fée, Hist. 
Antroph. p.51. ^ (Fendl 425.) 


Genus II. OLFERSIA, Raddi. 
1. O. cervina, Kunze ; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 49. — (Fendl. 426. Wright, 784, 785.) 


Genus III. LOMARIOPSIS, Fée. 


1. L. sonnrrorza, Fée, Hist. Acrost. p. 69. (Wright, 973.) 

2. L. Wricutu, Metten. (sp. nov.): caudice elongato squamis rubiginosis lanceolatis 
lacero-ciliatis paleaceo ; stipitibus basi paleaceis superne glabriusculis; frondibus remotis 
glabris supra obscure viridibus subtus pallidioribus, sterilium pinnis 11 — 13 subsessili- 
bus obovato-cuneatis (terminali equali, basali vix minore) abrupte caudatis vel acumi- 
natis integris vel denticulatis vel eroso-dentatis, fertilium pinnis 11 — 18 remotis brevi- 
petiolatis linearibus involutis margine membranaceo angusto cinctis. — Caudex diametro 
4-linealis, modice paleaceus, ad truncos alte scandens * modo Heder,” stipites validos 
semipedales sub angulo 20° emittens. Frondes pedales fere ad sesquipedales. Pinne 
remote, 3—4 pollices longs, steriles pollicem late caudem semipollicarem gerentes, 
fertiles bilineam late, pagina superiora margine involuto celata. — A Lom. sorbifolia 
pinnis obovatis caudatis plusquam dimidio paucioribus facile dignoscenda. (Wright, 
787.) 

3. L. FENpLERI (sp. nov.): caudice crasso elongato valde paleaceo, paleis fulvis im- 
bricatis lanceolatis ciliatis; frondibus sterilibus remotis stipite valido paleaceo effultis 


196 FILICES WRIGHTIANZE ET FENDLERIANJE. 


pinnatis, pinnis 37 — 49 subpetiolatis basi truncatis lanceolatis acuminatis membranaceo- 
chartaceis glabris margine undulato-dentatis vel subintegerrimis; fertilibus pinnatis, 
pinnis brevi-petiolatis margine tenui lato explanato cinctis. — Caudex digiti crassus, ad 
truncos alte scandens, paleis pallide fulvis linearibus 4—5 dense vestitus. Stipes cum 
caudice continuus, crassitie penne scriptorive, 2 — 6-pollicaris, paleaceus, e stipite sub 
angulo 60? divergens.  Rachis tetragona, inferne paleacea, superne anguste alata. 
Frondes steriles bipedales, ambitu oblongo-lanceolate, pinnate ; pinne crebre, patentes, 
4 — 5-pollicares, basali dimidio minore, terminali subæquali, brevissime petiolate, basi 
truncate vel subcordate, ad rachin articulate, demum articulatim secedentes, supra 
obscure subtus pallide virides; venule simplices vel furcate. Frondium fertilium 
pinne anguste lineares, basi cordate, 3 — 4 pollices longe, 2 — 3 lineas late, intervalli sub- 
pollicari distantes; venulee e costa valida simplices vel furcatee, libere. Species pul- 
cherrima nulla alia confundenda. (Fendl. 335.) 

4. L. PHLEBODES, Fée, l. c. p. 66.  Acrostichum Japurense, Martius, Ic. Crypt. p. 86, 
t. 24. (In Isthmo Panamensi. Hayes, 4. Schott, 86. Frondes vise omnes steriles, 
sed haud dubiz hic referendz.) 


Genus IV. CHRYSODIUM, Fée. 
§ I. EUCHRYSODIUM. 


1. Cm. crinirum, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 21.  Acrostichum crinitum, L.; Hook. Fil. 
Exot. t. 6. — (Fendl. 363. Wright, 792.) 

2. Cu. AUREUM, Metten. l. c. Acrostichum aureum, L. In maritimis calidioribus 
ubique. 5 

§ II. ANAPANSIA. 

3. CH. ALIENUM, Metten. l. c. Gymnopteris aliena, Presl. ; Fée, l c. p. 84. Acros- 
tichum, Swartz. (Fendl. 336. Wright, 783.) | 

4. CH. NICOTIANAFOLIUM, Metten, l. c. p. 22. Gymnopteris nicotianefolia, Presl. ; 
Fée, l. c. p. 86. (Wright, 188.) | 

5. Cu, ACUMINATUM, Metten. l. c. Gymnopteris acuminata, Fée, l c, p. 85. Lingua 


cervina scandens, citrei foliis major, Plumier, Fil. Am. p. 100, t. 115. (Fendl. 408, 
sterilis.) 


Genus V. POLYBOTRYA, H.B.K. 


L P. CANALICULATA, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 429. | (Fendl. 262.) 
2. P. osmunpacea, H.B.K. (Wright, 186.) ` 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANJE. 197 


3. P. SERRATIFOLIA, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 436. Soromanes serratifolium, Fée, l c. 
' p.82.  (Fendl 261.) 

4. P. CAUDATA, Kunze in Lin. 9,p. 23; Fée, l c. p. 12, t. 34. (Hayes, 8. Frondes 
steriles.) 


Tuis.IL POLYPODIES. 


Genus VI. VITTARIA, Smith. 


l. V. STIPITATA, Kunze, Analecta, p. 28, t. 18. (Fendl. 259, 259°. Wright, 865, 
pro parte. Schott, 61.) 

2. V. rinrroLtra, Fée, Hist. Vittar. p. 20, 1.9. ` (Fendl. 258. Wright, 865, pro parte.) 

9. V. LINEATA, Swartz. (Wright, 865, pro parte.) 

4. V. GARDNERIANA, Fée, Hist. Vittar. p. 15, t. 3; Metten. in litt. — (Fendl. 260.) 


Genus VII. TZENITIS, Swartz. 


1. T. rurcara, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 136.  (Fendl. 423. Wright, 980. Schott, 58.) 

2. T. ANGUSTIFOLIA, Spreng. Syst. 4, p. 42. Pteropsis angustifolia, Desv. ; Fée, Hist. ` 
Vittar. p. 24. — (Fendl. 424. Wright, 978. Schott, 57.) 

3. T. LANCEOLATA, Kaulf. Enum. p. 130. Pteropsis lanceolata, Desv. ; on Fil. 
Exot, t.45. (Wright, 979.) 


Genus VIII. ANTROPHYUM, Kaulf. 


1. A. raxcEorATUM, Kaulf. Enum. p. 198. (Wright, 776.) 
.. 2. A. sunszssiLE, Kunze, Analecta, p. 29,1. 19.  (Fendl. 305. Wright, 775.) 
3. A. LINEATUM, Kaulf. Enum. p. 199. ` (Fendl. 304. Wright, 974, 977.) 


Genus IX. POLYPODIUM, L. 
$ I. EuPoLYPODIUM. 


1. P. MARGINELLUM, Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occ. 1631. Mecosorus marginellus, Klotzsch in 
Lin. 20, p. 405. — (Fendl. 256.) 

2. P. JUNGERMANNIOIDES, Klotzsch in Lin. 90, p. 313.  (Fendl. 257.) 

3. P. SERRULATUM, Metten, Fil. Lips. p. 30. Jiphgpteris serrulata, Kaulf. Enum. 
p.85.  (Fendl. 356. Wright, 780.) 

4. P. TRICHOMANOIDES, Swartz. (Wright, 811, 1049.) 

5. P. TRUNCICOLA, Klotzsch in Lin. 20; p. 374. — (Fendl. 211, 211 8, 465.) 


198 FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANA. 


6. P. MONILIFORME, Cav. ; Metten. Polypod. p. 41. P. subcrenatum, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 
119.  (Fendl. 406. Wright, 1050.) 

7. P. prLosissimum, Martens $ Galeotti, Fil. Mex. p. 39, t. 9. (Fendl. 219.) 

8. P. APICULATUM, Kunze ex Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 318. — (Fendl. 218.) 

9. P. FLABELLIFORME, Lam. ; Metten. Polypod. p. 46. P. Tovarense, Klotzsch, l c. 
p.374.  (Fendl. 207.) 

10. P. sUBTILE, Kunze ex Klotzsch, l. c. p. 375. (Fendl. 349.) 

11. Pers, Fée, Mém. 7, p. 60, t. 25. P. flaccidum, Metten.! ^ (Fendl. 209.) 

12. P. rLasricum, Bory ; Metten. Polypod. p. 47. — (Fendl. 208, 348. Wright, 1018. 
Schott, 16.) (No. 208 — P. monosorum, Moritz, n. 1018 — sp. ignota, fide Mettenii.) 

13. P. cuttratum, Willd. ; Metten. Polypod. p. 41! ^ (Fendl. 210.) 

14. P. renuirotium, H.B.K. P. camptoneuron, Fée, Gen. p. 237, Iconogr. p. 60, ` 
t. 23. (Wright, 809.) 

15. P. LePTOPHYLLUM, Moritz ; Metten. in litt. — (Fendl. 217.) 

16. P. LANIGERUM, Desv. ; Metten. Pol. p. 48.  (Fendl. 212.) 

17. P. FuxicuLum, Fée, Iconogr. p. 12, t. 18.. (Wright, 807.) 

18. P. PENDULUM, Swartz ; Schkuhr, Fil. p. 12, t. 11. (Fendl. 350.) 

19. P. suspensum, L. P. arcuatum, Moritz, mscr. ^ (Fendl 213, 2138, 467. 
Wright, 808, 810.) | 

20. P. ranicaLe, Moritz ; Metten ! P. difficile, Moritz, vix diversa. (Fendl. 215, 216.) 

21. P. pecrinatum, L. P. Plumula, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 178, forma juvenilis hujus . 
videtur. (Wright, 806, 1017; 1051, pinnis dilatatis laciniatisque more Pol. vulgaris, 
var. Cambrici) (Ex Mettenio, n. 806 =P. Plumula; n. 1017 — P. Otites; n. 1051 = 


sp. ignota.) 
22. P. Parapisex, Langsd. $ Fisch. Ic. Fil. p. 11, t. 11. (Fendl. 220 8, 221, 221 y.) 
23. P. CONSIMILE, Metten. sp. nov. describenda.  (Fendl. 220.) 
24. P. Morirzianum, Link. Sp. Fil. p. 136; Mett:n! — (Fendl. 214.) 
25. P. soror1um, H.B.K.  (Fendl. 422. Wright, 805.) 
26. P. susPETIoLATUM, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 391 & 392,  (Fendl. 254.) 
27. P. Karwinsxianom, Al. Braun; Metten. Pol. p. 66.  (Fendl. 245.) 
28, P 


. SPORADOLEPIS, Kunze, var. 8. Metten. Polypod. p. 67. — (Fendl. 246.) 


§ II. GONIOPHLEBIUM. 
29. P. INCANUM, Swartz. — (Fendl. 253. Wright, 795.) | 
.80. P. THYssSANOLEPIS, Al. Braun ; Metten. Pol. p. 10. ` (Fendl. 252.) 
31. P. LEPIDOPTERIS, Kunze in Lin. 13, p. 132. P. sepultum, Kaulf. Enum. 104. 
Lepicystis sepulta, J. Smith in Lond. Jour. Bot. 1, p. 195.  (Fendl.-343.) _ 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANJE. 199 


92. P. LAsIoPUS, Klotzsch, l. c. p. 293. — (Fendl. 244.) 

33. P. LaTIPES, Langsd. $ Fisch. Ic. Fil. p. 10, t. 10. P. harpeodes, Link. Fil. Sp. 
p.127. — (Fendl. 242, 239, 341.) 

94. P. rogrcEuM, L.; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 32, t. 23, f. 7-9. (Fendl. 343? 353. 
Wright, 827.) 

35. P. cunoopes, Spreng. Syst. 4, p. 583.  (Fendl. 238. Wright, 1019.) 

36. P. NERuFOLIUM, Swartz ; Schkuhr, Fil. p. 14, t. 15. P. gladiatum, Kunze in 
Lin. 9, p. 45. (Filix Cubensis vix a Brasiliensi diversa, soris magis impressis pinnisque 
faleatis longioribus tantum recedens.) ^ (Fendl. 352, 415, 471. Wright, 804.) ` 

37. P. FRAXINIFOLIUM, Jacquin ; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 33. — (Fendl. 234, 236, 237.) 


$ III. CAMPYLONEURUM. 


38. P. ANGUSTIFOLIUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 28. — (Fendl. 224. Wright, 797.) 

39. P. TENIOSUM, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 155. (Fendl. 225, 226. Wright, 800.) 

40. P. vexatum. Campyloneuron Cubense, Fée, Gen. p. 259, Iconogr. p. 14, t. 3. 
(Wright, 801.) — Mettenius ( Polypod. p. 82) hasce tres in unam (P. teniosum) colligit ; 
an recte? Fée per contra (Iconogr. p. 128) distinctissimas affirmat. 

41. P. rascrALE, Willd. l.c. p. 156. — (Fendl. 228, 228 B, 229, 230, 409. Schott, 22.) 

49. P. repens, Swartz ; Metten. Fil. Lips. p.34, t. 94. — (Fendl. 227. Wright, 1021.) 

43. P. cosratum, Kunze in Lin. 9, p. 28. (Wright, 802.) 

. 44. P. pecurrens, Raddi, Nov. Gen. p. 23, t. 33. — (Fendl. 231.) 

45. P. Fenpieri (sp. nov.): elatum, glabrum; frondibus simplicibus vel plerumque 
pinnatis stipite stramineo elongato insidentibus; pinnis 7 — 11 alternis late ellipticis 
vel oblongis basi superiori cuneatis inferiori breve decurrentibus chartaceis subnitidis 
anguste cartilagineo-marginatis ; costis costulisque utrinque elevatis; venulis con- 
spicuis arcus Campyloneuri 12—15 efficientibus, arcubus radios plerumque liberos 
apice soriferos emittentibus, maculis versus marginem frondis sepe divisis. — Rhizoma 
repens, digiti crassum, vix paleaceum. Stipes stramineus, validus, bi — tripedalis, basi 
paleis ovatis fugacibus tectus. . Frons ovata, stipiti equilonga. Pinne utrinque 3-5, 
terminalis «equalis, pedalis, 3 — 4 poll. late, obtuse vel brevi-acuminate. Forma frondis 
Chrysodium acuminatum refert.  Frondes plante junioris simplices, 6 — 10-pollicares. 
Pro varietate P. decurrentis ducit Mettenius (in litt.) qui jam in hortis hospitatum 
atque a Kunzeo P. venustum dicatum significat. Sed nomen venustum olim est appro- 
priatum in genere Polypodio. (Vid. Metten. Polypod. p. 49.) — (Fendl. 410.) 


$ IV. PLEOPELTIS. 


46. P. eLonGATUM, Metten. Pol. p. 88. Grammitis elongata, Swartz. Pleopeltis an- 
gustifolia, Eaton in Sill. Jour. n. ser. 98, p. 198. (Wright, 796.) 


200 FILICES WRIGHTIANA ET FENDLERIAN X. 


47. P. rePrporuw, Willd.; Metten. l. c. p. 88. — (Fendl. 249, 250.) 

48. P. Leucosporum, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 404. (Fendl. 251.) 

49. P. percussum, Cav. Prel. 1801, p. 243; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 59. Pleopeltis per- 
cussa, Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 65. — (Fendl. 421, 464.) 


$ V. CRASPEDARIA. 
50. P. CAYENNENSE, Desv. Jour. Bot. 5, p. 257; Metten. Pol. p. 93. (Prope Gatum, 
coloniam Panamensem, Hayes, 26.) 
51. P. PrLosELLOIDES, L. Metten. l. c.  (Fendl. 354, 419. Wright, 798, planta 
genuina.) ; 
52. P. VACCINIFOLIUM, Langsd. § Fisch. Ic. Fil. p. 8, t. Y. (Fendl. 248.) 


$ VI. PHLEBODIUM. 


53. P. sERPENS, Swartz, Syn. p. 26. — (Wright, 799.) 

54. P. saLrcrroLiuM, Willd. Sp. Pl.5,p. 149. (Fendl. 420. Wright, 1023. Hayes, 16.) 
55. P. aureum, L. ` (Fendl 417.) 

56. P. AnxoLATUM, H.B.K. P. MUS. Eaton, in Sill. Jour. l.c. — (Fendl. 241. 


Wright, 803, fide Metten !) 
$ VII. PHYMATODES. 


57. P. crassiFoLIUM, L.; Metten. l.c. p. 109. — (Fendl. 220. Wright, 1022.) 
Var. B. Metten. l.c. ` P. porrectum, Willd. l. c. p. 161. — (Fendl. 222.) 
Var. y. Metten. l.c. P. acrosorum, Kunze in Lin. 20, p. 39. (Hayes, 18. 


Schott, 27.) 
Genus X. GYMNOGRAMME, Desv. 
$ I. CEROPTERIS. 
1. G. TRIFOLIATA, Desv. in Berl. Mag. 5, p. 305; Kaulf. Enum. p. 12.  (Fendl. 297. 
Wright, 119.) 
2. G. SULPHUREA, Desv. ; Lowe, Fil. 1, p. 11, t. 5. (Wright, 778.) 
3. G. TARTAREA, Desv.; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 41. ` (Fendl. 299. Mee TUR 
pro parte.) 
4. G. CALOMELANOS, Desv. ; Metten. l.c. ^ (Fendl. 298. Wright, 777, pro pute) | 
5. G. PULCHELLA, Linden, in Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 14. (Fendl. 357.) 
$ IL EUGYMNOGRAMME. 
6. G. izerornrua, Desv. ; Lowe, Fil. 1, p. 11, t. 7. (Wright, 860.) 
7. G. LASERPITIIFOLIA, Kunze in Bot. Zeit. 3, p. 285!  (Fendl. 359.) 
8. G. ngrRAcTA, Kunze in Lin. 20, p. 410. — (Fendl. 300.) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANZ. 201 


$ III. NEUROGRAMME. 
9. G. nura, Desv. ; Lowe, Fil. 1, p.13, t. 6. (Fendl. 302.) 


$ IV. HEMIONITIS. 


10. G. parmata, Link. Hort. Berol. 2, p. 49. Hemionitis palmata, L.  (Fendl. 303. 
Wright, 774.) 


Genus XI. MENISCIUM, Schreb. 


1. M. sorsironsum, Willd. ; Langsd. & Fisch. Ic. Fil. p. 6,t.4. — (Wright, 781.) 
2. M. RETICULATUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 19. — (Fendl. 232. Wright, 782.) 


Genus XII. NOTHOLZENA, R. Br. 


1. N. FERRUGINEA. Gymnogramme ferruginea, Kunze in Lin. 9, p. 34. Nothochlena 
crassifolia, ** Moore $ Houlston” ; Lowe, Fil. 1, p. 35, t. 14. — Frondes pinnate, nunc 
basi bipinnatisecte ; pinnis oblongis vel oblongo-lanceolatis obtusis integris crenatis 
auriculatis vel pinnatisectis supra glabris infra pilis fulvis stellatis vestitis atque massa 
alba pulverulenta obductis, quam ob rem frondes primum subtus albe, maturantes pul- 
vere amisso fulve videntur. (Wright, 776 pro parte, 1048.) 


Genus XIII. CHEILANTHES, Swartz. 


1. Cu. Morirziana, Kunze in Lin. 23, p. 301.  (Fendl. 65.) 

2. Cu. ELoNGATA, Willd. ; Metten. Cheil. p. 33. ` (Wright, 887.) 

3. Cu. PAUPERCULA, Metten. Fil. Lips. p.52. Hypolepis paupercula, Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, 
p. 73, t. 88. (Wright, 964.) 

4. Cn. RADIATA, J. Smith in Hook. Jour. Bot. 4, p. 159. Adiantum radiatum, L. 
- (Fendl. 67. Wright, 963.) | ; 


Genus XIV. ADIANTUM, L. 


1. Ap. MAcRopHYLLUM, Swartz; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 55. ^ (Fendl 88. Wright 874. 
. Schott, 56.) 

2. Ap. SEEMANNI, Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 5, t. 81. — (Schott, 68.) 

3. AD. OBLIQUUM, Willd. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 8, t. 19. (Fendl. 469. Wright, 987. 
. Schott, 66.) 7 
4. Ap. Kautrussu, Kunze in Lin. 21, p. 221. — (Fendl. 87, 469 8. Schott, 69.) 
5. Ap. LUNULATUM, Burm. ; Hook. $ Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 104. ` (Fendl. 82.) 
6. AD. DOLABRIFORME, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 191. — (Fendl. 81.) 
VOL, VIL - 26 


202 FILICES WRIGHTIANA ET FENDLERIA NE. 


7. Ap. PULVERULENTUM, L. ; Hook. x Fil. 2,: p. 17. dnos 86. — 879, 
anno 1859 lecta.) 

8. Ap. vittosum, L. ; ` Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p 18. (Fendl 85, 364. Wright, 882.) 

9. Ap. OBTUSUM, Desv. ; Hook. l. c: p.19; - Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 188. (Fendl. 84.) 

10. Ap. PRIONOPHYLLUM, H.B.K. ; Hook. l. c. 9, p. 21. A. tetraphyllum, Willd. ; 
Metten, ` (Fendl 83. Wright, 986. Schott, 64.) | de 

11. Ap. INTERMEDIUM, Swartz ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 25.  (Fendl. 468. Schott, 67.) 

12. Ap. M ette Les Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 33. Ad pentadactylon, Hook. $ 
Grev. Ic: Fil. t. 98. (Wright, 875.) 

13. Ap. parens; Willd. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p- 99, 1.81. — (Fendl. 19.) - 

14. Ap. Caritius-Veneris, L. — (Fendl. 78, 496, 68? Wright, 988.) 

15. Ap. ZETHIOPICUM, L. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 37, t. 11. (Fendl. 71.) = 

16. Ap. TENERUM, Swartz ; ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 45. (Fendl. 69, 70. Wright, 989.) 

17.: Ap. FRAGILE, Swartz ; Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 965. (Wright, 878.) 

18. Ab. concinnum, H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 1, p Ü & 17, t. 668. (Fendl. 13, 14, 15, 16, 
717. Wright, 877.) | 
^ 19. An. sessiiroLIUM, Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 44, t. 85. — (Fendl. 72.) : 

20. Ap. CRISTATUM, L.; Hook. Sp. Fil 2,'p. 46: ` (ne 879 anno 1856 lecta, 
990, 994.) 

21. AD. MICROPHYELUM, Kaulf. Fnum. Pp. . 204. (Wright, 992.) 

22. Ap. Kunzeanum, Klotzsch in Lin. 8, p. 555. (Wright, 993.) 

23. Ap. CUBENSE; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 8, t: 13. — Var. pinnis duabus infimis elongatis 
iterum: pinnatis. Proxima Ad. cristato, sed: fronde laxa nec rigida, pinnulis terminali- 
bus pinnarum inferiorum dilatato-cuneatis obtusis soriferis, pinnulis omnibus membrana- 
ceis siccitate explanatis, colore viridi-ceerulescentibus, satis distincta. (Wright, 991.) 

24. Ap. PoLYPHYLLUM, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 454. Ad. cardiochlena, Kunze ; Hook. 
Sp. Fil. 2, p. 50, t. 83. — (Fendl. 80.) 


Genus XV. PELLAA, Link. ` 
1. P. GERANIIFOLIA, Fée, Gen. p 130. Pteris aen Raddi ; j Hook. x Pict. 
915. — (Fendl 92.) 
2. P. ruexvosa, Link. Fil. Sp. d 60. _ Allosorus —— eec Fil. p. 46, t. 23. 
(Fendl. 89.) 
. 8. P. pecomposrra, Hook. Sp. Fi L2 151, t 119. Allosorus décotipositüs; À Mart. 


& Gal. Fil. Mex. p. 48, t. 10. pom 90, 404. Cheilanthes marginata, HB. K 
ex Metten.) 


- 


FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIANZE. 203 


: Genus XVI. ONYCHIUM, Kaulf. 
dl O. STRICTUM, Kunze, Fil. 2, p. n - Hook. Cent. Fil. 2, t. 32. (Wright, 858, 859.) 


Genus XVII. PTERIS, L. 
z § I. EUPTERIS. 


1. Pr. roxetronn, L. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 151. — (Wright, 871.) 
Var. y. pinnis anguste linearibus rigidis, Hook. l. c. (Wright, 981. Fendl. 105.) 
- 2. Pr. von, L..; Hook. l. c. p. 164, t. 131. (Wright, 869.) 
3. Pr. LaciNIaTa, Willd. ; Hook. l.c. p. 176, t. 132, (Fendl. 100. Wright, 883.) 
. 4. Pr. QUADRIAURITA, Retz ; Hook. l. c. p. 119, t. 134. P. repandula, Link ; Metten. 
(Fendl. 108. Wright, 983.) ; 
5. Pr. perLexa, Link. Hort. Berol. 2, p. 30; Hook. l.c. p. 190. — (Fendl. 101, 1021) 


$ II. ORNITHOPTERIS. 

6. Pr. AQUILINA, L.; Hook. l. c. p. 196. Var. caupata, Hook. Pt. caudata, L. 
(Wright, 872.) 

Var. ARACHNOIDEA. Pt. arachnoidea, Kaulf. Enum. p. 190. (Wright, 985, seg- 
mentis ultimis angustis valde approximatis. ^ Fendl 104.)  (Speciem distinctam 
affirmat Mettenius, Fil. Lips. p. 60.) 

. "l. Pr. scaLaris, Moritz ; Hook. l.c. p. 200, t. E Metten. Vide en 9, P: 9,1 16. 
(Fendl. 94.) 
$ III. HETEROPHLEBIUM. | 

8. Pr. GRANDIFOLIA, L. | Heterophlebium grandifolium, Fée, Gen. p- 139, £. 11. 
(Fendl. 96. Wright, 982.) V de. | | 
$ IV. CAMPTERIA. - 

9. Pr. carts (sp. nov.): glabra; caudice brevi repente paleis ovato-lanceolatis medio 
nigris margine lato pallide fusco denticulatis obsesso; stipiti gracili nitido stramineo 
basi ebeneo; lamina ovata pinnata; pinnis 4 —6-jugis distantibus sub-oppositis, inferi- 
oribus bipinnatisectis, mediis pinnatisectis; segmentis paucis remotis anguste lineari- 
bus rectis basi longe decurrentibus apice serrato acuminatis; venulis furcatis liberis vel 
plerumque areolas costulares bi- tri-radiatas efformantibus; involucro lato membra- 
naceo eleganter ciliato in alam rachidis partialis decurrente. — Stipes 7-12 pollices 
longus: lamina 8— 12 pollices longa, 6 — 9 poll. lata. Pt. leptophylle similis, sed seg- 
mentis linearibus indivisis et involucro ciliato abunde distincta. ` (Wright, 868.) 


204 FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIAN X. 


$ V. LrroBROCHIA. 

10. Pr. saerrrrroria, Raddi, Syn. Fil. Bras. n. 106; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 39. Dory- 
opteris sagittifolia, J. Smith. ^ (Fendl. 366.) 

11. Pr. pepata, L.; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 34. Doryopteris pedata, J. Smith; Fée, 
Gen. p. 133. — (Fendl. 91. P. palmata, Willd. ex Metten. Wright, 867.) 

12. Pr. peNTICULATA, Swartz; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 28 (excl. syn.); Hook. Sp. 
Fil. 2, p. 215. (Wright, 870.) 

13. Pr. Kunzzana, Agardh, Pteris, p. 62. — (Fendl. 365. Wright, 984. Schott, 59.) 

14. Pr. vata, Agardh, l c. 63. — (Fendl. 95.) 

15. Pr. AcuLEATA, Swartz; Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 294. — (Fendl 97. Wright, 873.) 

16. Pr. PoDoPHYLLA, Swartz ; Hook, l. c. p. 227. Litobrochia eunte Fée, 
Gen. p. 137. (Fendl. 98, 99.) 

17. Pr. rxcrsa, Thunb. Fil. Cap. p. 133; Hook. l c. p. 230. P. vespertilionis, Labill. 
et auct. — (Fendl. 93.) 


Tris. III. ASPLENIACEZE. 


Genus XVIII. LOMARIA, Willd. 


l. L. arrenvata, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 290; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 6. L. onocleoides, 
Spreng. ; Hook. lc. p. 9, t. 146. L. decrescens, Fée, Iconogr. p. 24, t. 9.  (Fendl. 
308. Wright, 864.) | 

2. L. Prumrert, Desv. ; Hook. l c. p. i. — (Fendl. 309.) 

3. L. L’Hermintent, Bory ; Kunze, Fil. p. 113, t. 13.  (Fendl. 310.) 

4. L. procera, Spreng. Syst. 4, p. 65; Hook. l.c. p. 99. — (Fendl. 118, 119, 120, 122.) 

9. L. Macetuanica, Desv.; Hook. lc. p. 26. (Fendl. 340.) 

6. L. sisERRATA, * Mert. $ Lind”; Hook.l.c.p.19. Plagiogyria biserrata, Metten. 
Farngatt. 2, p. 1, t. 15. — (Fendl. 325, nec 335, quod Hook. 1. c.) 


Genus XIX. BLECHNUM, L. 


1. B. ocomentate, L.; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 50. (Fendl. 106, 107, 108, 109. 
Wright, 863.) | 

2. B. LoNGIrOLIA, H.B.K.; Hook. l. c. p. 49, t. 154. - CFeudk 113, 114, 115, etiam 
111, 112, pinnis latioribus. Schott, 15.) - | 

3. B. FENDLERI, Hook. l. c. p. 49, t. 158. (Fendl. 116.) 

4. B. POLYPODIOIDES, Raddi, Nov. Gen. p. 53, t. 60.  (Fendl. 110, 110 B-) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANZE ET FENDLERIANZ. 205 


5. B. voLUBILE, Kaulf. Enum. p. 159; Hook. l. c. p. 63.  Salpichlzna volubilis, J. 
Smith in Hook. Jour. Bot. 4, p. 168. — (Fendl. 117.) 


Genus XX. ASPLENIUM, L. 
$ I. EUASPLENIUM. 


1. A. SERRATUM, L. ; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 10. | (Fendl. 489. Wright, 837. Hayes, 39.) 

2. A. OLIGOPHYLLUM, Kaulf. Enum. 166. — (Fendl. 326.) 

9. A. ANISOPHYLLUM, Kunze in Lin. 10, p. 511; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. lz 160. 
(Wright, 845.) 

4. A.sALICIFOLIUM, L. ; Hook. Sp. Fil 3, p. 112. (Fendl. 411. Wright, 841. 
Schott, 49.) | 

5. A. HASTATUM, Klotzsch in Lin. 23, p. 305 ; Hook. l.c. p. 116.7. 172. — (Fendl. 331, 
331 B. 144, pro parte.) i 

6. A. AURICULATUM, Swartz ; Hook. l. c. p. 118, t. 171. (Wright, 848 pro parte, 
1028.) 

7. A. RIPARIUM, Liebmann, Fil. Med p. 92; Hook, l. c. p.119,t.179. — (Fendl. 131.) 

8. A. ALATUM, H.B.K. ; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 137.  (Fendl. 145. Schott, 44.) 

9. A. RHIZOPHORUM, L.; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 122, t. 187. — (Fendl. 125, 126, 127, 
140, 434. Wright, 850, 851, 1041.) : 

10. A. erecrum, Bory in Willd. Sp. Pl. 5,p. 510. Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 126. (Fendl. 
135, 137, 138, 433. Wright, 849, 1024.) 

11. A. pentatum, L. ; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 12. (Wright, 853.) 

12. A. Larum, Swartz ; Hook. l. c. p. 133, t.173. A. Schkuhrianum, Presl, ex Metten.! 
(Fendl. 136, 139 8. Wright, 1026, 1027.) 
. 18. A. rrrmum, Kunze in Bot. Zeit. 3, p. 283; Hook. l. c. p. 134, t. 174. eS 
139, 143, 143 8. Wright, 848. Schott, 51.) 

14. A. Tricnomanes, L., var. masus, Hook. l. c. p. 137. (Wright, 1042.) 

15. A. MONANTHEMUM, L. ; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 14, t. 9. — (Fendl. 134.) 

16. A. rormosum, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 329; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 16. — (Fendl. 133. 
Wright, 854.) 

17. A. nissECTUM, Swartz ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 151, t. 192. (Wright, 852.) 

18. A. Serra, Langsd. $ Fisch. Ic. Fil. p. 16, t. 19.  (Fendl 155, 332, 333. 
Wright, 840.) 

19. A. DIMIDIATUM, Swartz ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 159. (Wright, 842.) 

20. A. erosum, L. ; Metten. Asplen.p. 151. (Wright, 843, 1043.) 

21. A. runcaTUM, Thunb. Prodr. p. 112; Metten. Aspl. p. 159. A. preemorsum, 
Swartz, Syn. p. 83. A. Canariense, Willd. l. c. p. 339.  (Fendl. 156, 157. Wright, 1031.) 


206 |. FILICES WRIGHTIANA ET FENDLERIANS. 


22. A. cungatum, Lam. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, T 168. Wight, .1030. Exemplaria 
vix ab Aspl. laserpitiifolio diversa.) ` 

23. A. AURITUM, Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occ. 3, p. 1616; Metten. Aspl. 103. (Fendl. 
141, 142. Wright, 1025. Schott, 46.) | 

24. A. FRAGRANS, Swartz, Fl. Ind. Occ. 3, p. 1612; Metten, Aspl. 104. A. fent: 
culaceum, H.B.K.  (Fendl. 368. Wright, 857, frondes A. delicatuli, Pr. intermixte, 
ex Hook.) 

25. A. PUMILUM, Swartz, Fi. Ind. Oce. 3, p. 1610; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 174. (Fendl. 
130. Wright, 861.) 


26. A. squamosum, L: ; “Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 186, t. 210.. (Fendl. 132.) 


$ II. Danza. 
27. A. nuTACEUM, Metten. Aspl. p. 129 ; Hook. Cent. Fil. 2, t. 34. (Fendi. 123.) 
28. A. CICUTARIUM, Swartz ; Metten. Fil. Lips. t. 13. (Fendl. 124. Wright, 855.) 
29. A. MOoNTEVERDENSE, Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 195 $ Cent. Fil. 2, t 41. Vix satis 
diversa ab A. cicutario, cui speciei refert Mettenius in litt. (Wright, 856, 1029.) 


$ III. HEMIDICTYUM. 


30. A. MARGINATUM, L., Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 63. Hemidictyum marginatum, Presl. 

(Fendl 167. Wright, 838.) 
$ IV. DIPLAZIUM. 

31. A. PLANTAGINEUM, L. ; Metten. Aspl. p. 161.  (Fendl. 154.) 

32. A. CELTIDIFOLIUM, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 15, t. 12; Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 240. Di- 
plazium celtidifolium, Kunze in Bot. Zeit. 3, p. 285.  (Fendl. 152, 153.) 

33. A. GRANDIFOLIUM, Swartz, Prodr. p. 130; Hook. Sp. Fil. 8, p. 241. ore 497. 
Wright, 846, 1037? Schott, 50.) 

34, A. JUGLANDIFOLIUM, Lam. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 8, p. 242, Diplazium — 
Swartz ; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 100. — (Fendl. 498.) 

35. A. Orronis, Klotzsch, var. (8. Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, p. 243. (Wright, 1056.) 

36. A. STRIATUM, L.; Hook. l. c. p. 245. A. Shepherdi, Spreng. (Wright, 1035. 
Schott, 42.) 

Var. Caracasanum. Asplenium Caracasanum, Willd.  (Fendl. 129, 129 8.) 

Var. AURICULATUM. Diplazium auriculatum, Kaulf. Enum. Fil. p. 183. Asplenium 
arboreum, Willd. ; Hook. l. c.p. 246. (Wright, 1034. Fendl. 128, 1288.) 

37. A. Cusense, Hook. l. c. p. 253, t. 207. — Precedenti affinis, cujus forma juvenilis 
forsitan rectius habenda. (Wright, 1032, 1033.) e 


38. A. pusium, Metten. Asplen. p. 187; Hook. l. c. p. 261. 


(Fendl. 146, 147, 436. 
Wright, 847, 1044, 1038, 1039.) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIANA. 207 


- 89, A. Kiorzscun, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 19; Hook. 1. c. p. 263. Lotzea diplazioides, 
Klotzsch $ Karst. in Linnea, 20, p. 358. ` (Fendl. 148? 149.) 
(Alize aise Berries sunt Fendl. 150, 151, et Wright, 1045.) 


$ V. ATRYRIUM. 
40. A. MARTENSIT, Kunze in Sill. Journ. ser. 2, 6, D 86. (Fendl. 405.) 


Tris. 1V. ASPIDIACER. 
| Genus XXI.  HYPOLEPIS, Bernh. 


1. H. REPENS, Presl. Tentamen Pterid. p: 162.. (Wright, 894.) 
2. H. PARALLELOGRAMMA, Hook. Sp. Fil. 2, p. 65, t. 18... (Fendl. 66.) 
3. H. Purpreana; E Fil. 2, p..69, t 9L.- (Fend 64.) 


Genus XXII. -PHEGOPTERIS, Fée, 


i Pu. PTEROIDEA, Metten. Phegop. p. 9.. ` Polypodium pteroideum, Klotzsch in Lin. 
20, p. 389. (Fendl. DUG E 

-2. Pn. cocuteata, Metten. l. en 11. Polypodium Se Klotzsch in Lin. 20, 
p. 388.  (Fendl 171.) 

3. PH. PLATYPHYLLA, Metten. l c. p. 12.  Aspidium platyphyllum, Willd. l. c. p. 255. 
(Fendl. 175. . Wright, 832.) | 

4. Pn. ASPIDIOIDES, Metten. Fil. SES p. 82,1. 17. ear aspidioides, a 
Enum. p.81. _ (Fendl. 306.) | 

9. Pu, ruprsrris, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 82. - Gymnogramme Pa. Kelotesch í in Lin. 
20, p. 310.. . (Fendl. 307.) 

6. Pu. RUDIS, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 88. ` (Pend. 158.) 

1. Pu. DECUSSATA, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 83, E 17. Polypodium decussatum, Ly 
Willd. l c. p. 204. — (Fendl. 373.) 

8. Pua: TIJUCCANA, Fée; Gen. p. 243... Polypodium Tijuccanum, TM Fil. Bras. 25, 
ES (Fendl. 198.) 

9 Pu. TETRAGONA, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 84. Polypodium isle ion Swartz, ide 
p.31. (Fendl. 196. Wright, 817.) 

10. Pn. Mxcaropus, Metten. Phegopt. p. 24. Polypodium Megalodus, Schkuhr, Fil, 
P 24, t. 19.. (Fendl. 200.) 
11. Pn. crenata, Metten. Fil. Lips. p.84. Polypodium crenatum, Swartz, Syn. p. 37. 


(Fendl. 199.) 


208 FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANZ. 


12. Pu. prvercens, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 83. Polypodium divergens, Willd. Sp. PL. 5, 
p.209.  (Fendl. 205. Wright, 831.) 

13. Pu. Portoricensis, Fée, Gen. Fil. p. 243 ex Metten. (Wright, 1000.) 

14. Pu. sericea, Metten. (sp. nov.): caudice repente paleaceo; stipite gracili frondi- 
busque sericeo-hirtis ; frondibus subpellucidis ovatis acuminatis basi bipinnatis versus 
apicem pinnatifidis; pinnis infimis oppositis insequilateris ovatis, pinnulis lateris infe- 
rioris majoribus elongatis pinnatifidis lateris superioris minoribus vix incisis; pinnis 
superioribus oblongo-ovatis pinnatifidis segmentis oblique-ovatis obtusis lateris superioris 
majoribus; venulis e costula pinnatis liberis simplicibus vel furcatis; soris in dorso 
venularum costule subapproximatis; sporangiis pilis hyalinis articulatis longissimis 
intermixtis.— Caudex crassitie penne corvine, paleis angustis rubiginosis vestitus. 
Stipes subpedalis, gracilis, sericeo-pubescens. Frondes semipedales, 3 — 4 pollices late, 
deltoideo-ovatz, undique pilis albescentibus 6 — 8-articulatis sericew: segmenta ovata, 
obtusa vel acutiuscula, basi inferiori cuneata, superiori truncata et coste parallela. 
Venule opace in parenchymate subpellucido evidentissime. — Filix pulchella, a ceteris 
Phegopteridis speciebus plane diversa. (Wright, 1054.) 

15. Pu. KansrEN1ANA, Metten. Phegop. 30.  (Fendl. 447.) : 

16. Pu. sumcisa, Fée, Gen. 243. Polypodium subincisum, Kaulf. ; Martius, Ic. 
Crypt. Bras. 89, t. 64. — (Fendl. 202. Wright, 1012.) 


Genus XXIII. ASPIDIUM, Swartz. 
§ I. FADYENIA. 
1. A. FApvznrm, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 95, t. 28. Fadyenia prolifera, Hook. Gen. t. 53, 
& Fil. Exot. t. 36. Frondes interdum crenato-laciniate. (Wright, 844.) 
§ IL. AMBLIA, 
2. A. JUGLANDIFOLIUM, Kunze, ex Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 363. — (Fendl. 233.) 
§ III. CYCLOPELTIS. 
9. A. SEMICORDATUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 45. Cyclopeltis semicordata, J. Smith, * in Bot. 
Mag. 72.” | (Fendl. 443. Wright, 1058.) 
$ IV. POLYSTICHUM. 


4. A. visciDULUM, Metten. Aspid. p. 38. Aspidium glandulosum, Hook. & Grev. Ic. 
Fil. t. 140. (Wright, 1052.) 

9. A. TRIANGULUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 44; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 33. (Wright, 998.) 

Var. LAxuM, Hook. l. c. Polystichum ilicifolium, Fée, Gen. p. 279; Iconogr. p. 21, 
t.6. (Wright, 829.) 


> 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIAN JE. 209 


6. A. MUCRONATUM, Swartz. Syn. p. 43; Metten. Aspid. p. 41. A. trapezoides, Swartz ? 
Metten. in litt. Rachis in nonnullis producta, apice radicans. (Wright, 828, 1057.) 

7. A. MonrrziaNUM, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 367. (Fendl. 172, 173, 174. Wright, 
1056?) 
. 8, A. CORIACEUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 57; Schkuhr. Fil. p. 50, t. 50; Metten. Fil. Lips. 
p.89. Filix Tasmania, Capite B. S., Antillisque indigena. (Fendl. 499. Wright, 
999.) >: 

; $ V. LasrREA. 

- 9. A. MzxicaNuM, Presl. Rel. Henk. 1, p. 38. — (Fendl. 168.) 

10. A. DENTICULATUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 51.  (Fendl. 170.) 

11. A. excuttum, Metten. Aspid. p. 69. — (Fendl. 330.) 

12. A. PUBESCENS, Swartz, Syn. p. 56. Nephrodium pubescens, Hook. $ Grev. Ic. Fil. 
162. (Wright, 815.) 

13. A. MELANOSTICTUM, Kunze in Lin. 13, p. 148. A. So Fée, Gen. p. 
294. (Wright, 830.) 

14. A. carocanPUM, Kunze in Lin. 9, p.95.  (Fendl 204.) 

15. A. AuPLUM, Metten. Aspid. p. 14. ` (Wright, 1055, fide Metten.) 

16. A. sancrum, Metten. Aspid. p. 16. Polypodium sanctum, Swartz, Syn. p. 39. 
(Wright, 814, 816, 885.) 

17. A. oxiGocARPUM, H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 1, p. 13. — (Fendl. 176, 177, 179, 181, 416. 
Wright, 1013.) 

18. A. riLosuLUM, Klotzsch & Karst. ex Kunze in Lin. 23, p. 229 ; Metten. Fi. Lips. 
p.90 & 130. — (Fendl. 178, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185.) 

19. A. coNTERMINUM, Willd. l. c. p. 249. (Wright, 820.) | 

20. A. SPRENGELI, Kaulf. Enum. p. 239; Pren: Aspid. p. 81. (Fendl. 438. 
Schott,6, 21. Wright, sine numero.) 

21. A. PACHYRACHIS, * Kunze herb.”; Metten. Aspid. p. 83. — (Fendl. 472.) 

22. A. DIPLAZIOIDES, ** Moritz”; Metten. l. c. — (Fendl. 159.) 

23. A. PATENS, Swartz, Syn. p. 49 ; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 90.  (Fendl. 190, 192.) 

24. A. MACROURUM, Kaulf. Enum. p. 239; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 87. eet 1002 
(Metten.), 819, 822. Fendl. 189, 473.) 

95. A. CARIPENSE, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 90. Polypodium Caripense, Willd. l. c. p. 202. 
(Fendl 371.) ` 

26. A. HIRTUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 56; Metten. Aspid. p. 114. Polypodium barbatum, 
Kunze in Lin. 9, p. 52. (Wright, 886.) H 

27. A. xEMoROsUM, Willd. l. c. p. 255. A. hirtum, Metten. in litt. (Wright, 1016.) 


VOL. VIII. 27 ` 


210 FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANA. 


28. A. Wricutn, Metten. (sp. nov.): caudice repente paleaceo ; stipitibus basi pale- 
aceis erectis rachique breviter pilosis; frondibus lanceolatis pinnatifidis basi pinnatis ; 
segmentis oblongis subfalcatis obtusis supra glabris subtus ad costam venulasque 
pubescentibus margine cartilagineo revolutis, infimis liberis remotis deflexis, superiori- 
bus contiguis ala lata confluentibus; venulis simplicibus utrinque ad costam 12-15, 
infimis binis ad sinum conniventibus, carina cartilaginea e sinu ad rachim procurrente ; 
soris margini approximatis ` indusio reniforme breviter setoso. — Stipites 2 — 6 pollicares, 
erecti, validi.  Frondes rigidz, subpedales, pollicem et sesquipollicem late. Sori in 
dorso venularum margini potius quam costule approximati Indusia e cellulis 
serpentinis compacta, reniformia vel transverse oblonga, ad marginem setosa. Ab 
Aspidio Skinneri, Hook, cui affinis, statura majore, carina inter segmentis, aliisque notis 
satis diversa. (Wright, 824.) 

29. A. LONCHODES (sp. nov.): caudice repente elongato pennam anserinam crasso vix 
paleaceo; stipite fusco subpedali glabro vel supra pubescente; lamina subcoriacea 
rigida pedali vel sesquipedali utrinque ad costam costulamque pubescenti-hirta ceterum 
glabra lanceolata pinnata apice longo acuminato pinnatifida; pinnis 12 - 18-jugis 
utrinque sensim decrescentibus, infimis non deflexis, oblongis vel oblongo-lanceolatis 
. crenatis vel pinnatifidis apice integro acuminatis; segmentis brevibus falcatis obtusis; 
venulis in quodam segmento utrinque 5 —8, duabis infimis ad sinum conniventibus, 
carina e sinu fere ad costulam prominente; soris mediis inter marginem et costulam 
segmentorum; indusio reniformi dorso setoso persistente. — Similis sequenti, sed pinnis 
a medio lamin: ad basim sensim nec abruptim decrescentibus, inferioribus patentibus, 
satis distat. (W right, 1007, 1008.) 

30. A. DELTOIDEUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 49; Metten. Aspid. p. 93. NEE deltoi- 
deum, Desv. (Wright, 823.) 

. 81. A. Serra, Swartz, Syn. p. 41; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 91. | Nephrodium Serra, 
Desv. ` (Wright, 923, 1004.) : 

Var. laciniis lineari-oblongis subfalcatis acuminatis, Metten. Aspid. p. 93.  Aspidium 
giganteum, Moritz.  (Fendl. 188. Wright, 822 pro parte 1003.) 

39. A. FENDLERI (sp. nov.): elatum, amplum; stipite erecto valido fusco; fronde 
oblonga pinnata preter costas subtus puberulas glaberrima ; pinnis multijugis oppositis 
patentissimis brevi-petiolatis lanceolatis crenato-pinnatifidis, laciniis subfalcatis obtusis 
ala latissima coadunatis; venulis curvatis 14 — 18 utrinque ad costulam, basalibus sin- 
gulis e costa egredientibus mox conniventibus in venulam venulas quaternas quinasve 
accipientem et ad sinum proeurrentem ; soris in lacinia qualibet 20-30 confertis in 
seriem mediam inter costulam et marginem fere ad costam decurrentem ; indusio reni- 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIAN X. 21i 


formi (1) atro-purpureo glabro persistente siccitate corrugato. — Stipes tripedalis, pennam 
cygneam crassus, basi paleaceus ceterum glaber. Frondem integram non vidi Pinne 
6 — 9-pollicares, 15 — 20 lineas late; inferiores intervallo tripollicari disjuncte ; supe- 
riores magis approximati; terminali magna, cum duabus proximis basi coadunate. 
Segmenta membrana subpellucida e sinu versus costam decurrente conjuncta. Indu- 
sium maceratum reniforme videtur. Sori seriebus collocati, adjuvantibus concursu 
venularum et forma frondis Hemiteliam quandam simulant. ^ (Fendl. 372.) 
33. A. TETRAGONUM, Metten. Aspid. p. 95.  (Fendl. 445. A ngm, 1009, 1000. 
Schott, 12.) 
34, A. SCOLOPENDRIOIDES, Metten. Aspid. p. 97. Var. incisa, Metten. l. c. Aspidium 
stenopteris, Kunze, Fil. t. 120. (Wright, 825.) 
Var. PINNATA, Metten. l. c. A. sclerophyllum, Kunze. (Wright, 1005, 1006.) 
35. A. REPTANS, Metten. Aspid. p. 98. Var. corbata, Metten. l. c. Phegopteris cor- 
data, Fée, Gen. p. 244 ; Iconogr. p. 13, t. 6. (Wright, 1014.) 
. Var. HASTÆFOLIUM, Metten. l.c. Polypodium hastæfolium, Swartz ; Hook. $ Grev. Ic. 
Fil. 203. (Wright, 812:) : 
Var. RADICANS, Metten. l. c. Polypodium reptans, Swartz. (Wright, 813.) 
36. A. MOLLE, Swartz, Syn. p. 49.  (Fendl. 191, 441, 473, 475. Wright, 818, 1001.) 


$ VI. SAGENIA. 
87. A. PEDATUM, Desv. ; Kunze, Fil. 1, p. 119, t. 15. (Wright, 997.) 
38. A. CICUTARIUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 51; Metten. Aspid. p. 117. (Wright, 995, 996, 


plante juveniles, vix semipedales, copiose soriferze, 833.) 
39. A. LATIFOLIUM, Presl. Rel. Henk. 1, p. 30. — (Schott, 32.) 


$ VII. EuasPiDIUM. 

40. A. MACROPHYLLUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 49, 239. (Fendi. 165, 166. Wright, 834. 
Schott, 5, 23, 39. Hayes, 43.) (Inter frondes quas ex Isthmo Panamensi misit Hayes 
unam in axillis pinnarum plurium proliferam frondulasque semipedales emittentem 
invenio.) 

41. A. PLANTAGINEUM, Griseb. Pl. Carib. p. 138. Polypodium plantagineum, Jacq. ; 
"Swartz, Syn. p. 29. — (Fendl. 412.) 

42. A. TRIFOLIATUM, Swartz, Syn. p. 43; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 95, t. 22. — (Fendl. 
164, 1648. Wright, 835. Schott, 38, 39.) 

43. A. DRACONOPTERUM (sp. nov.): stipite elongato paleaceo ; iride ampla e basi 
cordata ambitu ovata glabra pinnatifida; segmentis 7-9 oppositis ovato-oblongis 
caudato-acuminatis leviter sinuatis ala lata confluentibus, infimis brevioribus oblique 


212 FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIAN Æ. 


ovatis latere inferiore rotundatis superiore rectis, superioribus late oblongis, terminali 
duplo vel triplo majore latissime lanceolato; nervis secundariis curvatis, venulis reticu- 
latis, maculis primariis latissimis sub-tetragonis utrinque ad costam 7 — 9-seriatis, maculis 
secundariis numerosis appendiculatis; soris plerumque apice venule insidentibus inter 
nervis secundariis 6 — 8-seriatis, indusiis . . . .. — Stipes pedalis, fuscus, versus basin 
paleis angustis fuscis obsessus. Frondes sesqui — bipedales, pedem late, chartaceo-mem- 
branacee, glabre. Segmenta 3- 4-juga, ala 6-12 lineas lata confluentia, inferiora re- 
mota 6 — 7 pollices longa 2 poll. lata, superiora tertiá parte majora, terminale pedale, 
poll. 4 latum, omnia leviter sinuata, anguste acuminata. Anastomosis venarum pene 
A. macrophylli. Sori in maculo quodam primario 15—30.  Indusia ignota state 
delapsa. A. alati, Wall. haud dissimile, sed ala stipitis in illa specie conspicua omnino 
deest. Prope Turbo in sinu Urabá, Nove Grands, coll. A. Schott, no. 19. 


Genus XXIV. OLEANDRA, Cav. 


1. O. noposa, Presl. Tent. p. "9. Aspidium nodosum, Willd. l. c. p. 211. (Wright, - 
836.) ; 


Tris.V. DAVALLIACER. 


Genus XXV. DIDYMOCHLANA, Desv. 


1. D. LUNULATA, Desv. Ann. Lin. 6, p. 282. D. sinuosa, Desv. ; veer tE Crypt. 
Bras. 95, t. 28, 29. — (Fendl. 160. Wright, 862.) 


Genus XXVI. NEPHROLEPIS, Schott. 


1. N. xxarraTA, Schott, Gen. Fil. (Fendl. 162. Wright, 826.) (Ex Mettenio, no. 
162 ad N. occidentalem, Kunze, no. 826 ad N. sesquipedalem, Presl, pertinent.) 

2. N. ruserosa, Presl. Tent. p. 19. — (Fendl. 161.) 

9. N. PUNCTULATA, Presl. l.c. (Wright, 1011.) 


Genus XXVII. DAVALLIA, Smith. 


1. D. rx.xqvAuis, Kunze ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 180.  (Fendl. 375.) 

2. D. roryroproipzs, Don. Prod. Fil. Nep. p. 10; Hook. l.c. p. 181. Microlepia 
apta Metten.! ` (Wright, 896.) 

3 D. SaccoLoma, Spreng. Syst. 4, p. 119. Saccoloma — gege Enum. p. 224, 
t 1. (Fendl 376.) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANA ET FENDLERIANZ. 213 


4. D. CLAVATA, Swartz, Syn. p. 133.  Microlepia venusta, Metten. (Wright, 961.) 
5. D. ACULEATA, Swartz, Syn. p. 134. (Wright, 898, 960.) 

6. D. uncineLLA, Kunze, Fil. 2, p. 96, t. 140. — (Wright, 899.) 

7. D. Linvent, Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p.193, t. 56. — (Fendl. 62.) 


Genus XXVIII. LINDSZEA, Dryand. 
$ I. EULINDSZA. 

1. L. rRAPEZIFORMIS, Dry. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 214. (Fendl. 378. Wright, 976, 
pro parte. Schott, 54.) E 

2. L. HORIZONTALIS, Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 214, t. 62. (Wright, 976, pro parte.) 

9. L. QUADRANGULARIS, Raddi, Nov. Gen. p. 55, t. 4. — (Fendl. 63, 63 8, 380.) 

4. L. srricra, Dry. ; Hook.l.c. p. 216. L. elegans, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 98. . (Fendi. 
207. 479.) 
$ II. DicTYOXIPHIUM. 

5. L. Panamensis, Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 105. Hook. Fil. Exot. t.54. Dictyoxiphium 
Panamense, Hook. Gen. t. 62. (Schott, 60. Hayes, 46.) 

6. L. (Dicryoxipnium) MICHLERIANA (sp. nov.): erecta, glabra; stipite elongato 
gracili parce paleaceo, fronde membranacea ampla ovato-lanceolata basi subcordata vix 
. decurrente pinnatifida vel ima basi pinnata medio lobata apice sinuata ; laciniis latis 
oblongis obtusiusculis; venulis anastomosantibus, areolis appendiculatis costalibus 
elongatis; soris intramarginalibus interruptis oblongis vel linearibus. — Frondes 12 — 15 
pollices longs, basi pinnate, pinne 3-5 pollices longs pollicem late, infra medium 
pinnato-lobate, supra medium latissime lineares margine undulato. Dispositio venarum 
L. Panamensis simillima, sed laxior et (fronde aliquid tenuiore) oculo evidentior. In- 
dusium tenue, interruptum, non marginem frondis tegens. Dicata in honore Lieut. 
N. Michler, U. S. A., prefecto explorationis ad fossam navigabilem trans Isthmum struen- 
dam susceptee, quo favente hæc et alise Filices collects sunt nobisque transmisse. (Ad 
terram prope cataractum Truando Nove Granade, Schott, n. 8.) 


Genus XXIX. DICKSONIA, Z/ Herit. 


1. D. rusicinosa, Kaulf. Enum. p. 226 ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 19,1. 21. — (Fendl. 58.) 
. 9. D. CICUTARIA, Swartz, Syn. 137; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 16. — (Fendl. 374. Wright, 
895, 962.) (Ex Mettenio no. 962 ad * D. adiantoidem, Swartz, certe Kunze,” pertinet ; 
no. 895 partim ad D. dissectam, Swartz, partim ad D. adiantoidem.) 

9. D. APIIFOLIA, Swartz, Syn. p. 137; Hook. l c. 2, p. TT, t. 26. — (Fendl. 448.) 


214 FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANJE. 


4. D. consANGUINEA, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 445. D. ise Hook. l. c. p. 15, t. 26. 
(Fendl. 60.) 

5. D. ADIANTOIDES, H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 1, p. 24. — (Fendl. 59.) 

6. D. Luxnews, Hook. l. c. p. 12, t. 25. (Fendl. 61.) 

. T. D. Power, Hook. l. c. p. 12. (Wright, 897.) 


II. CYATHEACEZ. 


7 Genus XXX. BALANTIUM, Kaulf. 
1. B. KansrENIANUM, Klotzsch in Lin. 20, p. 444. — (Fendl. 57.) 


Genus XXXI. ALSOPHILA, R. Br. 


1. A. ASPERA, R. Br. Prodr. p. 158; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 218, 214, 215. A. hirta, 
Kaulf. var. Metten. (Wright, 1062.) , 

2. A. INFESTA, Kunze in Lin. 9, p. 98. (Fendl. 56.) 

3. A. atrovirens, Presl. Tent. p. 61. A. compta, Mart. Ic. Crypt. Bras. p. 66, t. 41. 
(Fendl. 383.) 

4. A. LEUCOLEPIS, Mart. l. c. p. 10, t. 46. — (Fendl. 53.) 

5. A, PUNGENS, Kaulf. ; Moore, Index, p. 56. ` (Fendl. 491.) 

6. A. ACULEATA, J. Smith in Lond. Jour. Bot. 1, p. 667. A. armata, Mart. l. c. p. 12, 
t. 28, 48. (Hayes, 2.) 

7. A. ARMATA, Presl. Tent. p. 62. A. Swartziana, Mart. l.c. p. 13, 1.49. — (Fendl. 49.) 

8. A. vittosa, * Desv. Prodr. p. 319” ex Moore Index, p. 58. — (Fendl. 47.) 

9. A. Huwsorprn, Klotzsch ; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 109. — (Fendl. 492.) 

10. A. rRurNATA, Kaulf. ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 41. — (Fendl. 48, 487.) 

(Hujus generis sunt, Wright, 951, 1061, 889; Fendl. 55, Bs. 


ditus XXXII. HEMITELIA, R. Br. 


1. H. speciosa, Kaulf. Enum. Fil. p. 252; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 28, t. 13, & Fil. Exot. 
t. 66. H. integrifolia, Klotzsch in Lin. 18, p. 539; Metten. l. c. p. 110. (Fendl. 46.) ` 

2. H. Karsrentana, Klotzsch in Bot. Zeit. 12, p. 439. Metten, Fil. Lips. p. 111. 
(Fendl. 386.) | : 

3. H. osrusa, Kaulf. Enum. p. 252; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 29, t.14.  (Fendl. 480.) 

4. H. norripa, R. Br.; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 69. (Fendl. 385. Wright, 888.) 

(Hujus generis, § Amphicosmia, Wright, 950.) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIANZ. 215 


Genus XXXIII. CYATHEA, Smith. 


1. C. ARBOREA, Smith ; Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. YT. (Wright, 892, 893, 948.) 

2. C. Serra, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 491; Hook. t. c. p. 11,t.9. (Wright, 891.) 

3. C. Scuanscuin, Mart. Ic. Crypt. Bras. p. 11, t. 54. (Fendl. 52.) 

4. C. InsIGNIS (sp. nov.): caudice arboreo; stipite badio inermi minute ruguloso 
paleis cinnamomeis anguste linearibus spinuloso-ciliatis (poll. ad semilineam gradatis) 
dense vestito; fronde ampla bipinnata basi subtripinnata supra viridi ad costas pubes- 
cente subtus pallescente paleis cinnamomeis minutis laciniatis adspersa; pinnis oblongo- 
lanceolatis brevi-stipitatis; pinnulis utrinque 40 —50 lanceolatis acuminatis fere ad 
costam pinnatifidis, vel basalibus iterum pinnatis; segmentis oblongis falcatis obtusis 
integris vel inferioribus crenato-incisis; soris 8—14 in quodam segmento, involucris 
ochroleucis ovato-spheroideis apice mamillatis demum in laciniis irregularibus dirum- 
pentibus. — Frondes pluripedales. Pinne sesquipedales. Pinnule crebre, 3-4-poll. 
longe. Rachis cum ramificationibus minute rugulosa, paleolis ciliato-laceris conspersa. 
Involucra sordide alba, subpergamentacea, primum ovoidea, apice macula discolori 
elevata notata, state in laciniis persistentibus divisa. ( Wright, 1064.) 

5. C. minor (sp. nov.): caudice erecto brevi; stipite brevissimo inermi; rachi 
costisque tenuiter pubescentibus; fronde lanceolata a medio inferne attenuata apice 
breviter acuminata pinnata; pinnis utrinque 30-35 alternis oblongo-lanceolatis ad 
costam pinnatifidis; segmentis oblongis obtusis, supra glabris, subtus pubescentibus, 
basali inferiore majore rachi incumbente ; soris in quodam segmento 8 — 14; involucris 
cate depresso-cyathiformibus margine integris. — Frondes tri — quadripedales, supra 
medium 8-16 poll late, dehinc ad basin attenuate. Pinne subremote patentes, e 
basi latiore late lanceolate, apice crenate. Segmenta pinnarum majorum 50-70, 
obliqua, integra, infra ad costulam paleolas paucas bullatas ferentia. Venvle furcate. 
Sori costule approximati. Ab omnibus Cyatheis veris mihi cognitis frondibus minori- 
bus simplicioribusque distincta. (Wright, 949.) 

6. C. BALANOCARPA (Sp. nov.): caudice arboreo ; stipite sparse aculeato basi paleis 
angustis fuscis obsesso; fronde ampla lanceolata bipinnata utrinque ad costas venulasque, 
paleis minutis ferrugineis ciliato-laceris pilisque articulatis pulverulenta ; pinnis brevi- 
petiolatis e basi lata lanceolatis acuminatis ; majoribus iterum pinnatis, pinnulis utrinque 
40 —50 lineari-oblongis basi inferiore auriculatis dentato-serratis obtusis, dentibus venu- 
lam pinnatam excipientibus in axilla ramuli primi soriferis; pinnis minoribus pinnati- 
fidis, laciniis falcatis oblongis obtusis integris vel subdentatis, venulis furcatis in furca 
soriferis; involucro cyathiformi margine integro, sporangiis ad receptaculum cylindricum 


216 FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIANJE. 


conglobatis ex ore cyathi protrudentibus. — Caudex 10— 15-pedalis. Stipes digitum 
crassus, fusco-nigrescens, aculeis nigris sparsis brevibus munitus. Frondes circiter 
octopedales. Pinne maxime 15 poll. long:e, 3 poll. late, in rachim valde approximate. 
Pinnule maxime 18 — 20 lineas longs, 3 lineas late basi inferiore auriculate, lineari- 
oblonge, dentate vel supra medium subintegerrime, apice obtuse, soros 20—30 sin- 
gulos in dentibus singulis ferentes. Pinnule minores sive lacinie semipollicares, soros 
6 —8 versus basin ferentes. Receptaculum sporangiis onustum e cyatho valde protusum 
tanquam glans e cupula. (Wright, 1063.) 


III. HYMENOPHYLLACE. 


Generis 34. Trichomanis, L., et 35. Hymenophylli, Smith, species nondum elaborate. 


IV. GLEICHENIACEZ. 


Genus XXXVI. GLEICHENIA, R. Br. 


1. G. Bancrorru, Hook. Sp. Fil. 1, p. 5, t.4. — (Fendl 45.) 

2. G. PUBESCENS, Hook. Sp. Fil. p. 8.  (Fendl. 42. Wright, 921.) 

3. G. PECTINATA, Presl. G. glaucescens, Hook. Leni — (Fendl. 482, 483.) 
4. G. picnoroma, Hook. l. c. p. 12. (Fendl. 44. Wright, 922.) 


V. SCHIZZEACEJE. 


Genus XXXVII. SCHIZAA, Smith. 


1. S. pichoroma, Swartz, Syn. p. 150; Hook. $ Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 17. — (Fendl. 485. 
Wright, 926.) 
2. S. FrasELLUM, Mart. Ic. Crypt. Bras. p. 115, t. 55,56. — (Fendl. 396.) 


Genus XXXVIII. ANEIMIA, Swartz. 


1. A. numis, Swartz, Syn. p. 156. (Fendl. 9, 10.) 

2. A. 1ncisa, Schrader ; Mart. l. c. p. 114. (Fendl. 11.) | 

3. A. Puyrumipis, Swartz, Syn. p. 155. A. hirta, Swartz, fide Metten. ` (Fendl. 13. 
Wright, 929, 1067.) = 

4. A. HIRSUTA, Swartz, Syn. p. 156. — (Fendl. 8, 15.) ee 

5. A. FLEXUOSA, Swartz, Syn. p. 156; Hook. Fil. Exot. t. 30.  (Fendl. 6.) ! : 

6. A. FULVA, Swartz, Syn. p. 151; Hook. Fil. Exot. t* 26. ` (Fendl. 7.) 

7. A. ADIANTIFOLIA, Swartz, Syn. p. 157. (Wright, 928.) 


FILICES WRIGHTIANJE ET FENDLERIAN Æ. 211 


Genus XXXIX. LYGODIUM, Swartz. 


1. L. vorusiLE, Swartz, Syn. p. 152. (Wright, 925. Hayes, 6.) 

2. L. DIGITATUM (sp. nov.): stipite scandente stramineo glabro; pinnis conjugatis 
petiolo articulatis glabris, 5 — 7-palmato-partitis; lobis elongato-lanceolatis argute ser- 
rulatis, fertilibus secundum marginem lobulos 10 — 14-soriferos ferentibus, costis ex 
apice petioli radiatis, venulis e costa pinnatis 1—2-dichotomis in dentes callosos in- 
curvos desinentibus. — Pinne rigide-membranacee, glabre, utrinque lete-virides. 
Incisure vix intra semipollicem ad apicem petioli extendentes. Lacinie 6-9 poll. 
longe, 10 — 12 lineas late, pinnulis Lygodii volubilis haud dissimiles. (Ad Gatun, in 
via ferrea Panamensi, Hayes, 25. Prope cataractum Truando, Nove Granade, Schott, 77.) 

3. L. Wricut (sp. nov. a cl. Mettenio edenda) (Wright, 925.) 

4. L. venustum, Swartz ; Presl. Suppl. p. 105. — (Fendl. 14. Hayes, 5.) 


VI. OSMUNDACEZ. 


Genus XL. OSMUNDA, L. 


1. O. REGALIS, L., var. sPECTABILIS. O. spectabilis, Willd. Sp. Pl. 5, p. 98. O. pa- 
lustris, Schrader ; J. W. Sturm, in Mart. Flor. Bras. fasc. 23, p. 166, t. 12. (Fendl. 5.) 


. VH. MARATTIACEZE. 


Genus XLI. MARATTIA, Smith. 


1. M. arata, Smith ; Schkuhr. Fil. p. 153, t. 152.  Discostegia alata, Presl. Suppl. 
p.12. (Wright, 1065.) 

2. M. Kaurrvssn, J. Smith in Hook. Gen. t. 26; Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 118. Eupo- 
dium Kaulfussii, J. Smith in Hook. Gen. t. 118. ` (Fendl. 3.) 


Genus XLII. DANZEA, Smith. 


1. D. Morrrztana, Presl. Suppl. p. 35. (Fendl. 1. Wright, 1066.) 

2. D. ELLIPTICA, Smith ; Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 52, (Fendl. 460. Wright, 924, 
pro parte.) 

3. D. woposa, Smith; Hook. $ Grev. Ic. Fil. t. 51. (Wright, 924, pro parte.) 
(Fragmenta frondium modo visa difficile est inter species tam affines dijudicare, sed 
duas Filices eodum sub numero distributas esse credo.) 

VOL. VIII. 28 


218 ; FILICES WRIGHTIANZ ET FENDLERIANE. 


VIII. OPHIOGLOSSEJE. 


Genus XLIII. BOTRYCHIUM, Swartz. 


1. B. pEcomposirum, Mart. $ Gal. Fil. Mex. p. 15,1. 1. Vix a B. lunarioide diversa. 
(Fendl. 4.) 


Genus XLV. OPHIOGLOSSUM, Tournef. 


1. O. VULGATUM, L., var. CROTALOPHOROIDES. O. crotalophoroides, Walt. Fl. Car. 
256. O. bulbosum, Micha. Fl. Bor. Am. 2, p. 216. — (Fendl. 342.) 

Var. RETICULATUM. O. reticulatum, L. (Fendl. 312, Wright, 930.) 

2. O. PALMATUM, Plumier, Fil. Am. p. 139, t. 163. — Cheiroglossa palmata, Presl, 
Suppl.p. 57.  Filix insignis, rarissima, sed in remotissimis terre regionibus reperta. 
(Wright, 946.) 


ERRATA. 


Page 193, 1. 13, pro “t. 6" lege “t, 7." 
“ 194, n.21, pro *p. 49" lege “p. 3, t. 15." 
* 196, 1. 22, lege CH. AUREUM, Fée ; 
CO LL e: ANAPORA — 
“ 197,1 28, “ Metten. Fil. Lips. p. 32. 
“198, 1.1%, “9. 18,£ 8. 
= oO" pie > E IO 
€ a mèk * p.196. 
* 199, n.82, * p. 999. 
oS "mos, “> Fendi 248? 
"on E E E 
“ 200, n. 48, adde (Hujus affine Fendl. 247.) 
*  n. 50, lege Jour. Bot. 6. 
+, © npo- € Gam 
ESE DE. To A ERS. 


ORCHIDE WRIGHTIANE ET FENDLERIANJE. 219 


APPENDIX. 


Orchidee Wrightiane et Fendleriane, ex cl. LINDLEY. 


Orchidee Wrightiane Cubenses. 


No. 618. Microstylis umbellulata. 665. Broughtonia sanguinea. 
614. Microstylis spicata. 666. Oncidium luridum. 
615. Pogonia macrophylla. 667. Ionopsis Gardneri. 
616. Pleurothallis oblongifolia. 668. Oncidium variegatum. 

-617. Pelexia setacea. 669. Oncidium usneoides, n. sp. 
618. Stenorhynchus orchioides. 670. Oncidium sylvestre, n. sp. 
619. Spiranthes elata. 671. Bletia patula. 

620. Cranichis muscosa. 672. Vanilla claviculata. 

621. Cranichis monophylla. 1471. Chloidia vernalis. 

622. Sauroglossum tenue, n. sp. 1472. Physurus hirtellus ? 

623. Physurus plantagineus. 1473. Prescottia pellucida. 

624. Physurus hirtellus. i 1474 —1476. Ponthieva glandulosa. 
625. Habenaria maculosa. [1477, 1478 — 1479 ?] 

626. Prescottia colorans. 1479. Cranichis pauciflora. 

627. Polystachya luteola. ; 1480. Cranichis monophylla. 

628. Epidendrum fuscatum. 1481. Habenaria, n. sp. 

629. Pleurothallis prostrata, n. sp. 1482. Spiranthes Gardneri. 

630. Epidendrum ramosum. 1483. Celia Baueriana. 

631. Govenia lagenophora. 1484. Maxillaria alba. 

632. Maxillaria pallidiflora. 1485. Maxillaria rufescens. 

633. Isochilus lineare. 1486. Dichza echinocarpa ? 

634. Lycaste ciliata. 1487. Dichza, n. sp. = 647. 

635. Epidendrum variegatum. 1488. Oncidium sylvestre, n. sp. 
636. Epidendrum fragrans. 1489. Epidendrum replicatum. 

637. Colia Baueriana. : 1490. Epidendrum discolor; E. nocturnum, var. 
638. Maxillaria crassifolia. 1491. Epidendrum rigidum. 
639. Brassia caudata. 1492. Epidendrum pheeniceum. - 
640. Epidendrum cochleatum. 1493. Evelyna graminifolia. 

641. Bletia verecunda. 1494. Isochilus globosum. 

643. Epidendrum polygonatum, n. sp. 1495. Liparis. 

644. Epidendrum rivulare, n. sp. 1496. Pleurothallis testzefolia, n. sp. 
645, 646. Epidendrum umbellatum. 1497. Angrecum Peeppigii. 

647. Dichza, n. sp. ! 1498. Epidendrum umbellatum, var. 
648. Pleurothallis testzefolia, n. sp. a 1499. Pleurothallis velaticaulis. ` 
649. Dinema polybolbon. 1500. Pleurothallis prostrata. 

650. Camaridium vestitum. 1501. Pleurothallis hymenantha. 
651. Pleurothallis Grobyi et P. longilabris, n. sp. 1502. Pleurothallis longilabris, n. sp. 
652. Masdevallia fenestrata. 1503. Pleurothallis Grobyi. 

653. Pleurothallis Cubensis. 1504. Pleurothallis mucronata, n. sp. 
654. Octomeria tridentata, 1505. Pleurothallis “ trigonifolia et tuberculata, 
655. Pleurothallis albida, n. sp. Wright.” 

656. Pleurothallis univaginata, n. sp. 15. 5. Pleurothallis, n. sp. ? 

657. Pleurotballis rubigena, n. sp. 1507. Pleurothallis, n. sp.? 

658. Stelis ophioglossoides. : 1508. Lepanthes ciliata. 

659. Pleurothallis trichophora, n. sp. 1509. Pleurothallis floripicta. 

660. Pleurothallis Wilsoni. 1510, 1511. Lepanthes tridentata, Sw., non Lindl. 
661. Lepanthes trichodactyla, n. sp. Bot. Reg. 

662. Lepanthes dorsalis, n. sp. 1512. Lepanthes Pristidis. 

663. Pleurothallis fallax. 1513. Pleurothallis, n. sp. 


664. Comparettia falcata. 1690. Epidendrum umbellatum. 


220 


1691. Microstylis spicata. 

1692. Angrecum, n. sp. 

1693. Epidendrum Wrightii, n. sp. 
1694. Habenaria. 

1695. Wareziewiczella discolor. 
1696. Microstylis umbellulata. 
1698. Galeandra Beyrichii ? 
1699. Epidendrum auritum. 

1700. Dichza glauca. . 


ORCHIDEZ WRIGHTIANZE ET FENDLERIANZ, 


1701. Dichza squarrosa. 

1702. Dichea muricata. 

1703. Ponthieva glandulosa? ` 
1704. Pleurothallis obovata. 

1705. Pleurothallis ruscifolia. 

1706. Pleurothallis velaticaulis. 
1707. Lepanthes trichodactyla, n. sp 
1708. Lepanthes fulva. 

1709. Pleurothallis, n. sp.? 


Orchidee Fendleriane Venezuelane. 


1361. Masdevallia Tovariensis ? 
1362. Masdevallia maculata? 
1363. Masdevallia aff. meleagri. 
1364. Comparettia falcata ? 
1365. Scelochilus. 

1366. Warcziewiczella discolor. 
1367, Ornithocephalus. 

1369 —1373. Masdevallie, spp. 
1375. Warcziewiczella, n. sp. 
1376. Oncidium emulum. 
1377. Acineta Humboldtii. 
1378. Oncidium zebrinum. 
1379. Oncidium, n. sp. 

1380. Oncidium luridum ? 
1382. Odontoglossum. 

1383. Epidendrum ciliare. 
1384. Epidendrum cuspidatum. 
1385. Stanhopea. 

1388. Leochilus, n. sp. 

1389. Trizeuxis falcata. 

1390. Ornithocephalus. 

1393. Maxillaria rufescens. 
1394. Bolbophyllum bracteolatum. 
1395. Govenia. 

1396. Kiillensteinia. 

1397. Chloidia. 

1399. Bletia. 

1400. Bletia. 

1405. Stenorhynchus. 

1406. Physurus. 

1407. Spiranthes aff. Galeottiane. 
1408. Habenaria aff. gracili. 
1409. Habenaria spathacea. 


1410. Malaxis (Liparis) Galeottiana. 


1411, Ponthieva glandulosa. 
1412. Cranichis. 
1420. Physurus. 


1421. Epidendrum aff. patenti et macrobotryo. 


1422. Liparis. 

1425. Physurus. 

1425. Microstylis. 

1429. Telipogon. 

1430. Epidendrum umbellatum. 
_ 1484. Habenaria Lindenii. 
1435. Epidendrum. ` 

. 1437. Habenaria brachyceras. 
1438. Habenaria entomantha. 
1439. Habenaria maculosa. 
1440. Epidendrum. 


1441. Ornithidium. 

1442. Epidendrum rigidum. 

1445. Epidendrum, n. sp. 

1447. Epidendrum brachychilum. 
1448. Epidendrum parallelum ? 
1452. Epidendrum orchioides. 
1453. Epidendrum Lindenii. 

1454. Camaridium ? 

1455. Ornithidium miniatum. 
1456. Ponera striata. 

1457. Dichza muricata. 

1458. Angrecum aff. Organensi, 
1460. Stelis muscifera, n. sp. 

1461. Stelis lutea, n. sp. 

1464. Stelis spheerochila, n. sp. 
1465. Stelis cymbiformis, n. sp. 
1466, 1467. Stelis humulis, n. sp. 
1468. Stelis muscosa, n. sp. 

1469, 1471. Stelis tenuilabris, n. sp. 
1470. Stelis Fendleri, n. sp. 

1476. Pleurothallis lanceolata. 
1485. Restrepia Lansbergii & var. Wageneri. 
1770. Epidendrum nutans. 

2124. Epidendrum macrochilum. 
2127. Dicrypta discolor? 

2129. Didactyle, n. sp. 

2135. Cranichis. 

2136. Cranichis. 

2137. Spiranthes elata. 

2138. Epidendrum, n. sp. 

2139. Physurus. 

2140. Prescottia aff. micranthe. 
2141. Liparis aff. vaginate et bituberculate. 
2142. Epidendrum nocturnum. 
2144.. Stelis coriifolia, n. sp. 
2145. Ornithidium sanguinolentum. 
2146. Ornithidium (Sophronitis). 
2147. Dichza. 
2151. Masdevallia. 

2154. Stelis alata, n. sp. ` ` 

2132. Scaphyglottis violacea. 
2435. Comparettia coccinea. 

2436. Epidendrum marbicornutum. 
2438. Spiranthes grandiflora. 
2440. Maxillaria Meridensis. 
2583. Gongora Jenischii. 

2621. Warcziewiezella. 

2622. Pleurothallis tripterantha. 
2624. Pelexia. 


VILE 
On the Light of the Moon and of the Planet Jupiter. 


Bx GEORGE P. BOND. 


( Communicated September 11, 1860.) 


On the 22d of March, 1851, several daguerrotype pictures of Jupiter were 
obtained on plates exposed at the focus of the great refractor of the Observatory of 
Harvard College. The belts were faintly indicated; but the most interesting fact in 
connection with the experiment, apart from its having been, as is believed, the first 
instance of a photographic impression obtained from a planet, was the shortness of the 
time of exposure, which was nearly the same as for the Moon, whereas, considering 
the relative distance of the two bodies from the Sun, it was to have been expected that 
the light of the Moon would have had twenty-seven times more intensity than that of 
Jupiter, supposing equal capacities for reflection. The experiments were repeated on 
the 8th and 9th of October, 1857, by Mr. Whipple, using the collodion process, with a 
like result. 

The energetic action of the light of Jupiter was noticed by De La Rue, in Decem- 
ber, 1857. The following is an account of his experiments. 

* Recent experience in photographing the Moon and Jupiter having given me the 
impression that the light of that planet, in proportion to its luminosity, possessed con- 
siderably more actinic power than that of the Moon, I determined on testing the 
correctness of this view, experimentally, on the first favorable opportunity. On 
‘December 7th, the Moon and Jupiter being, during a part of the night, at nearly the 
same altitude, although in different parts of the heavens, I turned the telescope alter- 
nately on one and the other body, and thus obtained several photographs (six of each), 
under almost identical conditions. Generally nine to ten seconds were sufficient for 
the Moon pictures, and twelve seconds for those of Jupiter; hence, although the light 
of.the Moon is at least twice as bright as that of Jupiter, its actinic power would 


VOL. VIII. 29 


299 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


appear to be not greater than as from 6 to 5 or 6 to 4. It is not improbable that the 
blue tint of Jupiter may have something to do with its photogenic power. It may be 
also stated, that the darkest parts of Jupiter’s surface came fully out by an exposure 
which did not suffice to bring out those portions of the Moon situated near the dark 
limb, and consequently illuminated by a very oblique ray; thus confirming an obser- 
vation already communicated by me." 

* As the night advanced, I was able to take pictures of Jupiter in five seconds, in 
consequence of the planet attaining a greater altitude; and the position of Saturn 
being favorable for a comparison of its actinic power with that of Jupiter, I turned the 
telescope alternately on each of these two planets, and found that, to produce pictures 
of equal intensity, the sensitized plate had, on the average, to be exposed 5 seconds 
to Jupiter, and 60 seconds to Saturn. Hence the chemical rays from Jupiter are 
twelve times more energetic than those from Saturn, — an effect undoubtedly in a great 
measure attributable to the greater brilliancy of the former planet, but not, I believe, 
entirely so.” * 

Further comparisons between the Moon and Jupiter, made at the Observatory of 
Harvard College in 1860, have suggested a variety of experiments, relating to their 
optical as well as to their photographic intensities, which will be described in the fol- 
lowing pages. A short explanation of the methods used in the reduction of the 
observations, and a general summary of the conclusions to which they have led, will 
first be given. 

The latter must be received with proper allowance for the difficulties incident to all 
photometric experiments, and perhaps not less so to their subsequent interpretation. 
We have no means of measuring degrees of optical intensity, other than by the pre- 
carious standard afforded in the sensation produced upon the eye, and since this 
involves much that is merely subjective and liable to alter with each new observer, 
or even with the same individual at different times, the data must be exposed to con- 
siderable uncertainty from this source alone. The photographs, it is true, are not 
affected in the same way, yet they have their peculiar failing in the irregular action 


of the chemicals. Again, the variable clearness of the sky, and differences of color 


and quality of light, have an influence both upon the photographic and optical rays, 
which it is impossible to eliminate completely. For these reasons, it is desirable to 


* Monthly Notices Royal Astr. Soc., Vol. XVIII. p. 55. The instrument was a Newtonian reflector of 
13 inches’ aperture. De la Rue photographed Saturn side by side with the Moon, May 8th, 1859, and 
obtained a distinct, though somewhat faint picture, in 15°. The intensity of sunlight at this planet is only 
about 4! of that at the Moon. - e 


LJ 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 223 


multiply the number of individual determinations, and to vary the methods of obser- 
vation, so as to approach the subject from as many different quarters as possible. 
Even when this has been done, it is not always that we can be secure of assuming 
correct principles on which to proceed in deducing from the data their legitimate 
consequences. 

The times of exposure required to produce daguerrotypes, or strong “negative” 
photographs, of the Moon and Jupiter, have been derived from observations made upon 
twenty-one nights from 1851 to 1860 inclusive. 

On classifying those for the Moon according to its angle of elongation from the Sun, 
it appears that there is a continuous decrease in the duration of exposure from new to 
full moon. At the latter phase, when the elongation is 180°, only one sixth as much 
time is required as at the phase for which the elongation is 60°, the Moon then being 
four or five days old. | 

The question, it must be remembered, is one of intensity, not quantity of light. In 
the latter the disproportion is very much greater, because the difference in the extent 
of illuminated area is also to be considered. The above results have suggested an 
examination of the proportions between the illuminating power of moonlight at the 
several phases, which are considered in another connection. 

By comparing the exposures for the Moon with those for Jupiter, the photographic 
intensity of the latter is found to be nine times that of the average surface of the full 
Moon, including the whole visible hemispheres of both bodies, and twenty-seven times 
greater if we have regard only to the central regions of the Moon and the bright belts 
of the planet. From a subsequent discussion of all the data, it was concluded that 
Jupiter reflects out of a given quantity of incident light, fourteen times more of the 
chemical rays than the Moon does. In other words, that the latter, if the constitution 
of its surface resembled that of Jupiter, would photograph in one fourteenth of the 
time which it actually requires; but if we have regard only to the brightest regions of 
the planet, the disparity in times of exposure must be increased to the ratio of perhaps 
1 to 30, or even more. 

It is shown that there is not sufficient difference in the color of the two objects, to 
“account for this inequality in photographic power. This is proved by comparisons 
with artificial light of different tints, reflected from silvered glass globes side by side 
with the images of the Moon and Jupiter, and by other evidence. The artificial illu- 
mination from the “ Bengola” or “blue-light” nearly resembled moonlight in color. 

The distribution of light over the discs of Jupiter and the Moon presented, in the 
photographs, a decided contrast; the former is brightest near the centre in. zones par- 
allel to the equator, the latter near the margin. 


224 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


The proportions between the intensity of the chemical rays from the Sun and those 
from the Moon and Jupiter, were next ascertained. For the Sun and Moon the propor- 
tion found was the ratio 340,000 to 1. Comparisons were also made between the 
Moon and the Earth's landscape, indicating that the latter has a somewhat feebler 
photographie power than the Moon. 

No satisfactory explanation of the superior chemical energy of the light of Jupiter 
having presented itself, attention was next directed to the relative intensity of the 
visual rays from the same objects. 

In the account of these experiments an exposition is first given of the photometric 
formule required in the discussion of the observations, with particular reference to the 
relative brightness of the Sun, and of the Moon or planets illuminated by it, as seen 
from the Earth. Different writers have arrived at very discordant representations of 
the ratio of the quantity of light afforded by the full Moon compared with sunlight, 
supposing none to be lost in reflection from its surface. Attention has been given to 
the cause of the discrepancies, and to the effect of changes in the phase of the Moon 
or planet in modifying both the amount of light transmitted to the Earth, and its 
distribution over the illuminated area. 

The changes of moonlight at the several phases, computed from Lambert's and Eu- 
lers theories, compared with Herschel's series of photometric determinations made in 
1836 at the Cape of Good Hope, were found to bear scarcely any resemblance to the 
observed values. This discordance was confirmed by a new series of experiments, agree- 
ing closely in their indications with those of Herschel. The fact that the two series were 
originally destined for quite different purposes, adds to the force of this confirmation. 
Of the two theories, Lambert's deviates the least from the truth, still, however, making 
the half-moon from two to three times too bright; and since it is based upon a prin- 
ciple found experimentally to be generally true for opaque substances, it would seem 
that the constitution of the Moon's surface in respect to its reflective properties is 
peculiar. The brightness somewhat suddenly increasing when it approaches opposi- 
tion, as though the greater number of the reflecting facets of its asperities were dis- 
posed at right angles to the radius vector of the orbit, causing a sudden glance of 
light analogous to that which we may see in micaceous rocks. 

It deserves notice that such a tendency would also accord with the actual distribu- 
tion of light at full moon; for, in this case, the brightness ought to increase towards 
the margin of the disc, as it actually does, whereas Lambert's theory requires that it 
should decrease. | 

Jupiter, on the other hand, agrees sufficiently well with Lambert’s theory, as 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 225 


respects the distribution of light over its disc. Mars, when near its full phase, has a 
nearer resemblance to the Moon. 

In the course of the observations upon the quantity of moonlight received from the 
different phases, comparisons were also made, by the same method, upon Jupiter and 
Venus, furnishing the following results: — 


Brightness of Jupiter at mean opposition ` 1 
Brightness of mean full Moon ~~ 6480 


Brightness of Jupiter at mean opposition — 1000 
Brightness of Venus at greatest brilliancy — 4864 


The subject next discussed has been the albedo, or reflective capacity, of the Moon 
and Jupiter. That of the Moon is represented by the expression 


y — £5193 
8 


S being the ratio of sunlight to full moonlight at the earth. If we assume the 
mean between Bouguer's and Wollaston's determinations, we have very nearly, — 


, 


S = 550000. 


A new determination of this proportion, communicated in a subsequent memoir, has 


given the value 
: S = 477530. 


‘It appears, therefore, that the Moon absorbs about ten parts out of every eleven 
of the light incident upon it; that is, we have | | 


St 
| ae 
The albedo of Jupiter compared with the Moon was found to be 


Kl dr. 
p 


Hence we arrive at the singular conclusion, that the albedo of Jupiter is 


pcm a es 1.04, 


much exceeding that of the whitest opaque substance known. Its optical brilliancy 
presents therefore an anomaly similar to that recognized in the chemical rays, for 


we have for the latter, — 
Chemical albedo of Moon — 1 


Chemical albedo of Jupiter 14 


226 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Strictly speaking, a value of u^ exceeding unity would indicate that Jupiter shines 
partly at least by native light. We must remember, however, in interpreting these 
results, that neither the observations nor the theoretical conditions assumed in discuss- 
ing them are entitled to implicit confidence. 

Experiments made upon the reflective capacity of various substances on the 
Earth's surface lead to the conclusion that the optical albedo of dark, weather-worn 
rocks, dry earth, sand and gravel, and of the Earth's landscape generally, approaches 
that of the Moon, so that in reflective power there is no considerable difference be- 
tween the two bodies. No substance was found of a whiteness comparable to that 
of the bright belts of Jupiter, still less to that of the brilliant spots which at times 
appear on its surface. 

The distribution of light over the disc of the planet has heen ascertained by means 
of transits of the satellites, which present very curious phenomena, only to be explained 
by supposing a disproportion greater than 6 to 1 between the brightness of the central 
regions and the margin of the planet. The observations which have been made in 
reference to this question are sufficiently well explained by this supposition, though it 
is difficult for the eye, at first sight, to recognize the disparity. The fact is of some 
importance in the determination of the albedo of the planet, since it accords sufficiently 
well with Lambert’s theory, and indicates that the application of the latter to Jupiter 
has not tended to an over-estimate of its reflective power. 

We will now proceed to a more detailed account of the experiments and process of 
reduction upon which the above conclusions have been founded. . 

The following numbers, although obtained from trials made for quite a different 
purpose, and affected to some extent by the unstable condition of the chemicals, the 
degree of clearness of the sky, &c., will serve to give a tolerably correct idea of the 
excess of chemical intensity of the light of Jupiter contrasted with moonlight, after 
due allowance for the respective distances of the two bodies from the Sun. 

The plates compared were taken by Mr. Whipple, or by his partner in business, 
Mr. Black, on the following dates; v representing the angles of elongation of the 
Moon from the Sun. 


1851, March 12, Moon, o= nr Exposure 10° to 15° Daguerrotype. 
s € 2 Jupiter, v = 175 Ki About as long as for the Moon, or a little longer. < 
1852, Feb. 20, Moon, v= 76 = 15° v 


* March 3,* “ v — 151 “ 6° to 8* E 


* Ina memorandum dated March 3, 1852, it is stated, as the result of other sier not coated | in detail, 
WEE EE 


1852, April 24, 
1857, April 4, 


[11 


Di 


Di 


1860, Jan. 


“ 


EE 


Di 


Di 


ON 


sët E 
€: 98, 
"590, 
May 6, 
[7 8, 
Oct. 3, 

« 7,* 

o 8,* 
& 8, 

D 9,* 
30, 
“80, 
Feb, 7, 
April 6, 
* CN 


THE LIGHT OF 


Moon, 
[11 


[11 
Jupiter, 
Moon, 
Jupiter, 
Moon, 
Jupiter, 
Moon, 

Di 


“ 


THE MOON 


Exposure 20 


Di 


227 


AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Daguerrotype. 

13 Collodion. 
80 & 
60 8 
45 « 
13 “ 

4 Faint action in < 15. & 

4 or Ar, not well determined. " 

2 or 3 times as long as on 3d. * 
Same as for average of Moon's surface. “ 
33 ? ei 
20? " 
16 z 
13 Di 

7 Di 

A Di 
13 x 


From the above, and from other trials of which no precise record was preserved, I 
conclude that, with the chemical preparations used, the times of exposure for strong 


“ negatives 


at different altitudes, t are as follows: — 


v= 60 
y= 90 
v = 120 
v — 150 
v = 180 


” of the Moon at different phases, after applying a correction for extinction 


Exposure — 30 
* == 20 
E I5 
d =D 
« mh 


It is not easy to decide with certainty respecting these times without experiments 


made especially for the purpose. 


When the object in view is solely the production of 


a good picture, as was the case here, the exposure cannot be continued long enough to 
give a strong negative of the regions towards the dark limb, near the quadratures, 
without injury to the image of the bright limb by over-exposure. 

For an equally intense picture of the planet, the time of exposure is 


ges 175° 


Exposure = 15° 


* On examining the object-glass, Oct. 11th, moisture was found deposited between the lenses, which proba- 
bly affected the experiments on Oct. 7th, 8th, and 9th. 
T Assumed to be the same as for the optical rays. 


228 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Some parts of Jupiter, as, for instance, on Jan. 30, 1860, a bright region in its 
northern hemisphere, about 25° in latitude from its equator, afforded traces of chemi- 
cal action in less than a second; the parts of the full Moon, similarly situated rela- 
tively to the Sun and to the Earth, in about the same time. With a similar reflecting 
surface, the illumination of the two bodies should be in the inverse ratio of the 


squares of their distances from the Sun, or as 
125.208" = 1: 27, 


instead of which we have, from the above data: — 


o 8. 2 
Phase of Moon at v = 90 . Ratio of exposures 30 : ipi 
ei vi v — 180. s 4 5:15 = 1:8 to 1:1 for bright belts. 


The disproportion at the different phases of the Moon will be more fully considered 
in another place. The two bodies are presented to us under nearly similar circum- 
stances, as respects the angle of the illuminating rays and the line of vision, at about 
the times of the Moon’s opposition, in which position the ratio of their chemical 
powers, supposing each to be so placed as to receive equal illumination from the Sun, 
would become, — xm 


Photographic intensity of Jupiter — ; x4: 3 times that of the average surface of the full Moon, 


1 | 
“ oe « => NI = 27 « D EE « « 
according as we compare the whole visible surface of the two spheres, or only the cen- 
tral parts of the Moon presented nearly at right angles to the direction of vision and 
of illumination, with the brighter belts of the planet which are similarly situated. 

There is one circumstance which makes the contrast the more remarkable; it is that 
a very small image, like that of the planet, photographs to disadvantage compared 
with a larger one of equal intensity, for want, apparently, of the sympathy induced 
by the chemical action going on in other parts of the plate. I should anticipate 
from this circumstance, that, in a comparison with the Moon, we should be likely to 
underrate the actinic power of Jupiter. 

The explanation suggested by Mr. De la Rue in the passage above duo, attribut- 
ing the differences in photographic power to a diversity in color, cannot be sustained, 
since there is no-satisfactory evidence of any decided difference between J upiter and 
the Moon in point of color, but rather the contrary. A decided blue or green tint in 
Jupiter is only noticed when it is almost in contact with the limb of the Moon. "The 
retina being then excited by the stronger light of the Moon, the planet perhaps 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 229 


assumes a bluish cast due to the effect of contrast in intensity and quantity rather 
than of actual color. Arago,* to account for the supposed bluish tints of the Mare 
Crisium and Mare Serenitatis on the Moon, suggests that the general tint of the latter 
is yellowish. That the moonlight has no decided tinge of red appears from casual 
remarks made by Sir John Herschel in the account of his comparisons of various 
stars with the image of the Moon formed in the focus of a lens. For instance, to 
observations made April 27, 1836, the note is added, “ The Moon's image is too yellow 
for B Crucis," T a star elsewhere described as white. And again, “y Crucis" (a red 
star) *is too red for the Moon." 

By comparing images reflected from a silvered glass globe, I have found that the 
color of moonlight more nearly resembles that of the flame of a “blue-light” or 
* Bengola" light than that of any other artificial light which was tried, — indeed, 
no difference could be perceived between the “ Bengola” and the Moon in this 
respect. The whitest part of the flame of the Carcel or French * moderateur" lamps 
is decidedly red, contrasted with the image of the moon; that of a candlet or com- 
mon oil-lamp appears of a dingy, yellowish red. The Drummond light is of a golden 
yellow when contrasted with sunlight. I have not recognized, in point of color, any 
considerable difference between the light of the Moon, Jupiter, Venus, and the Sun, 
when tested by this method. 

The following description by Mr. De la Rue, in October, 1856, would make the 
general hue of Jupiter yellowish rather than blue: — 

“The southern belt of Jupiter appeared, on most occasions on which I have ob- 
served it, to be somewhat darker than the northern, which has always been more 
diffuse and more broken up by intervals and streaks; the northern also has invariably 
been the broader of the two. Both belts are unmistakably brown as compared with 
the general tint of the planet, which about the poles has a decidedly yellow hue, and 
more obviously so towards the north. Besides the very conspicuous broad belts, there 
were observed several delicate and faint streaks extending to a greater or less distance 
across the disc, but seldom entirely across it; these faint streaks just under the north 
belt were decidedly yellow.” § | 


* Pop. Astron., Eng. Trans., Vol. IL p. 287. Set also the explanation applied by Mr. Grove to the ap- 
pearance presented by Jupiter. Monthly Notices Royal Astr. Soc., Vol. XVII. p. 13. 

T Obs. Cape of Good Hope, p. 360. 

I See also the remark of Arago. “One of the principal sources of error seems to me to be the difficulty of 
comparing the white light of the Sun or of the Moon, which then looks bluish, by contrast with the reddish 
light of a candle." — Popular Astron., Eng. Trans., Vol. II. p. 288. 

$ Monthly Notices Astr. Soc., Vol. XVII. p. 5. 


VOL. VIII. 30 


.930 ` ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Breen, observing an occultation of the planet with the Northumberland Equatorial, 
in May, 1850, noted very little difference of color between it and the Moon. 

At its emersion from the Moon's bright limb, May 23, 1860, I could discern no dif- 
ference of tint; this, however, was in the daytime, when both objects were compara- 
tively faint. Midler considers the prevailing tint of Jupiter to be yellowish, that of 
the belts, brown and lead-color;* while the Moon is in some parts pure white, in 
others steel-gray, or tinged with green. 

Tints of brick-red or of reddish-brown, and others of a bluish cast, slate, or lead- 
color were sufficiently evident upon Jupiter in 1860. It deserves notice that the 
shades of coloring were unusually marked in the early part of this year, at a time 
when the photographic image presented a decided inequality of action in different 
parts of the disc. On January 30th, 1860, this was apparent in the formation of a 
zone between the parallels of 20° and 30° of north latitude in an exposure of two or 
three seconds, another, less strong, showing itself in the southern hemisphere; the 
intermediate equatorial zone had less intensity, and the margins of the disc were much 
fainter than the central parts. SecchiT describes the principal belt as decidedly red, 
with several bands of green and white alternating. Others mention red and blue tints, 
more particularly the former. 

The evidence is quite sufficient to show that the colors of the Moon and Jupiter are 
too nearly alike to furnish an explanation of their very unequal chemical energies. 

The distribution of light over their discs, so far as this is indicated by photography, 
presents a striking contrast. The full Moon invariably develops first at the margin, 
and Jupiter as decisively in the centre, in this particular resembling the Sun, although 
the defect of illumination at the edge of the latter is less in proportion than with 
Jupiter. The distortion of the figure generally apparent in the photographs of Ju- 
piter can only be ascribed to the unequal intensity of the rays from different parts of 
the disc. 

In a group of images taken October 8th, 1857, the light action is much more uni- 
form than in 1860 ; the narrow stripe at the equator, noticed also on the next evening, 
contrasts curiously with the images on January 30th, 1860. In both, the deficiency 
at the margin is best exhibited in the difference of size of the images at different ex- 
posures. With the Sun and Moon the contrast in this particular appears most plainly 
while the image is developing. 

For the purpose of comparing. the photographic power of sunlight with that of 


..* Populäre Astron., p. 226. t Monthly Notices Astr. Soc., Vol. XX. p. 71. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 231 


Jupiter and the Moon, the aperture of the object-glass was reduced, on the 12th of 
April, 1860, from 14.94 inches, with which the latter were taken, to 0.021 inch. 
The Sun's image then photographed in six fifths of the time required for the full 
Moon, the sky being clear and the conditions in other respects being alike for both. 
From this experiment it would appear that sunlight surpasses that of the Moon in 
actinic energy in the proportion | 


5 1494) E 
$ (oon x 0.805 — 340000. 


The altitude of the Sun was 50° and that of the Moon 28°. The coefficient 0.805 
has been applied as a correction for extinction by the atmosphere, assumed to be the 
same for the photographic as for the visual rays. ‘The aperture used for the Sun was 
‘a hole turned in a plate of brass; the edges were clean-cut and free from dust or ob- 
structions, but not polished. It is perhaps possible that the smallness of the aperture 
employed is an objection to this result. 

On the 7th of April, 1860, the sky being clear and the Sun’s altitude about 45”, it 
was found that a collodion plate exposed at the focus of the great refractor received 
images of equal intensity with the lunar photographs, under the following exposures 
and apertures. 

l. Side of a house painted of a pure white and presented to the Sun's rays at an 
angle of incidence of 45^; distant 1300 ft. Aperture reduced to 5 inches; time of 
exposure ¿ of that for full Moon's picture of equal intensity. 

2. Experiment repeated, and the ratio found to be ¿, comparing with the brighter 
parts of the Moon. 

3. Aperture changed to 9 inches. Exposure the same as for the Moon's average 
surface. Picture too faint. 

4. Aperture 9 inches; images of equal strength require 13 longer exposure than 
for the Moon. 

5. The landscape in the azimuth opposite to that of the Sun required three or four 
times as long an exposure as the Moon, but the sky in the horizon was much brighter 
than the Earth's surface. 

The above experiments are not entirely conclusive, on account of the uncertainty 
of the action of the chemicals; but there seems to be no doubt that the reflective 
properties of the Moon's surface for the chemical rays rather exceed than fall short of 
those of the main features of a landscape view on the earth. The only object which 
decidedly surpassed the Moon in photographic power was a very white surface, which 


232 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


I afterwards found to be scarcely distinguishable in brilliancy from the whitest paper. 
This was from two to three times more energetic in its action on the plate than the 
Moon. On repeating the experiment July 2, 1860, with the Sun at an altitude of 
above 65°, and in a clear sky, it was concluded that the same object had about four 
times the intensity of the light of the full Moon. 

The very remarkable photographic power possessed by the rays of Jupiter, which a 
comparison of these results with others already detailed obliges us to admit, naturally 
suggests the enquiry, whether the visual rays from this planet present any similar 
phenomenon. Before considering this subject, however, it will be convenient to explain 
the method followed in the reduction of the observations. 

Let I represent the whole quantity of light emitted, uniformly in all directions, 
from any luminous point; r, the distance from I of a sphere s. 

The light from I being dispersed equally in all directions, every point on the, con- 
cave surface of a sphere circumscribed about J with a radius r, will be uniformly illu- 
minated. If s seen from I subtends an angle 2h, the proportion of the light of I 
which it will intercept will be 


(1) | i — I sin? i A 
If p is the radius of s, we have when p is small 
ubi. fig > 
(2) sin. 5 h=5 75 i=j pl 
But if s is not a sphere, we have 
l , I p 
(3) ier = 


p being the projection of the surface of s exposed to the light upon the concave; or, 
when A is small, its projections as seen from J upon a plane perpendicular at s to the 
line joining J and s. 

The quantity reflected back from s in a given direction will be determined by the 
nature of its surface. A certain proportion, represented by 1 — , will be absorbed, 
leaving oi for he whole quantity reflected. 

The ratio 


(4) whole amount of light reflected from s 


= whole amount of light incident upon s 


is called the albedo of the surface. 
Let ds’ be an element of surface illuminated by light reflected from $, 4 its distance 
from s, d p its projection upon a plane perpendicular to the line. joining s and ds’, and 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 933 


@ the ratio between the actual amount of light reflected from s upon ds’ and the 
quantity which the latter would receive if the light ui were dispersed equally in all 
directions from s; we shall then have, for the light incident upon d s', 


(5) dé. eR. 


The coefficient © depends upon the reflective properties of the surface s, as well as 
on the angle between ds’ and I seen from s. Its value in some special cases, we will ` 


now consider. | 
1. A polished sphere, illuminated by parallel rays, reflects them with uniform 
intensity over the whole surface of the surrounding concave,* and we shall have 


(6) posi ditt CP 


2. If s is a flat, opaque disc, it will return back the light incident from I into the 
same hemisphere in which J is situated, and if this be done in equal amounts in 
every direction towards which its bright side is presented, then 


(7) Bet Gum 


3. If, at equal distances, the quantity of light reflected from this disc upon ds’ is 
proportional to its apparent area seen from d s', we have 


(8) 8 — 4 sin. d VE cee LI. aes hs 
7 


where ¢ is the angle which the line joining s and ds’ makes with the plane of 
the disc. > 

The reason for adopting this value of © is not quite as clear as in the previous cases. 
It is evident, however, that the apparent area of the disc represented by s, seen from 
ds, varies as sin. ġ, and that di’ will vary also with sin.. Moreover, the sum of 
all the values of di’ must be equal to the whole of the light reflected from s, so that 
we ought to have | 


(9) J. di pi 


the integral being taken so as to include all positions of d s'. 


* Bouguer, Traité d'Optique, p. 109. 


234 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


If we extend the integral of sin. d dn over the whole surface of the hemisphere 
upon which s shines, taking 4 for the radius, it becomes 


Tan $dp' = Tô’, 
which gives from (8) 3 


fava +, fingar = pt, 
as in (9). 

The case of most astronomical interest is that of a sphere illuminated by parallel 
rays. Since the diameters of the heavenly bodies are small compared with their dis- 
tances from each other, we may, without sensible error, obtain the amount of sunlight 
incident upon a planet from the formula given above, viz. : — 


(10) CS SC 


where I is the whole light emitted by the Sun, p the semi-diameter of the planet, and r 
its distance from the Sun. : 

If we take de for an element of surface at the Earth presented perpendicularly to 
its radius vector, R, we obtain from (3) for the amount of sunlight incident upon d e, 

(11) dla = ae 

To find the proportion of sunlight reflected back from a planet upon the Earth 
compared with that which the latter receives directly from the Sun, we may substi- 
tute in (5) the value of obtained from (10) ; this will give for the light of the planet 
incident upon de, if the latter is presented perpendicularly to the line 4 joining the 
Earth and planet, | 


va ME Tp de 

(12) deos l6r ri Ai 
Hence, 

(13) dí gr EP 


db A AE 
will represent the ratio of the light reflected from the planet upon the earth, to that 
which the latter receives from the Sun. 

The attempts which have been made to compute the proportion between full moon- 
light and sunlight upon theoretical principles, supposing none to be absorbed by the 
Moon, present singular discrepancies. Thus we have, according to different author- 
ities, ; 


(a) 
(2) 
(e) 
(a) 
(e) 
C) 
(9) 
(A) 
G) 
() 


(5) 


ON THE 


LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


1 


Full Moonlight ` 
Sunlight ` 


143 — 


bad EE 


€ = 


Di — 


Di — 


d ` SE 


«€ — 


450000 
1 
48702 
1 
100000 
1 
16120000 
1 
389620 
1 
194810 
1 
97405 

<a 
210000 
1 
50000 
1 
90000 
E 


73054 


235 


Mitchell as quoted by Wollaston, Ph. Tr., 1829, p. 20. Probably 
a misprint for Äerz, 


From Mitchell’s formula quoted by Wollaston, Ph. Tr., 1829, p. 20. 
Wollaston. Ph, Tr., 1829. 

Wollaston's formula. Ph. Tr., 1829, p. 20. 
Euler's formula. Mem. Ac. Ber., 1750, p. 299. 


Bouguer’s formula. Mem. Ac. Paris, 1757, p. 22. 


Bouguer, for sphere covered with polished hemispherical asper- 
ities. Mem. Ac. Paris, 1757, p. 22. 


Leslie, Ed. Ph. Jour., No. XXII. 
Smith. Optics. 
Smith. Optics, p. 23. 


Lamberts formula. Beer, Grund. Phot. Cal., p. 68. 


Where the formule have been given, the values have been calculated, using for the 


Moon's mean semi-diameter seen from the Earth, 934".67. 


It is probable that (a) 


and (7) have been derived from the same formula with (b) by employing a slightly dif- 
ferent value of the Moon's semi-diameter; and a similar supposition may be made with 
respect to (j) compared with (g), and (4) compared with (f£). However this may be, 
the difficulty with the formule (excepting (d), which does not seem to be a correct de- 
duction from the principle assumed: by Wollaston respecting the intensity of illumina- 
tion on different parts of the Moon's surface) evidently lies with the values attributed 
to the coefficient 9. 

If we make R — r, ` = sin. 934".67, and p = 1, we have from (13) 


a 
x 


1 


For 0 — 4 d = 48702 as in (b), 
d i! 1 
SEET dir 97405 W 
di 
mia aL” 194810 "Hi 
G coms H d = E 4 . (e) 
d 389620 ? 
d i 
Ee aL T4 " (9 


236 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Referring to the particular cases considered on p. 233, we find that (b) represents the 
proportion of moonlight, if the Moon were a flat, opaque disc, reflecting light upon the 
surrounding concave in proportion to the apparent area of the disc as seen from differ- 
ent points; (g) is the proportion for a disc, reflecting, as in (7), with uniform intensity 
over the whole hemisphere to which it is presented ; while (f£) gives the proportion, 
supposing the Moon's surface polished. : 

Eulers result implies the value © = 4, which is not at all probable. It will be 
noticed that he has supposed that an element, d S, of the surface of the Sun, or of any 
self-luminous body, diffuses its light in equal quantities in all directions. It would 
follow that a sphere self-luminous should appear near its margin, where each element, 
d S, is seen much foreshortened, proportionally brighter than at its centre; but this is 
not in reality true of the Sun,* nor of other bodies shining by their own light. If, on 
the other hand, equal areas are found experimentally to have the same apparent inten- 
sity at all angles of inclination of the surface to the line of sight,T the light from a 
self-luminous sphere like the Sun will be just one half as bright as it would be under 
Eulers hypothesis, if the intensity at perpendicular emission is the same in both 
instances, — being in the one case proportional to the projected area, and in the other, 
to the actual area of the visible hemisphere, or as 


p being the semi-diameter. 

We will now consider the variations in the quantity of light reflected by the Moon 
or a planet produced by changes of phase, and shall find in the course of the inves- 
tigation an explanation of the value 9 — $. An element of its spherical surface pre- 
SR sented at right angles to the parallel incident rays 
> of the Sun, receives more light than an equal 

element would on any other part. The quantity 

received at other angles of incidence will vary as 
SLU the cosine of the angle, and will vanish at the 
margin of the hemisphere. If the Moon is 
viewed from different positions, both the average 
brightness of the illuminated phase, and the rela- 
tive intensity in different parts of it, will change | 
with the angle between the line of sight and of 


d 


as’ I 


* Sir J. Herschel, Outlines of Astron., (395). 


T Ibid., Treatise on Light. Enc. Met. p. 347. Beer, Grundriss des Photometrischen Calcüles, pp. 7, 8. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 237 


illumination. This angle, which is the external angle at s of the triangle s Ids’, 
Fig. 1, we will call v. | 

From the condition that the amount of sunlight incident upon any element of the 
illuminated hemisphere. of the Moon is proportional to the cosine of the angle between 
the Sun and the zenith of that element, Lambert has obtained the expression * 


2 y sin? l sin? y 
(14) E 


ane oe (sin. v — v cos. v) 


for the ratio of the light of the Moon, at any given phase, to that of the Sun. 


Z is the semi-diameter of the Moon seen from the element d e on the Earth, 
c [11 [11 [11 Sun Di [11 113 113 Moon, 
P « “ 113 Sun DI “ 193 é Earth. 


If we substitute in (14), 


` ^ Sun's semi-diameter : un's semi-diameter 
sin. 15, sin. o = SM sin. $ = S 


A T R 


, 


it becomes 


2u D Rp 
— (SM. Vv — Y COS. v . 
at ) Ar 


Comparing this with (13), we have 


(15) KE an y EE dü _ 2p sin. v — v cos. v Rp 
AS De o x cu 


as the expression, according to Lambert, of © and Ss 
for a planet partially illuminated. When v = 180°, O = 5, as on p. 235. 
Euler,j on the other hand, gives a formula, which, reduced to the same notation, 


becomes 


for the phases of the Moon or 


dí  psn?l, Rp 
(16) — MAL ef d ; 
dL 8 A??? 
hence, 
sek usb 
10) T. sin, 9 v 


The quantity of light received is here assumed to be proportional to the area of the 
illuminated phase, and the average intensity of its bright surface to be the same at 
all ages of the Moon, which is a condition not at all likely to hold good. 

Lamberts solution is the only one] which attempts to represent the gradation in the 


* Photometria. Beer, Grund. des Phot. Cal., p. 69. T Mem. Ac. Ber., 1750. 

i Wollaston, Ph. Tr., 1829, has adopted the same principle, but he has deduced from it an erroneous for- 
mula for the full Moon, viz.: 4 313-3395 oi 
aL: 3 
VOL. VIII. 31 


938 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


intensity of the illumination of the phase from the edge presented towards the Sun up 
to the boundary between the bright and dark hemispheres. It is interesting to note, 
in the photographs of the Moon and Venus, when half enlightened, how much more 
sensitive to this graduation of intensity is the photographic plate than the eye. 

Mr. De la Rue remarks that *the lunar surface, very near the dark limb, is copied 
photographically with great difficulty, and it sometimes requires an exposure five 
or six times as long, to bring out completely those portions illuminated by a very 
oblique ray, as others apparently not brighter. * The comparative feebleness of the 
edge near the dark part of the disc I have found to be most striking while the picture 
is developing. 

He considers this to be an indication that there is an inequality in the chemical 
action of different parts of the Moon equally bright to the eye; and indeed it is difficult 
to convince one's self, from the impression produced on the retina, that the neighbor- 
hood of the unenlightened edge is relatively as deficient in optical as it is in chemical 
intensity. It is plain, however, that this inequality actually exists. If we view the 
Moon at quadratures when half enlightened, the quantity of sunlight incident on an 

element of its surface d's, placed so that its projection 
a 2. dp falls at P, on the semi-diameter C E, Fig. 2, will 
Sen e vary-as the cosine of the angle between two lines, 
E DX. one drawn from the centre to the surface at E, where 
fe X the Sun is in the zenith, and the other to the element 
ds. There is then a considerable region near the dark 
limb where the average visual intensity is not greater 
/ than one fifth or one sixth of that of the bright limb, 
/ justas is found to be the case photographically. Ob- 
a E servations, which will be noticed in a subsequent part 
se Rc en of this Memoir, prove that this diversity actually oc- 
curs in the distribution of light over the half-Moon, 

in accordance with the above theory, as well as with the photographic results. 

The photographs of Venus exhibit the gradations of illumination over its sur- 
face E bene The eye, indeed, with some attention, recognizes, in the tele- 
scopic view, a brightening up of its light on the limb next the Sun, but the contrast 
comes out much more decisively in the photographs. 

It has been observed by De la Rue, that the high ground of the Moon's 


southern 


* Report of the British Association, 1859, p. 145. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 239 


hemisphere is more easily photographed than the low lands of the northern hemi- 
sphere, and it has been supposed that this is another instance of a difference in chem- 
ical intensity which does not exist in the visual rays. The so-called lunar seas are cer- 
tainly, optically as well as chemically, fainter than the rest of the surface, and the more 
rugged and mountainous regions are brighter to the eye, just as they are chemically. 
The eye is, however, likely to mislead in such estimates without special precautions to 
aid its judgment. 

There is one peculiarity in the appearance of the full Moon, which deserves atten- 
tion in this connection. 

If the Moon were polished perfectly smooth, we should not see its limb at all, but 
only an image of the Sun, formed at a virtual focus by reflection from its surface; the 
visibility of its outline then is entirely due to its asperities, and the particular way in 
which these are disposed will have a great effect on the distribution of its light. 
Its surface ought, according to Lambert's investigation, to be brightest at the centre, 
and very decidedly faintest at the limb, but it is actually the reverse. We have before 
noticed the readiness with which the full Moon photographs at its margin, indicating 
the greater intensity of chemical light from that quarter; with a little attention, the 
eye recognizes the same property in the optical rays. When viewed at the proper 
time, the bright marginal rim of the full disc will be at once perceived, of nearly 
equal breadth throughout, say from 2' to 3’, and reaching entirely round the circum- 
ference. 

We have seen that Eulers view of the manner in which light emanates from the 
Sun requires that it should appear brightest at the circumference,* while Lambert 
makes the Moon brightest at the centre. In reality, these conditions are reversed, 
the Sun being brightest, and the Moon faintest, in the central regions. The condition 
of the Moon's surface, in this respect, seems to be an exception to the law of reflection 
from opaque substances, inferred experimentally by Lambert and Bouguer. It deserves 
notice, that the anomaly observed in the distribution of light over the lunar disc occurs 
also, though less decisively, in the planet Mars, which is ordinarily brightest at the 
limb when near its opposition. Possibly the Earth presents a like aspect viewed from 
a distance. In the daytime we see the sky near the horizon brighter than most terres- 
trial objects projected upon it. The light reflected from a great depth of dense atmos- 
phere is therefore stronger than that reflected from the general landscape. The appear- 
ance of our Earth from a distance would be that of a dark body, seen through a thin, 
translucent atmosphere, which, if at the time free from clouds, will be at the edges 


* Lambert considers the Sun to be uniformly bright over its disc. 


240 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


brighter than the surface of the globe enveloped by it. Jupiter is brightest at the 
centre, but we perhaps never obtain a view of its solid nucleus, nor even of the denser 
regions of its atmosphere. 

A more serious discordance from Lambert’s formula is presented in comparing the 
observed and computed quantity of light received from the Moon at its several phases. 

In 1836, Sir J. Herschel, during his stay at the Cape of Good Hope, compared the 
Moon's image, formed by a lens, by means of an apparatus constructed for the purpose, 
with sixty-nine of the brightest fixed stars, at various phases between the elongations 
105° and 262^. The object immediately in view, which was the comparison of the 
light of the stars, by employing the lunar image merely as a temporary standard, 
and subsequently eliminating the uncertainty of its variations by referring all the 
stars to one of the brightest of their number, was satisfactorily accomplished, and 
furnished a most valuable series of photometric determinations. If the light of these 
stars be taken as àn invariable standard, it is evident from Herschel's reductions, that 
- that of the Moon experiences a much more rapid degradation at the phases on either 
side of full than can be accounted for by the formula * of which he has made use to cor- 
rect the light received from the phase to full moonlight, and we shall presently see that 
Lambert's does not afford a materially better representation. On the other hand, if 
the moonlight, reduced to full, is assumed to be consistent with theory, then we must 
infer with Herschel, that the effect of the increasing phase on the general illumination 
of the sky enfeebles the starlight in a very anomalous way, and so as to make it im- 
possible to obtain absolute results as originally proposed. He found that the influ- 
ence in question might be represented by supposing that *the effective impression 
of a star on the retina is inversely as the square of the illumination of the ground of 
the sky on which it is seen projected," + adding, however, that he was by no means 
prepared for the enormous extent of the influence which the results indicated. 

Referring to the details of the investigation, it will be seen that, while the fact of a 
well-marked discrepancy is placed beyond doubt by Herschel's investigations, it may be 
accounted for DCH well, so far e the representation of the observations is con- 
cerned, by ote it to EES variations of moonlight not recognized in the com- 
dii : Geer SC if, pros of supposing, with Euler and Herschel, that 
moonlight varies with the area of the projection of i i ' 
to the Man at a given phase, that is, S ës v iion Beau: egen ee 

2 y, we adopt, within the limits of 

* Results of Astr. Obs. at the Cape of Good Hope, 
See p. 237 (16). 

t Ibid., p. 368. 


p.956. The formula is substantially the same as Euler's. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 241 


the angles of elongation comprising the observations, a new expression nearly propor- 
tional to sin. 1 v, there will be no difficulty in satisfying the data. It should be 
noticed that this expression is not proposed as a substitute for Herschel's hypothesis, 
but merely to show that the observations in question can be satisfied without resorting 
to the latter. It will subsequently appear that neither of the formule represents 
the entire range of phases from new to full Moon. 

The formula employed by Herschel, to find the proportion between the light from a 
given phase and that of the mean full Moon, may be derived from (12) by the follow- 
ing substitutions : — | 

JM, — the light from the phase compared with the mean full Moon. 


d i, = the quantity of light from the mean full Moon, incident at right angles upon an element de 
at the Earth. 


(17) 7) = the corresponding distance of the Moon from the Sun. 
4, = its mean distance from the Earth. 
|,  — its mean angular semi-diameter. 
o = jeh: Jo. 
R- = Earth’s radius vector. 


(12) then becomes, making at the full phase v, = 180°, 


, Ir g% Malta 
q = TE de, , di wd Ze SC sin? 1 v de, 
and we shall have 
* 242 
(18) M = oy = e sin? $v, 
in which may be used 
ry — 1.0025 i.d 
r — R (1 — 0.0025 cos. v) E 


l being the augmented semi-diameter as seen from de. The difference between the 
Moon's semi-diameter seen from de and from the centre of the Earth, as well as the 
difference between the distance of the Earth and of the Moon from the Sun, are, how- 
ever, too small to have an appreciable influence upon the experiments. 

By the same substitutions, but making 

0 = 3 sin? 4 v, 

we have 

(19) M, = M, sin.‘ 4 v. 


The value of M best representing the observations between quadratures and opposi- 
tion, when the light of the stars is taken as the standard, is, according to Herschel 


M, = M^, 


249 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


or very nearly 
(20) M, = MP. 


According to Lambert's formula, we shall find from (15) and (12) 


_ TRA; Sin. v — v cosu — sin. v — Y COS. v 
qn me y a? T iris. m sin iv : 


Hence we have 


3 sin.? 3 v. ^ Euler and Herschel.- 
Au. 
(22) M = M smi 3 v. Assumed. 
M, = Mi & 


m sin. iv 


These will be compared with the results of Herschel’s observations. In the first 
column of the following statement, the date of the observation is given; in the second, 
the number of stars compared with the Moon; in the third, its elongátion from the 
Sun; in the fourth, the logarithm of the observed moonlight; in the fifth and sixth, the 
altitude and corresponding log. cor. for extinction; next, the logarithm of the observed 
quantity of moonlight corrected for extinction, and referred to the mean full Moon as a 
unit, with the weight given to the determination; in the remaining columns are the 
values of the logarithms of Mj, Mh, etc., calculated according to the above hypotheses. 
M, has been derived from Herschel's log. m*,* by subtracting the constant logarithm 
3.500, and applying a correction for atmospheric extinction. 


log. M, = log. u* — 3.500 + log. cor. for extinction. 


In the correction for extinction, which corresponds to the altitude adopted in the 
adjacent column, it has been assumed that the average altitude of the stars was the 
same as that of the Moon. Its influence is at all events scarcely appreciable, excepting 
in one or two instances. It will be seen from the comparisons which follow, that the 
constant 3.500 applied as above to log. u* is a sufficient approximation for the present 


purpose. The value 3.543 was subsequently found, but its introduction would not 
affect the conclusions arrived at. | 


* Herschel’s p is here designated as p*, 


to distinguish it from the sam 
e lette: i 2 "fos 
cation elsewhere in this Memoir. T uod Wilh a Soren sigil 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 243 


No. of Moon’s Log. Obs. Log. Cor. oy 
Date. Stars. Elongation. Moonlight. Alt. Extinction. Log. Mo. Wi. Log. Mi. Log. Ms. Log. Ms. Log. Ma. 


Mar.28 19 1295 9499 380 0.097 9.590 2 9.896 9.721 9.688 9.830 
80 20. 1010 9761 . 47 0X4 9775 .8 — 9985 9949 9.954 -9.966 
81. 4 167.0 0017 50 417 0084 9? ' 0012 0.000 - 0.085 0.006 


April 1 5 179.3 0.213 55 010 0.223 2 0.023 0.023 0.069 0.023 
3 14 201.0 9.956 70 .003 9.959 5 0.024 9.995 0.971 0.011 
4 18 221.4 9.786 76 .002 9.788 2 9.981 9.865 9.944 9.937 


7 6 261.9 9.304 50 .017 9.321 3 9.786 9.299 9.359 9.625 
26 13 120.9 9.582 44 030 9.612 5 9.868 9.626 9.603 9.786 
27 20 134.2 9.720 50 .017 9.797 5 9.932 9.790 9.796 9.884 


June 29 5 193.0 0.059 45 028 0.087 4 0.039 0.028 0.012 0.048 
July 22 9 105.2 9.506 70 003 9.509 4 9.813 9.413 9.440 9.690 
24 8 133.2 9.832 55 .012 9.844 4 9.960 9.811 9.881 9.917 


26 18 160.7 9.026 83 001 0.027 5 0.030 0.005 0.089 0.032 
Aug. 22 3 130.0 9.794 55 012 9.806 3 9.949 9.779 9.848 9.894 
23 5 143.0 9.885 74 .002 9.887 4 9.991 9.899 9.972 9.962 


Nov. 19 12 142.1 9.786 45 028 9.814 4 9.952 9.855 9.855 9.902 
25 2 211.4 9.625 29 113 9.738 2 9.933 9.867 9.800 9.894 
Dec. 17 4 123.0 9.504 37 058 9.562 3 9.884 9.659 9.651 9.787 


26 3 223.6 9.740 30 0.097 9.837 2 9.905 , 9.776 9.714 9.844 


From the above we obtain the following, arranged according to values of v. 


Log. Mı — log. My. Log. M2 — log. Mp. Log. M3 — log. My. Log. M4— log. My. Wt. 


v — 981 + 0.465 — 0.022 + 0.038 + 0.304 3 
105.2 +0304 ` — 0.096 — 0.069 + 0.181 4 
120.9 + 0.256 + 0.014 — 0.009 + 0.174 5 
128.0 + 0.822 -]- 0.097 + 0.089 + 0.225 8 
129.5 +0300. + 0.125 + 0.092 J-03984- 9 
1600. 40,148 — 0.027 + 0.042 + 0.088 3 
133.2 + 0.116 — 0.033 + 0.087 + 0.073 4 
134.2 +0.195 + 0.058 + 0.059 OHNE E 
136.4 + 0.068 — 0.061 — 0.123 +. 0.007 2 
138.6 + 0.193 -]- 0.077 + 0.156 + 0.149 2 
142.1 + 0.138 poi +0,041 + 0.098 4 


143.0 + 0.104 + 0.012 + 0.085 + 0.075 4 


244 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


v 148,6 
154.6 
159.0 


160.7 
167.0 
167.0 


179.8 


It is plain that M, and M, alone furnish a tolerably approximate representation of 
the data. The agreement of these is good, considering the difficulties of the observa- 
tions. The largest discrepancy is for the full Moon, v = 179°.3; unfortunately, it is 
the only determination for this phase, and, the sky at the time being partially clouded, 


Log. Mi — log. Mo. Log. Ma — log. My. Log. Ma — log. Mp. 


+ 0.195 
+ 0.210 
+ 0.065 


+ 0.003 
— 0.022 
— 0.048 


— 0.200 


+ 0.129 
+ 0.167 
+ 0.036 


— 0.022 
— 0.034 
— 0.059 


— 0.200 


+ 0.062 
+ 0.179 
+ 0.112 


+ 0.062 
+ 0.001 
— 0.075 


— 0.154 


only a small weight can be given to the observation. 


To decide the question of preference between M, and M,, if we divide the results 
into groups of adjacent values of v, and take the means according to weights, we 


have 


o 

wee 1022 
121.7 

131.3 


135.7 
143.7 
158.7 


167.0 
179.3 


"E w (log. M, — log. M, y? 


Zw 


v = 102 and v = 179", 


the first is at least as good as the second. This proves that the 
brightness towards the full Moon is not necessarily due to a rel 


Il 


I tl l 


ll Il 


10 
13 


= + 0.056, 


"E 


Of the two hypotheses, then, for the quantity of moonlight between the limits 


Log. M2 — log. Mp. 


— 0.064 
-]- 0.045 
+ 0.004 


+ 0.033 
+ 0.047 
+ 0.044 


— 0.051 
— 0.200 


Log. M4 — log. My» Wt. 


+ 0.156 
-]- 0.191 
+ 0.052 


-+ 0.005 
— 0.028 
— 0.089 


— 0.200 


Log. M3 — log. Mg. 


fe eR 
2 w (log. M, — log. Mr 
Zw 


co 


— 0.023 
+ 0.028 
+ 0.051 


+ 0.040 
+ 0.063 
+ 0.108 


— 0.025 
— 0.154 


apparent increase of 
ative enfeeblement of 


= + 0.067. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 245 


starlight by the illumination dispersed over the sky, but may, with equal probability, be 
referred to some peculiarity in the Moon itself, which causes it to reflect light more 
freely at some inclinations of the incident and visual rays than at others. 

This result, taken in connection with the wide divergence of Euler's and Lambert's 
formula, making the Moon at quadratures, theoretically, twice as bright as it really is, 
gives a new interest to the investigation, and makes it desirable that it should be sub- 
jected to other tests. One such is afforded in the following considerations. 

If it is true that a change in the brightness of the background of the sky has the 
effect of enfeebling the impression of starlight on the eye, in so high a ratio as the ` 
square of the diffused illumination, the fact should appear on dividing the observations 
of the stars compared into two groups, one comprising those made at a large angular 
distance from the Moon, and the other, those nearest to it; the latter should afford 
results making the stars relatively fainter, in consequence of the greater intensity of 
illumination of the sky in the immediate neighborhood of the Moon. 

The following stars in Herschel's series are favorably situated for showing the influ- 
ence in question. 


Name of Star. Distance from Moon. Qu sty of Ludi. 
6 Scorpii 37 0.169 
d 48 0.150 
ez 100 0.170 
1 Scorpii 45 0.202 
« | 100 0.196 
s Sagittarii 40 0.145 
s 52 0.147 
« Centauri 40 0.930 
« 43 | 1.285 
« "o di 1.120 

pe 62 1.095 ` 

6 Centauri : 40 0.440 
« 44 0.870 
« 45 0.407 
e 65 0.400 
« 65 0.382 
a Gruis 33 0.194 
« 38 0.185 
& 65 0.163 
a Pavonis. 33 0.155 
« ; WT 0.132 
« 72 0.139 


VOL. VIII. 32 


246 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


For the quantity of light, the numbers are given as computed by Herschel, by a 
process explained in the work above cited,* which gives the brightness of each indi- 
vidual star in parts of a common unit, and freed from the average of the perturbations 
common to all the stars observed on any one night. ‘Those dates only have been em- 
ployed for the purpose now in view, which afford a sufficient number of stars for a 
reliable mean value of p*; with this precaution, the peculiarities appertaining to each 
star, on any one night, ought to discover themselves. 

In the following results, the column headed “ Relative Brightness” is the ratio be- 
tween the light of the star determined at the smaller of the two distances from the 
Moon, compared with the light of the same star when at the greatest distance. 


Name of Star. Distances from Moon. Relative Brightness. Wt. 


[e] o 
6 Scorpii | 37 100 1.00 3 
48 100 0.88 
1 Scorpii 45 100 1.03 5 
e Sagittarii 40 52 0.98 1 
« Centauri Cer EE 62 1.00 8 
B Centauri 43 65 1.04 4 
a Gruis : 35 65 1.17 8 
œ Pavonis 40 72 1.04 4 
Mean by Weights 42. 78 102 + 0.011 


This result does not indicate any appreciable influence from the greater amount of 
diffused illumination of the sky in the neighborhood of the Moon, and is, therefore, 
unfavorable to the hypothesis that the abnormal variations of brightness of the stars 
relatively to the Moon, from night to night, are to be explained by an increase in the 
quantity of moonlight dispersed by reflection in the atmosphere, over the whole sky. 

