? 2 ‘JOURNAL OF SCIBNCE, . AND ARTS. eo t ‘ Tim mothy D. Porter. Colum SMERICEN . = + Say ee aia a meee CONDUCTED BY ~ See : BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, nba a PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE ; CORRES” PONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COM. MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF DRESDEN, AND ig VARIOUS LITERARY AND oni an SCIENTIFIC uigecne IN AMERICA VOL. IT.....No. 2.....Novemper, 1820. ; = “ ENTIRE NUMBER, VI- mee A i » tit NEW-HAVEN: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY 8. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR. Sold by the greed and Howe & Spalding, New- Seca: Samuel G. —— Hart rtford ; ; Cummings & Hilliard, Boston ; Ezekiel Goodale, el, Maine; A. T. Goodrich & Co. New- . Littell and Henry. Philedelpbins Caleb Atwater, Cocleniaeye Thomas I Ray, — , Geo.; Henry Whipple, riage M . rd J. Coale, Balti bia, $3.0. ; John Mill, Charleston, 8. C,; oul, Jer & Hutchins, Providence R I. ae was - oy ™ ; PREFACE. * = As two volumes of this work are now completed, the from our soelisaies sai ‘ olle est, th and the Sout Pom and even occasionally from other countries, so that the Editor fools himself justified in pelieving, that this work is regarded as a national Journal. {f therefore this view be one which patriotic and honoura- ble men can approve, and if the execution has in any good — corresponded with the design, it is to be hoped that the American public will not permit the work to languish, for want of pecuniary patronage. This is the on- ly material difficulty which it has encountered, and this is far from being removed. A more extended patronage is in- — dispensable to its permanent establishment, and, should it who can wonder if our national charac- ter should be even more severely (perhaps even more de- : lan ever. called upon to state the pecunia- appropriate | sponsibilities of the not lightly to abandon the oe He will peste: cintit it is ascertained, whether the va somerioats Republié, with ten millions of inhabitants, with = g a na ao. oO oe ons, and with immensely diversified interests, growing out re) those physical resources, which the bounty of God has given us, will permit this effort, devoted to the advancement of its wealth and its power, its honor and its dignity, to be- come abortive, with the gloomy presage that it ma: ts ea any similar enterprize can be successfully pros- ovale College, November 1, 1820. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vol. 2—No. I.—APRIL, 1820.—Enrinr No. VI. TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. Page Ant. I. are of a ond “ the summit of Mount ; by Dr. Jeremiah Van Abs ig ee 1 Il. Account of th Baal I Mountains by Mr. Bar rrens of the > West 5 PY: Mr. beet i nf lal FOSSIL ZOOLOGY. [V. Observations on some species of zoophytes, shells, &c. principally fossil, by Thomas Say, (concluded) 34 MEDICAL BOTANY. . V.* On the Ergot of Rye, by Dr. Wiliam Tully 45 _ MATHEMATICS. | Pen ra ° * Mathomarieatl Pr oblems, with geometrical con- _ structions and demonstrations, by . oo dore Strong—(to be continued) HARMONICS. aV I. On different modes of expressing the sieaasi Pend — of Musical Intervak, with some re- = ERRATUM. In the Text, the Sascan Numeral was inadyertently omitted, before this article, and inc sequence, the sa = pre are numbered, erroneous!y— i. @. Art. Viin the t text, should be V CONTENTS. marks, in commendation of Professor Fisher’s peperdonely. euipews Dasscanay By: Mr. nie rarey, Senior MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. VIII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Magendie’s late Publication on Bare Ts, by oe ener with remarks PHYSICS, MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, ano roe ARTS. {X. Description of a Machine invented by David Bushnell for submarine navigation and for the de- struction of ships of war, with an account of the first attempt with it to destroy some of the British pee lying at New-York, ay Charles Griswold, 9 X. pice on the Révolving Sram Engine of Mo- 101 rey, by Mr. little XE Mr. a on the cd Steain Engine, in reply to Mr. Doolittle 106 Xi. Otreteations on the Dry Rot, by Col. George 114 ibbs XI. On Heat ind Light, (Grst communication) by Mr. Samuel Morey 118 - On Heat and Lgl, (second communication) | byte same XV. On some curious and singular a ppearances re snow and hail, by A. Chak XVI. Socio on Almosphesi Dust fi in rely to Mr 132 XVI. a sf existence of Ksaieeidin in the Sea Vittata or Potatoe Fly, by Dr. 1. F. Dana 137 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. 1. American Geological Society . - 139 2. Curious Geological Facts 144 3. Professor N. Smith on Bruce bones found in fe sand stone * CONTENTS. Page - Professor Bigelow on the Sea Serpent _ 1a . Revue Encylopédique 165 6. Miscellaneous articles of Porcign Intelligence, e com- municated by Dr. J. W. Web 166 7. Curious facts ceageer: way poison - 168 8. Map of the heights of Mountain a ee 9. Cabinet of NEhGrsls, for sale See seul 169 10. American Cinnabar and Native Lead | - 170 11. Means of obtaining Light ~—- - - 171 12. Troy Lyceum - - - ~ 173 13. Fibrous Sulphat of Barytes c 14, Red Sand Peg ipemsuipn | in North Carolina 175 - 276 . 16. Fetid fluor Sasie = “ 17. Effects of Cold on Lake Champlain == - - —,_-:177 18. Stromnite, a new Mineral - : go 19. German Correspondent = - - oe te 20. Exploring rt - se ab. 21. Mermaid - - ib. 22. Bubbles blown in — Ros - 179 23. Effects of temperature on Seite feeling, 2. JOO Plates in this Number at the conclusion. 1. Figures to illustrate Strong’s Problem 9: ca ee es with Morey’s 5 Riveting Engine, 3. The sa Spa eee ee ee TABLE OF CONTENTS. i Vol, 2.—No. Il —NOVEMBER, 1820.—Entire No. VI. ~ GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND TOPOGRAPHY. Arr. I, Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Seieks, we. vn the by ee region of New- — k and obey ter, fiaed : Tl. “secltig Baraalie 4 ti Me Caudiia 6F New Hatandul= aaa in Connecticut, with notices of the Geology, eralogy, Scenery, &e. by the Editor - Ty. pessoas of Minerals, by Professors Dewey, Eaton, Douglas, and Dana, and by the Rey. F.C. Schae effer, and Dr. I. W. Webster VY. Account of ancient bones and ef some feild shells found in Ohio, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. VI. Gepligicn!' section from Williamstown, Mass. to > Trey, | N. Y. on the sige? by Professor Dewey notice of a oy 4 tain to be a variety of Wavellite, oy the bs o LS) 201 VIL R inser oer! on the environs “en Conhase Bree near the 2 outh of the Genesee, by Dr. John L Bigsby BOTANY. VIII. Floral Calendar for 1815, a 17, 18, and 19, ent at is Coole 254 Deerfield, Mass. by Dr. Den TX. On the seaasaases of a late paste $ utumn, given by late flowering pea ag by Professor Dewe X. On Be gpa menget te om the River Maple, ar XI. On phe Oiieotsl Chené aa the oll ‘oliaks it affords MATHEMATICS. _ XII. Mathematical Problems, with geometrical constructions and demonstrations, by Professor Theodore Strong 255 ar 266 Stoll ~ CONTENTS. CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND THE ARTS. Pagé. XIII. Strictures on Dr. E. D. Clark’s book on the om Blow- i de M. D. 281 Explanation of the XIV. Experimental tinafty Fat the ‘chemical properties and Saati and medicinal virtues of the common Hop, b j A's Account of new Endiometers, oe se Profesor Robert 3 are Explanation of the slate XVI. sree of the New-Jersey ‘Ores of "Rae, Berthie , Engineer of the ere Cont of Mines, (rom : 3 the An. des Mines XVH. A new process for Nitrous “Ether, by Proteasor Hare XVII. Dactien of a differential ptveee. > by Pro- DN Heat in the asad of the Moon 3 XIX. Account of a new. Anflammable Air Lamp, ‘by Profs : 3 sor Jacob oe XX. Account of an Senrowenieat in the Electrical Lamp, by 33. Dr. James Cutbush - XXI. Account of a Gelatinous Meteor, by Rufus Sisves, Esq: XXII. - the pegitallination of om dy,F phecenc! Jacob INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. Foreign Literature and Science. Number of books in the German and Prussian libraries—Py- roligneous acid ; confirmation of its powers—Botanic gar- Man dens in Austria—Manuscripts of Hertolsheups+ iA. new plant with febrifuge gine New works, &c. at ic Antificial substitute for the Lit rome yee aceke ae mode of killing animals—Acad- 4 emy of Cadiz—Terrible pale of lightning s—-Hot water in- _ the streets of Paris Reduction or enlargement of the size of divtatiog’—Siean) dia vigalion =F aclities of conveyance to and from London —Early discovery of the pyroligneous acid Ancient copy of Homer’s sae Heat . a vacuuum—Eduea- tion in Africa - 335 : 337 341 CONTENTS. e ceca ts society of arts—Liberality of the king of Den- ay trk—The root of the saat a Sis al Reealcie: of ae Low Countries Death ig ae ae ieslings-Subllé spirit of Cows Ro- manzow—New hydraulic machine—Egyptian society 345 Progress of ok dt in Russia—Liberality of the Swedish Paki vessel on aoe Clyde—Letters sat ace in Patis and London—Literature of Italy 346 Artificial gum and sugar—Cashmee ¢ goat—Drawia ng in pe Transparent pictures—Oil in grape gepil— vegetati ion—Boracic acid, native 349 ring the purple o FCossios—Folminaing gold—new aiials—Compoonds of mereur Lignite near rere —— s —_ on the district of Auv Geology of Se Scotland—Death é M. F. ide St. Fond—New minera ogical dictionary 352 Geological society of Lon Sibi Onajn of dialer 353 Gedogic al Map and Atlas of E Heagiand, &c. —Conite—Eme- rald 354 Obituary notice of Dr. Murray - 355 Red snow of Baffin’s Bay—Breccia of ‘Mont D’o - 356 strongly jak the su The Botanist would find a rich repast in exploring these mountains, as they abound in medicinal plants and in wild flowers. With the hope that some individual conversant with this science, will ere long explore these Alpine peaks, I will conclude the account of these mountains, aithacy ee ened much, heaped my alin intention. 30 On the Pratriey end Burrens of the West. Arr. ll. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West 3 by M Bourne. | TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Cuituicotur, (Ohio,) July 30, 1819. Sir, Havine seen in the second number of the American Journal of Science, an essay on the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb Atwater Esq. wherein he attempts to prove that the Prairies and Barrens were tes formed by the agency of water; and in the fourth number of the sam Journal some remarks on the origin of Prairies by Mr. R. A. Wells, by which he attempts to prove that the Prairies and Barrens were wholly formed by the agency of fire; I was induced with a view of conciliating these contrary opin- ions, to make a situation. Vari eties, and the probable | causes of the formation of natural mead- ows. 1. The salt meadows or marshes, ‘which. skirt the ide waters of the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the eastern part of Massachusetts, have evidently been formed by the agency of water.—Because they are all nearly level, sloping a very little towards the water, from which their suttanee have but little elevation, wherever they are foun hey are covered with a peculiar kind of grass, which is from six to twelve inches high, of a reddish colour and grows very thick; the roots of which, form a very compact turf or sward, and it requires a sharp instrument and considera- ble force to-cut it They are covered by the salt water a few inches deep several Gate in a year by the spring tides, and this appears to be necessary to their existence, or pe- culiar character: for if ae water is kept from them by dykes, the upland grasses take root, the turf moulders away, or loses its tenacity, and in a few years their appearance is completely changed. s the surface of these meadows lies a little above com- pe high-water mark, there is generally a slope of about — us six feet in two or three rods, to low-water mark; and On the Prairies ‘and Barrens of the W. est. 3) slope is covered with a coarse tall grass called andes, which requires a partial inundation every tide, or twice in twenty- four hours to bring it to maturity. 2. Adjoining the salt meadows, on the same level, and at the farthest extent which the salt water flows at spring tides, fresh meadows commence, by an almost imperceptible line of distinction; and they generally extend to the upland, but “sometimes there is wet ground covered with bushes or a swamp between thém and the upland.—These meadows are wet and soft, and few will bear a waggon.—They are some- times found several miles from any salt meadows or salt water, and generally at the heads of Tivers, where the face of the e country is level. The general appearance of all these meadows is the same: being covered with wild grass of different. kinds from twelve to thirty-six inches high, accor- ding to the quantity of wa ter in the soil of the m eadow ; and the more water there is, the er and talles the grass will be, until flags and riches take its place ~"Phese meadows are much lower than the ‘upland, and were evidently formed by the agency of water; which has deposited an alluvial soil, composed of the firmer particles from the upland, and decayed vegetable substances. f they are drained by a large ditch round them at the foot of the upland and one through the lowest part of them, so that the water from the upland may soon run off; then the same meadows become hard, will produce cultivated grass, and even trees; and will in a few years lose all their former features except their comparatively low and level sien: 3. The Prairies of the Western country seem to me to exhibit the same general appearance as the fresh meadows east of the Alleghany mountains, and evidently were formed in the same manner. The prairies are generally found in the level parts of the country, on the banks of small rivers and creeks, and fre- quently extend to their sources. They are level, generally wet and soft, and are covered with a tall wild grass.—They are much lower than the upland; and when well drained - ditching, they will produce cultivated grasses, grain, trees; and exhibit every appearance of level upland, sae their comparative depression and greeter fertility —The prai- ries of the west are much richer and more pee than 32 On the Prairies and. Barrens of the West. the fresh meadows of the east; because the upland near them is richer, consequently the alluvion of the prairies will be deeper and finer ; and the ae ae is warmer, and more favourable to spontaneous producti It is not impossible for prairies to eee formed on the sides of mountains near their tops, like the glades on the Allegha- ny mountain ; because there may be shallow hollows on the sides of mountains, lying nearly parallel to them, and so formed as to contain so much water from rain and the springs above them, that trees will not grow in them; and in pro- cess of time a quantity of alluvial soil from the higher parts of the mountain and from leaves and other vegetable sub- stances will be accumulated in them, so as to reach the sur- ace of the water, then particular kinds of grass will grow, and the hollow will exhibit every appearance of a natural meadow. 4, The Barrens, so called from their sterile appearance, are found on the high plains in the west parts of Ohio and sae mer in Indiana, Illinois and eos ir he? a ave _ featur. race ae ries, essentially dif- ferent in many respects. _ SE ee eee ee Oo ee y occupy the ‘ehiost pint of the coniiey-aind are géiierally level ; some of them are uneven, but I have seen none hilly.—They are generally poorer than the timbered land in their vicinity, but some spots in them may be richer. They are spotted with innumerable groves or clusters of stinted oak and hickory trees, of about half the size which the same kind are on the timbered lan ‘The soil is not a recent alluvion like the prairies ; and if it is not primitive, it is at least as old as any other parts of the great western valley. 1 think it must be evident to every one who will view the barrens atientively, that their present appearance was caused by fires, which have con- sumed the trees and the acorns from which they grow: be- cause many of the trees that are standing are partially burnt, and almost every one that is lying down has been burnt more or less. ‘The surface being generally level, the rains make them wet or moist three fourths of the year, and the w climate urges a spontaneous production of wild erass and wae somewhat similar to that of the prairies. e fire n the barrens are generally kindled by the Indians for ‘i stinbenients of travelling over the smooth surface, to enable k He : Bs " On the Prairies and Barrens of the West. 33 them to approach game without int and also to insure a good crop of grass for the next summe Fires sometimes eseape from the pala of travellers in the dry season, and burn until the rain or some other cause puts them out. When the white aicomtp settle on the barrens or near them, the Indians recede, fires are seldom stabinls a young wth of trees, he and vigorous soon springs up, far superior to the stinted growth which the frequent ioe have scorched, and the barren assumes the appearance of a tim- bered country.—That the barrens are frequently burned, and that when the burnings cease, a young, vigorous erowth of trees soon springs up, are facts which can be attested by the most pte cate eB in this country. . Small prairie are sometimes found in the tacts and - the heads o ‘creeks are so ble nded with the laces, that it is difficult to determine where ihe one fads or the other begins. 5. Whatever may be said by Mr. Atwater or Mr. Wells, to prove that prairies and barrens were formed by the same agent, I shall take the liberty of differing from them both ; orin my humble opinion, the difference in the situation, appearance, and structure of these natural meadows indi- cates in the nies a manner, that they were formed by dif- ferent agen Mr. Wells says that, “where the grass has Sad prevented from burning by accidental causes, or the prairie has been depastured by large herds of domestic ates it will assume in a few years the appearance of a young forest.” If the low wet prairies are not burned, ei pastured by cae will they become. forests? If they are now too wet to produce trees, when were they dry enough to produce ay B say never; and that the same cause. that made them prairies will keep them such : but if the water is effectu- ally drained from them, they may produce trees. y Mr. Atwater’s views of the Geology of the Western coun- try, [ think are hardly tenable ; for he says that the lakes Erie and Michigan once emptied themselves into the Ohie and Mississippi rivers through the Scioto, Miami and Illinois rivers 5 3 that the barrens in Ohio are elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the level of the Scioto river; that e whole descent of the Scioto wey be one hundred Se: ¥ Ot AT.....Nocd 34 Say on Shells, &e. that the Ohio river in a freshet is on a level with Lake Erie; and that the course of the outlet of the Lakes has been changed by the wearing down of the bed of the Niagara river several hundred feet: but the surface of the water just above the fall of Niagara, by the best modern measurments, is not yet fifty feet lower than the top of the slope near Queenstown, where it is generally supposed the wearing be- gan.—Our citizens express a great anxiety to become the Senda of new systems and theories to account for the surprising phenomena which they discover in the structure of the western country. But perhaps it would advance the progress of science and general knowledge as much, to ex- amine facts carefully, and report them to posterity faithfully, without bending and twisting them to prop up imperfect theories. I am, ‘sg respectfully, umbe servant, A. BOURNE. FOSSIL ZOOLOGY. Art. IV. Observations on some Species of rishi Sells, » Se: cabieliied Fossil, by Tuomas Say, of Phila- delph (Continued from Vol. I. p. 387.) Genus Catenipora, Lam. Coral lapideous, composed of parallel tubes joined to- gether in vertical lamine ; lamine anastomosing into a net- wor Species. C. Escharovdes, rice te cr (Tubipora cotenu- laria,) American Acad. vol. 1. p. Tubipora catenulata, Gmel, &c. (Cabinet Mai Nat. Sciences ; and Peale’s Museum. ) SRE engi Ce: ieee Say on Shells, &c. 35 Fossil in different parts of the U. soe particularly at the falls of the Ohio river and in Ulster Cou From this last locality, Mr. C. W. Peale dbetaed some fine specimens when digging for bones of the Mastodon.—Has not yet occurred in the alluvial deposit of New-Jersey. Organic Remains 2, p. 21. remarks, that minute openings are observable in the sides of the tubes ; these are not dis- tinct in the specimen under examination, owing perhaps to its being entirely silecified, though an equivocal appearance oan the belief of their having existed ; and if so, the is very strong with the Eavosites. A species of Turbinoli ia is implanted in the —- under examination. Pentacrinus caput—Meduse. Of this very remarkable and rare animal, a specimen oc- curs in the collection of the Museum of South Carolina ; it was brought from the Island of Gaudaloupe by Mr. L’Her- menier. This is, I believe, the fourth recent specimen known, of this family of extinct animals: of the two other individuals one is in the French, and the others in British collections. The well known fossil animal supposed to be of this fam- ily, so common near Huntsville and in some parts of Ken- tucky, and which has been figured and described by Par- kinson, cannot be properly arranged under either of the genera. These vary in form and size. I have seen four very distinct varieties, but it is possible they may have be- longed to different parts of the same pedice Although this fossil is familiar to the observation of Natur- alists, yet it does not appear that any particular name has — been appropriated to it, or that it has been assigned to any dellailice place in the systems. From its peculiar appearance, persons who have not de- voted their attention, to the affinities of natural objects, have regarded it as a petrified nut or Althea bud, and from the ambiguity of its characters, or the obliteration of. its - -sculp- ture, naturalists have hesitated to indicate its family, or kin- dred generic group. Parkinson is the first author who has figured and descri- bed this animal remain. He caiees it to the genus Encri- 36 Say on Shells, Se. nus under the name of Kentucky Asterial’ fossil, ies at the same time and subsequently, he expresses aie doubtful- ly; as to the propriety of that arrangement. $ specimens were not so perfect as to exhibit the basal oneal radii, and the sutures and ossicule were perhaps obliterated, as they were unnoticed. The examination of numerous specimens, in the collec- tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences, collected by Mr. Samuel Hazard, near Huntsville, affords me an opportunity to corroborate the correctness of that arrangement. = But I am induced to believe, notwithstanding the i imper- fection of our knowledge of these animals, that the genus as it now stands, needs the reforming hand of the system- atist, that it is in reality a natural family, including several perfectly distinct genera of many species, the individuals of some of which, as their remains testify, were immensely multiplied in the ancient world. Actuated by this conviction, I submit to the. decision of Naturalisis, the prope aceate cals the asterial fossil, from the genus Enerinus, ast genus, under Genus Peniremite. Body subglobular or nisaonas elevated’ upon an articulated trunk ; pelvis 3s (Pa arkinson) pentagonal, more or less abruptly attenuated to the base ; ambulacra (Lam.) five, incomplete, radiating from the summit and terminating each side at the — angles of the pentagon, each with numerous transverse -stria, a longitudinal indented line, two sutures, and numerous transversed impressed lines, which alternate with a marginal series of oblique pores ; interstitial spaces (included be- - tween the ambulacra) triangular, equal, with a longitudinal suture ; apex perforated by five rounded foramina, and an angulated central one ; essa innominata (Park.) large, rhome, bic. ‘Truwx branched? cylindrical, articulated, elongated ; segments perforated, articulating surfaces with alternately: elevated and depressed radii. A transient view of the superior portion of this reliquium, presents a considerable resemblance to the Echinii, by the _ apicial foramina, and by the radiating ambulacra whieh are somewhat similar to a pentapetalous flower. But an atten- j ee | “ong ee pee ee * m. haere Say on Shells, &c. 37 tive examination of its characters, exhibits its inseparable connection with the family of Encrinites by the analogy of its mode of support, its rect inear sutures, and the general form of its pelvis or basal porti To the base is generally re aN the single superior joint of the trunk or vertebral column ; ; this joint is short, and is longitudinally divided by three sutures, which radiate from a central foramen; its inferior articulating surface is orbieular, with numerous marginal radii, and the centre ex- hibits the opening of the foramen; at its near” with the ossa innominata itis somewhat trilobate. e Ossa innomi- nata are of a rhomboidal form, sometimes pentagonal or —. The ollie has the same general! form with at of the Enerinu pe Sein al but be meee of the penta- re acu and those p | ak ch ote jail ribs, clavieles a il om the superior pe of each oe sh the eres of the base, a suture ascends, bisecting each of the interstitial spa- ces, and is divaricated near the tip, so as to give to those triangular spaces, arhombric termination. Each of the five outer foramine, (of which one is invariably much the lar- tures of those parts, and which are not visible but by dis- section ; the central foramen is stellate. he peculiar adaptation of these various parts to each Pe may have permitted their independent movement, in order that the ammal might assume some form of expan- sion; but we are led to suppose that this motion could not have beer very considerable, from the relative situation of the sutures. And be — — add, that, as we = no haps smaller ones through the pores of the Ambulacre. This. need however, must remain for the solution of future ob s, who may have an opportunity to examine them in situ, Ae of comparing together their different frag- ments which may be discovered. All the specimens which I have seen, about —, in oS are in a sp pericoy. similar Se state... See Say on Shells, &e. The several different Jeers exhibited by specimens of the Pentremite may be thus ed— ist. Pelvis abrubtly attenuated, ‘ditty horizontal— Length from seven tenths to more than half an inch. Kentucky Asterial fossil, Park. Org. Rem. vol, 2, pl. 13. This is the most common. 2d. Body oblong ; seeded gradually attenuated ; transverse elevated lines of the ambulacra, groove ength from thifex “Soiitttis to one inch Pie one fourth. 3d. Body subglobalar ; ; pelvis hardly more attenuated than Less common than the preceding one In Peale’s Museum a large specimen of the latter is pre- served, of which the sutures, have each a parallel impressed line on each side; this specimen was brought from by Mr. Reubens Peale, he was informed ‘that it was found in the vicinity of Bath, but the fact is very equivocal. A specimen of the ‘second variety is in the eet of Mr. B. Say ; it was presented to him several years ago un- der the name of petrified althea bud, and was fae i ina garden in the borough of Reading, Pennsylvania. Mr. Z. Collins informed me that this fossil has been noticed and figured, by Dr. S. L. Mitchell, of New-York, as an Echinus of the family (genus) Galerite, and also as an asterite. See his geological observations in the New-York edition of Cuvier’s theory as translated by Jameson p. 363, pl. 8. This figure indicates the above first variety. Renilla Americana, Is very common on the coast of Georgia and E. Florida, cast up by the waves. Perna torta. This large species of fossil Perna has been discovered at Upper Marlborough, in the state of Maryland, by Mr. Gilliams of this city. The hinge portion is very entire, but the anterior part, is more or less broken off, as is the case with those found in Europe and like them the substance of the shell is in a tolerable state of preservation, not having oat | op A al a ae al SEEM groin "7 Say on Shells, &c. 39 undergone much apparent change, excepting that the lamel- — lary increments are readily separable and very friable, the epidermis also is wanting. It is the same species of shell as that described and figur- ed by Collini in his Journal p. 10, pl. 6. fig. 1. under the ee of Ostreum polyleptoginglimum and also anonymous- , by Parkinson Organ. pl. ante teeth of one spe gat in ve possession of the Academy of Natural Sciences, are o Collini says, it is often Rerfotated by sea insects ; our specimens are also penetrated, but the cavities are formed by an ampullaceous Pholas, which in reality may be the same as those which that author alludes to, by the term sea insects; it may be thus named and described. a Pholas ovalis. ube Saat entire and rounded at base, and gradually attenuated towards the anterior termination. Shell subo- vate, dehiscent ; valves with crowded, acute, elevated, trans- verse lines, somewhat decussate with longitudinal slightly indented ones, a more conspicuous, longitudinal, indented line before the middle, posterior basal margin smooth ; within equal, the posterior basal mate distinguished by a slight undulation. This is not, strictly speaking, a Pholas, inasmuch as it is included ina tube; but in other respects it corresponds very well with the species of that genus, as far as I canjudge from incomplete specimens, not having seen the accessory valves. It will not agree with T'eredina Lam. as its valves are concealed by the tube ; by which character it is assim- ilated to Fistulana, but from this genus also, it is distinguish- able, by the form of its valves, and most probably, by being destitute of the anterior, crustaceous, branchial appendages or valvules, though it is proper to observe that the anterior extremities of the tubes (which contain these parts in fistu- lana, teredo, &c.) are deficient in my specimens of P. ovalis. nthe somewhat compact earth which was included be- tween two fragments of the valves of the abovementioned Perna, were a few interesting shells, some of which are per- fectly firm and entire, others, although to all appearance similarly circumstanced, are extremely friable, and ever 40 Say on Shells, &c. fatiscent. Amongst these I recognized a Crepidula, which differs from any 1 have seen, but is too imperfect to be de- its Soeealats. Sawa! A small lammated Cytherea, Lam. a Fissurella allied to F. greca, but immature. A Turri- tella, and fragments of a Balanus = considerable size, seve- | specimens of a Nucula and of a Calypt raca. The tw latter may be described as follows ~ Nucula obliqua, valves obliquely subsiangulay obsoletely striate transversely, one or two of the strie more conspicu- ous, numerous, hardly perceptible feagitadined strie 5 ante- rior and posterior sides forming an acute angle ; ; umbo ob- tuse ; apex acute ; teeth angulated, prominent, cavity at the apex "of the hinge profound, rather long ; basal margin den- ticulatocrenate. Greatest length one fifth of an inch.— Very much resembles Arca nucleus Lin. but is a pilates species, and proportionally: narrower towards the apex, — hinge teeth aay te an Inge the cavity at t apex of the hing eis proportional Calyptrea eadidia, oval, on gi numerous slightly elevated, equal equidistant coste, and crowded obtuse, con- centric lines, which are regularly undulated by the coste 5 mag mamillated inclining. to one side ; wnner valve pate- , dilated, attached by one side to the side of the shell, acutely angulated at the anterior junction, and rounded at the posterior junction, and rapidly tapering to an acute tip, which corresponds with the inner apex of the shell. ngth nearly one inch— Seems to approach, in its characters to the genus Infundib- ulum of Montf. but from the fatiscent state of the specimens, this cannot be acurately determined. No definite spiral su- ture is perceptible. Genus Baculites, Lam. Shells straight, cylindrical, xis) peat slightly conic, divided within into transverse septa, which are sinuous ramose on their margins and pierced with a siphunculus ; siphunculus at one aged of the longest transverse di- ameter. > eer ee ae ye Aa 6 age! a ey ee Say on Shells, &e. 4} Species. 1. B, ovata, elongated; transverse septa subovate, sixlo- bed and a smaller one behind ; lobes of the superior faces of the septa, three on each side, with a minute one betwee each, dentated at their edges, anterior lobe, (nearest the siphunele) small not nevais second lobe with a single pro- jection each side and_ sinus at tip, third lobe dilated, with a small sinus each side and more obtuse and profound one at uP» posterior lobe hardly larger than the lateral intermedi- ones. gi a diameter of sie transverse section one inch and one fifth, smeiler diameter seven tenths; length of the seg- ment about an inc: Me The specimen isin B eelicelan, af Mr. Reuben Haines of this city, it was. found on the serena hills, in Mon- mouth County, New-Jersey, it is a east of three very entire segments, no-vestige of the shell remaining. The dimen- sions are taken from the largest segment. In point of form this species approaches B. vertebralis, Lam. particularly in the curvature of the transverse section but it is somewhat more obtuse behind ; another difference consists in the form of the lobes, which, in that species, as represented by Mr. Desmarest, are less symmetrical, des- titute of the lateral processes and of ea Pema terminal sinus; that species also is very dimin 2. B, compressa, elongated, much ihe transverse septa oblong-oval narrowed to each end; lobes dilated, dentated on their edges, each ais from three to five si- nuses each side and a very profound. one at tip. This description is taken from two fragments in the col- lection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, which were brought from the Missouri, one by Messrs. Lewis and Clark and the other by Mr. Thomas Nuttall. As they exhibit the appearance of having been violently compressed by fortu- itous circumstances, I have not been able to obtain correct proportional dimensions of the species. But notwithstand- ing this distortion of form, I have much confidence in placing it next in specific affinity to B. Knorriana, Desm. as it | Wathen doubt been naturally a much compressed shell, ih sheseieral eg edges not very ualike “is of that large and on. IT.....No. 1. 42, Say on Shells, &c. markable species; from which, however, it is sufliciently distinct by the much developed form of the lobes {In these specimens a considerable portion of, the shell remains exhibiting its beautiful iridescent colours. Mr. Nuttall gave me the following account of this species. {t occurs in the ancient alluvium of the Missouri, or clay formation, reposing adventitiously on the chalk stratum of this region, and imbedded in the indurated shistose beds, amidst other shells, and in the beds which overlie more or less intimately the Xylanthrax or Surturbrand; they gradually and regularly acuminated through. a Feith ‘iat twelve or eighteen inches, being from three to four inches broad at the base and diminishing to less than half an inch, but a perfect apex or base has not yet been discovered.— They are of frequent occurrence, washed out on the banks of the river, from White river of the Missouri to the Man- dans, but at the same time, locally and not uniformly dis- tributed. Genus Ostrea. O. convexa, Oval, inequivalve ; inferior valve remarkably convex, with a longitudinal indented line on one side, slight- ly auriculated, or rather, angulated each side of the hinge, 2 longitudinal, transversely wrinkled depression, each side before the hinge ; ligament cavity oval, placed beneath the apex ; superior valve suborbicular, flat or somewhat con- cave, radicated from the apex to. the riphe ry, aes in- crements strongly marked; hinge each side before transverse ruge. Length of the convex valve nearly three inches, breadth two and an half—depth about two inches. Cabinet of the Acad. Nat. Sciences. A perfect ee was found by Mr. 8. “Wetherill near Burlington, N. I have since obtained a ferruginated one at Mulliger Hill in the same state. Itis remarkable for the great convexity of one of its valves and by the angles each side of the hinge.—It closely approaches to the genus Gry- phea ; the lower valve is even proportionably more convex than that of Anomia gryphea, and is also furnished with the indented line or lateral lobe as in that shell, but the umbo is not prominent, the superior valve is as operculiform as that I fk ' E E i ; Say on Shells, &c. 43 of the shell abovementioned, and indeed, with the exception of the less elevated umbo, it is almost as closely related to Gryphea as the G. dilatata of Sowerby. Genus Exogyra. Shell inequivalve, inequilateral ; cicatrix one, large, deep- ly impressed, subcentral ; inferior valve convex, attached, umbo spiral, spire lateral, prominent, hinge with two parallel, transverse grooves; superior valve discoidal operculiform, umbo not prominent, revolving spirally within the margin, hinge with a single groove on the edge. E. costata, apex lateral, with about two volutions ; infe- rior valve convex, costate, transversely corrugated, coste of the disk somewhat dichotomous, asm fornicated ; within, a ie rofound cicatrix placed rather nearer to the inne phage with two nearly parallel, profoundly exc puieos ex grooves, of which the inner one is shortest, and corrugated ; superior valve flat, slightly concave, destitute of cost, outer half exhibiting the increments, outer edge ab- ruptly reflected from the inferior surface to the superior, but not elevated above it; Ainge with a single groove on the edge ; etcatriz profou un ; Length four inches, breadth three and a half—Cabinet of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences.—Peale’s Museum. This interesting shell is the largest and most perfect of its class, which has yet been found in the Ancient Alluvial ~ deposit of New-Jersey. It is not uncommon. I have seen many specimens. ‘They vary somewhat in the coste, being sometimes almost antiquated, sometimes nearly smooth. The aged shells became extremely thick and ponderous. Tt seems to differ from the genus Gryphea by having been attached, and by the lateral situation of the spire ; the hinge grooves also are parallel with the edge, so as to be transverse with respect to the shell, —— some resem- blance to those of some species of Cham Genus Terebratula. EB. csliontis; suborbicular, convex, ten or twelve profound, longitudinal plice, the two middle ones of the siphunculated valve, slightly more elevated, and the corresponding ones 44 Say on Shells, &e. of the opposite valve, slightly more depressed ; two or three ae conspicuous incremental lines are continued so as to ross the projecting face of the siphunculated hinge margin, pervect is but slightly prominent. Cabinet of the Acad. Nat. Sciences. This handsome species was found in the New-J ersey Al- juvium by Mr. S. Wetherill of Burlington. The folds are somewhat similar to those of Plicatula plicata. It resem- bles the T’. crumena of Sowerby, in the form of its folds, and in their extending to the beak, but the middle of the front is very slightly elevated, with but two folds, instead of three as in the crumena, the sides also have two or more folds, in- stead of four or more, and the beak is not very prominent. Belemnites. These are often found in the New-Jersey Alluvium, sometimes entirely changed into chrystalized blue iron earth. (Hydrate of iron, of Judge Gorey “J = Ammonite. A species of this genus was Faun in the abovethétisioned locality by Mr. Wetherill. It approaches nearest to 4. ele- gans of Sowerby, but I have not seen a specimen sufficiently entire to determine its species with exactness. Dentalium. A species has been found in 1 New-Jersey, near Mulliger hill, by Mr. A. Jessup, which seems to approach nearest to D. sulcatus, but as it has only about sixteen equal coste it is more than probably a new species. . Turritella. A species of this genus was found by the same gentleman with the preceding, in plenty. It approaches very closely to the conoidea of Sowerby and is mgst probaly the same pes I yn seen several redintrigrate fossils from the New- Jersey Alluvium, amongst which I may mention a Cucullaea, Medical Botany. 45 Lam. which in general form resembles C. Glabra, length about one inch and three fourths, breadth rather more 5 an Arca, about one inch wide 3 a Terebratula which seems to approach nearest to 7’. ornithocephala, Sowerby ; a species of T'erebratula resembling the #. ovoides of the same author, excepting that it is very slightly truncated be- fore. I found at.Mulliger hill a Watica ‘much changed by the ferruginous matter so abundant -in that region; length nine tenths of an inch; and also a somewhat distorted im-. pression of a Mytilus. Specimens of Turbinolia, Lam. often occur in different situations. a —— On the Bipot f Rye, by Dr. Won ‘Tian, z Midale- , Connectic TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &ce. Dear sag I SEND you the fllowing _— for caidas in your Journal, not so m from my own judgment, as at the suggestion of PRtesior Ives, to whom it was read a short time since. As the regular and scientific employment of the Clavus, in medicine, originated exclusively with American Practi- tioners, and has so nearly superseded the use of the Fivcop and Vectis, in obstetrical coed that they are not: now necessary in one case out of a hundred, in which they were formerly employed ; and as niet of the information, which has been laid before the public, respecting the article in question, is in pete fragments, and dispersed through various distinct works, it was thought, that a digested sum- mary of what appears to be well founded, with respect to one of the greatest medical discoveries of the age, could not but be acceptable to the public. s this sketch is not entirely medical, it seemed more proper, for a work devoted to science in ger than to AG Medical Botany. one exclusively confined to Physic ; and as your Journal includes Materia-medica within its plan, and is, in all prob- ability, more ecmarcns known in our own and foreign countries, than any other American periodical publication, I take the liberty of forwarding it to you Yours Sir, very yrespectflly, &e. LLIAM TULLY. SCLEROTIUM-CLAVUS. Decand. Clavus-Secalis-Cerealis, Clavus-Secalinus, Mater-Seca- lis, Secale-cornutum, Secale-corniculatum, Secale-luxurtans. Horned-Rye, pease Ergot of Rye, Mother of Rye. Ord. nat. Fungi Lin Tucan United States. This article is parasitic within the glumes of some of the Gramina, most commonly of Secale-Cereale, but frequently of Triticum-sativum, Hordeum-vulgare, and Avena-Sativa. {t is more rarely found upon T'riticum-repens, Avena-elatior, Alopecurus-pratensis, rundo-Cinnoides, sisi Vike Phalaris- Canariensis, Jolene dendea Phleum-pr tense, &c. There have been three potas opinions, respecting the origin and nature of the Clavu First. It is affirmed to bea stenicd change, or modifica- tion of the seed of the plant, upon which it is found. This has been supported by the assertion of Teissier, that he found seeds, one half of which were sound rye, and the other half Clavus ; and by the assertion of others, that in hemical composition, it approximates nearer to the seeds of the plants upon which it is found, than to any other vege- iable substance. As to the statement of Teissier, it is to be remarked, that, as no one but himself has ever witnessed such a fact, it is highly probable, that he may have been incorrect in his ob- servations 5 but ameniing that he was not, the phenomenon have but little more aN aban it is conctiaaal that the composition of the seeds of the different plants, upon which Medical Botany. 47 " is found, is considerably various, and especially, that its wh proximate principles, differ from every _ hitherto kstained from the vegetable kingdom. e second opinion is, that the Clavus is an exerescence produced by a7 sting, and deposition of the eggs of an insect. As there is no ‘0 analogy i in any —— between this arti- cle, and such excrescences as are demonstrably occasioned that the Clavus is occasionally found to be eaten by minute worms, and ~ small larve of insects, have been detected in it, whic ing preserved, afterwards hatched into moths, or buiasetines: hese occurrences are however too rare to establish the hypothesis, to eres they seem to have given rise, and our ee ne must be; that they are —, accidental. — third, (and only Fy sopt seisole ‘appears: to be well ;) is that the Clavus is a parasitic Fungus, like the “ different sorts of blight, smut, &c. he correctness of this nH ic to arte to be fully estab- lished, by the following considera First. This article has, secs all the physical charac- ters, such as colours, form, taste, smell, &c. and even the _ casualties incident to Sclerotium, a genus of Fungi. This genus consists of small solid fungous bodies, of a rounded, oval, or elongated form, their interior substance hard, ocea- sionally almost as much so, as wood, sometimes a little fleshy, always white or inclining to white ; the outer skin in an early stage, is smooth, in a more advanced one often a little wrinkled, usually black, ‘sometimes of a dingy pur- ple, seldom yellow, or white, in several species, covered by a peculiar kind of dust, or efflorescence, of the same colour as the surface Second. it dies, like the several species of Sclerotium, an pia sti place of growth. Some of these, as we are i formed, are subterraneous, on the roots of mosses, or in id mass of tan, in bark-beds, in close damp places sereened from the light, as under moss heaps, or upon the surface of the ground under the droppings of cattle, on the nerves of altel stored under ground, upon the leaves and branches of plants that are beginning to decay, on the fading foliage of trees, on the rind of living fruits, on the receptacle of com- 48 _JMedical Botany. pound flowers, on the interior of fistular twigs, on the living leaf growing from under the epidemis, and (if the Clavus be admitted to belong to ae genus,) from within, or near to the germen in the Gramin , and developed in the place of thatorgan. All this diversi of situation is similar to that of many.other F'un Third. It does not affect. the general health of the plant upon which it grows, which is more remarkably the fact, with respect to the genus Selerotiwm, than of any other para- sites, as all the species, except S. Cyparissie, are developed, only afier the plant has done flowering, or when it tends to deca i The Clavus, like other parasitic Fung?, is strictly topical, as one or more seeds in the same ear, may be com- pletely destroyed cod it, and the rest remain perfectly in their natural conditio Fifth. The ional of the growth, and the maturity of the Clavus, like other parasitic Fungi, has no correspon- as with that of the Bisby or any part of it, on Beh it s found. ” Sinth, The Clavus is not “peculiar to one plant, bu found 4 a considerable variety rt that differ very widely a each other. This is true of other parasitic Fungi, and it ew overthrows the opinion, that it is merely a morbid change of the seed, as it would be incredible, nay indeed impossible, that individual seeds, so diverse as those of Se- cale, Alopecurus, Arundo, Festuca, Phalaris, Lolium, Phle- um, &e. should be converted into the same article. Seventh. Increased humidity favours the production of Clavus, as it is said to do, of all the species of Sclerotium ; but neither Clavus, nor any Sclerotium, can be produced, by any degree of artificial humidity. In addition Clavus, and all the Scleroteums, abound more in certain districts, than in others, though eee circumstances are equally favourable for ap produc Eighth. lavus, Gee other Fungi of a soft substance when young, abot seeds are commonly developed im a position, that does not admit of complete and free expan- sion, has the curious property of moulding itself in some measure, to the surface of the obstacle which presents itself. Nint he chemical composition of the Clavus, as far as the subject has been investigated, seems to correspond Medical Botany. 49 more nearly to that of the Fungi, than to any other class of vegetables. Tenth. The Clavus is said to be so like S. compactum and S. stereorarium, that its ratens 2 can hardly be denied, by any, who have seen them together. Eleventh. The Abbe Fone i is said to have planted in his garden, a number of grains of wheat and rye, and nay the top of each to have placed several grains of Clavus The result was a crop, in which both the wheat and rye, were infested with Clavus. This has been considered an evidence of the contagious nature of Clavus ; but does it not rather prove propagation by seeds; for Decandolle in- forms us, that, contrary to the opinions of Tode and Per- soon, Selerotium webnee be ea ee Ella and to which it has been approximated. Indeed the oti of Sclerotium and Clavaria, are said to rs: so slight, “as t occasion difficulty in characterizing ther The Clavus, as it commonly racine is Pec e! of a violet colour, and internally white. Its form is cylindrical, tapering at the two extremities, sienaneaite straight, but vex and concave side, though sometimes destitute of it on one, or even both sides. Its dimensions are from four to twelve lines in length, and from two to three in diameter. {ts flavour is, at first, imperceptible, but after some time, it is disagreeable, nauseous, and sub-acrid. If chewed for a considerable while, it produces a sense of fullness in the A grain of it cut transversely and viewed through a micro- scope, is Said to present an assemblage of small and brilliant grains like starch. The external and coloured pellicle, seen under similar circumstances, appears as a mass of a violet bat ~ aa ek ith small whitish spots. a grain is inflamed, by contact with a lighted can- dle, it beds with a white flame, distilling some drops of an oily liquid, emitting a dense black smoke, and smelling like burnt read. Willdenow speaks of two varieties of Clavus, the first of which a sie es simple, eae describes as of a pale OL. [1...,. o. 50 Medical Botany. violet upon the out side, and as whitish and mealy within, without any smell or taste. The second he calls malignant, and affirms, that it is externally dark violet, blue, or binck: ish; and internally of a bluish grey colour, a fetid smell and a sharp pungent taste. He supposes the latter to be active upon the human sys- tem, and the former ert. From the best chemical analysis it appears that this arti- cle ut First ale or fawn ne eee matter, soluble in seohol a tasting like fish-oil. Sec . A white oily matter, of a sweetish wste, which is very Anke ant. Third. A violet colouring matter, of the same shade as orchil, but differing from it, by being insoluble in alcohol, and easily applicable, to aluminated wool, and silk . An acid, probably the Phosphori F ith. * vegeto-animal matter, very ania and prone | to puurefaction, Yighding much thiek oil, and ammonia, by ie Sixth. oe small ‘quantity of free ammonia, which ¢ can be obtained at the temperature of boiling water. This article, when taken in substance into the stomach, in moderately large doses, occasions nausea; and even a piss or a prea: has produced vomiting, but without there is a schon to action, in t organ, | and re- storing the catamenial secretion, when obstructed. It must therefor in the Materia-medica as a Partus- accelerator, and as an EEmmenagogue The cases in which it is indicated asa Partus-accelerator, are— First. In the early stages of pregnancy, when abortion has become inevitable, uterine contractions are feeble, and hemorrhage considerable, so that it has become important to abridge the sufferings, and lessen the danger of the pa- tient. ' Second. In cases of i alarming hemorrhage, near the close of the period of utero-gestation, not occasioned by attach- rte A ceeaeneccerneette ~ i aE: ¥, Medical Botany. 51 ment of the placenta over the os-uter?, and not accompanied by efficient contractions. Third. In puerperal convulsions, in which action is mor- bid, and misplaced, and speedy delivery becomes neces- sary. Fourth. In lingering labour, connected either with the death of the child, or owing to a cessation of contraction, the os-uteri being sufficiently dilated, and the other soft parts properly relaxed. ‘This is its most important use, as it is here capable, in all cases, of superseding the employment both of the forceps and vectis, instruments, which, previous to the discovery of the powers of the Clavus, were not un- frequently necessary, but could seldom be used without ra injury, either to the mother, or child, and usually to ; : | othe = 5 ee Se Fifth. In retention of the placenta, from deficency of con- traction, it is in general, if not always, capable of superse- ding the introduction of the hand. Sixth. In subjects liable to hemorrhage after delivery, from laxity and deficiency of contraction, this effect may be entirely prevented by the exhibition of a suitable quantity of the Clavus fifteen or thirty minutes previous to the time, when the labour would otherwise have terminated sponta- neously. Seventh. It may even be employed with advantage after delivery, to restrain the hoemorrhage, and moderate the ex- he lochial discharge, which results from laxity, and de- ility. - In too early a stage of labour, before the os-uteri is suffi- ciently dilated, and when there is much rigidity of the other soft parts, or when there is any malconformation, or a pre- sentation that requires changing, the Clavus seldom pro- duces any benefit, but in general, greatly increases the suf- ferings of the mother, retards her ultimate recovery, and most commonly causes the death of the chi _ As a Partus-accelerator, the substance in powder, or bet- ter the infusion or decoction, in the quantity of ten grains, to an ounce of water, may be exhibited every ten minutes, ull its effect is produced. t sometimes, though very rarely, proves inoperative, but not oftener than twenty-five grains of jalap fail of purging, or eight grains of Tartrate of Antimony fail of vomiting. 52 , Medical Botany. Indeed, so certain is this article in its operation, that all or- dinary cathartics and emetics, in their customary doses, much more frequently prove inert. Its effect is generally tractions produced by it, are commonly powerful, and inces- sant, and almost convulsive, an an experienced prac- titioner, may always be distinguished from such as are spon- taneous. In doses of two or three grains, combined with a little opium, it is said, that it may be so managed, as to pro- duce the interrupted pains of regular labour. If given fier : full dose of opium, it is liable to fail of producing any ef- ect. As an Emmenagogue, the Clavus is not equally effica- cious, convenient, and unfailing. In reference to this ef- fect, the substance 4 in powder, the infusion, decoction, and tincture have all been recommended, but here likewise, in- fusion and decoction seem to claim the preference. The quantity of the Clavus necessary to be taken daily, in Ame- norrhea, varies from two drachms, to an ounce 3 land this often requires to be continued for some ae In cases, it commonly produces some unpleasant effects upon the stomach, and occasionally head-ache, increased heat of the eed and pain in the hypogastric regio whole, I am inclined to Scan it ‘vill not be ikely to come st repute, for this pur ‘e are informed, that some biginitods of hysteria have very suddenly yielded to this article, but are ignorant of the circumstances of the cases, without a knowledge of which, no precept can be laid down. As relates to the medical history of this article, it appears, both from printed authority and traditional information, that some general and indefinite knowledge of the medicinal pro- perties of the Clavus, has been, from time immemorial, in the possession of a few old women, and empyrical practi- tioners, in England, some other parts of Europe, and even in the United States In France, as early as 1774, it seems to have been used with considerable judgment, by some female practitioners, and oe as ae as 1747, by a regular Dutch Accou- cheur.. The subject however, was in all probability, man- aged with the customary mystery of the times, and w Medical Botany. 53 brought to light, at a subsequent period, it seems to- Shes been viewed, as a remnant of the credulity of an ignorant, and superstitiou us age. As it was reserved however, for the illustrious Jenner to investigate and promulgate to the world, the ome discovery of Vaccination, so it has fallen to the lot of our countryman Dr. Stearns, first to search into, and eauseien by experiment : to reduce to scientific ti and make public the powers of the Clavus, and at the time, to prescribe the true restrictions, and limitations, w “hich should always regulate its use ;—a discovery, which, next to Vaccination, may be ae as the greatest of the present age, in the science of Medi With respect to the poisonous siahiad of the Clavus, and its power of pees, malignant and epidemic diseases, there seems to The ae “3 FS BBs 2.8 EB must be sala in such a quantity of flour, and so changed by the fermentation, as to become completely i tek Beside, i must have been eaten, from time immemorial, as well since, as before tl:e occurrence of the diseases, that have been attributed to it, whilst their appearance has been so rare, as to cause them to be looked upon as phenomena. n this country, the Clavus seems always to have been abundant, and till of late, there has been no suspicion of its im deleterious qualities to bread. Even here, the diseases which have been ascribed to it, have occurred as frequently, prevailed as extensively, and proved as mortal, im parts, in which nothing but Maize and Wheat are used for bread. The fact that epidemic causes have never been satisfac- torily epestenied, has left an unbounded field for conjec- ture esis ; and, unfortunately for the credit of the ae understanding, the one in question, is not the most absurd. eee m Brigdes Journal of “Seieute and the > sn a auguelin in Do.—Dyckman’s Duncan’s carat od 54 Strong’s Problems. MATHEMATICS. RE Ae Arr. V. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con- structions and Demonstrations, by Professor Turopore Srrone, of Hamilton College. , [For the figures, see the annexed Plate.] Prosiem [. Tt HROUGH three given pane which are not in the same straight line, to describe a Let A, B, C (Fig. 1. pl. 1 ) ris the three given points which are not in the same straight line, it is required to de- scribe a circle the circumference of which shall pass through these points. : sae * eg ae eee onstruction. Join AB, BC, and AC. Then ABC is a triangle. Describe a circle about this triangle. (Sim. Euel. IV. 5.) Then will the circumference of this circle pass through the points A, Q. E. 1. Prosiem II. Let there be three straight lines, w to arenot all parallel to each other, and do not cut each other in the same point, given, it is required to describe a idecls. such that it shall touch each of them Let AC, BC, BH, (Fig. 2.) be three given straight lines which are not all parallel to each other and which do not cut each other in the same point, it is required to depoaibe a circle such ay it shall touch each of them. t , BC, produced if necessary, meet in C; _and also CB ea BH in B. Bisect the angle ACB by the straight line CD, and also the angle CBH by the straight line BD. Let them meet in D. From the point D draw DG, at right angles to BC, DF at right angles to AC, and DE at right angles to BH. From D as a centre, with ra- dius DF, describe the circle EFG, which shall be the circle required. a i ee ads a en Strong’s Problems. 55 Demonstration. Because the angle FCD = angle GCD and the angle DF = angle DGC, and DC is common to both the triangles DFC, DGC, the straight line DF straight line DG. In like manner it may be shewn that == DE. Therefore a circle described from D as cen- tre with DF as radius will pass through the three points E, , G. And it is manifest also that it ‘touches the lines H, AC, CB, in those points, since the radii DE, DG, DF are severally Seeaantiocier to the lines BH, BC, CA. -Q. Eu. Prosiem IIL. Given two points and a straight line in position, the ‘points not being on opposite sides of the line ; it is require to describe a circle the circumference of which shall pass ee the two given = ote and touch the given line. Case I. When one of the given points is in the given steuiene ht lin ~ Const. Ea AB i e 3.) be the given straight line, C the given point in AB, and D the other given point.—Join DC, and through C draw CE at right angles to AB. At the point D in the line DC, make the angle CDE = the an- gle DCE. Then the side DE = side CE. Therefore a cir- cle described from E as a centre with radius DE, will pass through C, and D. And it will likewise touch the line AB, this line being perpendicular to the radiu Case H. When the straight line joining tis two given points is parallel to the given straight line. Const. Let AB, (Fig. 4.) be the given straight line, and > D, the two given points. Join d bisect CD in F. From F draw F E, at right anglestoCD. Let FE ex- tended cut AB in E. Through C, D, E describe a circle, Which shall be the circle taste emonst. For Join ED, and EC. Because the angles EFC, EFD are equal, and chs FD and FE is common, the angle’ FCE = angle FDE. But the angle FCE= alternate angle CEA. Therefore CEA = CDE. Therefore AB touches the circle CDE in the point E. (Eucl. If. 22.) Case If]. When the straight line joining the two given points is oblique to the given line. Const. Join CD (Fig. 5.) and let CD produced meet AB in B. Take SBE Ss == a mean proportional between BD and BC. , 56 Strong’s Problems. Through the points C, D, E, describe the circle CDE, which hall be the vircle required. Demons. For since BE = mean proportional between . - BD and BC, BE2e= BD. BC. Now since the circle passes through the points, D, E,and BD. BC = BE’, o straight line BA touches the circle. (Euc. TIL. 37.) Q. E Cor. to Case I. Ifthe pomt D should fall in EC pro- duced, bisect the distance between the two points, and the proof is as before. Prosiem IV. Let two straight lines and a point which does not lie at the intersection of those lines, be given in position, it is re- quired to describe a circle through the given point to touch the two given straight lines Case 1. When the given point lies in one of the given straight lines. Construction. Let AB, AC be the given straight lines, andD the hee point in one of the lines. Let the lines produced if necessa- ry meet at A. Bisect the angle BAC by the straight line AE. Through D draw DE at right an- gles to AC, cutting the bisecting line-in E. From E as centre w ith ED as radius describe a circle : which shall be the circle required. —For draw EF at right angles to AB. Demons. ‘The angle FAE = angle DAE and angle AFE = angle ADE and the side AE is can to both the triangles AFE, ADE. Therefore EF = ED. There- fore a circle described from E as centre with Se as radius, will pass through F. Now EF and ED are at right angles | to AB and AC. Therefore the circle touches AB and AC in Fand D. And (by Const.) it passes through D.—Q. f > Case HI. When the point is upon neither of the lines. Const. Let AB, AC (fig. 6.) be the given straight lines, on = the given point. Let AB, AC , produced if necessary, meet in A. Bisect the angle BAC by the straight line AE. pare in Strong’s Problems. 57 ‘Through D draw DE at right angles to AE. Produce DE until EF = ED. Through the points D, F, deseribe a cir- cle a touch the line AB.* And this shall ba the circle re- quin Fsinupe. For suppose the circle EGH to touch the line AB in the point G. Through G draw GL at right angles to AB, and cutting the line AE in L. Because GL is drawn at right angles to the tangent AB, it passes through the cen- tre, and since AE bisects the chord FD at right angles it likewise passes through the centre. L must therefore be the centre. From L draw LH perpendicular to AE. Now, since angle LAG = angle LAH, and the angle AGL = an- gle garde and AL is common to both triangles, 1 LG= ee Prosuem V. It is required through two given points to describe a cir- cle which shall touch a circle, given in position and magni- tude. Case I. When one of the given points is in the circum- ference of the given circle and the other either within or without the given circle. -, Const. Let AB (Fig. 7.) be the given circle, B the point in the circumference, and C, (or C-) the point without (or within) the given circle. wot is required to describe a circle such, that it shall pass through the points B, C (B, C*) and touch the given circle. Join BC. Bise ct BC in D. Take F’, the centre of the circle AB. Join BF. "Through D, draw DE at right angles to CB, meeting BF produced i in E. Join CE, and with E as centre, and radius BE, describe the circle CB; ; then will CB be the circle required. Demonstration. Because CD = DB, and the angle CDE =angle BDE, and DE is common to both the triangles CDE, BDE, CE=BE. Therefore the circle described from E as centre, with radius BE passes through C. It is also manifest * Problem H. Wh Rb cecist Wo: 2. g 58 Strong’s Problems. that it touches the given circle. For draw LX touching the given circle in the point B. Then FB will be at right axles to LX. Now LX being at right angles to BE at the point 8, which is in the circumference of the circle CBM, must touch this circle at that point. Therefore since both circles, AB, CBM, touch LX at the same point B, they must touch each other at that point. In like manner by using the letters C-, D-, E, Se. for C, D, E; &c., the demonstration will apply to the case, where the point is within the circle. ase II. When the two points are either without-or with- in the givén circle at oie distances from the centre. the two points without the circle. It is required to describe a circle through those points which shall touch the given cir- cle—Take any point X within (or X- without) the given circle which is not in the same straight line with CE. And through the points C, E, X, describe a srt —(Prob. I.) _ Let this circle cut the: given Nacho 3 in the points B, D. Join BD; and through the points C, E, draw CE mae BD ex- tended in F. Through F, draw FA, — ABD i in A. ¢ ERE: T%: Demonst. Because the straight lng FD cuts the mains ABD, and the straight line FA touches it, FD. FB=FA But FD. FB=FC. FE. Therefore FC. FE= FA?. Lei therefore, a circle be described through (Prob. IL.) C, E, A. —Now this circle meeting FA in A, and FC. FE equaling FA?; FA must be a tangent to CAE, at the point A. Since, ther efore, both the circles, ABD. , CAE, touch the straight line FA at the point A, they must touch each other at that oint. In like manner, by using, C*, Ev, &c. for C, E, &c. this demonstration is applicable to the case where the points aré within the given circle Case Ill. When the two points are either within or without the given circle at equal distances from the centre. onstruction. Let AB (Mig. 9.) be the given circle, and C, D, the given points without (or C-, D-, within) the given circle at equal distances from the centre. Join CD, CH, HD. Bisect CD in E, and join EH. — Let EH cut the cir- cumference of the given circle in A. Through the points A, Strong’s Problems. 59 C, D, describe the circle ACD, which shall be the circle required. Through A draw FG perpendicular to EH. Demons. Because CE= ED, HC = HD and HE is common to the triangles HED, HEC, the angles CEH, DEH are equal, being opposite equal sides. ‘Therefore HE is perpendicular to DC. Now because CD isa chord in the circle CAD and is bisected at right anges by AE, AE passes through the centre of the circle. But FG is at right angles to KA, and EA passes through the centre of the cir- cle CDA ; therefore FG touches the circle CDA in the point A. "But (by Const.) FG touches the circle AB in the point A. Therefore the circles CDA, AB, touch each other at the point A.— In like manner a using the letters C-, D-, &c. for C, D, &c. the above demonstration is applicable to the case where se aaa are within. the circle at equal distances from the pSbhoHuc As CD, GF are both at right angles to EH they are parallel to each other. Therefore the construction in Case II, failing, Case ILI is necessar Note I. When one of the points is within the circle and the other without, the problem becomes impossible ; for then the circle which passes through those points will cut the given circle, which is against the Hy ote II. All the cases of this problem (except the first) admit of two solutions ; as is manifest from the above con- struction. Prosiem VI. It is required to describe a circle to touch two given aieaignt lines and a given circ Case I. When the two eye straight lines are parallel and the given circle lies between them, or cuts one or both of them Const. Let AB, CD (Fig. 10.) be the two given straight lines, and MI the given circle. Draw EF parallel to AB and distant from it, by a line = radius of the given circle. Draw also GH Sarallek to. CD and ata like distance from CD. It is _: to be noted that if EF fall between the given lines GH must likewise. Through Q the centre of the given circle cee the pores QNS touching EF, GH in N, S, 60 Strong’s Problems. Se cel oin ON. Let ON cut ABi in L. Then with O as centre and OL as radius, describe a circle XLP; which shall ie the circle required. . Demons. For ON by the nature of the tangent is_per- pendicular to EF, and therefore to AB, which is parallel to EF. Now since XPL passes through L, and ALO is a right angle, XPL must touch AB in the point L. In like manner it may be proved to touch CD in P. But it like- wise touches the given circle. For, join QO the centres of the two circles. Then O@ and ON being radii of the circle QNS are Sani 5 OT “ line QO to eee the given circle in Then (by Const.) QX =NL. Therefore OL= Ox. Hence the eels LP passes ee X. And if'at the point X a perpendicular were erected, it would be a tangent to both circles at the same point 2 he circles therefore touch each other at the point Xx. Wherefore XLP is the circle required. Case Il. When the two given straight mee intersect each other, and the circle is given in any posi Construction. Let AB, cD (Fig. 11.) be the tae en straight - lines and SN the given circle. It is required to describe a. circle to touch AB, CD, and the given circle. Draw EO, %, parallel to the two given lines and respectively distant from them by a line = radius of the given circle-—Let N be the centre of the given circle. ‘Through N describe a circle NZ touching the lines EO, OG in the points F, F ; of which circle let M be the centre. Join MF. Let MF cut AB in X. Then from M as centre with radius MX, describe a circle. And this shall be the circle required.— in 8. oin MN intersecting the circle § Demonst. For NM, MF roe sai of the same circle are equal. But NS = XF (by Const.) therefore SM = MX. Therefore the circle MW passes through the point S. Now MXF being perpendicular to EO, and EO being parallel to AB, it is likewise perpendicular to ‘AB. There= fore AB isa tangent to ic 8 circle SXW. In like manner we may prove that CD touches $ Now, if from the point S a perpendicular be pom to NM, it will be a tangent to both circles at the same point. Therefore the circles SKW, SV wi cach other in S, whence SXW is the cirele re- uire ‘ By ‘using NM-+WNS for MN—SN and MX+XF for MX—XF, the above demonstration is applicable where i, —_- lll ta eile atndiiem ! Strong’s Problems. 61 the required circle is to circumscribe the given circle. See ig. 12. , Note. In case I. where the given lines are parallel, if ihe given circle and one of the given lines be on opposite sides of the other line, then the Problem becomes impos- sible. ; Prosuirm VII. To draw a straight line touching two circles given in mag- nitude and position. | ase I. When the touching line does not pass between their centres. Const. Let AF, BC (Fig. 13.) be the two given circles. Join their centres. Take CE = AB—BD, if AC> BD, and with CE radius and C (the centre of the given circle AF) centre, describe the circle EX. From D the centre of the other circle, draw DE touching the circle EX in E. Join CE, and produce CE until it meet the circle AF in the point A. At the point A draw the tangent AB and pro- duce it to the circle BG. ‘Then shall the line AB likewise touch the circle BG. Demonstration. For, ED being a tangent to the circle EX, the line CE drawn from the centre to the point of con- tact will be at right angles to ED.—For the same reason EC produced is at right angles to AB. Therefore ED, AB are parallel. BD, therefore, being drawn from the centre D perpendicular to AB ; ABDE will be a parallelogram, and EA, BD will be equal. But EA —radius of the circle BG. Therefore BD equaling radius of circle BG, the point _ B falls in the circumference of BG. And AB is at right angles to BH the radius of the circle BC in B. A therefore be a tangent to the circle BG in the point B. But AB is likewise a tangent to the circle AF in A, (by Const.) therefore AB is the tangent required. ase 11. When the touching line passes between the centres of the two given circles. Const. Let the two circles (Fig. 14.) be AB, DE.— From O the centre of the circle DE, draw OF = radius circle AB + radius circle DE, and with OF as radius describe the circle GF. From C the centre of the circle AB draw . CF touching FG in some point as F. Let the line joining 62 Strong’s Problems. O, F cut the ae DEinD. From D draw DA parallel to FC. From C draw CA parallel to OF and let it cut DA Sidaced. in A. Then will DA be the tangent re- uired. = Demonstration. For because CF touches the circle FG and from O the centre of FG, is drawn to the point of contact, the angle OFC is a right angle. But DA is paral- lel to FC and is therefore perpendicular to OF. Hence it touches DE. And AC being parallel to DF is at right an- les to ; Moreover the ap ae ACFD isa parallelogram, and there- fore AC= DF. But DF =radius of the circle AB.— Therefore A is in i Gronabiesey Oo . Now, the an- gle DAC has been proved a right angle. Wherefore DA ‘ouches the circle AB in the point A. But it likewise pb oe ee circle ED. AD is therefore the tangent re- uire % = ig Or: t to Case I. When the circles become ets that is, parallel to DC the line ne joining the centre re of a tre circles. Cor. to Case Il. When the circles becom e equal, that is, when OD = AC, OF — 20D, therefore == 20X, X being in the middle of the line OC. Note. That this problem is impossible i in both Cases, when one circle lies wholly within the other; in scar’ il, when one circle cuts ‘the other. Prosiem VIII. it is required to find a point, from which any straight lines being drawn, cutting two circles given in magnitude and position shall cut off similar segments. sef. When the point does not fall between the two circles Const.* Let BD and PE (Fig. 15. ) wi two circles. Draw BPA touching the circles in B an Prob. VII. Case I.) and produce this tangent, to meet TG (which } = ihe centres of the given circles) in some pointas A. From Both the cases of this Problem admit of avery sipigle construction, which is independent ofthe 7th. A line joining the extremities of any two radii phot parallel to each other, will is gba ie! line joining the centres (produced, in Case I.) in the point required — —_— CO _—— ———— Strong’s Problems. 63 A draw any line AC, cutting the circles in C, H, N, O. The segments CBH, NPO are similar, and likewise the remain- ing segments CDH, Demonst. For draw FB, GP to the points of contact of "OF. RG, : and LCE AK: QB : PR. pera fore Or. RG: oR; alternately QF: BQ:: PR; by Comp. FB: QF :: PG: RG, that is, FH: Ors: GO: GR ; (substituting for F B and PG their equals FH and GO.) Now ve an ae Pat _ are each of them less than a right a cs less than a semi- circle) hemare wel VL 7 7) ie a angles FQH and pt being eq angles FQ e similar, and th angles FH, RGO are equal. In tke manner it may be shown that the angles CFQ, RGN are equal. Whence the angle CFH = angle NGO. Therefore their halves CDH, NEO will likewise be equal. Therefore the segments CDH, NEO are similar, and likewise the segments “CBH, NPO. (Euc. Def. B. 3.) Wherefore A is the point required. Case a When the point falls within the two circles. wg. 16. Const. Let AF'N, HBK, be the two given cir- cles, a (Prob. 7. C. 2.) the tangent BA cutting the line DE (which join the centres of the given circles) in C. Then will C be the point required. Demonst. For through C, draw any line FCH, cutting the circles in F, G, HL, L Join EA, DB, which being per- pendicular to AB, are ‘parallel to each other. The angles LCE, DCM being vertical are equal. For the same reason ACT angle MCB. Therefore the triangles ACL, MCB, as also the triangles LCE, DCM are similar. Therefore AL:MB::LC:CM wid LE:MD::LC: MC, whence by equality, me MB::LE:MD; slcoceeti ly. AL:MB: LE: compos. EA or EG: LE: :DB or DI: DM. Now the ais LGE, DIM are each of them less than a right angle ; Sitshore (Eue. VI. 7. ) the triangles LEG, IM are similar, and the angle LEG = angle IDM. In like manner it may be shown that the angle FEL = == angle MDH. Therefore the whole angle IDH == whole angle 64 | Strong’s Problems. FEG. Wherefore their halves FNG, HKI are equal. a res FING, IKH are similar, and likewise the seg- s FAG, IBH. Therefore a point C is found as re- fa or. I. By a similar construction, similar segments may be cut from spheres given in position and magnitude by a plane, as is manifest from the solution “of this Problem. Cor. I. When in Case I. the circles approach to equality, the point A becomes infinitely distant, and the line AC be- comes parallel to AJ, which passes through the centres of the circles. Cor. THI. When in Case II. the circles become equal, the point C (as in Case II. Prob. VIL.) is equidistant from the centres of the circles. Cor. IV. In Case I. the points C,I, M, O, are in the circumference of a circle. For FCI = ZGNL and ZGNR ae TAG a: ooo the whole eet ICH = whole angle ES ing angles CIM. COM — eee ret. Bigles. Therefore the ; pega tore tenia s In like manner , L, N are in the circumference of a circle. Therefore the rectangle AM. AI = A , and Iso AK. H. AN, — =— Cor. V. Because (in Case II.) the segment yFAG is similar to the segment IBHz, the angle {He = Fy and the angles at C being vertical are equal; therefore the tri- angles CF, ‘CH are similar. But the triangle CrI is sim- ilar to the triangle CHz. For the angles Irr+ITHz =two tight angles ; and Ire +Ire = two right angles: taking from “both, the common angle Ira, there remains Cri = A and the angle at C being common to the two triangles they are similar. Hence Cy and CHv being similar and like- wise CHa and CrI, wad Ae is similar to Cr. nie A CI: r::Cy:CF. Therefore Cl. CF = Cr. Cy. There- fore the points I, r, F, y are in the circumference of a circle. In like manner it may be shewn that the points G, z, H, + are in the circumference of a circle. (To be continued.) é | ie croc amen é Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, Sc. 65 HARMONICS. * On different modes of expressing the magnitudes and rela- tions of Musical Intervals ; with some remarks, in com- mendation of Professor Fisuer’s Proportionally-tem- pered Douzeave, calculated in page 195. Vol. 1.—commu- micated to the Editor by Mr. Joun Farry, Senr. Mineral Surveyor of Lonvon. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, VING perused the two first numbers of your Ameri- can Journal of Science, I have been gratified by observing the distinguished rank which two different subjects hold herein; one of which has, through a long period, been to me a favourite source of amusement, while relaxing from my professional studies and practice, under the other of these branches of knowledge. The Essay on Musical Temperament by Professor Fish- er, with which your work commences, has been to me, a rich treat, for which I beg to tender that Gentleman my best thanks, and to declare, that I have before met with nothing like it in point of utility, in an attentive perusal of nearly every thing which has been printed in the English language, on the subject of Musical Temperament, and as to the correct and practically useful views, which are therein taken of the subject. It is with the hope of drawing a more specting Prof. Fisher’s original speculations on this curio Vou. 11::.:.Ne. 1: 9 66 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. extended attention to what Professor Fisher has done, that 1 am principally induced to make the present communica- tion ; relying with full confidence, on the candour of Pro- f and others of your Readers, who may interest themselves in this curious oe for excusing the freedom of the remarks I may make. practitioners of Music, both Professional and Ama- teur, almost universally, as also a sreat majority of the Teach- ers and Composers of Music, and even many of the Writers of * Treatises” (as they are here technically called) on the theory and practice of Composition and on Tuning, are well known to have been so very generally unacquainted with, or so inattentive to, any of the correct methods of de- fining, measuring and calculating the musical Intervals which occupied their attention, as to have in no ordinary degree excited the surprise of every one, who has compared these many able and ingenious Individuals, with. the cultivators of nearly every other of the branches of Science and polite or useful Arts amongst us; into which happily. correct netpens and. nomenclatures, and aceurate notations and calculating, — every thing which comes within the Eeitttion of quantity, is either eadaced and established, or is now in rapid progress towards this desirable end. _I was first led to make the above remarks, on the occa- sion of the seahishmons of the Choral Fund in this Me- tropolis, almost thirty years ago, and while I acted as its first Secretary, Librarian, &c. which brought me into ac- quaintance with numbers of the most eminent of the Charac- ters alluded to; with many of whom, and the successors, alas! of too many of them, { have continued to cultivate this acquaintance, and as often as opportunities offered, have conversed with them on the subjects, to which I am now alluding : from all which, and the concurrent experience of all such of my quainencess as unite a knowledge of Mathematics with that of the principles of Music, | have oe convinced, that as chief cause of the evil I am dep! Fag Oe x arisen from the very unnatural manner, €X- cept to al hich the ratios of the lengths of strings NB musical ‘Intervals, wah + a view to comparing or calculating the magnitude of such Intervals : and it is the same, with regar rd to the number of vibrations or pulses, made in a given time, by the sonorous body, or Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 67 excited in the air, for yielding different sounds ; because it is the ratios, only, of these, that can be applied to the com- paring or calculating of musical Intervals; involving, in all such cases, the unnatural and laborious substitution of the multiplication of vulgar Fra actions, in the plate of simple addition, and the substitution of division o Fractions, in the place of simple subtraction, of the Suter vals under consideration : a consequence of which is, that the smaller the Intervals are, the larger do the numbers ex- pressing them become, and the more difficult of conception and the more laborious, does the expressing or calculating of them become ; and hence it can excite no wonder, that nearly all who may not have been induced to cultivate some acquaintance with aianenescn for its own sake, sar as Mu , been so | a the very outset of their attempts to understand this im- tand fundam oven up the pursuit; being content to remain ignorant of that which was presented to them by the professed Writers on the subject, in so unnatural and forbidding a form. It is observable, that the small Intervals above alluded to, as oecasioning the chief stumbling block, are not merely such as curiosity only, and not utility, requires to be brought into review, but they concern each and every one of the Intervals which are considered, when we attempt to speak of the Temperaments of the Musical Scale : and hence, it has been next to impossible, that the mere Arithmetician, who proceeded to add and subtract Intervals according to the unnatural plan above mentioned,* could ee the calculation, or understand the true nature, of any om various modes in which the musical Scale — sone ed, or even comprehend the untempered Scale itself, in so much of its generality as the same is now actually exhibit- ed, on the Euharmonic organs of Mr. Liston, and always has, although almost unperceived, been practiced, by the correct Singer, the Violinist, and a few other Practitioners ost indefatigable pa hte the late Mr. Marmaduke Overend, pienso in this way, and brought his labours to no usefnl conclusions, €x- en mentioned by Authors, and of some few other new Intervals, whic are somewhat a dee * I have fully percha in Mr. Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, in Vol. 28. p. 140. 68 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. on InStruments which are perfect, as to their capability of yielding any degree of sound whatever, which either theory or the judgment of the ear might require. Since the period of the sublime mvention of Logarithms, and their general diffusion in Tables of the present form, such have opened new and great facilities to the mathemat- ical calculators, on the subject of the musical Scale and its Saenpeieess but it has been almost in vain, sc appeals have been made to the mere Musician or Tuner, on the utility and the easy application of these measures “of Ratios, because the original difficulty has as often recurred, viz. the want of apparent and natural connection, between ratios and musical Intervals. I have on various occasions* attempted to remove on difficulty, by shewing, that the reciprocal common rithm of any Interval, correctly expresses the decimal salen which that Interval bears, to the concord called the muajor Twentyfourth, or XXIV (or 3VIII+ Hl) whose Ratio is ',, and its reciprocal logarithm is 1-0000000; but the difficulties with this class of Persons have in no de- gree been removed, by endeavouring to explain to them, that the reciprocal of a logarithm answers to the — of division in the place of multiplication ; (or vice versa ;) _in the present case, that the change of Sor —9, as the et index of the common logarithm of the fraction az9 to 4 answers completely to the tuning or considering of a X A ao instead of upwards, between its wane When all the decimal places of figures beyond the fifth, had been arbitrarily rejected, and the recip. log. so abridged, multiplied by 100000 (as was done first, I believe, by Dr. Robison) in order to obtain measures for the various Inter- vals of the scale, and its Temperaments, 1 have not found these further oie Se from any visible natural connection, between the arbitrary numbers so obtained, and the musical Intervals they are made to represent, to have the least ten- dency towards gaining the attention and assent of the Mu- sicians and ‘Tuners whom I have conversed with; but the reverse of it, in more than one instance ; in one om cases it has been urged’ to me, thus: “ if the logarithmic * See the “ Edinburgh Encyclopedia,” edited by Dr. Brewster; vol. VII. p. 31, vol. XT. p. 498, and in several other parts of that traly valuable Work. ; : | ; Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &e. 69 measures of ratios admit of being thus modelled at will, how are we any longer to place confidence in those Writings, which speak always of the Concords, and the other Inter- vals of the scale derived from them, as being rigidly measur- ed by ratios, in small whole numbers, involving no prime larger than 5?” To this, it may not be unseasonable for me now to add, that in making the above mentioned re- noes of the sixth and following places of recip. logs., although so great an error as ;3,ths of the fifth unit figure the major Comma, the error is unavoidably ;’;ths, in the ex- pression for the Interval, which so often happens to be the unit of the Temperaments: and aon it may be said, that even this is but the ;;},th part of a comma, yet this is sufficient to shew the want of a natural foundation for this mode of representing Intervals ; however useful - oe Math- ematician, as approximations, ‘the same may with truth be contended for, as has been done by Ar etrg Fisher in your 17th page. Notwithstanding it is found thus difficult to define, or to assign intelligible measures to musical Intervals, owing to the remoteness | a the analogy by which such are connected with the ratios of Numbers, the most evident analogies con- nect many of. these Intervals with each other, and shew them to be quantities capable of addition and subtraction: thus, no one with the least ear for music, will dissent from the truth and conclusiveness of the experiment, performed on an Organ or Piano-forte in his presence, of tuning, perfect (and without any beatings) Ist, a major Fifth upwards from 2 given note, (as C) to G, and then a minor Fourth upon his, or Ge, that then the compound interval Ce, is a true Claatisis 5 2dly, if the Ifld CE, and on it the 6th Ec, be tuned, he will agree, that the very same Note ¢ has been arrived at, as before ; and 3dly, when the 3d CED, and then the Vith th ED ¢ are tuned, he will still agree, that "the same note cis again* arrived at; proving clearly, that either. of these three pairs of Intorwals, make up, together, the same sum of Intervals, viz. an Octave. © in like manner, if the perfect Octave Cc be first tuned apovards, and then either of the above six concords tuned 70 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &¢. downwards from c, another one of these concords, which is éalled its complement, will in every case result or remain (true, and without any Beats, as all experiments prove) as the difference, between the lower Octave note C and the lowest note of such subtracted concord. It has been, therefore, with some propriety, that the ma- jority of the writers of Treatises, have adopted, and adhered to the principle, of defining Intervals, as the sums or differ- ences of other Intervals, or of some of their multiples : and the very frequent use of the major Tone T (having the ratio ts of the minor Tone t (+ *;), and of the major Semitone S$ '§), as degrees or leaps in the Scale of melody, have led these Writers almost unanimously to adopt those three Inter- vals, as the terms of their Notation of Intervals, in general: in which manner, for example, the above seven Concords, beginning with the smallest, are expressed as follows, viz. T+S, Tet T+t+58, 2 T+t+8, 2 P4142 8, 27T42t +5, and 3T+ 2 th ot Paseciet answer to the Literals, ED, E, F, G, 4 e, for in Douzeave which Mr. Siena ails eee: ; (p. 28 of his “ Essay on perfect ee they are as follows, viz. C=o0, C#=T—S, D=T, Fo=2 T+t, Go= 2t, Bo =2 cdi t+2 s, and B=3 T 42 t-+S8. may proceed no further than to the con- sideration eee the scale of 12 notes, which is defined above, without proceeding to supply the other intermediate notes, which become necessary in percent the modulation, (as Mr. Liston has done,) may remain in a great degree igno- rant of the great defect of this particular mode of Notation : arising, not from any defect in its principle, as has been ob- served above, but merely from the largeness of its terms, T,tand$3; which occasion negative signs so frequently to secur, and connecting such varied multiples of these terms, as almost certainly to bewilder and disgust most of those who may attempt to follow Mr. Liston, through the large folding Tables inserted in his Essay. I have conversed ps more than a score of Musicians, who had previously sed Mr. L.’s Essay, but not one of whom had got over ee atunsb sip bieicl last mentioned.—One of these Gentle- men, having more perseverance than others, observed to me | | | Mr, Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, §c. 71 neatly as follows :— H,, said he, I want to know whether, in Mr. Liston’s Scale, cd is a higher or a lower note than his BA; I find these Notes defined in his Tables, by 3'T +3t, and 2T+2 t+3§, respectively : but my not being able to carry in my head the recollection of the exact com- parative magnitudes of 'T, t and S (whose relations in de- cimals of either of them, i understand to be interminate, as to places of figures, such never ending, or circulating) lam unable to perceive which of these quantities is the largest : if, continued he, I suppose the first to be the largest, “and deduct the last from it, as eri do, I obtain T+t— : but here again, from not being able readily to per- ceve whether al —s than 3.8, I am left in doubt, until after. ac i ~ some- considerable. labour, for Ww tion. ¢ vos pears if want vg on whether Mr. L.’s Be, is higher or lower than his ¢; his expressions for them, respectively, are, 4 T+2 t, and 2 T+3t+2583 but such are not fitted for conveying at sight the information wanted : —if I take their difference, as before, I find it to be 2'T—t —2 5, which leaves me under similar difficulties, as in the first case. Long before Mr. Liston published his Essay, or I had heard his name mentioned by any one, I had provided a remedy for the inconvenience above stated, in the Notation to. which Professor Fisher has referred, in your 18th page: founded on the same principle as above, but using three ary small Intervals, for the terms of my Notation, derived from the Manuscripts of Mr. Overend, already mentioned, and which had been marked by him =, f and m3 but which {atervals, or any others, he had not adopted or used as a Notation ; they merely stood amongst a multitude of his isolated resul The ear: of my Terms = (or the Schisma), is the very same small Interval 2 T—t—2 S, which is mentioned above ; 3 it occurs also, between ten others of the adjacent notes in Mr. Liston’s Seals of 59 notes; and it is the small- est Interval. which can ever occur, in the calculation of even lar more extended Eubarmonic or untempered Scales, than those of Mr. Liston’s Essay, as I have since fully shewn, inthe Phil. Mag. vol. 39, p. 419, and vol. 49, p. 362, &c. : its tatio ig 2'° +38 x5; my second Term f (or the lesser 42 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. Fraction) is of the diatonic value—9 T+7 t-+5 S, and its ratio is 37+ 2°* x 5°; and my third Term m (or the most —* . =—21 T+10t+22 S, and its ratio is 3°4 x fren Scniphiened and appalling as these diatonic expressions and ratios may appear at first sight, to many, the Intervals x, fand m are, nevertheless, strictly founded in Nature, and will as truly and as correctly represent musical Intervals, in every possible case, as the Ratios composed of the prime integers 2, 3 and 5, or any notation by Intervals, can do: and with the important advantage, in no other way so well attainable, of an encreasing series, throughout, in each of its terms, as the Intervals increase in magnitude, which are thereby expressed ; and yet, without negative signs, in any case that can be of the least use. They have other material advantages over any other notation by means of Intervals that has been proposed: yet these I shall not here enlarge on, but proceed briefly to mention, as follows : The Octave, or 3, is in this notation, of ‘the value 6125 +12f4+53m, the major Twelfth ah VITI+V) or 970 +19f+84m, and the major or 2VIT dia’ tion, ay eartiy adding either of these expressions, as often as its corresponding integer is multiplied _ & denom- nator of the Fraction (or largest number of the Ratio) and subtracting such expressions, as often as such Shenae re- spectively, are found multiplied in the numerator of the fraction. The following examples wee I hope, make the eo eror of this rule easy to any on Ist. If the ratio given, be that of ahs major Fifth, or 3, we have only to take 9705+ 19f484m, and deduct from it 61224 12f+ 53m, and the a =~ 358z+ 7f+ 31m, is the notation of V, as required. . If the major Third or 922 be given, we must take aetek. os and he it deduct the double of the first expression, 0 122454 24f+103m, which leaves 197244 +17, for the notation of IH. 3rd. Hf the major Comma be given, its ratio is $¢, or 24 x 5+3', and we must first take 4 times the second expression, or 388024-76f+ 336m ; and next, Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. 73 4 times the first expression, or 24485+448f+4212m, and add it to the third expression, making 38692+76f+ 335m, and then deduct this last, from the multiple first found in this case, and the remainder is 11=+-m, the notation of c. Further examples may appear unnecessary here ; yet it will be proper to add, that if the calculations by this rule are gone through, which are indicated above, by the ratios answering to x, to f, and to m, respectively, they only, will be found to result, respectively ; or, the truth of the whole may be demonstrated in various other ways, as is shewn in the “ Edinburgh Encyclopeedia,” vol. IX. p. 275. TABLE I. ie | Ratios. | Sure | Numerals. | recip. Logar. C | 1+2 | 612 12 53)Vill, or Octave. | -3010299,96 B | 8+15 |5551148| VII -2730012,72 Bo | 9+16 | 508 10 44 7 ‘2498774,73 3+5 |451 939 VI -2218487,50 GH| 16+25 | 394 8 34) Ext. ¢V | -1938200,26 2-3 |358 731 Vv -1760912,59 FH} 32+45 | 301 6 26 IV *1480625,35 Fo | 3+4 (254 522 4 *1249387,37 E | 4+5° |197 417 iit -0969100,13 Eb! 5+6 |161 314 3 -0791812,46 D | s+9 !104 2 9] IT(orT) | -0511525,22 CH/128+135| 47 1 4 I -0231237,99 1+1 000 1 -0000000,00) AD| 5+8 |415 8 36 6 -2041199,83) D\| 9+10| 93 2 8 IL(ort) | -0457574,91 Do | 15+16 | 57 1 5] 2 (orS) | -0280287,24 1 e+e 1. 41°01 c -0053950,32} 32768+-32805|. 1 0 0 z “0004901,07 450283905 * 450350062 ba. 0:4 +0 f -0000733,50) S| 8 0 1] =m ___ | -0000038,53) Se ae 3 5 | Vou. I.....No. 1. | 10 74 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. In the work last quoted, vol. XIII, p. 41, the 59 notes of Mr. Liston’s Scale will be found expressed i in the nota- tion that has now been described; from whic ave ex~ tracted, and placed in ‘Table sh the 12 notes of his original Scale already mentioned her The seven last lines of the shies Table have been added, in order to mclude the concords of minor Sixth, Tone, the major Semitone and the Comma; and the Séhin- ma, the lesser L’raction, and the most Mistabee This Table can hardly need further explanation: 1 wi therefore pro- ceed to some furtherremarks. he expressions in col. 3 of the above Table, aceurately express the values of the Intervals in cols. 4 and 2: and such is the peculiar and natural commection, between the rates of increase upwards in the ‘Table, for each of the terms =, fand m, that whatever result or truth appears conjointly from the three terms, after any process of adding or sub- iracting Intervals i in yeh erat has oe performed, the separately i there bein: baere;| no carr rying oF ag (in Ww 1umbers, at least) from one column to ie as ip common Arithmetic. $ endently of the other rations performed with these Spee as giving a rough value in artificial Semitones, or 12th part the octave : every” tke result in the m column will oe a considerably more accurate value, in the artificial Commas of Nicholas Merion or 53d parts of the octave, very nearly : and every result of like operations in the z column, will give rigidly accurate results, in all such Euharmonie or untem- pered caleulations as are alluded to above, and will approx- imate to the truth, abundantly sufficient for nearly every practical purpose of Harmonics, being extremely near to the Gia parts of the octave, and to “the 11th’ parts of the r comma. When Tempered Systems are to be calculated, fractional arts of the major comma, expressed in Schismas, ma} joined with these artificial commas without at alt disturbing the consistency of their results: thus, if the Jsetonie scale of equal Semitones were required to be calculated, the flat ning Seige a: of the Vth is known to be extremely near to 7th of a major comma, which is 2, and the true Vth ———— ee ee aa Oe | | | ] 1 1 | Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &¢. 75 being 358z, 3572 is the Isotonic fifth; 12of which, or 4284, prove to be just equal to 7 x 6123, as should be the case. Tf all the three columns of my notation had been here used, a greater degree of exactness only equal to m, or the scisth part of a comma, would have been gained thereby. Again, ifa Mean-Tone Douzeave were required to be calculated, where ze is the flat Temperament of the Vth; 358—2 22, = 355! is its tempered fifth : which multiplied by - 11, gives 390722, and this taken from 7VIII or 4284s, leaves 37643, or V+ 1842, as the wolf fifth of this system ey GHeb) as is well Hise, although I now og hat I have inadvertently pala it 21z, in the Phil. Mag 2a) 36, p. 45. { can now proceed to. the main object of the present Let- ter, viz. to shew how the Notes of Profesor F isher’ $ pro- portionally-tempered Douzeave, in your 195th page, may be expressed in these artificial commas (and decimals of them) with greater accuracy, than in the 5—-place recip, logs. in which they are now expressed ; and in which state, I have hopes of this new Scale of Intervals, deduced with so much ingenuity and labour by Professor F’. attracting, in this country at least, a somewhat greater share of attention from the practical Musicians and Tuners, than, in its present logarithmic denomination, it seems to me like y to obtain, for reasons which have already been given her beginning at the bottom of the Table i in abe 194, aka: progressiv ely adding together the numbers therein, the value ie each Note of the Douzeave will ee had in 5-place recip, logs. ; B for instance, being -27208 ; let this be at tracted from the value of B in the last column of my fi Table, and the difference will be found =:0009212,72 ; iad this difference we must convert into Schismas and decimals by dividing by the value of Zin the Table, or by °0004901-07 ; and thus we get 1°87973, as the flattening or deduction to be made from 5555, the artificial commas of B; which thereby becomes 553° 1203s, as in col. 2 of the Table I. following. By proceeding in a similar manner, the ten other artificial commas and decimals in this Table may be cal- culated.* * It is a more fea. and correct mode, than by common di- vision, touse Logemetric Logarithms (see Edin. Ene ye. vol. XITT, p- *72) or the Negeri of the recip. logs. : ca oticeng that 76 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Iniervals, c. TABLE II. |’ Intervals of the Scale, in ) Temperaments, of the _ Literals| Artificial com-|Numerals || Vths IlIds | =. zs zs) | rst | c 612°0000| VIII Bi: 5531203) VII 2°9lw 13°8 3.0 Bo 512°6776| 7 2°2 14iw 22-7 A 4541447; VI 2-8} 59-2 31 Gy 3979991 |Ext.4V\\wit7-9\w 17-0 5°9 G 355°24 Qe 0-9 36 F fi 296°2000, IV 3°3)w 19°5 Bo | F 256°5327 2-6. O-6\w 19°5 E 197°3246| III 22, oS 3 ED | 151-8974) 3 42-8} 6-3iw 16-7 D 99°0776| II 2:9 0-1 3°6 CH 38°9328| I H1-1\w 20-6} 26 C 0° 1 2°38 0:3) 94 23-8| + 84-2| —96.0 ogee $118) —0-2) i ar Ess tet ps te The three first columns of the above Table can need ne further description; except mentioning, that in case the f’s 36902910, is oe constant jog. log. for reducing 7—place recip. logs. to logs. of Schisn s ; and such is likewise the constant addend for reducing Schisnias to recip. common logs. In the above example the log. of 9212:72 is 39643878 ; from which take the constant log. log. 3°6902910 (or 1s: of 4901-07) and 0°2740968 remains, whose number is 1°879742 as above. fn this manner also, may ee pidge other primes larger than 5, be reduced to my notation: if for example, the false minor Third § mentioned in your 195th paae,' were given : the Tabular recip. log. of $ (or log. of 2) is-0669467,90, which falls short of ED ~ in my Ist Table, by -01 sarteeat from whose log. take the con- stant log. log. of 5, and we find then remai der to be 24-9628= ; and therefoke’ ® $2136 0575-4 Sf 1am 3 ; where, for the purposes of ‘Temperame nts, the first of the two last terms, or the f’s, a. always be sieplected, as not —— the re- only be used, unless sometimes, and where extreme accuracy is —_—— as will be further shewn. EE Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &. 77 and m’s are wanted, they are the same as in Table 1; and in order to obtain the numbers in the remaining "Pa octaves must be stated above col. 2, for the Notes ct, d, eb, e, f and f#, by adding 612= to each of the eatrespntiding oer from Cit to Fz. t must be recollected, (as is shewe in Table I.) that the three perfect concords whose Numerals stand at the heads of cols. 4, 5 and 6, are 358z, 197= and 161 respectively : and the ode of obtaining the numbers in these three last columns, will then be made evident, by two examples, viz. Ist, in order to calculate the Temperaments of the Vth above B; from the value of its upper note f# or 908-2000, take the’ value of B_ or 553-1203, and the remainder is 355°0797z, which being less than 358, shews the Tem- perament to be flat, as is expressed at the top of the co- mn, and the difference of the two last numbers is 29203, the Temperament required, but only the two first of these. figures is entered. in the Table, for reasons which will ap- pear in the Note which is annexed.* * Rather more exact results than the Schismas and tenths ae: are set down in Table II, might be obtained, by multiplying fessor Fisher’s Temperaments, in his X {th Ta ble, by O° 6204037 5 } and this ene mey be used for checking my Tab ble. ‘The rea- tend farther on; and because, when more places of decimals are re- quired to be tru rue, some corrections must be made, for the m’s that are overlooked in the above calculations, by artificial commas. The f’s or second terms of my Notation, do not occasion errors in. any of these calculations ; nor do the m’s do so, in the See aS aemeot 8 of the Vths viz. on C, E, F, Fi, G,A, Bo or B; or i ei we n.G D, ED e F or G3; or in 5 of the di, viz. on "The corrections ‘of the Vth Tempera- ments arp as follovin, viz. those on Ctt, D, and Eb require to be altered m (or -00738622 z) vy iz. ie ip etapercascuts that are f, to be decreased, that which is 6, increased: and the wolf on Gf re- quires to ba increased 2m m (or DST 24s.) -) The Mlds bp i ments require correcting thus; viz. those on | CH, FH, A and to be altered m: the { Temperaments to be increased, and the ‘ one decreased ; and the Temperaments on GH and B, requiie to be increased 2m. And i in the 3ds column, the Temperaments on 78 Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. Qdly. We will suppose that I was at first at a loss to recol- lect, which is the note in the upper octave, that limits the major third above B; I have, for removing this difficulty, only to add 197 to 543, which gives 7502 ; and to observe that this is the nearest to eb, which is 763-8974 ; from this therefore, I must take B or 553:1203, and 210°7771 re- mains ; which exceeds 197, by 13°77712, and shews this last to be the sharp Temperament of this major third wolf. Besides distinguishing those Temperaments in col. g t of flat, I have added a w to distinguish the fifth wolf; the same remark applies to col. 5, as to the temperament of the ilId on A being flat, and to the four major third wolves, and also to the three minor third wolves, in col. 6. I have at the bottom of the columns, added up the sharp and flat tem- peraments, in order to shew that the Sum in col. 4 is —12-02; in col. 5, =+84°02; and in col. 6, =—96- Os ; these + being general properties of all Douzeave systems : sos if my knowledge and memory correctly serve me, | as the first to publish, in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 28, plete 5; iat to demonstrate in Vol. 36, p. 43. The order of the’several concords, as to their envio of harmoniousness, measured by their Temperaments, to the nearest tenth of a Schisma, or ;}> of a comma, are as fol- lows = : cH, D , Fo, Gis nd Bo, require to be altered m, and those on Eb and F, peweue correcting 2 m; all of these, by increasing the Temperame S eranate must suffice ; in the Text, the Temperament of the et? Ilfd on B, has already been found 13: (Me which it now appears, is to be increased °0157=, and made 13-7928. This — might t have been lessened, if the secre Table X. had ited “2 con in Schismas and decimals, by applying the saabers | in Table IX, to the numbers of an Isotonic Douzeave composed of ihe of 512. _+ When the corrections of the Temperaments, on accont of the m’s, are made, the casting will stand thus, viz. —23-7527 + 11°7448, —12-00079E ; + 84-2669 —‘2040, —84-0629=; and —96-0708%, which sccord with my determinations in the Philo- sophical Magazine. Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &e. 79 TABLE Iii. iflds on ‘Gene Bths below) D 0-1, A 02, € 0.3, F 06, G 0-9, Bo “4, E 3-7, Eb 6-3; B18, GH 17-0, Fit 19-5, and ott 20 Vths on (and 4ths below) CH bl, Bo’2:2, -G 2:2, EF, 2-2, eae » C 28, Eb 2°8,:A 2:8, B 2:9, D 29, FH 3-3; and ads on ie Viths below) CH 2-6, B 3:0, FE 3-1, E3- rs , al ,D 36, G36, ith Cos Eb 16-7, F 195, and It will be seen from Pema Fisher’s Table in p. 32, that a it Be aaa, Gant Da of organ pieces, in the major spe no less marked majority of aenert mode, in A an ; account that I have trav a black line, to separa rate the minor thirds in the above Table: the Vths are placed in the middle line, for more ready comparison with the ITds above and the 3ds below ; and the wolves are separated by is ate beg now to congratulate Professor Fisher on the happy result of his ingenuity and labour, in calculating this Dou zeave : viz. as to the very near agreement exhibited slain with what I =a at to be the present practice of all the best Tuners of organs; I mean, as to the exceedingly small Ropipesscaci ‘of that very important ‘concord the mayor Third, in the five most important Keys, viz, G, D, C, F and A; as to the very moderate temperament of ‘this concord, in the Keys. Bo and E; and as to the four IId wolves, (which are, alas! inseparable from a Douzeave Seale,) falling in those Keys, where . ssh Tuners ‘have been used to throw them; an e least of. these wolves falls in the Key of B, which sire oceurs. The only thing which strikes me as an unlooked-for anomaly as to the IIds, is, the isn iran on Eb, being so consider- able, as more than half a comm With regard to the fifths, anneal with relation both to the major and minor Hides: in the three important Keys G, F and E, the Temperaments are less than in the Mean-Tone system (or 235 ) now so generally used on the org in - the three other i important Keys D, C and Eb, the Te cae cht 30, = Mr. Farey’s Letter on musical Intervals, &c. ments are but a trifle greater than the ‘Temperaments in use ; and the Vth wolf falls in the same Key, and is con- siderably less than half of the usual quantity ; owing to two others of the fifths being in small degrees sharpened, which seems a great and important novelty. As to the minor Thirds, the two most important Keys, A and E, have ‘Temperaments which but very little exceed those in use, and in neither of the three next most important Keys D, G and B, does the Temperament one-third ex- ceed those of the Mean-Tone system ; and lastly, the three 3d wolves fall in the three Keys, to which the practical ‘Tuner assigns them ; agreeably to what is stated in my Tem- perament Theorens Phil. Mag. vol. 36, p. 42: the 11th Scholium to which defines the chief properties of the Equal-harmony Douzeave of Professor Fisher, in his 3d proposition. I beg leave to remark, that I have long been impressed with the importance and. desirableness of what Professor Fisher has now performed for the Musical world, as far at least as Organ Music is concerned, as will be seen by refer- ence to the work last quoted, vol. 26, p. 176 ; and vol. 27, p- 319 and 320. I am not aware that any one before me, had pablished the accurate and very simple mode of calculating Beats, which Professor Fisher ey rather too briefly mentioned, at the bottom of page 181: many years ago, I deduced it as a corollary from the ‘202d proposition of Emerson’s Algebra, whose Theorem I have quoted in the Edinb. Enc. Vol. III, p- 369, and there first published my Theorem In a future communication to you, I wish much that Prof. Fisher would mention the Temperament, or else otherwise define the system, which he has entitled the French one, in page 198: and also say, whether at the op of p. 31, he Soros not mean #Vth on C, and #VIth on F? I regret exceedingly that. the bilesbehacs for-Table IV, in page 34, were abridged of their “three last places of figures, particularly the two first of these, and earnestly re- quest, that Professor Fisher will yet supply these, through the medium of » _ ert and he will still further oblige, Voit shed. humble servt. JOHN FAREY Senr. | Howland Street, London, 30. April, 1819. — : Medical Chemistry. 81 I regret very much, to find the Geological Ob- servers in your vast and interesting country, so very com- monly to omit stating bearings and distances, from known Towns, as well as nearest distances and bearings from known Streams, as the means of more pefectly fixing the localities of their particular observations, and conveying an idea of the same to Readers here and elsewhere, who can have no mode of denoting the latter, is, by the proportion of the measure of /evel, to one of perpendicular fall: as for in- NE 1 in 5, or SW 1 in 2, &c. ; and #% ory,* Freestone, Ironstone, Gypsum, Clays &c. will always in- clude the above particulars, in their descriptions sent for your work. MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. PRUSSIC ACID. Arr. VII. Abstract and translation of Dr. F. Magenpie’s late publication on Prussic Acid—by the Exitor, with re- marks. * Mr. Farey’s marks in his MS. are arrow heads ; nor characters of nearer 1! resemblance were at hand. 3) eg fe i ee §2 Medical Chemistry. anv not fail deeply to interest society at large, as well as the faculty of medicine. As far as I am informed, these re- searches have not been so extensively proséeuted in the nited States as could be desired,*—partly from the diffi- culty of obtaining the acid, w hich is no where sold in the shops, and which can be prepared only by a practical chem- as and partly, in all probability, from negligence and in- edulity. Having received from Paris, a recent publica- tion by Dr. Magendie, on this subject,} containing many additional —— le by himself, and by various other enli -men, in different countries ; and, not having met Seri any translation of, or abstract from it, Dhave thought, that I could not do baseees than to present the sub- stance of this new memoir to my readers, partly x trans~ lation and partly by abstract, and analysis.—For obvious reasons, I have not drawn any thing from the first memoir of Dr. Masendie, which he has republished in due connex- ion with his present work; still, it will be useful to remem- ie that the conclusions whieh. he drew. me that! wr from parte oe on prussic acid: seared: ue wert 23: c acid is ieondaoeatlye poisonous aid Galaee er improper to a used in medicine. = 2. Thaf, diluted with water, it can be advantageously — for the cure of nervous and chronic couphes: t it may be useful in the palla ative treatment of iii by diminishing the imtensity and frequency of the cough—moderating the ee and favouring sleep. : 4. That there is some reason to hope, that it may be- ae useful in the curative wuaiom of phthisis pulmonalis especially when it has not yet passed its first — Sor - Smith, Frotsiior of Chemist try Soc. in 1 the oot of South Carolina; and, being tater ve in the newspapers, deservedly eceiebd 3 a Peoba deal of attention. > f i itshould have ne ee decided! y the odour of : ‘ach Boiwdmas, r o t ei & + Recherches pi aot logiques et "aig sur Vemplot de l’Acide Pras- sigue ou Hydro—cyanique, dans le traitement des maladies de — et pargcullbrement PS ahs calut ide la Phthisie 5 pulintaales. Se Paris, 819 Medical Chemistry, 83 — ae and enlightened physician then goes on to ob- a White publishing these researches, almost three years ago, my principal object was to attract the attention of practi- tioners to a saagert which appeared to me worthy of. inter- esting them. ** My wish has been aepmtiplished even beyond my doin: “The medical faculty of Paris have placed the Prussic acid in the number of remedies recommended by the new Codex; and many physicians, both French and foreign, have not only repeated but have greatly extended sine periments.” (Observations.) _ “Tt is therefore with pleasure and gratitude that IT pro- Grads to record. the results: obtained nd my: brethren. — ears ind 1817 atMil- Ini exp! ess RE EE se 8. 253 “T have oe wonderful réstilts boys “ prassic ‘tid prepared. accor to the process of Scheele, upon four children of ae family affected by the whooping cough I put three drops of the acid into an ounce of distilled water, and caused this mixture to be given every two hours by a spoonful at once ; the children themselves, — stated to me, that prcie.'54 commenced the use of this prea nae in the ginhing the use of this liquid, the whooping cough disap- a from: two of them, and from the other two a mney aye after.’ eight more ; thirty drops of prussic acid were given in an emulsion a“ gum arabic, during the day, and twelve more in the n ight ; the following day, the urine became copious, and full of sediment ; after this the expectoration diminished— 84 Medical Chemistry. the respiration became more easy——the cough less wearing —the pain in the side gradually ceased, and in a few days, by this mild and simple treatment, the patient became quite well. Dr. Manzoni, in the same thesis, assures us that the pro- fessor derived the most signal advantage from the use of the prussic acid in bronchial inflammation ; in catarrhs, and in isis. man, thirty-four years old, rapidly ve towards the tuberculous state of phthisis, by taking the prus- sic acid, in emulsion of gum arabic, had his sreewies ex- pectoration both ameliorated one diminished, and his life, (before very mesionotsi prolong Two women with chronic pan attended by pores and purulent expectoration, in a short time, by the the prussic acid, found the matter changed into sim le mu- cus and left the clinical institution almost in perfect health. In ie Brera’s private practice many similar cases occurred. ong 0 Otay the fo ane mamposable i instance copious | moptysie a fs OO segs caciadathhs ee bloodletting had been resorted to in vain, when i. Brera prescribed under the et of pills, one —e drops of the prussic acid, to be taken in the course of the night ; this, as he expresses it, a 8 arrested. ~ bleeding. The use of the prussic acid, in doses of from thirty to fifty drops, in twenty-four hours, continued. for five. days, fact this lady to perfect health without leaving the slightest trace of a pulmonary affection.* Dr. Brera, by the use of prussic acid, with the leaves of the atropa belladona, succeeded in curing perfectly a schir- rous affection of the womb, complicated witha syphilitic affection. another case, a noble lady at. Padua, aged twenty-sev- en years, of an irritable temperament, placed herself unde the care of Dr. Brera. She had a chronic uterine affection, Dr. Magendie very just in pills, because, from its excessive voli especially at an neevated Sine ace re, muc a pe _ lost; this is the reason why this = a a Medical Chemistry. 85 marked by extreme pain and great heat; (“au fond de I’ ute- rus et par un ecoulement m mucoso—purulent par le vagin. L’ ouverture du col présentait au toucher une chaleur plus forte que la chaleur naturelle et un assez grand nombre @ mégalitiés; les menstrues se montraient sans regularite,”) with the fever, there was uterine colic, constipation, and he- morrhoidal tumours, which had been of considerable stand- ing. On the twelfth day of the disease, this lady was sei- zed with a violent (and with her) an unparalleled uterine hoemorrhage ; which proved uncontrollable by any of the common means. If the bleeding diminished in a degree, the pains of the uterus, and of the } piles, became intolerable ; and on the contrary, if these per were assuaged, there was great reason to fear that she wo drops of the acid been given, when irregular palpitations great anxiety, and vertigo were experienced. cid was then discontinued, and a simple infusion of chamomile substituted. Soon after, the ski, which to that time had been dry and hot, became covered with an abundant per- spiration—the hoemorrhoidal and uterine pains ceased—the bleeding stopped—the bowels became free—the urine abun- dant and healthy, and all the other numerous and distressing affections disappeared; mild injections of the prussic acid were used towards the termination of the disease. It re- sults from the observations a Dr s Brera and Borda, who in 1810 made much use of this acid in sthenic divedses: that itis one of the best aiaage to calm the movements of the heart—to diminish febrile irritation, and to encounter the most severe inflammations. Observations of this kind have een much multiplied in Italy. At Padua, most diseases are much complicated: by worms, (vers lombricoides,) in the intestinal canal, which are very promptly expelled, and even while still alive, by the use of the A bec acl The experience of Dr. Granville in England is cited by De. a Dr. Granville mentions cases of advanced consumptive patients, in whom the prussic acid produced sensible amelioration, but without effecting a cure. A young man and woman, however, who attended the gratuitous 86 Medical Chemisiry. consultation of Dr. Scudamore, exhibited every appearance of confirmed pthisis ; they had a worrying cough—emacia- tion—frequent pulse—night sweats—debility—purulent ex- pectoration, and that particular form of the nails, which commonly accompanies these symptoms. The Dr. gave them both the prussic acid in the dose of ten drops a day, and soon had the pleasure of seeing them restored to per- fect health, in which condition, after the lapse of eight months, the young woman called to thank her physician. Several cases are cited of English patients, affected with hectic fever, and sympathetic cough, who were greatly re- lieved by the prussic acid, and some of them appear to have been cured. The cases, although interesting, are too long to be detailed in this abstract, and the symptoms arose from different causes. In one case, a hectic fever, with cough, , &c. grew out of a long continued inflammation of ‘the liver, attended with tubercles and adhesion ; 3 in another it arose from miscarriage and grief; in a third, from a schirrous af- fection of the ovarium ; in a fourth, from typhus fever, end- ing in delirium ; and ina fifth, (a lad-of ten ——— old;) it came. on without tany obvious cause. The two last cases were of a very desperate character, and yielded to the use of prussic acid, when all other means had failed. Asthma of six years standing, in a man of advanced age.’ vated by cold dampness or exercise, and was greatl was replaced by a constant dry cough whenever the — ed; the disease was augmented by food and de-~ prived the tient of sleep, and was attended by a swelling rf the limbs, and chills and fever at evening 3 this formida~ ble complaint, with. all its concomitant maladies, was so much relieved by prussic acid, that the patient acquired a degree of comfort to. which he had long been a stranger; he could go up stairs without inconvenience, and constantly arrested the progress of his complaints by a recurrence to the prussic acid, whenever they menaced a return. — In colds and catarrhs especially where, by neglect, alarm= ing or troublesome symptoms were supervening, the prussic acid appears to have been very useful and i in most cases en- ke effectual. In one case a woman, five pa ee ieenceth in her eighth pregnancy, and dunes the five months affected witha vio- * Vid Recherches, &c par, Magendie Doctenr,i&e. pp. 33 to 38. Medical Chemistry. 87 lent convulsive cough, attended by extreme irritation, was entirely relieved by the prussic acid, without sustaining the slightest i ete a from her peculiar situation. Dr. Granville’s own children, four in number and the ° saniees an infant at the breast, were all attacked by the whooping-cough, which soon became very violent with the usual attendants of suffocation, vomiting, tears, extreme ten- sion of the blood vessels of the head, severe head ache, deprivation of sleep, &c. In one week they were all cured entirely by the exclusive use of the prussic acid. ‘Dr. A. 'T. Thomson in a communication to Dr. Ciearvills says: “the diseases in which I have prescribed the prussic acid are catarrhal affections accompanied by cough, and in chronic coughs.” —+ J have used it with very gre eat success ich act ign epidemically in the reach heciaapoeaien T live. The disease’ begins 8 chills, which are soon followed by a febrile excite sneezing, hoarseness and thirst, and a hard cough which comes by paroxysms, is more frequent during the night and deprives the patients of sleep; the tongue is furred, the bowels costive and expectoration very difficult. Since I eee used the pesnae acid 1 have — had recourse to by the prussic itd upon the circulation. Soot’ be- gin by purging the patient, then I give the acid dissolved in distilled wate, or ina simple almond emulsion; I take care to proportion the dose to the age and strength of the individ- uals, gradually increasing it till the cough has ceased. 1 begin with adults by giving them every two or three hours, two drops ina spoonful of the vehicle. For chiklren be- tween four months and one a I have prepared the fol- mene formula. - oR. Prussicacid; «+ = =~ 2 drops.» Distilled. water, dew eet vee > @ fluid drachms. Syrup of tolu, « - 1 fluid drachm.: : Mex that and give two small tea a rem every three ours, 88 Medical Chemistry. acid 3 in eatarrhal affections, is to procure ee and to di- the frequency of the paroxysms of coughing. The next day, we find the pulse less quick and hard, and by de- grees the cough becomes less violent. I have not observed that it produces expectoration, but it —- or the cough, and renders it less laborious. The intestinal ca~ nal is gently excited, so that [ have rarely seaadl comgaaien to give purgatives a second time. By the moderate use of certain stimulants, we easily obviate the languor which sometimes in feeble and aged subjects, follows the use o the prussic acid ; and when the cough is alleviated, we can certainly remove the debility by the use of the ammoniacal tincture of iron, dissolved in brandy and water. Among the particular cases mentioned by Dr. ‘Thomson, are some sufliciently remarkable-—A man. of thirty-seven years of age, habitually very healthy, and of a plethoric habit, had been for several weeks tormented with a very wearing cough, which almost deprived. bim: of sleep; the paroxysms became constantly more more frequent ; his throat was much affected—he had a great hoarseness, with a short and wheezing after a cathartic, he respiration ; took the prussic acid every two hours—dose, two drops in twelve drachms of water. Immediately he gained sleep— his cough abated—expectoration became easy—the pulse grew soft, and in three days all the ew of the disease were sed. A lady, aged forty years, of a sanguine and inritabte tem- perament, and naturally gay, had been for two years labour- ing under the pthisis trachealis. Having the first year de- rived no benefit from medicine, she neglected the com- plaint the second year, and took medicines only when the — symptoms were aggravated. e disease was marked by a laborious cough—a perception of dryness in the throat, with danger of immediate suffocation, and a general inflam- mation and swelling of the back part of the mouth. These symptoms, accompanied by fever, and great irritability, never entirely ceased ; they diminished at intervals, e cially in summer, but returned with increased violence pith every exposure to cold. She was advised to quit England for warmer climates, but this was not executed. She worse—her pulse was small, quick, i ar, and varying with the state of her mind. She had pee noes and very Medical Chemistry. 89 little repose, and that much disturbed. Her physician hap- pened to come in (Jan. 26,) while she was in a violent pare oxysm of coughing, resembling croup, and with imminent danger of suffocation ; her pulse as before, the back part of the mouth very much inflamed, and furrowed, as «it ee with ee vessels, injected with blood. ing been purged, poet acid was administered in the iollombig prescription : R. Prussic acid, — - - - 12 dro Rose water, ‘~ ~ - half a fluid ounce. Syrup of popies 3 fluid drachms, Mix them, and ike a hibgn tea spoon full every two hours. The next day the —_ was much better; had enjoy- eda better night than for several months, without cough or prussic acid was continued four days, each time augmenting the dose two drops. The fourth day nausea occurred, the symptoms being much better, the remedy was discon- tinued. From that time she remained perfectly well, had no relapse, and considered her restoration as almost a mir- racle, and believed herself perfectly cured. The writer dates on the 26th of February, and says, that in his view she still needs much care, anda particular regimen, and that a8 disease, if not entirely removed, is arrested in its — re aide gentleman being affected every winter with a of the prussic acid, and being called by the service to an- mplain A gow outy patient, troubled an a aon dyspepsia, was sacked by the epidemic catarrh, and was relieved by the prussic acid. Dr. Kerkaradec, of Paris, relates his experience in the use of the phussic aci one case of nervous cough, in a patient of forty -— * age, it was ineffectual, probably because it was gi ery trifling doses, and often omitted by the patient, sh ‘t oes ote Meno. that it did any neg OL 90 Medical Chemistry. In another patient, in the last stage of consumption, it was given in very small portions, but it appeared rather to aggravate the cough, and its use was abandoned ; the pa- tient died soon after: it does not appear that in this case it accelerated the death, which seems to —_ occurred be- cause the disease had run its course.. It does not seem to be useful in the last stage of consumption, lon perhaps. it would be difficult to point out any thing else that is. Dr. Kerkaradec relates another case, of a child of seven years, which for five months was afflicted with a dry cough, constant and very wearing, attended by pain in the left side of the chest, by fever, &c. The usual remedies were ap- plied for three months, without success, when the whoop- ing cough supervened in a viclent degree, and after sayin on three months, was spontaneously cured. The d cough then returned, and after a month more, was found . be constant ; the pain in the side recurred, and the left side _ of the chest gave a bad sound ; the tongue was white—the appetite gone—-the bowels ams consiipated=renlatged, and somewhat sensible to the touch ; there was a ea quickness of pulse, considerable aeromaa a tendency to siness, and a severe pain in the head. ‘The usual al were applied with some mitigation of the symptoms, but the cough — ——— its peculiar character. The prussic acid was then administered, twelve drops i in three ipa taken by sponte once in two hours. (“La dose fut d’une cuillerée a café toutes les deux heures.” (At the end of three days, the cough began to diminish, and three potions more, into which there. entered fifteen drops of the medicine, completed the cure, and at the end of seven months there had been no return of the complaint. A little girl three and a half years old had a whooping cough of five cones lero fits of coughing were very violent, and at least twelve ina day, producing mu- cous expectoration, ors a great deal of blood ; the disease was assuaged by leeches applied to the left side "of the chest, where they were indicated by the sound ; the blood ceased to appear, and the cough was less frequent, and less violent. The prussic acid, twelve or fifteen drops, administered in the usual manner,* in po tions, removed the cough after two potions, and in twelve days it he ities * Viz. where twelve were employed befo: Medical Chemistry. 91 The little brother of this child, nine months old and at the breast, was immediately relieved from an incipient whooping cough by the same means. A child of four and a half years was affected for five months, by a whooping cough, for the cure of which all the common remedies and especially the ‘syrup of ipecacuana had been applied in vain. Fifteen drops of the prussic acid were then administered in the course of three days; this remedy was then discontinued for four or five days, on ac- count of a febrile Se which lasted that length of time; it was then resumed and the cough disappeared in five days more; it veusaitses recurred at distant intervals, owing to wet os but bashing, caused it finally to dis- appear. ie Fall of ee years-of age, of a plethoric habit, but enjoying perfect health, and with: regular habits in all re- ects, (“et i quantité, de sang évacué tous les mois était a idante”) was, without any obvious cause seized with acute pains in the stomach, followed by a cough, which oc- severe. ~ In summing up this mass of evidence, T Dr. Magendie ob- serves, that the remarkable accordance, between the obser- vations of distinguished men in various countries of appears: to be an irresistible proof in favour of this new med- bth and ‘of its perfect innocence, even in large doses, ad- ministered with prudence but without unnecessary timi He: remarks, that since the publication of his first me- moir, he has been much occupied in the eA I of 92 Medical Chemistry. in various stages; that in some instances he has seen it in common with all other remedies, completely fail, and the unhappy patients pursue their downward progress to the grave: that on the contrary, in a great number of instances, -he has seen a sensible amelioration in the most distressing symptoms ; the cough has become less frequent ; the ex- pectoration more free, and the sleep more prolonged. “It is s Dr. Magendie,) with satisfaction easily un- daha. that. 1 have seen the symptoms of phthisis com- a cease in oct (seven ?) different circumstances ; in m four to six years, in a young woman of fifteen, in Dodie of twenty, in a young man of twenty five, and im an old man of sixty-six ; and it is with the most anx- ious solicitude, that I have waited their state of health, for the purpose of learning, whether the evil is really arrested, or only suspended in its progress. Time only can decide; { can only say that the two ladies whose cases were reported in my first memoir, and whose cure is of four years stand- ing, continue to enjoy perfect health.” ith respect to the dose, Dr. Magendie remarks, that as the effect of the prussic acid is very different in different in dividuals, - is necessary to begin with a modera te: doles ; but seep Set in in it provided its effects collecting the acid in a cold receiver. This acid is to bi diluted with six times its volume or eight and a half times its weight of distilled water. Remark. As the preparation of the acid of Gay Lussac is — without danger to the operator, on account of its ter- energy, even in aa it is presume that having once ascertained how much of Gay Lussac’s acid, a given w: of Prussiate of Mercury will afford, it will be Aes to place at once in the receiver, pevatt and a half parts of water and thus obtain a diluted and much less dangerous acid. I have found very unpleasant effects even from breathing the vapour of the prussic acid when I have prepared it after — Medical Chemistry. 98 the process of awe and my assistants have she ‘much incommoded with vi 0, nausea and even swoonin ; Dr. a ves the ve ese formulas for a setoes bition of the acid ta Pectoral Mixture. R. Prussic acid medicinal, - - 1 drachm, nese is wes 1 pound, 1 1} ounce, F.S. rg "Take one table spnoefal in the morning and ne in the dana: whee going to bed. ‘ Pectoral A mas R. Infusion of ground ivy, ey ot drachii; Prussic acid, (nedicnal) = 18 drops, _ Syrup of marsh mallow 1 ounce, F. S. L. Take a potion by spoonfuls; once in three — Strup cyanique, or Prussic Syrup. rup of sugar, ete nas 1 pound, Prussic acid, (medicinal) ~ 1 drachm, Mix them exa sages This syrup is used to add to the pectoral potions and as’ a substitute for the other syrups. T have procured for the use of medical friends, directly — Dr. Biagencl several vials of Prussic acid, such as he containing pro of Scheele A bottle robably an e of the ea accidentally knocked from the te table, in my Siearstors and broken, the vapour exbaled (although | the liquid was i nstantly y covered wit] ashes uscular and intellectual powers seemed almost prostrated oe ili in AA? ening and ina similar manner: the next mornin ng he swoon ed on ri ‘and fell upon the floor—he eeble al- thon for several days, but gradually recovered by using mild wage nts; aqua ammoniz, wine, &c.) his pulse was very feeble mall, and ae nervous and muscular wend ers het A greatly enfeebled. "Ae ‘be one ger , i tire e mus a aaa * €a and peecase it cit not be us efal i in pyarooming. the maseansing 2 re- sistance which often o opposes their reduction, and, 5 w nether it may n foek the fatal rigors of spasm even in tetanns itsell 34 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. employs, and although this fluid is liable to decompose, and to become weak, especially by careless keeping, these vi- als appear to have arrived in good order; the acid remains colourless, whereas it is coloured if decomposed. t was made in Paris, by M. Robiquet. Dr. Alfred S. Monson, upon whose skill and care every degree of reliance may be placed, will supply practitioners with this acid, pagina od by him corner of York an Elm streets, New-H . The vials shidue be kept lowe stopped and in a dark and cool place ; they should be opened as little as possible, should be labelled poison, and the undiluted liquid y no means tasted; they should be ae t where none but discreet persons can have access to them entlemen who use the prussic acid are invited to trans- mit their reports of its effects for publication in this Journal ; they shall be published either in extenso, oF by abstract, and analysis as may appear best. Piyrsic’, MECHANTES: CHEMISTRY: AND THE ARTS. pe ee SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. — Vill. Deictiption: of a Machine, savented sat cou- structed by Davin ten ater @ “native of Saybrook, at American army yt destroy some of the. British ships then lying at New- by Cuarrzs Gris won, Esq. ro PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, . ~ Lysiz, Conn. Feb. ast. 1820. Sir, Tri is to be presumed ‘that every person who has sat any attention to the mechanical inventions of this country, oF Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 95 has looked over the history of her revolutionary war, has heard of the machine invented by David Bushnell, for sub- marine navigation, and the destruction of hostile e shipping. I have thought that a correct and full account of that novel and original invention, would not be unacceptable to public, and particularly to those devoted to the poronit of science and the arts. If the idea of submarine warfare had ever oceurred to any one, before the epoch of Bushnell’s invention, yet it may be safely stated, that a ideas but his own ever came to any practical results, » To him, I believe, the whole merit of this invention is unanimously agreed to belong. ut such an account as I have mentioned, must derive an additional value, and an ots ees inte: rest from ‘aes ; that all the information the follow as been received from the ‘only person in n existence DOs- sessed of that information, and who was the very same that first embarked in this novel and perilous navigation. oe ae Mr. Ezra Lee, first a sergeant and afterwards an e in the revolutionary army, a Fae a worthy, and elder- ly citizen of this town, is the person to whom I have allu- ded ; to him was committed the ar essay for destroying a hostile ship by submarine pono pues upon his state- ments an implicit reliance may be Considering Bushnell’s machine as vets first of its kind, [ think it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its construction, and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those resources ‘nde creative powers, which must rank him as a mechanical conte of the. first order. [ shall first attend to a description of this machine, and afterwards to a relation of the enterprise in it by sergeant e; confining myself in oon ease strictly to the facts with which he has paren Yours, &c CHARLES GRISWOLD. Bushneli’s saline was composed of several pieces of large oak timber, scooped out and fitted together, and its shape my informer compares to that of a round clam. It was bound around thoroughly with iron bands, the seams oe were corked, and the whole was smeared over with tar, se 96 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. as to prevent the possibility of the admission of water to the inside. _ It was of a capacity to contain one engineer, who might stand or sit, and enjoy sufficient elbow room for its proper management. The ms or weed was made of a metallic composition, exactly suited to its body, so as to be water-tight; this opened upon hinges, and formed the entrance to the ma- chine. Six small pieces of thick glass were inserted in this head, for the admission of light: in a clear day and clear sea-water, says my informer, he could see to read at the depth of three fathoms. To keep it upright and properly balanced, seven hundred pounds of lead were fastened to its bottom, two hundred pounds of which were so contrived as to be ae at any moment, to increase the buoy- ancy of the machin But to enable Bie navigator when under water, to rise or sink at pleasure, there were two forcing pumps, by which water could be pressed out at the bottom; and Iso a spring, = applying the foot to which, a passage was Pine diecin} for the admission of water. If the pumps should. get de- — snake nets “to: lettng:off the ‘lead ballast ne Se nat eaeied = a yeuibortt the tiller of which passed through the back of the machine at a water joint, and in one ide was fixed a small pocket compass, with ‘two pieces of shining wood, (sometimes called foxfire,) crossed upon its north point, and a single piece upon th last point. In the night, when no light entered through the head, this compass thus lighted, was all that served to guise the helmsman in his course. The ingenious inventor also provided a method for de- termining the depth of water at which the machine might at any time be. This was achieved by means of a glass tube, twelve inches in length, and about four in diameter, which was also attached to the side of the machine : this tube enclosed a piece of cork, that rose with the descent of the machine, and fell with its ascent, and one inch rise of the cork denoted a depth of about one fathom. ‘The principle upon which such a result was produced, and also ine mechanical contrivance of this tube, ae rast Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 97 the observation of Mr. Lee, amidst the hurry and constant anxiety attendant upon such a perilous navigation. ut not the least ingenious of this curious machine, was that by which the horizontal motion was communicated to it. This object was effected by means of two oars or paddles, formed precisely like the arms of a wind-tnill, which revolved perpendicularly upon an axletree that pro- jected in front ; this axletree passed into the machine at a Water joint, and was furnished with a crank, by which it was turned: the navigator being seated inside, with one ‘ hand laboured at the crank, and with the other steered by the tiller. The effect of paddles so constructed, and turned in the manner stated, by propelling or rather drawing a body after them under water, will readily occur to any one wi ex planation. ‘These paddles were but twelve inches long, and about four wide. ‘T'wo smaller paddles of the same description, also projected near the head, provided with a crank inside, by which the ascent of the machine could be assisted. By vigorous turning of the crank, says my informer, the machine could be propelled at the rate of about three miles an hour in still water. When beyond the reach of danger, er observation of an enemy, the machine was suffered to float with its head just rising from the water’s surface, and while in this situation, air was constantly admitted through three small orifices in the head, which were closed when a descent was commenced. secured by iron bands, &c. One hundred and_ thirty pounds of gun powder, a clock, and a gun lock, provided with a good flint that would not miss fire, were the apparatus which it enclosed. This magazine was attached to the clock, whilst its other end entered the machine. This serew could be withdrawn from the magazine, by which Vou. IL.....No. 1. 13 98 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. the latter was immediately detached, and the clock com- menced going. ‘The clock was set for running twenty or thirty minutes, at the end of which time, the lock struck, and fired the powder, and in the mean time the adventurer effected his escape. t the most difficult point of all to be gained, was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship. Here a diffi- culty arose, which, and which alone, as will appear in the ensuing narrative, defeated the successful operations of this warlike apparatus Mr. Bushnell’s contrivance was this—A very sharp iron screw was made to pass out from the top of the machine, communicating inside by a water jours ; it was provided with a crank at its Jower end, by which the engineer was io force it into the ship’s bottom : this screw was next to be disengaged from the machine, and left adhering to the ship’s bottom. A line leading from this screw to the maga- zine, mes.) the latter in its cesmuee neon for blowing up the vesse I shall now piscued to the count of the first attempt that was made to destroy a ship of w the facts o which, as os stated, Ivreceived Som. the bold adven- turer himse It was in “the saci of August, 1776, when Admiral Howe lay with a formidable British fleet in New-York bay a little above the Narrows, and a numerous British force upon Staten Island, commanded by General Howe, threat- ened annihilation io the troops under Washington, that Mr. Bushnell requested General Parsons of the American army, to furnish him with two or three men to learn the naviga- tion of his new machine, with a view of destroying some | the enemy's am J ng. ons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant, me two cant who had offered their services to go on board of a fire ship ; and on Bushnell’s request being made known to them, they enlisted themselves under him for this novel piece of service. e party went up into Long {sland Sound with the carctaney and made various experi- ments with it in the cad harbors along shore, and after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mo de of navigating it, they returned through tle Sound; but dur- Griswold on Submarine Explosion. 99 ing their absence, the enemy had got possession of Long- Island and Governor’s-Island. They therefore had the machine conveyed by land across from New-Rochelle to the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived maak it at New- ork. The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten-Island, with a large number of transports, and were the objects against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act; the first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprise, and sergeant ee was to be the engineer. After the lapse of a few days, a favorable night arrived, and at I1 o’clock, a party embarked in two or three whale boats, with Bushnell’s machine in tow. They rowed down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee entered the machine, was cast off, and the boats ctnmned: Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before he was aware, had drifted him down past the men.of war; he however immediately got the machine about, and b hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by the ship’s bells, or two anda half hours, he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack water. Day had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could see the people on board, and heard their conversation. This was the moment for diving : he accordingly closed up overhead, let in water, and descended under the ship’s bot- tom. He now applied the screw, and did all in his power to make it enter, but owing probably in part to the ship’s cop- per, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable the screw to get a hold upon the bottom, his attempis all failed; at each essay the machine rebounded from aa ship’s bot- tom, not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it.* He next paddled along to a different part of her bottom, but in this manceuvre he made a deviation, and instantly arose to the water’s voila on the east side of the ship, 9h to vusia pisanene light of the morning, and in im- ‘ 100 Griswold on Submarine Explosion. minent hazard of being discovered. He immediately made - another descent, with a view of making one more trial, but the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the enemy’s boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impos- sible, deterred him; and he concluded that the best gene- ralship would be to commence an immediate retreat. He now had before him a distance of more than four miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At Gover~ nor’s-Island great danger awaited him, for his compass having got out of order, he was under the necessity of look- ing out from the top of the machine very frequently to prin ae his Seti, and at best made a very irregular zig- zag tra The soldiers at Rorennee s-Island espied the machine, and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to watch its motions. At last a party came down to the beach, shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as a last act of defence, let go the cy Beas expecting that they would seize that lig pie Ae oer tid be blown to atoms together a Providence however otherwise directed it: the emy, after approaching within fifty or sixty yards of the tee and seeing the magazine detached, began “9 apes a yankee trick, took alarm and retu turned to the is Approaching the city, he soon made a 2 8 the boats came to him and brought him safe and sound to the shore. The magazine in the mean time had drifted past Gover- nor’s-Island into the East river, where it exploded wi tremendous violence, throwing lar; nee e columns of water and ieces of wood that composed it high into the air. Gen. rata with many other officers, stood on the shore spec- tators of this explosion. In a few days the American army evacuated New-York, and the machine was takea up the North river. Another attempt was afterwards made by Lee upon a frigate that lay opposite Bloomingdale : his object now was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the water’s edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered him, raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his enterprise. He then sn to get under the frigate’s bottom, but in this he failed, having —— too deep- This terminated his experiments. . of ihe +. 2 Loolittles Figt res i WW Laughton Ded. SULLIVAN'S SrRAM 1B Mw BOAT 4 4 NRISS celviteSt- i e Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 101 Art. IX. Remarks on “the neucnarnenay Steam Engine of Morey, by Mr. Isaac Doourrr YO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Paris, 26th March, 1819. Dear Sir, And first it may be piopers to state, that the intensity or elastic force of the steam is altogether unimportant in the point of view in which I shall consider it; it is indifferent whether it be fifteen pounds or five hundred to the inch area; as I shall only examine what portion of the force ap- plied to give the alternating motion to the piston is actually employed in producing the rotary movement of the cylin- der, and what portion is lost to all useful purposes. The enclosed diagram, Fig. L* is a vertical section of the machine, (as I understand it from the drawings) perpen- dicularly to the axes of rotatio he portion of the force which is employed in producing a rotary movement varies at every instant with the angle of its application, and consequently has a maximum and a min- imum. Its effect also, constantly varies with a perpetually varying lever at the extremity of which it is applied, the effect has therefore also a maximum and a minimum. ese last are the only points at which it would be necessary to examine the machine in order to appreciate its comparative merits; but the points of maximum, depending on the two above causes, are not easily determined without having re- e figures referred to by Mr. — will be mee on one of the : =*Phe plates iMustrating Mr. Sullivan’s Steam B * 102 Doolittle on the Steam Engine. eource to fluxions, with which I must own Iam not sufii- ciently conversant, and if I were, I should perhaps prefer employing a mechanical or graphic solution, because I be- oe greater number of persons will be able to understand "The method I employ, though not mathematically want is nevertheless sufficiently so for ilbvicantibat purpo- CSi52)> : The cylinder in its revolutions describes a circle A. B. A’. B’. Fig. I. about the center c. through which — the piston rod must continually pass, whatever may be t position of the cylinder in the circle ; and the point of j nak tion of the pitman with the cross piece of the piston rod, describes, in the same time, the circle x. r. x’. (whose ra- dius is equal to the length of the pitman) about the center o. the distance between “the two centers is equal to half the length of the stroke of the piston. When the cylinder, in its revolution arrives in A. or in A’. the two centres are in a line with its axis, and the while force employed either to raise or depress the piston, is en- tirely lost, no one of it being employed to turn the machine —these points, in the common engine, working with a crank and fly wheel, are called the dead points. The actuating force is here =o If, about the gentive e., and with a radius equal to half a stroke of the — we describe a circle o. n. n’. (fig. 3.) and circumference into,any number of on parts, and if we des lines to represent the piston rod in its several positions, always passing through the centre of this circle, and the divisions of its circumference continuing them when necessary, until they strike the circumference of the circle r. - f. described by the extremity of the pitman, that point will be the point of junction of the pitman with the piston rod; and a line drawn from the center of the latter circle to that point will represent the position of the pitman ne half of the circle, (taken in a line with the dead points) being an — representation of the other half, it is unnecessary to occupy ourselves with a larger portion; 1, then we divide the semicircle o. n’. p. into eight equal ee and find the quantity of force utilized at each of the points, we shall nineee a result sufficiently exact for our purpose. pe NNN Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 103 If we suppose the cylinder arrived in E. (fig. 2.) or in E’, (fig. 3.) and if, from any scale of equal parts, we set off, from the point a@., on the line representing the piston rod, a distance a. b. equal to two hundred, and consider this as the force constantly applied to drive the piston in the cylin- der, this force will resolve itself into two forces ; the one, a. e. parallel to the position of the pitman, which of course is entirely lost, being employed in fruitless endeavours to re- move the center piece, the other, a. m. in a line tangent to the circle r. d. f, at the point of contact, a.—by completing the parallelogram a. e. b. m. of which the primitive force a. b. is the diagonal, we have the measure of the forces re- spectively. i pisos? But the force a. m. is oblique to the direction of the movement of the machine, and is therefore again decom- posed, the two forces resulting from this second decompo- sition, act, the one a. t. ina line parallel to the piston rod, and the other a. s. in the direction of the tangent to a circle whose radius is equal to that portion of the piston rod, com- prised between its junction with the pitman and the center c. of rotation, and parting from the point of junction ;—By completing the parallelogram a. s. m. t. of which a. m. is the diagonal, the side a. t. parallel to the piston rod, is the meas- ure of the force lost in the second decomposition, and the side a. s. represents the force virtually employed in this point in turning the machine. This force measured by the same scale of equal parts gives sixty-two... But it will at once be seen that the lever c. a. in fig. 2. is much longer than the lever c. a. in fig. 3. therefore, if the forces were equal, the effects must be different, in inverse proportion to the length of the levers. And, to com the effect of this machine to that of one working in the or- dinary way, we must reduce all the forces to a length of lever equal to that where they could be applied if the cylin- der stood still and turned the crank, instead of turning itself around it=this lever is represented by the distance between the centre ¢ of rotation and the circumference of the circle Nn. 0. 1’. the extremity of long lever c. a. is to length of short lever ¢. h. as length of long lever ce. a. is to force at the extremity of short lever c. h.—in this construction. 4104 Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 62:66::125:22%125— 133, india figure 3. the force being applied at a lever much shori- er than that to which it is to be reduced, its effect at the extremity of the longer lever must be found by inverse pro- p—thus— portion— 66:62::11 72X11 —=10!say—=11. Making similar constructions in the other points of divis- ion, and reducing the respective forces to the same length of lever, we have’ the following series.— Forces at the points of application. | _ Forces reduced to an equal lever. Y 62 - - - - 133 REAR APA ARES RET URES iy 124 - - - - 135 172 - mi io i - 52. 158 - - - - 32 176 - - - - 22 62 - - - 11 0 . 3 - Dividing the sum by 8,the number of terms - 8 | 642 We have, for the mean force utilized —- - 68 for 200 applied. er this caleulation, as in all which precede, to avoid actions, where there were any, I have uniformly added an unit in, their stead, in. nee? to give the machine “a fair chance. The mean: force G&:is applied tangentially to the reduced circle, whose semi circumference is=207—the force that 1 have supposed applied is 200, and the stroke of the piston is 13]. ‘Therefore force applied is ‘to force utilized ::200 131: 768 x 207 ob as: 28 14, nearly ; then ai ::100: 54 In the common orth the force applied is to the force utilized ::100:78, nearly.. Therefore the effect of the new pte erm is to the — of the ee wih, - ap- weight, and multiply that weight sre the distance gone through to find the quantity of force employed in giving jail tceniiainan t 4 ; ' Doolittle on the Steam Engine. 105 motion to the machine, we have force expended in describ- ing the arc B’AB=force employed in describing the arc 8; AH; —Therefore, besides the continual variation in the intensity of the force utilized, we find that a much greater portion of the force required fora revolution is spent in de- scribing the semicircle f. A. g. than in describing the semi- circle g. A’. f.—and we must not forget that this is the por- tion of the revolution where the effect is greatest in propor- tion to the force employed ; therefore if the motion of the piston in the cylinder be uniform, the motion of He cylin- der in its revolutions must be irregular and vice vers Add to this, that with the velocity which Mr. ‘Sullivan proposes giving to this machine, the influence of the centri- fugal force ought to be taken into consideration—this force also not only varies with the dimensions of the machine and the weight of the piston, but is different at every instant, in the same machine, increasing as the piston recedes from the centre, and diminishing as it approaches; augmenting the effect of the machine in the first instance and aaaceiak it in the latter ; more force is therefore developed in going from A through B to A’, than in going from A’ through B’ to A=another cause of irregularity 1 in its movements, to coun- teract these effects the machine should be made very a to serve as a fly wheel. I have hitherto considered this engine without Siatee to its friction ; this, in certain points of its revolution, must be immensely greater than in the old engine, as will appear evident to the most superficial observer, on a simple inspec- tion of its construction. These are some of the imperfections which this engine possesses in addition to all those of the common one, and can discover nothing in its favour but novelty. % There is no doubt but it will turn, if it be not too much loaded, and its movements wil] probably produce an agree- able effect, but I do not apprehend that Oliver Evans has any thing to fear from its rivality. You are at liberty to make what use you please of this communication. I am, sir, very respectfully, t, serv I. DOOLITTLE. 4 & Vor. IL.....No. 1 106 Sullivan on the peer ia: Engine. Arr. X. Mr. Surtivan on the Revobiinji Engine ; in re- ply to Mr. Dootirrus.* TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, 7 WAS so yeas hdpaty of the inadequacy of my descrip- tion of Morey’s Steam Engine in your second number, that ~ I had yee os Nine of eiforive a supplement, when i gave an opp portunity of reading the remarks o Doolittle, which [ presume you will insert, mre this further explanation. The invention was then quite in its infancy, and your American readers will require no apology for occupying a page of your Journal once more, with a subject perhaps in- teresting only as it relates to the developement of the re- sources of our country: this form of the yan de pe- culiarly adapted to canals and other inland na Referring to the annexed plate and ea neebinoed I will pie attempt to suse the remarks of your correspon- “The objection ‘that a part of the force is lost in producing a rotary motion, applies, I think with equal propriety to all engines communicating by the intervention of the crank —as in all of them it must be considered as a varying lever. By loss of force must be meant the difference between the effect j it would produce were its action always at right an- gles to the crank, and its indirect action, as it revolves. Professor Playfair estimates this difference as 7 to 11— at is, a rota ay motion is produced by the crank at the expense of ;‘ths of the power which the engine would have, could i it be baerted directly upon its object, or load. This mate of loss relates to atmospheric engines. Nospithmanding this however, it was Considered a a great improvement when Mr. Watt introduced the crank. It gave the steam engine to many more useful purposes ; though mark.