SOCIETY LIBRARY NO.
THE
“7
ee; ®
a AMBRICAN | JOURNAL OF SCIRNGB,
AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, se
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE; CORRES- . PONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COM-
MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL “4
3 ETY OF DRESDEN, AND OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN AMI eke
aera * os Be
* - Re ar Vor. Vi.....1823.
NEW-HAVEN: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR, :
a & ’ SOLD BY THE PUBLISHER; BY E. LITTELL, = PHILADELPHIA, AND TRENTON, N.J.; AND eS : te a
By Howe & Spalding, New-Haven; Davis & Force, Washington, (D. ey te “Huntington & Hopkins, Hartford ; Cump aoe & Hilliard, a: Good- ale Glazier & Co. Hallowel, Maine; A. T. Goodrich & Co. New- ork;
Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio ; sJ. Ray, Augusta, ec » Henry
Whipple, Salem, Mass. ; Edwa ee Coale, Baltimore ; Timothy D. Por- we ter. Columbia, S.C.; Miller & Flitehing Providence, R. I.; T as R.
! be 8, ar f 1); re T. Willi - Savannah, Geo. ; Luke
tsbu Olms a _ Chapel at allege, I Oy Joba ‘Miller No. oe,
SS ee ee Se ee
PREFACE.
——
Tue conclusion of a new volume of a work, involving so
much care, labour and responsibility, as are necessarily at- tached, at the present day, to a Journal of Science and the
° a naturally produces in the mind, astate of not ungrate-
almness, and a disposition, partaking of social feeling,
to say something to those who honour such a production, by
iving to it a small share of their money, and of their bons he Editor’s first impression was, that the sixth volum
should be sent into the world without an introductory site:
but he yields to the impulse already expressed, and to the
ousted usages ot ppapectiol sae to the public, _— Pe
which vered eT five years, in an undertaking, reparded by ma- ny of the friends whom he originally consulted, as hazard- ous,and to which not a few of them prophetically alloted on- ly an ephemeral existence. It has been his fortune to pros- ecute this work, without, (till a very recent period,) re- turns, adequate to its indispensable responsibilities;—under a heavy pressure of professional and private duty; with try- ing fluctuations of health, and amidst severe and ciaceas domestic afflictions. The world are usually indulgent to al- lusions of this nature, when they have any relation to the discharge of public duty ; and in this view, it is with satis- faction. that the Editor adds, that he has now to look on for- midable difficulties, only in retrospect, and with something of the feeling of him, who sees a powerful and vanquished foe, slowly retiring, and leaving a field no longer contested.
This Journal which, from the first, was fully supplied with original communications, is now sustained by actual payment, to such an extent, that it may fairly be considered as an es- tablished work ; its patronage is regularly increasing, and we trust it will no longer justify such remarks as some of the following, from the pen of one of the most eminent scientific men in Europe.* ‘‘ Nothing surprises me more, than the
* Who, however, had seen only the four first volumes.
iV PREFACE. eS
‘little encouragement which your Journal ,? (“which I always
from the present depressed condition of trade, and cannot long continue.”’*
* Letter to the Editor, dated Dec. 5, 1822
ee oe SEES three a ee a
oe i i Naa lala
CONTENTS OF VOL. VI. —<=>——— GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.-
Geology, epee der oe Scenery, of the Connecticut, with a srecolbe? gical map and drawings of — remains, med the Rev. Edward Hitchcock, - MI.
A memoir on the Topo ography; Scenery, Mineralogy, &e. of the Catt kill eientcinns by —- Pierce, Es
Speculative Conjectures on the isomalie changes that may have occur-
aig the — sien “of the cased Mountains, by William Mac-
ie Ceci, Mineralogy, and Scenery of the Connsctigtt wil a geological and drawin 88 of meee remains, by tbe Rey. Edward Hitch- co pas: es A.M. Notice of the Alluvial District of New-J ersey, with rémarics on ites agri- culture, by James Pierce, 7 — * probable 3 of certain Salt Springs, by Prof, Amos Eaton, 242 king Stone urham N is anger sien iy Jacob 256 Moore,
ng a site, No. 1 10, 243 1 By Proton Localities Mieasibeconsmninted by various persons, 245 1. ny y 245 2. r. en Taylor, of Provide -E aed oe. 245 a: By De Tacob Porte - - - 246 4, By Mr. T. Stuart of ‘Peanhans ‘Vermont, oe - -, 249 5. By pt t, W. Pm +e ons - 250
P. Bra 250 Notice or a ean Water Fall, and of Excavations i in the rocks "7; Professor Hall, 25
BOTA NY. — er lap: Hitchcock, on a new ae of ore: with a
pecker 3. L. Mitchill and Dr. John Torry, on a new species of Umea from New South Shetland, with a drawing,
On the Diversity of condi wo sorts of — found in one United States by Dr. William Tal - 254
CONCH OLOGY.
Mr. D. H. Barnes onthe Genera Unio and Alasmodonta, with eight plates of the shells,
Mr. D. H. Barn we on thie: Genera Unio end Alasmodonta, with two plates, Nos. 11 and 12, 258
HEMATICS. ac ome of a Problem { in » Conic Sections, by — ah avie Review of the Ca ambridge course of Mathematies—cont tinu diss -Ele- ments of Geometry, by A. M. Legendre, po ae of the Institute, &c. 283 PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, MECHAN NICS AND THE ee Mr. Isaac Orr on the formation of the Universe, its diagrams, Dr. James Cutbush on the semation of fat or ——- in some chemical processes, not h “tea e noticed, 149 Mr. Henry mp pate analy mangane ie garnet, with a Hiotive of Boric acid in tourmalin 55 Dr William Mesde’s: 8 letter, with an peociiet ofa tenselad ittis—co- pied from the transactions of the Wernerian Society of one 158 fessor Cleaveland’s notice of m9 rem balls of sno 162
Professor J. F, Dana’s miscellaneous notices, - - 163
vi CONTENTS.
d near Wheeling in Va. 166 om ise ipeteen| on ms aR Fire, - - - - 302 Notice of several Meteors - - - - 315
Professor Dean on that of Mar ch, 1322, - - 322 Dr. Darlington’s Plavicchatrival Obse rvations, Rey. aie rson’s account of the cure of Asthma by a stroke ee
ighta Gal Sraai-Mowietic Apseresas of Prof. Dain with a deeieg on pl. rn 330 beh Sg of the poem Actynolite from Concord Townshi ips Delaw
Ls Ay: Analysis of ra eet Crystalli zed Steatite by Profeman Dewey, 333 agge tt, on the cutting of Steel by Soft Iron, 336 ditor on t between the Deflagrator rand Calorim- otor, and the common Voltaic Rattonios, 3 ina Later to Profane a bert Hare, M. Editor on the fasion of Plambago.3 ina letter to Dr. ee Experues ee ig 2 n Diamond, Anthracite and sires ‘with the com- poun w Pipe, ina torte addressed to Peseneor ne rt Hare, M. .
D. by ¢ Editor, P.S.— nthraci — 353 Editor’s seine of the Flaoric acid of ag Lassa, and of * application to the secon, of A ngs with a dra f apparatus on pl. 10, - 334 ELLI are AND *MISCELLANIES. . Domes Ic. Protest of Mr. I lation t f fluoric acid in the contac, w with Mr. Thomas.N nh reply, - - 168 oe oe t Pipes, ee ivilanstrabeikie ATS American Andalusite. 7 Major Delafield, ae 176 fae sa ‘Eaton’s notice of the Boletus cine Se - - 177 Professor Hall’s sotien ae the Plumbago of Ticon ~~ Mr. Ebenezer Granger’s notice of a fluted rock oi os and
Prof. 8 eating on the Cadmia of f Ancram, &c. Jour. Acad, Nat nasi Phil. 180 Edito: 185
crystallization of sulphuric ac an — of te agai hydrogen and oxygen
Sase Vindication = Mr. Henry Seybert’s claim to the discovery of fluoric in the condrodit Abstract of the "Proceedings of Lyceum: of N atural History,N. ‘York, 3
Efficacy of Prussic Acid in Asth
Notice of Dr. Be ck’s Gazettee ‘i ‘ . . oe Ir. Comstock’s Dries of ‘Chemistry, - - - 369 Mineral Caoutchouc. - - + = 270 Hudson Marble~~Kendall’s Thermometers, - - - 371 Salem manufacture ofalum, ~ “ & 372 Geological Survey on the Grea - 373 Expedition of Major Long and] Party to _ Rocks ky Mountains - 374 1 Ney hg Wo rks, - 375 Test for Platinum, - mh ne ace Amect ican eee al Soci ciety-—On, Animal - 377
Editor’s additional — - the nem, Carhonaceou Bodies - 378 New Journal—lIttro Cer, - 379
I. Dr. Boué’s sry of Raepen Continental Geology,’ in a letter to Dr.
J. W. Webster, 188 Pro ‘s c waicstion frotn Mr. Miron Winslow, | on » them min-
eralogy of the Island of Ceylon, 2 Mermaid—Extract of a letter from Rateeia: - - - 195
New edition of Mr. Parkes’ rudiments and essays, mack otf wees
ERRATA, Vi
oisene from Regione series
New work on fossil sh cone tae 197 New J _ of Natural Soin at Copenhagen, ok eee 198 Colour of sea wat . aig ge 198 ‘ossil Remain = Abbeville, meyasawe. eps a = Hel Sees OG Singular ae ee ee 199 Premerstinet of Potatoes, See ey ee Se ye Sey ae aah wma 200 aa Sitjon. of Newton’ 8 Principia, - gfe a> 379,
Travels merica, - “ ae ‘e
Fossil sequlitice Sie water formations 3, - 381 New ng A BEk ae nois and La selihn-i!Dvengbitiian 8 on Natural nd,
oat Boe nia On the lim of the pratense of Fishes in ie . situations—Todine 383 Preservation of oe eit ao Bridge—Vegetable ao nalysis, = re
A om Boat—Vesu * The mean Tempera tri of Sale: nn, Mass. and Rome n It taly—Skele letons of the Mammoth and ee eee of insertion and —
Letters at Paris—City of Odes 6 — Seminary ms St. Petersbungh-—Hons of Refuge at Paris 387 Cons ory of es—Sugar from Bee 388 Statistics ‘of Hayne ’ * ‘i “ - 389 Poland—Copen - 390 Canton 6 01 ds e Fi sen 3 ap: (GOD Wire drawi pa, - . = 393 El ectro-Magietim Velocity of sound, - - - 394 Steel—-Sal-ammoniac, 395 Vaporization ion of puier--Phaet Hangings—Brick making—Leipsic, 396 Composition of Meteoric Stone 397 Preservation fro. a ~— — Geology, = ~ X» “ 398
ooking Appara - - - < 399 Salt Petre—Dr. ieee s Mamoick: - . %
&
ee ee cnet eee ERRATA FOR NUMBER I, VOL. VI. This Number of Vol. Vi, and indeed the whole volume, was ~ to Leben
during the she Publisher, and was found inaccuracies which he can correc nly by —s them in the ‘following ppaagent Nau ae ri a this ees, it is presu will be found as free
from nature of a scientific ee will a a any rate, the the Publisher will se pe against a recurrence of a similar misfortune. He could only learn from rience, that asci ientific public. ation could ory left with th the same safety as ordinary works.
ust to remark, that — of ‘the errors occurred from the ‘il- legibility, and some Some also are a nak —
Errat part first of Mr. a iggy ™ Paene 3 line 10 ‘nu be bottom for when re 10
: for attissimus i haa 10 19 for ruins read v 12 10 top vere the before Connecticut 20 sune read Saus. 14 2 ‘inal t the e telote fidspie
* We omit a few errata in the spelling of botanical names, as the correc- tions will be obvious to every botanist ee
vill ERRATA.
_ Page 15 line oi from top for fine read firm et 17 ae few read face 18 - 92 sert ii after east 20 11 bottom fr af read is 22 19 r slate moe — 6 for Hadley read Hawley 24 19 for ona read patches 27 1 for Oxford read Orange 18 or re pial d New bg 12 rta poise after New-Haven 12 top for Heisei ad 34 or bearing read leaning 37 12 bottom or mica read mass 38 a3 p for none read nor 42 il bottom for form read former 55 12 for serpin” read fronts 14 for ledg er 59... for Dine serena amygdaloid 62 5 dele the comma after same 70 1 : for on read 84 for highest read
[v= top largest or three instances the secondary greenstone is said to terminate in Northfield-batfor Wr acaa i te “Gilla on south of the meeting house.” the co he Map. The most southern hill of greenstone in fest tency is omitt
ted, Also a small range o! greenstone in ibe same jomn n, on the east side of Saltonstall’s Pond.. Rem SN te Iso an alluvial tract in the same town. - - a
In some copies the ashoertne and Bisa cantr us in Sanderland, Deer- et and Greenfield, have been made fo exchange e places. f PNR ex-
tends through Cheshire into Southington, ; is coloured as alluy Errata in Mr. Barnes’ priece on Shells.
in Page po title for D. W. sey H. 09 note for Goor read Geo 110 line 14 from bottom, after mu ipcorg’ ees is 13 ad bras
11k 112 4 erase acre 125 . for interiour read anterior 127 for small read smooth eas 18 from top, for heel read keel 119 5 from bottom, for Gass’s read Cass’s r. Orr’s piece on the Sere Page 129 line 4from Yiohiomn, for sun read system 130 16 for its read their 10 for — read inverse, perhaps =a wer 134 22 for or read on {be 137 3 for on sseadber 139 d for atmosphere read atmospheres 140 3 for ta read par 8 6 top for ysical account 13 fte mada the stop oo be a period rage 76. line 15 from top, for. Tidiade 2 ead Tereba Passim for Dr. Borré read Dr. Boué.
Pa. 200 line 4 from bottom, for can, read cannot P> ammunical communicated a2” eee line, in : fs copies, for es read auteur 330, line 14 from bottom, for in 10 341, 7 top, for Dr. rea
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eg AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. oe en ere easel &e,
Arr. 1.—A_ Sketch ae the Ge cology, Wiscraléry, and’ esas: ee the A a So contiguous to the River Connec- ticut; with ological Map and Drawings of Organic wains ; and occasional Botanical eet Read be-
hs tet oe eee’
_ Tue region embraced by the accompanying map, and to which this sketch is principally confined, is about 150 miles long and 30 broad; extending from New-Haven to Bellows’ Falls. A leading object of this map is to give aa accurate view of the secondary tract extending from New-
aven 110 miles northerly to Northfield. But itis protracted 30 or 40 miles beyond this, on the north, so as to embrace probably all ave a mee is iver. A considerable of, tive is also exhibited on bees gone of ag
accor ne ti ullo
and stratified : bak an peo ae been nad to give every particular rock that position and-extent on the map which it actually occupies on this portion of the earth’s surface. Every geologist knows, that perfect accuracy in these res- pects, on a map of such extent, would require a degree of labour and research, which, none but those whose whole time is devoted to such pursuits, could bestow. Indeed, so
Vou. VI Ma, 5 :
P Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
large a part of every country is covered with geest, and so imperceptible is the passage of some roéks into others, leaving the observer in doubt for miles which rock predom-
inates, that after all, two equally good geologists would not probably fix the limits of different rocks precisely alike. And to exhibit all the minor salient aad reentering angles which any rock makes on the surface, would require a map on a scale five times larger than that used in the present instance. In attempting, therefore, to give every rock that position and extent on the map which it actually occu- pies on the surface, I do not suppose I have done any thing more than to approximate to the truth. It is hoped, howev- er, that the approximation : sufficiently close to answer most of the purposes of geology. | trust at least that this outline will furnish assistance . er pre ee geologists.
In constructing this map I have derived very great assis- tance in the vicinity of New Havant from the researches of Professor Silliman, and of Dr. Percival. Indeed, could either of these gentlemen have been induced to form a map of that region, I should gladly have omted e souther part. In the northern part of the m 1 have eee assist-
aiporante.
The sides of the map are not precisely meridians; but incline 3 or 4 degrees to the right, as is evident from the fleur de iis attached to the upper right hand corner. The longitude and latitude are marked from those of Deerfield, which have been determined by numerous observations.
Having made these preliminary remarks, I now proceed to describe the several rocks occurring in this district, in the order in which they are put down in the explanation ‘of the colours on the upper left hand corner of the map.
1. GRANITE.
Coloured purple—or a mixture of carmine, red, and Prussian blue.
Almost every variety of this rock described by geolo- gists occurs in the region of the map, except the ‘ianaieit
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 3
granite of Norway and Scotland. Its texture varies from the coarsest to the finest grain, and it exists here in most of the forms that have been noticed.
East-Haven Granite.
The deposit of granite marked in East-Haven and Bran- ford, has its ther ee extremity at the Lighthouse, which stands on a sea beaten rock of this description. The grain is intermediate “tania fine and coarse, and the fels- pa ris usually reddish. In passing from East-Haven to
ranford, we find the granite immediately succeeding the old red. sind stone, or the slate rocks of the coal formation, or the greenstone ; and all these rocks are nearly on the same level. Their actual contact with the epee» howev- er, has not been 1 observed, 2 being hid by
"here is no evide ence that this granite Caeiitutes a bed ou Id seem, ga it oH
gneiss ag mica date, wah snbedt: a few miles to ‘Whe north, and which there lie at a much higher level. On passing east and northeast from this granite deposit, well marked beds of this rock appear; and perhaps all the gran- ite which is found at the mouth of Connecticut river occurs in this form. do not know exactly how far the East-Haven granite
may be traced along the coast. Certainly the gneiss reach- es the sound before we come to Connecticut river
In the cavities of this granite, when it is washed b y the tide, one or two species of Lepas and other testacea, have fixed their abodes, finding security in those projecting crags which are so appalling and dangerous to the mariner. Some Ulvae and Fuci, also, are found along the shore.
South Hampton Granite.
Although the granite thus designated extends but a little distance into South Hampton; yet it contains the South Hampton lead mine, which will, no doubt, be long an in- creasingly interesting focus to which mineralogists will be
+ Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
drawn—and therefore, the specific name above given, may not be unappropriate for this granite.
A great part of this granite exists in beds in mica slate ; gneiss being a rare rock in the v vicinity. Indeed, it may be doubted whether the whole range is not in the form of beds. I think, however, it will be found that there is a central ridge which is fundamental, at least two or three miles broad, ex- tending from South Hampton through Williamsburg to the southwest part of Conway and northeast part of Goshen. Certainly, along this line little else appears but granite ; and. in some places, as at its northern extremity, this rock forms hills of considerable elevation, and snes ledges. Beds of Le eae may indeed be found in the vallies between
hese ledges; but an observer as. ie passes over this region aa proceeds south to South Hampton lead mine, wil! find it difficult to persuade himself that he is not traversing an original fundamental* deposit of this rock. Or if it exist in beds alternating with mica slate, it will in some instances be found no easy matter to prove i it—the _mere fact that mica slate is. ound on both sufficient evidence : the same being the case with perenne ieee:
I would here suggest whether the oa slate of this re- gion that contains beds of granite, may not be a newer for-
ion, reposing immediately sae “alee granite nucleus whieh probably forms the basis rock in New-England. And wherever this mica slate and upper granite is worn away, or there is a projection in the nucleus, the basis rock may appear. Such a supposition will aceount for all the appearances of the region we are now considering, which is coloured on the map as granite.
As we go east or west from what L have called the cen- tral ridge of this granite, the beds of this rock become more and more distinct, the mica slate, however, increasing in
* “The term fundamental, has, it should a been prapryre predi- cated of a particular description of granite; for by the terms of the propo- sition, the bottom of this formation has never been seen, and consequently we have no means of a rmining whether it ba fundamental or not.’’—Ed. Rev. Jan. 1820, p. 89.
But, we should ai on it be not proper to say of space, that it is in- — for the very r —_ we cannot limitit? And with equally g ason, it would s on may say of granite that it is rai pt be- cause we have never hound any other rock below a saitienlar description of it.
oe
Se ere eee ee
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Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 5
quantity and the granite See In pone | ~ is pe the South Hampton granite, | have compre- ed most of the Chesterfield and Goshen granite,* * which bes become celebrated on account of the interesting minerals found in it—although the mica slate in those towns occupies probably as much of the surface as the granite. ‘The pur- Je colour, or that which represents the granite, has not been extended so far as to embrace all the beds of this rock in this region; but only so far as the granite predominates. Where the mica slate is most abundant, I have put down this rock as covering the whole surface, although %e iielit contain many beds of granite. he inclination of the mica slate strata, or dip below the horizon, and consequently of the granite beds, varies from
| 20° to 90°: and thus frequent opportunities are afforded for
observing the former rock pass under and over the latter.
The width of the beds varies from the fraction of an inch 100 r thn s fete sanile or, two. So° ner in of will p
rrow b voor and floor. "Tn these thin beds there is rarely ie fis- sure; but in those several hundred yards in width, are fre- quently observed regular and oa divisises as will be more particularly noticed hereafter hese distinctly characterized granite beds are not con- fined to the region of the South Hampton granite. A few miles north, indeed, they disappear; but they may be traced delbsiily into Litchfield county, where they exist abun¢ eri and are sometimes found in me slate, ant ss. A example of the former may be seen in Granville, about half way between the churches in the east and west parishes where the layers of hornblende slate are nearly perpendicular. Instances of their existing in gneiss ance
we think the geologist who traverses s New-England primi- tive rocks will often be ledto enquire, whether all our gran-
* cw , a td éh 1 +535. ra} Pe aN - Lea saying that more distinct and well marked beds do not Pe in pate hi pa of the United States or Europe; and what renders t — is, the distinctly stratified structure of some of them. Nan Amer. di Rev. No, 29——p. 233.
6 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
ite does not occur in the form of beds or veins. We are not yet, however, prepared to believe any one could con- clude that it does. #ast-Haven granite, Black Mountain, a part of Leverett range, &c. stand as yetin the way of such a supposition. Still less are we ready to adopt the re- cent opinion of a distinguished European geologist,* that granite is not a primitive rock, and that the only two rocks that are so, are mica slate a gneiss! us have we in New-England, as in the east of Ireland,
granite of a decided character alternating with mica slate. But this ceases to excite any surprize, since Von Buch and and Jameson have given us an account of the strata of Chris- tiana and we on.t
The texture of the South Hampton granite is generally rather coarse. There is, however, in this respect, a great variety. The felspar is usually of a fine white colour, and the quartz and mica alight gray. I do not here, however, speak of the granitic veins, some of which traverse the granite itself, and the felspar of which is sometimes flesh coloured. ‘The beds of the South ‘Hampton granite =x not rich i in minerals, except the lead mine in that tow The veins in this rock, however, contain the fine Sbiit hulls and beryls of Chesterfield, and Goshen, and Haddam.
Biack Mountain.
This lies in Dummerston, Vermont, and consists of gran- ite. A geologist standing in Brattleborough on the argillite - issurprized on looking northwesterly, and seeing only four or five miles distant, an abrupt mountain 500 or 600 feet
* Dr, Borré. + Porphyry in immense mountains reposing upon lime stone full of petri- factions; a sienite over this Porphyry, consisting am entirely . coarse lar felspar, and in the same manner, a granite not different in its pon teal from the granite of t the oldest sinkibkine engl ite hie transi- tion lime stone ! —e asa Wr siuced of the transition formation !’—Vor Buch’s Travels in, Norway.
Order of the transition rocks around Christiana, beginning at the top and reckoning downwards. at Zircon sienite. 2. Granite, 3. Porph 4. Sand stone. aelbe* slate. t
ry. 4 gray 7. Compact slate and black orthoceratite lime- stone. 8. Granite, 9, Clay slate end Ta limestone, probably. 10. Gaels: he
PRAT AI PELTED
Shae a ca eS
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 7
high, evincing by its white and naked head that it is gneiss or granite. On visiting it, he will find it to bea fine grained granite. In many parts, however, he will perceive such a tendency to stratification, that he may doubt for a mo- ment whether it be not gneiss. But upon examination he will refer it to granite. The same remark will apply to granite in many other parts of New-England. It seems, and proba- bly is, in many instances, intermediate between well char- acterized granite and gneiss. ack Mountain is not many miles in circuit, and on the north and ‘west, is succeeded by well characterized gneiss. This gneiss is quarried and forms underpinning and step stones; specimens of which may be seen in the Ar eaaieaie of the Meeting house in Brattleborough, East Village. The lack Mountain i noticed some interesting lichens. be most monopolizing of these, are the Gysophoras. G. oo palais, pacha) in some in- cl pi eh: 30 or. Pace! eet high, and
lease A110 twithstanding, 6 upt broad margins, giving Pibems the appearsnes of a chapeau de bras. ‘These species are found also on the granite in Mon- tague, and on the Srcenrinne in Deerfield, where occurs al- so g. deusta. On Black Mountain | likewise noticed in abundance Enclocarpon miniatum Ach. and several species of Parmelia and Lecidea. aay its top grows Milium in- voluium (nov. sp. Torrey, MSS.)
I cannot but detain the reader a moment to explain the strange nomenclature by which those were governed who originally gave to this granitic peak the name of Black Mountain. Every body in passing is struck with its snow | white aspect, and cannot help enquiring the cause of it. I was told that in early days, it was burnt over and derived its specific appellation from this circumstance. Thus an acci- dental and ephemeral fact has vist a name upon it which its constant appearance belie
A similar remark might be made in aioe to the name of another mountain in the same vicinity. A person stand- ing in Brattleborough East Village, perceives directly east of him, on the east bank of Connecticut river, a venerable mountain 800 or 900 feet high, seeming almost to threaten him with its overhanging fragments. On enquiring the
8 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
name of it, he will be told it is West River Mountain. And on examination he will find that West River empties into ~~ pepenion from the west, nearly opposite this moun-
Granile range passing pauses: salads through gc §c.
_. This granite is generally found at a low level. Almost every other rock in the southern part, excepting the alluvi- oa, rises hes than this. Along the central and eastern parts of Amherst itis mostly covered by geest and alluvion. {t appears, however, ase miles south east of the Collegiate Tostitution, and I have no doubt that eee stands on
rett, aiiehd is ae one of the best places for examining its ‘especially when we consider its proximity there to pud- ding stone. Mount Toby, which is 800 or 900 feet high, lies on the western border of the granite and consists prin cipally of a peculiarly. conglomerate | rock which appears ‘to belong to the coal formation. This pudding stone rises 400 or 500 feet higher than the granite, and in the interve- ning valley the two rocks approach very near each other ; although 1 have never been able to find the actual j Junction, ‘The granite, however, near the padding stone, occurs in beds in mica slate, and is separated from the pudding stone, by this mica slate, or by hornblende slate, which appears in the valley above named, or by an imperfect variety of sie- nite. ‘The mica slate in this place, and indeed along the whole western border of this range of granite, near the northwest corner of the town, it becomes mere quartzose slate, having a slight glazing of mica, or mica in small scat- tered scales. This quartz is divided in two dncmcae by seams oblique to the face of the layers, so as to separate the rock into very regular rhombs with different degrees of ob- liquity. In hand specimens, indeed, it seems to be limpid quartz in very perfect distinct concretions.
In the valley between these rocks appears to have been for ages a war of avalanches between the pudding stone and granite ; in which
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. = 9
“ —+——“ hills amid the air apecomiere een ; Hurl’ to and fro with jaculation dire
And evidently too to the advantage of ie publinigh Gee: for this is several hundred feet the highest, is more steep and more easily broken up from its bed, so that its debris has evidently gained upon the older rocks, and Sabjectedhsame of them to its dominion.
In this ye the lichens, mosses ‘and fungi, have planted themselves thickly upon the bowlders and decaying logs where they are secured by the dense foliage of the trees from the too: powerful rays of the sun and moistened by the vapour of a smail brook which here finds a passage. “You there see’ Sticia Se (Ach.) and Jungermannia
‘the rocks, while the ever verdant Pol ‘vulg tr ntly crowns the. top. Saiemnvas are i ea y
others, several Lecanore
perigoniale, Fever species of Hypnu Dicranum, Ortho- irichum, and many other genera on ‘there. On the de- caying trees along this valley, you not unirequently may see the delicate Boletus versicolor and betulinus;the elezant ~~ B. cinnabarinus and lucidus, and the useful B. varius, velu- ‘tinus and ce (Persoon.) Here too may be found Aaricus alneus (Pers. dy cone cinerea and Polyporus abietinus of Fries ; various Thelephorae; Hydra, Clavariae, Pesize, &e.- ‘And: shereianesin ob the brook has in many jlages qe Oovieas of Marchantia. polymorpha and mie ef rt extremity of this valley is a pond, in and <igrowhth hicks are “many ‘rare and i Silicones phenogamous
Drosera r lia and longrfolia, Nu-
and Kalmiana Nymphe Nymphea odorata, Utricularia
i peti “ “yoke Conte) “stots vertieillatim, - or two Charae, Cnieus vensis
color and ‘mutiouss > Rhynchospora ora glomerata and alba Wa.
~ jas Canadensis deals Scirpus subterminalis (n. sp. Torrey
“MSS.) In the outlet to a ew grows the oe ee gia frewiatitis of Linnaen to return to the’ _ nite. Along the southern and central parts of Montague, it is greatly hid by the gneiss and mica slate. In the — oe - the town, however. Vor, VI.—No. FE.