We have already seen that photographic experiments indicate a peculiarity in the 
chemical action of moonlight at the several phases compared with the full, and from 
the above discussion it would seem that the visual rays are affected in an analogous 
manner, and to an extent not accounted for in Euler’s nor in Lamberts theory, — in 
other words, the brightness of the Moon increases too rapidly between the half-moon 
and the full phases. 

In order to leave no doubt as to the reality of the discrepancy between the amount of 
light actually received from the phases and that indicated by the proposed theories, and 
of its being properly referable to the Moon itself, I have compared the latter with a fixed 


* Results of Astronomical Observations, Cape of Good Hope, p. 365 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 247 


standard, by a process quite different from Herschel’s, extending the experiments also 
to the phases between conjunction and quadratures. 

I have used, as a standard light, a little disc of the central part of the flame of a 
Carcel lamp. The height of the flame being first regulated to its maximum of 1".50 
to 17.75 from the top of the wick, a tube of zinc was placed outside of the chimney, 
at a distance of 1 inch from the nearest part of the flame, and high enough to cut off 
all the light excepting that which passed through apertures made in the zinc for the 
purpose; these apertures were circular holes of the following diameters : — 


Diaphragm X 0:094 
« Y 0.056 
“ z 0.040 
« M 0.033 


_ "They were placed in turn opposite to the part of the flame which appeared of most 

uniform brightness. By using, in this way, only a small area of the middle of the 
flame, its variations in height were made much less sensible than they would otherwise 
have been. 

To compare the light transmitted through the aperture with the Moon, the light of 
both objects was received on a glass globe, either silvered or filled with mercury, and 
their images, viewed side by side, were equalized by moving the bulb to the proper dis- 
tance from the lamp. This distance being always large compared with the radius of 
the bulb, the brightness of the two objects will be as the squares of their distances 
from the bulb. 

The following are the diameters of the glass spheres used in these and "MERE 


experiments. 
Diameter of Reflecting Surface. 
B, Filled with mereury (thermometer bulb), S $ i : 0.604 
B, Silvered, . e e ¿ * d š ; j S 8.436 
B, Silvered, ; i i i i j c; 1780 
B, Filled with mercury Ge bulb), e . i : 0.304 
B, Silvered, : ` Í a i > : e i . 10.160 


These refer to the inner reflecting surface of each, twice the thickness of the glass 
having been subtracted from the outside diameters. The spherical form was well pre- 
served throughout the surface of the bulbs, excepting near the stem, a part not used 
in the experiments. 


248 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


The following diameters of Bs, measured in various directions, show the general char- 
acter of the irregularities of figure to which these glass globes are liable. 


in. in. 
Diameter of B, = 3.501 — 2 x 0.034 


8.506 « 
3.500 ue 
3.503 = 
3.510 " 


Small irregularities of form and in the quality of the reflecting surface are elimi- 
nated by reversing the bulb, so as to present the same part alternately to each object. 
'The absorption being equal for both images, its effect will be eliminated in the ratio of 
the two lights compared. : | 

The convenience of this photometer is its principal recommendation, especially when 
the observations are made at night and in the open air, under various annoyances 
which would prevent the use of any but a very simple apparatus. A polished sphere 
has the property of reflecting an equally bright image of a distant object in all direc- 
tions; but since the proportion of light lost by absorption may be liable to vary some- 
what at different incidences, it is better to place the eye in such a position for viewing 
the two images, that a line drawn from it to the centre of the sphere may make equal 
angles with the directions of the two objects from the same centre, so that the angles 
of incidence for the light reaching the eye will thus be the same for both. 

Care has been taken to place the bulb in the axis of the pencil proceeding from the 
lamp aperture, so that the light compared should come from the centre of the flame, 
and pass the aperture at nearly right angles to its plane. 

If dl be the quantity of light incident from the lamp disc upon an element of sur- 
face d e, placed near the axis of the pencil, and perpendicular to the line d, joining de 
= n. centre of a disc, d? will remain sensibly constant for small changes in the 
direction of d relatively to the axis. The whole quantity of light, incident upon a 
sphere having a radius £, small compared with d, will then be obtained, as in (10). 


1 


D 
2 


Sw 


"iade d is = riens quantity of light which would emanate from the disc, if it shone 
m all iisen with the same brightness that it does upon de when placed in the axis 
of the pencil. So long as the comparisons are confined to the light incident from the 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 249 


illuminating aperture, near the axis of the pencil, we may proceed with the reductions 


as though this were actually the case. 
From (12) we have for the moonlight, incident at right angles upon d e, 


(24) di = LB 


p being the Moon's radius, r and 4 its distance from the Sun and Earth. The quan- 
tity incident upon the bulb, denoted by 7’, will be obtained by substituting for d e the 
area of its section, by a plane perpendicular to 4, or d e — 7 E, whence 


| pz ORE FE 
d, ; deet ` Se 


By the equalization of the images of the Moon and lamp upon the bulb, we have 
i = 1, and from (23), 


l 
e go 4 av 


The light of the Moon for any particular value, v,, of v, and at the distances 4, and 
r, from the Earth and Sun, gives 


l down Op 1 p! E 
ed | WX. Har 


1 


O, and d, being the puer values of O and d. Comparing (26) and (27), we 
find, by making H = 2, 


1 


(28) En. 


The values of H, must be derived from observation at different ages of the Moon ; 
we shall then have from (24), for the quantity of moonlight at any phase, and for 
given values of r and 4 compared with the assumed standard, 


250 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


The following are the observations made for the purpose of determining /,, the 
mean quantity of moonlight at the several phases; d represents the distance of the 
centre of the bulb from the diaphragm of the lamp. In these and in subsequent 
experiments, four Carcel lamps, distinguished by the letters J, R, S, and W, were used, 
with hollow cylindrical flames, the oil being supplied at the lower edge of the flame 
by clockwork. A few comparisons of Jupiter and Venus, taken at the same time, are 
included. | 


PHOTOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS UPON THE Moon, JUPITER, AND VENUS. 


1860, March 24th. Lamp S, diaphragm Z. “A few clouds near the horizon, but 


the sky seems perfectly clear in the intervals.” 


h ft. 
8 3 Sidereal time. Moon 24 days old. “A cloud not far off, 10° or 15° from Moon" d = 38.5 
8 4 « Di Di [11 [11 Di d = 38.5 
821 * = " “ Perfectly clear.” d = 36.0 
8 6 s Venus. a 0650 
8 10 « « | | d = 47.0 
8 23 KÉ e Se 47.0 
8 12 =e Jupiter. : : 3 d! = 93.5 
8 19 " " e : d'= 98.5 
8 26 s ei d'= 108.5 


The position of the lamp was thought rather too high, and was altered on the sub- 
sequent evenings; this, if at all sensible, would cause the Moon, Venus, and J upiter 
to appear too bright on the 24th. The equalization of the images was noted by two 
observers, the position of the bulb being frequently changed. The chief uncertainty 
arises from the red color of the flame when contrasted with the Moon and planets, 
though when seen by itself it looks quite white. The Moon was only about 8° above 
the horizon. 


March 25th. Lamp S, diaphragm Z. “Cleared suddenly. A pure sky, and the 
‘lumiére cendrée' unusually distinct.” 


A thin eloud was notieed just below the e 
: two when the observations were com- ? d — 10.6 
gien S in : S eer ie but it soon dispersed. 


8 8 & s D 


e 
7 94 Sid. time. Moon 33 days old, near Venus. 


a= 90 
d = 12.1 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 951 


h m : : o A ft. 
7 56 Sidereal time. — Venus.  —— d d = 50.6 
8 23 “ e | d = 61.1 
8 5. 279 Jupiter. | : d" = 93.6 
gg er “ : d" == 93.4 
819^. = z “ Perfectly clear." d" = 94.9 


March 27th. Perfectly clear. 


h m ft. 

9 2 Sid. time. Moon 54 days old. Diaphragm Z. a@ == ¢ 514 
9-6 " : s y d = 5.65 
pes = “ « « d= 5.68 
9 10 ia ee Diaphragm X. ge 1210 
pe See A p M uo M d — 11.00 
919 Wa s e SC | d = 12.10 

Lamp without diaphragm. Average e 
e D & VR 
m aca from wick 17.50, to apex 1.75. PTS 


To reduce the comparisons made with X to the standard aperture Z, the ratio 


Light from Z ` 1 


Light from X 4.63’ 


à as determined by experiment, is to be used. 
1860, March 29th. Clear. 


ER, Kë ft. 
9 00 - Sid. time. Moon, first quarter. Diaphragm X. d — 544 
« «o s « E « d = 5.77 
« m « « « d — 582 

S D ú ú | Full flame without diaphragm. d == 65.6 

Mean height from wick 1'”.68, to extreme apex 2^.10. d = 63.1 


The hour was not noted, but it was nearly as stated. : 
March 30th. “A red haze in the sky, which does not appear to obstruct the light 


much." * 


h ; CTS 
10 14 Sid. time. Moon 84 days old. . Diaphragm X. d = 5.95 

“ Di [11 [11 e d = 6.50 

“ E Di Di o Di d — 6.48 


"There was no glass screen before the lamp disc, and to reduce the observations to the 
usual standard, the lamp-light must be multiplied by the coefficient y = $, as well as 
by the ratio of Z to X, given under the date of March 27th. 


- * It appears, from the reductions, that the effect of the haze was more considerable than was at first sup- 


posed. 


252 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


April 2d. Perfectly clear. No clouds visible through the evening. 


ft. 

8 19 Sid. time. Venus. Diaphragm Z. d — 45.8 
DI [11 Di [14 di = 44.5 

Owing to moonlight, the image of 

8 29 s: Jupiter. S d Jupiter had become too E d" = 64,5 

for a reliable comparison. 

8 49 eg Moon 114 days old. Lamp, diaphragm X, without screen. d = 3.20 
« ve « « dss 313 
Di Di Di Di d = 3.60 

8 54 E " " go AAL 


'The above observations on the Moon must be corrected, as on March 30th, by the co- 
efficient y. Later in the evening the lamp I was placed in position as used for Venus 
and Jupiter, with the screen, but having no diaphragm ; the flame adjusted to a height 
of 0,75 from wick, and subsequently compared with standard, gave 


Z 


: = 7.8054. 
E Lamp-flame 0'".75 
h m ft. 
12 59 Sid. time. Moon with lamp J, as above. d — 144 
y s E 


April 5th. A thin haze about the horizon, with cirrus cloud. The sky near the 
Moon appeared clear, though not perfectly transparent. Lamp I in usual position, 
flame adjusted to a height of 07.96, and subsequently compared with standard. 


Log: o 0^96 — DEM 
k m $ ft 
11 33 Sid. time. Moon with lamp J, as above. d = 17.9 
11 36 in e « «o dx 192 
11 39 e E e ei d 19.8 


April 6th. Clear. ! 
Lamp S in usual position. Low flame. By comparison with standard, 


Z 


Log. Lap $ == 7.6954, 
d uw | ft 
14 39 Sid. time. Moon near meridian ; one day past full. d = 18.0 
Di se Di Di d = 13.8 d 
Di “ Di & d = 13.4 
“ “ “ “ d — 13.7 


e 3 S E d — 13.8 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 953 


April 13th. Fine sky. Perfectly clear. 


h Hm £ ft. 

9 54 Sid. time. Venus. Diaphragm Z. Lamp S. AZ 519 

' Di Di “ d == 50.6 

10 4 " Jupiter. » P d = 106.6 

2 : s d = 105.8 

Di Di “ d = 108.4 

ae o, 
April 18th. Perfectly clear. 

h m ` : ft. 
9 34 Sid. time. Venus (half enlightened). Lamp S. Diaphragm Z. d =3400.. 

9 54 ow " v s a d = 40.5 

CR 28 > y: es " d = 99.6 


May 2d. Clear, but not entirely free from haze. 


h ft. 
12 45. Sid. time. Moon 2 days before full; near the meridian. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. d = 2.75 


“ D D D & d = 2.45 

« « « « « d — 2.55 

D “ é i “ « d = 2.95 

: « « ` Lamp 1. « d = 2.35 

« Gi [11 Di & d — 9.5 

; « « « « « d — 235 

- & e & “ " d == 3.55 


May 4th. Thin, red haze, dense at horizon. 


h ft. 
13 15 Sid. time. Moon full. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. d = 3.06 
z e [74 “ Di d — 2.16 
« : « " d = 2.66 

May 25th. Clear. 
h : ft. 
12 32 Sid. time. Moon 5 days old. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. d == 93 
: « i “ a d = 103 
5 - ve 8 = IDA 
12 54 " " > " d 3 94 
« a d= %8 
74 DI Di d — 9 3 

May 28th. Clear. 
d ; : f. 
13 39 Sid. time. Moon 8 days old. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. In open air. d — 45 
“ “ DI & d = 4.0 
D “ D D d — 38 


Correction y to be applied as on March 30th. 


VOL. VIII. 33 


254 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


h . ft. 
13 49 Sid. time. Moon 8 days old. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. In open air. d — 85 
D DI “ Di d = 40 
D “ Di & d = 41 
14 14 4 = e With screen. d — 490 
« se se « d — 4.60 
e e ; z S d = 4:15 
14 19 E M X e " d = 48 
Di Di & Di d — 47 
Di Di a u & d — 4.8 
June 2d. Perfectly clear. 
h ft. 
17 40 Sid. time. Moon half a day from full. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. With screen. d = 2.20 
$ a E e - d — 92.40 
T = « e - d = 2.30 
June 12th. Clear. 
hm A : ft. 
14 15 Sid. time. Venus. Lamp S. Diaphragm X. With sereen. d' — 63.8 
z a s v... = 658 


In the reductions, we must allow for the proportion of light extinguished by the 
atmosphere, taking the light when the object is in the zenith as a standard. To do 
this, the light as observed must be multiplied by a coefficient e, the numerical values of 
which have been adopted from Seidel. These must be applied, together with the coeffi- 
cient y, as mentioned in the notes appended to the observations on March 30th, April 
2d, and May 28th. The comparisons made with other apertures, as with X, or with 
the whole flames, must be reduced, as directed in the notes. The amount of illu- 
mination afforded by the aperture Z at the axis of the pencil, is considered to be con- 
stant at the same distance. 

The object of the investigation, as respects the Moon, is to find H. by applying the 
formula (28). The observations upon Jupiter and Venus are not numerous enough to 
exhibit the variations of phase, but will furnish normal values of di and dj", by means 
of which their light may be compared with moonlight. 

Let 


d, = The distance in feet from the aperture Z, at which the illumination from the lamp is equal to that 
received from the standard phase of the Moon. 


The corresponding distance for Venus. 
d," — The corresponding distance for Jupiter. 


a 
ll 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 255 


For the Moon. For Venus. For Jupiter. 
r, — 1.0000 e = -0.7238 r! = 5,2028 
A,’ = 1.0000 A, = 43098 
S MAPS vi 2 180% 


The standard phase for Venus accords nearly with the date 1860, April 1st, 23".5, 
mean solar time at Cambridge; this has been adopted on account of its lying midway 
between the dates of observation, so that errors in the assumed values of the correc- 


tions for phase, 
(30) Mie Ki 


e, ' 
which must be used to find a normal value of d, will be mostly eliminated. I have 


used 


sin. v' — v cos. v' H" sin. v — v” cos. v" 
1 DUE . 
sin, v, — v," cos. v," ? 


Bro 


P 3 
sin. v, — v,' cos. v,' 


for the reductions to the standard phases of Venus and Jupiter respectively ; the light 
of the latter being referred to its mean opposition as a standard. 

The observations upon the Moon have been referred to itè mean distance from the 
Earth, using for its mean semi-diameter, 934”.67. 

After applying all the corrections, we have the following results: — 


1860. Moon. Venus, Jupiter. 
March 24 v = 27? log. " = 7.111 ze log. is zz 64/00 v" = 180? log. " = 6.162 
25 39 qe 8.158 - S 6.713 id " 6.129 
ae 8.605 
d s | 8.594 mn 
29 e C M m oe p 
30 100 2 9.113 Eris Cess 
9.665 
April 2 142 vines 9.839 wë e 6.811 e | ei [6.573] 
5 176 " 0.029 kx ek wees 
6 162 " 0.046 EES des 
13 ene wee a " 6.793 z - 6.221 
18 ower wé e 6.872 " e 6.267 
9.910 
May 2 — 1200 9.825 
4 178 - 9.884 
25 66 . 8.731 
fe w S | en 
9.367 
June 2 174 er 0.147 i. ug ixl: 
12 & " 6.646 sro 


256 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


A graphical projection of the values of log. E gives d, = 0°.9705 for the distance 


from the disc Z at which its illumination is equal to that received from the mean full 
Moon. Substituting d,, we may derive from the above, normal values of log. H, or 
the logarithms of the quantity of light received from the various phases of the Moon 
at its mean distance from the Earth and Sun, taking the light of the mean full Moon 
as the unit. 


peg Log. H, = — © 
20 e 7.224 
40 x 8.049 
60 - 8.574 
80 e 8.974 
100 x 9.291 
120 E 9.551 
140 » 9.769 
160 = 9.931 
180 sE 0.000 


In order to compare these with the results derived from Herschel's observations, we 
must subtract from the logarithms of the Moon's apparent brightness the constant 
3.543, representing the light of the mean full Moon according to his scale, and apply 
the proper corrections for reducing the amount of moonlight on each date to the mean 
distances of the Moon from the Earth and from the Sun. There are not sufficient data, 
precisely at the opposition, among the Cape observations, for a direct calculation of 
this constant, but it may be inferred from the whole series of their differences * from 
log. H. 


The comparisons which may be used for this purpose are as follows: — 


Log. Hp. . Cape Obs. Diff. Wt. 

e 1099 9.324 9.368 —0.044 7 
121.7 9.574 9.560 -]- 0.014 8 
131.8 9.681 9.711 + 0.030 9 
135.7 9.724 9.725 = 0.001 9 
143.7 9.805 9.778 -- 0.027 10 
158.7 9.990 —— 9.868 - -+ 0.052 18 
167.0 9.964 9.991 — 0.027 6 
179.8 0.000 0.157 — 0.157 2 


* Results of Astronomical Observations, Cape of Good Hope, p. 367. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 251 


With the exception of the last, which depends, as has already been remarked, upon 
an isolated observation, made with the sky partially clouded, there is a satisfactory 
agreement between the two series. It will be interesting to compare with the above 
results from observation the following values furnished by the formule of Lambert 
and Euler, and the empirical formula (22), which, as we have seen, represents the 
changes from the half to full Moon with tolerable precision. 


LAMBERT. EULER. 
Obs'd log. Hp. Log. ree Log. BIER Log. sin. } v. 
£e = 0 — 0 — o — 00) iced OD 
20 7.224 7.653 8.749 5.488 
40 8.049 8.536 9.068 7.204 
60 8.574 9.037 9.398 8.194 
80 8.974 9.374 9.616 8.848 
100 9.291 9.613 9.768 9.305 
120 9.551 9.785 9.875 9.625 ' 
140 9.769 9.908 9.946 9.838 
160 9.951 9,975 - 9.987 9-960 


180 0.000 : 0.000 0.000 0.000 


It is plain that neither of the theoretical expressions accords with the observations, 
though the last is barely tolerable between v — 90° and v = 180°. Lamberts, which 
succeeds better in the whole range from new Moon to full, still makes the half-Moon 
from two to three times too bright. And if his theory is true for most opaque sub- 
stances, it would seem, as has been already remarked, that, in the disposition of the 
asperities which reflect the sunlight from its surface, the Moon has a peculiar con- 
stitution. "This, too, is indicated in the fact, that the borders of the full Moon are 
disproportionately bright, contrasted with the centre. It deserves attention, in con- 
nection with the subject, that Secchi* has noticed a peculiarity in the polarization of 
moonlight, which he compares to that observed in reflection from glass-paper. It may 
be worth while to notice, too, that the Moon is little if at all exposed to the disinte- 
grating action of water or of an atmosphere; hence it is not unlikely that its surface, 
instead of presenting the dull, weather-worn aspect of the Earth, may rather resemble 
that of bright, fresh-fractured rocks, with their usual crystalline lustre, and that this 


condition may contribute to the appearances in question. 
The quantity of light received from Venus, when at the distance — 1.000 from the 


-.* Monthly Notices Astr. Soc., Vol. XX. p. 70. 


258 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Earth, and having the phase corresponding to v — 11172, according to the foregoing 
observations, is equal to that of the lamp with the aperture Z, at a distance d' — 
41.40 feet. That received from Jupiter, if we omit the observation on April 2d, for 
the reason assigned in the notes, with a phase corresponding to v" = 169°.1, is equal to 
that of the lamp with the same aperture at a distance d" — 78.52 feet. We also have, 
for the distance from Z at which the Moon, similarly phased, is equally bright with 
the lamp, 

v = 1112 d = 1826 

os 1691 : d = 0.994 


Hence we shall have the following results: — 


For the Moon, at its mean distance from Earth and Sun, its phase corresponding to . woo. EB 111.2 
And for Venus at a distance from Earth of 1.000, and from the Sun of 0.7233, its phase cor- 
responding to . ^ $ i ; S à š S : > S s i v = 111.2 


(81) | : Light received from Venus d? . 1 
Light received from Moon d? ` 514. 


For the Moon at its mean distance from Earth and Sun, its phase corresponding to. 3 p 169.1 
And for Jupiter at a distance from Earth of 4.2028, and from the Sun of 5.2028, its phase 
corresponding to A e v = 169.1 


Light received from Jupiter 1 


32 ee? 
(82) Light received from Moon 6240 ` 


If the light of J upiter be increased by the correction of its phase to a complete illu- 


ee à . 1.018 
mination, or by the formula (30) in the ratio 309 and that of the Moon in the ratio 


1.050 . S E 
Er accordance with the curve representing the values of H. we shall have, 


ge Jupiter at mean opposition 1 
(33) Mean full Moon -. 6430" 


Seidel has compared the light of Venus and of J upiter with particular care, by 
means of a Steinheil photometer; correcting that of Venus to its epoch of greatest 


brightness, which he assumes to be when its distance from the Earth is 4 — 0.53944 
and v = 76° 135, he finds,* 3 


Venus at greatest brightness 
e 


' Jupiter at mean opposition = 


* Untersuchungen über die Lichtstärke der Planeten Venus, Mars, Jupiter, und Saturn, p. 34. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 259 


To reduce our results to the same epoch, we have for the change of phase and dis- 
tance from the Earth, using Lambert's formula, 


Venus at A’ = 0.5394 + — 0.7233 


5 = 0.139. 
8 Venus at Ai = 1.0000 r = 0.7238 
We have also, 
Venus at A’ — 1.0000, »/ — 0.7283, v = 11122 qua 
Log. i > = log. — = 0.556 
TË: Jupiter at A" — 4.2028, ri — 5.2028, v^ 1691 ^ ga 


which must be diminished by 0.008, to refer the phase of J upiter to the opposition 
value, v — 180°; hence, 


Venus at greatest brightness 
Jupiter at mean opposition 


= 0.556 + 0.139 — 0.008 = 0.687 ; 


differing from Seidel's by only 0.013. The agreement is the more satisfactory, on 
account of the dissimilarity of the methods used. 

In Herschel’s * Outlines of Astronomy" * the mean quantity of light sent to the 
Earth by the full Moon is stated to exceed that sent by a Centauri in the proportion 
21408 to 1. This is the result of eleven comparisons made at the Cape of Good Hope 
after correction for the amount lost by transmission through the photometer; the high 
altitude of the Moon makes the correction for atmospheric extinction scarcely sensible. 
As Herschel has apparently used the formula 

AM, = RA sin.? ; v 
to reduce the moonlight at the several phases to the mean full Moon, in order to find 
the above proportion when this reduction is accomplished by means of the formula (29), 
I have computed the following quantities for the eleven dates of observation: — 


Mean value log. M, = 9.962 


« & ^ = 9.769 
dal 

« “ T = 0.026 

D “ D = 0.012 


where s represents the correction for extinction. We shall then have 


* « Outlines,” (817). 


260 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Mean full Moon 


Log = log. [27408] + 9.962 — 9.769 — 0.026 + 0.012 = 4.617. 


a Centauri 


Hence, if we adopt the expression (29), and the values of H, determined from 


observation, Herschel’s result becomes, 


œ Centauri no wk 
Mean full Moon 41400 ` 


According to Seidel, the logarithm of the ratio between the light of Jupiter at its 
mean opposition and a Lyre is,* 


SY "e 
uper Mein opposed. D ol 


Log. 
P « Lyra 


Herschel's and Seidel's photometric determinations furnish the following numbers: + — 


HERSCHEL. SEIDEL. 
Sirius : Sirius : 
Log. —————, = 0.620 = 
og. " Coon Log. E Lyre = 0.621 
Rigel Rigel 
« —— — = 9,820 cu 
e Centauri Jc que e 
Kcu Le. E EL E 
a Centauri a Lyre 
& Er — 9.420 | « Fomalhaut — 9.526 
« Centauri e Lyre 
A iiM CES d 
« Centauri a Lyre 


whence we obtain: — 


Sirius œ Centauri e Centauri 
x —— = log. ——— ——— = 


Log. = log. = 0, 
gege" Lyre Sirius a Lyre ENI 
Rigel a Centauri 
e ium gh wm ee QE e SC 
a Lyre x Rigel ` oe 
“ Spica à ~~ e = € Ki = 0.187 
« Lyre Spica 
Fomalhaut . e Centauri S 
s L e g = 0.106 
ae Lyre ^ Fomalhaut 
a Se EE a 
a Lyre e Aquilae ` ` = 0.137 


* Untersuchungen über die Lichtstárke der Planeten Venus, Mars, Jupiter, und Saturn p. 34 
3 H . 
f Ibid, p. 31. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 261 


Taking the mean, we have 


lx temm Mi 
a Lyre 


Hence, from Herschel’s observations of the Moon, according to the above reduction, 


Jupiter at mean opposition ` e Centauri _ Jupiter siye H 


Mean full Moon Moon a Lyre ` a Centauri ` 6620" 


Considering the number of intermediate steps required in effecting the comparison 
of the original data, this confirmation of the value before given in (33), viz. : 


Jupiter at mean opposition E 1 
Mean full Moon 6430 ' 


is entirely satisfactory. 


If we make in (13), 


P — sin. 15 34.67 = sin. Moon’s semidiameter at its mean distance from the Earth, 
E = sin. 0 8.67 = sin. Venus's semidiameter at the distance 1.0000 “ & 
fe — sin. 0 22.77 = sin. Jupiter's " * 42028 * " 
e = edendi for the Moon, 

T 1.0000 
= = mee for Venus, 

r 0.7233 

dE = Lp , for Jupiter, 

p. 5.2028 


the amount of light received at the Earth, compared with sunlight, will be, 


r di Op _ Light of Moon 
dL 194810 Light of Sun’ 
9! y! Light of Ven 
99 “ = 1184400000 Light of Sun 
k 9" y" ... Light of Jupiter 
L = 3884600000 Light of Sun ` 
Hence at the Earth, 


VOL. VIII. 34 


262 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Light of Venus ES Po. 

Light of Moon ` 6080 © p’ 
(38) ; : 

Light of Jupiter = 1 0” y" 


Light of Moon ` 45610 © p ` 
But according to observation, we have in (31) and (32), 


Light of Venus at the phase v' = 1117.2 1 
Light of Moon at the phase v = 111°.2 c EIE 


Light of Jupiter at the phase o" — 169°.1 1 | 
Light of Moon at the phase v =169°.1 6240” 


and from (35), 


p 1 Ofrwv-11*3 
— me V dM 
(36) wc TERS ro a 
1 Hi 11 — pi 
E ww lom ue Sn Jupiter and Moon. 
p 71.31 O foto =169*.1 


If we suppose the surfaces of these bodies to absorb different proportions of the 
whole incident sunlight, while the light reflected by each is dispersed ee ally i in 
different directions, we should have, 


(87) 


This would apply for Lambert's or Eulers formula, or for any other of a general 
nature, when the special constitution of each reflecting body is not taken into account. 
The substitution of 


EN o" 
a — E e = 1, 
in (36), would thus give, 
Fou ls d aM — 111° 
"M La enus and Moon, v = 111°.2, 
(38) 
p 1 5 1 “ o 
P << 131 upiter e 1599.1, 


Owing to its situation in the solar system, Venus can afford reliable photometric 
observations only when near its position of greatest brightness, being then at a little 
less than the half-Moon phase, while that of Jupiter is always nearly full. If, how- 


ever, we suppose the light of the two planets to be distributed agreeably to Lamberts 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 263 


theory, and if we reduce the phases of the Moon to full, by means of the proportions 
derived from observation, and given on p. 256, we have, 


O for v = 180°.0 Lo O for v = 180°.0 


Log. ~ — = 0.548 : = 0.0 
gei O for v = 111?.2 . d O for v = 169°.1 pene 
O' for v! = 180°.0 0" for v" — 1809.0 
Log. = 0.284. Log. - = 0.008; 
^5 e for of = 111°.9 "TË o" for v = 169°.1 
and thence, 
LI H 1 Oy 
— === — Venus and Moon, full phase, 
pl 6.441 0, 
(39) 
à . i 
E — idcm Jupiter and Moon, ` 
p" 7.094 Oo 


where 6,, ©; , ©,” represent the values of O for each body when fuil phased. 

That Venus and Jupiter very much exceed the Moon in their capacity for reflecting 
light, is evident from the above. It would seem, moreover, that in this respect Venus 
nearly resembles Jupiter, provided that Lambert's reduction for phase is applicable; it 
is, perhaps, questionable whether this can be admitted. 

Seidel* has collected and discussed with great care a very large number of photo- 
metric comparisons of Venus and Jupiter, and has deduced for ratio of their respec- 


tive albedos, 
d 
i 2 = 0.958. 


vi 
Our results, if we adopt the numbers in (39), give 


M. — 0,908. 
p 
Both depend on Lamberts phase-correction ; but since they have been obtained at 
nearly the same average relative position of the Earth, Sun, and planets, the agreement 
proves little, as regards the question of the reliability of the phase-correction. ‘The 
uncertainty, however, does not admit of remedy, for although Venus, like the Moon, 
presents itself successively in every phase, it is only when at a considerable angular 
distance from the Sun that it can be well observed. Its low altitude, and the strong 
twilight surrounding it, throw a doubt over all evening or morning eier made 
in the neighborhood of either conjunction with the Sun; but the fact of its being visible 


* Untersuchungen über die Lichtstürke der Planeten Venus, Mars, Jupiter, und Saturn, p. 52. 


264 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


on the very day of inferior conjunction, as a narrow crescent, distant but 5° or 6°, or 
even less, from the Sun, notwithstanding the intense illumination of the sky, is evi- 
dence of a notable deviation from Lambert’s theory; for in this situation, not only is 
the illuminated area exceedingly small, but its light, according to that theory, will be 
intrinsically fainter than in other positions. The reason of this discrepancy is plainly 
because the theory does not take into account the light regularly reflected, which is 
considerable, even for opaque bodies, when the angle of incidence and of reflection is 
small. If the surface of Venus were polished, it would be, when distant 74° from its 
inferior conjunction with the Sun, nearly six times brighter than at'its greatest elonga- 
‘tion; on the other hand, if opaque, by Lambert’s formula, it would be above eighty 
times fainter, which is altogether at variance with observation.* It may be inferred, 
as a consequence of this deviaticn from the theory, supposed to be due to a tendency 
to a regular reflection, that the albedo of Venus, computed from observations about the 
time of greatest brilliancy, and especially as it approached its inferior conjunction, will 
be too large, that is, it will exceed its average value in other positions. 

For the purpose of finding the value of y for the Moon, if we suppose an element 


de presented perpendicularly to its rays, the quantity of moonlight incident upon it 
will be, as in (24), 


The whole quantity incident upon the concave surface of a sphere, having a radius 
^, and circumscribed about the Moon as a centre, will be represented by 


f= A. £s fede 


But if the Moon everywhere shone with its full phase, the total light would be 


JS dil = e B odo 


Since H s and fo, de = 4 v a O,, we have, 
E o 4e 
(40) ¿= a fide 
By means of the table of values of log. H,, given on page 256, we may compute the 


* During the total eclipse of the Sun, July 18, 1861, Venus, being then at its inferior conjunetion, was seen 
by Bruhns with the naked eye, and was considerably brighter than Jupiter. Astr. Nach. 1292, p- us 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 265 


value of f H,de, extending the integration so as to include the whole surface of the 
circumscribed sphere of which de is an element; we then have, 


: fr. =f Ze äi H sin.odv = 0.463 Ze a, 
so that from (40) 


(41) e = 0,232 de: 


from which it appears that the whole amount of light reflected from the Moon is 
about one fourth as much as if it shone in all directions with the full phase. 
The quantity of sunlight incident on the Moon is, by (10), 


I6 
4 Pf’ 
and from (41), 

n D 


d i 
(42) ze Dä ed o. 


If the light of the full Moon, incident perpendicularly at the Earth, upon an element 
of surface de at the distance 4 from it, is to the light of the Sun upon the same ele- 
ment at the distance r, as 1 : S, we shall have, 


E Ll ox 
bor Dow" 
and by substitution in (42), > 
a 4 1 
— = 0.928 — —, 
ed : t a Ss 
in which we may make 
A ie 1 ) € ESO ADAM = 48700; 
p sin. Moon's semidiameter. sin.? 934".67 


and (44) becomes, 


Amount of light reflected from the Moon _ ï __ 45193 
Amount of light incident upon the Moon t S 


(45) 


Hence, by (4), the albedo of the Moon will be 


45193 
(46) prop 
It is a matter of much difficulty to ascertain S from observation, on account of the 
strong contrast between the intensity of sunlight and moonlight, and the want of a 
reliable constant light of the proper color, to which both may be referred. The obser- 
vations of Bouguer and Wollaston are notably inconsistent; the mean between them 


266 — ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER, 


makes the Sun about five hundred and fifty thousand times brighter than the full Moon,* 
in which case 
1 
n= 31" 

If the whole quantity of sunlight reflected by the Moon, which is ut, were dispersed 
from it as if it were a polished sphere, —that is, equally in all directions, — the 
amount of moonlight incident upon d e would be 

pide e? i de 2 
de Ai Ag AP 


but the actual amount incident upon d e is 


HW. de 
Aa A? 


(47) 


3 


and therefore, since, from the definition on p. 233, @ is the ratio of these two quantities, 


f 


(48) oc Hr 


vg 1 
Hence, using from (41) s = 9335 for the Moon, 


ai = 2.67 Hy for Venus, 
6" = 2.67 H" for Jupiter, 


o = 431 H forthe Moon, 
(49) 


and for the two latter assuming, as in (15), 


Ri = Rs Se nhe 
T 
(50) A 2:8 sin. v — v cos. v 
3 T z 
we shall have, from (39), 
ai qi 
dën EE O, 1.616 ' 
EE ae p 1 
y o Tor Ww TAT" 


which are, perhaps, the most reliable values which the data in our possession will 
furnish. : 


* For a new determination of this ratio, giving S 


= 470980 and p= 22 the reader is referred to a me- 
moir in a subsequent part of this volume. i 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 261 


If the value y = 2 be adopted, the albedos of Venus and Jupiter will be nearly 
= 1, which can scarcely be true, since in this case the ‘planets must reflect the whole 
light incident upon them, while the whitest substances known on the Earth reflect less 
than one half of the incident light.* As regards Venus, we have mentioned reasons to 
show that a tendency to a regular reflection of sunlight from its surface may possibly 
explain its excess of brightness; but the case is quite otherwise with Jupiter, for here 
the planet is presented nearly at full phase, and in this position the quantity of light 
reflected from an opaque globe should be at least twice as great as from one of equal 
albedo reflecting regularly. Moreover, it is quite certain that the disc of Jupiter pre- 
sents gradations of brightness from its centre to the circumference, conforming suffi- 
ciently well with Lambert’s theory, and this’ circumstance gives additional confidence 
in the use made of his formula in obtaining the result before us. 

As the foregoing calculations cannot be readily followed through their details, and 
on this account may be open to some doubt as to their correctness, the following ex- 
periments of a different kind, though less precise, will be useful in confirming the 
results which have been obtained. 

The light from a small area of the Moon was compared with that of Jupiter by 
receiving the pencil from the focus of the object-glass of the 23-foot refractor upon a 
screen, or upon the silvered glass globe B,, described on p. 247, equalizing each in turn 
with the image of the light of a lamp provided with a diaphragm, and placed at a 
suitable distance. The relative brightness of the images reflected from the globe was 
easily varied by moving it towards or away from the focus of the telescope. "The min- 
utes of some other comparisons, principally relating to the absorption of the light of 
Jupiter by colored glass screens, are also added. 

1860, March 2d. Clear. Moon 41 days before full (v = 119°) compared with Ju- 
piter. Both near the meridian and at the same altitude. A brass diaphragm plate 
having a hole with an aperture of 0.0425, admitting a pencil of light 32.47 in diam- 
eter, was placed in the focus of the object-glass of the 23-foot refractor, and the tele- 
scope, with its aperture of 14".94, was directed alternately upon Jupiter and the Moon; 
the image of a disc of each object subtending the above-named angle was received, 
without the intervention of any eye-piece, upon a screen of black book-binder's muslin 
fastened to a square of pasteboard, and washed with a thin shade of indigo to destroy 
the gloss, and give a dead blue-black surface. The screen was moved from the focus 
until the light of the image projected upon it could just be discerned ; its distance from 
the focus was then noted, its position being fixed by three observers. 


* Beer, Grundriss des Phot. Cal., p. 70. 


268 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


The telescope was kept in motion by the driving clock during the intervals of obser- 


vation. a 
Jupiter, Screen to focus, 3.0 


« A aJ 


Telescope directed to the Moon and set so-that the focus-aperture included a region 
south of the Mare Fecunditatis, thought to be as bright as the average of the brighter 
parts of the Moon. 


: ft. 
S. of Mare Fecunditatis, Screen to focus, 3.83 
Brighter region, = " 4.33 
Dark — Mare Crisium, Y * 3.33 


Near Mare Crisium, a little north of it, considered to be as bright as any part of 
the Moon. 


ft. 
N. of Mare Crisium, Screen to focus, 4.50 
Jupiter, 4 « 9.67 

113 “ “ 3.67 


The surrounding illumination was the same for both objects in the above experiments. 

Subsequently the same diaphragm was placed in the focus of an eye-piece having a 
power of 206, and the planet and a disc of the Moon of equal angular diameter were 
compared by the eye alternately. It was evident that the color of the two was nearly 
similar, and that, while the intensity of the Moon’s most brightly illuminated region 
exceeded that of the planet, the brighter Seas were about equal to it, and some 
were darker. 

The brighter parts of the Moon selected for the above comparisons were near the 
selenographic meridian passing through the Sun, and were therefore illuminated at the 
maximum angle of incidence. 

1860, March 15th. 8" to 10", m.s.t. Fine clear sky. Cloudless and calm. 

Examined Jupiter at a high altitude near the meridian, with screen glasses of differ- 
ent tints interposed between the eye and the eye-piece of the 23-foot refractor, full 
aperture. Power, 206. Focus aperture as above, 32".47. It was proposed at some 
future time to employ the same screens upon the Sun and Moon. 

After keeping the eye in a dark room for several minutes, the light of the planet 
could be discerned with ease through screen-glasses D and E, both deep red; certainly, 
but not always without some difficulty, through A+ M, A a steel blue, dense, 
and M a thin glass, tint of Madeira wine. B and C, both bluish, admitted glimpses, 
but not with entire certainty. 

1860, March 16th. 7" 30" to 8" 30", Sid. time. Fine clear sky. Eye-piece, focus 
aperture, &c., as on 15th. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 269 


Jupiter near the meridian, viewed with colored screens, A, D, and C, of different 
densities, but same tint, bluish. E, dense, full red. F, yellow, with tinge of green, 
dense. G, dense blue. K, yellowish red or orange, thin. L, indigo, thin. 

Jupiter, near meridian, seen plainly with A; just discerned with entire certainty 
through A + K and d+ L. Easily with F and G, though they would not bear 
much increase of density. Æ comes nearest to cutting off the whole light, but it is 
still plainly seen, and the red tinge is evident, which would not be the case if the 
light were of the last degree of faintness. The centre of the planet was placed, as 
usual, at the centre of the focus aperture, and the telescope kept in motion by the 
driving clock. The word * Astronomy" on the title-page of Herschel's * Outlines " 
could be read by the light of Sirius near the focus. 

1860, March 19th. 7" 9", Sid. time. Not perfectly clear. Same adjustment as 
on previous nights. Re-examined light of Jupiter with screen A+ K. Seen dis- 
tinctly, though not without difficulty. With E, a decided red tint is distinguished. 
Observations repeated at 9" 30", Sid. time. 

1860, March 23d. 9", m.s.t. Perfectly clear. Adjustments as usual. Jupiter ex- 
amined with screens A + K and E for comparison with experiments elsewhere 


narrated. 
1860, March 24th. 7" 15” to 7" 40", Sid time. Moon two days old, near Venus. 


Aperture 14.94. 
Moon seen with difficulty, though certainly with E, but not with A + K, taking 


the average of the brightest fifth part of the illuminated surface. 
Reduced the aperture to 2".5, and set upon Venus, at 7” 40”, Sid. time. The planet 
was not visible at all with E. Perhaps discerned with A + K. Two hours later, 


Jupiter, with full aperture, showed a strong red with E. 
The eye-piece having been removed, the light of Jupiter transmitted by the object- 


glass was compared with the lamp S, diaphragm Z, by means of the photometer as 
described on p. 247. 


NK | E ix 


941” Sid. time. Contre of bulb wé focus, D -02 To lamp, 22 1.0 
SS 4 19 4 ^ 74$ 19 

WA Uk 4 20 « 99 48 

E x 4 47 “2 48 

à T. 4 47 « 98 10 

a 4117 “26110 


10 9 " d 


VOL. VIII. 95 


. 270 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Applied a new diaphragm to the lamp. Aperture 0.021: 


I: An: n m 

s Centre of bulb to focus, 8 7.9 To lamp, 22 8.0 
m 

10 39 " « 8 110 «. 23 0.0 


1860, March 27th. Adjustments and lamp as on March 24th. 


h m ft. ft. 
9 59 Sid. time. Centre of bulb to focus, 3.70 To lamp, 25.80 ` 


ài 


10 3 - = Se 8.60 vs 


1860, March 30th. A thin, red haze in the sky. Moon 8} days old 


with lamp S, aperture Z, by means of the photometer bulb. 


h m y i ft. i ; ft. 
8 41 Sid. time. Jupiter. Centre of bulb to focus, 2.75 To lamp, 19.5 
8 45 « s ee D E 19.5 
848  « « - E ai 958 "er 195 
8 54 “ Li me LU A RS M ep 1o M PC 


Focus diaphragm applied, admitting pencil from Moon, 32”.47 diameter. 


h m ft. s 
9 4 Sid. time. Bright part of Moon, south of Mare Orisium. - Bulb to focus, 2.90 
y Centre of southern half of Mare Crisium. } a 
ike z Sun's alt. 75°. S Mi 2.42 
9 16 e Brightest part, where Sun is vertical. Boe Share 2.95 - 
Dark part of Mare Tranquillitatis, 9' or 4’) ` = 
9 19 & from Mare Crísium in a line towards the “ 243" 
centre of Moon. . Sun's alt. 50°. SE 
Brightest part as it appears to the naked} - ; 
9 26 a eye, north of Mare Crisium. : oe 2.70 
9 34 « Near centre, 1^ from dark edge. Quid o e “ 1.10 
i A smooth area 30" from dark edge, not Md 
9 39 me specially brighter than other parts simi- “ 0.95 
larly situated. 


25.80 


| (v — GEN 
and distant but a few degrees from Jupiter. 23-foot refractor, with aperture 14", 94 set 
on the planet; eye-piece removed, and the focal image ( without diaphragm), compared 


19.5 


c e lamp, 


EE 


Di 


ft. - 
18.0 


17.5 


16.2 


18.0 


14.2 
20.3 


20.3 


The haze in the air probably obstructed a sensible amount of light, but a the ob- 
jects were near each other, and at a high altitude, it is likely that the relative quan- 


tities of light will be correctly given. 


As the focus diaphragm was not used on this occasion for the planet, it was thought 
advisable to try whether the diffused illumination of the Earth's atmosphere by moon- 


light was sufficient to affect the experiments, but no image from the sky alone could be 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 211 


distinguished on the bulb, when placed at the distance of two or three feet from the 


focus. | 
Removed focus diaphragm and returned to Jupiter without altering lamp. 


9 46 Sid. time. Jupiter. Bulb to focus, 2.60 To lamp, 21.70 
$4: cR e Tis 2.90 “ 21.70 
5 x 55. 3 & s 1.24 > 10.74 
10 0 = = E 1.50 w 10.96 
la oe: 4 « 145 « — 1100 


.1860, April 2d. . Quite clear. No clouds seen through the evening. Moon 23 days 
from full (v — iras For J upiter, the focal image, without diaphragm, was used. 


p En D. 

9 7 . Sid. time. Jupiter. Bulb to focus, 9.45. To lamp £ Diaphragm Z.. 20.60 
9 99 2 « & 5.25 Soh " X. Sa 

t oi EE C ON LS 5.95 PI v eg 4890 
Jn. Ca ee 5.80 Bt g SW 28.90 
$48 po d « 6.05 r.i VN. 347 
109 e edt: e 6.95 «  R. “ 'M. 24.60 
ak 4 ew «c 5.80 « 5 * — M, 20.60 
"3039  —* (e « 5.10 KE x “ M. 21.80 
mule c E (4 5.55 " c, * — M. 925.60 


Set upon “Moon. : Focus | diaphragm 32" 47. 


bh. i EE brightest in south- ft. A ft. 
10 47. Sid. time. is gon briatas P San's $ Bulb to focus, 5.80 Tolamp W. Diaphragm M. 12.70 
s o E “alt. =.60% . 
Centre of Mare Ti nquillitatis, 
n a line ati Crater 


; Maskelyne and the Mare Crisi- ; 
10:54. e: um. un'salt.859. This is p « 6.20 & W. D M. 19.70 
the darkest part of the Moon, 

upon which the Sun is shin- 
ing ata high altitude. 


Sun's alt. 75°. 
KS iun Mes Das 7 6.20 “« W. " — M, 17.20 
quillitatis. 


The. first series, March 2d, gives ‘the relative quantity of light transmitted to the 
Earth from a circular area of J upiter, 32".47 in diameter, compared with the light from 
areas subtending. the same angle, taken from different parts of the Moon. This pro- 
portion for the brighter regions of the Moon, on which the Sun is shining at a high 


altitude, is 
cB : y 49 


Wi - gl 


272 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


At the same date, the intensity of sunlight at Jupiter and at the Moon was as 
1: 27.9. Hence, 


D xu). wu) 


81 1 


would be the proportion of the albedos of the two surfaces, provided that they received 
and reflected the incident light under similar conditions. This, however, is not the 
case. "The area of the Moon, included by the aperture in the focus diaphragm, is so 
small that it may be considered as being illuminated sensibly at the same angle of inci- 
dence throughout. If we take 60° as the mean value of this angle for the parts of the 
Moon compared and regarded at this date as noticeably brighter than the rest, we must 
diminish the above proportion in the ratio sin. 60°: 1, to represent the effect of the 
increased quantity of sunlight which would reach the same surface at perpendicular 
incidence. On the other hand, the aperture admits nearly the whole of the light of 
Jupiter, and the sunlight, on account of the curvature of the surface of the planet, 
being received at very different angles, it should present a gradation in the intensity of 
its light, proceeding from the centre towards the circumference. It is difficult, or 
rather quite impossible, to define precisely the rate of this decrease; but, from facts 
which will be elsewhere stated, it is certain that its light near the margin is much 
fainter than towards the centre. According to the best estimates which I have been 
able to make, the coefficient to be applied in order to reduce the mean brightness of 
a central disc of Jupiter, 327.47 in diameter, to the mean brightness of the whole disc 


on March 2d, is y Again, to reduce the mean brightness of the illuminated hemi- 
sphere to that of the central element presented at right angles to the direction of illu- 
mination, we must apply the coefficient E = 1.48. These numbers do not mate- 
rially differ from those which would result from supposing, as Lambert has done, that 
the intensity varies as the sine of the angle of incidence of the sunlight. 

, Applying the above, we should have, from the observation of March 2d, a value of 


` which would represent the relative albedo of Jupiter compared with the Moon's 


brighter regions, if both bodies are supposed to reflect light conformably with the same 
law of dispersive reflection, which, according to Bouguer and Lambert, holds approxi- 
mately for the generality of opaque bodies; viz. that the quantity of light emitted 
towards a given point from each element is proportional to the solid angle subtended 
at the point by the element. However, we have seen, in the case of the Moon, that it 
has the property of returning an undue amount of light towards the Earth at the time 
of full Moon, which would cause the other phases to appear dispr oportionately faint. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 273 


This will explain the reason why the relative albedo of Jupiter, obtained after the 
above corrections have been applied, viz. 


? 979 143 | 
— ig se 60% = 158 
e sl im , 


the Moon being 61? from opposition (v = 119°), is larger than that given in (51). 
The latter is certainly to be preferred, because it is a result depending on the average 


of the whole illuminated surface of the Moon, seen under various phases, while the 
former relates to but one or two isolated points of a single phase. 

Perhaps the most probable correction which we can adopt, to refer the partial and 
incomplete result derived from any single phase to the more general condition, is to 
apply the coefficient z = Um. taken from the table on page 257, L, being the value 
of H, according to Lambert’s formula. We then have, 


t . y D 1.43 H, 
ee UN vee 0j e ok 
4.5 I 182 de 
Or 
Es = zi for the brightest parts of the Moon; 
y-3 


and in the same way, 


‘= R for the darker regions having the Sun at high altitude. 


II 


p 


The corrections due to the phase of Jupiter aiid to the difference of extinction are 
not appreciable. Proceeding in a similar manner, we may reduce the observations on 
other dates, noticing the changes required when the light from the whole disc of the 


planet has been admitted. 
On March 30th, we have, for the logarithm of the ratio of the brightness of the 


focal image of Jupiter compared with the lamp, taking the mean of the observations, 


Jupiter `` 
Log. es 8.227, 


and for the portion of the bright. parts of the Moon admitted by the aperture in the 


focus diaphragm, 
Log. i = 8.540. 


Lamp 


The coefficients for the several corrections will be 


Ki 


274 ON THE LIGHT. OF. THE MOON. AND OF: THE: PLANET JUPITER. 


Brightness of central element of Jupiter ` __ 
Average brightness of Jupiter . 


( Diameter of aperture = 32",47 ) 
Diameter of Jupiter ^ :/; 
dou E 


from which we shall find ` 


>| = 


„= >. Brightest parts of the Moon, ` 


> ae 


and similarly, 
9 bus d ‘Mare: Crisium, - 
fe ROE ae 


Bo lo Mave Tranquilitadis. 
BOOT Pekka i: 
April 2d. The comparisons with lamp W, diaphragm M, give, 


Log..——— =. 8.751, SC 


Log. = : 9,819, 


for the brightest. part of the Moon ; 


Brightness of, central element. of Jupiter S . 


Average brightness of Jupiter 143, E 
( Diameter of aperture = 32.47 Xs 1 
_ Diameter of Jupiter ` DT 


Correction for relative extinction = - 1.04, 


RR? 
EC 


k | 
v= 141? log. 2 = 9.871 ; 
S i : » A : Lo e . é e y ji 
and thence, 


E Y. EEN s E 
E- = Ti -Brightest part of ‘Moons 


The other comparisons give 


ON THE LIGHT OF.THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET .JUPITER. 215 


fius id Ss : ; 7. . 
= A Mare Tranquillitatis, 
AR Mare Orisium ; 


CEU i Mare’ Tranquillitatis, ` 
H > d 340 ` 
== Mare Crisium. | 

p! 13 ui 


Neither of the two methods adopted in these reductions can claim much confidence, 
since we know so little of the nature of the reflecting surfaces ; ‘however, the fact of the 
greatly superior albedo of J upiter is ‘satisfactorily established, each EE ER con- 
firming the result first obtained. ` EUM qa 

If now we return to the Geh experiments; we "find for " ratio of the chem- 
ical albedo, so to speak, ‘of the two bodies, ; ; 


4 Average dhemit. intensity of Full Moon . D SH 


Average chemical intensity of Jupiter wu. 


If we assume a similar distribution of the chemical and optical rays at the different 


phases, we may ai the UOTIS 


as in (51). We then have | | 
Chemical albedo of Moon 1. 
Chemical albedo of Jupiter CM 


agreeing quite as well as could: have been NEA = (51), viz 


Optical albedo of Moon __ ee 
eer albedo of Jupiter 11.47 


The most satisfactory estimate of the degree of whiteness of the Moon’s surface, com- 
pared with objects on the Earth, is contained in the following statement by Sir John 


Herschel. 


216 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


* The actual illumination of the lunar surface is not much superior to that of weath- 
ered sandstone rock in full sunshine. I have frequently compared the Moon, setting 
behind the gray, perpendicular facade of the Table Mountain, illuminated by the Sun 
just risen in the opposite quarter of the horizon, when it has scarcely been distinguish- 
able in brightness from the rock in contact with it. The Sun and Moon being nearly 
at equal altitudes and the atmosphere perfectly free from cloud or vapor, its effect is 
alike on both luminaries." * ` 

These observations acquire more weight from the circumstance that the light from a 
distant and elevated object, like the top of a mountain viewed in the same range 
with the Moon, is: modified by aerial perspective, so that the two have a similar 
quality of tone, and may be compared, in regard to their relative brightness, with 
greater confidence than if one were close at hand, and the other distant. This will 
be best recognized in attempting, in the daytime, to compare the light of an opaque 
object, held not far from the eye, with the Moon; the latter, owing to the intervening 
atmosphere, has a shadowy, unsubstantial look, which makes it very difficult to esti- 
mate the intensity of its light. In Herschel’s experiment, the mountain summit (if 
the observation was made from Feldhausen, as was probably the case) must have been 
some miles distant, and high enough to rise well into a pure atmosphere. The Moon 
at the time was a day or two past the full. 

We may infer, then, that there is no marked deficiency in the Moon, contrasted with 
the Earth, as to its capacity for reflection, since the “ gray weathered sandstone" of 
the top of Table Mountain would not, in this respect, be an inadequate representative 
of the Earth's general surface. 

The following experiments relate to the determination of the relative albedo of Jupi- 
ter, and different objects on the Earth. 

1860, March 17th. 0" 30", m.s.t. A thin haze in the sky. Observations were . 
made in the clear intervals. The 23-foot refractor, aperture of object-glass reduced to 9 
inches, was pointed at the side of a brick building, presented at right angles and distant 
21 miles, on which the Sun was shining at an angle of incidence — 50° (the angle which 
a line directed to the Sun makes with the plane of the face of the wall. With the 
same power and focal diaphragm employed in viewing Jupiter, March 15th,16th, 19th, 
&c., the light reflected from the brick wall could just be discerned through the screen- 
glasses A + K, the eye having been protected from daylight for about half an hour. 

After applying corrections similar to those employed in reducing the comparisons be- 


tween Jupiter and the Moon, and allowing for the difference of aperture of the object- 
glass, we find, 


* Outlines of Astronomy, (417), note, p. 272. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 271 


Albedo of brick-work E. 
Albedo of Jupiter, central element ` 8 ` 


This is not entitled to much confidence for several reasons, but especially on account 
of the difference in color. The side of the house was also strongly illuminated by light 
reflected from surrounding objects, by which its brightness must have been considerably 
increased ; the illumination of the atmosphere intervening would also have a similar 
tendency. Hence it seems probable that the denominator of the fraction expressing the 
relative albedos is too small; the experiment taken in connection with (51) will there- 
fore be in keeping with previous results. 

A distant hill-side of withered grass was not sensibly brighter than the bricks; a 
tract of woodland, without leaves, was darker. The brick was supposed to reflect about 
one fifth as much light as an equal surface of pure white paper. 

1860, March 19. 0* 30” to 1^ 0”, m.s.t. Clear, with haze near horizon. The 
same adjustments and screen-glasses as were used in viewing Jupiter. 

Repeated comparison with brick wall as on 17th. The image seemed slightly more 


intense than that of Jupiter. 
The side of a wooden house, painted white, and by subsequent trial found to be 


barely distinguishable from the purest white paper, gave, 


Albedo of side of white house —— 1 


Albedo of Jupiter, central element 20d SS 


A variety of objects in the landscape, — fields, bare or covered with withered grass, 
trees, rocks, fences, &c.,— in the azimuth opposite to the Sun's, and again nearly in the 
same azimuth with it, gave, 


Albedo of landscape — 1- 
Albedo of Jupiter 8 


1860, March 23d. qn m. s. t Sky perfectly clear, — between cumuli. Adjust- 
ments, spite, &c., as usual, but the aperture of the object-glass was reduced until 
the objects viewed through the colored screens were judged to have less brightness 
than J upiter. From five trials, after applying the proper corrections, I find, 


Albedo of side of white white house _ e "s 
Albedo of Jupiter, or, central element ^ 2.1 


A sheet of white paper placed against the side of the house was found to be a good 


match in point of brightness. A disc of chalk, ground flat and painted with “ Flake 


white,” was, however, sensibly whiter. 
VOL. VIII. 36 


218 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


As this was considered the most satisfactory of the trials made with the colored 
screens, the corrections which have been applied in the reductions are here added. 

The intensity of the light of the two objects admitted by the focus diaphragm of 
07.0425 diameter, was judged to be the same when the ratio of the exposed areas of 
the object-glass was 


Area of object-glass for house — 0.090. 


Area of object-glass for Jupiter 


The actual illumination of the side of the house by the direct light of the Sun at an 
incidence angle of 30°, added to the light received by reflection from surrounding ob- 
jects, was estimated, experimentally, to be to the illumination which it would receive 
directly from the Sun, at perpendicular incidence, as 4 to 3; and the coefficient 2 has 
been accordingly applied to the ratio of the areas of the object-glass, so as to refer the 
comparisons to the maximum illumination of the object by direct sunlight. 

For distinct vision of the house, the eye-piece, with the focus diaphragm, was moved ` 


4".4 from the object-glass, contracting the angle subtended by the diaphragm at the 


i S ? : 270.0 1 ; : 
object-glass in the proportion 5744 = me: The coefficient for the correction of 


the light of Jupiter for phase is 1.016. The altitude of Jupiter was 67°, and that 
of the Sun 45°. We must apply the coefficient m to reduce the light of the 
planet for atmospheric extinction to the altitude of 45°. . The ratio of the intensity of 
sunlight at the Earth and Jupiter is 7 a Ot The average brightness of the whole 
disc of Jupiter is less than that of the part included within the diaphragm, in the 
proportion 1: 1.23. Lastly, the central element of Jupiter, which receives sunlight at 
perpendicular incidence, is brighter than the average of its disc in the proportion 
1.43 : 1. 
We then have 


3 1 1 d ; 
X =~ ITSE 1.016 eg ven . er E DH 
0.090 x 1 $e 1018 016 x 1.045 x 193 X 148 X 27.7 2.1; 


and therefore 
Albedo of white house 1 


— 
MA 


Albedo of Jupiter 2 


1 


The experiments were continued, and varied in the following way. The daylight 
was excluded from the dome, leaving only the object-glass exposed. The telescope 
being directed upon the object, the eye-piece lenses were removed, the focus diaphragm 
only remaining. The pencil of light admitted by the aperture in the diaphragm was 
then compared with the standard lamps, by equalizing the images of the two reflected 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 279 


from glass globes, in the manner already described. It will be noticed that the aperture 
of the object-glass of the telescope has no influence in these experiments, and that no 
correction for its absorption is required, the proportion of light extinguished in pass- 
ing through it being the same in all cases. 

1860, March 26th. A fine clear sky. A few cumuli appeared before the close of 
the experiments. Aperture of object-glass, 5 inches. Focus aperture, 0.0425 ; angu- 
lar diameter at solar focus, 32”.47. 

Telescope directed upon the silvered glass globe B,, diameter 3".436, placed at a dis- 
tance of 1336 feet from the object-glass, in a pearly horizontal line, azimuth 10° east 
of north, and the image of the Sun reflected from it, compared with the lamp S, dia- 


phragm Z. 
h m ft. ft. 
2 1 Sid.time. Bulb to lamp S, 8.17 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
2.9 « e 8.13 « 5.85 
2 15 “ a 8.30 , 5.85 


Lamp 7 exchanged for S, using same diaphragm. 


ft. ft. 
2 25 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z 8.30 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
2 29 vi E 8.70 e 5.85 
Telescope directed to southeast side of a white house, at nearly the same distance and 


azimuth. This side of the house receives the direct sunlight at a small angle of 


incidence. 


ft. ft. 
2 43 Sid. time. Bulbtolamp Z 7.73 Bulb to focus, 5.85 


Telescope pointed at the southwest side of the house, on which the direct light of 
the Sun falls at.an angle of about 40°. 


ft. ft. 
2 52 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z, 6.17 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
A screen of white paper, painted with “Flake white” and " Chinese white,” was 
placed at the same distance, perpendicular to the sunlight. : 
ft. ft. 
3 2 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z, 7.06 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
3 A x s 7.90 T 5.85 


Telescope pointed at a mass of trees without leaves, distant about 1000 feet, and 


180° in azimuth from the Sun. 


SS ft. 
3 20. Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z, 13.30 Bulb to focus, 5.85 


280 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


'The flames of the lamps were occasionally examined and found in good adjustment. 
The globe B, was placed within a hollow tin cone, near its apex. The cone was well 
blackened to cut off dispersed light, and the globe was frequently altered in position 
so as to expose different parts to the Sun. 

1860, March 28th. Sky nearly, though not perfectly clear, especially in the later 
experiments. Adjustments as on 26th. Globe B, in same position. Lamp $, dia- 
phragm Z. 


h m ft. ft. 
1 4 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp S, 7.70 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
lI o4 " e 7.70 ü 5.85 
I 14 " S 8.00 $ 5.85 


Aperture changed to 14^".94. 


n im ft. ft. 
134 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp S, 7.80 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
Di 7.80 ke 5.85 


se 5.05 a DO 
Lamp S exchanged to I. | 


~ 


h m ft. ft. 

1 44 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z 7.45 ` Bulb to focus, 5.85 
js 7.85 " 5.85 
> TOP " 5.85 


At the same distance, a screen of * Whatman's" drawing-paper painted with 
* Flake white" was set up, perpendicular to the Sun's rays, affording a surface of a 
pure white without gloss, sensibly more brilliant than new-fallen snow. 


h m ft. ft. 
1 59 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z 6.40 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
" 6.50 x 5.85 


Silvered globe B;, diameter 17.760, placed in the position described above for B, . 
k m ft. ft. 
2 19 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp 7, 6.08 Bulb to focus, 3.00 
: “ 5.80 WW 9.90 


A screen of black cloth, washed with a thin size of indigo, to destroy the gloss 
and afford a dead blue-black surface, was set up at the same distance. 


px ft. 
2 39 Sid. time. Bulb to lamp Z, 11.10 Bulb to focus, 8.10 


: Clouds troublesome. The clear intervals were used. 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 281 


1860, April 7th. Clear. Aperture of object-glass 14".94. Compared image of Sun 
reflected from B,, distant as before, 1336 feet, with lamp J, diaphragms Z, M, and X. 


hm ft. ft. 
14 Sid.time. Bulb to lamp Z, diaphragm Z, 6.90 Bulb to focus, 5.85 


Chalk-ball, G, painted pure flake-white, diameter 17,614, exposed in same position 
to sunlight. It showed a phase like that of the Moon three days from full. 


ft. ft. 
Bulb to lamp J diaphragm Z, 9.85 Bulb to focus, 5.85 


Lamp diaphragm altered to M. 


ft. : ft, 
Bulb to lamp J, diaphragm M, 9.60 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
Silvered globe B, in same position. 
ft. ft. 
Bulb to lamp Z, diaphragm M, 6.50 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
Lamp diaphragm altered to X. 
y pom» ft. 
Bulb to lamp Z, diaphragm X, 20.4 Bulb to focus, 5.85 
159. Sid: time. « a 20.1 « 5.85 


After applying the necessary corrections, we have the following for the results of the 


comparisons made by means of the lamps. 
1860, March 26th. Southeast side of white house on which direct sunlight falls at 
small incidence. The same correction has been applied to reduce to direct illumination 


by sunlight at perpendicular incidence, that was used on March 23d. 
Albedo of house _ 1 : 1 Obs. 
Albedo of Jupiter ` 2.3. 
Southwest side of house. Angle of incidence of sunlight, 40°, 


Albedo of house = 1 Obs. 


1 
Albedo of Jupiter 1.5 a 


White paper screen. Angle of incidence of sunlight, 90°. 


Albedo of white paper ` 1 2 Obs. 


— 


Albedo of Jupiter 2.0’ 


* 


282 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


Trees without foliage. 180° in azimuth from Sun’s. 


Albedo of trees 1 
— == —, 1 Obs. 
Albedo of Jupiter 7 


1860, March 28th. Screen of white drawing-paper, painted with “ Flake white." 


Albedo of white paper __ 1 


Albedo of Jupiter —— 1.7? LN 
Screen of black cloth without gloss. 
Albedo of black cloth ` 1- 1 Obe. 


Albedo of white paper 11” 


By an — So made, ys 11th,) I found for the latter a consider- 
ably less value, viz. : — 


Albedo of black cloth o 


= — 3 2 Obs. 
Albedo of white paper 17 SC 


The albedo of dark, weather-worn rocks, dry earth, sand, or gravel, I have found to 
be from 1 to 4 of that of the white paper, or about 4! of that of Jupiter. Referring 
to the numbers given in (51), we are led to the inference that, while the general sur- 
face of the Earth is very much darker than Jupiter, its reflective power nearly resem- 
bles that of the Moon, agreeing with the comparison made by Herschel, before cited. 

According to Lambert, the albedo of the whitest known substance* is 0.423, differ- 
ing but very little from that of the whitest paper, 4 — 0.410. 

Olberst has suggested that fresh-fallen snow may be yet more brilliant; but, from 
actual comparison, I incline to think that the little difference between them is rather 
in favor of the paper. A very pure surface without gloss may be obtained by grinding 
two pieces of chalk upon each other, and afterwards coating them with * Flake" or 
* Chinese" white; still the difference between it and thick white paper, similarly 
coated, is but trifling. 

If we suppose the albedo of the paper used in the foregoing experiments to be 
— 0.4, that of Jupiter will be 0.68, or larger by one half than the reflective power of 
the purest white surface that we can produce artificially. 

Further confirmation of these results is much to be desired, especially when we 
bear in mind the unavoidable errors to which the observations are exposed, and the 


* Kremnitz white, a fine white-lead. t Monatliche Correspondenz, Vol. VIII. 


* 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 983 


somewhat precarious nature of the theory which has been adopted for expressing the 
distribution, in various directions, of the light reflected from the planet. 

One such may be derived from Seidel’s investigations upon the light of Jupiter com- 
pared with the fixed stars.* e 

He has obtained, for the proportion between the light of the Sun and that of 
a Lyre, using Lambert's formula, 


Sun 


Log. 
i a Lyre 


= 10.4499 — log. albedo Jupiter. 


If we employ the values, 


lup ee treme tu ULM, 
a Lyre. 
Jupiter at mean opposition = 6.1918, 
Mean Full Moon 


Log. 


the first as deduced by Seidel, and the second taken from (33), we have 


= 4.7240 ; 


L Mean Full Moon. 
og a Lyre 


hence, 


Sun 
S = 5.7259 — log. u”. 
v Mean Full Moon EP 


This gives for the albedo of Jupiter 


: ich. i ubstitute 
in which, if we s S — 550000, 


the mean between the values determined by Bouguer and Wollaston, we obtain 


pr = 0.967. 


Although not much dependence can be placed in the value of St on which this 


determination rests, it deserves attention that the result is of the same character with 


Lichtstärke der Planeten Venus, Mars, Jupiter, und Saturn, München, 1859. 


* Untersuchungen über die 
jl! zzz 1.18. 


f The new determination of S, referred to in the note on p. 266, gives 


284 ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


those before investigated. Thus all the experiments agree in indicating that the planet 
reflects to the Earth more than twice as much light as would have been expected from 
a priori considerations. The disproportion is the more remarkable on account of the 
bright bands, and especially of the brilliant white spots occasionally seen on the surface 
ofJupiter. From the best estimates which I have been able to make, the whitest bands 
are brighter than the average surface in a proportion larger than 3: 2. 
- This has been ascertained by drawing belts of different intensity upon a sphere held 
at a distance of twelve or fifteen feet from the eye, and, judging of their resemblance 
to the belts upon Jupiter, by viewing the two objects alternately. The contrast of 
tints having been decided upon, the sphere was afterwards compared with paper of dif- 
ferent shades placed at suitable distances from a lamp to give a similar contrast. The 
ratio of the squares of the distances furnished a measure of the quantities of light 
given by each. : 

Assuming that the dusky belts, at the time when the comparisons were made, (in 
April, 1860,) occupied one fourth of the surface, I have found, 


Albedo of principal dusky belts aid 
Albedo of rest of surface Cu eps 
Albedo of actual surface of Jupiter Yo 


Albedo of J upiter if destitute of dark belts ` 1.13 ' 


The average brilliancy of the surface, exclusive of the dark belts, is about interme- 
diate between the bright and the dark belts; hence, 


Albedo of narrow, very white belts 


See = 1.13 1.51 = 1.70. 
General albedo of whole surface x 


From the accounts which many observers have given of the brightness of the white 
faculee, it seems quite possible that their light may be even more than double that of 
the rest of the surface, and that the darker spots are in an equal degree fainter. 

By admitting that Jupiter shines in part by native light, it is of course easy to 
explain its apparent excess of brightness. ‘The planet is probably enveloped in a 
dense mantle of clouds, and we know that in our own atmosphere the luminosity 
of the clouds is a well-established fact. The more brilliant auroral exhibitions, too, 
are unquestionable evidence that the Earth itself shines with a certain amount of 
native light, and to suppose a similar property in Jupiter is introducing no very improb- 
able hypothesis. On the other hand, the phenomena of the transits of the shadows of 
the satellites of Jupiter over its disc show that the greater part, certainly, of the light ` 


ON THE LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 285 


with which it shines is derived from the Sun. These shadows appear dark enough to 
imply a contrast of probably more than 1 to 3 between the areas covered by them and 
the surrounding bright surface upon which they are projected. Discs of shaded paper, 
having to the unassisted eye an angular diameter equal to the visual angle subtended 
by the shadows of the satellites when viewed through the telescope, projected upon a 
background reflecting three times as much light, may be described as “dusky” or 
“dark” in comparison, but scarcely “black,” which latter term is not unfrequently 
applied to the appearance of the shadows of the satellites, in telescopes with powers 
sufficient to give to their discs a visual angle of 2 or 3’. 

It cannot, with any degree of probability, be supposed, that, in ascribing this high 
albedo to Jupiter, we have been misled by using Lambert's theory in the reductions, 
for a departure from this theory, as respects the distribution of the light reflected from 
the planet, sufficient to account for a large excess of illumination from the full phase, 
would in all likelihood manifest itself in causing the margin of the disc to appear 
brighter than the centre, just as occurs with the Moon; but it is certain that the 
margin of Jupiter is much fainter than its centre, the distribution agreeing, in this 
particular, sufficiently well with the results of Lambert's theory. 

This is proved by the changes which the appearance of the satellites, particularly 
the third, undergoes, as they transit the disc. The third satellite has been repeatedly 
seen as a “dark” or “black” spot projected.upon the white surface of the planet; when, 
however, the entire transit is observed, it is always seen to enter upon the planet as a 
small white disc on a darker ground; very soon its brilliancy fades, and it is lost to 
sight, presently reappearing, farther advanced in its transit, as a dark or black spot, 
and continuing under this aspect until it has accomplished perhaps Hayes fourths of 
its journey, when it again repeats, in reverse order, the changes attending the entrance, 
and before its final egress it is white once more. 


The most curious phenomenon exhibited by the satellite under these circumstances 


is that in its central position it should become so dark as not to be distinguishable in 


blackness from its own shadow projected side by side with it.* 
The explanation commonly offered of this singular phenomenon, viz. that there are 


large spots upon the satellites which become visible when projected upon a bright back- 


* From observations made with the great refractor of the Observatory on a great number of occasions 
ms that the above or analogous changes of aspect are always presented by 


uring the past twelve years, it see : 
nu es du either disappear if projected on 


the third and fourth satellites in their transits. The first and ene — ' d 
dark belts, or if on white ones they become dark or dusky spots, Bu Iaviriebiy of a brilliant white when 
, 
close to the margin. 
vot Yin. — | 37 


286 ON THÉ LIGHT OF THE MOON AND OF THE PLANET JUPITER. 


ground, is an error; for since they become relatively darker than the planet only when 
at a considerable distance within the limb, it is plain that a constant period of rotation 
of the satellite on its axis will not account for its always becoming white when near 
its egress, so as to present precisely the same aspect that it has just after its ingress, 
whether the chord described over the disc of Jupiter be large or small. This alone is 
a sufficient objection to the proposed explanation; it is, moreover, inconsistent with 
the change of aspect which the satellites must present to the Earth when in conjunc- 
tion with the primary, in consequence of the revolution of Jupiter about the Sun. 

There is no way, in fact, of accounting for the phenomenon in question, except by ` 
supposing that the central regions of Jupiter are so much brighter than the parts 
towards the circumference, that an object, of an intensity intermediate between the two, 
is made, by the mere effect of contrast, to appear white when projected upon the lat- 
ter, and dark when projected upon the former. This implies a disproportion greater 
than 1 : 6 between the whiteness of the satellite and of the bright belts of Jupiter, as 
I have found by experiments similar to those related above. 

This defect of brightness near the limb, as has been before remarked, authorizes 
the application to this planet of Lambert's principle of opaque reflection, and 
scarcely leaves us at liberty to assume that a much larger proportion of the whole 
light reflected is directed towards the Earth than that principle allows. Perhaps, 
however, by admitting a tendency in this direction, and remembering that a re- 
flective capacity equal to that of the whitest substances known to us probably belongs 
to the sunward side of the clouds in our atmosphere, and not less so to the cloud- 
mantle in which Jupiter is enveloped, we may have a more acceptable explanation of 
its remarkable brilliancy than to suppose it to be in any degree selfluminous. If 
Venus, like Jupiter, be surrounded by a dense envelope of clouds, — a. supposition 
otherwise quite in keeping with its physical aspect, — the difficulty of accounting for 
its high albedo would be considerably lessened. Its excess of light when in the 
half of its orbit nearest the Earth would then be merely an example of the phe- 
nomenon presented by the dazzling whiteness of clouds in our atmosphere when seen 
near the Sun. : 


Erratum. — On p. 225, for S = 477530, read S = 470980. 


IX. 
Comparison of the Light of the Sun and Moon. 


By GEORGE P. BOND. 


(Communicated September 11, 1860.) 


Iw the preceding memoir, allusion has been made to the values found by Bouguer 
and Wollaston for the ratio between the light received at the Earth from the Sun and 


the Full Moon. The numbers given by them respectively are: — 


Bouguer,* ee S = 300 000, 
Wollaston,f . S ‘ : ; $ ; ; S — 801 072. 


The discordance is large enough to excite a doubt whether they may not both be 
entirely illusory; it will not, then, be uninteresting to re-examine,the processes which 
these eminent physicists have followed in their investigations, and to add the results of 


new experiments depending on quite different methods. 

The method of Bouguer is thus described by Arago: — 

* On the day of observation, the Sun being at an altitude of 31°, and his rays enter- 
ing a dark chamber through a hole +, of an inch in diameter, he placed a concave 
lens in front of this aperture, which diminished the intensity of the solar rays by caus- 
ing them to diverge. 

“Then receiving this divergent light on a screen, at a distance where it was weak- 
ened in the proportion of 1 to 11664, he found it equal to that of a candle situated at 
the distance of 17 inches from the screen. 

“ Repeating this experiment at night with the moonlight and the same concave lens, 
. the Moon being full and also at an altitude of 31^, Bouguer perceived that the light, 
when it had been made to diverge e of an inch, or when it had been weakened 


* Traité d'Optique, p. 87; E T Phil. Trans., 1829, p. Sé, 
i Popular Astronomy, English Translation, Vol II. p. ee The distances have been reduced by the 


caesi: ad to Np measures. ` 


288 COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 


only by one sixty-fourth, was already so faint that the candle had to be put at a dis- 
tance of 53.2 feet before the two lights could be rendered equal. Hence we find by a 
suitable calculation that the Sun illuminates the Earth's surface 256,289 times more 
than the Moon does. 

“ Three similar experiments, made at various seasons of the year 1725, yielded the 
following results to M. Bouguer: 284089; 331166; 302500. Whence the cele- 
brated academician concluded that the proportion of sunlight to moonlight, when the 
Moon is at her mean distance, is as 300000 to 1.” 

Bouguer's detailed account is given in the Traité d' Optique, from which the following 
extract is made. 

“Tl falloit, selon notre méthode, comparer la lumière de ces deux astres avec celle 
d'une bougie ou d'un flambeau qui servit de mesure commune; mais comme la lumiére 
du soleil est extrémement forte, il falloit lui faire souffrir de trés-grandes diminutions, 
et il falloit que ces diminutions se fissent toujours par des degrés connus. Je me ser- 
vis pour cela d'un verre concave de lunette, qui rendoit les rayons trés-divergents; et 
je n'avois qu'à m'en éloigner un peu plus ou un peu moins, pour faire varier la force 
de la lumiére tout-à-coup, et en quelle proportion je voulois. Je fis un de ces essais le 
. 92 Septembre, 1725, jour de la pleine lune: ayant fermé toutes les fenêtres d'une 
chambre, et le soleil étant élevé de 31 degrés, je fis entrer sa lumiére par un trou qui 
avoit une ligne de diamètre, et sur lequel j'avois appliqué le verre concave. Recevant 
ensuite la lumiére à une distance de 5 à 6 pieds, dans un point op la divergence des ` 
rayons étoit de 108 lignes, et où la lumière étoit par conséquent affoiblie 11664 fois, 
puis qu'au lieu de n'occuper qu'un espace d'une ligne de diamétre, elle en occupoit 
un qui en avoit 108, et qui étoit 11664 fois plus grand; elle me parut exactement 
égale à la lumière d'une bougie située à 16 pouces de distance. Il ne me restoit plus, 
aprés cela, qu'à faire pendant la nuit une semblable observation sur la lune, et il me 
falloit employer toujours le méme verre concave, afin que son défaut de transparence 
causát une semblable diminution dans une observation que dans lautre. J'attendis le 
temps que la lune eüt 31 degrés de hauteur; mais en recevant sa lumiére fort proche 
du verre, et lorsque la divergence des rayons n'étoit que de 8 lignes, elle avoit déjà si 
peu de force, qu'il me fallut faire mettre la bougie à 50 pieds de distance pour rendre 
les deux lumiéres égales. : 

* Pour trouver maintenant le résultat de ces deux observations, on n'a qu'à consi- 
dérer que la lumière de la lune n'a été affoiblie que 64 fois par le verre concave, et que 
si on lavoit fait diminuer 11664, de méme que celle du soleil, il auroit fallu mettre 
ensuite la bougie, non pas à 50 pieds de distance, mais à 675. Or, puisque la lumiére 


COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 289 


du soleil, lorsqu'elle est diminuée 11664 fois, est égale à celle d'une bougie placée à 
16 pouces de distance, comme nous l'avons reconnu par la premiére observation; et 
que la lumiére de la lune diminuée un méme nombre de fois, n'est égale qu'à celle de 
la méme bougie portée à 675 pieds ou à 8100 pouces de distance, comme on le con- 
clut de la seconde observation, il s'ensuit que la lumiére du soleil est à celle 
de la lune, comme 65610000 (qui est le quarré de 8100), est à 256 (qui est le 
quarré de 16). Ainsi il paroit que le soleil nous éclaire environ 256289 fois plus 
que la lune. 

* Je ne rapporte ici que la troisiéme des épreuves que j'ai faites; car à la pleine lune 
de Juillet 1725, j'avois trouvé que le soleil nous éclaire 284089 fois plus que la lune; 
à celle d'Aoüt 331776 fois, et par une autre épreuve 302500 fois. Je crois qu'on 
pourroit conclure de tout cela, que le soleil nous éclaire environ 300000 fois plus que 


la lune; mais les grandes difficultés qu'il y a à déterminer un semblable rapport, font 


due je n'ose pas le regarder comme exact. Cependant il est toujours bon de faire 


remarquer que la lune étoit à-peu-prés dans ses moyennes distances à la terre, lorsque 
je faisois mes observations." * 

Apart from the uncertainty inseparable from photometric determinations of every 
description, there seems to be no just ground for questioning the reliableness of these 
experiments, unless it be on account of the difference of color between sunlight or 
moonlight, and the candle-light, which is, indeed, very considerable. But on the other 
hand, it may be urged that, if the Sun and Moon are themselves similar in color, the 
effect of a different tint in the light of the candle will be of comparatively little conse- ` 
quence, as it would be likely to bias the estimates of the observer in the same direction 
for both objects and in equal proportions, so that the error would fall chiefly upon the 
comparison between either of them and the candle, and would be eliminated when the 
two were referred to each other. 

If, for instance, the light of two objects, whose relative brightness is to be ascer- 
tained, were white, and that of the intermediate standard were red ; and if the observer 
habitually and consistently over-rated the intensity of light of the Lg hue; the pro- 

portion between the former, derived from his estimates, would m be copio by 
this peculiarity. It must be confessed, however, that the vast difference in e inten- 
-sity of the two luminaries and other influences prejudicial to accuracy deprives eH 
inferences, in the case of the Sun and Moon, of much of their Ss and the conclusions 
are still felt to be precarious, and must be fortified from other and independent sources. 


* Traité d'Optique, p. 85. 


290 COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN.AND MOON. 


Wollaston furnishes the following account of his mode of procedure.* 

«The Sun’s light was compared with that of a candle, by admitting a beam of it 
into a room through a small circular hole in a plate of metal, fastened in a window- 
shutter; and a small cylinder of any opaque material being placed in the beam, so as 
to cast a shadow upon a screen, the distance of a candle from the same cylinder (or an 
equal one placed at the same distance from the screen) was varied, until the shadow in 
the line of the candle became equally intense with the shadow in the line of the Sun. 
The direct light of the Moon was compared with the light of a candle in the same 
MANNER evt : 

“Tt appears from the mean of the observations given in No. V. of the Appendix, 
that the light of the Sun is equal to that of 5,563 candles placed at the distance of 
one foot; a result which accords very nearly with that of Bouguer. For he states the 
light of the Sun to be equal to that of 11,664 wax-candles at the distance of 16 inches 
French, which is equivalent to 5,774 wax-candles at the distance of one foot English. 
It appears also from my experiments, that the light of the full Moon is equal to 414 
part of the light of a candle, placed at the distance of a foot; and hence that the Sun's 
light is equal to 5,563 X 144 X Moon's light = 801,072 X Moon's light. Bouguer, 
who differs greatly from me in the comparison of the Moon with a candle, states the 
light of the Sun to be — 300,000 X Moon’s light.” 

The observations referred to, are here transcribed: T— 


* V. Observations of the Light of the Sun, compared with that of a Candle, by Means of Shadows. 


H | D. | z | Numerical Value of the Expres- 
Date of the : 1 > | Distance of the Candle from the sion 
i er aa a e E D E 
; : e through Hole. | lox H naue Qux T 
1799. 
End of May 0.0067 93 >. 19.5 6152 
and .0072 93 | 19.0 5611 
Beginning .0087 93 18.0 4382 
of June. .0093 93 17.5 3965 
0093 à 111.5 20.5  . 98228 
.0098 102 | 14.25 6477 
0098 108 15i ..., 0410 
.0098 .120 | 17.0 6299 
May 28 .0098 d 120 17.5 5944 
| June 19 .0105 e Ai EE 7770 
| 0111 O Hg e 4054 
gaus - D c 190 xe 4463 
| por | 66755 
oe es EE 
5 2 


_ * Philosophical Transactions, 1829, p. St sole, E ie loy oce e ul 


COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 291 


Hence 5,563 is the number of candles which, being placed at the distance of 12 
inches, will give a light equal to that of the Sun. 


“VI. Observations of the Light of the Moon compared with that of a Candle by Means of Shadows. 


Distance, in Inches, of the Candle from a Screen, | 


Date:of the Observation: Remarks. when its Light is equal to that of (+ 
1799, May 16 8 Elongation 1703° ETC p 
| jc. Jede dT e Ful 144 
Hence 
(mm uu X Candle when placed at the distance of twelve feet, 
and 


2 
© = 5568 X Se, Moons. 
12 
— 801,072 Moons." 


In two particulars which may have exercised a considerable influence, Wollaston's 
experiments seem to be less deserving of confidence than those of Bouguer. 

It does not appear that, in the former, the extinction of light by the Earth's atmos- 
phere has been allowed for. The Sun was in a high northern declination, and the 
Moon far to the south of the equator; indeed, at the date of the second observation, 
in its extreme southern declination of 28°, with a meridian altitude in the latitude of 
London of only 10° or 11°. Unless, then, special care was taken to observe the Sun 
when equally near the horizon, of which there is no evidence, RA UU thio 
moonlight must have been relatively much too faint by reason of the ordinary atmos- 
pheric extinction. At the date of the last comparison, it must have been from this 
cause less than half as bright as it would have been at the meridian altitude of the 
Sun, and still fainter, if we take into account the smoky atmosphere of London, where 
the experiments were probably made. * POS ; 

Another objectionable feature is the means employed for diminishing the ae 
by admitting it only through a very small aperture, while for the Moon the full disc 


* Supposing each to have been observed when near the meridian, the effect of atmospheric extinction would 


have been to cause the Moon to appear, in the mean of the comparisons, too faint relatively to the Sun, in the 


proportion 6:10. Wollaston's ratio of sunlight to moonlight would then be 


0.6 x 801072 — 480 643, 


or 
S — 480 643. 


292 COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 


was compared. It is not clear that these dissimilar conditions may not have occa- 
sioned some disturbance in the results. Bouguer, by using the same aperture upon 
both objects, has avoided this risk of error. It is, however, to be remarked, that the 
point of divergence as noticed by Wollaston is in the comparison between the Moon 
and the candle-light. For the Sun, they find respectively, 


Wollaston, Sunlight — 5563 Candles at 1 English foot distance. 
Bouguer, DI = 5774 66 Së [4 


But on the other hand, 
1 


Wollaston, Moonlight — 144 Candle at 1 English foot distance. 
Bouguer, e A c & “ 
52 


Lambert* has compared the Moon with the light of a tallow-candle, and found the 
latter, at a distance of 1 foot English, 44 times as bright as moonlight. My own 
experiments give 62 for the same ratio, using a wax candle. 

Though no great reliance can be placed on the constancy of the candle-light used in 
the different experiments, yet it is to be noticed that Wollaston’s result diverges widely 
from the mean of the other determinations, and in a direction and to an amount which 
would be sufficiently well explained by supposing that the atmospheric extinction had 
not been considered, in reducing the observations of the Moon; in the other experi- 
ments, its influence was much less sensible. 

Wollaston has also attempted a comparison of the light of the Sun and of Sirius 
and a Lyrz, by using, as an intermediate standard, the image of a candle reflected from 
a small thermometer-bulb, equalizing it first with the image of the Sun reflected from 
a similar bulb placed at a suitable distance, and then with the star. The images both 
of the Sun and of the star were viewed through a telescope provided with a colored 
screen to give them the same tint with the candle-light. The atmospheric extinction 
has been eliminated by making the observations at nearly equal altitudes. 

The mean result, supposing none of the incident light to be absorbed by the bulbs 
reflecting the Sun's image, is: — 

Sun’s light — 11 839 533 000 x the light of Sirius; 


but allowing for the loss of nearly half the Sun's light in reflection, Wollaston finds 
Sun's light — 20 000 000 000 X the light of Sirius. 


* Beer, Grundriss des Photometrischen Caleüles, p. 71. 


COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 293 


We may connect this result with the comparisons instituted between the Sun and 


the full Moon by the following process. 
Seidel's photometric determination of the relative brightness of the planet Jupiter, 


at its mean opposition, compared with Sirius, gives 


Jupiter at mean opposition 


Log — = 0.2952.* 
Sirius 
We have found in the preceding memoir, 
Jupiter at mean opposition — 1 ` 
Mean Full Moon ~ 6430 ' 
hence, 
Sirius SR 
Mean Full Moon ~ 12688 ' 


Applying this to Wollaston’s ratio between the light of Sirius and the Sun, we 


obtain 
‘Sunlight 


— —— = § = 1576100 
Full Moonlight : 


which is nearly twice as large as the value obtained by the previous method. There 
can be no question that the discrepancy lies with the original data rather than in the 
numbers which have been used to refer the light of Sirius to the Moon. 
The proportion of 9 to 1, which Wollaston has assigned to the light of Sirius and 
a Lyre by a similar method, is, according to the very carefully conducted researches E 
Seidel, more than twice too large. 
With such discordances in the results of the different experiments, it is of impor- 
. tance to vary as much as possible the methods of investigation, in order to render them 
quite independent of each other, so far as the nature of the subject will permit. The 
three principal sources of difficulty encountered are, — the extreme intensity of sun- 
light; the difference in color between the light of the Sun or Moon, and that of the 
ordinary kinds of artificial illumination; lastly, the want of a constant standard of 
brightness, to which either object may be referred. "The best intermediate standard, as 
regards the quality of the light, would undoubtedly be some form of the electric light, 
if its constancy could be maintained for a sufficient interval; all other artificial stand- 
ards have greatly inferior intensity, and a more or less decided red or yellow hue when 
contrasted with solar light, and even with moonlight, which was scarcely to have been ` 


anticipated. | 
* Seidel, Untersuchungen über die Lichtstürke der Planeten Venus, Mars, Ae, p. 35. 


VOL. VIII. 38 


294 COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 


The image of the Drummond light compared with the image of the Sun, both re- 
flected from a silvered globe, has a strong golden-yellow hue. The * Bengola light” 
answers much better. It shows, however, a decided tinge of pink when brought side 
by side with the pure white of the solar image. At night it is of an intense white, 
with a bluish glare; but when contrasted with the Moon's image it exhibits a strik- 
ing similarity in quality of light, with only the very slightest cast of pink at times sus- 
pected, of the same character with that noticed in the experiments on the Sun, but no 
trace of the blue can then be detected. It seems, then, that in point of color the 
light of the Sun and that of the Moon are very nearly similar. 

The first experiments for determining the ratio of sunlight to moonlight had refer- 
ence to their chemical intensities, and gave the proportion, | 


ee eat of E de eic 240 000. 
Chemical intensity of moonlight 


The reader is referred to the Memoir preceding for a more detailed statement. 

By diminishing the aperture of the object-glass of the 23-foot refractor until a circu- 
lar area of only 0'.021 diameter was exposed, and viewing a small portion of the Sun's 
disc, subtending a diameter of 32”.47, the intensity was estimated to be equal to that 
of an equal disc of Jupiter seen with an aperture of 14".94; the eye having been 
guarded from exposure to daylight, and its judgment assisted by different combinations 
of colored screens used alternately upon both objects. After applying the necessary 
reductions for atmospheric extinction, for the distribution of light over the discs of 
the two bodies, and other conditions which need not be explained in detail, as the 
experiment can be at best but a rude essay, we obtain the value, 

Sunlight 


POPE E —— == 927 000 000 
Light of Jupiter at mean opposition > 


from which, by using, as above, 6430 for the ratio of the light of the full Moon to 


Jupiter, we deduce 
S = 144 000. 


A second method employed was to place a silvered glass globe at a distance of about 
one fourth of a mile, and to compare the image of the Sun reflected from it, and seen 
with a telescope from a darkened room, with a small disc of the flame of a Carcel 
lamp; this was subsequently referred to the light of Jupiter and the Moon, seen with 
the same telescope. The result furnished the value, 


S = 375 600. 


COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 295 


This, again, is not entitled to much confidence, principally because the experiments 
for determining the absorption of sunlight by the ed surface of the globe failed 
to give a satisfactory result. 

Of the different methods tried, that which seemed best fitted for the purpose will 
now be described ; — the results of other attempts will be omitted, because they were 
in part only preliminary trials, and in some instances they were vitiated through neg- 
lect of precautions to which due attention was afterwards given. It should, however, 
be noticed that they all indicate a value of S less than 500 000. 

The standard illuminator was a single Bengola light, those of the same size and 
manufacture being used throughout. 

1860, July 1. A fine sky, perfectly clear. A glass globe, B;, having a reflecting 
surface of silver, (applied by Liebig's process,) 10".16 in diameter was placed in the 
open air exposed to the sunlight. The brightness of the image of the Sun formed at 
its virtual focus was compared with a single Bengola light, by receiving the light of 
both objects upon a small reflecting sphere, which was moved towards one or the other 
until their images, seen in it side by side, were judged to be equal; the distances of 
the globes from each other and from the Bengola were then measured, and the observa- 


tion repeated. 


ft. 


h m 

4 45 Sid. time. Bengola to Photometer, 15 
Globe B; $ 20 

4 50 ei Bengola to Photometer, 21.2 
Globe Ð; e 24.4 

4 55 e Bengola to Photometer, 18.4 
Globe B; " 21.5 


On each occasion a new Bengola was burned, and the position of B; was altered so 


as to expose a new portion of its surface to the Sun. 
1860, July 14. Clear. Observations on same image in D; continued. 


fi 
3 45 Mean solar time. Bengola to Photometer, .28.0 
Globe Bb; e 80.6 - 
3 50 = Bengola to Photometer, 40.5 
Globe B; S 52.2 


The sensible equality in the intensity of the light reflected in different directions 
from the globe B, was tested experimentally by comparing with the photometer the im- 
age of the Sun reflected from it with the Sun image in a similar globe of smaller 


296 ‘COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 


dimensions placed at a distance from it, under angles of incidence differing by large 
amounts; only when the reflected image was viewed from a position which brought it 
nearly into a line with the Sun, was there any noticeable change of brightness, and this 
was easily accounted for by the well-known fact, that the reflective power of a surface 
not perfectly polished is greatest when the angle of incidence is least. This extreme 
position, however, was not approached when the comparisons between the Sun and 
Moon were made. 

From the above, after applying small corrections for atmospheric extinction, and to 
refer the sunlight to its amount corresponding to the mean distance of the Earth from 


the Sun, we have 


Bengola 


Log. == 9.801 uly Ist. 
E Suns image in Ð; : n ee 
& s 9.786 © 14th, 
Adopted, 9.793 


The next step was to compare, in precisely the same way, the image of the Moon 
reflected from the globe B; with the Bengolas; this was effected on July 31st, the 
Moon being nearly full. 

1860, July 31. Sky fine and perfectly clear. 

Globe B; in open air exposed to moonlight, and the reflected image compared with 
single Bengolas in the same way as had been done with the Sun. 


Gy 1815 Bid duo Bengola to Globe Py == 988. een OE MOE Or Pe P x 1.65 
tometer Globe, 

(b) BE “ ` 1689 « 2.48 

(e) 30 « ` ` 1682 ` 2.08 

(d) Ho « ` 1718 « 2.98 

i nw h “ « 1718 « 2.53 

Cf) ccu s ` 1718 « 2.84 


The following corrections must be applied to reduce the comparisons to the bright- 
ness of the full Moon in the zenith, and at its mean distance from the Earth and from 
the Sun. : 

For atmospheric extinction: — 


Comparison (a), i . Log. correction = 0.174 
e | (b, (e), ` PI z 0.148 
tou (Dee (E e 0499. 


COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 291 


For the Moon's distance from the Earth and Sun: — 


Moon's geocentrie semidiameter' = 902.1 
Augmentation for altitude of 24° <a DA 
908.50 log. — 2.9583 
Moon’s mean semidiameter 934.67 “ == 2.9707 
0.0124 
2 
0.0248 
Log. Earth’s radius vector, 0.0063 
2 
0.0126 i y c. < 20.0128 
Log. cor. to Moon's mean distance from Earth and Sun = 0.0374 
For the imperfect illumination of the Moon's disc: — 
Angle of elongation of Moon from Sun = 1174 
Log. corresponding correction for phase,* . ; e > 0.013 
The sums of the above logarithmic corrections are: — 
Comparison (a), Log. correction — 0.224 
T (5), (e), " — 0.198 
e (4), (e) CP) 3 = 0.179: 


The distances of the foci of the globes from each other and from the Bengola give, 
after applying the above corrections, 


Bengola 


(9) Log: Image of mean Full Moon in B, SCH 
(0, (0), a — 5.587 
(4), (e); CP» 7 T SAVS 

Mean by weights, . . d : k 5.466 


Comparing this with the result just obtained for the Gët of the Sun's image 
reflected from the same globe, we have, finally, 


ER En E B. — 5.466 — 9.798 — 5.673; 
Image of mean Full Moon in 5; 


or, 
Light of mean Sun — 470.980. 


— Light of mean Full Moon 


* Derived from the table of values of log. A, in the preceding Memoir. 


298 COMPARISON OF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND MOON. 


The following numbers represent the proportions of light emitted by various celes- 
tial objects. They are taken from the preceeding Memoir of this volume, and depend 
in part upon the experiments of Herschel and Seidel. 


Jupuorwroppestenr edo Po TM ur 
Mean Full Moon — 6430 ° Venus at greatest brilliancy 4.864 ` 
Tov. "e - m. — 0.9158, 
« 2 — 0.6210, 
: eem — 0.1200, 
« S S — 9.9890, 
«s ie — 9.6810, 
: eod — 9.6810, 
: civ — 9.5260. 


These, combined with the ratio of the light of the Sun and Moon, give the relations, 


Sunlight — 470 980 times the light of the mean Full Moon, 


S SEN 622 600 000 a S Venus at maximum brilliancy, 
$ = 3028 350 000 = " Jupiter at mean opposition, 

id = 5970500000 - = Sirius, 

« = 18924000 000 s s a Centauri, 

2 = 24946 500 000 M x a Lyre, 

se = 25586 500 000 = e Rigel, 

" = 52001 000 000 " x: Spica, 

eg = 52001 000 000 x: " « Aquile, 


74 303 500 000 « *  Fomalhaut. 


| 


A Catalogue of the Declinations of 532 Stars culminating near the Zenith of the 
Observatory of Harvard College, Cambridge. 


By T. H. SAFFORD. 


(Communicated September 11, 1860, by G. P. Bonn.) 


Tue Catalogue here communicated was originally prepared at the Observatory of 
Harvard College, at the request of Captain George G. Meade, of the United States To- 
pographical Engineers, for the use of the Survey of the North and Northwest Lakes, in 
the determinations of latitudes with the zenith telescope, according to the method 
proposed by Talcott. ‘The method requires for its successful application the combi- 
nation of pairs of stairs distant generally less than 10^ from the zenith of the place 
of observation, and having accurately determined positions. The present collection has 
been the result of a careful discussion of the positions of the stars included, as given 
by the best existing authorities,* and is intended to facilitate the determinations of 
latitudes at stations near the northern boundary of the United States. 


* 
G. P. BOND, 
Director of the Observatory of Harvard College. 


The following notation has been employed for the Catalogues used in this discus- 


sion :— 


M. Die Eigenbewegung der Fixsterne in ihrer Beziehung zum Gesammtsystem, von J. 
H. Müdler. Dorpat. 1856. Ato. 

Br. | Fundamenta Astronomie pro Anno 1755, deducta ex Observationibus Viri incom- 
parabilis James Bradley in Specula astronomica Grenovicensi per Annos 
1750 — 1762 institutis Auctore F. W. Bessel. Regiomonti, 1818. Fol. 

Fed. Positions moyennes pour l'epoque de 1790.0 des étoiles circompolaires dont les 
observations ont été publiées par Jérome Lalande, dans les mémoires de l'acadé- 


* The Armagh * Places of 5345 Stars" recently published, was not received in season to be included 


among the authorities. 


300 


Str. 


Arg. 


Ai. 


Ja. 


NM 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


mie de Paris de 1789 et 1790. Par Ivan Fedorenko. St. Pétersbourg. 
1854. 4to. 

A Catalogue of those Stars in the Histoire Céleste Francaise of Jérome de la 
Lande, for which Tables of Reduction to the Epoch 1800 have been published 
by Professor Schumacher. Reduced under the immediate Superintendence of 
the late Francis Baily, Esq. London. 1847. Ato. 

A Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars, deduced from the Observations of Stephen 
Groombridge, Esq., edited by G. B. Airy, Esq., A. M., Astronomer Royal. 
1838. 4to. 

Stellarum Fixarum imprimis duplicium et multiplicium Positiones medie pro 

- Epocha 1830.0 deducta ex Observationibus Meridianis Annis 1822 ad 1843 
in Specula Dorpatensi institutis ; Auctore F. G. W. Struve. ` Petropoli. 
1852. Fol. 

A general Catalogue of the Principal Fixed Stars, from Observations made at the 
Honorable the East India Company's Observatory at Madras, in the Years 
1830 —1845, by Thomas Glanville Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer 
to the Honorable Company. Madras. 1844. 4to. 

Mittlere Oerter von 12000 Fia-sternen für den Anfang von 1836, abgeleitet aus 
den Beobachtungen auf der Hamburger Sternwarte von Carl Rúmker. Ham- 
burg. 1843. Oblong 4to. 

DLX. Stellarum Fixarum Positiones medie ineunte Anno 1830, Auctore Argelan- 
dro. Helsingforsiz. 1848. 4to. 

Precipuarum Stellarum inerrantium Positiones medie ineunte Seculo XIX. Auc- 
tore Piazzio. Panormi. 4to. 1814. 

Catalogue of 2156 Stars, formed from the Observations made during Twelve 
Years, from 1836 to 1847, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. London. 
1849. Ato. 

Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Years 1840 — 1853, 
under the Superintendence of Manuel J. Johnson, M. A., Radcliffe Observer. 
Volume I. - XIV. Oxford. 1842-1855. 8vo. 

A Subsidiary Catalogue of 1440 Stars selected from the British Association Cata- 
logue, reduced to January 1st, 1850, from Observations made at Madras in the 
Years 1849 —1853 [under the direction of Capt. W. S. eei (No date or 
place of publication.) 4to. 3 

Dissertatio Astronomica gui alis exhibens Dabo ope | Tastrumenti Tran- 
sitorii. portabilis | institutas. . i ate: de A. C. i aimon] Logdunt 

Batavorum. [1852] 4to. n- | 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 301 


Ai. 2. Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Years 1853 - 
1857, under the Direction of George Biddell Airy, Esq., M. A. London. 
1855-1859. 5 vols. Ato. 

J. 2. Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory [etc. as above. 1854-1857]. 
Volume XV.- XVIII. Oxford. 1856-1859. 8vo. 


The Catalogue M. contains the places for 1850.0 of the stars in Bessel's “ Funda- 
menta,” and the positions given are deduced from a discussion of previous Catalogues, 
including those cited above, with the exception of Ja., J. 2, and Ai. 2; including also, 
as I have assumed, the Greenwich Observations till 1852 inclusive. For many of the 
stars in the following list, therefore, the places from M are reduced to 1859, and given 
as definitive. For others, the places from the Catalogues Ai. 2, Ja., and J. 2 are 
annexed to those from M. In such case, the proper motion given by Mádler has been 
used to reduce the other Catalogue places to 1859, and the number of observations 
employed by Mádler in his discussion has been divided by 2, to get the weight assigned 
to Mádler's place. Each observation from Az. 2 or J. 2 has received the weight 1, 
and each one from Ja. the weight .5. 

The systematic corrections employed to reduce the Catalogues to the zero of Madler 
have been those taken from his discussion, so far as applicable; and for the Catalogues 
J. 9, Ai. 2, and Ja., a separate examination has been made. 

A few of Mádler's positions have been unemployed, the stars being discussed anew. 
The remaining stars of the following list, those not occurring in the Fundamenta, have 
been discussed by employing the systematic differences given by Mádler and on pp. 
302, 303, to reduce, with the aid of Bessel's precession, the observed positions to 1859. 
Comparisons, then, between ancient observations (generally Groombridge's of 1810) 
and the modern ones (referring in general to a time about 1845) have given approxi- 
mate proper motions by which they could be referred to 1859. 

The right ascensions have been taken (to seconds) from the British Association 
Catalogue, except in one or two cases, where obvious errors existed in some of the 
Catalogues from which that was formed. Its annual variation to 0*.1 is given under 
the heading Annual Variation. The magnitudes have been taken either from Arge- 
lander* or Johnson, where possible; if not one of these, Groombridge has been 


employed, or the Histoire Céleste. 
Madler’s systematic corrections, referred to above, are, so far as we shall want 


them : — 
* Argelander's Uranometria Nova has been used, in preference to other authorities, for magnitudes. 


VOL. VIII. 39 


302 CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 
Dec. M. — Pi.* M. — Gr M. — Str. M. — Arg M.—T. M.—R. M. — Ai. M.—J 

70 +05 +07 01 07 + 0.1 — 20 — 0 — 0.6 
60 + 0.8 + 0.2 09 — 04 103 apa — 0.8 —1% 
50 — 0.1 — 04 — 0.4 Did — 0.1 = 0.9 — 0.6 == L5 
40 SST — 0.3 E 0.5 = ().1 + 0.6 — 0.2 — 0.4 — 1.5 
30 i 10 + 0.4 00 Os + 04 -J- 0.5 soia 
20 10 + 0.2 — 0.2 + 0.8 + 0.6 + 0.2 + 13 


The discussion of o Cygni was taken from Mádler's larger work,T introducing the 


systematic corrections given later. 
For the Catalogues Ja., J. 2, and Ai. 2, the following investigations were made. 


A direct comparison of Ja. with .M. gave: — 


M. Dec. M. — Ja. 
35 — 0.06 10 comp 
45 — 0.20 g o 
55 — 0.28 T 
65 — 0.08 95 « 


The value M. — Ja. = —0^.2 was used throughout. 

The Catalogue J. 2 furnishes positions differing from the former volumes of the 
Radcliffe Observations by corrections given in Vol. XV. of that work, and repeated 
subsequently ; provided, however, as I have done, we apply the correction for 
difference between direct and reflected observations to the positions of the Special 
Catalogues for 1854-1857; this same correction having been already applied to the 
* Catalogue of Remarkable Objects," in the volume for 1856. 

Below 40° of declination, however, Mádlers systematic corrections are derived from 
much less material than for the circumpolar regions. We have, correcting Mádler 
by Johnson’s table in Vol. XV. of the Radcliffe Observations : — , 


Dec. M.—J. 2. Dec. M.—J.2. 

o II o H 
72 + 0.53 54 — 0.15 
66 + 0.41 48 — 0.20 
60 + 0.08 


Below 48° the value M. — J. 2 — —0”.20 was used throughout, from the fol- 


lowing considerations. Between 22° and 40°, — 


M.—J.2 = —0"18 30 comp. 


* I regret that Piazzi’s Catalogue was not at my disposal. A few positions for 1800.0 I owe to Prof. 
Brünnow's kindness. 


ES Untersuchungen über die Fix-stern-Systeme," Mitau, 1847, fol. 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 303 


Between 22° and 30°, — 


A.—J.2= —0"%19 (Direct comp.) 

M. — A. (mean) — 0".08 (Miidler.) 
whence 

M. — J. 2 — 0.27 


A direct comparison between M. and J. 2 gave also, 


Dec. M. — J. 2. 
40 — 50 ume | 17 stars. 
50 — 70 +0.1 9 « 


agreeing as well with the above table as was to be expected. 

The new Transit Circle at Greenwich seems to give results within our limits pretty 
nearly in accordance with the Mural = used during the years 1812-1851. At 
least we find: — 


Mis iii Obs. No. Comp. 
o o T 
CIELO + 0.95 12 
40 — 50 — 0.04 16 
ij 60 — 0351 H 


The first number differs slightly from the corresponding mean from Mádler' table; 
the others are in almost perfect accordance. I have therefore employed the same 
systematic correction for Ai. 2 as for Ai. 

A cursory examination of Oudemans's table (Diss. Astro., p. 112) showed that the 
few declinations taken thence might be used without sensible error, as harmonizing 
with Madler’s positions. To these positions, weights varying from 2 to 6, according to 
the number of observations, have been assigned. The probable error of the assumption 
M. — Ou. is likely to be quite equal to that of a position given by Oudemans. 

Wolfers, in the Tabule Reductionum, shows that for the fundamental stars s outh 
of 49? included in his Catalogue, Pond's positions corrected by Olufsen agree with 
the determinations given in the Tabule ; Mádler's positions, which are reduced to 
Pond, after correcting the latter in a somewhat similar manner, will be found also 
nearly accordant. 

'The magnitudes in parentheses are derived from Catalogues where no informa- 
tion is given regarding the method pursued in obtaining them. 

The Right Ascensions to seconds have been taken from the British Association 
Catalogue. The initials of the Catalogues have already been explained. The numbers 
in parentheses in the column ** No. Obs." refer to the differential observations of Oude- 
mans. The last two columns contain the Annual Precession for 1859 and Proper 
Motion in Declination; the latter taken, in order of preference, from Mádler and 


the British Association Catalogue. 


304 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF 


STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B. A.C. | Mag. u 1859.0. P essel Authority. T No. Obs. d 1859.0. D Precession. E 
L ms 8 H D H 4 
18 | 7. 0 244. | --8S1] Or 4 | 45 36219] +0:1 | +20.05 
Str. | 1824| 6 22.7 0.0 
£7 184674 28.6 | — 1.6 
Ja. |1850| 4 248 | a 028 
Ad. 45 36 22.8 
16 | 56/0 8 0 |--81| M. 45 | 45 17 15.6 + 20.05 | +0.01 
98 | 6 | 0. 6 12 8.1] M. 24 | 40 15 27.5 + 20.05 | — 0.12 
6 | 6 | 01117 Ls M. 82 | 48 0 28.7 + 20.08 | + 0.01 
| Ai. 2 2 27.9 | +04 
Ad. 43 0 98.6 
67 | 6 | 018 42 38.1 | M. 94 | 87 11 144 + 20.02 | — 0.06 
78 | 67| 0 16 36 T32 Gr. 10 | 43 28 59.8 | +0.2 | + 20.01 
R. 1 59.0 | —0.5 
Ai ia| 21 58.8 | -- 0.1 
4 (184 4 59.8 | —15 
Ja. | 1850| 4 586: | 0.3 
Ad. 43 28 57.7 
100 | 6 | 02089 | -82] Gr. 6 | 4336528 | +0.2 | +19.98 | — 0.01 
T 4 510 | +0.4 
b LM a SRG) 15 
Ad.- 48 36 51.7 
131 | 5 | 024 1 3.3 | M. 51 | 53 44 36.0 19.94 | —0.01 
152 | 6 | 029 7 8.2 | Gr. 7 | 43 42 85.9 0.2 | +19.90 | + 0.01 
T 4 35.4 0.4 
R. |1846| 1 MARI 05 
B 1398 1 8 88.6 | —15 
Ai2|1855| 4 9741 0.0 
Ad. 43 42 37.3 
155 | 4| 02921 | -82]| M. 46 | 32 56 33.8 19.89 | + 0.01 
178 | 5 | 088 80 | 4-32] M. 85 | 88 41. 81 19.84 | . 0.00 
3.2 |1856| .8 Zr] 09 
Ad. 38 41 81 
182 | 7 | 0 34 26 Ee M. 24 | 57 58 454 + 19.83 | — 0.01 
189 | 6 | 0 85 41 3.3 | M. 54 | 46 15 91 19.81 | — 0.03 
197 | 6 | 086 87 | 4-58] M. § | 4755 277 19.80 | +0.04 
224 | 7 | 0 4186 |+82| E [180] 1 | 2757 07 | >is] 1972 
Ja. |1850| 4 56 59.4 | — 02 
Ad. 27 56 59.2 
227 |45| 042 8/438] M. 65 | 40 18 38.2 19.72 | — 0.01 
232 | 67| 0 42 54 | --34] Gr. 6 | 50 44 201 | —0.1 | 4- 19.70 | — 0.08 
T 4 20.6 | +01 
L INA T ae E 245 | —16 
Ou. | 1849 | (17) 219 | +0.0 
13] 1057.11 RE 4.08 
Ad. 50 44 23.1 
235 | 67| 04333 | +34| Gr. 6 | 5048 127 | —0.1 | +19.69 | — 0.06 
T. 3 12.4 | +0.1 
J. |1846| 5 jas | —16 
Ou. | 1849 | (16) ASAT 00] 
| | Ad. | 50 48 13.8 
244 | 65) 0 46 89 | +35] M. _| 85 | 58 12 29.7 + 19.64 | — 0.10 
| Ls [1| 3 30.2 | +0.0 
Ad. 58 12 29.8 
253 | 2 | 048 18 | --85| M. 228 | 59 57 80 + 19.61 | — 0.02 
L2. 150-3 12]. 01 | 
i Ai.2| 1856 | 19 77. 1|-—08 
, | Ad. 1-59. 57 7.9 
255 | 6 | 04819 | ]-85]| Gr. 7 | 5985548 | +02 | +19.61 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


VOL YHL- 


B.A.C. | Mag.| œ 1859.0.: | „Annual: | Authority, | Me | No. ops, 5 wenn, | Systematic | Procession, | Proper 
h m.s x o I n D 
255 6 | 04819 | +35] R. 6 59 85 563 | —14 
J. 1848 4 55.6 | —1.2 
Ja. 1850 4 54.9 | —0.2 
Ad. 59 35 54.6 : 
256 | 6 | 0 48 24. 3.2 | M. 24 | 26 26 39.1 19.61 | +0.01 
282 6 | 0.54 57 $8.0] Gr. 6 60 18 563 | +-0.2 19.48 
J. 1848 4 57.7 | —12 
Ja. 1850 4 57.5 | —0.2 S 
Ad. 60 18 56.9 
285 | 5 | 055 6 8.3 | M. 29 | 81. 2 47.0 1948 | — 0.08 
299 | (6)| 0 56 45 9.3] L. 1795 1 28 54 27.7 | —15 19.44 
R. 2 24.2 | 4-04 
Ja. 1850 6 21.0 | — 0.2 
Ad. 28 54 20.8 
802 | 7 | 0 57 80 | -87 |] Gr. 6 | 62 0220] +04 | -- 19.48 
J. 1845 4 225 | —1.0 
| Ja. |1850| 4 22.0 | —0.2 
Em Ad. 62 0 213 
880.140 1 1 20 841 M. 56 46 29 19.8 19.34 | — 0.01 
809 | O7 |] L 426 3.4] Gr. 6 44 85 9.4 0.2 19.27 | — 0.05 
T 4 9.7 0.3 
Ai. 1844 5 11.2 | — 0.1 
J. 1844 8 11.8 | — 1.5 
de 2|- 1907 2 10.5 | — 0.2 
Ad. 44 35 11.1 
971 7 | 1 8 24 | +34] Gr. 5 42 11 41.7 | 4-03 | +19.17 
J. 1845 4 . 484] — 1.5 
Ja. 1851 3 40.3 | — 0.2 
e Ad. 42 11 41.2 
404 | 5 | 114 3|4-35| M. 1 56 | 44 47 178 |. + 19.02 | — 0.03 
| Ai.2|1856| 2 19.1 |" +0.0 
| Ad. 44 47 17.9 
432 | 5 1 1914 | +36] M. 44 | 44 40 37.7 + 18.87 | — 0.10 
J.2 | 1857 5 561] — 0.2 
Ad. 44 40 37.4 
441 6 | 121 40 3.6] M. 88 | 46 16 412 18.80 | — 0.06 
465 | 6 | 126 9 Tii Arg. | 1830| 6 | 36 30 46.8 | — 0.3 18.65 | -+ 0.05 
T, 4 45.2 | +07 
: : Ad. 86 30 46.2 
480 |45| 1 28 82 | +35] M. 67 40 41 55.0 + 18.58 | — 0.38 
J.2 | 1858 1 56.6 | — 0.2 
Ad. 40 41 55.0 
522 | 4 | 13451 | 3-87 | M. 93 | 49 58 35.6 — | 4- 18.86 | — 0.08 
: Ai. 2 | 1850 6 362 | — 0.6 
J.2 | 1857 1 347 | — 0.2 
| ot ud 49 58 35.6 
558 6 | 1 42 45 89] M. 39 54 26 48.2 18.07 | — 0.06 
560 | 6| 14818 | +68) M. 55 | 50 5 36.0 18.05 | — 0.04 
562 | 6.7| 148 51 | 4+-8.8 | Lal. | 1799 2 50 46 35.5 18.03 
À | Ja. |1850| A 3411 — 08 | 
Ug | Ad. | 50 46 33.9 
566 6 | 144 51 38.6] M. 26 40 1 552 + 17.99 | — 0.01 
575 | 6.7| 1 46 25 3.6 | M. 5 40 0 35.6 + 17.93 | — 0.08 
; Ja. 3 33.6 | — 0.2 
i Ad. 40 0 345 
6 | 6 | 1 46 88 3.5 | Pi. 36 25 647 | —0.6 17.92 | —0.05 
ei T T: 3 59.8 | +0.7 T | 
Ad. 86 25 58.0 | 
..89 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


Mean 


B.A.C. | Mag. oe 1859.0. 
m 
579 | 6 | 1 47 35 
580 | 6 | 1 47 47 
614 | 5.6| 1 52 56 
649 | 51200 
656 | 3 | 2 110 
658 | 7 | 2 1 42 
675 | 65| 2 412 
O 7 E 
695 |67|2 8 8 
697 |65| 2 8 27 
705 |6.7 | 2 10 12 
1601314 3 
785 | 5 | 21614 
749 | 7 | 218 25 
761 |6.7| 2 21 13 
806 | 7.8| 2 30 34 
819 | 6| 288 4 
871 | 54| 2 41 42 
888 | 6 | 2 44 49 
912 | 5 | 2 49 45 
918 | 5 | 2 50 51 


yannual’ | Authority. | Mea" | No. Obs Ò 1859.0. 

--35| M. 26 | 36 35 3.6 

+35] M. 98 | 86 33 294 

J.2 | 1857 2 30.7 

Ad. 86 33 29.6 

--39| M. 44 | 53 48 12.0 

ASe] M. 17 | 87 11 171 

J. 2 1857 1 20.3 

Ad. 37 11 17.4 

435] M. 105 | 3419 62 

J:2 | 1855 8 6.6 

Ai. 2 | 1853 11 7.1 

Ad. 34 19. 6.5 

+41 M. 42 56 58 37.9 

--35| M. 24 | 99 38 249 

J. 2 1856 3 26.8 

Ad. 29 38 25.2 

+41} Gr. 6 | 56 23 50.6 

e e 4 47.4 

Ai. 1838 9 48.7 

J. 1846 3 48.1 

Ad. 56 23 46.2 

+42) M. 20 97 14 32.8 

+36| M. 33 | 83 34 36.7 

J.2 | 1856 4 37.6 

Ad. 33 34 36.8 

+39] Gr. 6 | 48 17 54,5 

Ro 1 57.6 

J. 1847 4 57.9 

Ad. 48 17 56.9 

+87 | Gr. 6 | 40 45 17.8 

T. 4 20.3 

J. 1844 4 18.6 

Ad. 40 45 18.5 

--4o| M. 52 | 49 38 15.9 

+40] M. 93 | 49 56 10.8 

J.2 | 1857 3 11.8 

Ad. 49 56 11.0 

+ 3.7 Gr. 6 38 30 21.4 

R. 1850 1 217 

Ai. 1844 5 21.5 

J. 1848 3 21.9 

Ja. 1850 5 20.5 

Ad. 38 30 21.0 

+41) Gr. 6 | 52 11 364 

a 4 35.8 

- R, 5 35.9 

J. 1845 | 3 37.3 

Ad. 52 11 35.1 

+42) Gr. 6 | 52 55 192 

ae 1844 3 17.7 

Ad. 52 55 14.9 

+3.8 | M. 36 87 4-71 

: J.2 | 1857 5 139 

: Ad. 37 44 7.2 
38 | M. 25 37 45 36.9 | 

-38 | M. p 40 39 5 44.1 

4.2 | Gr. 6 51 47 16.6 


1824 | 


Systematic 
Correction. 


Ul 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 
+ 0.6 


—0.2 
+ 0.0 


ETE 


— 0.5 
— 1.4 


— 0.2 


-p 0.0 
sp 
16 


0.3 
0.6 
— 1.5 


— 0.2 


+ 0.2 
01 


+05 
dd 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 


+0.0 
10 


—1.5 
— 1.5 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 


Precession. E 
17.88 0.00 
17.87 | +0.01 
17.67 | — 0.08 
17.97 | — 0.05 

-- 17.31 | — 0.08 

4-17.99 | 4- 0.02 

+ 17.18 | — 0.06 

4-17.05 | +0.11 
17.01 | — 0.03 
16.99 | — 0.23 

+ 16.90 | +0.08 

+. 16.72 | — 0.09 
16.61 | —0.04 
16.51 | —0.12 

+ 16.87 

+ 15.88 | 4- 0.02. 

+ 15.75 

4+ 15.27 | — 0.09 
15.09 | — 0.07 
14.80 | — 0.04 
14.73 | -|- 0.05 


| 51 47 166 | 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 201 


B.A.O. | Mag. | 018590. | Ammon] Authority. | Me™ | No. obe | — J 1859.0. — | Systematic | Procession. | vil 
h m s 8 3 ro e z 
918 | 5 | 25051 | +42] T. 4 | 51 47155] +0.0 
R. 5 13.8 | —1.0 
J. 1847 4 16.8 | — 1.5 
Ad. 51 47 14.9 i 3 
947 | 3 | 2 5436 | +48 | M. 73 | 5257 22 +1451 | — 0.02 
Ai. 2 | 1855 5 27 | — 0.6 
Ad. 5257 2.2 
953 | 4 | 256 9 | -- 38] M. 51 98 17 27.6 + 14.42 | — 0.10 
Ai. 2 | 1855 5 26.9 | +0.5 
Ad. 38 17 27.6 
962 | 4 | 2 58 55 | +43] Gr. 6 49 4187 | —0.1 | + 14.25 | + 0.00 
Arg. | 1830 | 24 179 | —0.4 
T. 10 184 | +0.1 
Ai 1845 9 169 | —0.6 
J. 1845 3 17.5 | —1.6 
J.2 | 1856 3 144 | — 0.2 
Ad. 49 4 15.7 
983 |6.7| 3 251 | +3.9] Gr. 5 41 50 248 | + 0.3 | + 14.00 
R. 1 25.0 | — 0.4 
J. |1848| 3 957 | —15 | 
Ja. 1850 4 24.1 | — 0.2 | 
Ad. 41 50 23.7 
998 | 6 | 3 586 |440] Gr. 6 | 41 58 241 03 | -- 13.83 | +0.02 
T. 4 24.3 0.5 
R. 1 255 | — 0.4 
J. 1845 3 27.0 | — 1.5 
Ad. 41 58 25.8 
1030 |65| 31228 | +51] Gr. 6 64 4 38.2 0.5 | +13.39 | — 0.09 
T. 4 33.5 0.3 
R. 1850 1 39.5 | —1.6 
J. 1845 4 39.4] — 0.9 
; Ad. 64 4 38.4 | 
1040 | 6 | 3 13 44 3.6 | M. 21 27 5 52.1 13.90 | — 0.03 | 
1066 | 5 | 3 19 18 4.3 | M. 34 | 49 1 01 12.94 | — 0.05 | 
1083 | 6 | 8.22 41 £1] M. 19 | 45 34 31.1 12.71 | — 0.07 | 
1105 | 6.7| 3 28 28 4.0 | Gr. 5 | 42 6546 | 4-03 12.32 | 
R. 2 505 | — 0.4 | 
J. 1844 3 55.2 | — 1.5 | 
Ja. 1850 3 53.5 | — 0.2 
Ad. ` 42 6 52.3 
1139 | 4 | 3 35 37 4.0 | M. 62 | 42 7 45.8 11.81 | — 0.02 
1142 | 6 | 386 8 42 | . Gr. 6 | 4514 81] 4-01 11.78 
J. 1845 8 9.9 | —1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 7.4 | —02 
Ad. 45 14 7.8 
1172 | 6 | 84016 | +41] Gr. 6 44 31 61.0 | 4-0.2 | + 11.49 
J. 1844 2 60.3 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 60.7 | — 0.2 
Ad. 44 31 59.1 
1252 | 7 | 35554 | +43] Gr. 6 | 46 32 19.5 0.1 | + 10.83 | + 0.02 
‘As 4 17.0 0.2 
R. 2 153 | — 0.7 
J. 1846 4 186 | —1.6 
Ad. 46 32 15.5 
1264 |(6)| 3 58 11 | 43-40 | Pi. 37 42 11.4 | — 0.5 | -- 10.17 | — 0.25 
Arg. | 1880 | 9 8.5 0.0 
Le +4 37 42 2.6 0.7 
J. 2. | 1857 1 37 41 56,4 | —0.2 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


1307 


| 1320 


(6) 
6 


6.7 


6.7 


vg 


4 10 30 


a 
SE 
SS 


SE 


WT 
EN 


$SSe55 | 
go i co i go 


ex 
~- 
-— 
oo 


Ne OO 


+ 4.1 


Systematic 


= > 
RENO REE 


-BEREUES 
ze > (e 


SE 


DS 


m 
w 


RREPLFEERREE 


(AES 


1856 


| 1845 


1855 


1849 


1857 


= wS 


~ 
Dac Aih 


y 


P o CEMBRKÉ 


E 


[ss 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


VOL. VIII. 


| mac Mag. | «18600. Lei, | Authority. | Year | No. Obs. Ô 1859.0. DEM | Pre. ) Qu ` 
T 84 D 
1845 | 4 | 5 41 43 42| M. 47 | 39 6 95 Ven | +0/05 
1849 | 5.6, 5 42 20 5.4] M. 85 59 51 0.5 ie 1.54 | — 0.03 
Ai.2|1857| 19 50 598 | —0.3 
Ad. 59 51 0.2 
1854 | 5 | 548 2 50 | M. 37 | 55 40 51 --148 | — 0.02 
1885 | 45| 5 47 55 49] M. 159 | 54 16 42 1.06 | —0.14 
Ai. 2 | 1853 1 52 | — 0.6 
J.2 | 1857 1 x 4.5 | — 0.2 
Ad. 54 16 4.2 
1895 | 2 | 54911 | +44] M. 315 | 44 55 41.2 +0.95 | — 0.01 
Ai. 2 | 1855 7 40.8 | — 0.1 
Ad. 44 55 41.2 
1897 | 5 | 54928 | +45] Gr. 11 45 55 8.9 | 4-0.1 | +0.92 | — 0.02 
T 5 9.3 | + 0.2 
J. 1847 3 8.8 | — 1.6 
Ad. 45 55 7.7 
1900 | 3 | 550 6 | -41|] M. 45 37 11 53.2 +087 | — 0.11 
Ai.2 | 1855 | 10 53.6 | +0.6 | - 
J.2 | 1855 2 54.3 | — 0.2 
Ad. 37 11 53.5 
1902 | 6 | 5 50 17 4.5 | M. 27 47 53 15.2 +0.85 | —0.04 
1914 | 6 | 5 51 51 4.7 | Gr. 5 | 49 53 56.4 | —0.1 | +0.71 [[-+ 0.10] 
T me (54 5.4) 
J. 1845 3 53 55.3 | — 1.6 ; 
Ad. 49 53 52.7 
1923 | 6 | 553 8 | --43| M. 43 42 54 39.2 + 0.60 | — 0.16 
J.2 | 1857 4 39.4 | —0.2 
Ad. 42 54 39.2 
1948 | 6 | 5 57 82 58]. M. . 46 58 56 51.0 + 0.21 0.02 
1963 |6.7| 6 0 49 46] M. 35 | 48 44 3.7 —0.07 | —0.04 
J.2 | 1856 t .94| —0.2 | . 
Ad. 48 44 3.4 
1979 | 6 | 6 3 0 54 | M. 41 | 60 1 53.6 — 0.26 | —0.05 
2001 | 54| 6 6 24 88| M. 83 | 29 32 45.3 — 0.56 | — 0.23 
Ai.2 | 1856 | 10 448 | 4-05 
J.2 1855 8 444 | —0.2 
Ad. 29 32 45.1 
541.067 UU 53 | M. 87 59 3 20.4 — 0.63 0.01 
eg T J. 2 4 20.3 | +0.1 + 
Ad. 59 3 204 
$000] 2 ]1 8 17 4 45| M. 18 | 46 27 55.6 — 0.62 | — 0.01 
2010 | 6.7! 6 7 46 45| M. 96 | 4624 863 | ` — 0.68 | —0.15 
: J.2 | 1857 3 891 | —02 i 
Ad. 46 24 36.1 
9044 | 5| 614 2 | -46| M. 80 | 49 21 17.0 —1.98 | + 0.05 
Qu. (18) 16.9 
Ad. 49 21 17.0 is j 
A] Gr. 5 | 5621 151 2S1 —14 
2046 6 | 6 14 82 | +51 : ds i E 
Ja. 1850 4 16.1 | — 0.2 
T $6 67 569 2.24 | 1.0.04 
2128 | 6 | 6 25 89 51| M. 25 | 56 57 56. — 2. : 
2133 | 6.5| 6 26 19 3.8 | M. 24 | 98 7415 — 92.30 | 0.00 
Ai.2 | 1857 | 8 40.6 | +0.4 
Ad. 98 7 414 : am 
139 6 51 | +41 | Gr. 6 | 88 33 17.6 — 2. 
si : T + E. 1851 4 198 | —L£ 
Ja. [1850 | 4 | 38 33 158 — 02 
40 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


2361 


2367 


LEE. 