—The temporary suspension of the Journal offered mean oppor- tunity of submitting Mr poreks 7 s remarks to Mr. Sullivag’s perusal, which . gives these gentlemen the mutual advan oeauel having “age pres — together, instead of oom Sati in different numbers. — ———— EE —— oft Figit VK LS Secdyn Seago. og OS ek Ee i a ARS NOMEN I WL aughton’ De. Sullivan on the Revolving Engine... 8 some part of the force, was undoubtedly lost at every stroke, in giving motion to the balance w eel necessary to equalize the movement. Whether the ions of force by a-crank is actual or theoretical, may be a question. It is not one how- ever which applies to this engine so much as to others, be- ~~ it is moved by very elastic steam always ig or both of the two cylinders which comp a Your correspondent deems this unimportant to ake ques- tion he raises,—which may answer more hy to — readers, od a — in point, from Dr. Young’s Lec- gressive motion of is rod will be ae accelerated and retarded, and for a considerable space of the revolution force exerted will be nearly uniform ; but if we dhompt to communicate at once to the rod its whole velocity in. each direction, as has sometimes been done, the motion would become extremely oe and the machinery would sa destroyed by the st * On the other hand it must be observed, that force ap- plied to the machinery, may in general be divided into two forces ; the one employed in opposing the force, so as to produce an equilibrium only, and the other in generating momentum. e With respect to the first portion, a single crank has the inconvenience of changing continually the mechanical ad- vantage of the machine; with respect to the second, its motion in the second quarter of its revolution is accelerated, instead of being retarded by the inertia, w which this portion of the force is intended to overcome ; and from the combi- nation of these causes, the motion must necessarily be ren- dered ve ener s may however be poms & removed by em- slope hart cranks in pairs, one ley m being fixed so as to sig aright angle with the o Here Dr. Young does not seem is or this supposable decision of force ‘ lost to all useful purposes,” but incident to the nature of machinery—or remediable on the same prin- ciple by which ste as a power, is applied by the double revolving engine. Ww) vatever deduction is to be made then _ acc : 108 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. from the original power, arises from the friction of the ma- _ chine only—which point we will consider after a moment’s attention to the nature of force. Force is known and measured only by its effects. If a machine is so constructed as to render gravitation, at- mospheric pressure, or the expansion of elastic fluids, ope- rative, continually ; then the machine will be more or less perfect, as it consumes on itself, the power from these sour- ces, in transmitting it to its object. as in estimating these sources of power, time is a ne- cessary circumstance; the constant transmission of the power by the machine, will enter into the estimate of its quality. And if, as in the common steam engine, the atmospheric pressure is not constant, or if being so, the manner of convey- ing it is not t e same, it may be said to be a loss of power only because ind is a loss of tame, in which, were the machine otherwise constructed, the power might have been prem Your correspondent cides the mind by the terms in which tes states, that ‘‘ he proposes to examine what portion of the force applied to give the alternating motion of the piston is actually employed in producing the rotary move- — of — cylinder, and what portion zs lost to all useful ate he thinks, ‘‘ when the piston is in a line with the iwo centres,” (or is proped for the moment, by the fixed crank) “ that the whole force employed to raise or depress los: —— is entirely lost. e have anticipated the first point by reference to Young; —and need only add, that it is unnecessary to investigate what is an already renewed and established rule, that the difference of advantage between a force acting constantly at right angles with the crank—and obliquely at a varyin angle as usual, is as 7 to 11. As to the second, it may be said there could be no power in question, but through the intervention of the machine, and if the operation of the machine is suspended in the po- sition a there can be no power to loose—but your correspondent carries his idea of the practical effect of the principle of resolution of forces to an extent, that ator with some received principles of mechanics e assu asa given quantity 200. “This force will “resolve itself a Ase pea er Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 108 (equally) into two forces; the one parallel to the position of the pitman, which of course is entirely lost, being em- ployed in fruitless endeavours to remove the centre piece.” en two forces meet at an angle, they produce a third, nearly equal to both in the diagonal of a parallelogram, pro- duced from the two lines of their direction—and yet scarcely pa is lost. eM e know too from the highest authority, “ that if any body draws or presses another, it is itself as much drawn or ressed :” that “all forces act reciprocally,” that ‘ action and reaction are equal”—but it is not thence concluded in theory—and surely it would be contrary to practice to say, that any of the forceis lost. When a boat is moved by oars, the force exerted on the extremity of the oar, reacts upon the boat.— When a lever is applied to raise a weight, the whole force reacts from the fulerum.— : eves hen a gun is fired, the elastic air acts on the bottom and sides of the chamber, which do not consume the force, but react upon the ball. And in like manner the force derived from the steam (in this case) is returned from the fixed centre piece, as a basis, and through the intervention of the pitman gives revolution to the engine. An unqualified objection is made to this engine, on the score of friction. It is said, “ the friction of this engine will appear evident to the most superficial observer, to be immensely greater than in the old engine.” ‘This manner of expression and of judgment appears to be equally unphilosophical. It supposes the friction of a machine greater, as it may seem to such an observer com- icate. It seems to leave out of the question the estab- ished law of mechanics, that “ friction is simply propor- tional to the weight or pressure, that brings the substances concerned into contact, independently of the magnitude of their forces,—and that friction is a uniformly retarding force.” On these principles an engine of equal power, that is not more than a third as heavy as others, must have the advan- tage of this difference in point of friction, the work and ad- justment being equally perfect. It cannot be denied that « good adaptation of parts, makes a great difference mm ma- 110 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. chines, and that ee substances interposed lessen the friction essentially. All these things being equal, the law above stated applies, nor is ~~ any particular portion in which it is peculiarly great. The most disadvantageous moment is, when the cokes has reached the end of the stroke, and starts in the other direction : but it starts gently, and when in the other cylinder, the power to help it, is greatest—the substances in contact are a polished surface of iron and oiled hempen packing ; there cannot be much at- trition between these; every other part of the pases is lubricated, and moves always the same way. Ro alves seem the most subject to this objection at first view. Here are two surfaces moving up- on each other, one of iron the other of brass, both perfect- ly polished, and occasionally oiled; they are kept to- gether by springs, elastic enough to preserve the contact ; for the tendency is to separate ; there is little or no weight or pressure to cause friction between them and it cannot possi- bly be You hens witnessed the operation of a large engine of this kind ; and must recollect with ~~ little force of steam it moved. I believe nothing in mechanics is more difficult to esti- mate than friction, what is ever incident to machinery ; but it should not be confounded with the obstacles to be over- come in the imperfections of work as well as of plan. Its unavoidable existence however, shews the capeeeny of reducing the steam engine to as light a construction as possible, as well as to get rid of those massive soeaaiers which waste the original power on their own movements. Experience is our surest guide in mechanics, and perhaps the late Mr. Evans’ heirs may have nothing to fear from what Mr. Doolittle calls the rivality of Morey’s invention. But I can assure him of the fact, that the same boilers which one boat, now — to a small single revolving engine, can tow four boats faster than that one was carried and ¢ sume not half so past fuel. . Young justly observes that the beauty of a contrivance. and the skill of the contriver depend, principally, on the sim- plicity of the means, and the safety, and durability of the me- Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. iii sufficiently free from objection. he combination however, of two cylinders at right an- gles, has the same effect. 1ey produce a continuity of the power, whatever that is; and enable the engine to work with equable motion, without a balance wheel, objec- tionable in navigation on account of its weight, as well as eats i know that it has heretofore been done in a form or manner ost. - ; We are enabled by this form of the engine to give the power of steam to canal navigation, and shallow inland wa- ters; to apply the power directly to the axis of the water wheel of the boat which is thus made the connecting axis of the engine. No form of the Steam Boat can be more sim- pie. The boats for this purpose have a peculiar form, which gives a recess or chamber at the stern, for the play of the wheel, or crank paddles of a peculiar construction, so that nothing encumbers the sides. The boilers when the boat is large, stand on or above the deck, covered from the air and weather. The whole body of the vessel being unincumbered and free for the use of loading or of passengers. = ~ , n important saving of expense may be made in conse- quence of the reduced size of the machine ; for its complete adaptation to the use of high steam admits of a great power, — thus exerted in a small compass. Expense is also saved in the manner of attaching the engine to the boat or vessel, so as not to depend on the stiffness or firmness of the bottom ; the center of reaction being the centre of the engine. When this kind of engine shall be applied to steam bat- teries, it will be found capable of propelling them perhaps with more than usual velocity, and at much less expense : 112 Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. but its great utility will be found in facilitating water car- riage on those rivers, which are at times shallow, and those which are rendered more extensively navigable by canals around their falls am, very respectfully, — &e. Y . ry J. L. SULLIVAN. Boston, October, 1819. Py In the Hartford Boat, we used the Tar or Gas fire with good effect : but [ am not able to state yet, precise- ly the proportion of saving. The men about the engine — thought it equal to as much again wood as they sed. “When I have made some decisive trials I shall communi- cate the result. Remark. We understand that Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Mo- rey have in the investigation of the economy of the liquid fuel of steam engines, (or tar and steam fire,) made some discoveries and improvements which bid fair to be very use- ful and economical. They are in practice ina steam en- gine which carries the recently invented self directing lathe, which makes ships’-blocks, lasts and other irregularly form- - ed articles. Explanation of the plates referred to in the preceding communi- cation. Index to the annexed plate of the Revolving Steam Engine. aaa Boilers bb Cylinders ce Connterpese, {not preset necessary as the cylinders unte er.) coun dd Frames holding the cylinders, &e. ee Axes on which the frames rotate, ff Fixed cranks or centers, gg The pitman or bar, hh Cross — ii The Pisto ok ane Ribs isch preserve the parallel movement of the 11 The yotat valve mm The fixed cinhtehyiati to the rotary valve, Sullivan on the Revolving Engine. 113 nn ‘The springs which keep the valves together oo ©The a legs valve box and pipes leading steam: to the cyt pp Pipe leading from the cylinders, rr The intermediate sha s The clutch box, to re the shaft and wheel, t The clatch box lev uu Cog wheels efeneeicean motion—the reverse of this Peon is found i in 1 experience preferable, ww The meet oUF he aati es, we The gear and nine for the = supply pump. ase . The Saale or 5 face of the valves shewing the goons, ee _ The cross pipes a the. back motion, 4. Wheels’ with er es “placed on its head. > cia a pedi of'a Boat the boilers above se (see note b) Ph. re The stern view of the revolvi Pa pp ial 3. Outline of the apparatus asngsiod to the stern, ig 10». Profile of the stern with paddles. Note a By proportioning the revolutions of the engine to the motien of the. dies or wheels so that the engine will ease move moderately and the wheels fast ; we are able when e] has Speed, either from the wind or steam, to superadd ny power of this. to her acquired momentum, so that the maximum of effeet may be attained. If the engine | ert too fas the pe Ames they may be made to take more hold of the water— Ness ge ner eee ror ae ey ae a-part from the loading and passengers as possible, the — invented fue will permit 62 arrangements very favourable to the economy of reom. Note c. The advantages Ag a double engine are perhaps very important in boats of the largest class, but a single engine applied to the stern propellers, is the most simple and lightest form of t engine ; and is best adapted to o those rivers of fre —— which flow —e land, and ie eile i r chann No. 1. 1 114 Gibbs on Dry Roi. alternately close in with one pia or the other, as their winding course directs the force of the current. A steam — therefore which has no external wheels or ene ey will be less exposed to accidents from the shore, the trees upon it, or from drift wood. FOR THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Arr. XI. Observations on the Dry Rot, by Col. Gzorce , ees: , , ‘ Tur Jate extraordinary debsy of Pitnbér, by a disease, termed the dry rot, in the commercial and military marine © in Europe, has excited much attention, and called forth ma- ny schemes for prevention or cure. But I have not been fortunate enough to meet with any account of its cause, or any proposal for a remedy, which could satisfy me, still less e Gentlemen skilled in naval affairs. It appears, karat — disease affects w ood, whether dry of moist, though more in the latter case : "aoe t has become more common within go years, and since tint time large ships have been discovered to be entirely rotten on the then” before the preparations were made for launching t ‘Steaming the Timber has been tried in America, and Seed 3 injurious ; oil and paint are ruinous; and many oth- er operations have been recommended, some of which were found i injurious, others ineffectual, others too costly for tri- al. All the ingenuity of the English mechanics seems ta _ have been employed in scheeming and failing; much mo-- ney, and. some lives, have been lost i in these ore sory : ‘Rot has been ascribed to the use of green bans wood not sufficiently seasoned or docked ; ‘bat, ; docking timber is, to a considerable extent, impor- tant, yet it is found that this remedy is by no means sure, as ships with which this precaution, as formerly, has pe tried, have. been found at times subject to the dry rot; that in spite of every oe large vessels in Europe do bik last half as long as for In the United States this gieeacee is by no means as com- mon, although it sragually becomes more so. Our mer- ee TF Gibbs on Dry Rot. 15 chant ships are at times troubled with it. Our ships of war being built of live oak, cedar, and locust, are less exposed to this evil. The live oak appears to be almost indistructi- ble, except perhaps by its contact with other species of wood, the juices of which, as in treenails,* may injure it.— But the time is not far distant, when we must bewail this ca- lamity, or discover some preventive. : e same evil attends the construction of modern built ises. The timbers of the roof of Westminster-Hall have been in place six hundred years, and I have examined in S$ country some which were placed one hundred and fifty years ago, and are seemingly uncorrupted and incorruptible. But no architect now would calculate on a durability of half the latter term. I have been informed that some of the floors in the new City-Hall, in New-York, though finished } Gee only six years, have been removed on account of the TY 80-25 4% pe acre ake : Cres Considering these and other facts before the public, I _ have been led to believe, that the dry rot is owi the nature of the wood, rather than to the deficiency of ordina- ry preparation. . ~The wood of a tree consists of the heart and the albur- mum, or sap wood which forms the external concentric Layers. This last is the vehicle of the sap. In young trees, it extends to the centre, but as the tree grows, the heart becomes firm, and ceases to circulate the sap, and this process continues during the life of the tree. In aged trees the. sap wood forms only a small part of the timber, till at length a process similar to ossification in the o) of animals takes place, and the tree dies for want of nourish- - ment. ie : The durability of heart, and the pernicious effeets of sap wood, are well known ; but as timber bears a high price, workmen content themselves with taking off the coloured sap wood, without regarding the remaining part in the tim- ber. An oak tree, at the age of eighty years, is generally ofa size fitted for timber for large vessels. But if we com- pare this tree to one of the same size, but two hundred years old, we shall find the real proportion of sap wood and heart very different in the two specimens. Now if we con- *7 5? so aced by the shi t Editi Trunnels ? 50 y 1 by the ship carper Editor sider the enormous consumption of wood during the. last century, in large and small vessels, in houses, and in all the ohyiots which add to the comforts of society, both in Eu- rope and America, we may justly suppose that few old oaks can be supplied in Europe, and that the number: ain Ametica is continually diminishing. We are therefore justified in believing, that the dry rot in vessels and houses, in its present extension, is owing to the use of young timber, to which architects have had re- cource, in consequence of the destruction of the old forests. It is perhaps impossible to prevent the danger, but it _ be in our power to guard ina great measure against 1 And it is of so much importance, that I feel less in in offering my opinion on the subject. he object of every process for the preservation of tim- ber, must be to extract the water of the sap, and to destroy the absorbent power of the wood, and chiefly of the sap vessels. The different uses for which the timber is intend- ed, will of course cause some difference: i in the odes of its treatment. For this purpose, I suggest with diffid , following se dA Neds aonie: one “a abicly nay probably one | in ea situa must hin be very limited. Another method may perhaps be ied with success, and without greater expense than many that have heen resorted to without avail: | mean the use of smoke. This would evaporate the. water of the sap, and carbonise in some measure t ood. A third See is the application of lime, aloes in sais tion or as air slacked. The first would act like 1 muriate chemical affinity, much more powerfully. It sates be ap- plied to timber in most situations. I understand that when the steam frigate was built in New-York, a quantity of pot- ash was poured into the centre of each timber. [Between _ Gibbs.on Dry Rot. in? contiguous timbers? Ed.] Bat it is the surface, and not the heart of the wood whieh first dec a ; ARhie alii like: tion of lime, w pale render the wood prenelatny as el as incombustible, and the woody fibre, like the animal fibre — in leather, being saturated, would increase in strength and durability. af ' G. GIBBS. Bacsesbenly August, 1819. fe P. S.—Since the above was’ written, I have received from Col. Perkins, of Boston, some “vahuable information: on the subject, which I will briefly state:—Several ships built at that port have been salted, or filled in between the tim- bers with salt whilst on the stocks, and after a lapse of ten or fifteen years the timbers have in every case, been found to be perfectly sound. A large ship belonging to him, which had been salted, (fourteen years old) required repairs, new decks, and. new iron work. ‘Considering the age of the ship, it was important to examine the frame in every part. The ceiling was therefore ripped up, and a complete examination took bd The result was, that the timber and plank were ound completely sound in every part. accompanied this gentleman on board of a salted ship aging to him, and now in this port. The timbers were not so. close as usual in frames of vessels, and the salt was retained at different heights by wedges between the tim- bers, so that the salt in settling should not leave any con- siderable height vacant. It took five hundred bushels of salt for this ship, of five hundred tons ; and two years after being built, one hundred bushels were added to fill up — the space of the salt dissolved. ther instance has heen eg AE to me by an intelligent officer of the Na Argus U.S. brig was buil at Boston in 1802, ie bie aah. was salted as e, repaired. at: the Navy-yar d in New-York in 1814, and the tanbers found to be ag ie sound. a Morey on Heat and Lighi. I see no objection to this treatment, except fromthe great weight above, say 28 tons ina ship of 300. The expense is not material, but the iron work I should think would re- quire Po i: oftener than in the other modes. Whether a uld be created injurious to the health of the crew of a lage ship of war, to its provisions and amunition, or to the freight of saree goods, requires further expe- rience. : G. GIBBS. Art. xi On Heat and Light ; by Mr. acne Monex* of Orford, New-Hampshi [First Communication.] TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &¢. Sir, — TF in the (olcwide -cepethinente ou Fe sie sith remarks on the economy of burning water as an object of fuel, any thing can be found worthy ofa place in your val- > agave it will be avin more than 1 could reason- Re Yours respectfully, SM Water, it is well nowt is ésthipiiNed of some ot sh bait materials for producing light and heat; but when formed by combustion, Pieces: which those materials did contain appears to be parted with, or is neutralized, which va be ie hoe to ee them again combustible. shall that se: effected, S80 as to > render the gipengee ey: nd useful ? I presume that no apology will be wig om for giving Mr. Morey algaiin communications entire. They are the practical results of an i- gens Pathe d man _who as he ingenuously states, * hating no preten- sio emical ot and Ij i or nO Re- cess s-to o men of se pees has s ent much ‘of. his life in in “experiments.” § results are ag cack val abl ns perhaps, in some cases, not the less 30, ews bit = haying — song without te Hithettch of precon ection thabrencd mtn ma Morey on Heat and Light. 119 Electricity will restore it—May not the same or other materials, which furnish that electricity, at so very low a temperature, furnish it directly to the water, at a higher, though convenient one ! f water, in considerable quantities is thrown on oil or tar if'a state of inflammation, the flame is greatly increased, which evidently arises from some effect which the oil has, in preparing the water for combustion. f oil will, at or near the temperature at which it boils or takes fire, produce the same effect, we have only to pass the steam of boiling water, through oil at that temperature, to furnish a — supply of fuel from the water—and, if only the Hydrogen is in the first instance given out for use, the Oxygen by mixing or combining with the oil, haeglon me doubtedly render it a ultimat et assist in making the combustion the more pateiet Many experiments seem to justify these’ conclusions, some of which will be mentioned. If ever so small a drop of water, “rt into oil at a temper- ature near boiling, it evidently is decomposed, for pom ex- plosive report is sharper than that of gun powder. If tar, containing a Pons tee proportion of water, is dropped on brick or metal, at a temperature which will rapidly evaporate sisi: the vapours burn with white. shoot- ing streaks, much flame, and without smoke, while the wa- ter lasts. Inflamed drops of tar, burn, while falling, with a red flame and much smoke, but on reaching boiling water the Sree instuntly disappears, and streaks of a white flame te in,) to be d erived ‘from the water. So aia if steam a led over the ies of tar ina cylin- der, and made. to force out a small stream of it, through a pipe, into which a quantity of steam is also admitted, and made to mix intimately with it, they burn with a great b of flame and intense heat, and without smoke provided the Proportions are well regulated. ee ae - oe, in one aaah be made to boil, and the om of another included cylinder, busing notes of aipentite the steam, when let out un- “der a moderate pressure, carries off with it a sufficient quan- tity of the spirit to burn with a pleasant white flame, free from smoke ; by increasing the pressure, the flame will be- come in part or wholly blue. Here as in many other ex- ‘periments, I have noticed, that different coloured flames may be produced from the same materials—are the products of the combustion different : If the steam of water, containing a small proportion of the vapour of rosin be driven against iron, at or below a red heat, it burns with a pleasant ‘blue flame, which will be ex- tended some way back into the column of the vapour, inter- mixed with innumerable sparks of very white flame, evi- dently particles of the rosin. If the vapours, when the proportion of rosin is very stall, are made to pass between two plates of iron, at or near a red heat, they can be inflamed on the opposite sides of the plates, and will then, sometimes, burn with an entirely blue flame, although the vapour cannot be inflamed, with- : ‘oe the intervention of the If the steam of boiling water, be led to the bottom and passed up through tallow at a high ——o and then cold water to condense the vapour, ned ; saihaee will float on the surface : and on apiied a flame, it would sometimes, take fire, some distance before the flame reached it, at rates times it would require, to be in contact a few seconds, always beginning to burn with a blue flame, and after the whole surface had been sometime enveloped m flame, and the heat was such, against one side of the top or rim of the vessel, as to cause the water below the oil on that side to boil, and pass up through the oil, the flame op — this side would be chiefly blue. Does not this show that the _ steam was on this side decomposed in passing through the - inflamed tallow, and from its sometimes taking fire on the es eae: ofa “serge it would appear clearly that there was a evaporation of hydrogen, from the tallow, and whe» rap with the same sized wick, it appeared to. me to give three or four times as much light as other tallow, whicl! ‘pointed out as I ary that it was rendenea in the — mehiy combustible. Morey on Heat and Laght. 12] Ifa given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil or rosin, at or near the boiling point, they explode to every appearance as quickly and violently as gun powder, and would without doubt, be as fatal. In this case, an immeise quantity of highly inflammable gas or vapor is formed in an instant, and apparently without any aid from caloric.— {Except what is contained in the materials >—Ed. ‘When sulphuric acid is mixed with water, it is well known that much heat is given out. If after standing until the mixture becomes cold, iron filings are then added, much hydrogen gas will continue to be formed for a long time, and much sensible heat will be again given out. We must here look, certaitly to some other gause, besides the caloric given out by the oxygen, in passing from a liquid to a sol- _ id state. Ifa small quantity of spirits of turpentine be add- ed, it burns with a very pleasant white flame, and without smoke re again it is very evident the greater part of the bulk of the flame is furnished from the water, which im this case, is again directly reprepared for combustion, without the least expence of caloric. At present sir, I will not trouble you with an account of any more experiments in which I have thought that water was, and might be useful in producing light and heat; I will only add one or two more, in which it is not concerned. If to tallow or linseed oil a small quantity of salt-petre be added, and the temperature raised to nearly that of the boil- ing point, the salt petre appears to be dissolved and held in solution by the oil; they will evaporate together, and the mixture, or the vapour, will burn, wholly excluded from the atmosphere. If science will point out a mode of retaining le mixture when cold, I have thought —— it might be more extensively useful than the safety /amp. the flame continues white. If more still be added, the flame lessens and becomes partly blue. By adding still more and more, it will burn with a very small flame, entirely blue, and with a singular musical sound. If still more be added, the flame and every ray of light ceases, but that the com- ox. I].....No. 1. 16 4 122 Morey on Heat and Light. bustion still continues, is certain, from the explosive deto- nating noise or report, continuing to be distinctly heard. Orford, May 4th, 1819. Arr. XID. On Heat and Light; by Mr. Samven Morey. [Second Communication.] TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, AS the use of a certain proportion of water for affording heat and light, has become more familiar, and some of the experiments being very simple, and such as may be easily repeated, I have thought I might be justified in submitting to your perusal some further remarks and experiments on ihat subject; hoping you may there from select something which may find rine in the American Journal. I find, that, for common use, the most convenient mode is to evaporate the substance designed to afford light, or light and heat, provided it naturally contains a sufficiency of water a vapor burn with a white flame free from ae ; we observe mineral coal when the fire first reaches it, we shall perceive, that the vapor which first issues, burns with a hat flame, free from smoke; owing atte stent to the great Mahe of water. So also it is with pitch- pine raat or the fat knots, if the heat be not too great. It is curious to seat the effect in burning pw Sea of pi wood, which contains more or less of the Mie streams of vapor are often pushed out to a r SoLASeeae dis- tance, and burn with a very pleasant white flame. These knots burn for a long time, and will sometimes retain water enough to burn the vapor without Smoke, until the whole of Ty F ; ay f Morey on Heat and Light. 123 the wood adjoining them has been converted into coal.— These streams of vapor appear to me to be very different from those of the Carburetted Hydrogen, which are often seen issuing from burning wood after it has become nearly coal. These rarely, if ever, go out, and the flame follows them to the wood. Not so with those of the vapor: they are plainly to be seen issting to some distance, and mixing generally with a proportion of air, before they will burn; and they are often extinguished by puffs of too great a pro- portion of steam. The colour of these vapors, their deto- nating noise, their variously coloured flames—(blue, blue and white, white and intense white) we can now perfectly imitate at our pleasure with the patent lamp stove, by burn- ing tar, pitch pine, or mineral coal and water. : One of the greatest difficulties which I have mef with, was from the inclination the tar or rosin manifests, to over- flow or run out, when heated to about the temperature of boiling water; this disposition arises undoubtedly from the sudden conversion of the water, contained in every part of ating the difficulty is, by filling the vessel only in part—~say One quarter with tar, and then filling it with small or fine coal.* The effect appears to be, that the tar, as it becomes heated at the sides of the vessels, rises up and passes off laterally into the centre of the coal, in a geat measure out of the reach of the high temperature at the sides; when the bubbles are broken, the vapor passes up through the coal, and the tar settles down, to repeat the same operation. This experiment may in some measure be easily tried by a common skillet. Fill it about one quarter with tar; place live coals around it, and in a few minutes the tar will flow over : but, if previously fine coal be added so as nearly to fill the skil- let, it cannot be made to flow over with a common charcoal fire, unless urged by a strong blast. When the vapor rises pretty freely above the coal, and if a flame is applied, it takes fire and will continue to burn while the tar lasts.—If a piece of coal of some size be made a little concave and placed at the top in the centre, and a little water poured into it, it re- Mains a considerable time, although enveloped in flame: and is evaporated without boiling. The flame around this ; . 2. tot i bd * We take it for granted that charcoal Editor 124 Morey on Heat and Light. water, while evaporating, is whiter and freer from smoke. — fa tunnel be inverted over the coal, the vapor as it issues from it may be inflamed. At first, in consequence undoubt- edly of the great proportion of water given off by the tar and coal, it burns without smoke. en the flame becomes reddish, and there is much smoke, pour a little water into the tunnel as it stands; it is received on the coal without driving out or exploding the tar, as it otherwise would. The vapor may again be inflamed, and again burns without smoke. Much in this way, may be had a useful light and fire for cooking especially at sea, and for a great many other pur- poses. Ifthe tunnel be flatted, or if the coal has been par- tially saturated with water, it burns with less smoke, and sand or ashes will prevent a loss by the side. Another great advantage derived from the coal, besides that of giving a more uniform steady fire, and preventing the tar’s running over, is the groat quantity of water it absorbs, and that of the watér’e aging so obstinately to it, which in a great measure, answers every purpose of a constant supply of steam from a separate boiler. Newly made and red hot charcoal will take up about three times its weight of water, which it will in some measure retain until nearly consumed. _ Sand, ashes, or fine clay answers well for mixing with the tar &c. If the latter be made into a paste with equal parts of spirits of turpentine and water, and cold lumps of it of a fsptts of turpentine an Fitofe be placed on a table, and a flame applied, the vapors burn without smoke for a short time; if placed on 2 stove at a temperature something like that of boiling water, the flame continues much longer. If enclosed in a tin cylin- der, and the vapor be made to issue through small holes at the top, placed as before stated, or on a plate over a chafing- dish of coals, it burns with a very white light, free from smoke. Ifthe cylinder be tight at the top, and the vapor be led from the inside at the top, down and through the bottom and there be made to issue in an oblique direction, and from a number of small openings, it will burn with a beautiful flame, and ma? se and regulates, very accurately, its Own evaporation. ‘The oblique direction carries the heat in part beyond the cylinder, when the evaporation is too eat. Every effect may be produced in consuming the smoke, and giving an intense white flame, by using a certain pro~ Morey on Heat and Light. 125 ortion of water intimately blended or mixed with these vapors, that can be from an excess of oxygen furnished b creating a very strong current of air, with a high flue. With water it is effected much more conveniently, and without carrying off any part of the heat from the room. Another advantage is, it carries along with it the whole of the tar and consumes it. For instance, if into a piece of a gunbarrel about six inches long, tar be made to flow regularly at one end, a quantity of steam let into the same end, and the iron kept at a temperature below or at a red heat, the vapors issuing through small holes at the other end, may be infla- med, and, if the proportions are right, will burn without smoke, and for aught that appears, may be continued while the supply lasts. But if the steam be shut off, and the tar contains no water, the small apertures and the barrel itself will in a short time, become filled with a coaly residium. Another advantage in using a proportion of water is, that tar or rosin is evaporated at a much lower temperature, which must be increased asthe proportion of water decreases, inorder to furnish the same quantity of light. As I understand it, all the heat that is necessary to fur- n only at the bottom, whether the air be led directly across the coal and taken from the opposite side, or made 126 Morey on Heat and Light. and furnishes a constant and almost perfectly regular sup- ply; so much so, that while evaporating the pitch pine or other pilihenite for the light, it is barely possible some- times to perceive any variation for The cylinder "for holding the pitch pine or other rahe stance, is placed within or surrounds this. I find the best mode of letting out the vapor, is from a circular tube, on the principle of Argand’s lamp; sometimes, when much light is required, from a cluster of them ; and to furnish them with fresh, and very hot air, bya tube pesos down and through the ignited coal and grate. This very hot air tends much to preserve the temperature of the vapor until inflamed ; and to increase the bulk of the flame, as well as its intensity. This tube requires a register also. And this kind of lamp, or lamp- {ea admits of a glass burner or flue, as conveniently as any ot It will easily be seen, tat thin sheet-iron on this plan, will give as regular aud as durable a heat, as brick or stone of any thickness. If instead of putting in ignited coals at the bottom, two or three inches of them are placed on the top, the red heat of the coal passes down through the whole in a few minutes, leaving the coal black above, just as fast as it is ignited below, until it reaches the bottom, when it becomes stationary. After this piasrt there is no smoke from. the coal, even if there was before ’e can burn in this kind of stove or lamp, (which may be at the same time, for aught I see, extended to warming and cooking, as well as to the lighting of houses, manufac- tories, &c.) charcoal pare saturated with water or not; or the steam may be furnished by a small tin plate, or other , receiving its heat from the stove, and directing the steam to or near the bottom of the tar, &c.: tar, rosin, rough turpentine, or the spirit, or alcohol, or any kind of oil, fat, or tallow ; mineral coal, pitch-pine wood, and the knots, birch bark k, pumpkin, sun-flower, flax, and other seeds; 3; as well as many other substances : the result is, a pleasant oF intense white flame, free from smoke. ‘That substance which per has the most generally distributed over the earth, and which too is the cheapest known or used for affording pent Sing toh to be the best adapted for burning in these or it is equally safe, easiest managed, ope ote % a ches temperature, consumes a greater pro- Morey on Heat and Light. 127 rs. obtained from the same wood. The more volatile parts are evaporated at a temperature below that of boiling water, and burn well with three parts of the vapor of water: the flame then, however, is nearly blue. A kind of spirit may easily be procured from distilling this wood, which will be highly inflammable ; and which, I should think, can cost but a few cents per gallon, as it comes over most rapidly. _ It is with all its water well calculated to burn in these - lamps. Be eee . I exposed some of it to severe frost one night, and found nearly three-fourths of the lower part converted into a cake of ice. This was some of the first that came over, and con- sequently contained more water than it would afterwards. It was distilled by one of the lamp-stoyes, exactly in the same manner as if I had filled it for burning to give light. While distilling I often applied a flame to the vapor, and found it always would take fire. Its appearance is very similar to brandy. One pound of the fattest part of the liquor or spirit. It dissolves rosin, mixes and spreads well with paints, and appears to prepare wood as well for receiv- - ng a coat of paint as ail. There is something singular in the vapor of pitch pine, when issuing through small apertures. The particles do hot repel each other like other vapors ; but, if not inflamed, they issue, when under a moderate pressure, two or three inches without increasing their size at all: sometimes these jets extend eight or ten inches and apparently as fine as a hair, accompanied often, above the stream, with an invisible vapor, which is known only by its burning with a blue, lame, hardly visible. There is no doubt that on a scale of some magnitude this substance will afford abundance of heat or its own evaporation, much in the same manner as that mentioned for burning spirits of turpentine and water. The birch bark too is almost wholly converted into a liquid, 128 - Morey on Heat and Light. darker and thicker :* and as the bark of this wood appears to be as indestructible by time as charcoal, I know not why this too may not be useful for many purposes. Nothing can burn better than the vapor of this bark, but it requires a much higher temperature to evaporate it ; and as it is re- ‘plenished by nature when taken from growing trees, by cultivating those trees for firewood, we at the same time are reaping an abundance of an excellent substance for light. hen the piece of gun barrel mentioned is used, it makes _ the chief of the grate, the flame and the smoke , when there is any, and the air also, enter about two inéhies above and pass down through the grate. The bulk of the flame, when the steam is suffered to flow in, is nearly as three to one, and much whiter. A singular circumstance often attended this mode of proceeding, when it was employed in burning rosin and water. Instead of ashes I found potash only, or little else. So much was this the fact, that with a particular kind of coal, the grate would become, in about two hours, so choaked or coated, as obliged me to remove the fire. I give the result, (very nearly,) of experiments made on the evenings of the 22d, 23d, and 24th of March, with a lamp weighing two pounds and two ounces, the inner eylin- der of which is of two inches diameter at the top, and about two and a quarter at the bottom, and six long, besides about one inch tunnelled out at the bottom of the outer cylinder, which is seven and a half inches long, leaving a space be- tween the two about three-fourths of an inch in the clear. Which space will hold nearly one pound of the wood, and ‘the inner one about two ounces of coal; the residue of the coal is contained in a tin plate tube of the same size as the nner cj linder, and extended above it, with a register at the top, which is removed when the coal t is put in. A tube leads the vapor up by the side of this to the top, where it is let. out to burn in the manner gas would be, _takin care to * Than wha? ws tabthe i ds beng distilled | Pad sence presinne an the 7 before mentione Morey on Heat and Light. - «22 hours, when I retired, leaving it burning ; but the coal was nearly consumed. The next day I added more coal, and kept it burning from three to four hours more. -had lost in the whole time only about six or seven ounces, and gave on an average, as appeared to me, about the light of two candles. It was lighted again the next night at sev- en: J had put in three ounces of coal, and seven of wood, filling it up with dry ashes. It burnt till nine o’clock, giv- ing, I should think at least the light of six candles, but not without smoke :. the wood lost five ounces. The next night at half past six it was lighted again, having eight ounces of wood and three of coal. It burnt with a most beautiful blue and white flame the first hour, inclining to a greater propor- tion of white towards the close. At the end of another hal hour, it had become almost wholly white, and even intense- ly so, and so continued to half past eight, giving about the hight of a candle: the coal had lost only one ounce, and the wood two. The next night, at half past six, I put in three ounces of coal: it burnt well, as the night before, two hours. The next morning I again filled it with coal, and it burnt with a small but intensely white flame about one hour an ahalf: the whole time without smoke. The wood had then lost three-fourths of its weight, or six ounces ; and had burnt in the whole about six and a half hours. It is said, that the water, if decomposed, can give out no more caloric than it receives. That is possibly correct, when applied solely to the combustibles, which decompose : thereby doubling the quantity received from the combusti- 130 Morey on Heat and Light. repel each other, so as to occupy twice or more the bulk of atmospheric air, than the vapour of the combustible would one. Oil and water repel each other to a sensible dis- - tance, when in a cold liquid state. When at the high tem- pose coe. How much more rapid and oi must ‘the process be here, ‘ohiens there is an abundance of atmos- pheric air on every side to assist and increase ie combus- tion and decomposition, as well as for furnishing on the spot an abundant resupply of heat. What electricity has to do in combustion, it is not for me to say: but, that it assists in a the particles into a greater space, { trust there is oubt: and from its general well known energy and ac- tivity, it evidently does not remain passive. If we apply. the moist wick of a candle to the flame of another to light it, it is not possible for me to distinguish the sharp cracking reports from those of electricity.* In nature’s greatest ereory? for the formation of carbonic acid gas, the pro- cess rried on at a temperature not above blood heat: that is ag soimelicng like a thousand millions of human be- esides myriads of animals, incessantly breathing. I know not, that he is necessary, at this temperature for that ut what source the whole of the —e heat, evolved by Sedition, during the formation of the car bonic acid gas, or that evolved during the formation of water by the combustion of its component parts, as well as from many other processes, proceeds, | trust is as yet not fully known. It may therefore, for aught I know, be a fact, that much sensible heat, may be obtained by the decomposition and recomposition of water r, if confined wholly to the com- bustible ; but when an equal quantity of water is again re- composed from the atmospheric air and hydrogen of the de- composed water, solely, the oxygen, I should think, could not be lost, surrounded as it is, on all sides, by a highly in- flammable vapor. * May ot be proceed from the decomposition of the water and the sud- n of some of it into steam as when drops of water fall into @ kettle of bailing oil? —E£d. Morey on Heat and Light. 131 Tadd some of the advantages, (as they appear to me) which will and do result from obtaining light and heat by the decomposition of water, instead of forming permanent as. 1. We are not troubled with that disagreeable smell, which accompanies carburetted hydrogen gas, unless care- fully purified. ; _ 2. We obtain all the light, necessary for ordinary purpo- ses, from the same combustibles, which are used for warm- ing the apartment. ; ‘ 3. A stove supplied in this way requires less fuel for warming an apartment, than is demanded in any other mode with which I am acquainted, and less to warm and light the room at the same time, than to warm it only. 4. The apparatus for furnishing this light is very cheap : so simple that any person can manage it: so light and por- table, that it may be placed on a table or on the mantlepieee, or carried about the house nearly as conveniently as a lam and as the temperature need not be so high as a red heat, thin sheet iron must last a good while. vo 5. The whole heat, evolved during the combustion, is retained in the room, without rendering the air unpleasant o unhealthy. Better judges, however, will decide as to the atter. . The heat on ever so large a scale, will be nearly per- fectly uniform. Stoves in my house, made of brick on this principle, (the wood however is put in at the side) burn rom nine o’clock at night until nine, ten, and eleven the next day: keeping the room entirely warm, during the coldest nights of the winter past.* , however is yet to be learned in the small way. Different kinds of the fat wood, containing more or less wa- ter, require different degrees of heat to evaporate them so as to burn without smoke; so also with common tar, con- blue, trimmed with a bright white. So it is with rosin, min- eral coal, birch-bark, and pumpkin seeds. It becomes dif- ficult in some measure, after about two thirds of the volatile * The climate of Orford is severe—thermometer in the winter eg nae ally from 20° to 30° of Fah. below 0. Mr. Morey does not state howi has been there during the late cold winter.—Ed. 132 ‘ Damnel A. Clark on Snow. parts of the substances are evaporated, to make them burn without smoke. It is however done by lessening the te oration. It would undoubtedly be better econom e large way at least, to attach a small boiler for farniching a. supp y of steam or manufactories or light houses, I see not a necessity of further experiments ; especially if tlie wood of the piteh pine be used; which will be much the cheapest substance. e wood is re of more value, pound for nga than the tar made from Tam ce patie yours, SAMUEL MOREY. Orford, March 28th, 1820. Remarks.—Myr. Gay Lussac, of Paris, in the Annales de Chimie, &c. for June 1819, has commented on Mr. Morey’s method of producing light and heat, and stated some ob- jections. It was my intention to translate this piece, and. give it to the American eat along with Mr. Morey’s communications, but the accidental loss'of the No. of the Annales de Chimie in wa puts this, for the present, out of my awe. 3 Arr. XIV. On some curious ead pile ct meine of snow sete hail, by the Rev. Danien A. Cua ‘TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, J SPENT the winter of 1808 and 9 in the county of Morris, in New-Jersey, when and where I witnessed a phenome which perhaps may never have been observed at any other ce or time since the creation of the world, and yet I am not_able to say but the appearance in some parts of the world may be common. If you think it an uncommon event, and should judge it worthy of notice in your Journal, the following statement is at your service There fell a deep snow I think about the middle of Janu- ary. When it had lain upon the earth several days, the Daniel A. Clark on Snow. 133 weather being very cold, there passed over us one evening, a cloud, from which there fell a small shower of rain. The cloud was suddenly carried off by a northern blast, which congealed the water in the very surface of the snow, and covered the face of the earth with ice. The moon was full and the evening very fine. When a sufficient time had _ elapsed to permit the ice to form, another cloud appeared, from which there fell a shower of snow to the depth, should judge of three fourths of an inch. Then the sky suddenly cleared, the cold became very intense and the wind blew a gale. Nature now began her sport. Particles of the snow would move on the icy crust from twelve to twenty inches, and would then begin to roll making a track upon the ice shaped like an isosceles triangle. The balls enlarged according to circumstances. I passed in the morn- ing under the south side of a long inclined plain, free from almost every kind of obstruction. In many instances the rolls had apparently descended the bill by their own gravi- ty, aided by the wind which commenced the sport, until they reached the bottom, or lodged in the path, and were of the size of a barrel and some even larger. Thus the whole creation as far as the eye could see, was covered with snow balls differing in size, from that of a lady’s muff, to the diameter of two and a half or three feet, hollow at each end to almost the very centre, and all as true as so many logs of wood shaped in a lathe. I do not know the extent to which this Lusus nature was observed, but I believe to no very great extent. The old- - €st men in the neighbourhood had never witnessed the like phenomenon, and all were filled with amazement at the Spectacle which the fields exhibited in the morning. — . -he exhibition depends on so many concurring circum- stances, that I suppose it may never have happened in any other ¥e- The rain must fall suddenly and freeze oe . small had not the declivity of a hill promoted the opera- ton. 134 Remarks on Atmospheric Dust. There was also, two years before, a fall of hail in the same county, which was to me in some respects new.— ‘he hail stones were generally about one fourth or three eighths of an inch thick and of sufficient dimension in length and breadth to hide a shilling, and in many cases a cent, and almost every one perforated in the middle as if they had ‘been held between the fingers, ull the mt by their: When warmth had melted away the middle and had me the perforation was not complete, there was in noise case an inclination to perforation. The storm was tremendous, but of short duration and took place in the heat of summer. T observed then and have many times observed since, that hail is usually accompanied by contrary winds which seem striving over our heads for the mastery. I wish sir, you, isnot the hail always produced by conflicting sind which, in the place where they meet, force the mosphere above the freezing point, and cause the vapour to congeal ? And if this be the fact will not the hail be lar- ting ieee can support its 2 Weigin, and thus be o> the longer time above the freezing point and become so muce the larger. The perforation in the case above mentioned was, I suppose, effected while falling, but by what means LT know not. The hail might have been strung like so many beads. Art. XV. Remarks on Atmospheric Dust, in reply to Mr. RaFINESQuE. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. . Sir, BEING a subscriber to your Journal, I observe, (Vol. 1. No. IV. p. 597,) an article from the ingenious and learned Mr. Rafne esque, on Atmospheric Dust. 1 confess I can hardly agree with that gentleman in several opinions. which Remarks on Atmospheric Dust. 135 referred to, are doubtless true, but, as I apprehend, attribu- ted to wrong causes. Iam not disposed to question that m which there is not a sufficient breeze sometim course of the twenty-four hours, to set in motion what we call atmospheric dust. And occasionally immense quan- tities are raised. In the stillest times, vegetables and trees are constantly depositing decayed matter, and some accompany it there. Besides, the dust which is visible at Sea, is visible only when the ship is nearly or quite becalm- ed ; and may it not then arise in a great measure from the deck of the ship? : : Mr. R. “calculates that on an average, from six to twelve inches are accumulated over the ground in one hun- dred years.” Taking his lowest estimate, six inches for 136 Remarks on Atmospheric Dust. one hundred years, the medium thickness of the deposit on - the surface of the earth in 1800 years, will not be less than nine feet. But Mr. R. goes farther, and supposes that in former times the deposit must have been much more abun- dant than at present. So that I apprehend we should do his theory ample justice, by saying that the diameter of the earth is now, from this single cause, twenty-seven feet sretts er than it was at the birth of our Saviour. But if we ex- amine the surface of the earth, we shall find there has ‘edad no such change. How happens it that rocks and stones are every where to be met with? — Are they made by a fortui- tous concurrence of atoms from aerial deposit! o the minerals, so various in their primitive substances, in their kinds and composition, which are spread all over the sur- face of the earth, and which are collected and form the cabinets of the curious, do they owe their origin to atmos- pheric dust? Has the iccmines the property of depos- iting one substance here, and another there, so as to make one tract of country clay, another gravel, and another rocks, and all lying in the same vicinity ? But without pursuing the subject farther, I think the ideas already suggested are sufficient to show that Mr. R.’s theory, instead of account- ~ ing for any facts, is wholly irreconcileable with what we ev- ery where observe with respect to the operations of nature. UE am respectfully, your obedient servant. :¥oGe P. $.—Sir—If you think the foregoing remarks may ee a place in your instructive Journal, please insert eaten Oct. 1, 1819. ~ Observation.—I have not the account at hand, anid only advert from memory to the astonishing bem of extremely fine, indeed impalpable dust, found not long since in the castle of Edinburgh, in Scotland on opening an apartment, and a chest containing th e Regalia of the ci-devant king- om. My impression ed that they had been closed ever since the union, viz. two centuries, and that the dust, m @ form light as down, was several inches thick. Whatever theory of atmospheric dust be adopted, this fact is very curious, and well worthy of being more accurately stated and preserved.— Editor, aa Se Dr. J. F. Dana on the existence of 137 FOR THE ete JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, b¥ Ant. XVI. On the evistence of Cantharidin in the Lytt - Vittata or Potatoe Fly; by J. Freeman Dana, M. D. _ Lecturer on Chemistry &c. . TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, Dear Sir, Ir appears from the experiments of Robiquet, mentioned by Dr. Thomson in the last edition of his System of Chem- istry, that a peculiar substance exists in the Melie Vesica- torius. To this substance Dr. Thomson has given the uame Cantharidin, and it is supposed to be the peculiar mat- ter which produces vesication. ms begs It is well known that some other insects, beside the M. Vesicatorius, possess the power of blistering, and that this property belongs, in a remarkable degree, to the Lytta Vit- tata or Potatoe Fly, so common in this country. This in- ‘t, from the experiments of Dr. Gorham of _Boston,* and of others, appears to possess vesicating powers ina higher degree even than the Spanish Fly, and it became an en- quiry of some interest to know whether it contained a sub- stance analogous to Cantharidin. _ [digested a small quantity, 110 grains of the Potatoe Fly in warm distilled water for several days, and the fluid ofa ark brown colour was then decanted ; i aaobeied was then added, and the operation repeated until no farther action which remained some time. The dry extract being di- gested in highly rectified alcohol was divided into two por- tions, one of which was dissolved by the spirit, the other = i ; setts Medical Society, No. 1). Part 551 (and Dr Rataniel Dag’ Memolee—Tran-of Cant. Awd +t. part I. Dp: 80.9 J : Vox, IL.....No. 1. 18 \ 138 Cantharidin in the Potatoe Fly. remaining at the bottom of the vessel in flocculi; the clear alcoholic solution of an amber colour was poured into.a retort, and the spirit drawn off by distillation; a reddish brown substance remained which possessed some peculiar properties. It was very pungent to the taste; when dry and warm it was brittle like rosin, and presented a rosinous frac- ture ; after remaining some minutes exposed to the air it became soft like wax, or more like sulphur when prepared for making sulphur casts, and gradually deliquesced neasly to the consistence of tar or treacle at 60° or 70° Faht. It was readily soluble in water, as might be inferred from its deliquescence. This substance was put into a portion of pure sulphuric et’ >; at first no change appeared, but after a few hours the substance softened, and by agitation the ether acquired a yellow colour; the ether was poured off and other por- tions added until they ceased to acquire colour. ‘The sub- was then suffered to evaporate spontaneously in the open air. The substance remaining after the dissipation of the ether was glutinous and of a light yellow colour; very high- ly rectified alcohol was poured over it, and instantly as- sumed a yellow colour, while numerous minute crystalline plates appeared diffused through the liquid, and soon sub- sided ; the small crystals were washed in alcohol and dried ; they were in very minute quantity, white and pearly ; the quantity was so small, that their properties could not be as- certained ; they were placed on the tender skin between the fingers and soon excited itching and redness; probably full vesication would hate been produced if a larger quah- tity had been used. -It was proposed to repeat these experiments on a larger and more extended scale, that the properties of the curious substances above mentioned might be more fully ascertain- ed; but it was impossible to procure a sufficient quantity © the Fly in which numerous larve were not busily employ- ed, and which probably caused the first infusions in water rapidly to putrify and exhale a most offensive odour. — Tones Bee i Sh aie a 3 i American Geological Society. 139 I am disposed at present to believe, that the small erys- talline plates above obtained, consist of Cantharidin ; and that the above experiments are a strong confirmation of the idea that the vesicating property of insects depends on the presence of a peculiar substance which may possibly be proved to be a peculiar animal alkali. With real esteem, Your humble obedt. servt. J. FREEMAN DANA. Cambridge, June 10, 1819. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. DD Sec 1. American Geological Society. AT the conclusion of our last number, we announced the formation of an American Geological Society and the pas- sage of an act of Incorporation by the Legislature of Con- necticut, conferring the necessary powers. Agreeably to that act a number of gentlemen from differ- ent States, held a meeting on the morning of Sept. 6th, in the Philosophical Room of Yale College for the purpose of organizing the society. ‘ ol. George Gibbs was called to the chair, and the plan of a constitution was laid before the meeting by a committee. _ On the evening of the 7th, it was adopted, after undergo- ing various amendments. : _ A copy is subjoined with a list of the officers elected for the ensuing year. _ ; Constitution of the American Geological Society. Arr. I.—There shall be a President, eight Vice-Presi- dents, one Recording Secretary, three Corresponding Sec- retaries, a Curator and Treasurer, a Committee of Nomina- tion, and a Committee of publication ; all of whom shall he anaually elected. 140 American Geological Society. Art. I.—The Society shall consist of not more than one hundred members :—and of not more than twenty-five honorary, and forty corresponding members Arr. Lil.—Candidates for admission into the Society, must be proposed by the Committee of Nomination, and be chosen ee three-fourths of the members present. Arr. 1V.—The annual meeting of the Society, for the election of Officers, shall he held on the Tuesday some i the second Wednesday of September, at ee hour and place as shall be agreed upon from time to tim Arr. V.—The other stated meetings shall % on the first Mondays i in Serauber. March and June : and all the meet- ings may be adjourned by the Chairman, for not more than seven days from the dates above mentione Art. VI.—Special meetings may be convened by reso- lution of the Society, or by public notice from the Presi- dent; or, in case of his absence, from the acting Vice- President, which meetings shall be restricted to the special objects of he Society, without power to enact regulations; or admit members. _ Art. vil —Five als eis inghiding the President, or one of the Vice-President, shall form a quorum _ Arr. VIII.—Every member shall pay to the Treasurer an 2 aon fee of five dollars, and shall be subject to an oe. of one dollar. The Treasurer shall pay no money from the —— of the Society without a vote ie this purpose and an order signed by the presiding office Arr. X.—The Sotiety shall be totaed, provisionally, at New-Haven. Arr. XI.—No alteration shall be made i in the Constitu- sae unless it be proposed in writing, at one of the stated Ss, previous to the annual meeting in September, and shall be be decided by a majority of two thirds of the members pres at the said annual meeting. — t. XII.—In such points of order as are not noticed im this oustindon, the Society will conform to the saaiera Ys customs of other similar institutions. American Geological Society. 144 cers. William Maclure, President. George Gibbs, T. D. Porter, Curator. A. M. Fisher, Treasurer. Benjamin Silliman, ; B. Silliman, Committe Parker Cleaveland, | Vice- | G. Gibbs, - Moms. Stephen Elliott, Presi- | P.Cleaveland,( ~~. R ination. Robert Gilmor, Jr. ¢ dents. . Hare, Samuel Brown, — . George Gibbs, ) Committee Robert Hare, JILWW. at of Pub- { Vacant. ] J James Pierce, lication. L’. Dwight, Porter, Rec. Sec. 3 JW. Webster, F.C. Schaeffer, ' Corresponding Secretaries. E. Hitcheock, pe hy . ane The stated meeting for December having been postpon- ed, a special meeting was held on the 26th of January, 1820, in the new Cabinet of Yale College. _ Col. Gibbs, as first Vice President, took the chair. Professor Silliman presented a memoir of considerable extent on parts of the counties of New-Haven and Litch- field, in Connecticut. He gave a connected view of the stra- ta and formations from the old red sand stone, the green stone trap, and alluvial of New-Haven, through the succeed- ing clay slate, chlorite slate, and micaceous slate, to the Gneiss and Granite of the Alpine region of Litchfield coun- _ The extensive beds of white granular marble which al- ternate many times with the mica slate and gneiss of Litch- field county, and afford inexhaustible materials for archi- tecture and the arts, were particularly noticed, as were the fine iron ore beds of Salisbury and Kent, and the spathic iron of Roxbury all of which are also situated in the gneiss and mica slate. 'Tremolite, garnet, staurotide, sappar, plu- Mose mica stalactitical brown iron and graphic granite, oc- curred in fine specimens, in the tract described, and speci- mens of most of these were presented for the cabinet of the Society. : The same gentleman presented specimens of massive fluor spar, regently discovered iu the parish of New-Strat- 142 American Geological Society. ford, town of Huntington, map ror 8 by Mr. Ephraim Late; four miles south of his mine shiek affords beormith tungsten,* &c. According to Mr. Lane, this vein is two feet in width; and its immediate walls are white granular limestone which forms an extensive bed in gneiss. This fluor spar appears at two places, distant a fourth of a mile, and, when the snow is gone, will probably be found to form a gigantic vein, It has been observed only since the snows fell, and was first noticed in some fragments of lime stone, which had been quarried for burning. e vein is much penetrated by quartz, mica, feldspar, ad ted but, it has been hitherto examined only on the sur- face. It is principally massive and its structure foliated or coarsely granular, but it presents well defined cubical crys- tals. Its colours vary from white to deep violet and purple, and are, principally various shades of the two latter. But the most interesting circumstance relating to it is its splen- did phosphorescence. The light emitted when, it is thrown, in a dark place, upon a hot shovel, is the purest emerald green ; ieces of an inch in diameter become in a few seconds, ful- ly illuminated, and the light is so strong and enduring, that when carried into a room lighted by candles, or, by the diffuse (not direct) light of the sun they still continue dis- = nctly luminous and the light dies away very gradually as the mineral cools. This interesting property was exhibited to the members of the soc society. Is not this variety of fluor spar oe the true chlorophane of Siberia 2 P - presented to the Society specimens of the green serpentine marble found near New-Have en, and which, ac- and various geological specimens ; among w which were varl- eties nei the mere rocks of Hasselt Connecticut. These teresting. * See Vol. I, page 316 of this Journal. RN EE IEEE ’ \ . ee ee American Geological Society. 143 Mr. T. D. Porter presented some of the finest crystals of sed oxid of titanium that have been any where found; the following memorandum accompanied them. This titanium which I discovered in 1818, exists very well crystalized, and in comparative abundance, in masses quartz which are scattered over the surface throughout the counties of Amherst, Campbell and Bedford, about twenty miles above Richmond in-Virginia. Probably also it may be found in other counties contiguous to these, as the same rocks occur very extensively in all that quarter of the state ; but I never had an opportunity to make any examination except in those I have mentioned. Many of the specimens which I procured are superior both in size and in beauty, to any of the same species in the Cabinets which I have seen. A fragment of one crystal which Lobtained, measures 1,); in chesin diameter, and others are nearly as large. I have one specimen 3,% inches in length, and another more than 3}: both these are mutilated—the - latter is broken off at each end, and was probably much larger ; it is of the size of one’s finger. The larger speci- mens are very liable to be thus injured, being exceedingly brittle. Their fracture is commonly foliated longitudinally and vitreous in the other direction. Frequently they are completely penetrated by quartz in the same manner as he green tourmaline of Massachusetts is by the Rubellite. _ ike the different varieties of schorl, the greater part o! the crystals were so compressed and striated, that their figure was very variable, oftener nearly cylindrical than of any regular prismatic form. I met with two or three spe- cimens which were four sided prisms, truncated on each of the angles, having their terminations broken off and with a single crystal of four sides, which like those of the specimens Just mentioned, seemed to meet at right angles and termi- nated very handsomely by a pyramid, whose sides corres- ponded with those of the prism. Many examples of crys- talline termination were observed, but generally they were exceedingly irregular ; sometimes one of the terminal planes was so large as almost entirely to obliterate the remainder. I believe I saw but two crystals with both ends perfect, among more than a hundred specimens which I collected. | e proportion of the titanium found here, exhibited that peculiarity of configuration which is so characteristic of 144 — Curious Geological Facts. this mineral termed genvculation. In some cases a crystal was bent at but one angle; in others at many—and in others still, while the specimen was perfectly straight and smooth on one side, the opposite was marked by many flexures, a part only of the molecules, having apparently been subject to the law that determined to this angular form. ‘T'wo spe~ cimens fell in my way which had all the angles rounded, appearing as if they had ones partial fusion. Instances of the reticulated variety were rare. The ¢ colour of the oxid, per tar taken from the interior of the masses in which it was imbedded, was a beautiful red, often accompanied by translucency ; but that more exposed to the weather was commonly opake and almost black. P.S. The Virginia titanium, although infusible by the common blow pipe, melts under the flame of the compound blow pipe of Prof. Hare, but is not reduced to the metallic state The Society directed Cases to be enemeee to receive specimens which may be presented. In siceciletitse with the abave direction, provision is now made to preserve and display a collection as fast as it shall be formed. By permission it will be located for the present in the new apartment devoted to the cabinet of Col. Gibbs, —_ of Yale College. denoss will be duly dnl os prin their donations maa be | properly acknowledged. 2. Curious Geological Facts. i In the Seoncnaiy Review for Dec. 1819, No. 43, pe 52, the following very interesting fact is mentioned. It is in- troduced in giving an account of the quarries of marb! m which the blocks are taken for the construction of the celebrated Break-water at Plymouth, in England: “ The — are situated at Oreston, on the eastern shore of atwater; they lie under a surface of about twenty-five acres, and. were purchased from the Duke of Bedford for Curious Geological Facts. 145 communication through the rock in which it was imbedded, nor any appearance of an opening from above being en- closed by infiltration. When, therefore, and in what man- ner these bones came into that situation, is among the secret and wonderful operations of nature which will probably never be revealed to mankind.” Fhe perusal of the above brought to my recollection a fact if possible still more astonishing: it is mentioned by Count Boutnon in his Mineralogy, and as that work has (I believe) never been translated, I will here give the passage etre, =: “ During the years 1786, 7, and 8, they were occupied near Aix in Provence, in France, in quarrying stone for the rebuilding, upon a vast scale, of the Palace of Justice. The stone was a limestone of a deep grey, and of that kind which are tender when they come out of the quarry, but by exposure to the air. The strata were separated ‘from one another by a bed of sand mixed with clay, more. or less calcareous. “The first which were wrought presented work- 146 . Fossil Bones. — stone of this bed having been removed, as they were taking way a stratum of argillaceous sand, which separated the eleventh bed from the twelfth, they found stumps of columns and fragments of stones half wrought, and the stone was exactly similar to that of the quarry : they found moreover coins, handles of hammers, and other tools or fragments of tools in wood. But that which principally commanded their attention, was a board about one inch thick and seven or eight feet long ; it was broken into many pieces, of which none were missing, and it was possible to join them again one to another, and to restore to the board or plate its ori- ginal form, which was that of the boards of the same kind used by the masons and quarry men: it was worn in the same manner, rounded and waving upon the edges “ The stones which were completely or partly wrought, had not at all changed in their nature, but the fragments of the board, and the instruments, and pieces of instruments of wood, had been changed into agate, which was very fine and agreeably coloured. Here then, (observes Count Bour- non,) we have the traces of a work executed by the hand of man, placed at the depth of fifty feet, and covered with eleven beds of compact limestone : every thing tended to e that this work had been executed upon the spot where the traces existed. The presence of man had ther ~ preceded the formation of this stone, and that very consid- erably since he was already arrived at sucha degree of civilization that the arts were known to him, and that he wrought the stone and formed columns out of it.” 3. Fossil Bones found in red sand stone, communicated by Professor NarHan Smita. Mr. Solomon Ellsworth, Jun. of East-Windsor, (Conn.) has politely favoured me with some specimens of fossil nes, included in red sand stone. Mr. Ellsworth informs which contained it, and several pieces of bones had_ beer picked up, and then lost. The specimens which I have Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 147 human bones, or the bones of brute animals. Possibly by examining more of the fragments of the rock which have old red sand stone of Werner, which, with superincumbent ridges of green stone tran. fc fondi ion from th bore at New-Haven to the sach f nt a8 + oO ct 1 ; ry Mas This sand stone region, which is more than one hundred and ten miles long, e ruins of granite, with no cement, but finer portions of the same blended with oxid of iron,) cannot but be considered as very interesting. were evidently those of a per d consid la imal—some of wi se ; there was a long cylindrical cavity, which appear- ed to have been occupied by an os humerus remaini the rock, with e of its condyles rtion of the sternum—of art which is ter- minated by the ensiform cartilag her bones were so completely encas- 1 rock, that it not be Profe the possibility that they might be human bones, but did not consider the specimens as sufficiently distinct to form the basis of a certain conc § — is understood also to be the opinion of Professor Mitchell, of New- ork. 4. Documents and Remarks respecting the Sea Serpent ; communicated by Professor Jacos BicrLow, of Boston. Mr. Sinuiman, Iv the year 1817, an unusual marine phenomenon excited notice in the harbour of Gloucester, Mass. bemg one which the mariners and fishermen of that place were unac- quainted. Its character and appearance have since been well known to the public under the name of the Sea Serpent. “ 148 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. The accounts of this phenomenon given under oath by va- rious witnesses, also some accounts of previous appearances of the same kind, were collected and published by the Lin- nean Society of New-England, that the public might possess a fair and correct statement of what had been observed in regard to so interesting a subject. In the following year Capt. Rich of Boston, went on an expedition fitted out for the purpose of taking the Sea Serpent, and after a fruitless cruise of some weeks, brought into porta fish of the species commonly known to mariners and fishermen by the name of Thunny, Albicore or Horse Mackerel, the Scomber thynnus of Linneus, and which fish he asserted to be the same as that denominated Sea Serpent. This disappoint- ment of public curiosity was attended at the time by a dis- belief on the part of many, of the existence of a distinct ma- rine annimal of the serpent kind, or of the dimensions and shape A 2 by the witnesses at Gloucester and else- where. In some of the aciennts. -Joataals remarks have been os hichesk . which the testimony of these witnesses is announced to be an “ absurd ae attributable to a “ de- ective observation connected with an a degree of ‘fear __ AS eh friends of science can have no object in view more rtant than the attainment of truth, it is proper to sub- Pe to the public consideration some additional evidence in vegard to the size and shape of this marine annimal which has come to light since the publication of Capt. Rich’s letter on the subject. This evidence is partly the result of obser- vations made during the present yeas and partly the con- tents of a communication made to the American Academ} of Arts and Sciences fifteen years ago, but which, having been mislaid, has not before been published. The reader will judge whether itis a “ defective observation” which has whether it was an “ extravagant degree of fear’ which in- duced the commander of an American frigate to man his * See Thomson’s annals for Jan. 1819, a letter from Mr. Say of Philadel- phia. Inthe American Journal of Science vol. I. p. 260, isa note from the Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 149 solving what may now perhaps be considered the most in- _ teresting problem in the science of Natural history. (Copy.) Wiscasset, May 22, 1904. To the Honorable Joun Q. Apams, corresponding Secre- tary of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. - Sr, As one object of the Academy is to notice and preserve discoveries in atural History, 1 am induced to communi- Wished. I therefore wrote Mr. Cummings, and in reply, received a statement more in detail, which accompanies this, and is marked B. was afterwards informed, that George Little Esq. - commander of the Boston frigate, saw @ sea Monster simuar 150 _ Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. to the one described by Mr. Cummings, in the time of the revolutionary war with Great Britian ; and as I was anxious or all the information that was to be had, I wrote him on the subject, and he forwarded the enclosed (marked C.) in answer to my letter. I have also the testimony of a Capt. Crabtree of Portland, an intelligent man, which is direct and positive. This is also enclosed and marked D. It was written in his presence and received his signature, as a cor- rect statement. All this evidence, I think cannot fail to establish the fact, that a large Sea Serpent has been seen in and near the Bay of Penobscot. The existence of such a Monster can no longer be reasonably disputed. But whether he constantly resides in that vicinity, or whether he coasts further south or north, during a part of the year, more particular informa- tion is necessary to ascertain. Nor is it known on what species of fish he subsists. By this communication I have it in view only to furnish evidence of the actual existence of the animal. It will probably operate in favour of further information, and lead to a particular history of this hitherte “undescribed Serpent. 