10 Geologys&ec. of the Connecticut.
near the mouth of Miller’s river, it appears in one or two detached eminences of considerable height; directly west of which, only a few rods, is another hill of puddingstone similar to that of Toby. The granite can be traced nearly all the way through Northfield at a low level, and in the north of this town it seems to pass under the geest and higher rocks, and to appear again in Winchester and Ches- terfield, of greater width, and here it is beautifully porphy~ ritic. As we go north, therock exists iv distinct beds in mi- ca slate and gneiss, and also it appears at the tops of moun- tains sometimes forming conical hills almost naked. Wit- ness the west partof Surrey and Alstead. 9 9) 0 The texture of this granite is coarse, in some. instances very coarse, the plates of mica being several inches across. Ie main colour is white. A beautiful. variety, however, rs in Leverett, in which the felspar, which is abundant, is is of alight blue; the quartz of a dark a Repeal to black; and the mica the usual light gray. Thisa rare va- riety, and a fragment of a crystal of this blue ps wee meas- ured in its longest direction 8 inches. his range of granite contains several veins of metals, such as galena, copper pyrites, blende and iron ; which will be more pertieularly described hereafter. this range exists in the form of beds and ruins: yet so far as I have examined it, it will not be easy to prove that the whole of ican be referred to this form. . Lam yet of opinion that along the central parts of the range may be seen emerging an original fundamental deposit of granite. hese are all the depositories of granite of considerable extent, which Ihave discovered in the region embraced the map. Granite existsin many other places along this river in beds and veins; but not of sufficient extent to claim to be represented on the map. It is possible, however, that what I call beds and veins, may not in all cases be such: For it is generally allowed, I believe, that the basis rock in all New-England is granite, and this nucleus, if I may so call it, is doubtless very uneven, having many. prominences and corresponding hollows. In some places, perhaps, sage projections have never been covered by other rocks, such for instance, as black Mountain. In other cases pv is every appearance to indicate that the higher rocks have beem worn away, and thus the granite has been disclosed:
Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 1]
for in general, the granite along the Connecticut appears much lower than the neighbouring rocks, such as gneiss and mica slate. No person who examines the East-Haven granite, or that running through the Leverett, or even the South Hampton deposit, will doubt that some powerful agent has swept away an immense mass of superincumbent rocks of some description or other. Whether this was a primeval northeasterly current as Mr. Hayden maintains, I shall not undertake to decide. Be it, however, what it-may have been, wherever it has acted powerfully we may ex- pect to find the granite laid bare. If these remarks are correct, we need not be surprised to find this rock any where, even if we cannot make it form any thing like con- tinuous ranges, and perhaps some of those small masses x4 granite, which every one who has examined New-E ei appear so + Sap tt and which being sur-
by phage or mica slate, we aoe cae to refer to beds sottlh; pete top of a projection of the posites wiles ‘which the’ abra abrading agent has Jaid
bare. Bellows Falls Granite. r
This is of quite limited extent; but the interesting na- ture of the spot where it occurs induced me to colour it and notice it thus particularly. Fall mountain on the east bank | of the Connecticut at Bellows Falls, consists of a coarse, not very perfectly stratified mica slate. At i its western foot in the bank of the river, the stratification mes less dis- tinct, and is at length, about: the middle of the stream, en- tirely lost; and the rock becomes an imperfect granite. In other words, there is a graduation from the mica slate into the granite. In the western bank, in the village, the char- acters of the granite are more decided; though even here, I should have no hesitation in calling it a sienitic granite, did it ae any hornblende; but I could discover ‘none.
| s black and abundant, t hus giving the rock a sie- sis nepects and it is also traced by veins of felspar and granite | like the sienitic granite of phe ar ies and Eolas town, to be described hereafter. The ingredients of this rock are arranged when viewed ona small scale somewhat in distinct layers; but when regarded as a whole, [ never
i2 Geolocy, &c. of the Connecticut.
saw a rock farther from stratification. Sometimes the fels- par js wholly wanting, and the rock appears to be mere unstratified mica slate, if such a term does not contain a con- tradiction. It is of no great extent, being evidently laid are by the waters of the Connecticut, which here urge their way in foaming fury over its ragged cliffs. The same rock oceurs two miles east of the falls; but, as far as I examin~ ed it, it seemed to occupy no great space: 7 .
Stratification of Granite.
Probably the granite of Ponsecrieis will leave ae ques- tion* on this subject undecided. For some of itis evident- ly stratified and some of it isnot. That which exists in not very extensive beds exhibits, sofar as I have examined — the subject, the most decided marks of stratification. Itis’ not dnftadtient to see the bed divided into layers parallel to its roof and floor, and from one foot to two feet thick. This is readily distinguished from gneiss by the much greater thickness of the layers and the want of a stratified : ment of the ingredients. Yn other instances, more rare, however,- we observe what Saussune would call vereieal _ (feuillets )—that is, thick tables of granite perpendi-
to the horizon, crossing the bed sometimes at right an- pr ‘dee sometimes obliquely. These plates are also found making a dip tothe horizon—In all these cases, Seoaie the plates being parallel, or nearly so, the rock w properly denominated stratified. Examples of eae vari-
ous kinds of arrangem@ht may be seen in Conway, Wil-
liamsburg, Goshen, and Chesterfield. Yet the greater part ; of our granite is divided by numerous fissures into these ir- regular blocks that bid defiance to See description.
Granitic Ver eins.
By veins L enderitaiid: those zones of ony’ vapunioidih rocks, or mineral, which traverse another rock, either rec- tangularly or “obliquely to the direction ey its strata. Jn crossing the strata they differ from bods:
* See Greenough’s First Principlarof iskeameane: Fs
er —e See
Geology, &¢c. of the Connecticut. 13
Granitic veins are very numerous in many parts of the map, especially in the region of the South Hampton granite. In width they vary from a mere line to 30, and perhaps even 40 feet. But I have not observed any that exceed this breadth. They traverse mica slate, hornblende slate, limestone of a peculiar character, sienite, gneiss and gran- ite. ‘Those Pid traverse the latter rock differ from it cae in being of a finer, or a coarser grain, Yet they are as re- ally veins as those zones of granite traversing other rocks. Examples of these are frequertt—as near the South Hamp- ton lead mine.
In these veins all tHe i ingredients of granite are usually present, but in variable proportion. Ihave seen some that aes nearly or quite graphic granite: But usually the mica
superabundance, especially in the narrower ones, and on it is of adelicate straw or light green colour, as in Go- shen and Conway. The eee is sometimes of an ele-
owe ver veins peoretiit divide aa ubdivide ke the a tree, some of the branches being smaller and some larger. These branches rarely go off from the main stock at right angles, but generally oblique. At one place you will yeas a vein retaining its width for several feet, or even rods, w mathematical exactness—at another, its width will sii increase or decrease; and I have seen, in some instances, a sudden reduction of two or three inches, by which a.shoul- der was, poagpenae 6 The course. vot igi m6 ere veins is
cael siesta: or mass of the rock, except in ihe
sienite. Some of the veins feaversidy sienite, (between Belchertown and Ludlow for example,) are so numerous and their intersections so many, that they form what the Germans call a stock worke, except that they are not metal- ic. By these cross veins the surface of the rock is some- times divided into prem et ee or thomboids: and sometimes it is tesselated..
14 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut,
The veins traversing seinite are most frequently granite, felspar being of a flesh colour. They are more numerous in this than in any other rock, and are often intersected by one another and by thin veins of epidote. The crossing of these veins has produced many very interesting and singu- lar displacements: of portions of the rock. Where one vein is cut off by the intersection of one that is newer, it is not unfrequent to observe a lateral removal of the former with the whole mass of the rock surrounding it, from one to six inches. The vein itself, which is thus removed, is rarely altered or injured.
One of the most complete and curious cases: of. this kind is exhibited in Fig. 6... _ -was sketched by the eye without accurate admeasurement. A. B. C. is a triangular mass of Sienite 5 the sides of wh which are 6, 4, and 10 feet. A.B. is a fissure in the rock: B. C. a vein of epidote and A C. the line marking the lowest fini of the rock above the soil.
he whole rock is unbroken and as firmly united as any rock of this character ever is. There appear originally to have been two. veins of granite traversing the rock in its” longest direction, the smallest an inch wide at one end mee widening towards the «ther, and the These have been cut through ansatrinpaly sag ‘by! vies
d, &c. represent the veins of dopidows which are rarely more than one quarter of an inch thick, and a few oc which are represented on the plate
c isa mass of gneiss or mica slate imbedded i in the sienite and crossed by the granite vein:
(Vv es of this rock will be: described when we come to. speak of.s
In those ais cmH are . stratified these veins raked bing |
ible angle with the direction of the strata. And if Ido
not mistake, the nearer they approach to the same direction — as the strata, the broader they become, and have a nearer resemblance to beds. Sometimes they approach so near - the same course as the layers of the rock they eaaerny that it requires nice examination to determine whether they deviate at all. A good example of this occurs ina locality which many geologists have visited, and which many more
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 15
will probably visit. I refer to the main body of that enor- mous, vein containing the green tourmalin, rubelite, &c. in Chesterfield. We think it aight even admit of a ques- tion whether this bea bed or a vein. he. veins of which we are now epahleing are doubtless conte eous ones—that is, such as were consolidated at the same time with the rocks they traverse. ‘There is no seam or layer of another rock at their sides, but they are vs so firmly united to the rock which contains them, are separated from these with as much difficulty as ‘oo are broken in any other direction. I have, how- ever, frequently noticed a seam traversing the middle of the vein—so that if the rock they traverse be broken up, one will cleave toone side and one half to the other. _ A real dusus naturae exhibiting the fine cohesion of these veins to the rocks th ,now lies before me. A slab of granite being a vein 24 - o eatroners inches broad, and 20° eet es long, curved a little san Arte at — end, forms
the base of the» perpendicularly a bladed, eapervpclated column of a liar limestone, only 2 inches thick, 10 inches broad at shi base, and 26 —_ high, appearing as if mortised into the ranite. ‘The contrast between the light coloured granite and the dark aad limestone, is very striking. The secret of its having been brought into this singular form appears to be this. It was found in a mountain torrent in Conway, and. once formed a vein in the lime- stone. On one side the limestone has been. entirely worn away a the water—and = the other side, it is worn so as to.leave only the bladed column above described, which still adheres firmly to the granite. have said that these granitic veins are contemporane-
ous ones: And it would seem that the judgment of no man could be so warped by theory, as to believe, after examin- ing them, that they were once fissures made in the rocks — they teavereey _ these were consolidated, ie that these fi wer ed by a solution of water above, or by a fiery f situa ane There is just as much reason for believing that one of the constituents of granite, quartz for Papier was introduced. ‘into the rock 1 in this manner after the ot or that the imbed-
nae
16 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
ded crystals of ‘porphyeo are ant as the. a sa pam eel
“base. Pies ae oor eer ay Granitic veins are numerous in eishagh parts ofthe: rap.
Commence at — and go ssouthyvand>:theyemilisbe
found in abundance nearly: tothe ocean. » North of this town | have never™ “noticed any. Qn the wast side of. Con- necticut river, also, tt y j » partic y in Connecticut. » “Many of th the>inte esting minerals of Had
dam and Ch cur in thems sor ae aa os Vei of quartz" are i this regi _tra-
versing granite, j y. But they are not
re en TS ge Sa 1 7 ee i ai
pre Re Na Be cco tee nage SS co Be se ote! a See ne a ae aes Soa ae
hill between PONT aS eer . na we ip ‘ait a
Hage aba zB St 5 Ses Gir eee ihigg
Graphic Granite. hele H pe:
times the most. beautiful graphic grani The. nee = though it retains: its lustre most perfectly, mppinras: to be co
thoroughly i glomerate so as to become of adecp flesh worprens The quartz is gray and mptbnlie or moky, 2 g arranged
somewhat ke y t specimen are truly ; ele “gant. es ae Ge eee tee ee Fs
Sieaiollnes iennslidy? of. whiai rock, is the Goshen gran nite, : in the northeast corner | of: the. town. ‘The felspar i is of a snow white is its arrangement, that it bears a close resemblance to the Chinese or Hindostanee characters which are frequently paneer on qeennte Baste-lodiese« «20 ¢ «5
Re eee oe. wae eee i
2 ee ION hg en seanh $0: - co Lt mo 7 | - ‘al o Paes. ot yee ats 2 me! bce
™ hae fot. Ze, —~ This handsome © sin great dance in loose es sail ie Pid a: ae through
rolled pieces alon g mm. -~ i et aii
-Levere re } «é fi hie "a one: to two
inches “ and a half” or. three quarters broad, and some-
= §c. of the Connecticut. 17
ture.
This porphyritic granite is carefully to be distinguished from glandulous gneiss, which also-occurs abundanily along the Connecticut. Let any one pass from Hinsdale, New- Hampshire to Winchester and he willsee numerous bowlders, often ten feet diameter, of a rock having the granite constit- uents and exhibiting no appearance of a schistose structure. In one place at least he will cross the rock in place ; and he will have no doubt that it is the most decided granite. And yet it is Fs porphyritic. This rock cccurs also in Chester where Dr. Emmons has traced a range of it five or six se _Nennieu bowlders of this rock are scattered over the town of Woodbridge near New-Haven: but T do not know from whence they originated.
Pseudomorphous Granite.
I put this adjective to a variety of granite that occurs along the Connecticut, not to show my dexterity at coining new terms, put to make myself understood. I am inclined, how- ever, to think that the rock to which I refer is not exactly de- scribed in the geological books which I have seen, unless
ithe by Cleaveland, when he says, “some varieties (of gran-
ite) are divisible into imperfectly columnar or tabular con- eretions.” (Mineralogy, vol. 2, p. 732.) It is a coarse grained granite with light coloured quartz and feldspar, ar- ranged i in the usual manner. The peculiarity lies in the mi- ca. This is usually dark coloured, and arranged in plates from one to three inches across. The manner in which these are disposed, may be thus explained. Su
quartz and felspar to have been cemented together so as to form a perfect graphic granite. Next suppose the mass to be cut in various directions by a fine saw; and in the spaces thus made, imagine thin plates of mica, not more than * of an inch tick, to be — It is obvious that the
Vor. VI.—No.
'
is Geology, §c. of the Connecticut.
mass will thus be cut up into segments of pseudomorphous erystals. And so it is in the natural specimens: and it seems as though the hand of ici had really made use of a saw in their construction. The plates of mica meet at various angles, yet never cross each other; and the smallest piece of quartz or felspar is sometimes bisected, so that a part appears on one side of the plate of mica and a part on the other. This rock occurs in the S. Hampton granite ; and may frequeotly be found in other parts of the region extending fifty miles south from Conway. Ata little dis- tance the dark bronzé coloured mica appears like prisms of some imbedded mineral: and the travelling geologist is of- ten tempted from his carriage in the almost certain expecta- tion of obtaining from this rock shor] or titanium.
2. GNeEIss. Coloured Orange.
Although this is the most abundant re in New-England, yet the map includes no very extensive portion of it. It stretches over a broad region without the limits of the ma on the east and west, especially on the east. On the west it forms a part of the Hoosack or Green Mountains; though a much less part than has been usually supposed. On the east appears with some interruptions of granite, mica slate, &c. within twenty or thirty miles of the coast, and on the north it spreads over a considerable part of New-Hampshire. The White hills are said to consist chiefly of this rock : though they have not, I believe, been thoroughly explored.
The dip of the layers of gneiss in this region varies frora 20° to 90°—and it dips, like most other stratified rocks along the Connecticut, to the east. When it approaches to horp-— blende slate the dip is generally greater than when pure. This rock often contains crystals of hornblende; in every propertion, indeed, until the characters of gneiss are lost in hornblende slate. Especially is this the case on the east side of Connecticut river. More, however, will be said on this subject when we come to describe hornblende slate.
ood examples of this gneiss containing detached crystals and even veins of black hornblende may be seen in the base- ment of the new Collegiate Institution in Amherst. It fur-
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 19
nishes an admirable stone for such purposes; and many quarries are opened in it. Immense tables of it may be procured, and should the mania for constructing pyramids ever seize the inhabitants of New-England, this gneiss might produce masses of stone rivaling in magnitude the im- mense limestone blocks of the pyramids of Egypt.
The gneiss of the Connecticut, often alternates with mica slate, and passes into it. In Granville, may be seen ait hornblende slate and mica slate, in various stages 0
roach to each other, and making various alternations.
This mixture of gneiss with other rocks, and the — an indistinctness of character, render it, in some instances, very easy to give its limits. I have felt this difficulty ae
appears so decided in its characters in Bristol, Plymouth,
and Canton. In the west part of Granville, I fsel eaiihilent gneiss is the ae rock—although mica slate oe 9 with it. Yet bet sr nestor Wesifield nothing but mica slate, as te paren naee which extends twelve or fourteen miles west of Chester, before we come to gneiss. And north of this we find very little gneiss within the limits of the map except a narrow stratum as we ascend the hill from Cummington to Goshen. I do not, therefore, feel ex- actly satisfied with the northern termination of the Litch- field gneiss as given on the map: but at present it is not in my power to re-examine it.
1 would here, however, suggest that I have been rather inclined to believe that some of the stratified rocks along the Connecticut pass gra dalla into other rocks /aterally, that is, in the direction of the <aecehgbeabei slate, for in-
ca slate. To establish this fact, homavet requites long
suggest it, ae and do not assert it.
nstances, the ingredients of our gneiss are pret- ty equally sails in others they are arranged in somewhat distinct layers, which are generally straight. It is not-a — that is rich in ae with us. Veins of granite tra-
t, howev ver. so conta:
3 WASLGIhs
ing it Wi peaks the Haddam pics
as
20. Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
Glandulous Gneiss.
This is very abundant, especially in the gneiss east of Connecticut river. Indeed, a considerable proportion of that range is occasionally glandulous, presenting numerous oval masses, chiefly of felspar. The layers of this variety of gneiss are usually very distinct, and it contains a large proportion of mica, which is usually of a blackish colour; and thus it is easily distinguished from the porphyritic gran- _ ite above described.
3. Hornpuenps —— CLRAVELAND. Coloured Vermillion, Red, and clouded with India Ink.
This is an anomalous and perplexing rock. It is not generally well characterised in this region: but I have put it down, because a rock approaching nearer the characters of this than of any other, occurs along the Connecticut. I have no eae pie however that I have given in all cases its exact situation or extent. Yet I believe that wherever this stratum is coloured on the map, the. rocks may be found i in the vicinity. Thus in the range d, Ct.a person willgen- erally find this rock more or less abundant in crossing from the secondary rocks to the gneiss: but sometimes he may thus cross and miss of it, unless he make an excursion to the right or left; and sometimes he must cross a portion of the gneiss before "he reaches it, ‘The continuity of the strata of this rock seems to be much less perfect than in the gneiss or mica slate, and the direction of the strata if often oblique to that of other rocks :—a remarkable instance of which occurs in the south east corner of Halifax, Vt. The dip of the strata varies from 45° to 90°, and the schistose structure in the purest specimens is very perfect, the layers varying in thickness from half an inch to three inches.
But there is another difficulty in ascertaining the limits of this rock. It is no easy matter to draw the line between it and gneiss, all, or at least, two of the ingredients of the lat- ter rocks being sometimes present, while more than half of the rock is hornblende. Indeed, I have sometimes been dis-
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 21
posed to regard this rock as gneiss containing an accidental proportion of hornblende; and this would have been a satis- actory description of a considerable part of the rock which I have called hornblende slate. But another part appears to be decidedly that species of Werner’s primitive trap de- scribed under the name of hornblende slate in Rees Cyclo- pedia, Article Trap—that is, it consists of bdveblesdes gen- erally fibrous and crystalline, having a very distinctly siaty- structure. For localities of this well characterized horn- blende slate I would mention the eastern part of Halifax, Vermont, also New Fane and Belchertown, two miles north of the meeting house on the west side of the road, and in the ware part of Tolland and Monson. owever that the largest part of this rock will be found “ consist of hornblende, quartz and mica—the latter beiog usually black and very apt to be confounded with the rnblende, so that perhaps it deserves the name of a granitic aaveane In some instances, also, this rock contains chio- rite, and verges towards greenstone slate. It is often ee intermixed, and alternates with gneiss and mica slat Anas portion of this rock has a porphyritic aspect. I use the term porphyritic in this place, not in the usual
tals, but as a “granite ground, in which some crystals are much larger than the rest.” (Bukewell’s Geology, p. 28.) The slaty structure of the rock, though less distinct, is not lost: but the imbedded fragments, or imperfect crystals of quartz or felspar, most frequently the former, give it a porphyritic appearance. These imbedded fragments are frequently granular, while. the base is distinctly crystalli- zed. A good example of this a of rocks occurs in the west part of Chatham and in Shelburne. Sometimes this
Hawley, a few rods west of the meeting-house, and at the falls in Deerfield river in Shelburne.
These porphyritie rocks. however, must be quite different from any thing occurring in Europe by this name, if a re~ mark of Brongniart be correct, that “we are not at present able to find a sienite or porphyry which is evidently primi- tive.” For we have as much evidence of the primitive char-
22 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
acter of the rocks above described, as of the mica slate and gneiss with which they are associated and in which they sometimes form beds.
Hornblende slate occurs on the west side of Connecticut river, south of Shelburne, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, also at Plainfield and Hawley. But it is not abundant or well characterized generally, and is much mixed with, an passes into other rocks; and therefore I have coloured it only in the range from Belchertown to Guilford and from Shelburne northward. Good examples of the rock contain- ing quartz and some mica may be seen in the flagging stone of the side walks along the eastern side of the Public Square in New-Haven, and in other parts of that city.
&
4. Mica Suare. Coloured Green.
This is an extensive stratum in the northern part of the map. On the west side of the river it forms the prevailing rock; and its width continues to increase northerly, so that it occupies the principal part of Vermont. Prof. Silliman in his “’Tour between Hartford and Quebec,” says that he crossed this slate obliquely from Burlington to Hanover, a distance of 84 miles, and found mica slate by far the most abundant rock on the route. (Tour, &c. p. 386.) In Con- necticut, however, along the river, this rock constitutes no ve- ry broad ranges. Those which are coloured immediately in contact with the secondary on both sides of the Connecticut are in most places quite narrow, often not more than half a mile, or even but a few rods wide, and sometimes they whol- ly disappear and we pass from the sandstone immediately to the hornblende slate or gneiss.
The dip of our mica slate is variable from 20° to 90°. In Vermont it is usually less than in Massachusetts; especially where we first strike it in passing from the river. Farther south, as in Hadley, Plainfield, Chesterfield, &c. it approach- es 90°. East of Chesterfield the layers of this rock lean to the west. Beyond Chesterfield, on the west, they lean the contrary way—that is, to the east. The same is the case between Chester and Westfield. This fact looks like an indication of a fundamental ridge of granite, extending in
Geology &c. of the Connecticut. 23
that direction, as we have already suggested; although it may not yet have made its appearance above the later rocks the whole distance.
is rock is somewhat Protean in its appearance; yet not very difficult in most cases to be distinguished by care- ful observation. The following varieties have been noticed in this region. 1. A variety already referred to, as occur- ring in Leverett, near the pudding-stone; which is scarcely any thing more than imperfectly Jimpid quartz, divided into distinct rhombic concretions, about an inch thick, and three or four across the outside, slightly spangled or glazed with mica. 2. Very much like the last, except that it does not divide into complete rhombs, but is only separated by seams oblique to the direction of the strata, and nearly perpendic- ular to the horizon*—Locality, West-River mountain in Chesterfield ie plas es 3. Divided as the feat by
e becomes a mere siliceous sand, blended closely with the mica. Surface rarely waving—Locality, Whately, Con- way, &c. 4. Not regularly divided in any direction, ex- cept that of the strata, and much less fissile than the last. Mica scattered in fine scales through the mass, and the silex more abundant than the last—Rock breaking into huge blocks, from one to three feet thick, and often forming, like greenstone, abundance of debris. Locality, West-River mountain and Deerfield. These four varieties occur on the
i
ised, forming a kind of glazing “ath ne aspect of ere ‘
mica in somewhat distinct layers—quartz predominating, and mica not very well characterised—abounding in garnets. —Locality, Plainfield, Hawley, Conway, &c. 7. Passing in- to talcose slate—mica abundant, having somewhat of a ae brous aspect and connected with talc. Northfield and Haw-_ ley. 8. Passing into argillite. Locality, Leyden, Ches-
*<cWhen one set of parallel planes crosses anot! Se , are both seteto be cal- led strata, or neither, or only one of them >? _ Greenough’ s Geology, Essay 1.
24 Geology, dc. of the Connecticul.
terfield, (N. H.)} Putney, &c. 9. Not very fissile—break- ing into thick blocks. Mica, abundant but poorly charac- terised—having somewhat the aspect of argillite—surface slightly irregular, appears as if grooved—Abundant in Cum- mington, Chesterfield, (Mass.) Vernon, Bolton, &c. 10. Quartz granular, abundant and white—resembling gneiss or grnite—scaresy stratified at all—Locality, Buckland, Granville, &c. 11. Mica in distinct and abundant plates— layers very _ tortuous or uneven. This usually lies next to granite. 12. Passing into gneiss—often rendered por- phyritic by ben of Eldapat- A ccality, Litchfield county.
e quartz that occurs in this mica slate, especially in the wavy and tortuous varieties, is commonly the white limpid: frequently it is athe fetid, and sometimes a rich vari- ety of a delicate red color. e coloring matter, however, is apparently iron, and mhieciar! itis not the rose-red quartz. This variety of quartz occurs on the west side of the Con- necticut.
It has peo been remarked, under granite, that nu- merous: of this rock are contai : n- deed, our mica slate more frequently rests ieiiiedintel up- on granite, without the intervention of avy other rock, than does gneiss. It also alternates with gneiss, hornblende slate, argillite and chlorite slate. Small particles of it, in- deed, occur in very many places throughout the whole ex- tent of the primitive along the Connecticut.
It is a common remark in geological books, that hills composed of mica slate are usually less steep and more rounded than those of granite. But the reverse is the fact in most eases along this river. The granite hills are gener- ally low and rounded, while some of the most Tarpeian precipices to be found in this region are composed of mica slate. Take for examples West t River Mountain, and the high hills of Heath, Hawley, Chesterfield, &c.
Mica slate is not wanting in a variety of minerals in this section of the country—such, for instance, as staurotide and garnets in immense quantities in Goshen, Chesterfield, Mass. and from Bolton, Conn. one huadred miles north, to Chesterfield, New-Hampshire. Also the fine Chesterfield sippare. Also the red oxid of titanium, found almost ev- ery where between Conway and Brattleborough, a distance
Pi thirty miles--and the Leyden tremolite—the Putney
Bape tes op iphthosa an
Brattle
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 25
green fluor spar, and the Wardsborough zoisite. The Coen Cobalt mine occurs in mica slate.
The cry ptogamous plants that usually overspread a great part of the mica slate of this region, though perplexing to the mere geologist, are yet interesting to the botanist. Among those which adhere to these pele or to the little soil that collects in their cavities, may named, Bartra- mia gracilis, Smith, B. longiseta, Ma? 'B. crispa, Swartz, Hedwigia filiformis, P. Beuuv. in great abundance; Arrhe- nopterum heterosticum, Hedw urbaumia aphylla, La Fissidens saiaathowses, Bryun roseum, Diphyscrum falio- sum, Spreng. Polytrichum as Me Mea. Jungermannia pg solar i platyphylla hs: Cenomyce phyllaphera, and Ach. Stereocaulon paschale, Parmelia herba- erata,Porina apillosa,and periusa, Peltr- d scutata, and Stieta ey yetasliom au of
Teg ih
ea aph
.
“HL. serpen essiforme, Hedw. Jungermann ‘a modsfo. ea orvey Mesck dligtpus trichome, Hed. Pterigonium subcapillatum, Brid. Neckera minor, Brid. N. pennata,Hed, N, viticulosa,Hed. Cenomyce coccifera, Sri) ike botrys, §c.—Parmelia colpodes, ulothrix, cyelocelis, parietina, plumbea, bias —Lecanora tuberculata, ren nme brunnea, al- bella, §c.— Lecidea purmaceno, cameola, d demissa, ne s-
striata, Sicko facile Balers silans badius ts si is, nigro-marginatus, cinnabarinus, velutinté; Feadinus, &e. all of Fetoes and many scores besides of Agaricus,
‘ aoe in this place,
d among the mica slate rocks we peeeeae find the Helix altolabris, Say, or common snail; and a some situations, H. aliernata, Svy. Ina pond i in Dieta is found sake bicarinatus Faz. y, and Cyelas similis, Suy.
26 Geology, yc. of the Connecticut
In springs occurs a species of Lymnaca, Say, and i in our Jar- ger streams, Planorbis trivolvis and Unio purpureus, Say, or common river clam.
5. Tancose Stare. Rees Cyc. Bakewell. Talcose Schist. Maccullock. Taleose Slate. Eaton. Colored Gamboge yellow, and dotted with India Ink.
Bakewell defines this rock to be “slate containing tale,”
ema 2s 491,) and Eaton calls it “that kind of mica slate ich is distinguished from mica slate by a kind of talc eee »* Tn this term I do not include soapstone.
There is but one stratum of this rock in the region of the map, of sufficient extent to render it necessary to delineate it. I have sometimes noticed on the east side of Connecticut. river a kind of talco-micaceous slate: but not in. a and rarely in place. T have crossed the u | colored on the map in Whitingham, Vt. where it is not less than a mile and a half in width. Ihave traversed it also in tlawley and Plainfield, and Professor Eaton says it extends into Worthington—-so that on his authority I have extended it thither, T e rock is of a much lighter color than mica
slate. Ata distance, indeed, it has the aspect of gneiss. The tale is nearly white, though sometimes of a light green, and it contains.a large proportion of silex. ‘The strata are but little undulating and nearly perpendicular, leaning a few degrees to the west. On its east side, where it passes into mica a slate, an intermediate talco-micaceous rock is found, containing numerous distinct crystals of black hornblende, ihrown in promiscuously, and exhibiting the most elegant specimens. One variety hasa ground that is green; anoth- er has a white ground, and the contrast between these and the imbedded crystals is striking. Large slabs of this rock may easily be obtained; and if it will admit of a polish, it would certainly be a bea uutiful addition to those marbles and porphy ries that are wrought for ornamental purposes. The varieties of this rock may be seen in any direction a few rods from the meeting house in Hawley; as likewise many
Geology, $c. of the Connecticut. 27
other singular and curious aggregates which I have never ace. Among these is sienitic porphy- ry—and sometimes the talco-micaceous rock has its surface covered with delicate fascicular groups of hornblende. he micaceous iron ore occurs in the talcose slate, and I have never seen any of this sort of ore in any cabinet that will compare at all for beauty with that in Hawley.