O o 


3.4 
6.7 


ITIN 


= 


5 21 


6 29 


E 


2 


is 


Authority. | Men | No Obs. ð 1959.0. 
Ad. 88 33 17.5 
M. 27 42 36 29.2 
M. 18 29 6 3.0 
M. 26 28 22 58.0 
Ai. 2 | 1857 1 59.7 
Ad. 28 22 58.1 
M. 65 44 39 18.6 
M.. 46 59 34 42.0 
J. 2 1855 4 41.8 
Ad. 59 34 42.0 
M. 27 57 18 33.7 
J. 9 1857 1 85.6 
Ad. 33.9 
M. 43 48 55 59.4 
Ou. | 1849 | (17) 59.8 
Ad. 48 55 59.5 
M. 34 41 56 32.6 
Ai.2 | 1856 2 32.5 
J.2 | 1856 2 35.1 
Ad. 41 56 32.9 
M 50 34 7 37.2 
M. 29 38 36 32.9 
J.2 | 1857 1 . 86.0 
Ad. 88 36 33.1 
M. 24 88 40 24.0 
M. 89 | 58 36 4.6 
3.3 | OR: 1 SE i 
A -— ES 58 36 47 
M. | 81 45 16 20.3 | 

E 1 €5 89 32 46.6 
M. 73 30 28 20.0 | 
Ai.2 | 1854 1 19.2 
42 | 18561 :5 21.0 
Ad. 30 28 20.1. 
Gr. 6 47 29 16.5 
d 1848 5 10.9 
Ja. 1850 3 9.7 
Ad. 47 29 74 
Gr. 6 52 22 83.8 
J. 1847 7 80.4 
Ja. | 1850 e - 27.9 
Ad. 52 22 273 
d 1848 | 4 49 42 41.5 
Ja. | 1850 4 42 39.8 

| Ad. | | .. 42 398 

dE | 58 | 41 7 459 | 

4.92] 186665 4 488 
HE d | lure 
AN. i —| 99 144.9 T 
AL op. 28 | 49 29 108 
JE 4 T4 9 138 rori 
A9] 1008371 10 |] S 
J. 9 1857 4 29.2 

FA 28 4 28] 

FM. d 42 | 49 57 31.6 

CAE LIINM YI. Ze 31.1 


—0.2 


+00 


+0.5 
— 0.2 


E 0.0 
+... 1.6 


— 0.2 


— 03 | 


—15 


—02 
—02| 


| Ml 


n 


—0.2 


S 


— 0.01 


— 0.12 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


-8H 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 018590. | Annual | authority. | Men | No. Obs. 6 1859.0. Systematic | precession. | vi 
Do. oe SE E o i u 
2459 6 7 19 12 | +46 Ad. 49:57 81.6 P i 
2467 5 7 20 38 | +3. M. 28 28 24 16.9 i — 6.90 | — 0.06 
Ai.2|1855| 4 17.2 | 4-04 
Ad. 28 24 17.0 
2469 5|7212 | +37 M. 15 28 12 12.5 — 6.94 | — 0.01 
Ai.2|1855| 4 105 | +0.4 
Ad. 28 12 12.0 
2488 6 7 26 16 | +44 de 1847 4 46 29 13.3 — 1.6 — 7.37 
Ja. 1850 5 11.5 bsi OY 
Ad. 46 29 11.5 
2493 | 45) 7 27 14 | +3.7 M. 53 297 E 19.9 — 7.45 | — 0.10 
AR wee oe 19.6 | +04 
d. 2 1857 5 20.4 — 0.2 
Ad. 20.1 : 
2516 5 4 91 A a M. 54 59 9 DA — 7.76 | — 0.08 
2540 5 7 34 30 3.8 M. 36 29 13 15.4 — 8.04 | — 0.24 
4.92.1 1859 8 15.6 -— 0.2 
e: Ad. 29 13 15.4 
2606 | 67| 7 44 13 | + 4.4 M. 34 47 44 47.2 > vn 881 | — 0.02 
Ou. | 1849 | (3) 464 | +00 
Ad. 47 44 47.1 : 
2609 6 7 44 26 | +44 M. 47 47-55 81.9 — 8.83 | — 0.03 
Ou. | 1849 | (5) 323 | +0.0 
Ad. 47 55 81.9 
2638 | 67, 7 48 21 | + 4.2 Gr. 6 44 20 58.5 + 0.2 — 9.13 
d. 1844 4 2I OI — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 20 58.7 — 0.2 
| Ad. 44 90 58.5 
2672 5 7 54 51 | 4-37 M. 45 28 11-98 — 9.68 | — 0.04 
Ai.2 | 1855 | 43 99 | +04 
5 1856 4 11.9 — 0.2 
o d ME 28 11 10.2 
2697 | 5.4| 7 57 50 | +46 M. 85 51 54 31.4 — 9.86 0.00 
Ou. | 1849 | (8) 312 | +0.0 
Ad. 51 54 814 
2732 | 65| 8 2 34 | +48 Gr. 6 56 52 14.4 +0.0 | — 10.22 | + 0.02 
T. 4 138 | +01 
R. 6 15.2 | —1.2 
Ai. 1840 vi 13.5 — 0.5 
de 1843 5 15.4 — 1,4 
: Ad. 56 52 13.5 
2747 6 8 4 24 a4 M. 41 80 4 82.4 $1086 | —0.05 
2792 | 6 | 813 6 | 3-46] Gr. 6 | 53 40168] —01 | —11.00 | —0.04 
i SE 1835 4 12.8 0.0 
Ai. 1843 5 12.8 — 0.6 
J. 1844 5 18.2 — 1.5 
Ad. 53 40 9.8 
2819 | 84| 8 18 81 | +51] M. 972 | 6111 49 —1140 | —014 
: J.2 |1857| s 45 | +01 
Ad. 61 11 49 
2871 6 8 25 40 | +3.9 M. 19 36 54 0.8 291191 1 — 0.09 
2887 | 6 | 8 27 49 | +45 | Gr. 6 | 5858 199 | —01 | —12.05 
R. 4 20.8 — 1.1 
Ai. 1845 5 19.4 ome 08 
d. 1844 4 19.9 —]1.5 
Ja. 1850 3 17.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 58. 563 181 
. 2892 6 8 28 49 | +45 Gr. 5 58 12 7.1 — 0.1 | — 12.13 | + 0.01 


312 CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


à 1980.0. eda | gengen, | LR 


53 12 60 0.0 

82 | —15 
53 12 62 : y 
46 19 29.3 — 12:29 | + 0:07 
28 47 7.6 — 13.15 | — 0.01 
| 9.1 | —02 
| 98 47 80 
46 10 10.6 0.1 | —18.87 | +0.04 

10.1 0.3 

94| —07 


f 
e 
; 


j | 
B. A. C. | Mee | a 1859.0. Variation. Authority. Year. 


d 1845 


J.2 | 1855 
3025 | 6 | 8 47 16 | +41] Gr. 


1848 


3027 | 6 | 8 47 21 | F89 40 44 220 | +03 | — 13.38 
| 1844 
1850 


| 40 
3046 | (6) | | 80 46 21.2 —13.51 | -- 0.08 | 
3059 | 4 42 20 17.1 — 13.64 | — 0.8 | 


op o0 

Sg 

Sé 

E 
PREE POR SPH 


no 


1856 
1856 


f 
e 


28 27 187 | — 13.77 | —0.08 
54 50102 |  |-—1878 


3069 | 6 
3072 | 6 r 
| | 2t 1 Aur | 


oo 0o 
aS 
Si 
Bis, 
a 
PORE 
quM. um BZ ARO orbe wok mp 
e 
> 
| 
e 
iw 


3075 |34| 85359 | +41] M. | Be 72} | —1830| —0.10 

: IAE 6 | CR 08 >. ; I 
Ou. | 1849 Foo. : 

| 3097 | 5 | 8 57 88 | +39 | Gr. 


Fr AK 1840 
I 1845 


BES 
S 
SE 


En 
wo 


389 0471 iu —1408 | — 0.06 


3100 | 7 | 8 57 49 | +38] Gr. 

J. 1846 

Ja. 1850 

Ad. -T 88 50 22.1 E 

| | p O | 52 10 13.6 og se LEES 00 

SE | | 42 | 1854 | Uu Geen 
| ER es 


38 50 253 | +0.2 | —14.05 


"n 

em 

23 9 

Va, Co bo We Ne S 
E 


BIET nte. ^E 
Tek dal. [id r 
- 54 zin, E |». | —1455 | +0.03 

d Lir DAT v e 


s 
S 
Qu 
o 
- 
c 
> 
pla 
= 
p 


Fo Lara 5 


45] | | 57 17 368 E = 44687 ii. 
AIde 1847 SA E 19 | o [D 
po zs 4 ! E 36.4 | — 0.2 - 

"ONES ume 34 59 98 | 


22 
we 
KO 
KK? 
re 
KI 
oo 
abi. iun 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


313 


B.A.C. | Mag. | of 1850.0. | Amua] |Autnority.| Men | No.ops.| 5 1859.0. | Systematic | Procession. | roper 
h m 8 8 d : 
3178 |84| 9 12 28 | +37] J.2 |1855| 6 | 8459116 | —02 
Ad. 34 59 10.0 : 
3218 | 6 919 25 | +40] M. 52 46 12 58.9 1583 | —— 0.16 
J.2 | 1855 3 59.4 | — 0.2 
Ad. 46 12 58.9 
3256 | 5 9-25. 9 4.2} M. 34 52 40 32.8 — 15.65 | — 0.04 
3261 | 5 9 25 35 3.7 | M. 46 97 -1 159 — 15.67 | — 0.03 
Ai.2 | 1857| 3 159 | +05 
- Ad. Ot. 16.0 
3265 | (6)| 926 15 | +38.8 | Gr. 6 40 14 43.3 0.8 | — 15.71 | — 0.05 
T. 4 40.5 0.6 
J. 1847 6 43.2 | — 1.5 
Ad. 40 14 40.6 
8281 | 6 929 33 | +38] M. 28 40 52 13.7 — 15.89 | — 0.01 
Ai.2 | 1856 | 1 150 | +0.4 
Ad. 40 52 13.8 
3307 6 93315|+3.7 | M. 24 40 23 53.3 — 16.09 | — 0.05 
3317 | 5 93517 | +3.55 | M. 22 30 37 14.3 — 16.19 | — 0.10 
: J.2 | 1855 5 14.1 — 0.2. 
Ad. 30 37 14.2 
3324 | 6 9 36 30 43] M. 35 57 46 20.9 — 16.25 | — 0.01 
3341 | 6 9 39 29 3.9 | M. 54 46 40 31.0 — 16.40 | — 0.11 
J.2 | 1854 2 31.9 | —0.2 
Ad. 46 40 31.0 
8346 | 43| 9 40 56 | +483] M. 273 59 41 55.7 — 16.48 | — 0.20 
Ai.2 | 1857 2 57.0 | —0.3 
Ad. 59 41 55.7 
3352 | 67| 9 41 83 | +37] M. 30 40 17 10.0 — 16.51 | + 0.01 
3858 | 5.4| 9 4229 | --41| M. 70 | 54 43 133 — 16.55 | — 0.02 
8381 | 5 94629 | +40] M. 33 50 28 59.2 — 16.75 0.00 
Ou. | 1849 | (3) 59.0 | Lon 
Ad. 50 28 59.2 
3399 | 5 949 2| +871 M. 85 41 43 30.1 —16.87 | — 0.03 
Ai.2 | 1856 5 29.4 | +03 
Ad. 41 43 30.0 
3402 | 6| 950 8|-4-42]| Gr. 6 |5729 44| +01 | —1692 
J. 1845 5 5.8 | — 1.3 
Ja. 1850 4 3.6 | — 0.2 
Ad. 57 29 3.5 
3446 | 45| 959 6|--36| M. 48 | 85 55 484 —1788 | 0.00 
; J. 2 1856 5 47.5 | —0.3 
Ad. 35 55 48.2 
3505 |8.4| 10 834 | --8.7] M. 334 43 37 0.2 — 17.73 | — 0.09 
3533 | 3 | 10 18 55 | 4- 3.6 M. 197 42 12 24.8 — 17.94 0.00 
Ai.2 | 1857 | 5 252 | +03 
J.2 | 1857 3 26.3 | —0.2 
Ad. 42 12 24.9 
3565 | 6 | 10 19 6|+3.6] Gr. 6 42 19 17.6 0.8 | —18.14 | + 0.06 
T 4 14.4 0.5 
J. 1847 4 15.8 | — 1.5 
Ad. 42 19 12.5 
3567 | 6 | 10 19 24 | +3.7 | Fed. | 1790| 1 | 493313.5 | —04'| — 18.15 
Gr. 6 49 32 52.7 | — 0.1 
J. 1846 6 25.8 | — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 170 | — 0.2 | 
Ou. |1850 | (8) 191 | +0.0 | 
Ad. 49 32 9.8 | 
3572 | 4.5 | 10 19 43 | 4-35 | M. 79 | 37 25 41.5 —1817.| —9H | 
VOL. VIII. 40* 


314 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.O; | Mag. | 18590. | „Annual Authority. | Mean | No. Obs. Ô 1859.0. | Systematic | procession. | ¡proper 
k h .m .s 8 p 3 D 
3572 | 45]| 10 19 43 | +35] J.2 | 1854 1 37 25 42.5 — 0.2 
Ad. 37 25 41.5 : : 
3580 | 5 | 10 21 35 | -39] M. 73 56 42 7.5 —18.23 | — 0.01 
J.2 | 1857 7 72 | —0.1 
Ad. 56 42 7.4 
8607 5 |10 25 0| +35] Gr. 6 41 859.6 | + 0.3 | —18.36 
"ké 1846 6 9 11| —15 
Ja. 1850 4 9 00| —032 
Ad. 41 8 59.6 
3612 | 5 | 10 26 3|+3.9] M. 115 | 57 48 24.8 —18.39 | — 0.01 
J.2 | 1855 4 26.2 | + 0.0 
Ad. 57 48 24.9 
3639 | 6 | 10 30 20 Last Gr. 6 | 54 24 15.1 | —0.1 | —18.54 
J. 1843 4 118 | —1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 11.4 | —0.2 
Ad. 54 24 8.8 
3640 | 5.4 | 10 30 47 3.4] M. 67 | 82 42 26.7 —18.55 0.00 
3665 | 5 | 10 85 15 3.6] Gr. 7 | 46 56 41.9 0.0 | —18.70 | + 0.03 
x: 4 39.1 0.1 
J. 1843 5 889 | —1.6 
Ad. 46 56 35.5 
3685 | 5 | 1038 1/+3.3] M. 75 | 81 25 25.2 —18.79 | — 0.05 
Ai.2 | 1857 4 25.1 | +0.6 
Ad. 31 25 25.3 
9713 | 6 | 10 42 28 3.8 | M. 29 | 57 19 88.1 —18.92 | — 0.04 
3725 | 5 | 10 45. 1 87| M. 48 | 55 19 59.8 —18.99 | — 0.04 
3728 4 | 10 45 25 3.4} M. 59 34 58 27.8 —19.00 | — 0.25 
J.2 | 1855 5 27.2 | — 0.2 
Ad. 34 58 27.3 
9729 | 5 | 10 45 51 | +35] M. 119 | 43 56 22.5 —19.01 | — 0.04 
Ai.2 | 1857 4 227 | +0.0 
Ad. 43 56 22.5 
8757 | 5 | 105133 | +34] M. 38 | 41 10 55.6 —19.17 | +0.04 
4.2 | 1807 4 57.2 | — 0.2 
Ad. 41 10 55.8 
3758 | 6 | 1052 8| +35] Gr. 6 | 46 16 52.1 | +01 | —19.18 
J. 1847 4 53.6 | — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 51.1 | —0.2 
Ad. 46 16 51.5 : 
3765 | 5 | 10 52 56 3.4] M. 29 | 89 58 79 —19.20 0.00 
3767 | 2.8 | 10 53 19 3.7 | M. 262 | 57 8 13.1 —19.21 0.00 
J.2 | 1854 2 144 | + 0.0 
Ad. 57 8 131 
3811 | 6 | 11 133 | --33] Lal. | 1794 1 | 87 4253]| —1.6| —19.41 | — 0.02 
Es 4 24.4 | +0.7 
| Ad. 87 4 251 
8812 | 3 | 11 1 43 3.4] M. 297 | 45 15 44.6 —19.41 | — 0.08 
3846 | 6 | 11 8 44 3.4] Gr. 6 | 50 14 449 | —0.1 | —19.56 | — 0.01 
T. 4 408 | +0.1 
J. 1845 3 43.4 | —1.6 
S Ad. 90 14 39.4 
8852 | 3.4 | 11 10 51 8.3 | M. 91 | 83 51 46.6 —19.59 | — 0.02 
8856 | 5 | 11 11 26 3.3 | M. 47 | 38 57 30.5 —19.61 | +0.09 
3864 | 6 | 11 14 27 3.6 | Gr. -Cir 05 & 88 0.6 | —19.66 | — 0.06 
T 1 2.2 - 0.3 
J. 1847 5 58 | —0.8 
| Ad. 65 6 423 
| 8905 | 5 | 112128 | +33] M. 86 | 40 6 45.4 —19.77 | +0.01 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


915 


B. A. C. 


a 1859.0. 


Annual 
Variation. 


Authority. 


3931 


3933 
3965 


3981 
3985 


4057 


4108 


4123 


4152 


4169 


4181 


4199 


4206 


4207 
4240 


` 4305 


4341 


4384 
4421 


4484 


4486 


(7) 


4.5 


hm. 
1127 IT 


11 


11 


11 


11 


11 


12 


12 


27 


33 


42 


44 


37 


36 
21 


57 


42 
26 
13 


25 


14 


35 


42 


52 
50 


30 


12 48 30 


12 59 9 
13 5 18 


13 18 14 


13 18 16 


Gr. 
ds 
Ja. 
Ad. 
M. 

4,23 
Ad. 
M. 

$9 
Ad. 
M. 

Gr. 
J. 
Ja. 
Ad. 
M. 

EE 
Ad. 


1854 
1794 


1850 
1857 


1857 


1846 
1850 


1846 
1850 


1854 
1853 


1855 
1755 


No. Obs Ô 1859.0. Systematic |- precession. | wl 
6 | 55 38 512 | +0.0 | — 19.85 
4 S18 1 La 
4 50.5 | —02 
55 33 50.0 ta 
34 | 70 6 242 249.807] cx 0d 
6 247 | +0.5 
70 6 245 
98 | 34 59 51.6 — 19.92 | — 0.40 
4 58.7 | —0.2 
34 59 52.0 
211 | 48 83 38.9 — 19.96 | — 0.01 
6 | 5624461| +0.0 | —19.97 
4 44 1-—14 
4 45.0 | —0.2 
56 24 45.4 
71 | 43 49 89.9 — 20.05 | + 0.04 
4 405 | —0.2 
43 49 39.9 
30 | 57 50 21.0 — 20.05 | —0.04 
Omitted. | 57 48 58.0 — 20.04 | —0.03 
2 | 2647 25| +0.4 | — 20.02 | -+0.09 
26 47 5.1 
A7 | 26 87 447 — 20.01 | +0.01 
50 | 26 52 51.5 — 20.00 | — 0.08 
6 511| +08 
26 52 51.5 
1 |2641418| —0.6 | —19.97 
1 352 | +0.6 
4 35.0 | —0.2 
3 368 | —0.2 
26 41 85.5 
9 | 26 40 51.8 — 19.97 | +0.03 
24 | 26 41 87.8 — 19.97 | — 0.02 
23 24 930 | —14 | —19.90 | 0.00 
5 22.1 I i. 
2 22.6 0.5? 
1 22.0 | —0.2 
23 24 22.9 
e | 61 521| +08 | —1971 
4 Ba us 
6 23.8 | —1.1 
4 2315 | —0.2 
61 5 223 
6 | 47 57 458 | +0.0 | —19.61 
4 452| —1.6 
4 42.1 | —0.2 
47 57 42.8 . e 
65 | 36 33 15.9 — 19.89 | -- 0.01 
48 | 28 35 38.8 — 19.25 | +0.89 
3 38.6 | —0.2 
5 385 | +0.4 
28 35 38.8 
563 | 55 39 45.0 — 18.90 | — 0.06 
3 438 | —0.1 
45.0 
3 | 55 89 381 — 18.90 | — 0.06 
5 853 | +0.0 
7 | 55 39 34.8 | La 


316 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 1869.0. Leit [Authority.| Vean | No.Obs.| — Ó 18590. Systematic | precession. | Proper 
b m d 8 o “ 
4486 | 45| 18 18 16 | --24 | Ai. | 1838| 72 | 55 89 388 | — 0.5 
J. 1847 8 846 | 14 
J.2 | 1857 1 86.4 | —01 
Ad. . | 55 89 82.1 : A 
449 | 5 |131934|+24| M. 62 | 55 43 94.0 — 18.86 | — 0.05 
J.2 | 1856 1 245 | +0.0 
Ad. 55 43 24.0 
4519 | 6 |1325 9|+2.6| Lal. | 1793 1 | 42 49 586 | —0.8 | — 18.69 
R. 1842 | 3 58.0 | —0.4 
Ak 4| 1848 | 17 57.6 | +038 
J: 1845 8 60.5 | —15 
Ja. | 1850 4 071 | 02 
Ad. 42 49 58.0 
4596 | 65| 18 40 14 | +2.6] Gr. 6 | 41 47 52.5 | --08 | —18.17 
R. 1841 1 47.0 | —0.4 
Ai | 1844 | 16 509 | +0.3 
d 1844| 4 52.0 | —1.5 
Ja. | 1857 2 5071 —03 
Ad. 41 47 50.1 
4609 | 6 |18 42 8|--25| Gr. 5 | 42 45 144 | +08 | — 18.10 
J. 1843 | 5 158 ]- 14 
Ja. | 1851 4 129 | —02 
Ad. 42 45 13.4 
4676 |(7)| 13 55 7| 4-27 | Ja. [1850 | 4 | 82 14 52.4 | —0.2 | — 17.57 
Ad. 32 14 52.2 
4678 |(7)| 13 56 19 | +2.7 | Ja. | 1850 4 | $2 20 27.9 | —0.2 | —17.52 
Ad. 32 20 27.7 
4726 |45|14 8 26 22 | M. 59 | 5227 13 — 16.99 | — 0.04 
4728 | 6 | 14. 8 42 24| Gr. 6 | 42 10 61.7 | +038 | —16.97 
4. 1844 8 599 | —1.5 
Ja. |1850| 4 578 | — 0.3 
j Ad. 42 10 56.6 
4789 | 4.8| 14 20 24 | +20 | M. 298 | 52 30 17.4 — 16.41 | — 0.48 
J.2 | 1857 6 1491 — 08 
Ad. 52 80 17.8 
4805 | 6.7| 1424 3|--24| Gr. 6 | 4226 11.5 | +08 | —16.22 
J. 1844 | 5 75] 115 
Ja 311850]. 4 81| —0.2 
Ai2|1856| 2 30 | +0.2 
Ad. 42 26 2.6 
4843 | 6 | 14 88 35 "EH M. 37 | 45 0 53.3 — 15.72 | — 0.02 
4918 | 6 | 14 47 51 15| Gr. 6 | 59 51 58.2 0.2 | —1491 | +0.07 
T. 8 62.3 0.2 
AL. | 190] 16 6s WEE 
d 1848| 4 13113 
3.2 | 1859 | 4 66.0 | +0.1 
a Ad. 59 52 5.3 
4948 | 5 | TA 64 12 +28 | M. | 26 | 89 49 85.7 — 14.58 | +0.05 
Ai.2| 1855 | 4 - 7848] 4-04 
Ad. ! 39 49 85.6 : 
4961 | 6 | 14 67 29 | +24] Pi. | 85 45 371| —0.6 | —14.84 | -- 0.00 
: ge cy 9 .86e1| +07 qu 
x B Ful T - 85.0 0.0 XL 
4980 | 5 | 15 045 | --20| Gr. 6:1 48 41 495 | —01 | — 1418 | 
AL | 18467 £1 “60.9 | — 0.6 =o 
X 1948 | 3 | Dilan i cb. m 
Ja. |1850| 4 | 48 41 496 | —0.2 Qe id 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


917 


B.A.C. | Maga | 18590. | Annual | anthority.| Mean | No. obs. 5 1859.0. GT | Seengen, | rope 
zeg ` See"? D o IT] n 
4980 | 5 |15 0 45 | --20| J.2 |1857 | 1 | 48 41 500 | —02 
Ad. 48 41 50.1 : 
5157 | 6.7 | 15 80 20 | +21] Gr. 6 | 43 88 81 | +02 | —12.19 
J. 1844 5 191i ER 
Ja. | 1851 5 Set 032 
Ad. 43 88 10.2 S 
5287 | 6 | 15 49 56 | --2.0| M. 84 | 4333 48 —10.78 0.07 
5310 | 6 | 15 58 45 | +22] T. 4:87 3486 | --0 1030 0.02 
Ad. 37 9 443 
5816 | 6 | 15 55 4| --17]| Gr. & | 50407. 5A]: —01 | —1040 
J. 1846 5 5l Le 
Ou. | 1849 | (25) 49 | +0.0 
Ja. | 1851 4 19} 3 
Ad. 5017 8.8 
5336 | 6 | 15 58 9|--22]| Lal. | 1794 1 1:87 1265 | 1.0 | — 10.17 | — 008 
T. 8 207-1 4-07 
Ad. 37 1 21.4 
5385 |5.4| 16 8 49 | --22| M. 82 | 86 51 6.0 — 9.74 | +0.36 
J.2 | 1857 5 52 |. —09 
Ad. 36 51 5.8 
5479 | (5)| 1617 3| --23]| Pi. 81 8 BL 08 —8&H T. 504 
T. 5 7098] 407] 
Ad. 34 7 58.7 
5480 | (5)| 16 17 10 | +28] T. & 4 546 9 TA | 07] = 920 1 — 008 
Ad. 34 2 241 
5574 | 6 | 16 82 52 | -- 14 | M. 85 | 58 11 44 = 145 0.00 
5575 | 6.5 | 16 82 54 1.4 | M. 91 | 58 12 81.7 — Gad T NS 
5652 |(6.7)| 16 43 46 23| M. 12 | 30 12 35.0 — 6.55 | -- 0.12 
5752 | 6 | 16 56 46 | +11] Gr. 6 | 56 58 465 | +0.0 | — 547 
Arg. | 1830 8 449] 04 
T. 4 488 | +0.1 
Ai. | 1843 4 480 | —0.5 
J 1846 5 493. [. —14 
J.2 | 1859 4 489 | +0.0 
Ad. 56 58 48.4 
5997 | 6.7 | 17 8621| +18] Gr. 6 | 48:82 2976] 102} — 4M 
R. 1847 1 35.38 | -05 
Re 1847 6 597 |] «LA 
Ja. | 1850 4 281 | —0.2 
' Ad. 43 32 31.5 
6013 | 6 | 17 88 55 | -+1.8 | Gr. 6 | 44 8501]| +02 | — 1.84 
R. 1847 | 2 529 | — 0.5 
d. 1846 5 53.8 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 52.8 | — 0.2 
Ad. 44 8 58.0 
6151 | 6|18 2 8|+24| M. 98 | 26 4 447 + 0.19 | + 0.08 
J.2 | 1856 4 446 | — 0.2 
Ad. 26 4 44.6 
6193 | 67/18 823|+2.0| Gr. 6 | 8844 97 | +02] + 074 
R. 1847 1 9.6 | — 0.1 
J. 1845 | 4 195] —14 
Ja. 1851 4 10.7 | —0.2 
Ad. 88 44 11.1 
6224 | 5 | 1818 5|+0.3 | M. 171 | 64 20 58.7 + 144 0.00 
J.2 | 1856 5 592 | +0.3 
Ai. 2 | 1857 | 12 59.9 | —0.2 
Ad. 64 20 58.8 S 
6285 | 5.4| 18 14 55 | --21]| M. 54 | 86 0 121 + 1.25 | +0.04 
VOL. VIII. 41 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


318 
B.A.C. | Mag. | 1850.0. | ,A22991 | authority.) Men | No. Obs. d 1859.0. OE Penal | OZ 
bho m. | 8 o 1 " H n 
6246 6 | 18 16 88 | + 1.4 Gr. 6 51 17 14.3 — 0.2 + 1.46 
Ai. 1840 12 14.8 — 0.6 
J. 1844 4 16.5 215 
Ja. 1851 4 14.8 — 0.2 
Ou. 1849 (39) 14.7 + 0.0 
JL 51 17 14.6 
6255 | 5 | 18 17 56 | -]- 1.5 Gr. 6 4g. 9 E — 0.1 + 1.57 
. R. 1843 3 5.0 -— 0.9 
AL 1842 19 6.4 — 0.6 
d. 1848 4 7.9 — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 6.2 — 0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (38) 7.6 | 40.0 
Ad. 4928 12 
6258 | 6.7| 18 18 10 | +1.4 Gr. 5 DLIA 29 — 0.2 + 1.59 
R. 1847 1 Ar — 1.0 
Ai. 1845 6 2.3 — 0.6 
J. I848 |. 5 53 1:5 
Ja. 1851 4 4.4 — 0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (41) 32 | +00 : 
Ad. 5114 3.0 : à 
6349 fe 18 30 38 + 2.0 M. 33 98 46 55.4 + 2.67 — 0.04 
Fi 1855 4 55.3 — 0.2 
Ad. 88 46 55.4 
6392 | 5.4| 18 39 55 | +-2.1 Br. 1750 9 St 27. B25 +3.48 | + 0.02 
Str. | 1830 | 6 34.6 | +05 
R. 1843 6 34.6 — 0.1 
Ad. 575927 354 E 
6394 6 | 18 89 57 | +2.1 M. 24 87 2D-04.4 8.48 0.00 
6419 | 6.7 | 18 43 34 | + 1.3 Gr. 6 52 50 42 — 0.2 3.79 
R. 1843 6 4.7 — 1.0 
J. 1846 6 5.1 — 1.5 
Ja. 1851 4 4.1 — 0.9 
Ad. 52-500 3.6 
6421 | 7.8 | 18 48 51 | +15 Gr. 6 49 16 36.1 — 0.1 + 3.82 
Je 1846 5 39.2 — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 4 35.9 — 1.2 
Ad. 49 16 37.8 
6428 6 | 18 44 83 | +1.6 Gr. 6 48 36 23.8 + 0.0 - 3.87 
R. : 1847 1 27.0 — 0.8 
Ai. 1840 11 26.6 — 0.5 
ng 1844 3 28.7 — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 4 29.0 — 0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (27) 28.1 | +0.0 
Ad. 48 36 28.2 
6452 | 6 | 18 4825 | +13] Gr. e |5247267 | —02 | +421 
Je 1844 4 36.1 us 1.5 
Ja. 1851 4 35.8 — 0.2 
> Ad. 59 47 31.9 
6456 | (6) | 18 48 48 2.1 M. 40 96 47 50.1- 4.94 | — 0.02 
6466 |(4.5) 18 49 34 2I M. 55 86 43 18.1 4.30 0.00 
6468 |(6.7)| 18 49 43 | +2.2| M. 7 | 88 47 27.6 | 4.32 | — 0.03 
Ja. 1850 4 26.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 83 47. 27.1 
6470 | 5 | 18 49 44 | +15] Gr. 6 | 5082 85| —o1]| Fis 
R. 1841 8 4.2 — 0.9 
3 E [1451.5 56 | —1.6 
Ja. 1851 4 8.01] — 0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (50) | 50 32 aal +00 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


319 


B. A. C. 


œ 1859.0. 


_ | Authority. 


6470 
6476 


. 6480 


6491 


6493 


6495 


6496 
6500 


6516 


6520 


6530 


9.4 


6.7 


®© 


Eo to 
18 49 44 
18 51 4 


18 51 43 


18 53 40 


18 54 10 


18 54 27 


18 54 22 
18 55 9 


18 57 15 


18 57 27 


18 58 48 


18 59 35 


19 2 16 


IEPS 


19 11 28 


19 11 24 
19 13 50 


+17 


bid 


Mean | No. Obs. Ó 1859.0. m Msn rt 
PT o 1 H 
50 82 38 : 
6 | 4841 95| +0.0 
4 71] --01 
1844 2 7.4 — 0.8 
1843 = 8.2 — 1.6 
48 41 5.4 
20 32 43 21.5 
1850 4 21.8 — 0,2 
1856 4 22.8 — 0.2 
32 43 21.8 
153 32 29 56.0 
1858 2 iat 09.0 =— 0,2 
32 29 56.0 
6 40 29 14.6 0.3 
1834 8 16.8 -0.5 
1844 4 16.4 — 1.5 
1850 4 16.3 — 0.2 
40 29 16.4 
6 | 39 1273| +03 
1842 E 28.5 — 0.2 
1847 4 29.5 — 1.5 
1850 5 27.5 — 0.2 
S9 -1-27.98 
LIS 57 87. 43.4 
6 |58 1546| Loi 
1830 5 55.9 — 0.3 
3 532 | +01 
1843 3 56.1 — 1.3 
1847 4 54.1 —1.8 
58 1 55.6 
6 | 47 50 62] +00 
1846 3 1L3 — 1.6 
1850 4 9.4 0.2 
47 50 10.6 
12 | 46 44 158 | +01 
3 124 | +02 
18423 1 9.8 — 0.7 
1846 6 14.8 — 1.6 
1858 z^ 10.8 — 0.2 
46 44 11.0 
6 52 38 28.0 — 0.2 
1828 4 245.9 — 0.4 
1841 13 27.9 — 0.6 
1845 2 80.0 — 1.5 
1851 4 26.7 — 0.2 
59 274 
1794 1 31.82 21.0 c-r 
1851 4 9.9 — 0.2 
81 32 8.5 
38 35 52- 51:8 
11 | 40 6543| +03 
1846 + 50.6 — 0.2 
1842 4 -=D0.9, — 15 
1850 4 seis; 0,2 
40 6 52.9 
50 97 58 4.9 
65 57 97 44.7 
261 53 6 8432 


Precession. Eta wed 
+ 4.43 | — 012 
+ 4.49 | — 0.18 
+465 | 000 
+ 4.69 
+ 4.78 
+ 4.71 | — 0.07 
+ 4.78 | — 0.06 
+ 4.96 
+ 4.97 | — 0.06 
+ 5.09 
4-516 
+ 5.88 | — 0.02 
+ 6.12 
+ 6.15 | — 0.02 
j-615 | —011 
+6.35 | -+0.10 


320 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B. A.C. | Mag. œ 1859.0. 
vue TON 
6623 | 4 | 19 18 50 
6624 | 6.7 | 19 14 15 
6626 | 7 | 19 14 52 
6640 | 6 | 19 17 41 
6648 | 5 | 19 18 34 
6659 | 7.8 | 19 19 42 
6673 | (7) | 19 22 39 
6681 | 8 | 19 23 14 
6697 | 4 | 19 26 9 
6711 | 6.7 | 19 28 41 
6717 | 7 | 19 29 49 
6718 | 6 | 19 80 5 
6722 | 6 | 19 30 44 
6723 | 6 | 19 30 41 


Annual 


Variation. 


414 
4.2.0 


+ 1.6 


Ei 


421 


qopr 


+ 2.0 


| 


Authority. Men | No. Obs. A 1859.0 Fypeomette | peepee. | QM 
Ai.2|1856| 14 | 58 6345 | —06 
Ad. 53 6 342 $ 
Gr. e |40 6 78 | +03 | +6'88 
J. 1342 3 9.9 — 1.5 
Ja. 1851 4 9.6 — 0.2 
Ad. 40- 0.9.1 
Gr. 6 |4918 319 | —o1| +6.44 
R. 1843 I EN — 0.9 
E 1846 A 36.2 — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 5 DAU I ee 
Ad. 49 18 34.4 
Gr. 6 | 5722 4483 | +01] +6.66 
R. 1840 2 47.4 — 13 
J. 1845 12 45.8 — 1.8 
Ja. 1851 4 47.1 — 02 
Ad. 57 22 44.6 
M. 39 29 20 53.9 + 6.74 + 0.04 
Gr. 7 | 4959 476 | —o1| 16.84 | —0.10 
T. 6 49.2 | +01 
Ai. 1843 4 50.2 — 0.6 
J. 1847 4 51.2 — 1.6 
Ou. | 1849 | (43) 49.11 | +00 
Ad. 49 59 50.0 
Lal | 1794 I 29 9 57.6 1,0 + 7.07 
T. 3 55.6 | +0.5 
Ad. 29: 9-561 
Gr. 6 57 44 36.3 0.1 + 7.12 — 0.08 
d 4 39.9 ot 
R. 1844 2 40.4 —13 
Ji 1847 6 40.7 — 1.3 
Ad. 57 44 40.4 
Br. | 1755 84 | 51 25 37.8 +7.36 | +0.10 
Gr. 107 440 | —02 
T. 5 461 | +00 
Ai. 1839 44 49.0 — 0.6 
Jo 1844 6 50.0 —]1.5 
Ai. 2 | 1856 8 50.2 — 0.6 
J.7 1858 5 50.5 — 0.2 
Ad. 51 25 50.7 
Gr. 6 | 38 27 228 03 | +7.57 
BR |184| 6 uu 
L war a 3264 | — 14 
Ja. 1850 4 S COMETE p. use 0,9 
Ad. S 27 24.9 
Gr. 11 | 48 57 22.9 0.0 7.66 
ER ii| 14 955 Ti^ 
de 1844 8 254 — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 24,6 — 0.2 
Ad. 48 57 24.8 See 
Gr. 6 | 42 6188| +03] +7.68 
RE 1844 2 20.4 — 0.4 
J. 1846 4 22.5 — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 20.4 — 0.2 
Ad. 426313 
M. 22 | 36 88 13 7.74 | +0.01 
Gr. 6 | 5066 1711 03 7.73 | —0.10 
T. 2 124 | +01 
Ou. 1849 | (22) | 50 56 10.9 + 0.0 


* Omitting S. P. Observations 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


321 


Annual 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 18590. | varon, | Authority. | Vemm | No. obs.| d1859.0. | Systematic | Procession, | Proper. 
E Wu o. 8 n] n 
6728 | 6 | 19 30 41 | +16] J. |1842| 4 | 5056187 | — ios 
Gr. 1859 8 7.9 — 0.2 
Ad. 50 56. 8.5 > 
6730 8 | 19 32 9| +1.6 M. 22 49 55. 25.8 + 7.85 + 0.05 
Ai. 2 | 1855 2 26.9 — 0.6 
Ad. 49 55 25.9 
6734 | 5.4| 19 32 40 | +1.6] M. 974 49 53 46.0 +7.89 | +0.25 
J.2 |1856| 3 46.1 | +0.2 
Ai. 2 | 1855 3 45.9 — 0.6 
Ad. 49 53 46.0 
6741 T 19 34 2| +17 Gr. 5 48 57 25.6 0.0 + 8.00 
ZK 3 924 0.1 
R. 1842 2 90.1 — 0.8 
J. 1844 5 382.7 p L5 
J. 2 1859 6 92.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 48 57 33.0 
6745 | 65| 19 84 51 | +2.0] M. 28 42 29-40.0 + 8.07 + 0.04 
Ai.2 | 1856 | 11 389 | +0.8 
Ad. 42 29 89.7 
6754 | 6.5| 19 36 29 | + 1.8 Gr. 6 45 11.28.5 + 0.1 + 8.19 
J. 1844 4 33.2 — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 3 31.9 — 0.2 
Ad. 45 11 32.7 
6763 6 | 1938 4|+1.6] M. 82 50 11 58.0 + 8.32 | — 0.15 
Ai.2| 1856 17 58.0 — 0.6 
4.2 1857 3 57.4 — 0.2 
Ad. 50 11 57.8 
6764 | 6.7| 1938 7 | +1.6 M. 55 50 11 31.0 +8.83 | — 0.15 
1.2 | 18560 16 31.1 — 0.6 
J.2 1858 1 31.0 02 
Ad. 50 11 30.8 
6765 | 6.5| 1988 13 | +21] Gr. 6 | 8820146] +02 | -L8.34 
R. |1846|. 1 122 DEE E Mess 
J. 1844 3 18,4 — 1.4 
Ja. 1850 4 15.2 — 0.2 
Ad. 38 20 16.1 
6769 6 | 19 39 3 | 4+ 2.0 Gr. 6 41 26 10.2 + 0.3. + 8.40 ` 
E J. 1846 3 138 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 11.6 — 0.2 
. Ad. 41 26 12.0 
6777 6 | 19 40 36 | + 2.2 Str. 1824 6 34 40 16.8 + 0.5 + 8.53 
P, 3 162 | +0.7 
Ad. 84 40 17.2 
6780 | 6 | 19 40 28 | +12] -Gr. 6 |5740544| +0.1 | +8.,51 
R. 1847 1 54.5 — 13 
J. 1846 y 55.8 — 1.3 
Ja. 1851 4 53.0 — 0.2 
Ad. 57 40 53.3 
6784 | 5.6 | 19 41 5|-+2.3] M. 44 88 24 7.9 +8.56 | — 0.43 
3 EY 1856 2 7.0 — 0.2 
Ad. 88 94 7.2 
6799 | 6 | 19 43 20 | +18] Gr. 4 | 47 88 87.6] --00 | +874 
: J. 1847 8 38.9 — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 4 38.0 — 0.2 
Ad. 47 33 37.5 3 
6800 T 19 43 28 | + 2.8 Lal. 1798 1 33 5 17.8 | — 1.4 +8.75 | — 0.06 
SE 8 11.5 0.7 
J.2 1856 5 12.8 0.1 
VOL. VIII. 41* 


922 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.C. | Mag. | «18590. (ei, | authority.| Me™ | No.Obs.| 3 1850.0. urea | Prewedo. | Proper 
hc ch 5 8 C IES 3 n 
6800 | 7 | 19 43 28 2.3 | Ad. 33 512.3 n " D 
6806 6 | 19 44 28 2.1 Gr. 6 38 21 25.7 +0.2 | + 883 | — 0.05 
T. 3 249 | +07 
J. 1847 4 28.1 —]1.4 
J.2 | 1857 3 226.0 | — 0.2 
Ad. 38 21 26.5 
6813 6 | 19 45 34 | +2.1 Gr. 5 38 21 35.6 +0.2 | + 8.91 + 0.13 
J. 1845 3 42.7 — 1.4 
Ja. | 1851 | 5 40.4 | —0.2 
J.2 11857 1 42.0 — 0.2 
Ad. 38 21 42.0 : 
6817 | 6 | 19 45 47 | +21 Gr. 6 40 14 35.0 +0.3 | + 8.93 
Ai | 1842] 6 354 | Lou | 
J. 1843 5 960 | —1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 34.0 — 0.2 
Ad. 40 14 34.9 
6824 | 5.6 | 19 47 5 | J-15| M. 80 52 87 52.8 + 9.03 | — 0.08 
Ai.2 | 1856 4 53.4 | — 0.6 
Ad. 52 37 52.8 
6830 | 6 | 19 47 58 | +18] Gr. 6 | 4734 86| +00 | + 9.10 
J. 1842 8 10.4 | — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 10.5 — 0.2 
Ad. 47 34 9.7 
6849 | 5.6 | 19 50 49 | + 2.1 | M. 35 38 6 50.7 + 9.82 | — 0.01 
6856 | 5 | 19 51 59 +16] M. 33 52 3 57.8 + 9.41 | — 0.01 
6857 | 65| 19 52 20 | +21] Gr. 6 | 39 59265 | +03 | | 9.44 
J. 1846 3 288 | —1.5 
Ja. 1850 6 25.8 | —0.2 
Ad. 39 59 26.6 
6860 | 7 | 19 52 26 | +-2.1 Pi. : 88 4 515 — 0.5 | + 9.44 | — 0.05 
T. 4 493 | 40.7 
Ad. 38 4 49.2 
6862 | 7 | 19 52 28 | +10| Gr. 6 | 6014285] +02 |+ 945 
J. 1848 4 30.0 — 1.2 
Ja. 1851 4 274 | —0.2 
Ad. 60 14 27.8 
6865 | 6 | 19 52 54 | +1.6 | Gr. 6 50 31 280 | — 0.1 | + 9.49 
Ai. 1843 6 29.8 — 0.6 
J. 1844 4 31.8 | — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 4 29.5 — 0.2 e 
Ou. | 1849 | (29) 302 | +0.0 
Ad. 50 31 30.3 
6875 | 6.5| 19 54 41 | +2.2 | M. 19 36 39 29.3 + 9.62 | +- 0.03 
J. 2 1855 8 815 | — 0.2 
Ad. 36 39 29.8 
6895 |6.5| 19 57 22 | +1.7] M. 41 49 42 48.6 + 9.83 | — 0.01 
Ài.2 | 1856 9 49.0 | —0.6 
Ad. 49 42 48.5 
6928 | 65/20 230/416] Fed. | 1790| 1 | 52 44 460] —04 | +1022 
Gr. 6 47.6 | —02 
J. 1843 4 57.8 | —1.5 
Ja. 1851 4 52 44 58.6 | — 0.2 
Ad. 52 45 0.2 
6930 | 6 | 20 2 58 +0.8 | Gr. 6 63 29 1.9 0.5 | + 10.25 
Str. | 1829 5 4.4 0.0 
J. 1845 5 56 | — 0.9 
Ja. 1851 4 6.6 | — 0.2 
Ad. 63 29 5.9 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


923 


B.A.C. | Mag. ot 1859.0. Variation. | Authority. 
B. m E 8 
6937 | 5 | 20 412|+22]| M. 
6940 6 | 20 4 40 25 M 
6943 6 1-20: 5 54 135 M. 
6959 | 6 | 20 836 | +-1.7 Gr. 
J. 
Ja. 
Ad. 
6962 | 4.| 20 8 52 1.9 | M. 
6963 6 | 20 8 58 2.0 Gr. 
E 
Ja. 
AE? 
Ad. 
6965 | 4 | 20 9 12 | +1.9]| M. 
Ax 2 
Ad. . 
6967 | 5 | 20 915|+2.2 | M. 
J.2 
Ad. 
6969 |(7.8)| 20 9 23 | --223]| M. 
6973 | 5 | 20 9 56 | +25 M. 
6978 | (6)| 20 10 36 | +2.5 M. 
6983 | 45| 2011 7 | L-19]| M. 
6985 | 6.7 | 20 11 37 | +1. Gr. 
im J. 
Ja. 
Ad. 
6986 | 6 | 2011 54 | +-2.1 M. 
Ja. 
ne 
Ad. 
6990 | 5 | 20 12 35 | --22]| M. 
4:92 
Ad. 
6996 | 6 | 2018 7 | +21 M. 
6997 6 | 20 13 12 | +2.2 | M. 
7006 | 7 | 20 14 32 | +2.2] Ja. 
d. 9 
Ad. 
7008 | 6.7| 20 15 8 +2.2 | Gr. 
Str. 
J. 
Ja. 
Ad. 
7022 | 3.2 | 20 17 10 | + 2.2 | M. 
J. 2 
Ad. 
(024. t B | 90 IT 15 LO: M. 
7029 | 5 | 20 18 14 2.41 M. 
7035 | 6.7, 20 19 22 | +145 Gr. 
uds 
Ja. 
Ad. 
7055 | 7 | 2021 583 | +-1.6 Gr. 
q: 
Ja. 
Ad. 
7062 | 6 | 20 22 44 | +1.8] M. 


Mean 
Year. 


1843 
1851 


1846 
1849 
1855 


1855 


1855 


1847 
1851 


1851 
1857 


1855 


1851 
1855 


1830 
1850 
1851 


1857 


1849 


1851 


1846 
1851 


No. Obs. 5 1859.0. Systematic | Precession. 
43 | 36 25 36.6 + 10:34 
32 | 26 29 20.7 1 10.39 
45 | 26 23 26.5 : 10.47 

6 | 51 2260| —02 | 110.67 
4 280 | —1.5 
" 26.8 | —0.2 
| 51 2268 
30 | 46 23 25.7 | 4-10.69 
6 | 4257 114 | +03 | 110.70 
3 HSI 15 
5 10.7 | —0.2 
4 10.0 | +0.2 
42 57 10.3 
71 | 46 18 54.5 + 10.71 
2 553 | —0.3 
— | 46 18 54.5 
24 | 86 22 35.2 + 10.72 
$o I 
36 22 35.2 
8 | 36 19 29.0 10.73 
22 | 27 23 2.7 +. 10.77 
14 | 27 20 39.2 10.82 
68 | 47 16 56.8 10.86 
6 | 49 47 58.6 | —0.1 | 110.90 
3 60.5 | —1.6 
4 60.1 | —0.2 
49 47 59.5 
16 | 89 55 49.7 + 10.92 
4 49.5 | —0.2 
2 50.0 | +0.0 
39 55 49.7 
20 | 37.85 47.4 + 10.97 
2 Boktor e 
37 35 47.2 
20 | 40 17 39.8 11.00 
16 | 86 33 56.0 11.01 
5 | 36 41 25.4 | —02 11.11 
4 26.2 | +0.1 
36 41 26.1 
6 | 38 57 37.0 02 | 411.15 
6 38.1 0.5 
4 $7.9 | —14 
5 37.6 | —0.2 
38 57 36.5 
338 | 39 48 26.5 - 11.30 
9 268 | +0.1 
39 48 26.5 
58 | 61 48 363 11.30 
39 | 81 44 13.7 11.37 
6 | 5418 95| —01 | 411.46 
5 Hb a 
4 9.7 | —0.2 
54 13 9.6 
6 | 5418 251| —0.1 | +11.64 
3 260 | —15 
3 (48.9)| —0.2 
54 13 24.8 
116 | 48 55 07 + 11.70 


+ 0.09 


Proper 
Motion. 


0.05 
0.08 
— 0.03 


— 0.02 


0.00 


+ 0.05 
+0.01 
+ 0.01 
50.01 


— 0.02 


+ 0.02 


—0.01 
-- 0.01 


+ 0.08 


324 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B. A. C. Mag. œ 1859.0. 

h m 8 
7062 | 6 | 20 92 44 
7073 | 6 | 20 23 58 
7076 | 7 | 20 24 10 
7083 | 6.7 | 20 95 19 
7084 |(7.8) 20 25 88 
7085 | 5 | 20 25 41 
7091 | 6.5 | 20 26 58 
7100 | 7 | 20 97 58 
7101 | 7 | 20 27 59 
7103 | 5.6 | 20 28 25 
7105 | 6 | 20 28 20 
7112 | 6 | 20 29 17 
7114 | 67| 20 29 81 
7131 | 6 | 20 81 48 
7132 | (7) | 20 81 49 
7158 | 7 | 20 38 12 
7161 | 7 | 20 34 38 
7166 | 6.7 | 20 35 21 
7171 | 2.1 | 20 36 38 


KSE 


+ 2.0 


; dd. | Mean | No. Obs. Ô 1859.0. Systematic | Precession, Lu sed 

Ai.2.1856| .8 | 4$ 50. 172 |. —0:6 
Ad. 48 55 0.8 : : 
M. 29 95 59. 9.9 11.79 0.00 
Lal. 1 48 27 4.0 — 0.5 11.80 
T. 1 3.6 | +0. 
d 1847 8: "3 — 1.6 
Ad. 48 27. 57 
Gr. 6 | 45 26 545 | +0.1 | 4- 11.88 
R. 1847 1 59.1 — 0.6 
E 1848 4 64.4 — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 5 45 26 62.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 45 27 4.0 i 
M. 17 | 36 27 46.0 --11.900 | 0.00 
M. 80 48 28 44.7 11.91 0.00 
M. - 59 48 44 44.9 12.00 | — 0.04 
Gr. 6 | 42 42 438 | +0.3 | 412.07 
J. 1849 4 47.4 — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 44.6 — 0.2 
Ad. 42 42 45.7 
Gr. 6 40 59 32.7 + 0.3 | + 12.07 
J. 1846 9 37.2 —]1.5 
Ja. 1850 5 85.5 — 0.2 
Ad. 40 59 36.2 
M. 24 94 46 11.8 12.10 | — 0.08 
Gr. 6 | 5618 68 0.0 | -- 12.10 | + 0.03 
T 2 7.9 0.1 
Lo ofimel à $04 Soe 
Ad. 56 18 6.8. 
Gr. 6 | 46 12 406 | +0. | 4- 12116 
d. 1845 4 42.5 — 1.6 
Ja. 1851 3 ; 41.3 — 0.2 
Ad. 46 12 41.1 
Gr. 6 | 40 36 48.9 | +03 | + 12.17 

"ide 1847 13 51.6 — 1.5 
Ja. 1851 3 50,9: |. .— 03 
Ad. 40 36 50.6 | * E 
M. 21 31 4 54.8 | 12.88 | — 0.05 
M. 19 J1 T-585 [T o 12.33 | — 0.02 
Gr. : 6 52 28 54.9 — 0.2 12.43 | 
Js 1850 5 055.4 |. — 1.5 iP ou 
Ja. 1851. 4 90,2 — 0.2 
Ad. | 52 28 54.1 
Br. |1755| 2 | 4510126] +0.0 | 4- 12.58 

e Jen ap 1847 | id 189 | —16 
Ja. 1850 4 12.6 — 0.2 
Ad. 45 10 12.8 
Gr. 6 | 55 80 345 | 40.0 | + 12.58 
d: 1846 5 33.7 — 1.4 
Ja. 1851 4 32.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 55 30 31.8 
Br. |1755| 50 | 44 46 41.5 +12.66 | 0.00 
Str. | 1830 | © 413 | +0.0 
Arg. | 1830 | 240 418 | —0.3 
Airy | 1840 74 41.5.1. —0.1 
Chal. | 1840 | 188 42.2 — 1.2 
Hend.| 1840 71 41.8 — 0.6 
Airy | 1845 | 69 415 | —04 
d. 1846 29 44 46 42.4 — 1.5 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


325 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 18590. | „Annual | anthority.| Mean | ge, Obs.| A 1850.0, | Systematic | precession, | Proper 
hm 8 8 D 
7171 |2.1| 20 36 38 | -- 2.0 | Airy | 1850 | 106 | 44 46 41.4 | — 01 
J.2 | 1854] 5 38.9 | —0.2 
Airy | 1856 | 43 40.8 | —0.1 
Ad. 44 46 41.2 : 
7174 | 6 | 20 86 51 | --22 | Gr. 6 | 41 12 482 | +03 | -- 12.68 
L [SML A 512 | —15 
Ja. |1851| 4 490 | —0.2 
Ad. 41 12 49.7 
7176 | 6 | 30 87 18 | +18] Gr. 6 | 59 59 380 | +0.2 | +1271 
J. |1846| 5 45.6 | —1.2 
Ja. | 1851} 8 45.4 | —0.2 
Ad. 59 59 46.6 
7193 | 6 | 20 89 39 | +18 | Gr. 6 | 60 5408 | +0.2 | +1286 
[ITI $ 39.0 | —1.2 
Ja [1851 | 4 39.9 | —0.2 
Ad. 60 5 37.5 
7198 | 6 | 20 39 57 | --20 | Gr. 6 | 46 47 113 | +0.1 | +1389 
J. |1844| 4 12.5 | —1.6 
Ja. |1850| 4 124| —0.2 
Ad. 46 47 11.3 : 
7204 |3.2| 20 40 80 | +2.4 | M. 86 | 33 26 39.0 --12.92 | +0.33 
3.2 |189| 7 88.6 | —0.2 
Ad. 33 26 38.9 
7218 | 6.7 | 20 42 16 | -- 17 | Gr. e | 5229 7.t | —03 | --18.04 
A iioi 4 26| —15 
Ja |ie] 5 | 5239 05] —03 
e Ad. 52 98 59.2 
7219 | 7 | 20 42 30 | 4-21 | Gr. 6 | 45 8475] +0.1 | +18.06 
B. |1845|.6 47.6 | —0.6 
1. ITA A 498 | — 1.6 
Ja. |1850| 4 484| —0.2 
Ad. 45 8 479 
7233 | 65| 20 44 8| --20| M. 34 | 45 35 82.0 18.16 | — 0.02 
7241 | 5.6| 2045 4| --21| M. 55 | 43 81 46.6 13.23 | -+0.12 
3.2 |1857 | 9 47.5 | —0.2 
Ad. | 43 31 47.0 | e 
7243 | 6.7| 20 45 10 | -- 19 Gr. 6 |5015354| —0.1 | 418.23 | 
A lil. a 87.6 | —1.6 
Ja | 1851 | A 367 | —0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (16) 36.4 | +0.0 
Ad. " | 50 15 86.6 | - 
7246 | 5 | 20 46 6|+26| M. 24 | 26 34 17.2 13.29 | — 0.06 
7253 | 5.6| 20 48 16 | ail M. 65 | 43 51 17.8 13.44 | +0.01 
Ja |1850| A 17.8 | —0.2 
Ad. 43 51 17.7 | 
7259 | 7.8| 20 48 54 | --21]| M. 18 | 43 51 83 --1348 | +0.01 
Ja. | 1850| 8 9.0 | —o0.2 
Ad. 43 51 84 : 
7260 | 67| 20 49 6| --22| Gr. 6 | 4010 48| +03 | +13.49 
R ibai 9 28| —04 
J. |1846| 5 la | —15 
Ja. | 1850] 8 52 | —o2 
Ad. 40 10 53 : 
7268 | 6 | 2051 4|+20| Br. |1755 | 1 | 46 52 388 + 13.62 
: de. | eee} s 45.2 | —1.6 
Ja. |1850| 5 44.0 | —0.2 
J.2 |1856 $ 43.0 | —0.2 
Ad. 46 52 43.3 
VOL. VIII. 42 


926 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 1859.0. | „Annual | authority.| Mean | No.obs.| ` A 18590. Systematic | Precession, 
tm s 8 0] " " D 
7273 | 6 | 20 51 86 | +2.1 | Gr. 6 44 28 19 | +0.2 | -|- 18.65 
J. 1843 6 3.2 — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 3.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 44 23 2.2 
7274 | 6.7 | 20 51 49 | + 2.0 | Br. 1755 1 48 39 18.6 + 13.66 
J. 1848 3 17.6 | — 1.6 
Ja. 1850 5 16.7 — 0.2 
Ad. 48 39 16.0 
7290 | 6 | 2053 17 | -22| M. 4 49 55 27.8 + 13.76 
Ja. 1851 3 26.9 — 0.2 
J.2 | 1856 4 26.3 — 0.2 
Ad. 43 55 26.7 
7294 | 6 | 20 53 59 | +1.9 | Gr. 6 49 54 55.4 | — 0.1 | + 13.81 
Str. | 1823 7 55.7 | —0.4 
T. 3 549 | +0.1 
R. 1843 2 57.8 — 0.9 
J. 1843 3 57.4 — 1.6 
Ad. 49 54 56.3 
7297 | 6.7 | 20 5431 |+2.3 | Gr. 6 39 41 57.2 | +-0.8 | + 13.84 
i J. 1849 2 42 8.7 — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 5.8 — 0.2 
Ad. 39 42 8.6 
7301 |5.6| 20 55 2 2.0 | M. 50 46 58 18.4 13.87 
7306 | 6 | 20 56 16 Zip M. 38 45 36 11.9 13.95 
T9014 | 6 120.57 29 ZLT GR 6 44 14 10.6 | 1-02 14.02 
J. 1844 3 11.4 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 10.7 — 0.2 
Ad. 44 14 9.9 
7320 | 6.7 | 20 57 37 | +23] M. 17 38 6 7.3 + 14.03 
J.2 | 1855 6 6.4 | —0.2 
Ad. 98 6 6.9 
7332 | 6 | 20 59 29 | +18] Gr. 6 | 52 48314] —02 | +1415 
J. 1843 3 32.0 | —1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 32.5 | —0.2 
Ad. 52 43 31.2 ; | 
7337 | 6.7 | 21 0 86 | --2.7 | Br. 1755 1 37 58 7.7 + 14.22 
Arg. | 1830 | 38 38 1 55.9 | on 
R. 1846 3 2 43.4 | — 0.1 
Ai. | 1840 | 81 2 254 | +05 
Ai. | 1845 | 36 2 408 | +05 
H J.2 | 1855 4 8 11.0 | — 0.2 
Ai.2 | 1850 | 35 2 56.4 | +05 
Ai.2 | 1855 | 28 8 11.3 | +05 
` Ad. 38 3 23.9 
7345 | 5.6 | 21 145|+2.1| M. 21 47 4 588 + 14.29 
. Ai. 2 | 1855 5 59.2 | — 0.4 
Ad. 47 4 58.8 
7360 | 6 | 21 5 54| +19ļ| Gr. 8 52 59 19.7 | — 0.2 | + 14.55 
T. 2 191 | +0.0 
R. 1843 2 217 | —1.0 
J. 1844 A 198 | — 1.5 
Ad. 52 59 18.3 
7387 | 6.7 | 21 912| +15 | Gr. 6 59 31 2.7 0.2 | + 14.74 
T. 1 0.4 0.2 
R. 1843 1 30 583 | - — 1.4 
J. 1847 5 81 23 — 1.2 
J.2 | 1858 3 0.4 | +01 
Ad. 59 31 0.0 


Proper 
Motion. 


+ 0.08 


— 0.10 


— 0.02 
0.00 


+ 0.03 


+ 3.04 


— 0.01 


— 0.06 


— 0.03 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


327 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 0218590. | yariation, | Authority. | Me? | No.Obe | 3 1850.0. | Systematic | Procession. 
Les ee 8 OQ. EUN n 
7398 | 4.5 | 21 11 53 | --2.4 | M. 85 | 38 48 20.1 * + 14.90 
7401 | 6 | 2118 1|+183| Gr. 6 95 12 23.4 0.0 | 2- 14.96 
T. 2 23.2 0.1 
R. 1844 6 26.2 | —1.2 
J. 1845 4 24.6 | —1.4 
Ad. 55 12 24.2 
7402 | 5 | 211812 | +22] M. 11 43 21 14.7 + 14.97 
Ja. 1850 4 142 | —0.2 
Ad. 43 21 14.5 
7411 | 5.6, 21 14 87 | -- 2.1] Gr. 6 48 54 53.9 | 4- 0.0 | -+ 15.06 
J. 1844 8 56.2 | —1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 55.6 | — 0.2 
Ad. 48 54 55.3 
7481 | 6.5) 2117 6/+2.1] Gr. 6 48 47 4.9 + 15.20 
J. 1843 4 11.2] —1.6 
Ja. 1850 4 9.2 | — 0.2 
Ad. 48 47 11.2 
7449 | 7 | 31 19 26 | -- 13 | Pi 63 87 13.4 | +04 | 1.15.33 
T. 3 17.6 | +0.8 
J. 1847 3 19.0 | — 0.9 
Ad. 63 37 19.5 
7455 | 6 | 21 20 8| +22] M. 14 46 6 17.7 + 15.37 
7461 | 65| 21 21 28 | +2.6 | M. 19 26 59 47.0 + 15.44 
J.2 | 1855 5 47.5 | — 0.2 
Ad. 26 59 47.1 
7462 |65| 21 21 37 | +24] T. 36 30 192 | +0.7 | -- 15.45 
Ad. 36 30 19.9 
7468 | 6 |2122 7 | -2.6]| T. 31 36 33.5 | +0.6 | 415.48 
Ad. 31 36 34.1 
7469 | 7 | 21 2220 | -+ 2.2] Pi. 45 48 13.2 | 4-0.0 | + 15.50 
T. 13.0 | +0.2 
Ai. 1847 2 15.8 | —0.3 
J. 1850 + 16.4 | — 1.6 
Ad. 45 48 15.7 
7480 | 5 | 21 24 15 | +2.2 | M. 62 | 45 55 13.0 + 15.60 
J.2 | 1857 5 12.3 | — 0.2 
Ai.2 | 1855 3 123 | — 0.3 
Ad. 45 55 12.8 
7488 | 6.7 | 21 26 31 | +2.0] Gr. 6 | 51 34 17.8 | — 0.2 | -- 15.78 
J. 1847 4 23.0 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 4 22.1 | — 0.2 
Ou. | 1849 | (16) 22.0 | +0.0 
, Ad. 51 34 22.8 
7501 | 7 | 2128 1| --22] J. 1850 2 45 13 48.6 | — 1.6 | + 15.80 
Ja. 1850 4 48.1 | —0.2 
Ad. 45 13 47.5 
7503 | 4.5| 21 28 41 | +22] M. 51 44 58 11.0 15.84 
7505 | 5 | 2199 1|+24| M. 35 | 87 54 124 + 15.86 
J.2 | 1858 2 13.7 | — 0.2 
Ad. 37 54 12.5 y 
7512 | 6.7| 21 29 36 | +21] Gr. 6 91 4159 | — 0.2 | +-15.89 
J. 1845 8 17.9 | — 1.5 
Ja. 1850 3 16.9 | — 0.2 
Ou. (16) 171 | +00 
Ad. 51 417.1 
7521 | 9 | 21 81 18 | --24 | M. 33 | 39 46 54.4 15.98 
7524 | 6.7| 21 32 6 | +24] Gr. 6 | 98 41 1.3 0.2 16.02 
T. 8 | 38 41 13 0.7 


Pro 
Motion. 


+ 0.03 
011 


— 0.02 


--0.18 


+ 0.03 
+ 0.02 


— 0.02 
+ 0.09 
— 0.05 


+0.11 


+0.06 | 


— 0.10 
-- 0.10 


+0.01 
— 0.14 


328 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.C. | Mag. or 1859.0. 
bh 3 5 
7524 | 6.7| 21 32 6 
7533 7 | 21 83 25 
7542 | 5.6 | 21 34 8 
7544 | 6.5 | 21 34 39 
1554 6 | 21 35 54 
7560 | 5.4| 21 37 5 
7565 | 5.6 | 21 37 26 
7571 4 | 21 38 16 
7584 | 7 | 21 89 33 
7586 | 7 | 21 89 59 
1602 6 | 21 42 28 
7007 | 5 | 231 43 37 
7612 | 67| 21 45 3 
7614 6 | 21 45 15 
7637 7] 21 48 23 
7646 | 6.7 | 21 50 33 
7668 | 6.7 | 21 54 40 
7679 | 6.7 | 21 56 57 
7683 6 | 21 57 20 
7705 | 65|22 0 18 
"C418 811339 3 25 


24 


+25 


2.6 
2.1 


+25 


Authority. | Mean | No. Obs. 5 1859.0. CH |. Pme | RE 
X ious | s iai 481 14 
Ad. 38 41 34 : 
Gr. 8 | 61 39 49.9 0.4 | +16:09 
T. 4 55.9 0.9 
x 1843 | 3 558 | —1.0 
J.2 |1857| 4 555 | +02 
Ad. 61 39 56.2 : 
M. 55 | 61 26 484 16.14 0.00 
M. 30 | 42 88 6.6 16.15 | + 0.02 
Ai.2 | 1855 | 10 63 | +03 
Ad. 42 38 6.6 
M. 37 | 40 9 59.6 16.22 | — 0.06 
M. 113 | 50 32 501 16.28 0.00 
M. 27 | 40 30 43.7 16.30 | +0.02 
M. 33 | 24 59 57.0 16.34 | -+ 0.03 
Lal. | 1794] 2 | 2456 118 | —1.6 1641 | — 011 
Rm | 16484 1 3.6 | 10.6 
J.2 |1854| 3 61i T 
Ad. 24 56 4.9 
M. 8 | 94 54 448 + 16.43 | +0.04 
3.2 |1857 | 2 422 | —0.2 
Ad. 24 54 43.9 
Gr. 6 | 3818 7.7 | +02 | +16.55 
4. 1846| 3 190 1 — 14 
Ja. |1850| 4 102 | —02 
Ad. 38 18 11.2 
M. 34 | 29 31 10.1 16.61 | — 0.02 
Gr. 6 | 52 2240| —02 16.68 
3: 1845 | 4 al ER 
Ja. 1850| 4 23.3 | —0.2 
: 3 23.0 0.0 
Ad. ©) 52 2 23.3 iy 
Gr. 6 | 38 52 37.9 | +02 | +16.69 
J. 1847 | 4 HIF ot 
Jj. |n i 39.8 | —0.2 
Ad. | 38 52 40.2 E 
M. 15 | 53(19 53.7) 16.84 | — 0.05 
Gr. 12 | 5234302 | —02 | +1694 
į 1845 | 4 916 | — 1.5 
Ja. |180 |. 4 32.2 | —0.2 
Ad. 52 34 31.0 
M. 15 | 5659 23 +17.13 | — 0.02 
ES 118957]. 4 3.6 | +0.0 
Ad. 56 59 2.8 
Gr. 6 |42 8 39| --03 | +17.24 
A 1846 | 3 78] 55 
Ja. |1850| 4 53 | —02 
Ad. 42 8 63 
M. 88 | 57 19 148 17.25 | — 0.01 
Gr. 6 | 44 19 46.1 0.9 17.39 | — 0.10 
T. 4 41.8 0.4 
J. 1849 | 8 487 | —15 
Jä | 1857 | 2 473 | —02 
Ad. 44 19 47.5 
Gr. 6 | 58 9 142 01 | +17.47 | — 0.04 
T. 2 13.0 0.1 : 
Eh mgl i 13.8 | —18 
Ak isg] .6 | 58 pisil —04 


op THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


B.A.C. |Mag.| 1850.0. | Annual | Authority. | Men | wo. Obs,| ` 31990. — | Systematic Modos. 
+ ES Gs 8 ' n 
7718 |67|22 225|+20| J. |184| 8 | 56 9145| —1'8 
3 Ad. 58 9 11.8 + : 
7721 |(5.6) 22 2 59 | +27 | M. 43 | 8229 64 17.50 | 0.00 
7727 |67|22 8 6|+24| Gr. 6 | 47 14 409 | +0.0 | -L 17.51 
Ai |1843| 7 iči — 04 
di 1845 1.3 410] 18 
Ja. |1850| 4 418 | —0.2 
Ad. 47 14 40.4 
7781 | 4 |22 8 44. | -27 | M. 42 | 32 29 15.3 17.53 | 0.00 
7736 | 7 | 22 3850|+20| Pi. 58 36 120 | +03 17.53 | +0.01 
Li pula 180 | —1.8 
J.2 | 1856] 1 120 | +0.1 
Ad. 58 36 11.7 
7787 | 7 |22 855|+25| Gr. 6 | 42 99 42.1 0.8 | --17.54 | — 0.01 
T. 4 45.0 0.5 
2 ibai £ it ER 
Ai. 2 | 1856| 2 42.0 | +03 
Ad. 42 29 44.3 
7748 | 67| 22 512 | --25| Gr. 6 | 42 20 167 | +0.3 | -- 17.60 
E [ml a 195 | —15 
Ja. |1850| 4 172 | —0.2 
| Ad. 42 90 17.9 
7755 |65|22 6 44| --20]| M. 81 | 58 48 9.7 --17.65 | — 0.06 
J.2 | 1857] 4 10.1 | +0.1 
Ad. 58 43 9.7 
7765 | 5 | 22 7 50| +26] Gr. 6 | 89 0586] +08 | +17.71 
| Arg. | 1830 | 8 60.6 | —0.1 
T. 5 60.8 | +0.6 
J. |1i8s50| 2 60.8 | —15 
Ad. 39 0 59.8 
7770 | 6 | 22 8 49 | -25 | Gr. 6 | 42 15 205 | +038 | -- 17.75 
d c ld5ddd o A. 334 | —15 
Ja. |1850| 4 20.8 | — 0.2 
` Ad, 42 15 20.8 Ce 
7777 | 5.4| 22 950|--26| M. AR AO SA E 
7787 | 71 | 391831 | -85 | Gr. |. — |. 6 10: 8-111 ae 
ER eh gee B8] o ADDIDIT 
c» [nel i —M| 09 o 
u. | 1849 tee f = 
Ad. =) SP aI : a 
7820 | 5 | 92 18 48 | --24 | M. 87 | 48 45 442 | 4-1818 | — 0.03 
7824 | 6.7| 22 19 25 | --24 | Gr. é | 50 82216 | —0.1 18.14 | 
T. 4 240 | +0.1 
Ao dni. 8 255 | —1.6 
i Ou. |1849 | (18) 25.1 | +0.0 
Ad. 50 32 25.5 
7825 | 7.8 | 22 19 44 | --24 | Gr. 5 |4941 91] —01 | 4- 18.15 
T. 4 1L6 | +01 
Ad. 49 41 10.8 CS 
7845 | 5 | 2293 41 | --25 | M. 32.| 4659 98] ` --1831 | — 0.01 
3.2 |189| 1 116 | —02 
AL 46 59 9.9 V 
7850 | 5 | 22 24 24 | --2.6 | M. pe |a. ER. --1834 | 0.00 
7855 | 4 | 92 25 29 | --25 | M. 152 | 4933298 | ` 1687 | 001 
43 listi 8|  — 1 —M 
| Ad. | 49 33 29.8 : 
7858 | 6 | 22 26 12 | +2.6 | Gr. 6 | 39 3207| +03 | -- 1840 
VOL. VIII. 42* 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS NEAR THE ZENITH 


B.A.O. | Mag. | œ 1859.0. | yattation, | Authority. | Mean | No. obs Ò 1859.0. 
ege 8 ` D 
7858 | 6 | 2226 12 | +26] J. 1846 8 39 dai 
Ja. 1850 4 20.8 
Ad. 39 3 19.7 
7879 | 7 | 22 29 85 | +27 | M. 16 38 53 56.7 
J.2 | 1859 3 56.9 
] Ad. 38 53 56.7 
7880 | 6 | 22 29 86 | +2.7 | M. 66 38 54 21.1. 
J.2 | 1858 1 20.5 
Ad. 38 54 21.1 
7894 | 6.7 | 22 32 12 | +-2.6 | Gr. 6 | 44 27 2.9 
T. 3 3.7 
J. 1845 4 6.3 
Ad. 44 27 5.5 
7906 | 5 | 22 34 20 | +2.6 | M. 68 43 82 27.4 
J.2 | 1857 3 28.0 
Ai.2 | 1857 12 28.1 
Ad. 43 32 27.6 
7913 | 7 | 22 85 1| 4-2.6| Gr. 6 44 16 19.6 
IOT, 2 21.0 
Ai. 1841 1 20.9 
J. 1845 3 22.9 
Ad. 44 16 22.0 
7917 | 6 | 22 85 18 | +2.7 | Gr. 6 40 48 35.6 
J. 1847 4 40.4 
Ja. 1850 4 38.9 
Ad. 40 48 39.6 
7948 | 6 | 22 39 55 | +26] Gr. 6 | 43 48 10.8 
Ai. 1843 5 12.9 
J. 1846 4 14.2 
Ja. 1850 4 11.4 
Ad. 43 48 13.0 
7950 | 6 | 22 40 12 | +2.6] Gr. 12 45 28 28.6 
d. 8 28.2 
J. 1846 6 30.1 
J.2 | 1857 3 29.0 
Ad. 45 28 28.6 
7972 | 6 |224541|+2.7 | M. 29 | 42 33 49.9 
J.2 | 1859 5 51.0 
Ai.2 | 1855 2 49.5 
Ad. 42 33 50.1 
7983 | 6 | 22 47 22 | +2.7] Gr. : 6 44 0 05 
J. 1845 8 2.9 
Ja. 1850 | 4 1.7 
Ad. 44°0 17 
7994 | 6 | 22 49 58 | +2.7 | M. 32 40 51 8.0 
7995 | 6 | 22 50 15 | +2.6 | Gr. 6 48 58 54.0 
J. 1845 5 54.1 
Ja. 1850 4 53.2 
Ad. 48 58 52.1 
8023 | 4.3 | 22 55 26 | -+27 | M.- 102 41 34 8.7 
Ai. 2 | 1855 | 1 8.6 
Ad. 41 34 8.7 
8028 | 6 | 22 56 7 2.7 | .M. 26 41 59 59.9 
8032 | 2.3 | 22 56 56 2.9] M. 115 | 27 19 8.4 
J.2 | 1857 5 7.8 
Ad. 27 19 83 
8036 | 5.6, 22 57 52 | -- 27 | M. 49 49 17 10.2 
J.2 | 1858 1 49 17 8.6 


Systematic 
Correction. 


SIs 
08 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 


— 0.2 


Precession. CE 
+ 18.51 | — 0.14 
+18.51 | +0.01 
+ 18.60 
+18.67 | 0.00 
+ 18.69 
+ 18.70 
+ 18.84 
+ 18.85 
+ 19.01 | +0.01 
+ 19.06 
19.13 | + 0.01 
19.13 e 
--19.26 | — 0.03 
19.28 | +0.02 
+19.30 | +0.15 
+ 19.32 | +0.16 


OF THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE. 


Annual 


B.A.C. | Mag. | 418590. | vamonos, | Authority. 
h m 5 D 

8036 | 5.6| 22 57 52 2.7 |- Ad 
8054 | 5.6| 23 0 40 251. M. 
8056 | 6.7| 28 0 51 3.7.4. M. 
Ja. 

Ad. 

8058 | 6 | 23 118 B7TT^ME 
8059 | 6 | 28 1 22 271 M. 
J. 9 

Ad. 

8075 | 6 | 23 3848 |+4-25] M. 
J. 2 

Ad. 

8076 | 6 | 23 857|--28]| M. 
J.2 

Ad. 

8082 | 5 | 28 6 6 9.7 1-M. 
8091 | (7)| 23 8 5 2.9 | Lal 
Ja. 

Ad. 

8097 | (6)| 28 8 53 29| M. 
8099 |(8)| 23 9 11 29] Pi 
T. 

R. 

: Ad. 
8110 | 6 | 28 10 89 | +28] Gr. 
ds 

Ja. 

Ad. 

8114 | 5.6 | 23 11 13 2.8 M. 
8118 | 6 | 23 11 43 2.8} M. 
8120 | 6.7| 23 12 24 2.8 | Gr. 
zum ^ 

: Ja. 

ER AG 

8125 | 6 | 28 12 56 | +28] M. 
8126 | 67| 28 18 5 -28 | M. 
J. 2 

Ad. 

8128 | 6 | 28 18 10 28| M. 
8185 | 6 | 28 14 4 36 i J. 
T ok 

Ad. 

8153 | 5?| 28 16 16 | --2.6| M. 
Ja. 

Ad. 

8156 | 7.8 | 23 16 52 | +3.0 | M. 
J. 2 

Ad. 

8159 | 6 | 2317 58 | --29 | M. 
m. J. 2 

Ai. 2 

Ad. 
8171 | 6 | 23 20 20 2291: M. 
8188 | 5 | 28 23 82 2.8 = 
B. 

Ai. 


1850 


1857 


1857 


1856 


1795 


1850 


1841 


1844 


1850 


1845 
1850 


| 1857 


1847 


1850 


1850 


1857 


1857 


1854 


1843 
1841 


1844 


| 
No.Obs.| 5 1859.0. | Systematic | Precession. | vi 
o t 
49 17 10.1 : : 
42 58 39 28.2 19.39 | — 0.02 
8 | 45 18 20.6 S 19.39 
3 22.2 | — 0.2 
45 18 21.2 
91 45 87 33.7 19.40 | — 0.05 
36 | 48 31 412 19.40 | +0.12 
1 41.4 | — 0.2 
48 31 41.2 
40 | 5834 52 --1945 | — 0.02 
3 7A | +01 
58 34 5.6 
42 | 42 47 148 + 19.46 | — 0.18 
4 15.2 | — 0.2 
42 47 14.9 è 
106 48 38 10.7 19.50 | + 0.08 
1 27 18 28.0 | — 1.5 19.54 
T. 14.8 0.2 
27 18 13.5 
22 27 28 47.5 19.56 0.00 
27 97 88.4 | — 1.2 19.57 | — 0.08 
1 28.9 0.5 
1 30.2 0.5 
27 27 28.4 
6 44 23 53.1 + 0.2 | + 19.59 
4 52.6 —]1.5 
4 52.0 | —0.2 
44 23 50.6 
55 48 14 42.8 19.60 0.00 
27 41 0 142 19.61 | — 0.02 
6 | 4432 03| --02 | } 19.63 
3 isl 15 
3 03] — 0.2 
| 44 21 59.8 NM 
* ass) . | 4-19.64 | --0.06 
25 47 36 30.8 von 19.64 | + 0.03 
1 5871] 031 - — — EA 
awmi ^| b - 
27 | 41 18 248 — | 4-19.64 | $0.08. 
2 |4830462| —15| +1966) — 
4 447 | — 0.2 ; 
43 20 44.6 
12 59 21 38.4 + 19.69 | — 0.01 
5 89.0 | — 0.2 
59 21 38.5 : 
27 81 45 20.9 + 19.70 | — 0.05 
1 23.9 | — 0.2 
81 45 21.1 
22 | 31 36 884 +19.72 | om 
4 388.6 | —0.2 | | 
81 86 88.6 | | E 
a | 42-8104] —  |-+41976|-+008 
12 | 57 46 172 | +01 | +1981 | +0.02 
5 19.4 0.1 $a ; 
5 180 | —13- 
44 18.9 | — 0.4 
4 57 46 20.0 | — 1.3 


332 


CATALOGUE OF THE DECLINATIONS OF STARS. 


S A0 | Mag. | «18590. | yAnaual 
+ Ro CES, 8 
8188 | 5 | 23 23 32 | + 2.8 
8195 | 6 | 23 24 22 | 42.9 
8211 | 6 | 23 27 40 | +3.0 
8224 | 4 | 23 30 40 | Lag 
8229 | 4 | 28 81 14 | Lag 
8237 | 4 | 28 83 28 | --2.9 
8245 | 6.7| 23 85 19 | Lag 
8268 | 5 | 23 40 11 | +2.9 
8282 | 6 | 28 42 Lag 
8284 | 6 | 23 42 31 3.0 
8324 | 5 | 28 50 35 3.0 
8326 | 6 | 23 50 59 3.0 
8338 | 7.8 | 23 53 34 3.0 
8345 | 6.7 | 23 54 32 3.0 


Authority. ` Mean | No, Obs. 5 1859.0. Systematic | Procession. | Moto 
Ad. 57 46 18.9 : > 
M. 43 | 88 27 43.3 , | 4p 19.81 | — 0.08 
42 1859 4 43.5 — 0.2 
Ad. 88 27 43.3 
M. TE $2 43 3.6 19.86 | + 0.04 
M. 139 45 41 39.4 19.89 | — 0.45 
E 2 1857 | - 1 39.5 —0.2 
Ad. 45 41 39.4 
M. 89 | 42 29 17.6 4-19.90 | + 0.03 
Ai.2 | 1856| 5 153 | +03 
Ad. 42 29 17.4 
M. 77 | 43 83 140 + 19.92 | + 0.01 
Gr. 7 44 12 38.3 0.2 | + 19.93 
Ai. 1840 6 39.8 0.0 
J: 1846 4 40.5 — 1.5 
Ja. 1850: 4 39.4 — 0,2 
Ad. 44 12 39.8 
M. 79 | 57 52 0.0 + 19.98 | + 0.06 
Br. 1755 1 58 10 51.3 + 19.99 | — 0.02 
J. 1845 4 49.0 | — 1.3 
Ja. 1850 4 48.9 — 0.2 
Ad. 58 10 47.6 : 

M. 20 98 -9 929.8 19.99 | -+ 0.04 
M. 37 24 21 28.4 20.04 | — 0.04 
Gr. 6 | 49 38 588 | —0.1 | + 20.04 | + 0.09 
T " 39 50| +0.1 

J. 1845 8 9.1 — 1.6 

Ad. 49 39 11.0 

M. 13 61 23 32.6 20.05 1 —7:0.04 
Gr. 6 41 34 56.8 + 0.3 20.05 

Ai. 1843 29 55.7 + 0.3 

d. 1846 4 56-4 == 1.5 

Ja. 1850 4 55.7 — 0.2 

Ad. 41 84 53.2 


Norr. — The declinations of the Radcliffe Catalogue, received since these computations were made, have - 


already been corrected by systematic corrections very nearly the same as those given by Midler. The results 


marked J. in the preceding Catalogue, from the original volumes, have not these corrections. 


The Radcliffe Catalogue contains, as it seems, the results of some of the observations designated by J. 2 in 
These latte 
erally omitted, as our stars would be affected Sub Polo by the uncertainty of refraction. 


the preceding list; and also, as I suppose, the results of Sub Polo observations. 


r I have gen- 


The reductions to 1845.0 in the Radcliffe Catalogue seem to contain proper motion in some cases. The 


method which I have employed did not admit of this in case of stars not contained in Mádler's list. 


' I find a discrepancy between Müdler's position of the stars 4789 and 7637, and modern observations. The 


latter indicate that the declinations for 1859 are as follows : — 


. 


4789 


52° 30 13".1 


1697 


53° 20! 1".7 


XL 


The Lumbar Enlargement of the Spinal Cord. 


Bx JOHN DEAN, M. D. 


(Communicated through Dr. Jerrries Wyman, November 14, 1860.) 


p 


- I proposes, in the following paper, to notice a few points in regard to the structure 
of the spinal cord, confining myself chiefly to a description of the course of the fibres 
forming the nerve-roots, as they pass through the white and gray substances to their 
final union with nerve-cells, discussing somewhat at length the relation which nerve- 
cells and fibres sustain in the cord. 

In drawing up the descriptive details of this memoir I have restricted them chiefly 
to the lumbar region in some of the higher vertebrates, lest any deductions I might 
attempt to establish should be embarrassed by the necessity of comparing observations 
made upon portions of the cord differing somewhat in structure. 

The division commonly made in the substance of the cord into gray and white 
matter, or into vesicular and fibrous, seems to be tenable only when we state the differ- 
ence between them to consist in the presence of true nerve-cells in the gray or vesic- 
ular, while they are absent in the white or fibrous substance. This distinction seems 
to me the only correct one, for I am fully satisfied that the so-called cells of the white 
substance, described by Stilling and others, are nothing more than cells belonging to the 
connective tissue, or, as sometimes occurs, true nerve-cells which have been isolated 
from the gray substance by the plane of section. Bidder* remarks on the situation of 
cells evidently connected with the cornua, that * they are sometimes quite encircled by 
the white substance, in which rare case this substance forms but a very small partition 
separating them from the gray." This every observer will have noticed, and I have 
often in longitudinal sections found such cells quite isolated, which I should have con- 
sidered as belonging to the white substance, had not the section, following a slightly 


* Bidder and Kupffer, Untersuch. über die Textur d. Rückenmarks. Leipzig, 1857. 


VOL. VIII. 43 


334 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


oblique plane, run fully into the cornu lower down. I have never met with true nerve- 
cells (cells giving off distinct nerve-tubes) in any other situation in the white substance. 

My own observations are entirely in agreement with the description which J. L. 
Clarke* has given of the connective tissue. I have, however, frequently noticed in the 
cords of adult animals that a few of the cells were still persistent, especially in the 
vicinity of the posterior cornua, where I have several times seen quite large cells send- ` 
ing out fine processes continuous with the connective tissue. The view which Clarke 
has taken of the possible relation between connective and true nerve-tissue seems very 
valuable; for I have long been satisfied of the impossibility of fully distinguishing, 
with our present means, between these two tissues, which seem to run into each other 
so closely as to suggest very strongly the important question, * whether there is any 
actual and essential difference between them, or whether the connective tissue of the 
cord be intermediate in its nature, passing on the one hand into nerve tissue, and on 
the other into pia mater.” f Every observer who has in his possession moderately 
transparent specimens must be able to satisfy himself of the entire incompleteness of 
the views of Bidder and others, in whose opinion the greater part of the gray sub- 
stance consists of connective tissue. 

The gray substance is composed of nerve-cells, connective tissue, and nerve-fibres 
running in various directions, transverse, oblique, and longitudinal. 

The form of the gray substance has been so fully and faithfully described and 
figured by Clarke t and Stilling,§ that I shall proceed at once to consider: — 


I. The Nerve-Cells, their Situation, and the Relation which Cells and Fibres bear to 
each other. 


(A.) The Nerve-Cells. — The form of these has been fully figured and described by 
Clarke, Kólliker, R. Wagner, Stilling, and many others. The cells are subject to great 
variation, the apparent form, size, and number of processes depending, without doubt, 
very much on the direction of the plane of section with respect to the situation of the 
cell. With regard to the distinctions which Jacubowitsch|| has founded on the size of 
the cells, dividing them into motor, sensitive, and sympathetic, according to their rela- 
tive dimensions, I fully agree with Stilling as to the absolute impossibility of making 
any such classification in our present state of knowledge, and a glance at any of the 


* Philos. Trans., 1859, Pt. I. p. 441. T Ibid., p. 442. 
i Philos. Trans., 1851, 1853, 1859. 

$ Neue Untersuchungen über d. Bau d. Rückenmarks. Cassel, 1850 — 59. 

| Bulletin de l'Académie de St. Petersburg. 1856. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 935 


figures which accompany this paper will show cells which, according to Jacubowitsch, 
should be sensitive, in the anterior cornua, and large or motor cells in the posterior 
cornua. ; 

The nerve-cell appears to be simply an enlargement of the axis cylinder, containing 
a granular substance and a nucleus. Sometimes by the use of a power of 100 — 900 
diameters I have thought that I detected a cell wall from which the coagulated cell 
contents seemed shrunken away. With the description which Stilling gives of the 
minute structure of cell and fibre I cannot at all agree, being convinced, from what 
little investigation I have been able to make, that the so-called elementary tubuli are 
produced artificially by the coagulating action of chromic acid ; and Clarke has recently 
shown that these appearances may be produced at will in fresh nerve fibre, either by 
coagulation or mechanical agency. * 

(B.) The Groups of Nerve-Cells, and their Situations. — The groups of cells situated 
in the anterior cornua have already been fully described by Clarke, Stilling, and 
various other authors. I shall confine my own observations entirely to the cells of 
the posterior cornua, about which greater difference of opinion exists. Bidder and 
his followers deny the existence of any true nerve-cells in the posterior cornua; 
in only one case did they observe a large nucleated cell with several processes in the 
gelatinous substance of the cord of a dog.t Figs. 6, 7 show the relative size and 
frequency of these cells, and as these two figures are drawn to the same scale as Figs. 
4, 5, from the anterior cornua, they will serve for comparison; they are all drawn 
from the lumbar enlargement of the calf. For convenience of description, I shall 
adopt Clarke's division of the posterior cornu into cervix and caput cornu, the caput 
being the broad expanded portion of the cornu, the cervix the remainder of the 
cornu as far forwards as the central canal. My observations on the cells of the poste- 
rior cornu, which were mostly made before I had seen Clarke's recent paper (1859), 


* Observations on the Structure of Nerve-Fibre. Quart. Jour. of Microscopical Science, January, 1860. 

f That other observers have differed from them, Bidder and Kupffer attempt to explain by the somewhat 
singular hypothesis,that on the one hand cells of connective tissue are liable to be mistaken for nerve-cells, 
and also=preparation by chromic acid “does not preclude the possibility, that, in cutting the section, cells should 
be torn from their natural situation, and transported to a locality where they do not belong or are not expected 
to appear.” (Loc. cit., p. 68.) This latter supposition, even if we could conceive of the possibility “that, in 
cutting the section,” cells could be stolen, and displayed with their processes spread out by the razor, might be set 
entirely at rest by making the section from behind forwards, in which case we might certainly infer that all the 
cells of the posterior portion belonged where they were seen, and the only inference it seems possible to draw 
is that the preparations of the Dorpat school are not sufficiently transparent for the display of these cells, 
which certainly require more delicate preparation than is necessary for the cells of the anterior cornua. 


Ld 


336 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


are so entirely in agreement with his statements in all important particulars that I 
shall only notice some of the principal points. The large cells of the gelatinous sub- 
stance, which Clarke has described as occurring only in the fibrous band constituting 
the border of the substantia gelatinosa, are quite apparent in longitudinal sections, dis- 
posed at nearly regular intervals, usually in a single line just above each other, close 
to the entrance of the posterior roots into the gray substance, seeming to constitute a 
regular column connected with the posterior roots. With respect to the smallest cells, 
as well those of the whole posterior cornu as the substantia gelatinosa, I have not been 
able entirely to satisfy myself. Many of the smaller cells belong undoubtedly to the 
connective tissue, many are merely fragments of larger cells, and it is not improbable 
that some may be true nerve-cells still in process of development.  Fusiform cells* are 
often met with in the gelatinous substance, and are quite abundant in all parts of the 
posterior cornu, being frequently found in longitudinal sections. In the central por- 
tion of the caput the cells are mostly small, though large ones are occasionally seen, 
and just at the junction between cervix and caput large cells occur which are some- 
times quite thrust out into the white substance, embracing the longitudinal white fibres 
on all sides with their processes; in some few sections I have met with several cells in 
this position, forming by their processes quite an intricate network out among the 
white fibres. In the cerviz many large cells are met with, together with numbers of 
smaller size, and here cells are found more or less grouped together, belonging to 
Clarke’s posterior vesicular columns; for I cannot agree with Stilling that these cells 
disappear entirely in the greater part of the lumbar enlargement. t 

(C.) The Relation which Cells and Fibres bear to each other. — This subject I shall treat 
under the following heads: —(a.) The Connection of the Nerve- Cells with each other ; 
(b.) The Connection of the Cells with the Anterior and Posterior Roots ; (c.) The Con- 
nection of the Cells with the Longitudinal or White Fibres. 

. (a.) The Connection of the Nerve-Cells with each other. — Schroder van der Kolk¢ t 


* Figured by Clarke, Stilling, and Kölliker. 

t Stilling states, in opposition to Clarke, that the posterior vesicular columns, — “ (1.) Do not form uninter- 
rupted columns through the entire length of the cord. (2.) They do not enlarge in diameter in the lumbar 
and cervical enlargements, but disappear entirely in the greater part of these enlargements. (3.) Their great- 
est diameter is in the dorsal region between these enlargements.” In the dorsal region, according to my own 
observations, they seem to be collected into a compact group, completely circumscribed by a band of fibres, 
while in the lumbar region they are scattered over a very considerable space, the cells by no means entirely 
disappearing, however, even in the lower part of the lumbar enlargement. Clarke in his last paper, Philos. 
"Trans. 1859, has somewhat modified his earlier statements. 

i Bau und Functionen der Medulla Spinalis und Oblongata. Braunschweig, 1859. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 331. 


describes and figures, for the most part very truthfully, the communications between 
cells by means of longer or shorter fibres. He states that two cells are often united 
by more than one fibre, but so far as my own observations reach this is exceed- 
ingly rare. He seems to infer that cells of the posterior cornua are also connected, 
though he does not mention ever having seen this. Lenhossék* speaks of the cells as 
being multipolar, and connected together in a continuous chain “from the apex of the 
conus medullaris to the inmost structure of the brain”; he figures the union of several 
cells from the cervical enlargement of the human cord. Bidder and Kupffert notice 
the same fact; they were also able to make out cell connections in longitudinal sections. 
. Stilling agrees with the authors cited above, considering these cell connections, how- 
ever, as independent of those which he believes established between all the cells by the 
elementary tubuli. Both Stilling and Schróder van der Kolk describe the cell-process 
as bifurcating, distant cells being connected together by this first division, or by means 
of still further ramification. Stilling carries this division of the cell-process much fur- 
ther than Van der Kolk, making the branches split again and again, till they are 
reduced to the finest elementary tubuli. My own observations agree in this respect 
much more nearly with the figure and description of Clarke;$ his statement that the 
cell-processes *divide and subdivide into smaller branches, so that the space between 
them appears to be occupied by a minute network of the most delicate fibrils," is 
entirely correct, if we take for granted that Clarke would not carry the splitting so far 
as to reduce the cell-process to elementary tubuli, which appears to be a just infer- 
ence from his criticisms on Stilling’s views.|| I have uniformly seen the cells con- 
nected by fibres never smaller than the axis cylinder of the finest nerve-fibres of the 
white substance, being usually (measured at a sufficient distance from the cell for the 
diameter to be uniform) about .0001 — .00025" in diameter. 

That some cells are connected together by their processes, as described by the authors 
cited above, admits of no doubt; the results of my own observations, made on the 
cords of the rabbit, calf, sheep, cat, and ox, admitting of the comparison of many 
hundred sections, have been very uniform, establishing beyond any doubt connections 
between some cells in every section of average clearness. "These connections are by no 
means so easy to be made out that careful study is not needed to satisfy the observer ; 
a cell-process rarely runs its course on the same plane, so that constant change of focal 
adjustment is necessary, and the fibres interlace and cross in such confusion, that much 


* Neue Untersuch. iib. d. Feineren Bau d. Centralen Nervensystems, (Wien, 1858,) p. 7. 
t Op. cit., p. 63. t Neue Untersuch., p. 928. 


$ Philos. Trans., 1851, Pl. XXV. Fig. 15. | Quart. Jour. of Microscopical Science, 1860. 


338 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


patience, and objectives of large angular aperture and very clear definition, ranging in 
power from 200 to 700 diameters, are constantly needed to satisfy the observer of the 
truth of what is seen with lower powers. Usually a power of about 120 diameters is 
best calculated for this study, and with this most of my drawings were made; but 
sometimes as high a power as 700 is required for the complete resolution of the 
course of fibres, and none of my drawings were made until the preparation had been 
carefully studied with high objectives. 

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, from transverse sections from the anterior cornu, Fig. 5, from a lon- 
gitudinal section through the same cornu, and Figs. 6 and 7, representing respectively 
longitudinal and transverse sections from the posterior cornu, may be referred to as 
exhibiting the different modifications of cell-connection. Sometimes, as at d, Fig. 1, 
the cells are joined by a short, thick fibre; in other cases the process is much longer 
and usually somewhat thinner (Fig. 1, c, and Fig. 2, dd); Figs. 3 and 4 give very 
good examples of both these forms; Fig. 7 shows that these connections are equally 
met with in the posterior cornua, though they are more difficult to make out here, 
owing to the finer nature and more complex arrangement of the fibres. Longitudinal 
sections (Figs. 5 and 6) show chiefly the longer mode of cell-connection ; this is espe- 
cially the case in Fig. 5, from the anterior cornu, where the arrangement of fibres is 
much easier to make out than in the posterior parts of the cord. 

I should, however, state my views very unfairly, did I not urge the great necessity of 
caution in regard to this question of cell-connection. We are able beyond doubt to see 
that some cells are connected together by their processes, but we are at present by no 
means able to state, with Lenhossék, that all the cells are connected in a continuous 
chain; indeed, we have much reason for thinking quite otherwise, the result of a year's. 
observation, principally in this single direction, having convinced me that the un- 
doubted examples of cell-connection, seen even in the most favorable specimens, are 
exceptional rather than constant. In a question bearing on all our ideas of nervous 
conduction so strongly as this does, the necessity for caution in everything like infer- 
ence cannot be too strongly insisted upon. 

(b.) The Connection of the Cells with the Anterior and Posterior Roots. — That fibres 
of the anterior roots have their origin in cells of the anterior cornu has been fully 
established by Bidder, * Schilling, T R. Wagner, t Stilling, § and Schröder van der Kolk, || 


* Bidder and Kupffer, Untersuch. iiber d. Text. d. Riickenmarks, (Leipzig, 1857,) p. 95. 
f De Medulle Spinalis Text. Dorpat, 1852. ; 

i Neurolog. Untersuchungen. $ Neue Untersuchungen. 
|| Op. cit., p. 97. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 339 


the only difference between these authors being one of degree; Stilling maintaining 
that some only of the fibres constituting the anterior roots arise from cells within the 
cord, the remainder being direct continuations of the posterior roots; on the other 
| hand, Bidder and Schróder van der Kolk consider the cells of the anterior cornua the 
sole origin of the anterior roots. Clarke in his more recent papers acknowledges the 
cells as a partial source of origin for the roots; he says, *I have seen the processes of 
the nerve-cells extend so frequently into the anterior roots, that there can be no doubt 
that some of the latter arise from them."* He also describes and figures this as occur- 
ring very frequently in the lumbar and cervical region of the tortoise. That the ante- 
rior roots are derived partly at least from nerve-cells, is beyond doubt; the principal 
groups of cells in the anterior cornua are however usually situated at some distance 
from the border of the gray substance, so that it is often quite difficult to trace these 
connections; but I have sometimes (though I must admit very rarely) succeeded in 
tracing, in the cords of small animals, fibres derived from cell processes, not only into 
the bundle of anterior roots, buf quite to their exit from the cord. This is shown as 
seen in the cord of the rabbit (Fig. 1, a’). Fig. 4 shows a group of cells sending 
their processes into the anterior roots at A; the four cells marked 5 are connected with 
the bundle of anterior roots by very long, slender processes, and are also connected 
with each other and with neighboring cells. This is a very interesting group, though, 
owing to its lying at some distance within the boundary of the cornu, comparatively 
few of the processes could be traced out into the bundle of roots. Fig. 5 is from a 
longitudinal section through the anterior cornu; the group of cells is situated quite 
near the white substance, and a number of cell processes can be traced out into the 
bundles of fibres forming the anterior roots (Fig. 5, b, b). Schröder van der Kolk, 
Bidder, and others, (as stated above,) consider the anterior roots as arising without 
' exception from the cells of the anterior cornua. With this view I cannot agree, for, 
as it must be acknowledged that at present the fibres we are able to trace with any 
certainty from cells to the anterior roots are rather the exceptions than the rule, this 
theory is evidently more the result of inference than of direct observation. On the 
other hand, we have the fact, the evidence of which I shall discuss further on, that 
part of the anterior roots are direct continuations of the posterior roots without the 
intervention in the cord of any cells. + | 


* Philos. Trans., 1859, p. 457; also *J. L. Clarke on the Anatomy of the Spinal Cord," Beale's Archives, 


1858, Pt. III. p. 207. 
f Schilling maintains that “fibres from the posterior roots never enter the anterior cornu.” This is entirely 


opposed to the observations of Stilling and Clarke, as well as my own. 


340 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


The connection of the posterior roots with the cells of the posterior cornu has never 
been determined so satisfactorily; and, as considerable difference of opinion exists 
among authors, I shall compare somewhat at length the. principal views which have . 
been maintained. 

R. Wagner* divides the posterior roots into three classes, of which the first pass 
directly upwards to the brain, without entering the gray substance; the second enter 
the gray substance and unite with nerve-cells, either collected in groups or strewn sin- 
gly through the posterior cornua; the third class of fibres, very considerable in number, 
do not contribute to sensation, but pass to the large cells in the anterior cornua from 
which the anterior roots arise. Schröder van der Kolk agrees with Wagner, that the 
true sensitive fibres ascend directly to the brain without entering the gray substance, 
the only fibres from the posterior roots which enter the gray substance being, according 
to him, the reflex, i. e. transverse, and these he infers may enter cells. Stilling 
states that he has “never yet succeeded in observing the direct communication of a 
primitive nerve-fibre of the posterior roots with a nerve-cell of the gray substance, 
although he maintains this relation between them." Clarke§ describes and figures 
(Pl XIX. Fig. 1) cells of the gelatinous substance as continuous by their processes 
with the posterior roots; of the cells constituting the posterior vesicular columns he 
says, * When the posterior roots of the nerves are traced inwards, they are found to be 
most intimately connected with all parts of the posterior vesicular columns." (p. 445.) 
He also states, that “the processes of these cells (of the posterior vesicular columns) 
are prolonged in every direction, — transversely they are continuous on the one hand 
with the posterior roots of the nerves, and on the other hand with the posterior com- 
missure."| These statements are illustrated in the Philosophical Transactions for 1859 
by very accurate figures, Pl. XIX. being certainly the only correct delineation of the pos- 
terior cornu hitherto published. Figs. 6 and 7 of my own drawings illustrate the con- 
nections which are seen to exist between cells of the posterior cornu and the nerve roots. 
In the longitudinal section (Fig. 6), fibres from the cells will be seen to be continuous 
with the transverse bundles b, b, and the ascending bundles c, c, which are direct con- 
tinuations of the posterior roots, being shown in the figure soon after their passage 
through the substantia gelatinosa, the line d d marking very nearly the boundary 
between the more opaque portion of the caput and the cervix cornu. Fig. 7, from a 
transverse section, represents the manner in which the cells are connected with the 


* Neurolog. Untersuch., (Góttingen, 1854,) p. 66. T Op. cit., p. 47. 
i Neue Untersuch., p. 929. $ Philos. Trans., Pt. L, 1859. 
|| J. L. Clarke on the Anatomy of the Spinal Cord, Beale's Archives, No. III. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. : 341 


posterior roots, and with various bundles of fibres traversing the posterior cornu in all 
directions. In transverse sections made from the lumbar region, one or more large 
cells are usually met with just at the junction between cerviz and caput, on the 
inner margin of the cornu, these cells being connected with the posterior roots 
in a manner entirely at variance with all our present ideas of nervous conduction. 
One such cell is drawn (Fig. 7, B), and it will be noticed that, instead of being 
connected with a single bundle, it is connected by its processes with no less than 
four distinct bundles belonging to the posterior roots.* It is, moreover, highly prob- 
able that these four bundles proceed from different, if not distinct, parts of the body, 
so that possibly we have here sensations from four more or less distinct parts of the 
body, centralized in one nerve-cell; how they are separately conveyed to the senso- 
rium as distinct sensations I have been able to form no idea, but the fact is extremely 
interesting. I have been able to satisfy myself from the examination of many speci- 
mens that this is by no means an exceptional case, and I think hardly any preparation 
will be found, at least from the lumbar enlargement, which will not show one or more 
such cells in this part of the cornu. I have since noticed that Clarke has figured 
one such cell, occurring in the same part of the cornu, in the cervical enlargement. t 
In the anterior cornu the same thing is sometimes met with; I have several times 
seen cells connected with two or more fibres going to different bundles of anterior 
roots, as has already been figured by Clarkej and Schroder van der Kolk.§ It is not 
easy to observe this in the cords of the larger animals, since the cells from which the 
anterior roots arise are mostly situated at some distance from the entrance of the 
roots; but in the smaller animals, as the cat and rabbit, and in the human cord, such 
cells may often be found ; on the contrary, posterior cells of this kind are most easily 
seen in large cords. The only class of cells belonging to the posterior cornu between 
which and the posterior roots I have failed to trace any connection, are most of the 
very small cells met with in every part of the cornu, the nature of which, as stated 
above, I consider very doubtful. Many of the cells situated in the set of fibres sur- 
rounding the posterior cornu may be seen sending out their processes into the pos- 
terior roots; this is especially apparent in longitudinal sections, where they are 
situated one above another at pretty regular intervals, obviously connected with the 


posterior roots. 


* 'The cells drawn in Fig. 7 are the posterior cells of the posterior vesicular column. 
+ Philos. Trans. 1859, Pl. XIX. Fig. 1. 

ł Philos. Trans. 1859, Fig. 12. 

$ Op. cit., Fig. 6. 

VOL. VIII. 44 


342 > THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


From what has gone before, it appears that there are probably, as ZS? origin, 
the three following classes of nerve-roots, viz.: 


(a) Anterior roots which arise from or terminate in anterior cells. 
e | (6) Posterior roots = 7 » " * posterior cells. 
2d. Anterior and posterior roots which meet in cells in the central part of the cord. 
3d. « > = * which are directly continuous, i. e. unconnected with any cells in the cord. 


The first class consists of nerve-roots which are united, if at all, through the medium 
of deeper lying cell-groups, those of the last two classes being more directly continu- 
ous. I am, however, very far from intending to imply any supposed difference of func- 
tion between these classes, for I am very strongly convinced that the function of cell 
and fibre is everywhere the same; and one of the principal objects I have had in view 
in the above classification has been to show how closely anterior and posterior roots 
are connected, and how nearly they come to having a common origin. 

(c.) The Connection of the Cells with the Longitudinal W hite Fibres. —'This connection 
can be very plainly made out in the anterior and antero-lateral columns, between cells 
situated just at the outer margin of the anterior cornu and the adjacent longitudinal 
white fibres, these latter being seen to be direct continuations of cell processes, passing 
in a transverse direction a greater or less distance before turning upwards. This 
course is represented in Fig. 5, a, a; the bundles formed by these ascending fibres are 
seen at a’. Schröder van der Kolk gives an accurate figure of this derivation of the 
white fibres (loc. cit., Fig. 5), agreeing with Bidder that all the longitudinal fibres of 
the anterior and lateral columns arise from cells. Stilling, on the other hand, main- 
tains “that the whole white substance of the spinal cord (like the separate columns) 
has a double origin, peripheral and central." 

The whole subject of the constitution and origin of the white columns needs careful 
investigation, more so, perhaps, than any other part of the cord; my own observations 
have led me to the following views, which are, however, merely an outline of the sub- 
ject. The anterior and lateral columns, apart from the anterior roots, are only partially 
derived from the cells of the anterior and posterior cornua, some of the white longi- 
tudinal fibres seeming to be direct continuations of the posterior roots, after these have 
passed through the gray substance; the posterior white columns are composed almost. 
exclusively of the posterior roots, a few fibres appearing to be derived from cell pro- 
cesses coming from the large cells, situated on the margin of the posterior cornu; 
what course these latter fibres take after leaving the gray substance I have been unable 
to determine definitely. | 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 343 


IL The Course of the Nerve-Rogts. 


The course taken by the nerve-roots, both anterior and posterior, as seen in trans- 
verse sections, has been described with so much exactness by Clarke, that I shall draw 
almost all the details of my description from longitudinal sections, which have been 
less carefully studied. 

The Posterior Roots. — These are attached solely to the posterior columns, of which 
they form by far the greater part; this view is in accordance with Clarke (Philos. 
Trans. 1851), and still maintained in his more recent papers. Stilling, however, 
regards the lateral columns as receiving some fibres directly from the posterior roots ; 
but after careful examination I am convinced that the fibres Stilling figures in this 
situation (which I have had no difficulty at all in seeing very distinctly in preparations 
made by Clarke’s method) do not belong to the posterior roots, which from their direc- 
tion they obviously could not join, but are probably radiating fibres, about to turn 
upwards into the longitudinal columns; this is especially evident in the cord of the 
cat, where the sulcus is quite deep, and the bundles constituting the posterior roots are 
kept very distinct. 

Fig. 8, which is an accurate drawing, made by means of the camera lucida, from a 
longitudinal section across the lumbar enlargement of the calf, will serve to show that 
the course of the posterior roots within the posterior white columns is exceedingly 
intricate. The fibres may, however, be seen to take four principal courses : — 
lst. Fibres which ascend obliquely upwards and inwards, penetrating sooner or later 
into the gray substance, according to the degree of their obliquity. (Fig. 8, b, b.) 
2d. Fibres which may be slightly oblique at starting, but soon assume a directly 
transverse course, sometimes varying this by slightly ascending or descending; these 
fibres are mostly of the finest sort. (Fig. 8, e, e.) 3d. Fibres which enter the poste- 
rior column at various angles, but very soon bend round, often at quite a sharp angle, 
descending in a course more or less oblique. (Fig. 8, c, c.) 4th. Fibres which are 
looped or recurrent, seeming to unite both ascending and descending fibres. (Fig. 8, 
d, d.) Besides these four classes, the first three of which have been already noticed by 
Stilling, every variety of intermediate course will be found, the bundles of fibres being 
braided together in the most complex manner. 

The fibres of the first class, or oblique ascending fibres, seem to be the most numer- 
ous, comprising fully one half of the posterior nerve-roots ; they usually enter the pos- 
terior columns at an angle not far from 45°, pursuing the same course for a consider- 
able distance; after penetrating the outer two thirds of the column, they often vary 


944 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


more or less from this angle, sometimes curving round and taking a direction nearly 
transverse before entering the cornu, or, as is sometimes the case, one or two of the 
fibres enter some one of the cells situated just at the border of the gelatinous sub- 
stance; usually, however, these bundles curve still more upwards, assuming finally a 
direction nearly longitudinal, in which case it becomes extremely difficult to follow 
them; for although they can often be traced a very considerable distance, and are occa- 
sionally seen to enter the gray substance, more frequently they are hidden by bundles 
which cross them, or terminate suddenly, being cut across by the section. It is there- 
fore quite impossible to say with absolute certainty whether all these fibres enter the gray 
substance, or whether part of them are continued upwards to the brain. Many of them 
may be traced directly into the gray substance, and most of the others converge very 
gradually, but steadily, towards the same destination, so that, if any fibres continue 
their longitudinal course upwards to the brain, the number must be very small, by no 
means sufficient to conduct all the sensitive impressions, as Schrúder van der Kolk has 
imagined. When we examine the descending oblique bundles, we shall see that some of 
these pursue an equally longitudinal course; but surely every one would admit that 
these must enter the gray substance, rather than be prolonged down into the filum 
terminale. It is therefore highly probable on theoretical ground, and our observations 
point strongly in the same direction, that all the ascending fibres enter the gray sub- 
stance; still it is to be remembered that this is not yet anatomically proved, if indeed it 
ever can be. "This conclusion is also fully in accordance with the physiological experi- 
ments of Brown-Sequard* and Schiff,+ proving that all the sensitive fibres enter the 
gray substance within a distance of a few centimeters at most from their starting-point. 
Intermixed with the oblique ascending fibres may be noticed a variety of bundles, 
which, instead of pursuing an oblique course, become nearly longitudinal very soon 
after their entrance into the column, often following a wavy course, interlacing in a 
very curious manner with the transverse and oblique bundles (Fig. 8, J, f), doubtless 
serving to convey sensitive impressions to portions of the cord situated at quite a dis- 
tance above the entrance of the root. These bundles may sometimes be followed 
through a gradually converging course into the cornu. 

The fibres of the second class, or transverse fibres (Fig. 8, e, e), vary but little from 
this direction; they usually enter the cord as part of some other bundle, depending 
upon it somewhat for their after course, ascending or descending slightly according to 
their derivation from ascending or descending bundles. They are sometimes connected 


* Comptes Rendus de la Soc. de Biologie, 1855. Journal de la Physiologie, Jan. 1858. 
f Lehrbuch d. Physiologie, 1858, p. 250. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 345 


with cells just at the margin of the cornu, but usually enter deeply into the gray sub- 
stance, continuing, as will be shown later, in a more or less transverse course. "These 
fibres appear to be much finer than those of the other classes, and it is therefore diffi- 
cult to estimate their numerical proportion ; they are certainly less numerous than those 
of the first class. 

The fibres of the third class, or oblique descending, are quite numerous (Fig. 8, 
c, c); they sometimes enter the cord in company with an ascending bundle, following 
this for a short distance and then bending round, often at a very sharp angle, pursuing 
an oblique descending course, the exact counterpart of that followed by the oblique 
ascending bundles. Sometimes the bundle will be seen to divide (Fig. 8, c ) part of 
the fibres immediately entering the gray substance, while a portion plunge farther 
downwards, thus entering the gray substance at different depths below the starting- 
point. That all these fibres finally enter the gray substance hardly admits of doubt, 
since no one could suppose that fibres were indefinitely prolonged downwards, what- 
ever theory might be assumed regarding the ascending bundles. This is fully in 
accordance with the experiments of Brown-Sequard,* showing that all the descending 
fibres enter the gray substance within a distance of about five centimeters from their 
starting-point. I cannot, however, agree with Brown-Sequard that these are more 
numerous than the ascending fibres; it is sometimes difficult to say with certainty 
whether a bundle ascends or descends, but notwithstanding this uncertainty the ascend- 
ing fibres seem considerably more numerous. t 

The fourth class, or looped recurrent fibres (Fig. 8, d, d), seem to unite both ascend- 
ing and descending bundles. Their course is usually as follows: starting from the 
ascending end of the bundle, the fibres penetrate the posterior column as far as the 
margin of the gray substance; here the bundle often divides, part of its fibres passing 
upwards, whilst a part penetrate the gray substance, pursuing a slightly oblique, 
ascending course; they frequently proceed upwards for a considerable distance, finally 
looping round and re-entering the white column, joining some bundle with which they 
pass out, either the root immediately above their entrance, or, as is often the case, one 
higher up. In tracing the course of such a looped bundle, it is impossible to say 


* Comptes Rendus de la Soc. de Biologie, 1855, p. 79. 

T Within the gray substance most of the fibres from the posterior roots, after traversing the substantia gela: ` 
tinosa, pursue a descending longitudinal course for some distance, a will be seen when we consider the central 
course of the nerve-roots, and this may possibly be the explanation of Brown-Sequard’s experiments and 
deductions. 


346 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


whether it is ascending or descending, origin and exit being obviously merely descrip- 
tive terms when applied to these fibres. These recurrent bundles have already been 
mentioned by Clarke,* in describing the oblique fibres. “Many of them,” he says, 
“both singly and in small bundles, may be observed to form loops by returning to the 
white columns.” Clarke also mentions, what I have often observed, that a few of the 
fibres from the oblique bundles * proceed near the surface both upwards and down- 
wards, and pass out again with the roots above and below them." These are also 
plainly seen in transverse or obliquely transverse sections. Stilling denies the exist- 
ence of looped returning fibres, assuming that Clarke had been deceived by confound- 
ing ascending with descending fibres (loc. ci, p. 1186); this, however, is far from 
being the case. I have been able repeatedly to verify Clarke's statement, and have 
frequently been able to trace such bundles or fibres from root to root, both in longi- 
tudinal and transverse sections. These looped fibres appear to occur frequently in the 
nervous system of some of the lower animals, especially in Lumbricus terrestris, as 
described by Clarkej and Faivre,t in the abdominal cord of which they are very 
numerous. _ 

The above description of the fibres derived from the posterior roots agrees mainly 
with Stilling’s, differing, however, in regard to the fourth class. My reason for not 
following the classification of Clarke has been, that I felt obliged to arrange the 
fibres entirely with reference to their course within the posterior white columns, from 
the conviction that neither of the three central courses according to which Clarke has 
mainly classified them originated from any one particular set of fibres belonging to 
the posterior columns. 

The Central Course of the Nerve-Roots. — In longitudinal sections made parallel to 
the median fissure, the substantia gelatinosa is seen to be traversed by numerous bun- 
dles of fine fibres, running transversely through it, nearly parallel to each other. 

The three different classes of fibres mentioned above — viz. ascending, descending, 
and transverse — pass indiscriminately into these central transverse bundles (Fig. 8), 
which are, as Clarke has already noticed, often somewhat fusiform in appearance. I 
have uniformly found that these bundles pursue the same central course in the lumbar 
enlargement which he has described with so much accuracy in the cervical enlarge- 
ment of the cat ;§ after traversing the substantia gelatinosa in a direction nearly trans- 
verse, they curve round, some upwards, some downwards, running a considerable 
distance as longitudinal fibres, forming by their union those bundles which are seen 


* Philos. Trans. 1853, p. 350. T Proceedings of the Royal Society, Jan. 27, 1857. 
i Histologie Comparée du Syst. Nerv. Paris, 1857. ^ § Philos. Trans. 1853. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 347 


cut across in transverse sections, especially well marked near the junction of cervix 
and caput cornu. These longitudinal bundles are often of quite considerable size 
(Fig. 8, h, h). Clarke states that he has “not seen them distinctly below the cervical 
enlargement”; they are certainly more strongly marked, in the cat at least, in the cer- 
vical region, where they may be seen with very great distinctness, but I have had no 
difficulty in making them out very clearly in all my preparations from the lumbar 
enlargement of the calf. Clarke has described these bundles as * running down the 
cord," and this is usually the case, though occasional variations will be met with, 
bundles sometimes running upwards (Fig. 8); the great majority of fibres, however, 
undoubtedly run downwards. 

These bundles of longitudinal fibres, which I propose to call longitudinal columns of 
the cornua, send out fibres anteriorly in all directions, many of them becoming con- 
nected with large cells which are found grouped along the whole length of these 
columns, belonging to Clarke's columne vesiculares posteriores. Fig. 6 represents 
the relation in which the cells stand to the longitudinal columns (a, a, a); they are 
also seen on a smaller scale in Fig. 8. The fibres composing these columns do not 
seem to follow a longitudinal course for any considerable distance, but usually soon 
pass onwards towards the anterior cornu. Many of the fibres pass obliquely to the 
commissures, both anterior and posterior; some pass out into the lateral white columns, 
while others pass forwards, becoming connected with cells, or else directly into the 
anterior roots, with which they are often continuous. Others assume every variety of- 
upward or downward curve before reaching their final destination, a longitudinal sec- 
tion through the anterior cornu often presenting an inextricable web consisting mostly 
of cut-off fibres (Fig. 8). 

A part of the transverse bundles which traverse the substantia gelatinosa do not 
seem to be connected at all with the longitudinal columns of the cornua, their fibres 
being plainly seen to cross these at right angles; they are mostly continued anteriorly 
for a very considerable distance, often becoming lost to view (or cut off), but may 
sometimes be seen to be directly continuous with the anterior roots. 

It will be noticed in my description of the course taken by the fibres derived from 
the posterior roots, that I have given but little attention to that part of their course 
which is mainly traceable in transverse sections; this there was no need of doing, 
since Clarke has described it with so much accuracy in his latest paper (1859). I have 
myself verified most of the results at which he has arrived, and can add nothing. 

Clarke states in his description of the longitudinal columns of the cornua, that a 
part of their fibres “form loops with each other within the gray substance, particu- 


348 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


larly near its border; others extend directly into the anterior white columns, and 
bending round, both upwards and downwards, are seen sometimes to re-enter the gray 
substance and form with each other a series of loops, and sometimes to continue a 
longitudinal course within the anterior white columns, amongst the fibres of which 
they become lost. Whether the latter also ultimately form broader loops with corre- 
sponding fibres from the gray substance, it is impossible to ascertain. But even if 
those which ascend in the anterior columns are continued upwards to the brain, one 
can scarcely avoid inferring that those which descend re-enter the gray substance, 
either to form loops or to become continuous with the fibres of the anterior roots, 
since the whole of the latter, as we shall presently see, proceed directly from the gray 
substance.”* This formation of loops near the border of the anterior cornu I have often 
noticed, and while I have no doubt that some of these loops found in the anterior 
columns are derived from the posterior roots, as stated by Clarke, I am convinced that 
a large portion of the looped fibres which are found in great abundance in the inner 
portion of the anterior white columns have a different origin, viz. from the cells of 
the anterior cornua, to which I have in some cases succeeded in tracing one or both 
ends of such fibres. + 

The Anterior Columns and Roots. — The anterior white columns contain the follow- 
ing elements: —(1.) The anterior roots which traverse them in a slightly curved 
ascending course; and (2.) Fibres which vary from longitudinal to every variety of 
curved course, often forming loops which may be traced a greater or less distance 
through the column. These loops are formed in the following manner: bundles of 
fibres, some of which arise from cells near the margin of the anterior cornu (Fig. 8, 
l, D), may be traced in a longitudinal section, descending obliquely until they. emerge 
from the gray substance into the anterior white column; here they continue the same 
general direction, finally curving round (as seen at k, k) and re-entering the gray sub- 
stance; in my description I have traced this bundle downwards, — it is obviously im- 
possible to say whether the fibres ascend or descend. 

Fibres belonging to these bundles may sometimes be seen to join cells at both ends 


* Philos. Trans. 1853, p. 349. 

t Stilling entirely denies the existence of looped fibres anywhere, with the singular criticism, that “ Clarke 
would allow that he had not followed the fibres in question continuously from the nerve-root on, through 
white and gray substance, into the white columns, and from these back again into the gray substance.” (Loc. 
cit, p. 1186.) This is the more extraordinary, since Clarke not only states that these fibres are seen to form 
such loops, but also figures them. (Philos. Trans. 1853.) It is by no means a very difficult thing to follow 
fibres quite across the cord in the smaller animals, such as the cat, from which Clarke's figure is drawn. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. ; 349 


of the loop, thus standing probably in mediate connection with the anterior roots. 
Occasionally these fibres accompany the anterior roots for some distance, in which case 
they appear to share the origin of the anterior roots, either arising from cells or being 
direct continuations of the posterior roots, bending round subsequently, and pursuing 
either an ascending or descending course, finally curving round to re-enter the gray 
substance. A few of the curving fibres found in the anterior columns pass out a 
short distance with some bundle of anterior roots, leaving this soon, and curving 
upwards or downwards to join some other bundle of roots, either above or below, with 
which they pass out from the cord. 

In concluding this paper, I cannot but feel fully aware of its extreme incompleteness ; 
it expresses, however, the constant work of a year, during which time I have had occa- 
sion continually to feel grateful for aid and encouragement from kind friends, in which 
connection I cannot fail to mention the constant interest and kindness of Dr. O. W. 
Holmes, and my great indebtedness for many useful suggestions to Professor Jeffries 
Wyman, without whose aid I should hardly have begun this work, and certainly 
should not have carried it through. : 

The accompanying figures have all been drawn by myself, by means of the camera 
lucida; and although much interesting detail is necessarily omitted, I have endeavored 
to make them faithful representations of the most important facts, my constant effort 
having been to give too little detail rather than too much. I have etched them on 
copper myself, believing that microscopic drawings are too apt to lose much of their 
truth even in the hands of the most careful artist, and that a faithful, though some- 
what rough transcript of the original drawing, made by the observer himself, must be 
of greater value than a more highly finished copy. e 


Conclusions. 


1. That true nerve-cells exist only in the gray substance, these cells being connected 
by their processes in more or less definite groups; but not probably, as some authors 
maintain, so as to form an uninterrupted chain from brain to filum terminale. 

2. 'That the anterior roots arise partly from nerve-cells, another portion being directly 
continuous with the posterior roots. A part of the posterior roots also enter cells. 

3. The roots may therefore be divided into three classes ; — such a division does not, 
however, imply any functional difference. 

(1.) Anterior and posterior roots which arise from or terminate in anterior or poste- 
rior cells. 

VOL. VIII. 45 


350 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


(2.) Anterior and posterior roots which meet in cells near the central part of the 
gray substance. | 

(3.) Anterior and posterior roots which are directly continuous. 

4. That bundles of anterior roots are connected with those above and below, by 
looped fibres proceeding from cells which some of the roots enter; these fibres leaving 
the gray substance, and passing sometimes upwards, sometimes downwards through the 
anterior columns, finally curving inwards to join some other bundle of anterior roots 
with which they pass into the gray substance. 

9. That thus fibres from nerve-cells after passing upwards through the longitudinal 
white columns, do not all continue onwards to the brain, but most of them re-enter 
the gray substance at a greater or less distance from the point of exit, sometimes prob- 
ably becoming again connected with cells, and again emerging from these as longitu- 
dinal fibres. 

6. That the processes from a single nerve-cell, whether in the anterior or posterior 
cornu, do not necessarily all pass into the same bundle of roots, but often pass into 
three or four different bundles; a cell process also sometimes sending branches into 
different bundles. Thus we may have sensitive impressions from different parts of the 
surface conveyed to one cell, and motor impulses distributed from one cell to different 
points. 

T. That all the anterior and probably all the posterior roots enter the gray Substance, 
though the posterior roots often pass into the cornu at a considerable distance from 
their first entrance into the cord. 

8. That most of the fibres from the posterior roots, after traversing the posterior col- 
umns, are collected into transverse bundles, traversing the substantia gelatinosa in a 
slightly ascending course; after passing through which they curve downwards (some- 
times upwards), forming, by the longitudinal course which they then maintain for some 
distance, a very interesting series of longitudinal bundles, which I have called longitudi- 
nal columns of the cornua, standing in very close relation to the posterior vesicular col- 
umns of Clarke, with the cell processes of which many of their fibres are continur us. 

9. That some of the bundles which traverse the substantia gelatinosa do not pass 
into the longitudinal columns of the cornua, but proceed directly across the gray sub- 
stance, becoming continuous with the anterior roots. 

10. That the posterior white columns are composed almost entirely of the posterior 
roots, which merely traverse them before entering the gray substance. They appear, 
however, to receive a few fibres from cells situated on the extreme margin of the poste- 
rior cornua, and some more or less longitudinal fibres from the looped recurrent 
bundles. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 951 


11. That the posterior roots are connected by curved fibres or bundles of fibres, pro- 
ceeding from one root and curving round after penetrating the gray substance, becom- 
ing connected with some other root above or below. The same is seen in transverse 
sections with regard to roots situated side by side, both anterior and posterior, the 
looping fibres sometimes proceeding directly from root to root, and sometimes passing 
through cells. ! 

From which it results that the same fibre must in different parts of its course con- 
duct both centrifugally and centripetally. 

12. That, besides the looped recurrent fibres, the three principal courses taken by the 
posterior roots before entering the gray substance are with reference to a longitudinal 
plane, ascending oblique, descending oblique and transverse. 


The method of preparation usually employed was a modification of Gerlach’s and 
Clarke's, although many others were employed, according to the object in view. The 
following method gave the best results from which to make drawings. Thin sections 
from the cord, hardened in alcohol, were washed a few minutes in pure water, and then 
immersed in glycerine, to which Gerlach's solution of carmine,* previously filtered, had 
been added; in this the sections were allowed to remain four to eight hours, according 
to the tint desired (a light tint interfering least with the details and sharpness of out. 
line). I have been able to obtain more delicately colored specimens and more clearly 
defined structure by the use of glycerine than by any other method. The sections are 
then washed first in pure water, afterwards with strong alcohol, in which they are 
allowed to remain about an hour, and are now ready for preparation with turpentine, 
according to Clarke's method; they may be put up in Canada balsam, or, as I have 
found very advantageous, in thick, colorless copal-varnish, which often preserves 
minute details better than balsam. Although Stilling and others have found much 
- fault with Clarke's method of preparation, on account of the too great transparency it 
sometimes gives, I am convinced that, with practice and some slight modifications, it 
is the only one suited to the minute study of the cord, other methods seeming to me, 
after thorough trial, quite unsatisfactory as compared with Clarke's. As a hardening 
material I have often employed chromic acid with considerable advantage; but when 
coloring-matter is used, alcohol is most suitable, and is certainly much easier to suc- 
ceed with. 


* Gerlach, Mikroskopische Studien, Erlangen, 1858. Solution of carmine in water, to which a few drops 
of strong ammonia have been added. 


952 THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


Explanation of the Plates. 


Fig. 1. Transverse section representing part of the anterior cornu, from the lumbar 
enlargement of the rabbit. a, a, a’, bundles of fibres belonging to the anterior roots; 
in the bundle marked a’ two cell processes can be traced to the outer boundary of the 
cord; b, b, outer boundary of the white substance; c, c, boundary of gray substance ; 
d, d, cell connectives of the short, thick variety; e, a longer cell connective. Drawn 
by the camera lucida, with one of Nachet’s microscopes, from a preparation magnified 
160 diameters; the scale is in hundredths of a millimetre. 

Fig. 2. Group of cells from the anterior cornu of the sheep, connected with the 
radiating bundles from which the longitudinal fibres of the white substance are de- 
rived. a,a,a, radiating bundles; B, a large cell, sending its processes, b, b, b, into four 
different bundles; c, a process passing forward towards the anterior roots; d, d, long 
cell connectives. Figs. 2 to 7, inclusive, were drawn by the camera lucida, with eye- 
piece No. 1, objective 45, of one of Smith and Decke first-class instruments, giving a 
power of 120 diameters; the scales affixed express thousandths of an inch. This and 
the following figures are all from the lumbar enlargement. 

Fig. 3. Group of cells from the anterior cornu of the sheep, connected with the 
anterior roots at A; B, fibres radiating to the side of the cornu; C, fibres passing to 
the interior of the cornu. This figure represents a somewhat deeply lying group 
of cells as seen in a transverse section. 

Fig. 4. Group of cells connected with the anterior roots, as seen in a transverse 
section, from the anterior cornu of the sheep. A, entrance of the anterior roots into 
the cornu; b, b, b, b, cells connected by long, slender processes with the anterior roots ; 
c, €, boundary of the cornu. In this figure almost every variety of cell connection may 
be seen, with bundles of fibres crossing in every direction. 

Fig. 5. Group of cells connected with the anterior roots, from a longitudinal sec- 
tion through the anterior cornu of the sheep. A, white substance; B, gray substance ; 
a, a, cell processes passing upwards to form the ascending fibres of the white substance ; 
a’, a’, bundles of ascending fibres; b,b, cell processes passing into the anterior roots; 
b’, V, anterior root bundles; c, c, descending fibres and bundles (c. Different forms 
of cell anastomosis may also be observed in this figure. 

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section through the posterior cornu of the calf, drawn just 
inside the gelatinous substance, on a plane with the entrance of the posterior roots. 
a, a, a, ascending bundles of fibres, longitudinal columns of the cornua, connected on the 
one side with the posterior roots, and on the other with cells which belong to the pos- 


de e oa 
D dr de 


Dean.ad nat. délet ae. 


2 


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ou 


FAIT y v SN : 
e Kéi Bec In 


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do voti 


udi eant 


J.Dean ad nat. del.et sc. 


THE LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 953 


terior vesicular columns; b, b, transverse bundles of fibres; c, c, ascending oblique 
bundles, seen in many places passing into the longitudinal bundles; d, d, line marking 
the boundary between cervix and caput cornu, the figure comprising chiefly the cervix. 

Fig 7. Transverse section through part of the posterior cornu of the calf, showing 
the.side of the cornu next the median fissure with the entrance of the posterior roots. 
The figure gives part of the caput cornu immediately adjoining the gelatinous sub- 
stance, with most of the cervix ; a line drawn parallel to the bottom of the paper, 
through B, would about mark the junction between cervix and caput; a, a, boundary 
of the cornu; a’, a’, bundles formed by the posterior roots; B, a large cell, sending 
four of its processes into four different bundles of posterior roots. 

Fig. 8. Longitudinal section completely through the lumbar region of the cord, from 
the calf, the section which is parallel with the median fissure comprising both anterior 
and posterior columns and roots. A, anterior white columns; P, posterior white col- 
umns; the intermediate space representing the gray substance; a, a, a, anterior roots ; 
k, k, looping fibres connecting two different bundles of anterior roots; /, /, descending 
bundles within the gray substance, which seem to be the origin of the fibres, k, E: 
m, m, descending fibres; n, n, ascending fibres; c,c, descending oblique fibres in the 
posterior columns; b, b, ascending oblique fibres; e, e, transverse fibres; e”, descending ` 
bundle, part of which enters the gray substance, another portion continuing a descend- 
ing course within the white column; d, d, looped fibres, forming loops within the gray 
substance (several examples of this are seen along the boundary between gray and 
white substances) ; f, f, bundles which continue in a longitudinal course for a consid- 
erable distance ; p, p, bundles of posterior roots outside the cord; g, g, transverse 
bundles of fibres traversing the substantia gelatinosa ; h, h, longitudinal columns of the 
cornua formed from the transverse bundles g, y; s, bundles which are cut across by 
the plane of section (many such will be seen in various parts of the gray substance); 
the cells are merely sketched, the magnifying power being too low to give any detail 
of their connections with the fibres. "This figure was drawn by the camera lucida with 
eye-piece No. 1, objective 1} inch, giving a power of about thirty diameters. The scale 


is in hundredths of an inch. 