1 am, with great esteem, Your humble servant, | A, BRADFORD, A. Suuiivay, Aug. 17th, 1805. My Dear Str, With peculiar pleasure 1 comply with your request, though the urgency of my affairs must excuse my brevity. It was sometime in July 1802 that we saw this extraordina- 5 sea monster, on our passage to Belfast, between Cape osoi and Long Island. His first appearance was neat Long Island. I then supposed it to be a large shoal of fish with a seal at one end of it, but wondered that the seal should rise out of water so much higher than usual ;_ but, as drew nearer to our boat, we soon discovered that this whole appearance was but one animal in the form of a serpent. I immediately perceived that his mode of swim- ming was exactly such as had been described to me by some of the people on Fox Islands, who had seen an anima! | a Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 151 of this kind before, which must confirm the veracity of their report. For this creature had not the horizontal but an as- cending and descending serpentine motion. This renders it highly probable that he never moves on land to any consid- erable distance and that the water is his proper element. His head was rather larger than that of a horse, but formed like that ofa serpent. His body we judged was more than sixty feet in length. His head and as much of his body as we could discover was all of a blue colour except a black circle round his eye. His motion was at first but moder- ate, but when he left us and proceeded towards the ocean, he moved with the greatest rapidity. This monster is the sixth the kind, if our information be correct, which has been seen in this bay within the term of eighteen years. Mrs. Cummings, my daughter and Miss Martha Spring were with me in the boat at that time, and can attest to the above de- scription. ee gat I continue yours in christian affection, ABRAHAM CUMMINGS. Rey. Avexanner McLean. ~ On my way to the Schooden not meeting with Mr. Cum- mings at home, I wrote him a few lines, requesting he would leave me an account of the sea monster, he saw last summer, if he should be from home on my return. The foregoing is his account which may be gratifying to you. erhaps it may be of the same kind with the great Sea Snake, of which Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen, gives an account. One of the same kind was seen above thirty years ago, by the deceased Capt. Paul Reed, of Boothbay ; another was seen in Muscongus Bay in time of the Ameri- can war, two miles from the place where I lived then, and another soon afterwards off Meduncook. These were all f ever heard of, seen on this coast, but I never could have such a particular account of them as Mr. Cummings here gives, A. McLEAN. B. ' Sunuivan, Jan. 18th, 1804. Rev. and Dear Sir, _Lcan recollect nothing material which would render my description of that animal more convincing. I am not sure 152 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. that this motion was ascending and descending; all we can say is, 1¢ appeared so to us,* (for he was seen not only by me, but by three other persons.) Perhaps his nearest dis- - tance from us was ten rods. The sea was then very smooth, and very little wind, but still there was such a con- stant rippling of the water over his body, that I could not distinctly observe the magnitude or colour of any part but his head and neck. The degree of his rapidity 1 cannot explain. But certain I am that he had a serpent’s head, of a colour as blue as possible, and a black ring round his eye. The head was three feet in circumference at least. Who ever saw fifty or sixty porpoises moving after each other in a right line, and in such a manner that those who formed the rear were no larger than haddock and mackerel, and none but the foremost shewed his head? Who ever saw a serpent’s head upon a porpoise or whale? We saw him swim as far as from Long Island to the Cape before he disappeared. His head and neck all the time out of water. ow who ever saw a porpoise swim so great a distance without i immerging at all? ss young men on Fox Island, intelligent and credible, saw an aa) of this kind about ive years since, as they then informed me. rey 10 me, that the serpent which they saw was about sixty feet long, and appeared to have an ascending and descending motion. A few years before, perhaps ten years since, two of those large serpents were seen by two other persons on that Island, as their neighbours informed me. About twen- ty years since, two of those serpents, they say, were seen by one Mr. Crocket, who then lived upon Ash’ Point. This is the best information which yon. can wheats from our Friend eS ae ; RAHAM CUMMINGS. Rev. Atpven Brapror 1a S. The head and neck of the animal were of the same ~ colo c. : : : ech — -Marsnriexp, 13th March, 1804. Sir, : In answer to vous of the 30th of ome laut: i observe, ; that in May, 1780, 1 was lying in Round Pond, in Broa _* His real motion might be horizonial. ee Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 153 Bay, in a public armed ship. At sunrise, I discovered a large Serpent, or monster, coming down the bay, on the surface of the water. The Cutter was manned and armed. _ [went myself in the boat, and proceeded after the Serpent. hen wv ''na hundred feet, the marines were ordered to fire on hit. but before they could make ready, the Serpent dove. He was not less than from 45 to 50 feet in length ; the largest diameter of his body, I should judge, 15 inches; his head nearly of the size of that of a man, which he car- ried four or five feet above the water. He wore every ap- pearance of a common black snake. When he dove he came up near Muscongus Island—we pursued him, but never came up within a quarter of a mile of him again. A monster of the above description was seen in the same place, by Joseph Kent, of Marshfield, 1751. Kent said he was longer and larger than the main boom of his sloop, which was 85 tons. He had a fair opportunity of viewing him, as he was within ten or twelve yards of his sloop. : ave the honor to be, sir, Your friend and humble servant, GEO. LITTLE. Aupen Braprorp, Esq. Capt. Crabtree, now of Portland, (late of Fox Islands, in the bay of Penobscot,) declares, that in the year 1777, or 1778, upon information of a neighbor, that a large Ser- pent was in the water, near the shore, just below his house, and having often been told by individuals that they had be- fore seen a similar sea-monster in that quarter, and doubt- ing of the correctness of their reports, was induced to go down to the water to satisfy his own mind—that he saw a large animal, in the form of a Snake, lying almost motion- less in the sea, about thirty rods from the bank where he stood—that his head was about four feet above water—that, from the appearance of the animal, he was 100 feet in length—that he did not go off to the animal through fear of the consequences, and that he judged him to be about three feet diameter. He also says, that before that time, many people, living on those islands, on whose reports he could ie had declared to him that they had seen such an ony FT.....No..1, 20 . 154 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. animal—and that more than one had been seen by several persons together. Signed, ELEAZER CRABTREE. The following documents have been already published - in the newspapers, but, from their importance and recent origin, are now re-printed, in connexion with the prece- li * . * | From the Boston Daily Advertiser. THE SEA SERPENT. The recent appearance of this animal at Nahant, in the view of several hundred persons, has furnished, perhaps, more conclusive proof of his existence, than any that has before been made public. For the satisfaction of our read- ers, we have procured a copy of the following letter, which gives a very clear and intelligible description of his appear- ance and movements. We have heard verbal statements from a great number of gentlemen, all of whom agree in substance with what is here related. C s a i ia James Prince, Marshal of the Die x44 to the Hon. Judge Davis, dated : Nanant, Aug. 16th, 1819. Dear Sir, I presume J may have seen what is generally thought to be the Sea Serpent—TI have also seen my name inserted in the evening newspaper printed at.Boston on Saturday, in a communication on this subject. For your gratification, and from a desire that my name may not sanction any thing beyond what was presented and passed in review before me, I will now state that which, in the presence of more than two hurdred other witnesses, took’ place near the long beach of Nahant, on Saturday morning last Intending to pass two or three days at Nahant, with my ily, we left Boston early on Saturday morning. passing the half-way house, on the Salem turnpike, Mr. ee Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 155 Smith informed us the Sea Serpent had been seen the eve- ning before at Nahant beach, and that a vast number of people from Lynn, had gone to the beach that morning, in hopes of being gratified with a sight of him: this was con- firmed at the hotel. I was glad to find I had brought my famous mast-head spy-glass with me, as it would enable me, from its form and size, to view him to advantage, if I might be so fortunate as to see him. On our arrival on beach, we associated with a considerable number of per- sons, on foot and in chaises—and very soon an animal of the fish kind made his appearance. His head appeared about three feet out of water; I counted thirteen bunches on his back: my family thought there were fifteen—he passed three times at.a moderate rate across the bay, but so fleet as to occasion a foam in the water—and my family _ and myself, who were in a carriage, judged he was fifty feet in length, and, at the extent, not more than sixty ; whether, nowever, the wake might not add to the appearance of his length; or whether the undulation of the water, or his pe- culiar manner of propelling himself, might not cause the appearance of protuberances, I leave for your better judg- ment. The first view of the animal occasioned some agita~ tion, and the novelty perhaps prevented that precise dis- rimination which afterwards took place—as he swam up the bay, we and the other spectators moved on, and kept abreast of him; he occasionally withdrew himself under water, and the idea occurred to me that his occasionally raising his head above the level of the water, was to take reath, as the time he kept under was on an average about eight minutes ; after being accustomed to view him, we me more composed ; and his general appearance was as above delineated. Mrs. Prince and the coachman hav- ing better eyes than myself, were of great assistance to me in marking the progress of the animal; they would say he ‘8 Now turning, and by the aid of my glass I saw him dis- hnetly in this movement ; he did not turn without occupy- ing some space, and taking into view the time and space which he found necessary for his ease and accommodation, T adopted it as a criterion to form some judgment of his ngth—I had seven distinct views of him from the long beach so called, and at some of them the animal was not more than an hundred yards distance. After being on the 156 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. long beach about an hour, the animal disappeared, and I roceeded on towards Nahant; but on passing the second yeach, I met Mr. James Magee, of Boston, with several ladies in a carriage, prompted by curiosity to endeavor to see the animal, and we were again gratified beyond even what we saw in the other bay ; which I concluded he had left in consequence of the number of boats in the offing in pursuit of him—the noise of whose oars must have disturbed him, as he appeared to us to be a harmless timid animal. We had more than a dozen different views of him, and each similar to the other ; one however so near, that the coach- man exclaimed, ‘‘ Oh, see his glistening eye.” Thinkin I might form some calculation of his length by the time and distance of each turn; and taking an angle with my two hands of the length he exhibited, that is to say, from his head to his last protuberance, and applying the same angle to other objects, I feel satisfied of the correctness of my decision that he is sixty feet long, unless the ripple of his wake deceived me—nor my dear sir, do I undertake to say he was of the snake or eel kind, though this was the gene- impression of my family, the spectators, and myself. Certainly it is a very strange animal. I have been accus- tomed to see whales, sharks, grampuses, porpoises, and other large fishes, but he partook of the appearance of none of these. The whale and the grampus would have spouted ces on the back or such a head as this animal. The shark, it is true, has a fin on his back, and often the fluke of his tai] is out of the water; but these appendages would not display the form, and certainly not the number of protu- berances, which this animal exhibited ; nor is it the habit of the shark to avoid a boat. The water was extremely smooth, and the weather clear: we had been so habituated to see him, that we were cool and composed—the time occupied was from a quarter past eight to half past eleven —a cloud of witnesses exceeding two hundred, brought together for a single purpose, were all alike satisfied and united as to appearances, and as to the length and size of the animal; but you must deduct the influence which his passage through the water and the manner he propelled himself might have as to the apparent protuberances on his Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 157 Extract of a letter from Mr. Curnven Fexcn, Chaplain of the United States’ Ship Independence of 74 guns, to the Editor of the Boston Centinel. ! Grovcester, Jug. 26, 1819. “ Dear Sir, so deep but we could trace his course. He rose again with- in twenty yards distance of us, and lay some time on the water. He then turned, and steered for Ten Pound Island: we pulled after him; but finding that he was not pleased with the noise of our oars, they were laid in, and the boat skulled. We again approached very near him. — F tinued some length of time, plying between Ten Pound 158 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. Island and Stage Point. Ashe often came near the Point, we thought we could get a better view of him there, than from the boat, of which be seemed suspicious. Mr. Mal- bone and myself landed; and the boat was sent to order the schooner down, for the purpose of trying what effect a twelve pound carronade would have upon him. He did not remain long after we landed, so that [ was unable to effect my catention, of ascertaining, accurately, his length, with my instruments. _ From my knowledge of aquatic animals, and habits of intimacy with marine appearances, T could not be deceived. We hada good view of him, except the very short period while he was under water, for half an hour.— His colour is a dark brown, with white under the throat. His size, we could not accurately ascertain, but his head is about three feet in circumference, flat and much smaller than his body. We did not see his tail ; but from the end of the head to the fartherest protuberance, was not far from one hundred feet. I speak with a degree of certainty, from being much accustomed to measure and estimate distances and length. I counted fourteen bunches on his back, the first one, say ten or twelve feet from his head, and the oth- ers about seven feet apart. They decreased in size towards the tail. ‘These bunches were sometimes counted with, and sometimes without a glass. Mr. Malbone counted thirteen, thirteen and fourteen, and the boatmen about the same number. motion was sometimes very rapid, and at other times he i nearly still. He turned slowly, and took up considerable room in doing it. He sometimes darted under water, with the greatest velocity, as if seizing prey. The protuberances were not from his motion, as they were the same whether in slow or rapid movement. is motion was partly vertical and partly horizontal, like that of fresh water snakes. I have been much acquainted with the snakes in our interior waters. His motion was the have given you in round numbers, one hundred same. [| feet, ten ine length; that is, what we saw; but I should say e must be one hundred and thirty feet in length, allowing for his tail, There were a considerable number of birds about the Sea Serpent, as I have seen them pray a Snake on shore. That there is an aquatic animal in the form of a Snake, is not to be doubted. Mr. Malbone, till this day; was incredulous. No man would now convince him, there Se eens eRe Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 159 was not such a being. The sketch or picture of Marshal Prince, is perfectly correct. I could not, with my own pencil, give a more correct likeness. With respect, Your obedient servant, CHEEVER FELCH. Major B. Russe.” Brooxurne, August 19, 1819. Dear Sir, 1 very willingly comply with your request to state what I saw of the Sea Serpent at Nahant, on Saturday last, par- ticularly as I happened to see it under favourable circum- stances to form a judgment, and to considerable advantage in $a of position and distance. - got into my chaise about 7 o’clock in the morning, to come to Boston, and on reaching the long Beach observed a number of people collected there, and several boats push- ing off and in the offing. I was speculating on what should have occasioned so great an assemblage there without any horse’s head. As my eye ranged along I perceived ata short distance eight or ten regular bunches or protuberan- ces, and ata short interval three or four more. I was now satified that the Sea Serpent was before me, and after the first moment of excitement produced by the unexpected sight of so strange a monster, taxed myself to investigate his appearance as accurately as I could. y first object was the Head, which I satisfied myself was serpent shaped, it was elevated about two feet from the 160 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. water, and he depressed it gradually, to within six or eight inches as he moved along. I could always see under his chin, which appeared to hollow underneath, or to curve downward. His motion was at that time very slow along the Beach, inclining towards the shore ; he at first moved his head from side to side as if to look about him. I did not see his eyes, though I have no doubt I could have seen them if I had thought to attend to this. His bunches ap- peared to me not altogether uniform in size, and as he mov- ed along some appeared to be depressed, and others brought above the surface, though I could not perceive any motion in them. My next object was to ascertain his length. For this purpose I directed my eye to several whale boats at about the same distance, one of which was beyond him, and by comparing the relative length, I calculated that the dis- tance from the animal’s head to the last protuberance I had noticed, would be equal to about five of those boats. I felt persuaded by this examination that he could not be less than eighty feet long ; as he approached the shore and came be- tween me and a point of land which projects from the eas- tern end of the beach, I had another means of satisfying my- selfon this point. . After I had viewed him thus attentively for about four or five minutes, he sunk gradually into the water and disap- eared ; he afterwards again made his appearance for a mo- ment at a short distance. ‘My first reflection after the animal was gone, was, that the idea I had received from the description you gave of the animal you saw at Gloucester, in 1817, was perfectly realized in this instance ; and that I had discovered nothing which you had not before described. The most authentic testimony given of his first appearance there seemed to me remarkably correct ; and I felt as if the appearance of this monster had been already familiar to me. After remaining some two or three hours on the beach, without again seeing him, I returned towards Nahant ; and in crossing the small beach had another good view of him, for a longer time, but at a greater distance. At this time he moved more rapidly, causing a white foam under the chin, and a long wake, and his protuberances had a more uniform appearance. At this time he must have been see" Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 161 by two or three hundred persons on the beach and on the heights each side, some of whom were very favourably situ- ated to observe him. I am, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, - SAMUEL CABOT. Col. T. H. Perxins. It is almost superfluous to add, that Mr. Cabot and his friend Col. Perkins, are gentlemen of the first standing and consideration.— Editor. __ I, Hawkins Wheeler, of Fairfield, in the county of Fair- field, and state of Connecticut, mariner, commander of the sloop Concord, of said Fairfield, in her late passage from New-York to Salem, in the county of Essex and Common- wealth of Massachusetts, on oath declare, that during the said passage from New-York to Salem, to wit, on Monday, the 6th day of June instant, at about 5 o’clock in the morn- ing, the sloop being, as near as I could judge, 15 miles N. . of Race Point, and within sight of Cape Ann, I was at the helm of the sloop, and saw, directly a-head, (the course. of the vessel being N. W.) something that resembled a Snake, about 100 yards distant from the sloop, moving in a S. W. direction. ‘The animal moved in that direction, till he had passed athwart the course of the sloop, and appeared directly over the weather bow, when he altered his course toS. E. At this time he had been visible about five min- utes, when he sunk, and in about six or eight minutes after, appeared again directly over the weather quarter, about the same distance from the sloop—he continued in that course about five or six minutes, when he sunk again, and I saw him to seven feet above the surface of the water, and his back appeared to be composed of buaches or humps, apparently Vou. Il.....No. 1. 21 oreve 162 Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. about as large as, ora little larger than a half barrel; J think I saw as many as ten or twelve, but did not count them; I considered them to be caused by the undulatory motion of the animal—the tail was not visible, but from the head to the last hump that could be seen, was, I should judge, 50 feet. The first view I had of him appeared like a string of empty barrels tied together, rising over what little swell of the sea there was. What motion I could discern in the body of the animal was undulatory, but he evidently moved his tail under water, and the ripples produced by it indicated a sweeping motion, making a wake as large as that made by the sloop. HAWKINS WHEELER. Essex, ss. June 9th, 1819.—Then Hawkins Wheeler per- sonally appeared, and made oath that the foregoing affida- vit by bim subscribed, contains the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Before me, ae THEODORE EAMES, Justice of the Peace. © I, Gersham Bennett, of Fairfield, in the county of Fair- field, and state of Connecticut, mariner, on oath declare, I looked. at the anchor stock at the time, and formed my — ‘i ppinion by comparing the two objects. The weather was very clear and good, and the water almost calm ; and I had, I think, as good a view of the animal as if J had been with- in two rods of him. The colour of the animal throughout, Bigelow on the Sea Serpent. 163 as far as could be seen, was black, and the surface appeared to be smooth, without scales—his head was about as long as a horse’s and was a proper snake’s head—there was a degree of flatness, with a slight hollow on the top of his head—the eyes were prominent, and stood out considerably from the surface, resembling in that respect the eyes of a toad, and were nearer to the mouth of the animal than to and from the vessel, as if taking a view of some object on board. I went up on the rigging, for the purpose of taking a view of him from above ; but before 1 had reached my Station, he sunk below the surface of the water, and did not appea: n. ae ne “3 GERSHAM BENNETT. Essex, ss. June 9th, 1819.—Then Gersham Bennett per- sonally appeared and made oath, that the foregoing affidavit by him subscribed, contains the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. fore me, ; * ae THEODORE EAMES, Justice of the Peace. The substance of Pantopidan’s account of the Serpens mar- tnus Magnus, contained in his History of N orway, pub- lished in 1747, (from a Boston Newspaper.) _ “ The Serpens Marinus Magnus is a wonderful and terri- ble Sea monster, which deserves to be noticed by those who are curious to look into the works of the great Creator. It is usually in July and August he appears, and when itis calm”—“ His head was more than two feet above the sur- face of the water and resembled that of a horse. Beside 164 Revue Encyclopédique, &c. the head and neck, seven or eight folds or coils of the ani- mal] were distinctly seen, and were about a fathom apart.” This is the statement of a Capt. De Ferry and others, who saw the serpent with him. The account from others, who are said to have seen this monster of the deep, states, that when it was calm, it lay on the water in many folds; and that there were in a line with the head some small parts of the back to be seen above the surface of the water when it moves or bends; and that at a distance these appear like so many casks or hogsheads, floating ina line, with a consider- “that many other persons on the coast of Norway had seen the Sea Serpent—and thought it a strange question, when seriously asked, whether there were such an animal in ex- istence ; being as vy persuaded of the fact, as of the exis- tence of an eel or co Extract of a letter to the Editor, dated Boston, April 8, 1820. _Thave lately received a letter from Sir Joseph Banks, Sey by his own hand,* in which he expresses his full n the existence: of our Serpent of the Sea, and not ey as it regards himself, but his friends, and he is grateful for every new communication I have given him on that subject, and writes with the same a that he did several years ago although he is now very 5. Revue Encyclopédique &e. Mr. Julien of Paris, has favoured me with various pub- lished works of which he is either author or editor. Among these interesting productions I can now notice only one, - and that brie e “Revue E neyclopédique ou analyse Raisonnée des productions les plus remarkables dans la literature, les sci ae? ae les arts” published Naar is a very able and in- ng fp a good degree the in- collate light of the world, and pant %s much impartiality * Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society of London, the com- panion of ee Cot, is now at pte! barre ed Sood but still eget in ful knowledge rd. ty Se - American Verd Antique Marble. 165 and decorum, which appear to be effectually secured by the simple expedient of having the names of the authors attach- American Verd Antique Marble. “* United States—An excellent quarry of Marble has been discovered in the vicinity of New: Fisvtit province (town) of Milford. A traveller in Connecticut pronounces is marble to belong to the beautiful species which is in Europe called Verd Antique, and which is found only in the palaces of the great, and in cabinets of natural history. Indeed, says this traveller, it surpasses in beauty all that I ve seen of this kind. It isa great advantage that this oP furnishes very large blocks, and that it is inexhausti- > Mr. Brongniart of Paris, the celebrated mineralogist, in a letter now before me, speaking of the Milford Marble of which I sent him, among others, a polished specimen, says— “it forms one of the ornaments of my cabinet, and is referred ‘ith great precision to my Ophicalce Veinée,’”* (or verd antique marble.) Some persons in this country confounding the verd antique marble with the verd antique porphyry, bave denied to the Milford marble its proper rank : a rank which, truth requires me to say, has always been assigned it in the ctures | It was discovered in 1811, by a member of the mineralogical class, while I was out with them on an excursion for instruction and observation. The farmers had Made stone walls of it for almost two centuries, without sus- pecting what it was. ~ Professor Kidd of the University of Oxford, to whom I Sent a specimen, and whose opinion I asked as to its geo- logical character, says—<‘ the serpentine would by some be referred to a transition series; by others to a primitive : but Iam happy in thinking that the terms Primitive and Transition are daily becoming of less importance.” . iterally a veined serpentine limestone, and among the yn nymes in L s i Mr. Brongniart’s treatise on the nomenclature of rocks, the ophicalce Veinée is called Verd Antique.—Ed. 166 Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign Intelligence. -T purpose in a future number to give an account of the New-Haven and Milford Marble, which is equally inter- esting in its relations to the arts and to geology.— Ed. 6. Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign sean 8 3 commu- nicated by Dr. J. W. Wes In France—The study of Organic remains continues to advance rapidly. Brongniart is at the head-and is the most able man for Floetz (or secondary) formations, but for Primitive, Brochant is superior. rongniart carries his views about coal formations so far, that he looks upon them as grea t Fresh Water deposits, froni their sometimes con- taining shells like the lime or river water shells ; they are found for example at Entreveres, in the Alps, at Falkirk, and Alloa in Scotland, &c. On the other hand, following this step, Mineralogists have already shown the great aggre- he of rolled flints and sand between the Jura and the ires, to he a succession of fresh water and salt water depo- sitions, or, at least three or four very different deposits ;— and the vik limestone they have divided into three, lime- oe with Gry pWites, and two others above which is the eson. * Rrboeniatt delineates and describes all the impressions of plants which he can get, and every lover of the Science must wish that he may be enabled to publish so fine a work. - Daubuisson has in the press, Elements of Geology in in two vols. itwill be a good work. Humbolt is preparing a similar work. Beudont, who has already, in the Journal des mines, given many interesting facts respecting the crystalization of | salts under different circumstances, is about publishing a journey through Hungary, where he spent six months, and found ene formations, a newer Sienitic and Volcanic ~ sige Porphyry mation; a red Sand ston ne, with masses or beds of a pehstone precisely like that of Arran, excepting fiat the latter occurs in veins ; a chalk formation, a part of the Pics formation, and a volcanic formation deposited and ar- ranged in beds Bu na ; the pumice, in these singular wa- tery arrangements having often, at first sight, the appearance of chalk ; his work will pee much light on Geology. | | Miscellaneous Articles of Foreign Intelligence. 167 Dr. Maccullock’s account of the Hebrides is nearly fin- ished.* Jameson’s Philosophical Journal is much devoted to Mineralogy, and the numbers which have appeared do hina great credit. Heron de Villefosse has been enlarging his work, and his Geological Map of Saxony and the North of Germany is said to be very fine. : Berzelius has lately been at Paris and republished his new system. --Von Buch is busy with his work on Teneriffe in which many interesting discussions on Volcanic products will be introduced. ‘The Baron lately dislocated his arm in leap-_ ing from a German stage coach. - _ Mr. Jameson has published his ew system of Mineralo- gy, after the external characters only ; but there are about thirty new substances, he has not mentioned: his Geology is not yet out. : Mr. Greenough is now the chief man of the Geological Society, and is preparing a Geological Map of England ; but what shall we think of his late small work comprising the best observations of a Von Buch, Brongniart, Xe. (with others of less weight) in which he expresses the opinion, that there is nothing constant in Geology, and that there is no stratification of rocks! eGo : Bakewel is the principal teacher of Mineralogy in Eng- Mr. Brocchi’s work on the Appenines, and especially on the petrifactions, is fine. : _ Mr. Blainville’s determination of the impression of fishes, ma periodical work, will be useful. Specimens from China, the Cape, India and Senegal are how most prized in France, and many of much interest have been received. ie : . t the Cape there is Mica Slate with granite veins. In Senegal much Iron stone, probably in a red sand stone ormation, ur Chromate of Iron is not likely to be much prized how, as Dr. Heber found plenty in the Shetland Islands, of which he is about publishing an account, * Since published. —Ed. 168 Noie on the Map of Mountains. 7. Curious fact respecting Animal Povson.* It seems highly probable, that an infuriated serpent will secrete the poisonous fluid much more promptly than when ina placid state. And it is no doubt equally true, that many animals, which under ordinary circumstances are per- fectly innoxious, become armed with a salivous poison when infuriated : a truly mexplicable phenomenon. Man himself becomes somewhat poisonous when highly excited by anger. Dr. S. Brown informed me that he has had patients under his care, who had been bitten in personal combats, and whose wounds exhibited every symptom of poison, pertinaciously resisting the ordinary modes of cure ; but in these cases, the deleterious fluid is the saliva, (but it has been supposed that dots ane of the tartar from th teeth remaining in the wound, were the cause of the appar- ent poison,) whereas in thie serpent, as is well known, it is a peculiar secretion deposited in its proper recipient cavity. 8. Map shewing the a fess ofr the principal Moun- ains on the Glo Mr. Srktince have sought in vain near the spot where it has been represented that this specimen was found to find more. 1 think it is probable there is a large mass farther up the river, that the piece found, was frozen into the ice, and floated down with it to the place where the ice thawed. © é In conformity to your request, I have given you as full an account as in my power, of the sulphuret of Mercury and native lead. 172 Means of Producing Light, &. 11. Means of Producing light, &c. Extract of a letier from Prof. Ropert Hare, M. D. of Phi- 9. ladelpia, to the Editor, dated Dec. 30, 181 I believe I mentioned in a letter to you last summer, that i had rendered the flame of Hydrogen luminous|ike that of oil, by adding a small quantity of oil of turpentine to the usual mixture for generating that gas.* When the ingredi- ents are at the proper temperature, the light is greater f _ think than that produced by Carburetted Hydrogen. Ihave lately found that the addition of about 3, of the same substance to alcohol will give this fluid the property of burning with a highly luminous flame, and that there is a certain point in the proportions at which the mixture burns without smoke like a gas light. his observation may be of use where spirits are cheap, as in our western states, and even in the northern parts of the Union where it is made from potatoes. It might be serviceable to morals if the value of this arti- cle could be enhanced by a new mode of consumption. It is in my power to send you a drawing and engraving of what I call the caloriphorus, by analogy with Volta’s Elec- trophorus. In this there is a self regulating reservoir of hy- - drogen on a better construction than Gay Lussac’s, and the ignition is effected by a small calorimotor. I have likewise an improved Eudiometer or gas metre. A recurved tube with a capillary opening at the end of the crook is furnished at the other with a sliding rod gradu- ated to two hundred parts. Being filled with water or mer- eury, the drawing out of the rod causes air proportionably to pass in, or if the point be previously within a bell glass holding gas, this will be drawn in. I have five different forms applicable to the various rea- gents, used for analysis of gases. . he caloriphorus has a contrivance by which the hydro- gen and oxygen may be exploded by the ignition of a wire, instead of a spark, either in a common Eudiometer © Volta, or in that above described. * This fact is mentioned by Mr. Morey also, in the present No.—Ed- ae Troy Lyceum. Carlisle Mineral. 173, 12. Troy Lyceum. In November, 1818, “a few citizens of Troy who had attended Mr. Eaton’s lectures on Bot tany and Geology,” associated for mutual improvement in the various depart- ments of natural history, and for the purpose of forming siiliectikg of specimens. This institution has been recent- ly incorporated by the Legislature of Nails and a lectureship created in it, which is now filled y Mr. Eaton. We understand that a considerable cabinet is S ady col- sik yang that many of the members of the institution are Bstablished | in a flourishing and opulent town, patronized by some of its most respectable and influential inhabitants, Lyceum of New-York, and with other similar in in our principal cities, vaill add to the stock of "Aniiens science and do us honour.* 13, Fibrous Sulphat of Barytes fom: Carlisle, thirty-four miles west of Albany is Carlisle mineral was supposed by many to be sul- pi of strontian. From my first seeing it, in July, 1818, expressed the opinion that it was fibrous sulphat of ba- tytes, (especially after finding its specific gravity to be 4-50,) of which variety I had a foreign specimen : and this A communication sonteining. eutegs from the minutes 4 the Troy pints dated January 25th, 1819, was rezeived, and would have been ripening had it not been soon bijacs cershi that sian prominent subject of = ane sega was duly transmitted to the Lyceum. Having received no intima- since, as to the ultimate opinion of that body, I have kept the commu- cabin n file. It wil a subsequent a Ff that the nature of the hae? mineral is now ar ag ascertained, and that I have extracte ed son ee is aeeg to it and to other eat from Ba “Tro Or his pupils under his direc 174 Carlisle Mineral. derstand that Prof. Dewey was of the same opinion. In the mean time, Prof. Cooper, of Philadelphia, who at first believed the mineral to be sulphat of strontian, wrote me an account of experiments, which had induced him to change. his opinion ; but it does not pets from his letter, or ne . MacNeven’s mention of own results in his atom theory, that either of these sii was acquainted with my opinion and analysis, which were communicated only to my classes, and by letters to a few friends ;* or with Dr. Torrey’ s analysis, read before the New-York ‘Lyceum early- in the present year. Prof. Hare writes me that he finds the mineral to be sulphat of barytes, so that now there is no difference of opinion respecting it. In an extract from the minutes of the Troy Lyceuni, forwarded to me by their gg the following facts are stated on the authority of Mr. he fibrous sulphat of coat is found in the town of Carlisle, Schoharie county, about eight miles s a N. W. direction from the Court-house, three miles W. of the Schoharie Kill, three miles S. W. from Sloan’s Village, and thirty-four miles W. of Albany. It is in the N. E. face of a hill, which is about seventy or eighty feet high, and three-fourths of a mile in extent. crosses the farms of Jacob Dickinson, Andrew Gein, and Abraham Mosier. teological Position —The fibres of the mineral are ver- tical, and in length from half an inch to two inches, standing between the layers of a soft argillaceous slate. By the lateral adhesion of the fibres, very extensive strata are ormed. As fragments are found in the soil on the side of the hill through its whole extent, there can be little doubt that the strata of this mineral are as extensive as the hill itself. The rock in which it is imbedded is overlaid with compact limestone, which contains impressions of shells, mostly pectenites. IT refrained from mentioning rg opinion and experiments in this Jour- nal, because I bad and still have reason to Boge that there isa real sulphat of bce tian found farther west in the 8 tate of Ne wYork, gece thiuk- ing it possible that some of ong _ tlemen had eheyenag oy the two, E waited for Guthes efocanchione ” Red Sand Stone formation of North-Carolina. 174 Uses—Though the colour of the mineral is blue or bluish grey, the fragments which have for some time been exposed to air and light, assume an appearance in some 1 d the softest of iron. He performed also the process of bra- zing several times, by which he proved its very great supe- viority to borax in two respects; its requiring a much smaller quantity, and its remaining more fixed in a high eat.” ete 14. Red Sand Stone formation of North- Carolina. — Evtract of a letter from Professor D. Outmstean, of the College at Chapel-Hill, North-Carolina, dated Feb. 26, 4 An extensive secondary formation has lately been discov- ered very near us. On the road between this place an Raleigh, travelling eastward, we come to it four miles from the College ; but at another point it has been discovered within two miles of us. It is a sand stone formation. The varieties are the red and grey. I have traced it through the counties of Orange and Chatham, and have ascertained its breadth, between this and Raleigh, to be about seven miles. Its direction is a little west of south. If a line be drawn through the Richmond bason parallel to the great_moun- tains west of us, it will pass through this formation. Hence, raust we not regard this as_a continuation of the great sand stone formation, which W. McClure has traced to the Rap- pahannock? Must we not consider the Richmond bason and this as forming parts of the same formation? The va- tiety found nearest to this place is not unlike the old red sand stone found in your vicinity. It was natural to look for coal here, and I have for some time directed the atterttion of my pupils, and of stone-cut- 176 Sidero-graphite-—Fetid fluor Spar. ters tothis object. Two or three days since one of the lat- tme a handful of coal, found in this range, on Deep River, in Chatham county, about twenty miles south of this place. The coal is highly bituminous, and burns with a very clear and bright flame. It is reported that a sufficient quantity has already been found to afford an ample supply for the blacksmiths in the neighborhood. It is my intention to employ the first leisure I can com- mand in collecting more precise and extended information respecting the formation. : 15. Sidero-graphite. Extract of a letter from Dr. Torrey, of New-York. I have just discovered a new mineral, or one which I can- not find described. It is a compound ‘of metallic iron and pnlege: It somewhat resembles laminated plumbago. ts specific gravity is 5-114; is attracted by the magnet; burns when heated intensely, and scintillates ! dissolves im great measure in diluted sulphuric acid, giving out much hy- drogen gas. I pare analysed a small piece, and found, aren 54-25, plumbago 11°50. I know of no such mineral, and I have called it “Bilecoievdubete it is found at Schooley’ s mountain, N. J. but the exact locality is kept a secret by the person who found it, as the mineral is supposed to be some- ‘thing valuable! I shall soon, however, be able to procure two or three small specimens, and I will send you one. 16. Fetid fluor Spar. . Mr. Augustus E. Jessup, recently attached to the expe- dition up the Missouri, has visited the locality of fluor spar near Shawnee* town, Illinois, (Vid. vol. I. p. 52,) and finds this mineral very abundant and beautiful. He has observ- ed, as he informed us, that this mineral is fetid by friction or percussion, and that even the fracture through a natu cleavage will diffuse the fetid odour around to the distance of two feet or more. We have repeated and confirmed Mr. Jessup’s observation. * Not far from the confluence of the Ohio and Missisippi. ee ee i” * Effects of Cold.—Stromnite—a new Mineral. 177 17. Effects of Cold. Dr. Lyman Foot, of the United States’ Army at Platts- burgh, writes, “ the thermometer has frequently stood here during the late winter at from 15° to 17° of Fah. below 0, in the morning, and at 10° and 12° below all day. It isamu- sing these cold nights to hear the ice on the lake crack ; the report is like that of a six pounder, and the ice instantly ‘opens to the width of ten or fifteen feet. Whatis the cause of it? Does ice contract on cooling below a certain tempera- ture? The snow has been here four and five feet deep.” Remark.—Although in the act of congealing, and for eight or ten degrees above freezing, cooling water expands, there can be no doubt that when ice is once formed, it con- tracts by cold like other bodies. Hence the cracks and re- ie, always perceived even on natrow rivers akes, during the prevalence of intense cold.* hen this ae contraction extends over a great surface, as on lake shamplain, we might well expect that the accumulated ef- fect would produce very loud explosions, and very wide fissures ; so wide as occasionally to swallow up, instantly, the unwary travellers who, with sleighs and horses, adventure by night, and sometimes even by day, upon the smooth surface of our great northern lakes. When the weather grows warm again before the ice melts, the fissures close and sometimes even overlap, owing obviously to expansion.—Ed. 18. Stromnite—a new Mineral. From Dr. Th. S. Traill of Liverpool, we have received a printed paper read by him before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 20, 1817. It contains an able report of the characters &c. and composition, of a new mineral from rkney, to which Dr. Traill has given the name of Strom- nite. This mineral consists according to Dr. Traill’s anal- ysis, of carbonate of strontites 68-6—sulphate of barytes 27°5 —carbonate of lime 2-6—oxid of iron 0-1=98-8 and the loss, of 1:2, in the 100, is attributed to water. * These cracks are not to be confounded with those which, during the congelation, proces between the he Vor. IB....No. 1. ¥ 178 German Correspondent.—LExploring Expedition, &e. 19. German Correspondent. ‘We have perused, with pleasure, the first numbers of the German Correspondent, an occasional miscellaneous paper published in N ew-York, and devoted to German literature and science, with which it is the aim of the very respecta- ble Editor to bring his countrymen better ie roe The dee} is well worthy of encouragement, and the more so, ermans appear particularly well disposed award the Vited States. 20. Exploring Expedition. We are informed that Gov. Cass of Michigan, aided by D. B. Douglass of the corps of Engineers, one of. the assistant Professors at the West Point Military Academy, _ and pres, will proceed very soon, on an expedition along the southern and western shores of lake Superior, an through the district of country generally between lake Mi- ane and the Missisippi, and the head waters of that river. connexion with negociations on Indian affairs, every vikeccabNs degree of attention will be bestowed on the na- tural Say ce of the country—on its mineralogy—botany, geoprap We anticipate, from this source much val- ab! sifeematot: 21. Mermaid. Extract from the log book of the ship Leonidas, sailing From New-York — ye Asa Swift master ; May 1817. Lat. 44°, 6’ nort BS _ First part of the day light variable winds and cloudy ; at two P. M. on the larboard quarter, at the distance of about half the ship’s length, saw a strange fish. Its lower parts were like a fish; “its ‘belly was all white ; the top of the back brown, and there was the appearance of short hair as far as the top of its head. From the breast upwards, it had a near resemblance to a human being and looked upon the observers very earnestly ; as it was but a short distance from the ship, all the afternoon, we had a good opportunity to observe its motions and shape. No one on board ever sa¥ the like fish, before; all believe it to be a Mermaid. Bubbles blown in Melted Rosin. 179 The second mate Mr. Stevens, an intelligent young man, told me the face was nearly white, and exactly like that of a human person ; that its arms were about half as long as his, with hands resembling his own ;_ that it stood erect out of the water about two feet, looking at the ship and sails with great earnestness. It would remain in this attitude, close along side, ten or fifteen minutes at a time, and then dive and appear on the other side. It remained around them about six hours. Mr. Stevens also stated that its hair _ was black on the head and exactly resembled a man’s; that below the arms, it was a perfect fish in form, and that the whole length from the head to the tail about five feet. ommunicated by Mr. Elisha Lewis of New-Haven, a respectable merchant. ee 22, Bubbles blown in melted Rosin. . The following curious fact is mentioned in a letter to the Editor, from Mr. Samuel Morey, of Orford, N. H. :— | If the end of a copper tube (a pipe stem will answer,) be dipped in melted rosin, at a temperature a little above that of boiling water, taken out and held nearly in a verticular position, and blown through, bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes, from that of a hen’s egg to those which can hardly be discerned by the naked eye ; and from their sil- very lustre, and reflection of the different rays of light, they have a pleasing appearance. Some that have been formed these eight months, are as perfect and entire as when firstmade. They generally assume the form of a string of beads, many of them perfectly regular, and connected by a very fine fibre—but the production is never twice alike. If filled with hydrogen gas, they would probably occupy the upper part of the room. In a letter to Mr. Morey, the Editor attributed the for- mation of these bubbles to the common cause, viz. the dis- tension of a viscous fluid by one that is aeriform; and their permanency to the sudden congelation of the rosin, thus im- prisoning the air by a thin film of solid matter, and prevent- ing its escape. ; The temperature at which the bubbles are formed, being very low, even this very thin rosinous globe, might be strong enough to resist the small atmospheric pressure arising from the condensation of the included air by cooling. %. 180 Effect of Temperature on human feeling. rosin bubbles is beens correct. A little il came nning to me one evening, with, as she said, about two thirds of a string she had formed from the rosin of one of the stove lamps, while burning. It consisted of twenty-two or — beads, each about one third of an inch long and one fourth of an inch in diameter, connected together by a fine “bre; a than one eighth of an inch long. In passing my eye repeatedly from one end to the other, I uld not discover any difference in cs length, form, or size, or in the distance they were apart, except two or three at one end. Considering that the temperature of the rosin, and the materials, and the pressure are always the same, I have no idea what governs the formation of the bead differ- ent from that of the fibre. When I mentioned it to you, I did not suppose it was new, and if so, I thought it very un- certain whether you would think it worth noticing in the Journal. 23. Effect of temperature on hudion feeling. . —.. rg in a letter to the Editor, remarks * “In England, the only natural temperature that is agreeable’ lies a "60 and 70°, so that when the thermometer is above 70, the inhabitants begin to feel uncomfortably warm, and when i it is below 60, they begin to approach the fire. In this clima: te, (lat. 35,40, N. long. 79, 3, W.) we do not feel dseoriforiably warm until the thermometer is above 80; and we begin to kindle fires when it is below 70. It would seem therefore that our standard in this respect is 10° high- er than it is in England ; and that we do not suffer more by a heat of 90, than the people of England do by a heat of 80. Dr. Black also remarks, that, in Scotland, the thermome- ter rises, in moderately warm summer air, to 64°. Accor- ding to this account, what would be esteemed moderately warm summer weather in Scotland, would he penne = to the external circumstances in which it is placed. N. B.—Many more small articles, localities of Pipa notices of books, Spinvesies, &e. are necessarily postponed.—Ed AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND TOPOGRAPHY. —<>- — Arr. 1. Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &¢. of the secondary region of Now-York and New-Jersey, and the adjacent regions ; by James Pierce. Tue secondary region of New-Jersey and of New- York situated West of the river Hudson and southeasterly of the Highlands extends from North to South about sixty miles, with an average breadth of thirty. It exhibits an in- teresting diversity of surface, embracing fresh and salt wa- ier alluvial, extensive valleys and plains, alternating with mountain ranges of considerable elevation; and among a variety of interesting minerals peculiar to secondary regions, this tract presents many of great utility, and inexhaustible in quantity. On the eastern border of the abovementioned seconda- ry region and adjacent to the Hudson, is observed a promi- nent mountainous range. This elevation rises gradually from Bergen point, and pursues for sixty miles, a nearly un- interrupted course, terminating near the Highlands. In the State of New-Jersey, it has an average width of two and a half miles, with a summit of table land ; from its western brow there is a gradual descent to the alluvial valley of the Hackensack and Passaic ; on the eastern side it is uniform- Y either steep or precipitous. At Wehawk, four miles North of the city of Jersey the mountain presents a P ag pendicular wall of about 200 feet elevation above the Hud- son ; from this summit an extensive prospect appears, of the harbour of New-York, of a diversified country, and of ou. IT.....No. 2. 24 182 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. works of art exhibited in a great city contrasted with the adjacent wood-cla cin rocky mountains, where nature appears in her rudest stat From Wehiiek to Fort Lee an alternation of precipitous ledges and steep declivities is seen, mostly clothed with trees of varied verdure, but frequently displaying a rocky surface ; the hills retiring here and there give place we narrow but fertile and well mulivated strips of ground u which many neat dwellings appear, environed by fraitthess and diversified crops, which are seen to advantage in con- trast with the rocky eminence in the back- round. From Fort Lee to the vicinity of Tappan, a distance of sixteen miles, the mountain presents a great uniformity of aspect— on its eastern face bordering on the summit, is seen an ex- tensive unusual pregjpice called the Palisadoes of near 260 feet perpendicular altitude ; numerous vertical fissures are observed in the rock, crossing each other at various angles, forming columns of basaltic appearance. The face of this ledge is in general divested a it ae but it is ne and there seen in the crevices. ection of th Palisado mountain is parallel with — river and is moe North and South ;—the face of the ledge is slightly wa- ving. From the base of this precipice to the river’s bor- der, a distance of from three to four hundred feet, a steep declivity is seen covered by angular blocks of stone fallen from the pnt des—thi part is shaded by trees and bush- es. ‘The s tof the Palisado mountain presents a sur- face of slightly pie Si table land that pee rises to the north, its average width about two miles. It is mostly a wood-clad tract, as uncultivated as = Indian hier The western side of the mountain is of gradual descent, cleared and rendered productive; neatsandstone farm-houses range near the base of the hill for twenty miles like a continued village. From the western brow of this ridge is seen an interesting variety of mountain ranges, rich, highly cultiva- ted valleys, and extensive alluvial meadows through whieh the Hackensack and its auxiliary streams pursue their course. The minerals of this mountain-range from Bergen Point to its termination, are of a pretty uniform character. Coarse secondary gree nstone, an aggregate of hornblende, feldspar and epidote, is exclusively the summit rock in place. The . of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 183 feldspar cannot readily be distinguished from quartz in a aewly broken specimen of this stone as from irregular crys- talization it does not present the fracture characteristic of eldspar, but where the surface has been long exposed to the air, the feldspar whitened by commencing decomposi- tion, is apparent. The summit rock of the Palisado range is not so dark as the greenstone of New-Haven, having less hornblende but otherwise agreeing in external character and geological relations. ‘Lhe only interesting crystalized mineral associated with the greenstone of this range is prehnite. I have recently discovered good specimens of that mineral in ledges of fine grained greenstone that border the eastern shore of New- specimen of compact prehnite five inches in thickness, weighing six pounds—it was ascertained by Dr. Torrey to pos- sess the uncommon specific gravity of 3145. Coarse green- stone in place is observed,within a short distance of Bergen point—it forms the nucleus of hills of considerable eleva- tion five miles below the village of Bergen. Mural preci- pices of coarse greenstone, gradually diminishing in alti- tude border the eastern section of the peninsula to within half a mile of the narrow sound that separates New-Jersey rom Staten-Island. In these precipices I have noticed ne proaching the character of kaolin ; it is pulverulent, and of 2 grayish white, and does not form a paste with water. * It ‘and by Dr. Torrey to whiten and fuse when exposed to heat ; it appears to be a suitable material for the manu- mountain bordering the river, in many places, secondary “i gillaceous shist, conglomerate, red, white, yellow and pur-_ s 184 Aecount of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. aggregate of quartz and feldspar, often friable but some- times very firmly combined, exhibiting winding vertical fis- sures. A fine compact white sandstone, resembling the Portland stone of England, is noticed in a few places as the basis layer of the Palisadoes. The compact white sand- stone is in repute for cellar walls, not absorbing moisture as readily as the red freestone. The greenstone of the Palisadoes is much used in forming docks; it is rarely found in a decomposing state. A metallic vein was worked at Fort Lee at the com- mencement of the revolutionary war under the impression _ that it contained gold. Doct. Torrey has ascertained that the ore is pyritous and green carbonate of copper, the mat- rix quartz and a silicious and calcareous breccia dipping un- der greenstone. In the breccia numerous cavities of a reg- most specimens containing pyrites. The trees commonly met with on the above described range, are different species of oak, walnut, chestnut, maple, butternut, birch, gum, cedar, &e. The neighbourhood of Fort Lee and many parts of the mountain is heavily tim- bered.— Of berries the blackberry, whortleberry, raspberry and strawberry are abundant. The wild animals occupying these heights with almost exclusive dominion, are the wild-cat, raccoon, fox, opos- sum, rabbit and squirrel—The poultry yards at the wes- tern base of the mountain are often annoyed by the fox and opossum. Of venomous serpents the copper-head is the most common, but the rattlesnake is sometimes seen O% the Palisado range. Eagles and hawks are numerous— they build their nests securely on the mountain cliffs. ' The elevation of the several points of the Palisado range was ascertained by Capt. Partridge to be as follows.— Fort Lee, 511 feet above the bed of the river ;—the bluff of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. 185 spposite Spiten-Devil, 407 ;—a height a little farther Norfh, but rising above the general level, 479 ;—Bompay Hook, two miles above Closter landing, 517 ;—bluff North of Bompay Hook, 549 ;—Closter mountain near Rock-land County, 539. I observed at several places on the summit of the Pal- isadoes, large projecting columns of greenstone, with from four to six well defined sides and in one or two instances nearly regular hexahedral prisms eight or ten feet in diameter, apparently extending to the base of the preci- pice and retaining for a considerable distance their basalti- torm aspect. Atthe termination of the Palisadoes, Tappan sea, an ex- pansion of the Hudson commences and extends northerly ten miles with an average breadth of four. A clove pas- sage through which winds Tappan creek, separates the Pal- isado table land from a mountain range that gradually rises north ; this chain has for four miles at its base the waters of Tappan sea ; the eastern side seldom exhibits precipices ; it is in many places elevated and cultivated—but the summit displaying irregular elevations is generally crown- ed with wood. Greenstone in no way differing from the rock of the Palisadoes is exclusively the summit rock in place. .The western side of the mountain is in general steep, rocky and wood-clad. Adjacent to Tappan creek an excavation is seen extending horizontally into the greenstone rock of the mountain about 1000 feet, made in searching for silver, but the vein was not found sufficiently 00d to be worth pursuing. Red sandstone is extensively quarried on the eastern side of the mountain at various el- evations, ack. Land bordering Tappan sea, that embraces good guarries of freestone is valued at 1500 dollars the acre.— he mountain chain ranges in the back ground to the north- west of Nyack, presenting moderate elevations—it — Sweeps forward to the east bounding Tappan sea on its nor- 186 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &. thern side to Kedidika Hook ; it there takes a northwest direction parallel with the river for four miles, rising abrupt- ly from the water to a great height ; its ledges in many places precipitous are composed of the materials observed in the Palisado rock, with the addition in some parts of the summit of a little sulphur rendering it friable. The dred feet perpendicular height borders the summit. Sand- stone in place is found on the side and at the base of the moun- tain. Piles of dark angular blocks of greenstone in many pla- ces occupy the sides of the mountain to the exclusion of ve- getation. Puddingstone, containing smooth round pebbles is frequently observed. From Haverstraw the greenstone mountain ranges in a western course and sweeps with a di- minished height to the vicinity of the Highlands, presenting to n is the eye a profile of wild and irregular eminences. Iro tion of Rockland county was once contemplated. Rich copper ore has been found not far from High Tower, but the traces of it are lost. On the southern side of the mountain running west from Haverstraw, the descent is in- general gradual; much of the surface is cleared and culti- vated and of a medium soil, well watered by numetous springs ; large rolled masses of granite and gneiss rest OM the mountain side, probably conveyed to this secondary re gion from the Hizhlands by some convulsion of nature.— Pectanites and other marine petrifactions have been found on this ridge at considerable elevations ; fine grained trap is met with at the base. ah _ Westward of the Kedidica Hook range, and half a mile from the Hudson is situated a mountain lake four miles 16 circumference, called Rockland lake ;—its surface is feet above the bed of the river from which it is separated — » of New-York and New-Jersey, §¢. 187 by a lofty ridge—the land elsewhere adjacent to the lake, rises gradually, is of a good soil and well cultivated ; seve- ral neat stone farm-houses are pleasantly situated on the banks of this extensive sheet of water. The lake is well stored with pike, yellow-bass, perch, sunfish, and suckers, but there are few eels, and no catfish are found. magnitude is seen to enter the lake, but it is the source of one of the most considerable branches of the Hackensack. Fed great depth and the warmth of its auxilary streams. Con- densed by cold, the fluid on the lake’s surface. descends and its place is supplied by warmer water from below ; an interchange continues as is well known from the experi- ments of Count Rumford and others, until the mass is re- duced within eight degrees of freezing point, when being no longer condensible by cold it remains stationary and the surface is frozen. Ice being an indifferent conductor of leat the fluid, below continues much warmer than the air. The waters of the lake are soft and pure and as they repose on a sandy bottom, no water-weeds or swamps are seen on its borders except at the river’s outlet. The adjacent in- habitants are not subject to the fevers and early fogs of au- tumn ; the waters of the lake remaining colder than the air, morning exhalations do not arise to be condensed. Veg- etation bordering on the lake is seldom injured by pre- ~Anature frosts ; being protected probably by the then warmer ar of the water. ‘The height of that part of the Kedidica ok range situated between the lake and the river, is 640 feet above tide water, as calculated by Capt. Partridge. To’ Joseph Dederer Esq. a well informed resident of the nor- thern bank of the lake, at whose pleasant and hospitable Mansion I have passed many days, I am indebted for much local information. The elevation of Kedidica Hook is well calculated for ‘geological and geographical survey, uniting extension with distinctness of view. The wood-clad Highland chain is ob- Served ranging the horizon for fifty miles ; its course is from Northeast to southwest ; the Newark and Pracknes moun- 188 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. tains faintly appear to the southwest. The Haverstraw mountain is near you, with its camel’s back summit running westwardly ; to the South the Palisadoes are seen. In the immense valley embraced by these mountain ranges, the hills and plains, the cultivated and wood-clad tracts, the lakes and streams are viewed upon the uneven map of na- ture ; the greater part of this valley appeared in a good state of cultivation. To the southwest of Tappan sea in the direction of Hackensack and Pyramus, the country is in general very level and inclining to sand, and well adapt- ed for the use of gypsum, but this valuable manure is sel- dom used by the farmers of this district ; sandstone pre- dominates in'that tract. To the West of Kedidica Hook the surface is more uneven and hills of considerable elevation are seen adjacent to the Highlands mostly under cultiva- tion. The Hudson at your feet with its expanse of waters and numerous bays, is seen for a great distance ; its prim- itive eastern bank rising gradually to mountain elevations is thickly settled and most of the summits cleared. Fro Haverstraw to Stoney-Point, a distance of five miles, and from Haverstraw bay to the Highlands, in a northwest direc- tion the country is in general level, the soil inclining to sand is in many places underlaid by red sandstone. Good whet- stones have been recently quarried in this part of the coun- ~The summit of Stoney-Point, once a distinguished mili- tary post, exhibits in place rocks composed of green feld- spar mottled with black mica, the feldspar however predom- inating; a slight effervescence is produced by acids. On the North side of this eminence a mineral is found which appears to be composed of iron, alumine, silex and some magnesia ; it occupies the mountain’s side and large blocks detached are observed on the shore—it has the aspect of an ore of iron. “This ferruginous rock embraces in veins 4 mineral containing much magnesia ; it is translucent at the edges, the lustre waxy, the fracture splintery with a dar green, unctuous surface, answering pretty well to the de- scription of splintery serpentine ; its surface is dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid, and epsom salts formed in pume-* rous crystals ; this effect is not produced upon any other de- scription of serpentine that I have elsewhere met with. The peninsular situation and difficult ascent of Stoney-Point ren- of New-York and New-Jersey, &c. : 389 dered it an admirable situation for a military post. At the base of the mountain fine grained micaceous shist appears. At Stoney-Point commences the primitive region. White granular limestone is abundant in the ranges of hills to the West and North of Stoney-Point; it is a continuation of the rock of the same character that passes through New- England, and is in great quantity near Verplank’s point.— The country North of Stoney Point, adjacent to the river, and extending half the distance to the Highlands is hilly and rocky, and not extensively cleared ; for two miles, the remainder of the distance, the North river running from the northeast, washes the base of a wood-clad tract that may be considered as making a part of the Highland chain ; numerous streams descend the winding glens of the moun- tain. , Rockland County is of a triangular form ; the inhabitants are mostly of Dutch descent ; Dutch continues to be gene- rally spoken—many families have not acquired the English language. The Dutch of Rockland county have deserved- ly acquired the character of being hospitable. This coun- ty includes within its limits the first ranges of the Highland chain ; from Rockland they cross New-Jersey and extend to the Delaware, bounding the secondary region. Two prominent mountain ranges running near each oth- er intersect the interior of the secondary region of New-Jer- sey. They take their rise adjacent to the primitive High- lands two miles North of Pompton and runabout eighty miles an almost uninterrupted semicircular course. The summit rock in place is iidibecnty a dark colored, fine grained secon- dary greenstone, resembling basalt ; it is frequently obser- ved resting on conglomerate and sandstone—these rocks are supposed to lie under most of the greenstone ranges of Narslahsers the most elevated point of these mountains _ issituated six miles northwest of Patterson, where a sugar- f peak rises near 1000 feet above the level of the ocean. Its trap rocks are generally covered by 2 thin mould that exhibits a verdant surface, and a walnut grove without un- derbrush, exclusively occupies the summit for an extent of forty acres. 'Thiselevation commands a diversified and ex- tensive view ; to the East, northeast and North the eye ran- ges over a great extent of pretty level country. The wa- summits of the Pracknes ridge are observed extending Vou. IT.....No. 2. me 2 enees 190 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. in a northwest direction for several miles, with ponds of magnitude and depth. A detached mountain range of con- siderable elevation is situated north of the Pracknes ridge ; it sweeps in a peoyieeeent course several miles, taking its rise and termination near the Highlands. Many of the summits are under csiissine and afford fine views of the immense secondary valley situated between - Highlands, the Hudson and the Pracknes ridge. Greenstone of a fine grain is the rock in place, in which I found aban and stil- bite imbedded. To the East of the Pracknes ridge is sit- uated another section of the extensive greenstone ranges called the Totoway mountain—this ridge rises near the Pracknes mountain six miles from Patterson, and connects itself with the Newark chain at the great falls ; it is in ma- ny places free from rocks, but on the East, precipices © of considerable extent and height with waving or denti iculated mural faces are sometimes observed, presenting columns ap- proaching to basaltic regularity, An insulated semicircu- lar wall of greenstone, with projecting columns occupies a summit of the Totoway ridge, bearing some resemblance toa castle or fort in ruins. Sandstone quarries are ob- — in several places at the base of the greenstone ridg- quarry situated three miles northwest of Patterson, sabes Pracknes mountain affords the best freestone of New- a Fine red and gray oe embracing some mi- alternates with eo dipping “under the oe with a western iaslnseeiha of about 12 degrees. s coal, inlayers of about two inches in thickness has eae Leosgasstly found at this and other parts of the. Pracknes ridge, in connection with sandstone and shale. This neighbourhood exhibits many indications that more valua- oe beds of this sscvcth cea exists below. Gneiss, granites prehnite, agate, Harve and a mineral asec to Gendbiption of cacholong. At the falls of the Passaic near Patterson, perpendicular mural precipices of grrensitiey with wide vertical fissures are observed, and am masses at the base... The lower strata mop a rock aoe much ra Ih. matter, es the place of sete of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. = 9. ‘green surface ascertained by Dr. Torrey to be chlorite. — The layers beneath the amygdaloid are red and gray con- glomerate connected with red sandstone, too porous for use, as it absorbs much moisture and is broken by the expan- Sive power of frost. Good freestone, in nearly horizontal position, is the basis layer and forms the bed of the Passa- ic. In many places the greenstone occupying the summit appears buta few feet in thickness. The greenstone of Patterson does not present columns assimilating to basalti- form regularity. On the bank of the Passaic, adjacent to the first manufactories, [ observed a well defined hexaedral column of fine grained greenstone, a loose mass, about five feet in length by two in diameter ; by the aid of a magnifier y! greenstone compositionis apparent. Before the autumn of 818,prehnite, cal r, and carbonate of copper were the only minerals observed imbedded in the greenstone ran- ges adjacent to Patterson—at that period I met with, near the falls, superior specimens of zeolite, stilbite, analcime, and datholite, together with fine masses of prehnite ; ame- thyst has been since discovered by Judge Kinsey, and Mr. J.1. Foote, residents of Patterson—to these gentlemen I am indebted for many useful facts. Prehnite I obtained in ¢c a | _ ; th considerable lustre is reflected from narrow polished planes; the colour in general a delicate light apple green, = in 0 ‘Some specimens it is darker than the emerald.—It is und imbedded in greenstone at the falls a ‘The zeolite of Patterson is white, aggregated in fascicu- lar sroups of delicate diverging fibres, and presenting de- eS Sec ae, ee ee a Oe 2 f vari 5 1; i ,some- 192 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &. times diverging from a point, but often radiating from a cen- tre ; with nitric acid it forms a jelly. Stilbite [I found asso- ciated with prehnite, in distinct well defined pic ce some- times in irregular groups, but often insulated.. The crysta- line form may be described either as a flat ioep-aiina rec- tangular prism, acuminated by four planes set on the lat- eral edges, or as an elongated, six-sided table, bevelled on jour of its lesser sides—the sides are proportioned as two is to five, the colour white with pearly lustre ; the structure is laminated ; itis translucent, ans than prehnite, and does not form a je elly with acids. Since my discovery of datholite at Patterson, I have sought in vain for this mineral else- where in the greenstone ranges ; the gene of the falls is the only locality for it yet found in this country—and there is but one in Europe ;—its character was conjectured by Col. Gibbs and ascertained by Dr. Torry by analysis. The Patterson datholite will probably be regarded as a new va- riety of the Norwegian mineral, differing in crystaline form and proportion of constituent parts. ‘The above men- tioned minerals are generally found Roneeeene with an amended that embraces considerable . Mural precipices of age fine grained fissile greenstone are observed at the little falls of the Passaic,ifive Sales from oe car ss seams cross each other at va- rious angles in the ledges 2 Biving to many detached pieces a regular prismatic form with t three and four sides, often trun- ted on one or more of the lateral edges ; a tabular form is common. Rock of similar character was often observed in other parts of the Pracknes ridge. Organic remains from the ocean, or petrifactions of orthoc cerites, madrepores, tu- bipores, pectinites, terebratulas, encrinites, bilabites, ser- pulites, and other species, generally in an argillaceous base, resting on mountain and valley, I have found in the vicin-' ity of Patterson, and in many parts of the secondary spose | of New-Jersey. The situation of Patterson is admirably adapted for a manufacturing town—it is within four miles of sloop navi- gation upon a never failing stream, that furnishes water pow- er sufficient for two hundred mills, and mill-seats without end; fuel is abundant and the market can be well supplied from the beautiful and fertile valley through which winds the Passaic. The streams auxiliary to this river embrace the | of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. 193 waters that for near one hundred miles of their course de- scend eastward from the primitive mountains ; many of these streams have their origin from extensive lakes and run forty miles in mountainous districts. From Patterson to Springfield the trap ridges are called first and second Newark mountain and Caldwell mountain ; their direction is nearly south, preserving a great uniformity of altitude—as seen from New-York they mark an even line on the western horizon—the eastern side is steep, the western of gradual descent, a description applicable to most of the mountains of New-York and New-Jersey—it is observable at the alluvial Highlands of Neversink, the primitive mountains of Staten-[sland and New-Jersey, the green hills of Long-Island, at the Palisado and at the Shawan- | gunk and Kattskill mountains. condary greenstone of a_ uniform character, no way differing from that at Passaic falls is the only summit rock, in place, observed on the first and second Newark mountain, but except in the vicinity-of Patterson and Springfield, mural precipices are seldom seen. The mountains side is, wherever ledges appear, covered with small amphorous stones—red sandstone is observed in place on the sides and at the base and is supposed to lie under the Newark ranges. The eastern side of the mountain is much of it cultivated to a considerable height ; the soil is red from the disintegration of sandstone ; the summit and western declivity is in general occupied by coppice, of small ak, chestnut, walnut, butternut and cedars. The second Newark mountain running a parallel course and distant tain is presented an extensive, rich, thickly settled and high- nearly level plain—the meadows and fields of grain pre~ 194 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &§c. harbour of New-York, a part of Long-Island and Staten- Island and a distant view of the ocean. The valley situated between the Newark mountain and the Bergen greenstone ridge is partly secondary, the rest alluvial. In the secondary division, sandstone in nearly hor- rizontal position, or waving with the surface is found al- most every where on penetrating the earth—and fine red and gray freestone alternates with shale at the sandstone quarries of the Passaic and Second river. ituminous ‘coal in thin layers has been noticed, associated with argilla- ceous shale in many freestone quarries adjacent to the Pas saic; at the termination of the Newark mountain, at Spring- _ near Belville a tooth near two inches in length was recent- % foind on the freestone fifteen feet below the surface.— opyer is observed in many partsof the New-Jersey secon- dary ‘egion ; a vein of ore affording eight per cent of copper has keen recently discovered near the Pisshic three miles nortk of Bellville; the vein is now lost.