6. Cutorite State. Cleaveland. Uncolored, but dotted with black.
In the region under description, know of but two deposits of this rock of sufficient extent to be marked on the map; viz. at West-Haven and Milford* and in Whitingham, Vt. At the former on it is but imperfectly characterised, espe- cially -at its - ots extremity. As we approach the coast, in West- n, its characters become more decided, end’ hele we find et erous ae crystals of octahedral
magnetic iron ore disseminated through it. Where the cliffs of this slate have long been buffeted by the waves of the ocean, these crystals have een worn out, and are de- posited in large quantities, in the form of iron sand, on the beach. On the east side of West-Haven harbour, at the Light House, also, this sand appears in equal abundance— and tons of it may easily be collected. On that side of the harbour there is no chlorite slate; and whether the iron
* sand found there is the remnant of former chloritic strata now wholly aaa kets or whether it is washed up from the bottom e Sound, where these rocks doubtless exist, remains Bidileditical The latter supposition, however, seems most probable.
The chlorite slate of West-Haven is extremely tortuous and undulating, and is traversed by numerous irregular seams of white quartz. It alternates with greenstone slate and passes into it; and also with mica slate, These three rocks are often so blended together that the distinctive characters of each are lost. And as we approach the strata of the Verd Antique, they seem to embrace also some of the prop-
*West-Haven and a part of Milford wiki recently been incorporated in- to a separate town by the name of Oxford
25. Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
erties of this, and often to pass into it. Hence it is no easy
matter, in many instances, to give a name to the Milford slate Kelis, and the alternations above named, and also with unstratified primitive greenstone, are numerous—so that it was not possible in coloring the map to give to each of these rocks the precise situation which they occupy on the surface
The direstion of the chlorite slate strata, of which we have been speaking, is from north-east to south west. They dip to the south-east, and their angle of depression below the horizon rarely exceeds 30°. Sometimes, however, it is 90°. | think it will be found that the rocks of Woodbridge and Milford pass laterally into one another. Thus, the chlorite slate at its northern extremity is usually somewhat talcose in its appearance, approaching to argillite, and as you pass south, its characters continue to be more and more developed.*
The chlorite slate colored in Whitingham, is the best characterised I have ever seen in New-Engiland. It seems to be nearly pure chlorite, yet distinctly stratified, the lay- ers béing nearly petpendicl, leaning, however, a few de- grees to the west. _f know but little concerning the extent of this stratum. Where I have crossed it, it was less than half a mile in width. Ihave given it a place principally to excite an attention to it.
This rock also occurs in beds in argillite in Guilford, Vt. but they are not extensive. -
7. Srenite. Cleveland.
Colored Gamboge Yellow, and crossed by oblique parallel
black lines.
This rock is marked in three places on the map. The first is in Whateiey and of very smal] extent—the second extends from Whately to the south part of Northampton ; and the third is in Belchertown and Ludlow. The rock in the two last places is very much eres being for the most part a kind of sienitic granite. In the first mentioned lo- _ eality the rock is considerably diferent from that in the oth-
*] am indebted to Prof. Silliman for this suggestion.
%
Rte eee
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 29
ers. I shall confine my remarks principally to that range extending from — to Northampton, because I have examined this m
s above is doa this range appears to be most] a si- enitic granite, that is, a modification of granite; and very different from that sienite which is associated with gray- wacke and greenstone. A person coming from the wesi or north-west towards the village of Northampton, will pass over the most decided granite, associated with mica slate, till he comes within four or five miles of that place. He will then find the texture of the rock to be finer, and in some instances it contains a portion of hornblende, while the pro- portion of quartz is somewhat. diminished, the felspar frequently becomes red. Veins of graphic and common granite, iti » Xe. are more Preset and the rock ap-
yect, while in a “or nah few feet distant, this mineral is Pabelly wanting. ccd er N orthampton, however, we find the hornblende more and more abundant, until we arrive at the eastern edge of the range, where we finda rock containing little else than fel- spar and hornblende,forming a real sienite. [have never yet seen a specimen, however, in which careful inspection could not discover both mica and quartz. ‘The felspar is usually deep flesh colored, and the hornblende sometimes black and sometimes green. On the eastern border of this range, especially about two miles north of the village of Northamp- ton, on the west side of the stage road, this sienite assumes a trappose and somewhat columnar fortn, both among the loose masses and those in place.* Among the debris, the three sided pyramidal form is most frequent; sometimes we find a three sided prism, and sometimes, both among the loose masses and those in place, two, three or four faces ofa prism of a greater number of sides. Another spot for observing some interesting facts in re- gard to this rock, is the south part of Whately. Two miles south of the congregational meeting-house, on the road to
*This fact was first mentioned to me by that indefatigable and able natu- ralist, Mr. Thomas Nuttall. ’
30 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
tfield, is a ereeionnes: of common earthen ware, and here a small stream, running east, has cut across the great- er part of thas sienite range, and laid the rock bare nearly the whole distance, sehich does not te exceed half a mile. Leta person follow up the south side of this stream, and in some of the ledges he will perceive a distinct strati- fication of the sienite, though of little extent; one part o the same ledge being often stratified and the other amor- phous. In this place he will see, also, numerous intersec- tions of granitic and other veins by which a part of the rock has been displaced. In one of the ledges a little distance from this stream, on the south side of a pond, may be seen the eeteeina of Fig. 6.
Another interesting fact may be noticed in the sienitic. granite along ae stream, especially on the northern side, near the earthen ware manufactory. The rock here contains numerous imbedded masses of other primitive rocks, as gneiss, mica slate,quartz, hornblende, and a finer kind of sienite. And what is peculiar,is that these imbedded fragments are almost uniformly rounded—as_ much so.as those contained i in the
fragments as in
e have a eal conglomerated sienite, and I had al- most ede a conglomerated granite : for much of the rock containing these fragments is destitute of hornblende,while all the ingredients of granite are present. And the instan- ees in which this conglomerated rock occurs,are not confin- ed to the particular locality above named—but it is to be found in many other parts of the range. I have seen bowl- ders of it in Surry, Alstead and Walpole in New-Hamp- shire, but I did not there see the rock in place.
The Northampton sienitic range lies at a very low level. A considerable part of itis hidden by a deposit of sand through which it sometimes projects. The sienite in Bel- chertown is also rather low. All the remarks above made, in relation to the Northampton range, except that in regard to its conglomerated character, will l apply to this. The best
route which I have found for viewing this sienite,after cross-
Pe
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 31
ing it in several places, is to pass by the right hand road from Belchertown congregational meeting-house, to the meeting- house in Ludlow.
The narrow deposite of sienite which is Gree mentioned above, as occurring in Whately, is somewhat different in its characters. Let the observer proceed northerly on the main road from the congregational meeting house one mile, till he comes to the farm ofa Mr. Crafts. On the left hand side of the road he will find a ledge of rocks which are greenstone slate, nearly allied to hornblende slate, and some- times to chlorite slate. J.et him cross these strata westerly, about fifty rods, and he will come to a deposit of decided unstratified primitive greenstone, about twenty rods wide. Immediately succeeding this rock, he will find the sienite above named. It consists of nearly equal pro) ns 0 felspar and hornblende, the. latter of a dark green and of a distinctly crystalline structure; and the former white and —— or very finely granular, entirely destitute of a foli-
ted structure, or lust These
ingredients seem ‘3 be promiscuously blended, ae the rock appears to be peculiarly well adapted for being wrought and polished for useful and ornamental purposes. e bed is not very ex- tensive, only about six rods wide at the place above men- — and I have never been able to trace it more than one
r two miles. It is separated from the mica slate by a nar- row stratum of greenstone slate.
Sienite, or sienitic granite, sete in many eee places along t onnecticut; but in n o othapepinne she e I found it extensive enough to deserve a place on the map, except perhaps in Chatham, and with the relative situation of this I am not sufficiently well acquainted. Where I have crossed it, it appeared to form a bed in porphyritic hornblende slate.
8. Primitive Greenstone.—Cleaveland.
Colored Carmine or Rose Red, and marked “by parallel lines
crossing sack other.
This is one of Werner’s varieties of primitive trap. If it be asked what that is, I should suppose Mr. Maclure’s supposi- tion to be not an improbable one, that “what Werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact hornblende; or per-
32 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
haps the newest floetz trap when it happens to cover the primitive.” (Journal of Sci. Vol. 1. p. 212.) Yet there are two circumstances in regard to the rock here denominated primitive greenstone, along the Connecticut, which have le me to doubt its exact indentity with our newest floetz trap, or secondary greenstone. 1. The primitive greenstone is never amygdaloidal; while a great part of the secondary is so. 2. ‘The primitive greenstone not merely covers other rocks, but forms beds in them. An example of this may ‘be seen one mile east of the Milford marble quarry on what is called the old road leading to New-Haven ; where the greenstone lies between strata of a rich intermediate, between eae slate and mica slate, = the rocks have every ce of being contemporan
>yimiflive greenstone is _oaiedi in the oe places on e map, viz. at West-Haven and Milford—at Wolcott—at Whee, in the western part of Northfield and north part of Gill. In regard to that in Wolcott, or the Eastern part of Waterbury, I know but little, it being several years since I observed iy pre oes snow being on the ground at the time. I put it down merely fo for the sake of pointing out its locali
The: most extensive deposit of the rock is at West iirc and Milford; on both sides, but especially on the east side, of the Verd Antique stratum. The hummocks of it that appear very frequently, but irregularly, very much _ re- semble the detached hills of secondary greenstone, except that they are less elevated and the blocks of debris are usual- ly Jarger. A little south of the Derby turnpike, this is the first rock that shows itself as we ascend from the alluvial plain of New-Haven on the Humphreysville turnpike also, there is but a narrow stratum of chlorite slate separating it from the alluvion This greenstone often becomes stratified on both sides of eo ridge, forming greenstone slate. At first, we perceive rtial and interrupted stratification ; and in a few feet it isa decided, extending through the whole mass. There is also frequently seen a double stratification; 3; one set of planes crossing the otherrectangularly or obliquely. Vell characterized greenstone slate, however, is not abundant in Milford or West Haven. It usually soon passes into chlo- ritic slate, or even into a bastard mica slate. An account of
Sa ee MR ofl in St ra
pth i gaiig er paee Cay gh) A
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 33
these slates has been long since given to the public by Prof. Silliman in President Dwight’s Statistical account ot New- = page 11. Their strata run N. E. and 5. W. and dip to the S. E. The angle of depression below the horizon: nan exceeding 30° or 40°. nd specimens of this primitive greenstone and of the secondary greenstone from East or West Rock be exhibited toa ree te who had never visited the localities, and hesitate, I think, to pronounce that from East and West Rock to be primitive, and the other to be secondary ; and for the reason, that he would find the secondary green- stone to be much the coarsest and most crystalline. The primitive greenstone of this locality is finely granular, and agrees, in this respect, with Jameson’ s description of transi- tion greenstone. 1 ; 1 of Science, Vol. 2. p. 165.) that the Verd Antique of Mil- sibly Sig one eat ane this
: a oes on - fr
this marble and the saa may Sela tothe meee The finely granular texture of transition greenstone, is how- ever, by no means a distinctive character: since both the oe and floetz greenstones are described as possessing
- The range of primitive greenstone in 1 Northfield and Gill,
of secondary emma and extends i into Vernon. Its char-
ty. ely eau
Milford. Some of it hov pproacl the: ture of sienite: b t still the hornblend lominates. Itisof- ten " es and ofte Ce Mne mee eS ee ensto! one
pe Near the’ seater point I observed a pharm dike of limpid quartz several rods long and one foot wide, traversing this rock, having, a part of the distance, saalbandes of ffelspar.
The primitive greenstone occurring in Whately is some- what different in its characters from that in Milford. It is e irits texture, being some- times rendered almost st porphyrit ic by the imbedded peices of compact felspar, and sometimes being little else than pure hornblende. It is not extensive and alternates in one in- stance with sienite, the locality of which has heen pointed out in ig a ~agy the latter ie
Vou, VI
3d Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
The greatest part of this greenstone is greenstone slate, the strata having the same direction as that at Milford, and being nearly perpendicular to the horizon, bearing a few de- grees one way or the other occasionally. This slate is alse more crystalline than the same rock at New-Haven. tis however al sh es it from hornblende slate, towards which it verges sand i into which it probably passes. Notwithstanding the very deci- dedly fissile character of this slate, | have noticed in some instances a tendency in it to the trappose form ; some of the specimens having a cleavage, like many crystalsy:i in two di- rections, one coinciding with the direction of the strata and the other. ranning across the strata. The proportion of oa spar. in this rock is small, often alm rite, however, abounds as in the greenstone slate of Milford; and often it becomes a ‘oblate slate. Seams and beds of quartz are common in the Whately rock and also granu-
Jar epidote. ome of the rock colored, as hornblende slate in | Shel- burnes. wines me resembles certain i t Bt | avi*
eee an aifleale to. pre its line Soeae rote — d, by some, this Whately rock would probably be denominated horn- blende slate: but I think there is a distinction between the two rocks; and so long as any of the stratified rocks of Mil- ford retain the name of greenstone slate, it would seem the _ Whately rock, from its resemblance and similar associations
with unstratified primitive greenstone, demands the same ap- pellation, An observer will be struck with the resem- blance of the greenstone strata at these two places, and with their similar situation in regard to mica slate; and he will be disposed to enquire whether these rocks were not once continuous between these two places ;—and in the interme- diate space, he will find sufficient evidence in the great quan- tity of mingled detritus of other rocks, that the higher strata have suffered much from some levelling agent in former days.
"iceland RRO RES ;
Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 35
9. ARGILLITE. Colored Brick Red.
The remarks last made in regard to the primitive green- stone, chlorite slate, &c. will apply to this rock. For we find it near the two terminations of the secondary tract and on the —_ of it-viz. in Woodbridge at the south end, and com-
on the north at Leyden and extending at least as fa rae ae Vermont. The northern deposite is much the most extensive and is best characterized. In both places, however, it is often tortuous and slightly undulating, especially when passing into mica slate. It embraces nu- merous beds and “tuberculous masses” of white quartz— perhaps the milky quartz. The ae into mica slate is usually very — the characters of the argillite losing themselves by imperceptil e char nges- in those of the mica slate, so thi for a consider nee, the observer may be in doubt to which rock to volt the aggregate. The Woodbridge woe occasionally alternates with mica slate, (Journal Sci. Vol. 2. p. 203.) and I have ascertained that this is the case also with that of Vermont. That which is just beginning to pass into mica slate, alternates also with a peculiar coarse limestone to be described under the next ar- ticle; or rather, - limestone: forms beds in the argillite— for instance in ney.
Wee prine ‘ipal Shere in éxtending the map so much beyond
secondary region on the north, was to include all the mail llite to be found along the Connecticut. Whether I have
ected this object I am not certain. The Rev. E. D. Andrews, who communicated to me several facts on this subject, is of opinion that the northern limit of the argillite is on the south side of Williams’ river in Rockingham, three miles north of Bellows Falls; but he had not examined the regions beyond with sufficient care to decide the point _ certain
In Guilford, Vermont, this argillite alternates with a pecu- liar rock which Professor Dewey remarks appears “ to be a talco-argillite with much quartz.””. Its stratification is less perfect than the argillite ; or, rather, it has more of the ir- regularities and tortuosities of mica mates Its small extent
36 Geology, ce. of the Conneeticut.
and imperfect characters prevented my putting it down asa distinct rock. The stage road from Greenfield to Brattle- rough passes over it in the southern part of Guilford. At the same place occurs well characterized paige ie 3 but not constituting any extensive range.
One mile south of this spot, another rock occurs, whee an observer, at first sight, would pronounce to be granite, It is unstratified* and has the color of granite; but seem be made up chiefly of quartz with a little mica interspersed. it seems to be an aggregate to which no particular name has as yet been applied; although the proportion of mica is so small that it might almost be called quartz ee It ap- pears to form a large bed in argillite, or talco-argillite.
he strata of argillite, both in Connecticut ont Vermont, run in a direction nearly N. E. and S. W. and are highly in- clined, generally varying but little from perpendicular. They are undoubtedly primitive—that is, the evidence of this is as great asin regard to the mica slate; both being highly inclined, and destitute of organic remains. Indeed, Bakewell, who has transferred argillite to the transition class, sé mica
- 3 ge gs yt ere
latter withrocks oft
whether mica slate should not also have Wine Rubae to the same class.” (Geology p. 83.) Do we not here see to what temptations the system maker is exposed, when pres- sed with difficulties? However, as Professor Kidd remarks,
*¢ By stratification we understand the divisions of a mass of rocks into many pase: portions whose Mean 2 bay Hon Pes exceed ihete 22 ess.’ 9, p-
ic tA soa & Te J, ee oe a te 2 If so, let us hear no more of Pantoainpol 8 pete basin shape, a aped stratification tgcsahgs Bhd Geology, Essay 1. I w d beg liberty to enqui ire, whether some of these difficulties might not te ait 1 by defining stratification (o be the divisi mass of rock into many parallel or concentric ions? But a all, this, ikea other definitions in natural history, is only an approximation to the truth
ne: if mathematical exactness be essential, we sabe never yet seen any rock ivi chet either parallel or concentric, Bakewell’s abr
¢ appt p. 21.) between “ithe structure which is caused by
cys erys niillidation, and mechanical depositions,’? would saay 4 give relief to some lties in regard to stratification, were ge agreed have a structure caused by chemical agency and what
ones are mechanical deposites. But are arent on this point, as 18 Sraent fr rom the very example he ie weiss to iostrate his fond ery ice ir _
sh Saieponition.
Se ETN
ea
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 37
* it seems “the terms peivitiee and transition are daily be-
coming of less importa
Quarries have nati pray in the Woodbridge engi and it is employed in New-Haven for building, mont also, they have been wrought in Guilford, and Poe two also in Dummerston, S. E. of the centre of the town, two in Putney, one and a half miles north of the meeting-house, and one in Rockingham, a mile north of Bellows Falls. In most of these the slate is of a good quality and easily ob-
tained; but at present they are not much wrought on ac-
count of the little demand for it, and consequent low price.
10. LamesTone.
«tend Leonstenes Eaton, inden, Se. ee
_ This rock, in the country ‘covered by the map, always exists in beds in mica slate and argillite: never eccu- pying, however, so much as half the surface. I have co- lored it in that region where it occurs most abundantly, peck is, in the mica slate nearest the argillite and the sand- tone; although its beds exist in nearly all the mica slate sein of Northampton on the west side of the river. It is remarkably uniform in its appearance. Its exterior, when it has long been exposed to the weather, is of a dark brown color, showing more marks of decomposition than any other seek in this region. The carbonate of lime is usual- ly worn away at least an inch deep on the surface, and the silex and mica are left in coarse grains, or warts, or in projecting ridges. When newly broken the mica is uniform- ly of a light gray, and the texture is coarsely granular and dull, except the glimmering of scales of mica. The con- stituents of the rock are carbonate of lime, mica and silex, in somewhat bite. proportions. In a specimen sent to Prof. Dewey, he found about fifty per cent of carbonate of lime and fifty of silex and mica. He judged that the silex constituted about thirty five per cent and the mica fifteen: and he judiciously adds, “ the mica is in so great proportion you cannot call it silicious limestone. At least ht it not to be a : — aggregate, or silicious limestone mixed with mic
38 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
yet it seemed to deserve a place on the map, anda descrip- tion Koa 4
11. Verp Antique.—Cleaveland. — “a
chlorite slate, with which it sometimes alternates. I am inclined, however, to the opinion, that the slate lying im- mediately contiguous to the Verd Antique, although not well characterised, approaches nearest to greenstone slate. Yet, decided chlorite slate, appears usually only a few rods distant. In some places, the Verd Antique is a quarter of a mile in width, and forms ledges of considera- ble elevation and extent. It is stratified—the layers being thick and parallel to the slate rock enclosing it. The grain is fine; the rock is traversed by veins of calcareous spar, magnesian carbonate of lime, and asbestus; and is associated with chromate of iron and magnetic oxide of iron, diffused, more or less, through the entire body of
e marble, and forming dark spots and clouds. The ser- pentine is twisted and entangled in the limestone in almost every form, and the green color of the rock may in gene-
LTE ea eer
‘not, by resorting 1o Barepe= for
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 39
ral be imputed to oxid of chrome—sometimes to the pres- ence of serpentine, colored however, probably by the same oxid.
This rock has been extensively quarried in two places, one in Milford, 7 miles from New-Haven, and the other only 23 miles from. the city. From these are obtained a marble which vies for elegance with any in the world. In- deed, in the extensive collection of marbles and porphy- ries in Col. Gibbs’ cabinet in Yale College, we appeal to those who have seen them, whether any specimens exceed, or even equal in beauty and richness the Verd Antique from Milford. The varied Sarason? and Prams of the gray,
this marble is difficult and expense: and it is earnestly hoped that the patrician tot of our amet ged will : - for ma , , to say the
least, are no more elegant than this, conned the proprie- tors of these quarries to abandon the undertaking. Spe- cimens of this marble may be seen in most of the dwel- lings of the wealthy citizens of New-Haven; and many of the monuments in the grave yard of that city, are of the Verd Antique. Several chimney pieces of it may be seen in wo Gir os at Washington.
of these facts in relation to this rock, I derive from thai nblished accounts of it by Professor Silliman. (See Cleavalanis Mineralogy under Gran. Limestone, Marble, and Verd Antique, 2d Edit. Also, Journal Sci. vol. 2, p. 165.) A minute account of this interesting forniation is still wanting; and Mr. Silliman has promised it. ae
Jour. Sci. vol. 2, p. 166.)
12. Op Resi Sawpstone. Werner. Cleaveland.
Itis agreed I believe among Geologists who have ex- amined this region, that an extensive deposite of this rock exists along the Connecticut. (See Cleaveland’s Mineralo- gy, 2d Edit. p. 759. Eaton’s Index 2d Edit. p- 207. between Hartford and Quebec, p. 21, and Maclure’s Geol- ogy of the United States.) Itis probably the oldest se- condary rock in this region, and generally lies beneath all
40 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
the rest. So that it does not, ] apprehend, occupy so much of the surface, as is generally supposed. There is much slaty sandstone, red and gray, and some of it very argilla- ceous, found along this river, which does not appear to be the old red sandstone of Werner; but to bea different formation, which I have denominated the Coal Formation ; and which others have called gray wacke slate. Iknow o
no instance in which | am certain that decided old red sandstone lies above the coal formation; although they evidently pass into one another. This coal formation, with the secondary greenstone and alluvion, occupies, I should judge, nearly two thirds: of the secondary tract along the Connecticut; leaving not more than one third for the old red sandstone. This rock occupies the greatest extent of surface, as the map will show, in the vicinity of New-Haven. Along the western side of the secondary, it may be found all the distance, (occasionally covered by alluvion,) from New-Haven to Bernardston, Mass. Yet, it forms but few ridges or peaks of much altitude until we come to the south part of Deerfield. There it rises ab- ruptiy from an alluvial plain in the form of the frustrum of a cone, five hundred feet above the Connecticut; and the peak is called Sugar Loaf; being but a few rods in diame- ter at the top, and forming a striking feature in the scene- ry of the country. This is the commencement of a range, which, five miles north, rises 700 feet above the adjoining plain, and then slopes to the north, almost disappearing in Greenfield ; but rising again in the northern part of the » town and sending off one or two spurs into Gill.
e grain, even of the finest variety of this sandstone, may be called coarse. Its colour is dark reddish, some- times presenting spots or veins, of light gray, as in Hat- field, Mass. Its cement is argillo-ferruginous, and the rock usually exhales an argillaceous odour when breathed upon. It contains a large quantity of light gray mica, the plates being sometimes half an inch, or more, across, and insert- ed promiscuously. This description applies to the finest varieties of old red sandstone. But this passes imto and alternates with conglomerates of the same general charac- terand of various degrees of coarseness. The imbedded peb- bles, vary in size from that of a musket ball to four or five inches in diameter. They are usually quartz, felspar, graphic
Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 41
and common granite, and. rarely gneiss or mica slate. The coloring matter of the rock, in most instances, has penc- — through these pebbles, giving the granitic nodules the same color as the rock, and the quartz a bluish as- rat ‘This conglomerate frequently. aligunates: with the sandstone, and one-half rin ae layer of a rock is sometimes sandstone, and th fissure. be ing between — ee ‘speaking, A en Pp nereases in quantity and-.coarenesssa8 ome ascend a aiaahaies of this rock, and al) the upper. ' the hill is sometimes composed of it. Probably morethan one half of the old aed ona: in n the northern ie 4 mere variety of the
“ek,
Me
ect fee ade. At least, there is one - ery. abai variety that is not found on the west side. It consists o fine, siliceous, red sand, adhering together with but vey little visible cement. It has, however, an argillaceous jour. The coherence is not as strong as in the coarser sandstone, it being slightly friable. This rock may be seen in picts in the southwest corner of Ludlow, and the east part of Long Meadow, Enfield, Somers, Ellington, re “4 ‘a herrodkf the rapitewatrh gues laeae other ne fami have ever seei oF aa t of this range of red eaneonnse0et of Connecti-
| ry | towards the sandstone constitating the ¢ coal formation mples o y be xtens ive quarry in Shatin, and also in Mi i Teton eet seems to be a aR passage of - one rock into the other—and | the stra f both r have their ip i aes a. irs as Ff lead one, at "fists to conclude tha this old red ‘one lies | above the coal formation. The ipo both fos is ae east. At de
2. aD eee I a
ihe te tg god in ie repose on the other t ied
‘Thus, let A B bea profile crossing the valley of the Connec-
ticut, and exhibiting the strata of old red sandstone, having Vor. VI.—No. 1. : 6
42 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
a dip as represented by the parallel lines. Let C D bea deposite of the coal formation lying upon the old red sand- stone, the strata of which have the same dip. Now, to an observer passing along the surface from A to D, the red sandstone, between A and C, appears to: lie upon the coal formation between C and D, whereas, the reverse is the fact. ‘This might apply to the rocks we are considering in Connecticut, were it not for what I think to be the fact, that there is a gradual passage of the old red sandstone in- to the coal formation.
These, and some other circumstances, made me _suspi- cious, for a time, that this range of sandstone east of Con- necticut river, might not be the real old red sandstone, but a member of the coal formation ;—and it was not till I had traversed it the third time, that I felt entirely satisfied. But much of it certainly does not differ, at all as I could discern, from the old red sandstone on the western side of the river; and we find likewise the very same conglome- rate. The strata also, are of a similar thickness and dip, varying asto the form,from six inches to two or three feet; and as to the latter from 10° to 30°; usually, how- eyer, not more than 10°. This dip, in all the red sand- stone of the Connecticut, is below the eastern part of the horizon, with the single exception of a ledge that appears in the west street of Hatfield, where the dip is to the
st.
This rock is extensively quarried for the purpose of building, in almost every town along the river. Noble specimens may be seen in the vestibules of the churches in
New-Haven.
yd i a ace a ca aa ee ee
Geology &c. of the Connecticut. 43 _ Remains:
These are very rare in our old <0 enialelonnt 1 found, however, in Deerfield mo eepemiaonn —— that belong to the petrifacta artin; t a perfect substitation of Sie grained. sandstone. for: the: substance. I found only fragments, about four or five inches long, and they ee to belong to the genus phytolite of Gmelin’s Linnaean System, and to the species lignite. They are a third of an inch in diameter, and a little flat- tened ; and seem to agree with Professor Eaton’s descrip- tion of certain petrifactions found in red sandstone on the r “
taof Martin, and, without t muc uch doubt, to the
thus of Gmelin. The animal must have been Sta fire feet in length, and lay horizontally in the rock, eighteen feet below its top, and twenty-three below the surface of the ground. The tail bone,as Dr. Porter, who lives near the spot, informed me, projected beyond the general mass containing the body of the skeleton, about eighteen inches m a curvi linean 1 direction. This, of which that gentleman gave me a specimen, was easily di : y its nu- merous articulations. | he bones
e appearance er presented
when » hon yoy Siete ae e Bines were found, is decided]; the old red sandstone. ees exactly with that po 4 as it exists at NeW Haveo: and to: the distance of one —, dred miles north from ‘that town. The rock bones is a little coarser than the finest varieties of this and in the rock gel ee bones, was found some wlon “Whatever doubt I had had egard to some other pabictiol! of rock in that vicin ty, being = real old red sandstone, I could have no doubt in cipal to this, after examining it.
44 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 13. -Seconpany Greenstone. Cleaveland. 5st Ras Colored Cantiine, or Rose-Red.
ie give ‘the ranges of this rock, was one of the princi- bev abot in coustencting . the accompanying map. For be an anomalous, it is a highly interesting pr The high mural precipices that aimee uni- seme show their naked faces in the ridges and_hil- locks of this rock—the immense quantity of débris that frequently poe up half, or two thirds the distance to their pe Dee thes oes on of trees. that crown their tops ; the p
ery of the Connecti- = "the. basaltic and Ae ocemeesommanal
In regard to the srocmioee Sous of Hartford, 1 feel confident that every range of it to be found in place, i is in- serted.on the map. South of Hartford some small and low hillocks of it may have been overlo Sa sBe Bille
a fer ss above the | elec at ae be less. kn csr in rie oe part of the map.
d especially, there are so many ridges of greenstone, and. these so irregular, that it is diffi- cult,on a map of such a scale, to make them all ainles and accurate.