VOL. VIII. 46 


AIL 
On some of the Relations of Salts of Zinc and Alumina to Soda and Potassa. 


Br E. N. HORSFORD. 


( Communicated September 11, 1860.) 


On the addition of caustic soda to a solution of neutral sulphate of zinc there 
follows a precipitate which disappears in an excess of the soda. A solution of neutral 
sulphate of alumina exhibits under like conditions the same phenomena, and both salts 
comport themselves with potassa as they do with soda. Alumina is thrown down from 
its solutions in potassa and soda by chloride of ammonium and by mineral acids, while 
oxide of zinc is not in like manner precipitated from its solution in these alkalies. 

The following results present some of the quantitative relations of these agents to 
each other. | 


Experiments with Sulphate of Zinc. 
Strength of Solutions. 


1 cubic centimetre of the solution of sulphate of zinc contains 0.0257 gram. oxide of zinc, 
equal to 0.05108 gram. anhydrous sulphate of zinc. 


RON e soda solution contains 0.04313 gram. soda. 
A S potassa solution contains 0.0230 gram. potassa. 
Experiments with Soda. - 
ids : : 
Mr Nba dai 
ZnO . 805. Nad. Nao. 
5 c.c. 2.3 c. c. : 18 GE 
“ “ EE 
“ Ki “ 
113 “ “ 
“ EE “ 
Di “ Di 


Average, 5 c.c. 2.3 c. c. < 70 Ue 


RELATIONS OF SALTS OF ZINC AND ALUMINA TO SODA AND POTASSA. 355 


5 c. e. of solution of ZnO.SO, contain 0.1285 gram. ZnO. 
24 E i NaO * ` 0.0983 gram. NaO. 


By deducting from 7.6 c.c. the amount 2.3 c. c. required for precipitation, we have 
the amount required for resolution. 


5.8 c. c. of solution of NaO contain 0.2286 gram. NaO. 
Now 0.0983 gram. NaO will neutralize 0.1268 gram. SO,; for 
91 : 40 — 0.0983 : 0.1268. 
But the sulphuric acid in 5 c. c. of sulphate of zinc is 0,1269 gram. ; for 


80.5 : 40: 5 X 0.05108 — 0.2554 : 0.1269, 


There is, therefore, required to precipitate oxide of zinc precisely one atom of soda 
to one atom of sulphate of zinc. 


Theory requires of the sulphuric acid to be neutralized . — . . = 49.67 per cent. 
Experiment gives for the equivalent of sulphuric acid to the soda employed 49.61 " 


"[he reaction is 

ZnO . SO, + NaO = ZnO + NaO. SO,. 
- In order to re-dissolve the oxide of zinc 0.2286 gram. of NaO is required, a quan- 
tity 2.3 times as great as was required to precipitate it. To ascertain the influence of 
the quantity of water on the reaction, experiments were made with soda solution, 
of which 1 c. c. contained 0.1889 gram. of soda. 
10 c. c. of the sulphate of zinc solution required, to precipitate and re-dissolve, 2.9 c. c. 
loda solution. This is equal to 2.78 equivalents, of which one being employed to 
precipitate, there remain for resolution 1.78 equivalents. It is obvious, therefore, that 
the solution of the oxide of zinc is influenced by the quantity of water present. The 
larger the proportion of water — within the limits of these experiments — the less 
perfect was the solution of the precipitated oxide. 


Experiments with Potassa. 


Bee of sulphate of zinc solution required to complete precipitation, as the result 
' many coincident determinations, 5.1 c. c. of the potassa solution. 


B c.c. of solution of ZnO.SO, contain 0.1285 gram. ZnO 
and 0.1269 “ SO, 
5.1 e - KO contain 0.1173 * KO. 


Now 0.1269 gram. of sulphuric acid requires for neutralization 0.1491 gram. of 


356 SOME OF THE RELATIONS OF SALTS OF ZINC AND ALUMINA 


potassa, — a quantity to which 0.1173 gram. sustains the relation of 3: 3.81, or nearly 
of 3:4. It is obvious, therefore, that the chief part of the precipitate was the well- 
known compound 4 ZnO . SO,. 

Resolution was attended with much greater difficulty. The results were so variable, 
that no confidence could be placed in them. ‘The influence of water was observed here 
as in the experiments with soda. ‘The potassa was too dilute. 

A more concentrated solution, of which 1 c. c. contained 0.2590 gram. of potassa, gave 
the following result. : 

10 c. c. of solution of ZnO . SO; required 4 c. c. of solution of KO to precipitate and 
re-dissolve. Allowing, according to the preceding determination, .75 of an equivalent 
for the precipitation, there are required to re-dissolve 2.65 equivalents. 

Bonnet dissolved two parts of hydrated oxide of zinc in five parts of potassa solu- 
tion of 1.3 specific gravity. Such a solution contains about .25 part of KO. 5c.c. 
would contain 1.25 grammes, which would give about two atoms of zinc dissolving in 
11 of potassa; or the soluble compound would be 8 ZnO.5 KO. The compound is 
probably that obtained by Fremy,* — two atoms of oxide of zinc to one of potassa. This 
compound, upon the slightest addition of water, resolved itself, according to Fremy, 
into anhydrous oxide of zinc and hydrated potassa. These facts sufficiently explain 
the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory results in the attempts to re-dissolve with a 
solution of the strength here employed. 


Experiments with Sulphate of Alumina. 


Common potassa alum, refined by repeated crystallizations, was dissolved in distilled 
water. 


Lee of the alum solution contained 0.0371 gram. of crystallized potassa alum. 
“ S x p. c 0.009386 « SO;, combined with alumina. 
* wc Sone = « 0.0430 « NaO. 
S * ^. potassa a s 00280 * KO. 
" * sulphuric acid i s 0.03264 g SO;. 
« * chloride of ammonium * « 0.08305 e NH,4CI. 


Experiments with Soda. 


Alum. MEI Sedis v periurii: MRNA 
precipitate. and re-dissolve. re-precipitate. to re-precipitate. 
10 c. c. 1.4 2.7 ^ 1.0 2.9 
S CK 1.4 2.7 1.0 2.9 
20 c. c. 2.8 5.4 2.0 5.8 
EE 2.8 5.4 2.0 5.8 
Average, 10 c. c. 1.4 2.7 1.0 29 


* Compt. Rend., XV. p. 1106. 


TO SODA AND POTASSA. 935" 


10 c. c. alum solution contain 0.3710 gram. alum. 
& “ S “ 0.09386 “  SO,, combined with alumina. 
1.4 c.c. soda solution “ 0.0602 NaO. 
e * will neutralize 0.07767 *  SOj. 
2.7 c.c. soda will contain 01101 .*. NaO. 


ES 


E * correspond with 0.1498  * SO. 
0.09386 gram. SO; = 25.30 per cent; 3 atoms = 25.30 per cent. 
007707 4 u 12098. * z "2932107 " 
0.1498 "o E 00 S ae LO TA 


According to these results, two and a half atoms are required completely to pre- 
cipitate the alumina, and a little more than an equal quantity to re-dissolve the precipi- 
tate. Expressing these relations in formule we have, omitting the sulphate of potassa 
of the alum, 

2 [AL 0,. 3 80,] + 5 NaO = 2 ALO,. SO; + 5 [NaO . SOL 
2 Al, Os. SO; + 5 NaO = 2 [A]; 0;. 2 NaO] + NaO. SO,. 


The sulphuric acid of the precipitate may be more or less withdrawn by long con- 
tinued washing, showing how feeble the affinity is, where the action of water in quan- 
tity is brought to bear on both the constituents of the precipitate. 

The constitution of the soda and alumina compound in the resolution differs from 
that of the soluble compound prepared by fusing together alumina and carbonate of 
soda, by Schaffgotsch,* which. had only one atom of soda to one of alumina. 

If these two atoms of soda to each atom of alumina require, in order to the precipi- 
tation of the alumina, two atoms of sulphuric acid, we have, 

2 of 0.1161 gram. NaO — 0.04644 gram. 
0.4644 * Nath correspond with 0.059991 “ of SO,. 
Lee of the sulphuric acid solution contained 0.03264 “ 
a quantity but little more than one half that required to neutralize the SO, The 
formula will be therefore 


Al, O;.2 NaO — SO; = Al, 0; . NaO a NaO.SO,. 


It is not to be denied that this result seems inconsistent with the solubility of the 
compound obtained by Schaffgotsch, unless it be admitted that the alumina which has 
been combined by heat with soda is modified in its properties. 

The precipitation with chloride of ammonium required a little more than a full 
equivalent. #2 of 0.1161 gram. NaO = 0.4644 gram., and require 0.8014 gram. 


* Pogg. Ann., LIII. p. 117. 


358 SOME OF THE RELATIONS OF SALTS OF ZINC AND ALUMINA 


NH,Cl. Experiment gave 0.9580 gram. NH,Cl, a ratio of 5:6. These relations 
may be expressed by the formula 
5 (AL O,. 2 NaO) + 12 NH,CI = 5 (ALO, .2 NH) + 10 NaCl + 2 NH,CL 


The occurrence of the surplus NH,Cl suggested the following experiment. With 
a given alum solution in soda as above, three solutions of sal-ammoniac were taken, of 


relative strengths as 1: 2: 3. 


10 c. c. of the soda solution of alumina required of No. 1 for complete precipitation 0.3 c. c. 
113 DI DI Di Di Di No. p [14 [11 1.0 Di 


« ` « « « * — No.8 ` « 25 « 

If we multiply the number of cubic centimetres of the strongest by three, and that 

of the medium by two, we have 0.9: 2: 2.5, showing that the more concentrated is 

much more efficient proportionally than is due to the excess of chloride of ammonium 

it contains. In other words, that in proportion as the quantity of water is increased, 
so is the efficiency of the reagents enfeebled. 


Experiments with Potassa. 


se ` Chloride of Ammo- 
ven EE A nia eld to 
10 e. c. 3.2 c. c. 1.8 € c. 106 4.3 c. €. 
Di Di 113 D? [11 
é € Di Di [14 
Average, 10 c.c. 9.2 c. c. 7.9 e. c. 1.5 c.c. 4.9 c.c. 
10 c.c. of the alum solution contain 0.9710 gram. alum. 
« e e & 0.00386 “  SO,, combined with alumina. 
3.2 c. c. of the potassa solution contain 0.07360 * KO. : 
7,3 € “ D Di 0.16790 “ KO. 
53 ka - will neutralize 0.06263 * SO}. 
ES * ad “ = 0.1429 * SOjz. 


0.09386 gram. SO, — 25.30 per cent; 3 atoms — 25.30 per cent. 
0.00260 - %.. e 16.88 s 2- Ree 1686 x 
0.1400 = . SAO e 4j *  — 095 e 


According to these results, two atoms are required to precipitate, and a little more 
than two and a half to re-dissolve. Expressing these relations in formule, we 


have, 
: A1,0,.3 0, + 2 KO = Al,O,.SO, + 2 [KO . S0,]. 


2 [A1,0,.S0;] + 5 KO = 2 ALO,.3 KO + 2 [KO. SOL 


The precipitate is the same as that which, according to Berzelius, is thrown down 


TO SODA AND POTASSA. 359 


by ammonia, and identical in the relations of alumina to sulphuric acid with native 
aluminite. The compound formed in the resolution differs from the compound ob- 
tained by Unverdorben,* and in crystallized form by Fremy,+ by saturating boiling po- 
tassa with alumina, in that it contains half an atom of potassa more. "This is not more 
striking than the contrast displayed between the compound in the resolution of alumina 
in soda, and the body produced by Schaffgotsch by melting carbonate of soda and alu- 
mina together. 

The sulphuric acid required to re-precipitate the alumina somewhat exceeded one 


equivalent. | 
l4 atoms KO = 2 of 0.0736 gram. = 0.0552 gram. KO. 


0.0552 gram. KO correspond with 0.0469 * SO, 
1.5 c. c. of sulphuric acid solution contain 0.04896 * — SO,. 


The formula most nearly expressing the reaction would be, 
2 A1,0,.3 KO + 380, = 2 AlO; + 8 [KO . $0,]. 


It appears, therefore, that while all the alumina is thrown down by sulphuric acid 
from its soda solution with an equivalent. of soda in combination not saturated, it is not 
entirely precipitated from its potassa solution by the same reagent till all the potassa 
has been withdrawn by the sulphuric acid, or till an equivalent of sulphuric acid for all 
the potassa has been added. 

The chloride of ammonium required to re-precipitate the alumina from its solution in 
potassa is somewhat more than two equivalents of the chloride to one of the potassa 
in combination with the alumina. 


14 atoms of KO — 0.0552 gram., which corresponds with 0.0626 gram. NH,CI. 
4.3 c.c. of chloride of ammonium solution contain 0.1421 < NH,CL 


It is doubtless true with this, as with the corresponding soda result, that the quantity 
of chloride of ammonium required to produce precipitation, is influenced by the degree 


of dilution of the reagents. 
The above result is most nearly expressed by the formula, 


- The compound most nearly allied to this is Rose’s compound of chloride of alumi- 


num and ammonia, 
Al, C, 3 NH;, 


obtained by passing dry ammoniacal gas over chloride of aluminum. 1 


* Pogg. Ann., VII. p. 323. T Compt. Rend., XV. p. 1106. 
i Pogg. Ann, XXIV. p. 228. 


360 RELATIONS OF SALTS OF ZINC AND ALUMINA TO SODA AND POTASSA. 
The foregoing results may be presented in the following formule. 


Sulphate of Zinc and Soda. 
Y ZnO.S0, + NaO = ZnO + NaO. SO; 


Sulphate of Zinc and Potassa. 
2. 4 [ZnO . S0;] + 3 KO = 4 ZnO : SO; + 3 [KO . 80]. 


- Sulphate of Alumina and Soda to Precipitation and Resolution. 


3. 2 [Al, O,. 380,] + 5 NaO = 2 Al, O; . SO, + 5 [Na0 . SO;]. 
4. 2 A1,0,.S0, + 5 NaO = 2[A1,0,. 2 NaO] + NaO. SO. 


Re-precipitated with Sulphuric Acid. 
5. Al, O;.2 NaO + SO, = Al, 0,. NaO + NaO.SO,. 


Re-precipitated with Chloride of. Ammonium. 


6. 5 [A1,0,.2 NaO] + 12 NH,Cl = 5 [ALO,.2 NH;] + 10 NaCl + 2 NH,Cl, 
or, probably, 


A1,0,. 2 NaO + 2 NH,CI = AL0,.2 NH, + 2 NaCl. 
Sulphate of Alumina and Potassa to Precipitation and Resolution. 


T- Al, O, DH 8 SO, — 2 KO = Al, O, -SO, a 2 [KO e SO;]- 
8. 2 [A1,0,. 80,] + 5 KO = 2 A1,0,.3 KO + 2 [KO. SOL 


Re-precipitated with Sulphuric Acid. 
9. 2 A1,0,.3 KO + 380, = 2 Al, O; + 3 [KO. SOL 


Re-precipitated with Chloride of Ammonium. 
10. 2 A1,0,.3KO + 6 NH,Cl = 2 [A50,. 3 NH,] + 6 K Cl. 


It is probable that in some of these reactions the salts, represented in the formule 
as in solution, are in part more or less firmly combined with the precipitates. It is un- 
questionable that water enters into the constitution of many of the precipitates. The 
formule give only the relations of the quantities to the facts of precipitation, reso- 
lution, and re-precipitation. They illustrate, also, incidentally, the influence of water 


on the efficiency of a reagent. 


MEMOIRS 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACADEM Y 


OF 


ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


NEW SERIES. 


| VOL. VIII.—PART Hn 


Mo. Bot. Garden, 
1897. 


CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON : 
WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY, 


PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 
1863. - 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACADEM Y 


OF 


ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


NEW SERIES. 


VUE TIII.—PART II. 


Mo. Bot. Garden, 
1897. 


CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON: 
WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY, 


PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 


1863. 


XIII. 


XIX. 


XX. 


CONTENTS OF PART II. 


On the Measure of the Forces of Bodies moving with different Velocities. By 


DANIEL TREADWELL. 
Remarks on Specie Reserves and Bank Deposits. By Francis Bowsn. 


A History of the Fishes of Massachusetts. (With Six Plates.) By Davin How. 
PHREYS STORER. (Continued.) 

On Certain Forms of Interpolation. By W. P. G. BanrLETT. 

Observations on the Language of Chaucer. (Based on Wright’s Edition of the 
Canterbury Tales, Harleian MS. No. 7334.) By F. J. Omm». 

Plante Wrightianæ e Cuba Orientali, Pars II. (Monopetale et Monocotyledones), 
a A. GRISEBACH. 

A Catalogue of Standard Polar and Clock Stars, for the Reduction of Observations 
in Right Ascension ; with a Discussion of their Positions. By Truman Henry 


SAFFORD. 


The Sun a small Star. By ALVAN CLARK. . 


Statutes and Standing Votes of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 


List of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 


PAGE 


361 
370 


389 
435 


445 


503 


537 


ix 


OFFICERS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY, 


FOR THE YEAR BEGINNING MAY, 1862. 


President. 
JACOB BIGELOW. 


Vice- President. 
DANIEL TREADWELL. 


ABBA UA, . : (d . . Corresponding Secretary. 
SAMUEL L. ABBOT, . : ; . Recording Secretary. 
EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH,  .  . Treasurer. 

JOSIAH P. UDUKR . . . «+ Librarian and Cabinet- Keeper. 


STANDING COMMITTEES. 


Rumford Committee. Committee on the Library. 
EBEN N. HORSFORD, AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, 
DANIEL TREADWELL, WILLIAM B. ROGERS, 


JOSEPH LOVERING, GEORGE P. BOND. " 
JOSEPH WINLOCK, ; 


MORRILL WYMAN. Auditing Committee. 


CHARLES E. WARE, 


THOMAS T. BOUVÉ. 
Committee of Publication. 
Committee of Finance. 


JOSEPH LOVERING, JACOB BIGELOW, ez officio, 
JEFFRIES WYMAN, EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH, ez officio, 
CHARLES BECK. J. I. BOWDITCH. 
COUNCIL. 
Class I. Class II. 
JOSEPH LOVERING, LOUIS AGASSIZ, 
EBEN N. HORSFORD, JOHN B. S. JACKSON, 
J. I. BOWDITCH. - JEFFRIES WYMAN. 
- Class III. 


JAMES WALKER, 
HENRY W. TORREY, 
ROBERT C. WINTHROP. 


X ITI. 


On the Measure of the Forces of Bodies moving with different Velocities. 


By DANIEL TREADWELL, 


VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY, AND LATE RUMFORD PROFESSOR IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 


[This paper was read to the Academy in March, 1854, as here printed, except a few sentences since added by 
way of illustration (as that from Brewster's “ Life of Newton”), and some trifling verbal alterations. ] 


ALTHOUGH the great controversy on the measure of the forces of moving bodies, 
which divided the investigators of mechanical science during a part of the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries, is no longer considered open, as a subject for scientific specu- 
lation or inquiry, by many of the leading writers of the present day, they having con- 
cluded that it has been exhausted, or rather that it had terminated in the discovery 
that the whole question was of a verbal rather than of a substantial character, I have 
. yet ventured to present to the Academy a paper touching it. I am not aware that any 
one has heretofore followed the course of experiment, and the particular reasoning from 
it, which will be found in this paper, though the force of the spring has often been ap- 
pealed to by partisans on both sides of the controversy, as proving the truth of the 
standard which each attempted to establish. I shall be very willing, however, to forego 
all claim to originality, if what is herein presented shall be found to assist any one to 
a clearer understanding of a subject on which Newton and Leibnitz were divided. 
Notwithstanding the high authority which, in more recent times, has decided that 
their disagreement was rather one of words than of things, I cannot but consider it 
as substantial and irreconcilable, not only affecting all just conceptions of mechanical 
force, but leading even those who thus attempt to reconcile the opposing theories 
into very grave practical errors and contradictions. 

Thus Dr. Lardner says (“ Mechanics,” chap. iv.): “If a cannon-ball were forty times 


the weight of a musket-ball, but the musket-ball moved with forty times the velocity 
VOL. VIII, 47 


362 ON THE MEASURE OF THE FORCES OF BODIES 


of the cannon-ball, both would strike any obstacle with the same force, and would 
overcome the same resistance"; — a statement that denies to the musket-ball thirty-nine 
fortieths of its force. I do not cite Dr. Lardner as an authority of a very high order, 
but as a leading lecturer and a writer of standard systematic works. But no one will, 
I presume, object to Prof. John Playfair as a representative of the modern writers who 
hold to the merely verbal character of this controversy. He was not only, according to 
Lord Cockburn (in the * Edinburgh Review "), * the best philosophical writer in the 
English language," but he made this controversy a subject of special study ; and he 
came to the conclusion, that, if the proper precautions were taken in limiting the 
vagueness and ambiguity of the data, there would be no difference in the practical 
applications of force, and * that the propositions maintained by both sides were true, 
and were not opposed to each other" But let us see how he succeeded in applying 
these not opposed theories. In his “Outlines of Natural Philosophy," his last sys- 
tematic work, published many years after the assertions cited above, he says (Vol. I. p. 
206): “If the sections of two streams be the same, the forces with which they will strike 
on planes directly opposed to them are as the squares of their velocities. For the force 
-of a stream must be as the force of each particle and as the number of particles that 
strike in a given time. Now, the force of each particle is as the velocity of the fluid, and 
the number of particles that strike in a given time, the section being given, is also as that 
velocity. "Therefore the whole force of the stream must be as the square of its velocity." 
Not only is the assertion, that “the force of each particle is as the velocity of the 
fluid," directly opposed to the theory of Leibnitz, but the theorem, that * the whole 
force of the stream must be as the square of the velocity,” is equally contradicted by . 
the experiments of Smeaton. For, according to these writers, the force of each particle 
. must be as the square, and that of the stream as the cube, of the velocity. Again, Play- 
fair says (on page 216 of the same volume): “ If the sections of two streams are the same, 
their forces will be as the squares of their velocities, or as the heights due to the velocity 
of the water, and the effects of the machines driven by them will be as the cubes of their 
velocities, or as the heights due to those velocities multiplied into their square roots." 
That is, forces which are known to us only as causes produce effects as much greater 
than themselves as the cube of a number is greater than its square. 

With such instances of substantial and radical error, from substituting the conclu- 
sions of one theory for those of the other, how can it be said that the difference is merely 
verbal, or “ that the propositions maintained T both sides were true, and were not op: 
posed to each other"? : 

, Again, in the late * Life of Newton " by Sir David Brewster, it is stated, that “ Poleni 


~ 


MOVING WITH DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. 363 


had published an experiment which he considered as proving Leibnitz’s assertion that the 
force of moving bodies is proportional to the square of the velocity, and not, as is com- 
monly thought, to the simple velocity. Dr. Pemberton saw its insufficiency, and drew up 
a refutation of it.” This being “ communicated to Sir Isaac, he was so well pleased with 
it, that he called upon Pemberton at his lodgings, and showed him a refutation of Poleni, 
by himself, grounded upon other principles." This refutation, as it is called, is pub- 
lished in the * Philosophical Transactions,” and is intended to support in its fullest extent 
the Newtonian measure of force, viz. that of the simple velocity, against the measure 
proposed by Leibnitz. Here then we have Sir David Brewster, one of the greatest of 
living names in mechanical science, in one of his latest works, asserting that the force 
of a moving body is commonly thought to be as its velocity simply, and that the assertion 
of Leibnitz that the force is proportional to the square of the velocity was refuted by 
Dr. Pemberton, and again by Newton himself. 

While a question of this vital character, affecting all the conceptions and many of 
the computations of force, is in this contradictory and cloudy state, ought scientific 
men to rest upon it, or to suffer it to rest, as a closed subject? The labor of pre- 
paring the following paper shows my own opinion upon this question. 

It may be well, perhaps, before opening the particular course of investigation pur- 
sued in this paper, to state briefly the precise matter that formed the subject of this 
renowned controversy. Suppose, then, a body, as a stone, A, of a certain mass, to 
be thrown in any direction in space, with a certain velocity, it must move onward with 
a certain force* Now if another stone, D, having twice the mass of A, be thrown 
with the same velocity that was given to A, it must move with twice the force of A ; 
for we may divide B so as to form two stones, each of which shall have a mass equal to 
that of A, and if thrown with the velocity of A, they must each.have the force of A, 
and if each separately has the force of A, both, united to form B, must have twice the 
force of A. This is substantially the mode of reasoning used by Galileo to show that 
the mass of a body could not alter the velocity with which it would descend by its 
weight, when unsupported, to the earth ; and it follows from this, that under a given 
velocity the forces of all bodies must be directly as their masses. If, however, instead 
of throwing different masses with one and the same velocity, we throw one and the 
same mass with different velocities, we search in vain for any reasoning of this simple 


* Force is the unknown cause by which a body resists change from, or produces change in, another body. 
Synonyme, Power. I shall avoid, if possible, the use of the words momentum, vis mortua, and vis viva, as 
they are often used and understood in such vague and indefinite senses as to obscure rather than to give any 
clearness to our conceptions in an inquiry like this. - 


364 ON THE MEASURE OF THE FORCES OF BODIES 


and decisive kind to prove that the forces must be as the velocities, or to show the rela- 
tion that one must bear to the other. For while we can thus unite two distinct masses, 
making them to coexist under a common velocity, we cannot unite two distinct 
velocities, making them to coexist in a common mass. With the hope, then, of aiding 
to form a clearer conception of this subject, let me propose the following experiment. 
Take a spiral spring, formed of eleven turns of wire, coiled so as to leave an open 
space between each turn of the coil (as in Fig. 2). Let this coil be then pressed 
together as in Fig. 1, and place against its ends respectively the weights A and 


Fig. 1. 


yi 
B, suspended by cords, like pendulums. Let the weight of A be 10 pounds and 
the weight of B be 1 pound. On releasing the spring from its constrained con- 
dition it recovers, under the operation of its elasticity, its original form as shown 
in Fig. 2, while the masses A and B are thrown, one to the right and one to the 
left, with velocities inversely as their masses, namely, A with a velocity of 1, and .B 
with a velocity of 10. All the force which had been applied to compress the spring, 


Fig. 2. 


a A 


from whatever source it was derived, and which existed in the spring’s elasticity, has 
now passed away from the spring, and been exhausted in giving motion to A and 
B. It has overcome, in those bodies, to a certain extent, their state of rest, and 
the force, vis inertie, with which they resisted all change of that state; and those 
bodies together now possess a force of motion, or inertia of motion, equal to the 
force of elasticity given out from the spring. We may therefore conceive that the 
force of elasticity in the spring has been transferred to A and B in the form of 


- 


MOVING WITH DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. 365 


the force of the inertia of motion. This conception, while it violates no fact or result 
of experiment, will aid us in explaining them all. pr. 
-= The question now is, How much of this force has gone to A, and how much to 
B? Or,What is the force of A and of B respectively, at the instant they are discharged 
from the spring? One party in the controversy, who array themselves under the great 
name of Newton, determine the force of each by multiplying its mass by its velocity, 
simply, and find A, mass 10, multiplied by its velocity 1, to be 10; and B, mass 1, 
multiplied by its velocity 10, to be 10. That is, the force of the spring is equally dis- 
tributed between the two bodies. They hold that this must be so of necessity; for the 
spring during its action pressed equally to the right and to the left, equally against 
the bodies A and B. This pressure was continued an equal time upon both bodies, 
namely, during all the time of the spring's action. How is it possible then, say they, 
that a greater effect has been produced in one direction than in the other ? 

This affirmation that the action is equal upon both bodies may be held as 
not merely derived from, but as constituting the substance of, Newton’s Third Law, 
which asserts that “to every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the 
mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to con- 
trary parts" ; and it is not to be denied that, so far as pressure constitutes action, this 
has been fully established by his citation of instances under this Third Law. But it 
by no means follows, because the spring maintains a like pressure by both its ends 
during the act of extending itself, that therefore its force is transferred equally to both 
bodies. The velocity with which this pressure overcomes the resistance opposed to it 
must be regarded, as well as the pressure itself; and indeed the whole controversy lies 
in determining the value that belongs to the velocity as one of the factors by which the 
force is produced; that is, whether this factor shall be taken in its simple form, a value 
clearly assigned, to it by Newton in the Corollaries and Scholium of his Third Law; 
or whether a higher value, as its square, shall be given to it, as was first proposed by 
Leibnitz. Let us then see if, by tracing the course in which the spring elongates itself 
under different conditions, we can increase our knowledge of the transference of its 
force. By an examination of this subject, we shall find that the spring acts upon each 
body with a velocity proportional to the resistance that it receives from the opposite body ; 
and we shall find that, as we increase the mass of either body, the effect produced upon the 
opposite body will be increased. Thus, if we add to the mass of D, until it becomes 
equal to that of A, and let the spring expand as before, the velocities of A and B 
wil be equal; the velocity of A being more than double (as y5.5 to y1) what it 
was before the size of B was increased. The force expended, namely, the elastic force 


966 ON THE MEASURE OF THE FORCES OF BODIES 


of the spring, has been the same in both cases. Will it be said that it has been distrib- 
uted in the same proportion to the two bodies, when A, the mass of which has not 
been changed, has had its velocity increased in this essential degree? And yet the New- 
tonians would make it the same; namely, half to each body in both instances. 
We may, I think, obtain a clear conception of the action of the spring, if we con- 

- sider it as depending, for its effect on each body, upon the degree of.immobility which 
- it finds in the opposite body; and hence the force communicated to each body will de- 
pend upon the resistance of the inertia of the opposite body ; or, through the action of the ; 
spring, the inertia of rest in each body is transferred as an active force in the motion of 
the opposite body. In the case before us, the body A having an inertia 10 times as 
great as that of B, the force communicated to B by the spring is 10 times as great as 
the force communicated to A. To show this more clearly, let us attend to the exact 
course of the action of the spring. It will be found, if proper means be taken to 
mark the motion of the spring (Fig. 1) in its course of extending itself, that, during 
this extension, 10 of the rings of which it is composed open to the left, in the direc- 
tion of B's motion, and only one in the direction of A, while the point a (Fig. 2) hàs 
remained at rest. The spring has acted from a plane, passing through the point a, as 
from a base, to the right and to the left. Now will any one say, that, when 10 out of 
11 parts of the spring have acted wholly in the direction of B, the effect of the spring 
has been equally distributed between A and B? 

. Suppose we cut the spring in two at the point a, and fix the.cut end of the larger 
part to an immovable plane, as in Fig. 3, and, placing the ball B against it when com- 


Fig. 3. 


pressed, suffer it to extend itself against B. The velocity of motion that it will commu- 
nicate to B will be precisely equal to that produced under the conditions of Figs. 1 and 
.2; and if we take the remaining coil of the spring, and fix it to the opposite side of the 
plane, as in Fig. 3, and suffer it to extend itself, it will produce the same motion in A 
that was produced in the first experiment. Now it must be evident that the 10 rings 
of the spring contain 10 times as much elastic force as the. 1 ring, and that, as no - 
motion whatever is communicated to the plane by their action, all the force of each 


MOVING WITH DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. 367 


spring must be communicated to the bodies A and B, against which they act re- 
spectively ; and as these forces are to each other as 1 to 10, so the forces of A and B 
must be as 1 to 10. But the velocities of A and B are to each other the same that 
they were in the first experiment. Hence it follows, that the forces produced in A and 
B by the unbending of the spring in the first experiment were not equal, but that B 
received 10 parts of the force and A 1 part; and this distribution corresponds exactly 
with the product of the mass into the square of its velocity. 
' :, For the mass of A = 10 and its velocity — 1; then 10 X 1? = 10 for the force of 
A; and the mass of B — 1 and its velocity = 10 ; then 1 X 10? — 100 for the force of B. 
We shall find, moreover, that the forces of A and B, under the velocities produced 
by the action of the spring, are to each other inversely as the masses of A and B; that 
is, at the instant that they leave the spring, 


Force of A: Force of B :: Mass of B : Mass of A. 


Or, the force of B is as much greater than the force of A as the mass of A is greater 
than the mass of B. Again, if we neglect entirely the masses of A and B, or the quan- 
tity of the mass in each, we shall find that their forces are to each other as their veloci- 
ties directly, and not as the squares of their velocities. Thus, we have found the 
force of B at the instant that it leaves the spring to be ten times as great as that of A. 
This was found by multiplying the mass of each into the square of its velocity. But 
the velocity of B is ten times as great as that of A. If therefore we neglect the masses, 
as factors, with both bodies, and take the force of each, not as the square of its velocity, 
but as its velocity simply, we have the same'comparative results; that is, 


Force of B: Force of A :: Velocity of B : Velocity of A.* 


This last statement is not given as favoring the Newtonian measure of force. For 
the mass of the body is, in that, always taken as an element or factor of the force, and 
it can be struck out only in a case like the one here stated ; where, on striking it out, 
the value of another factor of the force, namely the velocity, is evolved from the square 
to its simple power. 

It cannot fail to be understood, that whenever two bodies, as A and B in the pre- 
ceding example, receive the action of elasticity impelling them in opposite directions, 
the neutral point, as at a, Fig. 2, will be placed so as to divide the elastic force into 
two parts, having the same proportion to each other that the parts into which a line 
connecting the centres of gravity of the two bodies will be divided by their common 


- * Indeed, this amounts to no more than dividing the two sides of an equation by the same number. 


368 ON THE MEASURE OF THE FORCES OF BODIES 


centre of gravity. Thus in the example herein given, if A contained 100 times the 
mass of B, the spring would be divided by the point a so as to give 1 part to A and 
100 parts to B; and if the mass of A be made infinite with regard to B, so as to be 
immovable, as in the plane, Fig. 3, the point a coincides with the end of the spring, and 
all the force is communicated to B. 

A very striking example for illustrating the principles of this analysis, and displaying 
the force of elasticity in its highest form, may be imagined under the following order of 
preparation. Divide the charge of powder, intended for a piece of ordnance, by a dia- 
phragm of iron, or any substance that will stand the heat, no matter how light and thin 
it be, into two parts, that shall be to each other as the weight of the gun is to that of 
the ball. Load the piece by placing the end of the cartridge containing the smaller 
portion of the charge at the bottom of the chamber, the ball being placed over the 
larger portion of the charge. Now if the fire be communicated to both parts of the 
charge at the same instant, the diaphragm must, however light, remain perfectly station- 
ary in space, being subjected to equal pressures in opposite directions upon its two sides, 
while the gun and the ball are driven from it in opposite directions, with velocities 
inversely as their weights. Here, as the cannon is often 200 times as heavy as 
the ball, the quantity of powder before the diaphragm, and actually expended in pro- 
ducing the motion of the ball, is 200 times as great as that expended in producing the 
motion or recoil of the gun, though the pressure upon both is the same in intensity and 
in time; but the quantity of the foree communicated to the ball must be, under these 
conditions, directly as the powder expended to produce it; and yet if we take the force 
. of the ball and that of the gun in its recoil, respectively, as the product of the mass 
into its velocity simply, we shall make them equal, one to the other; that is, 1 oz. of 
powder acting from one side of a plane, equal to 200 oz. acting from its opposite side. 
- But, by the measure of the square of the velocity, we have, mass of ball 1, velocity 200, 
and.1 X 200? = 40,000 for the force of the ball; mass of gun 200, velocity 1, and 
200 X  1*— 200 for the force of the gun’s recoil; which corresponds exactly with the 
expenditure of the powder. It may again be observed that these forces correspond, 
inversely, with the masses; for 200: 40,000 :: 1: 200. 

It can hardly be necessary to remark, that in any of the preceding instances we 
may reverse the direction of the motion, and consider the bodies as made to approach 
towards each other, rather than to recede from each other. Thus if A and B, when 
placed asunder as in Fig. 2, are drawn towards each other by a distended spring, 
or by any kind of attraction, or gravitation, inherent in the bodies themselves, the 
force excited in, or transferred to, each will be inversely as the masses of the bodies 


MOVING WITH DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. 969 


respectively, and this will be the case whether the elastic or attractive force be constant 
or variable. Hence, if the orbital motions of a satellite and its primary were destroyed, 
they would approach their common centre of gravity with forces directly as their veloci- 
ties and inversely as their masses (see p. 361) ; and if another body were placed at their 
point of meeting, such body would receive a shock from the satellite as much greater 
than that received from the primary, as the velocity of the satellite was greater than that 
of the primary, or as the mass of the primary was greater than that of the satellite. 

Hence in all those operations in the arts by which the form of unelastic bodies is 
changed by collision or percussion, as in the action of the hammer or axe, the effi- 
ciency of'the instrument depends upon the inertia of the body against which it acts. 
Thus, if a block or anvil be suspended by a chain, or made to rest upon a spring, and 
a piece of lead or any soft and unelastic body be placed against or upon it and struck 
by a hammer, the force of the hammer will be divided between the lead and the bed or 
anvil; that is, in changing the form of the lead, and in giving motion to it and the 
anvil; and the distribution of the force, or the proportions which go to the different 
bodies involved in the action, may be found as follows : — 


Let the mass of the hammer = m. 
Its velocity before the blow = v. 
Its velocity after the blow aia, 


The mass of the bodies struck — m’. 
Velocity after the stroke . = v”. 


Then the force of the hammer before the stroke will be m vg. Of this force there will 
remain in the motion of the masses after the stroke 

m v? + m v? 
and m v? — m v? — m v"? must be absorbed in changing the form of the lead. 

If we neglect entirely the effect of elasticity, which we may do for most practical 
purposes, in both masses, then when m and m’ are equal, one quarter of the force will 
remain in the motion of m, one quarter will be communicated to produce motion in m’, 
and one half will go to change the form of the soft body. So, if the mass of m be 
infinitely greater than that of m, or, not being greater, if m' be made to move in a 
direction opposite to the motion of m, and with a velocity such that » and m remain 
at rest after the collision, then the whole force will be absorbed in changing the form 
of the soft body. | 

What is here stated may be applied to the whole subject of percussion or col- 
lision. ox gt 

VOL. VIII. 48 a 


AV. 


Remarks on Specie Reserves and Bank Deposits. 


By FRANCIS BOWEN, 


ALFORD PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN HARVARD COLLEGE, 


[ Communicated to the Academy, November 81, 1861.] 


THE question is, whether any regulation of the amount of the specie reserves in 
banks will avert, postpone, or alleviate a commercial crisis, and the suspension of specie 
payments by the banks, which is a frequent consequence of such a crisis. 

The old theory upon this subject is, that a crisis is the result of an undue expansion 
of the bank circulation, leading first to a general enhancement of prices, and then to 
an export of specie; that this export diminishes the specie reserves, and thereby 
obliges the banks, for their own security, to contract the circulation, making it as 
much too small as it formerly was too large, and thus necessitating what is called “a 
scarcity of money," — that is, a fall of prices, a rise of interest, increasing difficulty in 
the payment of debts, and general distress and bankruptcy. The conclusion is, that 
legislation is necessary to compel the banks always to retain on hand a certain consid- 
erable amount of specie reserve, proportioned to their circulation alone, or to their 
circulation and deposits united; and that this restriction will prevent them from 
issuing too large an amount of bank-bills in prosperous times, and will better enable 
them to meet a drain of specie when it comes, without unduly or aps contracting 
the circulation. | 

But this theory, after prevailing in the commercial and legislative world for about 
half a century, and doing a vast amount of mischief, has at length been so far refuted, 
both by reasoning and experience, that it is now seldom mentioned except in docu- 
ments which have rather a political than a commercial or scientific character. To 
mention only a few of the decisive considerations against it: — 

l. The banks cannot expand their circulation, even if they would. Every bank 
cashier knows, that, if he issues an unusually large amount in bills one day, there will 
be a proportionally large reflux of them, both that day and the succeeding one, mostly 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 371 


through the Clearing House, but in part by presentation or payment at his own 
counter. He is just as sure of this as he is that, if he goes out in the rain without an 
umbrella, he will be wet. And as the undue issue can be made only by discounting 
notes which have some weeks or months to run, while the reflux, taking place within 
twenty-four hours, can be met only out of the ordinary funds, including the specie 
reserve, thus at once crippling his means and endangering his credit, he will take good 
care not to make any such issue, and will even resist the pressing solicitations of his 
best customers, in order to avoid it.* The exceptions to this rule, growing out of the 
irregular and even fraudulent practice of discounting liberally to individuals who, 
doing business at a distance, will send off the bills on a long journey, whence they 


* Extracts from the evidence given to a Committee of the House of Commons, in March, 1858, by James 
Bristow, director of the Northern Banking Company of Belfast, and representing before the Committee all 
the Belfast banks. 

“I have been practically acquainted with the business of issuing [bank] notes upwards of forty years.” 

“Ts it your opinion, from your experience, that your bank, or any other bank, have it in their power to 
increase the issue of notes at their pleasure ? — Certainly not. 

* Any increase of notes beyond that which was absolutely required for the uses of the community would be 
returned as rapidly as they were issued ? — They would. 

* As long as you have deposits payable on demand, and you are issuers of notes, can you, by any action of 
your own, restrict or reduce the quantity of notes in circulation ? — You can restrict it by not discounting bills; 
but you must be prepared to issue something in payment of your deposits. 

“If you were to attempt to restrict by not discounting bills, it would produce an action upon your deposits? 
— Decidedly. 

* And if you were not prepared to meet that action by your notes, you must do so by coin or by some other 
means ? — Yes. | | 

“ You cannot, therefore, influence in any way the actual amount of currency, whether of notes or of coin, 
or the two together, in the hands of the public? — Not in any way, I believe. I never could discover a way 
in which I could do it. 

* And that is the conclusion to which you have come from a long experience, and having thought upon and 
observed the matter ? — It is." 

“ As a banker, would you ever feel justified in making an advance if the person to whom you were going to 
make it were willing to take your notes, which advance you would not be justified in making if he were to 
demand coin? — Never. 

* You would feel that it would be unsafe banking, and contrary to all rule, if you were to make an advance 
in notes which you could not make in sovereigns ? — Decidedly. ; 

“ On the ground that you would know, that if the notes were not required, they would come back upon you 
for payment immediately ?— I look upon all advances as made from capital; they do not increase our 
circulation. ; 

* And practically speaking, whether your advances are large or small, that fact, for the time being, has little 
or no effect upon the amount of your circulation ? — It has not." 


372 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


> 


cannot return for several days; or to those who, employing many hands, will pay out 
to them small sums in small bills, which, thus passing into the general circulation, 
cannot be collected and brought back at least for several days,— these exceptional 
cases, I say, besides being too few and small to be of much account any way, also 
operate only to expand the circulation of a few banks through contracting to an equal 
extent the circulation of others, thus leaving the aggregate circulation of all the banks, 
taken collectively, just what it was. 

2. The circulation is not expanded in times of prosperity and ease in the money 
market, being then even lower than usual. 

3. As a consequence of 2, the circulation is not contracted during a period of 
pressure, but is then almost invariably about ten per cent larger than when no 
pressure exists.* 

4. Money crises may be, and have been, as frequent and severe in countries (Cali- 
fornia and Australia, for instance) where no banks of circulation existed, and where, 
consequently,no expansion or contraction of bank currency was possible, as here in 
Massachusetts, where we have a surfeit of banks. | 

5. The characteristic feature of a crisis in the money-market is not a scarcity of 
money in circulation, whether paper or metallic, but a deficiency of credit. There is 
money enough, — there is as much money as ever, and even more, as we have just 
shown; but the owners of it, through a want of confidence, will not lend it; some 
of them will not lend at all, others only at usurious rates. The relative abundance or 
scarcity of money, as such, does not even affect the rate of interest; for, paradoxical 
as the assertion may seem, money neither yields profit nor pays interest. In whose 
possession soever it may be, private person or corporation, it forms a part of his 
dead capital, and therefore he always aims to get along with as little of it as possible. 
What really yields interest is the merchandise or property purchased with the money, 
and retained in possession of the borrower during the period of the loan, while the 
money obtained through that loan is paid away, usually on the very day on which it 
is received. 

6. The undue expansion of credit is not produced by a previous undue expansion 
of the currency. Rather the reverse is true. A previous expansion of credit produces 
ultimately, or after some time, an expansion, relatively a small expansion, of the cur- 


- * That this is the general result is proved by statistics, as any one may see by examining the bank returns. 
But as will be shown hereafter, there is one cause which tends to lessen the circulation during a crisis. The 
operation of this cause, however, is limited and trifling in amount, and is therefore overborne and concealed 
by the more general tendency to an expansion under such circumstances. 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 913 


+ 


rency. When credit is good, — that is, when the money-market is said to be easy, — 
every merchant who wishes to extend his business can make purchases, almost to an 
unlimited extent, without borrowing or paying any money whatever. And the effect 
of the purchases thus made, added to the force of his example, is to raise prices. 
Two merchants, A and B, for instance, can buy merchandise to any extent on six or 
eight months’ credit; and the effect of their heavy purchases will be, within a week, 
perhaps within a day, to induce C and D also to buy largely on equally prolonged 
credit, and thus to raise prices still higher. This enhanced price may tempt A and B 
to sell long before their own term of credit has expired, and on credit equally pro- 
longed, to other parties; and then, considering the profits on this transaction as 
already accrued, to make other purchases on time, and to a larger amount, of other 
kinds of merchandise. The process may be carried on indefinitely by E, F, G, and 
so on, through all the letters of the alphabet. In this way, before six months have 
expired from the date of the original purchase, that is, before the first note has become 
due, and thereby first created an occasion for the use of any money whatever, a huge 
pile of indebtedness may have been created, and prices raised to that giddy elevation 
whence all experience shows that a speedy and precipitous fall is inevitable. 

7. The notes are finally paid, if paid at all, to a great extent, without the use of any 
money whatever, but merely by the transfer of deposits on the air eibi zu from the 
credit of one person to that of another.* 


* Robert Slater, of the firm of Morrison, Dillon, & Co., London, “one of the largest houses, as warehouse- 
men, in the country," testified before a Committee of the House of Commons : — * Our cash operations extend 
over several millions [of pounds] a year.” He made an analysis of the operations of this firm in 1856, in 
order to lay before the Committee * very strong evidence of the small proportion which the Bank of England 
notes bear to the general amount of the circulation of the kingdom. We received, in the course of the year 
1856, certain moneys reduced to the total of £ 1,000,000 in the following proportions: in bankers’ drafts and 
mercantile bills of exchange, payable after date, £533,596 ; in checks on bankers payable on demand, 
£357,715; in country bankers’ notes, £ 9,627 ; these three sums amount together to £ 900,938. We received 
in Bank of England notes, for the same period, £ 68,554; in gold, £ 28,089 ; in silver and copper, £ 1,486 ; 
in post-office orders, £ 933; these four sums amount together to £ 99,062, being with the previous £ 900,938, 
formed of bankers' drafts, of checks, of country bank-notes, and those other matters, the £ 1,000,000 of receipts 
received by our house. We paid by bills of exchange payable after date, £ 302,674; by cliecks upon a 
London banker, £ 663,672; together, £ 966,846; we paid by Bank of England notes, £ 22,743; by gold, 
£9,427; by silver and copper, £1,484; being £33,654, against £ 966,346 by bills of exchange and checks, 
making together the sum of £ 1,000,000 of payments.” 

“Under a normal state of things, when there is nothing to shake confidence, I think you state that the bank- 
note is scarcely perceptibly required, but that balances are paid through those various economizing modes 
which have suggested themselves of late years in the shape of checks and bills of exchange ? — Precisely so; 


914 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


If there is any force in these considerations, any attempt to avert or palliate the 
evils of a commercial crisis through abridging and strengthening the paper currency, 
by laws requiring the banks to increase their permanent specie reserves, is not only 
futile, but ridiculous. There is no relation between the proposed means and the end. 
We might as well build more school-houses in the hope of lessening the frequency and 
violence of snow-storms. 

But I go farther. Such laws are not merely useless and absurd; they are positively 
injurious. It is a mere truism to say, that a specie reserve can be of no service, except 
it may, on an emergency, be used, or actually applied, to redeem the bills or other 
obligations of the bank. A reserve of fwo millions, which can be paid out, if neces- 
sary, either to redeem bills or to lessen a pressure in the money-market, is surely 
better than a reserve of ten millions confined by law forever within the bank-vaults. 
When the confidence of the community in the currency is shaken, there may be more 
virtue in hard dollars than in paper dollars to allay the panic; but it is not a virtue 
which will sweat through the stone walls and iron doors of a bank-vault or a Sub- 
Treasury. The superstition which hopes to avert a crisis through the mere presence 
of specie in the country, though any wse of it is prohibited by law, is nearly akin 
to the more vulgar superstition which treats a Bible as an amulet, and hangs it 
around the neck, or puts it under the pillow, as a means of driving off the Devil. 
Yet the English law of 1844, separating the department of issue from that of bank- 
ing in the Bank of England, authorizes fourteen millions of circulation based on the 
fourteen millions of government debt owned by the Bank; and forbids the issue of 
bank-notes beyond this amount, except on the basis, and to the extent, of the specie 
reserve in actual possession. The average circulation of the Bank being about twenty 
millions, its ordinary basis is fourteen millions due from the government and six mil- 
lions of specie in the vaults. Time soon showed how much utility there was in this 
vast reserve, which by law could not be touched. In 1847, only three years after the 
passage of the law, there occurred a severe commercial crisis. A failure of the crops 
made it necessary to export gold to buy corn; more bank-notes were required, as is 
usual under such circumstances, the circulation ran up to twenty-one millions, and 
the law then augmented the evil by rendering it necessary to add one million to the 
useless specie reserve. Still the drain of gold continued, and it could be met only 


that is the time when the Bank reserve is always at its highest, because there is the smallest demand for bank- 
notes. : 


“Then the system, as it is generally carried on, is based upon confidence, I presume ? — Entirely so. 
“Theoretically upon gold, but practically upon confidence ? — Chiefly upon confidence.” 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 919 


by diminishing the reserve of notes usually held in the banking department. This 
was done till the funds of the banking department were wellnigh exhausted, and the 
Bank was in the ludicrous condition of being on the verge of stopping payment with 
nearly seven millions of pounds sterling in specie in its vaults, which the law forbade 
it to touch. The ministry then stepped forward, and authorized the Bank Directors to 
break the law, by issuing more notes without giving security by imprisoning more 
specie; promising that a bill of indemnity for this irregular proceeding should be 
passed at the next session of Parliament. This was done, confidence was immediately 
restored, and the pressure ceased, even before the Bank had had time to exercise its ex- 
traordinary powers. ‘Ten years afterwards, during the crisis of 1857, the same cycle of 
events was repeated. Again the Bank was on the point of bankruptcy, though it had 
six or seven millions of pounds in specie, which it was forbidden to use; again the 
. ministry interfered with a letter of license authorizing a breach of the law, more notes 
were issued without any augmentation of the specie, and the panic then quickly 
subsided. The law still remains upon the statute-book, but it can hardly be said to 
continue in force, as it is always broken whenever an occasion for its exercise arises. 

Our law here in Massachusetts is not so suicidal in its operation as the English 
law; and yet it is worse than useless. For in ordinary times, when the money-market 
is said to be easy, the law is practically inoperative, as it only enjoins upon the banks 
to do that which their own convenience and a due regard to their own credit would 
inevitably lead them to do, even if the law did not exist. On the other hand, in a time 
of pressure and distress, when the banks ought to be able to use every dollar of their 
resources in order to avert impending bankruptcy, the law steps in and locks up fifteen 
per cent of their immediately available funds, saying that no portion of this reserve, 
usually amounting in Boston alone to about four millions, shall be used except under 
the penalty of ceasing to make any discounts, — a penalty which might, and probably 
would, withdraw ten or twelve millions from the circulation, thereby intensely aggra- 
vating the pressure at the most critical moment, before the four millions of specie would 
be exhausted. The English law makes the specie reserve available only for the redemp- 
tion of the circulation, leaving the deposits wholly unprovided for, and thereby subject- 
ing the bank to bankruptcy through a comparatively moderate reduction of the deposits. 
The Massachusetts law makes the reserve equally available for redeeming the circulation 
and. deposits, and is so far wiser than the English enactment; but when the reserve has 
fallen to less than fifteen per cent of this joint liability, the prohibition of discounts, if 
enforced, would make an immediate suspension of specie payments, or of any payments, 
inevitable. During the severe pressure which occurred in the autumn of 1860, the 


316 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


banks had sense and resolution enough to break this law, and they were never even 
blamed for the transgression. In short, to fix:an arbitrary limit to a specie reserve, 
below which it shall not be reduced under any circumstances, is about as reasonable as 
it would be to attempt to provide against a famine by enacting that the bakers should 
always keep on hand a reserve of flour, enough at least for a fortnight's consumption ; 
which is probably no more than what they do of their own accord, when no scarcity is 
apprehended. But if a famine should actually happen, I apprehend the fortnight's 
supply would find its way to the oven in spite of the law ; and with good reason, for 
before it was exhausted, the ships or the cars would bring another supply. If the 
legislature must meddle at all, the law ought to establish a specie reserve on the prin- 
ciple of a sliding scale, requiring the reserve to be, say twenty per cent of the aggregate 
immediate liabilities, whenever the banks are willing to discount at as low a rate as six 
per cent, and allowing two per cent to be abated from this reserve for every addition of 
one per cent to the rate of interest. Under such a law, the reserve would be exhausted 
only when the rate of interest had risen to sixteen per cent; and when that is the case, 
the banks ought to break, and all payments ought to be stopped, till the panic has 
ceased. 

The course of the discussion has led us incidentally to see how a vast amount of in- 
debtedness is created, and how prices are consequently raised, without any antecedent 
enlargement of the currency, but simply by selling merchandise and real estate on credit. 
And this brings us naturally to another and more difficult problem, — to consider what 
is the real medium of payment when these debts are duly discharged at maturity. The 
question, it should be observed, does not concern the ordinary petty transactions of 
every-day life, in which small purchases and small debts are certainly cancelled by the 
actual payment of money, the coin or bank-bills, however, being immediately used to 
effect a transfer of merchandise or property. We here refer only to the payments of 
` considerable amount, which balance large mercantile transactions, and which take place 
seemingly by the transfer of bits of paper, called checks, and by a few corresponding 
entries on the books of a bank. Money, properly so called, either in the form of specie 
or bank-bills, evidently has no share in cancelling this class of obligations. And it is 
not easy to see how a transfer even of property is effected. Familiar as the actual pro- 
cess is to every one who has had occasion to pay a note at a bank, I know not of any 
treatise or discussion on the subject of the currency in which the rationale of that pro- 
cess has received adequate explanation. But the nature of such transfers must be 
thoroughly understood, before it can be seen how far the regulation of the banks, either 
in the management of their specie reserves or in any other particular, can affect the 
course of mercantile affairs, either to hasten, postpone, or avert a commercial crisis. 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 377 


The prominent feature of the case is a transfer, on the books of a bank, effected by 
a check, of a certain amount of deposits from the credit of one person to that of ' 
another. By procuring a discount, or having notes at maturity paid in to his order, a 
merchant, A, has $ 20,000 standing to his credit as on deposit. His notes to B and C 
for $10,000 each becoming due, he orders a transfer, through his checks, of this sum 
to their credit, thereby cancelling his own obligations. Thé deposit now stands 
credited to B and C; and in their turn, having notes to pay, they order its transfer to 
D and E. In this manner, successive transfers of this one sum, of $ 20,000 on deposit, 
may, in the course of a week, cancel indebtedness to the amount of a quarter of a 
million; for at different hours of the same banking day, A may transfer it to B, D to 
C, and C to D; though in ordinary times, certainly, the transfer is not quite so rapid. 
All this practically takes place without the exchange of a dollar i» money, whether of 
specie or paper; and as the average total deposit in our Boston banks alone is from 
eighteen to twenty millions, the mere shifting of the credit for this sum on the bank 
books may wipe out two or three hundred millions of indebtedness every week. "The rel- 
ative amount of the bank circulation or of the specie reserve has nothing to do with this 
result, any more than it has with the position of the planets; for the whole process might 
go on undisturbed, if there were not a specie dollar or a paper dollar in existence. The 
little complication that is caused by different merchants keeping their deposit accounts 
at different banks in the same city, is easily resolved. A, from the Merchants’ Bank, 
pays his note for $ 10,000 to B, at the Traders’ Bank, by transferring that sum in bank- 
bills from the former institution to the latter, A’s deposit account being debited, and 
B's credited, to that amount; then, on the same day, perhaps, C from the Traders’ pays 
his note for $10,000 to D at the Merchants’, corresponding changes of credit being 
made. Each of the two banks now holds $10,000 in bills of the other. At the 
Clearing-House, on the same day, the two banks swap back these parcels of each 
others’ bills which they have received, and the transaction is squared all round. If any 
one thinks that the bank-bills, in their specific character as bank-bills, have any effect 
on the nature of the transaction, he may learn his mistake by referring to the practice 
in the city of New York, where the checks are not paid in “bank-bills, but are merely 
certified as * good” by the teller of the bank on which they are drawn; thus certified, 
they are paid in as money at another bank; and then, at the Clearing-House, the 
banks swap checks instead of bank-bills. 

We are now prepared to understand the phenomena of an easy or a tight money 
market, and the circumstances of a commercial crisis. "The depositors at the banks 
may be divided into the debtor class and the creditor class, the former holding more 

VOL. VIII. 49 


378 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


^ 


ES 
property (merchandise or real estate) than they really own, and therefore having a 
succession of notes to pay; the latter holding much less property than they own, and 
therefore having a succession of notes to be paid to them. In easy and prosperous 
times, when credit is good, the creditor class, unwilling, of course, that their funds 
should lie idle on deposit without yielding interest, lend them freely to the debtor 
class, receiving notes “ on time," as the phrase is, — that is, at two, four, or six months. 
The nature of the loan is, that a deposit, (that is, a debt due on demand from a bank, 
and therefore just as available as specie in making purchases or paying debts,) is ex- 
changed for a note on time from an individual, with or without collateral security or 
indorsement. This, indeed, is the nature of all large loans or payments; they are 
simply transfers of indebtedness,— exchanges of bank debt, payable on demand, for 
private debt, due some time hence ; or vice versa. Whether the bank debt (the debt due 
from the bank) is in the form of a deposit or a bank-bill, is of no importance, as one is 
readily exchanged for the other. The creditor class lending freely, the whole body of 
the deposits is kept in a state of activity, being rapidly transferred from one person's 
credit to another, and thus cancelling without difficulty any amount of indebtedness 
within the week. The debtor class, thus encouraged, make larger purchases, prices 
rise, the creditor class with characteristic caution sell, being tempted by these prices, 
and thus the amount of debt due to them is increased. But the tide, having reached 
its flood, begins to ebb. Distrust begins and gains ground. The creditor class are less 
willing to exchange immediate bank debt for prospective private debt, even when tempted 
by high rates of interest. The deposits, instead of circulating freely, now move slug- 
gishly, as they accumulate to the credit of the creditor class, who are now loath to lend 
them. Ostensibly, the condition of the banks is about the same as before. ‘There is 
a trifling increase of the “loans and discounts," corresponding to a trifling increase of 
the “circulation,” the difference in either case being too slight to affect the market 
perceptibly. The deposits also remain at about the same amount, or are somewhat 
increased. But there is this great difference, which does not appear on the face of the 
accounts, but is the real index of the whole difficulty. The eighteen or twenty millions 
of deposits, instead of circulating freely, so as to wipe off two or three hundred millions 
of indebtedness every week, are now accumulating in sluggish masses to the credit of 
the creditor class; and distress of the debtor class is the inevitable result. 

Specie reserves, and other legislative precautions against over-trading, affect at best 
the security only of the immediate bank debt, which nobody distrusts, and which needs 
no bolstering. The real evil consists in the excessive amount of what I have called 
private prospective indebtedness, which the action of the banks has done nothing to 


REMARKS oe SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 379 


foster, and is powerless to relieve; and which is no more affected by the amount of the. ` 
specie reserves than by the state of the weather. : 

To the holders of this immediate bank debt, it makes no difference whether it exists 
in the form of bank-notes in their pockets or safes, or in the form of deposits in the 
bank payable on demand. Neither does it make any difference to the bank, whether, 
for the debt which it owes to its depositors, it issues its promises to pay on demand in 
what are called bank-bills, or simply has an entry on its books that such sums on 
deposit are due on demand to such and such persons. At any rate, it is for the 
owners of the deposit, and not for the bank, to determine how much of the debt due 
to them shall exist in the form of bank-notes, and how much in the form of a deposit. 
If they have more bank-notes than they need, they pay them into the bank to increase 
their deposit; if they wish for more notes, they can draw out by checks, if they see 
fit, the whole of their deposit. But as no one deems proper, in these times, to keep 
any considerable sum in bank-notes in his own possession, he will not change his 
deposit into these notes unless he has occasion to pay a debt to some other person; and 
then this person, for the sake of safety and convenience, will immediately reconvert 
them into the deposit form by paying them back, perhaps into the same bank, perhaps 
into another, so that the aggregate amount of the deposits in all the banks together 
remains at about the same point, with very little fluctuation. Strange as it may seem, 
the pressure of a severe crisis serves rather to augment, than to diminish, the aggregate 
of deposits. Many persons of moderate means, who can afford in ordinary times to 
keep a small sum in bank-bills in their own possession, are now compelled to part with 
them, in order to pay their debts or to purchase necessaries. The bank-bills thus pass 
into the hands of traders, who immediately. pay them into the banks, and thereby 
increase their deposits and somewhat diminish the active circulation.* Even if these 
traders have notes of their own to pay on the same day on which they receive the bills, 
they often prefer to lodge the bills in bank in order to increase their deposit, and then 
pay their note with a check, which transfers this deposit to the credit account of their 
creditor. 

These explanations make it sufficiently evident, that deposits not only perform all 
the functions of money, but that they are money, and almost the only form of money 
which is used in paying debts of any considerable magnitude, or in making any pay- 
ments which are large enough to be effected through the banks. In such transactions, 
the agency of bank-bills is as trifling, in comparison with that of the deposits, as that 
of silver and copper money is in proportion to that of bank-bills in the petty payments 


ji * See note to page 372. 


380 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


which do not pass through the banks. Indeed, in the larger transactions, bank-bills 
need not be used at all, for, as we have seen, certified checks are just as good, and far 
more convenient ; while in the smaller ones, some specie must be used for the purposes 
of change. 

We come now to the question, whether it is possible to make any such use of the de- 
posits as will alleviate the pressure of a panic, or what is usually called a commercial 
crisis. To alleviate the crisis, we say ; not to avert it, for that is impossible. Trade can- 
not exist without speculation, for all trade is speculation ; and speculation cannot fail to 
become excessive, when credit is very easily granted, as it always must be in the period 
after one panic, when the creditor class find that they have large deposits lying idle, and 
when they consequently become eager to lend them in order to obtain interest for their 
accumulations. As they were desirous, during the crisis, to change their investments 
from prospective private debts to immediate bank debt, so now, after the crisis, they are 
eager to obtain good private notes, payable on interest at a future day, instead of their 
unproductive deposits. But when abundant credit is offered on easy terms, and prices 
are unusually low as another consequence of the recent pressure, merchants will make 
large purchases in the hope of profiting by a speedy rise of prices; and in this hope 
they are not disappointed, as these very purchases cause the expected rise. Others are 
thus incited to follow their example, and speculation again becoming excessive, a panic 
ensues, and the former pressure in the money market is renewed. 

But the fact has not been sufficiently noticed, that the creditor class of depositors are 
as much affected by this panic as the debtors, and that their injudicious proceedings, 
when thus affected, greatly enhance the very evil which they dread. As the bill-hold- 
ers, by making a run upon a bank whose credit is shaken, make the suspension inevi- 
table which might otherwise be averted, so the creditor depositors, by allowing the 
notes due to them to mature without making further loans, cause many to become 
insolvent whose assets under ordinary circumstances would pay all their liabilities and 
leave a surplus. Mercantile debts are paid, as we have seen, only by a free circulation 
of the deposits. But when the creditor class refuse to make further loans, these depos- 
its accumulate in sluggish masses to their own credit, being seldom transferred on the 
bank books to the credit of the debtor class, and every failure thus caused only 
enhances the difficulty. Because A cannot obtain a loan, he is unable to pay a debt 
to B, who is therefore also driven into insolvency ; and his failure, by diminishing 
the receipts of C and D, obliges them also to fail. It is not unlikely that C and D 
may be largely indebted to the very same capitalist, or * creditor depositor," whose 
eagerness to change his funds from prospective private debt to immediate bank debt — 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 381 


or, in other words, to enlarge the amount of deposits to his own credit — made him 
refuse the required loan to A, which might have saved him from failure, and thereby 
averted the failure of B, C, and D. Thus the capitalist, by refusing to make one loan 
on what he considers as doubtful security, may cause himself to lose twice as much 
through the subsequent failures which are thus necessitated. He can foresee this 
.result, and act accordingly, if the chain of connection be only a short one. Tf, for 
instance, by lending $10,000 to A, he can see that it will enable A to pay B a note for 
_ $15,000, and thereby B will be enabled to pay $$ 20,000 to himself, a regard for his 
own interest will induce him to make the loan, though on what he would otherwise 
regard as insufficient security. What are called “forced renewals” of a note are suf- 
ficiently common, and are of precisely this: character. But if the chain of connection 
be a long one, extending through many persons, being unable to follow it, he is fearful 
that, by making this doubtful loan, he will only enable B, C, D, E, &c. to pay their 
notes to other capitalists, so that all the benefit will acerue to them, and the only loss 
will be his own. 

Yet nothing can be plainer than that, if he and all other creditor capitalists were 
willing to incur this hazard, — acting in truth on the principles of a mutual insurance 
company, — if they would lend, during a pressure in the money market, to the same 
amount and on the same security which would satisfy them in prosperous times, — 
then all unnecessary failures would be averted, and both the debtor and creditor classes 
would be equally benefited. Suppose, for instance, there were only three creditor cap- 
italists, X, Y, and Z, and only six debtors, whom we will designate by the first six 
letters of the alphabet. If X would lend to A and B, and thereby enable them to pay 
Y and Z; if Y would lend to C and D, and thereby enable them to pay X and Z; and 
if Z would lend to E and F, and thereby enable them to pay X and Y ; — the pressure 
and the panic would be greatly alleviated, for no failures could occur except of persons 
who could not offer reasonable security for loans, — that is, whose debts really exceeded 
their assets. And these ought to fail; a moderate pressure in the money market, by 
winnowing such insolvents out of the trading community, would be a benefit rather 
than an injury to the whole number. 

It is evident, from this analysis, that an association of all, or a greater part, of the 
creditor capitalists might do with perfect impunity what no one of them could ac- 
complish without great hazard and loss. They might so far diminish the pressure and 
panic, that not a single merchant would be driven into insolvency by it except his un- 
doubted means were really smaller than his liabilities. All their deposits in the various 
banks being thrown into à common fund to the credit of this association, loans from 


LI 


382 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


this fund might be made, at the common risk, to any extent whatever ; for any loan out 
of the fund would immediately occasion a corresponding payment info it of the same 
amount. The fund would thus be inexhaustible; for if managed with common pru- 
dence, — that is, if no loans were made except on fair security, or with reasonable pros- 
pect of repayment, — the profit or interest on the loans would suffice to pay all ex- 
penses, and still leave a reserve, or guaranty fund, which would offset the few bad debts 
that might be contracted. 

Such an association might be called a Great Bank ; but it would be one of a peculiar 
kind. It would be a bank performing the same function for the now existing banks, 
that these banks now perform for individuals; — that is, it would be, to use a mathe- 
matical expression, a bank raised to the second power, — Bank”. The Bank of England, 
to some extent, is such an institution, as it stands in precisely this relation to all the 
private banks and the joint-stock banks in the city of London, all of which have deposits 
in the Bank of England, which is thus enabled to make further loans on the strength of 
these deposits, without depriving the depositing banks of the full use of their funds.* 
Our proposed Bank, or Association of depositors, however, would be peculiar in another 
respect, in that it would require neither charter nor capital, would issue no bills, and 
would perform no function but that of making loans and circulating deposits. It would 
not withdraw any funds or deposits from the present banks, but would circulate and 
equalize these deposits, keeping the share of each bank as strictly proportioned as it 
now is to its amount of business. Its functions would be very similar to those of the 
Clearing-House, and might perhaps be profitably added to the present operations of the. 
Clearing-House, being conducted under the oversight of the same committee, or of one 
chosen by the associated depositors. 


* See the evidence of Alderman Salomons, a Director of the London and Westminster Bank, which, at the 
close of 1857, held over £ 13,000,000 (about $ 63,000,000) of deposits. 

Among these deposits, he said, were the deposits of country (provincial) banks ; and the London and West- 
minster Bank made deposits with the Bank of England. He stated that the effect of the pressure (crisis) in 
November, 1857, was to induce them to increase the reserve in their own hands, and also to increase their 
deposits in the Bank of England. They did this by allowing the bills which they had discounted for the 
bill-brokers to mature. “About £ 5,000,000 of bills matured between November 11 and December 9L" 
* Our deposits with the Bank of England were increased." 

* You say that your discounts, either at your own counter or through the bill-brokers, are ordinarily very 
large, but that, at the time of severest pressure, you contracted them so far as you thought was just to your 
own immediate customers ? — Yes; but the capital was still there, because it was at the Bank of England, and 
it was capable of being used for short periods; if we did not want it, others might have used it. 

^ In fact, it was used by the Bank of England ? — Undoubtedly ; I should suppose so; there is no question 
about it." 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 383 


It appears from this explanation, that there is no good reason why persons of un- 
doubted solvency should find it any more difficult to pay their notes at one time than 
at another. The fund which affords the means of paying them — i. e. the total amount 
of the deposits — remains without material fluctuation throughout all conditions of the 
" money market; or rather, as we have seen, it is a little increased in a time of pressure. 
And the aggregate of this fund is not diminished by making payments out of it to any 
amount whatever; for though all commercial debts are paid out of it, they are by the 
same act paid into it, the operation of payment only shifting the names of the persons 
to whose credit a given portion of the fund is entered. But so long as the fund is 
owned and held (say) by a thousand different depositors, any one owner fears to lend 
during a crisis, lest the loan should diminish his share of the deposits, though it would 
thereby certainly increase the share of some other owner. But throw all the deposits 
into one fund, intrusted to the management of one person or one institution, and, while 
each depositor may still retain the entire use and direction of his own deposits, the man- 
ager of the whole may make loans to any extent without subtracting a dollar from the 
aggregate. To obtain a loan and therewith to pay a debt, is not to take away any- 
thing from the total amount of the deposits, but only to shift the distribution of them 
on the books where they are entered to the credit of different persons. 

It is not proposed to withdraw any of the deposits from the individual banks in 
which they are now lodged. All that would be necessary is, that each depositor, still 
dealing with his accustomed bank, and lodging his funds there, should enter them, not 
to his own credit, but to the credit of the Central Association, or Great Bank, which 
would have the general management of the aggregate deposits. The individual de- 
positor would then draw his check, whenever he had occasion, not upon his own bank, 
but upon this Great Bank, which would honor the check simply by transferring the 
amount to the credit of the person in whose favor it was drawn, or by certifying it as 
“ good,” in which case it would be honored by any bank to which it might be presented. 
Checks might be drawn, it is true, in order to obtain specie to send to foreign countries 
or to other cities. But the occasions for making such remittances in specie would not 
be more frequent, or to any greater amount, than under the present system; and the 
books of the Great Bank, on which each individual depositor would appear as its cred- 
itor, and each individual bank in which the deposits are actually lodged as its debtor, 
would render it easy for any bank to be credited for the amount of any check which it 
should be required to pay in specie. But vastly the larger portion and amount of the 
checks needing to be honored only by transferring on the books of the Great Bank a 
given sum from the credit of one depositor to that of another, much handling of money 


984 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


and counting of bank-bills would be obviated. Bank labor would thus probably be as 
much economized by the proposed institution, as it has been by the establishment of a 
Clearing-House. 

It is, perhaps, difficult to understand how the individual banks in which the deposits 
are actually lodged should have the full use and benefit of the funds so intrusted to 
them, and at the same time, the Great Bank should be able to use these deposits over 
again, this latter use not at all interfering with the former one. But this is only the 
same phenomenon which presents itself in the relation between one of the individual 
banks and the private depositors in it. A trader certainly does not lose the use of his 
surplus funds when he deposits them in a bank, but can still pay his debts with them, 
or draw them out by a check whenever wanted. Yet the bank also has the full benefit 
of them, as it employs every dollar of the average amount of its deposits in discounting 
notes for its own profit, experience showing that the aggregate amount of these depos- 
ited funds continues with little fluctuation, the daily withdrawals being constantly made 
up by fresh deposits. The private trader cannot safely put his surplus funds out of his 
own control for a single day, and therefore lodges them in a bank where they are pay- 
able on demand. The bank, then, could not safely use them if it had but one depositor ; 
but having many, the stream which is constantly pouring into it from many sources 
compensates the occasional outgoes, and leaves the amount within the bank standing 
always at about the same level. In like manner, the Great Bank, resting on the aggre- 
gate deposits made in many individual banks, can safely make such use of the enormous 
fund thus placed at its disposal as no single bank could make of any fraction of it. For 
the deposit which is paid out of any individual bank may be paid into any other bank, 
and thereby so cripple the former as to compel it to stint its accommodations even to 
its regular customers. But, as already stated, the deposit which is paid out of the ag- 
gregate in the Great Bank must be immediately paid back into the same aggregate, thus 
leaving the institution just as strong as before. The only exception will be the com- 
paratively rare one already noticed, a deposit being drawn down to enable the depositor 
to remit specie abroad or to other cities. The amount of such remittances must always 
be trifling in comparison with the whole amount of the deposits. Almost the sole func- 
tion, at present, of the specie reserve, is to provide for such remittances; and experience 
has shown, that an aggregate specie reserve of five millions is amply sufficient for this 
end for all the Boston banks, while the aggregate deposits amount to eighteen millions. 

Indeed, when it is remembered that immediate bank debt is the currency which 
affords the means of paying off private debts, it becomes evident that the arrangement 
here proposed will just double the amount of this currency. At present, for instance, 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 985 


there are but eighteen millions of it in Boston, which the banks are bound to pay on 
demand to their individual depositors. ' After the establishment of the Great Bank, this 
amount will be raised to thirty-six millions; namely, eighteen millions due from the 
present banks to the Great Bank, and eighteen millions due from the Great Bank to 
the private depositors. Debts can be paid with equal facility from either moiety of this 
fund. 

What, then, would be the inducement for private depositors to take the trouble — 
for risk there will be none — of causing their deposits at their accustomed banks to be 
entered, not to their own credit, but to the credit of this Great Bank, and of then draw- 
ing their checks upon this bank, and not upon the one in which their funds actually 
lodged? As long as money is plentiful, and can be had on easy terms, they will not, 
it is true, be profited by the arrangement. But as soon as interest rises to seven or 
eight per cent, under the pressure of a coming crisis, the enormous latent power of the 
Great Bank can be brought immediately into play, to answer all demands forloans, and - 
thus to prevent the rate of interest from rising any higher. Any merchant or institu- 
tion in good credit, or that is able to offer undoubted security, can obtain loans from it 
to an indefinite amount, at a rate not less than seven, and not exceeding eight per cent. 
I say * not less than seven"; for as long as capital is abundant, and loans can be easily 
obtained at the ordinary rates, it would be the height of imprudence, it would stimulate 
excessive speculation, and it would injure the present banks by bringing into rivalry 
with them the unlimited power of this giant institution, to allow the Great Bank to 
discount notes in ordinary times and at ordinary rates. Unhappily, a pressure in the 
money market is so frequent in recurrence, and does so much harm while it continues, 
that a sure palliative for the evil would be cheaply purchased at almost any price. 
The interest accruing on the loans made only in times of financial difficulty would be 
sufficient, as before remarked, to defray current expenses, to constitute a guaranty fund 
against bad debts, and perhaps to pay a small dividend to the depositors. The action , 
of the institution, then, would be like that of a great fly-wheel in the financial commu- 
nity, to equalize the pressure and produce regularity of motion under all circumstances. 

The Bank of England already performs to a considerable extent the functions here 
proposed. It operates as a great regulator, using the vast power which it possesses 
chiefly in times of financial distress, and being comparatively inert when the rates of 
interest are low. The public deposits, and those which are lodged in it by other bank- 
ing institutions, are the sources of this vast power; for its capital, though large, is all 
lent to the government, and consequently exists only in the form of irredeemable public 
debt, which, in a time of difficulty, can be made available only by the sale of stock at 

VOL. VIII. 50 


* 


986 REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


a heavy sacrifice. Still, its regulating power is very great, and its prompt action has 
often rescued, though at great peril to itself, half of the banks in the country, and a 
large portion of the trading community, from total bankruptcy. Indirectly its action 
limits the amount of the currency, and its declarations establish from time to time the 
rates of interest; though in this respect, of course, it follows rather than leads the 
action of the market. Yet its action is much feebler than it might be; for its depos- 
its, however large, are vastly below the aggregate deposit fund of the country, and it 
is much hampered by its close connection with the government, and by the unwise 
regulation already adverted to, which establishes an arbitrary limit to its specie reserve. 
In so far, also, as it performs the functions of an ordinary bank, by issuing its own 
notes payable on demand, and holding a fixed amount of specie reserve for the redemp- i 
tion of them, it is not a regulator, but is itself an institution needing to be regulated. 
But with all these drawbacks upon its efficiency, the relief which it affords to the 
trading community in times of commercial distress is very great. The crisis which 
occurred in the autumn of 1857 was severe and widely extended, being felt with 
almost equal stringency in England, Northern Germany, and the United States; and 
we possess the history of it in a complete and trustworthy form, through the evidence 
which was taken before a committee of the House of Commons early in 1858. It 
appears from the testimony of the Governor of the Bank of England, and others, that 
the Dank deems itself bound, on such emergencies, * as a public institution, to- make 
common cause with commerce," so as * not to refuse accommodation to any person 
who brought good securities," and *that the notion appears to be so thoroughly 
ingrained in the minds of the commercial world, that, whenever you have good secu- 
rity, it ought to be convertible at the Bank in some shape or way, that I have very 
great doubt indeed whether the Bank can ever take a position to refuse to assist persons 
who have good commercial securities to offer." The only hard condition upon which 
this help is afforded is a rapid and considerable rise in the rate of interest charged, 
dependent upon the extent and urgency of the demand. The ordinary rate of discount, 
which varies in quiet times from two to three per cent, rises quickly during a period of 
pressure to eight, and even ten, per cent. Subject to this condition, the Bank appears in 
times of great pressure to discount all the unexceptionable short paper — i. e. paper 
having but a short time to run — which is offered to it, and also to make large 
advances to other banks upon the security of such paper which they had previously 
discounted. : 
` Of course, the amount of its loans and advances guia such a crisis increases very 
rapidly. Late in July, 1857, before any pressure began to be felt, the aggregate was 


REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 387 


less than 74 millions; October 24, it was 10 millions; and on the 25th of November, 
it exceeded 21 millions, being an increase within one month of 11 millions sterling, 
or over 53 millions of dollars. A portion of the fund which enabled the Bank to 
make this enormous increase of the loans was supplied by the enlarged amount of 
bankers’ deposits, which were only 21 millions in July, but rose to 51 millions 
late in November. The total amount of the deposits rose within the same period 
from 14 to 201 millions. The Governor stated to the Committee, as “the ordinary 
course, when commercial alarm is engendered, that the bankers’ deposits, and even 
the traders' deposits, increase" ; that is, *the bankers, in order to meet a possible 

demand upon them, strengthen their deposits at the Bank of England, the Bank of 
| England being the bankers’ bank.” y 

But if the Bank of England during a crisis, with no other help than an addition 
of six or seven millions to its deposits, is able to afford thus much relief to the trading 
community, how vastly more efficient might its action be, if aided by a greater con- 
centration of the deposits on the plan here proposed. While the pressure was at 
its height in the autumn of 1857, it appears that the aggregate deposits in the three 
principal Joint-Stock Banks, — viz. the London and Westminster, the London Joint- 
Stock, and the Union, — exceeded thirty-three millions sterling. This enormous sum 
might have been added to the resources of the Bank of England without withdrawing 
a shilling of it from the institutions in which it was actually lodged ; and then, with a 
deposit fund exceeding fifty-three millions at its command, the loans and advances might 
have been indefinitely increased without hazard, and even without raising the rate of 
interest to more than six or seven per cent. So large a deposit fund, though not equal, 
of course, to the aggregate of all the deposits made at the various banking institutions 
in London, amounted probably to so large a fraction of them all, that it would have 
been safe to expect that at least three fourths of the loans and advances made out of it 
would only occasion equivalent payments info if, or, in other words, that the loan 
would amount only to a transfer on the books from the credit of one person to that 
of another. 

Under such a system, alarm in the mercantile community might be made to coun- 
teract the pressure in the money market, instead of being, as at present, the sole cause 
of that pressure. Now, when commercial distress is impending, every prudent mer- 
chant and bank director must fortify his position by increasing his deposits; and as 
these deposits are scattered among many institutions, every such action *ties up" a 
portion of the immediate bank debt, which is the only fund of any importance from 
which commercial payments can be made. The very act which lessens the peril for 


388 | * REMARKS ON SPECIE RESERVES AND BANK DEPOSITS. 


the individual, augments the pressure and the danger for the public. But if, by any 
means, the increased deposits can be thrown into one large fund, every enlargement 
of this fund increases the facility of making loans, and thus, without any diminution 
of the individual’s security, the whole trading community is protected from harm. 
For each merchant to increase his own deposits with a view only to his own security, ` 
is an act precisely analogous to hoarding specie when bank-notes are thought to 
be imperilled. Hoarding is the only source of the danger, and each particular act 
of it augments the risk. Bring the hoards together into one banking fund, on 
the principle of a mutual insurance company, and a double precaution is taken; 
the same act removes the source of the difficulty and augments the means of 


protection. 


Am v 


A History of the Fishes of Massachusetts. 


By DAVID HUMPHREYS STORER, M.D., A.A.S. 


(Continued from Vol. VI. p. 372.) 


GENUS II. PLATESSA, Cov. 


Body rhomboidal, depressed; both eyes generally on the right side of the head, 
one above the other; a row of teeth in each jaw, with others on the pharyngeal 
bones; dorsal fin commencing over the upper eye, that fin and the anal extend- 
ing nearly the whole length of the body; but neither of them joined to the tail; 
branchiostegous rays six. 


Eyes on the Right Side of the Head. 


PLATESSA PLANA, Storer. 
The Flounder. 


(PLATE XXX. Fic. 2.) 


Pleuronectes planus, New York Flat-fish, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 387. 
= plana, Flounder of Massachusetts, Storer, Report, p. 143. 
* — New York Flat-fish, Dexay, Report, p. 295, pl. 48, fig. 154, and pl. 49, fig. 158. 
- * Ayres, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., rv. p. 276. 
gé * STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 476. 
yy op di Synopsis, p. 224. 


Color. 'The smaller and middling-sized specimens, when first taken from the 
water, are of a greenish-brown tinge, more or less spotted and blotched with rusty 
brown. The larger individuals are of a general rusty-brown color; or a dark, 
blackish brown, or a dull slate-color scarcely exhibiting any spots. The left side 
is colorless. Pupils black, irides golden. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are 
yellowish-brown; the two former are generally blotched with darker brown. The 
pectorals and ventrals are of the color of the right side of the fish. 

Description. The greatest depth of this species is less than half of its length 
exclusive of the tail. The head is about two fifths the length of the fish includ- 

VOL. VIII. 51 


290 - - HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


ing the tail. The mouth is small, the lips are fleshy. A single row of compact, 
prominent, incurved, trenchant teeth, slightly notched on the cutting edge, form a 
continuous line from the angle to the centre of each jaw. On the upper jaw is 
one tooth, on the lower jaw are two teeth, on the side of the jaw next the colored 
side. The right half of the jaws, or the half next the colored side of the fish, eden- 
tate. The eyes are large, oblong; their longest diameter less than one fifth the | 
length of the head. The space between the eyes, which is covered with scales, 
at its middle portion is equal in width to about one third the long diameter of 
the eye. 

The lateral line, commencing at the anterior inferior angle of the inferior eye, 
curves backwards and upwards just behind the eyes to the posterior angle of the 
upper eye, then passes backwards along the edge of the gill-covers to the superior 
angle of the operculum, from whence, after making a slight curve over the pec- 
torals, it pursues a straight course to the tail. - 

The dorsal fin commences anterior to the middle of the upper eye, and grad- 
ually increases in the length of its rays towards its posterior half, when it beauti- 
fully curves to its termination, at the origin of the fleshy portion of the tail. 

The pectorals are situated just beneath the posterior angle of the operculum: 
their height is nearly equal to half the length of the head; the central rays are 
bifid at their posterior extremities. 

The ventrals, which are of moderate size, arise on a line just anterior to the 
pectorals, and their extremities project beyond the commencement of the anal fin. 

At the origin of the anal fin is situated a strong spine, which is nearly con- 
cealed by the flesh. 

The anal fin arises on a line with the anterior third of the pectorals, and ter- 
minates opposite the termination of the dorsal fin. 

The caudal fin is rounded when expanded. 

The rays of the fins are scaled, — and the extremities of those of the dorsal and 
anal are free. : x 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 61. P. 10. V. 6, A. 46-48. C. 17. 

Length, from twelve to twenty-one inches. ME 

Remarks. This is the most common flat-fish taken in the waters of Massa- 
chusetts. It is captured in considerable quantities throughout all the warm season 
of the year near the shore, from the wharves and bridges; and in the winter is 
speared through the ice. The finest brought to Boston market are taken from 
around Deer Island, — and those from that locality frequently measure from twelve 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 391 


to eighteen inches. The largest specimen of this species I have ever seen measured 
twenty-one inches in length, and seventeen in width. 

Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, Liystry, Ayres. New York, Mrrcumnr, 
DEKAY. 


PLATESSA DENTATA, Storer. 


The Flounder of New York. 
(PLATE XXX. Fre 3.) 


Pleuronectes dentatus, Flounder of New York, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 390. 
Platessa — 72 — of New York, Sronxn, Report, p. 143. 

Ze E Dexay, Report, p. 298. 

" " Red Mem, Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 476. 

da " x Synopsis, p. 207. 


Color. All the right side of the body and the fins of a uniform reddish-brown. 
Pupils black, irides golden. 

Description. Body elongated. The ZEN of the head to the whole length of 
the body, exclusive of the caudal fin, about as one to four. The eyes are situated 
upon the right side of the body, and placed over each other, — the upper slightly 
posterior, — separated by a bony ridge, covered with scales similar to those over 
the whole head. The longest diameter of the eye nearly equal to one sixth the 
length of the head. The mouth is very large, the perpendicular gape being nearly 
equal to two thirds the length of the head; the upper jaw projects slightly be- 
yond the lower; both jaws are furnished with a single row of prominent, sharp 
teeth, separated from each other, so that when the mouth is closed the teeth of 
one jaw shut into the space between those of the opposite jaw; the lower jaw has 
a blunt, bony tubercle at the chin. The lips are small. 

The lateral line is nearly straight, making only a scarcely perceptible curve over 
the pectoral fins. 

The dorsal fin commences just over the middle of the eye, and terminates at 
the base of the fleshy portion of the tail; the first rays are quite short, and grad- 
ually lengthen towards the middle of the fin, whence they again diminish posteriorly. 

The pectorals are subtriangular, and nearly half the length of the head. 

The third and fourth rays of the ventrals are the longest; the posterior ray 
is very minute. 

The anal fin commences on a line beneath the middle of the pectorals, and 
terminates opposite the dorsal fin. The edges of the dorsal and anal fins on the 
right side are fringed by the continuation of the whiteness of the left side 


upon them. 


392 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


The fin rays are as follows: — D. 98. P. 11. V. 6. A. 70-75. C. 18. 

Length, twelve to twenty-one inches. 

Remarks. This species is frequently taken in the winter season at Provincetown ; 
and is occasionally brought to Boston market. It is a sweet fish, but is not 
generally relished as well as the P. plana. It is known as the Sand-dab. The 
largest specimen I have seen, measured twenty-one inches in length, and weighed 
three and a half pounds. | 

Massachusetts, Storer. Connecticut, Lixstey, Ayres. New York, Mrrcnuirr, 
Drxay. 


PLATESSA FERRUGINEA, Storer. 


The Rusty Flounder. 


(PLATE XXX. Fie. 4.) 


Platessa ferruginea, Rusty Dab, StoRER, Report, p. 141, Plate II. 
T rà Rusty Flat-fish, DEKAY, Report, p. 297. 
fk E STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 476. 
T x z Synopsis, p. 224. 


Color. All the right side of the body is of a reddish slate color, with a tinge 
of green, covered with numerous large, irregularly formed ferruginous spots. The 
fins have the color of the body. Beneath, of a clear white, except the posterior por- 
tion in front of the caudal fin, the caudal fin, and the margins of the dorsal and 
anal, which are a lemon yellow. ‘The pupils are black, the irides golden. 

Description. Body elliptical. The depth of the body is rather more than one 
third the entire length of the fish. Its surface is roughened by the scales. The 
length of the head is less than one fourth the length of the fish. The mouth is 
small; the lips are tumid. The jaws are equal, with a row of numerous small 
teeth in each jaw;.those upon the colored side of the upper jaw are very minute. 
The anterior nostril is tubular. The eyes are large, and separated by a bony ridge, 
which arises in front of the centre of the upper eye, (the fish being placed upon 
its belly with the tail towards the describer,) and, passing in front of and around 
that eye, goes backwards and downwards to the posterior superior angle of the ` 
operculum, where the lateral line commences. The lateral line at its origin 
curves upward to a height equal to about one fourth the length of the head; and 
at the distance of about one half the length of the head from its commencement 
assumes a straight course, which it pursues to the extremity of the caudal fin. - 

The dorsal fin arises over the anterior third of the upper orbit, and its rays 
gradually increase in their length towards its middle, where they are longest. This 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 393 


fin terminates in front of the caudal rays at a distance equal to about one third 
of their height : the extremities of the rays, which are white, are free, and resem- 
ble small filaments or tentacule. 

The pectorals are situated at the posterior angle of the operculum; the ex- 
tremity of the first ray reaches the arch of the lateral line at its centre. 

The ventrals are opposite the pectorals, and extend to the origin of the anal fin. 

Just anterior to the anal fin is a strong horizontal spine, almost: concealed by 
- the flesh. 

The anal fin commences under the posterior third of the ventral fins, and 
terminates on a plane with the dorsal fin: this fin is of the same form as the 
dorsal; like it, its longest rays are towards the centre of the fin; and the tips 


of the rays are free. 
The caudal fin is rounded; its central rays are three fourths as long as the 


head. | | : 
The fin rays are as follows: — D. 84. P. 10. V. 6. A. 65. C. 16. 


Length, eighteen to twenty inches. 
Remarks. This species is occasionally brought to Boston market, in the winter 


and early spring, from the northwestern coast of Massachusetts Bay, and princi- 
pally from the vicinity of Cape Ann, where it is taken in about thirty fathoms 


of water. 
Massachusetts, STORER. New York, DEKAY. 


PLATESSA GLABRA, Storer. 


The Plaice of Massachusetts. 
(PLaTE XXXI. Fie. 1.) 


ag glabra, dene STORER, Proceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1. p. 130. 
Dës se Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 477. 


S E as = Synopsis, p. 225. 


Color. Above grayish, mottled with dark brown: dorsal, anal, and caudal fins 
reddish-yellow, with well-marked, nearly black spots, more or less oval, differing in 
their size. Ventrals of a light brown. 

Description. Body elongated, perfectly smooth. The length of the head is rather 
less than one fifth of the whole length of the fish, including the tail. The eyes 
are prominent, not so much so, however, as in the plana; the inferior eye hardly 
in advance of the upper. The lips are fleshy. ‘The mouth is very protractile. 
Numerous sharp, cylindrical, somewhat conical teeth exist in both jaws; those on 


394 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


that portion of the jaw next to the colored side are the smaller. The nostrils are 
directly in front of the eyes; the anterior is tubular. Between the eyes is a smooth 
ridge, covered by the common cuticle of the head as far back as the posterior 
angle of the orbit of the upper eye; from this point it becomes naked and rough, 
and is continued back to the superior angle of the operculum, where it is much 
larger than at any other point, terminating obtusely; between the extremity of this 
and the commencement of the lateral line is a smaller bony tubercle, apparently 
separated from the former. | 

The lateral line commences just back of the outer edie of the tubercle just re- 
ferred to, and continues nearly in a straight course to the posterior extremities of 
the caudal rays. 

The dorsal fin commences above the superior anterior angle of the upper eye, 
and gradually increases in the height of its rays towards its posterior half, the 
height of the longest rays being five times that of the first rays; this fin termi- 
nates at the base of the fleshy portion of the caudal fin, its last ray being of about 
the same height as the first ray. 

The central rays of the pectorals are bifid. 

The ventral rays do not extend to the anal. 

The anal fin is formed like the dorsal, and terminates on a line with it. The 
rays of this fin, as well as of the dorsal, are somewhat scaled. 

The caudal fin is slightly rounded when expanded. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 62. P. 9. V. 6. A. 41. C. 16. 

Length, eight inches. | 
Remarks. This species differs from the plana in the smoothness of its body ; 
in the situation of the eyes; in its less distorted mouth; in the bony ridge upon its 
head; in the much greater thickness of its body; in its ventral fins not reaching 
the anal fin; in its caudal rays. being almost destitute of scales; in there being 
scarcely any curve at the origin of the lateral line; in the number of the dorsal 

and anal fin-rays; and in the rays of the fins being stouter. : 

Besides these external differences between this species and the plana, the differ- 
ent form of the teeth in the jaws of the two species, the absence of teeth on the 
hyoid bone of the plana, the comparative lengths of their intestinal tubes, and the 
difference in form of the vocal appendices, are very striking. 

This is not a common species. It is taken in company with the plana, and is 
generally known as the Plaice. 

. Massachusetts, STORER. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 395 


Eyes on the Left Side. 


PLATESSA OBLONGA, Dekay. 


The American Turbot. 
(Pirate XXXI. Fre. 2.) 


Pleuronectes oblongus, Spotted Flounder, Mircmitz, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 391. 
Rhombus e Were Flounder, SronEn, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., 1. p. 351. A 
i ge à Report, p. 146. 
Platessa oblonga, Oblong Flounder, Dexay, Report, p. 299, pl. 48, fig. 156. 
Platessa ocellaris, Long-toothed Flounder, DE&Ax, Report, p. 300, pl. 47, fig. 152. 
Platessa — STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, p. 477. 
wé A Synopsis, p. 225. 

Color. Of a reddish-gray color, with more or less numerous circular, oval, or 
oblong blotches of a darker color, surrounded with a lighter margin, and also nu- 
merous white spots, which are distributed more especially at the bases of, and 
upon, the fins. The dorsal fin is of a lighter color than the body of the fish; 
its lower portion is reddish ; the upper part of a leaden color; and frequently the 
entire fin is sprinkled with minute white spots; the extremities of the rays are 
tipped with white. The pectorals are transversely barred with black and white 
bands, and have a white blotch at their inferior base. "The ventrals are light, with 
darker spots. The anal is similar in its color to the dorsal The orbits, space in 
front of the eyes, and the jaws, are spotted with dull blue. Pupils black, irides 
golden. Right side of fish colorless. 

Description. Body elongated, with very small, perfectly smooth scales. The depth 
of the body across the middle, exclusive of the fins, less than one third the length 
of the fish. The length of the head is rather less than one fourth the entire length 
of the fish. The top of the head in front of the eyes, the lower jaw, and the 
intermaxillaries, are perfectly smooth. The eyes are oblong, moderate in size: the 
upper eye is slightly back of the inferior, in a vertical line; distance between the 
eyes equal to the longest diameter of the eye. The mouth is situated obliquely; 
its gape is very large; when closed, the upper jaw projects very slightly in front 
of the lower; the jaws are armed with a single row of separated, quite large, sharp 
teeth, the front ones much the largest. A protuberance at the chin. The nostrils 
are double; the anterior has at its posterior edge a tubular membrane. 

The lateral line, commencing in front of the posterior angle of the operculum, 
makes a high arch over the pectorals, and terminates in a straight line which 
begins at the posterior extremity of these fins; the top of this arch is a distance 
nearly equal to one third the length of the head above this straight line. 


396 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


The dorsal fin arises on a line with the origin of the orbit of the upper eye, 
and extends to the fleshy portion of the tail The extremities of the rays are free. 
The first rays are quite short; those at the middle and towards the posterior 
portion the longest; the most posterior are the shortest rays of the fin. 

The pectorals are rounded when expanded. 

The ventrals are very small, half the height of the pectorals; their extremities are free. 

The anal fin arises just back of the origin of the ventrals, and terminates on 
a line with the dorsal, to which it is similar in form. 

The caudal fin is large and fleshy, equal in height to the pectorals. The depth 
of the fleshy portion of the tail at the termination of the dorsal fin is equal in 
length to the caudal rays. The rays are deeply bifid. When this fin is expanded, 
itis rounded at its posterior extremity; when not expanded, it is convex, sometimes 
almost acutely pointed at its posterior centre. 

The fin: rays are as follows: — D. 89. P. 12. V. 6. A. 74. C. 16. 

Length, fifteen to thirty inches. 

Remarks. The species above described must, I think, be considered the Platessa 
oblonga, and also the Platessa ocellaris of Dekay. This conclusion, I conceive, is 
inevitable upon an examination of Dekay’s descriptions and figures. A few obser- 
vations upon this point may serve to settle the matter. The specimen before me 
has ocellated spots upon its surface, an angulated caudal fin, a prominence at the 
chin, and less than ninety dorsal rays. | | 

The ocellated spots would show it to be the P. ocellaris. But that Species, ac- 
cording to Dekay, has a rounded caudal fin, more than ninety dorsal rays, and a 
prominent chin. | 

The angulated caudal fin, and number of dorsal rays (less than ninety), would 
point it out as the P. oblonga. But Dr. Dekay would lead us to infer that there were 
never ocelli. He says, this species “is nearly uniform brown; occasionally with spots.” 
As I have seen numbers of this species in the market at a time, they present the 
following characters. Some have distinct ocelli distributed over the greater portion 
of the body; while in others they are so dim as scarcely to be observed at all. 
They all have the chin prominent. They all have an angular tail when unex- 
panded, which is rounded when fully expanded. I have counted eighty-eight, eighty- 
nine, ninety, ninety-one rays in the first dorsal fin. The two species of Dekay would 
thus appear identical. 

In a specimen I received from Provincetown, in August, 1844, both sides of the 
fish were equally dark-colored; the upper eye was situated directly upon the top of 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 397 


the head; back of this eye was a deep notch, upon the upper edge of which, at its 
anterior angle, commenced the dorsal fin, as shown in the figure. (Fig. 2. b.) 
This species is quite common during the summer and early part of autumn at 
Provincetown, and as far up the Cape as Wellfleet. It is taken along shore in very 
shallow water, and frequently weighs from fifteen to twenty pounds. At Province- 
town it is known as the Plaice, in Boston market it is called the Turbot. It is 
an excellent fish, and is considered by judges to be fully equal to the Rhombus 
maximus, English turbot. For quite a number of years a few specimens had occa- 
sionally been yearly brought to our market, when Captain Atwood, about the year 
1841, conceived the project of bringing them alive, by the cargo, in the well of his 
smack. For three years he succeeded quite well in disposing of several loads in 
this manner, — some being bought, by those who knew their value, as turbot, 
and others as young halibut. When, however, in the year 1844, the fishermen 
commenced packing in ice halibut taken upon George's Banks, and were thus 
enabled to keep the market supplied with that species in a state of perfect preser- 
 vation, the species we are considering could not be sold. In the latter part of 
1847, Captain Atwood brought to Boston a.smack load of most excellent turbot, 
alive, and sold but two hundred-weight, — the remainder died upon his hands, — 
while species of infinitely inferior quality met with a ready sale in the market. 
Massachusetts, Storer. New York, MircmiLL, Dekay. 


PLATESSA QUADROCELLATA, Storer. 
The Four-spotted Flounder. 
(Pirate XXXI. Fio. 3.) 
Platessa quadrocellata, STORER, Proceed. of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 11. p. 242, 1847. 


Color. When just taken, the left side of this species is of a gray color, thickly 
spotted with brown, so as to appear almost confluent, including all of the fins. 
Upon the posterior half of the body, just beneath the dorsal fin, and directly oppo- 
site this, above the anal fin, are situated two large, nearly black ocelli, surrounded 
by a pinkish halo; at the base of the caudal fin are two similar, smaller ocelli. 

Description. Body elongated. The greatest depth of the body, exclusive of the 
dorsal and anal fins, is just back of the posterior extremities of the pectorals. The 
length of the head is not quite equal to one fourth the length of the entire fish. 
The eyes are prominent, oblong, situated over each other, separated by a promi- 
! nent, smooth, bony ridge; their longest diameter is about equal to one sixth the 


' VOL. VIII. 52 


398 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


length of the head. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower when the jaws are 
closed. The upper jaw has four or five prominent teeth in its front, and numerous 
card-like teeth towards its angles; in the lower jaw there are from seven to ten 
teeth on each side. The chin is prominent. The posterior nostril is the larger. 

The lateral line curves over the pectorals to their posterior extremity, then pur- 
sues a strait course to the tail, and is lost on the central caudal ray. 

The dorsal fin commences over the anterior superior angle of the eye, and its 
rays gradually become higher, until, having reached their highest point just back 
of the centre of the fin, they gradually diminish in height, and terminate rather 
abruptly at the fleshy portion of the caudal fin. 

The moderate-sized pectorals are situated just beneath the posterior angle of the 
operculum. 

The ventrals are small, broad, and stout. 

The anal fin commences just back of the base of the pectorals, and terminates 
on a line with the termination of the dorsal fin. 

The caudal fin is large and angulated, with stout rays. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 86. P. 10. V. 6. A. 16. OC. 17. 

Length, twelve to sixteen inches. - 

Remarks. Captain Atwood informed me that he never noticed this species pre- 
vious to the year 1846. During a visit to Long Point, Provincetown, in the 
latter part of June, 1847, I observed numerous specimens there. I have seen a 
single specimen having both sides dark-colored, — and both bearing the peculiarly 
marked ocelli, — with the exception of the head, which was, as usual, colorless beneath. 

Massachusetts, STORER. ` 


GENUS II. PLEURONECTES, Dexay. (RHOMBUS or Cuvier.) 


Eyes and colored surface on the left. Teeth in the jaws and pharynx. Dorsal 
fin commences anterior to the eye. | 


PLEURONECTES MACULATUS, Mitchill. 


(PLaTE XXXI. Fic. 4.) 


Pleuronectes maculatus, New York Plaice, Mrrcn., Report in part, p. 9. 
Pleuronectes aquosus, Plaice of New York, Mircn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of New York, 1. P- 389, pl. 2, fig. 3. 
Rhombus aquosus, CUVIER, Règne Animal. 
Pleuronectes maculatus, Spotted Turbot, DEKAY, Report, p. 301, pl. 47, fig. 151. 
e e STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 479. 
s dE * — Synopsis, p. 227. 


Color. The living fish is of a greenish-brown color above, with small darker 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 399 


green irregularly formed blotches, and dotted with a great number of minute white 
spots resembling snow-flakes, the spots near the back being the largest. The fins 
are of the color of the body. The rays of the pectoral fins are regularly spotted, 
and present the appearance of bands; their connecting membrane is perfectly color- 
less and transparent. The pupils are black, the irides golden. 

Description. Body nearly orbicular, translucent. The scales are very small and 
round. The greatest depth of the body, exclusive of the fins, is rather less than ` 
half of its length. The length of the head is less than one fifth its entire length. 
The eyes are moderate in size: the inferior is anterior. The mouth is protractile ; 
both of the jaws are furnished with a row of minute, sharp teeth; a patch of 
similar teeth are situated on the vomer. The nostrils are large, the anterior tu- 
bular: on the left, or colored side of the fish, the posterior nostril is just above 
the anterior angle of the inferior eye, and the anterior nostril is on a line before 
this. On the right, or colorless side, the nostrils are just below the origin of the 
. dorsal fin. 

The lateral line makes a high arch over the pectorals, whence it pursues a 
straight course to the caudal rays. 

The dorsal fin commences on a line with the anterior nostril, above it, and is 
continued to the fleshy portion of the tail. The ten or twelve first rays of the 
dorsal fin are fleshy at their bases, and bifurcated just above their bases, and are 
again subdivided into delicate slips or filaments, which make them appear at first 
sight as if torn. The rays gradually become higher towards the centre of this fin, 
and again diminish as they approach the tail. This fin is rounded when expanded; 
the tips of the rays project just beyond the connecting membrane. 

The pectorals are situated just beneath the posterior angle of the operculum; 
they are fan-shaped and transparent; their rays are bifid. 

The ventrals arise at the angle of the lower jaw; the first ray is bifid, and its 
bifurcations are branched as in the first rays of the dorsal The remaining rays 

are merely bifid at their tips. 

' The anus is situated at the posterior extremity of the ventrals. 

The anal fin commences directly back of the anus. It is similar in its form to 
that of the dorsal, and is coterminal with that fin. 

The caudal fin, which is rounded when expanded, is composed of strong, broad, 


bifid rays. 
The fin rays are scaled, with the exception of the ventrals and the anterior 


rays of the dorsal and anal fins. 


400 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


The fin rays are as follows: — D. 67. P. 10. V. 10. A. 51. C. 162. 

Length, twelve to eighteen inches. 

Remarks. When my * Report on the Fishes of Massachusetts" was published, 
I had never seen a specimen of this species. In August, 1845, Captain Atwood sent 
me a specimen from Provincetown ; and in the following November I received one from 
the late Dr. Yale, from Holmes's Hole. While visiting Provincetown, in the sum- 
mer of 1847, I saw this fish swimming about in considerable numbers, in shallow 
water, with the Platessa oblonga and plana. It is not used there as an article of 
food, although Dekay informs us that in New York it-is considered a delicate fish. 

Massachusetts, STORER. New York, MITCHILL, Dekay. 


GENUS IV. ACHIRUS, LACEPEDE. 


Destitute of pectoral fins. Both eyes and color on the right side. Mouth dis- 
torted to the side opposite the eyes. Dorsal and anal extend to the tail, but are not 


united with it. 
ACHIRUS MOLLIS, Cuv. 


The New York Sole. 


(Prate XXXII. Fic. 1. 6. Left Side of Head.) 
Pleuronectes mollis, New York Sole, Mircu., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 388, pl. 2, fig. 4. 


Achirus mollis, Grir¥itn’s Cuv., x. p. 499. 
d *  SronER, Report, p. 149. 
E *  Dekar, Report, p. 303, pl. 49, fig. 159. 
iie “ STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 480. 
« A " Synopsis, p. 228. 

Color. Upon the right side of a dark brown, marked transversely with rather in- 
distinct, irregular, interrupted black bands; the left side is of a dirty white, with 
nearly circular dark brown blotches scattered over its entire surface, and also in a 
less marked manner upon the fins. 

Description. Body oval. Length of the body, exclusive of the tail, four inches six 
lines; entire length, six inches; depth of the body two inches back of the snout, 
three inches, exclusive of the dorsal and anal fins. The length of the head is equal 
to nearly one fifth the length of the body. The eyes are small, circular, protuberant, 
and placed directly over each other. Directly in front of the upper eye, and in a 
line with it, just back of the commencement of the dorsal fin, almost entirely con- 
cealed, is a strong, compressed spine, two thirds of a line in length. The mouth is 
small, with minute teeth in both jaws on the under side; on the left side the aper- 
ture is partially concealed by the upper lip. The nostrils are large. The scales on 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 401 


the body are quite small; on the lower anterior portion of the operculum, on the 
back just above the eyes, and on the fin-rays, they are larger. The left side is also 
scaly. ‘The left side of the head is covered with soft filaments, which are continued 
along the base of the dorsal fin for an inch or more. 

The lateral line commences just above the operculum, and is cóntinued 3 in a straight 
course to the base of the caudal rays. 

The dorsal fin commences at the very anterior extremity of the back, which 
projects slightly beyond the E jaw, and is continued to the tail, but not united 
to it. Se 

The ventrals are sitaated just in front of the anal fin. 

The anal fin commences in front of the posterior angle of the operculum, and ter- 
minates opposite the dorsal fin. 

The caudal fin is nearly one third longer than its width at the base. 

The rays of each fin are covered by scales on both sides. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 55. V. 4. A. 38. C. 13. In a second speci- 
men they were as follows: — D. 52. V. 4. A. 40. C. 16. 

Length, six inches. 

Remarks. Although Dr. Dekay speaks of this species as being common in the waters 
of New York, it must rarely be found in Massachusetts. In December, 1837, Dr. Yale, 
of Holmes's Hole, sent me a specimen which had been just taken in Tashmou Pond, 
about a mile from the village of Holmes's Hole. This pond is separated from the sea 
by a narrow beach, which is dry a portion of the year. Although Dr. Yale had resided 
many years at Holmes's Hole, and had a great fondness for natural history, he had 
never seen another specimen of this fish. In April, 1840, I received a specimen taken 
at Nahant. In January, 1847, Professor Agassiz procured two specimens in Boston 
market, which had been taken near Boston, in Charles River. Both Mitchill and 
Dekay consider this a very delicate fish for the table. 

Massachusetts, north of Cape Cod, Srorrr. Nantucket to Gerten, Dzkayx. 


FAMILY XX. CYCLOPTERIDA. 


Ventrals suspended all around the pelvis, and united by a single membrane, form- 
ing an oval and concave disk, which the fish employs as a sucker to fix itself to the 
rocks. Mouth broad, furnished at the jaws and pharyngeals with small pointed 
teeth ; opercula small. Branchial rays six.  Pectorals very ample, and almost uniting 
under the throat, as it were to embrace the disk of the ventrals. 


409 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


GENUS LUMPUS, Cvv. 


Two dorsal fins; the first dorsal fin so enveloped by a thick and tubercular skin, 
that, externally, it might be taken for a simple hump of the back; second dorsal 
with branched rays, opposite the anal. Body deep and rough, with conical horny 
tubercles. | 

Lumpus ANGLORUM, Willoughby. 


The Lump-Fish. 
(Prare XXXII. Fio. 2.) 


— lumpus, Lix., Syst. Nat., 1. p. 414. 
" Fein: Broca, 111. p. 92, pl. 90. 

Lumpus Anglorum, WILLOUGHBY, p. 208, No. 11. 

— lumpus, Lump-Sucker, PENN., Brit. Zoól., 111. p. 176, pl. 24. 
n Suaw, Gen. Zoöl., v. p. 388, pl. 166. 

- « — Common Lump.fish, JENYNS, Brit. Vert., p. 471. 

n * — Lump, Ricu., Faun. Boreal. Americ., 111. p. 260. 

ei * Fauppteps, Faun. Grenlandica, p. 131. 

" " — Lump-Sucker, YARRELL, Brit. Fishes, 2d edit., 11. p. 365, fig. 
Cyclopterus coeruleus, Blue Lump.fish, Mircn., Trans. Lit and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p 480, pl. 2, fig. 7. 
Lumpus vulgaris, Cuv., Regne Animal, 11. 

^ * — Lump-Sucker, STORER, Report, p. 151. 

— Anglorum, Lump-Sucker, DExAY, Report, p. 305, pl. 54, fig. 175. 
" STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 481. 

M cM uy Synopsis, p. 229. 

Color. All the upper part of the body is of a bluish-slate color; the sides and 
abdomen are of a yellowish-green. The immature fish is blue above, and almost 
entirely white beneath. Lips yellow. 

Description. The body is suborbicular, compressed at.its upper part. The entire 
surface of the fish is covered with an immense number of small stellated tubercles, 
studding, in the adults, even the rays of all the fins. "Three rows of tubercles, much 
larger than those which are universally distributed over the fish, and terminating at 
their apices in naked spines, are observed projecting from either side. One row, com- 
mencing at the upper anterior angle of the eye, curves slightly over the humeral bones, 
and then passes in nearly a straight line to the tail; a second row, composed of much 
larger, wider, and more prominent tubercles, commences just beneath the posterior angle 
of the operculum, and terminates on the same plane with the extremity ofthe first 
row, the tubercles having diminished in size as they approached the tail, as in the 
first row; a third row, composed of a small number of still larger tubercles, com- 

o å .. . LI . . . ~ D H 
mences on a line with the posterior portion of the ventral disk, and terminates just 
in front of the anal fin, forming the outer boundary of the abdomen. The two 


upper rows of tubercles are of the color of the back; the lower row is colored like 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 408 


the abdomen. The tubercles of all these rows are granulated upon their sides, and 
have a naked spine at their summit. The greatest depth of the fish is equal to 
more than one half its length. The length of the head is less than one quarter the 
length of the fish. The head is covered with tubercles similar to those of the body; 
those on the posterior inferior angle of the operculum are larger than those on the 
other parts of the head. The eyes are circular; their diameter is equal to less than 
one third the distance between the eyes. The nostrils are large, tubular. The teeth 
are sharp and compact. A greater number of rows are in the upper than in the 
lower jaw; two small patches of minute teeth above and below in the pharynx. 
Just back of the top of the head, a compressed ridge rises abruptly and curves upward 
and backward to the posterior half of the body; its depth in the middle being 
equal to one third of its length; and its length equal to one third the length of the 
body of the fish. This ridge is formed of eight rays, which are perfectly distinct 
when the fish is dissected, and readily distinguished also in the dried specimen. 
The top of this ridge is covered with tubercles precisely similar to those which com- 
pose the middle row on the body; directly back of this dorsal ridge is a small flat 
surface composing the space between it and the dorsal fin, whose sides are armed 
with strong, prominent tubercles. 

The dorsal fin, which is rounded, and one sixth longer than high, with rays 
multifid, is situated directly behind the flat surface just referred to. 

The pectorals are longer attheir base than the height of their highest rays; the 
height of the inferior rays is equal to about one fifth the height of the longest ; 
these fins are rounded when expanded. 

The ventrals, together with the anterior portion of the pectorals, form an oblong 
disk, of a bright yellow color, with six well-marked lines on each side of its centre, 
by which it is enabled to attach itself very powerfully to foreign substances. 

The anal fin, commencing about on a line opposite the beginning of the dorsal, 
terminates on the same plane with that fin. 

The caudal fin, when not expanded, is a little higher than wide; when expanded, 
it is one quarter wider than high. The depth of this fin at its base to its extremi- 
ties when expanded is as two to five. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 10. P. 20. A. 10. C. 12. 

- Length, eight to twenty inches. 

Remarks. The whole appearance of this fish is very forbidding, being in young 
specimens a soft, gelatinous, tremulous mass; in older specimens it is of a much 
firmer consistence; but in both it is covered entirely with firm, horny spines. 


404 . HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


This not uncommon species in Massachusetts Bay is frequently seen after severe 
storms thrown upon our beaches. Occasionally it is taken while fishing for cod, 
with the hook; and it is also caught in nets set for menhaden; generally, however, 
it is found attached to sea-weed and other substances floating near the shore. 

Richardson tells us that * the Greenlanders eat its flesh, either cooked or dried, and 
its skin raw, throwing away only the tubercles”; and Dr. Neal observes, “that it is 
purchased at Edinburgh for the table" With us, however, it is not used as an article 
of food. The common weights of this fish are from three to four pounds, and from 
six to twelve pounds. ‘The largest specimen I have met with was taken in January, 
1843, and. weighed eighteen pounds and three quarters. 

Greenland, Fasricius. Maine, Massachusetts, Storer. New York, Mircuitt, DE- 
KAY. 


FAMILY XXI. ECHENEIDA. 


With a flattened disk upon the top of the head, composed of numerous carti- 
laginous transverse plates, directed obliquely backwards, dentated or spinous at their 
posterior edge, and movable, by means of which they are enabled to attach them- 
selves to other substances. ads bu | 


GENUS ECHENEIS, Lm. 


Body elongated, covered with very small scales. A single dorsal fin, placed oppo- 
site the anal. Head very flat, covered with a disk; mouth wide, with numerous 
small, recurved teeth on both jaws, tongue, and vomer. 


ECHENEIS ALBICAUDA, Mitchill. 


The White-tailed Remora. 


(PLATE XXXII. Fie. 3.) 


. Echeneis albicauda, White-tailed Remora, MircmtLL, Amer. Monthly Magazine, 11. p. 244. 
Echeneis naucrates, The Indian Remora, Storer, Report, p. 153. 
Echeneis albicauda, White-tailed Remora, DexaY, Report, p. 307, pl. 54, fig. 177. 


S r w ds Storer, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., 1v. p. 183. 
" LASS e 9 > Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 483. - 
Di Di s f. Di Synopsis, p. 231. 


Color. Above, of a grayish-slate color; lighter upon the sides, with a dark band, 
which, commencing at the tip of the lower jaw as a small black point, runs along 
its margin to the angle of the jaw, where it expands to a band which passes to the 
tail, interrupted only by the eyes; in front of the pectorals this band is only two 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. : 405 


lines in width, at the pectorals it grows wider, is widest beneath them, and becomes 
gradually smaller as it approaches the posterior extremity of the fish. The first ray of 
the dorsal fin is margined with white. The pectorals are the color of the body. The 
anal fin is dark-colored, edged with white. 'The upper and lower extremities of the 
caudal fin are white. 

- Description. Body cylindrical, elongated. The greatest depth of the body, exclu- 
sive of the fins, is equal to one tenth its length. The length of the head, from 
the tip of the lower jaw to the posterior angle of the operculum, is equal to about 
one seventh the entire length of the fish; the depth of the head at the posterior 
portion is equal to half of its length; its width over the same portion is equal 
to one third of its length. The top of the head is flattened; the body between 
the disk and the dorsal fin is nearly circular; back of the dorsal fin it is some- 
what compressed. Upon the top of the head is an adhesive disk, about one fifth the 
length of the body, at its anterior extremity equal in width to about one third the 
length of the head ; the widest part of the posterior extremity is slightly greater. "This 
disk extends from the tip of the upper jaw to the middle of the pectorals; it has 
twenty-one light-colored transverse plates, divided by a longitudinal median fleshy 
line; the entire disk is margined by a fleshy border from one to four lines wide. The 
eyes are situated half-way between the tip of the lower jaw and the extremity of 
the operculum; they are circular, and between three and four lines in diameter. The 
nostrils are double, with fleshy appendages. 'The jaws are crowded with numerous 
small, card-like teeth. Teeth also are observed in the throat and upon the palatine 
bones. The lower jaw terminates in a point in advance of the upper. 

The dorsal fin arises just anterior to the middle of the body. It is rather more 
than one third the length of the fish. It is of a dark slate color; the tips of the 
anterior rays are edged with white. 

The pectorals commence on a line with the posterior fifth of the disk; their depth 
to their length is as one to three. 

The ventrals are situated just posterior to the pectorals; their depth is equal to 
one sixth their length. 

'The anal fin arises directly opposite, and terminates upon the same plane as the 
dorsal Its anterior rays are higher than those of that fin. The anus is half an 
inch in front of this fin. 

The caudal fin is nearly even at its extremity. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 29. P. 18. V. 5. A. 80. C. 18, 

Length, twenty inches. : 

VOL. VIII. 53 


x 


406 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


Remarks. This species is exceedingly rare in our waters; the specimen from 
which my description was drawn up, in my * Report on the Fishes of Massachu- 
setts," was taken from the bottom of a fishing-smack, to which it was attached, in 
Boston Bay. 

Massachusetts, STORER. New York, MrrcmiLL, Dekay. 


EcHENEIS QUATUORDECIMLAMINATUS, Storer. 
The Fourteen-plated Remora. 
(PLATE XXXII. Fra. 4.) 


Echeneis (lge Fourteen-plated Remora, SronER, Report, p. 155. 
" i * — anjuv.? Dexay, Report, p. 309. 
e " STORER, T Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 484. 
« « * . Synopsis, p. 232. 

Color. Of a light reddish-brown ‘color, rather darker beneath. The pectoral and 
ventral fins are a little lighter than the body. The dorsal and anal fins are clouded 
with a lighter tint. 

Description. Body fusiform, elongated. The length of the head is less than one 
fifth the length of the entire fish: above, it is entirely covered by an adhesive disk, 
which commences at the tip of the upper jaw, and, extending on each side to the 
eyes, terminates on a plane with the posterior half of the pectorals: this disk is 
surrounded by a fleshy margin, which is tipped with a darker brown than the color 
of the body, and is divided in its centre by a longitudinal fleshy septum, on each 
side of which are fourteen or fifteen distinct, strongly serrated lamine. The gill- 
covers are large; the lower jaw projects beyond the upper; the jaws are armed 
with several rows of strong, sharp, recurved teeth; teeth also are observed upon the 
pharynx, the palatine bones, and the root of the tongue. The gape of the mouth 
is moderate in size. The eyes are horizontally oval. The nostrils, which are near 
the edge of the upper jaw, are double. 

The lateral line commences at the origin of the pectorals above, and, making a 
slight curve from their extremities, is continued in a straight course to the tail. 

The dorsal fin commences about the middle of the length of the fish: it is rounded 
anteriorly, gradually diminishes in heute» as it approaches the tail, and terminates 
posteriorly above in a point. 

The pectorals are somewhat rounded at their extremities. 

The ventrals are narrow and triangular; and are attached to the belly by a mem- 
brane extending from the inner ray; the rays are multifid. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 407 


The anal fin commences à short distance back of the dorsal, is of a form some- 
what similar to that fin, and terminates upon the same plane with it. 

The caudal fin, composed of stout fleshy rays, is nearly straight at its posterior 
extremity. The distance between the extremities of the outer rays is equal to the 
height of those rays. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 32. P. 22-24. V.5. A. 28-30. C. 18. 

Length, seven and a half inches. 

Remarks. This may be an immature fish which I have described; but I think 
it must be a new species. According to Dekay, three species of Remora are observed 
upon the coast of New York, the Albicauda, Naucrates, and Remora. I think it 
cannot be one of these species. It has not the broad longitudinal band, nor the 
white tips at the extremities of the caudal fin, noticed in the Albicauda, nor has 
it the twenty or twenty-three plates observed in the disk of that species. From 
the Naucrates it differs in its color, and the number of plates in the disk. 

In the Remora the disk extends to the end of the pectorals; in this species it 
terminates at the commencement of the posterior half of these fins. In this species 
the dorsal and anal fins are not coequal; the dorsal fin of the Remora has twenty- 
one rays, while in this species it has thirty-two; the anal fin in the Remora con- 
tains twenty rays, the same fin in this species has twenty-eight rays. The caudal 
fin of the Remora is crescent-shaped. 

I have seen but two specimens of this species. One of these was received from 
the late Dr. Yale, of Holmes's Hole, and served for the description contained in my 
“Report.” The other was taken at Wellfleet, in August, 1844. One of these measured 
five inches and a half, and the other seven inches and a half. 


APODES. 
No ventral fins. 


FAMILY XXII. ANGUILLIDZ. 


Body very much elongated and cylindrical, for the most part of a serpentine figure. 
Scales scarcely apparent, being imbedded in a soft and thick skin. Air-bladder of 
various singular forms. No ccecal appendages. 


408 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


GENUS I. ANGUILLA, Cuv. 


The dorsal commencing considerably behind the pectorals, and uniting with the 
anal to form the caudal Lower jaw the longer. Mouth with a row of teeth in 
each jaw, and a few on the anterior part of the vomer. 


ANGUILLA BosToNIENSIS, Dekay. 


The Common .Eel of Massachusetts. 


(Pirate XXXIII. Fie. 1.) 


Anguilla vulgaris, Common Eel, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 360. 


es *  Fresh-water Eel, Mwrcm., Amer. Month. Mag., 11. p. 242. 
Murena Bostoniensis, LEsuEUR, Journ. Acad. Nat. Scien., 1. p. 81. 
e. s Common Eel of Massachusetts, Srorer, Report, p. 158. 


Anguilla tenuirostris, Common Eel of New York, DekAx, Report, p. 310, pl. 53, fig. 173. 
Anguilla Bostoniensis (LEsuEuR), DeKay, Report, p. 313. 

d " Ayres, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., 1v. p. 279. 

ei " STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 485. 

¥ e y Synopsis, p. 233. 

Color. 'This species is of a greenish or olive-brown above, and yellowish or 
yellowish-white beneath; frequently a reddish tinge is noticed along the margin of 
the anal fin. In the smaller specimens, the opercula, throat, and abdomen anterior 
to the vent, are of a bluish slate color, with scarcely a tint of yellow. The dorsal 
fin is of the same color as the back. 

Description. Body cylindrical, compressed posteriorly, terminating in a point. The 
head is equal to about one tenth the length of the body, compressed above, taper- 
ing to a blunt point at the snout; the distance across the occiput is equal to about 
half the length of the head. The lower jaw slightly projects; both jaws are fur- 
nished with several rows of small, incurved, card-like teeth. The lips are fleshy. 
The vertical gape of the mouth is equal to half the length of the head. The eyes, 
situated just above and anterior to the angle of the jaw, are equal to one eighth 
the length of the head. The posterior nostrils, which are oval, are situated directly 
in advance of the superior anterior angle of the eye. A small tubular cirrhus pro- 
jects forwards from the anterior nostrils situated on each side of the snout. A line 
of mucous pores are observed between the anterior and posterior nostrils, and another 
series pass backwards to the posterior inferior angle of the eye. 

The lateral line commences above and in front of the peetoral fin, and pursues 
a straight course to the very extremity of the fleshy portion of the tail. 

The dorsal fin arises on the anterior half of the body, and is continued to the 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 409 


caudal fin, which is again connected with the anal; the three forming one con- 
tinuous fin. The widest portions of these fins are at a short distance in front of 
their posterior termination. The number of rays in these united fins is about four 
hundred and fifty-five. 

The anus is small, and situated just anterior to the anal fin. 

The pectorals are directly back of the branchial aperture; they are somewhat 
rounded at their extremities, and are composed of sixteen rays. 

Length, twenty-four to thirty-four inches. 

Remarks. Dr. Mitchill, in his paper on the “Fishes of New York,” published 
in 1815, briefly refers to this species, which he incorrectly considered the Anguilla 
vulgaris, Bloch. Lesueur, in the first volume of the * Journal of the Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia," published in 1817, describes it as a new species, 
with sufficient accuracy to be readily distinguished, under the name of Murena 
Bostoniensis. Subsequently, in February, 1818, Dr. Mitchill minutely and clearly 
described it as the Anguilla vulgaris. In my * Report on the Fishes of Massachu- 
setts," I included it under the name given it by him who first knew it to be, and 
described it as, a new species. Dr. Dekay has since called it Anguilla tenuirostris. 

In my “Report,” Se, I included a species which I supposed to be the argentea 
of Lesueur. This was also contained in my “Synopsis of the Fishes of North 
America." In October, 1845, my friend, the late Dr. Yale, sent me a living speci- 
men of this fish from Holmes's Hole, where it is called the Neshaw eel. I carefully 
compared this specimen with the A. Bostoniensis, and could not perceive charac- 
teristics sufficiently well marked to make them distinct species. The color of the 
Nesbaw eel is rather more of a brown than greenish, and the abdomen is destitute 
of the yellowish tinge possessed in the common specimens in the market; but these 
differences may be dependent upon its locality. Dr. Yale writes: ** The Neshaw eel 
is taken in all the ponds and lagoons connected with the sea on the Vineyard; 
and are taken in October and November in pots while making their way from the 
ponds to the sea. It is said, that, when the openings from the ponds are closed, 
they pass over the sand in the night." 

The common eel of Massachusetts is taken along our entire coast, as well as in 
the rivers and ponds of the State. At some seasons, spring and winter, for instance, 
great numbers are brought to market from the mouths of the neighboring rivers, 
upon the muddy bottoms of which they live. They meet with a ready sale. So 
great is the demand sometimes that it cannot be answered. During the winter this 
species is speared, holes being cut through the ice for this purpose. In spring the 


410 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


markets are usually supplied from the rivers, where they are taken in nets. At 
Medford nets are stretched across the river, having in their middle a large bag 
capable of containing from fifteen to twenty bushels; as the eels are going up or 
down the river they are caught, and are kept alive for the supply of the market 
in large ditches, excavated near the river, which are supplied by the tide-water. 
About three thousand pounds are yearly taken at Watertown. Those taken in 
summer, when they are able to procure the britt, and other fishes upon which they 
feed, are much the larger and richer, weighing from one to nine pounds. In Oc- 
tober, 1844, I saw an individual measuring two feet and ten inches in length, and 
weighing three pounds and a half, which was taken in Medford River, which agreed 
in its measurements with the one I have above described, and was, I suppose, a 
mere variety, although it was of a dark olive-brown above, and of a slate color 
beneath, without the slightest tint of yellow, and .a very slight tinge of red along 
the anal fin. The fishermen suppose this peculiarity of color, which it appears they 
occasionally see, is owing to their being confined entirely to fresh water, and never 
having visited the sea. 

Massachusetts, LESUEUR, Storer. Connecticut, LinsLeY. New York, MITCHILL, 
Dexay. 


GENUS II. AMMODYTES, Les, 


Head and body elongated; gill-openings large; dorsal fin extending nearly the 
whole length of the back; anal fin of considerable length; dorsal and anal fins 
separated from the caudal fin. Lower jaw longest. Their stomach is pointed and 
fleshy; they have neither coa nor natatory bladder. 


Ammopytres ÁMERICANUS, Dekay. 


Sand- Eel. 
(Pare XXXIII. Fre. 2.) 


Ammodytes tobianus, Sand-Launce, Buocu, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., x. p. 363. 
" ©  Sand-Eel, Storer, Report, p. 159. 

Ammodytes Americanus, American Sand-Launce, DEKA, Report, p. 317, pl. 52, fig. 167. 

Ammodytes lancea, Ayres, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist, rv. p. 280. 

Ammodytes tobianus, Little Sand-Eel, Lixsuey, Cat. of Fishes of Connecticut. 


Ammodytes lancea, Banded Sand-Launce, “ [29.5 e 
— Americanus, STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., Néw Series, 1. p. 489. 
A. si Synopsis, p. 237. 


Color. Of a dirty greenish-brown color upon the back; the sides and abdomen are 
silvery; the top of the head is flesh-colored; the preopercles are silvery; the oper- 
cula are cupreous and silvery. The pupils are black, the irides silvery. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 411 


Description. Body elongated, slightly compressed. Head pointed at snout. The 
length of the head, from the extremity of the snout to the end of the gill-covers, 
is more than one fifth the length of the entire fish. The lower jaw projects beyond 
the upper, and terminates in a conical tip. From the anterior inferior portion of 
the operculum, a few slight striæ pass obliquely upwards, backwards, and downwards 
to its posterior margin. The nostrils are double, and are situated half-way between 
the eyes and the snout. The eyes are circular; the diameter of the eye is equal 
to one ninth the length of the head. 

The lateral line is straight and indented. 

The very delicate dorsal fin commences on a line with the end of the pectorals, 
and terminates at the fleshy base of the caudal fin. This fin is rather highest 
just posterior to its centre. When unexpanded, it is received into a groove at its 
base. 

The pectorals are one third the length of the head. From their base a slight 
membrane extends posteriorly on each side of the abdomen. 

The anal fin, which is about as high as the dorsal fin and terminates posteriorly 
on a line with it, is just one third the length of the entire body. 

The caudal fin is forked. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 61. P. 13. A. 28. C. 14. 

Length, six to twelve inches. 

Remarks. This species, which is generally known among fishermen as the * Sand- 
Eel" is found plentifully at Holmes's Hole, and it oftentimes collects at Provincetown 
in myriads. In June, 1847, while on a visit at this latter place, I observed the shores 
were lined with these fishes, which were left by the refluent tide. Captain Atwood 
assured me that the waters around Longpoint were at times so densely crowded 
with them, as to seem literally alive. In a letter to me, dated June 18th, 1847, he 
says, while speaking of this species: * Last Friday night they ran ashore in such 
quantities, that they covered the ground from one to two inches deep, and when the 
water covered the flats the whole bottom looked like an immense sheet of silver." 