—A rich mine was formerly worked on the property of Col. Schuyler a mile east of Belville, but the pasos of the shafts becoming too exprsive, the works were relinquished. The matrix 0 talne fibres are collected in groups diverging from a poimt— the colour is emerald green with silky lustre—tufts are see? as a locality for oxide of titanium, but the only specimen found here was in a small solid mass of quartz. Not 13 from Aquackinoek there is a copious mineral spring ; ** of New-York and New-Jersey, &e. 195 Primitive strata of mountains and vallies yet observed in the United States ; none of the secondary ranges of New- ersey pursue a course parallel with the primitive. The i96 Account of the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, §c. secondary ranges of nth Peer in one rena present for miles an even summit of table land ; the Hig dg- es display numerous. sugar-loaf i et ne a aun profile, characteristic of primitive. The extensive se- condary range commencing near Pompton and within half a mile of the Highlands and extending in a semi-circu- lar course, until it again approaches the Highlands, ex- hibits in its direction and the aspect of its summits a proo of the correctness of the above positions. The extensive valley situated between the greenstone semi-circle and the Highlands presents much fresh water alluvial—many of the small hills of this tract have no rock in place—the alluvial plain bordering the Passaic is in general extensive ; in some places four miles in width—peat is observed in several oe ces between the source of that river and the little falls; considerable quantity is cut in this valley adjacent to be Newark and Morriston turnpike ; the earth had been pene- trated six feet without finding the bottom of the strata. The level tract called Pompton plain near twenty miles in cir- ‘cumference and environed by mountains presents a deci- ded fresh water alluvial—strata of gravel, sand, and clay, without rocks in place are ee found in this dis- trict wherev ever wells have been dug 5 it was probably at a remote period th —The waters of the riv- ‘ers Pequanack, L "Ramapaugh pass through this valley—the and much of the western part: of Porn plain embraces about 1500 acres of peat groun maa Fhe peat disclosed in digging a ons 8 of four miles was called very good. In the southern part of the plain good granular argillaceous oxide of i eo or_ pea ore is raised from a space of about 200 acres. High lands form the west and northwest boundary of eo plain’s ; in other directions it is skirted by the Pacganack moun- tain—this range pursues a serpentine course from North see the exten vicinity of Morristown, separating in its isu ni oecae ie ai . a aes i — rok in-plee “in a state of ‘partial: ore is previously roasted in the open air; it is broken into pieces of a proper size, arranged in layers alteraately with charcoal, and when the heap is three or four feet high the fire is kindled and allowed to burn slowly for many hours. ‘The cohesion of the ore is in this manner impair- ed—sulphur, arsenic and other volatile things are expelled, and it is prepared for the fiercer heat to which it is subject- ed in the furnace. This last is shaped somewhat like an egg——a section being removed from each end and the smal- ler end being uppermost. At the top it is only four or five feet in diameter, and there is little appearance of the vehe- ment heat which exists below. The ore, which is here melt- ed is principally from the Salisbury bed, but partly also from the adjoining state o New-York. Both kinds are ox- usefully wrought ; only they are more or less mixed or com- argil or clayey earth, and other earthy matters and with for- eign metals ; chrome, titanium, manganese, &c. The princi- pal steps in this operation are therefore easily explained on principle. The roasting has been already explained. — In the furnace the charcoal, aided by the fierce heat, detaches the oxigen and flies away with it in the form of carbonic acid gas ; the limestone although by itself infusible, by uni- ting with the earths and sulphur and other foreign bodies, removes them, at the same time promoting the melting of the entire mass, and thus in the language of the furna- ces it actsasa flux. The iron also to a considerable ex- tent, combines with the carbon and thus beéomes very flu- id, and capable of being cast into any desired form. At the bottom of the furnace, the slag or dross floating at the top of the melted iron, is sichasiontlty raked off, and the iron is e!- ther allowed to run out at a tap-hole, or is ladled out with large iron ladles managed by hand, and thus poured into the moulds into which it is to be cast. The slag or dross which in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 21% is rejected, accumulates in the vicinity of a furnace and often to a great extent ; it consists of the lime which was added, as a flux, combined with the foreign earthy matters, and with a proportion of oxid of iron and other metallic oxids. It has often very gay and beautiful colours—it is inflated and twisted in various forms, or solid and firm like glass, and has in many instances, the strongest resemblance to the glasses and frits produced in volcanoes. Indeed it is impos- sible to contemplate the phenomena of one of these great furnaces, without finding much to gratify curiosity and much to inform the understanding. I observed the iron to be, in many instances crystalized, especially what remained in the ladles after pouring ; it was in brilliant plates looking not unlike the specular ore or that variety called the mica- ceous iron. ao Primitive Limestone in Mica-slate. Country; it is immediately succeeded by the primitive white marble having the same direction and inclination in its strata ; then again succeeds the mica-slate, and then the marble, and thus the geological traveller is gratified, in the Course of five or six miles with as many alternations and suc- cessions of these two rocks, each perfectly distinct from the other, and totally different in their nature ; their junc- fons are in some places exactly defined, and such a number of alternations and successions in so small an extent of coun- tty,and on such a scale of magnificence affords sufficient Materials to occupy and to embarrass the reflections of the Geologist. These rocks are highly crystaline in their sttucture—they possess every mark of having been deposit- ed from a state of chemical solution; yet what cause, eX- isting in the primitive chaotic ocean, could have determined at one time the deposition of a rock consisting of quartz and mica, and immediately after, and without intermixture pesieerhanens one consisting of crystalized carbonate of ime ? “212 — Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. Other Furnaces. We soon arrive at the Wanscopommuck or Furnace lake, a happy natural reservoir, of a mile or two in diameter, which supplies an unfailing stream for some of the most conside- rable iron furnaces in this interesting district of country. By the politeness of one of the proprietors* every facility was afforded of access to the iron establishment and to the bed of ore. - The establishment is more considerable than the one al- ready described, and I was particularly struck with the im- mense piles of slag and refuse, accumulated around the fur- naces are cast solid and then bored out by a rotary movement produced by water. By particular management in the re- duction of the iron ore, they produce at pleasure either @ harder or a softer metal ; the hardest is so hard that it cannot be filed, bored, or in any way altered; this is the fact with most common articles of domestic hollow ware, but that cast for cannon and some other purposes is soft and is much less brittle than the hardest kind. Salisbury iron ore bed. The main iron ore bed is situated two miles West of these furnaces. This of course formed an object of atten- * John M. Holly Esq. ee me en the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 213 tion. Geologically speaking, the Salisbury iron ore as is ebvious from the statements already given concerning the rock formations of this district, must be considered as belong- ing to a country highly primitive. It may be added that mi- ca slate, without marble, is observed between the furnaces and the ore bed; somewhat farther West upon the borders of the state of New-York, the marble again appears, but whether accompanied by mica-slate I am not informed, al- though it is most probable that it is. s - The Salisbury iron ore may, with propriety, be referred to the mica-slate as its proper accompanying rock, because it forms the basis of the country, but the ore, as far as I could learn, is not imbedded in any rock. Its immediate bed is clay. it is about seventy years since this great bed was opene It lies in the side of a hill of moderate elevation, and al- though numerous, large and deep excavations have been made, there is no indication that the ore is in danger of being exhausted. It is not worked by shafts and galleries (as I be- _fieve iron ores generally are not) but like a quarry of stone, open to the sky, and such connexions are formed between the pits and the general surface of the country, that, to trans- _ port the ore, carts and waggons are driven freely in and out. . The ore, as already remarked, is the brown iron stone of Werner—that is, the brown oxid of iron, more or less con- taminated with manganese and other metals, and with por- tions of earthy substances. _ All the varieties of this kind of ore may be found here in great perfection and beauty, and particularly very fine - Specimens of what is called the brown hematite. Many o ~ these, in their delicate, fibrous and radiated structure, in the highly varnished gloss of the exterior, and in the elegant sta- Jactical forms which they have assumed, cannot be surpassed by specimens in any collections.* hese large cavernous masses also which contain cavi- ties usually lined with the stalactical and other beautiful orms of iron, are here abundant, and an amateur of fine specimens may here be gratified at a cheap rate. *If I mistake not, the vertical position of the stalactites, in the ore bed sufficiently indicates that their form is owing to gravity, while their fibrous a | and radiated structure, seems to depend on the laws of erystalization. _Some of the Salisbury eres, there is a delicate. sooty coating which appears "is HE te find to be manganese, and probably affords no groand,(as some have imagined,) re \ fener en oe Geology, Mineralogy, Scenerys»Se. - It has been already observed that the iron, ore at this place is imbedded in clay, so that it is obtained with com- parative ease. iui - The clay is often stained by the oxid of iron, so that it ex- hibits most of the varieties of colour belonging to the ochres, more attentive mineralogical examination than probably it has hitherto received. There are other ore beds and establishments in this town for manufacturing both cast and bar iron, but my time did not admit of my visiting them. Ride to Kent. Having now reached the proposed extent of my journey West, I turned my face South, and crossed the Housatonick some miles below the falls. In pursuing this oblique course, I necessarily crossed the strata of marble and mica slate al- ready described. _ : 3 _ My next object was the bed_of iron ore in Kent, and in ing to it my journey lay immediately down the east- ern bank of the Housatonick. In driving about twen- ty miles, in the course of an afternoon, there was very little to detain me. My journey was no longer across the natural ridges of the country, but parallel with and be- tween them, so that many miles presented less variety than was often seen in as many furlongs, in travelling at right an- which it often did with sullen murmurs, over a very rocky and broken bed, and for a narrow road, in most instan- ces passing directly along its banks, So abrupt were these chains of mountains, that on the western side, the river often washed their very feet, and their frowning cliffs, more or less veiled by thick forests, hung over the river. The road which I travelled, was bounded by hills almost equally ab- _ Tupt, rocky and rude in their aspect, and in most instances on either side, there seemed to be no passage through these apparently impenetrable barriers. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 215 My journey was through the borders of Canaan, Corn- wall and Kent, and although, from the nature of the country, there could not be much arable land, and only a very spare population, the eye was constantly regaled with bold views of mountain and river scenery, and from the more elevated situations, the whole face of the country seemed a collection of rade hills and mountains, in most instances covered with seem beyond the power of any population which is likely ever to accumulate in these regions, The failure of a wheel, and the time consumed in secu- ring it temporarily with cordage, caused twilight to overtake me, and the mountains closing around on every si ( frowning with their dark and woody sides and ridges, seem- ed to cut off not only all view of any other more fortunate region, but absolutely to swallow up the road and to bar all scape. rh length, the little village of Kent made its appearance, seeming to be dropped in among the mountains, and almost secluded from the rest of the world. The hills and mountains which occurred between Salisbury and this place, were, on the eastern side of the river, almost invariably gneiss ; those on the West appeared to be the Same, and without doubt they were either gneiss or mica- slate, or possibly in different places both. The hills pre- sented the same features as those on the eastern side, and left ho doubt of the general similarity of geological structure. During the last five or six miles before reaching Kent, ranges of white primitive limestone began to attend the gneiss, and ran parallel with it, but ata lower elevation. _ At the places where I had opportunity to examine, this limestone appeared in some measure mixed with the the gneiss. : August 29.—My wheel being effectually repaired by smiths whom in the evening I engaged to work with the first dawn, I set forward early for the bed of iron ore, which was at the distance of several miles. circuitous road was said to be very good, but it would lead through the de- files, while one across the mountains was shorter but exceed- . 216 Sty Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ¥c. ingly rough, steep and difficult, and rarely travelled sore d vehicles except carts. Induced however by a wish t to cross the ridges I isle red the latter road. Its difficulties were even ‘greater than had been‘ naam ‘owing I suppose to recent rains which had swept away the loose earth from the wane nee stones, and worn deep gullies. I was however gratified to find that my previous siepedier sions were correct, and that the ranges by the side of which t a travelled, and of which these were only. a con- tinuation, were universally gneiss. | E Tron ore bed of Kent. Arrived at the iron mine the observer is tne veiek with the magnitude of the excavation. This ore bed, like that at Salisbury, is situated in the side of the hill, ri this is ahigh and | steep one, and the ore is explored | under the 0 open sky aces where £4. leries of some extent have been carried i into the hill. Like the , which in most places is the substance with which the iron is in immediate contact. nlike the excavations at Salisbury, which are numerous but of small magnitude, this is nearly all in one great basin ndseve eee: feet wide. The magnitude of the excavation has been ——- increased, va an aes ey contrivance of the r. Adam. He hasturn- ed a a stream of water coming from ihe more aan ste’ manner a se amount ‘of labour and = in getting ed As regards the geological position of this ore it is a little different from that-of Salisbury ; the latter, it willbe Te- membered, is in ‘mica-slate, ‘Sliesia that of Kent«i is im gneiss. The section ef the hil] which has been made by t tn the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 217 excavation, exposes to view a ledge of gneiss in the upper part of the mine ; it was inaccessible, but fronr its appear- ance and from the fragments which had fallen below, no doubt could be entertained that it was gneiss, —— y as this rock constitutes all the neighboring country. ~ ~The clay which forms: ~~ immediate enveloping matter ids ; good colours for painting might be selected from them. Some parts of the clay appear very saponaceous, and the workmen assured me that a true fuller’s earth, answering all ae purposes of that useful. mineral, had been obtained A fuller’s earth’ is a clay usually: soapy in its Fickle ty slidothens of grease and oily matters ; fine in its texture, so as to present no parts that shall be large and harsh enough to injure cloth or wool, mechanically, by rubbing ; it should to powder easily in water, so as to diffuse itself through that fluid, and easily mix with it and with the stuffs to which itis applied. The fuller’s earth of Hampshire, England, so th celebrated, is of a greenish yellow, tolerably firm, erumbles easily in water, receives a polish from the finger nail,and is very powerfully detergent. This is, after all, the ant criterion by which to distinguish fuller’s garth’; : ifi it removes grease with avidity, crumbles easily in wa- ter so as to diffuse itself readily,and yet is not so coarse as to wear the fibre, it is a fuller’s earth. The subject is of some } practical importance to this country ‘on account of its wool- len manufactur es, — although checked for the present, | must eventually rise and prevail. While wes are of seen extent it may be neti to use soap, but i lar tablishments, fuller’s earth from its cheapness { et % can be abundantly obtained) is very esira ith respect to the existence of fuller’s wos in the clay of the Kent iron bed it appears very probable, and some of the specimens appear very like the Hampshire earth, but bs icra ents alone can decide. This vast bed of clay, (for it occupies more or less the h of the pit) is without any reasonable doubt, in- terposed between ledges of gneiss, which — form its ‘oof, and appear to form its pavement. 218 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. Both this ore and that at Salisbury form a_ striking in- stance of a great metallic deposit, not in veins, as most met- als occur, that is, filling fissures in rocks, which fissures are perpendicular to the horizon, or form an angle and usually a considerable one with it ; on the contrary, these ores. are parallel or nearly so with the horizon—that is, taking the en- tire deposit into view—and form, what is technically as well as familiarly, called a bed of ore. | ith respect to the kind of ore at Kent, in a scientific ar- rangement it would be referred to the same species, as that at Salisbury—the brown iron stone of Werner or the brown hematite. Yet practical men assure us that the iron made from it is of a different, and as is asserted of an inferior quality, and that itis more difficult to be brought to the state of good iron. It would require a careful chemical examination to de- cide in what the difference consists (and the subject is so important as well to merit this attention,) but if judging from appearances only, we were to hazard an opinion, it would be that the Kent ore containsa larger proportion of manganese. Most of these ores of iron contain some portion of manga- nese, and although a small proportion of that metal does not injure iron and (as some suppose,) even benefits it; a large proportion renders it brittle. he impression that the Kent ore contains more manganese, is derived from the fact that the specimens have, generally, a darker colour than the Salisbury ore, and in their cavities there are appearances almost like those produced by pure oxid of manganese. The Kent sre appears to be mid way between the brown and the black iron stone of Werner ;— the latter confessedly contains a great deal of manganese, and if we are not in an error, the Kent ore bed contains more of black ironstone—the Salisbury more of the brown. ‘The Kent ore bed also abounds in fine specimens, the fibrous, stalactitical and mamillary varieties in particular, are uncommonly fine here, and a mineralogical traveller 1s strongly tempted to load his vehicle, more deeply than, 3s convenient in so rough a country. On comparing the specimens both from Salisbury and Kent, with those of the same species in the splendid col *A manufacturer of muskets assured me that he found it too brittle for gun barrels, while that of Salisbury is very tongh. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 219 lection of Col. Gibbs (most of which came from the mines in France) we can scarcely distinguish the one from the oth- er, whether we regard their characters, their beauty, or their richness. ” ; Se ae Ride to New-Preston. - For a series of years a highly crystaline white marble has been brought to New-Haven from the towns of Wash- ington and New-Milford; it is in extensive use, for sepulchral monuments, as well as for purposes of architecture, although far the greater part of itis used for the former purposes. This marble, viewed even in the hands of the stone-cut- ters, could leave no doubt in the mind of the geologist, that it belonged to the highly primitive formations ; its perfectly erystaline structure—its high translucence—its whiteness often very pure—its freedom from any impressions of or- ganized bodies, and its occasionally abounding with erystals of foreign substances, particularly tremolite, afford sufficient ground for this conclusion. could have no doubt, ac¢or- ding to the established laws of geology, that it must be found imbedded in gneiss or mica-slate, and most probably in the former. — : ae _ Tnow eagerly embraced the opportunity of examining it in place, and for this purpose passed over east to the village of New-Preston, distant from the Kent ore bed seven or eight miles. Gneiss was still the rock which attended me $ it occasionally rose into abrupt and lofty hills, some- times composed of naked rock, with the edges of the strate projecting, and forming rude impending cliffs, threatening a fall into the vallies. . The village of New-Preston is situated on one of those high ridges of gneiss, which pass nearly North and South, and form the boldest geological features of the country.— his ridge runs nearly parallel to those which I have al- teady described, as forming the barriers of the Housatonick 4s far as I pursued its course. ee ; Gneiss, from the fissile nature of the rock, splitting readi- ly through the layers of mica or isinglass, which forms a part of its structure, often affords an excellent building and pa- Ving stone. The Haddam stone, so much valued in New- York asa flagging stone, that of New-Milford, of Derby, &e. is of this description. 220 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, §e. Stone houses—mode of building and of covermg with cement. Upon the top of New-Preston hill(on a spot which although rude, on account of the rocks and loose stones, with which it abounds, affords fine air and picturesque views remarkable both for extent, variety and beauty,) [had the pleasure to ob- serve two very good houses, constructed of the gneiss rock of the country. The public house is one of them and its owner assured me that it had literally arisen out of its own cellar, which was wholly excavated from the gneiss rock on which the house is founded ; the fragments obtained in forming the cellar had proved more than sufficient to construct the walls of the house. This house was not covered external- ly, with any cement, although it had been left rough with that view. Itseems, the proprietor had been deterred from applying it, by theill success of a neighbor, who having con- structed a similar house, and covered it with a cement, had the mortification to see it cleave off by the square yard at a teme. But on inspecting this house, also a very good one, the cause of failure appeared extremely obvious. The ce- nent had been very improperly applied. If a stone house is not to be covered with cement, it is necessary (as every one knows) to construct it with stones which have the smoothest and handsomest faces—either nat- ural or cut by the chisel, “according to the nature of the stone and the views of the proprietor, as to expence ; the joints are made as nice and smallas possible, and are careful- ly pointed, which gives this kind of building all the firmness and beauty of which it is susceptible, and it has the former in the highest, and the latter in a sufficient degree. _ But, if a stone house on the contrary, is to be covered with a cement, its walls should be lefton the outside as rough as possible—no smooth faces should be suffered to be on the outside—every such stone should have the smooth face turned inward, and no very large stones should be employ- ed, or if they are, their faces should be as rough as possible ; the stones should be thoroughly bedded in, and the cavities between them filled with mortar, but the holes on the outside should not be stopped—no small stones or mortar should be put in between them—in a word the whole exterior should present as many rough angular points and as many in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 221 uregular, deep and dove-tailed cavities between the stones as possible he mortar should be made of the best lime, and if it is slacked with water already saturated with lime, so much the better; the sand should be very angular, sharp grained and purely siliceous, consisting of little else than fragments of quartz, (commonly called white flint,) it should be coarse, from the size of a pea to that of the head of a large pin, and mixed with the lime in about equal bulks, or as some say, six or seven parts of sand to one of lime, with the addition of a suitable quantity of hair. This mortar, inclear, and moderate- ly warm weather, is put on with the trowel, dashed in with force and care into all the eavities, and floated over to the re- quired thickness, all at one operation, and one day’s work must be put on so soon after another that the two edges may perfectly incorporate, which will not be the fact if the for- mer day’s work is allowed to dry too much before that of the latter is put on. j nly one coat should be applied™-a second would not ad- here, if applied, and will come off with the frost. The wor may be afterwards beautified by a lime wash made with milk instead of water, with certain additions* which the work- men pretend to keep secret, but which are very well known. _ A cement put on in this manner will stand ; and in say- ing this I speak from the experience of twelve years ; a ce- ment of this kind which under my observation, has been on that length of time, being as sound as the stone beneath. In the case of the house on New-Preston hill, a thin coat Was put on like a first coat of inside plastering ; thus the holes which should have held the plaster firm were filled up, at the same time that the stones were scarcely covered, and when the second coat was applied, there was nothing to hold it, and of course, as might have been foreseen, it came off and left a ragged and mutilated exterior. —_ speak with pleasure of seeing houses built of stone be- Cause it is high time that we should build more extensively with permanent materials, brick or stone. * These additions are probably of no importance—the milk and the lime, appear to be all that are essential; the caseous or cheesy part of the milk Von. II.....No. 2. 29 222, Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ec. Stone houses properly constructed, the inside plastering not being laid upon the stone but on lath at a little distance, or, in the language of the workmen, the walls being furred, are much warmer in winter, and much cooler in summer, are in a great measure indestructible by fire, and by time, need little repair* and are never damp ; on the contrary, if furred, they are perfectly dry. : 3 If plastered upon the inside, directly upon the stone, they will be damp, not however from moisture passing throu the walls, aH is never the case in a well built house, but from condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere, the thick masses of stone not suddenly changing their tempera- ture, ‘and stone being a pretty good conductor of heat, when the atmosphere becomes charged with vapour and warm withal, the vapour appears on the wall in drops, as it does ona tankard or other vessel filled with cold water, and sud- denly brought into a warm and moist air. From this digressiongwhich will perhaps be pardoned from the practical importance of the subject, we return to our geological investigation. . Beds of primitive white Marble. . The ridge of gneiss, on which New-Preston stands, stretch- es away South and somewhat West to New-Milford. De- scending its eastern declivity I turned abruptly to the right, and followed the direction of the ridge of gneiss, travelling parallel to it. The beds of marble soon made their appea!- ance in a valley through which runs the little river, the eas- tern Aspetuck, issuing from the Raumauglake, in the north- ern part of Washington, and emptying into the Housaton- ick at New-Milford. Along this little stream; and at small distances from it, are situated the principal marble quarries, and they are opened and wrought at short intervals througli an extent of seven or eight miles, almost to the main street of New-Milford. The marble, as it lies in its native beds, has a very beautiful appearance, being, as already observed, very white and looking almost like beds of snow. Some of it is large grained, composed of plates of perceptible in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 223 magnitude ; in other places it is fine grained, looking al- most like lump or loaf sugar. Some of it is decidedly what mineralogists term dolomite, and all of it comes un- der the denomination of granularly foliated. It is, accor- ding to scientific arrangements, of the same kind with the statuary marble, and yet, it may be questioned whether any of it would answer for statues. Those of the ancients were made principally from the Parian marble, so called from its coming from the island of Paros in the Grecian Archipelago, although it is well ascertained that several other islands, as Naxos, Tenos, &c. in that sea afford similar marble: I be-' lieve all the statues of the moderns and some of those of the ancients are composed of the Carrara marble, thus denomi- nated from the place where it is found in Italy. To. fit marble for the use of the statuary, it should be highly erys- taline, and yet with a pretty fine grain; it should-be- p fectly white, entirely free from flaws and from foreign mine- rals, and it should be very firm. The finest pieces of Washington and New-Milford marble probably come as near this description as any marble as yet found in this country, but it is too often mixed with tremolite, often in- deed in such fine crystals and other forms* that it is very beautiful to the eye of a mineralogist, although it would be a blemish to the statua i he most beautiful pieces of this marble are apt to be of the most tender consistence, and an artist after toiling with immense pains to finish a fine statue, would be very much chagrined to find a delicate prominent part, as a nose, an ear, or a lip, suddenly break off, or filled with crystals of tremolite. Statuary marble, although not a remarkably hard stone 1s one of the most durable. Hence, says Patrin, “ itis sought for, for the construction of the most sumptuous edifices, and of monuments which are intended to be at once magnifi- cent and durable. Marble is one of the least destructible Materials ; of this we have proof in those, precious statues which are an eternal monument of the genius of the artists of ancient Greece. They have supported the injuries of twenty centuries while the scythe of time has not been able to glance on the brilliant polish of their surfaces. hese ranges of marble extend a great way North and South, and are quarried in many and distant places. th the * Scarcely inferior in beauty to the tremolite of the Alps. 224 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. present case the sawing is performed by the waters of the Eastern Aspetuck ; the quarrying is carried on in the usual manner. One circumstance however was novel to me.— The marble is easily divided by wedges in the direction of its stratification, but if they wish to produce a vertical crack, they can effect it, and at the same time produce a horizontal one in the following manner. An auger is provided which is exactly of the form of an equilateral triangle ;—with this, a triangular* hole is bored, in such a manner that the basis of e triangle is in the plane of the horizon, or of the stratifi- cation, and of course a line let fall from the vertex so as equally to bisect the base, would be perpendicular to the horizon, or to the stratification. When this hole is charged with gun powder and fired in the usual manner, two cracks are produced, one horizontal or in the direction of the stra- tification, and on both sides of the hole, and the other per- pendicular to the first. was gratified to find the geological associations of this marble very distinct and exactly such as I had been led to anticipate. This marble forms a perfectly distinct bed in gneiss, which is found on both sides of it, and of course both above and below it. As we travel on toward the centre of New- Milford, the gneiss makes its appearance in various places in the road, and is every where attended by the marble.— According to the systematic arrangement of Mr. Werner, this is therefore the oldest primitive limestone, forming dis- tinct beds in gneiss. I was very solicitous to observe the junctions of the marble and gneiss, and was gratified in va- rious places. The transition from the one rock to the other was, however, in general, not perfectly abrupt, and a sems!- ble intermixture of the two rocks could be perceived for some feet on both sides of the junction. d he two rocks accompany each other quite into the main street of New-Milford, and cross the river Housaton- ick some little way below, and without doubt proceed on to Danbury, Reading, &c, where primitive limestone is found. The geological relations of this marble appear then to be perfectly distinct —I may say they are very grand in their extent, and give us new reason to admire, that wonderful order and harmony, little suspected by people in general, * It would not necessarily be triangutar—if the auger should be suffered 1 ular vevolve, in the usual manner, the bole wou!d of course be cire ical at i i a i in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 225 which are found equally in the mineral kingdom, as in the animal and vegetable, and which afforded, on analogical grounds, the best reason to predict, that the geological asso- ciation of this marble would be found to be what it actually is, New-Milford. I had some hours at New-Milford before night, and they were busily occupied in packing my specimens, and in viewing the town and its vicini The public burying ground strikes a traveller forcibly, on account of the great number and crowded state of its mon- uments, and their being, almost without exception, construct ed of the snow-white marble, so abundant in the vicinity. New-Milford has had the reputation of not being a heal- thy town. Bills of mortality, averaged for a good number of years, afford the only adequate means of deciding a ques- “tion often agitated between different towns. New-Milford has of late years, had some sickly seasons, and so have most towns in Connecticut, however healthy they may be reputed. It is true we must not infer from this that there is no difference in the health of different places. It is how- ever probable, that in New-Milford, the great show of mon- uments, (many of them very beautiful in their design and execution) arises from the facility, with which the material is obtained in the neighborhood. P New-Milford lies in a valley on the banks of the Housa- tonick ; high hills cut off the view to the East, and indeed in almost every direction, and this low situation, with the ef- fects of evaporation from stagnant water, have, in popular SS. opinion, given rise to its reputed unhealthines his town is situated principally upon one main street, With some windings and branches. In few towns in Con- necticut, is there so great an inequality in the appearance of € houses. Some are more than commonly mean and ru- inous, while a considerable number are beautiful, and some even splendid. One house, built of brick, is very expensively ornamented with the white marble, which, beside many other costly decorations, forms a superb arch over the door. Our country isstill too recent to afford the traveller many of those biographical, and other interesting historical noti- ces which are socommon in Europe. It could not, howev- &r, be uninteresting to know, that this town was the early 226 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, Ye. residence of the venerable senator, Roger Sherman: his house, a plain old building, is still pointed out, and his name will be remembered as long as talent, integr cy and patriot- ism shall command the respect of American August 30th.—With the rising sun I left: New-Milford, and beading my course East, passed a succession of roug and arduous ridges, to the Shepaug river. In the distance of five or six miles, the succession was gneiss—gneiss—gneiss —mica-slate—gneiss—gneiss,—which last terminates in an alluvial tract upon the banks of the Shepaug, a river which empties into the Housatonick. The rocks of mica-slate, abounded with garnets, and had time permitted, many fine specimens might have been obtained. Mine Hill—Quarry of Gneiss—Spathic Tron. At the Shepaug, I quitted my wheels, —_ with a guide, proceeded, on horseback, two miles North, to the silver mine, as it has been called, sintated:i ina ores, ‘pon the last ridge of gneiss which I had erossed. The , from its steep~ ness and roughness, and the thick rat - which it is al- most every where covered, is difficult to ascend.* This hill is called Mine-hill, from its having been ex- plored some years ago by mining operations. The ex- cavations were made at several places, but chiefly at one, where we soon arrived. I have been assured by a son of the person who carried on the work, that without any doubt, silver was obtained there in some quantity, but not enough to render it profitable, and the work after being car- ried on to a very considerable extent, a deep shaft —_ been excavated, and great quantities of different mine thrown up, was ‘abandoned. Of the silver, I could at present: discover no traces but, from some specimens, from this place, which I saw some since, I am led to suspect that - ore was the sul- phuret or the vitreous silver ore of Werner. Every — here, however, indicates a metallic vein, a ee the relics of the mine still sufficient indications as to the principal ¢ contents of the vein. cal indispe 1 or eh pe ee may _not be amiss to t meetin tor _ - fit of fone i travellers, that any information will be o| bligingly i imparted, at the house of a respec: table man, (Mr. Trowbridge,) who lives at the foot of the hill IS in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 227 account. : ain x: It is very well characterized. Its structure is distinetly liat immediate gangue, and many specimens are found, in which it is beautifully interlaced with this mineral, and occasional- ly a fragment presents a ground of dark coloured spathic iron, with white crystals of quartz, perforating it in many Places, and directons and thus presenting a kind of mosaic. n the above description, it is presumed every mineralo- gist will recognize the spathic iron. This kind of iron ore is entirely different from that of Salisbury and Kent. It is essentially composed of oxid of iron, united to carbonic att and usually to lime ; it contains also variable proportions 0 manganese and sometimes magnesia. It appears to be es- sentially a carbonate of iron, but it is rare that lime is nov also present. 228 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &e. - Hence probably it is, that, ordinarily, in reducing it, it is not necessary to put limestone into the furnace, as in case of other iron ores; the lime, or in other words, the flux, is present in the ore itself, and little or none need be added. But this is not its greatest excellence— It affords steel directly from the bar without the process of cementation. Hence, in Europe this ore is much valued, as the iron bar drawn out by the trip-hammer in the common ss of ming, is iron or steel at pleasure, according as the process is managed's ; this is not true of any other ore, and hence probably this has been called the steel ore. The steel made from it is not of the finest kind, it is used principally for agricultural and other coarser instruments. e gneiss rock in which this spathic iron lies, is within the limits of the town of New-Milford, and on account of the important use which is there made of this rock, it is worthy of a moment’s attention. It is, as already remarked, gneiss, but singularly perfect in its characters, and it is questionable whether for purposes perfectly regular and continuous on one right line,that slabs of it of any length which can be lifted, can be raised from | a“ so regular in all their dimensions, and so even in eir surfaces, that they are hardly, excelled by hewn "The ‘colour also is of a light, agreeable grey 3 Sonics houses in New-Milford have this stone for their -steps and basement ; and its natural surfaces, or those, which, at the ends and edges are but slightily modified by the hammer and chisel, are so perfect that nothing finer ‘need be wished for the construction of the handsomest hous- es in cities. Could it be easily transported to New-York, is stone would be a more valuable pousessior to ‘the _ prietor, than the mine of silver or iron I was informed that one stone was sictually removed from the quarry, of the astonishing length of forty feet, with such a breadth and thickness, as corresponded to the pur- pose for which it was to be used. It is worth the trouble of a visit to New Milford, if it were for nothing else than to see this incomparable kind of building stone. In its native bed, it has the general stratification of the neighboring coun- try, both with respect to the direction and dip of the strata- in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 229 Rattle Snakes—anecdote of one. 1 was informed by my guide that rattle snakes had for- merly been very numerous upon this hill, and were still found there in considerable numbers. He accorded with the general impression as to their torpidity, and the slowness ‘of their motions, but stated the following fact, as of his own knowledge. One of his neighbors, a young man, meeting with a large and vigorous snake, of this spe- cies, instead of despatching him at once with his long cart- whip, which he could easily have done without the slightest danger, (as it is well known that they are killed very easily) amused himself by provoking him, by gently playing his whip around his body. The irritated reptile made repeat- ed and vigorous leaps towards the young man, coming near- er to him at every effort, and being teazed more and more _by-the whip, at last threw himself into the air with such en- ergy, that when he descended, he seemed scarcely to touch the ground,—but instantly rebounding, executed a succes- sion of leaps, so rapid, and so great, that there was not the slightest intermission, and he appeared to fly. The young man betook himself to a rapid flight, but his dreadful pur- suer gained rapidly upon him, till approaching a fence he perceived that he could not pass it before the fangs of the snake would be hooked in his flesh ; as his only resource, he turned, and by a fortunate throw of his lash, by which € wound it completely around the serpent’s body, he ar- rested his progress, and killed him. Few animals are furnished with more dreadful means of destruction. I had a living one nearly two months in my possession, and every day watched his manners. Birds, and most small animals, when put into his cage, he immedi- ately killed, but did not eat them ; a toad he permitted to remain with him for weeks unmolested, and even seemed attached to him, as he would permit him to leap upon his body, and even to sit upon his head. He took nothing except water, which he drank in large quantities, but rejected eve- ry thing else, although tempted with very many things 5 he ed emaciated, and at the approach of cold weather died. t he was six weeks in full vigour. When he opened his mouth his fangs were not visible, unless he was provoked ; fae | ee No, s. 0 230. Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ec. _at other times they were covered by a membrane like a scabbard, only they were drawn back, so that the sheathing membrane formed only a slight protuberance on each side of the upper jaw. If irritated, he flattened his head, threw it back, opened his mouth wide, and instantly the fatal fangs were shot out of their sheaths, like a spring dagger, and he darted on his object. After his death I examined the fangs; they were shaped like a sickle—a dutt led from the reservoir of poison at the bot- tom of the tooth, quite through its whole length and termi- nated just by the point, which was exceedingly sharp. Thus the fang is darted out at the will of the animal—it makes the puncture at the instant, and, simultaneously, the poison flows through the duct and is deposited in the very bottom wound. As this rarely fails to touch a blood vessel. the venom is thus instantly infused into the system, and without delay commences the march of death through ev- ery vein and artery. al a These facts, I am sensible, are not new, but they are not often related by eye witnesses, and nothing regarding the his- tory of this tremendous animal can fail to be interesting.— How happy is it, that the poison of the rattle-snake, is not conjoined with the size of the Boa-constrictor, and with the speed of the antelope ! te Ride to Woodbury. : From the Mine-hill, through Roxbury, to the’vicinity of Woodbury, eight or nine miles, the country was an uninter- rupted succession of high hills, and deep vallies—not moun- tainous, but forming vast curves, and causing the face of following the ae direction and stratification of the coun- _ Near Woodbury the rocks presented some tour- malins. ’ On reaching the top of a high hill, all of a sudden in @ valley stretching North and South for a mile or two, Wood- bury appears, with a handsome, well built street,and furnish- ed with three churches, with spires,—two of them new an¢ handsome. For one ef these churches, it seems the oo z an the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 231 town is indebted to a dissension as to the location of a house of worship, which, as usual in such cases, ended in the building of two new ones. Woodbury basin of secondary Greenstone, &e. _ While descending the last hill, the geological traveller is forcibly struck with the new physiognomy of the valley in which Woodbury lies. Its features are totally different from those of the country on which he ‘still is, and from those of the remoter regions all around. Abrupt fronts of dark coloured naked rock rise perpen- dicularly from flat, and apparently, alluvial plains.— ‘They have mural precipices and sharp ragged ridges, frin- ged with wood, and are marked by a great accumulation of ruins of the rock, sloping from the foot half or two thirds of the way up the rock ; on the opposite side of the hills the descent is gradual, without precipices, and comparatively ea No one who with habits of observation hag travelled from New-Haven to Hartford, and so on to Northampton, and Deerfield,—no one, in short, who has ever been conversant with a trap country, can fail almost at first glance to refer this to that class of rocks. It is the whin stone of the Scotch—the grunstein or greenstone of the Germans, and, in a popular way, may be referred to the same family 0 rocks as the Giant’s Causeway and the cave of Fingal. As the traveller descends into the valley, all his impres- sions are fully confirmed by discovering red sandstone in the structure of the houses and by finding a quarry of it worked at the foot of one of the ridges of rock. In a word, this is a basin of secondary greenstone, or trap, reposing on the old-red sandstone of Werner. After being so long oc- cupied in the regions of gneiss and other highly primitive rocks it is gratifying to find thus suddenly so new a feature in the geology of the countr On consulting Mr. Machue’s late geological map of the United States, I find that this spot did not escape his sa- gacity ; he travelled over it, and has laid it down as secon- dary, and belonging to the old red sandstone formation. rom our being now within twenty-four miles of New- Haven, it might be imagined that this tract is merely a 232 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, &c. branch of the great secondary trap formation which com- mences at that town ; -but it will appear that it is not; on the contrary, itis perfectly distinct—it is strictly a basin; an island, (if I may say so,) of secondary trap, in the midst of an ocean of gneiss. Ve find estan xe a total change in the minerals of the country. Very beautiful prehnite is found here abun- dantly, lying loose among the stones at the bottom of the precipices ; it is in mamillary and botryoidal masses, or in most perfect spheres, and sometimes in veins, and the structure is in diverging fibres,—the colour a delicate green. I have seen it no where so fine or so abundant in this coun- try. Agates are also found here, and zeolites and some of them handsome. In other parts of the same tract, bitumin- ous stones are found. I have a piece of fibrous limestone, from this tract, which is so bituminous that it looks as i soaked in tar and will burn with flame. My time did not permit me to coast around this basin, and ascertain its extent and its relations with the precision which I could have wished. It evidently reached but a mile or two North of where I then was, and, returning to New-Haven, I rode through its length in that di irection, and should place its entire length at seven or eight miles. Its breadth — but a little way to the East of the North and south road which I was travelling, and judging from the contour of the “hills to the West, a should imagine that it was succeeded by gneiss at the distance of two or three miles from the roa know of eckiiee3 in this country similar to this basin. except the coal basin of Richmond, which, although small, is much larger than this. A friend,* to whom in a letter I described this basin, re~ marks upon it :— The county of Antrim, in the North Ireland, presents numerous patches or districts of trap and basalt, in such relative positions as to render it very evident that after a surface consisting partly of bare primitive, and partly of hard chalk with flints had been formed, this was * The Rev. Henry Steinhauer, Principal of the Moravian Institution of Bethiem, Member of the Geological -jecett of London, and formerly ® missionary among iota Esquimaux - i Aprit 9, 1819. Scienc iohasiiin’ plore the death of this excellent and able man, tite whom, as Penal the celebrated Moravian Seminary at Bethlem, inPenn. and as a << cultivator of the ontacad mek te this country had much te hope. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 233 sompletely covered with a stratum of trap, which by some subsequent operation, was carved, united to its subjacent masses, into the present surface of the country, so as to be detached in some places, and to remain contiguous in oth- ers. Is there any reason (independent of the theory of universal formations, which I think must not be taken nce was continuous over a much larger extent of coun- 29) My present impression is that the trap of Connecticut and Massachusetts, has not extended over more country than it now occupies. But this subject may at a future time be resumed. rebut In Southbury, numerous low, conical hills, of sand and gravel appeared, and formed the basis of the road. Recurrence of primitive country,—and ride to New-Haven. spot. : The rocks which intervene between this place and New- Haven, are the same ranges which, a few miles North, I pass~ in the commencement of this tour. They are, for two or three miles mica slate—then chlorite slate, much mixed Slate and clay’slate, which succeed, lie vast isolated masses of trap, without any apparent connexion with other rocks ; m t f ge naa or trap, and perhaps give some countenance te Mr. Steinhauer’s suggestion. 234 Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, ¥ye. Descending the hill, trap and argillite and chlorite slate, several times alternate, and form the cliffs through which the road has been wrought. Scenery. Now a combination of fine objects, breaks upon the view. On the left the magnificent ridges of secondary trap, (men- tioned in the commencement of the tour,) stretching away North, farther than the eye can distinguish, and forming the arrier of luxuriant vallies, whose fine verdure is admira- bly contrasted with their naked and lofty precipices ; <3 ther East, other and still other ranges succeed, till their faint outline is blended with the distant sky ; eich at our feet, is the great alluvial plain, from which rise. the smoke and the spires of New-Haven, and further still its ex- tensive bay, surrounded by alluvial and secondary, but ter- minated at its mouth, by primitive country, closing in upon both sides; and much more remote, but distinguishable in the distant horizon, appear the shores and coast of Long-ts and, with the intervening sea and the craft and ships which it bears on its Sidaing General Remarks and Conclusions. ~_— formations, which are laid down by Mr. Wern 1. Clay slate, including beds of trap, and anal nae sionally into chlorite slate.* . babs a mile south of the road, on which my returning tour crossed these slaty rocks, commence beds of serpentine mar rble, which conti ee sight 6 or ten a, to the sea, and become the beautiful material, so neal 0 nH lique, now largely quarried and wrought. This ex- traordinary bed of marble and serpentine, is wall ed of amore par- Cickler account. - CE eee aE. in the Counties of New-Haven and Litchfield. 235 2. Mica slate succeeds and occupies the country, for many miles. : ' 3. Gneiss succeeds to the mica slate, and occupies the country for many miles more. crystalized primitive marble, and, including the formation further south, between New-Preston and: New-Milford— these beds of marble, are included in strata of mica slate and gneiss—the whitest and most crystaline and purest marble being in the gneiss. 9. West of Litchfield, a few miles, (as 1am informed from the best authority,) there are hills of primitive hornblende and sienite. of Werner, and the secondary district, on which New-Ha- ven stands, includes a considerable portion of his seconda- ty formations. The direction of the ranges of primitive rocks, is general- ly North, a little inclining to East, and of course South, a little inclining to West; the inclination of the strata, is to the East, at an angle, varying very much in different pla- es; the strata are in some places, nearly vertical and in . others, at angles of less than 45° with the horizon. * Possibly it is on'y in veins. 236 Localities of Minerals. we Art. 1V.—Locauities or MINERALS. Localities—communicated by Professor Dewey of Will- iams* College. curs, ish-white, and cream-coloured, with spots of a smoky hue, like smoky quartz in this respect, but certainly serpentine. It is sometimes associated with quartz, filling the cavities of strata of quartz, covered with minute crystals. Its hard- ness is very variable—some of it is disintegrating, some Is fibrous, and seems to be passing into asbestus. Much of this serpentine, especially the lighter coloured, is remarka- bly fine. The whitish decrepitates much, when high tem- perature is suddenly thrown uponit. Odour is strongly mag- nesian, when the mineral is breathed on. In some speci- mens are yellowish and reddish brown portions of a crystaline structure, and in some, cavities are filled with these impet- fect crystals. They break into a rhomboidal form, and are sometimes very regular rhomboids. Some of them, are so closely serpentine, that they may be all the same mineral. They contain, like the rest of the serpentine, magnesia, 0X- yd of iron, often so minute, that they are discoverable only under a magnifier, or by the magnet. : Ir. Emmons has also found, beautiful masses of actyno- lite, often containing small tufts of the fibrous variety. White talc is often mixed with the actynolite. Bitter Spar, is found there also, in the soapstone, 28sec ated with beautiful green tale. The spar is laminated, white, and yellowish—but some specimens, when fractured, Pte sented numerous small rhombs. i | have found in Sheffield, (Mass.) masses of Tremolite, with fibres two feet long. I never heard of such tremolite. * In Prof. Dewey’s piece, (Vol. I. pa. 337,) Williams College is errooe: ously printed Willian.’ College. re * 3 EEL Localities of Minerals. 237 Hexagonal crystals of mica.—They are in granite. As I did not notice them at first, I cannot tell where the granite was obtained, but believe it was from Chester or Westfield, on the granite ridge. Some of the crystals are small, not more than one tenth of an inch on a side and almost regular hexagons. Others are larger, and have —— sides.— ine real size of them is here given. No. be No. 2. s ia : The sides are nat bes ry Oe oO. ra Enlarged. some of the ‘oAyiis much resemble those — 4 you mentioned in the Journal from Porto ————_—* Rico. It is probable that other “specimens of titi oni An attempt to measure the angles of No. 1 “G=S1229, 61269, c==1120, © d=—=121°, and a 820.°'The sum’ is 721°, and should be but 720°. e above angles may therefore be taken as very near the ttath. In No. 3, the angles were as follows, a==116°, 51249, CST 29°9; d=112° » e==28221°, and n—117°, being ae, 7203°, and approximating nearly to the truth. I do ee the angles are very accurate, for I had no Fite ams of measuring them. In some of the crystals, the sada are more unequal than in No. 3. ~ In some rhombic spar, containing the new mineral, Bru- mai de from Sparta, New: T found several hexagonal crystals mica. gt of ae in dolomite, from Great Barring- These crystals are much compressed, and the diedral ie Sent odie: so that they become bladed crys- tals. They are from one half inch to two inches, or more, in Jength, ania some of them three fourths of an inch in breadth. They are found in hard rocks cf dolomite, above ground, and very abundantly, in the very friable dolomite, under the “surface of the earth. The fibrous and acicular varieties of tremolite are abundant in the South part of this county. rown Spar from Leicester, . on Genesee river.— ‘The crystals are rounded, or lenticular, and often so taal ed, as to have a scaly appearance—colot w, dark .brown Vou /ALNo, 2. 31 238 Localities of Minerals. vescence, in nitric acid. on dr stalagmites ; but their location and composition do not well agree with this mineral. This notice may lead to ex- amination of them. Localities by Mr. Amos Eatroxn—from the minutes of the ate Troy Lyceum. « White Augite—Sappar—Plumbago—Adularia.—Iin the granular limestone of Canaan, Washington, and Brookfield, in Connecticut, tremolite abounds, and in Brookfield, the white variety of augite is abundant. _ Near the northeast corner of Haddam, on the East side of the river, in the parish of Middle-Haddam, is a new lo- cality of -sappar. It is on the farm of a Mr. Selden, from whom I received specimens, with fibres, from six to eight inches in Tength. It is here found in mica-slate, as at Ches- terfieldand Conway, Above six miles in a southeast direction from Brimfield, and two miles East of Holland meeting-house, is an exten- sive bed of Plumbago. Several years ago, this mine was wrought, and many tons of plumbago were taken from 1t-— The beds of plumbago, lie between layers of gneiss, Localities of Minerals. 239 connexion with hornblende, perfectly pure, except that it contains cobalt ore, like the hornblende of Monson and Chatham. {In Brimfield, in Massachusetts, the stone wall, near the ‘house of Dr. Lincoln, and of the widow of Gen. Eaton, abounds in adularia. The feldspar part of a large portion of the granite and gneiss of that vicinity, is supplied by the most beautiful adularia. The sulphuret of molybdena, also is there very common—it is found chiefly, in veins of granite which traverse gneiss. : % * * ¥ * * * Localities of Mine ajs, observed principally in Haddam,* in Connecticut, Hi Sat 1819, by Dr. J. W. Wester. Communicated in various letters to the Editor. — T have discovered a new locality for tourmalin of great beauty, and of remarkable regularity of form; it is about one mile beyond the rock which Col. Gibbs blasted, some years since, for small, short Tourmalin, which rock, is in € road, four miles from the inn, at Haddam. The strata in this place, are, mica-slate and gneiss, frequently alterna- ting, and passing into each other, traversed by veins of gra- Nite of various size ;—following the beds of these rocks, through a thick wood, I observed the tourmalin increase in quantity, and size, towards the more elevated part of the eds of mica-slate, a blast being made, the rock appeared Wholly composed of a yellowish granular quartz, and black tourmalin, which were thrown out in profusion, being easily Separated from the granular quartz. Every crystal was per- fect, having three lateral planes, and being terminated at each extremity with three; the terminal planes set upon the lateral. The diameter varies from 1-6 to 1-2 an inch, but T afterwards observed some with a diameter of two inches, less perfect however. iat ae ; In another letter, it is remarked, I have found a new locali- _ ty of black tourmalins, all doubly acuminated, and none less than an inch and a half in length, by one in diameter. * Haddam is about twenty miles from the mouth of Connecticut river, 9n its western bank, and about 100 miles N. E. from New-York. L ' 240 Localities of Minerals. About three miles West of the tavern in Haddam, in a cross road, Dr. Webster says, “I discovered in a vein four inches wide and four feet long, in a decomposed mica slate, and in the sand proceding from its decomposition, the finest crystalized spidiats, which I have seen — an American locality ; the specimens are, many of them, pre- cisely like those from the Oisans. We have here; i in short, the pistacite, zoizite, and epidote a arenace. Felder and a grey quartz, the parts very large, ae it abounds with garnets, some of mite _a great size, with tourmalins and fine fibrous white tale.” This rock is in the court-yard of a dwelling house, and passes under the house, into its cellar. Mineralogists have found it necessary, and just, to insure the proprietor of the house, against their gun- powder blasts, and to pay him liberally for the molestation of his peace. J—Ed. Of this rock, Dr. Webster observes : The rock containing speenbeeck is undoubtedly a vein, ‘traversing gneiss, we believe. {[ obtained permission to blast, a is. Th ithert led by earth, is most most abundant = seenet& - 1 Stanined masses two feet in a with perfect ga four, five and six inches in diameter, but all farnimseds ain one specimen, consisting chiefly of mica,are very perfect black tourmalins. In the mica slate of this vicinity, I found con- soe Ag dae <3 7. Fy Piintan hee chk . Be Pie Se, ae ee ptr Localities of Minerals. 241 New locality of erystalized sulphat of Barytes, §c.—Com- municated in a letter by D. B. Dovaxass, assistant pro- fessor in the West Point Military Academy, : During my excursion to the northwest, last summer, as. astronomer to the Boundary Commissioner, I was enabled to make a considerable collection of minerals ;—among the test, a rich one of Niagara specimens; also some very ‘air specimens of organic remains from fort Erie—upon the islands at the West end of Lake Erie, I obtained sulphat of barytes, which is found both in crystals, and in mass, in great abundance, in the western islands above mentioned. he crystals are very flat hexagonal prisms, clustered to- gether rather confusedly, and adhering very slightly to each other ; they are generally very clear and pellucid, some- times tinged with blue. Localities of Minerals —Gommunicated by Dr. I. F. Dana. Tremolite, (bladed,) abundant, and of a fine quality at Chester, N. H. at. Plumbago, in small rolled masses, and in small veins, in Micaceous schistus, at Chester, N. H. Some specimens are very fine, and in laminz, as large as the hand and half ick Localities of Minerals.—By the Rev. Mr. Schaeffer of New-York. Pistazite, (Epidote,) in beautiful crystals, occurred in a tock of singular constitution, composed 0 schorl, quartz, cubic, [euboidal? as the cube is not among the orms of ear- bonate of lime,—Ed.] crystals of carbonate of lime, indico- lite, &e. and an ore, the nature of which is not yet ascer- tained. It is probable, however, that 1t may contain nickel. Corlaer’s Hook, New-York, discovered nearly three years Cy Pittasite (epidote,) amorphous, or rather granular,—oc- eursina ferruginous green feldspar rock; Rhinebeck, Dutch- ess County, N. ¥.—observed last summer. @ 242, Ancient Bones. Art. V. On some ancient human bones &c. with a no- tice of the bones of the Mastodon or Mammoth, and of various shells found in Ohio and the west ; by Cater TWATER, Esq. Circleville, May 22, 1820.. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, Ir has been said, that neither the bones of man, nor the remains of any of his works, have been found in any of the rock formations of our Globe. This may be true of all parts of the earth except Ohio. In this region however a number of skeletons have been found in two places at least, and the works of man have been discovered in many oth- ers. To what epoch or catastrophe of our globe, they are to be referred, I leave others to decide, while I proceed to relate the facts. I am credibly informed, that in digging a well at Cincin- nati in this state, an arrow head was found more than ni ty feet below the surface. The geology of that place has been well described by Dr. neo in his “Picture of Cin- cinnati.” It is a very ancient alluvion. Nine miles Sou' of the ee shore of lake “Erie, at Ridgeville, Cayaho- ga county, several feet below the surface, in the ridge, which was Sue the southern shore of the lake, several 5 ee and one or more human skeletons were found, which zine ¢ manier as thoes discovered at Ridgeville At Pickaway plains, about three miles South of this town, while several persons were digging a well, several years since, a human skeleton was found{ seventeen feet six inches * Fact derived frrom Moses Eldred, Esq. i Authority, Israel Harrington, Esq. of Lower ee + By Major John E. Morgan. wewssncemesid Bete oe SF tn. NESSJocelyn Se. Ancient Bones. 243 below the surface. This skeleton was seen by several per- sons ; and among others, by Dre Daniel Turney, an emi- nent surgeon of this place ; they all concurred in the belief, that it belonged toa human being. Pickaway plains are, or rather were a large prairie, before the land was improved by its present inhabitants. This tract is alluvial to a great depth ; greater, probably, than the earth has ever been perforated, certainly than it has been here by the hand of man. The surface of the plain is at least one hundred feet above the highest freshet of the Scioto river, near which it lies. On the surface is a black vegetable mould, from three, to six, and nine feet in depth—then we find pebbles and shells imbedded among them: the pebbles are evidently rounded and smoothed by attrition in water, exactly such as we now see at the bottom of rivers, ee and lakes. I hand of man, for there are no marks of any grave; or of any of the works of man, but the earth and pebbles appear to lie in the very position in which they were de- posited by the water. This skeleton is ‘no more, but one skull found nearer still to this town, a drawing of which ac- companies this communication, I have been careful to pre- serve fora similar plate. (See 2d plate. On the North side of a small stream, called Hargus creek, which at this place empties into tne Scioto, in dig- ging through a hill composed of such pebbles as I have de- scribed in Pickaway plains, at least nine feet below the surface, several human skeletons were found, perfect in ev- ery limb. The drawing* which I have annexed, is exactly One fourth part as large as one of these skulls which is inmy ‘possession. ‘These skeletons, thus found, were promiscu- * Although I profess no skill in drawing, I believe the draft is correc’. - ae Suse ae f a 244 Ancient Bones and Shells. when itwas probably a mighty stream, compared with which, it is now a mere brook. There are other skulls in this town taken out of the same hill, by the persons who, in order to make a road through it, were engaged in taking it away. - These bones are very similar to those found in our mounds, and probably belonged to the same race of men. These people were short and thick, not exceeding gene- rally five feet in height, and very possibly they were not more than four feet six inches. These skeletons, when first exposed to the atmosphere, are quite perfect, but after- wards moulder and fall into pieces. ether they were overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some other, know not, but one thing appears certain, namely,—that wa- ter has deposited them here, together with the hill in which, for so many ages they have reposed. Indeed, this whole country appears to have been once, and for a considerable period, covered with water, which has made it one VAST CEMETERY OF THE BEINGS OF FORMER AGES. oo : * * z * Terebratula pennata, &c. &e. Sept. 24th, 1819.—I send you four drawings of articles io me an ; I do not find the like in Parkinson’s *‘ Organic Remains,” nor in Sowerby’s ‘“ Mineral Con- chology.” The drawing represents it exactly. It is @ carbonate of lime. You see but two sides, or the half of it, yet from them you may get a good idea of the whole. No. 2, 3, is a petrified shell, classed by Sowerby under the genus Terebratula, although this species is a non- descript. I would propose for itthe name of “ terebratula pennata,” as the projections on its sides may well represen * Teeth and Bones of the Mammoth. 245 indentation, forming a semicircle in the centre of the beaks. This beautiful specimen is a light drab-coloured limestone. Fig. 3, shews the hinge of “ terebratula pennata. o. 4, is a very beautiful specimen, and belongs toa new species at least, if not a new genus. It was found by my little daughter. It is not injured as most other specimens are, as its shell is almost perfect. The drawing shews its size. Fig. 5, a detached vertebra of an encrinite, though lar- ger, than described by Parkinson. This is composed o limestone, and the surface is beautifully and distinctly artic- ulated. Ihave many specimens of the encrinite ; some quite perfect. ; | * * . % & ed Notice respecting the teeth and bones of the Mammoth or Mastodon. Oct. 11, 1819.—The teeth of the mastodon in my pos- session, resemble those of carniverous animals more than any with which I am acquainted. hose found in this ' state, vary in size, and are always found in alluvial earth, or in the beds of creeks. One of mine, were it not broken off, would weigh nine or ten pounds ; the weight of the other is given, as wellas its size. The latter, was found by a child, at play in a small rivulet, near the Pickaway plains ; the former was found in the bed of salt creek, twenty-two feet nine inches below the surfaee, by Judge Givens, of Jackson county, Ohio, while engaged in digging for salt wa- ter. Two or more ribs, several joints of the backbone, Xc. were found with it. Near this place several teeth of the mammoth belonging to different individuals, have been found at different times, some of them lying on the surface of the earth, and a few relics below it; the former, I should ratherSus- pect, were brought here, principally by the Indians, the latter lay in the place where the animals died. A large thigh bone Was lately found near this town in digging a mill-race. Sev- eral teeth of the mastodon have been found along the Scio- to river, on the southern beach of Lake Erie, and at Day- on on the Great Miami. Several bones helonging to this Vou. IT.....No. 2. . 32 246 Dewey’s Geological Section. animal have been discovered near Cincinnati, and some in a good state of preservation in the counties of Athens and Meigs. ; ~ References. [Print at the end.] No. 1,2, B. two views ofa mastodon’s tooth, found in the bed of a sealbey river near Pickaway plains, pha Weight, 5lbs. 6 1-2 inches from A. to r.—from 1, to1. No. 1, 2, A. two views of a 48 found 1 in alluvial earth , twenty- iwo feet nine inches, below the surface, im digging a salt well a the Scioto salt-works. These teeth are in the epiutt of Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio. The latter tooth weighs nine pounds, though several fragments have been eres off. Its original weight was probably from 12 to 14 lbs. at lea Arr. VI. be Sai section from Taconick range, in Will- oe Dias to the city of Troy, on the Hudson, by Profes- sor Dewey. Williamstown, July 4th, 1820. ae TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir, | ! I ivrormep you sometime ago, that I intended to contin- ue the Geological Section from the Taconick range, in this town, to the city of Troy, on the Hudson. I have before noticed the rocks on thetroads from this place to. Troy; North and South of the direct line, and I have lately passed on this line from Troy, through Brunswick, rat, and Petersburgh, over the Taconick range, to this town.— Through these three towns to Troy, the distance foot the est line o f Massachusetts, i is very nearly twenty miles in line ; and as the rocks are similar on the routes North and South of it, the geology will embrace a section several miles in width. It will be recollected, that the rocks of the Taconick range in this town, were stated to be argil- laceous-slate, chlorite-slate, and talcose-slate. The last pre- dominates, and abounds on the descent of the range ito the valley of Petersburgh. This valley, of variable breadth, extends ‘several miles North and South, and is travers- , | Dewey’s Geological Section. 247 ed by a stream which runs northward, into Hoosack River. {n this valley is found abundantly the same mixture of chlo- rite and quartz, which is so common in Williamstown, though the two vallies are separated by the Taconick range, having an elevation from 1000 to 1400 feet. As this range is broken through by the Hoosack, a few miles North, and as the same mixture may be traced, and often found abun- dantly along the Hoosack, to the stream which runs through Petersburgh, the chlorite and quartz, undoubtedly follow up this stream, through the valley. On the West side of this valley, and about seventeen miles East of Troy, lies Chlorite Slate, very distinctly characterized. It is some- times narrow, and sometimes two or three miles in width, often rising into hills 200 or 300 feet high. As this rockis . found on the Taconick range, and forms a part of it, espe- cially a few miles North of this place, it ought perhaps to be considered-as belonging to the range, and as the rock in- to which the talcose slate actually passes. _ Its strata extend into the next rock, or sts quartz, cemented by a greenish argillaceous substance, whic very fine, but generally is readily seen by the eye, and is Occasionally so large and abundant, that it resembles breccia. The fracture often shews the quartz to have been rounded Masses, and in these cases the stone does not appear por- phyritic. In other-cases the stone is so very compact and close-grained, containing also feldspar, that it might have pas- sed for porphyry, had it not been connected with speci- mens which could not be mistaken. This rock, though quite tough in the cross fracture, readily breaks into pris- matic fragments, along its veins, which are usually filled 248 Dewey's Geological Section. with quartz. By the action of the weather, sec rocks are divided into innumerable prismatic bodies. A small stream, which rises in the mountains in the East part of Grafton, and runs westward into the Hudson, below T roy, affords an excellent opportunity for examining the ober of this rock in numerous places. Occasionally there appear in this rock, beds, or veins, of a reddish argillaceous slate, in Grafton and Brunswick. Near Troy, the graywacke has a much finer texture, and darker colour, and some of it takes a fine polish.* Where - e graywacke stops near Troy, there begins a bed or stra- of erittiieots Slate.—It extends to the bank of the Hud- son, and has a similar inclination to the East. It hte doubtless be considered as the next rock in order forming an extensive bed in the graywacke. It is "full of natural seams, which divide it into small plates, and easily a ag A large quantity, eee into a street in y the action of the weather, and constant travel- ling hits "tk become in one year, baile e clay. Both the graywacke and argillite are evidently transition rocks.* The slate is very different from that which oceurs in Williams- town, and along this part of the Taconick range, and which ms to me clearly primitive. It will doubtless be found by future observation, that the roof-slate of Hoosack, N. ¥ which appears to be a continuation of the Taconick range, is separated from the argillaceous transition slate, which ex- tends for many miles along the Hudson, below and above Troy, by the same stratum of graywacke, I noticed no gray wacke-slate on this section, but it is found very ane in Chatham, a few miles southeast of Albany. Specim of the above rocks will soon be forwarded to the Cleotogical society. Should you think the above worthy of publication, I should be glad to see it because this section will be pretty vate nee from atone miles East of ——— river to e Hudson. * * * a * * * See Eaton’s Geology. - 2 Dewey’s Geological Section. 249 Wavellite 2 I have lately analysed a mineral, found by Mr. Emmons, in an iron mine in Richmond,-in this county. It is new, or a new variety of Wavellite. “oe, Colour, greenish white ; scratches crystalized carbonate of lime, but is less hard than fluate of lime; infusible by the blowpipe ; and sp. gr. about 2. 4. It occurs in a sta- lactical form, or as an incrustation, presenting many small mamillary concretions, which, as well as the stalactites, are composed of minute radiating crystals, or crystaline fibres. Its lustre is rather weak—rather tough to break, but is pul- verised without difficulty in a glass mortar. It contains a little less than seventy per. cent. of alumine, much water, and a little lime and silex. From an examination of seve- ral specimens, the lime appears to be variable. The above characters bring it so near wavellite, that I am inclined to think it only a variety. When pulverised, it is nearly all dissolved in solution of pure potash by heat. If nitric acid be poured on the solution, very nearly the whole is dissolved asa nitrate. The re- mainder is clearly silex. If the nitrate be mixed with car- um. ‘There can be no doubt of the general constituents. * Aletter from Dr. Torrey, to the Editor, dated Sept. 22d, confirms this Statement, and promises a detailed analysis, which we should be glad to See, especially as it appears that the analysis of the Wavellite has been re- mine, 35, 35: phosphoric acid, 33, 40 ; fluoric acid, 2, 06; lime 0, 50; $¥ids of iron and manganese, 1, 24; water, 26, 80. 250 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. Arr. VIL Remarks:on the environs of Carthage Bridge, near the mouth of the Genesee River ; by Dr. Joun I. Bres- BY, of the medical Staff of the British army in Canada. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir, _ 1 uave the honor of addressing to you a few observa- tions, on the environs of the justly celebrated bridge at Car- thage, on the Genesee river, in the State of New-Yor T enesee river falls into lake Ontario, on its South coast, sthgit ninety miles from Fort Niagara. At its mouth, on the left sloping grassy bank, stands the village of Char- lottestown, a small, and irregular cluster, of dwellings, stores and taverns. The river is here perhaps two hundred yards broad, but it varies much during its course. The banks soon rise to the height of from 80, to 140 feet, and continue to as- cend to the first falls, five miles from the lake, where they are 196 feet high. ‘They are always steep and ys with . trees, oe cedar and hemlock, growing among ferru- rown sandstone in debris, and shivered ‘hodewstll laye "The Steam-boat Ontario, from Lewistown; stops at * Han- fords Landing,” a mile below the first falls ; where two torage houses and a small wharf stand on a narrow slip of enpiind, under the high and woody steeps.——A winding road leads up the precipice. On the summit of this road we are surprised to find our- selves at once, in a populous district, among cultivated grounds, and handsome stores and houses, distributed ace cording to the interest of the proprietors. Advancing a mile, along the river, on the road to Roches- ter, through | fields and woods, we arrive in view of Car- e bridge. It is first seen from a small elevation, to cross among lofty and dense foliage, a gulf 200 feet deep, and wide, whose mural sides are curiously — by white and red ‘strata. At the near end, a tasteful lodge is erected for the accommodation of the toll-gatherer. It consists of a single arch, 342 feet in width, a segment of a circle, I believe. The whole edifice is of Wood,” an is 740 feet long. Its breadth allows of sige railed paths, Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. 251 on each side, for foot passengers, and of ample space in the middle for carriages to pass each other. The approach at either extremity being a gentle descent, a slight concavity is therefore given to the road over it, to preserve its even- ness and continuity. It cost 16,000 dollars, and to the hon- or of the American name, is the work of the artizans of the neighbourhood.