The most southerly point of greenstone on the map. is
the bluff in Hast-Haven, which fronts Long Island Sound, and i« about one mile and an half north of the Li ht-House. The most northerly points of this rock are in i an | in Northfield... The greenstone which occurs in th
part of Northfield, is more crystalline and of a peach tex- ture aes in the intermediate distance, and is undoubtedly.
wn ve room, 1 dail 6 enti. in: ahs pupesodes of this article, the term ary, as apphed at the head of the a
“+ There onght to bea geological map of the region stout N ee ona larger scale than the one | have giv ‘en: and we could mame more thar
ene gentleman in that city, who is alli qualified for its construction... ne oe
ea eae
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 45
present. The vinge divides in the northern part of Hamden, the eastern branch forming Mount Carmel, and the western branch continuing into Southington, where: it chiefly disappears, although immense bowlders of green- stone are scattered over the edness until we come to the north part of Farmington. Here the ridge again commen- ces, and inclining considerably to the right, terminates in the north-east corner of Granby, Connecticut, in the Meni- tick or Manitick tnountain, on the ae ds a” posers runs the
aa Say. as OE es 4 Vgak é + ‘ eth aie Rew en i} ach the Meriden or Berlin mountains,
the ie eecipteesedic estes pate eran with: these moun- paige L tok ce ge ery te rs ne,con+ tinuing into M decreases, for
most part, as we conorth until we come to East-Hampto when it suddenly rises, like wd hie Pn - ae se 3 os forms.Mount ore rébablythe I = green- stone ranges of ae. 6 e not ioe hat its height has ever been aceurately measured: but, comparing: it with Holyoke, it cannot be much less than a thousand. feet above Connecticut river. Connecticut river crosses
46 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
this range at the north end of Mount Tom, and on the op-
site bank KS rises again precipitously and forms Mount Holyoke... T is | found, with a nice sextant, to be eight hundred eee cee feet above Connecticut river. North of Holyoke the greenstone is curved towards the right and continues of nearly the same elevatioa until it terminates near the north-west corner of Belchertown, having reach- ed the primitive region.
pave or ten miles north-westerly from this point, we find a narrow ridge of greenstone commencing, and pursuing a course toipiteshis west of north, it passes through Sun- derland, crosses hommennens river, runs through Deerfield, crosses Deerfield river, and extending through a part of Greesmeld. Saintes at the falls in Connecticut river. A few rods east of this termination another range commenc- es and runs east of north through Gill, with some interrup- tions, till it reaches its extreme northern point in North-
eld, two miles south of the primitive greenstone.
‘Tt will be seen by the map, that these greenstone ridges separate the old red sandstone from the coal formation nearly the whole distance from Berlin to Nor : So rocks of the coal formation are frequently found |}
ve the greenstone. The range of green stone in Sun- peasy is very narrow, and being in an unfrequented spot along the western margin of Mount Toby, it was a long time
before I discovered its existence. Having once found it, . however, it was traced, without much difficulty, except.
what an almost impassable precipice presented. It is from* ten to eighty rods wide. As you ascend the mountain from the west, you first pass over a formation of old red sand- stone, which is here a coarse pudding-stone. Next you come upon the greenstone, most of which is a pec and is, so far as hand eocines will enable us to decide,
the real toad stone of Derbyshire. Immediately east of
the green-stone you find the coarse, brownish red, and the fine, fissile, argillaceous, gray and red sandstone slates. of o coal formation. These uniformly rise in higher le
n the greenstone; even one hundred or one bundaet i
and fifty feet above it. As you pass along in the direction’ of the greenstone ridge, these precipices are not more than ten feet from you on one hand, and the greenstone at no
re
just at the moment when
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 47
greater distance on the other. The broken fragments of the two rocks are confusedly mingled together, the sand- stone breaking into large tables, and the greenstone into pieces only a few inches across. These huge tables are covered and fringed with a great variety of cryptogamous plants, such as various species of Pamelia, Juggermannia, Sticta, Collema, Bartramia, Hypnum, Polypodium, nore a se most of which are Pans
even dame of reeaberiag over the igen I ie never seen any rocks that seemed so congenial to the — cine gern plants as those constituting Mount
But to return from = is igre ; ression. ; eget observer fol-
will teeniin {this afin that the oroeiistotie besten pa under the sandstone. Yet any one acquainted with the anomalies of trap rocks will have the question arising in his mind, may not this greenstone, after all, here constitute an extensive dike? and he will hardly be satisfied until he sees the actual contact of the two rocks in place. One mile north-east of Sunderland meeting-house, the greater part of the greenstone ridge disappears and seems to ran under pe saee ones but here a few Preet of débris hide the
al ia vA little farther south an actual junction — huge table o of sandstone resting on n the trap:
a few feet from its original position. And, in-
deed, I never knew ead 80
equently disappointed, oo - be realized, as in persrinty Bee enn Rueetieaeif va rein here_ to teach the geologist a lesson of puiieiice: But, at. length,
one mile wen a half south-east” a Sunderland meeting- | ee
observer comes to a valley worn by a b
where finding the greenstone, which thus far has preserved _
almost a etic tenon “tert s the east, aoa form 2a ing a reentering angle sandstone, gular point being i in the brodks ‘ hee will have little doubt that
~
48 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
the ¢g enstone is here disclosed by the abrasion of 2 a iperiasuinbent sandstone—and ae: felloeag the line of junction a few rods on the wavs side of | brook, he will find the sandstone in place lying directly on the greenstone, also in place. To one who om been accus- tomed to see this Jatter rock mounting above every other and monopolizing so muchspace forits broken fragments, it must be gratifying to see it at last pressed down by a supe- rior stratum, and buried byt the debris of a higher rock. “ei two fc)
ther broo!
oe
Lee ‘orn away the. sandstone, and the greenstone oe in ita tke ihiey ata get = = sctiet cen contact of th
“stove. 7 fave been thus: part of greenstone in that place, - and trials to which the ceologist the trap ranges of the Conn cat t
necessary for th
rea altitud the west, and a gradual Be on the east. Where it crosses Decriield river it has every appearance OF vast dyke: although the sandstone rocks do not appear immediately in contact with it. From the top of the greenstone to the bottom of the river is more than two hundred feet. The range continues to’ in Gill, where, as before observed, it terminates, and Seabee ‘cetded by the red sandstone or conglomerate, And | here would I mention another fact i in regard to. the green: and rocks of the co:
nar above the for rmer, but they alternate with one a i e - at ee ene pass: round the northern hag of the inge firs foil
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 49
to afford a fine chance for observation. Let him now re- turn and cross the mouth of Fall river eastward, following up the north bank of the Connecticut, and he will find the same red slate, cropping out about fifteen rods, when he will come to another ridge of greenstone, under which the slate passes. If he follows the junction of the rocks ob- liquely up the hill, on the east side of Fall river, a hundred
s in a northeasterly direction, he will observe the green- stone lying upon the slate more distinctly. Let him return to the bank of the Connecticut, where the sandstone slate passes under-the greenstone, and he will observe them both extending in the same manner into the stream. If he now go eastward along the bank of the river, he will find green- stone twenty rods, and then the same or nearly the same slate, rising on the back of the greenstone at an anzle of forty-five degrees. Thus will he have conclusive evidence of the alternation of these rocks. This alternation, cross-
second stratum of the slate. This second ridge of green- stone, as already marked, extends northeasterly into Gill and terminates in the west part of Northfield.
Another spot for observing the alternations of greenstone and the coal formation is one hundred rods south-east of Lyman’s tavern, on the north-east side of Mount Tom, in Northampton, A small stream here crosses the road, and. inits bed and banks several distinct beds of greenstone, some of them not more than one or two inches thick, may be observed at low water.
In the southern part of that extensive greenstone ridge ex- tending from Amherst to Meriden, the sandstone of the coal formation may often be seen on the west side of the greenstone, lying underneath it. The shaft of the copper mine at Newgate prison passes through the greenstone and enters the sandstone: an r. Percival informs us (Jour. Sci. Vol. 5, p. 42,) that in Southington, “sometimes the sandstone can be very distinctly seen cropping out below the greenstone on the west side of the ridges.” At the
Vor. VI.—No. 1.
50 Geology, 4c. of the Connecticut.
outlet of Salstonstall’s pond in East-Haven, Ihave observed
a grey micaceous sandstone of the coal formation, passing under the greenstone with a considerable dip; and also two miles south of Durham village, on the side of the turnpike leading to New-Haven.
Dr. Percival, who has examined most of the greenstone. ranges in Connecticut on foot, illustrates his views of the relative position of this rock and the coal formation as fol- lows—referring particularly to the vicinity of Berlin. As you ascend the mountain ridges from the west, the lowest rock you find, after leaving the alluvion, is the old red sandstone, represented below by A. ove this lie the
y B. The cap of the ridge C is greenstone; precipitous on the west side, but gently sloping on the east. Passin on we come to another stratum of the coal formation; as D. Next, perhaps, succeeds another ridge of greenstone, E—similar to C; and on its ba ck, we find again the co formation, F; And sometimes the cap of greenstone is in- sulated, as
Sometimes we find the greenstone resting immediately upon the old red sandstone, without the intervention oF third rock ; as at East and West Rock near New-Have
From all that I have seen and learned concerning hase rocks, I feel therefore, warranted in concluding, that, as a general fact, our greenstone alternates with, or forms beds in, the peculiar rocks of the coal formation ; and it seems very probable that both these repose upon the old red sandstone. As the slates of the coal formation dip below the eastern horizon, it would seem we are furnished with the reason why the mural faces of the Seisietsss3 are almost universally on the western side of the r
When greenstone rests on the coal formation: the lower part of the greenstone seems to consist of little else than a greyish black, indurated, ferruginous clay. Perhaps even
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 51
~ wacke* may be found ving between the greenstone and the sandstone, as at Gallows-Hill near Hartford, and on the west side of the Berlin jatiges of greenstone. Some of the greenstone occurring in the dykes of this rock in old red sandstone, has a similar aspect. At the junction of the coal formation and greenstone below the falls in Gill, the columuar tendency of the latter rock entirely disappears, and for several feet, the greenstone is distinctly, thoug somewhat irregularly, stratified; the strata being parallel to the sandstone. ‘This may be seen to most advantage at very low water; and the same may be seen, though less distinctly, along the whole eastern border of this range of greenstone ; and something of it on the east side of all the — ranges along the Connecticut. It ought here to be remarked, wpe = this rock appears quite different in its composition o eastern side, especially-of the range passing seca Deer and Greenfield. The in- durated clay seems in a great measure to take the place of the hornblende, and the basis of the rock has a wacke-like appearance. Much of it is amygdaloidal;. but the imbed- ded minerals are usually quite different. On the east side, the most abundant is chlorite, having a radiated aspect, and green earth; whereas, on the west side, this is scarcely to be found. The radiated zeolite on the west side is finely” fibrous; on the east side, the crystals are larger and trans- » parent, resembling the Thomsonite of Dumbarton in Scot- Jand. The rock on the eastern side is, also, more decom- po than on the o nt side.
The eastern side of this rock is not, however, all amyg- daloidal: Near where Deerfield river passes through the range, on the north bank, this rock contains ‘distinct crys- tals, or rather plates of felspar; and thus becomes a porphy- ritic greenstone. “It even approaches to ophites,” says Professor Dewey. The same rock contains good prehnite, and in the prehnite may be found Ae bbe copper.
I should judge that about one half of the greenstone of the Connecticut constitutes the base of amygdaloid, and
very much of it appears to be genuine toadstone. The cavi- ties are usually spheroidal or almond shaped,. a reniform, and frequently cylindric. Those of the latte
*[ have recently found wacke perfectly well eevee ied very abundant, at the foot of the very lofty mural precipices, two miles north of Monte Video, on the Talcot mountain, ten miles W. of Hartford.— Editor
$2 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
form are often a foot or more in length, and arranged par- —
allel to one another; the rock appearing as if bored through repeatedly by an augur. The imbedded minerals are cal- careous spar, analcime, chlorite,quartz, chalcedony, chaba- sie, zeolite, and Professor Silliman has recently discovered gypsum™ in a specimen sent him from Dr. Cooley ; a new fact we believe in Geology, and one which renders it not improbable that this valuable mineral may be found in abun- dance along the Connecticut.
This amygdaloidal greenstone is probably most abundant at the lower part of the greenstone ridges ; while the upper part is solid and usually columnar. Frequently, however,
e columns are amygdaloidal to their top, age sometimes, as in Deerfield, in passing in the direction of the ridge, you will find alternate successions of amygdaloidal and solid greenstone columns. On breaking into the interior of the former, we often find them a rich reservoir of rare miner- als. The cavities are usually small; but sometimes sever- al inches in diameter, occupied by quartz and amethystine geodes, or chalcedony, or agates, or a peculiar pseudo- morphorus quartz to be described when we come to treat of particular minerals. The largest and best agates occur usually among the greenstone that is not much amygdaloid- al, sometimes occupying a cavity, part of which is in one column and part in another. They are very frequent, and some of those recently discovered by tates in Deerfield, are probably the finest yet found in this country, A particular account of them will be given in the proper place. Prehnite sometimes forms a thin incrustration on the columns that are not amygdaloidal; and between the joints of those that are so, is sometimes interposed a thin coating of various minerals,among which epidote frequently predominates,
Some of the amygdaloid is very vescicular, bearing some resemblance to the slag of an iron furnace or la The cavities, in certain rare varieties, are various in form; and the base is whitish brown, reddish, and even brick red ; containing, in the cavities, much prehnite, and this mineral, together with calcareous spar, seems, in some instances, to be mixed with the greenstone to form the base. An en- thusiastic Huttonian would doubtless be gratified to find
*This gypsum was perfectly fresh—crystalized—white, and retaining its water of crystalization.—Editor.
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 5S
such a variety. A locality of it may be foand one hun- dred rods north of the wi nh il river bridge in Deerfield, at the western foot of the trap ra
The columnar tendency of our greedutone has often been noticed. It may be seen in almost every ridge in a
better ones a mile san of the village of ‘Deewield, a quarter ofamile north of the locality of chabasie, enaslciinie; c.men- tioned in the Jour. of Science Vol. I. p. 115. They have from three to six sides, are articulated, ‘the points varying from one to three feet in diameter, and of the same height, exhibiting handsome convexities and corresponding concav- ities. Halfa mile south of this spot may be seen columns —— to the right and left as they ascend ; thus forming a portion of an arch. The geologist, who traverses this ridge, can navdly avoid tra oe io bonginatigpe the giant’s causeway, and the Hebride , Some of the less perfect bolts have a remarkably fis- sile tendency; forming good hand specimens of pseudo- green-stone slate. Globular distinct concretions of this rock are not unfrequent among the amygdaloid ; composed of concentric coats of greater specific gravity than the resf of the rock. I have noticed them in Deerfield. and on the
are abundant, and from two to twelve inches in diameter. he general aspect of our greenstone, where it has been long exposed to the weather, is reddish brown. When newly broken it is greenish, often somewhat lively. Some- times it is greyish black, and, very rarely, has the color of a brick that has been burnt very hard. This variety is compact and the a It is often the fact, indeed, that the two ingredients in other varieties, are not to be discovered by the naked eye, or with an ordinary lens. A question then occurs, whether some of the varieties of this rock are not genuine basalt? Certainly some of them answer the description of that rock, so far as external char- acters are concerned, to say the least, as well as of oe stone. And, indeed, if “greenstone and basalt may not unfrequently be seen passing into each other in the same stone, as D’Aubuisson and Dolomieu have observ- ed? (Bakewell’s Geology, p. 119,) there seems no rea-
a
54 Geology, Se. of the Connecticui.
son to doubt that this fact may exist in this country as well asin Europe. ere I to refer to particular localities for rocks resembling basalt, | should mention the foot of Mount Tom on the north-east side, and a part of the range passing through Deerfield. It would not surprise me, should future geologists make a division of our greenstone, calling a part of it basalt; dividing the upper part of the ridges from the lower, or the eastern side from the western, or both. A, geologist, to be able satisfactorily to make these divi- sions, or to decide whether any of our rock is basalt, ought to have traversed extensively and observed minutely the like rocks in Europe; and, therefore, I leave the subject to abler hands. | $
A good locality for observing many of the varieties of greenstone above described within a narrow compass, is on the north bank of Deerfield river, about sixty rods from the bridge. Leta person cross the bridge to the north, and take the right hand road, until he comes to where the road ‘ passes round the end of the greenstone ridge. Here he will first see the most common variety, having a columnar tendency; and a few rods beyond, the reddish brown vari- ety,* and in a wall, supporting the road on the right hand, he will find abundance of the porphyritic greenstone, hav- ing a somewhat stratified structure. Here, too, he will find some specimens covered with a ferruginous coating ; so much charged with iron, indeed, that efforts have been made to smelt it. Indeed, a mass of four or five pounds from almost any part of this greenstone range, when held by the side of a compass, will move the needle.
It is not always the case, nor even generally, that the greenstone ridges that are marked as continuous on the map, are strictly so. They are often composed of numer- ous peaks or ridges, partially detached, but yet constitu- ting a single range when viewed at their bases. And some- times, when there appears to an observer passing along the
western side of the range to be an uninterrupted wall, clos- .
er examination will show, that it is made up of several dis- tinct ridges, so lapping on upon each other, and so near one another, that they appear continuous. ‘The mural face of the ridges and billocks is usually on their western side: but sometimes on the opposite side, as in the high moun-
*T have aspect f gr tone fi vein in Scotland resembling this, except that the Scottish rock is much coarser.
Bape ape rena piste 8
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. a5
tain between Durham and Northford; and sometimes on
distance from the bottom to the top of the ledge. This débris is highly inisteation to the chronologist, because it urnishes him with a decinige
Cosmogonical Chronometer.
Every one who lives in the vicinity of these greenstone ridges knows, that every year adds to the loose masses at their base, at the expense of the columns above. The wa- ter infiltrated through the thin soil s este top finds its
way into ig esarnae: tape yg a columns, and there freezes in the winter, and by its expansion removes the rock a little from i its ‘place. This ope is repeated,
year after year, and thus some part of the pi is pushed
so far over the precipice that its center of gravity falls without the base, and it comes thundering down, usually dividing into very many pieces. Sometimes, if the foot of a column gives way in this manner, the whole column above, perhaps twenty or thirty feet long, is precipita- ted, like a glacier, on the loose rocks below. Sometimes only one or two of the lower Joints fall out, leaving the principal part of the column suspended, the shuddering ob- server can hardly tell by what. . He will also see evidences in very many places, ee in the es above him and in the ruins beneath them, of recent instances of this kind.
ing winters.* ow every one must see that this levelling work cannot have been going on forever; and when we consider how
*On tearing down some of these columns a few years since, during the winter, in Search of chabasie, &c. I found the spaces ete them eecupi- Poo ! it was
common musquito.
all over with them as soon as the avalanche thundered. The Hon. Eliha
Hoyt informs me he found a swarm of these creatures in the winter, in a ollow tree
56 Geology, dc. of the Connecticut.
very considerable is the quantity of rock yearly detached,
nd compare this with the whole amount of the débris, the conclusion forces itself upon us that the period willed this process began could not have been vastly remote ; in oth- er words, that the earth has not existed in its present form from eternity. Its precise age cannot, indeed, be deter- mined by this chronometer ; but | have often thought that, judging from this alone, we should be led to conclude that Moses placed the date of the creation too far back, rather than not far enough. .
Greenstone Dykes in Old Red Sandstone.
Professor Silliman see aap me bes an interesting locali- ty of these in East-Haven. They occur on the main roa from New-Haven to Bast: Have, ie than half a mile from Tomlinson’s bridge. We measured their width, and that of the intervening sandstone, as ott § appear on the north- easterly side of the road. road here passes over a small eminence, and the bank, on the north side, in its high- est part, is almost fifteen or twenty feet above the road. The dykes, occurring at this place, are exhibited on the pro- file accompan he map; and are laid down from a scale of fifty feet to an inch, with the intervening sandstone. In describing them I shall begin at the north western extremity, that is, at the point nearest t New-Haven: but a person wish- ing to find them, will do best to go first to the other end of the ate - because the dikes are there more distinct.
. (See Profile.) Old red sandstone, coarse and con- taining pubis so as to form a conglomerate. -The dip of the strata is from 6° to 10° below the eastern horizon. The sandstone is very similar throughout.
No. 2. Greenstone dike, 4 feet thick. *
No. 3. Sandstone, 114 feet. This distance was measur- ed “4 pacing ; the other distance Me a rule. reenstone, one foot thic
° CO 3. os Grd Q Lert ® © 3 a4 o 5 i © a © eo
feet. . Greenstone, 10 feet. The soil has so covered this and we having nothing with which to penetrate it, we did not actually see the dike. But the walls are distinct,
Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 57
having small peices of the greenstone attached to them, and exhibiting somewhat of an altered appearance, like the oth- er nate so that little doubt could remain of this being a gen- wine
No, O. "Sandstone, 52 feet.
No. 12. Greenstone, 10 feet. No. 13. Sandstone, 19 feet. No. - Greenstone, 7 feet. No. 15. Sandstone, 7 feet No. 16. Greenstone, 4 feet. Here the greenstone is hid by the soil as is also the sandstone at the other end of the profile: so that by removing this, probably other dikes might be discovered. hus we have eight dikes in a distance of 21 rods. Some of them wed “ litde | asic 2 discover them; but most of them ry distinct. e of them we traced several eee on B bet sides of = roads in a direction: pendicular to the profile. Their width is sometimes sud- denly decreased, or increased, several inches, so as to form shoulders. They are not exactly perpendicular, but leana few degrees to the west; and thus they are made to form an angle considerably obtuse on their eastern side with the sandstone. The latter rock is often somewhat glazed, hav- ingja specular aspect at the place of junction with the green- stone, and the two rocks are not unfrequently mutually i im- pregnated, for several inches, with each other’s properties. I did not notice that the dikes at this place dislocate the strata of sandstone: but I paid little attention to this point. Several dikes, similar to the above, (three at Jeast,) occur in the old red sandstone on the right hand side of the tarn- pike from New-Haven to Middletown, on the east margin of the salt marsh lying east of East Rock. One of these is remarkably distinct, cutting through a precipice twenty or thirty feet high, and maintaining an uniform width of about afoot. This crosses the strata nearly at right angles; but makes an angle with the horizon of about 45° dipping to the south west. Qn its roof, or upper side, near the lower ex- tremity, a part of the sandstone strata are thrown upwards two or three feet; and they are affected laterally about the
Vor. VI.—No. 1. 8
58 Geology, Vc. of the Connecticut.
same distance. The dike along with the sandstone appears to pass under a hill of greenstone.
n the same turnpike, a few rods north-easterly of North- ford ee re tone, four or five dikes occur; but they are so hidden by the soil as not to be particularly instructive. Tn pean glo Durham to New-Haven on the same road, the first low ridge of greenstone, which we cross, exhibits some- thing, which I was almost disposed to denominate a dike of coarse pudding stone, of the coal formation, in greenstone. Certainly, there appears a peculiar juxtaposition of the two rocks; but probably they exist in beds.
Two or three miles north of the dikes of which a profile is given, Dr. Percival found several others; and perhaps they are a continuation of the same. He found one also on ce road from Farmington to Hartford in the rocks of the coal orma
tion. The greenstone found in these dikes has usually the dark compact aspect of basalt—resembling, however, much of the greenstone found along the Connecticut. Yet it seems to wantthe hI collected from the most perfect dike above deperted ‘half a mile east of East Rock, even approach to wacke. This rock gives an argillaceous odour, is of a greenish grey color, has an uneven fracture, is dull; and much softer than ee aa greenstone; so that it may be cut with a knife: —and on parison with a specimen of pure wacke from Calton Hill, (Ea- inburgh,) which was analyzed by Dr. Webster, it does not ap- pear to differ, except in its greater hardness and perhaps less — to the touch. I have little doubt that these dikes will ong be denominated basaltic dikes: but, for the reason Formesty alleged, I forbear to name them thus. They are an interesting feature i in our geology, and deserve more at- tention ; and it is peculiarly fortunate that they should be situated so pear a geological school and the first mineral cab- inet in our country,
Juxtaposition of Secondary Greenstone and Primitive Rocks.
The actual contact of these has never been observed along the Connecticut; and I know of but three places where there is a probability of finding the junction—viz. in the northeast part of Belchertown, in East-Haven and Bran-
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. , 59
ford, and in the east part of Woodbridge. So far as I have examined these places, I have always founda valley of geest between the rocks. But this is often very narrow; as for ex- ample half a mile west of Branford meeting-house, where granitic ledges lie on one side of the road and a greenstone ridge on the other. Further examination of this and the other points mentioned above, might discover associa- tions similar to those occurring in the Hebrides.
Origin of Greenstone.
Does the greenstone of the Connecticut afford evidence in favour ofthe Wernerian or of the Huttonian theory of its origin? Averse as I feel to taking a side in this controversy, I cannot but say, that the man who maintains, in its length and breadth, the original hypothesis of Werner in regard to the aqueous deposition of trap, will find it for his interest, if
he wishes to keep clear of doubts, not to follow the example of D’Aubuisson, by going forth to examine the greenstone of this region, lest, like that geologist, he should be compel- led, not only to abandon his theory, but to write a book against it. Indeed, when surveying particular portions of this rock. I have sometimes thought Bakewell did not much exaggerate when he said in regard to Werner’s hypothesis, that, “it is hardly possible for the human mind to invent a system more repugnant to existing facts.’
On the other hand, the Huttonian would doubtless have his heart gladdened, and his faith strengthened by a survey of the greater part of this rock. As he looked at the dikes in the old red sandstone, he would almost see the melted rock forcing its way through the fissures; and when he came to the amygdaloidal, especially to that variety which resem- bles lava, he might even be tempted to apply his thermom- eter to it, in the suspicion that it was not yet quite cool. And without doubt he would see many a volcanic crater on the top of these ranges, where, with our dull eyes, we see only a pond or a quagmire. Even the occurrence of this stone in beds in sandstone would present no obstacle, since the discoveries by Dr. Macculloch in the isle of Skye o similar beds, of whin stone; concerning which he says, “there are no instances but where the alternating beds of trap detach veins or dikes from the lower to the upper beds;
69 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
or the trap, quitting the interval between two given beds of limestone or sandstone, makes it its way across the one immediately above or below, and then proceeds with a reg- =, as great between some other — of proximate strata” * (Transac. Geol. Soc. Vols. 3 and 4
By treating the subject in this manner In mean no disre- spect to any of the distinguished men who have adopt- ed either side of this question. To President Cooper es- pecially, who regards the greenstone of the Connecticut as volcanic, I feel much indebted for the great mass of facts he has collected on the subject. And were @ adopt any hypoth- esis in regard to the origin of our greenstone, it would be one not much different from his. But I confess myself somewhat given = ee in regard to any general geological sys- tem extant; and Greenough on the First Principles of Ge- ology oe not aided much to remove my doubts. These systems have been productive of great good by spurring for- ward geologists to the collection of fats with a rapidity al- most unequalled in any other science. When these shall be still farther accumulated, it is hoped and may be poser ed, that a second Werner will arise, who, having not merely the rocks of Germany but of the whole world before him, and following the inductive method of Bacon, will be able to construct a system of geognosy that will stand, like the Newtonian system of gravitation, on a foundation too firm to be moved. Perhaps such a system, after all, will prove to be an amalgamation of the theories of Werner and Hutton, and those names, which now form the watch words of op- posing ranks, may descend to posterity, engraven side by side, in harmonious union, on the column that supports the system. If aa ee are not tending to this ep we are much rhista
President Cooper was led from the profile inserted in the first Vol. of the Journal of Science, page 105, to conclude, the Deerfield greenstone to be a dike disrupting the old red sandstone. No distinction is there made between the sand- stone of the east and west range ; but since I have ascertain- ed that on the one side is old red sandstone and on the oth-
*It is by no. means improbable that similar connecti oy dige Hee
ae re: nt eT he places ve ex canned these beds, Hrcdintnions were Riera for
pia h Ri the dikes had they existed,
Geology. &e. of the Connecticut. 6i
er a sandstone of the es ws gee this poner must be ereenee 3 as a be ween them
14. Coli ORMATION. Variety of Psammite. Brongniart. Grey Wacke Slate. Eaton. Colored brown by Umber.
as long been known to mineralogists that coal was fond wong the Connecticut; and I denominate the rocks — it the coal formation, simply because its beds occur in them, and in no other rock; the old red sandstone ceataipitip none at all, but lying belérw it. The coal forma- tion embraces numerous varieties and sub-varieties of rocks, st of which alternate with one another and the principal tS are the following. 1. Sessions: This strictly this class: it alternates with the other va- rietiSe ani in Berlin contains coal. But spt yy reine cient reasons for giving it a separate color — description which it is unnecessary here to mention. 2. Trap, Tuff’. s ae Breceia, Cleaveland.) This occurs on oe east side of Mou om on the west bank of Connecticut river, and a oils = lie. between other rocks of the coal formation and the greenstone, and perhaps alternates with the greenstone ; tee { cannot say much as to its geological nenines. as 1
a reddish brown abundant cement of comminuted and de- composed sandstone, greenstone or wacke. Scales of mica appear scattered in the rock which seem to have belonged to the sandstone. It exhales an argillaceous odour, is difficult to break, and is about of the hardness of old redsandstone. ‘he imbedded masses of greenstone are larger than the quartz or sandstone. I noticed some, six, eight, and even twelve inch- es across. Perhaps this rock is not the real trap tuff of Eu- rope. If not, it certainly deserves the name of greenstone conglomerate: although many of the imbedded masses and * Some other corrections or rs to be made in the bg? de accompanying that aedllekity an map. But asl intend to comprehend all tha is importan
in that paper in this Sketch, a particular specification of Serbetions re unnecessary,
62 Geology, &e. of the Connecticué.
the greenstone in the vicinity very much resemble basalt. The sandstone imbedded is that fine-grained argillaceous variety next to be mentioned. 3. A red, very fissile Ther argillaccous sandstone. Itgenerall ally
my. where, frequently lying i enc xh diatel th vith ma ny other varieties of feck hereafter to be mentioned. 4. A Gray Micaceous Sandstone Slate, not argillaceous, grit coarse, very fissile, layers even, some varieties much re sembling mica slate, others containing vegetable remains. 5. A simi- Jar slate ; but much finer, harderand the layers undulating. 6. A slate approaching in appearance to shale, butvery silicious, harder and vey. fissile, layers straight, surface not smooth, dark gray. 7. Shale, generally a em eh lig aN frequent- ly micaceous with and without I chthyolites. 8. A slaty rock of the aspect of shale, and sometimes each resembling coal, dividing into numerous small pieces of irregular form, and disintegrating when exposed to the air and moisture. the falls in Gill. 9. A slate made up chiefly of indicated clay, sometimes micaceous, easily scratched by the finger nail, liable to disintegration. Falls in Gill, and cave in Sunder- land, not abundant. 10. 4 fragmented rock, the fragments chiefly a reddish brown quartz, appearing as if burnt, ce- ment silicious and apparently ferruginous, rock very hard, and appearing almost like porphyry, unstratified, not abun- dant. In Gill. 11. Gray pudding-stone, distinctly stratifi- ed, layers from six inches to a foot thick. Imbedded nod- ules, quartz, felspar and mica sae .rarely more than an inch in diameter, but very abundant, cement same minerals com- minuted, island i in the falls at "Gil. 12. Reddish stratified pudding-stone, coarser than the last, and scarcely differing from the conglomerate accompanying the old red sandstone. Mount Toby, Belchertown and Granby. 13. Very coarse dark gray pudding-stone, scarcely stratified. Imbedded masses often very large, even a foot in diameter, and very abundant, consisting chiefly of mica slate, argillite and chlo- rite slate; but containing quartz, hornblende, talcose slate, and sometimes granite, cement the same, rocks comminuted. Gill, Montague, Mount Toby, and Durham. Most of the preceding oe are often found alternating with one anoth- er. 14. 4 imperfect limestone, very silicious, in beds in sandstone fe not fetid, not abundant, Gill. 15. Fetid
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 63
carbonate of lime. At sitar ees I do not know its exact relative situation. 16. Bituminous us carbonate beg che be in the coal pire at Souihingehe and Middleto n this series of rocks, and in this only has coal been
found along das Connecticut. It occurs at Durham, Mid- dletown, Chatham, Southington, Berlin, Somers, Ellington, Enfield, South Hadley, and Southampton. In most instan- ces it is. ‘highly bituminous and burns freely. The seams of it are usually quite thin, oe, exceeding an inch in thick- ness, yet often they are numerous. In Berlin, the coal oc- curs in greenstone in a vein nof crystallized quartz. (Journal of Science, Vol. 5, p. 44.) In Southington it is found in shale—in Somers, Ellington and Suffield, in friable argillace- ous slate, (No. 3 above) in Enfield, in beds in gray micaceous sandstone; (No. 4. above) also in the same rock, (‘ granu- lated schistose aggregate” of Eaton, vide Journal of pa Vol. 1. p. 136,) in the drift of the S. Hampton lead
The Connecticut river, in its passage between ‘5 ene ~ of Gill and Montague, has cut through the coal formation, except asingle ridge of greenstone on the west, as may beseen by referring to the map. Through a considerable part of this distance, especially in the most in terestingpart, the bassetting of the strata is completely laid bare; and I have annexed to the map a profile of their order and dip, which I shall now proceed to describe. It is a vertical section, crossing the map at the falls in Gill and the strata nearly at right angles, extending on the west to the western part of Shelburne, so as to include a few other rocks beside the coal formation, and on the east, to the mouth of Miller’s river. The chief object of this profile i is to give a better idea of the coal for- mation than could be obtained by mere verbal description. That part of it, therefore embracing those rocks, is putdown from a larger scale than the other parts, otherwise the nu- merous alternations could not have been represented. Es- pecially that part between No. 8 and 40, is laid down from a larger scale than the rest of the coal formation; because hse oe the most interesting oti of it and most distinctly laid
on the north bank of the Connecticut, extending end the falls to the high pecodtiane ridge 100 rods west of it. This part was observed most attentively, and a quadrant converted into a clinometer, was used for determining the
*Bituminous marl slate?— Ed.