When thus situated they are readily devoured by their enemies, among whom are 
the cuttle-fish. 

Banks of Newfoundland, H. R. Sronrm. Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, 
Ayres, LiwsLEY. New York, Murcpnmz, Dekay. 


412 - HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


LOPHOBRANCHII. 


Gills, instead of being, as usual, pectiniform, are divided into little round tufts, 
dispersed in pairs along the branchial arches. 


FAMILY XXIII. SYNGNATHID.JE. 


Body mailed with transverse angular plates. Opercle large; branchial opening 
very small, and formed by a membrane which only exhibits vestiges of rays. Dorsal 
single. No coca; with an air-bladder. 


GENUS L SYNGNATHUS, Lux. 


Body elongated, slender, covered with a series of indurated plates, arranged in 
parallel lines; head long; both jaws produced, united, tubular; no ventral fins. 
Males with a pouch for the reception of the female roe. 


SYNGNATHUS PECKIANUS, Storer. 


Pecks Pipe-fish. 
(PLATE XXXIII. Fie. 3.) 


Syngnathus typhle, Smaller Pipe-fish, Mircurtt, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 475. 
Syngnathus Peckianus, Peck’s Pipe-fish, Storer, Report, p. 163. 
Syngnathus fuscus, Brown Pipe-fish, STORER, Report, p. 162. 
Syngnathus fasciatus, Banded Pipe-fish, Dexay, Report, p. 319, pl. 54, fig. 174. 
Syngnathus viridescens, Green Pipe.fish, DEKAY, Report, p. 321, pl. 54, fig. 176. 
Syngnathus fuscus, DEKAY, Report, p. 321. 
pretio Peckianus (Storer), Degar, Report, p. 321. 
a Ayres, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., rv. p. 282. 
y “ Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 490. 
P a ei Synopsis, p. 238. 


Color. A living male specimen presents the following appearances. Of a greenish- 
brown color above, with several irregular transverse broad dark bands; numerous 
narrower bands upon the sides of the same color. The upper portion of the oper- 
culum is olive-colored; the lower portion is of a golden yellow. The abdomen in 
front of the anus is golden; the portion just back of the anus is very broad, and 
contains a flesh-colored membrane, which separates in its centre, forming two flaps; 
the lower portion of the sides, exterior to this dilated part, is sprinkled with 
minute white dots; and along this outer edge is a beautiful deep-brown band, 


- 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 413 


extending its whole length. The inferior portion of the body posterior to the mem- 
branous flap is of a pinkish hue. The throat is of a bright yellow color. The 
pupils of the eyes are black; the irides are coppery. A yellowish-brown band 
passes downwards and backwards from the posterior angle of the eye to the centre 
of the operculum. Along the outer edge of the rostrum, from the eye almost to 
the snout, passes a dark-brown band. The dorsal fin is transparent, and indis- 
tinctly longitudinally banded with brown. ‘The pectorals and anal fin are colorless. 
The caudal fin is wholly brown. 

When the fish is preserved in spirits, the colors almost entirely disappear; the 
band on the outer edge of the abdominal flaps, the transverse bands on the back 
and sides, and the bands on the rostrum, are scarcely, if at all, perceptible; and 
the flesh-colored membrane of the pouches becomes of a dull white color. 

Description. Body elongated, compressed upon the sides, flattened above, and grad- 
ually tapering from the head to the tail; its whole surface being covered with horny, 
striated plates. The depth of the body just back of the pectorals, and also at the 
anus across, equal to one thirty-sixth its entire length; the width of the body at the 
anus is equal to half the depth back of the pectorals; the width at the centre of 
the pouches is equal to the depth back of the pectorals; the length vi the pouches 
is less than one third the length of the fish. 

The length of the head, from the extremity of the snout to the posterior angle 
of the operculum, is equal to one ninth the entire length of the fish. Rostrum 
tubular, compressed. The lower jaw is rather the longer, and passes obliquely up- 
wards to form the mouth. The eyes are prominent, and very movable in their 
orbits. The orbitar edges being elevated, a depression is seen between the eyes; 
in the centre of this depression arises a slight ridge, which is continued upon the 
top of the rostrum to the tip of the snout; upon the top of the head is situated 
another ridge which is continued on the neck posterior to the origin of the pec- 
torals. The opercula are pectinated; or of the form of a Pinna, broad posteriorly, 
rounded beneath and behind, and covered with strie radiating from their circum- 
ference. 

The anterior portion of the body is heptangular: on each side of this portion are 
three ridges, and one upon the abdomen. One of these ridges commences at the 
posterior superior angle of the operculum, and is continued in a straight line nearly 
to the termination of the dorsal fin; this ridge forms the lateral boundary of the 
dorsum. 

The second ridge arises beneath the pectorals at their base, and, passing along 

VOL. VIII. 54 


414 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


the middle of the side of the fish, terminates beneath the centre of the dorsal fin, 
above the anus. 

The third ridge commences below and anterior to the pectoral fins, and, bounding 
the sides of the abdomen, is continued to the tail. Besides these three ridges on 
each side, a seventh ridge, commencing at the throat, passes through the centre of 
the abdomen to the vent. Just above the termination of the second ridge, or that 
upon the centre of the sides, another ridge commences, which passes backwards to 
the termination of the first ridge, or that upon the side of the back, then, curving 
upwards to the sides of the back, takes the place of the first ridge, and is con- 
tinued to the tail. Back of the vent the abdominal ridge disappears, so that the 
space between the vent and the termination of the first ridge is hexangular. Back 
of the dorsal fin, the ridge upon the centre of the sides having disappeared, the 
body is quadrangular. 

In front of the anus are nineteen transverse plates, and in front of the dorsal fin 
are fourteen of these plates; between the anus and the caudal fin are forty-two of 
these plates. The portion of the abdomen just back of the vent is much wider 
than the rest of the body, and presents the membranous flaps, which approach each 
other at the median line, thus forming pouches or a false belly in which are con- 
tained the ova of the female. 

The dorsal fin is situated at the commencement of the second third of the body, 
or at a distance back of the tip of the snout equal to one third the entire length. 
It is slightly rounded above, and is longer than the head; the height of its rays 
is equal to about one fifth the length of the head. 

The anus is situated directly beneath the middle of the dorsal fin. 

The pectorals are rather small, and are rounded when expanded. 

The anal fin is exceedingly delicate, scarcely discernible without the aid of a 
glass. 

The caudal fin is fan-shaped when expanded; the extremities of the rays project 
slightly beyond the connecting membrane. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 45. P. 14. A. 3. C. 12. 

Length, six to twelve inches. 

Remarks. This species is frequently taken in nets, in the waters of Boston Har- 
bor, by boys, while catching minnows for bait. Its motions are exceedingly rapid, 
resembling the gyrations of the Colubride. In one of the specimens described in 
my Report, numerous ova contained in its false pouches were hatched soon after 
it was taken, and when I received it, two days subsequent to its capture, it was 


* 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 415 


‘surrounded by one hundred and fifty young, about half an inch long, which, 
with the exception of several narrow transverse black bands, were nearly colorless. 
In several others, examined at the same time, their pouches were crowded with 
ova, or in the act of protruding the young. 

The following remarks accompanying my original description of this species may 
not be considered inappropiate here. 

Among the earliest cultivators of Ichthyology in our country no name is more 
prominent than that of William Dandridge Peck. So early as the year 1794, while 
residing at the town of Kittery, in Maine, he wrote a clear and accurate * descrip- 
tion of four remarkable fishes, taken near the Piscataqua, in New Hampshire" This 
paper was published in 1804, in the second part of the second volume of the 
* Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," accompanied with very 
good figures, when the early period of our country is considered. The manuscript 
of his Ichthyological Lectures also, afterward delivered by him at Harvard University 
as Professor of Natural History, and kindly loaned me to examine by my friend 
Thaddeus William Harris, M. D., Librarian to the University, exhibit no incon- 
siderable degree of research. As the species described and first published by him 
as new have, three of them at least, been described by other naturalists under 
other specific names, I feel that I am performing an appropriate duty in con- 
necting the name of our deceased countryman, whose merits have been unjustifiably 
overlooked, with one of a class of animals whose history he so successfully endeav- 


ored to elucidate. 
Massachusetts, Storer. Connecticut, Linstey. New York, Mirct, Dexay. 


GENUS II. HIPPOCAMPUS, Cov. 


The jaws united and tubular, like those of the Syngnathi; mouth placed at the 
end; body compressed, short, and deep; the whole length of the body and tail 
divided by longitudinal and transverse ridges, with tubercular points at the angles 
of intersection; pectoral and dorsal fins; no ventral nor caudal fins; the females 


only have an anal. 


416 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


Hirrocampus Hupsowius, Dekay. 


Short-nosed Sea-Horse. 


(Prate XXXIII. Fie. 4.) 


Syngnathus hippocampus, Sea-Horse Pipe-fish, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 475. 
Hippocampus brevirostris, Short-nosed Sea-Horse, STORER, Report, p. 167. 
Hippocampus Hudsonius, Hudson River Sea-Horse, Dexay, Report, p. 322, pl. 53, fig. 171. 
Hippocampus brevirostris, LINSLEY, Cat. of Fishes of Connecticut. 
reme d Sedanin SronER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 491. 

F Synopsis, p. 239. 


Color. Yellowish-brown throughout. 

Description. Body heptagonal, composed of twelve segments, which are armed on 
each side with three rows of prominent spines, and a single row of similar spines 
are noticed beneath. The greatest depth of the body is across from the dorsal fin. 
The length of the head is more than one fifth the entire length of the fish. The 
head is compressed upon the opercula and surmounted above by a bony prominence 
which expands into five points, four lateral and one posterior. Behind this are 
situated the branchial orifices. A short spine is seen at the base of the snout, in 
front of the eyes; on each side of this is a minute spine; directly above each eye is 
a larger spine; and at the posterior angle of the eye is a very short one: beneath 
the eye, on the throat, are two small ones on each side. The snout is straight and 
tubular, and measures ten lines to the anterior base of the opercula. The eyes are 
large. The tail is quadrangular, about half of its entire length; it is divided into 
thirty-four segments, and gradually terminates in a point. 

The dorsal fin is situated upon a slight projection of the dorsum, composed of 
three segments, at the origin of the tail. 

'The fin rays, as well as can be determined with the specimen much contracted and 
otherwise injured by drying, are as follows: — D. 18 or 20. P. 14 or 15. A. 3 or 4. 

Length, five inches. 

Remarks. In my * Report" I described this species from the only specimen I 
had seen. It was found by Dr. Yale upon the shore at Holmes's Hole, and was sent 
by him to the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History. He observed, in 
a letter to me, “he never knew one to be taken alive, yet they are frequently found 
on the shore.” The specimen described was a female. As I have seen no specimen 
since that was noticed, I can only redescribe it, and accompany the description with 
a figure, which, considering the dried condition of the fish, is quite accurate. 

I was undoubtedly in error in considering this species as the brevirostris, and 
with pleasure adopt the specific name of my lamented friend, Dr. Dekay. 

Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, Linstey. New York, Mircuitt, DeKay. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 417 


PLECTOGNATHI. 


The maxillary bone soldered or fixedly attached on the side of the intermaxillary, 
which alone forms the jaw, and to which the palatine arch is dovetailed by a 
suture within the cranium, and consequently has no power of motion. Opercula and 
the rays concealed under a thick skin, which only permits a small branchial cleft 
to be visible externally. 


FAMILY XXIV. GYMNODONTIDA. 


Instead of apparent teeth, the jaws are furnished with an ivory substance, divided 
internally into lamins, the general appearance of which somewhat resembles the bill 
of a parrot, and which is essentially composed of true teeth united together, and 
succeeding one another in proportion as there are any worn out by trituration. Oper- 
cula small; their rays five in number. 


GENUS I. TETRODON, Liny. 


Jaws divided in the middle by a suture, presenting the appearance of four teeth in 
front, two above and two below. ‘The skin over a portion of its whole extent covered 
with prickles. i 


TETRODON TURGIDUS, Mitchill. 


The Swell-fish. Puffer. 
(Pirate XXXIII. Fre 5. b. Jaws.) 


Tetraodon turgidus, Puffer, Myrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 473, pl. 6, fig. 5. 
a 7: Swell-fish, Puffer, STORER, Report, p. 169. 
" T Common Puffer, Dexayr, Report, p. 327, pl. 55, fig. 178. 
er S s Ayers, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., rv. p. 285. 
= aed r STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 493. 
" = eg x; Synopsis, p. 241. 

Color. Upper part of the body ash-colored, interspersed with light pea-green, with 
large irregular patches of greenish-brown. Sides orange, with a shade of brown, 
barred transversely by seven or eight blackish irregularly defined bands. Abdomen 
yellowish-white. Head greenish-brown. Pupils green, irides orange. Fins color of 
abdomen. 


Description. Body oblong, cylindrical, globular when inflated. The whole surface 


418 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


of the body, save the chin and the space between the dorsal and the caudal fins, and 
the anal and caudal, roughened by innumerable small spines. The greatest depth 
of the body when collapsed is one fourth the length of the body; when inflated, 
its greatest depth is one third the length of the body; the greatest width of the 
fish is equal to one third its length. The length of the head is nearly one third 
the length of the body. The eyes are large, and horizontally oval. The distance 
between the eyes is equal to their longest diameter. The nostrils are situated just 
in front of the eyes, and are furnished with a fleshy filament. The jaws are stout 
and equal. 

No lateral line is observable. 

The fan-shaped dorsal fin arises just in advance of the anal fin. The first ray is 
the shortest, the third ray the longest of the fin. 

The pectorals are subquadrangular. 

The anal fin is rather smaller than the dorsal. 

The caudal fin is nearly even at its extremity. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 6-8. P.15. A.6,7,8. C. 6, 7. 

Length, six to fourteen inches. 

Remarks. 'This species is known by the names of Swell-fish, Bellows-fish, and Puffer, 
from its power of inflating itself with air. It is found along our entire coast. It 
is common at Nahant, and is sometimes taken from the bridges leading from Bos- 
ton. At Manimsha Creek, in Chilmark, it exists in great numbers. When taken 
with the hook it is collapsed, but almost immediately inflates itself: this inflation 
is readily induced by scratching its abdomen. 

Massachusetts, Storer. Connecticut, LiwsLeY, Ayres. New York, Mrrceunr, 
Drkay. 


TETRODON LAVIGATUS, Linn. 
The Smooth Puffer. 


(Prate XXXIV. Fre 1.) 


Tetraodon levigatus, Lin., Syst. Nat., p. 411. 
os er Suaw, Gen. Zoúl., v. p. 446. 
Tamboril, PARRA, p. 37, pl. 19. 
Tetraodon levigatus, Brown Globe-Fish, MircH., Report on the Fishes of New York, p. 28. 
Tetraodon mathematicus, Mathematical Tetraodon, Mrrcu., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of New York, 1. p. 474, pl. 6, fig. 6. 
" d » e Storer, Supplement to Rep. Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., rv. p. 183. 
Tetraodon levigatus, Lineated Puffer, DEKAY, Report, p. 329, pl. 56, fig. 182. 
- e " “Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 493. 
« Di Di Di Hi Synopsis, p. 24]. 


Color. Of a deep olive-green color above; the sides are silvery ; the inferior por- 
tion of the body is white. Pupils black, irides golden. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 419 


Description. Body elongated; anterior portion of the body much the more promi- 
nent; abdomen pendulous. The entire surface of the body is perfectly smooth, 
except the portion below the pectoral fins, posterior to the throat, and anterior to 
the anus, which is armed with an immense number of small stellated spines. 

Several well-marked series of mucous pores are distributed over the surface, which 
have caused it to receive its common names, in the works of ichthyologists, of line- 
ated and mathematical. One of these commences about half an inch back of the 
angle of the jaws; this passes backwards to the posterior extremity of the eye, being 
a short distance beneath the eye, then ascends obliquely to a point upon the back two 
inches above the middle of the pectoral fin, then curves downwards to the middle 
of the side of the fish, to a point about an inch back of the dorsal fin, whence 
it proceeds in a straight course to the caudal rays. This line from its origin also 
passes upward and backwards, just exterior to the nostrils, and, curving high up 
over the eyes, passes back of them and downward to meet the former line about 
half an inch back of the eyes, thus forming a ring around them. Directly above 
the base of the pectoral fins, a transverse line crosses from the lateral line on one 
side to that on the other. From this transverse line, an undulating line passes to 
the ring around the eyes. 

Its greatest depth is less than one sixth its length. Its greatest width is across 
the base of the pectorals. 

The length of the head is equal to about one quarter its entire length. The 
eyes are oblong. The nostrils are situated a short distance in front of, and rather 
above, the anterior angle of the eyes. The jaws are very strong. The lips are fleshy 
and lax. à ; 

The trapezoidal dorsal fin is situated upon the posterior half of the body. 

The pectoral fins are short and subquadrangular. 

The anal fin, of the same form and size of the dorsal, is directly opposite that fin. 

The caudal fin is deeply forked. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 13. P. 16. A. 12. C. 11. 

Length, one to two feet. 

Remarks. The only individual of this species I have seen was taken several years 
since at Nantucket, and was described by me, from the preserved specimen, in the 
Boston Journal of Natural History, 1843 - 4. 

Massachusetts, Storer. New York, MrrcmiL, DekaY. South Carolina, Linn. 
Gulf of Mexico, Parra. 


420 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


GENUS II. ORTHAGORISCUS, Somn. 


Jaws undivided, forming a cutting edge. Body compressed, without spines, not 
susceptible of inflation, and with the tail so short, and so high, vertically, that 
they have the appearance of fishes from which the posterior part has been cut away. 
Dorsal and anal, each high and pointed, united to the caudal. No natatory blad- 
der; stomach small, and immediately receiving the biliary canal. 


ORTHAGORISCUS MOLA, Schn. 
The Sun-fish. 


(PLaTE XXXIV. Fic. 2.) 


Tetraodon mola, LIN., Syst Nat. p. 412. 
3 " Short Tetraodon, PENN., Brit. Zoól., 111. p. 172, pl. 22. 
Diodon mola, Brocn, pl. 128. 
moie, msc Sw Jish, SHaw, Gen. Zoól., v. p. 437, pl. 175. 
" Miren. Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 471. 
—n eg Sa Sun-fish (SCHNEIDER), JENYNS, Brit. Vert., p. 490. 
GnirriTH's Cuy., x. p. 569. 
u * ` Short Sun-fish, Zeg Brit. Fishes, 2d edit., 11. p. 462, fig. 
= * STORER, Report, p. 170, pl. 3, fig. 1. 
= * Short Head-fish, Dexay, Report, p. 331, pl. 59, fig. 193. 
e *  SronER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 494. 
Ge T * — Synopsis, p. 242. 

Color. The back is of a dark gray color; the sides of a grayish-brown, with 
silvery reflections; the abdomen is of a dull, dirty white. A broad, nearly black, 
band commences at the origin of the dorsal fin, and, running along its base, is 
continued, in front of the caudal and anal fins, to the anus; this band is lighter- 
colored along the base of the anal fin, and here it is also narrower, being about 
the same depth as at the dorsal; but along the base of the caudal it is consider- 
ably deeper. Pupils black, irides of a dark brown, encircled within by a silvery 
ring. The general color of the caudal fin is similar to that of the inferior portion 
of the sides; its outer edge is flesh-colored. 

Description. Body oblong, compressed. Its entire surface presents a fine, unyield- 
ing granulated surface. The depth of the body across, from the middle of the 
pectorals, is equal to rather more than half its length; from the tip of the dorsal 
to the extremity of the anal, measured across the body, the distance is equal to 
about the length of the fish. The length of the head, from the tip of the snout ` 
to the base of the pectoral fin, is equal to one fifth the entire length; the head is 


flattened over the snout, which is obtuse and projecting. Upon the top of the 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 421 


head an arched ridge commences on a line with the anterior angle of the eye, and 
is continued to a line above the origin of the pectorals; thence a straight line is 
pursued to the dorsal fin. The sides of the head project out from the body, — 
quite prominently over the eyes to the branchial aperture. 'The eyes are oblong, 
small, convex, very movable in their orbits; their larger diameter is one fourth 
greater than their smaller. The nostrils are double, very small, situated just in 
front of the eyes. The mouth is small. The jaws are armed with a broad bony 
plate, much worn in front, sharp at its edges. The temporal orifice is oval, and 
situated just in front of the pectoral fin. 

The dorsal and anal fins are triangular, and situated at the upper and lower 
posterior extremities of the fish; the former slightly the posterior. These fins 
are almost precisely equal in their length and height. 

The caudal fin borders the posterior extremity of the body, and reaches nearly 
to the base of the dorsal and anal fins, although it is not really connected with 
them. This fin is scalloped, or divided into digitations, about eight in number, the 
fourth of which is the longest. The digitations in the specimen here described are 
much more unequal than in that mentioned in my * Report." 

The pectorals are one third the height of the dorsal fin; their length is equal to 
more than one third their height. 

The anus is large and corrugated, and situated a short distance in front of the 
anal fin. Directly in front of the anus commences a very obvious carina, which is 
continued to a line opposite the origin of the pectorals. The very dense texture 
of these fins renders it about impossible to determine with accuracy the number 
of their rays. As nearly as I have been able to distinguish, they are as follows: — 
D.13 B.12. btw BD. 

Length, five to six feet. 

Remarks. Three specimens of this fish, carefully examined, present the following 
proportions. 

One, described in my * Report," measured fifty-four inches in length; depth across 
from the middle of the pectorals, two and a half feet; from the top of the dorsal 
to the extremity of the anal fin, six and a half feet. Weight, two hundred pounds. 

A second, seen by Dr. Jeffries Wyman, also noticed in my “ Report," measured 
fifty-four inches in length; diameter of the operculum, three inches; of the eye, two 
inches; greatest breadth of the fish, thirty inches; pectoral fins, eight inches high, 
six long, composed of ten rays; anal fin, eighteen inches high, ten long, composed 
of eighteen rays; nine scallops to the tail, six in the broadest part. 

VOL. VIII. 55 


422 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


The individual now described measured fifty-four inches in length, and was judged 
to weigh nearly five hundred pounds. 

This species is occasionally met with during the summer season in Massachusetts 
Bay, sluggishly swimming near the surface. On account of the great elasticity of 
its exterior, it is captured with difficulty, by being gaffed at or near the branchial 
aperture. Dr. Yale, writing of this species to me, observes; * It has an entire car- 
tilaginous case of an inch and a half to two inches thick, covering the whole body, 
perfectly white and milky in its appearance, and very elastic. A small ball of it, 
cut out and thrown with moderate force upon the ground, will rebound from fifteen 
to twenty feet.” Its liver, which weighs eight or ten pounds, is very oily, furnish- 
ing two or more quarts of oil, which is used by the fishermen to grease their 
masts; it is also sometimes used by painters, although Captain Atwood tells me 
he does not think it preferable in this respect to other fish-oil It is considered 
by many fishermen a valuable application for sprains and bruises, and by such it 
is preserved for these purposes. 

Upon the exterior of the specimens described in my * Report" were attached 
several parasites; at the base of, or near to the fins, a large number of the Pen- 
nella sagitta were found imbedded, with their pinnated extremities projecting like 
tentacule, and to them were firmly fixed specimens of the Cineras vittata. One 
beautiful specimen of the Tristoma coccineum, figured by Yarrell as being taken from 
this species, was found firmly attached to the posterior extremity of the fish. Closely 
attached to the branchiz were a dozen or more specimens of the Cecrops Latreillii. 
The thickness of the exterior varies from two to three inches. A large number 
of Tenie were found in the intestines. Several Cysticerci were imbedded in the 
substance of the liver. 

Massachusetts, STORER. New York, MircmiL, Dexay. 


FAMILY XXV. BALISTIDA. 


Body compressed. Snout prolonged from the eyes. Mouth small, with a few 
distinct teeth in each jaw. Skin roughened with prickles or scales. Dorsals, two; 
the anterior sometimes represented by a single spine. Ventrals often wanting or 
indistinct. Pelvic bone prominent. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 493 


GENUS I. MONACANTHUS, Cov. 


Body covered with very small scales, bristling with stiff excrescences, and ex- 
tremely crowded. The extremity of the pelvis projecting and spiny, as in the 
Balistes, but they have only one large dentated spine to their first dorsal, or at 
least the second is almost imperceptible. 


MoNACANTHUS AURANTIACUS, Dekay. 
The Orange File-fish. 


(PLaTE XXXIV. Fra. 3.) 


Balistes aurantiacus, Orange File-fish, Mrrcn., Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of N. Y., 1. p. 468, pl. 6, fig. 1. 
Monacanthus aurantiacus, Orange File-fish; Dexay, Report, p. 333, pl. 57, fig. 186. 

n wid STORER, Proceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 11. p. 72. 

- a * Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 496. 

= X S Synopsis, p. 244. 


Color. The greater portion of the fish is of an orange-yellow ; the lower portion 
of the sides and beneath of a bluish-white. 

Description. Body oval, compressed. Its entire surface covered by minute prickles, 
which are very obvious when the hand is drawn towards the head. Abdomen tumid. 
A slight concavity is noticed upon the forehead; the dorsal outline is horizontal. 
The greatest depth of the fish is just back of the pectorals. The length of the 
head is equal to about one quarter its entire length. The mouth is small, promi- 
nent, protruding. The lower jaw the longer, with eight flattened teeth; the front 
teeth large, flattened, emarginated above; the teeth in the lower jaw smaller and 
lanceolate. The eyes are large and circular, situated just beneath the dorsal spine. 
The branchial aperture, which is linear and nearly as long as the dorsal spine, is 
situated just beneath the eye. The nearly straight dorsal spine is equal to one half 
the length of the head; it is slightly rounded on its anterior edge, grooved at its 
posterior base, and exhibits numerous very minute serrations upon its posterior 
superior edge. A small membrane is attached to its base, posteriorly. 

Just before the second dorsal fin, which commences on a line slightly anterior 
to the anal, is a prominent projection. This fin is rounded above. The middle rays 
are the longest; all the rays are more or less flattened. 

The pectorals are broad and rounded, and situated on a line directly beneath 


the eyes. 


424 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


The anal fin, resembling the dorsal in its appearance, terminates just posteriorly 
to that fin. 

The caudal fin is composed of stout, bifurcated rays. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 1,35. P. 12. A. 39. C. 12. 

Length, seventeen inches. 

Remarks. 'The only individual of this species I have known to have been taken 
in our waters was captured at Salem, August, 1845. It belongs to the Natural 
History Society of that city, and was kindly loaned me by Dr. Wheatland, one 
of the Curators of the Society, to determine the species. The fish, when dis- 
covered, was swimming about two feet from the bottom, near the wharf, and from 
post to post, biting off the barnacles attached to them. When taken, and lying 
upon the wharf, it made a chirping noise like a bird, and endeavored to wound 
his captor with his spine. While dying, the color of the abdomen changed as in 
the dolphin. | 

The specimen referred to had been injured in its capture, being speared; and 
had lost its proportions by the process of drying, preventing me at the time from 
preparing an accurate description. My excellent friend, James Carson Brevoort, 
Esq., the distinguished ichthyologist of Brooklyn, New York, has kindly loaned me 
a specimen which has enabled me to present the above account. Dr. Dekay ob- 
serves that this is a rare species in the waters of New York, he having seen but 
two specimens. | 

In August, 1842, the late lamented Charles D. Bates, M. D., formerly of the 
U. S. Navy, sent me a figure and description of this fish which was taken in the 
harbor of Portland, Maine, when he was attached to that station. He observes in 
his letter to me: * This fish appeared, about a fathom under water, like a bit of kelp, 
and was rising toward the surface, when a fisherman, observing its motion, put 
his hand into the water, and the fish came directly into it and was caught." He 
adds: “It is called Hog-fish vulgarly, either from its snout resembling that of this 
animal, or from a sort of short grunting noise it makes on being taken out of the 
water." | : | | : 
Maine, Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, Linstry. New York, Musep, 
Dexay. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 425 


MonacantHus MASSACHUSETTENSIS, Storer. 


The Massachusetts File-fish. 


(PLaTE XXXIV. Fie. 4.) 


Monacanthus M. husettensis, Massachusetts File.fish, SrorEr, Report, p. 174. 
« “ « * ` Dzxar, Report, p. 336, pl. 57, fig. 187. 
= p. SronER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 496. 
= " * — Synopsis, p. 244. 


Color. Of a yellowish-brown, variegated over its entire extent with brownish 
markings and blotches; more obvious upon upper portion of sides. Numerous mi- 
nute white cilia are suspended from its sides. 

Description. Body oblong, very much compressed. Surface granulated. Its depth 
from the base of the dorsal spine is equal to half the entire length of the fish. 
Length of head equal to one fourth the entire length. Jaws of equal length; teeth 
stout. Eyes circular, equal to one fourth the length of the head. A strong, gran- 
ulated, curved spine, half the length of the head, with small sharp spines upon its 
posterior lateral edges pointing downwards and backwards, is situated just back of 
the centre of the eye. ; | 

The second dorsal fin commences some distance back of the spine; it is com- 
posed of colorless rays, which are roughened at their bases. 

The pectorals also are colorless, and rounded when expanded. 

The pelvic bone projects, is quite movable, and is connected by a dewlap to the 
abdomen. 

The anal fin, of the same form as the dorsal, commences just posterior to that 
fin: the rays of this fin are granulated at their base like those of the dorsal. 

The caudal fin is of a darker color than the other fins. 

Length, four inches. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 34. P. 12. A. 34. C. 12. 

Remarks. l have seen but one specimen of this species. This was sent to me 
in 1838, by the late Dr. Yale of Holmes's Hole, as having been found in Massa- 
chusetts Bay. 

Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, Linsey. New York, Drxax. 


426 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


MONACANTHUS SIGNIFER, Storer. 


(PLATE XXXV. Fie. 1.) 


Monacanthus setifer, DEKAY, Report, p. 337, pl. 59, fig. 194. 
Monacanthus signifer, STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 497. 
sel us Synopsis, p. 245. 

Color. Of a reddish-brown color, with greenish reflections. 

Description. Body elongated, compressed. ‘The entire surface is very minutely 
granulated, by which a sensation of roughness is perceived, by the finger, over its 
whole extent, with the exception of the fleshy portion of the tail, and a small 
portion of the body just anterior to it; which parts are thickly studded with stiff 
sete, looking and feeling like the teeth of a card, the points of which incline for- 
wards, producing consequently this roughness only when the finger is drawn towards 
the tail. 

The depth of the fish across the body from the base of the dorsal fin is less 
than half its length ; the depth at the fleshy portion, to its greatest depth, is as 
one to four. The length of the. head is equal to one fourth the entire length of 
the fish. The mouth is small. The teeth are sharp, and are four in number on 
each side. The eyes are circular. On the top of the head, back of the centre 
of the eyes, is situated a movable spine, terminating in a naked point, and armed 
posteriorly upon its sides with a number of small spines pointing downwards; these 
spines are more developed towards its upper portion. 

The dorsal fin arises just back of the centre of the fish, and is nearly as long 
as the greatest depth of the fish; its second ray is the longest. 

The pectorals commence on a line beneath the dorsal spine. 

The pelvic bone is prominent, and terminates in a small stellated point; the 
dewlap to which it is attached is marked by large granulations, similar to those 
upon the rest of the surface. ! 

The anal fin commences back of the dorsal; it is of a rounded form, and ter- 
minates opposite that fin. | 

. The caudal fin is composed of very firm rays. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 32. P. 16. A. 32. je 10. 

Length, five inches. 

Remarks. Until the summer of 1842 I had not known of an individual of this 
species having been taken in the waters of this State. During that season, how- 
ever, I saw specimens which had been caught at Hingham, Lynn, Nahant, and 
even in our harbor by means of seines. For the fine specimen from which my 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS, 427 


drawing is made, I am indebted to John L. Tucker, Esq., formerly of the Tremont 
House of this city. 

Previous to the appearance of Dekay's Report, I supposed this species to be Dr. 
Mitchill’s M. broccus, and thus called it in the Proceedings of the Boston Society 
of Natural History, p. 84 (Sept. 1842). 

Dekay described it as a new species, under the specific name of setifer. As, 
however, this name had been préviously applied to another species of this genus 
by Bennett, in the Proceedings of the Zoólogical Society of London, Part I. p. 112, 
1830, I have felt compelled to substitute another. 

Massachusetts, Srorer. New York, Dekar. 


GENUS II. ALUTERES, Cov. 


An elongated body, covered with small and scarcely visible granules; a single 
spine in the first dorsal; the chief character is the pelvis, which is completely 
hidden under the skin, and is without that spinous projection observed in the 


other Balistes. 


ALUTERES CUSPicAUDA, Dekay. 


The Sharp-tailed File-fish. 
(PLATE XXXV. Fie. 2.) 


Balistes cuspicauda, Sharp-tailed File.fish, Myrcn., Amer. Month. Mag., 11. p. 326. 

Aluteres monoceros, Unicorn File-fish, (BLocH,) STORER, Report, p. 175. 

Aluteres p PNE Unicorn-fish, DE&AY, Report, p. 338, pl. 59, fig. 192. 
". .SronER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 497. 
“ Di E “ e Synopsis, p. 245. 


Color. Coppery brown, with spots of pale bluish slate and of brassy yellow from 
the eyes to the tail and back halfway down the sides, arranged in rather regular 
series. Head, back, and throat of a dark olive-brown; lower part of sides and 
abdomen lighter. A pale greenish-blue tint on the cheeks and opercles. Irides 
brassy yellow. Dorsal spine dark. The last two thirds of the membrane of the 
caudal fin of a dusky brown, with the tips of the rays yellowish. The dorsal, pec- 
torals, and anal almost colorless. 

Description. Body elongated, compressed laterally. Its greatest height, which is 
just back of the dorsal spine, is equal to one third its entire length; its height 
at the base of the caudal rays is equal to about one fourteenth its length. Between 
the spine and the dorsal fin the back is nearly straight. The length of the head 


498 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


is equal to one third the length of the fish. The facial angle is oblique, grad- 
ually sloping from the dorsalspine to the tip of the snout. The mouth is turned 
upwards. The teeth are sharp, pointed. The eyes are large and circular. The 
nostril is situated just in front of the anterior superior margin of the orbit. The 
branchial aperture is oblique. 

The dorsal spine is short and serrated, having at its posterior base, connected 
by a membrane, a minute rudimentary spine. ` 

The dorsal fin commences on the anterior half of the body; its central rays are 
the highest. 

The pectoral fins are situated on a line beneath the eyes. 

The anal fin commences opposite the dorsal, and terminates posterior to it. 

The middle caudal rays are the highest; and all the rays, except the two outer, 
are filamentous. 

Length, eight inches. 

The fin rays are as follows, in four specimens : — 


D. 3,0X I0 A: Sk C. I2. 
D. 2, 36. P.12.9:1 14 Av 86. (12 
D. 2, Sh F. 15: A. 40. C. 12. 
D. 2,98. P 15 Ay 42. C. 12. 


Remarks. I have seen a single specimen only of this species which has been 
taken in our waters. This was an immature fish sent me by Dr. Yale, from 
Holmess Hole. As Ihad not met with Dr. Mitchill’s paper on the “Fishes of 
New York," contained in the American Monthly Magazine, I described it in my 
* Report" as the A. monoceros, Bloch. Dekay, with recent specimens of the ma- 
ture fish before him, was enabled to correct my error; and, through the kindness 
of J. Carson Brevoort, of Brooklyn, New York, to whom I have already expressed 
my indebtedness, I have been furnished with recent specimens, and notes, by which 
I am enabled to present the present description and remarks. 

The color of this species varies exceedingly. Some specimens are almost as 
yellow as the Monacanthus aurantiacus; but most of them are of a dusky olive- 
brown, with cloudings of darker hue, and the series of spots of metallic brassy- 
yellow; while Dekay observes that he has seen them of a uniform brown, with- 
out any spots or clouds whatsoever. Brevoort tells me the species is very common 
in the month of September, and up to October 15th, in the narrow Shan of the 
marshy Jamaica Bay. They are taken in nets altogether. 

Massachusetts, SroreR. New York, MrrcmiL, Dekay. 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 429 


FAMILY XXVI. OSTRACIONIDZ. 


Body triangular or four-sided, enveloped in a hard bony case, composed of nu- 
merous plates, soldered together in such a manner that only the mouths and fins 
are movable No ventral fins; a single dorsal. e 


GENUS LACTOPHRYS, Dexay. 


Body triangular; with strong spines directed backwards before the anal fin. Or- 
bits usually spinous. : 


Lacropurys Yarrr, Dekay. 


Yale's Trunk-fish. 
(Prate XXXV. Fio. 3.) 


Ostracion Yalei, Storer, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., 1. p. 353, pl. 8. 
x E, Yale's Trunk.fish, SronER, Report, p. 176. 

Lactophrys Yalei, Yales Trunk-fish, DEKAY, Report, p. 362. 
S is STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 498. 
E - ej Synopsis, p. 246. 


Color. Above, of a light leaden color; beneath, nearly colorless. 

Description. Body triangular. Its entire surface is granulated and covered with: 
hexagonal plates, each containing six raised lines, which diverge from the centre 
of the plate to the angles; these plates are much the larger posterior to the 
pectoral fins. From the posterior angle of the eye to the ligamentary substance 
at the base,of the tail are included ten plates in a direct line; from the highest 
point of the back to the abdomen are nine similar rows of plates. Behind the 
dorsal fin is a surface of ligamentary substance, of a darker color than the rest 
of the exterior, extending to the caudal fin, and containing, just back of the dor- 
sal fin, one isolated plate, apparently composed of portions of several plates. Upon 
the posterior portion of the abdomen are situated, laterally, two stout, naked, re- 
curved spines, The mouth is large and prominent; the jaws are armed with elon- 
gated, strong teeth; the eyes are large, and elongated horizontally; the nostrils 
are directly anterior to the anterior inferior angle of the eye. 

'The fin rays are as follows: — D. 10. P. 12. A. 10. C. 10. 

Remarks. 'The only specimen of this species which has been seen was discovered 
alive by Dr. Yale, in 1833, among the sea-weed on the beach at Martha's Vine- 
yard, and was by him presented to the Boston Society of Natural History. In the 

VOL. VIII. 56 


430 HISTORY OF. THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


year 1836 I read a description of it to said Society, which was published in the 
first volume of their Journal, and afterwards in my “Report upon the Fishes of 
Massachusetts." This description I am again here compelled to present. The length 
of the specimen, in its dried state, is fourteen inches. From the contracted and 
wrinkled appearance of the ligamentary portion at the base ot the tail, it must vary 
considerably from the size of the living fish. 

- Massachusetts, STORER. 


CLASS II. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. 


Skeleton cartilaginous. Cranium divided by indistinct sutures, Gills generally 
fixed ; the membrane without rays. Maxillary and intermaxillary bones either want- 
ing or rudimentary ; the palatines or vomer alone supplying their place. 


ORDER I. ELEUTHEROPOMI. | 


Gills pectinated, free, as in‘ ordinary fishes, with one large external aperture ‘on 
each side, furnished with a strong opercle; without rays. Upper jaw formed by 
the palatine bone, firmly united ' to the maxillary; intermaxillary rudimentary. 


FAMILY. XXVII. | STURIONID E. 


The genera of this family approach to ordinary fishes, by. their gills being at- 
tached only at one extremity. . They have but one branchial aperture, which is 


very open; they have: but ` one Ee and are without rays to the membrane 
of the gills. ` ES Cn , 


' GENUS ACIPENSER, Laws. 


Body elongated and shinier. defended by indurated plates and spines, arranged 


in longitudinal rows; snout. PA OD conical; mouth «placed on the under side of the 
head, tubular, and without teeth. ` 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 431 


ACIPENSER OXYRINCHUS, “Mitchill. 


The Sharp-nosed Sturgeon. 
(Pedra XXXV. Fic. 4.) 


Acipenser Osyrinchus, Sharp- -nosed? Sturgeon, Miron., "Trans, Lit. and Phil. Soe. of N. , SETS 462. 
^ LrsUEUR, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., New Series, np 394. 
d disi P nosed Sturgeon, STORER, Report, p. 178.. 
“ eee ete * "` Drkar, Report, p. 346, pl. 58, fig. 189. ' 
T .* ,.. Ayres, Fishes of Brookhaven, L. I., Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., 1v. p. 287. 
- * — LiNSLEY, Cat. of Fishes of Connection’, Amer. Journ. Science. 
* |... ©, STORER, Mem. Amer. Acad., New Series, 11. p. 499. 
A de zl Synopsis, p. 247. 

Color. Of a grayish- brown color above; silvery upon the inferior portion of the 
sides; white beneath. Pupils black, irides: yellow. 

Description. Body elongated, pentagonal. - Entire surface — excepting 
that occupied by five longitudinal rows of flattened plates, of the same structure 
as the covering of the head, but of a lighter color. The largest plates form the 
dorsal ridge; in younger specimens these. plates are compressed at their sides, and 
terminate above in strong, sharp, recurved spines; while in this the spines:on the 
dorsal ridge in some plates: are obsolete, and the whole crest a mere sharp edge, 
and are obvious only on a few of the plates; radiating lines are distinctly seen 
running from the centre of these scales to. their circumference; this row is com- 
posed of ten plates. In the specimen formerly described by me, measuring two 
feet and three inches in length, this row contained twelve plates. The first are 
the largest; that at the commencement of the dorsal fin by far the smallest; be- 
tween the dorsal and caudal fins are situated four plates. In the specimen de- 
scribed in my * Report" two quite small plates were seen just back of the dorsal, 
forming a pair; next to these a much larger one, and, lastly, an elongated one at 
the commencement of the caudal fin. 

A second row of bony plates, twenty-eight in number, placed obliquely, com- 
mences just back of the operculum, situated where the lateral line is usually ob- 
served in fishes, and is continued to the base of the tail; these plates are narrowed 
to a point at their upper extremities, obtuse at their lower extremities, widened in 
their centres, and, like the former, are crowned by spines, more or less prominent, 
from the bases of which radii diverge. The posterior plates are much the smaller. 

Beneath this row,’ just back of the pectorals, commences a third row of plates, 
eight in number, placed vertically, larger than those of the last row. 

The head is flattened above, slightly depressed between the eyes, and terminates 


432 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


at the occiput in a rounded plate, which in the immature fish is pointed. The 
whole upper portion of the head is bony, and irregularly marked upon its surface. 

The snout is blunted. The eyes are small, and their diameter is less than one fifth 
the distance between them. The nostrils are double, situated directly in front of 
the eyes; the posterior is much the larger. The mouth, without teeth, capable of 
great protrusion, with fleshy, lobed lips, is situated on the under surface of the 
‘head; half-way between the mouth and the snout are situated four cirrhi placed 
transversely with respect to each other, nearly as long as the mouth. 

The dorsal fin is situated far back, at the posterior extremity of the body; it 
is deeply emarginated; its first rays are higher than its length. 

The pectorals arise from a strong, triangular plate; their first ray is very large 
and strong; the seventh and eighth are the highest; the length of the fins at 
their base are less than one half their height. 

The ventrals, which are placed far back, are subquadrangular. 

The anal fin is opposite the dorsal; its length is equal to one half its height; 
its posterior rays are equal in height to one third the height of the longest rays. 

The upper lobe of the caudal fin is nearly double the length of the lower; the 
membranous structure of this fin renders it difficult accurately to determine the 
number of its rays. 

The fin rays are as follows: — D. 38. P. 28. V. 94. A. 23. C. 125. 

Length, six to ten feet. | 

Remarks. The largest specimen I have seen, nearly six feet in length, was found 
at Deer Island. It is sometimes taken measuring even ten feet. The specimen 
above described was captured in the harbor of Provincetown, and measured four 
feet and six inches in length. 

. But little attention has as yet been paid in this country to the value of the 
sturgeon fishery in an economical point of view. The several species we possess 
might unquestionably be made useful The following observations of Professor B. 
Jaeger, contained in the nineteenth volume of Hunt's Merchants' mes for 
1848, are worthy of perusal. 

. “The principal sturgeon fisheries are, without doubt, those on the Volga, near 
Astracan, and those on the Don, which are carried on chiefly by the Cossacks of 
that country, who find this occupation much more lucrative than agriculture, which 
they neglect entirely, in spite of the very fertile soil of their lands. ges 

* The fish forms an important object of fishery and commerce to many nations, as 
well for its flesh, as for the caviare prepared from its roe, and the isinglass from 


HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 433 


its. swimming-bladder. The city of Astracan exports every year several thousand 
tons of pickled sturgeon and.caviare for consumption in the Russian empire; and 
Odessa much larger quantities for Greece, Italy, France, and other parts of Europe. 

* When the catching of the sturgeons on the Oby, the Volga, Jaik, and Don 
begins, there -arrive at these places, from the remotest parts of the Russian empire, 
a considerable number of merchants, who purchase the fish and prepare them for 
transportation. The average price of one fish, without the roe and swimming-blad- 
der, is generally $4. A large one, which weighs over two hundred pounds, is 
sold at from $4 to $6, and contains forty pounds of caviare, or prepared roe, 
which is sold for $ 1.50. 

“ The flesh is fat, very palatable, and much better in the summer, after the fish 
has been some time in fresh water. "That which is not eaten fresh is cut into 
large slices, salted, peppered, broiled, and put in barrels, where it is preserved in 
vinegar, and fit for transport. A considerable quantity of their flesh is smoked. 
The wholesale price of pickled sturgeon is from $6 to $12 a hundred-weight. 
The caviare is prepared in three different manners, namely : — : 

“1. Two pounds of salt are added to forty pounds of roe, and dried upon mats 
in the sun. The price of forty pounds is $1. 

«2, Fight tenths of a pound of salt are mixed with forty pounds of roe, then 
dried upon nets or sieves, and pressed into barrels. This is sold for a little more. 

* 9. The best caviare is that when the roe is put into sacks made of tow-cloth, 
and left for some time in a strong pickle. These sacks are then suspended, in 
order to let the salt, watery substance run off, and finally squeezed, after which 
the roe is dried during twelve hours and pressed into barrels. This roe, of which 
forty pounds are sold for $1.50 at the place, is that which is sent all over Asia 
and Europe as a considerable article of commerce, and known by the name of 
caviare, and is eaten with bread like cheese. 

* Another very profitable part of the sturgeon is the swimming-bladder, of which 
isinglass is made. For this purpose it is cut open, washed, and the silvery glu- 
tinous skin exposed to the air for some hours, by which process it can be easily 
separated from the external skin, which is of no use. This glutinous skin is 
placed between wet cloths, and shortly after each piece is rolled up and fastened 
in a serpentine form on a board; after they are partly dry they are hung up on 
strings in a shady place. 

« This valuable and extensive article of commerce is the isinglass of our shops, and 
is sold there for about $50 a hundred-weight. : 


434 HISTORY OF THE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


“ There is made isinglass also from the swimming-bladder of the cat-fish, and of 
some others; but as this is very inferior to that from the sturgeon, it brings 
scarcely $10 a hundred-weight. - 

“The sturgeon is found in immense quantities in the United States and North 
America, from Virginia up to the highest habitable northern latitudes, where they 
ascend the rivers from three hundred to five hundred miles up. The Potomac, Dela- 
ware, Hudson, and principally the Kennebec, as well as many other rivers, contaiu such 
a quantity of sturgeons, that from those rivers alone, without counting those farther 
north of Maine, according. to my calculation, the annual export of pickled sturgeon, 
caviare, and isinglass alone would be worth nearly half a million of dollars. Pickled 
sturgeon and caviare is a favorite food of the descendants of Spain and Portugal 
in South America, as well as of the inhabitants of the West India Islands, principally 
during Lent; and isinglass would be an article of home consumption, as well as for 
the European market. 

* But the sturgeon is not a very favorite dish in our country; it brings scarcely 
five cents a pound in the market, and the roe and swimming-bladder are always 
thrown away. Our fishermen, therefore, are not much encouraged in catching 
these fishes, though, according: to careful observations, from thirty thousand to forty 
thousand sturgeons could be annually caught in the rivers of the United States. 

“The sturgeon was highly appreciated by the ancient Romans and Greeks. It 
was the principal dish at all great dinner-parties, and Cicero reproached epicures 
on account of their spending so much money for this fish. Pliny says that this’ 
fish was served at the most sumptuous tables, and always carried by servants, 
crowned with garlands of flowers, and accompanied by a band of musicians. And 
even at this time one pound of fresh sturgeon costs $ 4 in Rome, where this fish 
is very rare." 

Massachusetts, Srorer. Connecticut, Ayres, LiwsLeY. New York, Mirom, 
Dekar. : 


à Ti 39. 


LLRA 
NNN 


PETE Printed at J. E Bufford's 


1. HIPPOGLOSSUS VULGARIS Cuy. — 2. PLATESSA PLANA Mitch. 
3. PL. DENTATA Mitch. — 4. PL. FERRUGINEA Storer. 


FL a. 


A.Sonrel .& Tappan. Printed ai JH Bufford's 


1. PLATESSA GLABRA Storer — 2. PL.OBLONGA De. 
- 3.PL. QUADROCELLATA Storer. — 4. PLEURONECTES MACULATUS Mitch . 


Pl. 32. 


Tappan & Sonrel. Printed at J. H. Bufford's 


1. ACHIRUS MOLLIS Cuv. — 2. LUMPUS ANGLORUM Will. 
3. ECHENEIS ALBICAUDA Mitch. — 4&. E. QUATUORDECIMLAMINATUS Storer. 


PL 33. 


/ ASR I ah fn ff NY ot e 
9 af FISIA ELETE SEA NN y Ky CS EE P 


EE e EE ? 
Be E SS 


Tappan & Sonrel Printed at J. H. Bufford's. 


1. ANGUILLA BOSTONIENSIS Dek. — 2. AMMODYTES AMERICANUS Dek: 
3. SYNGNATHUS PECKIANUS Storer.— 4. HYPPOCAMPUS HUDSONIUS Dek. 
5. TETRAODON TURGIDUS Mitch. 


PE 34. 


Tappan & Sonrel. Printed at J.H. BuPford's. 


1. TETRAODON LAEVIGATUS Linn.— 2. ORTHAGORISCUS MOLA Schneider. 
3. MONACANTHUS AURANTIACUS Miteh..— 4 M.MASSACHUSETTENSIS Storer. 


Fi 35. 


Tappan & Sonrel. Printed at J.H Buffori's. 


" MONACANTHUS SIGNIFER Storer.— 2. ALUTERES CUSPICAUDA Dek. 
.3. LACTOPHRYS YALEI Dek. — 4. ACIPENSER OXYRINCHUS Mitch. 


AVI, 
On Certain Forms of Interpolation. : 


By W. P. G. BARTLETT, A. M. 


Communicated bj Proressor B. Perce, May 13, 1862. 


Tur quantity to be interpolated being a function of t, the following scheme shows 
the notation and arrangement seins aoe for a series of its values and their differences. 


Fear my 
EE 
e TO R e tuse 
(1) to : 4, 4; 4; 
Luss 4 a 

Se 8s 

in which ; E em | | 

: An = Ya — Y hn = ha = h, 


rever the subscript numbers are omitted in midig ie +11 is to be 
understood for all odd orders, and 0 for all even ones. 

It may be observed that, if we put 4_, in place of Y,, we shall have the following 
relations between ifs differences and the original ones of Y,: 


[ 4, (44) = h; 44) = 4^, dec. ; 
(3) 4 and similarly, if we put 4? in place of Y, 
AG) = dy c Té se Rer 


and so on with higher orders of differences, the law of this symbolic multiplication 
being to add the subscript numbers of the factors.to form, that of the product, as 
well as their (exponential) indices to form its index. 


436 ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. 


Let i be a positive integer, and k = d then after the insertion between Y, and 
Y,,,of i—1 new values of the function (which is called interpolating to k*), 
let a portion of the series and its differences be 


E = 
> E Bm 
9, ep The quantity 9 wil be an implicit function of f, the . 
Y $i . i s i : E 
9% i. values indicated in (4) corresponding to"t= f, — $4, 
` is $i ttik, i + k, Sc.; let its value for ? — LA be 
4 ey a 0 : Ys 
(4) . ô, 62 will then, i» all cases, whether i is odd or even, be 
B i. the same function of à , and its differences that ô, is of 
2 ` . D 
y hes 9 Y, and its differences; that is, if 
i- i=} ' i 
1 ài 
(uc CN 
| Yin 
iius dt: = exi (XN), e : 
SG = p (0-1) = 9-9—,(Y) = (KH) 
(5) 4 and similarly for similar functions of higher orders: 
Ve, = 94, 09 = 944 9 9-4 (Lo) = 9 (NM), 
A = 9 OLy) = - 9-4 P P (P) — 94 (Lo), &e.; 


q" representing the result of the » successive functional operations indicated in each 
third member. : 
From the well-known development 


© & —5 than + OEY gt EAS y, y EEG D GT 44 be, 


is directly obtained 


La ah op 
7 = =| Em e ] 
(7) Pt ER Cd eee en TA A ET eS ere 5 fti &c. |, 


which is a linear function of certain differences, which are themselves linear functions ; 
therefore q” is obtained by n symbolical multiplications of the series (7) according 
to the law (3). The subscript numbers are seen to result so that, omitting them from 
the operation, we have à" = the symbolical n^ power of 8; that is 


1— 
24 


(8) a + [a tt tt Pal, 


ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. . AB 


(9) c pep. Aq UB RE... 
(10) patie o4 te, E), 
(11) st = k P at LIE TAM A... 
CH o =P 14-215 4 ...]. 


It will be observed that the notation 07^ was substituted in (4) for each difference 
of the form 975, because the symbolic even powers of à as there defined arè always 
identical with 9?*. When i is odd, 9?"+1 is also identical with the middle 9?"*! þe- 
tween Y, and Y;; and all the series (8)...(12) may be used directly. When i is 
even, let à?"*! denote half the sum of the two Ó?"*!s next above and below the 
middle point between Y, and Y,; then in each case it will be the same function of 
82^ and its differences, that Y is of Y, and its differences; that is, if | 


(13) y = (Xj, | then Q^" — oi (ain). 
But we have for these functions of k, whether 1 i is odd or even, 
(14) à (b) = 45 (25); that is, g' (E) = 4p (2k); 


therefore the series for à?"*! may be obtained by substituting 2k for k in (7) and 
symbolically multiplying this into the series for 1 6°". This gives 


db: Te Av oa gi] 
(16) | DEM, (= idia um) Y O 
(17) parpi 4 ...]. 


Besides the symmetrical relations obtained above by introducing the functions 3, 
the following may be obtained directly from (6): — 


(18) — t=O — 6€, $5, = 06, + ei 
h+ 924 — 4+ 03, 
19 
in which 
1— ]—p PP 
(20) 844 =F [24 — Ex x T Aud ES 15 Ly, — to], 


VOL. VIII. o1 


E 


488. ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. 


I EET. LEE 2—k.21+k 8—k 
(21) a- pa» [en HEP. p It xf: t : £ — pel 


Since the functions involved in (19) need not be restricted to integral values of i, 
similar expressions may be obtained for the differences between Y, and y; by sub- 
stituting mk for kin (9) and (20). By arranging these according to powers of mk 
and using their differences taken with respect to m, algebraic expressions may easily 
be got for any of the differences 97. To do this let m be substituted for y, in the 
series (4); and, p" m being one of the w^ order of differences of the new series, let 
9 (m) be the correspondingly placed difference of the series ym: then 


jd 9; (—m) — af (m) — wi (m), 
CR 


oi (m) = Of (m) + wi (mi) 
in which, putting i | 
(28) M Jn = HIEN HAN) = ixi wr = IA”, 

| a (m) = ibe ah oi a (4,— 44) + 00m. i36 "m fe, 


= = rm. ta (Go) E a im (CR rne). tn 


k ; 
| wi (m) = pem LS GE de Ah do) e mh AIR. s oe 


Formula (22) i is a perfectly general e connection between ‘the original and the interpolated 
differences of any order. 

When n=1, (22) gives the means of deriving all the first differences,* A. by 
computing the functions (24) for : or ia different values of m, according as i is 
even or odd, — in the latter case obtina 9, = 9, from (8). For this method the 
second form of 9 is adapted. But methods of this sort, however simplified in nu- 
merical application, seem unnecessarily laborious. | : 

Any interpolation may be made by combining (8) or (15) with (9), as follows. 
Compute the ð opposite each value of Y, and the ô or A opposite each interval. Then 
from the former fill in all the second differences, $2, and by their means the first differ- 
ences, 9,, and thence the function itself. If i is even, the two differences 9a and 
Fis, of which 0 is half the sum, must be derived from à' and the second difference, 
e, opposite it, by taking the sum and difference à'-r 1 us This method is some- 
times the most convenient, especially when ; — 5. If the higher differences are 


* For A. ebe of this sort, with: a different system of Geesen, see Mr. FERREL’S article on) 
Interpolation in the Mathematical Monthly, Vol. IL. p. 377. — 


we 


ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. ` 439 


very large, the 93s must themselves be interpolated, either by a Bii ¿perbipo, 
or by the use of (10) or (16) and (iis <: J TUE 
An objection to these processes, when many STEE iste are to be iüéerted, 
is that the sum of the computed first differences will not generally be exactly equal 
to the differences between two successive values of Y ; nor will the sum of the com- 
puted second differences exactly fill in the computed first differences, etc. These 
difficulties have to be remedied by subsequent arbitrary correction, or by com- 
puting the higher differences to one or more decimal places beyond those of Y. 
For this reason, interpolation to fourths, sixths, ninths, &c. should generally be 
done by successive interpolations to halves and thirds; and the choice of the 
special method of doing this must depend more or less upon the particular charac- 
ter of the function to be interpolated. The following are some practical methods 


with the numerical coefficients in the various series required. 


INTERPOLATION TO Harvrs. 


(21^) On = $[4 — $60 + s dx +1, 
(57) — ð —14, 
(27) y —i1[4—X$34o0 344 ...]. 


The interpolated differences may be obtained in’ successive pairs by taking the 
hal£sum and half-difference of the quantities ` 


rc pl i= #24, babe d 


25 BRNS 
i 9% = of or = 97. 


When 9? can readily be obtained by interpolating the djs, it may be more con- 


venient to use (9") instead of (21") to obtain it. 


 IwTERPOLATION To THIRDS: 


p^. 04, = Bai hr de ei 
e EH AAPA RA] c 


(211) 
(8") 6 Stl Sao Aa 
(9") e = 4H BG]. 


D This general method, as far. as- relates to odd values of i; with algebraic forms for j^^! and Jj” upto | 
A is given by Ewckz in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Band 29, No. 695. Also a partial statement, 


obtained by induction apparently, of the symbolic connection of the series (8) .. . (12). 


440 ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. 


Formula (19) is sufficient to do the whole interpolation, using (20”) and (9"). 
But it is often better (especially when, in interpolating to sixths or twelfths, it is 
desirable not to write down the inserted values of the function themselves, till the 
whole is finished, but only their differences) to use (8”) and (21”), as follows: — 


(26) eee i : $4 = ð, 
9i — 9, = 0 + a. 
INTERPOLATION TO FOURTHS. 
(207) Ot = ddr — ee Feit do fis AË eel 
(15°) Y -—i[4—d4e4-o3.w4...] 
(9) Y = a vk 4^ - dp ...]; 
Gs) | Q4 = hlt- hst. Jl, 


Sinton of interpolating twice to halves, 9, ER 9, may be got by (19), using 
(20") and (97), and 9, and 9, by 


en ae ee 


9; — 9 = 2. 

Either the second or third member of the first equation may be used; and 82 
may be got by interpolating ð to halves, using for this purpose (11") if necessary. 
INTERPOLATION TO Firrus, 


(207) 044, = Edy — fs lt H S54, +e], 


(8") ò = d[4— ABLA ME ...], 
(9) P = hlt htt AL, 
go oo H. = hlt de d- We «Ld, 
(117) Y cux [A dE 


If, besides getting 9, — ô from (8"), we use ( 20") and e in (19) to get 9, and 
93, " will remain only 2, and 9, to be filled in. 


ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. 441 


INTERPOLATION TO Sixtus. 


(20"") Ot = blog, — gës Ant dis 4984. 
(157) dn d AA Vt... 

(95 : | —sg[4—saMTe.W...], 

siu ES 3. ate lO — sik + A s — Too) Hs], 
(117) d = rael — £j ...]. 


If 9, and #, are computed by (19), and 9, and 9, by using (15") and (9"), there 
will remain only 9, and 9; to be filled in. 

It will be observed that the series (8)... (12) and (15)... (17) always converge 
more rapidly than (20) and (21); and their use should sometimes be preferred on 
this account. A little reflection will often introduce, instead of the above-written 
fractions, some simpler equivalents, which may be mentally applied to the requisite 
degree of accuracy. Thus, in the examples given below, the: following have oc- 


curred : — 
Ye = i — wv 36 = + — 15v: 
so = ++ > to's = $ + ribs 


in all of which the right-hand term is easily applied when not small enough to be 
neglected. ! ; 

The function Y, in the examples given below, is the Moon's declination for 1865, 
 omitting the degrees; the values are taken where their higher differences are quite 
large. Two methods of interpolating to sixths (by halves and thirds, and then by 
thirds and halves) are given, and their results may be compared. For computing a lu- 
nar ephemeris, the first method here given has been found to possess peculiar advan- 
tages. An example of interpolating to fifths, i.e. to every tenth of a day, is then given 
on Encxe’s plan. The whole of the work which it is necessary to write down is printed. 
The columns headed S.8 6’, &c. contain the sums of each consecutive pair of values 
of the functions 8 O°, &c. Since the sum and difference of any two numbers must 
be both odd or both-even, in using (25) and (26) the nearest odd or even value has 
been taken for S. ER, according as 4 and z4f— ô were odd or even; and similarly 
with 9? and 9 in using (19) and (9”). In the interpolation to fifths, the computed 
third and second differences, 9% and J^, happen exactly to fill in the second and 
first respectively, all being carried to hundrédths of a second, i e. one place farther 


than the function Y. 


ON. CERTAIN. FORMS OF. INTERPOLATION: 


y n . FUNCTIONS FOR INTERPOLATION TO HALVES BY (25). 
Date. | Funct., Y. a T. a a 
; 7 T | ¿80 8.80* | 'Sy6* 
d n pcd 1 " 97'9 " -109 di D H 
EE i e mr 127-9) —Á | 3-2) 01 7] —s161.8| —270.2 
A ES O JH XM ees G e 7| 9088.9] 2612 
5| 62 68| T 16 56.7 188| 90 | 5.10202 
26: 8| L183 46,7 4| 266.3 , 1 É 1973.0| 246.7 
29.0 48 20.11 59 371 15 50.4 79.0 12.7 ER 2.4 952.8 1825.6) —228.1 
29.5| 18 43.0| ^ . ^| —14 31.4 + +.7.4) .' 7 || 41.4] — 872.8 t A 
FUNCTIONS FOR INTERPOLATION TO Turrps BY (19). 
Date. PE d 30. 8.30 gat sm | "8.0 d 
As 75 " su ur n " Em D 
pr. 27. 
28.0 Ze | 295 | 428584 | LB. |: 10060 7 57.8 | —1184 
28.5 67.5 13 56.7 —10 53.9 1.4 1018.1 — 3 38.0 113.2 
29.0 480.0 —99 49.0 —43 45.7 | Fon — 951.3 —14 35.2 —105.8 
29.5 : x a 
FUNCTIONS FOR INTERPOLATION TO FIFTHS BY Vh t (97), AND etie 
Date. P— Ae 58 zs 4 : Jar 125 9? 
A 91.5 it H H D D 
We 424.9 +20 53,23. Gasen EE 424.9 
si 48.1 La 8.08 : rer 48.1 
29.0 67.0 —13 49.38 " 95 CG 4 67.0 
29.5, ee rel qe 10, — 872.0; 79.6 


Aste INTERPOLATION TO Harvzs BY. (25). : Fon INTERPOLATION To EVERY qe (26). 
Date. de AR P a 8.9 9? 4—§ 8. 0°. 
+s eg 9: MADE i Ty, a 
Apr. 27 12 ho a à EM cas | 
Sai Li 24 gros viet! aur : 
98 0 8 12.0 966.4 +3.8 | ` 14 2 44.0 | —537.2 | +5 28.0 —59.6 
98 6 En 3. 45.6 261.9 5.2 "Eg -l 15.1 528.2 | +2 30.5 58.7 
— 0 35.6 : 6.8 : —0 12.0 516.1 | —0 23.6 57.4 
28 12 450.0" 254.4 7.7 0.9 . : o a 
28 18 246.7 i 197] ' :1 36.8 501.5 3 13.2 55.8 
29. 0 8 567. 237.8 8.9 08. l-^ 2 59.0 | 4849 5 57.7 53.9 
29 6 | 12945| 5551 | 394 40.4 | —4183 |—4661 | —8 862 | —51.8 
29 12 719 e. « ad cse gd 


ON CERTAIN FORMS OF INTERPOLATION. 


443 


AFTER INTERPOLATION TO THIRDS BY (19). ` For INTERPOLATION TO EVERY 2 
= | Hours nx (9"). 
Date. DA Function. | T RP P E of 
d T i n CC n i n | gur 
Apr. 27 20 : 58 584 
28 0| [3 $01 | 58 568 ap er: —1184 2 —99.6 e? 
4 7| 61 565 117.0 | t 29.3 —29. 
T DA 1.9 29.1 
8 62 59.2 115.1 28.8 
—D0 59.4 —0 52,4 1.9 28.6 
19 62 6.8 1185.2 28.8 
2 45.6 2 45.6 2 28.0 
16 09 21.2 110.8 217.4 
i 4 36.4 9.0 27.4 
20 6 947 54 44:8 ` 6 24.7 108.3 49.5 2441 26.7 
29 0 ucg 10.5 48 20.1 8 10.5 —105.8 7 —26.4 ta 
29 4 s 40 9.6 m o : 
INTERPOLATION BY USING (25), AND THEN (26). INTERPOLATION BY USING (19), AND THEN (97). 
Date. 9 Tasta. $ Function. 
d h darda PO p UM 1 l 
Apr. 28 0 41446 58 56.8 41 446 58 56.8 
2 E lo 60 41.4 60 41.4 
1 15.1 Ce 1 15.1 
4 ^r 61 56.5 61 56.5 
0 45.9 ; 0 45.9 
6 62 42.4 62 42.4 
+0 16.9 +0 16.8 
8 62 59.3 62 59.2 
DO —0 11.9 
10 62 47.3 i 62 47.8 
0 40.5 0 40.5 
12 ] 27 62 6.8 ies 62 6.8 
14 7 60 58.1 y 60 58.0 
1 36.8 1 36.8 
16 59 21.3 59 21.2 
2 X5 2 45 
18 57 16.8 57 16.7 
KEE 2-819 
20 54 44.9 54 44.8 
22 2 59.0 51 45.9 de 51 45.8 
29 0 T3 25.8 48 20.1 ee A8 901 
E A A ELT. 
INTERPOLATION TO FIFTHS BY (107), (97), Awp;(SU. — 
Date. Function. 
ax d "n Vë D 
Apr. 27.9 T2 44.57 A 568 
28.0 2 1.93 60 58.7 
28.1 1 19.60 62 18.3 
28.2 +0 37.62* 62 55.9 
28.3 —0 3.98 62 52.0 
28.4 0 45.16 62 68 
o. 1 25.89 e 
ECK 2.614. 58 34.8 
28.7 2 45.88" 55 4839 
(988 3 25.08 m 
52 23.8 
29.1 Berg 38.: 


* "These are the independent values derived from the original differences. 


A44. 


Observations on the Language of Chaucer. 


(BaseD ox WkrIGHT'S EDITION or THE CANTERBURY Tares, Harreran MS. No. 7334.) 


Bx F. J. CHILD, 


PROFESSOR IN HARVARD COLLEGE. 


(Communicated June 3, 1862.) 


Tue object of this paper is to do something towards ascertaining the forms of 
words used by Chaucer. This is a matter which is entirely unsettled, though a 
right understanding of it is of great importance for the history of English, and 
an indispensable preliminary to the constructing of an accurate text of the poet. 
In seeking to throw some light upon the many questions involved, some of which 
I have not the least expectation, and do not make the slightest pretence, of decid- 
ing at present, I shall not go beyond Wright’s edition of the Canterbury Tales, 
which I have reason to believe a substantially correct reproduction of one of the 
best manuscripts. The Canterbury Tales do not indeed comprise the half of all 
Chaucer’s poetry, but they extend to more than seventeen thousand verses, in the 
course of which it is clear that all the most important grammatical forms must 
repeatedly occur. The utility, for our purpose, of an examination of the rest of 
the poems would therefore not be great, even were they accessible in a trustworthy 
shape: and this is not the case. On the other hand, a comparison of several, 
if not all, of the best manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales, is of the greatest conse- 
quence, and since such a comparison, under existing circumstances, cannot be made, 
many difficulties, as will soon be seen, must be left undecided. Still, a careful and 
minute inspection of one good text of the Canterbury Tales cannot fail to yield re- 
sults of some value; for, should no other purpose be answered, the points in the 
subject of inquiry that most need elucidation will at any rate be strongly brought out. 

It must perhaps be acknowledged to be an extraordinary thing, and to English- 

VOL. VIII. 58 


446 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


men humiliating, that, though Chaucer has had a real popularity of nearly five 
hundred years, no readable edition of any part of his works, not even of the glo- 
rious Canterbury Pilgrimage, has been given to the world,— readable, I mean, to a 
person who is exacting with regard to grammar, and who insists on having the 
genuine forms of Chaucers English; for the merits of Tyrwhitt's labors in other 
respects can never be denied. It may not be a matter of surprise that Englishmen 
should only of late have begun the study of the history of their language for the 
intrinsic interest of the subject, but it does seem a little remarkable that the tran- 
scendent excellence of Chaucer, which has always been more or less felt and con- 
fessed, should not long ago have excited attention to the laws of the English tongue 
at his particular epoch. It is quite certain, however, that we ourselves have not yet 
much to boast of, unless it be a little more curiosity, and we must take care that the 
mere accident of our living at a time when the philology of the modern languages 
is a favorite study do not make us unjust to our predecessors. We are a long 
way off from a knowledge of the English of the fourteenth century, and still 
further from a satisfactory edition of Chaucer. 
Indeed, there is reason to doubt (and the editors may find some comfort in the 
thought) whether there ever was an accurate copy of a poem by Chaucer, except 
his own, or a manuscript corrected by his hand. Certainly this would not be an 
absolutely extravagant inference from what he says “unto his own Scrivener.” 


“ Adam Scrivener, if ever it thee befalle, 
Boece or Troilus for to write newe, 
Under thy long locks thou maist have the scalle, 
But after my making thou write more trewe! 
. So oft a day I mot thy werke renewe, 
It to correct, and eke to rubbe and scrape; 
And all is thorow thy negligence and rape.” 


Adam Scrivener was only the first in a long line of corrupters, all of whom must : 
take their share of the imprecation pronounced upon carelessness and haste. But 
we are not to put all the blame off upon the crime of Adam and his tribe. Adam 
may have been heedless and stupid; but, however heedless and stupid, he might 
justly plead the unsettled state of the language in part excuse. It was undoubt- 
edly very hard for an humble scribe to remember and observe all the nice differ- 
ences between the courtly style of his patron and the vulgar dialect, and numerous 
errors were inevitable. These errors would of course be multiplied in a second 
copy, for *no ass has written but some ass has read." In view of the want of 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 441 


uniformity in the language and of the negligence of copyists, Chaucer thought the 
prospect of his verses being preserved as he wrote them very unpromising, and he 
expresses his apprehension thus in an important passage towards the end of Troi- 


lus and Cressida: à 
* And for there is so gret diversité 


In Englissh and in writynge of our tonge, ` 
So preye I God that non myswrite the, 
Ne the mysmetere for defaute of tonge.” ^. ` 

This anxiety of Chaucer about the writing and reading of his verses was a thou- 
sand times justified by the course of events. If he could not get his poems correctly 
transcribed and pronounced in his own day, there was no sort of chance that his 
language and metre would pass unscathed through the revolution English was 
to undergo in the next century, even on the supposition that some care was taken 
to perpetuate the original But no such care was taken: On the contrary, if we 
are to believe Mr. Wright, *copyists invariably altered what they copied to the 
form of the language at the time in which they wrote, and, which is still more 
embarrassing, to the local dialect of the county in which they lived." When 
manuscripts ceased to be produced, there was naturally a conclusion to the multi- 
plication of diversity in this way. Such errors and alterations of copyists as had 
been made were then fixed by printing, and to these were added the usual blun- 
ders of the press and the deliberate corruptions of editors. 

As the old printed editions of Chaucer have been entirely superseded, we need 
not spend time upon them. The Canterbury Tales were first printed about 1475, 
by Caxton, from a bad manuscript, and six years after from a better. Some ten 
reprints, with the addition of other poems, followed, the last in 1721, by Urry, whose 
only rule for editing Chaucer was his own ignorant fancy, and who produced, as 
Tyrwhitt gently says, by far the worst text that was ever published. The first 
serious attempt to restore the genuine text of the Canterbury Tales was made by 
Tyrwhitt in 1775, three hundred years after they were first printed by Caxton. 
Tyrwhitt’s edition of the Canterbury Tales has enjoyed the highest reputation, and 
the estimation in which it has been held is in great part deserved, and ought to 
be permanent. He “collated or consulted" about twenty-five manuscripts, illus- 
trated the Tales with many admirable notes, to which very little has since been 
added, and drew up a very good Glossary of the whole works of Chaucer. The 
weak point of Tyrwhitt's edition of the Canterbury Tales is the text, which was 
formed on a wrong principle and without sufficient philological knowledge. Tyr- 
whitt, to be sure, made some attempt to ascertain the laws of Chaucer's language, 


448 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


and the comparative value of the manuscripts he employed, but the grammatical 
rules he has given us are both inadequate and inaccurate, while he puts at the 
head of the five manuscripts to which he ascribes most credit a very “ incorrect 
and carelessly written volume,” * part vellum, part paper (Harl MS. 7335), and 
excludes from this list the very best manuscript in the Museum (Harleian 7334). 
We do not know on what principles the order of the manuscripts used was settled, 
but correct philological principles were certainly not the guide. One manuscript was ! 
taken as a standard for a time, then another, and then a third. The impropriety of 
such a procedure is obvious on a moment's reflection, and will be forcibly felt, if 
what has been said of the unsettled state of English at the end of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, and of the liberties taken by copyists, is borne in mind. The natural result of 
an arbitrary compounding of a dozen manuscripts, representing the dialects of various 
dates and localities, (not without an admixture of the idiosyncrasies of their respec- 
tive writers,) is an artificial text, conformable to the actual speech of no time, place, 
tribe, or individual. And this, so far as we can see, was the process of Tyrwhitt.j 

The Harleian manuscript No. 1334 was made the basis of a new edition of the 
Canterbury Tales, prepared by Mr. Wright for the Percy Society (1847-51). This 
manuscript was “collated throughout” with the Lansdowne MS. 851, in the British 
Museum (which seems to be Tyrwhitt’s W), and as far as the Wife of Bath’s 
Tale with two others. The collations, however, do not extend to grammatical 
minutie, and though the editor informs us that he has corrected many obvious 
errors, we may regard the text as essentially a reprint of the Harleian MS. 7334. 
As such it is of great value, but it is, nevertheless, by no means a satisfactory, or 
even a comfortably readable text. The number of manifest errors still left is 
considerable, the number of probable ones enormous. Hundreds of lines are in- 
complete, and long passages exhibit much irregularity of language and metre. On 


* These are the words of Sir Frederic Madden, in answer to an inquiry of mine. 

T Through the kindness of my friend, H. T. Parker, Esq. of London, a zealous lover of Chaucer, I have 
in my possession Tyrwhitt's original collations of nearly all the MSS. in the Museum and at Cambridge men- 
tioned in his list. The Oxford collations are not included. Tyrwhitt took an old printed copy, and corrected 
it minutely on the margins according to the various MSS. which he adopted as authoritative, sometimes chang- 
ing at an interval of less than a page, sometimes keeping on with one and the same for ten pages. He then 
entered the various readings of other MSS. on blank leaves. Those marked in his list A C, C,, T, W, are 
most used. The marginal corrections are, more than half the time, made according to A, the inferior codex 
spoken of above; about one third of the time according to C,. C (the excellent Harleian MS. 7334) is the 
guide for only the first two pages of the Prologue, but is collated throughout. For exactness’ sake, I mention 
that the Persones Tale is wanting in these collations, except the very beginning, 


t 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 449 


the other hand, there are long passages which appear to be but very slightly cor- 
rupted from the original, the metre being Des and certain plain grammatical laws 
uniformly observed.* 

Whether the day will ever confe e a text of Chaucer will be constructed 
upon just principles, is more than can be predicted. Manuscripts of the Canter- 
_ bury Tales and of Troilus and Cressida are very numerous, but no pains have been 
taken to collect a list of those that are known, or to settle their relative value. 
Had Chaucer been a German, the existing manuscripts would have been zealously 
hunted up, strictly classified, and faithfully compared and studied, and we should 
have had only too many editions. It is not desirable that a new edition of Chaucer 
should be undertaken, until a man is found who is both competent to the task 
and willing to make thorough work with the manuscripts. It is, therefore, perhaps 
to be regretted that Mr. Belle eight neat volumes, recently published, ever saw 
the light, as they are. likely to block the way to something better for a good while. 

That diversity in English which made Chaucer apprehensive of damage to his 
verses may have been so considerable, that we could not be sure of restoring them 
to perfect purity, even if we had several manuscripts of the date 1400 before us. 
But by far the larger part of the irregularities and corruptions with which the text 
is now loaded are undoubtedly of later origin, and there is no reason why, (if we 
are allowed only to take for granted that Chaucer had an ear, and meant to write 
good metre,f) by taking pains enough, by a patient comparison of apparently un- 


* Naturally enough, it is often the less interesting passages which are most incorrect; for instance, the 
Monk's Tale, which almost made *oure ost" fall down for sleep, and seems to have had the same qnem upon 
the copyist. 

+ And whether an attractive and easily intelligible popular SS of the Canterbury Tales is, for moral 
reasons, desirable, is more than I will assert. 

1 Of course, unless Chaucer wrote good metre, there is an end to all inquiry into the forms of his language. 
Nothing can be more absurd than Dr, Nott's theory upon this point (Surrey and Wyatt, Vol. L, Dissertation), 
or more just than Tyrwhitt’s remarks, which, however, did Nott no good. “ The great number of verses, sound- 
ing complete even to our ears, which is to be found in all the least-corrected copies of his works, authorizes us 
to conclude that he was not ignorant of the laws of metre. Upon this conclusion, it is impossible not to ground 

a strong presumption that he intended to observe the same laws in many other verses which seem to us 
: irregular ; and if this was really his intention, what reason can be assigned sufficient to account for his having 
failed so grossly and repeatedly, as is generally supposed, in an operation which every ballad-monger in ofir 
days, man, woman, or child, is known to perform with the most unerring exactness, and without any extraordi- 
nary fatigue?” (Essay, Part. II. $ xii.) Tyrwhitt was perfectly right in saying that the greatest part of Chau- 
cer’s heroic verses, when properly written and pronounced, are of eleven syllables. Whether the eleven-syllable 
verse is as agreeable to us as the decasyllabic, is another matter. Is it not surprising, then, that a man of 


450 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


corrupted verses, followed by a collation of good contemporary manuscripts, and 
of the forms of earlier and contemporary authors, we should not at last obtain a 
text approximately correct, and perhaps better than most of those in circulation 
at his own day. I have in these notes attempted only to make a beginning, 
by setting down minutely all the principal forms of words found in one copy of 
the Canterbury Tales, equally those which conform to rule and those which do not. 
While passing over as of no consequence irregularities found in imperfect or other- 
wise faulty: verses, I have taken care not to force any verse into conformity with 
supposed rule, by making emendations, however probable. The number of excep- 
tions to such rules as I have thought myself justified in laying down, is sometimes 
considerable. A comparison of another manuscript of the same class and age as 
the Harleian 7334, would test the reality of these exceptions, and I think would 
cause many of them to disappear. I am in hopes soon to be able to employ for 
this purpose an exact copy of the beautiful manuscript formerly belonging to the 
Duke of Bridgewater, and now in the possession of Lord Ellesmere, which, to judge 
from the Prologue, the only portion I have as yet seen, affords a most excellent 
text. I must also call attention to the fact that sufficient care is not taken by 
editors of ancient manuscripts to render correctly the contracted terminations used 
by the scribes. It is unnecessary to point out, that, unless these terminations have 
been faithfully attended to and rightly interpreted in the printed copy of the manu- 
script I have used, many irregularities and errors may arise from that cause alone. 
There are countless cases in which a final n (indicated in manuscripts by a stroke 
over the foregoing vowel) may be presumed to have existed originally, though 
not preserved in this manuscript. 

The purpose of this paper being, as stated at the beginning, to do something 
towards ascertaining the forms of words used by Chaucer (including inflections), the 
notes upon that subject are intended to be complete, to the extent of the informa- 
tion to be derived from the one text employed. Not so with the Miscellaneous 
Notes, subjoined to the others. ! 

A partial examination of Gower (in the new edition, which is much more hand- 
some than accurate) shows that he employs substantially the same forms as Chaucer. 
Nevertheless, there are slight differences. A thorough comparison both of the Con- | 


sense and taste should write as follows? “ At the same time, many of his lines evidently consist (even on this 
theory) of ten syllables only; and such a construction of verse, for ordinary purposes, is become so much more 
agreeable to modern usage and taste, that his poetry had better be so read whenever it can be done, even at the 
cost of thereby somewhat violating the exactness of the ancient pronunciation.” — Craik’s Hist. Eng. Lit., I. 249. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 451 


fessio Amantis and of Piers Ploughman is much to be desired. Passing by inflec- 
tions, many English words which now end in a consonant formerly ended in a 
vowel. When did the change take place? The shortening process seems to have 
begun by Chaucer’s time, but not to have been far advanced. The question has 
not been hitherto made of any importance, but it is of great consequence, and 
ought plainly not to be neglected in the new Dictionary of the Philological Soci- 
ety, from which so much is hoped. In the Rules prescribed by the Committee 
of this Society, collectors are enjoined in general terms to notice all the varieties 
of form that are now obsolete, but in a special rule they are told that * wode for 
wood and sunne for sun are unimportant.". Is it likely that, without more explicit 
directions, all the obsolete varieties of form will receive due attention 2 

Among Mr. Guest’s many contributions to our knowledge of the English lan- 
guage, there are very valuable remarks on Chaucer in the History of English 
Rhythms, and in the Proceedings of the Philological Society. I must also, while 
differing from some of the author's views, mention with great respect an essay on 
the Language of Chaucer, based on Tyrwhitt's text, by F. G. Gesenius (De Lingua 
Chauceri, a Doctor’s Dissertation, Bonn, 1847). Mr. Gesenius has continued his 
study of Chaucer, and has communicated papers deserving attention to the Archiv 
fiir das Studium der neueren Sprachen. 


Noration. — The numbers refer to the text of the Canterbury Tales, as printed 
in three volumes by the Percy Society. A reprint of this text in Cooke’s Universal 
Library was used for some time, on account of the convenience of having the whole 
in a single volume, and it is possible that there may be a few discrepancies between 
the two impressions. There are also a few errors in the numbering of the lines in 
the Percy Society edition, and now and then certain doubtful lines are not counted 
in the numbering, which nevertheless are here referred to in regular order. It can 
be only extremely seldom (if ever) that embarrassment will arise from any of these 
causes, and the matter is alluded to merely to forestall the suspicion of even a trifling 
carelessness. 

The prose parts of the Canterbury Tales are referred to by volume and page of 
the Percy Society edition. 

The sign f following a number denotes that the word referred to is the final 
word of the verse. S. denotes Anglo-Saxon, L. Layamon, O. the Ormulum, rh. 


rhymed with. . 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


452 


The sign (^) is here used to denote all long vowels in Saxon words, without dis- 
tinction of variety; the double dot (^) over a vowel, to denote that the vowel is pro- 
nounced; the italic type, to denote a vowel elided; (^) to indicate that a vowel 
(not elided) is silent (or slurred over); the grave accent, to mark the emphatic 
syllable of a word. ‘The acute accent will be used only with words which in French 


end in é, in which cases the vowel is so marked in the original text. 


Words or letters added to the text are enclosed in brackets, as [e]: 


words or letters 


which I think ought to be omitted from the text are enclosed in parentheses, as (e). 
I have generally used Ettmüller's Lexicon Anglosavonicum (Quedlinburg and Leip- 


sic, 1851), in preference to Bosworth. 


NOUNS. 


$1. Nouns which in Anglo-Saxon end in a vowel 
terminate in Chaucer uniformly in é. 


$2. First DECLENSION or ANGLO-SAXON Nouns. 
-Neuters. (I. 1. RASK.) 


eere (S. eáre, O. ære), 6218, 6603 f, 8603 f. 


yhe, yé (S. eáge, O. ezhe), 10f, 3018f, 4700f, 


8109 f, ete. 


§ 3. Masculines. (I. 2.) 


ape (S. apa), 3933, 7046 f, 13241 f, 15396 f. 

asse (S. assa, O. asse), 16798 f. 

balke (S. balca, bolca), 3918 f. 

bane (S. bana, bona, L. bone, bane), 1099, 1688 f, 
16446 f. 

bere (S. bera), 2144, 1642 f. [2060 f, ez 

bi-leeve (S. ge-leáfa, L. i-lefe, O. læfe), 3456, 11445 f, 
11991 f, 12355 f. 

bowe (S. boga), 17044, 108 f, 9888 f, 17061 f. 

bowé, 2897. 

elifte (S. clffa), 7727 f. 

erede (S. créda), 12975 f. 

erouke (S. crocea), 4156 f. 

euppe (S. cuppa, L. cuppe), 134, 10930 f. 

drope (S. dropa, L. drope), 12450 (181, bad line). 

dwile (S. smod 4159 f. 


boas (S. blóstma, TER O. blosstme), 3324 
(blosme upon). 


. fane (S. fana), 8872 f. 


feere (S. féra, ge-féra, L. i-vere *), 4748 f, 4815 f, 
6506 f, 8989 f. 

foode (S. fóda, O. fode), 7463 f. 

galle (S. gealla, O. galle), 6522 f, 11986 f, 12725 f, 
. 15833 f. 


grame (S. grama, L. grame), 13331 f. 


hare (S. hara), 191 f, 686 f, 1812 f, 15167 f. 
harre (S. heorra), 552 f. 


| hawe (S. haga), 6240 f, 14270 f. 


hiwe (S. hîwa), 9659 f. 
housbonde, housëbonde (S. husbonda, L. husbonde, 
hosebonde), 6034 f, 6062 f, 14578 f, 5612 f, 5959 f. 
housbond, 6085, 8597, (6107?): housëbond, 
16850 : housébondé, 8574. 
hope (S. hopa, L. O. hope), 12798, 2437, 10802, 
12606 f. 
hopě, 88. 
hunte (S. hunta, L. hunte, O. hunnte), 2020. 
hunt, 2014, bad line ; 2630, hunt[e] as. 


hyne (S. hina), 605 f, 13247 f. 


knave (S. cnafa, cnapa, L. enave, O. cnape), 3434, 
3469, 5135, 5142, 8320, 8323, etc. 


gere (S. gearwa, geara); 367? 354 f? ger, 2182 f? 


* i-veren also occurs; but it may be observed, once for 
all, that that form of noun, frequent in Layamon, is not 
cited in these lists. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


knotte (S. cnotta), 10715, 10721. 
kyte (S. cita, cyta), 1181, 10938, 10939. 
lappe (S. lappa), 688 f, 8461 f, 10949 f, 11940 f. 
leere (S. lira), 15268 f. 
lippe (S. lippa), 133. 
make (S. maca, O. macche, make), 5667, 2558 f, 
5120 f, 12152 f, 15203 f. 
mawe (S. maga), 4906 f, 15234 f, 14411 f. 
moone (S. móna, L. O. mone), 3515, 4296, 9759, 
11599. 
mouthe (S. mútha), Derte-mouthe, 391 f. 
name (S. nama, L. name, nome, O. name), 1439, 
1588, 12030, 12384, etc. 
namé, 15128 : perhaps we should read “name is." 
nekke (S. hnecca), 238, 1220, 3916, 5859, etc. 
nek-bon, 6488 ? nekké boon, 16548. 
oxe (S. oxa, O. oxe), 8083, 13769, 16490, 16518. 
poke (S. poca), 3778, 4276 f. 
pope (S. papa, L. pape), 8678, 263 f, 645 f. 
pride (S. prjta, also prjt, IL 2, L. prude, prute), 
897 f, 9867 f, 14314 f, 15674 f, etc. 
prikke (S. pricca), 4539 f. 
reeve (S. réfa, L. reve), 589, 617, 3901, 4323. 
schrewe (S. screawa), 17083, 5866 f, 5873 f, 6087 f, 
spearwe (S. spearwa), 628 f, 7386 f. [ete. 
stake (S. staca), 8580 f, 669 f. 
steede (S. stéda, L. stede), 2159, 2729, 10484, 
15162, etc. 
steedé, 10438? 
steere (S. steóra, O. ster), 4868 f, 5253 f. 
sterre (S. steorra, L. steorre, sterre, O. sterrne), 
2061 f. 
stikke (S. sticca), 13193, 13199. 
tene (S. teóna, L. teone, O. tene), 3108 f. 
tyme (S. tima, L. O. time), 44, 722, 864, 4056, 
4448, etc. (24 cases.) 
tymé, 9678, 10327, 10790,12976, ete. (14 cases.) 
wele (S. wela, L. wele), 1274 f, 3103 f, 13530 f. 
welé, 8847. 
welle (S. wella, also wylle, I. 3, well, II. 2, L. welle), 
5597, 7924, 1535 f, 11689 f. 
wellé, 8091. 
wete (S. weta, also wate, I. 3, O. wate), 13115 f. 
wille (S. willa, also wille, I. 3, L. wille, O. wille), 
2671, 7986, 8202, 10315, etc. 


schoppe (S. sceoppa ?), 4376, 4374 f. 

stele (S. stela, Jun. ap. Bosw., stæl, II. 2, Ettm.), 
8783 f, 6531 f. 

webbe (S. webba), 364, “a webbe, a dyer.” 


VOL. VIII. 59 


453 


another form: will (S. will, TI. 2, L. i-wil, O. will), 
3875, 3878, 3885, 8052, etc. 
willé, 11016? 
wrecche (S. wrecca, L. wrecche, O wrecche), 933, 
7645f, 12396f, 13014f. 


$4. Feminines. (I. 3.) 


almesse (S. ælmæsse, O. allmess), 4588 f. 

arwe (S. arewe, L. arewe, arwe), 11424. 

belle (S. belle, O. belle), 171f, 14077f, 14407 f, 
16266 f. 

berye (S. berige, berie), 207 f. 

cappe (S. cappe), 588 f, 687 f, 3145 f. 

cheeke (S. céce, ceáce), 6374f, 15524f: cheeké, 
15529, — bad verse. 

chirche (S. cyrice, L. chirche, O. kirrke), 7391, 
7775, 19744, 13798, etc. 

cloote (S. clate), 12505. 

cote (S. cote), 2459 f. 

crowe (S. cráwe), 17175, 17062 f, 17294 f, 2694 f. 

crow, 17172. s 

deepe (S. dŷpe, deópe), 4875 f. 

dowfe (S. dúfe), 10013, 13812. 

erthe (S. eorthe, L. O. eorthe, erthe), 1248, 8079, 
8557, 10707. 

flye (S. fleóge, fifge), 4350, 14582 f, 10178 f. 

glose (S. glóse), 7374 f, 7502 f. 

harpe (S. hearpe, L. harpe), 6039. 

heepe (S. heópe), 15158 f. 

heire (S. here, L. here), 12061 f. 

herte (S. heorte, L. heorte, O. heorrte, herrte), 955, 
956, 1146, 2651, 6354, ete. (40 cases.) 

herté, 10526, 8062, 9113, 16301: hert, 9113. 
(7 cases.) 

hose (S. hose, L. hose), 3931 f. 

howve (S. húfe), 3909 f. 

larke (S. láverce), 1493, 2212. 

lilie (S. lilje), 2180, 12019, 12015 f, 11955 f. 

mare (S. mere, myre), 17010 f, 4058 f, 693 f. 

masse (S. masse, L. masse, O. messe), 7331, 9768, 
14662, 15047. 

myte (S. mite), 1560 f, 7543 f, 12439 f, 12561 f. 

nightyngale (S. nihtegale), 98f, 3377f, 15245 f, 

oule (S. file), 6663 f. [17068 f. 


wone (S. wuna, L. Sek 337f? 14915 f? woné, 
1066. 

wright’ (S. wyrhta, L. wurhte), 616: wright[e], a 
carpenter ? 

birch’ (S. birce, also birc, II. 3), birch’ asp, 2923? 


454 


panne (S. panne), 13243, 13138 f, 7196 f. 
pan, rh. man, 1167, 15438! 
pipe (S. pipe), 567. 
pirie (S. pirige), 10091 f, 10099 f. 
pisse-myre (S. -mire), 7407 f. 
pose (S. ge-pose, Bosw.), 4150 f, 16994 f. 
rake (S. race), 289 f. 
rose (S. róse), 1040, 13448. 
scheete (S. sefte, scéte), 12807 f. £ 
schere (S. sceare), 15542 f. 
schire (S. scire), 358 f, 586 f. 
schyne (S. scine), 388: “that on his schynë —a 
mormàl hadde he.” 
side (S. side, O. side), 1277, 2736, 9808, 9821, etc. 
snare (S. sneáre, Bosw.), 1492 f, 4991 f, 17009 f. 
sonne (S. sunne, L. sunne, sonne, O. sunne), 30, 
1511, 2524, 10484, etc. 
swalwe (S. swalewe), 3258. 
targe (S. targe), 473 f, 977 f. 
throte (S. prote), 2460 f, 3218 f. 
tonge (S. tunge, L. O. tunge), 3894, 5319, 7232, 
13813, etc., etc. 
tongé, 10349. 
tonne (S. tunne, L. tunne), 1996, 5759, 3892 f, 8091 f. 
trappe (S. treppe, O. trapp), 11653 f, 11939 f, 
wake (S. wæcce, O. wecche), 2960, 2962. 
wenche (S. wencle, O. wennchell), 3971, 4165, 4192, 
6944, etc. 
wicche-craft (S. wicce, O. wieche), 6885. 
wise (wise, L. O. wise), 9927, 17309, 5312, 5692, etc. 
wisé, 2189. 


$ 5. In the following the final e has been ab- 
sorbed by y or w.* 


play (S. plega, L. pleze), 1127 f, 8906 f, 9404 f, 
14528 f. 

| lady (S. hlefdige, L. lefdi, O. laffdiz), 1145, 1351, 
| sty (S. stige), 7411 £. [1351, 14885. 
[ herberw, herberwh, herbergh (S. hereberge, L. her- 
berwe, O. herrberrzhe), 405, 767, 4117, 4143, 
11347. 

| widow, widw (S. widuwe, L. widewe, O. widewe, 
widdwe), 6609, 6626, 7166, 7201, 14913, 14920, 
16307. 

But widowé, widewé, 14997, 255. See § 91b. 


tapstere (S. teppestre), 241 f? tapster, 3336. ` 


* nevew, 15890, is from the French neveu, not from 
S. nefa, whence comes the Old English and modern col- 
loquial form neve, nevie. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


In the following the final e seems to have been 
transposed from after / (as is often the case after r). 


fithul (S. fithele), 298. 

ladel (S. hlzdle), 2022, 16983. 
wesil (S. wesle), 3234. 

whistel (S. hwistle), 4153. 


.$ 6. The following cases are exceptions to $$ 3, 4. 
pith (S. pitha), 6057 f. 

beech (S. bóce, beóce), 12856 f: 2925 ? 

kers (S. cerse), 8754 f. 

stot (S. stotte), 7125, 7212, 617 f. 


$7. SeconD DECLENSION OF ANGLO-SAXON 
Nouns. — Masculines. (II. 2.) 


awe (S. ege, L. eze, O. aghe), 656 f, 16045 f. 
bale (S. bealu, L. balu, bale), 13409 f. 
cheese (S. c$se, cése), 7329 f. 
cheesé, 3628, suspicious verse: Wright, cheesé 
with, Tyr., chese and. 
ende (S. ende, L. O. ende), 1867, 4901, 7037, 
15 f, etc. 
endé, 197. —- 
hate (S. hete, L. hate, O. hete), 6331 f, 13826 f, 
16074 f. 
haté, 13640. 
hegge (S. hege), 16704. ; 
herde (S. hirde, O. hirde), 605, 12120. 
hyve (S. hyfe, ine. gen.), 16878, 7275 f. 
ire (S. yrre, inc. gen., O. ipro) 1661, 1764, 7593, 
17210, 17220. 
iré, 7575 : rh. squire (?), 7671. 
leche (S. lace, léce, L, leche), 3902 f, 7474 f, 7538 f, 
11984 f, 14531 f. 
lye (S. lyge), 3017 f, 3391 f, 5609 f, 12527 f, 13055 f. 
mede (S. meadu), 89 f, 6443 f, 10105 f, 11459 f. 
myre (S. mfre), 510 f, 6554 f, 16937 f. 
pilwe-beer (S. pyle), 696. 
reye (S. ryge, Bosw.), 7328 f. 
skathe (S. sc=3pe, inc. gen., Bosw.), 448 f, 9048 f. 
tete (S. tite, also tit), 8704 f. 
whete (S. hwate), 5725, 4312 f, 13863 f, 14278 f. 


come (S. cyme, L. cume, N O, come), 12271 + ? 
“ come and.” 

mere-mayd (S. mere, L. mere), 16756? 

mete (S. mete, also mett, L. O. mete), 127, 15910 
10932f. But meté, 136, 345, 9795, 10384. 

see (S. sæ, inc. gen., L. O. sæ), always monosyllable 
278, 700, 4914, 4963 f, etc. 


OBSERVATIONS OF THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


$8. Exceptions. 


Termination ( felawschipé, 476. 
pest friendschipé (S. freóndscipe), 430. 
(S-scipe). — | lordschip& (S. hl&fordscipe), 1627, 
rh. felawschipe. 
| worschip (S. weorthscipe), 12560. 
( carter, 7122, 7124, 7141. 
: hopper (S. hoppere), 4034, — 
Toss. loveré, 1381? 
sein | nellere 647 940847 OL weg 
nouns, 9167, rh. forbere : miller, 3923, 3993, 
signifying | — 3998, 4008, 4094. 
forthe | outrydere (S. utridere, L. ridere), 166? 
mo Pat | sleper (S. slepere), 16377. 
> wonger (S. wangere), 15320 f, 
| rh. destrer, Fr. destrier. 


It is quite as likely as not that in the third and 
fourth cases cited the final e of mellere was pro- 
nounced. Concerning this doubtful e after -r, see 
further on, § 84. 


$ 9. THIRD DECLENSION oF ANGLO-Saxon 
Nouns. — Neuters. (III. 1.) 


ale (S. ealu, ealo), 343, 669, 13736, 3130 f, 13730 f. 
ancle (S. ancle), 1662. 
mele (S. melu, O. mele), 4040, 3937 f, 4243 f. 
melé, 4051, 4068. 
spere (S. spére, L. spere, sper) 15289, 1641f? 
4879 f? 
` speré, 2712. 


werre (S. werre, L. weorre, werre), 5972, 47f, | 


1449 f: weg, 1289. 
wyte (S. wite, O. wite), 12881 £ 
$ 10. Masculines. (III. 2.) 
lake (S. lacu, lagu, L. lake, lec), 5851 f, 16698 f. 
$11. Feminines. (III. 3.) 
breede (S. brodo), 2918, 1972 f, 13156 f, 15646 f. 


care (S. cearu, L. O. care), 1491£, 4934 f, 14611 f, 
15170 f. 


stree (S. strea), 2920, | 29951, ee x (e before in see), 
pronounced as e: straw (from the other S. form 
straw), 11007. i 


* The length of the gw compounded with this ter- 
mination may perhaps account for the final e being soon 


dropped. 


455 


. elde (S. yldo, also, yld, IT. 3, L. ælde, eid, O. elde), 


6789, 6797, 3883 f. E 
fare (S. faru, L. fare, fore), 1811 f, 4989 f. 
gappe (S. geapu, Bosw.), 1641, 1647 f. 
hele (S. helo, L. hele, O. hele), 1273f, 3104f, 
13531 f. 
hete (S. hzto, L. hate, O. baste), 12448 f, 12506 f, 
13336 f, 13453 f. 
lawe (S. lagu, also, lag, II. 3, L. laze, lawe, O. lazhe), 
911, 4177, 4178, 7471, etc. 
nave (S. nafu), 7848 f. 
nose (S. nasu, nosu), 152, 559, 7846. 
nosé, 123, 2169. 
sake (S. sacu, L. O. sake), 10039, 6945 f, 7299 f, 
7314 f, 8181 f. 
saké, 539, 1319, 1802. 
sawe (S. sagu, L. sage), 1165f, 1528f, 6241 f, 
12619 f. 
schame (S. scamu, O. shame), 12433, 13335, 1557 f, 
3052 f. 
schonde (S. scandu, scondu, O. shande), 15316 f. 
schadwe, shawe (S. sceadu, also II. 2), 4430, 4365 f, 
6968 f: schadwe he, 4450. 
scole (S. scólu), 7768, 9443, 14909, 14915. 
sowe (S. sugu), 2021, — bad line. 
spade (S. spadu, also, spad, II. 3), 555 f. 
tale (S. talu, L. O. tale), 36, 3128, 4466, 5545, 
7253. (29 cases.) 
* talé yit," 13875, e elided before y? 
trouthe (S. tredwdo, L. treouðe, O. trowwpe), 3502, 
6595, 6633, 6986, etc. (16 cases.) 
trouthé, 10959, 11071, 11905: trouth, 10262: in 
all, 4 cases. 
ware (S. waru, Bosw.), 4560 f, 14467 f. 


$12. Exceptions. 


III. 2. soné (S. sunu, L. sune, sone, O. sune), 1965, 
11000, 15669. 
But song, 6733, 7655, 8524, 8552, 12345, 
15016, 15889, 16597, 17250, ete., etc. 


| woodé (S. wudu, L. wude, wode, O. wude), 110, 


15181. 


. dore (S. duru, also, der, II. 3, L. O. dure), 1989, 


13065, 13145, 14624, ete. 
But doré, 2424, 3471, 3482, 3634, etc. 


. highte (S. heahSo), 29211: but 4432, rh. with 


bright (brighte?), 17298, rh. right. 


| mayne, meigne, contracted (S. menigeo, mengeo, 


O. mane), 1260, 7627 f, 10310 f, 14459 f. 


456 


But woodé, 2932, 7755, 10727, 15742: wood, 

1620. 

"TIL 3. answar (S. andswaru, L. answare, O. annd- 
sware), 6492. 

lové (S. lufu, also, lufe, I. 3, L. lufe, love, O. lufe), 
260, 674, 6096, 6336, 14569. (5 cases.) 


But lové, 1137, 1756, 1807, 2226, 2262, 2308, 
2316, etc., etc. (17 cases.) 


wë 


$ 13. Many nouns which in Anglo-Saxon end in 
a consonant have in Chaucer the termination e, de- 
rived from an oblique case of the old inflection.* 

Two forms not infrequently occur; one with, and 
the other without, the vowel. By the dropping of 
this vowel in later English, the primitive form is 
restored. "Though this secondary, transitional form 
in e is found in Layamon and the Ormulum (quite 
frequently with Feminines of the second Saxon de- 
clension), yet it is by no means so common as in 
Chaucer.f 


$14. MASCULINES AND NEUTERS OF THE SECOND 
AND Tuirp DECLENSIONS. (IL 1, 2, IIL 1, 2.) 


bedde (S. bedd, n. L. bed, dat. bedde, O. bed, o 
bedde), to, 4157, 4158, 12069; in, 9925, etc. 
bed, to, 4217 f; in, 4204f; unto, 4256. 
berne (S. bern, n., L. bærne, O. berrne), on, 13812 f. 
bissemare (S. bismer,., bisemar, bisemere), of, 3963 f. 
bladde (S. bleed, n.), acc., 620 f. e 
borwe (S. borg, m., L. borh), to, 10910 f. 
botme (S. botm, m.), to, 13249. 
brede (S. bread, n., L. bred), of, 7422. 
brembre (S. brémber, m.), nom., 15157. 
bronde (S. brond, m., L. brond), out of, 15318 f. 


arme (S. earm, m.), 158, probably an error; 2918, 
should be armes. 
bore (S. bâr, m.), acc. 2072 f? 


* Afew familiar parallel formations in other modern 
languages may be mentioned. Lat. radix, Ital. radice; 
animal, animale ; cupido, cupidine ; imago, immagine ; nix, 
neve; latro, ladrone; honor, onore; libertas, libertate; 
voluptas, voluttate. So in eent Romaic, as com- 
pared with Greek:— Greek, Xaumás, Romaic, \aprdda; 
xn, xiva ` vv£, vókra. 

f As it is possible that some may think the forms in é 
of the Masculine and Neuter nouns to be oblique cases 
of a nominative, which (if it occurred) would be found 
to end in a consonant, the grammatical relations of these 
nouns are always indicated, but this (probably superflu- 
ous) trouble has not been taken with the Feminines. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


carte (S. cret, n., L. carte, O. karrte), nom. 7123 ; 
upon, 2043; in, 10107. 
cart, nom. 16522; acc. 7121, 7136, 16533. 
childe (S. cild, n. L. child, childe, O. child, wipp 
childe), nom. 5339, 14980, 15217f; acc. 8459; 
with, 5140, etc. 
child, nom. 15221, 15938, 15241; acc. 8488, 
15768. 
corne (S. corn, n., L. O. corn), in, 14404 f. 
croppe (S. eropp, m.), in, 1534. 
cultre (S. culter n. (?)), nom. 3761, 3783, 3810. 
dale (S. del, n., L. dal, dale, O. dale), over, 15248 f ; 
donge (S. dung, m.), of, 16504. [in, 16309 f. 
dong, of, 532, 16534. : 


drynke (S. drinc, m., possibly also drinca, 1. 2, L. 


drinc, drinke, O. drinnc, drinnke), acc. 1617, 
3411, 4918, 7481, etc. 

feere (S. fær, m.), for, 2346, 2688, 2932, 7286. 

ferne (S. fearn, n.), of, 10569 f. 

folde (S. falud, fald), acc. 514f; in, 1310 f. 

foote (S. fot, m., L. fot, dat. fote, O. fot, with fote), 
on, 10704 f; acc. 11489. 

fyre, fuyre (S. fjr, n., L. fur, O. fir), on, 6553f, 
7564 f, 7704 f. 

fyr, nom. 2921, 2935, 2948; in, 2947 ; unto, 2952. 
gate (S. geat, n., L. zat, dat. zete, O. zate), nom. 
14144 f; at, 7163f. 

golde (S. gold, n., L. gold, dat. golde), with, 12138. - 

grave (S. græf, n.), in, 2780 f; to, 14080 f. 

grounde (S. grund, m., L. grund, grunde, O. grund, 
to grunde), to, 5573f; under, 11581f; unto, 
15086 f; to, 16533 f. 

grove (S. gref, n.), til, 1480; of, 1604; in, 2862; 
bisyde, 16309. 

grové, to, 1690. 

-hede (termination, S.-hád: L. child-hode, man-ede, 
occur in later text, O. mazzdenn-had, mazzp-had, 
but in L. and O. this termination is rare). 

bretherhede, with, 513. 
chapmanhede, in, 14649 f. 
childhede, in, 14912 f. 

falshede, on, 13101 ; for, 13202 f. 
manhede, of, 758 ; acc. 1287 f. 


. cole (S. côl, n., L. col, dat. cole), acc. 13088 f? nom. 


13124? of 12737 f, rh. vitriole, Fr. vitriol. 

derke (S. adj. dearc), in, 4336 f. 

domě (S. dôm, m., L. dom, dat. dome, O. dom), to, 
11240. 


. fisshe (S. fisc, m., L. fisc, fisce), to, 180, bad line. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


maydenhede, nom. 4450f; acc. 5651 f, 8713 f, 
8742 f, 12054 f, etc. 
- wommanhede, acc. 8951 f; of, 13274 f. 
brotherhed, of, 14453; maydenhodé, acc. 
2331; humblehedé, fro, 16158? 
heede (S. heafud, n., L. heefd, haefde, O. heefedd), for, 
1056f; upon, 14158 f. 
heed, sauf, 10404; heved, acc. 12294. 
herne (S. ern, n.), in, 11433 f. 
hevene (S. heofon, m., L. heovene, O. heoffne, heffne), 
of, 7588 f, 13400 f ; in, 9513 f. 
hewe (S. hiw, L. heowe, O. hew, inn hewe), nom. 
1366; of, 460 f, 1040 f, 4557 f. 
hew, of, 1649 f. 
hole (S. hol, »., L. hol, dat. hole), in, 13209. 


-holme, Bromholme (S. holm, m., L. dat. holme), ` 


of, 4284 f. 
house (S. hûs, »., L. hus, dat. SE? hus, inn huse), 
in, 5934. 
Kenne (S. cynn, n., L. cun, dat. cunne, O. kinn), by, 
4036 f, 16969 f. 
leeke (S. leác, m.), 12723 f. 
leek, nom. 3877. 
liche (S. lic, »., L. O. lie, lich, dat. liche), nom. 
2960. 
londe (S. land, lond, L. lond, dat. londe, O. land, to 
lande), to, 4942 f; unto, 12878 f; in, 15295 f; on, 
16365 f. 
loode (S. hled), nom. 2920 f. 
. loone (S. len, n., L. len), of, 7443 f, 14706 f. 
lyste (S. list, m.), in, 1715; acc. 1864. 
lyve (S. lif, »., L. lif, dat. live, O. lif), ace. 9111 f; 
on, 2700 f, 3041 f, 5625 f. 
lif, acc. 1174 f; during, 5740f; by, 9320 f. 


morwe), nom. 360, 3236; morwen 10099. 
morwe, nom. 832, 14710; acc. 1494. 
mynde (S. mynd, »., also II. 3, O. minde), nom. 
13347 ; acc. 4947 ; in, 4846 f; of, 15005f, etc. 
othe (S. 48, m., L. að, oa8, dat. ode), nom. 1141. 
acc. oth, 3291?  ooth, 120, should probably be 
oothé. ; 


lom (S. morgen, morn, m., L. morgen, morze, 


keepe (S. ?), acc. 8934; but keep, 400f, 10272f, 

. . etc. ; kepé, 6207 ; at 505 f should certainly be keep. 
mele (S. mel, n., L. mæl, mele), acc. 4886; but mel, 
meel, 7356 f, 16319 f. 

schepe (S. scep, n., O. shep), nom. 506f, should 
certainly be scheep: cf. 6014, 13766, where the 
same rhyme occurs, 508, 16317. 


457 


schippe (S. scip, 2., L. scip, schip, dat. scipe, shipe), 
schip, in, 5032. [in, 4859. 
sithe (S. sid, m., L. sid, dat. side, O. sipe), acc. 
sing.? 9183, 5153 f, 5575 f. 
sleepe (S. slep, m., L. dat. slzpe, O. slep, dió) 
of, 1046 ; in, 16498. 
sleep, in, 16420 ; for, 16283 f. 
smoke (S. smée, m., also I. 2, O. smec) nom. 5860 f; 
with, 2002 f. 
sore (S. sir, n., L. sar, sor, dat. sare, sore), nom. 
2745 f; of, 2851f. 
sothe (S. sôð, n., L. soð, soðe, O. sop, to sope), acc. 
12590 (rh. to the, but perhaps adverb), 6183 f; for, 
12095 f. 
spelle (S. spell, n., L. spel, dat. spelle, O. spell), to. 
15301 f. 
stalle (S. steall, n., O. stall), unto, 8083 f; in, 16482 f, 
16490 f, 16513 f. 
style (S. stigel, m.), over, 10420 f, 14126 f. 
swyne (S. sein, n., L. swin, dat. swine, O. swin), 
nom. 16972; swyn, nom. 13971 f. 
temple (S. tempel, n.), toward, 13534, 
tothe (S. t03, m., O. topp), acc. 6184 f. 
towne (S. tûn, m., L. tun, dat. tune, O. tun, to tune), 
of, 568 f, 71581; at, 7876 f; in, 15204 f. 
toun, acc. 7936, 11713f; unto, 896f; in, 14732 f. 
wawe (S. wag, m.), nom. 4888. 
wedde (S. wedd, n., L. dat. wedde), to, 1220 f, 14834 £, 
werke (S. weorc, n., L. were, dat. wærce, O. weorre, 
werrc), on, 5797 ; for, 13439; of, 11191 £ 
werk of, 11418 f. 
weye (S. weg, m., L. weie, wai, O. wezze), acc. 
793 f, 4805 f; by, 773f; atte, 1124f. 
contracted, way, 7118, 14176 f. - 
whelpe (S. hwelp, m., O. whellp), nom. 259 f. 
whippe (S. hweop, m.), nom. 5757 f, 9545 f. 
wife (S. wif, n., L. wif, wive, O. wif, to wife), nom, 
6648; to, 1862 f. 
wronge (S. wrang, wrong, m.?), on, 11096. 


sighhe (as if from S. sic), with, 10811 f. 
swoune (as if from S. swün), on, 13668. 
teere (S. tear, m.) with, 4957 f, 15664 f; acc. 15547 £ 
16148 f. (?) 
walle (S. weall, m., L. wal, dat. walle), upon, 1970 f; 
1911,rh. coralle, which should be coral (O. Fr. coral), 
wallé, 1990, wal, 1921, 1977, 1986 f. 
wyne (S. win, n, L. win, dat. wine, O. win), nom. 
10016 f. 
wyn, acc. 637, 14212, 639 f; of, 336 f, 2910 f etc. 


458 OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


yere (S. gear, n., L. zer, dat. gere, O. zer), acc. 
4552 f; by, 14909 f, 15545 f, etc. 
yer by yere, 8278 f, 14909 f; yer, yeer, 1035, 
1445, 1731 f, 8487 f, etc. 


$ 15. The following merely drop a final n (com- 
pare Lat. and Ital. acumen, acume; certamen, cer- 
tame; vimen, vime). 
eve (S. sfen, m., L. aefen, heve, O. efenn), nom. 
832, 4993 f; at, 5914 f. 
game (S. gamen, »., L. gamen, gome, game), nom. 
8405, 14701 f; acc. 855 f; in, 14244 f. 
gamé, nom. 2288, 3741. 
mayde (S. megden, maeden, »., L. maiden, maide, 
O. mazzdenn), nom. 8253, 12055, 14878; acc. 
6468, ete. 
mayden occurs 3202: before a, 2307, 6469; 2310? 


$ 16. FEMININES OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
(IL 3) 

_ These nouns have in Anglo-Saxon all the oblique 

cases of the singular in é. 

beere (S. ber, L. O. bere), 15036, 15038 f, 2879 f. 

bene (S. beán), 9296, 3770 f, 4514 f, 9139 f. 

boone (S. bên, O. bene), 2271f, 2671f, 9492 f, 
12162 f, etc. 

boote (S. bót, L. O. bote), 426 f, 6054 f. 

brigge (S. brycg, L. brugge), 3920 f. 

bryde (S. bryd, L. brude, O. brid), 9764. 

bruyd, 9694. 

burthe (S. beorth), 4612, 8278, 5982 f. 

bynne (S. binn), 595 f. 

dede (S. ded, L. dede, O. daed), 661 f, 744 f, 4853 f, 
5311 f, etc., etc. 

doune (S. dán, O. dun), 15207 f. 

drede (S. dred, L. dred, drede), 16648, 8010 f, 9031 f, 
12132 f, etc. 

fille (S. fyll), 1530 f, 7282 f. 

gifte (S. gift, L. zeft), 9185, 5685 f, 12208 f. 

gleede (S. gléd, also mase.), 1999 f, 3379 f, 4531 f, 
15870 f. 

halle (S. heall L. halle), 10394, 11457, 9764f, 
16370 f, ete. 

hallé, 10400. 


asp (S. ssp, according to Bosw. masc.), asp’ aldir, 
2923? oe 

booke (S. béc, III. 3, L. O. boc) occurs once, 6373. 
book, 6251, but book[e], 6232? 

droughthe (S. drugáth, fem. ?), 10432. 


LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


heede (S. hŷd), 305 f, 8511 f, 10926 f, 12363 f, 13178 f. 
heed, 7483, 12987. 
helle (S. hell, L. O. helle), 7042, 7218, 11204, 
12846, etc. 
hellé, 660? 
helpe (S. help, O. hellpe), 9202, 260 f. 
helpé, 10773, help, 11983. 
beste (S. hæs, L. heste, O. hese), 3588, 16050, 
4457 f, 4802 f. 
hest, 11376, 8004 f? 
hyre, huyre (S. hjr, L. hure), 6590 f, 7555 f, 16938 f. 
keye (S. ceg), 9918 f, 13147 f. 
kynde, man-kynde (S. cynd, L. cunde, O. kinde), 
1309, 3521, 6298, 7225, 10924, ete. (16 cases.) 
kyndé, 11080, 5263. 
lengthe (S. lengd), 17302, 83 f. 
leve (S. leaf, L. O. lefe), 4005, 6490, 7395, 13653, 
5665 f, 7071 f, 7395 f, ete. 
levé, 5694, 9715, 14263. 
lisse (S. liss), 11550 f. 
loode-sterre (S. lâd, also ládu, O. lade), 2061. 
lore (S. lár, L. O. lare), 4762 f, 16456 f. 
lydne (S. leden, lyden), 10749, 10792. 
lyvere (S. lifer, L. livere), 7421 f. 
meede (S. méd, L. O. mede), 772 f, 3380 f, 8761 f, 
13548 f. ; 
melle (S. mylen), 3921 f, 4240 f. 
myllé, 4019: millen occurs, 4309. 
merke (S. mearc, L. marke, O. merrke), 11192 f. 
merthe (S. mehr3, L. murthe), 768, 14786, 5981 f. 
mirthé, 9613. 
myle (S. mil, L. O. mile), 12816, 14687, 14127 f. 
mylé, 14102. 
neede (S. neád, L. neod, neode, O. ned), 306 f, 
4532 f, 4924 f, 13179 f, 15872 f. 
-nesse (termination, S. nes, nis, L. O. uniformly 
nesse). 
besynesse, 14636, 6778 f. hevynesse, 5565 f. 
boldénesse, 13486. holinesse, 9582 f. 
brightnesse, 12089 f. homlynesse, 8305 f. 


clennesse, 12088 f. lewednesse, 15329f. 
cursednesse, 13815 f. newéfangilnesse, 10923 f. 
drunkennesse, 5196. schamfastnesse, 842 f. 
fairnesse, 521 f. seeknesse, 1258 f. 
falsnesse, 12904 f. sikernesse, 9229 f£. 
goodnesse, 17254 f. stedfastnesse, 9937 f. 
hardynesse, 1927 f. warmnesse, 10095 f. 
hethenesse, 49 f. wikkednesse, 5043 f. 


| lynde (S. lind), 9087 f: but lyndé, 2924. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


witnesse, 13898 f. 
worthinesse, 50 f. 
wrecchednesse, 13965 f. 


ydelnesse, 11930 f. 
etc., ete. 


But, besynes, 13140. 
clennessé, 508 ? 
goodnes, 7395. 
lewednes, 10537, 12415. 


lustynes, 1941 f? 
worthines, 2594, 
woodnes, 2013, 13911, 


ore (S. ar, L. are, ore, O. are), 3724 f. 

plyte (S. pliht, L. pliht, plihte, O. plihht), 
12880 f. 

pyne (S. pin, also, masc., L. O. pine), 5500 f, 5967 f, 
6369 f, 15344 f. 

querne (S. eweorn), 15560. 

rewe (S. raw), 2868 f. 

roode (S. ród, L. O. rode), 6078. 

schipne (S. scypen), 2002, 

sleeve (S. sléf), 13152 f. 

slouthe (S. slew3), 4950 f, 12186 f, 

sonde (S. sand, L. sonde), 4809 f, 4943f, 5246f, 
5469 f, etc. 

sorwe (S. sorh, L. sorhze, O. serrzhe), 953, 1221, 
1279, 9956, etc. 

soule (S. sáwel, L. saule, O. sawle), 783, 1865, 
2788, 2794, 8435, etc. (13 cases.) 

soulé, 658, 14355, 14399. 

spanne (S. spann), 155. 

speche (S. spac, L. O. speche), 519, 1373, 2800, 
17270, ete. 

speché, 16978. 

stounde (S. stund, L. stunde, O. stunnd), 3990 f, 
5441 f, 1214 f. 

streete (S. strat, L. street, strate, O. strate), 14904, 
15025, 4382 f, 11806 f, etc. 

strengthe (S. streng, also -u, L. strengpe, O. 
strenncpe), 1950, 2401, 2403, 15550. 

synne (S. synn, L. acc. sunne, O. sinne), 5010, 6773, 
9713, 13701, etc. 


rewthe, routhe (as if from S. hreów3, L. rou$e), 
916, 8438, 11661, 14608 f, etc.: rewthé, 10752. 

scherte, schurte (as if from S. sceort, scyrt), 15608: 
1568, 9859 (rh. herte) ; schert, 6768 (rh. povert) ; 
9726, 9757, 16606 (rh. hert, doubtful). 

sleighte (S. slid, from slidan, to slide ?), 4009, 7013; 
13546 f? but sleight, 1950. 

stevene (S. stefn, L. stefne, O. steffne), 4381, 1526 f. 
steven (rh. heven), 2564, 10464, 16683, 16777, 
(all doubtful.) 


should be woodnesse. | 


459 


throwe (S. prag, also -u, L. prowe, O. prazhe), 
5373 f, 7397 f, 12869 f, 15622 f. 

tyde (S. tid, O. tid), 4930 f, 5554 f, 10456 f, 16502 f. 

tyle (S. tigel), 7687. 

upriste (S. uparist, O. ærist), 1053 f. 

wede (S. wad, L. wede, O. wade), 1008 f, 8739 f, 

werte (S. weart), 557. [15325 f. 

while (S. hwil, L. while, O. whil, i-while), 4226, 
8899, 10904, 7027 f, etc. 

wolle (S. wull, O. wulle), 13863, 14325 f. 

wombe (S. wamb, womb, L. wombe, O.. wambe), 
7470, 15923, 15970. 

wounde (S. wund, L. wunde), 1012 f. 

yerde (S. gerd, geard, L. zerd, O. zerrde), 149, 
1052, 14508, 7898 f. 

youthe (S. geogó3, L. zuzepe), 2381, 4583, 7996, 
14139, etc. 


$ 17. Exceptions. 


aldir (S. alor, alr), 2923. 

ax (S. wx, eax, L. ex, O. axe), 2546, 3569. 

bench (S. bene, L. benche, O. bennche), 5829, 14769. 

bliss (S. bliss, L. O. blisse), 1686, 4829, 6412, 
16644 (all rh. this) ; 4453,16652 (rh. is); 16686 
(rh. t-wis) ; 4842. 

blissé, 1451, 3104, 9504, 11856, 6835 f, 7439 f, 

box (S. box), 5165. [10049 f, 11549 f. 

chest (S. cest, cist), cist), 6084, 7905, 14149 (rh. 
rest); 5899, 6982 (rh. lest, pres. indic.). 

curs (S. curs), 663 ; 658 (rh. purs (?)) ; 4347 (rh. the 
wors (?)). 

fann (S. fann, ine. gen.), 3315, 16974 (rh. man). (?) 

fist, fest (S. fjst), 6374; 4273 (rh. brest); 6216 
(rh. list); 14217 (rh. best) ; 17329 (rh. lest). 

fitt (S. fitt), 4182, 4228, 5624 (rh. wit). e 

flight (S. flyht, L. fluht, fliht, O. flihht), 990 (rh. 
knight) ; 1694 (rh. right). 

floor (S. flór, L. O. flor), 3471. 

hand* (S. band, bond, L. hand, hond, dat. honde, 
O. hand, wipp hande), 785, 2349, 3084, 5814, 
6591, 14112, 15717, 15802, 193 f, 1605 f, 1932 f. 


hand hond hond 
— Jano, zm Jam s ge 10065. 


wilw (S. wilig), 2924, doubtful : * wilw, elm," etc. 
wreche (S. wrec, also -u, L. wreche, O. wreche), 
5099 : but wreché, 16089. 


* Hand, miht, niht, wiht, weorold have all of them the 
accus. sing. like the nom. in Saxon, instead of forming it 
in -e, according to rule. 


460 


hondé, handé, 18788, 4033 f, 5808 f, 5909 f, 5962 f, 
5975 f, 6033 f, 7648 f, 11941 f, 12130 f, 15149 f, 
15405 f. 

heeth (S. hed), 6 f, 608 f, 3202 f. 

hen (S. henn), 178, 6694, 16925 (all rh. men). 

mark (S. marc), 12954. 

might * (S. miht, meaht, L. mihte, O. mihht, mihhte), 
1789, 2237, 2382, 4882, 7069, 12183, 12365, 


14708:— 962, 1152, 1609, 1858, 2114, 3080,. 


10624, 11914 (all rh. prom” — 539, 1878 (rh. 
wight), etc., etc. 
mighté, 10447 ? 
milk (S. mile, meole, L. mile, O. millc), 360, 3236, 
10928 (all rh. silk). 
night * (S. niht, L. niht, dat. nihte, O. nihht), 10, 23, 
1475, 1478, 9672 : — 1044, 16013 (rh. dight), etc. 
nighté, 16704: 12476 f, extremely doubtful. 
ok, ook (S. àc), 2292, 2923, 14180, 1704 f. 
queen (S. ewén, L. quen, quene, O. cwen), 1821, 
6443, 6481, 6598, 15199, 15201, 15210, 15839, etc. 
queené, 15834, 973 f, 4581 f, 4812 f, 6630 f, 
10110 f, 11358f, 13017 f, 14892f, 15834f, etc. 
sight (S. sih$, L. siht, dat. sihte, O. sihhpe), 10657, 
11470:— 3395, 11225 (rh. light): 7653, 10134 
(rh. knight): 8118 (rh. aright), etc. 
sighté, 2118, 2335, 3949, 8075, 10280. 
rest (S. rest, O. resste), 5161, 8036 (rh. lest, pres. 
tense) : 6083, 7906 (rh. chest) : 7077, 9736, 10669 
(rh. for the best) : 9005 (rh. the worthiest) : 14759 
(rh. Ais best): 8595 f? 6686f? 
reste, 822, 9729 :— 8617, 10920, 11548 (rh. 
leste, imperf.) : 8722 f? 9678f? 10693 f? 
soken (S. sócen), 3985. 
tow (S. tow), 5671. 
wight* (S. wiht, wuht, L. wiht, whit, O. wihht), 
1427, 2108, 2487, 9504, 11091, etc., ete. 
world * (S. weorold, L. weorld, weorlde, O. weorelld), 
176, 187, 414, 1267, 1306, 1326, 1362, 2589, 
9667, 11091. etc. 
worldé, 16151, 10376 ? 
-yng, termination (S. ung, ing). 


Nouns derived from Saxon feminine nouns in -ung, 
-ing, or formed in imitation of such, terminate in 
Layamon mostly in -ingé, rarely in -ing. In the 
Ormulum the termination is almost invariably -inng, 
but one or two have the nominative, and three or 
four an accusative, in -inngé. The more usual end- 


* See note on preceding page. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


ing in Chaucer is certainly -yng. The termination 
-ynge occurs frequently at the end of a verse, and 
in most cases rhymed with an infinitive. 


axyng (S. ascung), 1828. 


begynnyng, 3009 (rh. thing). 
clothing, 8132. 


` comyng (S. cuming), 14461 (rh. thing). 


cónnyng (S. cunning), 5519. 
dwellyng, 6992 (rh. thing). 
fightyng (S. fihtung), 1658. 
hàngyng, 2460. 

harpyng (S. hearpung), 268. 
hüntyng (S. huntung), 191, 1689. 
lokyng (S. lócung), 2173, 3591. 
longyng (S. langung), 3679. 
makyng (S. macung), 449. 
offryng (S. offrung, Bosw.), 452. 
rennyng (S. rinnung), 553. 


smylyng, 119. 

teching (S. tecung), 520. 

wandryng, 469. 

wepyng, 2831. 

wonyng (S. wunung), 608. 

writyng (S. writung), 328 (rh. thing). 


wynnyng, 277 (rh. thing). 


But lernynge (S. leornung), 12281. 
turneynge, 2559. 
vanysschynge, 2362 (rh. plur. pres. indic.). 
walkynge, 10722. 


So carolynge, 13273. 
connynge (S. cunning), 15068. 
dawenynge (S. dagung), 4232, 16368. 
envenymynge, 9934. 
felynge, 16779. 


lyvynge, 14262. 
morwenynge, 16788. 


offrynge, 6897. 
rejoysynge, 17178. 
semynge, 15059. 
taryinge, 823. 
werkynge, 13043. 


all rhymed with infinitives, synge, brynge, iied 
sprynge, etc., etc., etc. 


$ 18. The following nouns, of etymons more or 
less uncertain, but mostly of undoubted Gothic origin, 
are found in Chaucer terminating in -ë. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


brinke (Kel. bringr = colliculus), 11472, 9275f, 
11170f. 
cake (Dan. kage, Swed. kaka), 4309 f, 13737 f. 
chaffare, 14696 f, 14751 f. 
cloke (M. Lat. cloca, Flem. klocke), 2001 f. 
clowde, 16268 f. 
cope, 15435 f. 
daggere (a thing to dag, or pierce, with, Sax. ending 
-ere ?), 14070, 113 f; dagger, 14245. 
deynté (Welsh dant — tooth; dantaidd, toothsome, 
Wedgewood), 4559, 5790, 9917. 
dogge (Jcel. doggr, Dutch dogghe), 6951, 9888. 
drake, 3576 f. 
felawé, 2550, 16512, 397f, 655f, 1527 f, 4248 f, 
4366 f, 6967 f, 16499 f. 
flaw, 650, 1194, 2626, 2657, 4257, 7605, 7624, 
7668, 16489, 16514, 16516, 16527, 16531. 
felàwé, 652, felawé, 892. 
gable (Goth. gibla, Germ. giebel, Dan. gavl), 3571 f. 
jade, 16298 f. ` 
knarre, 551 f. 
know-leche, 14441. (Canthe termination -lechebe the 
same as -lezzc in the Ormulum = there, to -ness ?) 
kyn-rede, 1288 f, 11047 f. 
marle ( Germ. mergel, Lat. marga, Fr. marne), 3460. 
rote, roote (Icel. rôt, Goth. vaurts), 13389, 2 f, 329 f, 
425 f. 
sculle (Old Germ. sciulla, Ang.-Sax. scell ?), 3933 f, 
4305 f. 
slynge (as if from Ang.-Saz. sling), 15240 f. 
snowte (Dan. snude, Swed. snyte), 14816 f; snowt, 
16391. = 
stalke (cel. stilkr, Swed. stjelk), 3917 f. 
tare, 1572 f. 
wyndòwe (Kel. vindauga, Dan. vindue, Swed. vin- 
döga), 3358 f, 3676 f, 3695 f. 
wyndow [e?], 3708, 3725, 3730, 3738. 


§ 19. The unaccented final e of nouns of French 
origin is sounded in Chaucer, as it is in French verse. 
Exceptions, however, are frequent. 

Arcite, 1579, 1582, ete. — Arcité, 1147, 1357, 2317. 
aunte, 5401. 
best, 7424, 9413, 10578, 
bille, 13585, 13591 f. [6616 f. 
' eause, 4142, 5705, 7056. 

centre, 10336. 


chambre, 1073. chambré, 9696. 
couche, 7351. 
cynamome, 3699. 

VOL. VIII. 60 


dame, madame, 15382, 
16444, 16686. 

doute, 9959. 