* The toll is very unproductive ; but the lands in its vicinity have risen considerably in value. T need scarcely observe, that from the water, at the dis-, tance of three hundred yards, it forms a grand and singu- lar spectacle. The gloom of the narrowed and sunken river, gives a glow and brightness to the objects above, and espe- cially to this graceful and Iris-like fabric, which is seen white, and high in the air, striding the, precipice, and par- tially concealed in pines, oak and beeches. Looking on- ward, under the arch, the view is speedily terminated by a very picturesque cascade seventy feet high: the quantity ’ of water is not great, but is most advantageously displayed, y dashing on two successive ledges, from which, archin beautifully, it loses itself in the wreathing spray, that ever plays around the foot of the bare red rock. It is surroun- - in the back ground by finely disposed foliage of various inds. On crossing the bridge, (still proceeding to Rochester,) we find a straggling assemblage of houses, called Carthage, all evidently of the most recent date, and of ordinary ap- pearance, except two exquisite specimens of domestic arch- itecture. They are superbly furnished, and seem rather to be denizens of the most refined cities, than of this wilder- hess. ‘The town is principally occupied by husbandmen, and contains the common proportion of well frequented taverns, but no church. The land is undulating, and full of Stumps, and blackened decaying trees. Passing to the right, on the high banks of the Genesee, and through mingled cleared grounds and woods, for three hundred ards or more, we meet with another fall of ninety feet in height, and apparently more plentifully supplied with Water ; which passes in an unbroken, and almost transparent curtain, over a gracefully curving line of rocks. It 1s also embellished with trees and small heights. A mill is erect- “It was erected from scaffolding ‘on the bed of the river, which here contains very little water. _ me ss 252 Remarks on the environs of Carthage Bridge. ing to take advantage of a part of its water ;—as has been done at the five minor falls which pour over the adjacent West bank, at some distance from each other. They are the outlets of channels which the level of the country, now low and swampy, has permitted to form. The town of Rochester is half a mile higher up the river, a good road, through the woods and fields leading to it. In June, 1819, this Settlement was four years old, and then con- tained b The inns are excellent; and the stores frequently with their gables to the street, are shewy and well stocked. The town possesses a printing office and newspaper. The streets are scarce cleared of the tree-stumps ; but they are lively an merce and manufactures are carried on with the facilities and steadiness of a Hanse town, whose organiza- tion poses the experience of a thousand years. all the town is on the West side of the river, but many roid houses are on the other, and comraunicate by a common wooden bridge of three abutments. Looking up- wards from this bridge, you have rapids passing noisily over two ledges of rock which at the distance of fifty and a hun- dred yards cross the widened river. The left shore isa slo- ping meadow : the right is low, and intersected by numer- ous streamlets, each of which has its petty cascade, and its mill he mi: wood, and Bours: Woods are close at hand in The: view downwards is ‘soinatiins: sduatiiee. The West side’ is more covered with houses and opulent. establish- ments, which, indeed, stretch a mile or more. The stratification of the banks of the Genesee river, can be best observed about Carthage bridge. Here they are perpendicular, and dilate so as to give the horse-shoe form to. the chasm included between the bridge and first fall— es at the same time under the former. Large mas- of debris occupy the foot of these walls. The West side of the precipice above the bridge is imperfect ; a nat- row grassy ledge having formed at midheight, su eceeded by a steep slope, which is loaded with trees. The higher por- cae im general, are often much comminuted and ie ea “The rocks on bolts sides se: the: river at this is point soak at diffe erent parts of the side, corr in kind and situation. | | : Remarss on the environs of Carthage Bridge. 253 The upper strata are limestone, and are here inaccessi- ble, but can be better investigated at the second falls. A brown, compact conchoidal lime is the first; the next is brown, rather erystaline, and full of shells of a pearly lustre ; a third is bluish and contains fewer shells. Broader layers succeed, having black flint nodules imbedded. The order of the whole succession of strata is as follows: ns Layers of Limestone. —— Limestone and bluish Shale alternating in this stratum. es Ferruginous Sandstone. Greyish blue Shale, as at the falls of Niagara—very dusky. A white Clay—giving not the minutest effervescence in acids. Dark red Sandstone ; bighly ferrnginous—in many parts having globules of black metallic lustre. ; As No. 10, but of lighter colour. As No, 10. Do. but stratified thus. Bright red ferruginous Sandstone, with yellow spots, and circlets on the fracture surfaces. It isa Compac Nos. 7, and 8, have each one line of division. — Shale alternately grey and red. The surface of some of the sandstones, as No. 10, is im- pressed with the figure of confused bunches of twigs or ranches, having transverse ribs at regular distances, like e€ bamboo cane. No. 6, contains a few pebbles, and ma- ny elongated univalve shells. Among the debris of this chasm, a ferruginous puddingstone of quartz pebbles occurs, but I could not find it in position. The banks of this river are highest at Carthage bridge. From their gradual subsidence towards the lake ; and from their higher parts being covered with soil, little limestone is seen below ; while above the first fall, (excepting the low- €st stratum,) no other is met with—but the successive bluffs Which it forms are so shivered and moulded that their strati- Vou. I1.....No. 2. 33 254 Botany. fication, colours, &c. are very indistinct. At the second fall, and near Rochester, this rock is less disintegrated. JOHN I. BIGSBY, M. D. Quebec, April, 1820. _ Assistant Staff Surgeon. BOTANY. ———o Arr. VIL. Floral Calendar, for the years 1815, 16, 17, 18, and 19 ; ee “ Deerfield, Mass, North Lat. 42° 28, est Long. 72 9’.—One hundred miles from the sea coast.— By. Dr. Saas Coo.ey. In this calendar, a few of the most common plants are selected, because the change in these at the time of flow- ering is most striking, and because they are most widely dissetninated through the country ; and are, therefore the est species for corresponding observations. The first col- umn marks the first change in the foliation of a forest of oaks, chesnut, maple, and birch, perceptible at Be dis- tance of half a mile. This change, it is well known, is generally very rapid and distinguishable ; and therefore it was thought proper to be noticed. “Forest tepitty —. -tree in Common red gard full flower. Cherry in full Siiver. ‘Years. May 15 May 28 1815 fone 27 May 11 1816 8 24 13. 1817 Bhe 2: 30 29 1818 7 24 22 1819 Red Currant Martins first Barn Swallows Harvest of English infullflower. appeared. first appeared ai ' May 11 April 22 April 24 Nicos 8 ees 1, ee May 1 July 28 23 ey ed April 17 20 20 24 26. yk mark.—Such concise results of extended obsetyations are desirable. but it may not always be convenient to inse very voluminous details of daily floral occurrences.— * tea] Botany. 255 Arr. IX. May not the state of those indigenous plants, which blossom late in the season, indicate a late or an ear- ly autumn ? by Professor Dewey. " Tue flowering of plants early or late in the spring, and the maturity of fruits early or late in the summer, are ever considered proof of an early or late season. The following acts give some plausibility to the opinion that the state of the later plants may be some index also to the season of autumn. ‘They are the result of observations for the last four years. The plants which invariably flower compara- tively late in the season, at this place, are several species of aster, and solidago, and gentiana, and hamamelis virginica. {n all these plants, except hamamelis, whose fruit is ripened the succeeding spring and summer, the process of maturing heir seed seems to proceed rapidly, and the cooler tempe- rature of Autumn to be favorable to this process. The sum- mers of 1816 and 1817 were considerably colder than those of 1818 and 1819. The mean temperature of the three summer months was as follows—for 1816, 63° 46 ; 1817, 64° 41 ; 1818, 68° 57; 1819, 68° 84. The season of 4816 will long be remembered for its cold. In this year, however, hamamelis and some species of solidago, which were all I then noticed, blossomed earlier than in either of the last two years. And in 1817, several species of the above genera flowered from ten to fourteen days earlier than m the two following years. But in 1816 and 1817 the au- much earlier, or vegetation was stopped by the cold much earlier than in 1818 and 1819. In 1816 the first severe frost was August 29th, and after September 20th severe frosts were frequent. In 1817 the first severe frost was October Ist, and they occurred often after the middle of the month. In 1818, except on September 27th, there were no frosts of consequence till November. ‘Th t hard frost was October 6th, in 1819; and again towards the end’ of the month. The above mentioned plants are uninjured by frosts which will kill our exotics. They can- not, however, endure repeated and severe frosts. So much later did these plants blossom in 1818, than in 1817, that it seemed impossible for their seed to be matured, unless the Severe frosts should be later than in 1817, and I was thence 256 Botany. led to remark to several persons the probability that the au- tumn would be later. For the same reason 1 made the same remark last autumn. In both cases the lamas was verified by fact. The promise of God, ‘that seed-time and harvest shall not cease,” and the ortinsnsa “let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,” while they are not inconsistent with the failure of harvest and fruit in a partie- ular place, or with the extinction of some species of vegeta- bles, seem to authorize the general expectation that the fruits will be matured, and that when the time of flowering is later, the season will be adapted to the state of the plants. As we have earlier and later autumns, it is at least worthy of observation, whether the time of flowering of the later plants does not correspond to them. Botany might, per- haps, be then applied to anotiier practical advantage. he plants would be very easily known from their being late 1” _ flowering. If it be true that the cooler part of the season is more fa- vorable to the vegetation of the above plants, as the differ- ence in the time of their flowering seems to indicate, there is an obvious reason why their flowering should take place sans in a Pooler, than in a warmer summer. A similat will doubtless account in st for the well known fooh, that if oo flowers of the annual plants be cut off, new shoots set for flowers, and actually blossom Bie! in much less time. The difference in the temperature, from that naturally adapted to them, appears to change their course of growth and to bring their seed in less time to maturity 3 so that the plants appear to adapt themselves to their situa- tion, and the season, in order to perfect their seed. The preceding facts may seem to throw some uncertain- ty upon the results of observations made for the purpose of ascertaining the climate of different places from the time of the flowering of plants. In places not very remote, here ever, the results would not be affected in a given year. servations for one year, would not evidently be sufficient, Z the places bias distant. A series of observations for as ma- ny years as would be required to effect the same object by the shesineaeentl would be necessary. In addition to this there must be more uncertainty in the results, if the places be not remote, when the smaller and annual plants are se- Botany. 257 jected for observation, rather than the larger plants, and es- pecially trees. That such observations may be relied upon, the same plants should be observed, and the circumstances of place, soil, aspect, exposure to winds, &c. should be similar. All these affect the plant, and alter the time of flowering. L have known the common dandelion in blossom here on the 18th of March, though it does not usually flower till about five or six weeks later. Claytonia spatulata flowers some weeks earlier on a southern aspect, and where it is al- so protected from winds, than on a northern aspect, only a few rods from the former. e same is true of epigaea repens. 'Tussilago farfara blossoms some days earlier on the wild bank of a brook, than in the warm and rich soil of a garden. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, shews its. flow- ferent in different places, that the results cannot be very sat- isfactory when the smaller and annual plants are observed. There is another circumstance also, which increases this un- certainty, if the places be considerably remote. There may be several days in the beginning of April, for instance, warm- er at one place than at another. As this would there bring forward the earliest plants sooner, a warmer climate would be indicated. But, should a few cooler days succeed, as is usually the case, vegetation might be no earlier on the Whole after a fortnight, than in those years in which the saine plants first showed their blossoms several days later. I have occasionally found a plant in blossom here, about a month preceding the time given by Muhlenberg for its flowering in Pennsylvania. These facts prove, not that the flowering of plants does not indicate difference of climate, Sut that much accuracy of observation, for a series of years, is necessary, @# those plants be selected for observation, Which are easily affected by changes of temperature, as- pect, &c. in order to ascertain the climate or comparative mean temperature of different places. In respect to trees, the case is somewhat different. They are not so readily affected by changes of temperature. But the above mentioned circumstances of situation are seen ev- ery year to have considerable influence upon their time of flowering. The result of observations on trees will, how- 258. Botany. ever, be most entitled to confidence. Dr. Bigelow, in his paper on this subject, an abstract of which was given in the ist No. of this Journal, selected the Peach-tree, from the 3 a n pp a4 os | Cad + S Ss &, +O co 2] w oO a iq°) is) =. io) i] aad ot mn is°) ies} ine ? ve sirable to prosecute the subject, and that several trees should be observed at each place, and at the same stage of flowering. ‘The last particular appears very important. For rom the conclusion of Dr. Bigelow, it will be seen, that a difference of about four days, corresponds to a difference of one degree of latitude. Observers may be expected to differ at least two days in the time that a tree may be thought to be fully in bloom. have made these obvious remarks, because they pre- sent some of the difficulties in obtaining very definite and conclusive results upon climate from the flowering of plants, unless there be very accurate and continued observations ; and, I have made them in this place, because they were con- nected with the immediate object. Whether these difficul- ties be considered as great as they appear to me, the con- clusion 'to be drawn from the observations upon the last four years in Sa to a late or an yam f autumn, will not be es- sentially affect Williams Calves, April, 1820. ZN FOR THE AMERICAN JOUR. OF ‘SCIENCE. ; Arr. X. On the manufacture of Sugar from the River Ma- “ ts (Acer eriocarpum, of Linnaus 3) by Dr. Jou OCKE. T seems not to be generally known, that sugar is rect cay in any considerable quantity, by any oi see the sugar maple, (Acer saccharinuin ;) bait T have Pound ‘ht in some parts of New-England, more sugar is made from the river, than from the sugar maple. The facts I have uséoriaiied: with regard to the ma- king of sugar from the river maple, I collected in Fryeburg; (Me. ) on the Saco river, where large quantities are annually made ; but before I state them, I will give some account of the tivo species, the sugar and river maple. Botany, 259 by the fruit, which consists of two peculiar seed-vessels, united at their base, each dilated into a membranous wing above, which serves to suspend it awhile in the air as it falls : The family of maples is distinguished from other plants, i 1. The Sucar Marie, (Acer saccharinum, Linn.) called also rock maple, has leaves five-parted, and yellowish gree flowers on flower-stalks. It is one of the largest and lofti- est trees in our forests. [ts trunk is usually straight and en- tire to the height of from 40 to 80 feet, where it suddenly unfolds into a dense top, crowded with rich foliage. The bark of the older trees is of a grey colour, and marked with numerous deep clefts. The wood is firm and heavy, though not durable. It is used for various work by carpenters and_ cabinet makers. Micheaux says, that it grows in its greatest perfection, between the 43d and 46th degrees of North lat- itude, and of course, in the northern part of our States, and in Canada. . ae The River Marte (Acer eriocarpum of Linneus,) called also White maple,* and by Eaton Silver maple, is distin- guished by having its leaves five-parted, and white beneath; its flowers reddish yellow, without flower-stalks, and with woolly germe. The trunk frequently divides near the ground, so as to appear like several trunks close together. these divisions diverge a little as they rise, and often at the height of from eight to twenty feet the top commences. It 1s generally larger in proportion to the trunk, than the top. Ol any other tree. he bark has its clefts more distant than in the sugar maple, and is. more inclined to scale off. It blossoms earlier than the sugar maple. The fruit is larger than that of other species, it advances with great rapidi- ty towards perfection, ripens and falls in June, and produces a plantule the same season, sufficiently hardy to withstand the succeeding winter. ‘he fruit of the sugar maple does hOt ripen unti} October. The river maple is principally ound on the banks of rivers, and on the banks of such only as have a clean gravelly bottom, and clear water. It is most luxuriant, on such flats as are subject to annual inundations, and is usually the first settler on such flats as are making in- * Micheaux says, that in the Atlantic States, this species is confounded with the common red maple, but in the Western States, it is generally dis- “ngnished-and known by the name of White Maple. ~ 260 Botany. to the bends of alps by allavial deposits, the opposite bank being at the same time worn away. ‘ The banks of the Sandy river, in Maine” says Micheaux, “ and those of the Connecticut in dsor,(Vt.) are the most northerly points at which I have seen the white maple. It is found more or less on all the rivers in the United States, flowing from the mountains to the Atlantic, but becomes scarce in South-Car- olina and Georgia. In no part of the United States is it more multiplied than in the western country, and no where is its vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the hio, and of the great rivers that empty into it. There sometimes alone, and sometimes mingled with the willow, which is found all along these waters, it contributes singular- ly by its magnificent foliage to the embellishment of the scene. The brilliant white of the leaves beneath, forms a striking contrast with the bright green above, and the alter- nate reflection of these two surfaces in the water, heightens the beauty of this wonderful moving mirror, and aids in fnnies an enchanting picture, which during my long ex- ions in a canoe, in these regions of solitude and silence, I contemplated with unwearied admiration.” I have seen itin Maine, en the banks and islands of ae Androscog ggin, on the Sunday river, a tributary of the Androscoggin, wi remarkable crystaline water, and on the Saco where it is abundant, and attains a large size, especially in and ovr) teen and « i feet in circumference. I have seen it in ral of these places, particularly on -e Saco and Androscog- gin, it grows in great luxuriance, and occupies considerable iracts, nearly to she exclusion of all other trees. I never contemplated a picture in landscape with more delight, than I have the banks of some of these streamsp#when viewed from the opposite shore. The tops of the trees present one conti range of foliage, which rises like a fleecy cloud, changing beautifully i in the wind, as the upper green or the under white surface is presented to view. This cloud of leaves, is supported by the clusters of trunks, like so many gothic pillars, forming a variety of deep shaded arches and avenues beneath. I mention its beauty, because I think it deserves attention as an ornamental tree. Ina poem writ- Botany. 261 ten in Erpehuee ‘tgs “ The Village,” the following lines are bestowed upon * More sacred than the thunder chosen oak the eo “The ueen of trees, thou pro sadist ue? st on high, “ Yet wave thy limbs in graceful plian cy.” * * * + * x Sa the bark gives a black colour with the salts of iron. In many places thread and other stuffs are coloured black with a decoction of the bark = this as well as that of the red maple, and ink is made o the first volume of Tilloch’s magazine is an account of the manufacture of sugar from the sugar maple in the mid- dle states by the late Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, from which the following particulars are abstracted: 1. One tree yields from twenty to thirty gallons of sap in a season, which will make from five to six pounds of sugar, and in a single instance twenty pounds were made from one tree in a season. 2. One man made six hundred and forty pounds in four weeks. 3. A man ard his two sons made eighteen hundred pounds in a season 4. That wae tree improves by tapping, affording more tia better sa 5. The sugar is of a better quality than West-India sugar. 6. A farmer in North-Hampton county (Penn.) improv- ed the quality of the maple sap by calvare;:2 so that he ob- * According to my observations the sap improves in quality but 3 much ‘diminish nished in quantity. Vou. I1.....No. 2. 34 (262 Botany. tained one pound of sugar from three —, while it re- quired five or six gallons from a tree in its w 7. That a few acres of land planted with eal and im- proved as a sugar orchard, would probably ay more profit- able than the same ground devoted to fruit ti 8. That the buds and twigs of the sugar mae are used for food for cattle in the winter and spring I had for several years known that Fryeburg was celebra- in that town. On enquiring into the subject [ learned the following particulars : 1. The sugar in F ryeburg is not made from the sugar ma- ple but from the river maple, (eer eriocarpum) which abounds there on the banks of the Sac 2. About four gallons of sap afford one pound of sugar. _ 3. Two men in 1819 made twelve hundred pounds from two hundred and twenty-five trees, ae two taps to a tree, equal to five and one third pounds to 4. The sap was 5 generally. said to be pon ste than that of the sugar ma 4A particular cluster. of trunks springing apparently from. the same root, tapped in several places aBeted-s twen- of an inone day! |. 6. Those make sugar from the sugar and-river ma- ples growing. "together, iciled the. profarence to the river Bs The sugar is miter and of a better quality than that of the sugar maple. 8. A peculiar method of tapping is practised in Fryeburg. The incision from which the sap issues is made by driving a gouge a little obliquely upward, an inch or more into the wood. A spout or tap about a foot long, to conduct off the sap, is inserted about two inches belaw. this. incision with the same gouge. The two incisions are situated thus: = rincipal- advantage of this method is, that the wound in the tree is so small that it is perfectly healed or “ grown over’ in two years, the tree sustaining little or no. injury. The other common methods of tapping are two. 1. With Micheaus says, that the rac made from the river maple on the Ovi, is chine and more agreeable to the taste than that from the sugar maple Botany. 263 an axe. An oblique incision three or four inches long, is made in such a manner that all the sap will be conducted to ” the lower corner, where it passes into a spout inserted with a gouge as above. Disadvantages of this method. The surface being much exposed to the air and sun, is pres- ently dried, so as to diminish very much the quantity of sap. ‘Ihe wound in the tree is extensive and a ruinous de- - cay is often the consequence, the tree becoming rotten- hearted. 2. With anauger. The tree is peforated an inch or more with an auger three fourths of an inch diameter, and a tube made of elder or sumach is inserted to conduct off the sap. The end of the tube is made tapering so as to bear only at the outer edge of the tube. bathe The tap presses upon the external grains so as to obstruct the flow of sap from them; and it is from these external grains that most of the sap is obtained. The method of tapping with the gouge is undoubtedly superior to either of the others, but in a sugar’ maple there might be difficulty in inserting the gouge to a sufficient depth on account of its superior harduess. ; ). The river maple grows about an inch in diameter in a year. This I ascertained by measuring the thickness of the concentric grains. There are several sugar orchards in Fryeburg which have grown up within twenty-five years to trees about five feet circumference, and from fifty to seven- ty feet high. The seeds are so abundantly distributed there by means of their peculiar wings that they spring up in the ploughed fields, on the sand flats, in the road, and in every place where they can take root. Tt will be seen that in my account of the quantity of su- gar made from a tree, &c. there is a singular coincidence with Dr. Rush’s statements. This is altogether accidental for the quantity varies greatly in all trees according to their Situation, age, the. season and other circumstances. In ome seasons only about a pound to a tree is obtained. It seems that the superiority of the river over the sugar Maple as a sugar tree is not universal; for Micheaux says, that on the Ohio only one half the quantity is obtained from the river, that is afforded by the sugar maple. I have communicated this paper principally for the pur- pose of recommending the cultivation of the river maple as an ornamental tree, instead of others less beautiful and less 264 ~ Botany. useful. It seems to be adapted to this purpose, on account of its beauty, the rapidity of its growth and the fine sugar it affo ffords. Although the idea of Dr. Rush, that the United States might be more than supplied with sugar from the maple, and the quantity of human suffering consequently diminished, by rendering the employment of slaves in the West-Indies unnecessary, seems not likely to be realized, yet I think the cultivation of the maple ought not to be overlooked, es- pecially as it might afford some supply in case the importa- tion of sugar should, at any time, be interrupted by political disturbances. . ‘The river maple would thrive best no doubt in a situation similar to that which it occupies in its native state, i. e. on the flats of clear streams. That it will grow however im other situations seems to be confirmed by the following facts. Micheaux states that “ in Europe it is multiplied in nurseries and gardens. Its rapid growth affords hopes ot cultivating it with profit in this quarter of the world.” Mr. Cook, Preceptor of Fryeburg Academy, informed me that he planted some of the seeds in his garden, which is on a dry elevated sandy plain, and raised trees from them, which grew so rapidly, and monopolized so much ground, that he found it necessary ina few years, to extirpate them. Boston, Apri 20. * : Arr. XI. On the Oriental Chené, and the Oil which it af- fords. Rocxy-sroox, 9th mo. 13th, 1820. TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &C- I am induced to enquire of readers, and correspondents; to thy valuable miscellany, whether the Oriental Chené might not be more extensively cultivated in the United States for the purpose of extracting its invaluable oil? It is a species of sesamum, (class dydinamia, order angiospet- mia of Linneus, Sesamum folius ovato oblongis integris of Miller—Digitalis orientalis, sesamum dicta—Tournefort,) and is thus described by Miller :—“ This plant was intro- Botany. 265 duced into Carolina by the African negroes, where it suc- ceeds extremely well. ‘The inhabitants of that country make an oil from the seed, which will keep many years, and not take any rancid smell. or taste ; ; but in two years becomes quite mild, so that when the warm taste of the seed which was in the oil when first drawn, is worn off, pe use it as a sallad oil, and for all the purposes of sweet A late writer, (Darby,) speaking of —- says it might indeed be made an universal object of cu e seed vessel isa many seeded capsula, mere Saad oily seeds, which are used in various ways by the negroes, who cook it as a pulse. It has been long known to produce an oil, containing all the valuable qualities of olive oil, without the same liability of ene rancid by age. The Chené is certainly one of the most sphrasae vegetables that was ever cultivated by man. is known in Louisiana, but much neglected. Being statight from the western coast of Africa, from the banks of alluvial rivers, its growth is luxuri- ant on the fertile borders of the Mississippi and say vit will also vegetate extremely well on a high dry so _Thave been led to the foregoing enquiry from i suppo- sition that such an oil would be a great acquisition on many accounts, and a knowledge that it may be applied to many useful purposes in mechanics. It is well known that a thin fat oil, which will bear exposure to heat, and air, without ecoming rancid, fora great length of time, is the grand de- sideratum in Horology. Provided it is not glutinous, or too volatile, the spirit obtained by freezing and pouring off the thinner part that it may not be affected by cold, would have many advantages over the different kinds now in use, of which are liable to become rancid, and of course, un- suitable for such purposes. The spirit of common olive oil is mostly used, but soon becomes unfit; and the objection is ‘ equally applicable to that obtained from spermaceti.— ere have been several methods proposed for remedying this defect in oils, such as shaking them with pearlash wa- ter, or pouring melted led into them, etcetera ; all of which, on experiment, have been found objectionable; the first ev- idently extracts the thinnest, consequently richest and most poor ge the last renders it acrid and ry ceca 266 Strong’s Problenis. MATHEMATICS. << Arr. XII. Mathematical Problems, with Geometrical Con- struetions and Demonstrations, by Professor THropork Srronc. OTRONG [Continued from page 64 of this Volume. } Prosiem [X. fr is required through a given point to describe a circle —, shall touch two circles given in position and magni- ey eee When the two circles are unequal, and the cir- cle which touches them does not circumscribe them Const. Let L (Fig. 1. pl. 2.) be the given point, and , HG, E the given circles. It is required to describe dan li a circle which shall touch the two given circles. Join the centres x, y, of the circles HBC, DGE by ay, 0 extend wy till it meets FG, (FG being draw n, (Prob. v ase i.) touching the two circles) i in A. Let x dans os cut the apt circles in B, C, D, E. Through L the-given point, and C, D, thet two ‘adjacent ints, in which AE cuts i i ie circle LCD. Join Docistsvabions: For join AH, and xine it tll it meets the circle DG in It will meet this circle, because it cuts off similar sepments from the two given cireles, (Prob. ¥ vil.) And let AH meet the circle HLK in P. Now by the ae , Al, (Prob. viii. Cor. 4.) Therefore AH, AI==AL, ie But AL, AK=AH, Al’. Therefore AH, Al==AH, Al. Hence (striking out AH) AI==AI’. Wherefore ioe points I’, I coincide. Therefore the circle oer ets the ciréle DG, Ein I It also touches it in this point; for if se line MO be drawn touching KLH, BRH in H, and the line No. 2 touch- ing the circle LHI in [, then the angle RHM-=anegle in the Strong’s Problems. 267 segment RBH, and the angle THO=RHM==angle in the - segment HLKI, But the angle in the serment RBH= angle in the segment IDEP. Therefore the angle in the segment IDEP=angle in the segment HLKI—angle HIQ, or NIP. Whence the angle in the segment IDEP=NIP; wherefore NQ touches DEPI in the point I. Conse- quently, HLKI touches IDEP in I. Now (by Const.) HLKI touches RBH, and passes through L. Wherefore it is the circle required. ase IT. When the two circles are unequal, and the cir- cle which passes through the given point circumscribes them. Const. Let (Fig. 2. pl. 2.) as in Case i. the point be L, and the circles HBC, DGE. Draw the tangent FG, and extend it till it meet zy, produced in A. Let vy pro- duced cut the given circles in C, B, E, D. Through L, and C, D, the remote points in which ry cuts the given cir- cles, describe (Prob. i.) the circle LCD. Suppose AL produced to meet the circumference of this circle in K. Through the points, K, L, describe (Prob. v.) a circle touching HBC, in H. Then shall this be the circle. re- quired. ~The points AI’, Al being joined as in case I. and the tan- gents MO, NQ being ‘diawn, the demonstration employed in case 11, is applicable to this. Case I. When the touching circle circumscribes one of the given circles, and touches the other externally. ences of the circles in B, C, D, E. Draw FG, a tangent to the circles in the points F, G. Let this cut the line, C nA. Join AL. Through L, C, D, describe the circle L CD. Suppose AL extended cuts this circle in K. Through L, K, describe the circle LKH touching BHC in H. Join AH, and let AH produced cut DGE in L, and HKL in ['. Draw, as in cases I and 11, MHO touching the circles HKL, BHC, in H, and NQ touching HKVL in V. “Now by applying the Demonstration in case I, the circle HKI'L, as in former cases will be found to answer the con- ditions of the problem. 268 Strong’s Problems. Case IV. When the two circles are equal, and the touching circle circumscribes both or neither of them. Const. Let (Fig. 4. pl. 2.) CKL, BMN be the given circles, and A the given point. From A as centre with ra- dius=radius of the given circles, describe [Q. Then through a, y, the centres of the given circles describe the cirele [+y touching IQ in the point I. Let O be the cen- tre of this circle. From O as centre, and (in Fig. 1.) O I+1JA as radius describe the circle CAB, which shall be the circle required. Dem. For join OyB=OI+IA. Therefore the circle ABC meets the circle MN, in the point B. But it likewise touches this circle in the point B. For-at B draw at right angles to OyB. Because this line is at right angles to the diameter of ABC in the point B, it touches this circle in the point B. For the same reason, it touches MN in B. Therefore the circle ABC touches the circle MN in the point B. In like manner it may be shown, that touches KLC in the point C, and it passes (by Const.) through A. ABC is therefore the circle required. Now (Fig. 5. pl. 2.) by using OL—IA for O1+IA, the through the point of contact of the two circles. Cor. 3. Case IV, may be considered as falling under Cases I, II, when the point A (See Fig. Cases I, U1.) be- comes infinitely distant. But in Case III, the construction remains the same, whatever be the magnitude of the circles. For there the point A is confined between the centres 0! the circles. 3 or. 4. In Case I, if the given point fall in the line AE between the points C, D, as in r, make the rectangle Ar. Strong’s Problems. 269 Az=AC.AD. ThenAD: Az:: Ar: Ac. But Ar > AC therefore AD~Az, therefore the problem is possible, for the point z always falls between C and D. Having deter- mined the points 7, z, use them in the same manner as the ints C, D were used, and the solution is the same as be- ore. Cor. 6. In Case III. when the point is between B and D as r, then making the rectangle Ar. Az=AD AC, the point z will fall beyond C3; and therefore the problem is possible. Using then the points r, z for C, D, the solution remains the same. On the contrary when the given point is beyond C, r willbe between D, and B. Then proceed as before. Note.—When the circles do not cut, and one does not fall entirely within the other, the point cannot be given within one of the circles, but must be without the circle, or in the circumference of one of them; and then the solu- - tion will fall under one of the above cases ; when the circles eut each other, the point may be given any where, except at the points of intersection of the circles ; when one of the circles falls wholly within the other, the point must be given between the circumferences of the two circles; in all which cases, the construction may be referred to one of the above methods. Prospiem X. the touching circle comprehends them all, or none of them. onst. L Demonstration. For, join OAD. Now OAD=OA+ Ox. EL... 270 Strong’s Problems. circumference of the same circle. But the circle DEF likewise touches the three given circles. For at the point F, draw G, H at right angles to OF, and it will be a tangent to the circles DEF, F, F’ at the point F. Therefore the circles touching the line GH at the same point FY, touch each other at that point. In like manner it may be proved, that the circle DEF touches the other two circles at E, D, respectively. » Now by using OA—AD for OA+AD, &e. and D’, E, F’, &c. for D, , &c. this construction and demonstra- tion are applicable to the case in which none of the given circles are comprehended by the touching cirele. Case hen the circles are equal, and the touching circle circumscribes one, and touches two, or circumscribes two and touches the other. Const. Let (Fig. 7. pl. 2.) Ey, Dx, Fz be the given circles of which A, B, O are the centres. From O, the centre of the circle Fz, describe the circle GLM, with ra- dius=Q radius of the given circles. Through the points A, B, describe the circle ABG touching GLM (Prop. v-) in the pointG. Let C be the centre of ABG. Then from as centre, and CG—F0O as radius, describe the circle D EF, which shall be the circle required, Demonstration. For join C, O the centres of the circles ABG,GLM. Extend co, and it will pass through the point of contact of these circles. Join also CEA, CDB. Now because CE=CA—AE the radius of the given circles, E is in the circumferences of the circles Ey, DEF, and if at the point E a line be drawn at right angles to CA, it will be a tangent to the circles Ey, DEF at the same point bE. Therefore these circles touch each other at the point E. n like manner it may be proved that the circles Dx, DE -touch each other in the point D, and that Fz, DEF touch each other in the point F, Therefore DEF is the circle “required. By using CA+AK, &c. for CA—EA, &c. This demon- stration 1s applicable to the Fig. in which the touching circle seen two of the given circles, and touches the ® ‘ er. Case IIT. When two of the circles are equal. 1. When all the circles or none of them are eompre- hended. Strong’s Problems. ‘OTF Const. Let (Fig. 9. pi. 2.) ALA’, BMB’, CNC’, be the given circles, of which ALA’, BMB’, are equal, and CNC’ is less than the other two. Let G, H be the centres of ALA’, BMB’, From G, H, as centres, with radius =ra- dius of ALA—radius CNC, describe the circles, DD’, EE’. Through F the centre of the cirele CNC’, describe the cir- ele FDE, (Prob. IX.) touching DD’, EE’ in D, E, of which circle, let O be the centre. Join CD, and it will pass through G. Then from O as centre, with radius =OD+ CF (=radius of the circle CNC’) describe the circle ABC, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. Fer join ODA. Now because ODA= radius of the circle ABC’ (=OD+DA, or FC) of which O is the centre, A is in the circumference of ABC. And because ODA passes through G, and GD+DA=radius of the circle ALA’, A is in the circumference of ALA’. Hence LA’, ABC meet in A. And they likewise touch in A. For if Az be drawn at right angles to ADO, A will be a tangent to both circles in the same point A. Whence the circles must likewise touch in that point. In like manner itmay be proved that ABC, BMB’, ABC, CNC’, touch each other respectively at the points B,C. ABC is there- fore the circle required. ; Now by using OD’— AD’ for OD+AD, and A’, B’, &e. for A, B, &c. the demonstration is the same when none of the given circles is comprehended. When the touching circle comprehends both the equal eircles, and touches the smaller one externally ; or compre- hends the smaller circle, and touches the equal circles ex- ternally. Construction. Let (Fig. 10. pl. 2.) Gy, Fx, Iz, be the given circles of which Gy=F vr. Let A, B, C be the cen- __ Demonstration. For join ; , which will pass through ¢ centres A, B. Now (by Const.) D is in the 272 Strong’s Problems. circurnferences DCE, gD. Therefore since OG=OD— GD, or OD—CI, and AG= AD—C, G is in the circum~ ferences of GIE, Gy; and if at Ga line be drawn at right an- es to OG, it will touch both circles at the same point G. herefore they touch each other at the point G. In like manner Iz, GIE; Ea, GIE touch respectively in U and E. Wherefore GIE is the circle required. Now by using OD+GD for OD—GD, the demonstration is the same in Fig. 11. 3. When the touching circle cireumscribes one of the equal circles alone, or one of them together with the small- er one. Construction. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 2.) Eg, Hz, Ba, be the given circles, of which A, F, C, are the centres. From as centre with radius=radius circle Hz—radius of the cir- cle Bz (i. ee FH—BA) describe the circle Gy. And from C as centre with radius=radius of the circle Hz or Eg+ radius of the circle Bx describe the circle Dn. Then de- scribe through A the centre of the circle Ba, the circle A@ D, (Prob. V.) touching (Fig. 13. pl. 2.) Dn, Gy in D, G; of which circle let O be the centre. From O with radius ==radius of the circle AGD—radius of the circle Br de- scribe the circle HEB, which shall be the circle required. Demonstration. For join OHG, OCED, OBA. The line OHE will pass through G, the point of contact of the circles Gy, GAD. Now because GH=BA and OG—B A= OH, the point H is in the circumferences of the cit- cles Hz, HEB. And if a line be drawn at right angles to OG atthe point H, the circles Hz, EHB will touch it at the same point H. Therefore they touch each other at that point. In like manner it may be shown that the circles Bz, BHE, Eg, EHB touch each other respectively at the points B, E. Therefore EHB is the circle required. " If instead of OG—BA, OG+BA be used, this demon- — stration is applicable to Fig. 13, in which one of the equal circles, and the smaller one are comprehended by the tounge at 4, hen the two equal circles are less than the other, and when the touching circle comprehends all or none of the given circles, Construction. Let (Fig. 14. pl. 2.) DND’, EME. be the two equal circles, of which 2, y, are the centres, and A Strong’s Problems. 273 LA’ the other whose centre is G. From G as centre with radius = radius of the circle ALA‘—radius of the circle EME, describe the circle BB’g. Then through the points ne describe the circle rBy touching BB’g in B, (Prob. LI.) of which circle let O be the centre ; increasing the ra- dius by a line = radius of the circle EME, describe the circle ADE, which shall be the circle required. tively at D, E. By joining O'A’B’, and using A’B’, &c. for A, B, &c. ard 0'B’—O'A’ for OB4+AO the demonstration is the same when the circles are none of them comprehended. hen the touching circle comprehends both of the equal circles; and touches the other externally, or com- prehends the larger and touches the other externally. Const. Let (Fig. 15. pl. 2.) ML, xl, Hy be the given eircles of which Hy=Ia. Let A, B, C be the centres of these circles. From the centres C, B with radius=radius of the circle Hy+radius of the circle ML describe the cir- eles EN, DP. Then through A describe the circle AED touching EN, DP in E, D, of which let O be the centre. From (Fig. 16. pl. 2.) O as centre with radius=radius. of the circle AED—radius of the circle Hy describe the circle LHF I, which shall be the cirele required. Demonstration. For join OCE which as before shall pass through the centre C. Let it cut the circle Hy in H. Then because OH==OE—HE or the radius of the circle LMH is in the circumference of the circle HFI. 'There- fore if a line be drawn perpendicular to OC at the point it will be a tangent to both circles Hy, HIF at the point H. The circles therefore touch at the point H. In like manner it may be shown that the circles Iz, HFI; ML, HFL touch respectively at the points I, L. HF 'I is therefore the circle required. By using EO+EH for OR—EH this 274 Strong’s Problems. demonstration answers = trap 16, in which the larger cir~ cle is alone comprehe 6. When the ester ‘circle comprehends one of the equal circles, together with the larger, or one of the equal circles alone. Const. Let (Fig. 1. pl. 3 ete HPN, MGQ, DER be the given circles of which DER=MGQ. Let A, B, C, be the centres of these circles respectively : From A with radius ==radius of the circle HPN + radius of the circle DER de- scribe the circle IK : and from B with radius=two radii of the circle MGQ describe the circle FL. Through C de- scribe the circle CFI touching IK, FL in the pots I, F ; of which circle let O be the centre. Decreasing the redius by a line=radius of the circle DER describe the circle HE G which shall be the circle required. Demonstrations. For join OC. Let OC cut the izle DER in the point E. Now: because OE=OC—CE, . = circumference of the circle HEG. — If therefore ( Fi, ie. 3.) as in former cases, a perpendicular be erected at a it will touch both circles at that point. Therefore the circles DER, HEG touch each other in the point E. In like manner it may be shown that the circles HPN, HEG; GQM, HEG respectively oe at the points H, G. There- fore HEG is the circle abe ds using OC +CE for OC-_CE this demonstration 1s applicable to Fig. 2, in which the touching circle compre- hends one of the smaller circles and touches the other, 0% gether with the larger circle externally. Case If1. When all the circles are unequal, 1. When the touching circle cuthighenids all or none of the given circles. . Let (Fig. 3. pl. 3.) AL, HN, MF be the given penn gd which F'M is the least. Let B, K, E, be three cen- of the circle AL—radius of the circle FM. From K de- scribe the circle IP, whose radius==radius of the circle NH —radius of the circle FM. Through E describe the circle EDI touching DG, PI in D, I. (Prob. V.) Let O be the centre of this cirele. Frou O, with radius—radius of the circle DEI+radius of the civelé FM, describe the cirele AFH, which shall be the circle requ uired. Strong’s Problems. 275 Demonstration. For join ODA which will pass through the centre B. Now because OA=OD+ EM and BA=D B+EM, (if M be the point in which a line joining O, E, cuts the circle FM) A is in the circumferences of AL, AFH. ndifat A a perpendicular be erected both circles will touch it at the same point A. Therefore they touch each other at that pee In like manner it may be shown that NH, AFH, MF, AHF respectively eae at the points H, E. Therefore AFH is the circle requir By using OD—EM for OD+EM this demonstration is » applicable to fig. 4, in which noue of the circles are compre- hended by the given circle. 2. When the touching circle comprehends and touches one externally or comprehends one and touches two exter- nally. ‘ens Let (Fig. 5. pl. 3. ) HK, ya: LE, be the xiv- en circles whose centres are A, B, C. Let tE be the cir- cle which is not to be eircamstribed alone. From A with vadius=radius of HK + radius of LE describe the circle D 1. And from B with radius of MG,+radius of LE, de- scribe the circle FN. Through C describe the circle DCF touching DI, FN in D, F,—of which circle let O be the centre. Decreasing the ace? of this circle by a line=ra- dius of the circle LE (or in Fig. 6- increasing it by the same line) describe the circle HEC. Shick shall be the circle re- quired. Demonstration. For join OC and it will cutthe circle LE in the point E. Because OE—OC—CE, E is in the cir- cumference of HEG. Therefore if from Ea perpendicu- lar be erected, it will touch both circles in the same point E. Therefore they touch each other in that point. In like manner the circles G, M, HEG ; HK, HEG, touch re- spectively at H, G. Now by using OC +CE for OC—CE this i: ae gee applicable to Fig. 6. pl. 3. in which one circle is com hended and the ather two touched externally. Proscem XI. lacs screquired to draw a circle through a given point, te touch a straight line given in position and a circle given in magnitude and position. 276 Strong’s Problems. Case I. When the given circle is not comprehended. Const. Let (Fig. 7 pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line, H the given point ‘and DIKE the given circle. Iti is line and circle. Let C be “the centre of DIKE. From C — CF at right angles to AB, cutting the circumference in E, D. Through F, E, H “describe the circle F EH (Prod. £.) join DH. Suppose DH produced to cut the circle FEH in G. Through GH describe the circle | HGL to touch AB inL (¢ Prob. IIL. ) and this will be the circle required. emonstration. For joi n OL. Let OL cut the circle LGH in K and DIKE in Ki. Now DE, DF=DH, DG =DK, DL. If EK’ be joined, (Plaf. Eue. 6. prop. L,) B E, DF=DL, DK’; but BE, DF==DL, DK therefore DL. DE-=DL, DK’. Hence KD=DK’. Therefore the cir- cles DIKE LKG meet in E. But they likewise touch in that point. Forif they do not they must meet in some oth- er point. t them meet inz. Join Dx and extend it to cut LHG in y, and AB in z. Then as before, (Euclid. 6. p. 1,) Dr, Dz =DE, DF=DL, DK=Dz, Dy. Th erefore D She is absurd. ‘Therefore the circles do not meet in any int but K. Wherefore they touch in that point. But {by Cons. GKL touches AB and passes eign H. G is therefore the circle required. Case If. When the given circle is circumscribed. Const. Let (Fig. 8. pl. 3.) AB be the given line, DIEK the given circle and H the given point. From C the cen- tre of DIEK draw CF perpendicular to AB, cutting the given circle in D, E of which E is not adjacent to the t line. Through F, E, H describe the circle FEH. Join deo Let HD extended cut whoop in G.- a right angle, and the angles E and FDL are eq ue FD: : LD: :K’D: $7: DE; —_ FD, DE= Strong's Problews. 274 cles HGL, DIE meetin K. They also touch in that point. For if they do not they must meet in some other point ; let em meeting. Join Dx. Let Dx produced cut HGL in yand ABiny. Then Dy, De=LD, DK. But DaE be- ing aright angle as before, Dx, Dz =FD, DE=LD, DK. Therefore Dr, Dy=Dz, Dz and Dy=Dz which is absurd. Therefore the circles do not meet in z. Nowe any point they meet in no point but K. They sharaligee: touch in K. Wherfore LGKH is the circle required. _ Case IIL. When the given circle cuts the given straight Const. Let (Fig. 9. pl. 3.) AB, be the given straight line, H the given point, and FD’E ‘the given circle. Let the circle FD’E cut ABin L, M. Through C the oe of the given circle draw Cl at right sane io AB in 1. this line produced cut the circle FD’E in E, F. Through H, I, E deseribe the circle HIF. Join EH. Let this pro- duced cut G, HIF inG. Through H, G describe the circle GHOD touching AB in O. And this will be the circle re- juired. Se casioations For join OE, let EO extended cut E DF in D’ and GHOD in D. Then (E. 6. p. I. ) EO, E | O, ED. meet in D. But they also touch in this point. For if not, let them as before meet in z. Join Ex cutting AB in y, and GHOD. in z. Then joining Fa, the angle EzF isa right angle. Therefore El: Ez:: Ex: EF wherefore E I,EF=Ez, Ex. But EI, EF= EO, ED=EH, EG=ky, _Now z being any point but the point D, they meet in ae int but D. They therefore touch in D. Therefore GHOD is the circle required. Note—When the circle does not cut the line, the point must be given without the circle and on the same side 0 the line with the circle. When the circle cuts the line the point may be given any where except at the point of inter- section of the line and circle. If the circle to be deseribed is to touch the given circle externally , the point may be giv- en any where without the circle or in the circumference, Taggers Se pee ts. E, F, Ae: al Case III.) scan are No. 278 Strong’s Problems. respectively a cet poe from the points of intersection of the given circle and line Prosiem XII. It is required to describe a circle to touch a straight line given in position, and two circles given in position and magnitude. Case I. When the touching circle circumseribes both the given circle and touches ‘the straight line, or ciream- scribes neither of the given circles and touches the given straight line. Const. Let (Fig. 10, pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line, GQS, MPO, the given cincles, it is required to de- sctibe a circle to touch at B and likewise touch the circles et [ and N be the centre of the given cir- cles. . ” From I, with radius=radius of QG@S—radius of M PO (if GQS> oo ‘eges the circle HRK. Draw also the line CD parallel to AB, and distant from it by a line=radius of the circle MPO. Then through N describe the circle NHF touching HRK in Hand CDin F. Let L be thé centre of this circle. From L with radius=radius of the circle HFN +radius of the circle mie describe the circle EGO, which will be the circle required — Demo none Bors oin LHG which will pass through fe _ Now because +radius of the cirele MPO and {G=HI4-cadis otek the circle MPO, G is in the circumnfer- ences of EGO, SGQ. And if at G a perpendicular be atin it will touch both circles EGO, SGQ at the point G. Therefore these circles touch each other at the point G. In like manner it may be shown that the circles EGO, MPO touch at the point O. But EGO likewise touches the straight line AB. For join LFE. Let this line cut the circle EGO in E. Now because LE=LF + radius of the circle MPO, the point E falls in the line AB. And be- eause AB and CD are parallel ALEA=/LFC. But 4L FC is a right angle—(F being the point of contact of the eircle FHN and line ED) Therefore LEA is a right an- gle, and consequently AEB touches EGO in E, wherefore EGO is the circle required. By using LE +radius of MPO for LE—radius of MPO, this demonstration is applicable to Fig. 11, when neither the circles is comprehended. Strong’s Problems. 279 ase Ti. When the touching circle comprehends one of the given circles, Const. Let (Fig. 12. pl. 3.) AB be the given straight line and QHP, LRS the given circles, of which LRS is to be comprehended by the touching circles. Let G, K be the eentres of the given circles respectively. From G with ra- dius equal to the radius of HPQ-+radius of LRS describe the circle NMI. Draw also CD parallel to AB and distant from it by a line==radius of the circle LRS. Through K describe the circle KFI touching NIM in I and CD in F of which circles let O be the centre. Increasing the radius in E. Now the angle OFC being a OF will cut AB - fa) Const. Let (Fig. 13. and 14. pl. 3.) AB be the given line, C, D the given points and X the given difference. "rom © as centre with,radius =X describe the circle LIO. 280 Strong’s Problems. Through D draw DE perpendicular to AB, and extend if til EG=DE. Through D, G describe a circle IDG touching LIO in I. The centre of this circle is in the line Demonstration. For join FD, FC. Now the line FC will pass through I the point of contact of the circles LIO, IGD. Th Cl=z and FI=FD; therefore FC—FD=a, as was re- quired. Prosiem XIV. There are two points and a straight line given im position, it is required to find a point in the straight line, such that the sums of the lines drawn from given points to this point shall be equal to a given line, this line never being less thar the line joining the two points. : Const. Let (Fig. 15. and 16. pl.3.) AB be the given line and C, D the given points it is required to find a point in the given line such that the lines drawn from the given pots to that point shall together be equal to a given line. Draw DH at right angles to AB and extend it, till HF =DH. From C with radius=the given sum describe the circle EB 1. Through (P. IlI,) D, E describe the circle DEF touch- ing EBI in E. Now because DF is bisected at right an- gles by AB, the centre of DEF falls in BA. Let G be the centre then G is the point required. Demonstration. Yor join CG which extended will pass through the point of contact of the circles DEF, BEI. Join also GD. Now CE=CE+GE=CG+GD. But CE=the given line. Therefore CG-+GD=the given line as was required. Sie ey ar ee ee ee Hare’s Blowpipe. 281 CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND THE ARTS. << - Arr. XIUI—Strictures on a publication, entitled Clark’s Gas Blowpipe ; by Ropert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania, and the real inventor of the cilab sat or hydro-oxygen blowpipe, in that safe and efficient form by which the fusion of the most refractory earths, and the vola- tilization and combustion of Platinum was first accom- plished. Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honores, Sic vos non vobis nidificatis aves Sic vos non vobis melificatis apes, Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra Boves. Vircin. any author to be more discordant with these professions, 1 Pledge myself to prove in the following pages, to any reader Whose love of justice may gain for them an attentive perusal. {In the year 1802, in a memoir republished in the 14th Vol. of Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, London, and in the 45th Vol. of the Annales de Chimie, I had given the fationale of the heat produced by the combustion of the aeriform elements of water, and had devised a mode of ig- niting them free from the danger of explosion. I had also Stated in the same memoir that the light and heat of the flame thus produced were so intense, that the eyes could Searcely sustain the one, nor the most refractory substances resist the other, and had likewise mentioned the fusion of the pure earths and volatilization of the perfect metals as among the results of the invention. Subsequently in the first part of the 6th Vol. of American Philosophical Transactions, an account of the fusion of — and the volatilization of Platinum, was published y me. ' 282 Hare’s Blowpipe. _ About the same time my experiments were repeated be- fore Dr. Priestly, who gave them the credit of being quite original. Some years afterwards Mr. Cloud of the United States mint, who has distinguished himself by the discovery of pal- ladium in gold, having purified platina, so as to make its gravity equal to 22, requested me to subject it to my blow- pipe. In the presence of this gentleman, I was completely successful in dissipating a portion of this pure metal. He was so much pleased with my experiments that he made au been employed by him, to amuse visitors at the celebrated museum established by his father in Philadelphia. It appears by the testimony of Professor Silliman and others, that Dr. Hope had during his lectures at different times within a period of eight years, employed my blowpipe and awarded the invention of it to me. A reference to the third edition of Murray’s chemistry, published before Dr. Clark professes to have attended to the subject, will demon- strate the impressions of the author of that work as the re- sults of my experiments which I had published, are there quoted solely on my authority. The memoir of Professor Silliman, read before the Con- necticut Academy of Sciences, May 1812, and republished jately in Tilloch’s Magazine, but which Dr, Clark has not ventured to notice, affords the most unanswerable evidence that we had anticipated him in almost every important eX- periment, Mr, Reuben Haines, corresponding secretary of the Acad- emy of Sciences, informed me in 1813, that in the laborato- ry of Dr. Pursh in this city, a mixture of the gaseous ele- ments of water had been inflamed while issuing in a stream from a punctured bladder previously filled with them and duly compressed. Any relaxation of the pressure was © course productive of an explosion. He on the other han recollects that at that time I proposed this mode of supply- * It has been erroneously alleged that he simplified the blowpipe. Hare’s Blowpipe. 293 ing the blowpipe, interposing a small receptacle (like a wa- ter valve) between the reservoir and the place of exit. Cares more imperious prevented the execution of a lan which did not promise to be better than that 1 had before pursued successfully. . wi Some time afterwards Sir Humphrey Davy’s discovery of the influence of narrow metallic apertures in impeding ex- plosions, encouraged Dr. Clark and others to hazard the use of a mixed stream of hydrogen and oxygen gas, ignited while flowing from a common recipient, instead of allowing them as I had done, to mix only during their efflux. There is another immaterial difference in the modes of operating. in ine, hydrostatic pressure is employed to expel the gases from a vessel into which they are introduced as generated, or by means of a bellows. In the new mode, being pump- _ ed into the recipient by one aperture, they flowed out at an- other in consequence of their elasticity. ce Dr. Clark pretends that the process he has employed is the best ; admitting this, would it afford him any excuse for taking so little notice of mine, or attributing the discovery of it to others, especially while professing to give a fair his- tory of the invention. es If I may be allowed to compare small things with great, when Mr. Cruikshank and Sir H. Davy improved the gal- Vanic apparatus by introducing the trough, or modifying and enlarging it, did they on that account forget that Volta was the inventor of the pile ? was it not still (though no longer a pile) called the Voltaic apparatus ? _ Dr. Clark, like many others of the same character, find- ing that he cannot prove himself and his associates to have the merit of originality, endeavours to. deprive the real au- thor of it, and accordingly ascribes it to Lavoisier. Had this been stated in his first papers, his motives had been less ionable. But why does he notrefer to his authorities ? fn other cases he is very particular in making such refer- _ We all know that with a view to recompose water, Lavoi- at a common orifice in the open air for the purpose of pro- ducing heat, wherefore is Dr. Clark the first and only per- 284 Hare’s Blowpupe. son to communicate the fact to the publick ? How does it happen that there is no account of the invention nor of any results obtained by it either in the elementary treatise of that great man, or in any of the cotemporary scientific journals. On the contrary, in the Elements just alluded to, Lavoisier treats of the heat produced by oxygen gas, and carbon, as the highest that art could produce.* _ Dr. Clark informs us that Dr. Thomson, now Professor of Chemistry at Glasgow, made experiments with the mixed gases seventeen years ago, but was induced to abandon the undertaking, in consequence of accidents that happened to his apparatus. Can any thing more fully display unfairness, than that abortive experiments, made subsequently to those in which I was successful, should be adduced as subversive of my pretensions ? Dr. Clark states that the Americans claim the invention on account of experiments made by me in 1802. They were published in 1802; my apparatus and my first ex- periments were made in 1801. Had Lavoisier, or any other person, availed himself of, the heat produced by the union of the gaseous elements of water, how could the sagacious Dr. Thomson fail in his efforts to retrace a path so well and so recently trodden: or if deriving any advantage from the experiments either of the French philosopher, or those which he so imperfectly tried, why did he conceal it when occupied during so many years in coramunicating to the world all his chemical knowledge in five successive editions of his system? So far were Dr. Thomson’s experiments, or his knowledge on these subjects, from reaching the facts discovered by me, that he appears to have considered the authority of one name inadequate to establish what he vainly had endeav- oured to effect. Hence, until plagiarism had given them 4 new shape, and perhaps a false gilding, they were totally overlooked in his compilations. He neither treated of the pure earths as susceptible of fusion, nor of platinum,as SUS eeptible of volatilization, until many years after I had proved them to be so, and promulgated my observations. _ Dr. Clark gives himself great credit for having first pointe out the importance of employing the gases in such relative * See plate, Fig. 10. (end of the velume.) & Hare’s Blowpipe. 285 yeahs as might enable them fully to saturate each other. la me it would seem, where the highest heat is desired, evidently absurd to employ them in any other way, because if either gas were present in too great quantity to be acted upon, the excess would be worse than useless. Is it not universally an object with chemists to use ingredients in the proportions in which they saturate each other, especially when within a given space and time the most intense reac- tion is to be induced? ‘The author of this professedly can- did publication would wish to convey the idea of my con- trivance being so inferior in power to that adopted by him, that in a history of the invention, he does not deem it neces- - bilats : But while the superiority of the temperature attained by are great and undeniable advantages in having them pro- pelled from different reservoirs. First, a degree of security rom explosion, which cannot be attained with one common recipient.* 2d. The possibility of operating on a large . Wiehe the gases are kept unmixed in separate reservoirs, and mect oo Near the point of efflux in an orifice sufficiently large, as was the case 7 ‘ Ko compound blowpipe, explosion is obvionsly impossible. If t 'g Leva cosdt Oe Bs 37 fe eetes 286 Liare’s Blowpipe. seale without danger. 3d. The power of varying the rela- tive proportions of the gases so as to oxydate, or deoxydate, as may be desirable. "This power is given by the common blowpipe, though in a different way, and is well known to be very useful. To me it is ludicrous that the author should suppose ae ceneey: - exist between the phenomena of the gas pipe, and those of volcanoes. In ates to put the gas blowpipe into operation, it is im- dispensable nes there should be hydrogen and oxygen gases confined u moderate and equable compression, so as to flow out Geiguhey from a common aperture, at which they may be ignited. How are these requisites to be obtained in nature? Whence the pure hydrogen or oxygen? Has Dr. Clark, or any other person, known them to be extri- cated in purity? I[s not the former always carburetted or pee and the latter never purer than in the atmos- When obtained by art, fire is requisite to liberate aaa but in nature the fumes of the fire would con- hydrogen. eoahs supposing the gaseous materials gene- rated, where is the presiding demon with the genius to de- pone eas and skill to regulate that due admixture of them which ts i g discovered to be necessary, an ined ng that there could be in nature any competent substi- tute for ;human agency in a process so intricate, by what means, in operations so rude and extensive, is that retro- cession of the flame to be prevented, to obviate which, in operating with his minute apparatus, a caviltacy tube has found indispensable. In subterranean caverns, the gaseous elements of water might create explosions, but could hever support the pee heat requisite to fuse ab ifice be made smaller, and the gases mix ata greater distance from the place of effiux, valves should be interposed in the ines, or the should be kept under eguable e pressure, as itis possible that if — to unequal pressure, the gas whieh i is more pressed, may pass from one re rvoir to the y- This, ho bs acl is an over’ ae not ak to a place, : as itis so evidently accompanied by a waste — persis ——- ardly be so-careless as not to close the Closing the fact the usua! aaeotion Dinesuhine the fame ssn nS in : a et TIO “ a « Hare’s Blowpipe. 287 ecean of lava. ‘The only difficulty this subject presents, is that of explaining the nature of volcanic fires, the inces- sant existence of which is self-evident. 'The access of the atmosphere is necessary to fire in all its ordinary forms. In that of volcanoes, it appears to subsist without any adequate supply of this principle. Dr. Clark, far from relieving us ‘from this difficulty, has increased it, by alleging the neces- sity of another aeriform substance. A better solution, as should suppose, was long ago afforded by a reference to the combustion of metals by sulphur, in the vapour of which some of them burn more readily than in the atmosphere. Lately the metallic origin of earthy matter being discov- ered, it has been supposed possible, that at some distance from its surface the globe may consist of a great metalloidal nucleus, which acting on water, may produce intense igni- tion. Those who have seen the consequences of moisten- ing quick lime, may easily conceive that tremendous effects might ensue from reaction between water and calcium, or any of the same family of substances. In this case hydro- gen would be produced, but there would be no oxygen.— Of the existence, however, of subterraneous fires in volea- nic regions there can be no doubt, whatever may be the theory of their origin. ‘The obvious proximity of s 3 _Tivers, and even of the sea itself, with the well known force may be accomplished. The principle of the apparatus used by Dr. ©. will be found the same as that of the air 288 Hare’s Blowpipe. vault employed in England to regulate the blast of large bellows at founderies and forges. Mr. Brook was the first to apply it ts the regulation of a blowpipe, and published his account of it in April 8th, 1816. [will proceed to quote and exhibit simultaneously, the observations and experiments of Dr. Clark, and of Profes- sor Silliman and myself. As Tilloch’s Philosophical Mag- azine is universally accessible, I shall refer to it for the me- moirs of Silliman avd myself: to vol. 14 for mine, to vol. 50 for his.* For Dr. Clark’s experiments, commenced in ee I shall quote his book on the gas blowpipe, publish- 1819. \ Experiments on Lime. Hare, page 304. ‘“ Lime and magnesia are extremely difficult to fuse, not only because they are the most réfrac- tory substances in nature, but from the difficulty of prevent- ing them from being blown on one side by the flame: nev- ertheless, in some instances, by exposure on carbon to the gaseous flame, small portions of these earths were convert- ed into black vitreous masses. Possibly the black colour of these products of fusion, may have been caused by iron contained in the coal ; for in the’ high temperature of the gaseous flame, a powerful attraction is exerted between iror and the earths.” : are, page 306. “There is a peculiar species of native eoal found on the banks of the Lehigh in this State, which is extremely difficult to ignite ; which, when exposed to a high degree of heat and a copious blast of air, burns, yield- ing an intense heat without either smoke or flame, and leaving little residue. By exposure to the gaseous flame on this coal, both magnesia and lime exhibited strong symp- toms of fusion. The former assumed a glazed and some- what globular appearance, the latter became converted into a brownish semivitreous mass.” Silliman, page 109.“ A piece of lime from the Carrara marble, was strongly ignited in a covered platinum cruci- ble ; one angle of it was then shaped into a small cylinder. __” These experiments were performed in December, 1811, and published in Bruce’s Journal in 1812. Hare’s Blowpipe. 289 degree blended with the supporting mass of lime. When the compound flame fell upon the lime, the splendor of the light was perfectly insupportable by the naked eye, and when viewed through deep coloured glasses (as indeed all these experiments ought to be) the lime was seen to be- come rounded at the angles, and gradually to sink, till in the course of a few seconds, only a small globular protuberance remained, and the mass of supporting lime was also super- lally fused at the base of the column for a space of half an inch in diameter. The protuberance as well as the con- tguous portion of lime was converted into a perfectly white and glistening enamel. A magnifying glass discovered a W minute pores, but not the slightest earthy appearance. +his experiment was repeated several times and with uni- form success ; may not lime therefore be added to the list of fusible bodies ? 7 _ Clark, page 47.“ Lime in a state of perfect purity and in the pulverulent form being placed within a platinum cru- cible, and exposed to the flame of the gas blowpipe, its up- per surface became covered with a limpid botyroidal glass, resembling hyalite ; the inferior surface was quite black. lts fusion was accompanied by a lambent purple flame. This colour therefore may be considered as a characteristic ue of one at least of the oxydes of calcium.” with great difficulty exhibiting after fusion a white milky *namel with points of intumescence that were transparent. 290 Hare’s Blowpipe. Experiments on Magnesia. Silliman, page 110. ‘‘ The same circumstances that reu- dered the operating upon lime difficult, existed in a still greater degree with respect to magnesia ; its lightness and pulverulent form rendered it impossible to confine it for a moment upon the charcoal; and as it has very little cohesion itcould not be shaped by the knife as the lime had been. After being calcined at full ignition in a covered platinum crucible, it was kneaded with water, till it became of the consistency of dough. It was then shaped into a rude cone as acute as might be, but still very blunt. The cone was three fourths of an inch long, and was supported upon a coiled wire. The magnesia thus prepared was exposed to the compound flame ; the escape of the water caused the vertex of the cone to fly off repeatedly in flakes, and the top of the frustrum that thus remained gave nearly as powerful a reflection of light as the lime had done. From the bulk oe of the piece (it being now one fourth of an inch in diameter at = don magazine, for a memoir which he knew to be published in both.* 55 ' A _*I mentioned above that I had lately fused a piece of oyster en agaall _ Ttwas exposed to the ithin an envelope of platina foil which - F soon reduced to a fluid globule. The application of the heat beingsusper™ Hare's Blowpipe. 291 Crark. Pure Oxide of Magnesium (Magnesia.) - Fusion per se, extremely difficult. When the earth is made to adhere (by moisture with distilled water and sub- sequent desiccation) and placed upon charcoal it is fusible in- toa whitish glass ; but the parts in contact with the char- coal acquire an imposing pseudo metallic lustre with a pur- ple coloured flame. Cuarx. Hydrate of Magnesia (pure foliated Magnesia from America.) “This substance is incomparably refractory ; with the utmost intensity of the heat of the gas blowpipe, it is ulti- mately reducible to a white opake enamel invested with a thin superficies of limpid glass. Its fusion is accompanied with a purple coloured flame. Experiments on Corundum. Silliman, page 112. “Corundum of the East-Indies Was immedia ly and perfectly fused into a grey globule.” * Corundum ° ina the s ith active ebullition.” hute cavities caused by the escape of gas during its fusion. This gas is probably the same which pure silica more abundantly exhibits. A slightly coloured greenish flame accompanics the fusion of corundum.” Experiments on Sappar. Silliman. Sappar or kyanite perfectly and instantly fused with ebullition into a white enamel.” | ed (when both substances had become cold.) This enabled me to make it receive the greatest heat of the flame on renewing the process. The lime then melted into a liquid, which subsiding round the globule of platina, "used it to appear after cooling as ifset in enamel. 292 Hare's Blowpipe. Clark, page 57. ‘ This mineral owing to its refractory nature was used by Saussure as a supporter in experiments with the common blowpipe. It fuses very readily into a snow white frothy enamel.” Experiments on Zircon. Silliman, page 112. Zircon of Ceylon, melted with ebullition into a white enamel.” Clark, page 58. “ One of the most refractory substan- ces, exposed to the heat of the gas blowpipe it becomes first opaque and of a white colour ; and afterwards its super- ficies undergoes a partial fusion and exhibits a white opaque enamel resembling porcelain.* Experiments on the Spinelle Ruby. Silliman, page 112. “ Spinelle ruby fused immediately into an ellipitical red globule.” . : “ Fuses readily and undergoes a partial combustion and volatilization with loss of colour and of weight.. One of the solid angles of an octahedral chrystal was entirely burned off, and volatilized in one of these ex- periments.” Sg oS Experiments on Silex, Alumine, Barytes. Hare, page 304. “By exposure to the gaseous flame either on supports of silver or of carbon, barytes, alumie, and silex were completely fused. The products of the fu- sion of alumine and silex were substances very similar to each other and much resembling white enamel.” : illiman, page 109. “ Silex, being in a fine powder it was blown away by the current of gas, but when moistened with water it becomes agglutinated by the heat and was then perfectly fused into a colourless glass.” Clark, page 59. “Pure precipitated silica (peroxide of silicium) becomes instantly fused into an orange coloured transparent glass. The colour may be due either to the *. . * Tmight say here with trath, Professor Clark in England was unable to fuse zircon in his mode of operating with the gas blowpipe. t Hare’s Blowpipe. 293 charcoal serving as a support, or to the carbon of the oil sed for making it into a paste. On the reduction of the earths to the metallic state. Hare, page 394. “The result of the fusion of barytes was a substance of an oak coloured cast, which after long exposure sometimes exhibited brilliant yellow specks. I it be certain that barytes is an earth, these specks must have been discoloured pariicles of the silyer support, or of the pipes from which the flame issued.” Silliman, page 118. “During the action of the com- pound flame upon the alkaline earths provided they were sup- ported by charcoal ; distinct globules often rolled and dart- ed out from the ignited mass and burnt sometimes vividly and with peculiarly coloured flame. From the nature of the experiments it will not be easy to prove that these glo- bules were the basis of the earths, and yet there is the Strongest reason to believe it. Circumstances could scarce- ly be devised more favorable to the simultaneous fusion and decomposition of these bodies ; charcoal highly ignited for @ support and an atmosphere of hydrogen also in vivid and intense ignition. That the oxygen should be under these circumstances detached is not surprising ; but the high de- gree of heat and the presence of oxygen necessarily burn up the metalloids almost as soon as produced. If means could be devised to obviate this difficulty the blowpipe of Mr. Hare might become an important instrument of analytical re- Search. We can scarcely fail to attribute some of the ap- pearances during the fusion of the leucite to the decompo- sition of the potash it contains. This impression was muc strengthened by exposing potash and soda to the com- pound flame with a support of charcoal ; they were evident- ly decomposed ; numerous distinct globules rolled out from them and burnt with the peculiar vivid white light and flash which these metalloids exhibit when produced and igni- ted in the galvanic circuit. It is hoped these hints may pro- duce a further investigation of this subject. This commu- nication has already been extended further than was con- templated ; but on concluding, it may be allowable to re- mark that there is no body in all probability except a few of Vou. H1.,...No: 2% f 6, tere 294 Hare’s Blowpipe. the combustible ones which is exempt from the law of fusion by heat.’ Is there any apology for the manner in which Dr. Clark has brought himself and his friend before the public on this subject without the smallest acknowledgments for these. suggestions ? Clark's Gas Blowpipe. In proceeding io state the revival of two of the metals of the earths before the flame of the gas blowpipe, and of other metals under similar circumstances, it may be proper to pre- fix the ingenious theory of the Reverend J. Houde of St. Peters’ College, Cambridge, respecting the cause of the de- composition that takes place. “It is entirely owing to the powerful attraction which hydrogen has to oxygen at such an exalted temperature.’ he reduction or decomposition of oxydes when exposed to the ‘ aseous flame”* is therefore often instantaneous, and it is e ey followed by the combustion of the minute lés thus revived, and ulti- mately by the deposition of ihe 5 he regenerated oxyde which is a result of that combustion. Hence.the coloured flame ; hence also the appearance of an oxyde in a state of incom-. parably extreme division upon the supports used whether of metal or charcoal ; an irrefragable test of the revival of the metal from whose ‘combustion nos newly formed oxyde has been derived. Peciaa on 5 Shui: Hare, 1st part 6th Vol. American Philosophical Transae- tions, pase 100, republished Annales de Chimie, Vol. 5 page 81.“ “About the same time I discovered strontites to bea fusible srnetayee 5 for having obtained a portion of this earth pure, from a specimen of the carbonat of strontites of Argytehane Ge in iain I exposed it- on charcoa ompound blowpipe after the manner describ- ed in my nto above alluded to. It became fused into — semivitreous mass in shape somewhat semi-glob- ts The very phrase nsed by me in my original memoir. Hare’s Blowppe. 