64 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
dip. The distances were all estimated by the eye, but it is persunedt they will in general be found not far from the truth.
rom No. | to 56, inclusive, the stratified rocks all dip to the east, as is eviduns from the section. he Nos. included in parenthesis, refer to the general descriptions of the rocks of the coal formation in the beginning of the article.
No. 1, Horblende Slate—Strata highly inclined, often be- coming an aggregate of hornblende, quartz and mica, having a porphyritic aspec
No, 2. Mica Slate—Dip 20° to 30°, undulating and tor- tuous, pseine on the east into argillite.
No. 3. Limestone—In beds in mica ‘slate, already deseri- bed in the. preceding pages. Unstratified.
No. 4. Argillite—Dip 60° to 90°. ‘The southern limit of this rock hardly reaches the line of the section: but a mile or ap its relative position is as represented on the profile.
ld Red Sandstone—With red conglomerate. Dip usualy asmuch as 20° eines sb than is usual for this rock.
No. . Alluvion——A. sw
No. r Gld Red Sandstones-Di between 20° and 30°.
No. 8. Secondary Greenstone—It is probable this forms a bed between the old red sandstone and the coal formation : but the former rock is never seen passing under it in this vi- cinity ; ay therefore, it must not be thus represented on the Width about half a mile. On the eastern side it has, for a Saw feet in width, somewhat of astratified structure.
0. 9. Red, Fissile, Friable, Argillaceous, Sandstone, Slate_-(No. 3.) It is fine grained and often micaceous, of the color of brick, is easily cut by a knife, yields an argilla- ceous odour, has an undulating surface generally, and is liable to disintegration, This is probably the most abundant o' the rocks of the coal formation; and it usually lies next to the greenstone and alternates with it. It is found over a - large extent of country on the east side of the greenstone ridge, stretching from Amberst to Berlin; although in Con- necticut it more frequently is wanting in the mica and its surface ig more uneven. It forms much of the flagging stone in Hartford and exists in place a foot or two below the surface in that city; though it seems here in some instances to approach to the nature of shale. The surface of the lay- ers often appears a little glazed and is sometimes traversed by numerous little ridges a mere line in thicknes and of the
Geology, Yc. of the Connecticut. 65
substance of the rock, which I have sometimes suspected might be petrifactions; and perhaps they are so. When this rock is disintegrated it forms an admirable material for the construction of roads; a good example of which may be seen in the road between Hartford and Weathersfield.
ere the profile crosses this rock, it has a dip of 45° ; and as already observed under the article greenstone, it
forming to the a Sea 2, the greenstone, thus forming saddle shaped strata. In some instances we notice a sudden curve from this cause, of 90°. At the first copper mine we find on passing down the river, a narrow spur of the greenstone ex- tends a short distance into the slate, and the vein of ore here passes from the greenstone into slate. Halfa mile south of this point we find the slate crossed obliquely to the direction of the strata by parallel seams dividing it into strips from one to six inches wide and often five feet long. Sometimes we find in these divisions six sided prisms of quartz, lying partially imbedded and exhibiting both terminations in great perfec- tion. I have seen seams very narrow containing green car- bonate of copper, the sides of the vein being beautifully gla- zed, having a highily specular aspect, and orming the saal- bande of the Germans. The width of the rock on the sec- tion is about fifteen rods, extending across the mouth of Fall Ege 0. Greenstone—(No, 1.) This has been already Pie when treating of that rock. Thickness of the for- mation, 20 ro No. 11. Sime as No. 9, (No. 3.) Thickness of the stra- tum, 6 —_ m6 § 45° No. d Slate—resembles the last, but is more mi- wow’ is 5 divisible i into thinner lamine, the surface of which is even, and the color is less red. Abeautiful rock. Thick- ness 6 fect, dip 45°. No. 13. Reddish micac dstone-S hat erated, the imbedded pebbles of quartz and flesh een fel- spar, small and rounded, less fissile pos the last, layers thicker. Thickness ers feet, di . No, 14. Same as No. ®. Thicknose 15 feet, dip 49° No. 15. Same " No. - Ps 15 rods, dip 40°, Vol. VI....No.
66 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
16. Reddish gray, friable, argillaceous sandstone state-—rregolar, tortuous, disintegrating at the surface, a lit- tle micaceous, containing numerous small specks of carbon- ate of copper, and sppessidy to be an imperfect copper ore. Thickness 4 feet, 0°
No. 17, Hard, cbse limestone—(No. 14.) Fracture dull, containing a large proportion of silex, feebly efferves- cing with the acids. ‘Thickness of the stratum only a foot, dip 48°, not divisible into layers. This very imperfect and smail bed of limestone is the only locality of limestone rock I have ever found in the secondary,region north of Hartford.
No. 18. Gray, Micaceous sandstone slate—(No. 5.) Ir- regular, tortuous and undulating, not as easily and as hand- somely separating into layers as the red slate, resembling some varieties of the mica ola: scarcely argillaceous. Thickness 6 feet, dip 40°.
No. Same as No. 9.. Thickness 12 rods, dip, 43°.
No. 20. Coarse, reddish conglomerated sandstone—Con- taining imbedded pebbles. Scarcely different from No. 13, except somewhat coarser. Thickness 6 feet, di
No. 21, Same as No. 12. Thickness 3 rods, dip 43°.
No. 22, » mi eset coarse, granular, scarcely argillaceous, not separating into so thin layers as the red slates. Surface not undulating or - gent Thickness 15 feet, dip 43°. An excellent flag- ae Se 23. (No. 9.) Soft argillaceous slate—Surface smooth, scarcely undulating, divisible into thin plates, easily scrateh- ed by the finger nail, and consisting of little else than clay moderately indurated. —— 5 feet, dip 45°, easily ee rarely micaceou
No. Gray micaceous satnataise slate—Similar to No. os. but RF to the touch and finer grained, more undula- ting and divisible into thinner layers, containing vegetable remains converted into perfect coal. These were so numer- ous in one spot, that I a I had found a bed of coal. Thickness 3 rods, dip 40°
0, 25. Geest—2 rods.
No. 26. Shale—Color very dark, containing sometimes small scales of mica, surface a little nobby, containing abundance of sulphuret of iron and spheroidal nodules from half an inch to two inches diameter, of argillaceous iron ore?
rE
Geology, &c. of the Connecticul. 67
very similar to the shale containing the ichthyolite at Sun- derland. Thickness 1 rod, dip 40°
No. 27, Same as No. 24. 2 feet thick, dip 40.°
o. 28. A stratum of coarse grayish sandstone, ee
conglomerate, 2 2 oe wide, dip 40°
N as No. 24. Thickness 5 rods, dip 40°.
No. 30. ne feet. It may be well, perhaps, here to remark, that shale usually forms the roof and floor of coa! beds, and ‘that this geest and that of No. 25 lie immediately below shale. Connect this fact with another, ‘that the seams
and other indurated strata are found to do; for on account of the tender and more friable texture of the coal, the super- ficies of the stratum is often mouldered down and lies con-
es here described, (which I suspect to re quite doubtful,) the best spots to search for it are Nos. 25 and 30.
No. 31. Shale—10 feet thick, on 40°, containing abun- dance of nodules of argillaceous iron ore? Rock rather hard for pure shale, not liable to much. disintegration.
N Coarse, gray, sandstone or conglomerate—Rock harsh to the touch, imbedded masses not large, layers thick. Thickness two a dip 40
No. 33. Same as No 24. " Thickness 3 rods, dip 43°,
No. 34. Riglenshisaiasainn with, and passing into, a bluish, gray, fine grained slate, harder than the shale, thongh perhaps only a variety of it. A little micaceous. Thick- ness 3 rods, dip 43°.
o. 34. Blackish gray slate—Similar to that mentioned under the last No. but less fissile and much harder, indeed, it breaks with nearly as much difficulty as greenstone, and where it is worn by the water it somewhat resembles that rock. For it contains numerous irregular cells, sometimes two inches in diameter, formerly filled, probably with argilla- ceous iron ore? On breaking the rock its structure is slaty and it is alittle micaceous. ‘Thickness 2 feet, dip 40°.
o. 36, rse grayish sandstone or conglomerate—like No. 32, layers 2 feet thick. Thickness 20 feet, dip 40°.
68 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
No. 37. Red slate—As No. 9, but harder and coarser and less irregular on the surface of the layers. Thickness 3 rods, dip 40°
No. 38. Same as No. 22. Thickness 20 feet, dip 40°.
No.'39. Similar to No. 38, but more micaceous and di- visible, i 4 thinner layers 3 resembles much, certain varie- ties of mica slate, except that the silex has a more earthy as- pect. But it would not be difficult to deceive almost any geologist by labelling hand specimens, mica slate. Thick- ness 2 feet, dip 40°.
No. 40. Same as No. 37. Thickness 10 feet, dip 40°. This carries us to the dam across the Connecticut.
o. 41. Hard gray sandstone slate—Like No. 22, but more undulating and irregular. Thickness 5 rods, the ge distance the scale is much reduced.
N ery near No. 41, but coarser and not so undu- lating. “Thickness 8 rods.
No. Coarse gray conglomerated sandstone—layers thick. ‘Thickness 12 rods.
No, 44, Same as No. 40. 3 rods thick, dip 35°.
No. 45. Alluvion—20 rods.
No. 46. Same as No. 32, about 2 rods thick.
No. 47, Same as No. 40, 1 rod thick.
No. 48. Alluvion—a quarter of a mile; beyond this the section is continued on the south bank of the river. :
oO. ame as No. 37, one half a mil
No. 50. (No. 10.) 4 sired Meateassbeeds rock—unstrati- fied, 20 feet thick, very hard and tough, imbedded frag- ments, chiefly reddish brown quartz, appearing as if it had undergone the action of fire,a little micaceous, cement often blackish, appearing like veins, sa aC ferruginous, rock resembling some varieties of porp
0. 6.) Dark gray, very sila sandstone slate— Harder than shal somewhat argillaceous in its odour, a lit- tle micaceous, surface rough and nt coarse, slightly sono- rous when struck, 1 rod thick, dip 40
No. 52. Same as No. 50, 1 rod thick.
53. Similar to No. 39, 5 rods thick.
No. 54. Alluvion between half and three quarters of @ mile.
No. 55. Same as No, 9, halfa mile.
Geology, §c. of the Connecticut. 69
No. 56. Same as No. 51, extending eneles mile, dip at first 35°, but gradually decreasing to 15° he direction of the strata of this rock is quite different from the other va- rieties, which generally have a direction between north an northeast. But this variety is so much wheeled that it runs not far from east and west; and in passing up the a = sail for a time nearly parallel to the direction of I do not see why this rock might not be employed rhe roof. ing; and if so, the situation of the quarries would surely
Ss.
7. Same as No. 9, strata nearly perpendicular, a8 leaning a little to the east, and their direction nearly t same as that of all the varieties eucsicuad except the ory Thickness 10 rods.
ces by rae in every directions: ‘he surface of these a s is : equently a little glazed. Rock, friable, scarcely micaceous, argillaceous, strata leaning a few de
“on grees tothe east, 20 rods thick. This rock forms a bed at the island in the falls in the Connecticut three miles below this spot, and there it is exposed to the occasional action of the water and is disintegrated so as to leave the superincumbent strata projecting over it several feet, and it very much re- sembles impure coal: but I could not afi Oe that it con- tains — a is probably a variety of sha
No. coarse, dark gray puetingstone—A gene- ral soutsighet of this rock ae already been given in the be- ginning of this article. (No. 13.) imperfectly aritiGed at this place, rather harder than the old red sandstone conglom- erate, yet appearing as if composed of little else than a mass of pebble: es, wee — ent being not abundant, extending at
Phe Connecticut at this place
stone extends choses ontagu e, som etimes assuming + a reddish aspect, and in Sunderland forms a considerable part of Mount Toby. Here it alternates with the red and gray slates above described; and it is curious to observe the fre- quent sudden changes from this coarsest of conglomerates te fine grained slates.
70 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
Where the profile crosses this rock, some of the imbed- ded masses appear at their surface as if they had undergone the action of fire. On breaking a mass of gray quartz con- taining a little mica, a zone of half an inch wide appeared at the outer edge, of a brick colour, indicating a chemical change either by fire or water, for the specimen was some- times covered by water.
have observed little of this peculiar puddingstone in
Connecticut, though so abundant in the northern part of the
coal formation. It appears, however, in the south part of urbam,
No. 60. Geest—covering a narrow valley.
No. 61. A narrow stratum of gneiss.
No. 62. Granite—This does not appear in abundance on the bank of the river. The best spot for examining it is half a mile south, where it forms a hill 100 or 200 feet high.
From the preceding description of this profile, it appears, that after crossing the first ridge of greenstone there is a gradual decrease of the dip from 45° to 15°, and after pass- ing this point, which is not exactly central, but nearer the granite than the greenstone, we find the dipin @ contrary di- rection, and almost 90°. Precisely such would be the ef- fect, the Huttonian would say, if we suppose the granite and the greensione to have been forced up through the strata by a subterranean fire, after these strata were consolidated.
d we might expect, also, that this convulsion would pro- duce that wheeling of the strata observed in the central parts. _ There is something peculiarly striking in this explanation and an inquiry arises, whether any corresponding facts oc- cur in any other part of the coal formation. At mount To- by, a few miles south of Gill and the highest point of the coal formation, the strata dip to the east at an angle usually less than 10°. And here the greenstone ridge on the west is small, but the granite on the east, at no great distance, is abundant. On the south east side of Mount Holyoke in Belchertown and Granby, the strata dip to the south east, near the mountain, at an angle not less than 45°, and the greenstone ridge here is large. But the rocks that lie on the back of Mount Tom, the highest point of greenstone along the Connecticut, have a dip not generally larger than 20°. And the same remark will apply to many greenstone ridges on the accompanying coal formation in Connecticut.
Fo RN
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 7
The highest point of the coal formation is Mount Toby in Sunderland, which “ee between eight and nine hundred feet above the Connecticut. Beginning at Whitmore’s fer- ry, the locality of the ichthyolites, to be hereafter described, and passing up the mountain obliquely to the south-east,we find alternations of most of the rocks described in the above jireer8 The differedt varieties of a are most
ete being chiefly quartz, felspar and granite, and coal formation pudding-stone, being chiefly
pres slate, — chlorite slate, talcose slate, and quartz with felspar and granite rarely. 4. The coal formation pudding stone often contains thin incrustations of ca nate of lime in on seams and crevices. The red sandstone is wanting in t
As a general fact, I feel prepared to state that the oe of the coal formation lie above the old red sandstone. most cases these rocks are separated by greenstone, so that their exact situation cannot be easily ascertained. Along the western face of the greenstone ridge, extending from Mer- iden into Massachusetts, the rocks of the coal formation are ofa seen Cropping out below the greenstone ; and the old red sandstone occurs at a still lower level. is may be seen in the space of a few rods in descending the hill nor- therly, from Newgate prison ; and although the actual junc-
tion of the rocks is not here observable, yet they appear . ct, that
only at short distances from one another. The fac the coal formation alternates with greenstone, and thati latter rock always lies above the old red sandstone, is a strong presumptive argument that all the coal formation lies above the old red sandstone,and conclusive evidence that a part of these rocks lie above it. The situation of the rocks about Middletown, Chatham, &c. which might be urged as an objection to this fact, has been already considered, and I leave it for further examiuation.
72 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
There are many instances, also, in which the rocks of the coal formation pass into the old red sandstone. Let a per- son go to the mouth of Fall river in Gill, where, as already described, he will find the red argillaceous sandstone slate of the coal formation cropping out below the greenstone. Let him ascend Fall river, and he will find this slate be- coming coarser, the layers thicker and the aspect changing, until, within a mile and a half, it becomes decided old red sandstone or conglomerate; the dip, also, diminishing. Or let him follow the road that leads from the mouth of the river to Greenfield, and as he ascends the hill, he will ob- serve a gradation from the slate above named into decided fine grained red sandstone. Much of the rock occurring along the east side of Connecticut river in Somers, Elling- ton, Chatham, in Middletown and Durham, appears to be intermediate between old red sandstone and this slate of the coal formation. Even in Somers and Ellington, where a strip is marked as coal formation, I found little else but this
of Connecticut river as one of the members of the coal for- mation—but I could not do it without doing violence to my own convictions.
It may be of importance in a geological view to mention the veins of copper ore so frequently found along the Con- necticut greenstone ranges. these veins which I have seen, or of which an account has been published, are found on the margin of the greenstone and coal formation; and the veins always pass, either laterally or perpendicularly, from one rock into the other. They are quite numerous, and we have already remarked that copper ore and iron pyrites are not unfrequently disseminated in the slates.
To avoid mistake: [ will just mention different spots on the map that are colored as the coal formation. 1. A large extent in Gill, Montague and Sunderland; 2. In Granby, Mass. and Ludlow; 3. A small patch in Somers and El- lington; 4. An extensive range extending from West- Springfield to Berlin; 5. In Hartford, Westhersfield, Mid-
Geology, &§c. of the Connecticut, 73
dletown and Durham; 6. A small patch in East-Haven; 7. A narrow range in Southington ; 8. The same in West-
field and South-Hampton. ‘The latter, in the northern
part, is penetrated by the drift to the South-Hampton lead- mine; but selects appears at the. surface, In Westfield, linworéis it is wit
It would seem ae the preceding didetintion that all the rocks essential to Werner’s Independent Coal Formation
-are to be found along the Connecticut, viz. a friable mica-
ceous et shale and pudding-stone, (Cleaveland, vol. 2, p. 508,) and also the greenstone and amygdaloid Professor Jameson has added. — Still, however, there are some emer circumstances bin may leave the geologss | in
wacke be so. breads nage nok paiad aves whose cement is merely a comminuted portion of the imbedded frag- ments, it will indeed include not only the pudding-stone of the coal formation above described, but, for aught I can see, even the old red sandstone; and, iadeed: what fragmented rock will it not include ?*. And besides, many of the argilla- ceous sandstone slates described above, cannot,without diffi- culty be distinguished from certain varieties ofgrey wacke slate in hand specimens. But the rock usually called grey wacke in. old fed has never yet, I believe, been found lying above
ak sort of Nake except the coal blen e; but our rock con-
coal formation lying above them, as may be seen by the sketch of Mount Toby, that will be given when we come
ome judicious remarks on this subject are contained in the North- Piicacrect, Review, Ba 29, p. 235. There we find the following sentence concerning the Roxbury and Dor ead luib-padding-stone, ‘etichbome- what resembles a certain variety described above, “This r forms one amined in various parts and feel no hesitation in saying that it is not the grey wacke of European geologists Vou 10
IN Os
74 Geology, &§c. of the Connecticut.
to describe these remains. Butin other countries ‘‘these fossil remains of fishes are found only in strata of very re- cent origin.” (Rees. Cyc. Art. Icthyolites.)
The great dip of many of these rocks may be thought to afford evidence of their being older than the old red sand- stone, or the independent coal formation. But to show that the dip of rocks is a very equivocal criterion of their age, I need only to refer to the recent work of Greenough on the first principles of geology. And besides, it is no un- common thing in real coal fields for rocks to be highly in- clined. ‘This inclination or dip of the (coal) strata is found every where; in some places it varies very little from the level; in others considetably, even so much as to be nearly
erpendicular direction;” (Rees Cyclopedia, Art.
Coal,) and still farther, as already hinted, there is rea- son to believe that Mount Toby, the strata of whic are almost horizontal, exhibits the original dip of these rocks, and that those cases in which they are more highly inclined are the result of some Plutonian convul- sion, Such irregularity in the dip of coal fields is no uncommon occurrence. “In some coal fields,” says Mr. Williams, (Nat. Hist. Min. Kingd. vol. 1, p. 93,) ‘the stra- ta acquire this horizontal and waving position, and afterward, towards the south-west or toward the north-east, the decliv- ity becomes again so steep as to form an angle of 45°, and in some particular instances to approach still nearer to the vertical position.” Upon the whole, I think there are insu- perable objections against referring the rocks of our coal for- mation to grey wacke and grey wacke slate.
Another opinion already advanced on the subject is more
probable. Itis that of Mr. Brongniart, who gave it after |
having seen only the rocks containing the Westfield fish impressions. ‘This formation,” says he, “appears to me to have the strongest resemblance to that of the bituminous
marl slates of the copper-mines in the country of Mansfield ge
and Hesse.” (Journal of Science, vol. 3, . 220.)
arguments in favor of such an opinion are, 1. The great sim- ilarity in the appearance of the German and American rocks on which the fish are found—one species, at least, being the same in both. 2. The occurrences of copper ores, and similar ones too, along with native copper in both rocks. 3. The fact that both these varieties of rocks lie immedi- ately above the old red sandstone. Perhaps there are oth-
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 75
er points of resemblance, but I have not been able to find any minute account of the bituminous marlite formation.* On the other hand it may be said that no real bitaminous marlite occurs along the Connecticut—provided the grand distinction between this rock and bituminous shale consists, as Professor Cleaveland ‘Says, (Mineral. vol. 1, p. 191,) in its effervescence with acids; for our rock, certainly that at Sunderland, does not ilervesee with acid, unless it contains, as it sometimes does, a slight incrustation of carbonate of ime. Mr. B. does not consider the occurrence of thin beds or veins of coal as opposed ,to his. opinion; but the strata penetrated at Riegelsdorf in Hesse, in order to reach the fish i eh arama are totally different from those occur- _ ting along the Connecticut. They are as follows: “ No. I. F erruginous clayey ponere from one to two fathoms. No. _ 2, Greyish white limestone, from six to eight fathoms. No. 3. Blue tay rib tea es fre ments of selenite erystals, from eight to. ten ten fathoms. is. No. 4. Bluish pige-
5. Grey compact gypsum, traversed by. frnipaein ioani, from seven to eight fathoms. No.6. Black and ere stink- stone, from one to one and an half fathoms. No. 7. San sometimes loose, sometimes cemented, from one to one and an half fathoms. No. 8. Akind of limestone, called Zech- stein, of a greyish brown color, and soft above towards the sand, but blacker and more compact below; from three and a quarter to three and an half fathoms. No. 9. A black slaty stratum, containing pyrites and forming the roof of the bituminous marl slate, from eighteen to twenty inches. No. _ 10. Black cupriferous bituminous marl slate, from three to eight — : this is the principal pen of the a
*Extra ct ofa ind from Dr: J. W. Webster:— “The bituminous marl te has been one of the most troublesome rocks
he two—vegetable impressions are abundant in pe dese shale of the coal field ; but rare in the B. M. slate—it is more abundant in fresh water remains.”’
76 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
lites. No. 11. Gneiss like greyish white rock, “consisting of small rounded quartz pebbles, and sometimes of copper and mica, cemenied by indurated clay. No. 12. Old red sandstone, or the dead rock, being the fundamental rock of these floetz strata.” (Rees Cyc. Art. Icthyolites.) Under these circumstances I ae thought it safe to de- nominate the peculiar rocks under consideration along the Connecticut, the coal formation. A more complete set of them has been forwarded to. Mr. Brongniart, and we wait anxiously for his fival opinion. The suspicious circumstan- ces attending them and the occurrence of the coal hitherto discovered in thin beds and veins only, render it very doubtful whether extensive beds of this valuable mineral will ever be found in them. They have been merereny: explored at South- Hadley, Southington and Westfield, Ct. But I
would net wish to discourage further search. The decision ©
of the question above discussed, concerning the precise rank they ought to hold in the rock formations of the globe, is one of considerable imporiance, since it will depend on
that decision whether coal or copper or gypsum may be -
sought after with the greatest cape of success. The
Uf have long been to me a fruitful source of perplexity, and
nemo and again baye I returned from traversing them in
ter air of ever determining their real geological rela- pe To denominate them the coal formation relieves, for a time, most of these difficulties: but that name will
cheerfully be resigned. whenever a more correct one shall
he proposed Organic Remains in the Coal Formation. 1. Lcthyolites.
These occur at Westfield, Ct. and at Sunderland, Mass. ; and it is said also at some other places, as at West- pring- field; but I have never seen any, except from these two localities. At Westfield they were found in-exploring for coal, lying upon bituminous shale. ‘Two species at least were recognized, one of which Mr. Brongniart calls the Pa- lethrissum freislebenense of Blainville. "These i impressions have been so repeatedly and accurately described by Prof. Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy and the American Jour. of Science, that itis unnecessary to i more particular.
Geology, be. of the Connecticut. 7
At Sunderland these impressions occur in bituminous shale, which often contains a little mica, and generally a ‘ antity of iron pyrites, disseminated through the rock.
hey occur at Witmore’s ferry in the north part of Sunder- land, in the bank of the river. They are found most‘abun- dant at the lowest water mark, at which titne two men, in less than half a day, dug out for me nearly fifty specimens. Sometimes a layer of semi-crystalline dark colored carbo- nate of lime, less than one twentieth of an inch thick, lies | between the layers of slate. The substance of the fish is” usually converted ir:to coal, the thickness of which is rarely. more than one tenth of an inch in any part, and the color is” black. In some instances, however, the carbonate of lime above mentioned covers the fish, and has taken the place of the matter of the fins and scales and their original light grey color is preserved so perfectly as to resemble a fish just taken n out of the pe ‘Some of the specimens
appear contorted; in the form of the fish is verel:. ly lost, ae fins and scales and bones, being sc about promiscuously, as if the fish had perished i in violent atenbele® or the rock had been disturbed after its imprison- ent. Yet, in the same specimen that contains one thus mitnibatid another will appear not more than a foot distant which is whole. I have found four or five specimens in which the fishes (both of them distinct,) lie across each oth- er; sometimes a very thin layer of shale, and sometimes none, separating them, Ihave another specimen, three feet long and fifteen inches wide, containing seven distinct impres- sions. The shalein which these ichthyolites occur,when rub- bed or held in a fame, exhales a strong bituminous odour.*
Among the impressions hitherto obtained, I can easily discover three distinct species that have scales.* Two of these are represented on the accompanying plate; but the third was so much mutilated, that I did not attempt to de- lineate it. Fort at the best it is no easy matter to represent them so exactly as to be of use. They are usually a little 1 in- distinct on their border,
ig. 1. represents a species that is rare.
Fig. 2. shows the most common species. There ean be no doubt that this differs generically from the last. .
oie
tito such a smell is exhaled from the bituminous Kimestone in Southington
*See the end.
78 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
Fig. 3. is probably the same as Fig. 2.; but perhaps not. The outline is given because the fins were more distinct than in the specimen from which Fig. 2. was copied.
These are all of the natural size. Concerning their names, ‘feeling altogether incompetent, I do not even attempt to de-
ide. [have not had an apportunity to compare them close- ly with the Westfield send ang and do not know whether they coincide.