Dyane, 2074, 2348, etc. 

eese, 971. 

egle, 2180, 10437. 

entente, 1489, 7138, 
14986, 7212 f, 8610 f, 
8737, 11934 f, etc. 

experience, 7099 f. 

face, 1580, 16252. 

feste, 908, 6660, 8067, 
8072, 8145, 8886. 

force, 3910. 

fortune, 15487, 15727, 
15943, 16209. 

grace, 16219, 3071 f, 
14132 f. 

haunche, 3279. 

herbe, 11344. 

heritage, 10046, 11867. 

homicide, 14978. 

hoste, oste, 753, 6868, 
16936. 


joye, 1873, 1875, 12507. 

juge, jugge, 12317, 12391, 
13540, 13573. 

male, 12494. 

manere, 10501 f, 11737 f. 

medecine, 10254. 


nece, 14511, 14536, 14744. 


persone, 15428. 
peyre, 4384. 


place, 7262, 9963. 

plante, 11344. 

pompe, 8804. 

regne, 4813. 

remembraunce, 9855. 

requeste, 8061 f. E 

Rome, 673 f, 4576, 5388, 
10545, etc. 

sauce, 129, 353. 

sege, 939. 

servise, 122. 

signe, 10024, 10087. 


: 461 


ma-damé, 11635, 11830, 
16456. 


Dyan, 2293. 


entent, 3173, 4567, 13234, 
5350 f, 15123 f. 


experiens,* 10112. 
faas,* 15117 f! 
fest, 6658. 


forcé, 3910; fors,* 7771, 
9171, 9709, 10214, 
10304, 13548, 13718 f. 

gracé, 1175, 6842 ; gras,* 

15242! 


host, ost, 829, 3116, 12591, 
12625; 11007, 12580, 
rh. wost; 16988, rh. 
gost. 


maner, 10452, 11742, 
[11745. 


persón, 10339. 
phisik, 413, 2762. 
placé, 15024. 
regné, 1626. 


request, 7980 f. 
Romé, 5386. 


* For other similar cases, see further on, $ 91, € 


462 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


spouse, 12072, 12125. 
tente, 16055. 
trumpe, 2176, etc., etc. 


So with adjectives : — 
chaste, 2306. 
excellente, 10459. 
nice, 12421, 12770, 12575 f. 
pore, 480, 16307. 
riche, 866, 1913, 4814. 
solempne, 209, etc., etc.* 


$ 20. The accented final e of French nouns (in 
modern English, y) is of course preserved in Chaucer. 
adversité, 16639. liberté, 9158. 
bounté, 6742. perré, 15791. 
cherté, 11193. plenté, 14226. 
clarré, 1473. pryvyté, 1413, 
contré, 1006, 1215. renomé, 6741. 


$ 21. The Genitive Case, Singular, ends in -és. 
schires, 15. lordes, 47. - pigges, 702. 
cherles, 7788. Cristes, 480. reeves, 601. 

But soth it is, right at his modrés heste, 

Byforn hem allé, duryng the metes space, 


The child stood lokyng in the hyngés face. 
5433 — 5. 


The following have, at least sometimes, no termination. 
Dec. I. holy chirche good, But, holy cherches feith, 


LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


Dec. I. oure lady veyl, 697. 


the sonne upriste, 1053. 
the sonne stremes, 16240. 
myn herte blood, 10221. 
a widow sone, 14913. 


So, fader, brothir, doughter (as in Saxon). 


fader benesoun, 9239. But, fadres folk, 5883. 

fader day, 9012, fadres place, 8738. 
15670. 

fader hous, 8772. fadres hous, 8685, 8747. 


fader kenne, 4036, _fadres pité, 13626. 
9389, 12757, etc. 

fader soule, 15423. fadres soule, 783? 

fadres sake, 10175 ? 

fadres sapience, 14883 ? 

brothir sone, 3086, brothers bedde, 11478. 
15889. 

brother knowleching, 13360 ? 

doughter name, 8485. 


So, modres pité, 15004. 


So, the philosophre stoon, 12790. 
heven king, 6763, 10281, 12470, 16282. 
heven queene, 13017. 


So, many proper nouns in s, as in Anglo-Saxon and 
Modern English. 
Epicurius owne sone, 338. 
Peneus doughter, 2066. 
Venus children, 10586. 
Melibeus wyf, 15382. 
Phebus wyf, 17170. 


And also, the marquys governaunce, 8870. 


Nominative. 


lokkés, 76. bootés, 203. 
argumentes, 4632. 
ornamentes, 8134. 


houndes, 146. 


songes, 95. 
braunches, 1069. 


3981. 11445. 
holy chirche blood, 
3982. 
his lady grace, 88. his ladys grace, 9892. 
$ 22. PLURAL or Nouns. 
The Nominative Plural is formed for the most part in Gest 
ladiés, 900. fowlés, 9. croppés, 7. 
bodyés, 1007. domes, 325. robes, 319. 
kneés, 1105, 1877. — chiknes, 382. knobbes, 635. 
degreés, 17298. bones, 702. wyfes, 234, 15507. 
; fyngres, 129. knyfes, 368. 


swerdes, 2028. 


kaytyves, 1719. 


leeves, 1498. 


And with his stremés dryeth in the grevés 
The silver dropés hongyng on the leevés. 1497, 8. 


His lymés greet[e], his drawnés hard[e] and strongé, 
His schuldrés brood[e], his armés rounde and longé. 2137, 8. 


* Tt is scarcely necessary to mention that an internal e 
in French words is also pronounced, as, comaundément, 
2871, 2981, 12991; juggément, 780, 820; etc., etc. 


t Occasionally in -us or -is, a dialectic variety ; as, leg- 
gus, 593; othus, 812; lordus, 830; argumentis, 9493; 
bestis, 16367 ; etc. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


463 


-s (z) only is frequently added, especially to nouns terminating in a liquid. 


; pilgryms, 2850. 
naciouns, 53. 
bargayns, 284. 
sesouns, 349. 


sessions, 357. 
pens, 7158. 
lazars, 245. 
sellers, 248. 


achatours, 510. 
pilours, 1009. 
lovers, 1533. 


So the following, of various terminations in the singular, in some of which, though -es is added, only 


s is sounded. 


schoos, 459. bisschops, 4673. 


reliks, 13764. 


servantes, 101. greyhoundes, 190. 


dys, 1240. keverchefs, 455. lordyngs, lordynges, contractes, 6890. stiwardes, 581. 
caytifs, 926. 7250, 15725.  vestimentz, 2950. husbonds, 2825. 
yeddynges, 237. marchauntz, 4568, 4591. 


prechings, 6139. 


$ 23. The following have -em, -m, derived from 
the Saxon plural in -an of the 1st Declension. 


asschen (S. ascan), 1304, 1366. 
aissches, 12735. 
assen (S. assan), 5867. 
been (S. beón), 10518. 
bees, 7275, 10296 f, 16878. 
eren, yén (S. eágan), 152, 16786. 
fleen (S. fleán), 16949. 
hosen (S. hosan), 458, 3953, 15144. 
oxen (S. oxan), 5867, 16483. 
schoon (S. sceón, also sceos), 15143. 
schoos, 459. 
ton (S. tàn), 16348, 16666, 16793. 
toos, 16817. 


$ 24. The following have -m, -em, by imitation, 
being of various declensions in Saxon. 


bretheren (S. bróthru, L. brothere, brethren, broth- 
eres ; O, brethre), 13831, 14192. 
doughteren (S. dóhtru, L. dohtere, dohtren, dohtres), 
- 11741; doughtres, 16315. 
sistren (S. sweostru, L. sustren, sostres), 1021. 
sustres, 16353. 
children (S. cildru, cilde, cild, L. childere, children, 
childres, O. chilldre), 1195, 14908. 
childre, iii. 84; childer, 8031, 14912. 
foon (S. fa, Bosw.), 16192 f. 
foos, 15815; ii. 323. 
kyn (S. e$), 16317. 


$ 25. The following have no termination in the 
plural, according to the rule of Saxon neuters of the 
Second Declension. 


arguments, 4648. 
maundementz, 6866. 
instrumentz, 9587. 


deer (S. deor), 15147 f (misspelt dere, 11502 f). 
folk (S. folc), ii. 326; iii. 151. 
folkes! 12102, 13020, ii. 329; 13879? 
good (S. gód), 583, 613, 13217, 14654, 14843. 
hors * (S. hors, L. hors, horses), 600, 7129, 7141, 
15044; 15590 (?) ; so 5867, Tyrwh.; horses, iii. 
EEN 
neet (S. neat), 599 (where Wright reads “ meet”). 
scheep (S. scep), 599. 
swin (S. swin), 600. 
thing (S. thing, L. thing, thinges), 12468 f, 16039. 
thinges, 6166, 9805, 13853. 
yer, yeer (S. gear, gér), 3223, 8612, 8656, 9291, etc. 
yeres, yeeres, 2969 f, 7531 f. 


So night (fem. of 2d Decl.), 7467 f, “ fourty dayes 
and fourty night,” 16359, etc., like the Saxon niht; 
and wynter, “twenty wynter," 10357, 15545, ete., 
as also in Saxon; though both ought rather to be 
explained by a principle of syntax ; see further on, 
$ 100c. Freend, 3052, 3053, is probably a plural 
(S. fr$nd, freónd, freóndas, L. freond, freondes, 
O. freond). 


§ 26. The plurals formed by change of vowel are 
the same in Chaucer as in English. 


feet (S. fét), 1761; but feeté! 5524 f, “falleth him 
to feete." 

gees (S. gés), 16877. 

men (S. men), 178 f. 

teeth (S. té3), 7743. 


* So, in excellent MSS., at v. 74, “his hors weren 


gode." 


464 OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


$27. The following plurals of French words are 
remarkable. 


caas, 825, 13578, iii. 84. 

paas, 1892, 4726. 

degré, 1892. 

seeré, 6923 (?). 

orgon, 16337 f. 

vessel, 15634; 15712, 15714 (?). 
vesseals, 15680, 15687. 


But vessealx, 


richesses, ii. 368, 370, 371, iii. 92; sing. richesse, 


ii. 967 ; pl. riches, ii. 368. 


LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


§ 28. Genitive Plural. — The Genitive Plural in 
Chaucer is much the same as in English, saving, of 
course, the use of és instead of s. 


lordés hestés, 8405. seintes lyves, 6272. 
lordés doughtrés, 13488, folkes wyves, iii. 167. 
13491. mennes wittes, 4622; soules, 
foxes tailes, 15519. 7402. 
bestes dennes, 15749. — wymmens counseiles, 16742. 
his eyghen sight occurs, 10184. 


ADJECTIVES. 


$ 29. Adjectives which end in e in Saxon preserve 
the e in Chaucer. 


blithe (S. blipe, L. O. blide), 1880 f, 14210 f. 
blithé, 848; blith, 10652. 
clene (S. deene, L. clene, O. dene), 506, 12087, 
14288. 
clené, 12228.  * 
dere (S. deóre, L. deore, dure, O. deore, dere), 
13593 f, 14921 f. 
derne (S. derne, L. derne, O. dærne), 3200, 3278. 
drye (S. dryge, dry, O. drizze), 16334, 422 f, 15703 f. 
elenge (S. ellende — peregrinus, and therefore miser, 
as in other languages (see Diefenbach, i. 37), d 
being changed to g, as in the modern English form 
of the present participle?), 14633 f, 6781 f. 
fremde (S. fremede), 10743. 
grene (S. gréne, L. grene), 2937, 3876. 
heende (S. ge-hende (?), L. hende), 3199, 3401, 3487. 
kene (S. céne, L. O. kene), 2878 f, 9633 f, 15745 f. 
kynde (S. cynde), 649 f, 8728 f, 15008 f. 
lene (S. læne), 9727 f, 16299 f. 
newe (S. niwe, L. niwe), 430, 8881. 
proude (S. prfte, prát), 7809. 
prowd, 3863, 3167 (?). 
ripe (S. ripe), 17015. 
scheene (S. scêne, L. scene, O. shene), 115 f, 1511 f. 
softe (S. sófte, sóft, L. softe, O. soffte), 6994. 
stille (S. L. stille, O. stille, still), 10810f, 11782 f, 
16929 f. 
sterne (S. L. sterne, O. stirne), 8341. 
swete, swote (S. swéte, O. swet), 2429, 5967, 6041, 
15344. 
thenne (S. pynne), 4064 f, 9556 f. 
thikke (S. picce, L. picke), 551. 


trewe (S. treówe, L. treowe, O. trowwe), 533, 961. 

un-weelde (S. un-vylde = impotens), 16987 ; 3884 
also, but plural. 

white (S. hwite, hwit, L. white, whit), 4775. The 
common form is whit, 17065, 238, 3238, 2180 f. 


Several other adjectives might probably be inserted 
in this list, but as they are found in the Canterbury 
Tales only in the “definite form” (see $ 32), they 
have not been noticed. 

(all-) oone, is from the $. definite form ána — solus, 

9200, 9435, 14256 f, 14707 f. 
narwe, is from S. nearu, 627, 7385, etc. 
worthi, worthy (as if from weorpig) is from S. 

weorpe, wyrpe, 285, 461. 


$30. The following adjectives and adjective pro- 
nouns, though ending in a consonant in Saxon, have 
sometimes, or always, the termination e in Chaucer, 
resembling the nouns in $ 13 (compare Lat. atrox, 
Ital. atroce ; fallax, fallace, etc). 


alle (S. eall, all, L. al, O. all, alle), 1247, 1686, 2704, 
4586, 9623, 13589, 14015, 14472, etc. ; 
but al, 7057, 12613, 12599, 14091, 14240, 
14376. 
bare (S. ber, L. bare, bar), 8755, 8771 f, 11884 f, 
12660 f. 
blewe (S. bleoh), 566. 
eche (S. ele, L. ælc, eche, O. ille), 1184. 
evene (S. efen, L. efne, O. efenn), 83, 3316. 
faire (S. feger, L. feir, feire, O. fazzerr), 2388, 
2665, 12043; 
- but, fair, 165, 575, 3233, 7835 f, 9147 f, 9431 f, 
14432f. 
fawe (S. feah = fegen, as in feahlic), 5802 f. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


foule (S. fûl, L. ful, fule, O. fule), 6645, 6664 f. 
fresshe (S. feersc, L. freche, frech, O. fressh), 2388, 
9656, 9733, 10698. 
grete (S. great, O. grat), 4754, 9100, 9848, 10783, 
15885 ; 
but, gret, 341, 439, 749, 1189, 1247, 1401, 2485, 
4814, 5100, etc. 
highe (S. heáh, L. heh, hzhze, O. heh, hezhe), 7474, 
8011, 8082, 12436 f, 14055; 
but, highé, 11047, 11085; high, 14202, 14867. 
longe (S. lang, long, L. long, O. lang), 1575, 5399, 
5591, 6206, 11393, 14141, etc. ; 
but, long, 619, 1189, 2561. 
lowde (S. hlád), 10582. 
lowe (S. lah, L. loh, laih, laze), 3696 f, 6783 f. 
merye (S. mirig, L. murie, muri), 208 f, 8491 f. 
olde (S. eald, ald, L. ald, alde, olde, O. ald), 4470, 
9830, 11465 ; à 
but, old, 12129, 14128, 14155, 14160. 
rowe (S. hreów, hreóh, L. reh, raze, O. ruhh), 
12789 f. 
shorte (S. scort, L. sceort, O. shorrt), 6206 ; 
schorté, 748, 2548 ; schort, 93. ; 
suche (S. swyle, L. swile, sulche, O. swille), 8613, 
13800, 15628 ; | 
but, swich, 3, 2824. 
swifte (S. swift, O. swifft), 2870. 
tame (S. tam), 2188. ` 
wete (S. wet, L. wet), 2340. — 
` whiche (S. hwyle, L. while, woche, O. whillc), 15896. 
which, 4, 2677, etc. 
wise (S. wis, L. wis, wise, O. wis, wise), 11183. 
wys, 67, 787, 853. 
wylde, wilde (S. wild, L. O. wilde), 4170, 5858, 
* 5955, 7742, 15166, 15402. 
wild, 10126 (?). 
ylle (S. yfel, L. ufele, uvel, O. ille), 4182. 
y-nowe (S. ge-nóh, L. inoh, inowe, O. inoh), 12788 f. 


So, as if by dropping the final consonant * (compare 
Lat. mortalis, Pol, mortale, etc.). 


haire (S. haeren), 14151. 


forme fader (apparently from S. frumfader), ii. 335. 


* ware, 16094 f, should be war, and chare (chariot), 
16096 f, char, — this last not to be confounded with charé 
— chair, 16099. 

cristne, 5630, should probably be cristen, but the n 
might easily be transposed. 


465 


lyte, lite (S. lytel), 2629 f, 3861 f, 7182 f. 
litel occurs, 1527, 8860, 14635. 
moche (S. micel, mucel), 1810, 9114, 9117, 
9298, 16256. 
mochil(-el) occurs, 17269, 17270. 


$31. The following adjectives, of uncertain deri- 
vation, are found terminating in ë: 


badde, 9467, 3157 f, 9482 f, 15908 f. 

deynte, 15122 (deynteth, 16321) ; Welsh dantaidd 
— toothsome. 

dronkelewe, 7625 f, 9407 f: so costlewe, iii. 115, 117. 

meke, 3202, 6016f, 14653f; Goth. muks, North 
Friesic meek. 

racle, 17210, 17271, 17221 — rash. 

wikke, 1582 f, 5448 f: apparently allied with A. S. 
wicce — witch. 


$ 32. The Definite Form of monosyllabic Adjec- 
tives, including Participles and Adjective Pronouns 
(i. e. the Adjective when preceded by the Definite 
Article, by any other demonstrative, or by a Posses- 
sive Pronoun), ends in Chaucer in e. 


the yonge sonne, 7. 

his halfe cours, 8. 

this ilke monk, 175, 723, 12008. 

his owne * cost, 213, 542, 8019, 8528, 9119, 9175, 
9364, 13475, 13716, 13905, etc. 

the syke man, 426, 9255, 9749. 

atte (at the) fulle, 653. 

the seventhe yeer, 1464. 

the thridde night, 1465, 14251, 14486. 

thou felle Mars, 1561. 

the colde deth, 2010, 2780, 7934. 

his crispe her, 2167. 

here hoote love, 2321, 2385, 11558. 

the brighte sonne, 2439, 2291, 9622, 10099, 16252. 

the derke cote, 2459, 2470, 11156. 

the blake berd, 2519. 

that selve moment, 2586, 2862. 

the scharpe spere, 2606. 

the stronge kyng, 2646, 2640, 2423 f. 

the righte way, 2741, 9264. 

the harde stoon, 3023. 

the brode ryver, 3026. 

the deepe see, 3033. 

this wyde world, 3101. 


* The uncontracted owen is often treated as a dissyllable; 
as, myn owen lord, 10068, 11192, 11386. 


466 


the ferre leef, 3393. 

the deede sleep, 3643, 15524, 15535. 
the fourthe part, 4423, 9734. 

this weyke womman, 5352. 

the salte see, 5459, 5529. 

this glade folk, 5538, 8921. 

the same wise, 8549, 10438. 

thy borne man, 9664. 

the slakke skin, 9723. 

the smale wyket, 9919. 

thy fulle frend, 9940. 

this blinde knight, 10133, 13341 f. 
the quyke streete, 11806. 

the foule feend, 12633. 

his oughne sworne brother, 14119, 14222. 
this goode man, 14444. 

thin false querel, 15932. 


So, the foule feend, 12633. 
this grete wrong, 10228, 9201. 
the heighe God, 9199, 14048. 
his longe tale, 9531, 13149. 
his olde fader, 2840, 10133. 
the whiche brook, 3921, 6537. 
my whyte top, 3867, 4301, 17172. 
this wise philosophre, 14035, 9477. 


But these, and other similar forms, are not inserted 
in this list, because the indefinite forms have also, 
sometimes or always, a final e. 


$ 33. So, for the most part, the Definite Form of 
monosyllabic superlatives. 


dam beste begger, 252, 9542, 11043, 13408. 
atte (at the) beste, 29, 2209, 13403. 
his moste pryde, 897, 10614 f. 
pem leste weye, 1123, 8446 f, 11729. 
the leste strook, 1703. 
his firste purpos, 2544, 2989, 3687, 8621, 14441. 
his laste word, 2810, 13636. 
atte laste, 14793, 15009. 
the nexte way, 1415, 2367, 2369, 10075. 
the worste man, 14572, 9094. 


§ 34. Among Definite Forms of the Adjective are 
to be reckoned adjectives occuring in forms of ad- 
dress (as in Anglo-Saxon, leófa fader, etc.). 


false (S. fals), “ye, false harlot,” 4266, 4267, 16712. 
Indef. fals, 1132, 1155, 8876, 10453, 12956f, 13610. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


goode (S. gôd), “ goode lemman,” 4245, 8728, 13650, 
16930, iii. 88, 89. —Indef. good, 514, 617, 618, 
652. 

But, “O good Constance,” 5237. 

leeve (S. ledf, L. lef, leve), “leeve brother,” 1186, 
7026, 14146, etc. 

stronge (S. strang, L. strong, stronge), “O stronge 
god," 2375. — Indef. strong, 752, 1058. 

yonge (S. geong, L. zung, zunge), “O yonge Hughe, 
15095. — Indef. yong, 79. d 
It is possible, however, that some of these forms 

belong under $ 50. 


” 


$ 35. The Definite Form of Adjectives of more 
than one syllable has not the final e. 


a. Comparatives and Superlatives. 
the bettir, 6153. . 
the ferther, 10100. 
the badder, 10538. 
the schortest, 858. 
the oldest, 914. 
the grettest, 4052, 6698, 11504, 14022. 
the wisest, 4052, 15641, 12895. 
the yongest, 9433, 14252, 15917. 
the hihest, 11373, 11789. 
the porest, 13865. S 
the fairest, 15637. 


b. Past Participles in -ed, -t, -en. 


the wenged, 1387. 

the clothred, 2747. 

the cursed, 4502, 4852, 4853, 5241, 5311, 5378, 
7235, 12758, 13155. 

his crouned, 10839. 

the burned, 11559. 

this sotted, 13269. 

this croked, 14176. 

these weddid, 14514. 

the burnischt, 16350. 

the broken, 1922. 

this dronken, 3152, 3911, 3147, 16967. 


c. Adjectives in -ed, -en, -ful, -isch, -ly, -y, etc. 
thy lewed, 3147, 13807. 
this naked, 10470. 
the sacred, 1923. 
this wicked, 4824, 5859, 8661. 
this wrecched, 2997, 4694, 5338, 5378, 8726. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


the golden, 2508.* 

the cristen, 4800, 4806, 12463. 

the blisful, 772, 5146, 7989, 9135, 11118, 12169, 
12221, 13889, 14921, 14943. 

this sorweful, 1072. 

the woful, 1736, 4736. 

thyn dredful, 5357. 

this thoughtful, 8171. 

my faithful, 8186, 8219. 

the rightful, 12317. 

here ferful, 12588. 

his cherlisch, 3169. 

oure elvyssh, 12679, 12770. 

the Grekissch, 10523. 

thy wifly, 11765. 

thin homly, 9666. 

the grisly, 11171. 

this busy, 8010. 

that holy, 9137. 

this hasty, 9679. 

this worthi, 10346. 


So, the bitter, 5485, 11168, 11562. 
hir other, 11324, 13442. 
his endeles, 5371. 
the litel, 4493, 5254, 5269, 8443, 8447, 14920, 
14927. 
the passyng, 9101. 


d. Various Adjectives of Latin derivation and 
terminations. 
this real, 8143, 10340 

the vital, 2804. 

th' eternal, 11962. 

his cruel, 8610, 8616, 9867, 15589. 

that gentil, 2799, 5048, 5611, 10580, 13719, 14606. 
this subtil, 11573, 13175. 

this nobil, 14473. 

my soverayn, 11623, 15581. 

the sodeyn, 8192. 

the comyn, 4575, 8307. 

thy bastard, 15864. 

this present, 8346. 

the parfyt, 11768. 

the curious, 9451, 14685. 

hir pytous, 5500, 5534, 8017, 8997, 13581, 13641. 
hir vertuous, 8087, 9269. 

the precious, 15629. - 

the glorious, 15630. 


* the gege, 1989, should be the northern. 


467 


$ 36. The following exceptions to $ 32, $ 33, $ 35, 
a, occur, but many of the readings are suspicious. 


a. To $ 32. 


the gret, 2387, 2525, 14402. 

his high, 2539 (?), 9534 (?), 14328 (?). 
the dreynt, 4489 (?). 

the right, 8149. 

his fals, 13001. 

this good, 14503 (?). 

this proud, 3167 (?) ; (the proudé, 4311, 16245). 
this fiers, 4720. 


b. To $ 33. 


the first, 14239. 

at the, atte, last, 11059, 10759, 14259. 
for the best, 1849 f, 9392 f, 11198 f. 
the worst, 1616. 


c. To $ 35, a. 


the wofulleré cheer, 1342. 
the sorwfullesté man, 9972. 
the semliesté man, 17051. 


$ 37. The distinction of the French masculine and 
feminine adjective is preserved in one case, — seint. 


seint Jon, 5439, 5746, 7382, 7834, 14167. 
seint Denys, 14470, 14562. 
seint Jame, 5894. 
seint Joce, 6065. 
seynt Symoun, 7676. 
seint Loy, 120, 7146. 
seint Martyn, 14559. 
seinté Mary, 7186, 9211, 9773, 10292, 13723, 
14100. 
seynté Charité, 1723, 7701, 16806. 
seinté Trinité, 7406. 
seynté Frideswyde, 3449. 
But seynt Cecile, 12482, 12478. 
vv. 9483 — 8486 are corrupt. 


[So, apparently, in Layamon, seint Myhhel, seinte 
Marie, Vol. iii. p. 38.] 


$ 38, a. The Comparative Degree of the Adjective 
is generally formed in Chaucer, as in modern Eng- 
lish, in -er (S. -re). 


lever, 295. 
besier, 324. 


slyer, 6904. 
badder, 10538. 


468 


gretter, 865, 12545; grettere,* sother, 12142. 

1167. gladder, 13269. 
fairer, 1037; fairere,* 756. merier, 16337. 
fresscher, 1039, 11259. 


b. A few Comparatives of * irregular " Adjectives 
- retain the Saxon e. 


worse, werse (S. wyrse, L. wurse, wurs, O. wersse), 

8551, 9667, 17252, 10914 f. 
wersé, 1226 (7) ; wors, wers, 8503, 3731 f. 

lasse, lesse (S. læsse, L. O. lasse), 14280, 17268, 
14895 f, 15357 f. 

more (S. máre, L. O. mare), 219, 1557, 4050 ; mor, 
16255, 7485, 10648 ; moo, mo (plur.), 578, 810, 
9286, 9987, 10615, 12651, iii. 132. 

bettre * (S. betere, O. bettre), 526, 650; bet (in Sax. 
adverbial form), 4534, 4731, 10914, iii. 125, 128. 


c. The vowel change of the “ ancient” comparison 
is found in the following : — 


(long, 619), lenger, 332; lengere,* 823. 

(old, 3865), elder, 15746; his felaw, which that 
elder was than he, 14941; eldest, 15898; (old- 
est, 914.) | 

strenger, 14240; strengere,* ii. 373; for though 
he weré strong, yit was sche strenger, 16007; 
strengest, 15561. 


d. Some analytic forms of comparison are found. 


mo slakke = slacker, 14824. 
more heigh, more lowe, iii. 153. 
the moste stedefast, 9425. 

the moste deintevous, 9588. 

the moste free, 11926. 

the moste lusty, 17039. 


the moste grettest occurs ii. 374. 
(fer, 3395, 4013), ferrest (S. fyrrest) — furthest, 496. 
next (S. nyhst, next) — modern nearest, 2367, 10075. 


$ 39. The Plural of Monosyllabic Adjectives ends 
in é. The same is the case with some of the Pro- 
nouns and with many of the Cardinal Numbers.f 


* These forms in -re are all suspicious. Those of three 
syllables (if correctly spelt) are contracted in reading, so 
that the metre does not determine their validity, and er 
and re are easily interchanged. See $84. ` 

t Those front four to twelve, inclusive, took an e in 
Saxon when used absolutely. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


a. blake (S. blac, sing. blak, 913, 2132), 559, 9958 f, 

11171 f, 12485 f, 16422. 

blynde (S. blind, sing. blynd, 10214, 15483), 4973 f, 
10244 f, 15563. : 

cold (S. ceald, sing. cold, 1577, 4346 f), 1304 f, 
11176 f. 

dede (S. dead, sing. deed, 1201, 1276), 7090, 11493. 

deve (S. deaf, sing. deef, 448), 12214 f. 

dulle (S. dwal, dol), 4622 f. 

goode (S. gód, sing. good, 183), 3156, 9416. 

hore (S. hár, sing. hoor, 3876, 9338), 7764 f. 

hote (S. hát, sing. hoot, 7018), 9682. 

reede (S. reod, sing. reed, 1912), 90 f, 12443 f, 
16416, 16417. 

sadde (S. sed, sing. sad, 17207), 17190. 

scharpe (S. scearp, sing. scharp, 2005), 475 f, 
2028, 9033. 

sclendre (sing. sclender, 16319), 9476 f. 

seeke, sike (S. sfc, sing. sik, 16323 f), 18 f, 245. 

slakke (S. sleac), 14824. i 

smale (S. smzl, sing. smal, 158), 9, 146, 8256f, 
17005. 

stronge (S. strang, sing. strong, 637, 1058), 2137 f, 
14204 f. 

wayke (S. wác, sing. weyk, 14892), 889. 

wrothe (S. wrád, sing: wroth, 7743f), 1181 f, 6821 f. 

wyde (S. wid, sing. wyd, 493), 28 f, 93 f, 559 f. 

yonge (S. geong, sing. yong, 79), 213, 1013. 


So, sworne brethren, 6987 ; gilte cheynes, 15850. 


. bothe (S. bá-twá), 1841, 1858, 6644, 7613. 
fele (S. fela), 8793. 
fewe (S. feawe, feawa), 641, 7432 f, 8099. 
othere, othre (S. other), 3232, 10803, 15640 ; 
but other (uncontracted), 7369, 7477, etc. 
suche * (S. swylc), 8215, 10541, 12723, 15761. 
whiche * (S. hwyle), 1015, 4500, 9170, 9319, 
10295, 16156. 


c. twayne, tweye (S. twegen), 8526 f, 706 f, 8947. 

foure (S. feower, -e), 2141, 3883, 13388. 

fyfe (S. fif, -e), 462 f, 12483. 

sixe (S. six, -e), 14585. 

sevene (S. seofon, -e), 7587 f, 95141, 12748? | 
but seven, 16352, 16678. 

twelve (S. twelf, -e), 4139 f, 7840, 14639 ; 
but twelf, 7839. 

threttene (S. preottyne), 7841. 


* suche, whiche, occasionally are used for the singular ` 
also. : 


o~ 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


fiftene (S. fiftyne), 61 f, 16343. 
eyghteteene (S. eahtatyne),* 3223. 


. $ 40. The plural of adjectives and participles of 
more than one syllable has no -e. 


a. corsed stories, 4500, 14007, 15096. 
countrefeted letters, 5229. 
weddid men, 8498, 9104, 9525. 
cered poketts, 12736. 
sleves purfiled, 193. 
broken sleepes, 1922. 
colours longyng, 10353. 
they thankyn galpyng, 10668. 


b. skalled browes, 629. 
lewed wordes, 10023. 
wikked werkes, 5414, 6267, 16102. 
wrecched wommen, 952, 8726; wrecchede, 923 ? 
sacred teeres, 1923. 
golden clothis, 5927. 
cristen men, 4800, 4960, 4967. 
open werres, 2004. 
thinges spedful, 5147. 
woful wrecches, 1719. 
synful deedes, 6740, 11965. 
careful sikes, 11176. 
blisful sydes, 11971. 
seely clerkes, 4098, 7488. 
mighty werkes, 4898. 
litel children, 4493. 
bitter teeres, 2227. 
wiser men, 9443. 
other men, 12672, 13981 ; 8312, absolutely. 


c. certeyn yeres, 2969, 3195, 4900, etc. 
mortal batailles, 61. 
cruel briddes, 15586, 1305. 
gentil men, 6693, 11021. 
subtil clerkes, 9301. 
parfyt blisses, 9512. 
jelous strokes, 2636. 
eldres vertuous, 6736, 10155 f. 
pitous teeres, 12329. 
sightes mervelous, 11518 f. 


§ 41. Even monosyllabic participles standing in 
the predicate are unvaried in the plural. The same 
is sometimes the case with monosyllabic adjectives. 


* T should have added to the note on p. 468, “ except 
perhaps eahta, nigon, endlufon." 


VOL. VIII. 61 


469 


a. were hurt, 2710. 
been born, 4706. 


ben knyt, 11542, 14451. 

ben stert, 11689. 

ben went, 9575. be brent, 13335 f. 

were kept, 10003. sworn were, 13392. 

been maad, 2091, 5698, were slayn, 15525. 
5700, 10536. 


b. quyk (they were), 1017. which they weren, 40. 
were glad, 5804, 6930, were wroth, 8313. 
8251, 8880. 
were fayn, 2709. 
But, blaké were, 559. 


were seeké, 18 f. 
wayké ben, 889. 


(were) lik, 16354, 


weren wydé, 28 f, 93 f, 
559 f. 

ben devé, 12214 f. 

dedé were, 11493. 


$ 42. Exceptions. 


To $ 39, a. brent bones, 12687. 
$ 39, c. enleven (S. endlufon), 17300. 
$ 40, a. lernede men, 577? lerned men, 14389; 
eyen fast y-schette, 4980 f? (Qu. fasté 
schette ?) 
-§ 40, c. dyversé freres, 7537, 10516, 13026f ; 
- dyversé folk dyversély they seyde, 
3855, 4631, 9343, 10516; divers freres, 
7532 ; thay ben so dyvers, 7588 f. 
$41. been mette, 1638 ? 
weren feldé, 2926 ? 
they be i-mette, 5535. 
ben sette, 5538. 
were made, 5702? been maad, 2091, 
5698, etc. 


$ 43. The following adjectives (of French origin) 
exhibit the French plural in s.* 


(places) delitables, 11211 f. 
(necessaries as ben) plesynges, 5131 f. 
wayes espirituels, iii. 82. 
goodes espiritueles, iii. 104 ; 

but thinges espirituel, iii. 183. 
travailes that ben covenables, iii. 148. 


§ 44. Of the Genitive Plural of Adjectives there 
remains a trace in the word all; e. g.:— 
here aller (S. eallra) cappe, 588. 


your alther cost, 801. 
oure althur cok, 825. 


* Even Palsgrave says (1530) pronownes primytyves, 
verbes actyves parsonalles. 


470 


altherbest — Germ. allerbest, 712. 
altherfirst — Germ. allererst, 10863, 9492, 12351, 
ii. 343. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


So, alderlast, Black Knight, 503, 561. 
alderlevest, Trotlus, iii. 239. 


PRONOUNS. 


$ 45. (The forms and inflections of all, each, such, 
which, ilk, own, same, self, both, fele, few, other, are 
given with those of Adjectives, at $8 30, 32, 85, c, 
39, b, 44.) 


Personal Pronouns, and their Possessives. 


yk (S. ic) = I, occurs 3865; ich, 10037; also in 
theek (thee ik), 3862, and theech (thee ich), 
12857, 14362. 
my (S. min), sing. my lady, 1145; my counseil, 
1149; my brother, 1163, ete. 
myn aventure, 1162; farwel, my sweté, farwel, 
myn Emelye, 2782. 
myn herte may myn harmes nat Meter, 2231. 
myn lokyng, 2471. 


plur. my cheekes, 2329 ; my sorwes, 2421; myn - 


heeres, 3868; myn armes, 2249. 
absolute forms: myn be the travail, 2408, etc. ; 
so, cosyn myn, 1283, etc. 
myné ben the maladies, 2469 ; the cokkes wordes 
and not myné, 16751. 
neghébour of myné, 15387; so, yonge children 
myné, 8969 f. 
thy (S. pin), sing. 
1588, etc. 
thyn othe, 1141, etc.; thi ayel, 2479? 
thin herte, 2393, etc. 
thyn werk, 5348; thyn crowdyng, 4719; thyn 
sikernesse, 4845; thyn gentilnesse, 5273; 
thyn fortune, 16147. 
plur. thy eraftes, 2411 ;.thy songes, 17183. 
thyn floures, 1512; thyn giftes, 9937; thyn 
dayes, 4846; thin synnes, iii. 179, 180. 
thyn blisful eyghen, 5265; thyné (?) verray 
frendes, 9178. 
absolute forms: thin be the glorie, 2408; the 
fruit is thin, 1284. 
on of thiné, 2383 f. ; 
hir, hiré (S. hire, gen. and dat.): hir, 460,] _ 
3237, 3238, 3239; 16313— 16329, | 
ue gen. dat. 
sixteen cases. 
- hirá, 123, 128, 184, 461, 472, 474, | ^^*"*- 
475, etc. 


thy cosyn, 1133; thy name, 


hir thoughte ladyes oughten hir to spare, 
what from hir kynreed and hir nortelrye. 
3964, 5. 


absol. form, heres. 
mue our, 7411, 7553, 7681. 
eun ae MAR | ouré, 34, 921, 1110, 1284, etc., ete. 
ouré, sing. 6111, 6177; plur. 14248 (?). 
absol. form: this gold is nought oures, 14201. 
your, youré, { your, 7556, 7771, 7832, 7892, etc. 
(S eówer). Kee? 919, 922, 929, 1106, etc., etc. 
youré, sing. 16414? 
absol. form: I wil be youre, 13176; youre is the 
charge, 13510. [14695. 
I am yourés al, 10911; my gold is yourés, 
an old felaw of yourés, 14087 f. 
(our prayeres ben mor acceptable) than yourés, 
7496, : 
her, hir, heré (S. hira) — their: — her, hir, 7509, 
7510, 7514, 7528, 7580, 8256, 13510, etc., etc. 
heré, 11, 32, 1018, 2036, 2575, 2597, etc., ete. 
absol. form: heris, 7508. 
hem (S. him) = them: 11, 31, 2574, 7510, ete. 


The Saxon genitives min, pin, fire, eówer, are - 
declined (like adjectives) for possessive pronouns, 
but not the genitives of the third person. 

Of the above forms, some of those in ë must be 
regarded as adjectives declined. 


$ 46. In Saxon, sylf, self, same, was declined like 
an adjective both definitely and indefinitely, and 
agreed with the pronoun to which it was attached; as, 
ic sylf, or ic sylfa, Zmyself ; be me sylfum, by myself. 
The forms ic me-sylf, pú pe-self, Z myself, etc., also 
oceur. The following are the combinations of the 


| personal pronouns with self in Chaucer : — 


myself, 11735. 

myselve, 9334, 11674. 

myselven, 805, 14590. 

thyselven, 1176. 

himself, 219, 15323, 15941. 

himselve, 530 f, 537 f, 4464, 6737. 
himselven, 1479, 9714, 11513, 12912. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


hirself, 11717. . 
hirselve, 10698 f, 10732, 10951 f. 
hirselven, 11727, 11745, 16854. 


youreself, 1837, 9614, 10768, 14157. 
-yourselve, 8350, 10772. 
yourselven, 6809, 10556. 


hemself . (= themselves), 1256 ; ii. . 884; ; iii. 89. 
hemselfen, 11690. 


Demonstratives, and others. 


§ 47. 


that (S. neut. pet), definite article = the, as in “ that 
oon — that other," 1351, 1353, 7603, 9350, 9351, 
12151, 12152, 14222, etc., etc. 

tho (S. plural pa?) —those; oon of tho that, 2353. 
who ben tho that, ii. 354, 355. 
and tho were bent, 3246. 
tho wordes, 500, 10256. 

they (S. plural pa), 16, 40, 41, ete. (their and them 
do not occur). 

thi, 1755, should probably be thei (“gentil men 
thi were”). 

thes, plur. of this (S. pas), 2189, 10607. 


471 


1060, 2625, 2837, 4230, 
12138, 12209, 17119, ete. 


this, plur. of this, 


thesé (?) « e 9150, 11555, 11613, 14076, 
14307, - 14913, 15040, 
16687, 16688. 

thisé (?) * gd 9110. 


whos, genitive (S. hwees), 5062, 5438, 7350 ; iii. 176, 
178. 
everich = every, each; whan tweye han everich 
wounded other, ii. 327. 
everich wolde aske his oughne thing, iii. 370, ete. 
on, oon (S. án) = one, 3815 (“herd on crie"); 
2711 f, 343, 16470. 
0, oo, 343, 2735, 5985, 16470. 
non, noon (S. nan) :— non auditour, 596 ; noon harm, 
5256; noon deynteth morsel, 16321. 
no: — no cost, 192 ; no dore, 552, etc. 
plur. noon holy men, 178 ; noon countrefeted termes, 
13466; noon hasardoures, 14028. 
non dremes, 16455. 
noon, absolute form, 320, 344, eté., as in English. 


For some peculiar uses of pronouns, see further on, 
$$ 102, 103, 104. 


VERBS. 


- $48. Present Indicative. — The First Person 
. Singular of the Present Indicative terminates in é. 


I make, 895, 1735. I doute, 9315. 

` reeche, 1400. trowe, 10765. 
drede, 1595. thanke, 11616. 

— have, 1607. take, 12220. 
aske, 1741. pronounce, 13750. 
forgeve, 1820. stonde, 13806. 
knowe, 2113. preche, 13808, 13839. 
love, 2769, 12164. rekke, 13820. 
rede, 3073. telle, 13832. 


. warne, 3583, 13219. 
swelte, 3702. 

mene, 5061. 
beschrewe, 6427. 
wynne, 7014. 
desire, 8383. 


But, 
I bequethé, 2770. 


trow, 1803, 3665, 10527, 


17312. 


knokke, 14145. 
saye, 14146. 
wane, 14147. 
graunte, 14237. 
praye, 15429. 
etc., etc. 


I felé, 9332, 9338. 
hopé, 9548. 
redé, 14208. 


I answer, 4892. 
schrew, 7024. 


I fel, 2234 f? 


$ 49. The Second Person of the Present Indica- 
tive ends in -st as in modern English. But some- 
times in -s.* 
thou saist, 12408. 
thou sest, 13047. 
sclaundrest, 13623. 
discoverest, 13624. 


goddés of maydenes 
that myn hert has 
knowe, 2302. 

thou wytes, 4528. 


etc., etc. thou ne has, 5051. 
So, lixt (for ligst, A. S. lygst), what dos thou, 10241. 
7200, 7343. says thou, 12188. 


thou spekis, 12420. 


$50. The Third Person ends generally in -eth, 
th, occasionally in -es (is). 


priketh, 11. schyneth, 978. 
seith, 743. laugheth, 1496. 


takth, 5562, etc. 
bathis, 8961. 


* The second and third persons occasionally, but very 
rarely, end in Anglo-Saxon in is. 


472 OBSERVATIONS ON THE 

bereth, 798. comth, 5204. bigynnes, 16168. 

telleth, 799. makth, 5318. writes, 5764, 
17326.* 


So, fares, 4021; falles, 4025 ; gas, 4035 ; bringes, . 


4128 ; says, 4178; has, 4203 ; all in the language of 
the Clerks in the Reeves Tale. 


§ 51. But Saxon verbs which have t or d for the 
last consonant of the root, and one or two which have 
s, form the Third Person Singular in t, as in Saxon. 


sitt, sit, syt, 3641, 3817, smyt, 7998. * 
6291,9153,9821,10036, light, 5526. 
10131, 10164, 10189, put, 13788, iii. 88, 128. 


10391, 10493, etc. 

set, 7564. 

writ, 6291; 16609? 

let, 8465. 

stant, stont, 3677, 7615, 
9896, 10485, 10496, 
10630, 11566, 12101, 
14525, etc. 

fynt, fint, 4069, 4128, 
5570, 12146, 13800. 

grynt, 5971. 

sent, 9027. 

hut, 10825. 

holt, halt, 9224, 12849, 

rist, ryst, arist, 3688, 
4685, 5284, iii. 83. 


hight, 1974. 


byt (bids), 187, 9251, 


10605. 

byt (abides), 13103. 

rit, ryt, 10483, 12536, 
17011. 

slyt, 12610. 

chyt, 12849. 

blent, 13319. 

schent, iii. 161, 162. 


kyst (?), 4805, 7386. 


Exceptions sometimes occur, a dissyllabie form 
being used, as also in A.-Saxon. 


sittith, 1601, 8414, 9718, 
10200. 

byddeth, 3641. 

rideth, 14734, 

stondith, 14060. 


kissith, 9822. 
ryseth, 1495, 13662. 
bihetith, iii. 102. 
heetith, iii. 111. 
putteth, iii. 131. 


$ 52. The Plural of the Present Indicative ends, — 
a. in eth (ith, th) = S. atb, 


meteth, 1526. 


doth, 1533. 
schyneth, 2045. 


saith, 4207. * 
fleeth, 4541. 
loveth, 5903. knoweth, ii. 376. 


weneth, 9988. 
hath, 12651. 


goth, 2567,2604. maketh, 6740.  haveth, ii. 361. 


clepith, 3759. 


delyvereth, 7306. bitydeth, ii. 345. 


beth, 4052, 4544. sittith, 9584. 


* 


e See note on preceding page. 


"LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


b. more commonly in -em, n (yn): 


maken, 9. 
slepen, 10. 
longen, 12. 
knowen, 732. 
ben, 764. 

gon, 771, 1269. 
comen, 803. 
spenden, 808. 
han, 851. 
tellen, 861. 
pertourben, 908. 
beseken, 920. 


€. sometimes in e: 
wende, 16 f. 
knowe, 644. 
laboure we, 7064. ` 
fynde, 9156. 
lyve, 9157. 
take, 11552. 


sayn, 1200. 
faren, 1267. 
Seeken, 1268. 
seen, 2605. 
loven, 6507. 
arn, 8218. 
thankyn, 10668. 


' elepen, 14090. 


doon, 14912. 
rennen, 16669. 


wene, 9156, 13764. 
come, 13892. 

gete, 13956. 

caste, 13957. 

say, 8507 (contracted ?). 


$ 53. Imperfect toledo. 
Simple (or * Regular") Verbs. 


a. 'The Imperfect of Simple Verbs is often formed 
by adding -ede, -de, or -te to the root, with occa- 
sional change of vowel, — as in Saxon. 


lovede, 45, 97, 446. 
semede, 387. 
 lakkede, 758. 


fedde, 146 f. 

hadde, 449, 619, 14605. 

herde, 1125 f, 14929. 

answerde, 1126 f, 1716, 
3492, 3777, 7088, 
7897 f, 11889. 

deyde, 2845, 2848. 

sende, 4134 f. 


wente, 78, 255, 2811, 
14252. 

kepte, 444, 4916 f. 

highte, 618, 862, 1193, 
4012, 7908, 10344, 
10347, 15606, etc. 

hente, 959 f. 

alighte, 985 f. 

sente, 2982. 

slepte, 4917 f. 


weddede, 870. 
lyvede, 2847. 
servede, 8516. 


seide, 1601, 2670, 
14130, 14136, 
14166, 14385, 
15077. 


made, 13532. 
wende, 14197 f. 


fette, 8550. 
laste, 10887. 
faste, 12067 f. 
mette, 14128 f. 
grette, 14129 f. 
coste, 15146. 
schente, 16327. 


broughte, 11876. 
taughte, 14099. 


b. The Imperfect Indicative often (perhaps more 


El 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


commonly) drops the e of the above-mentioned ter- 


minations. 1 
loved, 166, 1198, 1204, prayed, 15011. 
3222, 4418. caused, 1097. 
loked, 2044, 2521. had, 3191, 3388. 
trowed, 2103. seyd, 2707, 4234, 5647, 
answerd, 3136. « 13361. 
grasped, 4291. wend, 4302. 


dwelled, 1978, 4554. 
semed, 39, 315, 324, 


- nold, wold, 4378, 13312. 
schuld, 2707, 4008, 


2664, 13230. 17081. 
defendid, 5642. herd, 4166. 
thanked, 15665. styked, 4929. 
went, 3319. woldé, 278. 
clapt, 3738. madé, 2990. 


hight, 1015, 4011. 
put, 13236. 
thought, 1387. 
brought, 11585.* 
€. The Second Person Singular of the Imperfect 
Indicative of simple verbs is formed in -est, like 
tHe Saxon, and English. 
lovedest, 1164. usedest, 2387, etc. 
brendest, 2386. haddest, 2389, etc. 


But thou axid occurs, 7064. 


answerdé, 12261, 12359. 
saydé, 14100. 
laydé, 15585. 


§ 54. Imperfect of Strong, Complex, or “ Irreg- 
ular," Verbs. 


a. A few verbs have, besides the Strong Imper- 
fect, a later form of the other conjugations, e. g.: — 


sleep (S. slép), 98, 5165, 9731; slepte, 4192 f; slept, 
11033. 

weep (S. weóp), 2823, 2880, 8421; wepté, 148. 

creep (S. creáp), 4224, 4258 ; crepte, 4191 f. 


The following cases are suspicious, and some, if not 
all of them, bad readings : — 


bifelle, befille, fille, 9771, 10390, 10007, 10883. 
dronke, 7643. 


* The rhyme in this and several other cases will show 
conclusively that the final e was actually dropped, and 
not simply left off by the copyists : — 


brought (rh. nought), 11585. 

went (rh. yhent, participle), 12462. 
asterted (rh. converted, part.), 4857. 
ameevyd (rh. agreeved, part.), 8374. 
redressed (rh. oppressed, part.), 11748. 
aspyed (rh. allyed, part.), 16014. 
ayled (rh. i-sayled, part.), 16586. 


473 


eete, 15703. (Tyrwhitt has a good reading.) 
come (to), 1729 (should be, “com unto "). 
badde (foure), 4911 (should be, “bad the foure "). 


see has various forms: saw, 11503, 11505; saugh, 
193, 766; seigh, 852 ; seyh, 957 ; say, 8543, 15929, 
etc. (A.-S. seáh, séh.) 
sihe, 11162f (if correct), is an instance of an é 
arising from the softening away of a guttural. 
ryngede (the tromp and clarioun) occurs 2602; rong, 
14077. The conjugation of the A.-Saxon hringan 
is uncertain, but it would be strange if a verb weak 
.in Saxon had become strong in English. 


b. The 2d Person Singular of the Imperfect In- 
dicative of Strong Verbs (which in A.-Saxon termi- 
nates in €) has commonly in Chaucer no termination, 
or is the same as the 1st and 3d. 


thou bihight, 2474. thou bar, 8944, 11976. 
* gaugh, 5268. * spak, 12422, 14168. 
* swor, 8372. * dronk, 15712. 
thou flough, 16717. 
thou were, 16146f, 16718, iii. 180, 
181; weré, neré, 4786, 13635, 
15866, 15888, 15892, 17177. 
* gave, 15937. . 
* songé, 17226. 
knewest occurs, 4787. 
hightest “ 8372? 
bygonnest * 12370. 


The e is 
doubtful in 
these, and 
especially in 
j gave, songé. 


§ 55. The Plural of the Imperfect Indicative (both 
of Simple and Complex Verbs) ends, — 


a. in -em. 


wolden, 27. dronken, 822, 2716, 15686. 
weren, wern, 28, 29, 593, fillen, 951. 

630, 958. faughten, 1838. 
prayden, 813. ronnen, 2927. 
ferden, 1649. seeten, saten, 2895, 11520. 
foyneden, 1656. founden, 4663. 


brenden, 2427. songen, 5798. 

passeden, 2576. comen, 8353. 

oughten, 3964. gaven, 12343. 

sayden, 6507, 6509. token, ii. 382; tooken, ii. 
. broughten, 8683. 365. 

wenten, 11525, etc., etc. 

b. in Ge? 
hadde, 375, 381, 762. founde, 1011 f, 14184. 
sayde, 1435. blewe, 2514. 


414 


hatede, 8607. 
wiste, 11801. 
schulde, 14233. 


come, 2577 (comé, 14184: 
com, sing. 14090). 

fille, 2668 f. 

songe, 9609 f, 11024 f. 

byhighte, 11639. 


Or, c, has no termination. 


schuld, 2543,4898, 14233. sawgh, saugh, seigh, 4638, 
cried, 2564. 7121,9565,9678,13034. 
besought (rh. nought), bigan (rh. man), 5767; by- 


* 


4116. gon, 7142. 
had, 5786. schon, 9000. 
sayd, 7872. wan, 11713. 
remued, 11517. sat, 14079. 
herd, 14251. com, 16473. 


used, 14910. fond, 16476. 


ran (rh. man), 16867. 


$ 56. The Singular of the Subjunctive, both Pres- 
ent and Imperfect, terminates uniformly in é through 
all the persons. 


a. Present. 

if gold ruste, 502. 

(the martir) quyte you, 772. 
(though) he have, 1323. 

how sore that me smerte, 1396. 

pray I that Arcita me bere, 2258. 

God spede yow, 2560, 771 f. 

God save yow, 2565. 

but if thou madde, 3158. 

(Crist) blesse this hous, 3484. 

if thou wreye me, 3507. 

though thou aske, 3557. 

(that non) ne speke, 3586. 

God forbede, 4337, 11914, 13303. 

or thou come, 4539. 

speke we, 5374, iii. 138. 

if it like to this companye, 6860. 

til it be so that thou forsake, 7104. 

if eny have, 7115. 

(we pray) that he the sende, 7528. 

God yelde yow, 7759. 

(it liketh) that I yow wedde, 8222. 

God schilde that it scholde so byfalle, 9108, 3427, 

14675, 14697. . 

though Theofrast liste lye, 9171. 

schapen that he faile, 9506. 

tyl myn herte breke, 10180. 

and if thou drede nought, 12405. 

sitte we doun, 13123. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


bytyde what bytyde, 15282. 
to oure hihe goddis thanke we, 15683. 
as wis God helpe me, 16894. 

so sore that the bihove, ii. 344. 

he us bringe, iii. 187. 

Several of the above forms would, by the modern 
definitions, be assigned to the Imperative Mood, but 
etymologically that view would be incorrect. The 
Anglo-Saxon had Imperative forms for only the 
second person. Thus, go we, 14634, is expressed 
in Saxon with the subjunctive, gan we (Apollonius), 
when the auxiliary uton is not used. So, to-becume 
pin rice, geweorde pin willa, thy kingdom come, thy 
will be done. (Matthew vi.) 


Exceptions : no man ne draw, 2549. © 
havé thou ynough, 5911, 5918. 
God help me so, 16911. 
(I pray) that never dawé, 10069. 


b. Imperfect. 


and though the ones on a tyme mysfillé, 2390. 
that if so were that enything him smerté, 10879. s 
God schildé that he deydé, 3427. 

for haddé God comaundid, 5651. 

for though he weré strong, 16007. 


Exception: for if ther fellé to morwe such a caas, 2112. 


c. The Plural of the Subjunctive is in -em, e. 


or ye me sleen, 11634. or that ye breké, 11632. 


lest that thay deidin, 7483. 


$57. Imperative. 


In Anglo-Saxon the 2d person singular of the Im- 
perative consists of the root of the verb, and termi- 
nates, therefore, in what is called the characteristic 
consonant ; except that verbs whose infinitive is in -an 
(1st Conj., Ist class) have the Imperative sing. in a 
(as lufian, lufa), while those which have a double 
characteristic drop one of the consonants and replace 
it with an e (as sittan, site). The plural of the Im- ` 
perative is the same as that of the Indicative, and 


ends in ath (iath), when the pronoun or subject . 


goes before or is omitted, or in e, when the pro- 
noun which is the subject follows. 

In Chaucer, the Imperative exhibits considerable 
irregularity. The a of the Saxon Imperative sin- 
gular of the 1st Conj. becomes e, which e is some- 
times shortened or suppressed. The full plural form 
(in -eth) is of very frequent occurrence; but some- 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


times the -th appears to be dropped, and very fre- 
quently the whole termination. In this case the 
plural is not to be distinguished from the a. 
form, and both are found together. 


$ 58. 2d Person Singular. 
a. Simple Conjugation. 
aske, axe (S. ásca), 3557, 14082. 
herkne, harke (S. herena), 9186, herk, 7500. 
7133. 
grope (S. grápa), 7723, 13164. 
knokke (S. cnoca), 3432. 
thanke (S. thanca), 16172. 
have (S. hafa), 2421? 


Exceptions. 


havé, 2227, 2394, 
3551, 3726. 

loké, 3549, 13164, 
14084, 14245. 

schewé (S. sceawa), 
7675. 

mak (S.maca), 3720. 

telle (S. tele), 7026, 15567. tellé, 3433. 

bygynne (S. begine ?), 18049 f. tel, 7345, 12543, 

14171, 14807, 
. 15058. 
fetté (S. fece), 3492. 


levé,* 7671? 


Joke (S.16ca), 7169, 7838, 15109. 


lef (S. laef), 1616. 

fynd thou (S. find), 2246. 

speed (S. spéd), 3562, 3726. 

stynt (S. stint), 3146. 

keep (S. cép), 6488, 14843, 
17251, 17294. 

red, reed (S. rêd), 17276, 17277. 

send (S. send), 2327, 3598. 

plight (S. pliht), 6591. 

thenk (S. thenc), 10039, 17250, 
17294. 

thou bek (S. bécn), 17278 (pro- 


noun before). 
recché (S. réc), 12626? 


yeldé (S. gild), 13604? 
wreké (S. wréc), 15391? 
b. Complex Conjugation. 
spek, 3803, 12621, 17278. 
ber, 7569. 
brek, 15413. 
com, 6015, 7184, 16493. 


* The superfluous final é in levé, and in all the forms 
which follow in the same column, is altogether suspicious, 
and probably should be dropped. 


et, 15936. 


475 


Exceptions. 


gif, 2262, 2422, 7185, 16947. 


hold, 2670, 12621, 16969. 


bihold, 16501. 
awak, 4260 f. 


awaké, 4286? 16947? 


tak, 2228, 7113, 12122, 13048, také, 9172? thou 


13639, 14057, 17095. 


take, 15937 ? 


far (well), 14675, 14775, 15927. 
let, lat, 923, 6015, 7184, 17107. leté, 3713? 


do, 2407, 11368, 14806. 


go, 9431, 14082. 


fynd, 2246. 
drynk, 7635. 


wepé, 2480? 


help, 2088, 2404, 3610, 3813, 


14884, 16492. 
smyt, 17217. 
rys, 13133, 10012. 
wyt, 10051. 
abyd, 5751. 
ches, 1616. 
be, 6488. 


chest, 1597 ? 
rydé, 15413 ? 


c. In the following cases the final e is difficult to 
be-accounted for, unless an abridged plural form is 
confounded with the singular. 


holdé thy pees, 9606. 


(Tyrwhitt has hold thou.) 


werké by counseil, and thou schalt nat rewe, 3530. 


as sendé love..... 2319. 
ne with no wood man walké by the way, 7669. 


§ 59. 


a. draweth, 837, 840. 
smyteth, 784. 
herkeneth, 790, 830, 

7238, 14111. 
cometh, 841, 14340. 
stynteth, 2676. 
trusteth, 3090. 


haveth, 1112, 11012. 


goth, 2560, 2562. 
telleth ye, 3120. 
doth, 8528, 11377. 
axith, 8529. 
beoth, beth, 3578, 
7883, 14098. 
wakith, 7236. 
reweth, 11286. 
holdeth, 11376. 


Plural. 


telleth, 11927, 14538, 
14540. 

saith, 12103. 

kepeth, 12154. 

understondith, 13093, ii. 

353. 

takith, 12987, 13104. 

sendeth, 14029. 

levith, 14074, ii. 361. 

giveth, ii. 379. 

studieth, 843. 

saveth, 4649. 

prayeth, 7236, 7245. 

retourneth, 8685. 

considerith, 9705. 

examineth, ii. 348, 


416 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


b. Occasionally, the Plural of the Imperative, if 
the MS. be correct, loses its final consonant. 


youre pacience ye holde (an un- 
hithe, 7191. doubtedly correct form), 7719 f. 
trille, 10642. loke, 11304, 13257. 

make, 14837. 


awake, 3700. 


c. Often the termination is entirely dropped. 


hold, 785. lok, 6695; Joke, 14352, 
fight, 810. tel, 5768,7005, 7086, 7885. 
ley, 843, 2560. let (which form only occurs), 
forget, 2799. 833, 842, 3085. 
tak, 13767, 13771, — teché, 7000. 
13775; také, 2783, kys, 6821; kissé, 10058. 
14192. lené, 3084, 14597, 14598. 
com, 10315. chesé, 6801, 6809. 
byd, 10648. 


d. Sometimes the abridged plural (if we should 
not rather say the singular) seems to be used in- 
differently for the full and regular plural; in other 
words, the singular and plural forms are entirely 
confounded. 


tel forth youre tale, and sparith for no man, 5768. 

telleth your tale, and Jet the sompnour be, 6871. 

goth forth, and ley on fasté, 2560. 

awaké, lemman myn, and speketh to me, 3700. 

stoupeth adoun! by God, ye ben to blame; 

helpeth me now, as I dede yow whil er; 

put in your bond, and loké what is ther, 13255 - 7. 

vee es thurgh youre gentilnesse, 

SSC lat thou falle, 922, 923. 

rydé forth, myn oughne lord, brek nought ouré game, 
15413. 

now, Cristes owne knyghtes leef and deere, 

cast al away the werkes of derknes, 

and armith you in armur of brightnes, 12311 — 13. 

voydith youre man, and /et him be theroute ; 

and sehet the doré whils we ben aboute, 13064 — 5. 


$ 60. INFINITIVE. 


The Infinitive in Chaucer ends in -em (A.-Sax. 
-am), often shortened to e. In a few cases the ter- 


mination e is dropped. 


seeken, 13. doon, 770. 
given, 232. speken, 792. 
han, 754. werreyen, 1546. 


ben, 2312. 
worken, 3531. 
saven, 3533. 
hangen, 3589. 
dauncen, 4368. 


roste, 385. 
sethe, 385. 
drawe, 521. 
snybbe, 525. 
schorte, 793. 
telle, 794. 
make, 804. 
stynte, 2452. 


lové, 1171. 
demé, 3194. 
pylé, 6944. 
seeké, 14109. 
wynké, 16792. 
bygynné, 17347. 


A few contracted Infinitives are sometimes pro- 


tracted (?). 


asken, 4521. 


: ryden, 6972. 


sayn, 6976. 
parten, 9504. 
then, 13724. 


helpe, 2651. 
abyde, 2652. 
stele, 4050. 
sterve, 6824. 
strike, 6946. 
fille, 6930, 
praye, 6980. 
slee, 14114. 


atren, 2451. 


= brest, 6685 f, 9970 f. 


let, 6944. 
answer, 14823. 


to seene (S. seón), 1037 f, 9340 f, 11423 f. 
to sayne (S. secgan), 10628 f, 12286 f. 
to doone (S. dón), 10648 f, 12860 f, ii. 357. 


The prefix y- (S. ge-) is found in at least one case 


before the Infinitive. 
y-knowe, 11199. 


$ 61. PARTICIPLES. 


Complex Perfect. — The Perfect Participle of 
Complex (“Irregular”) Verbs terminates in em. 
The m is often dropped. 


holpen, 18. 

foughten, 62. 

comen, 77, 2703. 
dronken, 135, 13983. 
wonnen, 879. 


holde, 6526, 14017. 
unknowe, 1408 f. 
come, 1357. 

geve, 14337. 
wonne, 1004. 


stongen, 1081. bygonne, 52 f. 

bounden, 13118. undurgrowe, 156 f. 

seten, 1454. woxe, 9636. 

songen, 1531. songe, 1542, 15072. 

unyolden, 2644. clombe, 15888. 

lorn, 5194, 8947, 15526. 

layn, 5307. 

founden, 8396. founde, 10154. 
understonde, 10751. 


| standen, 9368. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


gliden, 9761 f. - 
abiden, 9762 f. 
clomben, 16684. 


withstonde, iii. 173. 


The contracted participle is in a few cases pro- 
tracted (?). 


sene, seene (S. segen), 
134 f, 594f, 926f, 
1967 f, 2300f, 10959 f. 

slayne (S.slegen), 14115. 


say occurs, iii. 101 (?) 


$ 62. Simple Perfect. 


The Perfect Participle of the Simple Conjugation 
requires no notice. Send, which has Imperfect sende, 
4134f, has Participle send, 10458. Some Verbs 
which are of the Complex Conjugation in Saxon 
have become simple in Chaucer, according to the 
well-known law. Hence we have the form wist for 
witen, 10574 f, 12210. 


( dawet, 5935, assemblit, ii. 328, 
amendit, 7757, troublit, ii. 376, trivial 
constreynit, 8403, descendit, iii. 106, Lëtz, 

| i-feynit, 8405, engendrit, iii. 106, diodes 
biwaylit, 8406, defendit, 13925, e 

| compleynit, 8406, ; ! 


The abbreviated forms annonciate, consecrate (like 
the above, common in Scotch), occur 15501, 3. 


kidde, 9817 f, should probably be kid. 


$ 63. The prefix y-, i-, (S. ge-) frequently occurs 
in Chaucer before the past participle. 


. dwellyng, 1421. 


477 


i-ronne, 8 f. y-sene, 594 f. 
i-falle, 25 f. i-taught, 757. 
i-schreve, 226 f. y-buried, 948. 
i-chapud, 368. — i-brent, 948 f. 
i-bore, 380 f. y-corve, 2015 f. 
y-clepud, 412. — y-storve, 2016 f. 


The i- in 


i-be, 10275. 
y-hent, 12464 f. 
i-sayled, 16585. 
y-covered, iii. 94. 
i-born, iii. 106. 


is suspicious, as the final e of 

rounde i-schorn, 591, | the first word might very ea- 

place i-sette, 1637, — | sily have been carried over to 
ete., the Participle. 


§ 64. Present Participle. 


The Present Participle terminates, for the most 
part, in -ymg (Ang.-Sax. -emde). In some cases, 
however, it is rhymed with the Infinitive Mood, and 
we must either suppose the participle to end in yngé, 
or else the Infinitive to have lost its termination. 


wonyng, 390. 


lyggyng, 1013. 
romyng, 1073. 


fastynge, 13778. 

sittyngé, 802 (?). 

lyvynge, 903 f (?). 

lotynge, 12114 f (?). 

thunderynge (rh. sprynge), 2176. 

gliteryng[e?] (rh. bryng[e?]), 
2892. 

styryng[e?] (rh. spryng[e?]), 


rayhyng, 2505. 
wynsyng, 3263. 
sensing, 3341. 
abydyng, 3595. 
walkyng, 3955. 9673. . 
knowyng, 4223. wepynge (rh. brynge), 8790. 
ymaginyng (rh. smellynge (rh. brynge), 12207. 
thing), 8474. lernynge (rh. synge), 14927. 
romynge, 10092. 


lepand, 7739, the Somp- 


The older forms awaytand, 7634, ) occur, — all in 
touchand, 7872, j| noures Tale. 


$ 65. Anomalous Verbs. 


can — know, be able. 


Pres. Indie. Sing. 1,3. can, 373, 734, 743, 3128, ii. 333. Sax. can. 
2. can, 11895; canst, 17032, 17098. cunne, canst. 
connen, 10312, 10317. cunnon. 
Plur. ) conne, konne, 3120, 4121, 7696. 
conné, 13495. 
can, 1256, 3873, 6019, 10499. 
couthe, cowthe, 328, 2089, 10442. cide. 
Imperf. Indic. Sing. 1, 3. {coe 567, 4368, ete. 
couthé, 604. 
Infin. conne, 7100, ii. 376. cunnan. 


Past. Part. couth, 8818; coud, iii. 183. cud. 


VOL. VIII. 62 


418 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


dar — dare. 
Pres. Sing. 1,3. dar, 11561, 13712, 13795. Sax. dear. 
2. darst, 1142. : dearst. 
Plur. dar, iii. 124; dor, 12589. durron. 
Imperf. dorste, durste, etc., 227, 6975. dorste. 
may — may. | 
Indic. Pres. Sing. 1,3. may, 14571, 230. : meg. 
, might, 5758 ; may, 1920, iii. 133 ; mow, 12388. miht. 
mayst, maist, 1245, 3151. 
mowen, 3884, 12609 ; mowe, 3001, 11142. magon. 


PI. 1 


mow, 6564, 7304 ; may, 3000, 6561. 


Pres. Subj.(?) mowe, 12228; mow, 12388. mege. 


Imperf. Sing. 1, 3. | 


Plur. 


mot — must (debeo), may. 
Indic. Pres. Sing. 1, 3. 


3: 
Plur. 


Ind. Imperf. 
Subj. 


Imperf. = debeo : H 
Sing. 1, 3. 


Plur. 
In the sense of may. 


owe — debeo. 


mighte, mihte, 586, 1272, 1370, 1407, 1476, 4142, 6505, 9640, mihte. 
11415, 13547 f, 14261, 16140, 16152, 16399, 16797. 

might, 322, 6560, 7750, 14199, 14207 f, 14272 f, 14680, 15794, 
16405, 16632. 

mighten, 570. 

might, 1991, 4115, 6720, 14904, 16477. 


mot, moot (debeo), 1171, 1297, 1647, 1648, 13641, 14164, mot. 
14421, 14429, 14571, 14597, 14773. 

most, must, 5922, 13640. most. 

mooten, 232 ; moote, 7690, 10630 ; mot, 744. : moton. 

moste, 3090, 5306, 10352, 10908, 13620, 15996. moste. 

moste, 10890. « 


moste, most (as a present — Pogai must), 887, 1292, 4702, 
11629, 14206, 14422, 14423, 14683. 
mosten, moste, 3297, 5130. 
Pres. Subj. mot = may: I pray to God his kki mot to breke, 3916; so mot 
I the, 6853, 9102 ; blessed mot thou be, 8433, 14847. 
Imp. Subj. most — might: (preyde) that she most kisse, 8426 ; so, 4800. 
(See further on, Impersonal Verbs.) 


Pres. oweth — debet, 662, ii. 334. ; Sax. âh. 


Imperf. Sing. oughte, ought 
aughte, aught 


bi . 363, 365; 15863; (monkes) oughte be, 15054. 


Plur. oughten 
oughte 


schal = Eng. shall. 


i = debet, 3053, 3091, 4931, ii. 364. &hte. 


(See further on, Impersonal Verbs.) 


Present, Sing. 1, 8. schal, 1140, 1166. sceal. 
2. schalt, 1155, 7099 ; schal? 1147. scealt. 
( schullen, 1823, 1824, 12169. sculon. 


schuln, 6526, 7932, 14639. 


Plur. / schul, 1867, 11648, 12156; schol, 16433. 


schal, 4553, 4658. 
| sul (dialectic), 4172. 


Imperf. scholde, schulde, etc., 13566, 13667, 14859. sceolde. 


* 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


thar — need. 


Pres. Indic. Sing. 3. (he) thar. 
Plur. 2. 


wot — wot, scio. 


Ind. Pres. Sing. 1, 3. 
2. 


Plur. 


Imperf. 

Subj. Pres. Sing. 
Infin. 

Past Part. 

Pres. Part. 


Pres. Indic. Sing. 1. 1 


| 


3. 


Plur. | 


Imperf. 
Subj. Pres. Sing. 3. 
Past Part. 


479 


Sax. pearf. 
thar (ye), ii. 332. purfon. 
(See further on, Impersonal Verbs.) 
wot, woot, 1142, 8031, 8690. wát. 
wost, 1165, 1176, 2309. wast. 
witen, 1796, 2816, 7472, iii. 92. witon. 
wité, 10305, 14796 ; wit, 7840. 
wote, 1262. 
wot, woot, 742, 831, 1837, 5782, 14584. 
wiste, etc., 228, 282, 8690. wiste. 
(er thou) wite, 17217. wite. 
wite, 3555, 9614 f, ii. 352, 382, iii. 82. witan. 
wist, 10574 f, 12210 ; un-wist, 2979. witen. 
witynge, iii. 114. witende. 
§ 66. The verbs wil, stert. 
wil, 1747, 5730. wille. 
wol, 805, 3493, 3495 ; wole? 811. 
wilt, 12186, 12226, 17264; wolt, 3531, 3511. wilt. 
wol, 2324. 
| wil, 12773, 13396. 

wolé? 807; wol, 1628, 7244, 13585. wile. 
woln, 4109, 5874, 8457, 14329. willad. 
wol, 4131, 14215. : 
wil, 3370, 8237, 14114, 14196. 
wolde, etc., 144, 538, 25; woldé, 278. wolde. 
wile, 13583. wille. 


(hath) wolde ! ii. 358. 


wilneth, 2566, etc., is from S. wilnian — desiderare, cupere. 


Pres. Indic. Sing. 3. 


Imperf. Sing. 
Plur. 
Past. Part. 


Pres. Part. 
Infin. 

Part. 
Imperf. 


(him) deyend, 15620, 16667 ; deyned hire, 15756. 
(him) falles (— opus est), 4025. 


him gained, 536. 
him lakked, 10330. 


stert, start (springs, leaps, starts), 5745, 6628, 7734, 10027, 11480. 
might be Imperfect Tense, but less probably.) 

sterte, 954 f, 1082 f, 1301 f, 1395 f, 1516 f, 1575 f, 1764 f. 

starte, 16863. 

(ben) stert (into) — jumped, 11689. 

(had) stert (out of) = started, 8936. 

stertyng (as the fire) — leaping, 1504. 

asterte (escape), 1597 f, 6896, 11334 f. 

ystert (astert ?), 1594. 

asterte, 4895 f; but asterted, 4857 (rh. converted). 


(All these 


$ 67. Some Impersonal Verbs. 


(yow, hem) liketh (S. licad = placet), 779, 5679, 
8187, 8188, 13397, 13399. 
liken (= placere), 8382 ; that oughte 
like yow, 15346. 


480 


Pres. Ind., lyst, list, lest, lust (S. lyst, Imp. lyste, 
impersonal), 1129, 1185, 1203, 1209, 1329, 1353, 
2076, 2379, 2815, 3004, 5900 f, 6819 f, 6830 f, 
7067, 7330, 8069, 8366, 8809, 9192, 10432, 10436, 
10437, 10634, 10641, 10645, 11406, 12098, 12162, 
14973 f. 

Imperf. Ind. liste, leste, Juste, 752f, 789f, 1006, 
1054(?) 8618, 10679, 10689, 10919, 11547 f. 

Imperf. Subj. 9878 f. : 


Bur, yow leste, 2d pers. plur. Pres. Indic. &c. 830 f, 
1355, 2210f, 9428, 10047f, 10439: — 8723 f is 
doubtful. 


if thou list occurs 7567 f (Tyrwhitt, thee). 

who so list it not to heere, 3176. 

[apparently, lest (list) should be leste (liste), 7317 f, 
8059 f. 

apparently, lust to should be luste, 4897. 

apparently, leste should be lest, 10694 f. 

lest, list, 7981 f, 7987 f, 8592 d 8862 f, 9921, are 
doubtful. ] 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


me mette (S. m:etan, impers., somniare), 16380, 
16384, 16564. 
But he mette, 16569, 16488. 
us moste (nobis opus est), 12874. 
us needeth, 6857. 
the oughte, him oughte (opokist); à ii. 357, iii. 109. 
us oughte, 9026 f, 13927, ii. 325. 
hem ought, ii. 348. 
hir ought[e] (oportuit), 8996 f. 
me rewith (poenttet), 10306. 
him semeth, iii. 86, 186, etc; semeth me, iii. 89. 
hem semed, 10370. 
him smerte, 230, 536; me smerte, 1396. 
the thar (opus est tibt), 5911, 5918, 6947, 17284, 
ii. 326. 
it thinkith me (S. pincd videar), 16264, 16963; 
him thenketh,* 3615. 
(him, hir, me, us) thoughte, 787, 956, 3344, 
3964, 10840, 16497. 
me athinketh (S. of pincd — poenitet), 3170. 
thursted him, 15525. 


$ 68. Negative Verbs. 


am. Indic. Pres. Sing. 1, nam, 1276. 
3, nys, 1276, 12213. 
Subj. Imperf. Sing. neré, ner, 1602, 7526, 13290, 
17205, iii. 106. 
have. Indic. Pres. Sing. 3, nath, 925, 5682. 


Imperf. Sing. nas, 323, 2592, 8592, 14721, 14722. 
Plur. neré, 2591 ; neré, 4967, 4968. 


Imperf. Sing. 1, 3. nadde, 3751. 
nad, 10212, 16983. 


will Indic. Pres. Sing. 1, nylle, nyl, 13391 f, 5628,8239. Imperfect Sing. 1, 3, nolde, 3159, 3168. 


3, nyl, 5762. 
Plur. 1, nyl, 6523. 


wot. Indic. Pres. Sing. 1, 3, nat, not, noot, 1265, 7634, 13076, 16955. 
Imperf. Sing. 1, 3, nyste, nyst, 4804, 6578, 12144. 


Plur. nysten, 10948. 


E ADVERBS. 


$ 69. Anglo-Saxon Adverbs have commonly, in the 
positive degree, the termination e, and this termina- 
tion is preserved in Chaucer. 
brighté (S. beorhte), 3352. 
clené (S. dene, clenlice), 12553. 
deepe (S. deópe), 129 f. 
evele (S. yfele), 1129; yllé, 3715. 
evene (S. efne), 1062. 
faire (S. fegere), 94, 12060 f. 
faste (S. fzeste), 4192, 6552, 11159, 13033, 13351. 


* Sax. Pencan — think. 
Pincan — seem. 


foule (S. fúle? füllice), 16964. 

harde (S. hearde), 3729. 

hye (S. heáhe), 2077, 3243 f. 

inne (S. inne), 41 f, 10891 f, 12809. 

late (S. late), 77. 

lighte (S. lihte), 6724. 

longe (S. lange), 1545, 14847, 15596 f. 

loude (S. hlúde), 716 f; louthe, from another S. form, 
hleó3, 17026 f. 

nede (S. néde), 9208, 9825 f, 13208 ; nedé CH, 14520. 


i Thenken = to think, occurs 9377, 1608: thynketh, 14428. 
> A 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


oute (S. üte, üt), 11407 f. 

rathe (S. hrape), 3766, 14510. 

softe (S. sófte), 2783. 

sore (S. sáre), 230, 1396, 6810, 12657, 12799. 

stille (S. stille), 7782. 

swithe (S. swipe), 13222. 

unn-ethe (S. un-eápe), 11659, 13318, 15037. 

uppe (S. uppe, up), 10929 f. 

wide (S. wide), 4556, 8598. 

yerne (S. georne), 13813 f. 

ylike, yliche (S. gelice), 7797, 7812, 8630. 

yoore (S. geáre, geára), 3895 f, 13484 f. 

So, blyve (L. bilife, blive, O. bilife), 2699 f, 5978 f, 

7102 f. 

lowe (S. lage? adj. lah, L. loh., pl. lowe), 1407 f, 
pore, 8919. [17297. 


So in Layamon, clene, ufele, efne, feire, faste, fule, 
harde, hehze (heh), inne (in), late, longe, lude, 
nede, rape, softe, sare, stille, swipe, unepe, uppe 
(up), wide, zeorne, iliche, zeare. 

And in the Ormulum, ebe, depe, fasste, fazzre, fule, 
harrde, hezhe, ille, inne, lannge, late, nede, rape, 
sare, swipe, uppe (upp), zeorne. 


§ 70. Comparatives and Superlatives of the 
Ancient (“Irregular”) Form. 


compar. bet (S. bet. O. bett, bettre), 242, 3604; 
super. best (S. betst), 535. , 
the bet (S. py bet), 5986, 7533. 
But bettre, 344, 610 ; super. beste, 6095. 
fer (S. fyr), 1852. 
ferre, 48 f, 2062 f. 
lenger (S. leng), 2356, 2559, 3409, 4235, 13615, 
16005. 
the lenger, 8563. 
more (S. má, máre, O. mare, mar), 7551, 8867. 
‘ner, neer (S. near, nyr), 970, 1852 f, 12649 f, 14931 f. 
neere, 14931 f (?), (“ner and neere”). 


Note. — bettre, ferre, lenger, more, neere, were 
originally adjective forms (S. betere, uc lengre, 
máre, nearre). 


The following superlative forms are also noticeable 
on account of the à in moste, de, 


O firste mevying cruel firmament, 4715. 
the moste stedefast, 9425. 

the moste deintevous, 9588. 

the moste free, 11926. 

the moste grettest, ii. 974. 


481 


the moste lusty, 17039. 
the gentileste born, 7948. 
But, the fairest hiewed, 16355. 


$ 71. The following Adverbs have an internal e 
(i) which is not found in Anglo-Saxon. 


boldély (S. bealdlice, L. baldeliche, O. baldeliz), 6885, 
14956. 
forthéweard (S. forüweard, L. fordward, O. forrp- 
needély (S. nfdlice), 16730. [warrd), 4683. 
oonély (S. ánlice), 2346 ; oonly, 8195. 
softély (S. sóftlice), 8199, 15083. 
trewély (S. treówlice, L. treoliche), 775, 7929, 11222. 
worthily (S. weordlice, L. wurdliche, wurdeliche, 
O. wurrplihe), 2739. 
So, semély, 151; rudély, 736 ; quytély, 1794. 


$72. The following Particles, of various ter- 
minations in Saxon, have -ë more or less frequently 
in Chaucer. Those marked * have also a form in 
-8: see $ 73. 


a. ( aboven (S. on-, á-, bufan), 53, 2771, 7297. 
| above, 1802 f,1905 f, 5789 f; 
abové, 2029, 3213. 


aboute, 892 f, 2191, 3554, 4146; 
abouté, 2187. 
asondre (S. on-, á-, sundran), 5577 ; asonder, 
7256 f ; asondur, 493 f. 
atwynne (S. on-tweónan ?), 3589 f, 13098 f. 
beside * (S. be sidan), 10688 f. 
biforn (S. be-foran), 1108, 1150 f, 1164 f, 1388. 


E (S. Abútan), 3645. 


byfore, 979 f, 3238 f; beforne, 
14405. 
behynde (S. be-hindan), 3239, 7723 f; byhyndé, 
bynethe (S. be-nipan), 4039. ; [1052. 
bytwene (S. be-twynan), 2861 f, 3107 f. 
by weste (S. be westan), 390 f. 
henne * (S. heonan), 3887 f. 
siththen * (S. sib pan, sib pa), 6826, 15597. 
jie 4478; sith, 8225, 
8721; seth, 5234. 
withouten (S. widútan), 463, 540, 810, 823, 
1851, 1856. 
withoute, 785, 188, 950, 8208 f. 
by-yondé (?) (S. geondan, geonda, geond), 
15130. 
Layamon, abuten, abute, biforen, bifore, bihinden, 
bihinde ; and so of all similar particles. 
Ormulum, abutenn, biforenn, bihinndenn, etc. 


482 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


p, (betwix (S. betweox), 1707, 3096. 
ee 1212, 2172, 9348, 14247. 
bothe (S. bátwá, L. bade, bode, O. bape), 5895, 
6823. 
( eek, ek (S. eác, L. ec, eke), 5031, 5612, 5688, 
8818. 
4 eeke, eke, 4480, 5136, 6231, 7075, 7765, 11692, 
15786 (all rh. with seeke): 6373,7445, 15522, 
(all rh.with cheeke) : 16873 (rh. with breke). 
( evere, nevere, (S. L. efre, xfer, O. efre), 50, 
676, 1231, 1347, 1408. 
ever, never, 70, 1135, 1354, 2397, 2414; gen- 
erally contracted to a monosyllable. 
( her, heer (S. her, L. O. her, here), 6583, 6591, 
6595, 6624, 14346 f, ete. 
heere, 1821 f, 3774 f, 7730 f. 
ther (S. per, pere, para, L. O. per, pere), 313, 
323, 328, 4215, 9863, 9872, 10341. 
| there, 4956 f, 5222 f, 7650 f, 15037 f (less com- 
mon). 
wher (S. hwar, hwer, L. wher, where), 323, 
944, 9873, 10341, etc. 
| where, 4556, 7634 f, 9462 (less common). 
nouthe (S. nu pá, L. nupe), 464 f. 
ofte (S. oft; but Gothic ufta, Dan. ofte, L. ofte, 
O. offte), 1269, 9541. 
ofte-tyme, 52, 358 ; ofte-tymes, 1314. 
oft-sithe, 1879 ; ofte sithes, 487 (S. oft-sid? 
O. offte sipe). à 
selde (S. seld, L. selde), 10125, 8308 f. 
soone (S. sona, O. sone), 15769. 
eft-soone, 16082 f; eft-sones, 6390. 

f thanne — tunc (S. ponne, penne, panne, pon, 
pan, L. O. panne, pan(n)), 1655, 13987, 
15404, 16762, 16988 ; thenne, 13121 f. 

than, 640, 3052; thanné, 12, 638, 2936, 2937, 
2938, 7722. 

| whanne (S. hwonne, hwenne, hwanne, L. whan- 

nen, whone, etc., O. whanne, whann), 11718, 

14695. 

| whan, 1, 5, 762, 782, 803, 824, 915, 3054, 3055. 

thenne* — inde (S. thanan, thanone), 6723 f. 

í therefore (S.? L. perforen, perfore, O. pzerfore), 

3506 f, 8085 f, 8188 f, 9023; therfor, 7374, 

10571, 10647. 

| wherfóre, 13631 f. 

tille (S. tille, til, O. till), 10811 f; til, 10838. 

ynowe (S. genoh, L. inoh, inowe, O. inoh), 12788 f. 


welle (S. wela, wel), 1663 f, should probably 


LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


be dwelle, as in Tyrwhitt ; but welle, wele, occur 
in Layamon, and wel is rh. with I fel (which 
possibly should be I fele), 2233. 


$ 73. The following Particles, of various termina- 

tions in Anglo-Saxon, have in Chaucer the termina- 

tion -es, =S. 

( ageyn (S. ongean, ágean, togeanes, L. azzein, azein- 

es, azenest, O. onnzen, onnzzeness), 66, 4812. ; 

i agens, ageins, 1511, 8046, 8787, 10371; agaynes, 
10199. 

agenst, ageinst, 8196, 13597. 

algates, 7096, 7393, 13024; algate, algaté, 573, 7619 ; 
àlgat (?), 14422. 

amonges (S. gemang, L. imong, amang, O. amang), 
9902, 14639 ; among, 6534. 

amyddes (S. -middan, -middes, L. amidde, amidden), 
2011, 10723, 16215; in the middes (of), 16534. 

bysides (S. be sidan), 13344. 

elles (S. elles, L. zlles, O. elles), 1230, 9410, 11209. 

( hennes, hens (S. heonan, heonane, L. heonene, 
henne, hinnes), 10972, 14102. 

thennes (S. panon, panone, L. ponnen, panene), 
4930, 5463, 10640, 10641. 

whennes (S. hwanan, hwana, L. whannen, whone), 

| 12175, 18750; whens, 8464. 

needes (S. neáde, nefides, L. neode, O. nede), 1171, 
7887, 10179, 13127, 16720. 

ones (S. âne, L. ene, nes, O. seness), 7259, 15767. 

E syns, sins (S. sidpan, sidpa), 6551, 8047, 


9341, 9396, 14284, 14822. 
syn, sin, 10181, 12226. 
thries (S. priga, priwa, L. prie, prien, pries, O. priz- 
zess), 63, 564, 14953. 
togideres (S. tó-gedere), L. togadere, togaderes, O. 
togeddre), 14117. 
towardes (S. tó-weardes, L. towardes, toward, O. to- 
warrd), 11883, 14121; toward, 13534, 14220. 
twyes (S. twiwa, twigges, L. twie, twien, twi, O. 
twizzes), 4346, 5478, 14958. 
unnethes (S. un-eápe, L. unæðe, O. unnzepe, see $ 69), 
5976, 11048. 
whiles (S. pá hwile, O. whil), 6352, 13067, 13854, 
15047 ; whils, 13065. 
whil, 1362, 6350. 
now-on-dayes occurs,13324. Other genitives used 
as adverbs are, his thonkes, here thonkes (S. his 
pances, hira pances), 1628, 2109, 2116, iii. 186; 
his willes, 5854. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


4853 


ELISION OF FINAL VOWELS. 


$ 74. Even if Chaucerfollowed invariable rules with 
regard to the pronouncing or suppressing of the final 
e, it cannot be expected that they should be entirely 
made out by examining one single text of the Can- 
terbury Tales, which, though relatively a good one, 
is manifestly full of errors. A comparison of several 
of the better manuscripts would enable us to speak 
with much more accuracy and confidence. Tyrwhitt's 
arbitrary text may very frequently be used to clear 
up, both in this and in other particulars, the much 
superior manuscript published by Wright. Still the 
question whether an e was pronounced would often 
be one of much delicacy (as the previous question 
whether it actually existed is sometimes one of great 
difficulty), and not to be determined by counting syl- 
lables on the fingers. No supposition is indeed more 
absurd than that Chaucer, a master poet for any 
time, eould write awkward, halting, or even unhar- 
monious verses. It is to be held, therefore, that 
when a verse is bad, and cannot be made good any 
way as it stands, then we have not the verse that 
Chaucer wrote. But with regard to the particular 
point upon which we are now engaged, it would often 
be indifferent, or nearly so, whether a final e is abso- 
lutely dropped, or lightly glided over. Then again, 
as not a few grammatical forms were most certainly 
written both with and without this termination, the 
fuller form would often slip in where the other would 
be preferable or necessary, much depending on the 
care, the intelligence, or the good ear of the scribe. 
Very often the concurrence of an initial vowel, justi- 
fying elision, with a doubtful final e, renders it pos- 

sible to read a verse in two ways or more; and 
lastly, hundreds of verses are so mutilated or cor- 
rupted that no safe opinion can be based upon them. 
Such verses as these ought plainly not to be used 
either to support or to impugn a conclusion; neither 
ought the general rules which seem to be authorized 
by the majority of instances to be too rigorously 
applied to the emendation of verses that cannot be 
made, as they stand, to come under these rules. 


§ 75. Unaccented e final is commonly elided 
before a vowel: — 


and of his post as meke as is a mayde, 69. 
with lokkes crulle as they weré layde in presse, 81. 
he knew the cause of every maladye, 421. ` 

this noble ensample unto his scheep he gaf, 498. 


a companye of ladies, tweye and tweye, 900. 

to preche, and eek to begge, it is no doute, 7294. 
and beggyd mele, or cheese, or ellis corn, 7321. 

wel may his herte in joye and blisse abounde, 9162. 
for he was schave al newe in his manere, 9700. 

the sonne, and moone, and sterres every way, 12036. 
other to grave, or paynte, or forge, or bete, 13432. 
forsakith synne er synné yow forsake, 13701. 

o moodir mayde, o maydé mooder fre, 14875. 

with facé pale, in drede and busy thought, 15000. 


$ 76. Unaccented e final is elided before a few 
words beginning with h : — s 

a. Before the pronoun he (his, him, hire (hir), 
hem). 
wel cowde he dresse his takel yomanly, 106. 
what schulde he studie, and make himselven wood, 184. 
for in his male he hadde a pilwebeer, 696. 
but maketh houndes ete hem in despit(e), 949. 
that lene he wex, and drye as eny schaft, 1364. 
then wolde he wepe, he mighté nought be stent, 1370. 
that in that grove he wolde him hyde al day, 1483. 
ther dursté no wight clepe hir but madamé, 3954. 
and fatte his soule, and make his body lené, 7462. 
as techeth art of speche hem that it leeré, 10418. 


b. Before hath (has), and sometimes apparently 
before have, hadde, (had), though with regard to 
these last two words the number of cases is not 
enough for certainty. | 
1. fortune hath geven us this adversite, 1088, 1492, 

15833. 

that he ful sone hath plesyd every part, 2448. 

as soth is sayd eelde, hath gret avantage, 2449. 

by God, quod Johan, Symond, neede has na peere, 

4024, ah 

nature hath now no dominacioun, 2760, 3009, 13424. 

humblesse hath slayne in hir tyrrannye, 4585. 

that hem to seen the peple hath caught plesaunce, 

8869. 

whan tendre youthe hath weddid stoupyng age, 9612. 

so sore hath Venus hurt him with hir brond, 9651. 

out of the chambre hath every wight him dressed, 

9696. 
and whan sche of this bille hath taken heede, 9826. 
the mayde hath brought this men to blisse above, 
12209. 
- that slydyngé science ha[th] me madé so bare, 
12660. 


^ 


484 


this juge unto the clerk'his tale hath told, 13557, 
16604. 

her may men se how synne hath his merite, 13692. 

til he so longe hath ryden and goon, 15211. 


Bur, and now so longé hath the tappe i-ronne, 3891 (?) 


2. so longe havé thei comforted hire that sche, 11144. 
upon my dedly herte havé som(e) pité, 11352. 
er that he deyé, sorwe havé he and schame, 12637. 
by this gaude have I wonne[n] every yeer, 13804. 
that God wolde of his peyne havé som pité, 15527. 
9308, 10005, indecisive. 
P oun d ; 
Bur, no berd ne hadde he, ne never scholdé have, 
691. rad 
though that Arc? have hir to his wyf, 2260. 
wher might this woman mete and drinké have, 4918. 
that every freré have as moche as other, 7716. 
for though the poeplé havé no gret insight, 8118. 
but sche noon answer of him mighté have, 8560. 
I schuldé han ben deed long tyme agoon, 15062. 
then had your talë havé be told in vayn, 16285. 
i 8254, doubtful. 


3. for though the pope had seten hem bisyde, 6002. 
whan folk in chirch[e] had Lm him what hem 
lest, 7318. 
til that the brighté sonne had lost his hewe, 11328. 
this subtil clerk such rowthe had of this man, 
11573. 
or for sche w[h]itnesse hadde of honesté, 12017. 


1361, 7315, 11819, are doubtful; 12660, 16151, 
bad readings. . 


Bur, at many a noble arivé hadde he be, 60.* 
to have as great a grace as Noé hadde, 3560. 
namly on beddé hadden they meschaunce, 5989. 
though he no moré hadde than his scherte, 9859. 
54, 56, doubtful. 


c. Before how and her (heer). 


by his clennesse how that his scheep schuld lyve, 
508. 


* hadde he is sometimes — and spelled as pro- 
nounced, had he, haddé, as: — 

a garland had he set upon his heed, 668, 319, 351. 

in termes haddé caas and domes alle, 325, 54, 578. 

he hadde is generally pronounced he haddé (— he had ?), 
as: — 

ful ofté tyme he haddé the bord bygonne, 52. 

for he haddé power of confessioun, 218, 85, 642. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


than wol I clepe, how Alisoun, how Jon, 3577. 

but of my tale how schal I do this day, 4510. 

seth thou art rightful jugge, how may this be, 
5234. 

thou wilt algates wite how we ben schape, 7096. 

nought wold I telle how me is wo bygoon, 11628. 

unto this philosophre how schal I doo, 11865. 

me mette how that I romed up and doun, 16384. 

of Mercenrike, how Kenilm mette a thing, 16598. 

1491, indecisive. 


moré than is myn that sterve here in a kage, 1296. 

plight me thy trouth[ e] her in myn hond, quod 
she, 6591. 

in word and werk, bothe heer and everywhere, 8043. 

anoon for myn allye heer take I the, 12225. 


Exceptions (?). 
I spak to him and saydé how that he, 6149. 
Tyrwhitt, said him how. 
in myn officé how that I may wynne, 7003. 
T. how I may moste winne. 
[In 2823, 14531, 15760, the infinitive should 
doubtless have an n.] 
that I schal havé myn heven in erthé heere, 9521. 
lordings, ensamplé herby may ye take, 15725. 
Here ensample may be pone pur 
` asin 9594. 


$ 77. Except in the cases mentioned above, there 
appears to be no rule that final e should be elided 
before h. 


to ferné halwes couthe in sondry londes, 14. 

of smalé houndes haddé sche that sche fedde, 146, 
2078. 

and all was conscience hd tendré herte, 150. 

God loved he best with al his trewé herte, 535, 8062, 
8825, 10854, 12325. 

the fairé hardy quyen of Cithea, 884. 

of whiché two Arcité hight that oon, 1015. 

hiré yolwé heer was browdid in a tresse, 1051, 2136, 
2145, 2167, 2291, 6535. 

and namély the greté hert in May, 1677, 15743. 

I you forgevé holly this trespace, 1820. 

and seydé, help, for thou mayst best of alle, 2088. 

myn is the ruen of the Aihé halles, 2465. 

al weré they soré hurt, and namely oon, 2711. 

and Symkyn haddé hosen of the same, 3953. 

ye, falsé harlot, quod this mellere, hast, 4266. 

it is ful /assé harm to late him pace, 4407. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


sche wol not duelle in housé half a day, 5934. 

my fourthé housbond was a revelour, 6033, 6085, 
- 6169, 6669. 

that sche so long a counseil scholdé hyde, 6548. 

and therefor, levë housbond, I conclude, 6753. 

and be to yow a trewé humble wyf, 6803. 

so long he wenté hous by hous til he, 7347, 
17161. 

to Crist that he the sendé hele and might, 7528. 

his syké heed is ful of vanyté, 7790. 

womman of many a scolé half a clerk is, 9302. 

in straungé hond and thus I tellé yow alle, 9314, 
15814, 15867, 17210. 

or for that ilk man schuldé helpen other, 9327, 

your herté hongith on a joly pyn, 9390. 

that I schul havé myn heven in erthé heere, 9521. 

o servaunt traitour, falsé homly hewe, 9659. 

for he couthé with it bothé hele and dere, 10554. 

and how and whan it schuldé harded be, 10559. 

for his honour as oft[ ë] happeth so, 10906. 

or to gret sorwé held it in distresse, 11228. 

ye schal your trouthé holden by my fay, 11784. 

of aventuré happed hiré to mete, 11805. 

by ordre as ofté herd I my lord neven, 12749. 

as thilké holy Jew oure eldres taught, 13779. 

therforé with wildé hors he dede hem drawe, 15044. 

o yongé Hughe of Lyncoln, slayn also, 15095. 

he couthé hunt at wildé deer, 15147. 

that bereth the reedé heepé, 15158. 

his brighté helm was his wonger, 15320. 

in allé hasté cum to me he saydé, 16493. 

but er he haddé half his cours i-sayled, 16585. 


So, when Palamon the larké herdé syngé, 2212. 
. that is in mar?agé honey sweté, 9270. 
and geve hem sugré, hony, breed, and mylk, 
10928. 
of every planté, herbé, tre, and flour, 11344. 


But in these cases the e might have been pre- 
served, even before a vowel, by exsura; see $ 82. 


In v. 8634 the participle, in 8642, 11796, 12919 
the infinitive, and in 10439 the preposition (withouté), 
should probably have an n; haddé hight, 11822, 
might possibly be hadde y-hight. 


§ 78. It is very probable that some liberty was 
allowed with regard to elision of e before h. A few 
cases are added where the practice (so far as it can 
be determined by a very few examples) seems to 


VOL. VIII. 63 


485 


have varied, and a few other instances, which, if the 
reading is correct, are exceptions to § 77. 


now wol I speke[n] of my fourth[e] housbonde, 
6084. . 

now wol I telle[n] of my fourt[he] housbonde, 
6062; but fourthé, 6035, 6085, 6169; y-had fyve 
housbondes, 5599, should probably be, had fyvé. 

the thrid[de] hour inequal that Palamon, 2273. 

fyve houres for to slepe upon a night, 14512. 

But, the nexté hour of Mars folwynge this, 2369. 


that is to seyn, trouthe, honour, and knighthede, 2791. 
of the bodyes and the grete honour, 999. 
(grete, 11399, should be gret.) 

that verray neede unwrappeth al thy wounde hyd, 

4523. 
bothe halle and chambur ylik [in] heré degré, 8139. 
and that he woldé come hastily ageyn, 11151. 
and eek the clernes[se] hool of sapience, 12039. 
bothe harp and luté, gitern and sauterie, 17200. 


$ 79. An accented final e (including e coming from 
French é, even when the accent has been cast back) 


is of course not elided. 


and yet hath lové maugré here eyghen two, 1798. 
he wolde noon auctorité alegge, 9532. 

of pité on this sike Damyan, 9853. 

the beauté of the gardyn and the welle, 9910. 

til Canacé hath in hir lap[pe] ytake, 10789, etc. 


$ 80. The e of monosyllables is commonly not 
elided, except in the case of the article the and the 
negative particle me. 


ne that a monk whan Aë is cloysterles, 179. 

and in his armes A hem alle up hente, 959. 

he may not flë it though he schuldé be deed, 1172. 

and se his lady wel neih day by day, 1409. 

so send mé him that most desireth me, 2327. 

al bë it that it bé agayns his kynde, 2453. 

which that sché hath, i-wis I weré to nyce, 10308, 
etc., etc. 


But, me athinketh that I schal reherce it heere, 3170. 
$ 81a. The e of the is much more frequently 


elided than not, and before e almost invariably. The 
consonant is frequently united to the following word.* 


but to the effect, it happed on a day, 1191. 


* So also with the verb the — thrive, in the forms 
theek, theech, 3862, 12857, 14362. 


486 


this is theffect of his entente playn, 1489. 

thenchauntements of Medea and Cerces,-1946, 1958, 
2279, 4570, 5385, 7778, etc. 

that is bitwixe (Gest and eek the west, 6829. 

thestat, tharray, the nombre, and eek the cause, 718. 

that hath the sight of hir and I the absence, 1241. 

than was thassemblé of this blisful oost, 4823, 3078, 
7463, 13619, etc. 

he wolde make a fyr in which thoffice, 2865, 2914, 
4893. 

and eek also, wherso he saugh thymage, 14916. 

of brend gold was the caas and eek the herneys, 2898. 

of children to thonour of God above, 9323, 14988. 


On the other hand : — 


wost thou nat well thé olde clerkes sawe, 1165, 6444, 
10520, 12105. 

that al thë orient laugheth of the light, 1496, 452. 

up to thé ancle they faught in heré blood, 1663, 419. 

the fyres brenden on thë auter bright, 2427, etc., etc. 

only thë intellect withouten more, 2805. 

of which thé eldest highté Algarsyf, 10344 ? 

men may thé eelde (qu. olde?) at-ren, but nat at-rede. 

thé elf-queen with hir jolly compaignye, 6442. 

but al for nought ; thé ende is this, that he, 6652. 


b. The e of ne is perhaps less frequently elided. 
and whan a beste is deed, he ne hath no peyne, 1321. 


allas I ne havé no langagé for to telle, 2229, 7501. 
` ne abydé no man for his curtesye, 3125. 

ne at Romé for the harmé thurgh Hanibal, 4710. 
privé ne apert, thay wolde never fine, 6718. 

I ne held me never digne in no manere, 8694. 

I ne have as now no leiser moré to seye, 11289. 


On the other hand : — 


né oynément that wolde clense and byte, 633. 

né of the knobbes sittyng on his cheekes, 635. 
no berd né hadde he ne never scholdé have, 691. 
that ther nys water, erthé, fyr, né eyr, 1248. 

in al the routé nas ther young né old, 3112. 


MN 
né in noon other placé never the mo, 9963. 
Xx 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


in al the world në hadde be thy peere, 15540. 
if that the wynd né hadde be contrarie, 16555, 10174. 


$ 82. The cesural pause frequently prevents the 
elision of final e. - 


-a. that on his schyné — a mormal hadde he, 388. 


this was thyn othé — and myn eek certayn, 1141. 

withouten douté — it may stonde so, 1324. | 

and lete him stillé — in his prisoun dwelle, 1337. 

but how sche didé — I ne dar nat telle, 2286. 

for thilke peyné — and that hooté fuyr(e), 2385. 

some hadde salvé — and some hadde charmes, 2714, 

and tyl he haddé — al that sight i-seyn, 4377. 

than that it roté — al the remenaunt, 4405. 

ire is a sinné — oon the grete of sevene, 7587. 

to stonde in gracé — of his lady deere, 13276. 

if that a princé — usé hasardrie, 14014. 

no lenger thanné — after Deth thay sought[e], 
14187. 


b. the trespas of hem bothé — and heré cause, 1766. 
1 prey to God hir savé — and susteene, 4580. 
for though that I be foulé — old and pore, 6645. 
com forth my sweté spousé — out of doute, 10018. 
in thende of which an uncé — and no more, 13194. 
this Persoun him answerdé — al at oones, 17324. 


$ 83. Other vowels are occasionally elided, as in 
modern verse. : 


for unto a poore ordre for to geve, 225. 

ne was not worthy to haven an office, 294. 

and wher the? engendrid, and of what humour, 423. 
and certes, lord, to abiden your presence, 929. 

by eterne word to deyen in prisoun, 1111. 

and he hem graunted mercy, and thus he sayde, 1830. 
unto his body agayn, and he awook, 7285. 

how might a man have eny adversité, 9212. 

and I wil fondé tespien on my syde, 9284. 

right in this wise he to Placebo answerde, 9394. 
fro which tescapé woot I no socour, 11669. 

tel us a talé, for thou canst many oon, 13734. 

to telle a story I wil do my labour, 14874. 

this were a popet in an arm to embrace, 15112. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


487 


SILENT FINAL e. 


$ 84. E final seems especially liable to become 
silent when it follows r. 


The sound r is peculiarly unstable, and most Jan. 


guages, in their successive stages or in their dialects, 
afford instances of its being transposed, now standing 
before, now following a vowel, as Saxon gaers, grees ; 
Ital capre, Roman dial. erape; Eng. iron, apron, 
spectre, etc. In Wright's text of the Canterbury Tales 
we often find the terminations re and er indifferently 
used, as asondre, 5577, asonder (ur), 7256 f, 493 f. 
Of course we have no means of determining to what 
degree, if at all, the pronunciation er had begun to 
prevail even while the spelling re was retained. 
The Comparative Degree of Adjectives is commonly 
spelled with er in Chaucer (see $ 38, a), instead of 
the Saxon re, though both forms occur; as bettre, 
526, 650, better, 10416 f; lenger, 332, lengere, 823. 
Nouns which anciently ended in -ere generally or 
always end in -er, as hopper, 4034, miller, 3923, 
sleper, 16377, etc. (See $ 8.) We find many French 
words spelled both with re and er, as lettre, 5228, 5229, 
5241, letter, 10415f; cloystre, oystre, 181, 182, 
cloyster, oyster, 7681, 7682; chambre, 1073, cham- 
bur, 13145; tendre, 150, 9631, tender, 9617, etc. 
We also find the final e of some French words abso- 
lutely dropped; thus maner occurs most commonly 
without a final e, except at the end of a verse, 71, 
2546; 10501f, 11737 f; ryver (F. rivière) is rhymed, 
6466, with bacheler (F. bacheler), and 15148, with 
deer ; cheer (F. chére) once, 1342, with prisoner (Fr. 
prisonnier), though commonly pronounced cheeré. 
- In these cases ryvér must have been pronounced like 
our revere (ryve-er) and cheer che-er, instead of 
ryver-é, cheer-é, the r being in fact transposed. 


$ 85. The only rule with regard to e being silent 
after r which can safely be made general, is perhaps 
that 


e final is silent in the pronouns 


hiré, here (S. hire, E. her), 123, 128, 134, 461, 472, 
474, 475, etc., etc. ; very often spelt hir, see 16313, 
16329. 

heré (S. hira, E. their), 11, 32, 1018, 1639, 1805, 
2321, 2322, etc., etc. i 

ouré (S. ûre), 34, 921, 1110, 1284, 12599, 12600, 
13140, 14259, 14429, 14480, 14480, 14518, etc., etc. 


youré (S. eówer), 772, 785, 806, 831, 919, 922, 929, | 
1106, 1306, 1315, 1871, etc., etc. 
ouré, 6111, 6177, 14248, and youré, 16414, are 
decidedly doubtful. 


$ 86. ere:— e final is frequently silent in were. 


were (Indic. 2d pers. sing.), 15866, 15888, 17177. 
* (plural of Indic.) 18, 26, 59, 81, 2169, 2185, 
etc., etc. 
* (Subjunctive), 584, 877, 1213, 1216, 14229, 
14570, etc. ; written wer, 10782, 16280 
` (ner = ne wer). 


But not in the following cases : — 


weré (Indic. 2d pers. sing.), 4877, 16718. 
* (plural of Indic.), 326, 1705, 1966, 6893, 
12838, etc., etc. 
* (Subjunctive), 9483; 10529 may be read, and 
it weré good that such thing were y-knowe ; or, 
and 't weré good that such thing weré knowe. 


$87. There can be no doubt, however, that e 
final was generally pronounced after r. It is com- 
monly in the body of a verse, and for metre's sake, 
that the occasion is presented for dispensing with 
this sound ; rarely is it dropped for the sake of rhyme, 
though very often e is added on that account to words 
which ordinarily terminate in a consonant, — or, more 
properly speaking, of two existing forms, a rarer one 
in -e is often employed when the rhyme demands the 
final vowel, as yer by yere, 4552, rhyming with heere. 

The final e of deere (S. deóre) and of cheere 
(Fr. chère) was most distinctly pronounced. We 
should therefore be justified in inferring that the 
final e was pronounced in the following words, 
rhymed with deeré and cheeré, even if this fact 
could not be independently proved, as can be done 
in the case of most of the instances cited. 


deeré, 1236, 2455, 3361, cheeré, 749, 5422, 8411 
4238, 7363, 7405, 8932, 8554 (cheer, 8889, in 
15056, 16833, 17906. a suspicious line). 

The only exception 


noticed is 2334. 
Therefore, Therefore, 
heeré (adverb), 1821, heeré, 7884, 8245. 
3502, 3774. 


prayeré, 2261, 12184. 


488 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


yeré, 8278. 

in feer&, 4815, 12308. 
steeré, 4868, 5253. 
freré, 6881, 13283. 
maneré, 7207, 8455. maneré, 140, 10821. 
to leere, 7098, 13277. leeré (verb), 10418. 
cheré, 8017,12232,12310. deeré, 14739, 14836. 
matieré, 8198, 8467. materé, 729, 15409. 
weré (subj.), 8758. 
to heeré, 8963. 
cleeré, 12182, 15066. 
beeré, 15091. 

(to) appeeré, 13060. 


in feeré, 4815, 8989. 


freré, 6847, 7739. 


to heeré, 915, 2900. 
cleeré, 8655, 9719. 
beré, 6169. 

to repeiré, 14737. 


On the same principle: — 


feeré, 2346, 2688, 2932,  beeré, 15036, and 
7286, 16877. above. 
Therefore, Therefore, 

eeré, 6603. weré, pl., 2901, 15662. 


teré, 11206, 15664. 
geré, 5220. 


teré, 15664. 


theré, 5222. theré, 15037. 
eeré, 6218, and above (S. eáré). 
Therefore, 


weré, pl., 8604, 12823. 
weré, subj., 17131. 
theré, 7650. 

wheré, 7634, 10629. 


$ 88. Less to be relied on are the following : — 


speré, 15289 (S. speré) : therefore, 
beré (ursus), 1642. 
weré (plural), 2950. 
to beré, 4877. 
to deré, 10554. 


teeré (see above) : therefore, 
weré (pl), 4954, 11493, 15544, 15662. 
ther&, 4956. 
weré (2d person), 16146. 
scheré, 15542. . 
yeré, 15545. 
enqueré, 9417. á 


scheré (S. scearé) : therefore (?), 
weré (pl.) 15544. 
yeré, 15545. 
teeré, 15547. 


geré ? (S. geara), 367 : therefore, 
weré (subj.), 353. 
weré (plural), 1017. 
theré, 5222, 8250. 


enqueré (Old Fr. enquerre), 9406? therefore, 
enqueré, 3166. 
theré, 3165. 


requeré (Old Fr. requerre), 6634? therefore, 
therë, 6633. 

Fynesteré (Fr. Finisterre), 410? therefore, 
weré (plural), 409. 


meré (equa), 543. 
melleré ? 544. 


forberé, 3168. 
mylleré? 3167. 


§ 89. On the other hand, we find many cases in 
which e final must have been silent, or where it is 
actually dropped, after er; as, 


beré ( ferre), 1424, 
beré (ursus), 2060, 
beré ( fero), 8760, 
weré (vestiri), 8762, 
sweré (jurare), 11101, 12076, ) 


So, answeré, 9744. 
baner (N. Fr. baniere), 980. 
beeré, 6179. 
beré, 2762, 9918, 12264. 
chambré, 9696. ~ 
deeré, 7334; 15538? 
feré, 11172. 
freré, 208, 7315; 
but freré, 7252, 7254, 7258, 7264, etc. 
maner, 71, 2546, 3681, 8395, 16332, etc. 
sweré, swer, 456, 8045, 8238. 


Nore. — For the double forms here, her; there, 
ther; where, wher; evere, ever; see $ 72, b. 


Herë, 1645, 14400, 14401, 12294 f, might as well 
be written Aer::so, also, in 4023, 10989, where it 
stands rhymed with peere (N. Fr. peer, patr), which 
word again, in those places, and also at 16336, where 
it is rhymed with Chaunteclere (Fr. Chantecler), and 
even 15540, where it is rhymed with deere, should, 
I apprehend, be written, as at 12907, peer. Chaun- 
tecler is mostly misspelt, as above, in the Nonnes 
Prests Tale. That it ought to have no final e ap- 
pears from the French derivation, and from the 
rhymes ber (tuli) and powér (N. Fr. poueir), 16822, 
16830; also misspelt bere, powere. — Ever, 12802, 
should be evere, to correspond with dissevere. 


rhymed with the 
| pronoun her, hiré. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


489 


$ 90. With regard to final e after ir, ar, or, ur, it does.not appear to be more frequently silent in such 


cases than after other letters, except in sire and more. 


siré (N. Fr. sire), 9542, 12527, 13080, 18035, 16274, 
16428, 16516, etc. ; sir, 7056. 


iré (S. yrre), 7575 ; 7671? rh. squire (Fr. esquier, 


and spelt elsewhere squier). 


declaré, 14893, extremely doubtful. 


moré, 98, 827, 976, 1124, 2742, 7453, 7679, 9372, 
9489, 13219, 14791, 14842. 
mor, 7485, 10648, 16255. 


poré, 4536, 4540, 16308. 

biforé, 9602, 14995. 

soré, 2697, 3462. * 

doré, 552, 3471, 3482. 

therforé, therfor, 777, 7374, 10571, 10647. 


 vesturá, 10373. 


siré, 16253 (but Tyr. has * pe siré") ; 857, rh. 
schire. 
iré, 14072, 1764, 1661, 7593, 17210, 17220. 


baré, 9225, 685 f, 16099 f. 

fairé, 234, 884, 1687, 2596, 2665, 4021, 12043, 
12060, etc. 

sparé, 739. 

charé (Fr. chaire), 16099. 


. declaré, 7061 f, 14939 f. 


hairé, 14151. 
peyré, 2123. 


moré (S. máre), both adjective and adverb, 306, 785, 
1577, 2826, 4049, 4050, 9107, 14563 ; 804, 3222, 

` 3519, 6023, 6313, 9110, 13352, 14560, 15774, 
16790, 16813, 16915, 17072. 

poré, 232, 480, 490, 539, 704, 13594, 14128, 16307. 

byforé, 379 f, 3238 f. 

soré, 230, 1396, 12657, 12799. 

doré, 1989, 3435, 3499, ete. 

therforé, 3506 f, 8035 f, 9023. 

fouré, 2141, 3883, 13388. 

puré, 1281, 12016. 


$ 91. A considerable number of cases will now be given of e silent after other letters than r, without any 


attempt to explain the fact. ` 


a. e silent after 1, m, n. 
allé, 210, 348, 779, 937, 946, 979, 4541, ete. 
hallé, 9962, 10400. 
talé, 13875. 
tellé, 38, 10043. 
hellé, 660. 
fellé, 2112. 
wellé, 8091. 
felé, 9332, 9338. 
melé, 4051, 4068. 
welé, 4542, 8350, 8847. 
soulé, 658, 14355, 14399. 
melle, 4019. 
mylé, 14102. 
pylé, 6944. 


damé, 4571, 4604, 5152. 
madamé, 7786, 7792. 
namé, 14864, 15128. 
claymé, 9176. 

demé, 3194. 

comé, 689, 14184. 


welcomé, 764, 856, 7382, 7393. 
somé, 9345. 
tymé, 9678, 10327, 10790, 12976, ete. 


pan’, 1167, 15438. 

regné, 1626. 

clené, 12228. 

begynné, 17347. 

noné, 1066. 

soné, 6733, 7655, and almost always. 
gouné, 93. 


b. e silent after wy, y. 


dawé, 10069. 

schrew’, 7024. 

trewé, 10043. 

bowé, 2897. 

crow’, 17172. 

ynowé, 4675. 

trowé, 526, 1803, 3665, 9092, 9111, 10850, ete. 
widow’, 6609, 6626, 7166, ete. 

morwé, 824. 


490 


joyé, 9929. 
weyé, 34. 


c. e silent after p, b, v 


helpé, 10773. 

felawschipé, 476, 430; worschip, 12560. 
hopé, 88, 9548. 

popé, 6002. 


havé, 888, 909, 921, 1257, 2774, 9210, 9277, 9308, 
10371, 10594, 10853, 11359, 11456, 11530, 14140, 
14142, and almost always. 

savé, 7289, 7449, 7857, 19717, 14133. 

avé, 14919. 

recyvé, 9576. 

levé, 5694, 9330, 9715, etc. 

givé, gevé, 223, 7455, 7456, 7457, 9401, 9403, 14319. 

lyvé, 9157, 14258. 

stryvé, 7568. 

lové, 1137, 1756, 1807, 2226, and iid always. 

grové, 1690. 


d. e silent after k, g, ch. 


saké, 539, 1319, 1802. 
seeké, biseké, 7251, 14109. 
speké, 9742, 9747. 


mariagé, 9550, 9560, 9663. 
viagé, 794. 

visagé, 630. 

agé, 13445. 

tongé, 10349. 

bringé, 10049. 

segé, 15865. 


speché, 16978. 
wreché, 16089. 
chirché, 3984. 


e. e silent after t, d, th. 


(Besides the final e of the Imperfect Indic. of Sim- 
ple Verbs, which is as often silent as pronounced.) 


haté, 13640. 

beté, 383. 

geté, 9819. 

meté, 136, 345, 9795, 10384. 

swetá, 2782. 

herté, 8062, 9113, 10526, 16301. 
scherté, 748, 2548, 6768. 

might’, 1789, 2237, and always. DH 
sight', 3395, 7653, etc. 


* 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


forbedé, 9635. 

dedé, 14926. 

heed', 7483. 

ledé, 9308. 

redé, 14208. 

steedé, 10438. 

endé, 197. 

fyndé, 15408. 
kyndé, 5263, 11080. 
lyndé, 2924. 

holdé, 9364. 
housé-bondé, 8574. 
fondé, 9284. 

woodé, 2932, 7755, 10727. 
lowdé, 15024. 
bruyd’, 9694. 


byquethé, 2770. 

mirthé, 9613. 

rewthé, 10752. ` 

trouthé, 10959, 11071, 11905. 
youthé, 9612. 


f. e silent after s (e). 


nosé, 123, 705, 2169. 
prosé, 466. 
clennessé, 508. 
besynes, 13140. 
goodnes, 7395. 
lewednes, 10537, 12415. 
worthines, 2594. 
goddessé, 930. 
blis’, blys’, 1686, 4453, 4842, etc. 
wisé, 2189. 
cheesé, 3628. 
supposé, 8223. 
thesé, thisé, 9110, 9127, 9150, 9297, 10041, etc. 
pu 9420. 
pres' (Fr. presse), 10308. 
nobles”, 15504. 


gracé, 1175, 6842. 

forcé, 3910 (but forcé, also in the same line). 

princé, 4642. 

malicé, 8950, 9098. 

placé, 15024. 

Constauncé, 4698, 4858, 4866, 4986 (but Constauncé, 
4684, 4851, 5320, 5527). 


Many words of French origin are spelt in Chaucer 
sometimes with a final ce, sometimes with s, as: 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


experience, 7099 f. experiens, 5583, 10112 (6050, 
rh. with defens, which in 
old French is spelt both 
with and without a final e). 

plesaunce (Fr. plais- pleisauns, 8749. 

ance), 8840 f. 

norice, 5881. noris, 8494. 

pacience, 1085 f. paciens, 16312. 

sentence, 308 f, 14974f. sentens, 17352. 

forcé, 3910. fors (rh. cors), 17000. 

( solas, solaas, solaeé (N. Fr. solas) is rhymed with 
caas, allas * (N. Fr. cas, alas), Nicholas, was, 
800, 3654, 9149, 11114, 16689. 

| solace with place (N. Fr. place), 4144, 15193. 

fallaas and laas (N. Fr. las) are rightly written, 
2391. 

l lace and trespace (N. Fr. trespas), wrongly (?) 

1819. 

E (N. Fr. trace, trasse) and allas are rhymed, 


1953. 
trays and harnays (N. Fr. harnas, harnois), 2141. 
face (N. Fr. face) and trespace are rhymed, 9701. 
faas (face) is even rhymed with the English haas 
(has), 13117; and gras (grace) with Thopas, 15242, 
prefas (Fr. préface) occurs 12199. 


$ 92. Forconvenience' sake the final e in the above 
citations has been treated as silent. It is, however, a 


491 


question, and a question which may be called at least 
a difficult one to solve, whether the e in many cases 
was absolutely dropped, or only slightly pronounced. 
In very many lines the verse would be equally agree- 
able, whichever of the two should be done ; in some, 
the verse might be fuller to a good ear, if the e were 
slightly sounded ; in some, this sound would disturb 
the metre. 

A considerable number of these. exceptions might 
disappear on a comparison of manuscripts, but very 
many would doubtless remain. The vowel appears 
to be most frequently silent after the liquids, after w 
and v, t, d, and s.* 

Possibly, all that is to be said of this matter is, that ` 
the final e might be dropped freely, as in modern Ger- 
man verse, as : — 


das Erst' wir’ so, das Zweite so. 

der begehrt jede liebe Blum" für sich, 

und dünkelt ihm es wir’ kein Ehr’, 

und Gunst die nicht za pflücken wär. 

hat er so aller Treu', so aller Lieb' vergessen, 
ete., etc. — (Goethe’s Faust.) 


Of course we are not authorized, in the present 
state of our knowledge, to drop the superfluous e and 
indicate the omission by an apostrophe. 


CONTRACTIONS. 


$ 93. The e in final er is very frequently elided, 
especially under the circumstances in which final e 
would suffer elision. 
after (—aftr): and after that, Amor vincit omnia, 1 62. 
his breed, his alé, was alwày after oon, 343. 
he waytud after no pompé ne revérence, 527. 
anger (—angr): nis ther no morë woo, né anger, 
né ire, 12847. 
answer (= answr): the answer of this I letë to 
divines, 1325. ; i 
begger (= beggr): he was the beste begger in al his 
hous, 252. 


* las (from lassus) was, in the older French, variable 
according to the sex of the person uttering the exclama- 
tion; as, lasse! fait ele: halas! fait-il. Palsgrave has both 
forms also. The distinction is not preserved in Chaucer, 
but the diversity in the spelling of the word may possibly 
be owing to the existence of these two forms. Not so with 
the other words cited. ` 


coper (= &c.): he put this unce of coper in the 
croslet, 13236. 
delyver: and wondurly delyver, and gret of strengthe, 
84. : 
ever, never; and ever honoùred for his worthi- 
nesse, 50. 
withouté baké metě was never his hous, 345. 
that never ye schullen my corounë dere, 1824. 
as I cam never, I can nat tellen wher, 2812, 
ne in noon other placë never the mo, 9963. 


So, 1262, 8020, 80275 9605, 9618, 10077, 10078, 
15758, etc., etc. 


fader: schuld leté fader and moder and folwé me, 
5613. 
fether: as eny raven fether it schon for blak, 2146. 
DH 


* Some of the most noticeable words are the pronouns 
hire, here, oure, youre; the verb were; then sire, more, 
alle, tyme, sone (filius), trowe, have, give, love, sight’, woode, 
bliss’. 


492 


fynger: with Goddis fynger, and Eli wel ye witen, 
1472. 
maner: 
9755. 
nedder: lyk to the nedder* in bosom sleighe untrewe, 
9660. 
neyther: neyther man ne best such as men can de- 
vyse, 9413, 9962. 
ofter: if thou bigilé me any ofter than oones, 16914. 
over: that executeth in the world over all, 1666, 
11967. 
persever: I will perséver, I am not precious, 5730. 
silver: he bar alway of silver a smal cliket, 32. 
ther nas quyksilver, litargé, ne brimston, 631 (?). 
sober: but thay ben sobre that for the pepul pray, 
7484. 
somer: the hooté somer had maad his hew al broun, 
396. : 
sowter: or of a sowter a schipman or a leche, 3902. 
togider: and gaderud us togider alle in a flok, 826. 
water: by water he sente hem hoom to every land, 
402, 3815, 13244. 
whether (= wher): I not whether sche be womman 
or goddesse, 1103, 15415. 
wher sche be wys, or sobre, or dronkelewe, 


in maner of a compleynt or of a lay, 


9407, ii. 339, 344. 
let se wher thou canst tellen ought in gest, 
15341. 
wonder: ye wolde wonder how wel and thriftily, 
12531. 


$94. The vowel is elided under similar circum- 
stances in the syllable -en. 


men mooten (moot?) given silver to the poré freres, 
232. 

ful longe wern his leggus and ful lene, 593. 

weren of his bitter salte teeres wete, 1282. 

whan that we comen ageyn from Canturbery, 803, 
896. 

and forth we riden a litel moré than paas, 827. 

i-fetered in his prisoun for evere moo, 1231. 

we faren as he that dronke is as a mows, 1263. 

and though that I no wepen have in this place, 
1593. 

they brenné, sleen, and — hem to mesebsuned, 
5384. 


* Should perhaps be neddre (S. nzddre), but, as before 
said, re and er are interchanged. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


and up they risen, a ten other a twelve, 10697. 
children an heep y-comen of Cristen blood, 14908. 


$ 95. The third person singular of the Present 
Indicative ends commonly in -eth, not seldom in -th. 
When the form in -eth is used, the e is often elided. 


This Palamon answereth, I graunt it the, 1622. 
and thenketh, here cometh my mortel enemy, 1645. 
bounté cometh al of God, nought of the streen, 
8033, 14196. 

makth for his wyf and for his child also, 5318, 
7415. 

thapostil whan he spekth of maydenhede, 5646. 

who clappith ther, sayd this widow, benedicite 
(bencite), 7166. 

thus in delyt he /yveth, and hath don yore, 7944, 

he by the hond than takith this oldé man, 8178, 
5562. 

honoüreth hir, and loveth hir, I yow E 8246, 
8247. 

and spedith yow fasté, for I wol abyde, 9801. 

but Canacé hom dereth hir in hir lappe, 10949. 

the pot £o-breketh, and far wel, al is goo, 12835. 

abideth, for Goddes digné passion, 14396 (abidth, etc.). 


8 96. Miscellaneous Contractions. 


his purchasyng might nought ben to him suspect(e), 
322. 
a schirrevé hadde he ben and a counter (schrivé), 
361 (?). 
in al the parisshé wyf ne was ther noon (parsshé), 
451. 
wyd was his parisch[e], and houses fer asondur, 
'493. 
the ferrest in his parissché, moche and lite, 496. 
to fighté for a lady, benedicite (bencité), 2117. 
what rouné ye with hir maydenes, benedicite, 5823. 
out of here oughné hous, a, benedicite, 5862. 
So, 7038, 7166, 7752, 9211, 12556.* 


» 


and certeynly wher naturé wil not wirche (certnly ?), ` 


2761. 

a man to light a candel at his lanterne (candl), 
5916.f 

freres and feendes been but litel asonder (litl), 
7256. 


* We may therefore infer a lacuna in 1787: 
the god of lové, a benedicite. 
+ So candlestick (canstick) in Shakespeare, 1 Henry 
IV. 3. 1 (Guest, I. 54: canstick in the quartos). 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


trillé this pyn, and he wol vanyssh anoon (vansh), 
10642. 

thus hath this widow hir litel child itaught (widw), 
14920.* 


thou woldist han be a tredé-foul aright (woldst), 15431. - 


but sire, I dede it in no wicked entent[e] (wickd), 
16909. f 


$ 97. Cases like the following, in which contigu- 
ous words are blended, are not common in Chaucer, 
but there is no reason to suspect the correctness of 
the lines. 


493 


for him was lever have at his (at’s) beddeshead, 295. 

a swerd and a ("n a) bocler baar he by his side, 560. 

I ne (I n") saugh this yeer so mery a companye, 766. 

we moste endure it (endur't), this is the schort and 
pleyn, 1093. 

whethir it (whert) be by desteny or adventure, 
9841. 


Contractions of the various kinds noticed in $$ 93 
— 97 are on the whole not so frequent in Chaucer as 
in Shakespeare and Milton: see very numerous ex- 
amples in Guest's English Rhythms, B. I. C. III. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 


§ 98. Letters. 


a. ch, for the Saxon e (K), before or after e, i, 
occurs in several cases where modern English has 
retained the primitive sound. 


seche (= seek), 786, 7537, 7539. 

recche (= reck), 1400, 5911. 

wirche (= work), 2761f; worche, ii. 379, iii. 143. 

thenche (= think), 3253 f. 

yliche, liche (— like), 7797, 10376 f. 

ich (— ik, I), 10037, and in theech, 12857, 14362. 
So, rubriche (= rubric, Fr. rubrique), 5928 f. 


On the other hand, k is often preserved in Chau- 
cer where we have substituted ch; as, biseke (— 
beseech), 7251, ii. 979, etc. 


b. Saxon g is changed to w, instead of y, i, as in 
modern English, in dawes (— days), 11492 ; fawe, 
from S. feah = faegen, fain, 5802 f ; i-slawe — slain, 
14271,16500: so wawe (S. weg), 4888 — Eng. wave. 


c. th is dropped after t, or changed to t, in the 
following contracted forms : — 


wiltow (wilt thou), woltow, 1546, 6422. 
hastow (hast thou), 3534, 3538, 11893. 
wostow, 3544. 

slepistow, 4167. 


* Similar forms, though not contracted, are sorwe, 
1456; wilw, 2924 ; morw, 9622. 
1 This is an unusual contraction, but by no means un- 
paralleled ; thus, 
Why, fool! says Venus, thus provokst thou me, 
That being naked thou knowst could conquer thee ? 
Crashaw (ed. Turnbull), p. 123. 


VOL. VIII. 64 


herdistow, 4168. 

artow, 4728. 

hydestow, 5890. 

schaltow, 6998. 

atte beste (at the beste), 29. 
atte siege, 56. 

atte fulle, 653. 

atte laste, 2828. 

atte boord, 10393. 

atte halle, 10394, etc., etc. 


d. 'The letters r and s were unstable in the older 
English, and subject to frequent metathesis. In the 
transition to modern English these letters have 
changed their position more than once in some 
words, e. g.:— 
berstles, 558 ; S. bristl, Mod. E. bristle. 
brid, 17104; S. bridd, E. bird. 
brast, 2612; breste, 2613; S. berstan, E. burst. 
brent, 948 ; brenne, 17161; S. byrnan, brinnan, E. 

burn. 
carte, 2043 ; S. craet, E. cart. 
crispe, 2167 (crips, House of Fame, iii. 296) ; S. cirps, 

crisp, E. crisp. : 
crulle, 81; E. curl. 
kers, 9754 ; S. cerse, cresse, E. cress. 
thirled, 2712; (nose-) thurles, 559 ; S. thyrlod, thyrel, 

E. thrilled, (nos) trils. 
thridde, 14251; threttene, 7841; thritty, 14437; 

S. thridda, etc., E. third, etc. 
throp, 8075, 8084; S. thorp, E. -thorp, -throp. 
thurgh, 1098 ; S. thurh, E. through. 


axe, 1349, 12354; axyng, 1828 ; S. ascjan, acsjan. 
aske, 3557. dj 
crispe, S. cirps, see above. 


494 OBSERVATIONS ON THE 


lipsede, 266; E. lisped. 
clapsud, 275 ; E. clasped. 


§ 99. Accent. — Many words of French origin 
have two accents ; sometimes on the final syllable, or 
the penult; sometimes thrown further back, as in 
English. 
bataille, 990, 2404. 
benigne, 520, 8973. benigne, 8287. 
discrèt, 8286. discret, 520. 
fortüne, 917, 1240, 1254, fortune, 927, 1244. 