295 Clark. Here a different process is necessary ; the revi- val of the metal is rendered more difficult owing to the pul- verulent state of the earth. The particles must be made to adhere before fusion can be accomplished, and this oxyde being much more refractory than the preceding is almost in- fusible per se even with the aid of the vas blowpipe.” Thus he admits that a substance is almost infusible in his hands which has been repeatedly fused under mine. Experiments and observations on the fusion, volatilization and combustion of the perfect metals. Hare, page 305. “Had I sufficient confidence in my own judgment I should declare that gold, silver and platina were thrown into a state of ebullition by exposure on car- bon to the gaseous flame ; for the pieces of charcoal on which they were exposed became washed or gilt with de- tached particles of metal in the parts adjoining the spots where the exposure took place. Some of the particles of the metal thus detached exhibited symptoms of oxidation.” Combustion of pure Gold. Clark, page 90. “ As this experiment affords decisive evidence of the combustion of gold, and of course its com- bination with oxygen, and also exhibits the oxyde under a very beautiful appearance, it may be considered as one of the most pleasing experiments with the gas blowpipe.” Experiments on Platinum particularly. Hare, page 304. “ Platina was fused by exposure on car- bon to the combustion of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air. But the fusion of this metal was rapidly accomplished by the gaseous flame, either when exposed to it on carbon or upon metallic supports. me ee : A small quantity of this metal in its native granular form being strewed in a silver spoon and passed under the gase- ous flame, the tract of the flame became marked by the ag- glutination of the metal ; and when the heat was for some ume continued on a small space, a lump of fused platina be- fame immediately formed. About two penny weights of 296 | Have’s Blowpipe. the native grains of platina when subject to the gaseous flame on carbon, became quickly fused into an oblate sphe- roid as fluid as mercury. This spheroid after being cooled was exposed as before ; it became fluid in less than the fourth of a minute.” Hare, Ist part 6th Vol. Philosophical Transactions, page 99, republished Annales de Chimie, Vol. 60, page 81. “ Being induced last winter to reinstate the apparatus by which these experiments were performed, I was enabled to confirm my judgment of the volatilization of platina by the observations of Dr’s. Woodhouse and Seybert; for in the presence of these skilful chemists I completely dissipated some small globules of this metal of about the tenth of an inch diameter. In fact I found platinum to be equally sus- ceptible of rapid volatilization, whether exposed in its na- tive granular .orm, or in that of globules obtained from tbe orange coloured precipitate of the nitro muriatic solution by the muriat of ammonia.” Silliman, page 3. “ Platinum was not only melted but volatilized with strong ebullition.”* the gas blowpipe, is now become so easy that this metal melts faster than lead in a common fire. It is no longer necessary to make use of wire in exhibiting its fusion and combustion. The cuttings which are sold by the manufac- turers of platinum utensils are placed in a cupel, either mounted ona stand or held in a pair of forceps. The mouth of the jet is bent downwards so as to admit of a pet- pendicular direction of the gaseous fame upon the metal in the cupel. The flame is then suffered to act upon the pla- tinum, about a quarter of an ounce of the metal being pla- ced in the cupel at first, as soon as this begins to melt more may be added until a cupel of the common size is neatly full of the boiling metal ; and in this manner a mass of pla- tinum weighing half an ounce at the least, may be obtained in one brilliant bullet. This when rolled out so that all air fusion and and complete dissipation of platinum, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, and most of the metals, and the fusion of the principal IS siden _of their most refracto compounds, by the use of Professor ’s compound blowpipe, have been the familiar and easy elass exper tee] ofevery course of chemistry in Yale College for these eight years.— Hare’s Blowpipe. 297 holes being removed the mass possesses a uniform density will be found to have a specific gravity equal to 20,857. During the fusion of the metal its combustion will be often ifnot alway apparent. It will burn with scintillation and particles of the black protoxide of platinun, if care be used, may be caught upon a sheet of white paper while the com- bustion is going on.” He would here evidently wish the reader to adapt the false impression that the facility with which platinum may he fused is owing to “ the great improvements” made four- ‘een or fifteen years after I had devised and used them. Will Britons tolerate such conduct in their professors ? Silliman, last page. The experiments which have now heen related in connexion with the original ones of Mr. tare sufficiently show that science is not a little indebted to that gentleman for his ingenious and beautiful invention. It Was certainly a happy thought and the result of very philo- sophical views of combustion, to suppose that a highly com- bustible gaseous body by intimate mixture with oxygen gas ust when kindled produce intense heat, and it is no doubt to this capability of perfectly intimate mixture between these two bodies and to their great capacity for heat, that the effects of the compound blowpipe are in a great measure to be ascribed. Clark, Journal Royal Institution, page 122. ‘I consid- er this improvement of the blowpipe, one of the most valu- able discoveries for the sciences of chemistry and mineralo- sy that have yet been made “and thus does he modestly awarded according to the motto of “ suum cuique” adopted by Dr. Clark, there would be little left for himself and his eoadjutors. _ Tsubjoin a few drawings of the compound blowpipe in its different forms, and of some varieties of apparatus which may be used for supplying it with hydrogen and oxygen Bas. 298 Hare’s Blowpipe. Explanation of the Plate at the end of the Volume. Fig. 1. Original compound blowpipe, consisting of twe common brass blowpipes soldered at their points into two perforations in a frustum of silver or platina,* after receiv- ing the blowpipes. These perforations converge till they form one, the open end of which is their common orifice. ig. 2. An enlarged representation of the frustum. It may be of brass, the orifice being protected by platina, as the touch-holes of guns are sometimes. The whole of the instrument being comprised in fig. Ist, injustice has evi- dently been done by those who have spoken of it as cum- brous or requiring simplification.+ ig. 3. The compound blowpipe under another form. A. is a brass ball with two arms, furnished with coupling screws, for attaching the instrument to the tubes through which the gases are to be supplied. B. is the pipe which receives and emits them as mixed for ignition. It is screw- ed into a perforation in the ball at right angles to another perforation bored through the common axis of the ball and rms. is pipe is made of stout brass wire, drilled so as to admit a piece of hollow platina wire about three-fourths of an inch long, to be inserted at one end. The platina ings through holes gradually smaller. Hence, by having e bore in the first instance made larger than can be want- ed in any case, it is easy to produce pipes with orifices of every desired diameter. Fig. 4. Exhibits the form above mentioned on a smaller scale, attached to the supply tubes. The latter have cocks and conical screws, for fastening them into a table, and also eoupling screws, for connecting the instrument with the pipes employed to convey the gases to it, from the air hold- ers in which they may be kept. * The appellation, compound blowpipe, was given to this instrument by Professor Silliman, as he uses two blowpipes meeting in a frustum. +It has been said that Mr. Cloud simplified it ; this is of course a gross error. he simplified any thing, it was that part of the apparatus in which the gases are confined. | } Voss Hare’s Blowpipe. 299 gaseous materials may be pumped by a condenser, as in the case of Mr. Brooks’ apparatus, used by Clarke. Fig. 9. A. reservoir, C. bladder holding gas, B. condenser, D blowpipe. In default of a better mode, two smaller tubs or kegs, or air tight boxes inverted into larger ones, might be resorted to. Being filled with water, this fluid might be displaced by gas delivered from the vessels generating it, and the gas thus collected would be propelled by the pressure of the water through tubes connected with the compound blow- Professor Silliman uses chests sunk in his pneumatic cis- tern, and filled by bellows pumps,* as in my original appa- now employ sometimes the shelves of my pneu- matic cistern, which are made like inverted trays; so that bell glasses filled with gas may be emptied into them by the hand. “Or more frequently by conveying the gases as they are evolved from the materials, through tubes immediately into the boxes. 300 Hare’s Blowpipe. mences. ‘The elevation of the sides of the gasometers above the horizontal partition or diaphragm, constitutes an external cavity, in which water may be poured so as to load them sufficiently. . A. B. C. D. cistern, E. F. partition di- viding it, H. gasometer, or self-regulating reservoir of hy- drogen, G. gasometer for oxygen, I. I. two pipes closed at top and inserted air tight into the gasometer, L. M. two smaller pipes in the axis of those last mentioned, open at top, passing water tight through the bottom of the cistern and communicating with the blowpipe n.o. m. m. exten- sion of the pipe M. by means of which, oxygen may be in- troduced from the iron bottle f.* P.P. rods which pass through holes in a sort of gallows, so as to regulate the movements of the gasometers, and stop them by the bands and screws R. R. at any height desired ; Q. Q. cocks, for draining the pipes L. and M. of any moisture which may condense in them. This method of affording a regulated production and store of hydrogen gas, is somewhat analogous to that of Gay issac ; but has this superiority; that the pressure is more equable, need not be greater than useful, and may be lessened at pleasure, so as not to have the tendency to leak- -age through the cocks, or any pores in the apparatus use- lessly increased. Hydrogen is peculiarly subtile, and will escape when other gases will not. om Fig. 6, and Fig. 7,} represent self-regulating reservour's of hydrogen, more closely upon the principle of Gay Lus- sac. I had availed myself of this principle to regulate the production of fixed air from carbonat of lime before I heard of its adoption by that eminent chemist. A (Fig. 8? Ed.) a partition dividing the cask into two apartments, the lower the largest. B B a false bottom, full of holes, raised above an inch from the real bottom of the cask. Ca copper oF leaden pipe, inserted at its upper end into the partition, and extending downwards a little heyond the false bottom. . B * The iron bottles used in commerce to confine quicksilver answer admi- rably well. The narrow end of a gun barrel usually fits them, and il oe large enough, asection may be made near the breech where the barre ens It may be luted into the bottle with clay or lime and white of egs, apa longer pipe is then easily luted to the breech, where it cannot be injure by the fire. i Fig. 7 and 8 ?—Editor. oe ee eee ee ee Hare’s Blowpipe. 301. D, a conical brass screw plug, inserted into a hole in the cask, to be removed or reinserted, as may be convenient. E a plug of wood for closing the pipe B. F a cock for regulating the escape of gas. The plug D being removed, and zine in pieces introduced by the hole so as to cover the false bottom, diluted acid is to be poured into the cask, till the lower apartment becomes full. The cock F being closed, the hydrogen produced by the chemical action soon expels so much of the acid from the lower compartment of the cask, as to depress it below the zinc, when the action stops, till the expenditure of the gas allows the acid again to reach the metal. The plug E is of use to prevent the acid from pressing on the gas below, when pressure is not want- ed. Fig. 7 may be understood by its analogy with Fig 6, (Fig. 8? Ed.) being merely another mode of putting the same principle into operation. Casks of the form of Fig. 6, (Fig. 8? Ed.) may be used as oxygen gas holders. The lower apartment is to be filled with water, the cock closed, and the plugs E, D put into their places so as to be quite tight. The pipe G only is to be open, and through this, the end of a tube is to be introduced, proceeding from a vessel in which oxygen may be generated. The gas displaces the water, which, as it flows out is to be caught and poured in- to the upper apartment of the cask. When the lower apart- ment becomes full Gis to be closed. It is then only neces- sary to remove the plug E, in ordei to allow the water to press upon the gas, and propel it, when requisite, through a tube to the blowpipe. ios Fig. 11 represents a contrivance, by which any vessel, with but one orifice, as a bottle, a demijohn, or carboy, may be made to act as an air holder; so that a number may be filled with oxygen gas over a preumatic cistern, may be laid by, and then used as wanted. The cylinder A is to be inserted in the place of the cork or stopple. This cylin- der has two perforations nearly collateral, one not more than one quarter of the diameter of the other. The smaller one, B, communicates with a small tube, furnished with a 302 Chemical examination of the Hop. course run into the bottle, until the gas within is so much condensed, as to resist the pressure of a column of it suffi- ciently high to reach the orifice of the inserted vessel. When this takes place, no more will descend, until by opening the cock, a portion of gas escapes: but as long as it is escaping, a proportionable quantity of water will come down, so as to keep the gas under an equable pressure, and of course an even flow towards the blowpipe. Fig. 10, represents Lavoisier’s apparatus for the recom- position of water, which Dr. Clark so uncandidly insinuates as suggesting the contrivance of the hydro oxygen blow- pipe. Ata, is a tube, by which, to exhaust the vessel A of air. Atb, is another tube for supplying oxygen. Atce, a third tube for supplying hydrogen, to be ignited by a spark from the knob of the bent wire below it. Arr. XIV.—An Experimental Inquiry into the chemical properties and economical and medicinal virtues of the upulus, or Common Hop, by Ansuu W. Ives, — M.D. of New-York, Tue hop is a hardy perennial plant, which grows spon- arts of + * That the Humulus is a native of America, bas been confirmed by the licheaux, Nuttall, Eaton, Torrey, and others. + A very aceurate drawing and minnte dissection of the male and female hee may be found in “ Lamarch’s Encyclopedia,” part 22d, plate t Writers have generally used the term hop-plant to distinguish the whole vegetable, and the hop to designate that part of it used in brewing. __ Chemical examination of the Hop. 303 of medicine, that consideration would excite, iy pas but little solicitude, while there existed a hope o : an improvement in domestic economy, which uld be ota interesting to a great portion of the civilized world. water had passed over into areceiver. ‘The fluid that eee over indicated slightly the peculiar aromatic flavour of ~ P; it was perfectly transparent, very little discoloure ; and exhibited no appearance of a volatile oil. HL. remaining in the retort was aromatic and bitter. hen 304 Chemical examination of the Hop. filtered and evaporated, it yielded ten grains of a pale yel- low extract, intensely bitter, and possessing ia a high de- gree the peculiar aromatic taste of the hop. . Exp. 2.—Two ounces of the best merchantable hops were distilled in a retort, with six ounces of water, till half of the fluid had passed over into a receiver of water. water in the receiver was slightly impregnated with the odour of the hop, but there was no appearances of volatile oil. xp. 3.—Two drachms of lupulin were boiled m a re- tort with three ounces of alcohol. The alcohol came over strongly impregnated with the aroma of the lupulin ; but there was no visible indication of an essential oil. The re- maining alcohol had assumed a brilliant yellow colour, and a pleasant but intensely bitter taste; when filtered and evaporated, it yielded one drachm of extract of the consis- tance of soft wax. Exp. 4.—A saturated decoction of the lupulin was pre- pared with pure water. It was opaque and of a pale yel- ‘low colour. By adding to a portion of it a solution of the sulphate of iron, the colour was changed to a deep purple, approaching to black ; a solution of animal gelatine, threw a copious ash-coloured precipitate, which left the su- pernatant liquor transparent and clear. This liquor was now decanted ; by adding to it a solution of iron, it was changed to a pale blue ; the acetate and subacetate of Jead, caused a copious curdy yellow precipitate; the nitrate of silver, a greenish flocculent precipitate; muriate of tin, w first added, produced no change, but after standing a short time, a brown precipitate; a solution of sulpbate of alu- mine caused no immediate change, but by boiling with the decoction, it separated a dense precipitate. Silicated pot- ash, alcohol, and vegetable blue, induced no change. 4p. 5.—Two drachms of lupulin in four ounces of wa- ter, were digested six hours in a sand bath. The infusion yielded by evaporation six grains of aromatic and bitter * These experiments, with some variation, were frequently repeated, with the view to detect, if practicable, the volatile oil which is so frequent- ly mentioned by anthors as essential to the flavour of beer. e result was ormly the same. The peculiar aroma of the hop was always obvious os seeeii and taste, but J was never able to separate it in the form of 2° Chemieal examination of the Hop. 305 extract. ‘Two ounces of proof spirit were added to the same lupulin, and subjected to a moderate heat twelve hours ; when filtered and evaporated, there remained six grains of a resinous extract. "The same lupulia was digest- ed thirty minutes in boiling aleohol, from which was ob- tained by evaporation sixty-two grains of extract. The extract obtained by the second process was soluble in pure alcohol, and when water was added to the solution, it be- came turbid and mi _ Exp. 6.—The lupulin used in the last experiment, was boiled in strong caustic ammonia. When filtered and su- persaturated with distilled vinegar, a copious precipitate ensued, which was insoluble in alcohol, and possessed the sensible properties of an impure wax. ‘The three last ex- periments show pretty satisfactorily, that the most impor- fant proximate principles of the lupulin are resin, wax, tannin, gallic acid, a bitter principle, and an extractive mat- ier. The following experiments were instituted for ‘the purpose of ascertaining more accurately their respective proportions, as well as the aggregate amount of soluble Matter in a given quantity of lupulin. Exp. 7th—Two drachms of lupulin were infused five hours in boiling water. To the filtrated infusion, were ad- ded at intervals, five grains of animal gelatin in solution; When it ceased to produce any precipitate, and the super natant liquor became transparent and clear. The sediment, when dry, weighed ten grains. An ounce of alcohol was added to the filtered solution, but it caused no change ; by evaporation, it yielded fifteen grains of a very bitter extract. The same lupulin was digested again in boiling water—an- ‘mal gelatin added to the filtered solution, induced no pre- Cipitate 3 by evaporation, an additional quantity of six Stains of the watery extract was obtained. . 8th.—The extract obtained in the last experiment, Was put into pure alcohol, and frequently agitated. After twenty-four hours it was filtered ; ten grains had been re- dissolved by the alcohol, and an insoluble mass, weighing eleven grains, was left upon the filter. . Lax) h.—The same lupulin which was used in the seventh experiment, was now digested in acohol. The m- fusion was highly bitter, and of a fine yellow colour ; it gave by evaporation twenty-four grains of resin. By digesting * 306 Chemical examination of the Hop. in a second portion of alcohol, twelve grains more of resin were obtained, less bitter, but otherwise like the last. Exp. 10th.—The lupulin which was the subject of the last experiment, after having been thus boiled in water, and digested in aleohol, was put into a small retort, and boiled in two ounces of ether. While boiling, it was filtered into a vessel containing cold water, by which means twelve grains of wax were obtained.* : Exp. 11th.—Half an ounce of lupulin was boiled suc- cessively in water, alcohol and ether. On weighing the in- soluble residuum, it was found that five eighths of the whole had been taken up by the solvents. From the foregoing experiments, all of which were, with some variation, frequently repeated, I infer, that the lupu- lin contains a very subtle aroma, which is yielded to water and to alcohol, and which is rapidly dissipated by a high heat; that no essential oil can be detected by distillation in any portion of the hop; that the lupulin contains an ex- tractive matter, which is soluble only in water ; that it con- tains tannin, gallic acid, and a bitter principle, which are soluble in water, and in alcohol; that it contains resin, which is dissolved by alcohol and by ether, and wax, which is soluble only in alkalies and in boiling ether; that it con- tains neither mucilage, gum, nor gum-resin ; that the aro- sooner by both when they are hot than when they are cold; exist in very nearly the following proportions :—~In tv chms (or one hundred and twenty grains) of lupulin, ere is, that of Chemical examination of the Hop. 307 See re ae REDE ee eee ewrmiractive metic, 5 isc es 2st os he AO mbiited DRinciple, |i: 5, aw +, eid 4) oc wri we RES Me Bs ies ie ta og 4 sk 2 gua ag Sg Resin, . . ai oikcshi pe _A woody fibrous substance, or Lignin, .... 46 ‘ep. 12.—Two drachms of the leaves,* from which all the lupulin had been separated, were digested twelve hours in six ounces of boiling water. The infusion was bitter, and exceedingly unpleasant to the taste ; it possessed none of the aromatic flavour and peculiar bitter of the lupulin. When filtered and evaporated, it yielded five grains of nau- seous extract. ‘The same leaves were again digested in six ounces of proof spirit: after twelve hours, the infusion was filtrated, and, by evaporation, yielded five grains of extract, similar to the last. ‘The same leaves were digested twenty- four hours in alcohol ; the infusions manifested none of the grain , ter obtained from the leaves was sufficiently characteristic of the hop to designate that it was obtained from that article.} From this, and other similar experiments, leading to the Same results, I think it is conclusively proved, that the vir- tue of the hop resides exclusively in the lupulin; that the leaves contain a nauseous extractive matter, which is im- parted to water and to alcohol, and which, instead of adding to the bitter and aromatic fiavor of the lupulin, partially neutralizes or destroys it. e obvious inference from these results was, that the lupulin was the only part of the hop essential to economi- cal purposes; an inference so little anticipated, that it be- Came an important subject of enquiry, whether that part of the plant was duly estimated by practical brewers—wheth- er it had been regarded by authors as preferable to the leaves, and if so, what impediment or what consideration Prevented its being separated from the chaff. *It will be understood that by the leaves are meant the calices which form. 308 Chemical examination of the Hop. On making enquiry of a number of brewers in this city, it was ascertained that there was about one in three whe considered this powder useful, in common with other parts of the plant. It was known to all that hops were used princi- pally for their antiseptic powers, or to preserve the beer rom acetous fermentation; but neither practical brewers, nor scientific writers on brewing, appear to have noticed this substance particularly. By some of the former, it is re- garded as useless. Whenat one brewery I asked for some of the yellow powder that was found at the bottom of the bags; I was told that I could find but little there, as but a few days ago they had swept half a bushel of it from the store. I was now resolved to ascertain, if possible, the propor- tion of lupulin in the merchantable hop, and also whether it could be completely and readily separated from the leaves. Accordingly, six pounds of pressed hops were taken from the centre of a bag, containing some hundred pounds, and ex- posed to heat till perfectly dry. They were then put into a light bag and by threshing, rubbing and sifting, fourteen ounces of the pure powder was separated ina short time and with very little labour. hough the quantity thus obtained was surprisingly great, there was obviously a considerable proportion remaining which could not easily be separated from the chaff. therefore the hops were gathered when the lupulin existed in the greatest abundance, and, instead of being pressed and packed, were exposed to the sun till perfectly dry, there 1s little doubt but six pounds would yield a pound of the pow- der in question.* _ The foregoing experiments were not completed till late in the spring, when the best season for brewing was passe¢s but with the advice, and by the direction of Robert Barnes, Esq. (an experienced and scientific brewer, zealous for the improvement of his art) two barrels of beer were made 10 which nine ounces of the lupulin were substituted for five pounds (the ordinary quantity) of hops. The result con- firmed the most sanguine expectation. Though the quant * Nothing conjectural would here have been introduced, but with a view to show, as accurately as possible, the proportion of lupulin, that the req oa agreed may be known in case it should be substituted for the leaves © Ops ng Chemical examination of the Hop. 309 ty of lupulin was less than what (according to the foregoing statement) usually enters into the same quantity of wort, and though the weather during the month of June was un- usually warm and therefore unfavourable to its preservation, still the beer, which is now five weeks old, is very fine. I is pleasantly aromatic and bitter, and in a perfect state of preservation. O ascertain the preservative property of the lupulin by a more direct experiment, equal quantities of the beer were put into separate vials and exposed, unstopped to the sun. Ho the beer in one vial was added a scruple of lupulin. The beer to which none was added, became mouldy and sour in ten days, the other was unchanged at the expiration of fifteen days. Having, as 1 conceive, demonstrated that the lupulin, alone, contains the bitter principle and the aromatic flavour of the hop, which are essential to the excellence and preserv- ation of malt liquor, and having shown also the feasibility of separating it from the leaves to which it is attached ; I sha proceed to enumerate some of the most obvious benefits which would result from these facts, should they be found applicable to practical use. 1. It would diminish the expenses of transportation.—In this the saving would be enormous. The hops which are now brought to this city are cultivated in the eastern states, and in the western parts of this state, and the expense of transportation is from one to two cents a pound. This is on account of their bulk, rather than their weight. Were fore and after threshing. Might it not also, for the same reason, become a profitable article of export! to the brewer. Vou. I1.....No. 2. 40 310 Chemical examination of the Hop. 3. One object in pressing the hop into bags is, to preserve it from the injury of the air; along exposure to which, it is said partially destroys its virtue. Whatever may be the cause, it is well known that the value of hops is diminished y age. is could not result to the lupulin any more than to our imported teas, were it packed in casks which would secure it perfectly from the air. e brewer would evade an enormous loss, which he now sustains in the wort absorbed by the hops. Dr. Shan- now asa barrel of wort contains not less than three bush- els of malt, it follows, that the quantity of malt thus annual- ly lost by absorption, is one hundred and eighty seven thou- sand five hundred bushels—the price of which may be fatr- ly estimated at as many dollars. : 5. It will lessen the temptation to the fraudulent practice which now prevails, of adulterating beer with other vegeta- ble bitters. Notwithstanding the prohibitions of parliament there is no article which is the subject of such varied and extensive fraud in England at the present day as that of beer. Asa substitute for the hop,} the coculus indicus, quassia and wormwood have all in turn been used ; but @ of them are so far inferior, both in their flavour and in thelr antiseptic or preservative properties, that the use of all veg- etables in the manufacturing of beer, excepting malt ant hops, is by law forbidden. By the improvement which 1s now proposed, so great would be the diminution im the price of the hop, from its being made an article of easy and * Vide, Dr. Shannon's Treatise on Brewing. t Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. 2. ¢ Accum’s Treatise on the adulteration of food. Also, Edinburgh Re- : 5. view, No. 6 ‘ Chemical examination of the Hop. 31] use of opium and tobacco. Soon after hops were intro- duced into use in brewing in England, the citizens of Lon- don petitioned parliament to forbid their use in the king- ey were a nuisance, “ and spoiled the taste of their drink.” The leaves then are not only useless, but prejudicial to the flavour of beer. © the virtues of this substance as a medicine, I shall at — geaont be very brief, as it will probably be made a subject ‘or future consideration. It has already been observed that ed in dyspepsia and scrofula. In this country it has been most valued for its narcotic powers, and used in cases when opium was inadmissible. ‘The most common preparation is a saturated tincture of the leaves. To this there are two important objections. 1. To give enough of the tincture of the leaves to induce sleep, the quantity of alcohol is ne- cessarily so great as sometimes to do injury to the patient. 2. When given in large doses, it frequently produces nau- sea and sometimes vomiting. The first of these objections requires no. proof, the second is confirmed by my own ob- servation and by the experiments of Dr. Bryorley in his in- augural dissertation on the hop. This last effect is proba- bly owing to the extractive matter in the leaves, for I have never seen it produced by the lupulin. I have prescribed the powder in substance, the infusion, decoction, alcoholic tincture and the extract. As its aromatic and bitter proper- ties are imparted to water, the infusion is an eligible prepa~ ration as a tonic and stomachic ; but if given with a desire to produce sleep, the tincture is the best preparation. As it has been demonstrated, both by positive and negative tes- timony that the narcotic principle exists in the reszn only, the tincture should always be made with alcohol and not a 312 Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. with proof spirit. Itis more difficult and expensive to pre- pare the extract than the tincture, and the latter in most in- stances is the most eligible preparation. Its virtues are aromatic, tonic and narcotic; and it is, F believe the only article in which these properties are com bined. Our country abounds with vegetable bitters and tonics, many of which are more powerful than the hop, but there is perhaps none which can so properly be denomina- ted a stomachic. That family of symptomatic diseases which are the consequence of exhausted excitability, or more directly of an enfeebled and deranged state of the stomach and bowels, are certainly much relieved by this medicine. It frequently induces sleep and quiets great nervous irritation, without causing costiveness or, impairing like opium the tone of the stomach, and thereby increasing the primary disease, As an anodyne it will be found inefli- cient compared with opium. The saturated alccholic tine- ture, in doses of from forty to eighty drops, will induce sleep with as much certainty as opium in cases of long watching from nervous irritability ; but the same cannot be said of its efficacy in relieving pain. This substance then, is not com- mended as a medicine which ought to supersede the use of others of acknowledged virtue, but as a useful auxiliary, which undoubtedly possesses properties in some respect eculiar to itself, and as the part of the hop altogether pre- ‘able to any other, or to the whole as it is ordinarily used i tincture.) tok ait ee ed Arr. XV. Account of new Eudiometers, &c. invented by Roserr Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry, fe. the Medical department of the University of Pennsylva- Gx 4 a . Among the operations of chemistry, none probably are more difficult than those called Eudiometrical, in which ae- riform substances are analyzed. + Elastic fluids are so liable to. contract or expand with the slightest change of temperature or pressure, that it is requi- - site to have the surface of the portion under admeasuremen! exactly in the same level with that of the water or mereury = Hare’s Eudiometers, &e. — 313 employed to confine it, and the heat of the hand may ren- der the result inaccurate. There is no simple mode of eausing the surface of the gas in a measure glass to form a plane corresponding with the brim of the measure glass containing it. 'The transfer of small portions of gas without loss, especially frem large bells into small tubes is very diffi- eult. Hence there is trouble, delay and waste. I shall proceed to describe some instruments which I have lately invented, and which appear to be free from the dis- advantages above described. They are all essentially de- pendent on one principle for their superiority.* _ A recurved glass tube is furnished with a sliding wire of iron or copper, graduated into two hundred parts. The process of making wire by drawing it through a hole, ren- ders its circumferences of necessity every where equal and homologous. Consequently equal lengths will contain squal bulks. _'The wire slides through a cork soaked in bees-wax and oil, and compressed by a screw, so that neither air nor water can pass by it. _ The length of the longer leg is fifteen inches, that of the shorter one six inches. The bore of the tube is from ,4 to #5 an inch in diameter, but converges towards the termina- tion of the shorter leg to an orifice about large enough to ad- mit a brass pin. Over this a screw is sometimes affixed, so as to close it when necessary. The tube being filled with water or mercury, and the wire pushed into it as far as it can go, on drawing this out again any desired distance, an equivalent bulk of air must enter the capillary orifice if open. By forcing the rod back in into the tube, the air must be proportionably excluded. s the movements of the sliding wire are accompanied by a corresponding ingress or egress of air, and to know iow many divisions of the former have been pushed into the tube, or withdrawn from it, is the same as to know how much air has been drawn in or expelled. If, instead of allowing the orifice to be in the open air, it be introduced within a bell glass, holding gas over the pneu- matic apparatus, on pulling out the wire, there will be a corresponding entrance of gas into the instrument; and it must be evident that if the point of the gas measures be * See the plate at the end of the volume. ~ 314 Hare’s Eudiometers, &¢. transferred to the interior of any other recipient, the gas which had entered, or any part of it, may be made to go in- to any such recipient by reversing the motion of the wire. As the hands are, during this operation, remote from the part of the tube which contains the aeriform matter, no ex- pansion can arise from this source, and the operation is so much expedited, that there is much less chance of variation from any other cause. By taking care to have the surface of the gas in the bell glasses below that of the fluid in the cistern, the density of the former will be somewhat too great, but on bringing the orifice of the gas measurer on a level, with the surface of the fluid in the cistern, the gas, no longer subject to any extra pressure, will assurne its proper volume, the excess being seen to escape in bubbles. Should the tube in lieu of water, be filled with any solution, calcu- lated to absorb any gas, of which the proportion, in an mixture, is to be ascertained, and if the quantity of absorp- tion which can take place while the wire is drawing out, 15 deemed unworthy of attention, we have only to introduce the shorter leg of the tube into the containing vessel, as above described, and draw out the wire to two hundred on its scale, then depressing the point below the surface of the fluid in the pneumatic cistern in the usual time with due ag- itation, all the gas which the fluid can take up, will disap- pear. The quantity will be represented by the number of Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 315 be kept open, and under water, so as to permit the latter to take place of that portion of the gas which disappears.— Whatever remains unabsorbed, is expelled from the glass spheroid, as in the case of the tube when used alone; and the divisions on the rod remaining without, will shew how much the fluid has taken up. ready explained. When the residuum is too great to be ex- pelled by returning the whole of the rod into the tube, by depressing the orifice of the spheroid just under the surface of water, the wire may be again gently retracted, water taking its place; and the movement may thus be alter- nated, till the whole of the remaining gas is excluded. In order to apply this principle to Volta’s process of as- eertaining by explosion the quantity of hydrogen or oxy- gen gas present, in a mixture, the gas measurer is made as much stronger, as eudiometers are usually, when intended to be so used. It isin like manner drilled so as to receive Wires for passing the electric spark. ‘The instrument being charged with the gases successively in any required propor- tion, closed by the screw, and an explosion accomplished ; to ll any consequent vacuity, the orifice is to be opened just be- low the surface of water or mercury. The quantity destroy- ed by the combustion is then ascertained by the sliding wire. This experiment is more accurately performed by means of mercury than water. From this fluid, concussion, or even the partial vacuum produced by the gaseous matter, May extricate air, and thus vitiate results. There ought always to be a considerable excess of gas not liable to be acted on. The activity of the inflammation is lessened, and the unconsumed air breaks the shock. . T have found the galvanic ignition produced by a small calorimotor preferable to the electric spark. Suppose a Piece of iron wire to be filed down in the middle for about one half of an inch to about one third of the original diam- 316 Hare’s Eudiometers and Calorimotor. eter. ‘The whole is cemented into the perforation drilled in the tube, so as that the smallest part may extend across the bore. The wire should then be cut off at about one third of an inch from the tube, so as to stand out from it on each side about that distance. If these protruding wires. be severally placed in the forceps of a calorimotor and the plates subjected to an acid, the small part of the wire within the tube is vividly ignited, and any gas in contact with it must explode. The interior wire is best made of platina, and may in that case be screwed into two larger pieces of a baser metal ; or a baser metal may be fastened on it, by drawing through a wire plate, and the platina duly denuded by a file where it crosses the bore. The calorimotor which I have used for this purpose, con- sists of eleven plates of copper, and a like number of zinc, placed alternately within one-fourth of an inch of each other ; those of the same kind of metal being all associated by means of a metallic stratum of tin cast over them. The two heterogeneous galvanic surfaces thus formed, have each soldered to them a wire in a vertical position, and slit, so as to present a fork or snake’s mouth. The wires are just so far apart as to admit the gas measurer between them, so that the wires of the latter may easily be pressed into the vessel, until it nearly reaches the plates. A plunger, con- sisting of a water tight box, or solid block of wood, is then This apparatus may be constructed in the circular form, by so placing two concentric coils, or several concentric Hare’s Eudiometers, &c. 317 round or bottle. The acid solution must occupy the lower f of the vessel, unless when the plunger raises it. T am under the impression that there isno form in which a pair of galvanic surfaces can be made so powerful in pro- portion to their extent, as in that above mentioned. ‘The zinc-is every where opposed by two copper surfaces by having this metal only a small fraction in excess. ; Explanation of the Plate. . (See the end of the volume.) Fig. 1. Sliding rod eudiometer or gas measure, sur- mounted by its spheroidal recipient. rr, sliding rod gradu- ated into twenty divisions, each subdivided into ten, so as to make two hundred parts. Atm f, are male and female screws, (forming: what mechanics call a stuffing box,) by means of which a cork soaked in beeswax and oil is com- pressed about the rod. Atn, is the neck of the recipien ground to fit the recurved tube which enters it. At » is a screw, by which to close the capillary orifice of the recip- tent _ Fig. 2. Eudiometer upon the same principle, but made stouter, in order to resist the explosion of inflammable mix- tures. W W, wire to be ignited. es __ Fig. 3. Displays a construction of the sliding rod, b which, when desirable, greater accuracy may be attained in € measurement of gas. A smaller rod or wire is made to slide within the larger. Whatever may be the ratio (in _ bulk) of the rods to each other, the lesser may be graduated to give thousanths, by ascertaining how far it must be mov- ed to produce the effect of a movement of one division on the larger rod, and dividing the observed distance mto ten parts, | _ Fig. 4. Represents an apparatus adapted to explode an inflammable mixture, as mentioned in the preceding article, and so contrived to be a substitute for the well known ap- paratus in which an electrophorus is employed to ignite hy- rogen gas. Moisture in the air suspends the action of that apparatus, but does not interfere with the one here repre~ _ Sented. Vou. IL.....No. 2 Ai & ols Hare’s Eudiometers, &. separates the air holder G, from a calorimotor situated un- der C, anda plunger P, contained in the other part of it. W, wires severally soldered to the different galvanic sur- faces, and forked or slit at their ends, so as to embrace the wire of an eudiometer for the explosion of inflammable mixtures, as mentioned in the preceding article. At ff, are forceps (severally soldered in the same way) for holding a wire to be ignited by the galvanic influence. These wires and the plates with which they are connect- ed may be seen at fig. 5, where there is an enlarged drawing of the calorimotor and its wires. It is supposed to be situated below the edge of the cis- tern, which is supplied with diluted acid reaching within a little distance of the plates. A ce, a cock soldered to a pipe communicating with the in- side of the gasometer. hh. a gallows and guide wire, for regulating the rise of the gasometer. he construction of this will be better comprehended from fig. 6, where t represents the tray for holding the zinc, by means of which hydrogen is to be evolved. The tray 1s supported on the pipe in the axis of the vessel by a sliding band and screw, so that it may be raised or depressed at pleasure. When this tray is covered with granulated zinc, and the lower vessel is filled with acid so as to cover It, hydrogen must be generated until it occupies so much of the air holder, as to depress the acid from off the zinc. Supposing the apparatus thus prepared, on depressing the plunger at P, fig. 4, the acid in the cistern A A, will be forced up among the galvanic surfaces, and cause the wire at ff to be ignited. Turning the cock while the wire 18 red hot the hydrogen will be emitted and inflamed. A A, acistern divided by a water tight partition, which d Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 319 Art. XVI. Analysis of two Zine Ores from the United _ States of America ; by M. P. Berruier, Engineer in the royal Corps of Mines, (translated by the Editor from the Annales des Mines 3d Livraison Ann. 1819.*) TueEse two minerals occur together and are very abun- dant. They compose the ‘principal part of a very thick and extensive metalliferous bed contained in a grauwacke formation in New-Jersey. ey occur principally in Franklin, Sparta, Stirling, Rutgers, in the county of Sus- sex : they are accompanied by white laminated carbonate of lime, quartz, a peculiar greenish yellow garnet, and some other substances. One of these minerals (the zine ores) is orange red, the other is of a metallic black. We will examine them successively. . 1. The Manganesian Ord of Zinc, It is to Bruce that we owe the knowledge of the red mineral.| In 1814, he published a description and analy- sis of it in the American Journal, (vol. 1, page 96:) he found it composed o Oxid of zinc, - - - - - = 0.92 Oxid of manganese and iron, - 0.08 _ It was named from its composition manganesian oxid of zinc. I have subjected this ore to many trials, and have repeated the analysis in many forms; like Bruce, I have found only oxid of zine and oxid of manganese, but in pro- portions a little different from his, as will appear below. The manganesian oxid of zinc is of an orange red, ap- proaching blood red. It is in amorphous grains irregularly disseminated in the mass of the mineral: the fracture is ae * The importance of these two ores, and respect to the memory of the late Dr. Bruce, who first made these ores known, have induced me to give the memoir entire.—-Editor. t Mr. Maclure had already, in 1811, transmitted the New-Jersey mineral to M. Vauquelin, who extracted faom it rotoxid of iron, - - - - - - 045 Oxid of zinc, about - - - - - ~- 0.50 A toxid of manganese, - - - 0.05 but it appears that this analysis was the result of a simple trial made upon the mixed mineral. 320 =. Analysis of the Ni ew-Jersey Ores of Zine. brilliant, lamellar in one direction and slightly conchoida! i ther; the thin slivers are transparent ; it is fragile, easily scratched by steel; easily pulverized ; the powder is of a beautiful orange red. After long exposure to the air» it becomes covered with a white pearly coating, which ap- pears to be composed of the carbonates of zinc and man- ganese. Its specific gravity, according to Bruce, is 6.22. With the common blowpipe it is infusible without addi- tion; with borax it gives a yellowish translucent glass. Under the flame of the blowpipe fed by oxigen and hydro- - gen it is volatilized, diffusing at the same time a brilliant white light. It loses nothing by calcination; while it is hot it appears brown, but as it cools it gradually resumes its pristine colour. “ t easily dissolves in the cold in the mineral acids, and ~ even in the acetic acid. During the solution heat is evolv- ed, but without effervescence, and the liquor remains col- ourless. Still, with the muriatic acid it produces a solu- tion of a brownish red, which, without the disengagement ~ of any gas, gradually loses its colour: it is probable that a little chlorine is really. but very gradually disengaged.* The oxids of zinc and manganese appear to have a great disposition to unite, and their complete separation is very difficult. To accomplish this object, I have employed six processes, of which I proceed to announce the fesults. : I have repeated the process of Bruce, which consists in pouring into a nitric solution of the two oxids the oxalic acid, as long as there is any precipitate, and then in wash- ing and calcining the residuum. Bruce regarded the cal- cined precipitate as pure oxid of zinc; but I have remark- ed, that it always retains a very notable quantity of manga- nese, and that this is the reason why it always retains a foul yellow colour, more or less deep—a fact which Bruce ob- served without searching for the cause. The oxid of man- ganese is almost perfectly pure, and contains only that por tion of iron, which, when the solution has not been made with the greatest caution, is accidentally present. Bruce, then, was able to obtain by this, process, only an inferior quantity of manganese, to what really exists in the manga- nesian oxid of zine. * We are not told whether the odour of chlorine is perceptible. Editor. Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc. 321 2. I precipitated the two oxids from their solution, by means of an alkaline sub-carbonate, having taken the pre- caution to boil the liquor, that it might not retain any por- n: I calcined the precipitate with the contact of air, till the manganese was oxidized to a maximum, and afterwards, in one trial, I treated it with nitric, and in another with acetic acid—-I evaporated it gently to dryness, and treated it again with water. Oxid of manganese remained perfect- ly pure, but the solution which contained the zinc, retained also a notable quantity of manganese ; and when this solu- tion was precipitated by an alkaline carbonat, the calcined precipitate was of a dirty yellow, more or less deep. By treating this precipitate anew, by means of acetic acid, a little oxid of manganese is separated, but much the greater part always remains with the oxid of zine. 3. I precipitated the two oxids by caustic potash in ex- cess, and allowed it to digest for some time—it was then filtered. The liquor contained nothing but oxid of zine; but the residuum contained still a large quantity of this oxid, and it was necessary to redissolve, to precipitate anew by potash, and to repeat this operation many times, in order to complete the separation. * 4. I precipitated the solution of the mineral by an alka- line carbonate, and through this solution diluted with water, passed a stream of chlorine in excess—I obtained a violet Coloured liquor and a black residuum. ‘The liquor being evaporated in the air, became colourless, and deposited pure oxid of manganese. The black residuum having been treated by acetic acid, now contained nothing but oxid of manganese. The two liquors containing the zinc, were precipitated by a sub-carbonat. The calcined precipitate had a light yellow tolour, and it was found to contain about ho part of its weight of oxid of manganese. [1 is proba- ble, that by washing very carefully with abundance of wa- ter, the precipitate of zinc and manganese, and by agitating it for a long time with chlorine, no particle of the carbonate of manganese would escape the action of this agent, an that the two metals would be perfectly separated. 5. M. Berzelius has had the kindness to communicate to me the following method which has perfectly succeeded. I precipitated by an-alkaline carbonate, washed the precipi- tate by decantation, digested it for sometime while stil 322 Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc. moist, in ammonia ; it became immediately brown, and the filtred liquor gave by ebullition a white deposit, which, by calcination, became perfectly white; it was the pure oxid of zinc: but I remarked that the deposit that was insoluble in ammonia, almost invariably contained oxid of zinc, some- times in considerable quantity. ‘To remove it entirely we formed in the acetous fluid, by means of the alkaline car- bonate. In this manner we separate the two oxids perfect- ly, and with the greatest precision. 6. Indeed, I have thought, that the zinc being very vola- tile, and its oxid easily reducible, we may readily separate it, in the dry way, from the oxid of manganese. This was practically verified. The oxids were mixed with a deter- minate weight of powdered charcoal, and the mixtire pla- ced dans un tét étrort, slightly hollowed, which was covered by a larger head, perforated in the upper part with little holes, a white heat was applied and a very abundant white vapour was disengaged. As soon as it was certain that this disengagement had ceased, the head was uncovered, and the matter which it contained was roasted in order to burn out the remaining charcoal ; the residuum, which was brown, was weighed, and to obtain the exact proportion of the manganese, the weight of the ashes which the charcoal would leave was subtracted, a weight which had been previously determined by experiment. ‘The oxide of manganese proved on eX- amination not to contain the smallest quantity of zinc. _ All these trials almost exactly agree in giving for the ré- sult of the analysis of the manganesian oxid of zine : idofzinc, - - - = 0,8 Red oxid of manganese, - 0,12 1,00 It is difficult to say in what degree of oxidizement the manganese exists in this mineral. Its colour, and the ap~ pearances which it presents with the muriatic acid, render it probable that it is, at least, in the state of deutoxid. fo order to be certain that the union so difficult to be ever the nnn et eee an ree Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 323 come, between the oxid of zinc and the oxid of manganese, did not depend upon the intervention of any undiscover- ed substances, I dissolved pure oxid of zinc with the tenth part of its weight of oxid of manganese, equally pure, and heated the solution by the process deseribed under No. 2. { obtained, as in the case of the American mineral, an ace- tous solution, with which the alkaline carbonates formed a precipitate, that became, in consequence of calcination, of a dirty yellow, and contained manganese. Ul. The black zinciferous mineral, the Frankliniic. This mineral is composed of the oxid of iron, the oxid of manganese and the oxid of zinc. The association of these three oxids has never been before observed, and there is ‘ron whose powder is black. The specific gravity is 4,87. {tis searcely affected by the muriatic acid in the cold; ut, by means of this acid, we can separate the carbonate of lime and the manganesian oxid of zinc, with which it is al- most always mixed, and thus we can obtain it perfectly pure. It dissolves very easily in hot muriatic acid, without effer- ‘vescence but with a slight smell of chlorine. The analysis 324 Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zinc. js effected by dissolving it in muriatic acid, precipitating the solution by an alkaline carbonat, treating the wet precipitate by acetic acid to excess, evaporating to dryness by a gentle heat and removing the acetats of zinc and manganese by water; the calcined residuum is found to be the pure tri- toxid of iron. As to the zinc and manganese, they are sep; arated by the processes pointed out above. Ina specimen from Franklin there were found : - - 0,66 eroxid of iron, - - , Red oxid of manganese, - 0,16 Oxid of zinc, - - - - - 0,17 99 As the Franklinite acts upon the magnetic needle, the iron cannot be in the state of per-oxid, but Is probably oxidized in the second degree. It is evident that the man- ganese is at least, in the state of deutoxid, because the min- eral has a brown powder, gives with muriatic acid the odour of chlorine, and its muriatic solution contains the iron entirely in the maximum state of oxidizement. It is obvi- ous that during the solution the two oxids react upon one another, and that the oxid of iron passes to the maximum by taking away the oxigen from the oxid of manganese, which is, on the contrary, reduced to a minimum. For the purpose of verifying the result of the humid anal- ysis, I made the following trials :—10 gr. of the franklmite were heated in a crucible brasqué without addition at the temperature proper for the assay of iron. A metallic but- ton was obtained, to which adhered a very light greenish scoria; the whole weighed 5 gr. 65; the button was ° an iron grey, hard, but impressible by the file, and capable ef assuming a beautiful polish ; it flattened under the ham- mer, and was broken with difficulty ; its fracture was grey and granular, the grains being crystalline; it was analysed, and found to be an alloy of iron and manganese, without @ particle of zinc ; the loss in the experiment then represents the oxid of zinc, and the oxigen combined in the’ mineral with the iron and manganese. : ' i | Analysis of the New-Jersey Ores of Zine. 325 There were heated at the same temperature, in a cruci- 599 ble “ brasqué, franklinite, - - - - 10¢r. i a eR sae he 4 alumine, - - - = - 1.50 lime,*\-) = = <= 1.40 ——_— Wowihp: janie ia! tussles a 16.90 There was obtained a button, weighing 12.77 Loss) ie saetinest nig nines ScdS which was owing to the volatilized zinc, the oxigen of the iron, &c. The fusion was perfect; the metallic button weighed g4. 6 it flattened under the hammer, and the fracture wa granular, and of various shades. The scoria was compact, vitreous, transparent and green; it weighed 8.17 bstract from it - - - - - = 6.90. There remains - - 1 which represents the oxid of manganese that it contains. ~The g4. 6 of the “fonte” correspond almost exactly with the 0.66 of the peroxid of iron discovered by analysis ; the metallic button ought to contain a little manganese, in the ‘State of an alloy. ~The alloy obtained in the first trial, ought thento be com- posed nearly of ~~ Tron, -. - + - 4.60 at most, - - =< 0.814 Manganese, - - 1.05 at least, - - - 0.186 ee collection, the pieces in which the red mineral prevails, and Vou. IL.....No. 42 326 _ A new process for nitrous Ether. into another those in which the franklinite is the PEAVY part—the first can be employed as ores of zinc, to afford that metal by qpulalions with charcoal, or to afford brass by fusion with copper charcoal. If we stop at the ex- traction of the zinc, Ai Sa can be Peat ie melted in the high furnace to obtain the “ fone,” or at it can be mixed for the same purpose, with the ores Ae are rich in franklinite s these minerals contain a considerable quantity of man- ganese, and their principal gangue is carbonat of lime and garnet, it is probable that they can be treated in the high furnace, without addition, and that they will prove very fu- sible. A “ fonte” of excellent quality may be obtained from them, and in all prensa eminently adapted for the production of the natural steel, like that which comes from the ores of spathic iron. There v mand be deposited in the chimnies of the high furnaces, a considerable quantity of the oxid of zine, as is the fact in Belgium, where this sub- stance is known under the name of cadmie des fourneaur ou Keiss; it is the richest and best material which can be used for the preparation of zinc and brass. It is possible that the abundance of the Keiss may somewhat impede the operation of the high furnaces, and necessitate the adop~ tion of some particular arrangements, to extract it with fa- cility ; but the pale of this substance would pay for the trouble it "Finally, mite the fo Sars: Fetklinite: which it will be very practicable to obtain, either by picking or washing, the trial can be made of preparing in the large way, the same alloy of iron and manganese, which I have obtained in the sma way, and it can be seen whether it will not be better hikes ed than the common “ fonte,” for various uses. Arr. _ XVII. A new process for Nitrous Ether, by Profes- wipe hess D. _ sor Ropertr Hare, M. making of nitrous ether is a critical process. The action “of the materials will often spontaneously increase 0 as to produce explosion. It may be conducted with ease an ‘gid by means of a three necked bottle represente by Fi ig. 7 , (in the plate which exhibits the eudiometers-) Ss eameteiiedeteesner tea ea | | | | Description of a differential Thermometer. 327 The two outermost necks are furnished with funnels, and the central one with a tube bent a little more than at right angles, and passing through ice to the bottom of a bottle surrounded by the same. The acid and alcohol ought to be very strong. Let a gill of the latter be poured into the bottle, and then add as much acid as will make it boil brisk- ] en the effervescence relaxes, add more acid until the addition of this produces no great effect. Then add more alcohol, and again more acid, till the bottle becomes about one third full. The ether will be rapidly formed and collected in the bottle into which the recurved tube leads. This tube is represented in the plate of about one third of the proper length. ‘Fhere should be a Pe el wooden trough adapted to it for holding ice or sno It might be an improvement if another ack were added through which the residual liquor might be drawn out. With this addition, the distillation of ether might be con- ducted in a way analogous to that of the distillation of whis- key by the celebrated Scotch still. Arr. XVIII. Description of a di ifferential Distetonier, by W. Howarp, M. D. Adjunct Professor if Anatomy in the University of Maryland.* Tuis instrument is in imitation of Mr. Leslie’s differen- tial thermometer, but is on a different principle. _ In his, the degree of heat is measured by the expansion of air, but in the present one by the increase of expansive force of the vapour of ether or spirit of wine in vacuo, which affords a test of great delicacy, and is easily ¢ constructed. } A tube (A) ae first made with a ball at each extremi- ty, in one of which is left a small orifice, a portion of ether or spirit of wine is dhe introduced, and heat being applied, is brought to a state of active ebullition. At this moment the orifice is closed with a piece of wax, and finally hermet- ically sealed by the blowpipe. The tube may then be care- “From the London Quarterly Hourwa of Science, Literatare and the Arts. a See the figure at the end of the volume 328 Description of a differential Thermometer. fully bent in the form of a hook,* and the scale and foot being adapted, the instrument is finished. ; his thermometer is intended to be used in the same cases as that of Mr. Leslie, but I conceive it to possess some advantages. Itis more delicate. When a heated body, as the hand, is approached to one of the balls, the liquid sensi- bly ascends or descends, and as soon as this cause is re- moved, begins instantly to return to its former level. Whereas in the air thermometer, the impulsion to the liquid is not instantaneous, and it continues to move in the same direction a moment after the heating cause is removed. ‘Bp cient to make a difference in the height of the two columns. To obviate this inconvenience, before the scale is adapted, the liquid is all to be brought into one ball, and the instru- ment is then reversed and left for a considerable time 0 that position, that both balls may acquire an equal tempera- ture, and the small portion of air may be equally diffused through them. It is then to be restored to its proper posi- tion, and the point at which the liquid finally settles, is to be marked as the commencement of the scale. ‘The same op- eration is to be repeated whenever the instrument has been deranged by transportation or other causes. = fit were possible to employ constantly ether or spirit of wine of exactly the same degree of strength, it is plain from the laws investigated by Mr. Dalton, that the scale would be constantly uniform ; but as this is not easily obtained it is arbitrary. I have hitherto used the division of the mil- limetre of France. Note.—This thermometer is made by Pixii Dumotiez, Rue du jardinet, Paris, and by Mr. Newman, Lyle-street, London. liquid. upper ball being slightly beat over to contain a small portion of t The best mode of constructing the above instrument, is to bend the. tube previous to the introduction of the ether, a considereble pa which should be boiled out of the tube, in order to ensure the expals S | | Description of a differential Thermometer. 329 ee ee Se Heat in the rays of the Moon. Extract of a leties eo Dr. Howard, dated August me 1820, to the Editor heal American Journal of Science, &e. eating thermometer, have been unsuccessful. Indeed this instru- ths however skilfully constructed, is not sufficiently deli- to be affected by the heat of the rays of the moon, mu as (Optics, Vol. L.) that the light of ihe full moon is to than. of our day only as 1 to . Having blackened the upper ball of my Silferpatial ticks, mometer, I placed it in the focus of a thirteen inch reflect- mg mirror, which was opposed to the light of a bright full e li He nee ee to sink, and: jn half | to be present, chat hard, was no falacy in the coche , of i Its being a positive proof of the calorific power of the lu- ar rays, and at the same time sirens an evidence of the great ces sf the instrument.’ stmosphe: ric air ; ‘itis also convenient to Mure the ether ofa red saioak: by 2 dition of a drop of tincture of co Thave constructed upon the same eancioke ea photometer, and an ethrio scope, both of which, though liable to some obje ections, are most tecinaaiy ments upon the light of ag lpa ee For this purpose. the instrument is constructed as shewn in the engraving, by Dr. Howard ; the upper ; covered by a thin eauaing of Tuan sik, and the other. “ gold leat, specs by adilute spirit-varnish ; it is then covered by a thin glass shade from the flame of a wax candle, it fe as pee ie I had previonsly ascertained, by a comparison of shadows, te give the light of ei x candles, caused a depression ad t ‘ ‘the | Placed at the same ¢ distance frem the instramen 330 Account of « new inflammable dir Lamp. Art. XIX. Account of a new influmalable Air Lamp, by Hall. Professor Jacos os of Nas assau TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Princeton, Feb. 11th, 1820. . Dear Sir, ee Phe eet facility with which hydrogen gas may be in- a moderate electric spark, suggested to flamed by even Volta his *ofleniniable air Jam his, with a slight altera- tion, was patented, as a source , of instantaneous light; an has not. been so Happily re removed; the s elentig phot Which is connected with this instrument, is, like all other electrical Description. — A Serpe at the end of the volume. } * { Account of a new inflammable Air Lamp. 331 of wood, two inches thick, with a groove turned in its top, in which the jar K. L. is fitted. There is also a hole, through which the tube E. passes, and terminates. Fis a small calorimoter, which is surrounded by the jar K. L. From the bottom of the calorimoter, proceed the two wires N. QO. (which connect the poles of the instrument) through R.S. M. is a small blowpipe, with stop cocks, which com- municates by means of a glass tube, with the interior of the jar K. L. 5 this tube must reach a little above the calorimo- ter, on the inside of the jar. G.is a glass vessel, placed in the jar above the calorimoter, the contents of which must be about one third more than that part of the jar which contains the calorimoter. H. is a vessel of like capacity with G. having an open mouth I, anda glass tube G. H. open at both ends, passing from the bottom, through P. and terminating at the bottom, within the glass vessels G. It is scarcely necessary to add, that all the joining of this in- Strument must be perfectly air tight. . To use the instrument. _ Remove vessel H. and drop a few small pieces of zine into G, through P. ; then fill G. with a weak solution of sul- phuric acid and water; pour it also into the box A. B. C. D.; through this stop cock A. till on a level with Y. Z. ; then by blowing with the mouth into the box at A. the air above the fluid being compressed, will be forced up into the jar K. L. through this glass tube E.; and when the jar is completely full, turn the cock at A. and adjust the vessel H. . mits place. Hydrogen gas will quickly be formed ; the acidulous water in G, will be forced up into H ; then turning the cock A. the remaining water in K. L. will de- scend through E into the box below, and leave the jar filled with the gas; the fluid at the same time descending from -into G. Now, if you wish to set fire to the hydrogen, place a small iron or platina wire from N. to O. blow up the acidulous fluid into the calorimoter by the stop cock A; the wire will be instantly heated, and by turning the stop cock of the blowpipe M. so that the gas may strike the heated wire, it will be inflamed, and a taper may be light- d. The action of the. acidulous fluid on the zinc of the calorimoter, will furnish as much gas as will be consumed ; $32 Cutbush on the Voliare Lamp. but, should there be an unusual consumption of gas, it may be supplied by suspending a bar of zinc in the vessel G, the lower end of which should reach only one third below the brim of the vessel ; the reason for which will be obvious to those who understand the structure of the instrument. The stop cock at C. is for drawing off the acidulated water, ~ when it becomes saturated with the zinc. The calorimoter which I use differs a little in construc- © tion from those commonly made, and perhaps has some ad- vantages. The following is a description of it: Take a ‘sheet of copper, say four inches wide, and eighteen or twen- ty inches long; bend it in the form represented’ in Fig. 2. {see the plate at the end of the volume,) which is preserved in the required shape by a band of the same metal sur- rounding it; the intervals between each fold should be about an inch; then cast in proper moulds plates of zinc, of different sizes, so as to slide between these interstices, reaching from the bottom to the top, the edges of which should be grooved into little strips of wood, in order to pre- vent contact with the copper 3 all these plates of zinc should be connected together by a strip of copper along their up- per edges. By this construction these plates can be easily - removed, and cleaned whenever required. With an in- strument of the above dimensions, I have melted off fine “Bah OVER 3 SE, 2b; esd step nescay 3 Sag ot age ie ee r. XX. Account of an improvement ii the Electrical Lamp, by Dr. James Cursusn, of Philadelphia, ine _ letter to the Editor. | TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. i Pritavenruta, March 15, 1820. Some years ago, I purchased an inflammable air lamp, commonly called the Voltaic Lamp, made on the original construction, which [ laid by, as not only troublesome to ‘use, but very uncertain in its operation. A description 0! “the apparatus with its appendages, may be seen in Adams” Sennen nen a ne Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp. 333 Philosophy, vol. 2, page 93, American edition. Since the original was contrived by Mr. Volta, aided by Dr. Ingen- houz, several very important improvements have been made—more especially that arrangement by which is formed in the bottle extemporaneously, and of course with- e use of an additional bottle and syphon, or the pre- vious filling of bladders with hydrogen gas, a mode heretor fore adopted both by Volta and Ingenhouz. In the appa- ratus which [ procured, before it was altered I was obliged to fill the bottle with water, remove the stop cock and its connexion with the string from the electrophorus, and adapt a syphon coming from a bottle or flask containing dilute sulphuric acid and iron or zinc filings; and when filled with gas, to pour water into the upper vessel, in order to ferce it out when the cock was turned, which causes by its connexion with the plate of the electrophorus the transmis~ sion of the electric fluid, and of course its passage between the two conducting points. Filling the gas bottle in this way with gas, is at all times attended with trouble. Not possessing one of the improved kind, which obviates this mconvenience, I thought of having mine altered, which I had done, and found it to answer the purpose. The alter- ation consisted in removing a brass tube, which went from the lower to the upper vessel, and substituting in its place a glass one, which was attached and cemented to the upper vessel, so that when it was inserted in the bottle, and the upper screwed to the lower vessel, it would occupy such a distance as to be equivalent to the capacity of the water holder, a circumstance necessary to be attended to, in order to prevent the fluid when the gas is generated in the bottle from running over. It is obvious, therefore, that according to this improvement, all that is necessary 1s 40 fill the bottle with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, in the proportion of about one of the former to eight of the latter, and throw in as occasion requires through the tube, when the upper is screwed to the lower vessel, either zinc or iron filings. ‘The gas, as it is generated, will cause the fluid to rise in the tube into the upper vessel, which is al- ways ready by its pressure, when the cock is turned, to force it through the aperture so as to come in contact with. the spark. The bottle containing the diluted acid will last many months without being renewed, and when the satura- Vo. IT.....No. 2. 43 teeern 334 — Cutbush on the Voltaic Lamp. tion has been completed, and sulphate of irou or of zine | formed, as the case may be, the quantity of water will al- : ways prevent its crystallization. Hence it is a matter of t to have the acid sufficiently diluted. n consequence of some defect or imperfection in the electrophorus cake, or of its splitting, which sometimes happens, I have found it necessary to remelt it, or to make a new one, by melting the best yellow rosin, and adding a small quantity of Spanish brown. Having melted the rosin, it was poured into a shallow dish made of tin plate, and left to cool undisturbed, not permitting however any bubbles to appear on its surface. The electrophorus belonging to my apparatus, when ex- 4 cited will retain-its effect for many months. I excited it in the usual manner, by gently warming it, and rubbing it with a foxtail, catskin, or silk handkerchief ; the former of which { found preferable. When thus excited, I have been suc- cessful in producing a spark even in the dampest weather. It requires, however, that the box, which contains the elec~ ra eka should be kept as tight as possible. ere is one defect which in fact is inseparable from the construction of the cock; namely, that however perfectly tight it may be, by frequent use it becomes loose, and suf- ’ rs the gas to escape gradually. To prevent this, and to make the cock as tight as possible, I have used various ex- pedients, but the following I find preferable : mix a portion of tallow with finely pulverized plumbago, so as to render the whole as stiff as possible; then apply it to the cock. From observation I have found, that hydrogen gas pre- pared by using zinc, makes its escape more readily than that prepared with iron filings; for, under the same cit- cumstances, the former I have discovered to disappeat sometimes in twenty-four hours, while the latter has re- mained more than a week. In consequence of this cir- cumstance, I employ iron filings in preference to those ol zinc, although we know that. the gas from the latter 1s much purer and consequently lighter, whereas that procur- ed by using iron filings contains more or less carbon, and J# consequently impure. : he lamp answers every purpose, and.I find it more eer _ tain for lighting a candle than any other contrivance, and therefore preferable to any which L have tried ; having used Graves’ Meteor. 335 at different times the phosphoric match bottle, the pocket lights, the condensing syringe, flint and steel, &c. am aware, howeyer, that the Voltaic lamp is not much used, and has been even laid aside, in consequence of the uncer- tainty of its operation. But from experience I can say, that since I have had the alteration made, I have seldom been disappointed in producing flame, -and the apparatus is now always in order. The only thing to be attended to is, to throw in as occasion requires, some iron filings ; the quan- tity of which at a time will be readily known. One cubic inch of gas will light the taper at least ten times, if the cock is quickly turned. Therefore, from the quantity of gas, we may calculate the number of times we may light a candle. Arr. XXI. Account of a gelatinous Meteor, by Rurus Graves, Esq. formerly Lecturer on Chemistry at Dart- mouth College, (communicated by Professor Dewey.) Ow the evening of the thirteenth day of August, 1819, between the hours of eight and nine o’clock, was seen in the atmosphere, at Amherst, Massachusetts, a falling meteor or fire ball, of the size, as represented by an intelligent Spectator, of a man’s hat, or a large blown bladder, of a brilliant white light resembling burnished silver. The position of this spectator being in a direct line of the street where the luminous ball appeared, and at the distance of not more than five hundred yards, with the sight bounded by the buildings, there could be no decep- tion relative to the direction that it took. Its altitude, at its first discovery, was two or three times the height of the houses ; it fell slowly in a perpendicular direction, emitting great light, till it appeared to strike the earth in front of the buildings, and was instantly extinguished, with a heavy explosion. At the same instant, as appeared from the re- port, and from the ringing of the church bell, an unusually white light was seen a few minutes afterwards, by two la- dies in a chamber of Mr. Erastus Dewey. While they Were sitting with two candles burning in the room, a bright uminous circular spot suddenly appeared on the side wall of the chamber near the upper floor in front of them, of the size of a two feet stand-table leaf This spectrum se- 336 Graves’ Meteor. scended slowly with a tremulous motion nearly to the low- er floor and disappeared. In critically examining the chamber where the foregoing oar was observed, it appeared that the light must ave entered through the east front window in a diagonal ~ direction, and impinged on the north wall of the chamber back of the ladies, and thence reflected to the south wall in front of them, forming the circular spectrum, with the cor- responding tremulous motion of the meteor, and descend- ing with it in the same direction, according to the fixed laws of incidence and reflection. _ Early on the ensuing morning, was discovered in the door yard of the above mentioned Erastus Dewey, at about twenty feet from the front of the house, a substance unlike any thing before observed by any one who saw it. The situation in which it was found, being exactly in the direc- tion in which the luminous body was first seen, and in the only position to have thrown its light into the chamber, (as before remarked,) leaves no reasonable doubt that the sub- stance found was the residuum of the meteoric bo This substance when first seen by the writer was entire, no part of it having been removed. It was in a circular rm, resembling a sauce or sallad dish bottom upwards, about eight inches in diameter, and something more than one in thickness, of a bright buff colour, with a fine nap upon it similar to that on milled cloth, which seemed to defend it from the action of the air, On removing the villous coat, a buff coloured pulpy substance of the consis- tence of good soft soap, of an offensive, suffocating smell appeared ; and on a near approach to it, or when immedi- ately over it, the smell became almost insupportable, pro- ducing nausea and dizziness. A few minutes exposure to the atmosphere changed the buff into a livid colour resem- bling venous blood. It was observed to attract moisture very readily from the air. A half-pint tumbler was nearly hail Giled with the substance. It soon began to liquify and form a mucilaginous substance of the consistence, colours anc feeling of starch when prepared for domestic use. Th tumbler was then set in a safe place, where it remained undisturbed for two or three days; and when examined afierwards, the substance was found to have all evaporated; exeept a small dark coloured residuum, adhering to the Crystallization of Snow. 337 bottom and sides of the glass, which, when rubbed between the fingers, produced a fine ash-coloured powder without taste or smell; the whole of which migit have been inclu- ded in a lady’s s thimble. The place where the substance was first found was exam- ined, and nothing was to be seen but a thin membranous substance adhering to the ground similar to that found on glass This singular substance was submitted to the action of acids. With the muriatic and nitric acids, both concen- sulphuric acid a violent effervescence ensued, a gaseous dy was evolved, and nearly the whole substance dissoly- ed. There being no chemical apparatus at hand, the evolving gas was not preserved, or its properties examined. Arr. XXII. On the crystallization of Saiki: by Profedser _Jacos Green, of Nassau Hall, Princeton. _ Tux crystallization of snow has for a long time excited the attention of the curious; few accurate observations however have been made upon it. Like the other phenom- ena of crystallization, this process is involved in much ob- seurity. Beccaria supposed that the regularity often no- ticed m these crystals was owing to electricity, and this will vapour is fornied or ibndwinsbd; the bodies i in contact with ‘aa va become electrical. Haiiy has rendered it extreme- ly probable that the integrant particles of matter always combine in the same body in the same manner, and that the combination is occasioned by cohesive attraction. May We not rationally suppose that what is called electrical ae would induce them to cohere, not sarentsgrerer A in certain determinate forms. ne ot here repeat the = mene which prove that the shone of electrical precisely analogous to those of magnetism, or that manned rill roduce asteroidal figures with steel filings. With these hints [ leave the theoretical part of the subject. 