Another oid occurs with these fishes, which re- sembles the commoa silver eel, (Muraena anguilla,) or some other species of the oat: iiibe. The width varies from half an inch to a whole one, and the length from one to two feet. The substance of the eel (if indeed it be one,) is not con- verted into coal, but there isa substitution of the shale of a finer grain, except the head, which is coal. No fins appear, _except, perhaps, in one instance, a pectoral one. “3 “times, along the centre of the impression, there is a small relief, answering to the place of vertebrae. The course of the i impressions is usually serpentine.
he geological situation of these ict icthyolites is interesting. The shale containing them passes under Moun nt Toby, there being a gradual ascent from this spot to the top of the ‘mountain, two miles distant: so that they lie beneath rocks of the coal formation at the. depth of nearly nine hundred feet, most of the varieties described on the profile annex ed to the map here alternating with one another. The fol- lowing sketch exhibits a section of the shale of Mount Toby, so far as the geest would admit of examination, on a line ee from the locality of the icthyolites to the highest point of the mountain. 1 do not suppose it perfectly accu- ries but itis probably sufficiently so to answer the intend- ed purpose, viz. to exhibit the situation of the ichthyolites. The numbers in a parenthesis refer to those on the profile that are synonymous, The dip of these strata rarely ex- ceeds ten degrees, and is usually less.
No. 1. (No. 59.) Very Coarse dark grey pudding-stone, for an account of it see the reference to the profile, on ded No. 8. atthe end.
. 2. Bituminous Shale. This contains icthyolites— ata “nearly horizontal—dip never exceeding five degrees. Thickness of the stratum, about ten feet.
No. 3. Same as No. 1. except sometimes alternating with
err
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 79
a pudding-stone, less coarse and more eects stratified. Thickness, between two and three huadre 0. 4. (No. 9.) Red fissile argillaceous ae ES slate, ten feet in perpendicular thickness. ‘No. 5, Same as No.1. Thickness ten feet—dip six -de- grees. No.6. Sathe as No. 4. Thickeiess four feet. . 7. Same as No. 1. except not so coarse, and more reser stratified, agreeing nearer with No. 43 of the pro~ ness fifteen feet. _ N Same as No. 4. two feet thick. Where this rock alternates with the pudding-stone the change is very strik-
ing. No. 9. Same as No. 7. Thickness fifteen feet. No. 10. Same as No. 4. five feet thick. No. 11. Same as No. 7. twenty feet thick. radua
No. sg Same as No. 4g gl mang t inte. the conglomer- ate—ten feet thick. : eee ae No. 13. “Like No. 1. ‘sixty feet thi a A i
o. 14. Grey argillaceous Sendatbne slate, someti micaceous. Somewhat like No. 23. of the one but coarser—liable to decomposition and containing many wa- ter-worn pebbles. Thickness ten feet. This carries us to the Sunderland cave.
No. Same as No. 4. fifteen feet thick. No. 16. Same as No. 1. about one hundred feet thick. No. 17. Same as No. 4. except that it is coarser and the a thicker—about ten feet thick. udding-stone not differing essentially from No. 1. but frequently of a reddish cast and more distinctly stratified. This contiaues with little interruption to the top of the mountain; though the soil hides it in most parts, and there may be other alternations which I did not observe.
2. A Clam Shell ?
whether it is a petrifaction or a peculiar water-worn pebble,
80 Geology, Se. of the Connecticut.
3. Vegetable Remains.
These appear to be either the branches or roots of trees, or the relics of culmiferous plants, and therefore may be cal- led lignites and rhizolites. They are usually converted in- to a thinvein of coal, similar to the fish. ey are com- monly broken into pieces from an inch to two feet long, in the manner represented in Fig. 4. Their width varies from a mere line to two inches. They are not jointed—found in abundance at the falls in Gill; also with the icthyolites at Sunderland. The rock in which they occur at both places is hardly bituminous shale; but a greyish micaceous sand- stone. The longest specimen of rhizolite 1 have seen oc- curs on the road side, one half mile south of Newgate pris- on; being not less than seven or eight feet in length.
4. Unknown Relic.
This is represented as well as it could be in Fig. 5. It is difficult to give a perfect idea of the thing, because there is a relief or swelling along the middle. It sometimes re- sembles. the ament of the chesnut, (Castanea americana Mz.) but still more the vertebrae of a fish. But in no ich- thyolite I ever found, did I see any remains of the vertebrae, and it is not probable, therefore, that this belonged to a fish. It is rare—found with the icthyolites at Sunderland.
15. ALLuvion. Colored Gamboge Yeliow.
By this term I understand those accumulations of gravel, clay, sand, mud and salt, which are post-diluvian, or have probably been deposited since the Noachic deluge by causes at present acting on the globe. Some varieties may be seen along the Connecticut which we shall mention in the probable order in which they were deposited.
1. The alluvion on the sea-coast. This is probably the oldest; because the sea would begin its depositions imme- diately after the deluge, if the situation of any particular place were favorable—even before it had subsided suffi-
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 81
ciently for rivers to have found their channels. On the map it embraces the alluvial plain around New-Haven and the salt marshes extending some distance on both sides of the city. The plain of New-Haven is made up of coarse sand with some gravel and an intermixture of broken shells and sea weed. ‘The marshes consist of sand, mud and salt.
The region about New-Haven, embraced by oe me a is interesting to the botanist, as he here finds m not growing in the interior. Among these, we tea men- tion Salsola kat, Salicornia herbacea, Triglochin mariti- mum, Statice limonium, fra frutescens of Lin, and dmmi capillaceum and Conyza camphorata of Muhl. Limnetis polystachia and juncea of Ph. L. glabra, Muhl. Holcus odoratus, Mx. and Limosella subulata, Ives. Here also, occur the other new species of Prof. ote Gnaphalium de- currens and Asclepias lanceolata, along with Plantago
ee 8 Soe
maritima,
pellucidum, ‘Mx. Cassia chamaecrista spy Uniola, spicata f Lin. &. &c. On the beach we find Fucus
me vesiculosus of Lin.* and adhering to the latter,
Mytilus striatulus? (Donov. in Rees.) Here also occur
Venus mercenaria, (common clam) Ostrea edulis ? (oyster)
and one or two species of 4rca and Anomia, with others
is arr: regular strata. The pebbles rarely exceed two or three inches in diameter.
. Clay. This is a coarse kind, buch’ as is used for mak- ing brick; and generally lies above the gravel and beneath the sand and mud, or loam. It probably underlies those er sandy plains that occurin Suffield and Windsor,
e West, and in Springfield, Longmeadow, Enfield, Fast Windsor, and East Hartford, on the east of the Con- necticut. In some places the clay appears at the surface, as in Hartford, Windsor, Deerfield, &c. .
* On Long-Island, filty miles east of New-Haven harbor, I found Sphae- cus confervoides, Agardh,
Vor. VI—No. 1. 11
82 7 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
a deposite of a loamy sediment, The region in which sand occurs most abundantly, has just been mentioned. It is sometimes seen in alternating beds with gravel, clay and Joam. |
5. Loamand mud. This is the most recent of our allu- vion, and depositions of it are frequently made. The Con- necticut indeed, seems, with some exceptions, to have nearly reached its maximum of depositions, rarely flowing over more than a small part of the alluvion along its banks. But its tributaries, such as the Farmington, Westfield, Deer- field, and Chickapee, still continue annually, and often semi-annually, to flood the adjacent meadows, and to leave there an additional soil, from half an inch to six inches deep, and though the agriculturalist has sometimes to la- ment the destruction of his crops by these inundations, yet without them his fields would soon become comparatively unproductive. i :
The depth of the alluvion along the Connecticut has never been accurately measured ; Ac = should judge it sometimes to be as great as one hundred and fifty feet: but in general it is much less. It is not unfrequent to find ten or fifteen feet below the surface of the most recent of this alluvion, logs, stumps of trees, leaves, butternuts, wal- nuts, &c. in a partially decaying state, and sometimes we meet with skeletons of the aborigines of the country. But no aurock, mastodon, or megatherium, has yet been dis- covered to give an interest to this alluvial formation, —.
_ Lhave found a difficulty in some instances in drawing the line between genuine post-deluvian depositions and geest. n some cases there appears to be a mixture. In other cases the rocks are entirely hid by the soil, and yet the predominant characteristic of the soil is derived from the rock underneath it, although there is a mixture of alluvion. The old red sandstone for instance, and the red slate of the coal formation, are very liable to decomposition, and thus a reddish soil is produced, so manifestly composed of the ruins of the rock, that one is able often to determine from the appearance of the soil at the distance of two or three miles the particular rock that lies beneath it. 1 have not,
eee er err 9 a 2:
Geology, de. of the Connecticut. 83
nomey shyt intended to put down the alluvion in all such cases, ut have colored the spot according to the subjacent pia
And on this pond I am sensible that there are a num
of small parts of the alluvion that ought, in strictness, ts
have been colored as old red sandstone; as in East-Hamp-
ton and Pipers: but pene so small they. were neglec.
ted.
16. Gezst. Jameson. e eee - Déluvian Detritus. Buckland.
“ By geest,” says Jameson, “is understood the alluvial matter which is spread over the surface both of the hilly and low country and appears to Bane been formed the last time the waters of the ocean stood over the surface of the earth. And it is probable that Professor Buckland refers to the sa By delavi- an detritus, he means : “fragments $ of neighba 1g and dis- tant rocks, and with bones not mikeraliced geneeae in valleys.” Whatever objections may lie against these defi- nitions, every geologist knows that much ‘deposition exists on the globe which no one refers to what is commonly un- derstood by alluvion, and which could result from no pro- cesses nature is now carrying on. This is scattered over the most mountainous tracts, and in all cases of consider- able extent, occupies at least three quarters of the surface. It is usually denominated soil, comprehending, however, the bowlder stones and organic remains that soil contains. As a general fact, this geest, in primitive regions, consists of comminuted particles and rolled stones of primitive rocks. In secondary tracts it consists of secondary detritus, though more renege’ mixed with penton of me: ofa
where ; and among all the rocks none seems to be more scattered than granite : though perhaps the numerous beds and veins of this rock found almost every where may ac-
84 Geoloy, &c of the Connecticut.
count for this. But in general along this river, the char- acter of the rolled masses corresponds to the rock in place | underneath them ;—that is the greatest number of the oose stones are of the same description as the rock that underlies them. But to this there are many exceptions—a most remarkable one occurs a few miles west of New-
from an inch to twenty, or even thirty feet, and they are usually rounded, indicating attrition. Some of the highest of these bowlders are found insulated on the pinnacles of our mountains.
There is a particular kind of geest; which I have al- ready mentioned, occurring along the Connecticut, that does not seem to be comprehended in Professor Jameson’s definitions. It is that kind of soil that results from the slow disintegration and decomposition of certain rocks, with a mixture of decaying vegetables. This, as already observed, is not uncommon above the old red sandstone and the red siliceous sandstone slate of the coal forma- tion. And the epithet deluvian seems to exclude this kind of soil from Prof. Buckland’s deluvian detritus; and so the epithet fluviatile excludes it from the fluviatile detritus of the same author. (Rees’ Cyc. Art. Geology, Addenda.)
Hayden’s Hypothesis of a primeval northeasterly current of ae water. 3
lallude to Hayden’s Geological Essays, in which he ex- presses the opinion that the alluvion of our middle and southern states was formed by a current or currents that formerly flowed across this continent from the northeast to the southwest; and I am inclined to believe, (without in- tending, however, to adopt altogether his theory on the
ee nO ee ee ee mee:
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 85
seen for one or two miles; but on the eastern side, if | mistake not, nothing of this kind appears; and I should suppose the ’powlders of Woodbridge and. Milford, being evidently brought from the country to the north, would tes- tify in favor of such an hypothesis.
Suggestion concerning rolled Stones.
Is it not a fact that rolled masses are more abundant and more perfectly ‘etiegige along the limits monies the primi- babes and igen or secondary? This question has often
traivelliig in the soul eastern part of
occu to me Masgi chisett, “when going over the country along the
Connecticut in Bernardston and its vicinity, when descend- ing the Hoosack and Green Mountains on the west, and when passing over the country west of New- Haven. If such be the fact it may, when it occurs in the geologist’s tours, be a warning to him to expect a change in the rocks in place.
Fact relating to the detachment of large bowlder stones from their bed.
Deerfield river in the greater part of its course is a mountain torrent, very rapid and powerful. It has worn a passage often four perro deep, the banks beet “a most perpendicular. Its winter floods are most powe: in effecting this work. The i 2 freezes three or four ri thick, and when a sudden rain melts the snows on its banks, it rises rapidly and lifts up and urges forward with tumultu- ous fury, this immense body of ice. As the banks among the mountains are steep and rocky, they prevent the ac- cumulation of water and ice from spreading to the right or left, and it is raised proportionally higher ; and thus an im- mense force is exerted upon obstacles in the bottom of the
66 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
stream, which, in winter floods, is filled with buge masses of ice to the very bottom. Pets
In the west part of Shelburne this river descends a cata- ract thirty or forty feet high. The rock in the bottom of the river is an aggregate of quartz and mica with horn- blende intermixed, and below the falls it is unstratified, al- most without seams and very hard. Yet here we might expect the force of the torrent would be most powerful ; and accordingly we find masses of this rock from one to ten feet in diameter, raised from their bed, and some of them removed down the stream one or two miles, some only a few rods, and | saw one or two of the largest but just be- ginning to be raised from their bed. Previous to viewing this spot, | had no just ideas of the enormous force exerted by a mountain torrent, 3
iis Be [Part IT. in the next Number.]
Art. I1.4#—A Memoir on the Catskill Mountains with notices of their Topography, Scenery, Mineralogy, Zoology, eco- nomical resources, &c. By James Pierce, Esq. Tue Catskill Mountains or ranges connected with them,
extend from the vicinity of the St. Lawrence to the Alle-
ghany ridge. In the neighborhood of the Hudson they sweep in a semicircular form, presenting wild and irregular eminences which rise to a greater altitude than any moun- tains in the United States, some in New-England excepted. The eastern face of the ridge is steep or precipitous, dis- playing numerous mural precipices of great extent, and of- ten of sufficient width to be distinguished at the distance of twenty miles. They appear encircling the mountain like enormous bands. | From the summit ledges, superb views are presented of the great valley of the Hudson, and distant mountains of
New-York and New-England; for extent, interest and di-
versity, they are unequalled in this country.
In the waving profile of the Catskill mountains many su- gar loaf eminences tower above the general range. Among
*Originally read before the Catskill Lyceum, but forwarded with additions and corrections, for insertion in this Journal,
2 SERN ty
aa
Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 87
these the height near Cairo and the Round Top of about equal vaibe tir, are the most conspicuous.
Several prominent spurs run from the. eastern chain of the Catskill mountains, in a north-western direction, for sev- eral miles. ‘The intermediate mountain vallies are mostly of a good ee medium soil, and afford, when cleared, fine grazing ground
state of nature these intervals present towering for- ests “of hard maple, beach, hemlock, birch, cherry, spruce, and balsam fir. The surface in general is not too strong for the purposes of agriculture.
The most considerable of the ranges which take a wes- tern direction, border the elevated vallies and ravines thro
which the rivers Kauterskill, Schoharie and Platterkill, e their Bens
ove passages formed by the Kauterskill. and Plat-
terkil in in pits eastern descent, present as sublime and pic-
turesque scenery as this or sbardue any country exhibits, —
ough there is considerable similarity in the appear-
ance of these wae yet some peculiar features. make an
intgrestns. diver
sion the Kauterskill clove ascends gece
ly near die river, where there appears scarcely space for the road es stream.
In many places the traveller looks down from a perpen- dicular and dizzy height upon foaming waters that pursue a raging course among the a falling with a deafening noise from precipice to precipic
2 northern side of the site the: mountain is lofty and precipitous, exhibiting near its base stupendous pur- pendicular walls of argillaceous red sandstone and gre: wacke slate—the strata in nearly a horizontal vaitiea Pro- quently but a small section of the horizon can be seen. Mural precipices rise in succession and tower above the forest.. The mountain’s top, which seems almost to over- hang the spectator, is crowned by enormous ledges resem- bling castles or fortifications in ruins, on which a few scat- tered pines preserve their bleak station in defiance of tem- pests, and wave their dark verdure over the cliffs like nod- ding plumes.
About two miles from the entrance of the clove the Kau- terskill is passed by a bridge thrown from crag to crag over
88 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains.
the brawling stream, which here presents considerable cas- cades—The mountain seems torn asunder to give passage to the river leaving lofty perpendicular walls of rock on its bor- ders—A short distance above, the stream falls ina circular column near one hundred feet. South of the clove the mountain rises to a great height—its steep northern side is thickly clothed with trees of varied verdure—Rivulets are seen winding rapidly down the glens or sporting in cascades.
The most considerable branch of the Kauterskill has its origin in two mountain lakes situated near the Delaware turn-
ike, between two and three thousand feet above the Hudson.
hey cover about two hundred acres of ground, and are very shallow—no where of greater depth than ten feet. They contain cat-fish, and great numbers of the brown va- riety of leeches, some of them six inches in length _, The river from its outlet at the lake descends by rapids and falls,througha romantic ravine to the great clove. In one place it is precipitated perpendicularly about two hundred feet. This fall is often visited by the curious, A road has been recently worked from its vicinity down a wild glen parallel with the Kauterskill, to the clove, to facilitate access to a. mountain mass of very friable, fine grained argillaceous red sandstone, supposed by the proprietors of the ground, to be valuable as a paint, although softer, and of a deeper color than the red sandstone observed in almost every ravine of the mountain, yet it does not appear to have sufficient oxide of iron to give it such a body as to form a useful pigment.
At the head of the great clove the western branch of the Kauterskill falls perpendicularly one hundred and twenty feet from projecting cliffs, and descends in rapids and cas- cades four hundred feet in about one hundred rods.
The Platterkill clove, situated about five miles south of _ the Kauterskill, is little known, except to the inhabitants of its vicinity. I recently passed up this glen by a narrow dug way which rose to a midway region of the mountain, north of the river Platterkill.
For two miles you look down the precipitous side into 4 deep ravine near one thousand feet, where the Platterkill pursues a raging course among the rocks, presenting numet~ ous rapids and falls. Lesser streams are seen descending the precipitous south mountain from an altitude of two thou-
Mr. Pieide tecthe Catpkcial: Moniitain:: 89
sand feet in caseades,—sometimes concealed by the forest, and then flashing to light through the evergreen foliage, leap- ith
ing from <— to sates until they mingle their waters wi
the Platt Few Scanaiee were observed on the north fhountaity but the elevated ridge south of the clove presented an en- tangled forest of hemlock, balsam fir and spruce, with plats of hard maple, beach and birch. The glen of the Platter- kill was filled with sugar-maple, beach, oak, chesnut, ash, birch, cherry, hemlock and _ spruce. Near the head of the clove the ravine suddenly rises, and the Platterkill, which onthe mountain affords water sufficient for mi}l-seats, de- scends from the valley of the summit one thousand feet in a few hundred yards of its progressive course, by a succes- sionof falls over ledges. One of these ae is in view from the road, is said to be one hundred and fifty feet in pre From a shane mural eS foes at the head
, fall and of the deep pul belo A saw-mill has been doen srectee near the nate of the gummmit, on me brow of a precipice overlooking water-falls and wild scene he po aS: valley, at the head of the wohl is tolerably fertile, but not extensively cultivated. Large tracts of pret- ty level ground are situated to the north and ae thickly clothed with hard maple and beach, which, if cleared, would afford a fine grazing region for sheep and cattle. Unfortu: nately, most of the residents on this part of the mountain are not proprietors of the soil. They prefer stripping the land of its best timber rather than resort to the regular toils of agriculture. A considerable proportion live in log huts without floor or furniture. Bread is rarely seen rts them; and but few have gardens. Their principal addition to wild meats and fish occasionally obtained, rl sists of potatoes and pumpkins. They have as few comforts as Rob Roy’s band, or the Children of the Mist. Adjacent to the Platterkill road on the mountain table land, there are a few small farms under tolerable cultivation. ne ascent from the Platterkill to the base of the moun- tain summits, called Round Top and High peak, is gradual through thick groves of maple, birch, beach, cherry and emloc Vou. VI.—No: 1. 12
90 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountams.
The elevated valleys and regions adjacent to those peaks are peculiarly interesting. Groves of lofty spruce and bal- sam fir, straight as the white pine, and presenting a beautiful never fading verdure, occupy, almost exclusively, extensive tracts. Little under-brush obstructs the passage and view, but the earth and flat rocks are covered by a handsome car- pet of diversified colors composed of a thick and soft velvet moss of a delicate light green, ornamented by gay flowers and tufts of white coral like silvery moss, with other species, —mountain sorrel varying the verdure.
The region north of the Platterkill mountain valley, is ac- — for waggons to the base of the Round Top and from
ascent is easy.
ches passed a night on this peak at an elevation of near 4000 feetabove the level of the sea. Its circular summit is near- ly flat, but slightly descending on every side, and presents about an acre mostly wood-clad.
Although the heat of the river valley was oppressive, yet the mountain temperature rendered a large fire comfortable.
dovigorated by cold and by b moun tain air, a traveller ranges with less fatigue than i in the > nid of the Hudson, and seldom fails of possessing a etite.
Having enjoyed a refreshing repast, and amused ourselves sometime in conversa tion, we inereased our fire as a protec- tion from beasts of prey, and retired to rest on beds of moss upon which small branches of spruce were spread, forming a soft and dry couch. We viewed through the thinly scatter- on Penches of the balsam fir, the blue arch of heaven span-
stars. ‘The azure of the sky appeared darker from our elevation than from below, and the heavenly bodies to move more brilliantly in their course.
The atmosphere which gives a light blue coloring to oe tant = becomes mort rare and pure in proportion its elevatio
Placed far above the haunts of men, no sound was heard save that of a light air, gently breathing through the fine pes tops of the pigeon
Jr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 91
~ — steeps and dispensing her influence over hills and plai We rose at dawn from a refreshing dsehes, to view the beauties of rising day. The eastern sky and clouds glowed in the morning light. The sun soon rose with a daz: splendor over the distant Taconnock mountains, but the immense valley of the Hudson was stillclad in gloom, Twilight is of shorter duration on elevated tracts than in valleys. ‘This probably arises from the rare air of the moun- tains having less refractive power. Objects in the valley were gradually disclosed. Here and there white fogs ap- peared, resting on the — But they were soon raised in clouds by the expansive er of the sun, and, ena with
ma “The Fedion: fourteen miles distent, appeared to us near ‘the base of the mountain, diminished to the size of a rivulet or canal. Jt was in view from the Highlands to Al- bany, together with every city and village on its banks. Sloops, with all their canvass spread, appeared no larger than small sail-boats. The rising sun, gleaming on the waters of the Hudson and its auxiliary eacauee and on
mountain and valley vel They appeared like crimson oo or lakes i fire. The mountains adjacent to Lake George, the. Green
Mountains of Vermont, the rite ranges of Massachusetts and Connecticut, were in view, and their blue cloud like sum- mits seemed mingled with the distant sky.
The Zz shkill mountain, a continuation of the primitive ranges of the Connecticut ;—the Highlands of New-York and New-Jersey, and the Shawangunk ridge were distinctly traced. The intervening space or valley of the Hudson, ex- ‘hibited the appearance of an immense plain, an alternation of groves and cleared fields. “The hills were laid low and
the valleys exalted.”
Northward, looking down on the Pine orchard and oth- er prospect elevations, which from their base appeared of gigantic size, they now seemed depressed almost to a lev- el with the plain. We viewed the summits, ravines, lakes
92 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains.
and streams, upon the broad back of the chain, to great advantage. ‘To the west, wild wood-clad ranges and moun- stains piled on mountains m
A considerable diversity is presented in the views from the Catskill heights, sometimes the valley is filled with clouds resembling a boundless ocean, while the insulated summits are in the enjoyment of sunshine and a clear sky— put in motion by the wind, the clouds of the valley roll like the waves of a tempestuous sea, and storms are often seen sweeping far — shrouding a part of the landscape in midnight darkness. You may hear the thunder roll, and see the lightning oe beneath your feet, while the mountain ee and | parts of the valley are cheered by the sun’ stays.
scenery,
the gay diversified ‘colors of autumn, when the tees oF the Maple, Beach, Oak, Birch, &c. is dyed with searlet, purple a orange, intermingled with the dark ver- dure of evergreens.
From the Platterkil table land, some of the peaks to the south west appear almost as high. as the Round top. The prospects from their summits to the south and southwest is represented as being very striking. The quantity of hem- lock in the southern section of the mountains seems inex- haustible. A tannery onan extensive scale might be advan- tageously established atthe base of the Platterkill clove—sev- eral fine mill seats are there unoccupied ; the distance from that place to the nearest landing on the Hudson, is about eight miles, and there are no heavy intervenin hills. Trout are abundant in many parts of the ——— Kauterskill, Schoharie and most of the mountain strea
About three miles south of the Platterkill and at a great elevation above the Hudson, a deep body of water one mile _ in circumference, called Shues lake is situated, and is envi- roned by an amphitheatre of wild, rocky, and steep moun- tains. It contains trout of large size.
A mineral spring of a chalybeate character, is said to oc- cur in its vicinity. A mill stream called Saw-mill Creek has its origin in this lake and winds rapidly for five miles dowa the mountain glens without presenting any considerable falls. Passing through the valley of Woodstock, .it be- comes auxiliary to Saugerties creek, A beautiful ae lar.basin of water four miles in circumference, called a dago lake is situated in the southern section of the ned
Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 93
tains adjacent to the Bristol turnpike and glass manufactory. It is deep, containing Pickerel, Trout, Perch, an
everal streams which have their source in the she tains to the westward of this lake, and pass through roman- tic ravines, are hme 3 well stored with trout. Fi ive
which a boy had been introduced twenty feet pe te e explo-
much su sualghcaxieh of iron, alum or coal. Caves of considera-
ble extent are rarely found except in ee or transi-
tion limestone, the excavations pene made i in the soft calca- the friction of w
reous fenaie shor
Panthers, woly es, bears, wild ¢ es abihideer. are oc ally seen in the i section of the Catskill ioulitatie, but are not so numerous as in the middle region. A Pan- ther measuring in length about nine feet, was recently kil- led in the southern range; this animal is rarely seen; but from its strength size and ferocity, itis regarded with terror and considered the most formidable beast of the forest ; their
color is grey, the head small in proportion, the general form
indicating agility ; they have been known in ascending a ledge or tree, to rise at a leap twenty feet from the ground.
Of wolves, two varieties inhabit the Catskill mountains; one called by hunters the deer wolf, from his habit of pursuing deer, for which his light grey hound form adapts him. The other of a more clumsy figure with, short legs and large bo- dy, more frequently depredates upon flocks under the pro- tection of man. Foxes and rabbits are numerous, and white hares, martins and pacaehows sometimes seen, squirrels sel-
om.
Rattlesnakes fi t the warm sides of the Catskill moun- tains, but are rarely observed on the summits or northern declivities and ten miles in the interior of the range are nev- erseen. They are in general about 4 feet in length—the skin of one recently killed near Shues lake was exhibited to me; it measured between five and six feet. The color of the male is darker than that of the female, they live to the age of twelve and fifteen years.
94 Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains.
Copperhead serpents inhabit the lower parts of ravines and eastern face of the mountain, but are not found on the
omit.
‘The black, Pelee striped, and milk snakes are among the
st ou reptil
vatekill uate; in wild grandeur and romantic beauty, can compare with the highlands of Scotland, without presenting their barren heath-covered aspect, being from the base to the summit thickly covered by forests
‘The eastern face of the mountain, though steep os pre- cipit ous, $ pports an forest. he le edg- es form netieal terraces that arrest the vegetable mould.
In the eleyt and gradually declining mountain surface , trees of great size appear, indicating a consid- erable depth of s6ed soil.
Gradations of elevation on the mountain are in some de- gree marked by a change of vegetation both as it respects the species and periods of blossoming, and the maturity of fruit. ‘The lower districts and the warm southern exposure of ravines, exhibit trees and plants common in the river vall pore chesnut, soft and hard "On ash, and cher-
tains and northern a of New-England occur. You there see thick groves of hemlock; spruce, balsam fir and pitch pine, mingled with hard maple, beach, white and black birch, and cherry. e white pine is not observed on the east- ern range of the Catskill mountains but is found in the valley of the Schoharie and adjacent hills of moderate elevation.
Among the mountain shrubs, the blackberry, thimbleber- ry, gooseberry, and moose-bush, are noticed ; the whortle- berry is very abundant on the rocky summits, ‘and is the fa-
vorite food of bears. The plants of the mountain blossom much later than those of the valley, and a botanist can collect plants of different latitudes, or which ‘blossom at different periods in one day’s research.
There are three descriptions of rocks on she Catskill mountains common to the whole ot; and which alternate with each other, viz. red sandstone, gray wacke, slate and puddingstone. The sandstone is a a fine texture, hi hly colored by oxide of iron and contains much alumine. It is
Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. 95
+ oe a ] 4 | ees Per 1 j
are most frequently remarked in the upper regions of the mountains. str
es of gray wacke slate and argillaceous sandstone,
Native alum is abundant near the Schoharie in the town of lenheim. It is found ina ledge near the foot ofthe Kauters- ill clove, and in the rocks of the eastern side of the moun- tain north of the Kauterskill for several miles, sometimes pendant in stalactical form. Alum often occurs in the south- ern section, both on the eastern face of the range, and in
ay wacke slate of the interior ravines, sometimes in incrus- tations, lumps and stalactites. Profitable manufactures of alum may perhaps be established in the Catskill mountains. The salt can in some places be extracted from the decomposing rock by lixiviation alone, but in general a calcination would probably be necessary. ;
Sulphuret of iron has been frequently noticed in the south« ern part of the mountains, and plumbago in a few places. There are indications of copper. Several tons of iron said to resemble that of the highlands were procured from the Catskill range, in the vicinity of the Bristol glass manufac- .
‘y, but diminishing in quantity, the mine was abandoned..
have observed narrow strata or seams of coal at several places in the southern part of the Catskill ridge. The widest is situated in a perpendicular ledge of gray wacke slate on t eastern face of the mountain, in the town of Woodstock, Ul- ster County, at an elevation of about 1000 feet above the
96 Mr. Prvrve on the Catskill Mountains.
Hudson. ‘This seam which has been recently explored, is
eight inches wide on the surface, and is observed for some
distance on the face of the ledge. The coal is stratified,
and inelines with the rock at an angle of near fifteen degrees.