13710, 16172, 16209. 
honést, 14972. 
laboür, 14874. 


bàtail, 2099, 2542. 


honest, 246. 
làbour, 8093, 12705. 


natüre, 11, 10667, 13710. nàture, 10801, 13424, 
13444. 

povert, 4519, 6767, 6773, povert, 6749, 6761, 6765, 
8692. s 13856. 


prayer, 2269, 2334. preyer, 2423. 
prisoin, 1177, 1272,1453. prisoun, 1087, 1109, 1238. 
resoün, 37. resoun, 1768, 4639. 
servise, 2489, 1805. servise, 122. 

squyer, 79, 1732. squyer, 1500, 1556. 
vertüe, 4, 14882. vertu, 1438, 2751, 8092. 
victorie, 2241,2407,2435. victorie, 874, 2422. 


Examples of the French accent : — 


ther nas discórd, rancoür, ne hevynessé, 8308. 
glori and honour, regné, tresòr, and rent(é), 15697. 


So, Aprille, Averil, 1, 6128. April, 4426. 
Arcita, Arcite, 1114, 1128, Arcita, Arcite, 1154, 


1147, 1350, 1395,1527, 1346, 1598, 2258, 
1530, 1542, 2860, 2941, 2423, 2690, etc. 
etc. 

Cresüs, 16245. Crésus, 1948, 16213. 

Grisildes, 8108, 8131, Grisildes, 8086, 8173. 
8211, 8304, ete. 

Noe, 3534 f. Node, 3539, 3560. 

Plato, 13376 f, 13384, Plato, 13381, 13391. 
13388. 

Venüs, 1906, 2223 f. Vénus, 1920, 1939, 

1951. 


. So, also, with the nouns of Saxon derivation, in 
-ynge, yng (see $ 17): 
and felàwe, félaw (see $ 18) : 
mellére, myllere, 544f, 3167f; méller, 3923, 
3993, 3998, 4008 : 
. yemàn, 6962, 12612, 12629; yéman, 101, 6977, 
12555, 12580. 


LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


$ 100. SYNTAX ror Measures, KINDS, ETC. — 
a. Nouns denoting a substance measured, weighed, 
or numbered are not put in the genitive, as in modern 
English; but are in apposition with the noun denoting 
the measure, etc. (as in Saxon sometimes, and in 
German regularly). 


a peyre dys (G. ein Paar Würfel), 4384, 14038. 
a peyre plates, 2123. 


a barel ale (G. eine Tonne Bier), 15379. 
a botel hay (G. ein Bund Heu), 16946. 


a busshel whet, 7328, 4310. 
half a quarter otes, 7545. 


the beste galoun wyn, 16956. 
a morsel bred, 15920. 


b. Nouns denoting sort or kind are in like manner 
followed, not by the genitive, but by a noun in appo- 
sition (as also in German). 


a maner deye (G. eine Art Milchfrau), 16332. 

a maner sergeant, 8395 ; so, 9681, 11742, 11745. 
no maner wight, 71, 2546. 

what mestir men, 1712. 

no kyn monay, 14749. 


c. Nouns denoting measures of various kinds are 
not put in the plural after a numeral (as also in Ger- 
man). 
syn thilke day that she was seven night * old, 16359 ; 

this fourténight, 931 ; thritty winter * he was old, 

14437, 15545, 7233 ; a child of twelf month old, 

14895; foure yer,* 8487, 8612, 13445. 
twenty thousand scheld, 14763. 
fourty pound, 7688, 13289. 
fyvé mylé, 12483 f. 
an hundred thousand del, 17069. 


d. Sometimes numerals preceded by the article a 
are treated like nouns, the thing numbered being put 
in the plural number, but still not in the genitive 
case (compare, a few pears, a great many men, a 
dozen books). 


* Night and winter (S. niht, winter) have commonly the 
plural like the singular in Saxon (instead of nihta, wintras), 
but this is not a peculiarity of inflection: it is a conse- 
quence of a principle of syntax. Year (S. gear) might 
have the plural like the singular at any rate: still the 
cases cited are fair instances of the rule. Fortnight 
(fourténight, 931) has become a compound noun, and so 
has twelvemonth (a twelve moneth, 653), but these forms 
properly come under c and d. ` 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


(of florins fyn) wel neygh a seven bushels, 14186. 
a twenty bookes, 296, Tyr. (the right reading). 
a twenty thousand freres, 7277, Tyr. s 

hir maistres clepeth wommen a gret route, 

and up they risen, a ten other a twelve, 10697. 


According to the same principle, 


a certein frankes, 14745 ; a certeyn yeres, 15663. 
a certeyn of conclusiouns occurs, 3193. 
a certeyn gold, 14815. 


$ 101. Genitive Casr.— a. Of Genitives em- 
ployed as adverbs we have these cases : — 


his thonkes (S. his pances), 1628, 2109. 
here thonkes (S. hira pances), 2116, iii. 186. 
his willes (S. his willes), 5854. 

needes (S. nédes), 1171, 7887, 10179, etc. 


b. The Genitive sign is not annexed to a com- 
pound phrase, as in English; thus, 
the wyves love of Bathe (= wife of Bath’s love), 9046. 
by my modres Ceres soule (— my mother Ceres's 
soule), 10139. 
Goddes sone of hevene (— God of heaven’s son), 
iii. 101. 


c. The Genitive of names of persons and titles of 
books is sometimes used as a nominative: as, Cerces, 
1946 ; Judicum, 15532; as saith us Eneydos, 16845. 


$102. Dative Casr.— a. After to be. 


wel was him, 2111. 
yow is better, ii. 938. 
the is better, ii. 345. 
wo were us, 8015. 
wo is him, 14421, 10892. 
(wo was his cook, 353.) 
me is wo bygoon, 11628. 
(wo was this womman bigoon, 5358.) 
ther is the schapen of thy wo an ende, 1394. 
or be him loth or leef, 1839. 
if that yow be so leef, 14175. 
loth were him, 488. 
loth hir was, 11903. 
him was lever have, 295. 
the were lever, ii. 339, 16955. 
him hadde lever, 3541. 
N. B. 1 al had hir lever han had, 8320. ` 
(have I lever, 11672 ; I hadde lever, 15379.) 


495 


b. After verbs of motion, as in Saxon. 


goth him, 3434, 4060, 13622; 14748. 
went hir, 4213, 9653, 13038. 

he rydeth him, 1693. ` 

stalked him, 8401. 

hy the, 13223 ? 

up styrt hir Alisoun, 3822 ? 


c. After other verbs. 


they dreden hem (as in Saxon), ii. 352. 
ne drede the nought, 12252. 

(sche) falleth him to feete, 5524. 

stele hem (from them) half a pekke, 4008. 
us thoughte (it seemed to us), 786, etc. 


$ 103. Pronouns. — Personal Pronouns. 


me, for I, once; can hem therefore as moche thank 
as me, 1810. à 

his, genitive of it; Ais officé naturel ay wol it holde, 
6726. 

but loké that it have his spokes alle, 7838. 

it am I, it am nat I, as in Saxon and German (for it 
is I, S. ic hit eom), 1462, 1738, 3764, 5529, 14625. 

he in the sense of one, indefinite, iii. 184, 186; (his 
= one's), iii. 123, 125, 126; (him), iii. 185 ; (her, 

` plural), iii. 184 ; so, himself, 7589, 


he, she, redundant, with proper names. 


he Simplicius Gallus, 6225. 

he Theodomas, 9594. 

he Jakke Straw, 16880. 

to slen him Olefernes, 5360. 

of hir Philologie and he Mercurie, 9608. 

so, 9912, 10564, 6080, 9242, 9247, 16627, etc. 


Both (as in German) follows, and does not pre- 
cede, the genitive of the personal pronoun, as Aere 
bothe lawes, 4641, etc. 


$104. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 


a. That is frequently used in conjunction with the 
pronoun he (in a manner resembling the German 
idioms, ich der ich, I that, Du der Du, thou that), so 
that both together express only the relative pronoun, 
as:— 


a knight ther was, and that a worthy man, 
that from the tymé that he ferst bigan 


496 


to ryden out, he lovede chyvalrye, 45. 

al weré they soré hurt, and namely oon, 

that with a speré was thirled Ais brest boon, 2712. 
I saugh today a corps y-born to chirche, 

that now on Monday last I saugh Aim wirche, 3430. 
among thesé children was a widow sone, 

that day by day to scolé was Ais wone, 14915. 


Without the personal pronoun : — 
I have a brother, quod Valirian tho, 
that in this world I lové no man so, 12164.* 


So, without that : — 
and to be bounde undur subjeccioun 
of oon sche knew nat As condicioun, 4691. 


b. Which frequently has the signification of what, 
what sort of (like welch in German); as, which a 
miraclé [ther] bifel anoon, 2677. 

So, 40, 2950, 3611, 5621, 6875, 10896, 117545 

16065. 


c. Which (the which) is often redundant, as in the 
following phrases : — 
the place which that I was inne, 10891, iii. 122. 
hem whiche that wepith, ii. 330, 348. 
his love the which that he oweth, iii. 110. — 


d. What is used for why, like Latin guid, Ger- 


man was: — 


what schulde he studie and make himselven wood ? 
184. 
what schulde I alway of his wo endite? 1382. 


e. What is used in an indefinite sense (like Ger- 
man etwas, was) T : — 
wite ye what? (— wissen Sie was ?) 10305, 17014. 


* Mr. Guest considers the relative in these cases to be 
a nominative absolute, equivalent to respecting which, &c., 
and cites from Shakespeare an instance closely resembling 
this last. 
Her frights and griefs, 
Which never tender lady hath borne greater. 
Winters Tale, Il. 2. 
The low English of the present day use which in a 
variety of unaccountable ways, and Mrs. Gamp’s talk in 
Martin Chuzzlewit is in this particular perhaps not exag- 
gerated. “I know a lady which her name, I'll not de- 
ceive you, is Harris," — “If she had abuged me, being in 
liquor, which I thought I smelt her wen she come," — are 
phrases similar to the last two of Chaucer’s. 
1 So apparently, at first, in the colloquial “Ill tell you 
what (Ich will Ihnen was sagen)”: but the emphasis put 
on the what shows that it is not now regarded as indefinite. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


Jf. Whoso is frequently used in the sense of if 
any one. 
eke Plato seith (who so that can him rede), 743. 
is wryten, God woot (who so cowthe it rede), 4615. 
for craft is al (who so that do it can), 9890. 
Herodes (who so wel the story sought), 13903. 


$ 105. Indefinite Pronouns. 
a. Peculiar uses of one : — 


ire is a sinné, oon the grete of sevene, 7587. 
sche was on the fairest under sonne, 11046, 8088. 
so wel arraied hous as ther was on, 11499. 


b. Peculiar use of ought (like the German etwa 
= forte) : — 


can he ought telle a mery tale or tweye? 12525. 


$ 106. PREFIXES. —.The prefixes for- (Ger. ver-, 
Lat. per-, con-) and to- (Ger. zer-, Lat. dis-) have 
not lost their force in Chaucer. The following are 
some examples of their use : — 


for-pyned, 1455. for-kutteth, 17272. 
for-do, 1562, 14538. for-kerveth, 17272. 
for-drunken, 3122, 4148. for-trode, iii. 92. 
for-thinketh, 9780. for-slowthith, iii. 143. 
for-druye, 10723. for-sluggith, iii. 143. 
for-fered, 10840. for-lesith, iii. 155. 
for-brosed, 16100. for-letin, iii. 175. 


to-hewen, 2611. to-tore, 12563. 
to-schrede, 2611. to-breketh, 12835. 
to-broken, 2693. to-tere, 13889. 
to-skatrid, 7551. 


$ 107. NEGATIVE SENTENCES. — Chaucer follows 
the Anglo-Saxon practice with regard to negatives, 
which was (like the Greek) not, as in modern Eng- 
lish, to negative the copula only, but to give a 
negative character to as many words as were suscep- 
tible of being thus affected. Two negatives are per- 
haps more common than one, and verses can often be 
restored to good metre by restoring a ne which has 
been dropped. 


he ne was nought gay, 74. ne trist him never, II. 342. 
ther nys no more to seye, no thing schame ne hadden, 
. 1124. iii. 105. 

ne been not, ii. 240. 


ther nas no dore that he nolde heve, 552. 
he never yit no vilonye ne sayde, 
in al his lyf, unto no maner wight, 71. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


he nas no fool ne no demoniak, 7874. 

I wol no thing ne nil no thing certayn, 8522. 

that neyther in halle, ne in noon other hous, 

ne in noon other place, never the mo 

he nolde suffre hir to ryde or go, 9964. 

ne for prayer ne for meede he nyl not be corrupt, 
iii. 90. 

ne wol nought spare no wight for praier ne for gift, 
iii. 90. 

ne God ne knowe thay not, iii. 167. 

ne I ne say not, iii. 180. 

ne for noon harm that men doon ne sayn, he ne 

eschaufith nought agayns resoun, iii. 140, etc., etc. 


But = only takes a negative before it, as in Saxon 
and vulgar modern English ; as, 
I nam but deed, 1124. 
(al the sorwe) nys but a litel thing, iii. 91, 179. 


$ 108. Various PARTICLES. 


As, with the fundamental meaning of considering, 
with respect to, so far as concerns, is employed by 
Chaucer in various shades of distinctness and strength, 
decreasing to insignificance.* 


and born him wel, as in so litel space, 87. 

I most as now forbere, 887, 7899, 12872 (cf. German 
alsdann ?). e 

this nobil king, as to my wit (had &c.), 5623. 

(nought I desire) as for myself, 7557. 

that ye to me assent as in this thing, 8370. 

as by conjecture (hem thought, &c.), 8282. 

(unto such a worthi man) acorded not, as by his 
faculté, 244. 

therwith he was, as to speke of lynage, 7947. 

no lenger may the body of him sojourne 

on thorisonte, as in that latitude, 9671. 

I have had my world as in my tyme, 6055. 

ye mosten be ful derne as in this caas, 3297, 3385, 
6947, 7107. 

I am unknowen as in this contré, 6979. _ 


As in supplicating phrases is often absolutely re- 
dundant. 


(Goddes of maydenes) as keep me, 2304. 
(this grace I praye the) as sende love, 2319. 
(every wight I prey) as deme nat, 3172. 
(freend so deere) as lene it me, 3775. 


* A similar loose use of as is now reviving. 


497 


(I pray to al this companye) as taketh nought agreef, 
5118. 

(for Goddes love) as chese a new request, 6642. 

(I yow biseke) as suffrith me, 7253. 

(for Goddis sake) as beth of better cheere, 7883. 

as voucheth sauf to give me, 8761. 

(but thilke God) as kepe my lord, 11201. 

as preyeth hire so grete a flood to bringe, 11371. 

as doth me right, 13581. : 
[and also in the following : — 

pay me, quod he, or by the swet seint[e] Anné, 

as I wol bere away thy newé panné, 7196.] 

In like manner so is redundant, in one instance : — 
for love of God so doth your selvé grace, 10772. 
as is used as a relative in this one case: there may 
be more, but others have not been noted : — 

his hundred as I spak of now, 1860. 


by in the sense of about : — 
allé this ensamples tel I by this men 
that ben untrewe, and nothing by wommen, 17120. 
erst (followed by than) in the sense of before : — 
schapen was my deth erst than my schert, 1568. 
longe erst than primé rong of eny belle, 14077. 


(without than.) 
for never erst ne saugh sche such a sight, 8212. 


er than also occurs. 
er than the pot be on the fuyr y-do, 12827. 
First is once used in the same way as erst: — 
I loved hire first then thow, 1157. 


how that, in the sense of however that, although : — 
how that ignoraunce be moder of alle harm, certis 
negligence is the norice, iii. 146. 
tnwith, in the sense of within : — 
this purs hath sche inwith hir bosom hud, 9818. 
the piry inwith your armes for to take, 10216. 
considered hath ¿nwith his dayes olde, 9268. 


long on (S. gelang), in the sense of along of, be- 
cause of : — 
som sayd it was long on the fuyr-makyng, 12850. 
I cannot tellé wheron it was long, 12858. 


noon, in the sense of no (= not) : — 
whether ye wol or non, 11090, iii. 105, 108. 


and if that he encrecsed were or noon, 14492. 
(tel me) is he a clerk or noon, 12544, iii. 105. 


498 


outher — other = either — or (S. 056e—o0dSe), 1595, 
1596, iii. 109. 
other = or, 9157, 10697, 13730, 13731. 
outher — outher — or, 13077, 13078. 
that expressing entreaty, like French que: — 
mercy, and that ye not discover me! 9816. 
ne that thy talé make us for to slepe, 7890. (?) 
ther in the sense of where, 172, 224, 249, 7042, 8696, 
10812. 
til in the sense of unto: — 
I wol the lede unto the Pope Urban. 
til Urban? 12234: so, 1480, 7348. 
unto in the sense of until: — 
and evere schal, unto myn herté sterve, 1146. 
unto the sonné gan arise, 5211. 
up in the sense of upon : — 
up peril of [Wright has on] my lif, 6727. 
uppon for on : — 
a long surcote of pers uppon he hadde, 619. 


$ 109. CERTAIN PECULIAR PHRASES. 


after souper, used as a noun (like afternoon). 
at after souper, 10616, 11531: so at after mete, 9795. 
can thank — scire gratias, savoir gré, 1810, 3066. 
do — cause, make. 
sche that doth me al this wo endure, 2398. 
and som tyme doth Theseus hem to rest, 2623. 
ne do no force of dremes (make no account), 
16427. 
So in the sense of cause to be (like the German 
lassen). 
(the children) he dede gelde, 15638. 
do me drenche (have me drowned), 10075. 
So again, with the addition of Jet. 
he leet the fest of his nativité 
don cryen . . . 10360.. 
let do him calle, 13588. 
gesse, in the New England sense of think. 
who so wel remembrith him of these tydinges, I gesse 
his synne schal not torne him to delit, iii. 91. 
al be thay grevous synnes, I gesse thay ben not 
dedly, iii. 119. 
go = walk (like German gehen). 
wher I ryde or go (a very common phrase in 
old poetry), 2254. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


he noldé suffré hir to ryde or go, 9964, 7175, ete. 
(his felaw was go walkid in the town, 7360, must 
be a bad reading; Tyrwhitt has y-walkid.) 


much in the sense of great. 


moche and lite (great and small), 496. 

for the more part (greater part), 2826. 

in his moste pryde (greatest pride), 897. 
nale, atte — at the ale-house, occurs, 6931. 
schal in the original sense of owes, ?s bound to. 

so faren we, if I schal say the sothé, 12590. 

folowe hire wille in al, 
as any lover to his lady schal, 11062. (?) 


(More distinctly in the sense of owes, if the read- 
ing is correct, and there is no ellipsis, in Court of 
Love : by the faith I shall to God, v. 131). 


slyde, let, in the modern sense. 
well neigh al othir cures let he slyde, 7958. 
sworn, apparently in the sense of sworn the contrary. 
som wikke aspect or disposicioun 
of Saturne, by sum constellacioun, 
hath geven us this; although we hadde it sworn, 
so stood the heven whan that we were born, — 
we moste endure it . . . 1089 — 1090. 
and walk I wold, as I had don biforn, 
fro hous to hous, although he had it sworn, 6222. 
unnéth[e] trowed thay, but dorst han sworn, 
that to Janicle, of which I spak biforn, 
sche daughter were (i. e. was not), 8279 — 81. 


- 


The same phrase (although we had it sworn) is 
ambiguous in 12609. 

Though al the world had the contrary swore occurs, 
10639, 1668. 


the, definite article, with abstract noun. 
thexperiens wot wel it is not so, 5706. 
thexperiens so preveth every day, 10112. (?) 
experiens without the article, 5583. 


these, curiously used somewhat like the Latin éste, but 
in a fainter sense. 
thesé wormes, [ne] thesé moughtes, ne thesé 
mytes, 
upon my perel fretith hem never a deel, 6142, 3. 
wher as thesé robbours and thesé theves by kynde, . 
12587. 
So, 10961, 10962, 12995. 
wear on, upon — wear. 
and wered upon my gay scarlet gytes, 6141. 
that werith on a coverchief or a calle, 6600. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


who was who occurs, 4299. 
but sikirly sche wisté nat who was who. 


$110. PECULIAR ORDER OF PREPOSITIONS. 


whan these trespasours and repentynge folk of here 
Jolies . . . hadden herd what the messangeres 
sayden, ii. 381. 
doth digne fruyt of penitence, iii. 85. 
But, — doon workes worthy of confessioun, iii. 87. 
ye lerned men in lore, 14389. 
ye, for an hairé clout to wrap in me (me in), 14151. 
(fader hath he non) that I of woot (wot of), 5441. 
of al this thing which that I of havé sayd, 7827. 
a long surcote of pers upon he hadde (had on), 619. 
with kempe[d] heres on his browes stowte (hair 
combed on), 2136. 
sche was wel moré blisful on to see (to look on), 3247. 


ouré ground(e) litarge eek on the porfurye (litharge . 


ground on), 12703. 
to doon al that a man bilongeth unto (belongs to a 
man), 9333. 
som what to quyte with the knightes tale (requite the 
tale with), 3121. 
to helé with your eyen (heal your eyes with), 
10246. 
to helen with this hauk, 10955. 
to blynde with this prest, 13079. 
that no goodnes ne hath to paye with his dette, 
iii. 98. 


499 


$111. ELLIPSIS. 


Of the relative pronoun. 
there was non auditour [that] cowde on him 
wynne, 596. 
and in a purs of silk [¢hat] heng on his schert, 9757. 
a pyn [that] stant in his ere, 10630. 
he sent after a clerk [that] was in the toun, 13555. 


Of to before the Infinitive. 
now is tyme [to] wake al night, 3672. 
he was worthy [to] have his lif, 6627. 
Of the personal pronoun, when subject. 
us thoughte it nas nat worth to make it wys, 
and [we] graunted him withouté more avys, 787. 
this thing was graunted, and [we] oure othus swore, 
with ful glad herte, and prayden him also, 813. 
ye, false harlot, hast [thou]? 4266. 
(than schal he knowe al her harlotrye) ; ye, schal 
[he]? 10138. 
Of be. 
that is, or schal [5e], whil that the world wol dure, 
1362. 
Of have. 
he wold hir [have] hent anoon, 3347. 
Of it. 


ner gingling of the bellis (were it not for), 16280. 
nere myn extorcions, I might not lyven, 7021. 


500 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


APPENDIX: 


Ir will not be out of place to add to these notes a few citations, exemplifying such of the principal points 
in Chaucer’s language as have not been already illustrated in that way. In so doing, the order of verses has 
been followed, and the points intended to be illustrated are indicated by numbers referring to the foregoing 
sections. 


Verse. Bection. 
129. ne wette hiré fyngres in hiré saucé deepé. 85, 19, 69. 
230. he may not wepé, though him soré smerté. 60, 69, 56 a. 
456. Idursté sweré they weyghedé ten pound(e). 89. 
610. he cowdé bettré than his lord purchacé. 53 a, 60. 
673. that streyt was comen from the court of Romé. 19: 
ful lowde he sang, Com(e) hider, lové, to me. 12. 
899. we dronken, and to resté wente echoon. 55, 17. 
956. him thoughté that his herté woldé breké. 53 a, 4, 60. 
1221. how gret a sorwé suffreth now Arcité ! 16, 19. 
the deth he feleth thorugh his herté smyté : 4, 60. 
he weepeth, weyleth, eryeth pitously. 50. 
1299. and eek with peyné that lové me geveth also. 91 a, 91c, 95. 
1612. have heeré my trouthé, to morwe I nyl not faylé. ' 89, 91 c, 60. 
1616. and ches the best, and lef the worst for me. 58 b, 36 b. 
1805. heré wages and heré fees for heré servisé. 85, 19. 
2306. chasté godessé, wel wost thou that I. : 19. 
2521. som sayd he loked grym, as he wold fight. 53 b. 
2807. gan faylé whan the herté felté deth. 60, 4, 53 a. 
2847. yit ther ne lyvedé never man, he seydé. 53 a. 
2960. ne how the liché-waké was y-holdé. 14, 4, 61. 
8095. com neer, and tak your lady by the hond. 58 b, 17. 
8557. askë nought why, for though thou askë me. 58 a, 56 a. 
3699. my fayré bryd, my sweté cynamomé, 30, 29 (or 32), 19. 
awaké, lemman myn, and speketh to me. 58 d. 
3726. havá doon, quod sche ; com of, and speed the fast[é]. 91 c, 58 b. 
4049. the moré queynté knakkes that they maké, 38 b, 52 c. 
the moré wol I stelé whan I také. 38 b, 60, 48. 
4052. the grettest clerks beth not the wisest men. 35 a. 
4300. but as sche saugh a whit thing in hir yé, 2. 
and whan sche gan this whité thing aspyé. 32, 60. 
4649. saveth my lyf, and beth nat recheles : 59. 
goth, geteth hiré that hath my lyf in curé. ` 59, 19. 
5010. sche woldé do no synné by no weyé. 58 a, 16, 14. 
5590. and allé weré worthy men in heré degré. 91 a, 86, 85. 
5859. moté thi wicked necké be to-brok&. — ` 56, 3, 61. 
5947. o levé siré schrewé, Jhesu schort(@) thy lif. 91 c, 90, 3, 91 e. 
6015. com ner, my spousé, let me ba thy cheeké. +80, 19, 4. 
7017. Isparé not to takë, God it woot. uitae wu. | 


7026. but, levé brother, tellé me thy namé. : 34, 58, 3. 


7056. 
7070. 
7133. 
7481. 


7593. 


7655. 
7696. 
7728. 
7908. 
8082. 


9108. 
9215. 
9475. 
9504. 
9521. 
9768. 
9859. 
9876. 


9919. 


10133. 


10330. 
10484. 


10823. 


10987. 


11091. 
11843. 
12221. 
12590. 


12621. 
12664. 
12798. 


12991. 
13132. 


13485, 


13700. 
VOL. VIII. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


ful many a causé, lievé sir sompnour. 19, 34, 90. 
if that him listé stondé ther agayn. 56 a, 60. 
herké, my brother, herké by thi faith. 58. 
no drynké which that dronkà might hem maké, 14, 61, 60. 
but ther in abstinencé prey and waké. 19, 60. 
I couthe of iré seyn so moché sorwé, 7, 90, 16. 
my talé schuldé lasté til to morwé. 11, 56 b, 60, 14. 
his soné was slayn, ther is no moré to say. 12 (91 a), 90. 
for who can teche and werken as we conné. 60, 52 c. 
in hopé for to fyndé ther a gifté. 3, 60, 16. 
highté this clerk, whos rethoriqué sweté. 53 a, 19, 29. 
but heighé God som tymé sendé can 30, 3, 60. 
his grace unto a litel oxé stallé. 3, 14. 
God schildé that it scholdé so byfallé. 56 5, 56 a, 60. 
ther may no tongé telle or herté think[é]. 4. 
hir freisché beauté and hir agé tendré. 30 (or 32), 20, 19. 
that no wight with his blissé parten schal. 17, 60. 
that I schal havé myn heven in erthé heeré. 91 c, 4, 69. 
whan that the heighé massé was i-doon. 30 (or 32), 4. 
though he no moré haddé than his scherté. : 88 b, 56 b, 16. 
and subtilly this lettré doun sche thrusté J 19, 53 a. 
under his pylow, rede it if him lusté : 53 a. 
sche takith him by the hond, and hard him twisté, | 53 a. 
so secrely that no wight of it wiste, 53 a. 
and bad him be al hool, and forth sche wenté 53 a. 
to January, when that he for hir senté. ] 53 a. 
save he himself, for of the smalé dig. 32. 
he bar alway of silver a smal cliket. 
unto this oldé, blindé, worthy knight. 92. 
him lakked nought that longed to a kyng. 53 b. 
his steedé which that schon as sonné bright. 8, 4. 
that no wight wendé that he couthé feyné. 17, 53 b, 60. 
quod the Frankeleyn, considering thin youthé, 16. 
so felingly thou spekest, siré, I aloue the. 
for in this world certein no wight ther is. aes 
as of the trewest and the besté wif. 35 a, 33. 
saydé this blisful fairé maydé deeré. 53 a, 35 c, 15, 29. 
. so faren we, if I schal say the sothé. ! 52 b, 14. 
now, quod oure ost, yit let me talké to the. 19, 60. 
hold now thi pees, and spek no wordés mo. 58 b, 22. 
that whil I lyvé schal I quité never. 48. 
but that good hopé crepeth in ouré herté, 8, 85, 4. 
supposing ever, though we soré smerté. 69, 56 c. 
at youré comaundément, siré, trewély. 85, 90, 71. 
and whan this alcamister saugh his tymé, ! 8. 
rys up, siré prest, quod he, and stondé by me. 58 b, 90, 59 b. 
for al to sooné may sche lerné loré 69, 60, 16. 
of boldénessé whan sche is a wyf. 16. 
therefore I redé yow this counseil také, 48, 60, 9 
65 


501 


502 


14233. 
14340. 
14858. 


15024. 
15037. 


15109. 
15287. 
15599. 
16309. 
16421. 
16704. 


16792. 
17270. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 


forsakith synne, er synné yow forsaké. 
what schuldé we than do? what schuld we say ? 
cometh forth anon, and knelith her adoun. 
my lady Prioressé, by your levé, 

so that I wist I scholdé yow not grevé, 

I woldé demé that ye tell scholdé 

a talé next, if so weré that ye woldé. 

so lowdé that al the placé bigan to ryngé. 
unnethé might the peoplé that was theré 
this newé Rachel bringé fro the beeré. 
approché ner, and loké merily. 


now waré you, sirés, and let this man havé spacé. 


his bridel as the sonné schon, 

or as the mooné light. 
thurghout the widé world his namé ran. 
bisyde a grové, stondyng in a dalé. 
for fere of berés, or of bolés blaké, 
or ellés blaké develés wol hem takë. 
the samé nighté thurgh the heggé brast. 
he mosté wynké, so lowde he woldé crien. 
in mochel speché synné wantith nought. 


59 a, 16, 56 a. 
55 b, c. 

59a. 

19, 16. 

56b, 60. 

53 a, 60, 56 b. 
10, 86, 56 b. 
91 e, f, 60. 
69, 19, 72 5, 
60, 16. 

58. 


78, 40, 22, 60. 
82,.17, 7. 

58 a, 60. 

4. 


A VELIE. 


Plante Wrightiane e Cuba Orientali, Pars II. (Monopetale et Monocotyledones), a 


A. GRISEBACH. 


(Read April 22, 1862.) 


RUBIACEZ. 


Genipa CaruTo, Kunth. Santa Catalina de Guantanamo. (336, 1619, fructif.) 

Catesp®A Grayi, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis elliptico-subrotundis obovatisque spinas 
seepe excedentibus; floribus parvis pedicellatis ; pedicello calycem (lineam longum) 
subzquante; calycis lobis deltoideo-acutis tubum subzequantibus corolla multoties bre- 
vioribus ; corolla subtetragona (4 — 5 lin. longa), lobis ovato-subrotundis obtuse apiculatis 
tubo ter brevioribus; antheris faucem haud excedentibus ; bacca subglobosa. — Syn. C. 
parviflora Sw. ex parte? sec. descriptionem, non Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 317. Icon 
Sloanei a Swartzio citata melius ad C. parvifloram Griseb. (C. parvifoliam DC.) quad- 
rare videtur: sed ex specimine Swartziano a nobis non viso tantum dijudicari potest, 
an nomenclatura Candolleana restituenda sit. Pedicelli quaque in C. Grayi sepe lon- 
giores sunt (1—2 lin. longi): Cl. De Candolle vero qui C. parviflore Sw. specimen 
originale viderat, et huic et C. campanulate Ram. flores dicit sessiles et, an utraque 
distinguenda sit, dubitat. Speciei a cl. Ramon de la Sagra nominate specimen in 
. herbario Hookeriano vidi, quod ad C. parvifloram meam pertinet, unde, Swartzium ean- 
dem habuisse vel C. Grayi non distinxisse, judicavi. ‘ Frutex orgyalis, baccis albis: in 
sylvis ad Monte Verde" (371.) : 

RANDIA ACULEATA, L. (392.) 

SPHINCTANTHUS LONGIFLORUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis spathulato-oblongis obtusiusculis ; 
corolle tubo longissimo (77 —8 lin. longo) cylindrico basi leviter incrassato limbo ante 
anthesin subuliformi octies longiori; antheris subsessilibus ; stigmatis lamellis plano- 
ovoideis; drupa ellipsoidea. — Conosiphon aureus Poepp. (1845) ex ic. congener, sed 
Sphinctanthus ann. 1844 descriptus est. * Frutex 6 —8-pedalis: in sylvis prope Monte 
Verde. Corolla tubo viridi, limbo albido." (1263.) 


504 PLANTA WRIGHTIAN XE. 


ScHRADERA CEPHALOPHORA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis oblongo-ovalibus ; stipulis spathu- 
latis petiolum subeequantibus ; capitulis terminalibus solitariis pedunculatis ; involucro 
integerrimo calyces dimidios sequante; corolla hypocraterimorpha, tubo cylindrico 
calyce duplo longiori, lobis 6 lanceolato-linearibus tubum subequantibus; staminibus 
inclusis corolle tubo medio insertis; stigmate bifido. — Proxima S. cephaloti Vahl., 
Jamaicensi, staminibus inclusis distincta, ` Prope Monte Verde, arbores excelsas scan- 
dens; flores albi fragrantes." (1264.) 

HAMELIA PATENS, Jacq. (227.) 

HAMELIA LUTEA, Rohr. (234, 1265.) 

HorrMANNIA? LANCEOLATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis subcoriaceis lanceolatis 
vel elliptico-lanceolatis acuminatis in petiolum attenuatis; cymis in glomerulum pauci — 
uniflorum axillarem pluribracteatum reductis petiolo superatis; floribus sessilibus ; 
calycis limbo quadripartito, segmentis deltoideis. — Folia 3—2 poll longa, 8-12 lin. 
lata, petiolo 3— 6 lin. longo. Calyx 2 lin. longus. Corolla ignota. Bacca globosa, bi- 
locularis, seminibus obovoideis 3 — 5 in quoque loculo maturantibus.  Habitu Hofman- 
nia psychotriefolie ( Higginsia, Benth.) affinis, calycis limbo profundius diviso a spe- 
ciebus melius notis differt. “ Frutex debilis, in pinetis prope Monte Verde," etc.: flores 
albi: bacce atropurpurezm. (253.) 

GonzALEA Peresia, Griseb. (Petesia spicata, Sw.) (233.) 

CoccocyPsELUM REPENS, Sw. (257.) 

CHIMARRHIS CYMOSA, Jacq. “Ad Monte Verde, etc. Stipule glandulis linearibus 
intus donate. Flores albi, dicecio-dimorphi, aut staminibus exsertis stigmate incluso, 
aut stylo exserto antheris inclusis." (1262, 1622.) 

ExosrEMMA LONGIFLORUM, R. & S. “ Flores virginei albi, dein rosei.”  (265.) 

ExosrEMMA ROTUNDATUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrum; foliis ovali-rotundatis (3-2 
poll. longis) in petiolum brevem basi attenuatis; corymbis paucifloris; pedicellis calyce 
breviter cylindrico longioribus; calycis dentibus subulatis obtusiusculis tubo plus duplo 
brevioribus; corolla tubo cylindrico (20 — 22 lin. longo) lobis fere duplo longiori; cap- 
sula oblonga levi (10 lin. longa) “In pinetis prope Monte Verde. Arbor gracilis 
20 —30-pedalis. Flores viriduli, dein albi, demum rosei et rubri.” (1258, 1259.) 

ExosrEMMA ELLIPTICUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrum ; foliis ellipticis (2—3-poll.) breviter 
petiolatis ; floribus corymbosis, pedicellis calycem breviter cylindricum subsequantibus ; 
calycis dentibus subulatis tubo duplo brevioribus; corolle tubo cylindrico (pollicem 
longo) lobos subzequante ; capsula oblonga obtuse costata. — * Arbor sat alta, in sylvis 
prope Monte Verde, floribus albis dein roseis." (1957.) à 

ExosrEMMA VaLENZUELE, Rich. Cub. t. 48. Ramuli apice parce puberuli: folia 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE. - 505 


elliptica, subtus in axillis venarum piliferis: corymbi densiflori: capsula minuta, 
obovato-oblonga. Forsan E. parviflorum Rich. non differt. “ Frutex, floribus albis 
suaveolentibus. Ad Monte Verde.” (1260, 1261.) 

PorTLANDIA GYPSOPHILA, Macf., Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 324. (259.) 

HILLIA TETRANDRA, Sw.! (266.) 

HILLIA LONGIFLORA, Sw. (1256.) 

CALYCOPHYLLUM CANDIDISSIMUM, DC. — Staminum insertione, quod cl. Klotzsch nega- 
bat, cum Warszewiczia convenit, nec recedit nisi calycis limbo truncato et inflorescentia. 
(258.) 

FERDINANDEA STELLATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glaberrima ; foliis 3 — 4-natim verticillatis 
spathulatis obtusis coriaceis ` corymbis specialibus 3 —5-floris, pedicellis calyce longi- 
oribus ; calycis dentibus minutis deltoideis ; corolle tubo gracili clavato limbo calyce- 
que 3—4-plo longiori, lobis subrotundis; antheris oblongis inclusis; capsula obovata 
(semipollicari); ala seminum oblonga sublacera. — *In pinetis prope Monte Verde. 
Arbor humilis; flores atrorubentes.” (264.) 

FERDINANDEA BRACHYCARPA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis puberulis; foliis ternatim ver- 
ticillatis lanceolato-oblongis apiculatis coriaceis subtus puberulis glabratisque ad nervos 
pubescentibus ; corymbis sub-9-floris in thyrsum oblongum dispositis; pedicellis brevi- 
bus; calycis segmentis ovatis obtusis; flore..... ; capsula globosa ad commissuram 
contracta (lin. 3 diam.); seminibus minutis ala laciniata subrotunda cinctis. — * In 
fruticetis prope Santa Catalina." (1621.) 

RowpELETIA (EURONDELETIA) BUXIFOLIA, Vahl. (262.) 

RoNDELETIA (STEVENSIA) Dom zt, Griseb. Stevensia buxifolia, Poit. (1266.) 

ROoNDELETIA (STEVENSIA) RIGIDA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis rigidis (13 —3-poll.) ovatis 
seu ovato-oblongis acutiusculis basi rotundatis supra impresso-venosis subnitido-glabris 
subtus in nervatura prominula pube simplici strigosis vel pubescentibus margine revo- 
lutis; stipulis subulatis deciduis; glomerulis subsessilibus pube adpressa lanuginosis ; 
bracteis involucrantibus segmentisque limbi calycini ovato-oblongis; corolla extus lanu- 
ginosa intus glabra, tubo cylindrico apice dilatato (semipollicari) calycis lobos 5 plus 
duplo superante. — Affinis R. incane Sw. “Ad villam La Madelina. Frutex 10-peda- 
lis, foliis ramorum validiorum sepe ternatim verticillatis, corolle limbo atrorubente.” 
(1617.) 

Manertia coccinea, Willd. M. cuspidata, Bert. (267.) 

MANETTIA LYGISTOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis ovato-lanceolatis lanceolatisque rigi- 
dulis glabrescentibus subtus aveniis brevissime petiolatis; stipulis minutis; cymis pau- 
cifloris subsecundis foliis superatis; calycis lobis 4 lanceolatis obtusiusculis cum toti- 


506 PLANTJE WRIGHTIAN X. 


dem denticulis alternantibus; corolle tubo breviter cylindrico (lin. 2 longo) calycis 
limbo duplo longiori ad faucem barbato ; antheris inclusis ; seminibus ala lata denticu- 
lata cinctis. — Habitus M. Lygisti Sw., que venis foliorum subtus reticulatis, corolla 
longiori et floris seminumque fabrica differt. * Prope Monte Verde in pinetis. Corolla 
viridula: anthere purpure.” (257.) : 

OLDENLANDIA CALLITRICHOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrescens, radicans; caulibus fili- 
formibus diffusis; foliis minutis ovato-orbicularibus in petiolum contractis, imis petiolo 
brevioribus; stipularum setis minutis vel obsoletis ; pedicellis solitariis filiformibus 
elongatis; calycis dentibus 4 distantibus breviter lanceolatis piliferis ; corolle infundi- 
buliformis lobis tubum subeequantibus ; filamentis fauci insertis anthera minuta globosa 
multo longioribus ; stylo ad medium bifido, ramis pilosis; capsula turbinata apice inter 
dentes calycinos convexa loculicida ; seminibus minutis truncato-obovatis scrobiculatis. 
— Habitus Hydranthelle et affinium Scrophulariacearum, accedit ad Houstoniam, e. g: 
H. serpyllifolium Michx., sed ex seminum forma potius Oldenlandia, nisi ob styli fabri- 
cam generice distinguenda. Folia lineam diametro: pedicelli 4—8 lin. longi. “Ad 
ripas rivulorum : flores albi." (268, coll. 1856-7. 1640, coll. 1859 — 60, pro parte.) 
[Specimina cum iis numeri 378, Hemianthi, infeliciter mixta. | 

Lucya TUBEROSA, DC. (269.) 

SPIGELIA ANTHELMIA, L. (390.) 

GUETTARDA ELLIPTICA, Sw.: spec. fructifera. (1609.) 

GUETTARDA CALYPTRATA, Rich. Cub. t. 46. “In montibus prope villam Josephina, 
etc." (1295, 1618.) 

GUETTARDA BRACTEATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Guettardaria ; foliis rigidis obovatis obtusis 
glabris supra levibus, venis primariis subtus prominulis; stipulis deltoideo-subulatis ; 
pedunculis trifloris folium sepe «equantibus; bracteis oblongo-linearibus margine re- 
curvis calycem truncatum subequantibus ; corolle tubo cylindrico lanuginoso (semi- 
pollicari) calycem 5 —6-plo superante, lobis 6—5 puberulis obovatis undulatis tubo 
3—4-plo brevioribus; drupa globosa (3 lin. diam.) puberula triloculari. — * Prope 
Monte Verde. Arbor gracilis, 20 — 30-pedalis. Flores albi mox rubelli.” (261, 1292.) 

GUETTARDA RETICULATA, Griseb.. (n. sp.): Guettardaria ; foliis rigidis elliptico- 
oblongis obtusiusculis undulato-repandis supra glabris in axillis venarum subtus pilosis 
inque ipsis hispidulis, venulis utrinque prominulis, quaternariis areolas seriatas sub- 
quadratas formantibus; stipulis lanceolato-acuminatis petiolisque rufo-hispidulis ; pe- 
dunculis pubescentibus folium subzquantibus ejusque ramis abbreviatis 3- (— 1-) floris ; 
bracteis subulatis calyce truncato superatis; corolla tubo cylindrico-clavato lanuginoso 
(semipollicari) calycem triplo superante, lobis 5 tubo multo brevioribus; drupa ellip- 


PLANTA WRIGHTIANZ. 507 


soidea (lin. 3 longa) pubescente longitudinaliter venis costata triloculari. — Similis 
G. membranacee Sw.! ex Haiti, cui corolla filiformis, flores ebracteati et folia laxe 
reticulata utrinque setuloso-muricata. — “ In sylvis Cubee Orientalis frequens. Frutex 
vel arbor humilis: flores albi purpureo tincti.” (263, 1293, 1294, 1616.) 

GUETTARDA MACROCARPA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis mollibus ovatis acutiusculis basi 
breviter cordatis supra velutinis subtus lanato-tomentosis, venis primariis subtus pro- 
minentibus ; stipulis maximis (pollicaribus) ovato-oblongis petiolum excedentibus ; flore 
PIS ; drupa ovoidea (12 — 15 lin. longa), loculis 6 rectis centro putaminis crassi lacu- 
nosi approximatis. — Stipulis ad sect. Ulolobum, fructu vero ad Guettardiaram accedit. 
“In preruptis prope Monte Verde. Arbor grandis." (1296.) 

Srenosromum LUCIDUM, Gaertn. Santa Catalina. (1270, 1620.) 

STENOSTOMUM GRANULATUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis spathulato-lanceolatis seu lanceo- 
lato-oblongis obtusis breviter petiolatis glabris subtus granuloso-asperiusculis aveniis ; 
stipulis oblongis acutis; pedunculis bifidis folium subequantibus, ramis ejus recurvatis, 
floribus valde distantibus ebracteatis; calyce glabro, limbo breviter campanulato trun- 
cato in tubum longiorem oblongum contracto; corolla tubo anguste clavato glabro, 
lobis 4 parvis; antheris inclusis; stylo exserto; drupa biloculari ellipsoidea calycis 
limbo mamilliformi coronata. — * Ad Monte Verde. Arbor humilis, floribus albis odo- 
ratis.” (1271, 1272.) 

CHIONE LUCIDA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis lanceolato-oblongis obtusis supra lucidis sub- 
tus tenuiter venosis; stipulis deltoideis inferne connato-tubulosis ; cymis laxis, floribus 
alaribus breviter pedicellatis; corolla ad } 5-loba staminibus duplo superata; antheris 
linearibus filamento brevioribus; drupa ellipsoideo-oblonga basi obtusa apice truncata. 
— “ Ad Monte Verde, in sylvis opacis. Arbor humilis.” (250, 1238, 1286.) 

CHIONE ELLIPTICA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis ellipticis obtusiusculis basi breviter cuneatis 
supra lucidis levibus subtus tenuissime venosis; stipulis ovato-lanceolatis; cymis mul- 
tifloris, floribus alaribus subsessilibus; corolla ad medium 5-loba staminibus parum 
breviori ; antheris oblongo-linearibus filamentis brevioribus; drupa oblonga basi ovata 
apice truncata. — * In sylvis prope Monte Verde. Arbor gracilis, 30 — 60-pedalis, 
floribus odoratis.” (1287, fructif. foliis majoribus, 1288.) 

CHIONE MYRTIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis parvis elliptico-lanceolatis acutiusculis 
subtus aveniis, venis supra impressis; stipulis parvis subulatis; cymis trifloris, floribus 
pedicellatis ; corolla ad 1 5-loba ; antheris oblongo-linearibus. — * Ad villam La Perla. 
Arbor humilis" (1289, corolla nondum aperta.) 

EnrrHALIS ROTUNDATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis ovato-rotundatis basi cuneata in petio- 
lum longiusculum attenuatis; calycis limbo obtuse 5-dentato'; corolle segmentis spa- 


508 ; PLANTÆ WRIGHTIANÆ. 


thulato-linearibus; antheris (lineam longis) filamento. subequilongis; drupa 5-(- 7-) 
pyrena. — “ In preruptis ad Monte Verde. Frutex majusculus, albiflorus.” (1267, 
1268.) 

CHIOCOCCA RACEMOSA, Jacq., a. JACQUINIANA. (252.) 

Curococca NITIDaA, Benth. “Ad Monte Verde in pinetis.” (1290.) 

[Corr#a Arasica, L. (251.) Cult.] 

FARAMEA ODORATISSIMA, DC. (232, 241, florif. et fructif.) 

PsYCcHOTRIA ULIGINOSA, Sw. P. levis, DC. “ Drupa rubra demum atra.” (228.) 

PsYcHOTRIA TENUIFOLIA, Sw. “ Flores albi" (1282.) 

PsycHoTRIA CORONATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Mapouria, fruticosa vel arborea, glabra; foliis 
coriaceis ellipticis vel elliptico-oblongis acutis vel obtusiusculis (8 — 2-poll.) in petiolum 
longiusculum attenuatis levibus, venis tenuibus; stipulis inferne connato-vaginantibus 
ovatis oblongisque deciduis; panicula triradiata cymosa fastigiata; floribus alaribus 
sessilibus, lateralibus glomeratis vel solitariis; calycis limbo producto ovario longiori 
5-dentato in fructu abruptim tubuliformi; corolla ad faucem villosa, lobis tubo duplo 
brevioribus; bacca ovoidea, pyrenis 4-sulcatis, cristis convexis, commissura plana. — 
Ab affini P. androsemifolia, Griseb. (Jamaicensi) differt coronula bacce lineam longa: 
Wrightianam legerunt quoque Linden in Cuba (coll. ejus 1774) et Schomburgk in 
Haiti (ex ejus scheda “ ardor parva, quandoque frutex, floribus albis odoris") [Ex 
schedis Wrightianis * frutex 4 — 10-pedalis vel arbuscula.”] (1284, 1285, 1385.) 

PsYCHOTRIA CELASTROIDES, Griseb. in Fl. Ind. Occ., p. 341. “In sylvis opacis. Fru- 
tex gracilis, floribus albis, fructibus flavidis.” (237 [in herb. Gray cum P. lasi- 
ophthalma mixta], 246, 1275.) 

PsvcHoTRiA RUFESCENS, Kunth, Bartl. P. Portoricensis, DC. (244, 1277.) 

PsvcHoTRIA LASIOPHTHALMA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Mapouria, fruticosa, glabra vel apice 
glabrata; foliis chartaceis lanceolato-ellipticis oblongisque acuminatis; stipulis sub- 
distinctis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis rufo-pilosis deciduis; panicula pedunculata laxa 
trichotoma, floribus breviter pedicellatis ; calyce minute 5-dentato; corolla infra faucem 
villosa, lobis tubo duplo brevioribus; bacca ovoideo-globosa (sesquilineam longa), 
pyrenis ad commissuram planis, albumine ibi minute bisulcato. — Affinis P. hirsute 
Sw., bacca rotundata stipulisque distincta: folia glaucescentia. “In sylvis ad Monte 
Verde. Frutex gracilis, floribus albis." (1274, 1626.) 

PsYcHOTRIA COSTIVENIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Mapouria, fruticosa, glabra; foliis charta- 
ceis obovato-oblongis vel ellipticis rotundato-acutiusculis longe in petiolum attenuatis, 
venis costatis 12— 15-jugis subtus arcte prominulis; stipulis distinctis ovatis acuminatis 
sepe bifidis deciduis, lobis anguste subulatis; panicula pedunculata trichotoma, floribus 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANE. 509 


glomeratis; corolle lobis tubo duplo brevioribus; stylo exserto ; bacca subglobosa (21 
lin. diam.) pyrenis ad commissuram planis, albumine ibi bisulcato. — Folia siccata 
glauco-nigricantia. ‘Prope Monte Verde, in sylvis opacis. Frutex 3- 10-pedalis, 
floribus albis, fructibus coccineis.” (242.) 

PsvcnorRiA TRISPICATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Mapouria, fruticosa, glabra; foliis charta- 
ceis elliptico-oblongis seu ellipticis utrinque acutiusculis; stipulis basi breviter connatis 
ovatis cuspidato-acutis ciliatis petiolum superantibus deciduis; floribus glomeratis in 
spicam interruptam simplicem vel basi supra pedunculum simpliciter trifidam dispositis ; 
bacca globosa, pyrenis ad commissuram planis bisulcatis. — * In sylvis prope villam San 
Andres. Frutex 4- 6-pedalis, floribus viridulis, fructibus rubris: folia in axillis vena- 
rum superiorum saccato-glandulosa : stipule majuscule carinate.” (1280.) 

PsYCcHOTRIA BRACHIATA, Sw. “Flores albi seu viridulo-purpurascentes: fructibus 
indigoticis.” (231 quoad coll. anno 1859, et 1283.) 

PsvcHoTRIA HEBECLADOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): Eupsychotria ; ramulis tetragonis pu- 
bescentibus; foliis (6-pollic.) membranaceis elliptico-oblongis cuspidatis supra glabris, 
venis costatis subtus pilosulis; stipulis basi in vaginam truncatam connexis utrinque 
geminis linearibus petiolo brevioribus persistentibus; panicula thyrsoidea pedunculata» 
ramulis ejus cymigeris, bracteolis oblongis acutis calycem superantibus; corolla pube- 
rula ad faucem villosa, lobis tubo cylindrico triplo brevioribus; antheris linearibus e 
fauce exsertis; bacca globosa minuta (fere lineam diam.) calycis limbo diviso coronata, 
pyrenis obsolete 3 —5-carinatis, albumine semilunari — Simillima P. hebeclade DC.! 
cui bracteole lineares, minores. “In sylvis montis Nima-nima.  Arbuscula, floribus 
luteolis.” (231, coll. ann. 1856 — 7, et 1627.) 

PsYcHOTRIA PYRAMIDALIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): .Eupsychotria ; ramulis puberulis sub- 
tetragonis; foliis magnis (12 — 6-poll. longis) papyraceis ellipticis breviter cuspidatis 
basi in petiolum attenuatis pube farinosa minutissima evanida glabratis; stipulis sub- 
distinctis bifidis, lobis deltoideo-acuminatis distantibus vagina truncata squilongis; 
panicula pedunculata pseudo-axillari pyramidato-thyrsoidea folia subæquante, ramis 
ejus scorpioideo-cymosis, bracteolis pluribus ovato-oblongis calycis tubum subequan- 
tibus; calycis limbo 5-partito; corolla parva tubulosa glabra fauci pilosa, lobis tubo 
brevioribus; antheris linearibus inclusis; bacca subglobosa, pyrenis obsolete 4-cristatis, 
albumine semilunari. — Habitu accedit ad P. uliginosam Sw., sed ex albumine campylo- 
spermo ad sect. Eupsychotriam referenda, ex proxima precedenti, cui stipule angus- 
tiores. — * Prope Monte Verde. Fruticosa, 6 — 10-pedalis, fructibus atris.” (1281.) 

PsvcHorRiA PUBESCENS, Sw. (243, 1278, 1279, 1625.) 

VOL. VIII. 66 


510 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


PsvcHorRiA PATENS, Sw. “ Bacce ceerulex.” (230 fide A.G., 236, 1276, 1623.) 

PsYcHoTRIA NUTANS, Sw. (1628, fructif.) 

PsYcHoTRIA PARASITICA, Sw. (249.) 

Psycuorria crassa, Benth. [228 ex mscr. Griseb.: sed specimina numeri 228 in 
herb. Gray omnia ad P. uliginosam referenda; P. crasse frustra quesivi, nisi sub no. 
249 cum P. parasitica confusa. ] 

[PsvcuorniA OLIGANTHA, DC.?? Specimina imperfecta, fructifera, dubia. 238.] 

PALICOUREA CROCEA, DC. (229, 245) & 8. TENUIFLORA, Griseb. (247.) 

PALICOUREA ALPINA, DC. P. Mexicana, Benth. (239, 248, corollis hirtis P. erian- 
the DC.) : 

PALICOUREA Paverra, DC. (240, 1273, 1624.) 

GEOPHILA RENIFORMIS, Don. (256.) 

MACHAONIA MICROPHYLLA, Griseb. (n. sp.): spinescens; ramulis puberulis, cymigeris 
brevibus; foliis subsessilibus parvis (6 — 2 lin. longis) elliptico-spathulatis glabriusculis ; 
stipulis deltoides; cymis simpliciter corymbiformibus laxiusculis pubescentibus, pedi- 
cellis calyce turbinato brevioribus; calycis lobis 4 lanceolatis obtusiusculis demum tubo 
. brevioribus; corolla ad medium quadrifida puberula intus pilosa, lobis obtusis stamina 
duplo excedentibus; filamentis anthere equilongis; carpidiis pubescentibus dorso 
rotundatis ab apice ad basin attenuatis. — Affinis M. cymose Griseb. (275, 433.) 

Diopia RIGIDA, Cham. & Schlecht. (271, 272.) 

SPERMACOCE TENUIOR, Lam., non Linn. (273, 274.) 

BORRERIA PODOCEPHALA, DC. (270.) 

[ Rubiacez in coll. 1856 — 7, in exemplis perpaucis divulgatis, a cl. Grisebachio haud 
visa, sunt — 

RANDIA ACULEATA, L., no. 391, 392; Ranpia? fructif., 260; Frutex subtr. Psycho- 
triearum, ruscifolius, fructu baccato dipyreno, 254.] 


VALERIANEZE. 
VALERIANA SCANDENS, L., var. DENTATA, Griseb.: foliis subdentatis vel remote inciso- 
dentatis. (277, 278.) [No. 276 coll. 1856-7, a Grisebachio haud visa, est var. 


INDIVISA ; segmentis lateralibus foliorum presertim superiorum nullis.] 


SYNANTHERE. 


SPARGANOPHORUS VariLLANTIL Geertn. (279.) 
VERNONIA MENTHJEFOLIA, Less.! Species a Lepidaploa $ 2 apud DC. ad $ 1 transpo- 
nenda. “ Fruticosa, scandens, floribus albis." (282, 1305.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 511 


VERNONIA HIERACIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule suffrutescente stricto cylindrico 
scabro; foliis petiolatis ellipticis vel breviter obovato-oblongis cuspidatis remote ser- 
rulatis basi obtusiusculis supra glabriusculis impresso-glandulosis subtus puberulis ; 
panicula fastigiata aphylla, ramis ejus glandulo-pilosiusculis dichotomis vel apice bre- 
vissime scorpioideis; capitulis subsessilibus 10-floris, extimis sepe geminis; involucro 
anguste campanulato (lin. 2 longo), squamis glabriusculis mucronato-acutis patulis, 
brevioribus pluriserialibus, intimis obtusiusculis; achenio pubescente costato; pappo 
flavescente, serie exteriori parum latiori brevi. — Habitus Hieracii Sabaudi, proxima 
V. serratuloidi Kth., distincta involucri squamis petalis et pappo flavescente. * In 
pinetis ad Monte Verde." (1306.) 

VERNONIA ARBORESCENS, Sw., var. (1309.) 

VERNONIA RIGIDA, Sw., var. V. Sagreana DC. (284.) 

VERNONIA RUBRICAULIS, Bonpl. Equin. t. 99, forma foliis latioribus. [Specimina nec 
icone nec descriptione Bonplandii congrua!] “In preruptis; flores albi" ( 285.) 

VERNONIA REMOTIFLORA, Rich., forma angustifolia, foliis lanceolato-linearibus. (286.) 

DisTREPTUS SPICATUS, Cass. (281.) 

AGERATUM CONYZOIDES, L. (1310.) 

AGERATUM MUTICUM, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. (1631.) 

ADENOSTEMMA SwARTZIL, Cass. Lavenia decumbens, Sw. (291.) 

ADENOSTEMMA TRIANGULARE, DC. “In humidis prope Monte Verde. Flores albi 
vel purpurascentes." (292.) 

EuPATORIUM CONYZOIDES, Vahl. (295.) 8. HETEROLEPIS, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. (294.) 

EvPATORIUM LANTANIFOLIUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosum ; caulibus cylindricis albo- 
tomentosis; foliis oppositis petiolo brevi crasso suffultis cordato-ovatis obtusis serru- 
lato-repandis vel integerrimis quintuplinerviis supra rugosis scabris glabratis subtus 
tomentosis reticulatis epunctatis (2—11 poll longis); corymbis compactis; capitulis 
12 - 24-floris turbinato-hemisphericis (3 — 4 lin. longis) glomerato-subsessilibus ; recep- 
taculo intra squamas involucri producto apice plano; involucro dense lanato, squamis 
multiserialibus imbricatis plerisque ovatis acutiusculis laxiusculis, intimis longioribus 
lanceolatis ; achenio glabro; pappi pilis apice paullisper incrassatis. — Connectit Platy- 
cephala cum Cylindrocephalis, cum deinceps sequentibus affine est. — * In pinetis et 
preruptis ad Monte Verde. Flores purpurascentes. Suffrutex 4—6-pedalis.” (1307, 
1308.) 

EuPATORIUM PLUCHEOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosum; ramulis cylindricis tomento- 
sis; foliis oppositis breviter petiolatis oblongis basi subcordatis apice acutis vel obtu- 
siusculis serratis vel subintegerrimis penninerviis vel obsolete quintuplinerviis supra 


EK PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


spe rugosis scabriusculis subtus tomento evanido pilosiusculis epunctatis (4-2 poll. 
longis); corymbis trichotomis; capitulis 40 — 60-floris turbinato-hemispheericis (4 lin. 
diam.) glomerato-sessilibus; receptaculo depresso inter squamas involucri turbinato 
apice plano; involucro dense pubescente, squamis triserialibus imbricatis lanceolatis 
obtusiuscule acuminatis subadpressis, exterioribus sensim brevioribus; achenio glabro; 
pappi pilis apice paullisper incrassatis. — * In sylvis ad Monte Verde. Suffruticosum, 
subscandens, 8 — 15-pedale, floribus purpureis." (287.) 

EUPATORIUM HYPOLEUCUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosum; ramulis cylindricis tomento- 
sis; foliis oppositis breviter petiolatis ovatis obtusiusculis repando-serrulatis 3 — 5-pli- 
nerviis supra rugosis glabris subtus albo-tomentosis epunctatis (21-14 poll. longis); 
corymbis oligocephalis contractis; capitulis 30 — 40-floris turbinato-hemisphericis (8- 
4 lin. diam.) ternato-subsessilibus; receptaculo inter squamas involucri brevi apice 
plano; involucro dense lanato, squamis subtriserialibus imbricatis lanceolatis acumi- 
natis subadpressis, exterioribus brevioribus; achenio scabriusculo; pappi pilis apice 
paullisper incrassatis. — * Prope villam Nouvelle Sophie dictam, in saxosis, etc. Flores 
purpurei"  (1629.) 

EuPATORIUM CYNANCHIFOLIUM, DC. “In preruptis: flores albi.” (1632.) 

EuPATORIUM AGERATIFOLIUM, DC. “In montanis. Flores albi vel subrosei.” (1633.) 
[Forma angustifolia, 297.] 

EUPATORIUM VILLOSUM, Sw. “Juxta Cobre in collibus." (296.) 

CnrrowrA Datea, DC. “In saxosis ad Nouvelle Sophie." (Coll. * Sept. 1859 — Jan. 
1860," 1311.) 

CRITONIA IMBRICATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis lanceolatis acuminatis serrulatis 
in petiolum brevem basi attenuatis; panicula fastigiata; capitulis breviter pedicellatis 
trifloris; involucro 6-seriali, squamis obsolete striatis ciliolatis plerisque subequalibus 
ovatis obtusatis, intimis ovato-oblongis; achenio hispidulo. Folia 3-4 poll. longa, 10 
lin. lata, petiolo 2-3 lin. longo: involucrum 3 lin. longum. — * Secus ripas rivulorum 
prope Monte Verde." (Coll. * Jan. — Jul. 1859," 1311.) 

HEBECLINIUM MACROPHYLLUM, DC. (298.) 

MIKANIA HASTATA, Willd. (302.) 

MIKANIA SwaRTZIANA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. Eupatorium Houstonis, Sw., non L. 
(303.) 

MIKANIA TRINITARIA, DC., var. M. volubilis, Poepp. Cub.! (301.) 

MIKANIA GONOCLADA, DC. (300.) 

MIKANIA CORYDALIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; caule volubili gracili suffruticoso ; 
foliis membranaceis longe petiolatis tripartitis palmatinerviis, segmento medio oblongo- 


PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 513 


lanceolato, lateralibus duplo brevioribus sepe inequaliter bilobis; corymbis brevibus, 
pedunculis angulatis basi subalatis; capitulis inzequaliter pedicellatis ternatis umbella- 
tisque; involucro bracteolam lanceolatam parum superante (2 lin. longo), squamis 
oblongis acutiusculis; corolle limbo campanulato 5-dentato tubum sequante; achenio 
glanduloso. — “ In monte Nima-nima dicto, etc. Flores albi" (299.) 

ERIGERON JAMAICENSIS, Sw. “In saxis humidis."  (305.) 

ERIGERON RIVULARIS, Sw. var. “Inter saxa ad ripas rivulorum.” (306, 1312.) 

ERIGERON BELLIOIDES, DC.» (304.) 

ERIGERON CANADENSIS, L. (1313.) 

BACCHARIS PTARMICIFOLIA, DC. (1314.) 

PLUCHEA ODORATA, Cass. (808.) 

[PrTeEROCAULON VIRGATUM, DC., var. P. alopecuroides, DC. (807.) 

LANTANOPSIS, C. Wright, mscr. (n. gen. Melampodinearum.) Capitula biflora, 
vel flore altero abortivo uniflora, dimorpha. Involucrum biseriale, utrumque 3- 4- 
phyllum, interius membranaceum. Receptaculum minutum, nudum. Corolla alterius 
capituli d rotato-quadrifida, antheris 4 connexis facile separandis exsertis ecaudatis 
nigricantibus stylum simplicem hispidulum includentibus, flore secundo 9 vel abortivo 
nudo; alterius corolla 9 bi-trifida, lobis integris vel obscure crenatis, stylo bifido, ramis 
ejus revolutis teretibus acutis puberulis, flore secundo 4 nunc in rudimentum stipiti- 
forme reducto. Achenium subglobosum, calvum, superne glanduloso-papillosum et tu- 
berculo papilloso minuto coronatum. — Herba suffruticosa, gracilis, strigoso-hispidulo : 
folia opposita, rhombeo-lanceolata, supra basin serrulata, triplinervia: capitula glome- 
rata, glomerulis terminalibus supra folia suprema subsessilibus vel breviter peduncu- 
latus subsolitariis vel cymas breves constituentibus. 

LANTANOPSIS HISPIDULA, C. Wright. mscr. Habitu Unwie, verum structura Tetran- 
tho et imprimis Desmocephalo fortasse parum distincto accedit. “Secus rivulos prope 
Monte Verde. Flores albi.” (1315.) | 

MicrocecIa REPENS, Hook. f. Fl. Galap. — Simillima habitu Tetrantho litorali Sw. 
Stylus floris d in nostra bifidus, supra antheras exsertas prominens,— forsan in aliis 
capitulis integer. (312.) 

OGIERA RUDERALIS, Griseb. Melampodium ruderale, Sw. ` Kegelia, Schultz Bip. 
Tetranthus, Griseb. Pl. Carib. (310.) 

ACANTHOSPERMUM HUMILE, DC. (311.) 

WEDELIA RETICULATA, DC. “Ad vias.” (1634.) 

Bivens LEUCANTHUS, Willd. (317.) 

BIDENS LEUCANTHUS, Willd., forma discoidea, — B. pilosa, L. (316.) 


514 PLANTAE WRIGHTIANZ CUBENSES. 


Bivens Conmrorsiprs, DC. et var. foliis superioribus magis dissectis. Cosmos luteus, 
Bot. Mag. t. 1689. (314.) 

{Bivens BIPINNATUS, L. 315.] 

[Cosmos cAupATUs, Kunth. Specimina pauca coll. 1856-7. 318.] 

VznBESINA (Hamutium) arara, L. (1316.) 

ANCISTROPHORA WRkIGHTH, A. Gray in Mem. Amer. Acad. Genus ex achenio mar- 
ginato Spilanthi affine. [Melius a Schultz Bip. in Bopplandia 1861 ad Hamulium 
allatum.] * Prope Monte Verde, in calcareis rupibus." 1317.) 

SALMEA GRANDICEPS, Cass. $. scandens DC. excl. syn. E. et S. Eupatoria B. DC. 
(309, 771.) 

IsocARPHA ATRIPLICIFOLIA, R. Br. (Sine numero.) 

[SYNEDRELLA NODIFLORa, Gaertn. 320.] 

CHRYSANTHELLUM PROCUMBENS, Rich. (319.) 

CALYDERMOS ? SPILANTHOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule gracili striato-angulato glabro; 
foliis petiolatis rigidis elliptico-oblongis mucronatis remote mucronato-denticulatis re- 
pandisque triplinerviis supra glabris lucidis subtus ad venas hispidulis; pedunculo 
terminali folia summa subeequante tricephalo; capitulis hemisphericis subsessilibus, 
vel lateralibus pedicellum subzquantibus; involucro sub-biseriato, squamis ovato-del- 
toideis; paleis superne dilatis acutiusculis; achenio prismatico 4 —3-gono calvo apice 
minutissime denticulato glabro. — Corolle non extant: receptaculum breviter conicum. 
Folia Spilanthes insipide Jacq., que pedunculis elongatis et achenio differt. — * In jugo 
montium, prope St. Jago.” (313.) 

Prcris (Pecripium) puncrata, Jacq. (290, 1630.) 

PoROPHYLLUM RUDERALE, Cass. P. ellipticum Cass. (321.) 

GNAPHALIUM ALBESCENS, Sw. var. CuBENsE, Griseb.: foliis discoloribus supra gla 
brescentibus; involucri squamis interioribus cuspidatis. Accedit ad formas Boreali- 
Americanas (G. polycephalum Michx.) involucri squamis obtusioribus distinctis. (322.) 

[Gnarnatium Americanum, Mill, Sw. | 323.] 

NEUROLANA LOBATA, R. Br. (325, 772.) 

[Erecuruires nreractrouia, Raf., var. fere carduifolius. Coll. 1856 — i, 324.] 

[Ema soncutrotta, DC. Coll. 1856-7, 326.] 

SENECIO TRINEURUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): Conogynoxys, fruticosus, volubilis, glaber; 
ramulis striato-cylindricis, florentibus brevibus; foliis ovatis vel ellipticis acutis integer- 
rimis triplinerviis in petiolum subequilongum contractis (1—2 poll. longis); corymbis 
fastigiatis simpliciusculis; involucri squamis 10-12 oblongis acutiusculis (3 lin. lon- 
gis), accessoriis linearibus erectis triplo brevioribus ; ligulis 8 spathulatis involucri 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 515 


sesquilongiori; disci floribus 16 — 24. — * Prope Monte Verde: alte scandens." [Folia 
quandoque hinc vel utrinque basi unidentata vel subhastato-angulata.] ( 327.) 

P SENECIO PLUMBEUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): Conogynoays, fruticosus, glaber vel glabrescens ; 
ramulis striato-angulatis; foliis lanceolatis vel lanceolato-oblongis breviter acuminatis 
basi in petiolum attenuatis superne repandis remoteque denticulatis livido-virentibus 
(4-6 poll. longis), venis tenuibus pinnatis; corymbis pedunculatis simpliciusculis ; 
involucri squamis 8 oblongis (2 lin. longis) obtusiusculis, accessoriis latiusculis basi 
connexis quadruplo brevioribus; ligulis 8 obovatis involucri 1 longioribus ; disci flori- 
bus 8—16; achenio hirto. — Species foliis rigidiusculis minutissime pellucido-punctatis 
et venulis libere dichotomis sequenti affinis. — * Prope Monte Verde ad ripas rivulorum. 
Caulis 10 — 15-pedalis, basi circa poll. 2 diametro." (328.) 

SENECIO POLYPHLEBIUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): Syllepis,* arborescens, glaber; ramulis 
angulatis; foliis elongatis lanceolato-oblongis acutis remote denticulatis basi integer- 
rima in petiolum attenuatis (12— 6 poll. longis), venis primariis numerosis pinnatis ; 
corymbis pedunculatis sepe divisis; involucri squamis junioribus connexis, lobis 5 
ovato-oblongis obtusiusculis tubo campanulato triplo brevioribus, squamis accessoriis 
paucis minute deltoideis; floribus 5 parum exsertis; achenio glabro. — * Prope Monte 
Verde, secus ripas rivulorum in sylvis opacis. Caulis 20-pedalis.” (329.) 

SENECIO VULGARIS, L. “In ruderalibus et cultis.” (1318.) 

Lrasum BrownNrr, Cass. (289.) 

—  LiasuM Wnronr, Griseb. (n. sp.): herbaceum; caule simplici adpresse lanuginoso 
superne aphyllo; foliis spathulato-lanceolatis obtusiusculis eroso-denticulatis supra 
sparsim pilosulis virentibus subtus niveo-tomentosis sensim in petiolum attenuatis 
(12 — 6 lin. latis), imis rosulatis, petiolis elongatis alatis quandoque sinuato-dentatis basi 
subdistinctis ; corymbo oligocephalo simpliciusculo; antheris caudatis; pappo molli 
stramineo subuniseriali, pilis exterioribus brevibus paucis vel nullis. — * In sylvis densis 
secus rivulos, prope Monte Verde." (288.) 

[Lera nutans, DC. Coll. 1856-7. 331.] 

Leria MEDIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis lyratis, segmento terminali ovato-oblongo (1-11 
poll. lato) basi subtruncato, ceteris rotundatis deorsum decrescentibus ; involucri squa- 
mis linearibus acutis; rostro achenii abbreviato. — Folia L. nutantis DC., capitula 
parva (involucro 4 lin. longo) L. pumile DC. (332.) 

Lerta PuMILA, DC. “Ad Monte Verde.” (333.) 

TRIXIS FRUTESCENS, P. Browne. (330.) à 


* Senecio sect. SYLLEPIS. Capitulum discoideum ; involucri squamis connatis. Corolle basi sensim dila- 
tat, Styli tumor basilaris hemisphericus ; rami apice truncati. 


516 PLANTZ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. ~ 


LOBELIACEA. 


SIPHOCAMPYLUS MANETTIIFLORUS, Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 4403. “In preeruptis prope 
Monte Verde." (339.) 

LoBELIA CLirFORTIANA, L. (340.) 

TuPA ASSURGENS, A. DC. “In agris rudis, secus margines sylvarum, ad Monte 
Verde.” (338.) - 

Tura IMBERBIS, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis elliptico- vel obovato-oblongis acutiusculis 
basi in petiolum attenuatis sinuato-dentatis, venis subtus piliferis vel glabrescentibus ; 
racemo laxo glabrescente apice cernuo, pedicellis bracteam breviter linearem 4 — 3-plo 
superantibus; calycis tubo turbinato-hemispherico, lobis subulatis corolla (pollicari) 
tenui apice incurva glabra purpurascente quadruplo brevioribus; staminibus glaber- 
rimis; antheris omnibus barba terminali destitutis. — Folia 5 —4 poll. longa [venis 
subtus grosse reticulatis], superiora decrescentia, ovata, inferiora 2— 11 poll. lata. — 
* In sylvis opacis prope Monte Verde." (1319.) 

Isoroma LONGIFLORA, Presl. (337.) 


MYRSINEA. 


Myrsine LATA, A. DC. Specimina fructifera. (350.) 

WALLENIA CLUSHFOLIA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. “ Prope Monte Verde, in montanis: 
arbuscula." (352, [460,] 1332.) 

ARDISIA BUMELIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis rigidis chartaceis obovatis 
spathulatisque (4—3 poll. longis) obtusis basi cuneata in petiolum attenuatis inte- 
gerrimis subimpunctatis, venis costatis subtus prominulis reticulo connexis, venulis 
extimis liberis; paniculis contractis corymbosis sessilibus terminalibus seu lateralibus ; 
pedicellis drupa brevioribus; calyce 5- (—6-) partito, segmentis ellipticis acutiusculis 
serrulatis demum reflexis; stylo brevi filiformi ; stigmate minuto truncato. — Specimina 
fructifera, sed affinia videntur A. Xylosteoidi Griseb., que sectionem Anardisiam Griseb. 
format. Drupa lin. 2 diametro, parce glandulosa: semen basi excavatum, albumine 
cartilagineo. — * Ad Monte Verde in sylvis opacis. Frutex biorgyalis, drupis imma- 
turis e virido purpureis (351.) - 

ARDISIA MULTIFLORA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Euardisia, glabra; foliis coriaceis spathulatis 
vel obovato-oblongis obtusiusculis basi cuneata subsessilibus integerrimis impunctatis 
aveniis; panicula terminali effusa pyramidata, pedicellis umbellatim 2- 5-natis gracili- 
bus, bracteis minutis deciduis; calyce minuto 5 — 4-fido, lobis obovatis acutis; corolle 
(2 lin. diam.) segmentis ovatis obtusiusculis estivatione contortis; antheris conicis 
cuspidatis rima longitudinali dehiscentibus filamento tenui «quilongis; stylo filiformi ; 


PLANT WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 517 


stigmate minuto. — Folia 4-2, panicula 6-8 pollices longa. — * Prope Monte Verde. 
Arbor gracilis: flores cum tota panicula alba." (1334.) 

ARDISIA JACQUINIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis coriaceis spathulato-lanceo- 
latis integerrimis margine revolutis basi in petiolum attenuatis minute punctatis subtus 
venosis; racemis axillaribus et terminalibus paucifloris folio duplo superatis; calyce 
5-partito, segmentis ovato-rotundatis ciliolatis a drupa reflexis. — Specimen fructiferum, 
habitu exacte Jacquiniam armillarem referens, sed drupa monosperma, semen basi exca- 
vatum, embryone respectu drupe transverso, albumine cartilagineo. Folia tripollicaria, 
6-10 lin. lata. Drupe 3 lin. diametro. (349.) 

JACQUINIA RUSCIFOLIA, L., Jacq. Amer. t. 57. (353, et in nonnullis, errore quadam, 
349, qui numerus ad preecedentem spectat.) e 

[No. 1333 est Myrsinea quedam a Grisebachio omissa, specimina imperfecta.] ` 


SAPOTE.E. 


CHRYSOPHYLLUM OLIVIFORME, Lam. (344 [coll. 1859], 1322.) 

[CunysoeHvrtLUM Carwrro, L. 344, coll. 1856-7. fl. & fruct.] 

CHRYSOPHYLLUM GLABRUM, Jacq. (345, 1828, 1636.) 

Lucuma PAUCIFLORA, A. DC., forma latifolia. (346, 346*.) 

SAPOTA PoLITA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Micropholis; ramulis pedicellisque rufo-sericeis ; 
foliis elliptico-lanceolatis vel oblongis in acumen angustum obtusum apice protractis 
nitido-glabris politis margine subrecurvis (2—4 poll. longis); pedicellis geminis vel 
solitariis; calyce 5-partito rufo-sericeo; corolla basi lata ad medium 5-fida, lobis ro- 
tundatis (lin. 2 longis); antheris deltoideo-subrotundis appendices incurvas subeequanti- 
bus; bacca globosa apiculata polita 4-loculari 4-sperma (16 lin. diam.) . — Proxima 
S. rugose, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. ( Chrysophyllo, Sw.), a qua foliis angustioribus et bacca 
polita differt. Pericarpium tenue: semina pollicaria, subtrigono-convexa, testa dura 
nitide fusca, hilo pallido longitudinali a placenta soluto: albumen carnosum: radicula 
infera, cotyledonibus planis crassiusculis, margine altero hilo contiguo. —“ In sylvis 
prope Monte Verde. Arbor excelsa: flores albi: fructu rubro." (1323.) 

SIDEROXYLON MASTICHODENDRON, Jacq. Bumelia pallida, Sw.! (1324.) 

— SIDEROXYLON DICTYONEURUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis glabratis; foliis elliptico- 
oblongis vel ellipticis (2— 1-poll. longis) acutis glabris subtus pallidis reticuloque vena- 
rum prominulo exsculptis longiuscule petiolatis; pedicellis fasciculatis puberulis petiolo 
vulgo brevioribus; calyce [4 —] 5-phyllo crassiusculo extus pubescente corolla [4 —] 5- 
partito parum superato; filamentis brevibus appendices ovatas subintegras equantibus 
corolle segmentis subduplo superatis; antheris ovatis latere dehiscentibus; ovario 
VOL. VIII. 61 


518 PLANTZ WRIGHTIANZE CUBENSES. 


biloculari. — Characteribus accedit ad S. elegans, A. DC., idemque ad genus certius 
determinandum seminis cognitione eget. — “ In sylvis prope Monte Verde: arbor medi- 
ocris.” (1329, 1330.) 

DieHonrss MONTANA, Griseb. Bumelia montana, Sw. (1326, 1827, 1637.) 

DiPHoLIS SALICIFOLIA, A. DC. (1325.) 

BUMELIA GLOMERATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis calycibusque rufo-sericeis; foliis 
spathulatis obovatisque (12-6 lin. longis) obtusis basi obtusiusculis rigidis margine 
subrecurvis glabris breviter petiolatis; floribus glomerato-subsessilibus ; corolla quin- 
quefida calyce sesquilongiori, appendicibus exterioribus parvis ovatis acutis, interioribus 
deltoideis serratis; bacca retuso-subglobosa (4 lin. diam.). — Habitus fere Vaccinii ; a 
ceteris Indie Occidentalis Bwmeliis differt floribus subsessilibus, corolla ad medium 
divisa et bacca (in unica specimine visa) disperma : structura vero seminis ignota est. 
(347.) 

STYRACEA. 


SvwPLocos Cunzwsirs, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis hirsutis; foliis (13—1 poll. longis) 
ovalibus obtusis margine revolutis subintegerrimis vel superne repando-crenulatis supra 
glabris subtus ad medianum hirsutis; pedunculis unifloris cernuis petiolum subequan- 
tibus; calycis lobis ovato-subrotundis obtusiusculis ciliatis, bracteolis subrotundis 
ciliatis remotiusculis; petalis 5 obovato-oblongis; staminibus monadelphis ; drupa 
ovoideo-oblonga triloculari (5 lin. longa). — Eandem legit Linden (Cub. no. 1831). — 
“In sylvis ad Monte Verde. Arbor sat grandis: flores pallide purpurei. (1135, 1321.) 


EBENACEJE. 


DrosPxRos TETRASPERMA, Sw:.; Jacq. Schoenb. t. 312. (348.) 
MacnziGHTIA Carimza, A. DC.; Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 404, adn. (1331.) 


OLEIN EZ. 


FORESTIERA PORULOSA, Poir. (411.) 

HUENIANTHUS SALICIFOLIUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis rigidis lanceolatis subacutis apice 
ipso obtusiusculis basi in petiolum 4 —6-plo breviorem attenuatis, venis inconspicuis ; 
antheris ovoideo-subrotundis pistillum superantibus ; drupa ovoideo-subglobosa (lin. 8 
longa) — Congener H. incrassato, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. ( Chionantho, Sw.): pedicelli ut 
in eadem stirpe crassiusculi, in panicula terminali ternati. (409, coll. 1856 - 7.) 

Linoctera LIGUSTRINA, Sw. (409, coll. 1859, et 410, 1387, 1387.) 


LINOCIERA COMPACTA, R. Br. (408.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 519 


LiNoctERA AXILLIFLORA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Ceranthus ; foliis rigidis lanceolato-ellip- 
ticis acutiusculis glabris; corymbis axillaribus abbreviatis petiolum duplo fere 
superantibus; pedicellis puberulis ternatis calycem subequantibus; antheris obtuse 
deltoideis. — * Monte Verde. Arbor humilis, gracilis, albiflora.” (1338.) 


EN 


 APOCYNEJE. 


Strycunos Grayi, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis puberulis spinosis, spinis patentibus 
oppositis; foliis membranaceis ovato-oblongatis obtusatis (8 — 10 lin. longis) triplinerviis 
subtus in axilla nervorum penicillato-pilosiusculis ; corymbis terminalibus paucifloris ; 
corolla minuta profunde quinquefida, lobis intus barbatis. “ Prope Monte Verde in 
dumetis. Scandens: flores viriduli, baccis rubellis.” (1304.) [Et 432, coll. 1856 - 7.] 

THEVETIA NERUFOLIA, Juss. (1380.) 

RAUWOLFIA SALICIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabra; foliis quaternis obverse lanceolatis 
 obtusiusculis basi attenuata subsessilibus supra nitidis subtus glaucescentibus, venis in- 
conspicuis; cymis paucifloris, pedunculo folium dimidium subequante; calyce 5-fido 
(pedicello duplo) corolle tubo (5 lin. longo) 4 —5-plo breviori, lobis obtuse deltoideis 
margine subglandulosis; corolla ad faucem plica brevi coarctata, lobis tubo duplo bre- 
vioribus. — “ Ad Monte Verde in sylvis opacis: arbor humilis, albiflora.” (1386.) 

RAUWOLFIA NITIDA, L. (397, 1383, 1384.) 

ANECHITES ASPERUGINIS, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. — Echites, Sw. (1663.) 

PLUMIERIA OBTUSA, L., y. Levis, Griseb.: foliis apice rotundatis leevigatis, venis se- 
cundariis inconspicuis ; corolle tubo lin. 10 lobis 10-18 longis. (1382.) 3. Parv- 
FLORA, Griseb.: foliis apice rotundatis vel obtusiusculis leevigatis, venis inconspicuis ; 
corolle tubo lin. 2—4 lobis 6—8 longis. Ic. Lam. Ill. t. 173, f. 2. (1381.) 

PLUMIERIA FILIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis dense approximatis filiformi-linearibus 
graminéis glabris sessilibus, venis inconspicuis, mediano prominulo planiusculo; cyma 
pedunculata pauciflora, bracteis brevibus subtruticatis ; calycis lobis mucronato-rotun- 
datis; corolla supra basin tubi puberulam staminifera, lobis ovalibus seu obovato- 
oblongis plerumque tubo longioribus; folliculis oblongo-linearibus paullisper reticulato- 
venosis; seminibus ale subzequilongis, ala ad basin hinc producta. — Folia 6 — 4 pollices 
longa semilineam lata, utrinque attenuata: corolle tubus 8 — 6, lobi 10 — 8 lin. longi. — 
* Ad Nouvelle Sophie. Arbor parvula" (396, 1660.) 

ForsTERONIA CORYMBOSA, Mey.  Florif. et fructif. (398.) 

THYRSANTHUS ! CORYLIFOLIUS, Griseb. (n. sp.); ramulis glabratis; foliis oppositis late 
ellipticis (3—4 poll. longis) mucronatis supra glaucescentibus subtus venosis et cum 
petiolo pilosiusculis, venis secundariis transversis subtus prominulis; inflorescentia con- 


520 PLANTZ WRIGHTIANZE CUBENSES. 


tracta spiciformi; calyce subsessili, segmentis ovatis acutiusculis pubescentibus intus 
uniglandulosis; corolla ..... ; folliculis cylindricis, junioribus dense pubescentibus. — 
Affinis videtur T. spicato (Forsteronie, Mey.) sed pube differt. ** Prope Santa Catalina 
de Guantanamo, etc.: scandens." (1664.) 

Ecnurres gosgA, A. DC. E. myrtifolia, Roem. & Schult., non Por Mesechites myrti- 
folia, J. Mull. (1662.) 

ECHITES UMBELLATA, Jacq., var. LONGIFLORA, Griseb.: foliis ovalibus seu ovatis, arcu- 
bus venarum a margine distantibus; floribus subsolitariis; corolla “ yiridi-lutea,” tubo 
(lin. 20 longo) calycem quatuordecies lobos obovato-oblongos quater superante. (1661.) 

Ecnurres catycosa, Rich. Cub.  Calyce magno foliaceo sub folliculis persistente 
habituque accedit ad Lasegueam, genus vix admittendum: cum descriptione ejus quo- 
que convenit antheris corneis e basi obtuse cordata acuminatis, corolle tubo intus 
piloso glandulisque disci partim distinctis. Specimina plura et a cl. Wright et a cl. 
Rugel missa speciem floris magnitudine, proportione partium et corolle loborum forma 
valde variabilem ostendunt: calycis segmenta basi minute squamata lineas 6-12, 
corolle * albe " lobi oblongi vel oblique obovati pollices 1 — 2 longi, tubo sesquilongi- 
ores vel quadruplo fere ipsum superantes. (1377.) 

Ecuires VALENZUELANA, Rich. Cub. Rhabdadenia Wrightiana, J. Mull.! Sed prop- 
ter comam in seminis apice truncato sessilem non est Rhabdadenia, sed cum Echitidis, 
J. Mull. charactere consentanea, etsi species caule fruticoso erecto, corolla infundibuli- 
formi, et pedicellis 1—2 axillaribus in genere anomala. — * In pinetis prope Monte 
Verde. Arbor parvula, gracilis." (399.) 

EcHITES SUBERECTA, Jacq. (400.) 

Ecartes Jamatcensis, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. E. Domingensis, Sw., non Jacq. (1376.) 


ASCLEPIADEZ. 


ASTEPHANUS OVALIFOLIUS, Rich. Cub. (403, 1379.) 

AsTEPHANUS Cusensis, Kth., var. PAUCIFLORUS, Griseb.: pedicillis geminis vel sub- 
solitariis. — Forma habitu cum icone Kunthiana (Nov. Gen. t. 237) plane conveniens : 
columna plicis geminatis decurrentibus alternantibus insignis. (404, 1665.) 

AMPHISTELMA FILIFORME, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. (405.) 

[AscLeptas Curassavica, L. 401.] 

AscLEPIAS NIVEA, L. (402.) 

SancosrEMMA BrownNEr, Mey. (1666.) : 

OxxPETALUM RIPARIUM, Kth. Nov. Gen. t. 231. (406.) 

GONOLOBUS TIGRINUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramis pube reversa petiolisque hispidulis ; 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 521 


foliis e basi cordata vel subcordata oblongo-lanceolatis apice attenuatis glabriusculis vel 
in nervos subtus parce hispidulis ; corymbis paucifloris subsessilibus abbreviatis petio- 
lum equantibus; calyce hispidulo corolla ter breviori, segmentis ovalibus; corolla 
venis picta extus parce puberula intus glabra (lin. 5 — 6 diam.) 5-loba, lobis orbiculari- 
bus tubo planiusculo parum longioribus; corona subintegra scutelliformi. (1667.) 

FiscHERIA SCANDENS, DC., Deless. Ic. 5. t. 77. (1378.) 

MARSDENIA CLAUSA, R. Br. M. affinis, Rich. Cub. (1374.) 

MARSDENIA CAMPANULATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): fruticosa, scandens; ramulis bifariam 
puberulis ; foliis lanceolatis elliptico-lanceolatis vel spathulato-oblongis breviter acumi- 
natis basi attenuatis glabris nitidis subtus pallidis; cymæ pedunculis petiolum sub- 
eequantibus ; sepalis orbiculatis ciliatis corollee tubo duplo brevioribus; corolla cam- 
panulata glabra ad faucem dense barbata, lobis subrotundis tubo urceolato plus duplo 
brevioribus; corone squamis carnosis ovatis obtusis infra medium anthere adnatis ; 
pollinariis ovoideis; stigmate umbonato. — “Ad Monte Verde. Scandens, 6-10- 
pedalis, floribus viridulo-albis." (1375.) ` 

[Goworosus sp. affinis G. rostrato et Martinicensi, sed pedunculo communi SCH 
sepalis lanceolatis: specimina pauca in coll. 1856 — 7, a Grisebachio haud visa. 407.) 


GENTIANEA. 


SABBATIA GRACILIS, Salisb., var. CupENsIs, Griseb.: foliis lanceolatis; floribus paucis 
subfastigiatis longe pedicellatis; calycis segmentis spathulato-linearibus acutis post 
anthesin excrescentibus. (412.) 

G«PPERTIA VOLUBILIS, Griseb. in Jour. Linn. Soc. 6, p. 141.* Coutoubea volubilis, 
Mart. “Ad Monte Verde. Corolla tubo flavido, limbo albo." (1372.) | 

LISIANTHUS THAMNOIDES, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. (1347.) 

LEIANTHUS LONGIFOLIUS, Griseb. 8. GRactLIs, Griseb.: forma corolla pollicari. (413.) 

ZONANTHUS Cusensis, Griseb. in Jour. Linn. Soc. l.c. p. 145. (nov. gen.t) “In 
montanis prope La Perla, etc. Frutex 10-pedalis.” (1346.) 


* G«rPERTIA, Nov. Gen. (non Nees). Calyx 5-partitus, 2-bracteolatus. Corolla, .afundibuliformis, mar- 
cescens, limbo 5-partito. Stamina 5, e tubo corolle exserta; filamentis brevibus infra faucem insertis ; 
antheris erectis oblongis immutatis. Ovarium uniloculare ; stylo deciduo; stigmate indiviso ovoideo, basi 
in marginem prominulum producto. Capsula bivalvis, septicida ; valvulis paullo introflexis. Semina reticu- 
lata marginalia, funiculis dentiformibus inserta. Herba volubilis: folia lanceolata, paribus plerisque distan- 
tibus; cyme trifide vel trichotomz, in racemum elongatum dispositze (aut sec. Mart. racemus simplex, 
terminalis). Griseb. Le 

f ZowaANTHUS. Involucrum calycem cingens, foliolis geminis rotundatis in tubum breviorem connatis, tubo 


cupuliformi apice intus in marginem annularem integrum producto. Calyx campanulatus, ecarinatus, demum 


LJ 


5022 PLANTA WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


VoYRIA PALLIDA, Garcke! Parum differt a V. uniflora, Lam. squamis oppositis et 
corolle lobis ovato-oblongis obtusiusculis. (415, 1373.) 
[EusromA EXALTATUM, Griseb. Coll. 1856 — 7, 414.] 


SCROPHULARIACE. 


Bupprera Americana, L. [Flores ex cl. Wright albi nec flavi.] (1297.) 

[Scoparia putcrs, L. Coll. 1856 — 7, 376, 37 14 

CAPRARIA BIFLORA, L. (375.) | 

STEMODIA DURANTIFOLIA, Sw. (1639.) [Et 375 coll. 1856-7 pro parte. | 

[STEMODIA MARITIMA, L., sine numero, et -STEMODIA PARVIFLORA, Ait. coll. 1856-7, 
314.] 

HrxMIANTHUS CALLITRICHOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis oppositis minutis (1-12 lin. 
diam.) subrotundis pedicellum filiformem parum superantibus; corolle labio superiori 
obsoleto, inferiore trifido, lobis oblongis obtusis, medio sesquilongiori; filamentis basi 
dente minuto auctis. — H. micranthemoides, Nutt. (ex icone Jour. Acad. Philad. 1, t. 6.) 
fig. inf. plantam simillimam exhibet, distinctam vero foliis spathulatis, corolle labio 
inferiori tripartito, segmento ejus medio “ lineari-ligulato ” lateralibus multo longiori 
inflexo, et imprimis dentibus filamentarum filamento ipsi equilongis. Character gene- 
ris Nuttallianus omnino quadrat in nostram plantam: inde a Micranthemo potius ad 
Sibthorpieas (inter Hydranthellam et Limosellam) transponendum erit, a Micranthemo 
calyce 4-dentato unilateraliter fere ad basin fisso, corolle labio superiori obsoleto, stylo 
bifido, ejusque ramis filiformibus diversum. — “ Secus rivulos in saxis madidis cespi- 
tosum." (378.) [Atque etiam 268 coll. 1859 — 60, necnon forma vegetior in rivulis ad 
Cobre, 1640, pro parte. Specimina cum iis Oldenlandiz callitrichoidis male confusa: 
vide p. 506.] 

SCROPHULARIA MICRANTHA, Desv. (non Urv.): Venitia, annua, glabra; foliis deltoideo- 
ovatis grosse duplicato-serratis (poll. 1 - 21 longis); thyrso terminali laxo glandulifero, 
cymis paucifloris; calycis segmentis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis haud marginatis ; 
corolla calyce sesquilongiori (sesquilineam longa), lobis breviter rotundatis, 4 superi- 
oribus zqualibus, inferiori paullo longiori; staminibus exsertis, rudimento quinti nullo. 


fissilis, 5-lobus; lobis quadrato-subrotundis planis imbricatis margine membranaceis. Corolla hypocrateri- 
morpha, dextrorsum contorta, ad medium fere 5-loba, tubo campanulato, lobis oblongis obtusis. Stamina medio 
corolle tubo inserta; filamentis exsertis; antheris incumbenti-recurvis, loculis connectivo dilatato adnatis. 
Ovarium placentis suturalibus divisis semi-4-loculare; stylo elongato; stigmate bilamellato. Capsula septicida, 
bivalvis, carpidiis 2 introflexis semi-4-locularis, placentis polyspermis marginalibus; testa reticulata. Frutex: 
foliis spathulato-oblongis petiolatis, petiolis. in vaginam annularem connexis: pedunculi axillares, solitarii, 
folia subzequantes, uniflori: corolla virens. Griseb. Le 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. 523 


— “ Prope Monte Verde nec non in monte Lomo del Gato, secus rivulos: corolla alba.” 
(312, 1345.) 
SOLANELE. 


ScHWENKIA ADSCENDENS, Kunth., Nov. Gen. & Sp. t. 180. (373.) 

BRUNFELSIA PURPUREA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrescens; foliis spathulato-lanceolatis 
obtusiusculis basi in petiolum brevem attenuatis vel subsessilibus (poll. 2—14 longis); 
calyce breviter campanulato 5-dentato pedicellis subsolitariis cernuis multo breviori, 
dentibus rotundatis; corolla purpurea, tubo recto (20 — 22 lin. longo) deorsum atten- 
uato calyce decies limbo ter longiori, lobis rotundatis integris; stigmate breviter ex- 
serto. — “ In sylvis densis prope Monte Verde. Frutex 4 — 6-pedalis, floribus atropur- 
pureis.” (393.) 

BRUNFELSIA VINCIFLORA, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrescens; foliis elliptico-lanceolatis 
acutiusculis basi in petiolum brevem attenuatis vel subsessilibus (11 — 1 poll. longis) ; 
calyce breviter campanulato 5-dentato pedicellis subsolitariis multo breviori, dentibus 
ovato-rotundatis; corollz tubo incurvo cylindrico (10 lin. longo) calyce quinquies limbo 
duplo longiori, lobis rotundatis integris; bacca globosa indehiscente (8-6 lin. diam.). 
— * Prope Monte Verde. Frutex 1-3-pedalis, floribus purpureis." (394, 1349.) 
[Huc forte specimina fructifera coll 1856 — 7, 335.] 

SOLANDRA LONGIFLORA, Tuss. “ Arbores excelsas scandens. Corolla suaveolens, 
limbo albo, tubo inferne sensim viridescenti lineis 10 rubellis percurso.” (1348.) 

DATURA sUAVEOLENS, Humb. & Bonpl. “Secus rivulos: frutex circiter 10-pedalis.” 
(1641.) | 

Capsicum BACCATUM, L. (384.) 

SoLANUM NODIFLORUM, Jacq. (384.) 

SoLanum TRISTE, Jacq. (388)  — 

SOLANUM CALLICARPIFOLIUM, Kunth. (379.) 

SOLANUM VIRGATUM, Lam.; Dun. Sol. t. 4. S. radiatum, Sendtn. Ab affini S. lento 
Cav. differt foliis supra glabriusculis, calyce tomentoso et appendicibus ejus 10 brevi- 
oribus. Specimina extant preterea e Haiti, Teapa, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, et 
Peruvia. (385.) 

SoLANUM AQUARTIA, Dun. — Jacq. Amer. Pict. t. 15. (1642.) 

SOLANUM CROTONOIDES, Lam.; Dun. Sol. t. 15. Bacca matura pollicem diametro. (382.) 

SoLANUM JAMAICENSE, Sw.! (380.) : 

[SoLANUM CARDIOPHYLLUM, Dun. Coll. 1856-7, 381.] 

[SOLANUM INCLUSUM, Griseb., vel affine, a Grisebachio casu omissa. 1350.] 

CESTRUM HIRTUM, Sw. “ Bacce cerulex.” (386.) 


524 PLANTZ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


CEsTRUM LAURIFOLIUM, L'Her. (1352, 1352*) 

CzsTRUM DAPHNOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramulis villoso-pubescentibus ; foliis lanceo- 
lato-oblongis (2-14 poll. longis) obtusis subcoriaceis subtus puberulis; floribus sub- 
sessilibus glomeratis vel solitariis; calycis dentibus minutis; corolla (semipollicari) 
glabra, tubo filiformi sursum paullo dilatato, lobis ovatis obtusiusculis; staminibus 
inclusis infra faucem corolle insertis, filamentis anthera triplo longioribus edentatis 
glabris; bacca (juniori) oblonga. — Idem in Insula S. Thomas legit Holton. — * Cult. 
ad Monte Verde: flores flavido-viriduli.” (1351.) 

[Czstrum DIURNUM, L. et C. MACROPHYLLUM, Vent.? in coll. 1856-7 commixta, 387.] 


BIGNONIACEZ. 


CreEsceNTIa Cusere, L. (361*) et C. cucunniTINA, L. (361.) 

SCHLEGELIA PARASITICA, Miers. Tanecium parasiticum, Sw. (484.) 

JACARANDA SAGREANA, DC. Tanacium paniculatum, Sieb. Martin. 87. A simili 
J. cerulea, Griseb. (J. Bahamensi, DC., non R. Br.) differt corolla breviori (pollicem 
longa) puberula, et imprimis capsula elliptico-oblonga basi acutiuscula apice obtuse 
apiculata duplo angustiori (lin. 8 lata). “In pinetis. Corolla purpurea." (360.) 

Tecoma LEUCOXYLON, Mart. (1339.) Var. minus lepidota. (1338.) 

TrcowA LEPIDOPHYLLA, Griseb. Bignonia lepidophylla, Rich. Cub. t. 59. Affinis 
Tabebuiis simplicifoliis DC., ad Tecomam revocandis. Diagnosi apud A. Richard hzc 
addentur: folia opposita vel alterna, basi rotundata vel angustata, supra demum viren- 
tia squamisque amissis nitida, subtus candido-lepidota: calyx junior clausus, ovoideus, 
demum breviter bilabiatus, labiis inzequalibus sepe rotundato-integris: anthere loculi 
oblongi, divergenti-pendula: ovarium disco prominulo cinctum, placentis dilatatis medio 
contiguis biloculare: capsula siliquiformis, teretiuscula, 3—5 poll. longa, valvis tricari- 
natis, dissepimento contrario planiusculo subcarnoso: semina lin. 10 longa, ipsa ovoideo- 
rotunda, rhaphe impressa, ala utraque rotundata pellucida diametro loculi «equali.* 
— “In preruptis ad Monte Verde: arbor circiter 50-pedalis, floribus purpureis." 
(1341.) 


* Species Cubensis 7. lepidophylla Griseb. affinis est : — 

TECOMA MYRTIFOLIA, Griseb. (n. sp.) : fruticosa, tortuosa, glabra ; ramis vetustis spinescentibus ; foliis sim- 
plicibus sparsis vel fasciculatis lepidotis subtus candidis minutis (lin. 3—4 longis) spathulato-oblongis brevis- 
sime petiolatis rigidis margine revolutis, mediano supra impresso; fasciculis paucifloris; calyce lepidoto 
inequaliter 5-dentato corolla quadruplo breviori; corolla glabra inferne tenui duplo stamina superante ; 
anthere loculis oblongo-linearibus strictis, altero erecto, altero pendulo ; capsula lineari-aeuminata teretiuscula, 
valvis carinatis ; seminum alis loculum subzquantibus. — Legit Rugel prope Matanzas. 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 525 


BIGNONIA UNGUIS, L. (359, 1340.) 
PrrHEcocrENIUM AvsLETI, Splitg. (1337.) 


ACANTHACE. 


RUELLIA GEMINIFLORA, Kth., y. CANESCENS, Griseb. -Dipteracanthus canescens Nees 
in DC. (366.) 

RUELLIA TUBEROSA, L. Cryphiacanthus Barbadensis Nees. (1343.) 

STENANDRIUM SCABROSUM, Nees. Ruellia scabrosa Sw. (1344.) 

PacHYsTACHYS COCCINEA, Nees. (362.) 

DIANTHERA OBTUSIFOLIA, Griseb., var. HIRSUTA. Rhytiglossa obtusifolia, 8. Nees 
in DC. (367.) 

DIANTHERA PEPLOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): caule filiformi repente (1-3-pollicari) gla- 
brescente ; foliis ovato-subrotundis petiolatis minutis (2—14 lin. diam.); floribus 3 (-1) 
in spica simplici distantibus; calycis segmentis 5 lineari-acuminatis corolla triplo bre- 
vioribus ; corolle labiis tubo quadruplo brevioribus ; antherarum loculis oblongis con- 
tiguis parallelis, altero altiori; capsula elliptica puberula in unguem equilongum 
contracta. — Affinis D. reptanti (Rhytiglosse Nees). — * Prope Monte Verde, ad saxos 
secus rivulorum margines. Corolla alba, palato sparsim rubro-guttato." (365.) 

[DrawTHERA REPTANS, Griseb. Coll. 1856 — 7, specimina pauca; in nonnullis spica 
demum elongata multiflora. 364.] 

[DIANTHERA COMATA, L. 363.] 

ANTHACANTHUS SPINOSUS, Nees. (368, 369.) 

ANTHACANTHUS BISPINOSUS, Griseb. (n. sp.): glabrescens; spinis setaceis (3—4 lin. 
longis) utrinque geminis patentibus folia rhombeo-oblonga vel ovato-oblonga pauci- 
dentata acuta membranacea ssepe equantibus ; floribus solitariis subsessilibus ; calycis 
segmentis insequalibus, majori lanceolato capsulam sttbeequante, binis lineari-setaceis ; 
capsula lanceolata (2 lin. longa) sessili ad basin usque 4-sperma. — Flos ignotus, sed 
habitus omnino A. Jamaicensis Griseb. (Justicie acicularis Sw.). — * Prope Monte 
Verde secus ripas rivulorum. Frutex gracilis, 1 — 2-pedalis, floribus albis." [Corollz 
nonnulle in herb. meo reperte parve (lineas 3— 4 longe), hypocraterimorphe, labio 
superiori bipartito tubo quadruplo, inferiori alte tripartito tubo triplo breviori, lobis 
omnibus rotundatis planis: stamina 4; anthere longiorum didyme, loculis parallelis 
basi abrupte mucronulatis, breviorum loculo altero casso vel abortu nullo. Char. floris 
fere Chameranthemi sed habitu diversus.] (1842.) 

DICLIPTERA ASSURGENS, Juss. (1638.) 

VOL. VIII. 68 


526 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


GESNERIACE. 


BELLONIA spinosa, L. (370.) 

RYTIDOPHYLLUM TOMENTOSUM, Mart. (356, coll. 1856-7 et Jan. Jul 1859.) 

RyYTIDOPHYLLUM PETIOLARE, DC. A precedente foliis latioribus petiolatis et corolla 
coccinea differt. (356, coll. Sept. 1859 — Jan. 1860.) 

DUCHARTREA VIRIDIFLORA, Decaisne in Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 3, 6, t. 8. (854.) 

Conrapia HUMILIS, Mart. “ Corolla lutea." (355.) 

CONRADIA CORRUGATA, Griseb. (n. sp.): suffruticosa, nana, pube hispida; foliis rosu- 
latis valde rugosis lanceolatis subsessilibus crenato-repandis supra muricato-asperis 
subtus ad costas hispidis; floribus axillaribus breviter pedicellatis coccineis; calycis 
tubo teretiusculo, lobis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis trinerviis corolla multo brevioribus ; 
corolla (sesquipollicari) clavata, tubo rectiusculo infra limbum parvum obliquum con- 
stricto, lobis minutis rotundatis crenatis. — * Prope Monte Verde: caules e fissuris 
rupium, nunc brevissime exserentes implexi, nunc pedales nodosi." (1335.) 

CoLLANDRA SANGUINEA, Griseb. Alloplectus sanguineus Mart. Besleria Pers. Tuss. 
FL Lt 19. Proxima C. aureo-nitenti, Hanst., distincta sepalis corollam subzquantibus. 
(357.) 

COLUMNEA TINCTA, Griseb. (n. sp.): suffruticosa ; pilis articulatis longiusculis ; foliis 
obovato-oblongis (5 —2 poll longis) sepe inzqualibus superne obsolete serrulatis vel 
repando-integerrimis demum subglabratis, ciliis persistentibus ; pedunculis fasciculatis 
petiolum subsequantibus calyceque hirsutis, hoc rubro-colorato corollam dimidiam 
equante, segmentis oblongis acutis remote dentatis; corolla “flava” pilosa fere ad 
medium bilabiata, lobis lateralibus oblongis obtusis patentibus galee obtuse subintegre 
vel emarginate ad medium adnatis et equilongis, lobo inferiori oblongo-lineari tubo 
clavato supra basin rectiusculo parum breviori. — * Epiphytica supra arborum truncos 
in sylvis densis" (358, 1336.) 

+ >. 


CONVOLVULACEZX. 


[Irpom@a Bona-nox, L. Calonyction speciosum Chois. 450.] 

Ipom@a TUBEROSA, L. (1657.) 

Irowca pissecta, Pursh, non R. Br. 1. sinuata Orteg. (1656.) 

Ipome@a QUINQUEFOLIA, Griseb. Batatas quinquefolia Chois. (441 [lapsu calami in 
coll. 1859 — 60], 448.) 

Ipomaa FASTIGIATA, Sweet. (458, 1648.) 

Irowma sIDIFOLIA, Chois. (453, 1655.) : 

Ipom@a UMBELLATA, Mey.! Desc. Fl t. 524. (1649.) 


PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 527 


[Iromæa Prs-caPRA, Sw. Coll. 1856-7. 452.] 

IpoM@A HEPTAPHYLLA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Pes-Capre, glabra, volubilis; foliis 7-partitis, 
segmentis spathulatis subsessilibus repando-integerrimis; cymis pedunculatis; sepalis 
ovatis rotundatis corolla triplo brevioribus, 2 exterioribus brevioribus; corolla supra 
basin ventricosa purpurea (sesquipollicari); capsula ellipsoidea biloculari calycem ad- 
pressum adeequante; seminibus oblongatis ventre glabris dorso villosis margineque 
lana (semipollicem longa) patente instructis. — Affinis I. macrorrhize R. S., et verosimi- 
liter est I. macrorrhiza Chois. (non R. S. et exclus. syn. Burm.). Specimina Wrightiana 
juvenilia sunt, sed congrua cum Haitiensibus a Mackenzie collectis. (1371.) 

Irowca TENUISSIMA, Chois. (1651.) 

IromuA ARGENTIFOLIA, Rich. Cub. Similis I lachnea Spreng.! sed valde distincta. 
* Prope Nouvelle Sophie in collibus umbrosis. Corolla atro-coccinea." (449.) 

Irowma RAcEMOSA, Poir. Exogonium Chois. Calystegia Berterii Spreng. in pl. 
Bertero! (1650.) 

[Irom@a Quawocrrr, L. Coll. 1856 — 7, 447. Et I. coccixza, L., sine numero. | 

ĪPOMŒA PURPUREA, Lam. Pharbitis hispida Chois. (451.) 

Irpom@a ACUMINATA, R. S. (non R. P.). Pharbitis mutabilis Chois. (1647.) 

CONVOLVULUS MICRANTHUS, R. S. (455, 1654.) 

ConvoLvuLus Havanensis, Jacq., var. corolla majori. (1653.) 

CONVOLVULUS woDIFLORUS, Desc. (1652.) 

EvoLvuLUS ARBUSCULA, Poir. (456, 1658.) 

[EvorvuLUs NUMMULARIUS, L. Coll. 1856 — 7, 4571. ] 

[DicgowpRA REPENS, Forst. Coll. 1856 — 1, 459.] 

Cuscura Americana, L. (1659.) 


HYDROLEACEZ. 
Nama Jamarcensis, L. (416.) 


BORAGINE. 


Cornia ALBA, R. S. Varronia calyptrata DC. (425.) 

Corpia GERASCANTHUS, Jacq. (1644.) [Lapsu calami specimina nonnulla sub no. 
1664 distributa. ] 

CORDIA GERASCANTHOIDES, Kth. (414, 1369.) 

CoRDIA NITIDA, Vahl, apud West. (1367, fl., 1368, fr.) 

Cornia sutcata, DC. C. macrophylla Vahl! non Mill (427.) 

CORDIA ULMIFOLIA, Juss. (423.) 


598 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


CORDIA MICROPHYLLA, R. S.: fruticosa, aspera; foliis (4-10 lin. longis) spathulatis 
vel obovato-subrotundis obtusis rugosis supra bullato-muriculatis subtus adpresse seto- 
is; fasciculis plurifloris breviter pedunculatis folia subzequantibus ; calyce campanu- 
lato breviter 5-fido strigoso corolle tubum dimidium «equante, lobis subulatis ab initio 
distinctis; corolla hypocraterimorpha, lobis obovatis tubum cylindricum dimidium 
eequantibus ` staminibus subinclusis, filamentis glabris corolle tubo superne insertis. — 
Eadem est in coll. Linden (Cub. 1723). — * Ad Santa Catalina de Guantanamo: frutex 
humilis" (421.) 

Cornia croBosa, Kth. “ Prope Santa Catalina etc" (422.) 

EHRETIA TINIFOLIA, L. (1366, 1370.) 

BEURERIA VIRGATA, G. Don: hispidula, glabrescens; foliis obovato-oblongis vel 
elliptico-oblongis obtusiusculis supra vulgo albo-tuberculatis breviter petiolatis (1-2 
poll. longis); cymis vulgo paucifloris; corolle tubo lobos subrotundos ter superante 
calyce hispidulo duplo longiori; drupa globosa leviter costata. — Ehretia virgata Sw. ! 
Specimen Swartzianum in Haiti, aliud a Greene prope Havanam lectum est. (426.) 

BEURERIA DIVARICATA, G. Don: ramulis divaricatis glabrescentibus; foliis parvis (4- 
8 lin. longis) oblongis vel ovali-oblongis subsessilibus convexo-revolutis supra muricato- 
hispidulis nitidis subtus glabrescentibus; cyma pauciflora; calyce sparsim puberulo 
drupam globosam dimidiam equante. — Corolla non exstat: pyrene monosperme 
eandem ad fluv. Yumury prope Matanzas legit Rugel.* — “ In preeruptis prope Monte 
Verde. Frutex 2—5-pedalis, ramis plurimis brevibus rigidis, floribus albis, fructibus 
rubris" (1365.) 


* Cetere Beureria, in Flora Indie Occidentalis nostra exposite, ex magnis Antillis he sunt: — 

B. CALOPHYLLA, Griseb.: glabra; foliis B. Domingensis Griseb.; cymis expansis; corolle tubo lobis 
triplo longiori ealycem glabrum duplo superante ; drupa ex ic. Rich. ovoideo-globosa pruniformi calyce multo 
longiori. — Syn. Ehretia Rich. Cub. t. 61. In Cuba legit Rugel prope Matanzas eamque arborem parvam 
dicit. 

B. CASSINIFOLIA, Griseb.: ramulis albo-puberulis glabratis; foliis rigidis spathulatis vel obovatis obtusis 
(10—12 lin. longis) in petiolum brevem attenuatis supra tuberculato-asperis levibusque utrinque glabris ; 
cymis paucifloris calyceque sericeis; corolle tubo lobos subrotundos duplo superante calycem «equante. — 
Syn. Ehretia Rich. E. virgata. DC.! ex specim. Bertero; non Sw. Ab affini B, Domingensi differt calyce 
breviori 2 lin. longo, petiolo brevi 1-2 lin. longo, et foliis parvis: an var.? Bertero legit in Haiti, alia. spe- 
cimina forsan Vahliana, loco non adscripto, exstant in herbario cl. Sonder. 

B. SPINIFEX, Griseb.: ramis calyceque glabris; foliis coriaceis parvis (6-12 lin. longis) spathulatis supra 
sparsim hispidulo-tuberculatis vel glabratis subtus glaberrimis breviter petiolatis; cymis patentibus paucifloris, 
pedicellis cernuis; corolle tubo lobos subrotundos duplo superante calycem paullo superante ; drupa globosa 
4-costata. — Syn. Ehretia RS “ Frutex vel arbor parva, in rupibus prope Matanzas,” Rugel. 


PLANT WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. : 529 


TOURNEFORTIA HIRSUTISSIMA, L. (419, 1362.) 

TOURNEFORTIA cymosa, L. (1645.) 

TOURNEFORTIA BICOLOR, Sw., y. BRACHYCEPHALA, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. (420.) 
TouRNEFoRTIA LAURIFOLIA, Vent. (417, 417", 418, 1646.) 

TOURNEFORTIA FERRUGINEA, Lam. (1363.). 

TOURNEFORTIA INCANA, Lam. (1364.) 


LABIATA. 


Hypris CAPITATA, Jacq. (443.) 

Der spicata, Poit. (441 [lapsu calami in distributione pro 444.] ) 

Hyrris SUAVEOLENS, Poit. (445, 446.) 

Hyptis scoparia, Poit. (1608.) 

MICROMERIA OBOVATA, Benth. “In summo jugo montium. Corolla alba, lobis 
margine rubro-guttatis." (1643.) | 

SALVIA TENELLA, Sw., var. folis subtus pubescentibus. Syn. S. micrantha Vahl, 
formas foliis majoribus speciei Swartzians sistens. (1361.) | 

ScUTELLARIA PURPURASCENS, Sw. (461.) 


VERBEN ACE. 


[SrAcHvrARPHA Jamarcensis, Vahl. Coll. 1856 — 7, specimina pauca, 442. ] 

LiPPrA puLcis, Trev. (440.) 

Lantana ODORATA, L. (441.) 

Lantana TRIFOLIA, L. (1360.) 

[Lantana Camara, L.? Coll. 1856 - 1, specimina pauca, 439.] 

[CITHAREXYLUM VILLOSUM, Jacq.? Coll. 1856 — 7, specimina imperfecta, 438.] 

CITHAREXYLUM LUCIDUM, Cham. & Schlecht.! S. quadrangulare Schauer! non Jacq. 
(435, 436, 1359.) : 

CITHAREXYLUM BERTERII, Spreng. (437, 1356.) 

Duranta PLumtERI, Jacq. (1358.) . 

Perma Parricn, Schauer! Distincta a P. Domingensi Jacq. foliis subtus densius 
reticulatis hispidulo-tomentosis, paniculis brevioribus petiolum subequantibus, et drupis 
globosis. (428, 1353.) 

CALLICARPA FERRUGINEA, Sw. (430.) 

CALLICARPA FULVA, Rich. Cub. “ Frutex 6 — 10-pedalis, foliis rugosissimis, corollis 
leete purpureis. (1357.) 

JEarPHiLA ELATA, Sw. (429, var. 1354: hee forma ludit corolle lobis 4 cH 
totidemque staminibus.) 


530 PLANTJE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


VITEX AVICENNIOIDES, Rich. Cub. — Hsec et V. ilicifolia, Rich. Cub. t. 64 (arbor a 
Linden denuo in rupibus ad fluv. Yumury prope Matanzas lecta) a speciebus generis 
genuinis foliis vere simplicibus petioloque non articulato recedunt, tamen nec flore nec 
fructu a Vitice distinguende sunt. (431.) 

VITEX UMBROSA, Sw. (1355.) 


CONIFER. 


/ Pus Cusensts, Griseb. (n. sp.): foliis ternis geminisque tenuibus ( sexpollicaribus) ; 
strobilis solitariis vel geminis pedunculatis ovatis obtusis demum recurvis, apophysi 
depressa leviter convexa et transversim carinata pallida medio umbonata, umbone parvo 
breviter mucronato. — “ In altioribus Cub: Orientalis frequens." (598, 1462.) 

Popocarpus PunprEANUs, Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 624; forma parvifolia. ~ (1461.) 


CYCADEA, 


ZAMIA INTEGRIFOLIA, Ait. — Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 635. (1463.) 

ZAMIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 636. Z. angustissima, Miq. ex ic. Cycad. t. 1, 
KI (597) 
NAJADEZ. 


PotAMOGETON NATANS, L. Forma foliis basi acutiusculis, P. lonchiti, Tuckerm. spe- 
cimini Texensi conformis. (604.) [Idem est 603.] 

[Nazas srx, Rostk. Coll. 1856-7 tantum, 605.] 

[TYPHACEÆ. — TYPHA ANGUSTIFOLIA, L. Coll. 1856-7, 600.] 


AROIDE. 


ANTHURIUM CRASSINERVIUM, Schott. (Pothos Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 609.) Costa folii 
subtus striato-obtusata. (601.) 

PHILODENDRON LACERUM, Schott. (602.) 

ARISEMA ATRORUBENS, Blume. Specimen incompletum. (1469.) 


PALMAE. 


EurerPE Mawa&rE, Griseb. & Wendl. (Oreodoxa Manatle, Mart, D E. pinnis 
lanceolato-acuminatis basi latiusculis glabris, mediano supra carinato; spadicis ramis 
glabris fuscescentibus ; floribus remotiusculis (4 ignotis); bacca nigra opaca (semipoll. 
diam.) — Pinne 32-34 pollices longe, 21 poll. late, basi ipsa reduplicata rhacheos 
faciei (6 lin. latee) adnate ; rami spadicis sesquipedales. ** Caudex circiter 50-pedalis, 
gracilis; frondibus 10-15 pedes longis; panicula simplici 2—3-pedali; baccis atro- 
purpureis, pulpa tenui. Prope Monte Verde." (1468.) 


PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 51531 


OREODOXA OLERACEA, Mart. (1467.) 

GEoNoMA (CALYPTRONOMA) Swarrzi, Griseb. & Wendl. in Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. 
Elais occidentalis Sw. (1466.) 

Bacrris PLUMIERIANA, Mart. (1465, 599.) 


COMMELYNACEZ. 


CAMPELIA ZANONIA, Rich. (697, 1527.) 

TRADESCANTIA PANICULATA, Jacq., var. EFFUSA, Mart. (1714.) 
CALLISIA UMBELLULATA, Lam. (695.) 

ComMELYNA CAYENNENSIS, Rich. (698.) [678 in schedis nonnullis. | 
CoMMELYNA PERSICARIFOLIA, DC. (696.) 


GRAMINEJE. 


ARTHROSTYLIDIUM FIMBRIATUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): ramorum internodiis gracilibus levi- 
bus; folis brevibus patentibus lineari-acuminatis basi contractis glabris margine 
scabris, fimbriis oris vagin: elongatis patentibus inzqualibus pallidis, longissimis (10 
lin. longis) folio fere duplo brevioribus, vagina leviuscula ; racemis contractis termi- 
nalibus; spiculis 3 — 5-floris internodium axeos superantibus linearibus brevissime pedi- 
cellatis; floribus lineari-acuminatis nervatis internodio rhacheos duplo brevioribus ; 
glumis sterilibus abruptim brevioribus. — * In sylvis densis prope Monte Verde. 
Culmi 1—3-pedales" (1554.) 

ARTHROSTYLIDIUM CAPILLIFOLIUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): internodiis caulis gracilibus (vix 
lineam diam.) ramulos foliatos dense fasciculatos vulgo excedentibus levibus; foliis 
flexilibus tenuissimis capillaceis (3 — 6 poll. longis) canaliculatis glabris margine sca- 
briusculis, fimbriis oris vagine albidis flaccidis (1— 2 lin. longis), vagina brevi levi ; 
racemis depauperatis ramulos terminantibus ; spiculis 1-4, lateralibus valde distanti- 
bus breviter pedicellatis lanceolatis ; floribus fertilibus 2—5 superne nervatis internodio 
rhacheos clavato triplo longioribus lineari-attenuatis apice obtusiusculis, superioribus 
caducis; glumis sterilibus deorsum decrescentibus. — *In sylvis densis, frutices vel 
arbores scandens." (738.) 

ARUNDO SACCHAROIDES, Griseb. Gynerium saccharoides Humb. (1560.) 

ERAGROSTIS CILIARIS, Link. (1550.) 

[Eracrostis PILOSA, Beauv. 745.] 

SPOROBOLUS Inpicus, R. Br. (1537.) 

ARISTIDA STRICTA, Michx., var. COGNATA, Trin. (136, 737.) 

LEERSIA MONANDRA, Sw.! (731.) 


092 PLANTZ WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


OLYRA LATIFOLIA, L., var. ARUNDINACEA, Trin. (146.) 

OLYRA PAUCIFLORA, Sw. (732.) 

Oryra reem, C. Wright. mscr. (n. sp.): culmis aggregatis teneris inferne sub- 
aphyllis, nodis constrictis ; foliis lanceolatis acutiusculis (6 — 10 lin. longis) levibus 
margine scabriusculis, petiolo intus hispidulo, ligula truncata; inflorescentia axillari ; 
racemis supremis d, inferioribus in spiculam 9 solitariam reductis ; spiculis glabris ; 
glumis d lanceolato-acuminatis, 9 subulatis; flore 9 semiorbiculari leevigato albo apice 
in apiculum brevissimum obtusiusculum producto. — Affinis O. pauciflore, differt tenui- 
tate et apiculo floris magis distincto. — * Prope Monte Verde, inter pinorum folia 
dejecta.” (1536.) 

PHARUS LATIFOLIUS, L. P. scaber Kth. (733.) 

Puarus GLABER, Kth. (733 bis, coll. 1859.) 

Bovuretova Humsorpriana, Griseb. Eutriana juncifolia Kth. exclusis plerisque 
synonymis. Parum recedit ab icone Kunthii (Nov. Gen. t. 54) flore superiori 4 vel 
neutro, tertio in stipitem reducto: valde differt a B. litigiosa Lag. (Aristida Americana 
Sw.) floribus basi glabriusculis, secundo magis explicato 5-dentato, dentibus exterioribus 
et medio aristatis, deinde spicis plerumque unilateralibus earumque spiculis paucioribus 
magis approximatis, internodio axeos glumis superato. (734, 739.) 

Tricuspis (TRIPLASIS) SIMPLEX, Griseb. (n. sp.): culmis cespitosis (4-8 poll. longis) 
nudiusculis; foliis convoluto-filiformibus brevibus flexuosis sparsim et ad apicem vagine 
densius piligeris; racemo spiciformi simplici elongato ; spiculis distantibus brevissime 
pedicellatis ; floribus fertilibus 4 — 6 distantibus. supra barbulam calli glabris, imo glu- | 
mam sterilem inferiorem duplo excedente; arista e lobulis eroso-obtusiusculis exserta 
flore ipso 3 — 4-plo breviori. — Genus ex gluma ima (in hac specie) axin respiciente et 
ex embryone majusculo (apud Kunth. Rev. t. 67) potius ad Chlorideas transponendum, 
nec a Leptochloa nisi spiculis alternis (non in facie axeos interiori biseriatis) distinctum, 
eademque charactere ad Gymnopogon et Heterostegam accedens. — * In rupidus aridis." 
(1551.) 

CHLORIS cRUCIATA, Sw. (1548, 1549.) 

[Caromis CILIATA, Sw., 743, et C. queedam, 742, coll. 1856 - 7.] 

[ErrusmwE Inpica, Gaertn. 744.] 

[LEPTOCHLOA mucronata, Kunth., "140, et L. vaata, Beauv., 341, coll. 1856 - 7.] | 

PasPALUM CONJUGATUM, Berg. (767.) 

PASPALUM DISTICHUM, L. var. VAGINATUM, Sw.! (1546.) 

PasPALUM PANICULATUM, L. (766.) 

[PasraLr sp. 2, coll. 1856 — 7, a Grisebachio non visa, 168, 769; etiam Dicirarta, 
168, 765.] 


PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 533 


DIGITARIA FILIFORMIS, Mühl. Panicum, L. (1544.) 

Dierrarra SETIGERA, Roth. (764.) 

ERIOCHLOA PUNCTATA, Ham. (1542.) 

Panicum FUSCUM, Sw. (754.) 

Panicum MOLLE, Sw. (1545.) 

Panicum DIFFUSUM, Sw. 

Panicum DURUM, Griseb. (n. sp.): Virgaria ; culmo stricto (sesqui—bipedali) folia sub- 
sequante glabrescente, nodis puberulis; foliis lineari-acuminatis rigidis glabris vel basi 
remote ciliatis; panicula patente subfastigiata (poll. 4 longa), ramis simplicibus sparsis ; 
. Spiculis (lin. 2 longis) breviter pedicellatis remotiusculis: vel geminatis subsecundis 
erectis elliptico-oblongis acutis pubescentibus testaceo-purpurascentibus; gluma ima 
ovata 5 — nert spiculam dimidiam subequante, superiori 7-nervi floreque neutro 
5-nervi paleato fertilem æquantibus ; flore fertili elliptico-oblongo acuto levi a dorso 
compresso. — Affine ex icone Triniana P. velutinoso, Nees, cui folia brevia et flos trans- 
versim rugosus ; comparatur P. Portoricense, Ham., nobis ignotum. (1539.) 

Panicum LAXUM, Sw.! P. tenuiculmum Meyer. (759.) 

Panicum PALLENS, Sw. (750.) 

Panicum DIVARICATUM, L. (747.) Var. PUBERULUM, Griseb. Fl Ind. Occ. P. glu- 
tinosum, Lam., non Sw. (748.) 

Panicum GLUTINOSUM, Sw. (757.) 

Panicum BREVIFOLIUM, L. (1538.) 

[Panicr sp. indeterminata sunt 749, 752, 753, 156 (coll. 1856-7), 758, 761, 762.] 

ORTHOPOGON LOLIACEUS, Spreng. (751.) 

ORTHOPOGON SETARIUS, Spreng. (1543.) 

ISACHNE LEERSIOIDES, Griseb. (n. sp.): gracilis, adscendens (11 —2-ped.), inferne geni- 
culata, pauciramosa ; foliis lineari-acuminatis glabris ciliatis (poll. 3—6 longis), vagina 
pilosa; panicula patente, ramis sparsis distantibus, inferioribus compositis, pedicellis fili- 
formibus spicula summa longioribus; spiculis subglobosis; glumis 2 subequilongi 
spicula paullo brevioribus pilosis, inferiori elliptico-lanceolata trinervi, superiori quinque- 
nervi; flore utroque pilosiusculo semigloboso pallente, inferiori 4, superiori 9. (755.) 

GYMNOTHRIX Domincensis, Spreng. Pennisetum Spreng. (1547.) 

EcmiNoLENa,sp. Specimen incompletum : accedit ad E. polystachyam, Kth., differt fo- 
liis petiolatis glumisque glabris. Flore minus indurato coriaceo a Panico recedit. (760.) 

TRICHOLENA INSULARIS, Griseb. Pl. Carib. p. 117. Trichachne Nees.  Milium vil- 
losum Sw. Panicum leucophleum Kth. (1541.) 

ARUNDINELLA CusEnsis, Griseb. (n. sp.): gracilis, tripedalis; foliis anguste lineari- 

VOL. VIII. 69 


534 PLANTE WRIGHTIANA CUBENSES. 


bus, vagina ciliata; panicula longa, ramis inferioribus verticillatis elongatis simplicius- 
culis; spiculis lanceolatis pallide virentibus; glumis inequalibus trinerviis florem 
sterilem superantibus, secunda fertilem ter excedente; arista geniculata flore (vix lineam 
longo) quinquies longiori. (1552.) 

MANISURIS GRANULARIS, Sw. (1553.) 

ANDROPOGON (HrrERoPocoN) secunpus, Willd. (1559.) 

ANDROPOGON (GYMNANDROPOGON) SACCHAROIDES, Sw. (1556.) 

ANDROPOGON (ScHIZACHYRIUM) BREVIFOLIUS, Sw. ( 1558.) 

ANDROPOGON (ScHIZACHYRIUM) GRACILIS, Spreng. (1557.) 

ANATHERUM BICORNE, Beauv. Andropogon, L. (770.) 

ANATHERUM MACRURUM, Griseb. Andropogon, Michx. (1555.) 

TRISCENIA, nov. gen. Spicule lanceolate, acuminate, muticee, pedicellate. Glu- 
mee, inferior membranacea, superior duplo major, cum flore neutro univalvi herbacea 
eique subeequalis. Flos fertilis solitarius, membranaceus, non induratus, inclusus: 
palea inferior superiorem binerviam subzquans. Lodicule minute. Stamina 9, an- 
there loculis subdistinctis. Stigmata supra medium florem emersa. Caryopsis libera, 
oblonga; embryone minuto. — Gramen cespitosum, habitu Festucee ovine; folis 
setaceis recurvis subcompressis supra canaliculatis levibus culmum subaphyllum (8-18 
poll. longum) sepe cequantibus, vaginis latiusculis patulis brevibus membranaceis, mar- 
gine ligulari ciliato ; spiculis racemosis raris racemisque ramos breves distantes panicule 
erecto anguste continue constituentibus, pedicellis inzequalibus. — Genus a Panico 
flore membranaceo sterilibus glumis (secunda et tertia) tenuiori, embryone minuto, 
habitu distinctum, potius Andropogineis inserendum, et Zoysie aliquid affine, si in hoc 
genere glumam primam Triscenie suppressam floremque ad paleam solitariam reduc- 
tum, quandoque etiam nudum, consideramus: sed caryopsis, que Triscenie inter 
Andropogineas Paniceasve anomala fit embryone minuto, in Zoysia et Leptothrice 
adhuc ignota est. 


TrISCENIA OVINA, Griseb. — Panicule rami inferiores 6 -8 lin., spiculee sesquilineam ` 


longe: gluma ima uninervis, nervo virente, secunda cum tertia (flore neutro) virentes, — ` 


trinerviz, flore fertili sesquilongiores. (756, coll. ann. 1859.) 
[Gramen indeterminatum, a Grisebachio haud visum, coll. 1856 — 1, 135.] 