338 Crystallization of Snow. On the 16th of March, (1819) at 5 o’clock P. M.I had the pleasure of observing the beautiful asteroidal figures sometimes assumed by flakes of snow. On examination each appeared to be compesed of six thin spicule, diverging like rays from a centre. ere was but little or no wind, and Farenheit’s thermometer stood at 33°. The figures which I observed are exhibited in the plate at the end of the volume, and the numbers annexed to them corrrespond with those in the following description. 7 No. 1. This is a simple hexagonal star, the radii were of equal lengths and the angles of convergence being equal, each angle was of course 60°. No. 2. This crystal differs from No. 1, only in the length and breadth of the spicule, they were shorter and broader. o. 3. A simple star, except that the radii proceed from a central knob. No. 4. The same as the last, differing from it only in having the radii bifurcated at the end. o. 5. Differing from No. 4 in having three prongs at the extremity of the radii. No. 6. The radii pinnated near the centre, giving the ap- pearance of regular hexagonal figures one within the other, about half the distance between the pinne and the ex- tremity of each radius there was a knob. No. 7. Pinnated as No. 6, but without the knob, and having each radius trifurcated at the end. e snow commenced falling, the above figures were more distinct and durable, but they could occasionally be discovered for about an hour amid the amorphous flocculi. Just as the crystals No. 6 and 7 began to melt, their pinna- ted radii were most brilliant, assuming somewhat the ap- pearance of prismatic drops of dew. ‘The figures were not ll of the same dimensions ; their principal difference was similar to that stated in Nos. 1 and 2. These figures were examined both with the single microscope and the naked eye ; when not pinnated they were viewed with the most satisfaction without using a glass. M. De Rattee, who has published an interesting article om this subject in the French Encyclopeedia, states, that regu- lar crystals of snow do not often occur, but that the flakes are commonly of an irregular and unequal figure. He also Crystallization of Snow. 339 vemarks it is worthy of observation that the different sorts of crystals are scarcely ever seen during the same fall of snow, the varieties appearing at different hours of the day or on different days. I am of opinion they occur more fre- quently than is here supposed, and that different crystals are seen during the same fall of snow. e have besides the instance now noticed, the authority of Dr. John Netts, who has published a paper in the 49th Vol. (1756) of the Philosophical Transactions, entitled “ an account of a meth- od of observing the wonderful configurations of the smallest shining particles of snow.” In one day and night (he ob- serves) I found fifteen, twenty or more particles of snow dif- ferently formed, such as Olaus Magnus mentions, and in the year 1740, on the 11th, 12th, 13th, 21st and 23d of January, and also on the 6th, 23d and 24th of February, I had an op- portunity of delineating eighty different admirable figures of snow, and of observing their numberless varieties. : Accompanying this paper there are figures of ninety-one of these beautiful configurations ; the size of them is much less than those observed by me on the 16th of March, and as they were examined with a double microscope, greater complexity was noticed. Most of Dr. Netts’ figures are hexagonal, but some of the stars exhibited twelve radii. In April 1817, Dr. P. S. Townsend read before the Ly- eeum of Natural History of New-York, a very interesting memoir, on the crystallization of snow. In this paper the Doctor has collected most of the facts known respecting this subject, and has referred to the writers who have considered it. His communication was published in the American: Monthly Magazine for May, 1818, % * * * * * Sometime since an account of stellar snow was forwarded 340 Foreign Literature and Science. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. estos Foreign Laterature and Science. (Communicated by Professor Griscom, of New-York.) The number of books in all the public libraries of Ger- many, (including Austria and Prussia,) amounts at least to four millions, without reckoning memoirs, pamphlets, peri- odical publications, dissertations, and manuscripts. Professor Goerg, of Leipsick, has proved, it is said, very satisfactorily, that the Tinea of wood ep seshenens acid.) ly restored he contact with this acid. An animal body in the opinion of this professor, may be readily converted into a mummy by this substance. The discovery of this eid} is likely to oh ee important to anatomy, domestic economy, and medicine In the empire of Austria, anere are no less than twenty- three botanic gardens. The unfolding of the manuscripts of Herculaneum, is care ried on with very considerable success by a chemical pro- cess, under the direction of Sir H. Davy.” Of one thousand ‘six hundred and ninety-six pieces which have been found, eighty-eight have been happily unrolled, and the writing is very legible ; three hundred and nineteen are not legible, and twenty-four have been given as presents to foreign princes. There remain one thotisand two hundred and sixty-five, of which one hundred, or one hundred : mt twenl- ty will, it is hoped, be saved from oblivion. A plant, called Chinininha by the natives of Peru, b tae analyzed at Madrid. . It proves to be an act febrifuge sce ee Poreign Literature and Science. 34h . The number of new works and new impressions offered for sale at the fair of ‘Leipsie last year, by three hundred and thirty-six booksellers, amounted to three thousand one hundred and ninety-four. _ Senifelden, the original inventor of the Lithographic art, (printing on stone,) has contrived a substitute for the carbo- nate of lime, used for that purpose, which has hitherto been found in perfection only in Bavaria. He forms an artificial plate, of stony substances, attached to paper, which he calls papgrographic. It is said to possess great advantages. e machines are oftgped for sale at Paris, at from twenty io Giicty dollars each. “A new method of taking the lives of animals destined for a market, which greatly diminishes their sufferings, i is now employed in London. Itis effected by means of azot- ic gas, The meat, it is: said, retains its freshness better, has a more agreeable taste, and is more easily preserved. The greater number of the butchers are in the use of this method, Rev. Ency. de Paris, Jan. 1820. n Academy of Natural Sciences has been formed at Catt, which holds its sittings in one of the halls of the medical and surgical college. _At the village of Chatiauneuf, in the department of the ‘lower Alps, in France, a church was struck by three suc- cessive thunder bolts, on the 11th of July, 1819, about 11, _ A.M. during the installation of anew Rector, The com- pany were nearly all thrown down, many of them were driv- en out of the door, eighty-two were wounded, and nine kill- ed. The priest who was celebrating mass, was not ag a on account, it is believed, of his silken dress. . ogs: in whe church were killed. The house was filled with black moke. Hot water is now carried through the streets of Paris for © the e purpose of supplying baths in private houses. It is transported in large casks, } in which are stoves, sO ae ed, that the heat is spent almost entirely in raising the t perature of the water. It is OEE from the casks isuch Vou. U1.....No. 2. 342 — Foreign Literature and Science. pipes, into the apartment required, and afforded at a very moderate price. M. Gonord, of Paris, has discovered the art of enlarging or diminishing the scale or size of an engraving on copper, without changing the plate ; in other words, if an engraved plate of copper be given to him, he can make use of it in such a manner as to obtaini se peeseinne of any size he pleas- es, either greater or less than those of the plate. From the plates of a folio atlas, for sroepiel he can produce an atlas in octavo, and without changing the plates. He is able, also, by the methods he adopts, to make impressions upon various materials, as paper, metal, porcelain, marble, . An. de Chimie, Jan. 1820, Steam Navigation is now making a rapid progress in Great Britain. There are on the river Clyde, twenty-five steam boats, the largest of which lias a burden of ninety-one tons, and the least of thirty-five. Twelve of these boats pass between Glasgow and Greenock. There are four steam boats on the Frith of wh gan heigl: are said to carry during 2 L head. hom Bain The number of pas- | sengers who were conveyed along the Forth and Clyde canal, between Glasgow and Edinburgh; amounted in 1818 to ninety-four thousand. two hundred and fifty ; between Glasgow and Paisley on the Ardrossan canal, fifty-one thou- saad. seven hundred; and from Glasgow along the Monk- pane, eighteen thou sand. . ‘Tei is: calculated that a person has fifteen hundred opportt- nities of leaving London in the course of twenty-four hours by stage coaches, including the repeated trips of the coaches which run short distances. It is understood that three hun- dred stage coaches pass soak Hyde-Park corner daily. It appears bya note in the 16th number of the Journal of the Royal Institution of London, that the pyrolignous acid feo crema Oe Foreign Literature and Science. 3438 was known as early as 1661, and its property of converting minium into sugar of lead. . Homer’s Hiad.—A copy of Homer’s Iliad has been dis- covered in the Ambrosian library of Milan which appears to be of the fourth century, nearly six ages older than that on which the editions of Homer are founded. It contains six- ty pictures equally ancient. They are on vellum. Th characters of the manuscript are square capitals, according to the usage of the best ages, without distinction of words, without accents, or the aspirates; that is to say without any sign of the modern Greek orthography. Heat of a Vacuum.—Gay Lussac has shown by experi- ment that when a delicate air thermometer is enclosed ina vacuum, and that vacuum is suddenly either enlarged or di- minished no change whatever takes place in the thermome- ter. But if the smallest quantity of air be admitted, the compression, or more properly the diminution of the space occasions an elevation of temperature, and the enlargement occasions cold. This result he seems to consider as strengthening the hypothesis that caloric is not matter, or it does not exist independent of matter—An. de Chimie, Mar. 1820. = taught there by French nuns. Several African princes have visited the schools, and measures have been taken te establish others in the interior. The Senegal children pos- Sess itude for instruction. “They read, write and calculate with facility. Several of the monitors have be- come qualified to conduct other schools. The teacher 344 Foreign Literature and Science. _ (Dard) appears to be a man of great mind. The establish- ment at St. Louis is under the direction of the Education Society in Paris. © A society is to be established in Edinburgh for the pro- motion of arts, similar to that in London, and connected with a repository of models on the plan of that at the Adel- The king of Denmark has granted a pension of two hun- dred crowns during two years, to four persons distinguished for their knowledge, to encourage them to travel in foreign countries. Dr. Perret, of Switzerland, has found that the roots of the Plantain, (Plantago major, minor, et latifolia,) is an excellent febrifuge. Literature of the Low Countries—During the first quar- _ ter of the present year there have appeared in the low countries (kingdom of Holland) three hundred and eighty- six new publications, of which eighty-eight are original ; of these sixty are in Dutch, nine in French, four in Flem- ish, four in Latin, and eleven in other languages. t ay wf tL. 1 ment ae in France. _ Necrology.—Sir Charles Blagden, the celebrated Eng- lish Philosopher; died at the house of Count Berthollet, Arceuil, near Paris, on the 26th of March last. He was eighty years of age, and retained to the last the sprightli- ness and vivacity of middle-age. He spent much of his tme in France, and was a diligent frequenter of the Insti- tute, where he held an honourable seat. He was noted for pursuing the most exact plan in the distribution of his time, in his meals, his visits, &e. He kept a journal of “passing events, in which were found the occurrences 0 ing preceding his death. He kept up a regular correspon- _ dence with his friend, Sir Joseph Banks. He left a con- siderable fortune, and was very liberal towards the poor- % i : ; Foreign Literature and Science. 345 ~ “Volney, the French traveller and philosopher, died on the 22d of April last, aged sixty-three. New Alkalies—-Two new vegetable Alkalies have been discovered by French Chemists, which they have named Brucine and Delphine. The first is found in what the discoverers (Pelletin and Coventon) call false Angustura bark, (Brucca Anti-dysenterica.) It crystallizes in oblique quadrangular prisms, colourless and transparent. It dis- solves in five hundred parts of boiling water, and in eight hundred and fifty of cold water. Its taste is exceedingly aerid and bitter. Administered in doses of a few grains it is poisonous. It forms neutral salts and bisalts, which erystallize with facility. ity os Delphine was obtained by Lassaigne and Fenculle in the — seeds of Staves Acre, (Delphinum Staphysagria:) It is crystalline when wet, but becomes opaque as it dries. Its taste is acrid and bitter. It melts by heat, and becomes hard and resinous. It is not very soluble in water. It forms neutral salts with the acids. ‘Count de Romanzow is fitting out at his own expense an expedition which is to pass over the ice from Asia to America, to the north of Behring’s Straits ; and to ascend one of the rivers which disembogue on the western coast, in Russian America, in order to penetrate into the unknown tracts that lie between Icy Cape and the river Mackenzie. New Hydraulic Machine—Mr. Clymer has invented in London a pump ofa simple construction but powerful in its.effects. It raises and discharges two hundred and fifty or three hundred gallons in a minute, not only of water but of stones and other hard substances whieh are not too heavy, Itis of easy transportation, and appears particu- larly well adapted to ships, on account of its not being easily choked by sand, coffee, sugar, and other impediments. An Egyptian Society has been formed in London for the purpose of sobishing Lithographic prints of all the , Egyptian monuments of architecture and sculptere as well aS Of tdinhiiobewced hieroglyphic inscriptions, in order, ii possible, by a comparison of signs, to discover their mean- Ing. 346 Foreign Laterature and Science. Lithographic printing has made a rapid progress in Rus- sia. The plates illustrative of the journey of Col. Drou- ville in Persia, are of the finest execution. The designs are from the hand of M. tata a distinguished artist of Petersburg. The Iron Masters of Sweden have granted to Professor Berzelius an annuity of five hundred crowns, for the servi- ces which he has rendered to the chemical arts. “The ex-king of Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, of Denmark, is leading a literary life in Italy. He lately read a dissertation on Mount Vesuvius at a meeting of the Aead- emy of Sciences at Naples. Count Lasterjoie is publishing at his Lithographic press in Paris, a series of plates to illustrate 6 machines, instru- ments, utensils, constructions, apparatus, &c. employed in rural and domestic econoniy, saponins: to. designs from va- rious parts of Europe. A vessel has been constructed for the nav ization: of the Forth and Clyde canal in Scotland entirely of forged iron, the sheets being pieced and riveted nearly as in a common boiler. It is larger, and at the same time lighter, and sails better than any of those employed. It will of course be more durable. It will contain two hundred pnewnee” Rev. Enc. Mai 1820.* The number of letters daily distributed be the Post-Office at Paris is nearly thirty-two thousand, and of Journals eigh- teen hundred. Whilst in London the amount of letters 1s ene hundred and thirty-three eases and of Jou twenty-six thousand. This, according to the respective population of the two places, is, in Paris one letter for sixty- ty-two persons, and one Journal for three hundred a” eighty readers ; but in London, one Lane for pine ane and a Journal for forty-three readers:—Idem. The literature of Italy is rapidly i SPEIER: The “ Bib- liotheca Italiana,” edited by Acerbi, the author of travels to the north Cape, announces that seven hundred cases © * And a private letter from Glasgow fo the Editor. Foreign Literature and Science. 347 ‘books of one hundred and fifty killogramms each, are annu- ally imported into Milan from France, Switzerland and England; and without including the books which come from Germany, and especially from the Austrian states, and this commerce is principally in the way of exchange. The number of books published in Lombardy alone in the year 1819, amounted in value to more than one million and forty thousand dollars.—Idem. : | pics * B. Braconnot has succeeded in converting by means of sulphuric acid, various ligneous substances, such as saw dust, linen rags, hempen tow, &c. into gum and _ sugar. ‘The foundation of a new school for the fine arts has been id in Paris, in the place where the museum of French monuments has been kept. oisin patil on i eR ~The canal of Alexandria in Egypt is prosecuted with vig our. Mines of lead and iron have been lately discovered im upper Egypt. A steam boat has been constructed to run between Stock- holm and St. Petersburg. The passage, which has hereto- fore been tedious and -uneertain, can now be effected in sixty hours. : eC The population of Sweden has increased in three years, viz. 1816, 17 and 18, by seventy-two thousand three hun- 348 344 Foreign Literature and Science. ‘dred and forty-six individuals. In the capital there has ‘been a slight diminution, owing to the tendency of rich proprietors to engage more extensively in iron works and ag- ricultural employments.. The whole population in 1818, "was two millions five hundred and forty’ -three thousand four hopdrest and twel ve ve WE: Koster ‘ibetntie of Bern, in Switzerland, has-invent- eda method of producing transparent pictures so as to ex- “hibit the effect of the sun, moon and fire in the greatest per- fection. His landscapes of Switzerland are said to be mu more perfect representations of the sublime scenery of thee aa regions than any thing hitherto produced. Oil has been wre in Italy from the grape seed. lk affords a light equal to that of nut oil: the smoke ee odour are nr dueer lle sb ee ; : SPrepaistibn are. making i in Malta to Fiucenune the ae of ‘mutual instruction on the coast of Africa, through the me- ‘dium of the Arabic. A small book has been printed in that Saas explanatory of the system. . a gah rene in Corfa. La oe has piece from the English government the necessary instructions for cat- vying the project into execution. The Count Capo D'ls- tria, a native of Corfu, has contributed by various dona- tions to the endowment of this. University. ‘He bas furnish- ed M. Politi, nda of chemistry i in the new University, * means o 2 p mieal labora- st we meaiaicky of artists and men of letters in Paris, have ¢?- = on to publish ‘a collection of lithographical portraits of > , heparan eee of that country, with a short bi- . ee as fees ee ean itis obtained. Two numbers, 98 _ taming’ each four Saeko -sarmalianen &c. are all : “lished monthly a : oo num mber.— seery te’ : h person, and a fac simile of their Foreign Literature and Science. 349 The following method-of producing pictures of metallic ve- — by M. Goldsmith, has been read before the French titute. Place a few grains of iron and copper filings on a glass plate at a certain distance from each other. Add to each parcel a few drops of nitrate of silver ; the silver is soon Seropitefed | ina metallic state, while the copper and the on are oxidated and coloured. Then with a small stick ar- range the ramifications of the silver, while the flame of a taper placed under the glass, promotes the evaporation of the flu- id, facilitates the reaction’of the materials, blackens the plat e, and thus forms the ground of the picture.—An. de Chimie, Mai 1820. Thenard has succeeded in causing pure water to absorb oxygen to the enormous extent of six hundred and ‘times its volume. The process is complicated. The prin~ cipal agents he employs are barytes, and muriatic and sulphu- ric acid. The oxygenated water has a taste slightly astrin- gent and bitter. It whitens the epidermis and occasions very pungent sensations. A great number of the metallic oxids act upon it with such energy as to produce explosions. An. de Chimie. TNotices icated by aC Jent.1 pireuce. Ps wv J Boracice Acid. bout two pr. ct. of Boracic Acid has been obtained by evaporating the waters of the lakes in Cherchaio, and it has en proposed to deliver this acid in Paris, in any quantity, at three frances the kilogram. The acid is in small greyish scales, taste slightly bittter, lrg solution reddens, litmus, Xe. Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Dec. 1819. ** M. Lucas, in a letter to M. Arago, sean the occur- rence of boracic acid in the water of cano. It is found on the surface, at the parts most nite = where vapors are continually rising. It occurs in a very white light state, though sometimes soiled, and sometimes mixed with sul- phur. The crusts are generally about three quarters of an inch in thickness, and sometimes above a foot in extent. It. Vou. H.iNe. 2 45 350 Foreign Literature and Science. occurs in scales, and sometimes fibrous. Their nature was ascertained by D. Gioacchino Azzorto, of Messina.” Brande’s Journal, 16th No. “ New method of preparing the Purple of Cassius.—The Count de Maistre says, that placing a sequin in contact with mercury, at one of its surfaces, and twenty-four hours after fusing it with an equal weight of tin, an alloy was obtained, which was fusible in boiling resin. Afterwards triturating this alloy with pure caustic magnesia in a mortar, a powder was obtained of a very fine purple colour.” Ibid. “ Fulminating Gold.—Count de Maistre also describes @ fulminating gold, obtained by pouring a small quantity of solution of gold into red wine, (Bordeaux,) a sediment form- ed, which, when dried, and placed on burning charcoal, in an iron capsule, exploded.” Ibid. “ New Alkali—M.M. Pelletier, and Caventon, have dis- covered a new alkali in the seeds of the Veratium sae a it is erystallizable, and extremely acrimonious.” I ‘“Mr. Donovan ;has published in the Annan of Philos. by: D al ae a 3 L h e re- pati peazutenee~ gies 6 oe dw 4 mecer be cecal late to the chemical constitution of these compounds, and the proportion of their elements ; but are concluded by an examination of the common mercurial ointment, and an ac- ten or fifteen minutes, whilst common ointment required thirty or forty minutes, and rarely was any eruption produ- Foreign Literature and Science. 351 eed on the part rubbed. The use of it is extremely clean- ly, and its expense is very much below that of the common ointment. For the preparation of this ointment it is essen- tial that the lard be entirely free from salt, or else calomel will be formed. The oxid may be prepared by decomposing calomel by pure potash, or by pouring solution of nitrate of mercury into caustic alkaline solution. The fat only dis- solves three grains of oxid for each drachm, but the quanti- in the ointment, may easily be increased. The oxid should be first triturated with a little cold lard, to make the penetration complete. The degree of heat is important. At 212° the oxid and lard will not combine, at 600° the ox- id will be decomposed, and mercury volatilized, at 500° and 400° the oxid is partially decomposed, some red oxid being formed, and mercury reduced. e best heat is be- tween 300° and 320°; it should be maintained at least an hour, and the ointment should be stirred till cold. This ointment is now undergoing extensive trial, and the results are very favourable. Already several testimonies have been given by medical men to its value.” Ibid. “ Lignite——Mr. Becquerel has examined and published an account of a'stratum of fossil wood, occurring at Auteuil, in the neighbourhood of Paris, which seems of great extent. It contains, interspersed here and there, succinite, and crys- tals, supposed to be of mellite, but the exact nature of which has not been ascertained.” “This stratum of lignite con- tains trees, still entire in their forms, some of considerable length, and varying in diameter from six to eighteen inch- es,” Ibid. Extract of a letter from Dr. Daubeny, of Oxford, ( Eng- land,)* to his friend in this country. _ “T spent three months,” says he, “in Auvergne and the Vivarais, and am returned, quite convinced of the igneous origin of the whole of that interesting country. In some Places, the streams of lava may be traced from their waters ; ee ; diieon’ ahd *Dr. Daubeny is a promising mineralogist, and pupil of Jam rh = Bockland—he ss fost har from At ioe fmes thn: Evers AeTINg - 1 Re ee SO L f Scotiand an rewanc. Pew VIOUS: 352, _ Foreign Laterature and Science. in the most satisfactory manner, and every where, even in the mosi ancient volcanic rocks, there exist scoriz, and oth- er decided igneous products, which leave no doubt of the mode in which the whole must have been formed. Wheth- er the trap rocks in this, (England, &c.) and other a tries, are to be referred to the same cause, may s doubted, but there are certainly many striking fas shoe be- tween the products of the volcanoes of Auvergne, and the basalts of other countries. Indeed I would defy any mine- ralogist to distinguish the basalts of Auvergne from those of Ireland.” Of Mr. Greenough’s map, just published, he says, * it is the fruit of years of great labor, with the assis- tance of Professor Buckland, and other geologists, of the first eminence ; its price is six guineas.” Of Dr. Mac Culloch’ s work, he says, ‘it contains a great mass of information ; and the plates are splendid.” Dr. Boru, of Paris, who is a highly accomplished botan- ist, and gedlog: ist, is preparing a small work on the Geology of Scotlan From No. 15 of Brande’s Journal. “ Death of M. F. de St. Fond.—Science bas lately lost M. Faujas de St. Fond, a distinguished mineralogist and geolo- gist. ‘He was born at Montelimart, in 1750, and died last uly, (1819) at Soriel, near Valenci. He was Professor of Geology to the museum of Natural History, from the time of its establishment; he has enriched its collections by @ vast number of curious objects, the results of his researches and travels, and France owes to him the discovery of one of its richest iron mines. M. Faujas has published many works on Mineralogy and Geology, as well as numerous me- moirs in the Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle. He has left a collection of minerals, shells, and alluvial fossils, among which are many extremely rare specimens, and 0 which the selection announces a Professor, who desired to rest upon facts to the utmost possible. From Tilloch’s Ph. Mag. for March. " Preparing for publication, ‘A Mineralogical Dictionary: comprising an alphabetical nomenclature of Mineral Synon- & Foreign Literature and Science. 353 ‘ymes, and a description of each substance—to which is pre- fixed an explanation of the terms used in describing exter- characters, and the crystalline structure and forms of minerals; illustrated by numerous plates, many relating to ee whole to be engraved by Mr. and Miss Lowry “ Geological Society of London.”—From the report of the Council, February, 1820, it appears to flourish ; the eXertions of the members are great, and the numbers and collection increasing ; the whole number of members, resi- dent and foreign, four hundred and forty-two—income o the society, £946 11d. and the expenditure £798 16s. 10d. “The public spirit of the members has induced them to Open a subscription, which already amounts to £600, as the basis of a fund applicable to the Seana? of new cabi- nets, and of the most useful books and ma “The first part of the 5th Vol. of the’ "Deans: has been published. The geological map of Mr. Greenough is published ; “the expense, it is supposed, will amount to £1700— and has been defrayed by the voluntary subscriptions of individ- uals, who have engaged to advance the entire sum required, upon condition of being repaid out of the first proceeds o the sale, while the loss will be theirs if the proceeds should fall short of the sum advanced, and the profits, if any, will belong to the society.” New officers, 1820, of L. G.S. The Right Hon. Earl of Compton, President. Most Nob. Marquis of Landsdown, F. R. 5. ; Hon. W. T. H. F. Strangways, Vice- Heury Thos. Colebrooke, ae F. R. S. &c. { Presidents. John McCulloch, M. D. F. L. § Alexander Henderson, M. D. Saveictie Mr. Thos. Webster, Henry Heuland, Esq. Foreign Secretary. Daniel Moore, Esq. F. R. 8. &c. } Treasurers. Jno. Taylor, Esq. : ‘ Dr. Brewster maintains, from a number of experimenis $ ane their results, that amber is an indurated vegetable jui 354 Forexgn Literature and Science. The No. for April, 1820, mentions, * A new Geological map of England and Wales, with the inland navigation, &c. &c.: By Wm. Smith, Engineer, on one large sheet, neatly coloured and shaded—Cary, St. James-st. price 14s.” _ Smith’s Geological Atlas, No. 3, is published by Cary. This work exhibits on separate maps, the Geology of the several counties of England and Wales.” Conite.—Dr. Mac Culloch mentions in his account of the Western Islands of Scotland, a new mineral, discovered by him, and to which he applies the name Conite, from the powdery form in which it occurs—he has since found it in the Kilpatrick hills, in trap, and also in Sky—the same name has been applied by Prof. Schumacher to a very dif- ferent substance; but Dr. M. thinks the latter is not likely to maintain its place in our catalogue of mineral species, but it is peculiarly appropriate to his new substance. “ Emerald Mines.—M. Caillaud’s account of his discov- eries in Egypt will shortly be published in Paris. Some time ago he discovered near Mount Zabarab, the famous nerald mines, which were previously known only by the iting the ancient authors, and the stories of the —‘“ they were discovered by M. C. nearly in the so deep that four hundred men may work in them at once- In the mines were found cords, levers, tools of various kinds, vases and lamps ; and the arrangement of the works afforded every facility for studying the ancient process of mining. M.C. himself set about working the mines, and he has presented six pounds of emeralds to Mahomme Ali Pashaw.”—“ On the banks of the Red Sea, the same traveller discovered a mountain of sulphur, on which some diggings had been made; in the neighbourhood of this mountain traces of volcanic eruptions were observable, and a quantity ip peers and other igneous substances was found.” He returned last year to Paris, bringing a vast 7 Poreign Literature and Science. 355 number of drawings, &c. &c. which have been purchased by the French government. M. C. has again set out for Beypt.” Dr. John Murray. [From Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, July, 1820.} “It gives us much regret to have to announce this. month the death of that eminent chemist Dr. John Murray, of which they every where display, and from the f ree, clear- ness, and precision of their statements, most essentially con- tributed to advance chemistry to the high rank which it now holds among the liberal sciences. His very acute, vigour- ous, and comprehensive mind, has been most successfully exerted in arranging its numerous and daily multiplying details, defining its laws, and, above all, in attaching to it @ spirit of philosophical investigation, which, while it lays the best foundation for extending its practical application, tends at the same time to exalt its character, and dignify its ursuit. As a lecturer on chemistry, it is impossible to teacher was an uncommon faculty, arising from the great perspicuity and distinctness of his conceptions, of leading his hearers step by step through the whole process of the most complete investigation, with such admirable clearness, that they were induced to think that he was following out @ natural order which could not be avoided, at the very time when he was exhibiting a specimen of the most refin- ed and subtle analysis. With him the student did not merely accumulate facts, note down.dry results, or stare at 356 Foreign Literature and Science. amusing experiments : he was led irresistibly to exercise i mind, and trained to the habits of accurate induc- tion. To those solid attainments which entitled Dr. Mur- ray to stand in the first rank as a man of science, was unit- ed arefined taste and a liberal acquaintance with every subject of general interest in literature. His manners were easy, polite, and unpretending, regulated by a delicate sense of propriety, with much of that simplicity which so often accompanies strength of character and originality of mind. He rose to eminence by the intrinsic force of his talents ; he was above all the second-hand arts by which so many labour to attract attention ; and a native dignity of senti- ment, and manly spirit of independence, kept him aloof from all those petty intrigues which are so often employed with success to bolster up inferior pretensions.—” In common with all the pupils of Dr. Murray, I can feel- ingly ~ testimony to the accuracy of the above delinea- tion. — Edit. ‘etal Red Snow of Baffin’s Bay. “The nature of this substance was explained in Mr. Bauer’s paper read before the Royal Society on the 11th May, as noticed in a former number. In the winter he put some of the red globules forming this substance into a phial with compressed snow, and placed the phial in the open air. A thaw having melted the snow, he poured off the water and added fresh snow. In two days the mass of fungi was found raised in little heaps, which gradually rose higher, filling the cells of the ice. Another thaw came 00, and the fungi fell to the bottom, but of about twice their original bulk, They appeared capable of vegetating in wa- ter, but in this case the globules produced were not red, but green. The author found that excessive cold killed the original fungi; but their seeds still retained vitality, and if immersed in snow produced new fungi, generally of a red colour.—Snow, then, seems to be the proper soil of these fungi.” Breccia of Mont D’or. “There are found rather abundantly ina ravine of Mont D’or, in Auvergne, fragments of a breecia, the hardness and other external characters of which, haying led to the i i Foreign Laterature and Science. 357 supposition of its being of a siliceous nature, mineralogists did not pay much attention to it, except On account ol some particles of sulphur which it sometimes contains in small cavities. M. Cordier, having submitted this breccia to dif- ferent trials, found that it yielded by heat a notable propor- tion of sulphuric acid ; and upon this important indication, he proceeded to make a complete analysis of it, by pe he found that this stone contained about twenty-eight cent. of silica, twenty-seven of sulphuric acid, thirty-one of alumine, six of potash, and a little water and iron. These are very nearly the same ingredients as are found in the celebrated ore of Tolfa, which yields Roman alum. In reality, ae treating this breccia from Mont D’or in the same manner as is practised at Tolfa, that is to say, by Grenking i neh it, and exposing it toa moist air, from ten to twenty per cent. of very pure alum was obtained from it ; and this breccia even yielded alum without being roasted, but merely by exposure in a damp situation. * It is probable, ee: the researches made upon the spot be decrenten: and that quarries may pests ss working of which cannot but be of advant taba “M. Cordier regards these sorts of stones as a minera- logical species consisting essentially of sulphuric acid, alu- mine, and potash. The silica found in it is not essential, for, quarries of a stone not containing any silica, but all the other constituent principles exist at Montrose, in Tuscany, and yield the same products as that at Tolfa. Those vari- eties of this species into which silica enters, are easily dis- tinguished by the jelly they form when they ar treated in succession with caustic potash and hiedénchlotic (muriatic) acid diluted with water “M, Cordier reduces to this species several volcanic patie hitherto vaguely designated iby geologists by the general denomination of altered Java.” Vou. IL....No. 2. 46 358 Foreign Literature and Science. [Fereign notices selected by the Editor.] ~ Poisons. It is now ascertained that sugar taken in lumps is a certain antidote for verdigris : that vinegar counteracts the danger- ous effects of alkaline substances; and that raw albumen (white of eggs) if administered in time, is a remedy for mer- eury sublimate.——Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Dec. 1819. It may be added that vinegar counteracts the effects of harcotics and gluten those of corrosive sublimate. New method of grafting* Trees. A common method of grafting, is by making a transverse section in the bark of the stock, and a perpendicular slit be- low it; the bud is then pushed down to give it the position which itis to have. This method is not always successful ; it is better to reverse it, by making the vertical slit above the transverse section, and pushing the bud upward into its position—a method which rarely fails of success: because as the sap descends by the bark as has been ascertain- ed, and does not ascend, the bud thus placed above the trans- verse, receives abundance, but when placed below, the sap cannot reach it—Annales de Chimie, quoted by Tilloch. _ Phosphoric acid in Plants. Free phosphoric acid is in all vegetable extracts and in a great variety of vegetables. Besides the acid in combina- tion with lime, all cultivated plants appear to contain phos- pene saltin abundance. These facts were ascertained by Mr. Berry, by carrying on the evaporation in vacuo.—Til- loch. Jan. 1820. Rectification of Alcohol. A correspondent of the Giornale de Fisica, reports an eX- periment which may be applied with advantage to this pul pose. It is a well known fact that water passes with facility through bladder, while alcohol is almost perfectly retained by it. Ifa bottle of wine be closed by a piece of bladder *Perhaps the method described in this article corresponds rather witb what is, in this r PR ae pean Fe [Ep.} Foreign Laterature and Science. 859 instead of a cork, a portion of the water will be found to have evaporated and passed off through the membrane, and the wine left will be found proportionably stronger. If a bladder half filled with alcohol of the specific gravity of 867, and having its orifice closed, be exposed to the sun, the air, er the heat of a stove, ina short time the alcohol will be found rectified to 817 sp. gr. and in this manner all the wa- ter may be evaporated. If the same bladder with its con- tents, be then exposed to a humid atmosphere (as in a damp cellar) it will imbibe water, and return to 867 sp. gr. which water may be again separated by hanging it in a dry place. {in one word, the bladder is a filter, which suffers water to pass through it but not alcohol.—Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Jan. 1820. Hydrophobia. It has been discovered by the inhabitants of Gadici in Italy, that near the ligament of the tongue of the man or an- imal bitten by a rabid animal, and becoming rabid, pustules of a whitish hue make their appearance, which open spon- — taneously about the 13th day after the bite; and at this time they say, the first symptoms of true hydrophobia make their appearance. Their method of cure consists in open- ing these pustules with a suitable instrument, and making the patient spit out the ichor and fluid which run from them, often washing the mouth with salt water. This ope- ration should be performed the ninth day after the bite, he remedy is so effectual, that with these people this hith- erto incurable disease has lost its terrors. —Bibl. Ital. quoted by Tilloch, Jan. 1820. Thermometer. Sanctorio invented the thermometer in 1590, but it was not reduced to a correct standard till 1724, by Fahrenheit ef Amsterdam. New geometrical work. * An introduction to solid geometry, and to the study of crystallography, containing an investigation of some of the 360 Foreign Literature and Science. _“ The work under consideration contains a description of a variety of solids hitherto unnoted, and a number of new remarkable properties of those solids that have been long known. — In tracing the properties of the platonic bodies, the author shows that they naturally divide themselves into two series, each consisting of five solids ; and, what is remarka- ble, that each individual solid, in one. of the series, is to be | found in great abundance among crystals, whereas not a sin- gle individual in the other series has ever been found among such productions. The first he calls the natural, the other the artificial series. These two series bear a strong resem-- blance to each other ; inasmuch as the last in each series contains all the foregoing in the same series: the angular points of the contained solids may be traced out in the sur- face of the last solid : and what perhaps is equally remark- able is, that the whole of the solids composing the natural series are commensurable with each other when the first four are contained in the last, and that they are to each oth- er as the numbers 1, 3, 4,6 and 8. There is another solid whose extremities may be traced out in the surface of the ries in pairs, in every possible manner, and of their volumes in two tables; he has likewise given the ratios of a number of remarkable lines in or upon the solids, and has shown how each may be extracted from the others. The ratios between the members of the artificial series tween the numbers of the artificial series, and likewise be- tween their faces and their axes. The whole is illustrated SS EY SS OS a a I ee Ee ee ee ee) ee } | Foreign Literature and Science. eee four plates, engraved in a superior manner by Mr. and Miss Lowry: the third plate is remarkably well executed, and is a flattering specimen of that young lady’s abilities. Upon the whole, the work will be found of great service to prepare the mind for the study of crystallography, and at the dame time highly interesting to the mathematician. In- deed, it is the only work in the English language in which _ the various properties of the geometrical solids are particu- larly described ; on which account it cannot fail to be ac- ceptable.” , [A copy of this work has been presented to us by Profes- sor Coxe, of Philadelphia; it is beautifully executed, and we were intending to publish an original notice of it till we met with the above in Tilloch’s Philadelphia Magazine for January, 1820, to which we are happy in the opportunity of giving additional sirtladini Raa sn Latent heat of Vapours. According to the experiments of Dr. Ure, of Glasgow. the latent heat o 3 : Steam, is Pe - 967.000 Alcohol, - - - 442.000 Sulphuric ether, - - 302.379 Naptha, - - - 177.870 Oil of turpentine, - - 177.870 Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.494, 531.999 Ammonia, sp. gr. 0.978, - 837.280 Vinegar, sp. gr. 1.007, - 875.000 — Boiling point of Liquids. Water does not boil equally in a glass vessel; the tem- perature rises a degree or two above the regular boiling point, when a torrent of steam rushes up through it and the temperature sinks a little: this continues through the whole ebullition, and the temperature vibrates between two points, distant, two or three degrees from one another. This variation is more remarkable, and may be even dangerous, when sulphuric acid is distilled. If a few slips of platinum or of any other wire be put into the fluid, the water boils regularly as it does in a metallic vessel.—Annales de Chi- mie, &c. Vol. 8. p. 406. 362 Foreign Laterature and Science.. Chlorine theory. M. Vogel, of Munich, treated phosphoric acid and mu riate of barytes separately, each ma platinum crucible, then they were heated together in a platinum tube, and abund- ance of muriatic acid gas was obtained: the same results were obtained with muriate of tin and muriate of manga- nese, and in a less degree with muriate of silver. Borane acid also with the alkaline muriates gave similar results. These experiments are directly contrary to those of Davy and of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, and if correct, cannot be explained upon the new theory of chlorine. —Thomson’s Annals, Historical Sketch for 1818. Dr. Thomson’s method of taking the sp. gr. of the gases. This method is founded on the well known fact that when two gases are mixed their bulk does not alter. Provide a large flask with a stop cock ; weigh, exhaust, sone _ the difference is the weight of the common air Let it be expressed by a. Then introduce a gas to oe weighed, taking care first to exhaust the stop cocks connect- ed with the apparatus, the volume of the gas which enters will be equal to that of the air withdrawn. Now weigh the flask ; the increase of weight above the weight of the ex- hausted flask is the weight of the gas introduced ; this may be expressed by b. The specific gravity of the gas is =- * without any correction for volume, as affected by heat or pressure. f the gas is mixed with common air, determine the pro- portion, mid then deduce the specific gravity of the pure gas by a very simple calculation. Let : =specific gravity of the pure gas. ~Azsthe volume of air in the mixture. asthe sp. gr. of air. ~ B=volume of pure gas present. sta gr. of the mixed gas. Then (A+B ¥ os B Thomson’s Annals, March, 1820. i \ H ; 4 Foreign Laterature and Science. 363 Tode. _ It appears from the experiments of Mr. Fife, of Edin- burgh, and of M. Gaultier de Claubry, that lode exists in sponges although in very small quantity: it is obtained both before and after incineration.—Annales de Chimie, &c. March, 1820. Peaches growing on an Almond tree. Mr. Thomas Richard Knight, long known by his great knowledge and success in horticultural pursuits, has obtain- ed peaches from a sweet almond tree. ne tree grew in a pot which contained about one square foot of earth, and was impregnated by the pollen of the peach. It produced nine peaches, the first fruit that it had borne ; three opened in the manner of almonds and died, the other six had all the characters of the peach. Mr. Knight is of opinion that the peach and almond are originally the same species, and that an almond tree, may, by cultivation, become after a good many generations, a peach tree.—Annales de Chimie, &c. Mar. 1820. ms A new Metal, (Aurum Millium.) A letter from London to a gentleman in Baltimore, an- nounces the discovery of a new metal by Mr. Mills. The writer describes the “ aurum millium (as it is called) as re- Sembling gold in colour ; very durable, and malleable, and not expensive, the price being 4s. a 4s. 6d. pounce. It is hard and sonorous, has the invaluable property of not easily tarnishing, and is nearly as heavy. as common jeweller’s gold.” | ; Systema Algarum. Professor Agardh, of the University of Lund, in Swe- den, announces that he is preparing for publication a Syste- rum, that will comprehend the disposition and de- Seription of all the known species of cryptogamous water plants orrey. : : —Dr. T 364 Foreign Literature and Science. Astronomical Society of London. ‘Since the publication of the last number of this Journal, the following communication has been reeeived. We cheer- fully give it publicity, both from a disposition to promote the great object in view, and from sentiments of person: respect towards the individual whose signature is attached to the letter. ‘‘ Lonpon, March 10, 1820. Prorrssor Sinton, : Sir, Having been requested by some friends to the Astro- nomical Society to send some of their plans and regulations to the public societies in America, and persons there who might be disposed to take an interest in this branch of knowledge, I with pleasure comply with their wishes in requesting your acceptance of the enclosed plan, hoping that its landable object may meet with encouragement and communications. From the attention that has been paid to astronomy in America, and its great importance as an ob- ject of utility, I hope great benefits may arise from collect- ing and circulating knowledge in this branch of science, and that it may tend to facilitate our mutual intercourse, and promote the happiness and security of mankind. I have Pa honour to subscribe myself, - Sir, } With the above letter, we received the address and con- wd * the heavens without the assistance of a DoLLonD, a Cary, or a TroveuTon ; and the skill of these last can scarcely Foreign Literature and Science. 365 be acquired without producing in priersine serious advan- ces in science as well as in manual dext The objects of the society are thus mneatiovid in their address—“ the perfecting of our knowledge of the latitudes and longitudes of places in every region of the globe; the improvement of the lunar theory, and that of the figure of the earth, by occultations, appulses, and eclipses, simulta- neously observed in different situations ; the advancement of our knowledge of the laws of atmospherical refraction in different climates, by corresponding egies of the fixed stars ; the means of determining more correctly the orbits of comets, by observations made in the most distant parts of the world; and in general the frequent opportuni- ties afforded to a society holding an extensive correspon- dence of amassing materials, which (though separately of small importance) may by their union become not only interesting at the present ‘ithe, but also valuable as subjects of reference in future.” The society, in the conclusion of their address, sum up their views as follows: to encourage and promote their peculiar science by every means in their power, but especially by collecting, reducing and publishing useful observations and tables; by setting on foot a minute and systematic examination of the heavens; by encourag- ing a general spirit of enquiry in practical astronomy; by establishing communications with foreign observers ; circulating notice of all remarkable phenomena about to happen and of discoveries as they arise ; by comparing the merits of different artists eminent in the construction of as- tronomical instruments; by proposing prizes for the im- provement of particular departments and estowing medals -or rewards on successful research in all ; and finally by act- ing as far as possible, in concert with every institution, both in England and abroad, whose objects have any thing in common with their own; but avoiding all interference with the objects and interests of established scientific bodies. Extract of a letter to the a from a gentleman in Glas- gow Our streets and shops are now lighted ~~ gas, which is here, as every where else, found to be a most important improvement. New streets, almost w ithoait number, have —— begun, 5 Pag erase rapidly. In George’s II...,.No. 2. 366 Dowmestie Intelligence. square, a bronze statue of Sir John Moore, by Flaxman, of London, has just been erected ; and a proposal has been afloat for some time, to erect a monument, of some kind or been made of one also to the memory of Watt, the im- prover of the steam engine, whose death you will have seen announced by the time this reaches you ; he was a native of lasgow. I found on my arrival a Columbian Press at work. Cly- mer, the inventor, is in London, and has supplied a consid- erable number of them to the printers, who think the Ameri- can are superior to any others, in ease of workmanship, and fineness of the work produced. Presses of every kind, however, will, in all probability, have to give way soon be- fore a printing machine, which has been almost perfected in ndon, and performs about the work of six presses, with a man and a boy to put on and take off the sheets, and work “the machine. It operates by a combination of cylinders, and can be driven by a steam engine, or any other moving . It promises to effect a complete revolution in the art of printing. Bou DOMESTIC INTELLIGENCE. Abstract of the proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural His- tory, New-York. Domestic Intelligence, S87 tedon the lateral edges, forming nine-sided prisms. Some- times the lateral planes are nearly destitute of stria, though the faces of the acumination are always smooth and splen- nt. They vary from translucent to semi-transparent. Lustre sal fracture imperfectly conchoidal, and fine grained, une Fuses before the blowpipe. By friction the crystals exhibit positive electricity—heat did not excite any. Sp. gr. 3.05. Geometrical characters. Angle form- ed by the planes of the original prism 150°. Angle of the bevelling planes 120°. Angle formed by the planes of the original | prism, and the acuminating planes 118° 30’. An- gle formed by two of the acuminating planes 132°. These ambega ci a agree almost precisely with the Tourmaline isogone of Hatiy. Mr. P. is of opinion that the subspecies Rubellite is not suficienty distinct from red tourmaline to deserve a distinct name, as its only essential character seems to be its infusibilty. The Rubellite of Chesterfield, however, is unifarmly infusible, though it is frequently per- feetly inerusted in crystals of common green tourmaline. The Geognostic situation of the red tourmaline of Kings- bridge, is somewhat uccommon. Schorl seldom occurs in limestone, though the Rag variety is said to occur in the limestone of St. Gothard. Dr. Torrey demonstrated the anatomy of the Scyllea pelagica of Lin. and which has been so accurately describ- ed and figured by Cuvier in Anat. des Mollusques. There ad been so much confusion respecting this animal in the works of all authors preceding Cuvier, that some zoologists have denied its existence. The principal cause of this was, that Seba, who first figured it, mistook the abdomen for the back. The specimens examined by Dr. T. were taken in the Gulf stream, on the Fucus natans. ie. Townsend ccad a continuation of his observations on oe varieties of crystallized snow, observed near York. His former paper is published’ in the Ackifiaan Monthly Magazine. _ Mr. Pierce read a memoir on the ae 8 and geolo- gy of the secondary region of New-Jersey, and presented many interesting minerals from localities not hitherto ne+ > 368 Domestic Intelligence. ticed 5 amnegE which were, beautiful specimens of prehnite, fi ewark, second mountains, Scotch plains, &c. imbed- ded in D eecciastars. Some were almost of an emerald green. brous zeolite, from Pee: associated with greenstone. White stilbite, in compressed four-sided prisms, acuminated by four planes. These crystals were attached to prehnite, which was traversed by crystals of zeolite, from Seaiek plains ; fibrous malachite, from Schuy- ler’s mine, New-letsey:s 3 compact peat, from the vicinity of Elizabethtown. Dr. Torrey read an analysis of the fibrous sulphate of ba rytes, lately found at Carlisle, Schoharie county, N.Y. first public account of this mineral appeared in the en Gazette, Nov. 14, 1818, when it was announced as celestine or fibrous sulphate of strontian, though it had been known, and had circulation a year or two before. Dr. Torrey dis- pa. the mistake soon after, though his analysis was not te until February, 1819. This mineral so much re- i a sulphate of strontian, that the mistake was natural. Its real nature however is very apparent when subjected to a few chemical experiments, especially when the sp. gravity is ascertained (4.320.) The fibrous sulphate of barytes an- alyzed by Klaproth (Analy. Essays, 2. p. 227) appears to be a very different variety from the mineral in question, and a very new variety should receive a name, we may retain that given to it by Mr. Eaton. The very remarkable char- acter of the Carslile mineral is, that it does not decrepitate in the least before the blowpipe. As an analysis of this mineral, which agrees very nearly with that of Dr. T. has been lately published by Professor McNeven, of New-York, it will hardly be necessary to make any ‘further remarks on this subject. [For its geolo- gical situation, &c. see No. 5 of this Journal.—Ep. | Mr. Pierce communicated a well characterized specimen of fe which he found in considerable quantities near Weekawken, New-Jer ersey. This substance resulted from the decomposition of a secondary stratum, consisting of feldspar and quartz undeilying greenstone. It was slightly fused by a blowpipe heat, in which it differs from the kao- lin of France. This circumstance is probably owing to the . oy a Domestic Intelligence. 369 potash of the feldspar not being entirely separated. It oc- curs in sufficient quantities to be used in the manufacture of lai porcelain. Oct.—Dr. Torrey read an analysis of a mineral dis- covered at Patterson, N. J. by Mr. Pierce. This sub- stance had been taken for prehnite, until the analysis of Dr. T. ascertained it to be the datholite, or silicious borate of lime. This rare mineral had heretofore been found only Norway, analyzed by Klaproth, and it may prove to be a new variety. ungus ; and it has hardly been noticed by any succeeding ton, communicated to the New-York Philosophical Society an account of this very singular production,” in which he maintained that it was a real fungus which was attached to the roots of living trees, and not as it been contended, Mage: abstract of this paper is published in the Ist Vo! ~of the Amer. Mon 370 Domestic Intelligence. the root of a convolvulus or any other pliant. ‘The tuckahoe occurs from one to three feet under the surface of the earth. Its form is for the most part globular, and it is found from the sizeof an acorn to the bigness of a man’s head. Dr. T. has ascertained that the tuckahoe belongs to the genus sclerotium of T’ode and Person, and that it is an undescribed species of that genus which he calls S. gigantewm. Dr. Macbride supposed that the substance of the sclerotium con- sisted of gluten in a peculiar state. Dr. 'T. in an elaborate the solution gelatinizes by acids and most neutral salts. ley’s mountain, New-Jersey. It somewhat resembles graphite, but is much heavier and possesses very different characters. According to Dr. 'T’s analysis it consists of iron in a metallic state, and graphite, in the proportion of 54.25 of the former, and 11.50 of the latter. He proposes for it the name of siderographite. Dr. Torrey sead an account of a new mineral from Schoo- New-J 1819.—Mr. I. P. Brace, a corresponding member of the Society, communicated a memoir on the geology and min- eralogy of Litchfield in Connecticut, which he illustrated with a handsome suite of specimens. Litchfield is entirely primitive, and the basis rock of all the hills is gneiss, though granite is occasionally found alternating with it. The rocks lying on this are porphyritic granite, mica slate, sienite, primitive greenstone, steatite and limestone. Mount Pros- per, near the west end of the town, is entirely composed © porphyritic granite. Mount Tom, south west of the tow”, appears to be composed of rocks of sienite heaped together on a base of this granite. Among the minerals sent by Mr- Brace, were large and beautiful crystals of eyanite associa ted with tale and mica slate, staurotide with garnets, in mica slate, chalcedony, blue feldspar, and beryls in large crystals in_ granite. interesting species of fish, viz: Gobiomones grandicauda, Bodianns triacanthus. Esox- eirrhatus, Diodon «verrucosus, A memoir was read by. the president, Dr. Mitchill, on an nalhahiy i i i i Domestic Intelligence. 371 Squalus squatina and Saccopharynx flaggellum. All these are found in our waters, and form a valuable addition to our icthyological catalogue. Of these the S. flagellum is the most interesting. This species is six feet in length, the body and head being but fourteen inches. In the shape and structure of the body it differed so much from every fish hitherto known, that some doubt was at first entertained whether it actually did belong to that class. This however was fully established by the learned president. By means ofa particular structure, not easily understood except from actual inspection, the animal is able to dilate his mouth to an astonishing extent; from this and the whip-like appear- ance of his tail, he has derived his generic and specific names. The body i is round, cylindrical, scaleless; dorsal, anal and caudal fins united. Belongs to the order Cartila- gine. A particular anatomical description of this i interesting animal is much wanted. Dr. Townsend read a memoir on the organic remains at Corlaer’s Hook, in the environs of New-York. Part 1s Milleporites, with drawings and specimens. “These are found in a bank of alluvial sand, resting immediately on the primitive rock of the Island. Dr. 'T. described two species and four varieties of ramose millepores. Most of the speci- mens found belong to these species. The division ramose found it necessary to establish, although it approaches the millepora truncata of Ellis. Of reticulated millepores he describes one species. The great abundance of these re-_ mains serves to refute the opinion of Parkinson, (Vol. 2. p. 71.) that there are few millepores in a fossil state. The sub- stance of these specimens is alumino-silicious. N. Paulding read a memoir upon marine fossil Arlls, found in great abundance in every part of Prince eorge’s county, A ae. and presented to the society by 1. W. Philip, U.S. A. They belong to the genus pectun- culus, turritelea, arca, murex and teredo of authors. Many valuable donations have been received by the Ly- ceum, among which we have only time to enumerate the following : : 372 Domestic Intelligence. A valuable collection of insects, consisting of five hundred and twenty-five specimens, chiefly of the orders coleoptua and lepidoplua, from Professor Zincken Sommer, physician to the court of Brunswick. Specimens of minerals from Col. G. Gibbs, among which were native gold from Siberia, fluate of lime from New-Jer- sey, and granular corundum from Naxos. Organic remains from Werberg, near the Weser in Ger- many, from Rev. F. Schaeffer. Numerous minerals from Professor Geimar, of Halle, with a catalogue. Organic remains, consisting of vertebrae of fish and ceta- — cea, bivalves and recent bones of some unknown animal, from Dr. William Swift. : Hortus cryptogamicus Edinensis No. 1, an herbarium of eryptogamic plants, growing near Edinburgh, (Scotland) presented by J. Stewart, lecturer on botany in that city. _ Specimens beautifully prepared of the anas acuta, oF pintail duck, (Wilson) by the late Mr. Clements. ‘Organic remains from’ Corlaer’s Hook, and a specimen supposed to be oolite, never before discovered in this coun- try, by Mr. Cozzens. Valuable collection of American minerals, among which radiated zeolite, from Westchester, &c. by W. R. Clapp, corresponding member. [It is feared that, owing to the illegibility of the MS. some errors may have crept into the above “ abstract.”—Ep.] American Geological Society. The anniversary meeting was held in the cabinet of Yale College ; and the officers of the last year were re-elected, with the exception of Mr. T. D. Porter, who, in conse- quence of removal to a distant state, resigned the office of Secretary, and Dr. Alfred S. Monson, of New-Haven, was elected in his stead. ' « Domestic Intelligence. 37S The society directed that an appropriate address should be delivered by a member at the next anniversary. The case ordered to be constructed, to receive the commencing eollection of the society, is finished, and in a good measure filled. A box of specimens has been presented by Colonel Gibbs; and another is announced as being on its way from essor Dewey, of Williamstown. A letter has recently been received by one of the Vice- Presidents, from William Maclure, Esq. President of the society, dated at Paris, in August, informing that a collec- tion of books,* and two boxes of foreign specimens, col- lected by Mr. Maclure, during his travels in Europe, had been shipped for the society, and that another box of rock tion of Albany county, and is illustrative of the mine and geology of that district. Pharmaceutical preparations. a Dr. Thomas Huntington, of New-London, is engaged in mitted to us, we cannot doubt that he is entitled to the con- fidence of the medical faculty, and to that of the public.— Among his preparations we notice the precipitated carbonat of iron, the green sulphate of the same metal, and the sul- phate of zinc, and the muriat of barytes. We understand that he will prepare the phosphat of iron, and that he will occupy himself particularly with the formation of extracts, such as that of cicuta, &c. Sulphate of Barytes. We have received from Dr. Comstock, of Hartford, some handsome specimens of sulphate of barytes, penetrated by . Perceived from the catalogue to be very valnable. Vor. If.....No. 2. 48 = 374. Domestic Intelligence. green and blue carbonat of copper, in beautiful contrast with the white of the barytes. he sulphate of barytes forms a vein of five or six inches thick, in greenstone trap, which — on an ri aus 7 sandstone, two miles from Hartford. Carbonat of Barytes. Professor Rafinesque, in ina letter to Dr. Torrey, of New- fork, announces the overy of large quantities of the carbonat of barytes, near be hensbinons in Kentucky. We shall wait with much interest for a confirmation of this very angoresting observation.—[ Ed. ] Comet of 1819. We have just received a part of the [Vth Vol. of the iwansactions of the American Academy of Arts and Scien- ces, now printing, which contains a memoir on the orbit of this comet, by Professor A. M. Fisher, of Yale College. The elements of the orbit, as corrected by the method of Laplace} are stated as follows : Perihelion’ distance, 3366878 Time of passi ng the perihelion; Sune 27th, ri 56m. 285. Mean time at —— aoe Inclination of the - 80°. 56! 17” Longitude of the etic en St 273° SP 184. Place of the perihelion, - ~ —- 286°.21'.33" Motion direct. Oxid of Manganese, and “Chremat of Iron. Mr. E. Hitchcock has shewn us specimens of oxid of man- ganese from Deerfiel ld and Leverett, and he informs us that chromat of iron has been found in Cummington, Mass. twenty miles N. W. of Northampton. There is said to be @ mine of manganese in Greenup county, Kentucky. Domestic Intelligence. 376 Cylinders of Snow. Extract of a letter from Mr. E. Hitchcock to the Editor. The Rev. Mr. Clark’s account in vol. 2, p. 132 of the Journal, of the singular effect of wind upon a light snow in New-Jersey, whereby cylinders were formed having coni- eal hollows at each end, bro ught to my recollection a simi- lar fact, which I oimerved in. Deerfield, Mass. about the year 1812 or 13. I measured the cylinders at the time and minuted the circumstances, but mislaid the account and cannot now find it. The circumstances attending the phe- nomenon were, however, very similar to those mentioned by Mr. Clark, " except that the ground where the cylinders formed was nearly level, and none of them were more than six or eight inches in diameter. The time of this curious play among the elements, was in the night or early in the morning. Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. A second edition of Professor Cleaveland’s Mineralogy is now in the press. We are informed that it will contain able additions, communicated by mineralogists States. An appendix will, if necessary, be bracing any new facts which may occur during the peeing of the work.. Sulphate of Magnesia, Has been found by Professor ate and Dr. T. R. Beck about sixteen miles west of Alban “Hudson Association for improvement in Science. Extract from a letter to the Editor, dated May 22, 1820, and signed by Austin Abbott, Corresponding Secretary. In consequence of the lectures given here last summer by r. Eaton, an institution has been recently formed in this city, for the purpose of studying the sciences of Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy and Botany. We have already made 376 Domestre Intelligence. a handsome collection of mineralogical specimens, although it is but little more than six months since our society was in- stituted. We have communication with the Troy Lyceum, and with gentlemen of science throughout the state of New- York, and have a very flattering prospect of making our cabinet respectable in a short time. The neighbourhood of the city of Hudson is interesting on account of the organ- ic relics which are found in it. It is from this source we ope to derive some advantage, by exchanging our speci- mens for those of other places. There is no doubt of the existence of gypsum, in Ancram, in this county. [Omitted in its place.] Fluorie acid in Mica. Mr. Rose of Berlin, has lately examined in the Labra- tory of Professor Berzelius, at Stockholm, several varieties of mica, and among them a specimen of the rose mica from Goshen, Mass. sent to Sweden by Col. Gibbs. In all he found more or less fluoric acid. 3 —-waa—- REMARK. e he transactions of the American Antiquari ciety, and particularly the researches of Mr. Caleb Atwater, (con- tained in them) on the antiquities of the West, are said, by our literary friends, to be very interesting and instructive. The papers on Prussic acid, on the hydraulic lime, on Mr. Coates’ electrical battery, and several others, which had been arranged for this number, are unavoidably omitted ull the next. INDEX, Acer eriocarpum, 258—Saccharinum, 259 Ac at Mg be 349—phosphoric, 358—prussic, 81, 93—pyrolig- pelt 343 Mesyiniie, 8 Adularia, 238, 239, 240 Adventures up ! Mount este 9 Agates of Woodbury, 2 Africa, education in, ns 350 Alcohol, rectification of, 358 Algarum, systema, 364. Alexandria its canal, 347 , 207 Animals, new mode of killing, 341 American cinnabar, 170 American Geological Society, 139, 872 American Verd Antique marble, 165 Amethyst of New-Jersey, 191 mmonites, 44 Architectural remains in limestone, 146 Argillaceous slate, 248 Ascent of Mount Blanc, 1 a _ Atmospheric dust, 134 Atwater, Caleb, on Bones and Shells, 242 Augite, white, 238 Autumn, indications respecting, from flowers, 255 B. Baculites, genus, 4 Banks, Sir Joseph, his ee on the sea-serpent, 164 Bar iron, manufactory of, 298 Barytes, fibrous sulphate of, 173, 368—sul phate of 241, 373—iu- siou of, 292—carbonat of 374 Biaclow. Jacob, Pr ‘ide on Senn Bigsby, John ae on environs of Getting: Bridge, &e. 250 ‘Bitter s ete of Prof. Ha Sta esa 297 Bohea tea, cultivated in France Bones in red sandstone, “fr aia 242——of mastodon, 245 Botany, medical, 45 Bourn, A. on prairies and barrens, 30 ou. IF..,..No. 2 49 378 INDEX. Bournon, Count, on architectural remains in limestone, 14@ Brace, J. P. on Litchfield county, 370 Braconnot, his experiments, 34 Bradford, A. on ken-serpent, 150 Breccia of Mont D’ r, 3 356 Brogniart, M. his opinion of the American green marble, 165 Brown, Dr. Samuel, on Animal poison, 168 Brown: spar, 23 Bubbles blown in melted rosin, 179 Bushnel, David, his submarine ne 94 Cabot, Samuel, on sea-serpent, 161 Cabinet, mineral, ht Cadiz, its academy, 34 Calendar, floral, = Deerfield, 2 30 ane Hare, s16air Professor Green, 332 Calyptroea, costae Cantharidin in the Lyi Vittala, a Carthage Bridge, environs of, 250 Cashmeer goat, 347 Catenipora. genus, 34 Cement for stone houses, 224 mouny, vale of, 1 Chemistry, medical, 81 Chené, oriental, 265 Chlorine theory, 362 Chlorite slate, 247 nS = pep aro American, 141 Pe) Cc shrysoberyl, its Tocality, 240 Cinnabar, American, 170 Clark, Professor E. D. strictures on, 281 Clark, Daniel, Rev. on snow and hail, 132 Aaous, 45 to 51 Cleaveland’s mineralogy, 375. Clove, stony, 2 Clymer, Mr. bie hydraulic sitehind, 345 Cold, efiects of, 17 Colamn of ice 22 Combustion of the metals, (note,) 296 Comet of 1819, elements oni its orbit, 374 Conite, 3 Constitution of American Geological Society, 139 Constructions, geometrical, 2 Cooley, Dennis, Dr. be floral calendar, 254 Corfu, university o' Cornelius, E. Rev. on a ma singularly posited rock, 2 vorrespondent, German, Catundast, fusion of, 291 a » , INDEX. : 379 Jrabtree, Eleazar, on sea-serpent, 154 Crystallization of, a oor Crystals of quart Cummings, A Abt’n m. on sea-serpent, Cutbush, Dr. James, his electrical finn See Dana, J. F. Dr. on or a 137—localities, 4}. Daubeny, Dr. his remarks, Datholite of New-Jersey, i91,3 369 Demonstrations, mathematical, 266 Dentalium, 44 eaten Professor, localities of sae hinge 296 Geological section, 246 Floral indications of autumn, 255 Diamond hill, 13 Dictionary, mineralogical, 3 Differential thermometer of i Howard, 327 Doolittle, foal on steam-engine, 101 Dry rot Dust, ethoariicak remarks on, Dwight, Henry E. his remarks on ee Kattskill mountains, 11 Earths, indications of their reduction, Eaton, Amos, Professor, aod sulphate of barytes, 174 calities of minerals, 238 Edinburgh, its —. of arts, 8 Electrical lamp, 330, 3 Emmons, E. locality of serpentine, 236—and of wavellite ? 249 Emerald mines, 354 Engravings, mode of altering the size of 342 | Entrocites, 3 Erie, lake, epee on its shores, 170 Eriocarpum, (a (acer) 25 Ether, nitrous, new process for, 326 \ Eudiometers, ee by Professor Hare, 312 Exogyra, genus, 43 Expedition, wR, 178 Facts, curious geological, 144 arey, John, on musical ‘intervals, 65 ng Cheever, 159 Fluor spar, 141—f etid, 176 Fond pa hae de St. his i 352 oot, . e ed ; ee wats . ossil Sika Franklinite, Peale of, 323 Furnaces for iron, 209, 212 380 INDEX. Gardens, botanical, in Austria, 340 Garnets, 141, 240 Gases, analysis of, 314—mode of weighing, 362 Gelatinous meteor, 335 Geological observers, American, advice to, society, American, 139—En alich, 255 Geometry, new work on its solids, 359 German correspondent, 178 Gibbs, George, on dry rot, 114—donations to Geol. Soc. 142 Glasgew, improvements in, 3 Gneiss, excellent quarry of, eri eateniions of, 240 Gold, combustion of, 295-——fulminating, 35 Granite, graphic, 141, 203, 240—granite an gneiss, 204, 206 ranite rock, singular ‘ eaaetes of, 200 Grape seed, its oil, 3 Graphite, 240 Graves, Rufus, on a meteor, 335 Gray wacke n, Jac ob, Prof, his ee lamp, 330 Giicens of Woodbur Griscom, Prof. foreign whan and science, 340 Griswold, Charles, on submarine navigation, 94 H. Hail and snow, 132 Hare, Robert, Prof. on light, &c. 172 is blowpipe, 281 new eudiometers, 312 new process for nitrous ether, 326 Harmonics, 65 Heat and light, = on, 118, Heat in the moon’s rays, Dr: Howard, discovers, 329 Homer’s iad, se copy of, 3 Hop, enquiry Na by Dr. 3 W. Ives, 302 Houses, stone, 220 d, Dr. ascends mount Blane, 1 his creer dictaancospes; 327 Hudson association, 37 Humulus seta = town of, on ‘i ee 27 Hydrophobia, mode of cure, 3. fce, column of, 22 : ees foreign, Sia 7 n sponge, ses Iron ore of Salisbury, 212—of Ken t, 216—spathie 226—sand, 238—vessel on the Clyde, 346—Chromat of 374 Italy, its Sng 346 - Ives, Ansel -on the hop, xi Jesup, Augustus E. 176 et a ea ee ee ee Se a ee INDEX. ate M. his Revue is a 164 - Junctions of rocks near New-Have K. Kaatskill pesca 3 2 pag oe 11 Kaaterskill, 16, 17, ee 21 Kaolin of New-Jersey, 368 Kidd, Prof. 165 Lakes Bae: eran fluor spar, found by him, 142 Lamp for inflammable air, 330, 382 Lavoisier, 284 Lead, native American, 170 Lee, Lara, his submarine peters ats 94 Leipsic fa Letters a J ournals of London and Paris, 346 Libraries of Prussia and Germany, Light, means of producing, by Prof. Hare, 172 rene: —- — of, 3 Lignite, 3 spore: primitive, 211 Lime, shea to niet it, 2 Liquids, boiling point of, 361 Lithography, 341, 346, 348 Little, George, Captain 158 Litchfield hill, 2 Localities of satnersléy® 236 oe John, Dr. on river maple, 258 w Countries, their eaoaeed 344 St of the hop, 309, 3 Lytta vittata, 13 Lyceum of New-York, abstract of its proceedings, 366 donations to 372 Ee M. Maclure, William, 231 ee Sand hea Pref. 174 McLean, on sea = 154 . Madrepores, 18 Magendie, F. D. on prussic acid, 81 . Magnesia, attempts to fuse it, 290 sulphat of, 375 anganese, oxid of, 374 Manganesian oxid of zinc, analysis of, 319 Manuscripts of Herculaneum, 340 Map, geological of England, 142 of mountains, 168 Maple, river, sugar manufactured from, 258 Marble, American green, 165 white, primitive, 211, 222 381 382 INDEX. Mastodon, bones aud teeth of, 245 6 edusz, pentacrinus Caput, ent) its compounds, sec See on, 350 Merm Metal, new, 363 Meteor, gelatinous, 33 335 Mica, EPS vec of, 2 Mica slat Michigan fom cinnabar on its shores, 170 Mine hill, 226 Mink pot, 24 Mitbcill, $: L. Prof. on fish, 370 M red, wo prussic acid Moon, heat in rays of, 3 Morey, Samuel, his as engine, 1 on rosin bubbles, 179 Murray, Joho, Dr. obituary notice of,355 Naptha, supposed to be ina quartz crystal, 14 : Navigation, submarine, 94 New- Milford, 225 New-York, and age min. and geol. of, parts of, 183 New-Preston, 2 Nitrous ether, new process for, 326 of American Geological Society, 141 Oil a oriental Cheng, 264 Ores of zinc, analysis of, 319 Olmstead, Prof. D. on red sandstone, 175—on temperature, 180 Ostrea genus, 42 P. Pantopidan’s account of sea serpent, 163 Paris supplied with hot water, 341 Pauldi 37 ng, N. ons Peaches on an almond tree, 363 o Pentremite genus, 36 Perkins, Thomas, 117 “ . torta, 38 Petrifactions of the enki 13 Saat S, transparent, Pierce, James, on mpoced a New-York and New-Jersey, 181 ; Pillars, granite rock manpeeted ah 3 200 Prisolite, 238 a, a ovalis, 39 horescence of fluor nee 142 Pome a of seasons, 2 Plate for Hare’s blowpipe, 93 pastas a of, 298 udiometers, &c. 317 an INDEX. 383 Platinum, combustion of, 295 Plumose mica, 141 Plumbago, 238, 241 Pvison, animal, 168—antidotes, 358 Potatoe fly, cantharidin in 137 Porter, T. D. c onttibation to Geol. Soc. 143 on snow Crystals, 339 Prairies and Barrens of a est, 30 Prehnite of New-Jersey, 1 232 Prepara tions, simrneccatial 373 Primitive limestone in mica slate, 211 Saal geal ee of the hop, 307 rince, James, on sea serpent, 157 Problems, marbensicaiks 54, 266 Prussic aci Purple of Cassius, new mode of preparing, 350 Quartz crystals with water, 14 Rafinesque, reply to, 134 Rattle snakes, 229 ‘ Red sandstone of North-Carolina, 175. ~~ Remilla Americana, 35 Revue Encyclopedique, 1 Rhinoceros, fossil bones of, 145 Rochester, town of, 252 Rocks, succession of, 235 omanzow, Count, his expedition, 34: Rosin, bubbles blown in, 1 Rot, dry, 11 Rubellite of Kingsbridge, 367 Ruby, fusion of, 292 ush, Dr. on sugar of the maple, 261 Rye, ergot of, 45 Salisbury iron ores, 213 Sandstone of New-Jersey, 190 Sappar, 141—fusion of, 291 at the mouth of the Genesee River, 251 Screws, manufactory of, 208 Serpent of the sea, documents respecting, 147 eripestine of Middlefield, 23 Shells, known and unknawa, 244 Shrubs on the Kaatskills, 26 Sidesis graphite, 176, 370 Silex, fusion of, 292 Silliman, B. on Prussic acid, 8 . Soc. 201 experiments with gas blow pipe, 282 Simplon, wad of, 1 Skeletons, human, ancient, in- Obi, 243 Slate and sandstone, 15—chlorite, a te tren neers 248 “ss ocks, primitive, 203 Snow and bail, 13 Spar, bitter, 236 a at ian team engine of Morey, 101, 106, 112 384 INDEX. Steam navigation, 342, 347 aor natural, 228 - $teinhaver, Rev. H. his remarks, 23 Stickney, B. F’. on native — and iiabes, 170 Strata at "Carthage Bridge, 2 Strong, Theodore, Prof. his ss Ae 266 Strontites, fusion of, 295. Stromnite, 177 r, manufacture “of, 258 Sullivan, on the steam engine, 106 Sweden, its population, 347 e Scyllea pelagica, 367 Taconick Range, 246 Talc, green, 236 ‘eet th of the Mastodon, 245 errubratula genus, 43—pennata, 244 mometer, differential, Dr. Hoeatae *homson, Dr. 284 PF congas from Vireinia, 145 rorrey, Dr. 173, 176, Tour in New-Haven 98 Litchfield Counties, 201 Pourmalin, 239—radiat Townsend, Dr. P. 8. 339, ‘S71 Traell, Dr. 177 Trees of the Kaatskills, 24 Trap of New-Haven, 202—of Woodbury, 231 Tremolite, 141 9 236, 237, 238, 241° PEE233a2 Troy Lyceum, 173 Troy, rocks between, and Williamstown, 246 Tuckahoe, 369 Tully, Dr. Wm. on Ergot, 45 Turritella, 44 U. ‘Uses, economical, of New-Jersey ores of zinc, 326 # = V. Vacuum, heat of, 343 Van Rensselaer, Dr. ascends Mount Blane, 1 rs, latent heat of, 361 Vapou insite: metallic, 349 View from the Kaatskills, 19 ~ Vole papas remarks on, 340 Volney, death of, 345 - W. Wacke, 12 . Water, in a 2 14 Waterfall, 209 _ Waveliit te, 249° : ent, 16 indsor, East, are bones discovered i in, 146 Woodbury basin, 23 2 bog ae Le ‘cd Loolite of New-Jersey, 191—of Woodbury, 232 & Zinc ores of New-Jersey, ork of, Vag Zircon, fusion of, 292 S THE MATICS i TRONGS NLS. Jocelyn Se NH. HEMATICS # Mat ela « STRONG'S NGES Jocelyn So.NH,