Narrow strata of argillaceous slate, imbedded in the gray
wack ledges, Kies the roof and floor of the coal bed. ze dcubie crysta Is
sometimes robe a dark surface glistening with carburet
The ‘coal bed, inexploring; widened to twenty-two inches ; ~ but diminishing i in the interior to a narrow seam and the ad- _jacent rock being of difficult fracture, the pursuit has been abandoned for the present. Another vein of coal is located in a higher ledge of the same mountain, and coal has been noticed to the south west in this range for three miles. The coal of the Catskill mountain appears of a good quality for upper strata. It is light, shining, and burns with a mod- erate flame proceeding from bitumen or sulphur If beds of coal of this description could be found five feet in thickness they might be penetrated without breaking the rock, and would be valuable. Vegetable impressions: narrow seams of coal have been found in gray ype ‘slate, in the Catskill range bordering the river Schoha Flames, from spontaneous combustions, geindtated in beds ef coal or sulphuret of iron have been seen issuing from the ledges of the Catskill mountains by the neighbouring inhab- itants. Combustions of this character often occur in the coal districts of Europe and America. _ Adjacent to, and forming a threatening canopy over the entrance of the coal excavation in the mountain near Wood- stock, is a rock of several hundred tons weight. It is sepa- rated from the ledge and balanced on a narrow base of de- caying alum slate by an opposite projection of equal weight. rom progressive decay this base is lessening, and the ro will before long be cipitated down the steep side of the mountain. The ledges in this neighbourhood are fast de- composing in many places, ong the quantity of alum and rt oe of iron they contai he eastern side of the Catskill mountains eitth of the Kauterskill clove is steep, but thickly clothed with wood ; near this clove at a considerable elevation is noticed an im- mense circular basin resembling a volcanic crater. A basin
Mr. Pierce on the Catskill Mountains. - 97
of similar appearance is situated near the Platterkill ravine. Numerous small precipices are presented on the mountain’s eastern face, some of them of great alton those of a south- ern promontory bordering on the town of Woodstock, are par-
ture of alum and copperas.
From the above mentioned promontory which is situated
about ten miles south of the Kauterskill clove, the Catskill mountains tend to the south west and sweep with diminish- ed height to the Delaware. About four miles to the west of the village of Woodstock, a spur of considerable elevation strikes off to the south east, leaving a rich and extensive in- terval of semi-circular form. At the angle of intersection of these ranges, the Bristol glass works are situated. Window glass is the principal article manufactured, and four miles north east of this establishment in an elevated and secluded mountain valley, another manufactory of glass has been erected. Sand for these manufactories is procured from Phil- adelphia and the sea coast, and the other materials from a distance. The advantage resulting from the cheapness of wood and soil, will not compensate for the enhanced ex- pence incurred in transporting the ingredients of glass, and the bricks, stone lime and clay, for the furnaces and cruci- bles, and many of the necessaries of life, sixteen or twenty miles over mountain roads. _ A-small hamlet of about thirty houses has been erected adjacent to the upper or mountain glass house, on ground favorable for gardens and meadows. North of this village, an elevated, wood clad and steep mountain, ranges to the westward ; its wildly irregular waving summits are several miles in view.
Vol. VI....No. TI. 18
98 Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America.
Ant. Ul.—Some speculative conjectures on the probable changes that may have taken place in the Geology of the ~ Continent of North-America east of the Stoney Moun- _ tains ; by Wittiam Macture, Esq. President of Acade-
my of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, and of the American Geological. Society.
a
es of Vulcanic, (Volcanic?) Alluvial, Secondary, and Trans-
‘
on plains that are nearly horizontal, we are tempted to con- jecture that the earth took that form from the depositions from water, &c. &c. &e.
The continent of North-America, east of the stoney moun- tains consists of a ridge of primitive mountains, springing out of the great northern primitive formations, covered to. the east and south-east by extensive beds of alluvial, apparently the depositions of the ocean, and on the west side overlayed by Travsition and Secondary, filling the immense basin through which the Mississippi now runs with all its attend- ant streams.
Ur, Maclure.on the Geology of part of N. America. .99
The utmost stretch of i imagination or conjecture can form no idea of any period of time, when that primitive chain of mountains called the Alleghany, did not exist; but direct analogy, and perhaps logical reasoning, to conjecture that there must have been a period, ough beyond the date of our records, when neither the alluvial of the ocean, nor the Transition or Secondary Peo & cov- ered or overlaid either. side of said range of mountai ins thatthe chain of mot and from the nature of go pengenon which we now ea covering each side, we may have a right to conjecture that it was surrounded by water ; into gt run all the rivers that drained said mountains, forming channels deep in pro- portion to the immense length of time they may have run, and consequently much more profound than the channels One afterwards wore in the level country at the foot of the
ountains on the retreat of the waters ; at this preeen time all tho: welers Saat t fall into that immense t est os Alle Ge -say minchnggun onc ins ; by sissippi and St. Lawrence, and a small part n w by ‘the Hudson, although it is probable that formerly a reinier pro- portion used to pass by that channel; these then are the only rivers that break through the whole chain of the Alle- ghany mountains, and run into the ocean,
fon a review of an sesiiien series of phenomena, it is permitted to form conjectures on Y the past, and to look back on the probable changes, that may have preceded the pres- ent state, we presume that the situation of this continent will warrant such conjectures, and we should be naturally led to suppose, that at some former period, the continuity of the great chain of mountains was unbroken, by any o of the three rivers that now drain the great basin ; ; and that the waters confined by the high surrounding ridge would form an immense lake, the surplus of which would naturally fall over the ridge into the ocean, and would in the course o: time cut those se passages, which would drain said lake, and leave the great interior basin, with all its secondary or de- Position formation, as we now find it: as the waters that would fall over the ridge into the sea, must have previously left the ap eagle i ge lake, there would be little or no
matter fit for allu ositions; and more probably that great alluvial re “an the bay of Mexico to Long-
100 Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America.
Island, would not have been accumulated at this ies. and the current now called the Gulf Stream, would have then most probably run along the foot of the chain of esveaethte.
he continent east of the Stoney Mountains, and south o the north edge of the great lake, would then consist of an immense lake, surrrounded on the east and south side by a strip of high land from one hundred to two hundred miles broad; the rain falling upon which would partly fall into the Jake and partly into the ocean, through small rivers, along the mouths of which navigators might have in vain searched for rivers proportionate to the apparent extent of the conti- nent, as they now do on the coast of New ito Wales, for rivers capable of draining so extensive a country.
he passage of the St. Lawrence through the high ridge between Quebec and Montreal, must either have been torn asunder by an extraordinary convulsion, been always in that state, or it must have been worn down by the gradual butcon- tinued action of running water, aided by the friction of all the substances it carries along with it; the undisturbed bevel of all the surrounding strata both on a banks of the St. rence and Hudson, renders the first supposition idea. ble ; on the second supposition that the river had always run freely through the passage in those mountains, it must follow that the river had always run in its bed from Lake Ontario to Montreal, and from the roy of water and ra- pidity of its current, for so long a time, must have worn down a deep channel, and buried itgelf between high and perpendicular banks ; but this does not correspond with the actual state of the river, which from the lake to the rising ground above Montreal runs in a bed very little below the Jevel of the surrounding country, nor does either the present situation of the river or its banks, warrant the supposition that the action of the current had continued so long: by the same supposition the level of Lake Ontario must have always remained as far below the level of Lake Erie as at present, and the waters must have constantly fallen over a ridge at Niagara; but the small progress it has ma wearing away that ridge, compared with the effects of otbet rivers, (for instance, the Rhine below the lake of Constance with a tenth part of the water has worn a dee eper bed ten times the distance through the high lands composed of hard- er materials) is against the probability of such a supposition;
Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. America. 101
the small distance that the falls of Genesee river have worn its bed from the lake, with the shallow beds of the Oswego and all the other rivers that run into the lake, as well as the general nature of all the Genesee country, op- poses the probability of the supposition or conjecture.
above observations are equally applicable to the beds of the Hudson and Mohawk, before they fall over the ridge, from which it would appear that the most rational conjecture would be, to suppose the St. Lawrence wore down a passage through the high lands between Quebec and Montreal, as well as the Hudson, through the high lands above New-York, and until they had effected such a cut, the whole basin on the west side of the mountains, was the bottom of an immense lake.
A similar mode of reasoning supports the conjecture that the basin of the Mississippi made part of the said lake, for the Tennessee river, while in the mountains under the name of the French Broad, has i 3 to two hundred feet in solid primitive and i rocks, but when it comes into the basin, it is obstructed in its passage, at the Muscle Shoals, by a soft secondary sand- stone; the sources of the Ohio, under the name of New River, &c. &c. &c. have likewise cut deep beds in the mountains before they reach the great basin, but after their union into one great stream, the Ohio is obstructed at its falls near its mouth by a secondary limestone; from all ‘which it would appear probable, that, had those rivers run as long through the secondary formation of the great basin, as their sources must have done to wear these beds so deep $n the primitive mountains, the accumulated waters of both the Ohio and Genesee would, long ere this, have worn away all the obstructing secondary rocks, and like all other great rivers that have run long in the same beds, would have been obstructed only by alluvion of their own formation. The Rappahannock, Potomac, James River, Roanoke, &c. &c.
. that run into the Atlantic, have cut deep beds in their course through the mountains, through the level country their channels are shallow, and they all fall from twenty to thirty feet over the granite ridge into tide water, without hav- lng removed, the fall half a mile from where they begun, which could not have been the case had they run as long in
e low country, as they had in the mountains.
102 Mr. Maclure on the Geology of part of N. Amertca.
. That the branches or sources of these rivers should have run longer in the mountains than they have in the great ba- sin or lower country, can be satisfactorily accounted for, on- ly by supposing that they had long been wearing down these beds in the high lands before the great basin or lower coun- try emerged from the waters, and that it has been only since the draining of those waters that their accumulated junction in the bed of the great basin under the level country began the formation of the channels they now occupy.
This conjecture may likewise account for some of the particularities in the state of the animals, originally found on is continent, such, as the small_number and wild condi- uion of the wandering herds found on this part of the conti- nent, whencompared with their neighbours inhabiting the el- evated plains of Mexico; the great deficiency in Terrestial - Quadrupeds, compared with the vast abundance of Beavers, Otters, Muskrats, and other amphibious or aquatic animals ; the great proportion of Gramnivorous and the small number of Carnivorous; the immense flecks of aquatic birds, and the very few terrestrial; might be mentioned as some of the problems solved by the foregoing supposition. _ ; nting for the existence and extinction of the
mammoth would not be difficult, by supposing with Mr. Peal that it was not amphibious, and though originally inhabit- ing the southern parts of the great lake, might in summer occasionally emigrate to the north, and leave their bones
on the borders; being deprived of its element by the evac-.
uation of the great lake, might perhaps be considered as sufficient good reason for their extinction. :
the large masses of granite, some of them weighing tons, scattered over the secondary between Lake Erie and the Ohio, while there is not an atom of granite in place near- er than the north side of thelake, would seem to point at the only mode by which they could probably be transported ; by supposing the lake extended thus far, and that the large pieces of floating ice from the north side might carry those blocks attached to them, and drop them as the ice melted in going south; few or none being found south of the Ohio, ty that the southern sun melted the ice before it got so far. :
Description of a New Species of Botrychium. 103 ‘ é
ee,
BOTANY. “i etnies
Arr. 1V.—Description of a New Species of Botrychium; with a. drawing ; by the Rev. Epwarp Hircucock, A. M. of Conway, Mass.
Tus species grows, not very abundantly, in Conway, Massachusetts. It was first noticed, two years since, and with some doubt, referred to Botrychium lunaria of Swartz and Wildenow. But upon a suggestion of Dr. Torrey that it might be a new species, I have several times re-exam- ined it during the two past summers, and feel so confident that itis specifically distinct from any described Botrychi- um, that I take the liberty to propose for it the name B. simplex. iy eter
Specific Character.
Botrychium simplex : Frond simple, 3 lobed, or 3 cleft; segments unequal; spike sub-compound, interrupted, uni- lateral, bearing sessile! capsules, in the last part of June, of the size of a mustardseed. In dry hilly pastures.
Frond solitary, from a torn membraneous sheath, erect, two to four inches high, glabrous, pale green, consisting of a small spatulate feat” an inch Jong, and one third of an inch broad, usually divided into three—rarely four—unequal, somewhat rounded segments, with their margins a little notched. From the base of the leaf, about an inch from the ground, springs a stalk,twice or thrice the length of the leaf, bearing a sub-compound, unilateral, interrupted spike of capsules, sub-two rowed. Root sending forth stout simple fibres.
his species is closely allied to B. lunaria of Europe : but it differs in having a simple, instead of a pinnate feat “with six or seven pairs of obliquely imbricated, fan-shaped, entire, or notched leafets.”” (Smith in Rees’ Cyc.) And this difference exists in all the specimens, (more than 100) which I have seen—not one being pinnate, or even “ pseu- dopinaate.” (Nuttall.) Also, in having a spike hardly com-
104 Plant of New South Wales.
pound; the small branches, that appear along its sides, being scarcely any thing more than an expansion of the common receptacle—whereas in B. lunaria, the spike is “twice or thrice compound.” Also, in the capsules being twice as jarge, and the plant half as large. If 1 am correct, there- fore, this species will take its place as the first under the genus ; all the other Botrychia having compound fronds.
Art. V.—Description of a new species of Usnea, from New South Shetland; by Joun Torrey, M.D. of New- York, (with a drawing.)
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir,
Tue following account of a new cryptogamic plant from New South Shetland, with an explanatory letter from Dr. Mitchill, I send for insertion in your valuable Journal.
Letter from Dr. S. L. Mrreutnx, to Joun Torrey, M. D. : a New-York, July 1, 1822. My Dear Sir,
Amone the subjects of rational attention at this time, is the land lately found, and now much frequented, beyond Cape Horn. _ Having received from several of my friends, who have
visited that antartic region, articles of a zoological and min- eralogical kind, which they had brought home, I was nat- urally induced to inquire for botanical productions. In an- swer, I was informed that, notwithstanding the frequency of Java and volcanic slag, and the occasional eruption of smoke from the earth in different places, the surface was generally” covered with ice and snow, even during the southern sum- mer. ere is not a shrub, nor a tree to be seen; nor any appearance of verdure to cheer the prospect.
Captain Napier however improved the opportunity of ex- amining a rock upon an island of the group called New
Oe a arr =
m.
aptain Mackay informed me, he had seen a few tufts
of dwarfish grass; but as this is rare, it may have been introduced by some visitor or from some ship.
According to’ this View of the matter, the Flora of this
new world consists of a single species; which I hope you
will be very particular in deseribing. While I thus lay before you this interesting production, I
-congratulate you on the receipt of numberless other produc-
tions from foreign climes, which our spirited navigators are incessantly presenting tous! 0 8 S (838 -tieoases J f :
The specimens presented to me by Dr. Mitchell, evident- ly belong to a species of Lichen. Several of them were covered. with small tubercles very much resembling the fruit of Roccella, which, with the habitat of the plant, induced me to refer it to that genus. Ona closer examination, howev- er, I have no aati of its being a species of Usnea without the proper fruit, merely having the cephalodia which are not uncommon in U. florida, &c. It has the central hyaline thread, so constant and important a character in this genus. According to Acharius, all the Usnew are found exclusively on trees: so that this species, which grows on rocks appears to form an exception to all the rest. In the Flore Francais, however, the U. florida is said to occur sometimes an rocks and the U; articulata on the ground. The present species does not appear to be described in the Synopsis Methodia Lichenum of Acharius; Ihave therefore considered it as 3 new oné, and have called U. fasciata.
_ USNEA Acuarivs.
Recerracutum wniversale subcrustaceum teretiuscu- lum, ramosum plerumque pendulum, fasciculo ductulorum fi- liformi elastico centrali hyalino percussum, Partiale orbi-
Vor. No. I. 14
106 Plant of New South Wales.
culatum terminale peltatum totum a thallo formatum ejus- que substantia corticali similari undique obductum saree colorum, ambitu immarginato plerumque ciliato.
ote Lich. p. 303. 7% Lich. Universal. p. 121. t. xiv.
Usnea fasciata mihi.
U. thallo pendulo scabriusenlo tereti glauco virescente ramosissimo, ramis rectis nigro-fasciatis quasi articulatis, ramulis ultimis sapitlasoc-ettenuiii, ‘ibrillis lateralibus nul- lis, cephalodiis sparsis hemisphericis atris.
Description.—F rom two to three inches long, and proba- bly hettedocn, roughened by minute papilla. Common trunk short, about one line in diameter ; branches dense tapering to a filament at the extremities and a ppearing beautifully articu- lated by transverse black bands; the joints rather longer than the diameter of the branches. Apothecia—none in the specimens I have seen. Cephalodia scattered, some- times crowded ane irregular.
itat. the perpendicular volcanic rocks of New South Shetland. servations.—This species is nearly allied to Usnea ar- tieulata of Hoffman and the Flore Francais, which is con- sidered as a variety of U. barbata by Acharius, but the lat- ter is distinguished by its gray colour, dichotomous branches and ventricose joints, &c.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.
Fig. 1. The oom of its natural size. ba ar = bra i 1; A:eephafodicm magnified “4. A transverse section of the same highly magnified.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 107
CONCHOLOGY:
Arr. VI.—On the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta; with Introductory Remarks: by D. W. Barnes, M. A. Mem- ber of the New-York Lyceum of Natural History.
- [Read before the Lyceum.] INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
Tue family of the Natades, according to M. Lamarck, contains four genera of fresh water Bivales, viz. Sem, Hy- ria, Anodonta and Iridina. To this family belong the sas of Dr. Leach, and the Alasmodonta of Mr. Say. Sev- eral undescribed species of the Genera Unio and Alasmo- donta, were brought to our knowledge by the expedition
‘sent by our government in the summer of 1820, under Gov.
Cass, to explore the North Western Territory ; and others have since been obtained from various sources. - Little has hitherto been done by our countrymen in de- scribing these interesting productions of our lakes and rivers.
he only American work, of the kind, at present known, is that of Mr. Thomas Say, ‘who published at Philadelphia in in the year 1819, ‘A description ef the land and fresh-wa- ter shells of the United States.” This treatise had been pre- viously published in Nicholson’s Encyclopedia. It deserves the thanks, and ought to be in the possession of every Amer- ican lover of Natural Science. It has been quoted by MM. Lamarck, and adopted by M. de air and has thus ta- ken its place i in the scientific world.
But Mr. Say’s tract, though a very commendable perform-
ance, was necessarily imperfect. The author himself has described thirty new species of univalves since the publica- tion of his book, and a great part of the splendid epg ti brought from the N. W. Territory, was unknown to For our first view of them we were indebted to the zeal ol
108 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
liberality of Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, Mineralogist to the ex- pedition, who collected them at the expense of much volun- tary fatigue, transported them a thousand miles, and gene- rously distributed them among the lovers of Natural Science, in New-York and Philadelphia. :
A second parcel was soon after received from Capt. D. B. Douglass, Professor in the Military Academy at West- Point, and topographical oe to the expedition, whose avowed object, in sending his collection, was that it might be arranged and described for the American Journal of Science and Arts. To this gentleman we feel ourselves much indebted, for his valuable and detailed account of the localities of his specimens. What adds to the value of these collections, is, that independent of the numerous species and varieties before unknown, the specimens of the previous- ly ascertained species are in many instances, remarkably
a and beautiful.
1. Lamarck, in the sixth Volume of his “.2nimaux sans Vertebres,” bas described twenty-sic* species of North American Uniones. He was moreover in doubt of the lo- calities of several others, which will probably be found to be American. Whether he has, as we strongly suspect, deseri- bed some of our species under four or five different names,
cannot be certainly determined, as his book contains no fig- ures, and the descriptions are short and equivocal. The Unto purpureus of Mr. Say, purpurascens of M. Lamarck, is common in all our eastern waters, and has a different ap- pearance from every locality. In the Hudson it is small and short; in the Housatonick, long and slender; in the Saratoga Lake, of middling size; in the Kayaderosseras, thick and heavy ; in the Lakes of New-Jersey, large and ponderous. If these are to be made different species, we may as well make four or five different species of the common clam, Venus mercenaria, Linn. from as many different local- ties around New-York. They are really unlike. Not on- ly is the appearance of the shells different to the eye of the naturalist, but also the taste of the included animals, to the palate of the epicure. Who does not know that the Indian corn, Gea Jays, assumes a different appearance in every latitude from Quebec to Florida? Yet whoever thought of
* For eight of these, he quotes Mr. Say’s book, which contains nine.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 109
making these varieties, different species? We have examin- ed shells from the localities mentioned by M. Lamarck, and compared them with his descriptions, and, if we do not mis- take, he has fallen into the error of making distinctions with- out a specific difference. But, even if this is admitted, we shall not be disposed very severely to censure, so long as anatomical dissections have not been, and in many cases cannot be called in to decide the question ; for it is
all, upon the knife that we must depend for perfect accura= ey in this and similar cases. In the mean time, it has been agreed upon by naturalists, to arrange these ani- mals by their shells; presuming always that a different form and figure of covering belonged to an animal of a different organization. It is impossible to decide or er they are “the common children of common parents,”
otherwise. This is a case precisely similar to that liek Lama
occurred robink Linnaeus and rck concerning the Olives. rmer expressed a doubt whether there is more than eae species of the Olive, and the latter has des- cribed fifty-nine.”*
n most cases wherever M. Lamarck can find a differ- ence, though by his own account, ‘nothing remarkable,’’+ he makes a different species. ‘Too many as well as too few distinctions undoubtedly defeat the object of the Naturalist, which is to make his readers acquainted with the produc- tions he deseribes. In the present state of our knowledge we cannot perhaps do better than to take a mean course, and where the discriminations are sufficiently obvious, in important parts and essential — ars, to apply a different
. Specific designation. This course has been attempted in the
following notice of edie a species. We have had the Opportunity of examining and comparing a great number of specimens, and very rarely have we given a new specific name to a solitary individual. In cases where the contrary has, from necessity, been done, the specimens were by no means of a dubious character; but healthy, well-grown and perfect individuals, so rit marked and distinetly char- acterized, as to leave no dou
* Dillwyn, page 514.
+See U, Georgina and Glabrata of Lamarck.
410 Mr. Barnes ow the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
M. Lamarck has confessed the great difficulty of deter- mining the species of the genus Unio on account of their ** shading and melting into each other in the course of their variations.” ‘This difficulty is surely not obviated by short and equivocal descriptions. Short definitions may have an appearance of scientific neatness, but their brevity is an in- superable obstacle to a learner, especially when, as it com- monly happens, the same terms are applied to different spe- cies. M. Lamarck applies the term ovate, either by itself or compounded with another word, to the description of thirty- two, out of his forty-eight species. Now it will be apparent to every one that, as this is made a leading feature in his descriptions, it must be the cause of endless perplexity to the unlearned, and of constant uncertainty even to the ex- perienced. For the purpose of discrimination it is useless, and might almost as well have been omitted, unless it had been placed at the head of a section.
M. Lamarck dwells most on the external form, and witha great latitude of compound epithets, he has not succeeded in making his descriptions intelligible, without danger of mis- take to those who have not seen Ais specimens. Ten or twelve latin words cannot so describe a Unio as to identify it, -and distinguish it from all others. We have therefore adopt- ed full descriptions, the obvious utility of which needs no comment. If short definitions are insufficient, full descrip- tions become absolutely necessary. M. Lamarck, general- ly mentions the breadth of shells in Millimetres, which we have reduced to inches and lines, or what is the same thing, to inches and decimals. The multiplier 039371, which mul- tiplied by any number of Millimetres gives the correspond- . ing English expression, as, Unio Crassidens 105 Millim. 105 X 039371 =4°133955 or four inches and 1 line. Di- viding the English inches by the multiplier, will reduce Mr. Say’s measures to M. Lamarck’s by which means they may be more readily compared. For ordinary purposes 124 Millim. to half an inch, and 4 inches to 100 Millimetres, will be sufficiently exact.
But the breadth, or as Lamarck often says the “* apparent length” of the shell is nearly useless without the length ; for two shells may be of the same breadth, and yet differ total- ly in their other dimensions. For instance, the U. Crassus and U. Nasutus may each be 26 lines broad; but the Cras-
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 111 —
sus may be as long as it is broad, while the Nasutus is only 1 inch, or 10 lines long. The former may weigh more than half a pound, the latter less than half an ounce. The for- mer may be half an inch thick, the latter, as thin as paper. And to say that one is broad and the other narrow, does not obviate the difficulty; for these terms are altogether com- parative, and, without something for a standard, convey no definite ideas. .
We have therefore adopted an improvement which we hope to see become general in the description of Bivalves, that is, to give the length from the summit to the opposite margin; the breadth between the lateral extremities, and the diameter through the disks, at right angles to both the length and the breadth; that is, the thickness through the most prominent part of the body of the animal. We prefer the term diameter to thickness, because the latter is often applied to the substance of the shell; the former never. In deter- mining these dimensions with ease and accuracy, we have constructed a convenient instrument of the following de- scription; —
a, a, is a box-wood ruler, one foot Jong, graduated on its up- per side, in inches and lines. 6, c, cross bars, made to stand at right angles, and drop down by hinge joints, d, d, upon the ruler, for the convenience of packing. The bar, ¢, d, slides upon the ruler by means ofa clasp. The shells, to be measured, are placed between the bars, and the length is read off from below. The instrument measures any irreg- ular body or figure, from one line to one foot in diameter. When used for measuring shells, it may be called a Con- chometer.
One advantage of thus measuring shells, is, that those of the same species, or the same variety, will be found to have very nearly the same 2 Sig which will hold good as it regards all the varieties of age. ‘These proportions may be
: 112 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodon.a.
called the law of the species, and every Unio which has the same proportions, may be presumed to belong to the same
es. | akbaeies obvious advantage of this method will appear in the following remark. The Unio which we have designated praelongus, is perhaps the Unio purpurata of M. Lamarck, all the terms of his description may be applied, and proba- | bly with truth, to our shell. But then, he “ believes that his sheli came from the great Rivers of Africa.” This caused a doubt. Had he stated the very remarkable pro- portions of our shell, the identity would have been instantly determined. Had he stated the proportions at all, there could have been no doubt. We have put it into Avs power to settle the question with certainty. dz Writers on Conchology differ very much concerning. the right and /eft, and the ae of Bivalves. M. Lamarck and the authors of the New Edinburgh Encyclopedia consider the beaks as the base, and the opposite parts, the upper mar- gin: and they give the following direction for right and left. If the shell is placed upon its base or hinge, with the liga- behind, then the right and left sides of the shell will correspond with those of the observer. Burrow on the con- trary considers the opposite part to be the base, and the Seis: the summit, and says, “If the shell be placed on its base, with the area in front, and the valves be then divided, the right valve will be opposite the left hand of the examin- er, and the left valve opposite the right.” By placing a Bi- yalve in the manner directed, it will be perceived that the two are directly opposite, the right of one is the left of the other. The view which we have hitherto had of these parts, and with which Mr. Say agrees, is expressed in the following directions: Place the shell upon its base with the beaks upward, and the ligament before, (that is from the ob- server,) the right and left valves of the shell will correspond with the hands of the observer. With due deference to the high authority of M. Lamarck, there seems to be a proprie- ty in calling the base of a Bivalve, that part which is down- ward, and from which the foot projects when the animal is in motion. But when the Unio does not, as some authors seem to suppose, move on its beaks. The beaks are up- wards, and should therefore be called the back rather than the base. This makes a simplicity, in the language of Con-
*
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 113
chology, which is very desirable in every science, that the
me terms should have a uniform meaning. Having learn- ed i in univalves what is the mouth and what is the base of a shell, we apply the same terms to bivalves; but to call the thin, sharp, unconnected edges of a shell, the dorsum or back would sound very strangely. M. Lamarck has not
not as to right and left. We call the connected part of a bi- valve the back and the opposite the base.