CYPERACEJE. 


CYPERUS ACUMINATUS, Torr. (700.) 
Cyperus ocHmacEus, Vahl. (707.) : 
Cyperus (DicLIDIUM) FILIFORMIS, Sw. (702.) 


PLANTAE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 535 


Cyperus (rem) rLexuvosus, Vahl. C. stellatus, Rudge, Guian. t. 20. (704.) 

Cyperus (Dicuipium) Vantin, Steud. C. ferox, Vahl, non C. ferax, Rich. ( 705.) 

Cyperus (Papyrus) GIGANTEUS, Vahl C. Surinamensis, Kegel, coll. 37. — Folia 
ab auctoribus negata, a Kunthio descripta, in nostro specimine ceespitem juxta caulem 
basi vaginatum formant: culmus 4-pedalis, inferne canaliculato-subteres, apice solo 
triqueter: spicule dense spicatze, demum subreflexo-patentes, nitide lutescentes. (1529.) 

Cyperus (Mariscus) FLAVOMARISCUS, Griseb. Fl. Mariscus flavus, Vahl. (130.) 

[Cyperus compressus, L., 1528, necnon Cyperi 701, 703, et 706 haud nominati. | 

KYLLINGIA BREVIFOLIA, Rottb. (699.) [Coll. 1859, specimina coll. 1856 — 1 foliis 
involucri elongatis diversa. | 

ABILGAARDIA MONOSTACHYA, Vahl. (1531 bis [an vera? 708].) 

Scrrpus (ELEOCHARIS) OCHREATUS, Griseb. ` Eleogenus ochreatus, Nees. (711.) 

Scirpus (Eveocuaris) CAPITATUS, L. ( 112.) 

Scrrpus (ELEOCHARIS) CONSTRICTUS, Griseb. Limnochloa constricta, Nees.  ('109.) 

Scirpus (ErrocHamis) PLANTAGINEUS, L. Limnochloa, Nees. Eleocharis interstincta, 
R-Br C110.) 

[Scirpus raAcusrRIS, L. 713.] 

Scirpus (FimBRISTYLIS) AUTUMNALIS, L., forma elatior. (715.) 

Scrrpus (FimBRISTYLIS) BRIZOIDES, Sm. Fimbristylis lava, Vahl. (714.) 

[Scirpus (FimBrIsTYLIS) sPADICEUS, L. 715 bis, lapsus pro 716. ] 

Scirpus (Owcosrvus) JUNCOIDES, Willd. Isolepsis junciformis, Kth. (1533.) 

CLADIUM OCCIDENTALE, Schrad. (1534.) 

MACHJERINA RESTIOIDES, Vahl, var. errusa: pedunculis longioribus arcuatis; spiculis 
pallidioribus; floribus paucioribus. (1535.) 

RuvNcHosPORA PRUINOSA, Griseb. (n. sp.): Eurhynchospora, glauca; caule gracili 
obtuse trigono; foliis planis lineari-acuminatis margine scabris, pagina superiori punc- 
tis albidis exasperata ; spiculis pallidis elliptico-lanceolatis glomeratis, glomerulis brevi- 
ter spicatis, spicis parvis oblongis, axillaribus subsessilibus, terminali bracteata; glumis 
ovatis acutiusculis; stylo bifido; achenio flavente elliptico leviter transversim striato 
setas 6 sursum scabras squante rostrum virens conico-acuminatum duplo superante. 
(1532.) No. 729, specimen dubium, forsan ejusdem speciei monstrositas [sine dubio, 
speciminibus meis docentibus], spiculis elongatis sterilibus locum glomeruli tenentibus? 

RuvwNcHosPORA (NEMOCHLOA) POLYPHYLLA, Vahl (727.) 

RuvwcHosPORA (DICHROMENA) EXALTATA, Kth., forma oligocephala. Echinoschenus 
sparganioides, Nees in Mart. Fl. Bras. 3, t. 10. E Beicht, Nees. (Formam poly- 
cephalam in Venezuela legit Fendler, 2195.) “In sylvis densis, late cespitosa.” (719.) 


& 
; 


536 PLANTE WRIGHTIANJE CUBENSES. 


RuvwcHosPoRA (DrcHgowENA) Cusrwsis, Griseb. Fl. Ind. Occ. Dichromena Cuben- 
sis Popp. ex descr. Affinis Haloscheno capillari Nees! (Dichromene gracili Kth.). 
* In pinetis, dense cespitosa.” (1531.) 

RuvwcHosPoRA (DICHROMENA) STELLATA, Griseb. Schenus stellatus, Lam. Dichro- 
mena leucocephala, Michx. (1530.) [718, coll. 1856 —7.] 

RHYNCHOSPORA ( DICHROMENA ) PERSOONIANA, Griseb. D. Persooniana, Nees. (717.) 

SCLERIA PRATENSIS, Lindl. (723.) 

ScLerra MICROCARPA, Nees. (724, etiam sub 723 [coll. 1856-7, specim. latifol.] 
cum precedente.) 

ScLERIA SCINDENS, Nees. (726.) 

SCLERIA BRACTEATA, Cav. Macrolomia bracteata, Nees. (7125.) 

SoLerra (Hypororum) FILIFORMIS, Sw. (721, 722.) 
coll. 1856 — 1 non determinata. 1720.] 

CAREX SCABRELLÆ, Wahlenb. affinis: an forma ejus foliis latioribus spiculis paucis ? 
(128.) 


[ SCLERIA 


DIOSCOREACEZ. 


DiosconEA LUTEA, Meyer! D. heptaneura, Vell. (1711.) 

[Drosconza sp. coll. 1856-7 tantum, 692.] 

RAJANIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, Sw.! (1713.) 

RaJANIA MUCRONATA, Willd. Proxima R. ovate, Sw.! distincta samara breviori 
(8 lin. longa) semielliptico-oblonga foliisque brevius petiolatis. R. cordate L. samara 
est duplo minor (4 lin. longa). (691.) 

RaJANIA HASTATA, L., var. foliis hastato-deltoideis 5 — T-nerviis. (1712.) 


SMILACEJE. 


Smax Havanensis, Jacq. ? var. rwPRESsA, Griseb., costis foliorum supra impressis. 
S. Coriacea, Spreng.* (693.) : 
[SMILAX OBLONGATA, Sw.? Specimina incompleta, fructifera, coll. 1856-7. 694.] 

Suiax Domrneensis, Willd. S. Schlechtendalii, Kth. (1526.) 


AMARYLLIDEZ. 


BomAREA EDULIS, Herb. Forma foliis paullo brevioribus quam in icone apud Tuss. 
Fl. Ant. 1, t. 14. (690.) 
Hyproxis DECUMBENS, L. (1515.) 


Bromeliacee cetereque pauce adhuc indeterminate. 


AIAX. 


A Catalogue of Standard Polar and Clock Stars, for the Reduction of Observations in 
Right Ascension ; with a Discussion of their Positions. 


By TRUMAN HENRY SAFFORD. 


( Communicated September 9, 1862.) 


Tur object of the present Catalogue * is to furnish (additional to the very accu- 
rate positions of the Berlin Jahrbuch) the means of reducing observations of right 
ascension with greater convenience and accuracy, and in a somewhat more systematic 
manner, than by the aid of former catalogues. It is divided primarily into two cata- 
logues, the one of * polar stars," the other of *clock-stars," so called; with a sup- 
plementary list of stars which for large instruments are not commonly used in either 
capacity, but merely as tests of the accuracy of observation and reduction. 

Excepting 25 * polar stars," all the stars here given are found either in the Nau- 
tical Almanac Catalogue, or in that of the Berlin Jahrbuch. | 

This Catalogue contains, then, in the first place, the 47 stars of whose apparent 
places an ephemeris is given in the Jahrbuch; 2 of these being “ polar stars,” 
36 “clock-stars,” and 9 of the supplementary list. 

In the second place, our Catalogue contains the 25 “ polar stars" — stars within 
10? of the north pole — mentioned above. 

In the third place, all the stars of the Nautical Almanac Catalogue are here given, 
except o Columbe and 9 Sculptoris, £ Urse Minoris, y Draconis, and y Cephei, and 
also the stars below 45° of south declination. 

The mean positions in this Catalogue of the 47 stars are derived from Wolfers's 


* The Catalogue was originally computed for the use of the Observatory of Harvard College, and has 
been applied since May, 1862, in the reduction of transits. It is published here with the approval of the 
Director. 


VOL. VIII. 10 


538 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


Tabulae Reductionum,* without further investigation. It will be often convenient to 
have them in the form here presented, which differs from that adopted in those 
tables. The secular variations given for these stars are the same which Wolfers used, 
and which are taken from the Tabulae Regiomontanae. 


Computation of the Mean Places of 25 Polar Stars. 


In this discussion the following catalogues have been employed; to the name of 
each catalogue has been prefixed the abridgment by which it is cited in the course 
of the work: — 

Br. The Fundamenta Astronomiae (full title given in this volume of the Memoirs 
of the Academy, Pt. I. p. 299). 

Gr. Groombridge (full title, loco modo citato). 

Str. 1815. F. G. W. Struve, Observationes Astronomicae institutae in Specula Univer- 
sitatis caesareae Dorpatensis. Vol. I. Pars II. Dorpati. 1817. Ato. 

Str. 1824. Stellarum Fixarum imprimis duplicium et multiplicium Positiones Mediae 
pro Epocha 1830.0 deductae ex observationibus meridianis annis 1822 ad 
1843 in Specula Dorpatensi institutis; auctore F. G. W. Struve. Petropoli 
ex typographia academica, 1852. Fol. The positions which I have used 
are a few for 1824.0 from the Introduction, page xxxxvili. et seqq. 

Schw. Schwerd's Beobachtungen von Circumpolarsternen in mittleren Positionen 
1828.0. Von Wilhelm Oeltzen. Aus dem X. B® der Denkschriften der 
Mathem.-Naturw. Classe der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften. ... . Wien, 
1856. 4to. y 

Arg. DLX Stellarum Fixarum Positiones Mediae ineunte Anno 1830. . . . [auctore] 
Argeland[ro] ... Helsingforsiae, 1835.  4to. 

Pond. A Catalogue of 1112 Stars reduced from Observations made at the Royal Ob- 
servatory at Greenwich from the Years 1816 to 1833. London..... 1833. 
Fol. 

Hend. Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, by 
Thomas Henderson. ..... Vol. IIL. [to V.] for the Year[s] 1837 [to 1839]. 
Edinburgh. 1840 [—1843]  4to. e 

[The same] reduced and edited by his successor, Charles Piazzi a, Sma ‘Vol : 
VI. [-IX.] for the Year[s] 1840 [- 1845]. 4to. 


* Tabulae Reductionum Observationum Astronomicarum ab anno 1860, usque ad 1880. Anis 


Wolfers. Additur, Tabulae Regiomontanae ab anno 1850, usque ad 1860, ab Ill. T ian | 
1858. Zech continuatae. erolini, 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 539 


Rob. Places of 5345 Stars observed from 1828 to 1854 at the Armagh Observatory, 
by Rev. T. R. Robinson, D. D...... Dublin, 1859. 8vo. 

Airy. Airy's “Twelve-Year Catalogue,” “Six-Year Catalogue,” “Greenwich Observa- 
tions” from 1854-1858. (For full titles see my paper previously cited, in 
the present volume, pp. 300, 301.) 

The “Greenwich Observations” for 1859 and 1860 have come to hand since 
the main part of these calculations were made. 

Joh. The Radcliffe Catalogue of 6317 Stars chiefly Circumpolar reduced to the 
Epoch 1845.0, formed from the Observations made at the Radcliffe Ob- 
servatory under the Superintendence of Manuel John Johnson, M. A., late 
Radcliffe Observer. With Introduction by the Rev. Robert Main, M. A., 
Radcliffe Observer. Oxford. 1860. 8vo. 

Car. A Catalogue of 3735 Circumpolar Stars observed at Redhill in the years 1854, 
1855, and 1856, and reduced to Mean Positions for 1855.0, by Richard 
Christopher Carrington. London. 1857. Fol. 

LeV. Annales de l'Observatoire Impérial de Paris publiées par U. J. Le Verrier, Di- 
recteur de l'Observatoire. Observations. Tome XII. [XIII] Paris. 1860, 
[1861]  4to. 

Tomes XIV., XV. were received later. 

I found, when too late to use them, that Airys Cambridge Observations contained 
two or three places which should have been inserted. 

No use was made of the Histoire Céleste, or Fedorenko's Catalogue; nor of Piazzi, 
nor Groombridge's right-ascensions. Any material from these sources is of uncertain 
accuracy; or would require insecure systematic corrections. 

The method by which mean places for 1855, and proper motions referred to 
the ecliptic of the same year have been found, is as follows: The positions of the 
Fundamenta, where such existed, were reduced from 1755 to 1855 by the use of 
Struve and Peters's data. In some cases where there was no observed declination for 
1755, a value for 1755 referred to the ecliptic of 1855 was assumed, and by a slight 
modification of the method given in the introduction (p. ix.) to the Tabulae Regiomon- 
tanae (see, also, Wolfers's Tabulae Reductionum, pp. lii, lii. of the Introduction) 
was made to serve the same purpose. For if (see the place just cited) A be supposed 


known, we shall have ([32]) » — ED . In this case the declination for 1755 


corresponding to that assumed for the ecliptic of 1855, will be à = d — d + (8 — «) a. 
The indirect form of Bohnenbergers method which Bessel has given, and which 


540 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


has been transferred by Wolfers, is greatly preferable to the more direct one. It 
needs a little more care, however, in the computation. 

We have now positions for 1755, referred to the ecliptic of 1855, which agree 
with all the data of the Fundamenta referring to these stars. We have also some 
modern observations referred with more or less accuracy to the ecliptic of the same 
epoch, or which we can easily refer to that ecliptic approximately. These give us the 
means of obtaining a formula which shall be of the form 


a — a? +2 (t — 1755), 5 = 8° + i? (t — 1755). 


Where a” à? are (Bessel’s). Bradley’s positions of 1755, in cases where they are 
complete, referred to the co-ordinate-planes of 1855; or, in case the Fundamenta 
position of 1755 is incomplete, «° is the AR. for 1755 referred to the ecliptic and 
equator of 1855, by means of 3”, as explained above; 8° being here arbitrary within 
certain small limits: where again A? i? are assumed proper motions referred to the 
ecliptic and equator of 1855, but so assumed as to nearly represent more modern 
observations. For stars not in the Fundamenta, a? 9? are both arbitrary. 


In other words, if all observed positions are referred to 1855 by precession alone, 
the formule 
a — a? + ete, à — 0” + etc., 


would represent those taken from the Fundamenta exactly, and all others nearly. But 
as certain positions are exceptionally incomplete, and others so as a rule, we shall 
not attempt so to refer them, but shall proceed in the opposite way. We shall 
compute theoretical places of each star for the epochs of the catalogues. This will 
be done most conveniently by computing places for epochs at equal intervals, which can 
then be tested, and afterwards interpolated ; thus saving labor, and securing accuracy. 

Table I. contains the assumed values of a? 8° A? i?. For the stars contained in 
Bradley, the values of e and 2^ have been verified by Mr. A. Hall, now Aide at the 
U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington; who has recomputed the positions referred 
to the ecliptic of 1755 from them. 

From these values positions for 1810, 1830, 1850, 1870 were computed, and in 
some cases for 1820, 1840, 1860; using Struve and Peters's constants. The positions 
for 1815 were computed independently, and also interpolated as a check. The proper 
motions (N i), and secular variation (in AR.) were computed for 1830 and 1850; 
the former by formule which will afterwards be cited with some modifications from 
Bessel, and the latter by the formula, 


0.0284 + 07.1950 [tg 0^ -+ 4] sin 2 u/-]- 0.4481 sin (a/-]- 91° 6^) tg0'-1- 0.01944 [X tg 0 cos a" - i sec 0^ sin a’. 


-A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 541 


The secular variation in declination is 
— 0/.1950 tg Ai sin a” + 0.4481 cos (a! + 91° 6^ — 0".01944 Ai sin a. 


This, however, it was not necessary to compute, as existing catalogues furnished 
by interpolation sufficiently accurate values for our immediate purpose, which was to 
test the computed right-ascensions and declinations. 

Table II. contains the comparison of the theoretical and observed positions; the 
observed positions having been corrected so as to correspond to the same proper 
motions as had been previously computed. 

In certain cases it was necessary to form the “observed ” positions by combining the 
results of several years’ observations. For Henderson's and Le Verriers AR. this 
was done by means of the annual variations derived from our computed places: for 
the Greenwich observations, by the annual variations given in the separate volumes. 
In either case care was taken to have the * mean epoch" adopted correspond very 
precisely to the mean of the times of observation. 

The computed right-ascension and declination of a star for any time depend strictly . 
each upon four elements (besides precession); upon the AR. and proper motion in 
AR. for some fixed epoch, and also the Decl. and P. M. in Decl. for the same epoch. 

Let a, ð, be the star's right-ascension and declination at the time ¢ + 1855, referred 
to the co-ordinate planes of 1855; e and A being the right-ascension and declination 
for the same time, referred to its own co-ordinate-planes. 

Then, if we vary the assumed AR. for 1855 by » and the assumed proper motion 
in AR. forn years by vg: the assumed Dec. for 1855 by 1, and the assumed proper 
motion in Dec. for n years by /; we shall have 


4a s E, s=: 4. 
[In our calculations we shall make n= 30.] 
Again (Fundamenta Astronomie, p. 304 (15) ). 
48 sin 8 sin (a! F i! — 2’) 


Ge t / D eo Y d E 
4 u' = A a (cos 6 + sin 8 tg ' cos (o! + à 2b E cos à' : 


4 ô = — 4a sin 6 sin (a! + — 2) + A. cos Ai (cos 6 + sin 8 tg 9' cos (a! + i’ — 2^). 


The notation here used is that of the Fundamenta. 


Let | 
sin d sin (a + à — 2) = m sin E, 


cos d cos Ai + sin 6 sin Ai cos Loi + 4! — z^) = m cos E, 


542 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


taking the quadrant of £, so that m shall be positive. ; 
We shall readily find (Fundamenta, p. 300 (9) ) 


sin à — cos 8 sin Ai — sin 6 cos Ai cos (a! + 1 — z^), 


sin $? + m? = sin 8? + m? sin Y + m? cos  — 1. 


Hence, 
m? — cos ð’; m (always positive) = cos 4, 
. , __ sin 6 sin (a! + 4! — 2") 
=i cos à : 
and 


4 o! cos à! = Ja cos d cos ¿+ 40 sin E, 
45 = — do cos à sin 5 - 40 cos & 
Hence, again, 


A a! cos Y = (n +2) cos ð cos £+ (++ =) sin E 
30 30 : 


49 =-— nt 22) eos à sing + (0+ E cos §. 
e 30 30 


If aa, d be of the nature of corrections to the assumed place, and 4a’ cos 0, 
4 à' be of an opposite character, — that is, be * computed — observed," — we must 
necessarily change the sign of one term; or, what is the same, transfer Je cos 9, 
A ð to the right members of their proper equations. 

We have now the form of the equations of condition; perfectly rigorous. It is, 
however, obvious that in most cases perfect rigor is not necessary. For example, for 
stars near the equator no one would think of considering the declinations of 1755 as 
so erroneous that a perfectly accurate reduction of AR. to 1855 could not be effected 
by its means. 

The rigorous course has here been followed for the four stars for which the value of 
sin £ was the largest. These stars are 4 Ursee Minoris (Bode), 51 Cephei Hevelii, 4 
Urs Minoris (Bode) and 20 Urse Minoris (Bode). 

For the remaining stars of our polar list, a value of «, « was deduced from the 
observed declinations, assuming that y, y” were — 0. Substituting these values in 
the equations derived from the right-ascensions observed, the values of y, y” were 
now obtained; employing in both cases the method of least squares, as will be 
further explained in its place. 

These values of y, y were now substituted in the declination equations, and a new 
set of values of «, “, differing by very small amounts from the former, were obtained. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 543 


The effect of these corrections was in no case over 0".01, when substituted in the 
right-ascension equations; so that the former values of y, y” were retained. 

This process is equivalent simply to this: the computed declinations derived from 
our final theory are virtually employed to reduce the observed right-ascensions to 
1855.0, and the resulting right-ascensions treated by the method of least squares give 
the final values of right-ascension and proper motion. 

It remains to explain the details of the application of the method of least squares. 
For the four stars treated rigorously we have 


1 
7) 7j 
I. =, — = Ee CSS v=z. 


The assumed weights are denoted by c for right-ascension, by o for declination. 
` These were assigned in a somewhat arbitrary manner; bearing in mind the magnifying 
power of the various instruments employed, and in one or two instances the less than 
usual care bestowed on observation and reduction. It is possible that the weight 
which has been assigned is in some cases too large or too small; thus Bradley's 
observations have received a weight which, though small in itself, is yet rather larger 
than the probable error as given in the Fundamenta would seem to warrant. This, 
however, if an error, is but a venial one, as the Fundamenta are justly considered as 
entitled to a very large proportional weight. 

In all cases where many observations have been made at the same observatory and 
with the same instrument, less than the proportional weight has been given. The : 
maximum weight has been put at 3, while the minimum for a single observation has 
been i. : 

We shall now make in AR. 


a= yu 15 cos ô cos E, 


t — 1855 
a —————— 


= 30. 


i 50 [if ¢ be counted from 1855], 


e — v a sin $ 


g— t185 et 
put DO 


[if be counted from 1855], 
n= yu 4 a! cos & [taking 4a’ in the sense e — o]. 


And in declination 


a — — yu! 15 cos d sin $, 


544 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


c = Vw cos E, 


ct 

t= 30? 
n=you' 49; (e — o). 

The equations of equal precision for these four stars will be of the form 


0 =n -+ aw 4 br + cy + dz, 


whose solution by least squares is a mere matter of mechanical computation, according 
to Encke’s form in the Jahrbuch for 1836. 
For the polar stars excepting these four we shall put 


x= m cos à, S sc 
y = y cos à, == d, 


and the quantities æ y will be eliminated from the declination equations, and 2" y’ from 
those in right-ascension by the process mentioned above. We have, then, making 


— es dl 1 
a = y w cos & or y o! cos & sn (AR) = yu [+ S] sin E, 

t = Til ee 
b= a gy 4n (Dec.) = — y w' 1+ 39 sin § cos d, 


the following equations of equal precision in right-ascension 


0 =n 4 dAn 4 ax -+ by =n ax by, 
Q0 — n 4 4n— az! + by =n' + az! + by. 


and in declination 


The process of forming these is, — 1st, assume in declination 4 n — 0, and form 
and solve the declination-equations; 2d, substitute these values of a”, y' or u d in the 
equation for 4 » in AR., and form and solve the right-ascension equations. This 
gives the means of correcting the declination-equations. These last corrections were 
shown by trial to have no perceptible effect on the equations for AR., and the process 
of approximation ceased here. 

Tables IIL and IV. contain the formation and solution of the equations. In order 
to add new equations in future, we must, after determining the weights, compute for the 
epoch in question the theoretical AR. and Dec. derived from the numbers in Table I. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 545 ` 


Comparing these with the new observations, as in Table II., the quantities 4 a’, 4 a’ 
cos 3’, 4 à will be readily formed. If the star be one of the four strictly treated, the 
equations can be at once formed, by the formule for that purpose. Then the quantities 
an, bn, cn, dn, etc., as also aa, ab, ac, etc., being computed for each new equation, 
and added in the proper place; the final equations in Table III. Part I. being ; 


0 = [an] + [aa] w + [as] £ + [ac] y + [ad] 
0 — [bn] + [ad] w+ [25] e+ [^c] y + [^d] » 


etc., etc., 


will give at once new final equations which can be solved. 

For the 21 other stars, the corrections in declination must first be computed, ac- 
cording to the values of a’ and y' given in Table III. Part IL. ; after this is done, the 
quantity 4 n for the new equations in AR. can be formed, and their solution will 
present no difficulty. It will in general make no difference whether the new values 
of æ and y, or those already given in Table III. Part IL. be used, to obtain 4n for 
declination. In either case there will be no difficulty in computing 4 n for the new 
observations, and thus forming the new equations according to the precepts for the old. 

An extreme case may occur, where it will be found that 4n for AR. would differ 
by a sensible amount when computed according to the new values of a and y. This, 
however, will not happen for a good many years. 

It remains merely to explain Tables V., VL, which contain the calculations of AR. 
for the clock-stars. (Table VL, Supplement, contains the positions of the more north- 
ern stars not often used as clock-stars.) = 

The method here pursued was, to form positions for the years 1838-40, 1850, 
1854-1858, and in some few cases for 1859, depending on the places of the Funda- 
menta for 1755, and the * Greenwich Results” for 1855. The positions of the Funda- 
menta were assumed as correct systematically, because the mean difference between the 
former reduction and Le Verrier’s and Peters’s new reductions of the 36 stars called 
« fundamental” is almost precisely zero; and so far as the casual errors of Bessel's 
places are concerned, it seemed possible to diminish their influence in great part by 
using comparatively late modern observations. 

One of the objects of the observations now in progress at Cambridge, for the reduc- 
tion of which these tables are designed, is to deduce new places of the fundamental 
stars, and to afford materials for a thorough examination of the relative systematic errors, 
whatever they may be, of the fundamental catalogue employed, so that for our purpose 
it is best to have a catalogue which is symmetrical as far as may be; which would not 

VOL. VIII. 71 


546 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


be the case if we made a doubtful application of the method of least squares. The 
method here employed is the best I could devise for bringing down the relative errors 
of near stars. 

The form of reduction proposed, and to some extent actually carried out, will enable 
the following things to be done with great ease: firstly, to reduce (if desired) the 
observations of each star so as to depend directly on the Tabulae Reductionum, and, 
secondly, to re-compute from our own observations the places of all the stars of the 
present list, so as to depend solely on our own observations, so far as our instrumental 
means will permit. 

The positions derived from the Greenwich results for 1855, compared with Bessel's 
for 1755, will, assuming the correctness of the latter, require the addition of x em) j 
where 4 is a correction applicable to the places for 1855. 


The positions given in the Edinburgh observations of 1838, 1839, 1840 were com- 
pared then with our calculated places, and would give in the mean the quantity 


0.84 x = a) 2. 


after correcting them, to reduce to the equinox of Wolfers. See Tabulae Reduc- 
tionum, p. xliii, at bottom, where we find 


N. C. — Henderson = + 0*.038 (for 1830) . 
Reducing this to 1839, the mean epoch of the observations used 
N. C. — Henderson = 0*.043 (for 1835). 


The number + 0*.044 was used instead ; the change will be insensible. 

The Edinburgh observations after 1840 were not used. The same catalogue had 
been employed to reduce them that was also employed at Greenwich for the same year, 
and the resulting numbers (it was feared) were not precisely homogeneous with those 
of the former years. The few observations made at Edinburgh on the new list of 47 
stars introduced in 1857 into the Nautical Almanac were omitted. The Greenwich 
catalogue for 1850, depending, as is well known, upon the two instruments employed 
at Greenwich, —the old Transit and the new Transit-Circle, — was also compared. 
The Greenwich observations from 1854 to 1858 were compared; after the work was 
nearly complete, the volume for 1859 was received, and used for a few stars inado- e 
quately observed in the preceding years. | 

The Paris observations of 1856 and 1857 were also used. To my gebat regret, the 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 541 


volumes for 1858 and 1859 did not come to hand till after the completion of the com- 
putations. The corrections for equinox here used were 


Gr. C. 1850 + 0*.017, 
Gr. Obs. 1854 — 1859 + 0*.027, 
Paris + 0.056. 


The mean of the corrected deviations of these four catalogues from the computed 


places, gives the correction a? for the mean £^ of the dates. This was reduced to 1855 


by the formula x = 2° a PS , the correction æ was applied to the assumed places for 


1855 (the Greenwich results 1855), and the right-ascensions of Table VI.formed. The 
annual variation given here is that which results from the combination of the mean 
annual variation derived from these right-ascensions compared with Bessel’s Bradley, 
with the secular variation of the last column ; which had been computed. 

For the 47 stars given by Wolfers the positions are derived from the materials of 
his work, and are here computed for convenience' sake. 


TABLE I. 
Star's Name. a? A? d Pu 
43 Cephei Hevelii . . . . 12 24 6.64 +0.95 85 28 36.24 
Groombridge 527. . . +. + 36 47 36.39 -+0.40 80 49 47.09 —0.10 
323 Cephei (Bode) . . +. + 49 48 50.00 +2.00 86 10 45.90 —0.05 
Groombridge 750 . . +. + 58 6 11.20 85 9 51.60 
64 Camelopardali (Bode) . . 78 59 48.00 85 6 24.90 
51 Cephei Hevelii . . . > 97 46 45.00 87 15 9.00 
4 Urse Minoris (Bode) . . 105 55 0.00 89 1 49.00 
25 Camelopardali Hevelii . . 105 4 25.50 82 40 32.10 
156 Camelopardali (Bode)  . 115 24 0.00 84 27 39.00 
1 Draconis Hevelii . . . . 139 0 30.00 81 57 38.50 
30 Camelopardali Hevelii . . 153 14 51.00 83 17 32.50 
202 Camelopardali (Bode) . 170 22 50.00 —0.75 81 55 29.10 
5 Urse Minoris (Bode) . . 183 0 50.42 +4.70 87 14 31.09 
6 Urse Minoris (Bode) . . 183 38 16.24 —1.75 88 30 5.72 -+0.08 
214 Camelopardali (Bode) . 200 12 12.50 —1.30 85 30 45.00 
20 Ursæ Minoris (Bode) . . 211 17 0.00 86 27 5.00 
57 Ursee Minoris (Bode) . . 231 30 0.00 87 46 50.00 
62 Urse Minoris (Bode) . . 239 42 0.00 83 22 42.00 
e Urse Minoris . . +. <> 255 14 30.66 -+0.15 82 16 6.56 
à Ursæ Minoris (Bode). . . 802 9 38.49 —1.17 88 52 31.29 +0.01 
74 Draconis. . iib: > 309 24 14.64 -1-0.40 80 34 28.12 +0.26 
119 Cephei (Bode) . . . - 321 14 53.97 -+0.06 83 38 36.08 —0.04 
34 Cephei Hevelii . . . + 341 58 45.22 82 22 58.20 -1-0.05 
39 Cephei Hevelii . . +. . 351 55 24.42 1.15 86 30 26.79 
309 Cephei (Bode) . . . - 358 11 50.56 0.25 85 53 56.80 


548 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


TABLE II. 


4 Unsx Minoris (Bode). 


sS Grill. 
[sec ð for 1815 = 61.2; for 1855 = 59.1.] 


4a! 4 a! cos éi x 40' N o 
n 
Gr 1807625. : : —0.22 9 A 
TT EE + 9.35 10.15 15 1 
Schw. 1828 . . —22.85 —0.37 2 1 --0.91 2 1 
Pond, 1830 > [—120.55] 4 —0.36 10 E 
Hend. 1839 : 1.25 -1-0.02 10 1 —0.72 10 1 
Rob. 1844 . . . 12.15 -+0.20 30 2 — 0.44 it 1 
Joh. 1849, 1850 . 6.95 +0.12 70 3 —0.43 43 3 
Airy, 1857 . 43.80 +0.73 5 3 —0.50 5 A 
Car. 1855 . . . 6.00 0.10 27 13 | —0.50 27 1i 
1 Ursa Mrnoris (Bode). 

[sec Ai for 1815 = 45.8; for 1855 = 51.0.] 
Br. 1755 : 0.00 . 0.00 3 } 0.00 3 1 
URINE 2 V. +0.84 19 1 
B TSS - S 19.02 0.42 4 A 
Schw. 1828 17.48 0.36 22 E -+0.01 12 1 
Arg. 1830 . +-10.80 +0.22 17 1 +0.14 if 2 
Pond, 1830 +10.80 10.22 6 1 +0.24 pe 
Airy, 1840 . . —14.11 —0.28 25 2 -+0.03 77 3 
Rob. 1843, 1852 . +17.75 +0.86 36 2 — 0.42 5 1 
Hend. 1840 . . — 5.05 —0.10 26 2 —0.01 132 3 
Joh. 1843, 1847 . + 5.48 oat 5 318 3 +0.42 | 158 3 
Airy, 1844... —13.50 —0.27 15 1 +0.14 56 8 
Airy, 1851. . . — 9.97 —0.20 49 2 —0.10 106 3 
JI, 1868 . ae — 3.79 —0.07 63 3 +0.16 97 3 
LeV.1857 ^. . +11.79 10.23 50 3 —0.25 59 3 

6 Urs Mrvorts (Bode). — Gr. 1884. 

[sec A for 1815 — 45; for 1855 = 38.4.] 
Br. 1752 0.00 0.00 4 2 0.00 4 D 
Gr.1807 . —0.47 6 i 
Str. 1815 -18.55 -+0.41 19 1 | 
Bessel, 1815 0.02 24 1 
Schw. 1828 --24.04 0.56 11 3 26 10 i 
Arg. 1830 . -24.84 0.58 16 1 +0.44 108 e SE 
Hend. 1839 -1-42.09 +1.03 10 1 —0.26 10 E Beie 

, 1840 . —23.98 —0.56 5 A | 

Rob. 1839 . +26.02 | +0.64 | 59 8 —0.22 18 al 
Airy, 1842 . + 8.53 +0.21 4 A +0.91 7 re 
Joh. 1848 —11.54 —0.29 63 3 0.48 67 3 
Airy, 1851 . 638 «031 3 3 —0.74 3 A 
Car. 1855 —10.26 —0.27 15 1 +0.52 15 1 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 549 


D 


57 y Ursa Miwonis (Bode). = Gr. 2283. 
[sec Ai for 1815 = 27.4; for 1855 = 25.8.] 


EI 4 o! cos à' N o d à' N ei 
Gee : : H] ð à 
Su.1910— . | -ERLH -] pent 13 1 
Schw. 1888 . .': | + 889 | poss | 05 " 0.85 5 à 
Hend.1889 . . i|. i818 | F020 10 1 0.14 10 1 
Jon ieo +=: . . | s | 08 47 3 —0.54 11 1 
Aire, 1851. . . . 675 | +0.26 5 4 d- $040 4 A 
Car. 1858. . . i 450 | +0.17 12 1 —0.60 12 1 


5 Ursa Minors (Bode). — Gr. 1871. 
[sec ð for 1815 — 22.6; for 1855 = 20.8.] 


» Hic. 2 n 0.00 0.00 2 2 : 
Geir: SS —1.49 7 A 
Bu.1810 i ra — 8.37 —0.37 17 1 
Schw. 18289 = . . |] - «ot d pon 2 1 —0.78 2 1 
Arg.1880 . . . . | OE: o 047 19 la | 468 19 2 
Airy; 18... . | is | M00 6 n —0.08 12 1 
Joh. 1850 ,.. . . + 1.15 +0.05 28 2 —0.43 8 1 
Airy, 188030. .. .| A-8908 | 4099 4 d —0.04 5 " 
Car. 1855 +17.92 | +0.86 5 1 —0.41 5 à 
51 Cerner HEVELII. 

[sec ð for 1815 — 21.0; for 1855 = 20.9.] 
Ge, 100% -a S : —1.48 11 3 
Str. 1815 sish — 6.57 —0.31 14 1 
Schw. 1828 .. +. — 7.24 —0.35 17 1 —0.63 14 1 
Pond,1880f . . + — 2.91 —0.11 23 $ Ku .20 1 
Hend.1842 . . . 6.20 0.30 29 2 —0.31 108 8 
Airy, 1840. . . . 7.67 97 17 1 +0.49 78 3 
Airy, 1843... . 16.47 0.78 33 2 —0.30 40 2 
Joh. 1847 |o v 6 — 0.42 —0.02 157 3 —0.37 122 3 
Airy, 1850. . -| | ROS 0.89 50 2 0.98 66 24 
Airy, 1857. . . --10.67 .51 100 3 06 185 3 
LeV: 1867  ; 0 —18.54 —0.88 8 1 +1.46 1 
Car 1809. . «4 + 5.70 +0.27 28 2 +0.28 28 2 

20 Ursa Miwonis (Bode). = Gr. 2099. 

[sec A for 1815 = 17.0; for 1855 = 16.1.] 
Gr o 9. 173 5 5 +0.72 5 4 
85.1810. 2 —10.54 —0.62 12 1 
Schw. 1828" . . . — 8.33 —0.50 3 + +1.62 3 4 
Joh. 1850, 1852 . . — 2.43 —0.15 20 2 —0.21 T i 
Car. 1855 . . . ¿51 24-2550 ] $159 4 A —2.20 4 H 

* Sce Carrington. 


+ Declination derived from observations of 1833 alone. Those of 1831, which differ in the mean 3/.11 from those of 1833, 
are excluded. 


VOL. VIII. 72 


950 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


- 


39 CEPHEI HeveLn. 


[sec Ai for 1815 = 15.4; for 1855 — 16.4.] 


Jo! d o! cos 6’ N o 48 N ei 
n H 
HE. 2s 0.00 0:00 4 1 6.00 5 4 
Ded. su +1.71 6 i 
fie TH. du 21.53 1.40 3 1 
Schw. 1828 . . . 1.48 0.09 7 i -+0.12 6 4 
Hend. 1839 . . . 4.24 .26 11 I —0.19 10 1 
Aen E cs EROS | 0790 5 " 
Rob. 1839, 1842 . . 18.49 +1.16 13 1 +0.55 5 4 
Airy, 1842 . R — 0.04 0.00 5 2 —0.55 5 i 
Joh 1800 . . . 0.01 0.00 38 21 0.95 31 2 
Airy, 1851, 1852 — 6.53 —0.40 5 i 0.71 10 1 
Car. 1855 . — 8.08 —0.19 21 2 —0.81 21 i 
323 Crrmer (Bode) = Gr. 642. 

[sec Ai for 1815 — 14.4; for 1855 = 15.0.] 
Geir. n s : +0.23 6 à 
BE TSI X. V. S +25.68 +1.78 19 1 
Bebe, 1828. . . . — 0.54 —0.04 8 4 —0.48 7 i 
Aire, 1840. . . . 
Hend. 1889 . . . + 2.71 -+0.18 10 1 —0.65 10 1 
Airy, 1845 . . . — 6.54 — 0.46 3 i —0.43 5 i 
Joh. 1845, 1850 . + 8.39 +0.57 50 3 -+0.39 14 14 
Airy, 1851. . . + 4.85 0.29 5 i +0.34 4 " 
Car. 1855 + 1.00 0.07 5 H —0.50 5 3 

43 Cerner Deen = 2 Uess Mrinoris. = Gr. 177. 

[sec A for 1815 = 12.1; for 1855 = 12.7.] 
w 5.4 0.00 0.00 8 i 0.00 5 A 
Ga ior ... +0.24 7 A 
Str 1815 .. .. | UB. Dos 6 $ 
Bess. 1815... esoc —0.45 28 1 
Schw. 1898 . . +128 | +0.10 8 4 —0.66 2 1 
Pond,1880 . ."; | a 8278 | 208 10 A +0.52 12 2 
Airy, 18T. o ck 808 | 0H 5 3 
Hend. 1899 =: +s — 2.83 —40.23 7 i 0.01 16 LA 
Rob. 1837, 1852 . . | +287 | +0.19 8 à 1.57 2 1 
ahy, 1edb-. =, 0.66 7 H 
Joh. 1849, 1851 . . — 1.60 —0.12 24 2 .65 12 1 
Airy, 1851 . i —12.01 —0.95 4 4 —0.24 4 i 
Qu 1855... — 186 | —0.15 3 " —0.26 3 1 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


309 Cerner (Bode). = Gr. 4193. 
[sec ð for 1815 = 13.3 ; for 1855 = 14.0.] 


551 


d a! 4a! cos di N w 49 N w' 
Br 1008 2. 0.00 0.00 2 à : 
Qr 180872 ies —0.84 6 A 
Str. 1815... «ce | Jede E 3 1 
Bess. 1810 .. — . —1.21 27 1 
Schw. 1828 . . . | +1845 | +1.00 2 1 +0.27 2 1 
Rob. 1844, 1846 . . — 0.87 —0.06 5 E 1.10 E i 
Joh. 1849 . SCH — 8.88 —0.64 29 2 0.44 18 14 
Airy, 1891... ¡1 —11.62 —0.84 8 1 —0.03 10 1 
Car. 1856: r 4 35 —12.94 —0.92 4 i —1.80 s i 
214 CAMELOPARDALI (Bode). = Gr. 2007. 
[sec A for 1815 = 13.4 ; for 1855 = 12.8.] 
On 19081. 4 s x +0.86 6 A 
SANG 0 43°51 -+0.26 4 4 
Schw. 1828 . . 3 —1.17 —0.09 2 i —1.32 2 1 
Hend. 1839 . . . +3.63 +0.28 10 1 —0.42 10 1 
Airy, 1845 Es —0.59 5 " 
Joh. 1849, 1850 e —3.16 —0.24 29 24 1.40 22 2 
Airy, 1850, 1851  . —1.51 —0.12 8 i —0.62 7 i 
Car. 1855 aoe +-1.00 +0.08 3 i —1.80 8 H 
Gr. 750. 
[sec d' for 1815 = 11.6; for 1855 —11.9.] 
li 
Gr. 1808 e +1.66 ` 6 i 
Bu. 18186. — . . ] PETS 28 5 y | 
Schw. 1828 «x -1.75 .14 2 i — 0.62 2 i 
Pond. 1880 > . —1.67 —0.14 11 2 +1.06 13 i 
Hend.1889 —. . . —2.52 —0.21 10 1 —0.47 10 1 
Joh. 1848, 1852 . . .00 .25 43 3 —0.59 11 1 
Airy, 1857 . . . —3.25 —0.27 5 i +0.08 T 1 
Car. 1855 . . . 530 | C. 16 lil 0 16 1 
156 CAMELOPARDALI (Bode) = Gr. 1359. 
[sec Ai for 1815 = 10.5; for 1855 = 10.4.] 
Gr. 18085. 2 . 5 : : --0.96 7 H 
Str. 1816s. 2 23g 8.57 | +0.84 3 1 
Schw.1828 . . . 4.05 -1-0.39 7 i . -+0.44 7 2 
Hend. 1844 . . |. 1436 | Ja 5 H 
Joh. 1850, 1848 . . 1.54 0.15 38 23 | 10.50 23 2 
Airy, 1844. .. « | «700 0.68 4 A EE Er 3 1 
Carr. 1855 . è —10.50 —1.01 3 i —0.40 3 i 


502 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


64 CAMELOPARDALI (Bode). 
[sec ð for 1815 — 11.6; for 1855 = 11.7.] 


= Gr. 944. 


dol 4u! cos à' N w 40 N CH 
Gs 1607 : : 0.14 6 A 
SE IOIO o cei +14.75 +1.27 8 i 
Schw. 1828 . . . 053 | +0.05 5 3 41.02 5 A 
Hend. 1839 . . . 3.90 -+0.83 10 1 —0.58 11 1 
Rob.1850,1851. . | — 536 | —047 2 1 +1.66 5 A 
Joh. 1848, 1846 . . — 1.12 —0.10 33 24 — 0.09 18 14 
Airy, 1844. . . . 5.18 "m 4 A -+0.02 5 n 
Airy, 185. . . . 4.95 42 3 i —0.14 3 à 
Car. 1855 . . 5 0.00 0.00 14 1i —0.70 14 1 
119 Cerpen (Bode).* 
[sec A for 1815 — 8.8; for 1855 = 9.0.] 
Bri 0 6.00 0.00 2 4 0.00 1 4 
ie 1908) + opt +2.59 7 i 
Meis o. d. 10.42 ee 1 à : 
Schw. 1828 . . . 5.58 Dä 2 i -1-0.57 2 i 
Rob. 1846, 1849 . . — 1.22 —0.81 5 4 0.18 5 i 
Joh. 1851, 1848 . . — 1.91 —0.15 5 i 0.65 9 E 
ET EE — 600 | 20.67 3 + —132 3 i 
2315 Groombr. = 62 Ursa Mironis (B). 
[sec Ar for 1815 — 8.8 ; for 1855 = 8.7.] 
e e ee 3 0.74 6 1 
OST Seer 1.64 0.19 6 i s x 
Schw.1828 . . . | --1848 155 2 tol 4 2 1 
Ais IOS e 1.43 2 i 
Joh. 1851, 1850 . — 3.18 —0.97 4 4 0.68 6 i 
Aiy,1800. . ... — 475 —0.55 2 1 
Car 18088. E — 6.00 —0.69 8 H —1.10 8 i 
30 CAMELOPARDALI Her, = Gr. 1633 = P. X. 22. 
[sec Ai for 1855 — 8.8 ; for 1855 — 8.6.] 
H 
Er 1007 .; s : +0.34 6 
Su 1016. s. —1581 . ] 161 2 1 E 
Schw. 1828 . . + 829 TE 4 H +0.83 4 A 
Rob. 1844 1854 . +15.86 1.83 5 i -] 0.85 5 4 
Joh. 1845 + 8.45 0.98 Y i -+0.52 6 E 
Aire 1847. . . . —0.64 9 1 
Airy; 1850. . . i +13.24 +1.54 9 1 -+0.17 20 2 
Ca185 . . . . | wo | Pn 3 A —L10 3 " 


* 13.2, or one division, has been subtracted from the declination in the Fundamenta Astronomiae. The 


correction seems necessary. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 553 


25 CAMELOPARDALI HeveLn. — Gr. 1259. 


[sec A for 1815 = 7.9; for 1855 — 7.84.] 


BEN 4 a! cos äi N o 48 N to! 
Gr. 1808 5. . @ : ; —0.54 6 A 
Ste. 1815 s . GE, | eU 3 1 
Str. 1824 4. 0 + 0.31 .04 14 14 — 0.21 14 1 
Sdiw.1898 . .. | — 09 ] 2008 19 13 | +0.08 17 14 
Pond, 1880 <.. <. | 100 - I6 10 3 +0.10 11 n 
Airy, 1840. ;. . . | 0m | 01 5 4 —0.18 16 14 
Rob. 1831, 1852 . . | — 7.85 —1.00 2 H --2.28 5 " 
Airy, 1844. <. | F | PR 4 H —0.18 3 1 
Joh. 1848": «994 | ee 5 à -+0.98 7 i 
Airy, 1849 . «o —0.63 5 4 
Car. 1855 s d —12.00 1:09 3 4 0.00 8 + 
Airy, 1858 . ‘ +1.41 2 i 
34 CEPHEI HEVELII. 
[sec Ai for 1815 = 7.34; for 1855 = 7.55.] 
Ben 7 0.00 0-00 1 4 6.00 3 t 
Gi oo o -+0.53 6 H 
Str. 1815 L3 41468 | +2.00 7 1 
Schw. 18288 < . . | 4e 552. | 074 9 H —0.26 8 i 
Rob. 1842, 1843 . . — 1.51 —0.20 10 1 — 0.04 10 1 
Airy, 1839 ee — 6.01 —0.81 6 i 
Any 1846. 5: 3 —0.36 3 2 
Joh, 18471944 e $o p Lt 4 038 4 A +0.97 6 H 
Car. 1855 . COE A D eee 3 1 —1.50 3 1 
e Uns MiNonis. 
[sec Ai for.1815 = 7.49 ; for 1855 = 7.43.] | 
Br. 1786 s. 0.00 0.00 5 à 0.00 5 i 
(e INOT a4 oe e +0.36 16 1 
Str. 186... | SH ee 38 2 i 
Str. 1824 . UN — 1.71 —0.23 15 2 —0.19 15 r} 
DODN. LOLO — : . 2.58 +0.35 29 1 —0.32 18 1 
Pond,1830 . . . 162 | +0.22 9 3 —0.19- 12 A 
Hend.1841 . è — 0.87 —0.12 19 14 +0.11 99 3 
Airy, 1840. >. a — 4.84 —0.65 28 2 —20.91 102 3 
Rob. 1828, 1836 . . +18.78 +2.50 2 i —0.11 4 3 
Peters, 1840 . š — 4.09 —0.55 3 
Airy, 1845. . . 3$ | -819 | 110 22 13. 09 84 3 
Joh. 1842, 1843 $ 1.19 -1-0.16 19 14 —0.11 24 3 
Airy, 1851. - . 3 — 3.96 —0.58 40 24 —D0.11 64 3 
Car. 1888 ... . . | —0M | Qu 3 1 114 3 " 
Airy, 185]; . : E epee 45 3 +0.14 72 3 
fev. 1687 —. . . | Fo | 109 16 2 —0.28 38 2 
VOL. VIII. 713 


554 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


202 CAMELOPARDALI (Bode). 
[sec ð for 1815 = 7.3; for 1855 = 7.1.] 


40 4 o! cos äi N o 40 N 
OIN. ue. E : -100 6 4 
fwo c ee +0.06 3 A 
Schw, 1828 .. . . |- 4518 10.70 7 à +0.05 5 " 
Joh. 1844, 1846  . 13.53 10.50 5 3 10.78 5 A 
Car 189p ee —1.00 —0.14 3 i —1.00 3 l 

1 Draconis Hever. = Gr. 1537.* 

[sec Ai for 1815 = 7.3; for 1855 = 6.95.] 
Di uus. S : +0.38 6 4 
T ul d | 83 6 i 
echte 18238. ... 08 — 0.26 —0.04 57 3 +0.18 46 3 
Pond, 1980 i; . 5 — 6.50 . —0.91 14 i -+0.57 20 1 
Peters, 1840 . ^ — 0.53 —0.08 16 2 
Airy, 1840... . — 4.88 —0.69 5 i 0.16 20 2 
Aire, 1845 . . . . — 7.13 —1.01 6 i 0.55 7 i 
Joh. 1845, 1850 . . — 2.33 —0.33 5 E +0.24 KE 14 
Airy, 1851... . . | —- 028 | —508 7 i --0.09 1 n 
Car 1855 :—. . + 10401 dde 3 1 0.30 3 H 

Gr. 527. 
3 [sec Ai for 1815 — 6.15; for 1855 = 6.26.] 
BniDE..... 0.00 0.00 1 4 S 
DEI 40.56 6 A 
Str. 1815 a — 3.48 —0.57 11 1 
Sehw, 1898 — X . + 1.88 -+0.23 7 i +0.14 4 io 
Rob. 1853, 1850 . . — 0.82 — 0.13 3 $ -+0.42 5 4 
Airy, 194]. . e —1.35 $ 1X4 
‘Airy, 1087. . 25 Loq1956 ] qas 2 1 
Joh. 1844, 1846 . . — 0.60 —0.10 8 E —0.81 5 4 
Airy, 1849, 1850 . | + 417 | +0.67 2 1 —0.27 9 1 
74 DRACONIS. 

[sec A for 1815 = 6.02; for 1855 = 6.11.] 
Gr 1156 .—. .3 0.00 0-00 2 1 0.00 4 A 
Gr 1908 ae +0.99 6 h 
Sirf 1815 . . . . | [4-19.59] | +0.76 1 
Bex 1818. . . |] EH 10.40 2 A 
Sdw.1898 == 13.26 +2.19 3 A +2.12 3 $ 
de 10000 ee 706 | -Har 9 1 +1.76 9 1 
Rob. 1853, 1842. . | + 2.83 0.38 1* " 58 7 4 
Joh.1850,1846 . . | -11.71 1.91 5 i +3.50 7 3 


* I have not been able to verify Robinson's declination from his observations. 
+ Probably one second of time in error (see Argelander). 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS, 


TABLE III. Parr 1.* 


555 


4 Ursa Mriwonis (Bode) = Gr. 1119. 


0 = + 0.2970 + 0.59504 — 0.2076 x — 0.0284 y + 0.0181 z w = — 0.683 
0 = — 0.0520 — 0.2076 w 0.16742 + 0.0180y — 0.0107 z x = — 0*.576 
0 = — 3.5740 — 0.0284w + 0.01802 + 8.2660y — 2.75502 y = + 07.515 
0 = + 0.8430 + 0.0181 w — 0.0107x — 2.7550 y + 2.8150 z z == -+ 0,252 
4 Ursæ Moris (Bode). 
0 = 0.2000 + 1.8200 w — 0.6210% — 0.0770y + 0.0660z w = — 0*.070 
0 = — 0.1070 — 0.6210w -+ 0.6027 x 0.0650 y — 0.0880 z x = + 0*.144 
0— 1.9550 — 0.0770: + 0.0650 x -1-24.4830 y — 8.6580 z y = + 0".017 
0 = — 2.1960 + 0.06604» — 0.0880» — 8.6580 y + 8.5800 z z = + 0".276 
57 y Unsx Minoris (Bode) = Gr. 2283. 

0 = — 0.5390 + 2.3600 w — 0.95602 + 0.0440 y — 0.0260 z w = + 0*.642 
0 = — 0.2750 — 0.95604» + 0.85802 — 0.0260 y 0.0270 z æ = +>-1*.007 
0 = 0.4250 + 0.0440w — 0.0260x + 4.5040 y — 2.0130z y = + 0.551 
0 = — 1.6060 — 0.0260w + 0.0270x — 2.01805 + 1.8700z z = + 1,446 

51 Cerner Hever, p 
0 = + 2.6900 + 9.8080 w — 3.11602 + 0.0410y — 0.00102 w = — 05.595 
0 = + 0.2230 — 3.11604 + 2.2790» — 0.0040 y — 0.0130 2 e =-— 0,916 
0 = + 1.1060 + 0.0410 w — 0.00402 21.0020 y — 6.9660 z = — (0,295 
0 = -+ 1.2060 — 0.0010w — 0.0180z — 6.9660 y + 4.4620 z z = — 0.734 

TABLE III. Part 2.4 

6 Ursa Miwonis B. 

0 =+ 2.99 + 12.50 x — 7.02y x= — 0.089 0 = + 2.384 -+ 11.50 x! — 7.20 y 2’ — — 0.324 
0 =— 2.63 — 7.02x+7.51y y= -++ 0.268 0 = — 0.72 — 7.202'+832y — y! — — 0.194 
5 Ursa Minoris B. 

0 = + 1.09 ++ 6452 —4.14y x= — 0.285 0 = — 0.45 + 5.75 x! — 89.41! x’ — — 0.007 
0 = — 0.20 — 4.14 x + 5.43y y — — 0.181 0 = + 0.41 — 3.41 x' + 3.00y4 y = — 0.144 
99 CEPHEI HeveLn. 

0 = + 0.83 + 9.002 — 3.63y x= + 0.004 0 = + 2.12 -+ 7.75 x! —346y e = — 0.176 
0 = — 1.04 — 3.632 + 448y y= + 0.284 0 = — 1.66 — 8.46 x' -+ 482y y'= + 0.219 
20 Ursa Miwonmis B. 

0 = — 0.82 + 3.83 x — 1.64y x= — 0.233 0 = — 0.36 + 2.08 x —1.16y x’ =- 1.05 
0 = + 0.98 — 1.6042 +1.83y y= — 0.74 0 = — 1.01 — 116% +141y y =+ 1.58 

- 323 CEPHEI B. 

0 = + 8.73 + 6.75 x — 2.97 y æ= — 0.174 0 = — 0.63 + 5.00 x' — 2.63 y” x’ — -+ 0.146 
0 = — 2.73 — 2.97 x + 2.58y y= + 0.86 0 = + 0.29 — 2.63 x' + 2.34y y = -+ 0.039 
909 Cerner B. 
0——244-4-4.622 —1.70y x= + 0.68 0 = — 1.03 + 5.25 2 — 2.92 y! x' — — 0.116 
0 = — 0.12 — 1.70 x + 2.l5y y= + 0.59 0 = + 1.53 — 2.92 x! + 3.33 y' = — 0.561 


* In this portion of Table IJI. w denotes the correction in time of the assumed AR., and x 30 times the correction in time 
of the assumed annual proper motion; y inlike manner denotes the correction in space of the assumed declination, and z 30 
times the correction in space of its assumed annual proper motion ; — all assumed values holding good for 1855. 

+ In this portion of Table III. z denotes the correction of the assumed right ascension for 1855, expressed in seconds of space 
and multiplied by the cosine of the declination ; y denotes the correction of the assumed proper motion (for 1855) in AR., multi- 
plied by 30 and by the cosine of the declination, — likewise, in space; x’ and y? denote the same quantities as y and z in the 


first part of this table. 


556 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


214 CAMELOPARDALI B. 


0 = — 0.29 + 5.25 x — 1.91y x= + 0.202 0 = + 1.27 + 5.28 x' — 2.24 y! x'= — 0.238 
0 = — 0.20 — 1.91 x + 1.45y y= + 0.404 0 = — 0.55 — 2.24 + 185y y'= + 0.011 
43 Cerngrt Hevetu. (2 Ursæ Miwonis.) 

0 = — 0.92 + 6.50 x — 4.22y x= + 0.246 0 = + 0.57 + 8.00 x! — 6.24 y! 2’ — — 0.27 
0 = — 0.01 — 4.22 x + 6.58 y y= + 0.160 0 = + 0.58 — 6.24 x! + 8.73 y, y'— — 0.25 
Gr. 750. : 

0 = — 0.20 + 7.50 x — 2.02y x= + 0.085 0 = — 0.41 + 5.50 2’ — 2.32 y! 2x’ = + 0.585 
0 = — 0.25 — 2.02 x + 1.94y y= -+ 0.215 0 = — 1.43 — 2.322! + 2.29y y' = + 1.208 
64 CAMELOPARDALI B. 

0 = + 1.88 + 7.25 x — 2.88y x= + 0.139 0 = — 0.13 + 6.00 x' — 2.52 y! | a! — -+ 0.157 
0 = — 1.48 — 2.83 x + 2.21y y=- 0.847 0 = — 0.29 — 2.52 x! + 2.l4y' y' — + 0.319 

156 CAMELOPARDALI B. , 

0 = + 1.83 -+ 5.00 x —1.83y x= — 0.21 0 = + 1.65 + 3.75 x! — 2.06 y! a! — — 0.22 
0 = — 0.91 — 1.88 x + 1.26y y=-+ 0.41 0 = — 1.26 — 2.06 x' + 201 / y — -1- 0.40 
30 CAMELOPARDALI H. 

0 = + 3.68+3.252—137y x= — 1.92 0 = + 0.82 + 5.502! — 2.10 y! x! = — 0.01 
= — 0.75 — 1.87 x + 1.01y y= — 1.86 0 = — 0.69 — 2.10 x' + 1.86y' y = + 0.36 
: 119 CerHer B. 
0 = — 0.87 + 1.75 x — 1.02y x= + 0.38 0 — + 1.44 + 2.12 x! — 1.04y/ x' = — 0.13 
0 = — 0.13 — 1.02 x + 1.86y y= + 0.28 0 = — 2.25 — 1.642 + 2.88 y y = + 0.71 
62 Ursa Miwonis B. 
0 = — 0.03 + 1.75 x — 0.99y æ= + 0.45 0 = + 1.08 + 2.00 z' — 123y x'— — 0.43 
0 = — 0.40 — 0.99 x + 111y y= + 0.76 0 = — 0.79 — 1.23 ax! +150y y'= + 0.18 
25 CAMELOPARDALI H. 

0 = — 1.96 -+ 5.75 x — 446y x= + 0.86 0 = + 1.23 + 7.75 x! — 5.09 y! x’ = — 0.77 
0 = + 1.14 — 4.46 x + 4.02 y y = + 0.67 0 = + 0.45 — 5.092' + 470y y = — 0.93 
34 Cerner H. 

0 = + 0.46 + 8.87 x — 2.20 y x= + 0.09 0 = + 0.03 + 3.65 z' — 3.00 y!  a'— + 0.10 
0 = — 0.73 — 2.20 x + 2.67 y y= -+ 0.84 0 = — 0.33 — 3.00 x' + 480y y= nF 0.13 

e Urs MINORIS. ` 
0 — — 2.91 + 28.83 x — 11.69y x—-+0.16 0 — — 1.60 + 25.58 z/ —11.49y 2! — -1- 0.08 
0 =-+0.91 — 11.69 x --12.80y y= -+ 0.08 0 = + 0.47 — 11.49 x' + 12.00 y' = hon 
202 CAMELOPARDALI B. 
0=+0.72+1.75x—1.22y x= — 0.29 0 = + 0.66 + 1.75 x — 1.39 22.0.14 
0 = — 0.56 — 1.22 x + 1.20 y | y = + 0.17 Ce keete EE 
1 Draconis H. 
0 = — 2.45 + 9.00 z — 6.01 y x= -+ 0.48 0 == 0.28 + 9.25 ax’ — 5.88 az! = — 0.30 
O=+139—60l2+503y y= + 0.29 0 = + 0.18 — 5.88 x’ + sol y e= -0.00 
: Gr. 527. 

0 = 4 0.19 + 8.00 x — 2.64y x= — 0.45 0 = — 0.24 + 3.50 a — 1.96 e = -+ 0.35 
0 = + 0.47 — 2.64 x -+ 3.77 y y = — 0.44 0 = — 0.81 — 1.96 z' + 1.98 y pad on 
74 DRACONIS. 

0 = + 2.99 + 2.62 x — 2.64 y “g= — 1.71 0 = + 7.75 + 3.50 a! — 3.41 a! 3 
= í p = De = — 3.42 
0 = — 1.86 — 2.64 x + 4.72y y= — 0.56 025—471 — Ml e Ay y = — 1.24 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS, 


TABLE IV. 


557 


5 Ursa Miwonis B. 


AR. loga@ logd loge logd `u » Dec. p^ Mag. 
h m o 7) H 
1855 1212 34.30 0.1904 0.1404n 0.1409» 8.8800» 10.306 +0.001 87143108 —6.005 6 
1865 1252.79 0.1886 0.1817» 0.1322n 8.8824n -+0.300 —+-0.001 11 10.79 
6 Unsx Miwonis B, 
1855 12 14 9149 > 0.4061» 0.4062n 9.2035n —0.094 —0.007 88 30 13.40 +0.074 6 
1865 14 19.56 0.89032 0.3904» 9.18695» —0.091  — 0.006 26 53.97 : 
43 CEPHEI HeveLn. 

1855 0 49 42.98 0.8267 9.9154 29.9167 9.2599 +0.068 —0.006 85 28 35.97 —0.001 4.5 
1865 50 51.40 0.8349 9.9202 9.9215 9.2749 -—+-0.068 —0.006 31 51.70 
PoLarist (from Wolfers). 

1860 1 8 2.65 88 33 47.12 2 

1865 9 38.10 85 22.91 

1870 11 16.92 96 58.48 

214 CAMELOPARDALI B. 
1855 13 20 40.84 0.4474» 9.9017n 9.9030» 9.46805 —0.075 —0.005 85 80 44.76 0.000 7.8 
1865 20 12.08 0.4315» 9.89692 9.8982» 9.4605» —0.074  — 20.005 27 36.43 
20 Ursa Minoris B. — Gr. 2099. 

1855 14 5 7.75 0.9098» 9.9632 9.9641» 9.7477n —0.027 —0.013 8697 6.05 +0.053 7.8 

1 1865 9 47.52 0.8959n 9.9590n 9.9598» 9.7577n —0.027 —0.012 24 14.87 
Gr. 527. 
1855 2 27 12.90 0.9048 9.5192 9.5248 9.3989 .021 —0.003 80 49 37.44 —0.083 6 
1865 28 33.75 0.9083 9.5194 9.5249 9.4043 .020 | —0.008 52 16.84 
928 CEPHE:I B. 
1855 3 19 28.49 1.2649 9.8083 9.8093 9.8835 0.162 —0.016 8610 40.45 —0.049 6 
1865 22 35.44 1.2717 9.8053 9.8062 9.8924 164 —0.016 12 48.17 
57 Ursa Miwonis B. 

1855 1526 0.64 1.3789» 0.0297n 0.0300n 0.1295n +0.034 —0.040 87 46 50.55 +0.048 7 

1865 22 5.61 1.3642» 0.0319» 0.0322n 0.1165n +-0.032 —0.039 44 44.85 
Gr. 750. 

1855 8 5224.81 1:2171 9.6195 9.6211 . 9.8270 +0.006 —0.009 85 9 52.18 +0.040 7 
1 1865 55 10.61 1.2220 29.6136 9.6152 9.8329 +0.006 —0.009 11 87.58 


VOL. VIII. 


* a (number) —0*.1314 for 1855, —08.0107 for 1865. 
t Apparent Places from the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch. 


14 


558 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 
E 62 Urs Minoris B. 
AR. loga logò loge  logd u » Dec. y Mag. 
h : : 8 s o 
1855 1558 48.26 0.8371 9.4620n 9.4649n 9.6982» +0.015 —0.004 8322 4157 -+0006 7.8 
1865 57 40.04 0.8326n 9.4638n 9.4667n 9.6951n +-0.015  —0.004 21 0.01 
s Ursa Mrvnoris. 
1855 17 059.13 0.8097n 9.0971» 9.1011n 9.6805n 1-0.011 —0.001 8216 6.64 -+0.001 4.5 
1865 16 59 54.87 0.8076 9.1039» 9.1079» 9.6792» +0.011 —0.001 15 15.13 
* 
64 CAMELOPARDALI B. 
1855 515 59.81 1.2649 - > 9.8849 0.022 —0.004 85 62446 0.011 6 
1865 19 3.91 1.2665 9.8869 -+0.022 —0.003 4 1.52 
ô Ursz Miwonis.f 
1860 18 17 30.16 86 36 6.24 4.5 
1865 15 58.34 36 13.63 
1870 14 16.41 36 20.93 
51 Cerner HeveLn. 
1855 6381 6.40 1.4868 1 i 0.1392 —0.031 +0.008 8715 8.70 —0.024 5 
1865 36 12.01 1.4843 0.1365 —0.031 -+0.009 14 39.12 $ 
25 CAMELOPARDALI HEVELIm. 
1855 7 01815 1.1178 29.1300» 9.1336n 9.7032 -0.012 -1-0.002 82 40 31.83 —0.031 5 
1865 2 29.19 1.1162 9.1442n 9.1478» 9.7012 -1-0.011 -+0.002 39 37.93 
4 Ursa Miwonis B. 
1855 7 339.82 1.8979 0.08354 0.03355 0.5785 —0.019 -L0.120 89 1 49.52 0.008 7 
1865 16 36.81 1.8833 .0.1040n 0.1040» 0.5633 —0.017 0.140 0 49.16 
1861 1.8893 0.0781» 0.0781» 0.5696 —0.018 -1-0.132 
1862 1.8879 0.0848» 0.0848» 0.5681 —0.018 +0.134 
1863 1.8864 0.0913» 0.0913» 0.5665 —0.018 -+0.136 
1864 1.8848 0.0977n 0.0977n 0.5649 —0.017 -—+-0.138 
156 CAMELOPARDALI B. 
1855 74135.85 11911 9.46965 9.4716n 9.7951 0.009 —0.005 8427 38.78 --0.0018. 6 
1865 44 10.61 1.1876 29.4778» 9.4799» 9.7909 -+0.009 —0.005 26 11.81 ec 


* b (number) +.1486 for 1855 ; +.1386 for 1865. Log c —Log b = +.0016. 
t Apparent Places from the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch. . 


i b (number) —.1880 for 1855; —.2179 for 1865. Log c —Log b = +.0005. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD 


STARS. 


559 


AR. lga  lgó loge -logd u y Dec. y! Mag. 
og 5 E 
1855 20 830.70 1.7874n 0.2568 0.2569 0.4590m —0.078 -40.148 88 52 3251 +0015 6.7 
1865 19 59 8.86 1.76045 0.2386 0.2386 0.4808» —0.077 -L0.151 54 15.64 
1861 1.7512» 0.2461 0.2462 0.4721» — 0.075 40.150 
1862 1.7535n 0.2443 0.2444 0.4743. —0.076  -L0.150 
1863 1.7558n 0.2424 0.2425 . 0.4765n —0.076  -L0.150 
1864 1.7581n 0.2405 0.2405 0.4786» —0.077 -L0.151 
74 Draconis. 
1855 20 37 38.95 0.4990» 9.4068 9.4127 9.4979» -]-0.019 0.002 803450.70 +0.217 6.7 
1865 37 7.40 0.5038n 9.4073 29.4131 9.5004» Lon 0.002 97 0.01 
kd 

1 Draconis HEVELII. 
1855 916 2.23 0.9676 9.5518n 9.5561n 9.4951 +-0.005 -0.004 81 57 38.20 0.000 4.5 
1865 17 34.69 0.9638 9.55204 9.5563» 9.4895 -+0.005 —+-0.004 55 6.36 

30 CAMELOPARDALI HEVELII. 

1855 1012 58.30 0.9133 29.7043» 9.7073n 9.4099 —0.036 +0.005 83 17 32.49 +0.012 5 
1865 14 19.36 0.9081 29.7023» 9.7054n 9.4016 —0.036 -1-0.005 14 33.26 

119 Crrmer (Bode). 
1855 2125 0.23 0.64734 9.6690 9.6716 9.5761n +0.010 -1-0.004 83 38 31.95 — 0.016 7 
1865 24 15.92 0.65525 9.6708 9.6735 9.5808» +0.010 -0.004 41 7.98 

94 CEPHEI HeveLr. 
1855 22 47 55.06 > 9.6759 9.6797 9.1920» -]-0.006 -+0.001 8223 3.30 +0.054 5 
1865 47 54.79 9.6790 9.6828 29.1951» +-0.006 -+0.001 26 14.56 

202 CAMELOPARDALI (Bode). 

1855 11 21 26.20 0.6675 9.6658n 9.6701» 8.9003 —0.047 -1-0.002 81 55 29.24 +0.022 6 
1865 2212.02 0.6635 9.6631n 9.6675n 8.8887 —0.047 -0.002 52 11.68 

39 Cerner HeveLn. ^ 
1855 23 27 49.30 T 0.0340 0.0349 9.18512 +0.085 -1-0.002 86 30 26.61 +0.007 6 
1865 27 49.98 0.0410 0.0418 29.1919» -]-0.086 -1-0.002 93 45.27 

309 Crrmer (Bode). 
1855 23 52 49.67 0.3959 9.9682 9.9693 8.4649» --0.085 —0.001 85 58 56.68 —0.019 7 
1865 53 15.04 0.4006 9.9742 9.9752 8.4444n +0.035  —0.001 57 16.96 


1 Ursa Minoris B. 


* a (number) —05.0215 for 1855 ; —0°.0435 for 1865. 
f a (number) +-05.0061 for 1855 ; —05.0418 for 1865. 


560 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


TABLE V. 
Assumed AR. verbe Assumed AR. "ER 
1855. Deviation. 1855. Deviation. 
h m 8 h i s 
| 12 Ceti, 0 22 38.34 | H. f. Arietis, 1463821| H. 
Ai. | +39 | +56 Ai. | 4-64 | +81 
LeV. LeV.| +32 | +88 
AL-| =b91 | 248 AL} +55] +78 
1853 +52 1854 +82 
1855 +53 1855 +83 
B Ceti, 03618.58| H | —36 | + 8 || 67 Ceti, 2 945.20 | H. 
Ai. | +28 | +45 : Ai, | 59 | —49 
LeV.| +12 | +68 LeV. 
AL. | — 4 | 28 divi 35 | 4. 2 
1850 +36 1853 22 
1855 438 1855 —22 
e Piscium, 0 55 25.27 | H. £ Ceti, 2 20 27.25 | H. | 
Ai | +16 | +33 AL ta +19 
LeV.| —80 | —24 Lev | $4 | + 2 
Wlan Aki 8| +19] 
1854 +8 1854 +18 
1855 8 1855 +13. 
6 Ceti, 1164656| H. | —87| +7 || y Ceti, 285 47.45 H. | —44 0 
Ai. | +31 | +48 Ai. | +20 | +37 
LeV.| +10 | 4-66 LeV.| —19 | +37 
Ak | REDE AL] L6] dai 
1850 +35 1850 427 
1855 L37 1855 128 
a Piscium, 1 23 43.82| H. 5 Arietis, 3 82066| H. 
A | 06 | 9 41 du. 
LeV.| —66 | —10 | LeV.| —45 | +11 
A Kette T AIO EH Le 
1854 e d 1854 +26 
1855 e Y 1855 +26 
» Piscium, 1 33 53.34 | H. Tauri, 8 88 52.34| H. | —53 | — 9 | 
[wt.— 1] | Ai. | —21 | — 4 AL A |. 8 
LeV.| +30 | +86 Iv — 2171 
Ai. | —25 2 Moi 4| 81 
1854 +16 1850 0 
1855 +16 1855 0 


e 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 561 


a AR. Deviation. E AR. - Deviation. 
hm s hm s 
y Eridani, 3 51 15.94| H. | —15 |+ 29 || æ Leporis, 5 26 20.20 | H. 
Ai. | +21 | + 38 Ai. | BES 
[wt. = 1] | LeV.| 4-50 | +106 [wt. = 1] | LeV.| —57 | — 1 
Ai. | — 6 |+ 21 [wt.— 1] | Ai. | —55 | —28 
1850 + 40 1853 — 5 
1855 + 42 1855 — 5 
o Eridani,* 4 447,87 | EL e Orionis, 5 28 51.42 | H. | — 5 | +39 
Ai. | +31-| +48 Ai. | +25 | +442 
Lev. LeV.| —13 | +43 
Ai. | —15 | +12 Ai. | —22 | +5 
1853 30 1850 32 
1855 31 1855 34 
e Tauri, 420 9.6 | H » Orionis,* 5 59 17.56 | H 
Ai. | + 4 | +21 Ai. 
LeV.| — 6 50 LeV. 53 | +109 
Ai. | — 2 25 Ai. 32 | + 59 
1854 32 1859 84 
1855 +32 1855 + 81 
¿ Aurige, 4 47 33.42 | H. u Geminor. 6141134 H | —31 | +13 
Ai | —13| + 4 Ai | —25 | — 8 
LeV.| —91| —35 LeV.| —97 | —41 
Ai. | — 7 | +20 Ai. | —48 | —21 
1854 — 4 1850 —14 
1855 — 4 1855 —15 
e Leporis,* 4 59 19.43 | H. y Geminor. 6 29 20.15 | H: 
Ai. | + 7| 4-24 Ai | —29 | —12 
LeV. LeV.| —70 | —14 
Ai. 0| +27 Ai. | —72 | —45 
1853 25 1854 —24 
1855 26 1855 —24 
5 Orionis, 5 24 36.03| H. | —14 | +30 || s Canis Maj. 6 52 55.68 | H: . 
Ai. | +7 24 Ai. | +29 | +46 
LeV.| —41 | +15 LeV.| —16 | +40 
Ai. | —19 | + 8 Ai. 0| +27 
1850| = 19 1854 +38 
1855 20 1855 +38 


* The Greenwich observations for 1859-60, and those made at Paris in 1858 — 59, were included. 
VOL. VIII. 19 


H 


562 A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


Assumed AR. PER Assumed AR. SCH 
1855. Deviation. 1855. Deviation. 
E m 8 S hb n m 
y Canis Maj. | 657 11.92, H. ¿ Urse Maj | 849 15.67| H. |— 66| —22 
Ai [| + 9| +26 Ar 42300 | 83 
LeV. LeV.| — 59| — 8 
E Ai 1— 45| —18 
1853 27 1850 Si 
1855 28 1855 —33 
à Geminorum,| 711 27.68| H. | — 91| —47 || 83 Cancri, 910 58.01 | H. 
ALIM» ALT Ca ES, 
LeV.| —152 | —96 LeV. 
Ah 1 783 4g AL] | + 8 
1850 —56 | 1853 0 
1855 —59 1855 0 
y Geminorum, |. 7 54 36.88 | H. 6 Urse Maj. | 923 8.06 |-H. |—103| —59 
[6 Caneri,] Ai. | +86 | +103 dtl £1 
LeV.| —96 | — 40 LeV. 
AC | +38 ‘ AL e 4| 95 
1853 32 1848 42 
1855 33 1855 MET 
¿ Navis, 8 1 22.17 |- H s Leonis, 937 86.82| H. | —85 | 41 
[15 Argus,] Ai. | +18 30 Ai | — 9 | +8 
LeV.| —20 | +36 LeV.| —66 | —10 
Ai | +15 42 AL | 440| 87 
1854 6 1850 > E 
1855 6 1855 -3 
y Cancri, 8 24 19.06 | H. a Leonis, 9 52 32.88 | H. 
At ltal tas Ai | 391 14 
LeV. LeV.| —39 54 
Ai | +11 | +88 AL | pi 1 
1853 +31 1854 24 
1855 +32 1855 24 | 
e Hydro, 889 5.66| H. | —81| +13 | y Leonis,  |10115854* H. -| 
Ai. | +14 31 preceding, Ai. | —156 | —139 
LeV.| — 3 53 LeV. | —223 | —167 
Ai LT 20 Ai. | —175 | —148 
1850 +29 . 1854 —151 
1855- +31 1855 —152 


* The value for the mean of the two stars was used as an assumed AR. The Greenwich observations for 1859 were included. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


563 


Assumed AR. 


Assumed AR. 


1855. Deviation. 1855. Deviation. 
h m s hm 35 
e Leonis, 10 25 10.40 | H || e Corvi,* 12 24041| H. 
Ai | +17 | +34 Ai | —18 | +4 
LeV.| —27 | +29 LeV. 
Ai | —6| +21 Ai. | +21 | +48 
1854 +28 1853 26 
1855 Lag 1855 26 
l Leonis, 10 41 37.97 | H y Virginis, 12 12 29.29 | H. 
Ai | —25| — 8 Ai, | —9 8 
LeV. LeV.| +11 67 
Ai | —20 | +7 Ai. 80 57 
1853 0 1854 +44 
1855 0 
z Leonis, 10 57 32.13 | H. B Corvi, 12 26 46.65 | H. | 
Ai | J- 9 26 Ai. 69 6 
LeV.| —42 14 LeV.| +24 80 
Ai | —19 | + 8 Ai. 48 75 
1854 +16 1854 +81 
1855 +16 1855 +82 
ô Leonis, 11 623.49| H. | +17 61 || y Virginis* |12 34 18.90 | H. 
Ai. | +25 42 || [mean of two Ai. 
LeV.| —42 14 || stars,] LeV. 
AL | +8 30 Ai | —2| +25 
1850 +87 1857 25 
1855 +39 1855 25 
ò Crateris, 1112 5.68| H. | —18 1 [| 12 Canum,* | 12 49 14.86} H. | —61 | —17 
Ai | +51 68 Ai | —4f | —24 
LeV.| —24 32 LeV.| —95 | —39 
Ai | +21 | +48 Ai | —16| +1 
1850 +45 1850 17 
1855 +47 1855 —18 
v Leonis, 11 29 31.51 | H. 6 Virginis* |18 226.76 | H.i 
Ai | +06 23 Ai | —17 0 
LeV.| —28 28 LeV.| —21 35 
Ai | —12 15 Ai | —17 10 
1854 22 1854 +15 
1855 22 1855 +15 


* Observations made at Greenwich in 1859 included. 


564 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


c Seg Deviation. Esa AR. Deviation. 
h m s b m à 

¿ Virginis, 13 27 18.44 H. B Libre, 15.9 19.58| EL —52| —8 
Ai. | +18 | +35 AL | —82 | —15 
LeV.| —37 | +19 LeV.| —60 | — 4 
tI AL +17 +44 Ai. —35 — 8 
1854 88 1850 — 9 
1855 38 1855 9 
y Boótis, 13 47 46.84 H. — 9 | +35 B Scorpii, 15.5028 0i H: 43 —I0834. —59 
Ai. 22 | +39 “Ai. |-— 79| —62 
LeV.| —28 | +28 LeV.| — 96| —40 
Ai. | +42| +29 Ai | — 65 | —38 
1850 +33 1850 —50 
1855 +35 1855 0 
1 Virginis, 18 54 16.20 H. 5 Ophiuchi, I6: 6 46.03: GE —59 | —15 
Ai. | —44 | —97 Ai. | +16 | +33 
LeV.| —42 14 LeV. 3 | 4-59 
Ai. | —19 8 Ai. 1| +28 
1850 — 9 1850 26 
1855 — 2 1855 91 

e Boótis, 14 25 34.87 | H. ¿ Herculis, 1635 49.28 | H. 
Ai | —39 | —29 Ai. |— 41] —24 
LeV. [wt — 4] | LeV.| —121 | —65 
Ai. | —21| + 6 Ai. | — 37| —10 
1853 — 8 1854 —97 
1855 — 8 1855 —27 

s Boótis, 14 88 39.30 | H. —48 | — 4 x Ophiuchi, 16 50 48.40 | H. 
following, Ai. 0 | +17 q Ai. | +19 | +36 
Lev. —73 | —17 LeV.| —17 | +89 
Ai | + 2 +29 An | oe Al oe 
1850 + 6 1854 +33 
1855 +7 1855 +33 

y Boötis, 14 58 14.02 | H 0 Ophiuchi, 1718 6.49 | B. 
Ai. | +12 +29 Al. | —96 | — 9 
LeV. LeV.| —57 | — Y 
Ai. | —18 | + 9 Ai. +10 +37 
1853 +19 1854 9 
1855 +19 1855 9 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS, 


565 


— A Deviation. EE AR. Deviation. 
H HM. hm s 
8 Draconis, 1727 9.58| Ai. | — 64| — 47 || 6 Aquile, 19181118| H. | — 6| +38 
, [w.=3] | H. |— 87 7 |. Ai. | +32 | +49 
[wt. = 1] | Lev. | —167 | —111 LeV.| +22 | +78 
Ai. [+ 4|+ 31 Ai. | +12 9 
1850 — 23 1850 51 
1855 — 24 1855 3 
u Herculis, 17 40 47.18} H h? Sagittarii,* | 19 27 52.83 | H. 
Ai. | —46 | —29 Ai. 
[wt. = 4] | LeV.| —87 | —31 LeV.| —59 | — 3 
Ai. | —34 | — 7 Ai. | —92 | —65 
1854 —21 1856 —34 
1855 —21 1855 —34 
v Sagittarii, |18 5 5.52| H. : e Capricorni, | 20 20 35.23 | H. 
Ai. | — 6 11 (4 obs.) Ai. | —136 | —119 
Lev. 21 77 (2 obs.) | LeV 53|-- 3 
Ai. 5 32 (13 obs.) | Ai. | —105 | — 78 
1854 +40 
1855 +40 1855 Ve 
B Lyre, 18 44 43.65 | H. |— 55| —11 || 32 Vulpecule,| 20 48 22.87 | H. 
Ai. | — 26| — 9 Ai. 0 17 
LeV. | —106 | —50 LeV.| —53 3 
Ai. | + 19| +46 Ai. | +44 | +71 
1850 — 6 1854 0 
1855 — 6 1855 31 
¿ Aquile, 18 58 44.77 | H. | —123| —79 | 61 Cygni, 21 02475| H. | —85 | —41 
Ai. | — 24| — 7 [mean of two Ai. | + 2 15 
LeV.| — 59| — 8 stars, | LeV.| —28 28 
Ai. 0| +27 Ai. | +66 93 
1850 —15 1850 24 
1855 —16 1855 25 
* 
uilæ 1911 0.63| H: t i 21 64603| H. | —77 | —33 
o Aquile, Hol ad re AL ants | cog 
[wt. = 3] | LeV.| —49 7 LeV.| —55 1 
Ai. | — 4 23 Ai. | — 6 21 
1854 3 1850 — 3 
1854 3 1855 — 8 


VOL. VIII. 


* Greenwich observations of 1859 included. — 


16 


566 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


Assumed AR: ES Assumed AR. Y 
1855. Deviation. 1855. Deviation. 
h m 8 h m 8 
B Aquarii, 21 23 55.851 H. | —18 91 ¿ Pegasi, 22 34 138.90 | H. | —96 | —52 
Ai. | +1 28 + Ai. | —32 | —15 
LeV. 0 56 LeV.| —81 | —25 
Ai. | — 8| +19 Ai. | —10 | +17 
1850 +34 1850 r9 
1855 +35 1855 —20 
s Pegasi, 2137 385| H. | —23 21 | y Piscium, 23 938.92 | H. 
Ai | ae Y 8 Ai. | +387 | +54 
LeV.| —46 | +10 LeV.| — 9 | +47 
Ai | +18 | +45 Ai | +15 | +42 
1850 +21 1854 +48 
1855 +22 1855 +48 
16 Pegasi, 21 46 28.03 H. x Piscium, 28 19 29.94 | H. 
Ai | AL | —24 Ai. | +26 | 445 
LeV. LeV.| +37 | +93 
Ai. | —20 | +7 Ai | — 3 | +24 
1853 —9 1854 53 
1855 — 9 1855 54 
0 Aquarii, 92:9 10315 B. : ¿ Piscium, 23 3229.55 | H. | +92 | +136 
Ai. | —1 16 Ai. | +86 103 
LeV. 41 15 LeV.| +13 69 
Ai. | + 2 29 Ai. | +29 56 
1854 20 1850 + 91 
1855 20 1855 + 96 
y Aquarii, 22 27 54.24| H. w Piscium, 28 5152.06| H.. 
Ai. | — 2 | +15 Ai. | — 3 | +414 
LeV.| —19 37 LeV.| —81 | —25 
Ai. | + 9 36 Al | —HH | —I4 
1854 29 1854 udi 
1855 0 1855 — 8 
- 


Nore. — The columns headed “ Deviation” contain the difference “Observation less Computation,” expressed in thousandths 


of seconds; the numbers in the first of these columns being the direct result from the Catalogues, and those in the second, the 
same corrected by the quantities on page 547.. 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


561 


TABLE VI. 
3 ‘Annual | Secular Annual Secular 
AR. 18550 | ston! Variation: AR. 1855.0 | v. "iation.| Variation. 
Bh m 5 8 8 h 4 8 

æ Andromedze, | 0 0 54.010-]-3.08397 -1-0.01770 || s Leonis, 9 37 36.818)+-3.42179 — 0.01798 
y Pegasi, 5 46.457, 3.08076 +-0.00970 || z Leonis, 52 32.904| 3.17822/|— 0.00819 
12 Ceti, 22 38.393) 8.06042 1-0.00059 || æ Leonis, 10 038.763, 3.20353|—0.01020 
8 Ceti, 36 18.568  3.01391,—0.00580 || y Leonis, prec. 11 58.988, 3.81951/—0.01515 
e Piscium, 55 25.278) 3.10944..-0.00852 || o Leonis, 25 10.428| 3.16739|—0.00817 
6 Ceti, 1 16 46.597 -1-2.99669 -1-0.00158 || Z Leonis, 10 41 37.970 -1-3.16068, —0.00831 
a Piscium, 23 43.811| 3.19707|+-0.01392 || y Leonis, 57 82.146) 3.09982|—0.00581 
» Piscium, 33 53.356, 3.11423 .1-0.00893 || à Leonis, 11 6 23.529} 3.20499|— 0.01354 
B Arietis, 46 38.293, 3.29597 51-0.01809 || à Crateris, 12 5.677| 2.99470 -1-0.00613 
oe Arietis, 59 0.500, 3.36392.-1-0.02010 || v Leonis, 29 31.532, 3.07136|+-0.00008 
67 Ceti, 2 9 45.178|+2.98604¡+-0.00479 || & Leonis, 11 41 89.669 |--8.06661,—0.00770 
2 Ceti, 20 27.263} 3.17892 -1-0.01153 || $ Virginis, 48 8.533| 3.12472|—0.00060 
y Ceti, 85 47.478] 3.10049 0.00928 || e Corvi, 12 240.436, 3.07399|-L0.01379 
a Ceti, 54 42.231) 3.12678 2-0.00970 || y Virginis, 12 29.334| 3.06671|-1-0.00273 
ô Arietis, 3 3 20.686| 3.41691--0.01717 || 8 Corvi, 26 46.732, 3.19101 .01603 
y Tauri, 3 38 52.340 +3.55008 0.01789 || y Virginis, med 12 34 18.925|+-3.03755|+-0.00403 
y Eridani, 51 15.982} 2.79480 .1-0.00475 || 12 Canum Ven. 49 14.942, 2.81928|—0.01561 
o' Eridani, 4 447.401| 2.92074.1-0.00600 || 8 Virginis, 19 2 26.775} 39.09894|-L0.00758 
e Tauri, 20 9.292) 3.49347/+-0.01244 || a Virginis, 17 38.567, 3.14988 .01120 
a Tauri, 27 36.289| 3.43414 +-0.01090 || £ Virginis, 27 18.473, 8.05219 +-0.00611 
¿ Auriga, 4 47 33.416|+-3.89371|+-0.01523 || y Boötis, 13 47 46.875|+-2.85875|—0.00066 
e Leporis, 59 19.456| 2.53580 1-0.00342 || z Virginis, 54 16.198| 83.04728,-1-0.00634 
a Aurige, 5 559.061| 4.42031 .01840 || « Boótis, 14 9 2.949} 2.78349 .00120 
B Orionis, ~ 7 34.994| 2.88069 .00430 || e Boötis, 25 84.862} 2.58811|—0.00169 
B Tauri, 17 7.747| 3.18683 .1-0.00890 || s Boötis, seq. 88 39.807, 2.62017|—0.00005 
ô Orionis, 5 24 36.050|4-8.06375|+0.00410 || el Libre, 14 42 40.403|-1-3.80308 -1-0.01560 
a Leporis, 26 20.195| 2.64574 -+-0.00319 || o? Libra, 42 51.833| 3.30414/+0.01550 
e Orionis, 28 51.454| 3.04138 .1-0.00381 || yw Boötis, 58 14.089|. 2.57055|-1-0.00118 
a Orionis, 47 19.409} 3.24714.-1-0.00310 || & Libr, 15 912.571) 8.21778|1-0.01188 
» Orionis, 59 17.641| 3.42628 -0.00227 || a Coronz, 28 33.018) 2.53833|4-0.00240 
u Geminorum, | 6 14 11.325|4-3.63290 -+0.00023 || e Serpentis, 1537 7.734|+-2.94935|+-0.00630 
y Geminorum, 29 20.126| 3.46792—0.00094 || 8 Scorpii, 57 0.728| 3.47595/4-0.01455 
a Canis Maj.* 38 45.452| 2.64508/.-1-0.00040 || 6 Ophiuchi, - 16 6 45.087| 3.13560.+-0.00846 
s Canis Maj. 52 55.718} 2.35827/+0.00164 || æ Scorpii, 20 31.399| 3.66500|+-0.01570 
y Canis Maj. 57 11.948) 2.71602/2-0.00067 || £ Herculis, 35 49.253| 2.26165|+-0.00319 
ô Geminorum, | 7 11 27.621|--3.59256,—0.00676 || x Ophiuchi, 16 50 48.433|-1-2.83429 --0.00458 
oe Geminorum,t 25 20.245) 3.84131/—0.01250 || e Herculis, 17 8 2.283] 2.73289|+-0.00370 
a Canis Min. 31 42.628| 3.14698¡—0.00440 || 8 Ophiuchi, 13 6.499| 3.67702|40.00871 
8 Geminorum, 36 26.276| 3.68356|—0.01220 || æ Ophiuchi, 28 12.3821} 2.78117¡+-0.00350 
y Geminorum, 54 36.413| 3.69912 —0.01429 || u Herculis, 40 47.159| 2.84272|+-0.00345 
¿ Navis, 8 1 22.206|4+-2.55499'+-0.00107 || vi Sagittarii, 18 5 5.560/4-3.58524/4-0.00154 
y Cancri, 24 19.092} 3.48165 —0.01281 || æ Lyre, 82 1.781| 2.03091 .00160 
e Hydre, 39 5.691| 3.18498|—0.00692 || 8 Lyre, 44 43.644) 2.21283|+-0.00172 
83 Cancri, 9 10 53.010| 3.35922/—0.01337 || E Aquila, 58 44.754| 2.75318 /-1-0.00061 
a Hydre, 20 27.725|-|-2.94942,—0.00150 || w Aquila, 19 11 0.633|4-2.81459|—0.00008 


* Peters's correction is yet to be added. 


+ Mean of the two stars. 


568 


A CATALOGUE OF STANDARD STARS. 


Annual Secular Annual Secular 
AR. 1855.0 Variation.| Variation. AR. 1855.0 Variation.| Variation. 
h. m s 8 ^ hom s 8 8 
à Aquile 19 18 11.233|+-3.02489|—0.00153 || e Pegasi, 92137 3.872|4-2.94836|—0.00059 
A7 Sagittarii, 27 52.796) 3.65940/—0.00965 | 16 Pegasi, 46 28.021, 2.72578 --0.00513 
y Aquilx, 39 21.991, 2.85281¡—0.00080 | æ Aquarii, 58 20.150} 3.08414¡—0.00430 
a Aquile, 43 42.531) 2.92881,—0.00140 | 8 Aquarii, 99 910.770} 3.17178|—0.00771 
B Aquilz, 48 11.470} 2.94775|\—0.00150 | y Aquarii, 27 54.270} 3.08381|—0.00324 
ei Capricorni, | 20 9 36.510/-+-3.33175|—0.00810 || ¢ Pegasi, 22 34 13.880/+-2.98752/+-0.00211 
o? Capricorni, 10 0.414| 3.33500 —0.00810 || e Piscis Austr. 49 37.775, 3.33287|—0.02170 
o Capricorni, 20 35.152) 3.42960/—0.01118 | æ Pegasi, 57 32.469} 2.98307 -1-0.00530 
oe Cygni, 36 29.380| 2.04250/+-0.00240 | y Piscium, - 23 9 38.968) 3.10795|+-0.00029 
32 Vulpecule, 48 22.901; 2.55446\+-0.00264 | x! Piscium, 19 29.994!  8.07564|—0.00021 
| 
61 Cygni, med. | 21 0 24.775 +-2.67784|+-0.00392 | , Piscium, 23 32 29.646/-1-3.08413/-1-0.00281 
¢ Cygni, 6 46.027, 2.54826/--0.00384 | œ Piscium, 91 52.052 -1-8.07735 -1-0.00445 
B Aquarii, 23 55.385| 3.16430,—0.00711 
TABLE VI. SUPPLEMENT. 
> Annual | Secular > Annual | Secular 
AR. 1855.0 Variation.| Variation. AR. 1855.0 Variation.| Variation. 
A m.s 8 8 E h m.s 8 D 

a Cassiopeix, 0 32 18.284|4-3.35312|+-0.05440 || y Ursee Maj. 13 41 49.377 -1-2.37462 —0.01050 
o Persei, 3 13 59.591, 4.24123 /.-0.04850 || 8 Urse Min. 14 51 10.547 —0.26640 -1-0.10660 
¿ Urse Maj. 8 49 15.657, 4.14858 —0.04433 || 8 Draconis, 17 27 9.556 +1.85102 +0.00545 
0 Urse Maj. 9 23 8.047, 4.06080|—0.05615 || y Draconis, 17 53 14.502 1.89321 0.00350 
œ Ursæ Maj. 10 54 44.415, 3.77579,—0.08380 || æ Cephei, 2115 60.946 -1.43846 —0.00640 
y Urse Maj. 11 46 11.102|+-3.19678|—0.04440 || 8 Cephei, 21 26 46.341 -1-0.80464 — 0.03300 


for Aa! cos ð -1- 0.37 read — 0.37 


323 Cephei B., dele Airy, 1840. 

"Table III. is not affected by these errata. 
The order of some of the dates in Table II. is reversed in printing: that is, the date for Declination is before that for -A.R. 
It should perhaps have been stated, that the logarithms a, b, c, d in Table IV. are in the original order of Bessel; the English 
have arbitrarily changed a, b, c, d to c, d, a, b, and the same inconvenient alteration has been made in the American Ephemeris. 


Log a is the log of the annual precession in A.R. ; x, u! are proper motion; » is =) x : 


In reducing to apparent place for a fraction 7 of the year 1865 + n, we interpolate log a, b, c, 


we shall have (a° being A.R. for 1865), 


This includes all the sensible terms except the very small ones depending on © + Q, © — $, if the tables for 


NOTES AND ERRATA. 


In Table IL, 4 Ursze Minoris B., Ad! (Rob.) for —0".42 read —0!!.29. 
51 Cephei H., for Airy, 1845, read Airy, 1840, 1839. 
Sor Aa! + 7"67 read — 71.67. 


a! —a? = (A +n)a+ Bb+ Cc+ Dd+ (s -- n) w+ (tH n)? ». 


` include them, as do O. Struve’s Tabule Quantitatum Besselianarum. 


d for the time 1865 +n + 7, and 


Log A, B, etc., 


X X. 


The Sun a small Star. 


Bx ALVAN CLARK. 


(Communicated January 28, 1863.) 


Or all the efforts to determine the parallax of stars, both by direct and differential 
methods, only ten or twelve cases can be cited with any show whatever of success. In 
a Centauri it amounts to 1”, which is more than double the quantity imputed to 
either of the others. The conclusion follows, among astronomers, that the stars gen- 
erally are immensely distant bodies, shining like the Sun with light of their own, and 
forming a great family of which he is an individual member. 

The sum total of light given off by any luminous body can be computed where its 
distance is known; and it is supposed, from such computation, that several of these 
stars must considerably exceed the Sun in intrinsic lustre, while 61 Cygni falls below . 
him. Therefore, though classed in one family, inequalities are admitted, and to what 
extent they may reach among the millions, visible and invisible, we cannot know; 
but, from all the analogies of nature, we may safely conjecture that the extremes are 
very great. 

If we admit this, and suppose for all the stars in existence a mean equal to our Sun, 
or even less, those visible must possess a mean in brightness much in excess of his; 
for, by the laws of perspective, the smaller would be lost to our view, at distances from 
which the brighter might glow, even as first magnitude. This reasoning would apply 
to telescopic magnitudes as well as to those visible with the naked eye. 

Believing this to be true, I have felt a desire to possess some method of making 
photometrical comparisons between the light received from the Sun and that from a 
star more reliable than these in common use. If you were to go within the tropics, 
and sink a well to the depth of several hundred feet, and place yourself at the bottom 
while an assistant should close the top to produce total obscuration, except one small 


VOL. VIII. riri 


570 THE SUN A SMALL STAR. 


hole, in which a lens might be fitted, of the finest material and finish, having a focal 
distance of the one hundred-thousandth part of the whole distance between your 
eye and the lens; then by viewing through it the vertical sun, in a clear sky, you 
would see it reduced exactly as though removed 100,000 times its present distance; 
and it would barely exceed the brightness of a Lyre. 

From the great number of experiments I have made, I am led to believe this the 
most reliable method of reducing the Sun's light, for comparing it with any given 
celestial object. You can free your observation entirely from the distracting effect 
of daylight, and even an object so bright as the Sun can be reduced by one single 
plano-convex lens, at one step, to equal a star of the sixth magnitude, if desirable; 
and when the focal distance of your lens is known, and the distance between your 
lens and your eye is known, the amount of reduction can be known as readily as 
you can find how many times the smaller is contained in the larger distance. I have 
no such well or mine, but a horizontal under-ground chamber 230 feet in length, one 
end terminating in the cellar of my workshop, and the other communicating with 
the surface of the ground by a vertical opening one foot square and five feet deep, is 
a complete equivalent, except that its use involves the necessity of twice reflecting the 
Sun's light, once by a mirror, and once by a prism of total reflection. 

Between the end of the chamber and the vertical opening is a partition with a 
perforation two inches square, which I can close with plates, containing such lenses 
as I may wish to use. Within the vertical opening, contiguous to and facing the 
lens, the prism is placed to receive the Sun's light from the mirror above, and reflect 
it horizontally through the lens into the chamber. 

When a lens one thirty-fourth of an inch in focal distance was employed, on the 
24th of November, 1862, the Sun near the meridian and sky remarkably clear, by 
an observer in the cellar, 230 feet distant, the light received was estimated scarcely 
equal to that of a Lyre. 

Here the reduction of diameter was only 93,840 times, with the lens and prism 
very perfect, and cleaned for the occasion. 

Three perforations were selected through a strip of thin brass, the largest of which, 
when held to the eye, should admit light enough for steady visibility; the next, visi- 
bility by fits; and the smaller, but little less, producing invisibility. 

Three, myself and two sons, took a part in the observation, and with results show- 
ing the most perfect equality in our eyes; and when one had been in darkness for 
fifteen minutes, another fresh from the glare of day, taking his place, would see within 
two minutes as well, and as well we became satisfied, as we could with any allow- 


THE SUN A SMALL STAR. 571 


ance whatever of time and shading. The evening of the 24th of November proved 
clear and favorable as the day; when the mirror and prism, placed at the same angle, 
were combined and applied to view a Lyre, from five to six hours west of the me- 
ridian, through the same perforations in the strip of brass. 

I suppose the percentage of loss by the prism and mirror would be the same with 
both objects; so that an allowance for the lens only is to be made; which, according 
to the best means of judging in my power, would be about ten per cent. Since we 
found the star and Sun rendered sensibly equal in the above comparisons, it would 
appear that a removal in space to 103,224 times his present distance would reduce 
the light of the Sun to an equality with that of the star in question. This is less 
than half the supposed distance of the nearest star in the whole heavens. 

Coupled as this single determination has been with many preliminary experiments 
and studies, I am prepared to believe that it is very near the truth; though differ- 
ing largely from the photometrical deductions most generally accredited, and most 
frequently quoted by astronomical writers. The earth itself, it is supposed, was once 
a self-luminous body; and there may exist innumerable suns like ours, or even less, 
within the limits of, and interspaced with, those which decorate a nocturnal sky, and 
yet remain unknown to man. This, however, would depend much upon the actual 
diversity existing among them; but that the Maker has chosen variety there, as well 
as in our more immediate surroundings, I see no reason to doubt. The inequality 
of such binary stars as € Herculis and à Cygni, which cannot be caused by unequal 
distances of the components from us, are sufficient to confirm such a conclusion. If 
we suppose the extremes to be many millions to one, as they are in the planets 
of our system, and give due weight to the effect of celestial perspective, we could 
not but expect to find our glorious Sun a small star, if ever adequate means could 
be devised for demonstrating the true relationship between him and the hosts which 
are gleaming from such immeasurable distances beyond. The planet Jupiter is sen- 
sibly the fourth luminary in the heavens, and yet his four satellites are invisible to 
the naked eye, though at precisely the same mean distance from us; and further, 
there exist more than threescore of planets, well known, all of telescopic magnitudes, 
at distances less than that of Jupiter. 

In viewing the Sun reduced 93,840 times, in the dark chamber, I could have stated 
that it was seen in contrast with a darkness deeper than that of any nocturnal sky, 
which would favor the supposition that the difference in light between that and 
a Lyre might be even less than 10,655,194,176 to 1; but I have no desire to differ 
more than I feel obliged to do from the teachings of those who have preceded me 


in this interesting field of research. + 


512 THE SUN A SMALL STAR. 


The number of stars exhibited in the whole heavens by the more powerful tele- 
scopes is not so great, when compared with the smaller instruments and with the 
naked eye, as theoretically it should be; a fact explained by astronomeys, on the 
supposition that a portion of the light is absorbed or extinguished during its 
passage through such immense ranges. 

Now perhaps a different explanation might be found by assuming such vast differ-. 
ences in the intrinsic brightness of stars, scattered and intermingled through all 
space, as for aught we know may exist. Near us the small as well as large ones 
would be seen; but a few billions of miles in depth, at the outer limits of telescopic 
penetrability, carried over the whole sphere, would furnish room for concealment to 
hosts of bodies like our Sun, while a few only of very unusual bulk and bright- 
ness, interspaced with them, would appear as the faintest discernible points of light, 
when viewed through the most potent telescope to which the eye of man has ever 
been applied. 


STATUTES 


AND 


STANDING VOTES 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


"d " : 
(Adopted May 30, 1854: amended September 8, 1857, and November 12, 1862.) 


CHAPTER I. 
Or FELLOWS AND Foreign Honorary MEMBERS. 


* 1. Tae Academy consists of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members. They are arranged 
in three classes, according to the Arts and Sciences in which they are severally proficient, viz. : 
Class I. The Mathematical and Physical Sciences; Class II. The Natural and Physiological 
Sciences; Class III. The Moral and Political Sciences. Each Class is divided into four Sec- 
tions, viz.: Class I. Section 1. Mathematics; Section 2. Practical Astronomy and Geodesy ; 
Section 9. Physics and Chemistry ; Section 4. Technology and Engineering. Class II. Sec- 
tion 1. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe; Section 2. Botany ; Section 8. Zoólogy 
and Physiology ; Section 4. Medicine and Surgery. Class III. Section 1. Philosophy and Juris- 
prudence; Section 2. Philology and Archeology; Section 3. Political Economy and History ; 


Section 4. Literature and the Fine Arts. 


2. Fellows resident in the State of Massachusetts can alone vote at the meetings of the 
Academy.* They shall each pay to the Treasurer the sum of five dollars on admission, and 
an annual assessment of two dollars, with such additional sum, not exceeding three dollars, 
as the Academy shall, by a standing vote, from time to time determine. 


3. Fellows residing out of the State of Massachusetts shall be known and distinguished as 
Associate Fellows. They shall not be liable to the payment of any fees or annual dues, but, 


* The number of Resident Fellows is limited by the Charter to 200. 
VOL. VIII. 78 


i STATUTES OF THE 


on removing within the State, shall be admitted to the privileges, and be subject to the obliga- 
tions, of Resident Fellows. The number of Associate Fellows shall not exceed one hundred, of 
whom there shall not be more than forty in either of the three classes of the Academy. 


4. The number of Foreign Honorary Members shall not exceed seventy-five; and they shall 
be chosen from among persons most eminent in foreign countries for their discoveries and 
attainments in either of the three departments of knowledge above enumerated. And there 
shall not be more than thirty Foreign Members in either of these departments. 


CHAPTER II. 
Or OFFICERS. 


1. There shall be a President, a Vice-President, a Corresponding Secretary, a Recording 
Secretary, a Treasurer, and a Librarian, which officers shall be annually elected, by written 
votes, at the Annual Meeting, on the day next preceding the last Wednesday in May. 


2. At the same time and in the same manner, nine Councillors shall be elected, three from 
each Class of the Academy, who, with the President, Vice-President, and the two Secretaries, 
shall constitute a Council for Nomination. It shall also be the duty of this Council to exercise 
a discreet supervision over all nominations and elections, and to exert their influence to obtain 
and preserve a due proportion in the number of Fellows and Members in each of the Sections. 


3. If any office shall become vacant during the year, the vacancy shall be filled by a new 
election, and at the next stated meeting. 


CHAPTER III. 
Or THE PRESIDENT. 


1. It shall be the duty of the President, and, in his absence, of the Vice-President or next 
officer in order, as above enumerated, to preside at the meetings of the Academy ; to summon 
extraordinary meetings, upon any urgent occasion; and to execute or see to the execution of 
the Statutes of the Academy. 


2. The President, or, in his absence, the next officer as above enumerated, is empowered 
to draw upon the Treasurer for such sums of money as the Academy shall direct. Bills 
presented on account of the Library, or the publications of the Academy, must be previously 
approved by the respective committees on these departments. 


AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. lil 


8. The President, or, in his absence, the next officer as above enumerated, shall nominate 
members to serve on the different committees of the Academy which are not chosen by ballot. 


4. Any deed or writing, to which the common seal is to be affixed, shall be signed and 
sealed by the President, when thereto authorized by the Academy. 


CHAPTER IV. 
Or STANDING COMMITTEES. 


1. At the Annual Meeting there shall be chosen the following Standing Committees, to 
serve for the year ensuing, viz. :— 


2. The Committee of Finance, to consist of the President, Treasurer, and one Fellow chosen 
by ballot, who shall have charge of the investment and management of the funds and trusts 
of the Academy. The general appropriations for the expenditures of the Academy shall be 
moved by this Committee at the Annual Meeting, and all special appropriations from the 
general and publication funds shall be referred to or proposed by this Committee. 


3. The Rumford Committee, of seven Fellows, to be chosen by ballot, who shall consider 
and report on all applications and claims for the Rumford Premium, also on all appropriations 
from the income of the Rumford Fund, and generally see to the due and proper execution 


of this trust. : ; E 


4. The Committee of Publication, of three Fellows, to whom all memoirs submitted to the 
Academy shall be referred, and to whom the printing of memoirs accepted for publication shall 


be intrusted. 


5. The Committee on the Library, of three Fellows, who shall examine the Library, and 
make an annual report on its condition and management. 


6. An Auditing Committee, of two Fellows, for auditing the accounts of the Treasurer. 


CHAPTER V. 
Or THE SECRETARIES. 


1. The Corresponding Secretary shall conduct the correspondence of the Academy, recording 
or making an entry of all letters written in its name, and preserving on file all letters which are 


zv STATUTES OF THE 


received ; and at each meeting he shall present the letters which have been addressed to the 
Academy since’ the last meeting. With the advice and consent of the President, he may effect 
exchanges with other scientific associations, and also distribute copies of the publications of the 
Academy among the Associate Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members, as shall be deemed 
expedient ; making a report of his proceedings at the Annual Meeting. Under the direction of 
the Council for Nomination, he shall keep a list of the Fellows, Associate Fellows, and Foreign 
Honorary Members, arranged in their Classes and in Sections in respect to the special sciences 
in which they are severally proficient; and he shall act as secretary to the Council. 


2. The Recording Secretary shall have charge of the Charter and statute-book, journals, and 
allliterary papers belonging to the Academy. He shall record the proceedings of the Academy 
atits meetings ; and after each meeting is duly opened, he shall read the record of the preceding 
meeting. He shall notify the meetings of the Academy, and apprise committees of their appoint- 
ment. He shall post up in the Hall a list of the persons nominated for election into the Academy ; 
and when any individual is chosen, he shall insert in the record the names of the Fellows by 
whom he was nominated. 


9. The two Secretaries, with the Chairman of the Committee of Publication, shall have 
authority to publish such of the proceedings of the Academy as may seem to them calculated 
to promote the interests of science. 


CHAPTER VI. 
OF THE TREASURER. 


1. The Treasurer shall give such security for the trust reposed in him as the Academy 
shall require. 


2. He shall receive officially all moneys due or payable, and all bequests or donations made 
to the Academy, and by order of the President or presiding officer shall pay such sums as the 
Academy may direct. He shall keep an account of all receipts and expenditures; shall submit 
his accounts to the Auditing Committee; and shall report the same at the expiration of his 
term of office. 


3. The Treasurer shall keep a separate account of the income and a of the Rum- 
ford Fund, and report the same annually. 


4. All moneys which there shall not be present occasion to expend shall be invested by the 
Treasurer, under the direction of the Finance Committee, on such securities as the Academy 
shall direct. 


AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. v 


"n The Treasurer shall have the power, with the consent of the Committee of Finance, to 
remit the admission fee of five dollars, and likewise any annual assessment above the sum of 
two dollars, in all such cases as he shall deem reasonable and proper. 


CHAPTER VII. 
OF THE LIBRARIAN AND LIBRARY. 


1. It shall be the duty of the Librarian to take charge of the books, to keep a correct cata- 
logue of the same, and to provide for the delivery of books from the Library. He shall also 
have the custody of the publications of the Academy. 


2. The Librarian, in conjunction with the Committee on the Library, shall have authority to 
expend, as they may deem expedient, such sums as may be appropriated, either from the Rum- 
ford or the General Fund of the Academy, for the purchase of books and for defraying other | 
necessary expenses connected with the Library. They shall have authority to propose rules and 
regulations concerning the circulation, return, and safe-keeping of books; and to appoint such 
agents for these purposes as they may think necessary. 


9. To all books in the Library procured from the income of the Rumford Fund, the Librarian 
shall eause a stamp or label to be affixed, expressing the fact that they were so procured. 


4. Every person who takes a book from the Ge sl shall give a receipt for the same to the 
Librarian or his assistant. 


5. Every book shall be returned in good order, regard being had to the necessary wear of the 
book with good usage. And if any book shall be lost or injured, the person to whom it stands 
charged shall replace it by a new volume or set, if it belong to a set, or pay the current price of 
the volume or set to the Librarian; and thereupon the remainder of the set, if the volume be- 
longed to a set, shall be delivered to the person so paying for the same. 


6. All books shall be returned to the Library for examination, at least one week before the 
Annual Meeting. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
Or MEETINGS. 


1. There shall be annually four stated meetings of the Academy; namely, on the day next 
preceding the last Wednesday in May (the Annual Meeting), on the second Wednesday in 
August, on the second Wednesday in November, and on the last Wednesday in January; to 


. 


Vi STATUTES OF THE 


be held in the Hall of the Academy, in Boston. At these meetings only, or at meetings ad- 
journed from these and regularly notified, shall appropriations of money be made, or alterations 
of the statutes or standing votes of the Academy be effected. 


2. Fifteen Fellows shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at a stated meet- 
ing. Seven Fellows shall be sufficient to constitute a meeting for scientific communications and 
discussions. 


3. The Recording Secretary shall notify the meetings of the Academy to each Fellow residing 
in Boston and the vicinity ; and he may cause the meetings to be advertised, whenever he deems 
such further notice to be needful. 


CHAPTER IX. 
Or THE ELECTION OF FELLOWS AND HONORARY MEMBERS. 


1. Elections shall be made by ballot, and only at the stated meetings in May, November, and 
January. 


2. Candidates for election as Resident Fellows must be proposed by two or more Resident 
Fellows, in a recommendation signed by them, specifying the Section to which the nomination is 
made; which recommendation shall be read at a stated meeting, and then stand on the nomina- 
tion list during the interval between two stated meetings, and until the balloting. No person 
shall be elected a Resident Fellow, unless he shall have been resident in this Commonwealth one 
year next preceding his election; and any Resident Fellow, hereafter elected, who shall reside 
out of the Commonwealth for the term of five years, and shall discontinue the payment of his 
assessments during that time, shall be deemed to have abandoned his fellowship; provided, nev- 
ertheless, that this abandonment of fellowship for non-residence shall not apply to persons 
engaged in the service of the State, or of the United States. 


8. The nomination of Associate Fellows shall take place in the manner prescribed in reference 
to Resident Fellows; and after such nomination shall have been publicly read at a stated meet- 
ing previous to that when the balloting takes place, it shall be referred to a Council for Nomina- 
tion; and a written approval, authorized and signed at a meeting of said Council by at least 
seven of its members, shall be requisite to entitle the candidate to be balloted for. The Council 
may in like manner originate nominations of Associate Fellows; which must be read at a stated 
meeting previous to the election, and be exposed on the nomination list during the interval. 


AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. vil 


4. Foreign Honorary Members shall be chosen only after a nomination made at a meeting of 
the Council, signed at the time by at least seven of its members, and read at a stated meeting 
previous to that on which the balloting takes place. 


5. Three fourths of the ballots cast must be affirmative, and the number of affirmative ballots 
must amount to eleven, to effect an election of Fellows or Foreign Honorary Members. 


6. Each section of the Academy is empowered to present lists of persons deemed best qualified 
to fill vacancies occurring in the number of Foreign Honorary Members or Associate Fellows 
allotted to it; and such lists, after being read at a stated meeting, shall be referred to the Coun- 


cil for Nomination. 


CHAPTER X. 
Or AMENDMENTS OF THE STATUTES. 


1. All proposed alterations of the statutes, or additions to them, shall be referred to a com- 
mittee during the interval between two stated meetings, and shall require for enactment a major- 
ity of two thirds of the members present, and at least eighteen affirmative votes. 


2. Standing Votes may be passed, amended, or rescinded, at any stated meeting, by a majority 
of two thirds of the members present. They may be suspended by a unanimous vote. 


CHAPTER XI. 
Or LITERARY PERFORMANCES. 


1. The Academy will not express its judgment on literary or scientific memoirs or perform- 


ances submitted to it, or included in its publications. 


viii STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


SIAAMBDLINGU VOTES 


1. Communications of which notice has been given to the Secretary shall take precedence of 
those not so notified. 


2. Resident Fellows who have paid all fees and dues chargeable to them are entitled to receive 
one copy of each volume or article printed by the Academy, on application to the Librarian per- 
sonally or by written order, within two years from the date of publication. 


3. Resident Fellows may borrow and have out from the Library six volumes at any one time, 
and may retain the same for three months, and no longer. 


4. Upon special application, and for adequate reasons assigned, the Librarian may permit a 
larger number of volumes, not exceeding twelve, to be drawn from the Library, for a limited 
period. 

5. Works published in numbers, when unbound, shall not be taken from the Hall of the Acad- 
emy, except by special leave of the Librarian. 


6. Books, publications, or apparatus shall be procured from the income of the Rumford Fund 
only on the certificate of the Rumford Committee, that they, in their opinion, will best facilitate 
and encourage the making of discoveries and improvements which may merit the Rumford 
Premium. 


7. The annual assessment upon Resident Fellows shall be five dollars, until otherwise ordered. 


8. The annual meeting shall be holden at half past three o'clock, P. M. "The other stated 
meetings at half past seven o'clock, P. M. 


9. A meeting for receiving and discussing scientific communications shall be held on the 
second Tuesday of each month, excepting the three summer months. 


RUMFORD PREMIUM. 


In conformity with the last will of Benjamin Count Rumford, granting a certain fund to the 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and with a decree of the Supreme Judicial Court for 
carrying into effect the general charitable intent and purpose of Count Rumford, as expressed in 
his said will, the Academy is empowered to make from the income of said fund, as it now exists, 
at any annual meeting, an award of a gold and silver medal, being together of the intrinsic value 
of three hundred dollars, as a premium, to the author of any important discovery or useful im- 
provement in light or in heat, which shall have been made and published by printing, or in any 
way made known to the public, in any part of the continent of America, or any of the American 
islands; preference being always given to such discoveries as shall, in the opinion of the Acad- 
emy, tend most to promote the good of mankind; and to add to such medals, as a further pre- 


mium for such discovery and improvement, if the Academy see fit so to do, a sum of money not 
exceeding three hundred dollars. 


GISI 


OF THE 


AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


* 


MAY 1,1862, 


FELLOWS. 


CLASS I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 


Section I. Section II. 
Mathematics. Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. 
William P. G. Bartlett, Cambridge. George P. Bond, Cambridge. 
Ezekiel B. Elliott, Boston. J. Ingersoll Bowditch, Boston. 
William Ferrel, Cambridge. Alvan Clark, Cambridge. - 
Benjamin A. Gould, Cambridge. Charles Henry Davis, Cambridge. 
John B. Henck, Dedham. William Mitchell, Lynn. 
Thomas Hill, Cambridge Maria Mitchell, isai: 
Simon Newcomb, Newport. Robert Treat Paine, Boston. 
James E. Oliver, Lynn. C. H. F. Peters, Clinton, N. Y. 
Benjamin Peirce, Cambridge. George Searle, Brookline. 
James M. Peirce, Cambridge. 
. John D. Runkle, Cambridge. Section III. 
Truman H. Safford, Cambridge. Pisd aud Bebé, 
'Thomas Sherwin, Boston. 
Chauncey Wright, Cambridge. Joseph Hale Abbot, Beverly. 
Joseph Winlock, Cambridge. John Bacon, Jr., Boston. 
VOL. VIII. 19 


John H. Blake, 
William F. Channing, 
Thomas Edward Clark, 
Josiah P. Cooke, 
William P. Dexter, 
Charles W. Eliot, 
Moses G. Farmer, 
Augustus A. Hayes, 
Albert Hopkins, 
Eben N. Horsford, 
Joseph Lovering, 
Francis Peabody, 

E. S. Ritchie, 

Frank H. Storer, 
Cyrus M. Warren, 


Boston. 


Boston. 


Williamstown. 


Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 


Boston. 


Williamstown. 


Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Salem. 
Boston. 
Boston. 


Boston. 


FELLOWS. 


CLASS II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. 


Section I. 
Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. 


Francis Alger, 
Thomas T. Bouvé, 
Edward Hitcheock, 
Jonathan P. Hall, 
Charles T. Jackson, 
Jules Marcou, 
Henry D. Rogers, 
William B. Rogers, 
Charles U. Shepard, 
Josiah D. Whitney, 


Section II. 


Botany. 


Jacob Bigelow, 
George B. Emerson, 


South Boston. 
Boston. 
Amherst. 
Bot 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Amherst. 
Northampton. 


Boston. 


Boston. 


Section IV. 
Technology and Engineering. 

Henry L. Abbot, Cambridge. 
Edward C. Cabot, Boston. 
Henry L. Eustis, Cambridge. 
James B. Francis, Lowell. 
James Hayward, Boston. 
Charles Jackson, Boston. 
John C. Lee, ^ Salem. 
William R. Lee,  ' Boston. 
Charles S. Storrow, ‘Lawrence. 
William H. Swift, Boston. 
John H. Temple, Boston. 
Daniel Treadwell, Cambridge. 
Morrill Wyman, Cambridge. 
Asa Gray, Cambridge. 
John A. Lowell, Boston. 
John L. Russell, Salem. 
Charles James Sprague, Boston. 
Edward Tuckerman, Amherst. 

Section III. 

Zoülogy and Physiology. 
Alexander E. R. Agassiz, Cambridge. 
Louis Agassiz, Cambridge. 
Thomas M. Brewer, Boston. 
Henry Bryant, Boston. 
John Dean, Boston. 
Samuel Cabot, Jr., Boston. 
Henry James Clark, Cambridge. - 
Silas Durkee, Boston. 

Boston. 


Augustus A. Gould, 


Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Boston. 
Theodore Lyman, Brookline. 
Charles Pickering, Boston. 

D. Humphreys Storer, Boston. 
David Weinland, Cambridge. 
Henry Wheatland, Salem. 
Jeffries Wyman, Cambridge. 


Srotion IV. 


Medicine and Surgery. 


Samuel L. Abbot, Boston. 
Henry J. Bigelow, Boston. 
Boston. 


Henry I. Bowditch, 


FELLOWS. E 


CLASS IL — Moral and Political Sciences. 


Section I. 


Philosophy and Jurisprudence. 


William Allen, Northampton. 
George T. Bigelow, ` Boston. 
Francis Bowen, Cambridge. 
John Henry Clifford, New Bedford. 
Benjamin R. Curtis, Boston. 

Mark Hopkins, Williamstown. 
Charles G. Loring, Boston. 

Joel Parker, Cambridge. 
Theophilus Parsons, Cambridge. 
George Putnam, Roxbury. 
William A. Stearns, Amherst. 
Benjamin F. Thomas, Boston. . 
James Walker, Cambridge. 
Emory Washburn, Cambridge. 


Benjamin E. Cotting, Roxbury. 
Calvin Ellis, Boston. 
George Hayward, Boston 
Oliver W. Holmes, Boston 
James Jackson, Boston 
John B. S. Jackson, Boston 
+ Henry C. Perkins, Newburyport. 
Charles G. Putnam, Boston. 
Edward Reynolds, Boston 
Horatio R. Storer, Boston. 
Charles E. Ware, Boston 
John Ware, Boston 
John M. Warren, Boston 
Section II. 
Philology and Archeology. 
Ezra Abbot, Cambridge. 
Albert N. Arnold, Westborough. 
Charles Beck, Cambridge. 
Epes S. Dixwell, Cambridge. 
Charles Folsom, Cambridge. 
William W. Goodwin, . Cambridge. 
Ephraim W. Gurney, Cambridge. 
Horatio B. Hackett, Newton. 
William Jenks, Boston. 
George M. Lane, Cambridge. 
George Livermore, Cambridge. 
George R. Noyes, Cambridge. 
Chandler Robbins, Boston. 
James Savage, Boston. 


xii 


Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, 
Evangelinus A. Sophocles, 
Samuel Swett, 

Joseph E. Worcester, 


Section III. 


Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 


Political Economy and History. 


Caleb Cushing, 
George E. Ellis, 
Edward Everett, 
Levi Lincoln, 

J. L. Motley, 
Francis Parkman, 
Willard Phillips, 
Josiah Quincy, 
John Reed, 

Jared Sparks, 
Henry W. Torrey, 
Robert C. Winthrop, 


Newburyport. 


Boston. 
Boston. 
Worcester. 
Boston. 
Boston. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 
Bridgewater. 
Cambridge. 
Cambridge. 
Boston. 


FELLOWS. 


Section IV. 


Literature and the Fine Arts. 


Charles F. Adams, Boston. 
William T. Andrews, Boston. 
George S. Boutwell, Groton. 
Francis J. Child, Cambridge. 
John B. Fitzpatrick, Boston. 
Nathaniel L. Frothingham, ^ Boston. 
John C. Gray, Boston. 

. Richard Greenough, Boston. 
Charles C. Jewett, Boston. 
Henry. W. Longfellow, Cambridge. 
Francis C. Lowell, Boston. 
James Russell Lowell, Cambridge. 
Charles E. Norton, Cambridge. 
Octavius Pickering, Boston. 
William W. Story, Boston. 
George Ticknor, Boston. 
Edward Wigglesworth, Boston. 


CLASS 1. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 


ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 


Su 


ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 


e 


Section I. 


Mathematics. 


Charles Avery, 
Alexis Caswell, 
William Chauvenet, 
Charles Davies, 
Jeremiah Day, 
Charles Gill, 

J. S. Hubbard, 
Hubert A. Newton, 
William Smyth, 
Theodore Strong, 


Clinton, N. Y. 
Providence, R. I. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

New York. 

New Haven, Conn. 
Flushing, N. Y. 
Washington, D. C. 
New Haven, Conn. 
Brunswick, Maine. 
New Brunswick, N. J. 


Section II. 


Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. 


Stephen Alexander, 
Alexander D. Bache, 
W. H. C. Bartlett, 
J. H. C. Coffin, 
William H. Emory, 
J. M. Gilliss, 

James D. Graham, 
Elias Loomis, - 

- Charles Wilkes, 


Princeton, N. J. 
Washington, D. C. 
West Point, N. Y. 
Newport, R, I. 
Washington, D. C. 
Washington, D. C. 


- Washington, D. C. 


New York. 


Washington, D. C. 


ee 


Section III. 
Physics and Ohemistry. 


A. P. Barnard, Oxford, Miss. 
Wolcott Gibbs, New York. 
Joseph Henry, Washington, D. C. 
E. B. Hunt, New York. 
T. Sterry Hunt, Montreal, Canada. 
John L. LeConte, Columbia, S. C. 
W. A. Norton, New Haven, Conn. 
Charles G. Page, Washington, D. C. 
Benjamin Silliman, New Haven, Conn. 
Benjamin Silliman, Jr., New Haven, Conn. 
Section IV. 

Technology and Engineering. 
J. J. Abert, Washington, D. C. 
Richard Delafield, Washington, D. C. 
A. A. Humphreys, Washington, D. C. 
Dennis H. Maban, West Point, N. Y. 
S. F. B. Morse, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 
Sylvanus Thayer, New York. 
Joseph G. Totten, Washington, D. C. 


xiv 


ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 


CLASS II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. 


Section I. 


Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. 


Charles Cramer, 
James D. Dana, 

J. W. Dawson, 
Edward Desor, 

John C. Fremont, 
Arnold Guyot, 

James Hall, 

F. S. Holmes, 

Sir William E. Logan, 
George E. Swallow, 


St. Petersburg. ` 
New Haven, Conn. 
Montreal, Canada. 
Neufchatel. 
Mariposa, California. 
Princeton, N. J. 
Albany, N. Y. 
Charleston, S. C. 
Montreal, Canada. 


Columbia, Missouri. 


SECTION II. 
Botany. 

Francis Boott, London. 
Moses A. Curtis, Hillsboro, N. C. 
Chester Dewey, Rochester, N. Y. 
George Engelmann, St. Louis, Mo. 
William S. Sullivant, Columbus, Ohio. 
John Torrey, New York. 


Section III. 
Zoólogy and Physiology. 


John Bachman, 
Spencer F. Baird, 
John C. Dalton, Jr., 

S. Stehman Haldeman, 
John E. Holbrook, 

J. P. Kirtland, 

John L. LeConte, 
Joseph Leidy, 


Charleston, S. C. 
Washington, D. C. 
New York. 
Columbia, Pa. 
Charleston, S. C. 
Cleveland, Ohio. 
Philadelphia. 
Philadelphia. 


St. Julien Ravenel, Charleston, S. C. 


Section IV. 


Medicine and Surgery. 
Isaac Hays, Philadelphia. 
Reuben D. Mussey, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Joseph Roby, Baltimore, Md. 
William Sweetser, Burlington, Vt. 
George B. Wood, Philadelphia. 


CLASS III. — Moral and Political Sciences. 


Section I. 


Philosophy and Jurisprudence. 


Laurens P. Hickok, 
Alonzo Potter, 
Francis Wayland, 


Schenectady, N. Y. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Providence, R. I. 


Section II. 


Philology and Archeology. 
S. P. Andrews, New York. 
James Hadley, Jr., New Haven, Conn. 


George P. Marsh, 
Alpheus S. Packard, 
Edward Salisbury, 


Burlington, Vt. 
Brunswick, Maine. 
New Haven, Conn. 


William C. Bryant, 


William D. Whitney, 
Theodore D. Wolsey, 


New Haven, Conn. 
New Haven, Conn. 


Section III. 
Political Economy and History. 


New York. 
Providence, R. I. 


Francis Lieber, 


Samuel Greene Arnold, 


Section IV. 


Literature and the Fine Arts. 


New York. 
Joseph G. Cogswell, New York. 
Hiram Powers, Florence. 


FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 


FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 


CLASS I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 


Section I. William H. Smyth, London. 

Mathematics. Struve, St. Petersburg. 
John C. Adams, Cambridge. Section III. 
George B. Airy, Greenwich. Physics and Chemistry. 
Sir William R. Hamilton, Dublin. Sir David Brewater, Edinburgh. 
Hansen, Seeberg. Bünde, Paris. 
See eur Michael Faraday, London. 
Ier Ser Christopher Hansteen, Christiania. 
Sir John W. Lubbock, London. Liebig, Munich, 
Ostrogradsky, St. Petersburg. Mitscherlich, Berlin. 
Plana, Turin. Battle Paria 

scie HE Heinrich Rose, Berlin. 

Practical Astronomy and Geodesy. Section IV. 
Argelander, Bonn. Technology and Engineering. 
Encke, Berlin. Charles Babbage, London. 
Sir John F.W. Herschel, Bart., London. Sir William Fairbairn, Manchester. 
Peters, i St. Petersburg. Fourneyron, Paris. 
CLASS IL — Natural and Physiological Sciences. 

Section I. Sir Charles Lyell, London. 
Geology, Mineralogy, and Physies of the Globe. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, ^ London. 
Elie de Beaumont, Paris. » Quételet, Brussels. 
Duperrey, Pus Adam Sedgwick, Cambridge. 
Dove, Beds. De Verneuil, Paris. 


XV 


xvi 


FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 


Section II. 
Botany. 

Decaisne, Paris. 
DeCandolle, Geneva. 
Elias Fries, Lund. 
Sir William J. Hooker, Kew. 
John Lindley, London. 
Martius, Munich. 
Mohl, Tübingen. 

Section III. 

Zoólogy and Physiology. 


Karl E. von Baer, 
Theodor L. W. Bischoff, 


CLASS III. — Moral and Political Sciences. 


SECTION I. 


St. Petersburg. 


Giessen. 


Philosophy and Jurisprudence. 


Cousin, Paris. 
Mittermaier, Heidelberg. 
Trendelenburg, Berlin. 
Archbishop Whately, Dublin. 
William Whewell, Cambridge. 
Section II. 

Philology and Archeology. 
Bekker, Berlin. 
Boeckh, Berlin. 
Bopp, Berlin. 
Eyriés, Paris. 
Pascual de Gayangos, Madrid. 


Ehrenberg, 
Milne-Edwards, 
Albrecht Kólliker, 
Richard Owen, 

C. Th. von Siebold. 


Valentin, 


Section IV. 


Berlin. 
Paris. 
Wurtzburg. 
London. 
Munich. 


Berne. 


Medicine and Surgery. 


Andral, 
Louis, 
Rayer, 
Rokitansky, 


Grimm, 


Lepsius, 


Duke di Serradifalco, 


Section III. 


Paris. 
Paris. 
Paris. 


Vienna. 


Berlin. 
Berlin. 
Palermo. 


Political Economy and History. 


Guizot, London. 
George Grote, London. 
John Stuart Mill, London. 
Leopold von Ranke, Berlin. 
Section IV. 
Literature and the Fine Arts. 
Gino Capponi, Italy. 


Joaquim J. da Costa de Macedo, Lisbon.