If this is determined, there will remain another point to be settled. Authors have very generally agreed in calling that side of the beaks in which the ligament is ee niale ona and the opposite, ie posterior. “ But rigidly
aking,” says Mr. Say, “we seem to be all aie in pe adaptation of these sclativete terms, because the latter is used to indicate that part of the shell van covers the mouth of the included animal, and which is foremost in its progressive movements. In order to be correct in descrip- tions where the animal is referred to, these terms must be reversed, and if in descriptions which have reference to the animal, certainly the principle applies to all other bivalves, in which the mouth is similarly situated. The mouth ought always to be considered as in the anterior. For this reason, Cuvier reverses the terms right and ek applying the for-
r to that valve of the Uniones which has but a single lamelliform tooth, and which is our /eft valve.* He of course, reverses the anterior and posterior as now applied.’’t It would surely be deemed safe to follow an author so pre- eminent as JM. Cuvier, and this mode of viewing the shell is doubtless most conformable to nature; but as all other
authors have a different view, we have ‘resolved, for the : present, to adopt the established usage of the term anterior -
of posterior, and to follow M. Lamarck as to right and
If we rightly understand the celebrated French Natural- ist, he is under a mistake in saying that the Uniones “keep
* This agrees with Burrow. +Mr, Say’s MSS, Von. VI.—No. i» 15
a pe
114 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
themselves buried in the mud, having their beaks turned downward, If he means by this that they are usually concealed, or that they lie on their beaks; we remark that, s it regards those of our country, such is not the fact. In wonter they may bury themselves, but in summer we have found them, generally, when at rest, standing with the posterior side inserted obliquely, and the hinge margin the anterior slope, and a small portion of the basal edge ex- serted. Even when they sink below the surface the place of their retreat is conspicuous. In streams which have a rough ottom and rapid current, they choose the narrow crevi- ces between the stones or under the edges of rocks, and thus defend themselves from injury. e have never found a live . nio on its back, or on what M. Lamarck and his followers would call the base. While standing in the position above described, they have the anterior side slightly gaping, but on being touched they
strong resemblance to the eyes of a large animal. Deter- ville says “they have been observed to live for several months of the summer in clay too hard to be cut by the hoe, and with but momentary showers to refreshthem,.” This, if it be a fact, must rest, for the present, on his authority ; as we know of no one who has confirmed it by observation. We know but little concerning the generation and - agation of the species of Molluscous animals that inhabit these shells, They are generally supposed to be hermaph- rodite per se, If they are really and absolutely so, the num- ber of species must be exceedingly great. M. Lamarck supposes that they are propagated by means of a fecunda- ting fluid emitted into the water. If so, they must be male and female. What reason he has for this supposition, we are not informed, but if it be admitted, it will readily ac- count for the numerous varieties of these animals, and it will show also that they are merely varieties, and not dif- ferent species, that is, they will prove to be the “ common
* Ils se tiennent enfoncés dans la vase, ayant leur crochets tournés en bas.” —Lam. An. S, Vertebres, Voi. V1. page 70,
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmedonta. 115
from its parents, will be again produced, and so on, in an endless succession of innumerable varieties. The admis- sion of M. Lamarck’s supposition would confirm the thought which has frequently and very forcibly struck us, that, prop- erly speaking, there is but one species of the whole genus ; and perhaps of the whole family. Bat this subject is cov- ered with a veil of obscurity. There is yet wanting a series of minute and well-directed observations on the hab- its and manners of this interesting tribe of molluscous Bi- valves. In the mean time we must follow our guides at the hazard of being sometimes misled. :
Brugiére established the genus Unio, but his original ob- servation on this subject we have not been able to find. The word signifies a pearl, because “ many of them produce ye- ry fine pearls,”* and nearly all of them have a pearly inside called naker or mother-of-pearl. Pliny in his Natural Hist. Lib. IX, Cap. 35, entitled Quomodo et ubi inveniuntur, margaritae, uses the word, gives the reason ofits derivation, and makes it constantly masculine. In this he is followed
our countryman Mr. Say who makes it always of the masculine gender except in that species for which he gives credit to M. Le Sueur. Why the celebrated and accurate M. Lamarck, has chosen to make it femimine, we cannot evenconjecture. Order ef description. No certain order has hitherto been adopted by Naturalists in theirdescription of Bi- valves. The descriptions both of M. Lamarck and Mr. Sa are without a definite method. ‘Though they generally be- gin with the outline of the shell, yet they throw together pro- miscuously the other parts, both mternal and external. | propose to reduce this subject to order in the following manner. In examining a bivalve, the first thing that strikes the eye of the observer is the outstde, the second is the in- side. Hence the description will be divided naturally into two parts, the External and the Internal. As it is by the interior that we determine the genera of the Naiades, as
* M. Lamarck.
116 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia.
well as of many Oceanic Bivalves, it might seem most prop- er to commence with that part in describing. But as the generick characters, standing at the head of the genus are supposed to be known, and are therefore not enumerated in the description, and as the method of commencing with the exterior has been generally adopted, we have not deemed it necessary to depart from the established usage. The parts are two, viz.
(A.) Externat. (B.) Internat.
Each of these comprehends three divisions, viz. I, Form II, Color, III, Surface. With sub-divisions as follows, viz.
A. ExtTerna.. ¥. Form anp SuspstTance includes 1. General outline or circumference. 2. Substance of the shell. 3. Disks, right and left.
4. Sides, anterior and posterior. 5. Umbones or bosses
6. Beaks. 7. Ligament. 8. Lunules, etic and posterior. 9. Eight margins a. Hinge, or dorsal. b. Basal. c. Anterior. d. a e. f. Anterior, dorsal and basal. g. h. Pashivicr, dorsal, and basal.
Il. Coxor of Epidermis. Il]. Surrace. B. Inrernau.
I. Form of
1. Cardinal teeth.
2. Lateral teeth.
3. Muscular impressions, or Cicatrices. 4. Cavity of the beaks.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 117 If. Coror of Naker.
Ill. Surrace.
The eight margins explained. Every Bivalve shell ma be supposed to be circumscribed by an octagon, which will e more or less irregular, according to the shape of the shell. The eight sides of the octagon will represent the eight margins, as will be seen by the following figure. Dorsal or hinge
*
Posterior
Basal
This distribution of the circumference of the shell, tends very much to precision in the language of description, for if it be said that any particular margin is rounded, arcuated or emarginate, the part intended cannot be mistaken. To go into an explanation in general, of terms used in wage 2 tion, would carry us too far from our present purpose. We tefer to Burrow.
We come now to the description of species of the Unio, which we propose to distribute into five* sections, by the form of the Cardinal teeth.
UNIO. Generick character from VV. Lamarck.
Shell transverse,' equivalve, inequilateral, free, beaks de- corticated,? somewhat carious, (presque rongés) Posterior
* M. Lamarck makes two sections, the principal distinction of which is, 7n en créte and en créte, applied to the Cardinal tooth.:
ed i 118 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. —
muscular impression compound, hinge with two® teeth i in each valve; the Cardinal one, short, irregular, simple or divided into two, substriated ; the other elongated, com- pressed lateral, extending beneath the ee rang exterior.
1&2, Generally, but not always when young.
3, Others consider the divisions as separate teeth,
Divisions. A. Cardinal teeth direct. B. Cardinal Teeth, Oblique Sections.
*Cardinal teeth, very thick. A ** Cardinal teeth, moderately thick. *** (‘ardinal teeth, small. B { **** Cardinal teeth, broad, compressed. *%*** Cardinal teeth, narrow, compressed.
* Cardinal teeth, very thick, direct. Species.
a. sone
6. outs
’ Shell very thick, tumid ; Cardinal teeth, ary ‘angala- _ ted; Posterior cicatrix, deep, ro ugh.
Unio Crassus. Mr. Say. Unio Crassidens. MM. Lamarck. Mya ponderosa ! Mr. aeure p. di. Mr. Say’s Amer. Conch. pl. 1, fig. 8 Habitat. The Ohio, Mississippi, and the Lakes. Diameter 2°4 Length 3-2 ~— Breadth 4°8 inches. ©
My Collection.
1. Unio Crassus. Fig. 1.
Shell oval, ponderous, rounded behind, angulated before; Epidermis blackish b brown; surface waved. Cardinal tooth deeply sulcated; anterior cicatrix wrinkled and striated ; Naker pearly white and iridescent.
Remarks.—The varieties of this shell are numerous, and they differ considerably i in form and surface. In some, the beaks are large, prominent, re-curyed, projecting backwards
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Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 119
“with a deep cavity beneath. In others, the beaks are flat, slightly elevated, having only a small cavity within.
Varieties.
(a.) Oval. Mr. Say’s book, pl. 1. fig. 8. (b.) Ovate. Mr. S. B. Collins's collection, nee Bek se do
(g-) R
(h.) Radiate. Mr. Say simaes Philadelphia, Ouis- consin
(2. ) Unio, giganteus. Mississippi. Dr. Mitchill’s collection.
(k.) Deeply folded. Maj. Delafield’s collection.
(l.) With the cardinal tooth oblique. Mr. Collins’s col-
lection.
Variety (c.) has the beaks projecting and recurved : ci- catrices deep ; primary tooth deeply sulcate ; lateral tooth long, high, and crenulate. Itapproaches our Unio Undatus.
he variety (t.) deserves particular notice. A single valve sent by Professor Douglass to Dr. Mitchill, weighs fifteen ounces. It is in every respect, a gigantic shell. The dis- tance between the points of the two lobes of the cardinal tooth, is one inch; the length of the lateral tooth, three inches ; diameter of the posterior cicatrix, one inch, and its depth one fourth of an inch. ‘This shell of which four specimens were obtained by the N. W. Expedition, might perhaps constitute a separate species under the designation of Unio Giganteus. It is three times the size of the i Unio Crassus, mentioned by Mr. Say and M. Lamarck. Three specimens.
Diam. 2°9 Length, 4°38 Breadth, 7:2 inches.
3°0 4°6 7-0
31 47 7*1 are preserv-
ed in Dr. Mitchill’s cabinet. Another specimen Diam. 2:9 Length, 49 Breadth, 7-0 and weigh- ing fourteen ounces, is preserved in Gev. Gast’ s collection, Detroit. Hab. The Mississippi near Prairie du Chien.
Prof. Douglas
Variety (k. has the Epidermis dark brownish red, and the shell is deeply folded like U. Plicatus. Hab. Lake Erie.
120 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia.
Maj.. Delafield’s collection.
Diam. 1°7 Length, 23 Breadth, 3:1 Remark.—This shell is thinner than specimens of the same size usually are. =. 2. Unio Undulatus. Fig. 2. ; Hero Shell rhombick ovate, with numerous waving folds radia- ting from the beaks.
Unio Peruviana ? M. Lamarck.
Taken by Mr. Collins in the Ohio and preserved in his
—— 1°9 Length, 34 Breadth,
Shell hick, very short and obtusely we ‘behind beaks slightly elevated; hinge-margin sub-alated, compress- ed, carinated, distinct with a furrow on each side ; anterior dorsal margin sub-truncate; Epidermis blackish brown ; ; surface finely wrinkled transversely ; wrinkles becoming meet on we anterior side ; oblique folds deeply indent-
the anterior margin ; waves largest and deepest below, Ba eapeoning Pe the anterior dorsal margin, fine, numerous, curved upwards, and extending to the ligament above ; longitudinal poset extending from the beaks to the an- terior dorsal margin; decussating the oblique waves; the lowest furrow deepest, the other somewhat obsolete ; disks tuberculated below the beaks. Cardinal teeth sulcated ; posterior cicatrix very rough and deep; Naker pearly white, irregularly spotted with brownish green.
Remark,—A large and very beautiful shell. ra
. : ‘ a. inside. 3. Umi Plicatus. Fig. 3 <4 5 gasaide; Shell sub- “radrepesiar, tumid, sinuous before with dis- ae ne olds ; hinge-margin elevated, compressed, car-
Unio plicata. Le Sueur. Mr. Say. Unio Rariplicata. M. Lama vr a Hab. Ohio, Mississippi, and Daienidin.
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Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 121
My collection. Cabinets of Lyceum and Dr, Mitchill. Mr. s cabinet, Philadelphia. 75 Length, 1,0 Breadth, re mches. 1 “
in age; surfac ce oR eg ieoly folded ; folds indenting the anterior basal edge. Cardinal teeth crtnate; sulcate ;
rected backwards. Naker very white, tinged on the an-
terior side with rose colour; surface polished and on the fore part iridescent.
Remarks.—In young specimens the folds are visible on the znside, but in older ones the edge is not even indented. This shell very much resembles the variety (d.) of the Unio Crassus. Both shells will stand erect when placed on the posterior side, being supported by the projecting beaks. M. Lamarck observes that his Rariplicata is nearly allied to his Peruviana, but if we have not mistaken his short definitions, they are much more unlike than the two above mentioned. Our undulatus will not stand on the posterior side, as the beaks project very little.
a. inside. 4, Unio Undatus. Fig. 4 e en
de. Shell, sub-triangular, sub- longi — tumid, waved ; lateral teeth, two in each va
Unio Obliqua? M. Lamarck. Hab. Ouisconsin and Fox Rivers. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s cabinet. My collection. Mr. Say’s col-
lection. Length, 2:1 — Breadth, 2-2 Shell thick, dicks swelled behind ; depressed before ; anterior side slightly produced, rapidly narrowed, angulated ; aoe Pree — mie as far as the posterior
122 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta..
side, elevated, and recurved, with the ligament passing be- tween them; anterior lunule long-heart-shaped, and sepa- rated by a slightly elevated heel ; hinge margin depressed, between the beaks; basal margin waved and rounded be- hind, compressed in the middle, angulated before; epider- mis horn-color, exhibiting a light yellowish green where the. surface is worn or rubbed, wrinkled and finely striated trans- versely ; surface glabrous. Cardinal teeth deeply sulcated and crenated; lateral teeth two in each valve! internal or lower one of the left valve small, but distinct and elevated,
and both marked with fine dotted striae. Muscular impres- sions deep, posterior one rough. Nuker pearly white.
Remarks—This shell, as will be seen by its dimensions, has a more globose form than perhaps any other Unio. It will stand erect on the posterior side, and in this position has “ang oh of a pyramidal appearance.
y (a.) Shell less, very slightly compressed, anterior seay pile flattened, and the separating heel more eleva- No posterior lunule ; ; transverse ei ae hinge bent to nearly a right angle. ‘Teeth somewhat pressed. Naker, pink or fle sh colored ; autftt plished and — . Diam. 1:0 Length, 1°4 Breadth, 1-6
. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet.
temarks.—This shell differs in so many particulars from the former that we might have given it a different specific designation, had we not been averse to doing that in me case of solitary specimens. The vee lateral ‘tooth of the left valve ts distinct. a. inside. 5. Unio Cornutus. Fig. 5. . outside. . Posterior slope. Shell sub-orbicular, divided losigieidiuatey by a regular row of large, distant tubercles, Hab. Fox yall Schoolcraft. j ollection. Diam. 1°0* Modi 1:7 ~—Breadth, 1°8
* Excbusiye of the horns.
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Mr. Collins’s collection contains a specimen from the Ohio of the following dimensions. iam. Length, 1-5 Breadth, 1:8 Shell thick, rounded behind, sub-biangulate before. Beaks somewhat elevated and nearly central, with the ligament passing between them; anterior lunule long-heart-shaped, compressed, distinct by a roundish elevated ridge which ends in a projection on the anterior margin, and marked by small transverse, sub-nodulous wrinkles, and obsolete longi- tudinal furrows ; surface waved and on the fore part com- pressed; a regular row of large, distant, elevated and trans- versely compressed tubercles, extends from the beaks to the basal edge, dividing the shel] into two nearly equal parts, Car- dinal teeth, sulcated. Naker, pearly white, and iridescent.
Remarks.—This shell resembles the last in its color, out- line, and glabrous surface. The teeth very much resemble those of the last, and there is also in the left valve, the rudi- diment of a second internal lateraltooth. The principal dif- ference is in the smaller size of the present shell, and the re- markable row of horns, which furnish the specific designa- tion. These horns are not opposite to each other, but al- ternate, and the highest one is in the right valve, nearly as high as the summit. In both the above mentioned speci- mens, the number of horns is three on each valve, and the rudiment of a fourth on the extremity of the basal edge. We rarely find shells from different and distant localities so much alike, Almost the only difference is in the elevation of the beaks of the former being greater than that of the lat- ter. Exclusive of the beaks, the length, breadth and diam- eter of the shells, is precisely the same. 2
6. Unio Verrucosus. Fig. 6 ; a, ene : € es b. outside.
Shell sub-longitudinal, sub-truncate before, irregularly tu= berculated ; tubercles transversely compressed ; inside brownish red.
Hab. Ouisconsin River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Lake Erie. Major Delafield. The collections before mentioned. Diam. -9—1-6 Length, 1:7-—3-05 Breadth, 1:95—3°15
Shell sub-quadrangular, thick, rounded behind, bianga-
late and sub-truncate before ; beaks elevated and recurved
124 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
ligament deeply inserted between the valves; hinge-margin nearly straight, compressed alated, heel-shaped, and making an obtuse angle with the anterior margin; basal margin rounded ; epidermis light green, tinged with reddish brown; surface of the anterior part studded with irregular transverse- ly compressed tubercles. Cardinal teeth crenated or sul- cated; cavity of the beaks very deep, compressed angular and directed backwards under the cardinal tooth; Naker brownish red with a tinge of blue, or light chocolate color- ed, slightly iridescent on the anterior part; the other dull and not highly polished; posterior muscular impression deep and rough.
Variety (a.) has the epidermis of an uncommonly light green without the browr tinge.
Hab. Lake Erie. Major Delafield’s collection. Diam. ‘8 Length, 1°65 Breadth, 1°9
Variety (b.) is a slender and rather thin shell; epidermis very pale green; Naker pearly white, polished and irides- cent.
Diam. ‘9 Length, 1°6 Breadth, 1-9
Locality and authority as before.
Remark.—If a straight line is drawn from the beak to the base, through the cardinal tooth, it will divide the tubercu- lated from the smooth part of the shell, in all except the va- -riety (6.) in which the tubercles extend a little farther back.
_ 7%. Unio Nodosus. Fig. 7. ag inside. b. outside.
Shell, sub-quadrangular, sub-longitudinal, emarginate be- fore, knotted, ridged, corrugated; lateral tooth terminating abruptly.
Hab. Ouisconsin. Mr. Schoolcraft. Collections of Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. ollection. m. 1°8 Length, 2°5 Breadth, 3-0 Shell, thick and ponderous, short and very obtusely rounded behind ; beaks distant, elevated, eroded, chalky or greenish white, with the ligament passing between them. Anterior lunule, compressed, wedge-shaped, separated by @ deep groove, ending inthe emargination in front. Hinge-mer-
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Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 125
gin, straight with the beaks projecting aboveit; anterior dorsal margin rounded 3 anterior margin emargin nate ; anterior ba- sal margin; compressed and a little shortened, basal an posterior margins roun ndec A __Epidermis horn color, Surface irregular]
portion of the posterior side. ‘Tubercles largest near the centre of the disks, and often eroded; a strong, elevated and nodulous ridge extending from the beaks to the anterior margin and projecting in front. Cardinal teeth sulcated and crenulated. Lateral teeth short, thick, rough, crenated and terminating abruptly at both ends. Cavity deep and angu- lar admitting the end of the fore finger.
marks. —The breadth from the emargination to the posterior side is equal to the length of the shell. Two spe- cimens in the Lyceum’s cabinet are wrinkled regularly and beautifully across the transverse strie on the anterior lunule, © giving to that part, a feather-shaped appearance. Other cimens have the lunule wrinkled and granulated. This shell will stand on the posterior side though not quite ee but leaning towards the hinge.
8. Unio Tuberculatus. Fig. 8.
Shell, long-ovate, surface corr ugated, waved tuberculated, ribbed. Disks pconmasenans base falcated. . Ouisconsin, Prof. Douglass. . Cabinets of Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. rey | Length, ae Breadth, be 13
13 a 6: Shell thick and rugged 3 anterior side compressed, nar- towed thin; posterio or siden rounded, short, obtuse, and broader than the interiour. Beaks flat, placed about two ninths from the posterior end; ligament higher than the eaks ; hinge-margin nearly s straight, elevated, compressed and carinate before; basal margin compressed, falcated ; anterior dorsal emarginate, anterior basal, projecting ; ante- rior margin narrow and rounded. Epidermis dark brown or horn color. Surface thickly and irregularly tuberculated, tubercles elongated !ongitudinally ; those near the base larger; an elevated ridge extending from the beaks and
126 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
projecting on the anterior basal edge; irregular profound, nodulous undulations radiating from the elevated ridge to the hinge and anterior margin. Cardinal teeth crenated ; lateral teeth long and striated; posterior muscular impres sion deep, and the anterior half of it rough. Cavity, angu- lar compressed, directed backward under the cardinal tooth, admitting the end of the finger. .Naker pearly white, with irregular spots of greenish, iridescent on the fore part.
9. Unio Rugosus. Fig. 9. Shell broad ovate; surface wrinkled tuberculated, ribbed,
waved; disks swelled; base falcated.
Hab. Ohio. Mr. Collins.
Mr. Collins’s Collection.
Length, Breadth, 2-9 Diam. 1°5 Shell narrowed, compressed and thin before; short, ob-
tuse, rounded and wider behind; beaks slightly elevated; ligament more elevated than the beaks; hinge-margin compressed, carinate; basal margin falcate, emarginate, and compressed; anterior margin sub-angulate ; anterior dorsal margin sub-truncate, nearly straight; anterior, basal margin projecting. Epidermis dark brown, under the epi- dermis pearly white. Surface rough and scaly, wrinkled transversely and waved longitudinally, having distant irreg- ular transversely compressed tubercles; a broad nodulous elevated somewhat double ridge extending from the beaks to the anterior basal edge, and projecting on that part; a broad furrow or wave behind the ridge ending in the emar- ginate basal edge; and a furrow before separating the ante- rior lunule ; small oblique waves radiating from the ridge to the hinge and anterior dorsal margin. Cardinal teeth sulca- ted; lateral tooth striated rough and in the left valve some- what double: Posterior muscular impression deep an partly rough. Cavity of the beaks angular, compressed and directed backward under the cardinal tooth. Naker pearly white, and on the fore part iridescent.
Remarks.—This shell agrees in some parts of its deserip- tion with the U. Tuberculatus. It is, however, while of the same length, of only a little more than half the breadth, and yet of longer diameter. The tubercles, also are very dif- ferent. In the U. Tuberculatus they are compressed /on-
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Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 197
gitudinally, in this transversely, in that they are crowded and
mall: in this they are distant and rather large. The ele- vated ridge in that is higher and narrower; in this it is broader and more depressed ; in that it continues of nearly the same. breadth to the base ; in this it diverges at the base, to about four times its breadth at the beaks. The shell above described has the appearance of age. The tubercles, as well as the beaks are much corroded, and the epidermis is cracked and broken in many places
Remarks on the first section, viz. * Cardinal teeth, very thick.
To this section belong the U. Peruviana, rseaietsss and obliqua of M. Lamarck, and the U. Cylindricus? of Mr.
y- The shells in this section bear in cota respects, 2 resemblance to each other. They are all thick, and have avery strong hinge, with, in most oe deeply sulcated cardinal teeth, and a cavity under the beaks, more or less angular and compressed, extending Wedlar the cardinal tooth. They are nearly all waved, wrinkled, or tuberculated on the outside. From the last two characters, however, some varieties of the U. Crassus are excepted, which have hitless }
4
128 ~ On the Formation of the Unwerse.
PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c.
Art. VII—An Essay on the formation of the Universe: by Isaac Orr, one of the Professors in the Asylum, for the Deaf andDumb, at Hartford, Conn.
TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir,
Ir it is admissible in the explanation of appearances, to ad- duce a theory, whose absolute and invariable characteristics are wholly coincident with fact; aand whose variable charac- teristics admit of sucha construction, as to be also coincident;
pearances; the present aetna to illustrate one of the most difficult physical su jects will not want an apology, though
it should eventually be numbered with other similar at-
tempts, that have sunk with their projectors into their own sblivi
. It is far from being the least difficulty, to be met by a theory, professing to account for the motion and rela-
tive position of the heavenly bodies, that such theories have
been so numerous and so utterly visionary, as to stamp seem- ing futility on all. In view of so formidable an array of ad- verse public opinion, it seems sufficient to collect, arrange, and exhibit the proofs of such a theory, and leave it for oth- ers, who are not personally interested in the decision, to judge of their validity. Whatever is asserted in this me- moir, although perhaps, sometimes passed over rather too iefly, can, I believe, in all cases, be amply substantiated. In several instances where it is said that assertions are de- monstrable, the demonstrations are omitted, on account of their length, or comparative want of importance. They wi be given hereafter, if they should be demanded. For sev- eral remarks and demonstrations, with regard to the separa- tion into strata of a finite ocean of concreting aerial matter, when particular gravitation is supposed infinite ; the con- struction of strata by accumulation at their edges; the diut-
Tre |
On the Formation of the Universe. 129 vn
ual motion of the satellites; and the relative position of the orbit of Mercury and the equator of the sun, as well as a va- riety of other useful suggestions, I am indebted to Mr. Fish- er, the late able Professor of Mathematics and¥Philosophy in Yale College; and while with the remembrance of his former assistance, I mingle regret that he was not permitted privately, as he intended, to lay the following speculations before European minds powerful and acute like his own, and to aid further in rendering them more lucid and satis- factory ; I cannot omit to add, that America, and the world have great reason to regret the premature and tragical death of this distinguished young man.
n the examination of the ‘solar and the stellar systems, various phenomena occur, which are much too regular to be considered the pure effects of accident, while on the other hand, they are not sufficiently so to be attributed to the im- mediate operations of an intelligent designing agent. To such operations they have heretofore been attributed, because, on any other ground, they seemed utterly in - cable, and the ends aimed atin their existence have been ta- ken for granted, although the human mind could discover nothing respecting them. Of these phenomena the most ob- vious are, :
1. The primitive parts of the earth, so far as they have been examined, are apparently the result of purely chemi- eal precipitation. There are sufficient reasons to believe, that the quantity of water above their surface has been very great-
ly diminished.
2. The sun revolves on its axis, and all the planets in their orbits, in the same direction, and nearly in the same plane: and likewise all the planets that have satellites, re- volve on their axes in the same direction as their satellites in their orbits, and nearly in the same plane.
3. The planets generally revolve on their axes in the same direction with the sun; and the satellites, so far as their di- urnal motion is known, and probably in most instances, re- volve on their axes in the same direction with their prima- ries. The most remarkable irregularities are near the sun, at the superior extreme of the sun, and probably at the or- bits of the asteroids.
4. The velocity of each planet on its axis, has a general ~ proportion to its quantity of matter, and distance from
OL a 1 17
130 On the Formation of the Universe.
the sun: and an inverse proportion to the number and mass of its satellites. The revolution of each satellite on its axis, and its periodical time, are probably equal.
5. The planets, taken with respect to their masses and in- termediate distances, exist in two distinct series, the upper
between the planetary and lunar systems, and there are rea- sons to presume that it exists also with regard to eccentrici- ty and quantity of matter.
6. The asteroids appear to exist in pairs, two of them having atmospheres similar to each other, but much great- er than the aimospheres of the other two; and the individ- ual of each pair which has the most oblique orbit, is in very nearly the same degree the most eccentric, and its mean distance from the sun is in a different degree the greatest.
7. The rings of Saturn are nearly in the same plane with its equator and satellites: The inner ring is much larger
an the outer one, and their angular motion is a little slow- er than that of the planet, but much more rapid than that of a satellite at the mean distance of its parts. Saturn in con- tradistinction from all the other planets, and from the form which it would naturally assume if it were fluid, is consider- shly.de ressed about its equator,
_8. The densities of the various planets and satellites are generally in inverse proportion to their quantities of matter, and in a direct proportion to their distance from the sun.
_9. Comets move indiscriminately and almost equally in all directions. The perihelia of all of them are between the suo and the orbit of Jupiter ; and the orbits of the interven- ing planets are, with regard to their obliquity, the most ir- regular.
10. The stars are not uniformly scattered over the firma- ment, but appear in nebulae, which are generally arranged into strata, and run ontoa great length. Some of these strata appear parallel to each other, and some in the shape
n the Formation of the Universe. 131
ofafan. With the exception of these strata, and numerous subordinate circular collections, the figures of ~ various clusters seem to be whoily fortuitous.
the primitive rocks were precipitated from water, the precipitation, according to all our experience on the sub- ject, must have been gradual. At the time of such precipi- tation the earth must have had a diurnal motion, because it evidently partakes of the spheroidal form derived from ‘such motion, far below the general level of any rocks with which we are acquainted. ‘T’his motion, in connexion with the in- fluence of the other bodies in the system, would produce a _ disturbance in the water around the earth, silitlar to what the tides now exhibit, but much greater in degree. The una- voidable inequalities in the surface of the Pc oggee nic rocks, would subject them, at least in some degree, to tritu- ration at the prominent parts, and to alluvial de pnipoe in the cavities, But no such deposites can be found. aeons
water, whereas by heat and electricity they can all be sanction There is, therefore, at least good reason to pre- sume, that by these and other elastic agents they were once separated, and came together either partially by the aid of water, or wholly without it.
In the process of the argument it will be necessary to take severalthings for granted, of which the proof is cumu- lative, or most appropriate in another place. Suppose the component particles of the matter in the solar system to have never come together, chet to be mixed indiscriminate- ly, and distributed by means of light and heat, in a flat spheroid, having its greatest diameter some millions of miles longer than that of Herschel’s orbit, and revolving with such rapidity as to throw off portions from its circumference.
nent Soothes ‘Suppose that by some means or other its motion should be increased to such a degree, that by the time it had shrunk to about midway between the orbits of — and Herschel, it would have thrown off from its cir-
mference as much matter as is.contained in Hersehel and its satellites. Suppose that its motion should be still in-
i
132 On the Formation of the Universe.
creased, so that by the time its circumference had arrived about midway between the orbits of Saturn and Jupiter, it would have thrown off as much matter as is contained in Saturn and its satellites. Make the same supposition for Jupiter, and so successively for all the planets below Jupi- ter. This ejected matter, unless the cause of motion were variable in its direction, would be left moving nearly in the same plane. Having lost its equilibrium the mutual attrac- tion of its parts would unavoidably draw it together. It would first collect into small bodies, and these into greater. As soon as reaction took place at the centre of a body, un- less the matter were perfectly dense, there is an infinity of
_ chances against one, that it would commence a circular mo-
tion similar in some degree to that of eddies and of whirl-
inds. The circular motion of whirlwinds is produced by air proceeding, while unresisted, in a direct course towards a central line. Ina condensing insulated body the cir- cular motion would be produced by the force of the matter proceeding in a direct course towards a central point. . This motion would recede from the centre no faster than the reaction between the central wheels, and the aerial matter collecting towards it. When the central wheel had com- menced its motion, the collecting matter would proceed, not all the way in a direct course towards its centre, but in curved lines eventually becoming tangents to its circumfer- ence. This curved direction would be produced by fric- tion among the extreme concentric strata of the wheel, whose great rarity would render the deviation very gradu- al. here are cases with which we are familiar, where the motion of non elastic matter would be annihilated,while that of elastic matter is almost wholly retained ; and it seems in the case before us, as if the matter would be turned into a circular course without any very great loss in its acquired rectilinear motion. As the matter accumulated on the cen- tral wheel, there would be a constant increase of compres-
would be no increase of compression ; and the strata neat the centre having the same increase of weight or pressure
np ce MT MRE eR
On the Formation of the Universe. 133
upon them as the higher strata, and having on account of their greater degree of compression, a greater power of re- sistance, the spaces which they occupied would not be so much reduced in a given time, as the spaces of the higher strata. By this increase of compression the matter which
force of the falling matter, and the increase in the compres- sion of the central wheel. action of the falling matter would be immediate : the effect of the consequent compres- sion would instantly commence, but would be
dilatory in their termination. ‘There is another compound source of angular velocity considerably similar to this, but much less in degree and in the rapidity of its operation. According to the known properties of matter, considerable portions of the aerial wheel would concrete by instant ex- plosion or sudden combustion, into a densely fluid or plastic state, and would proceed towards the centre of the wheel, and there forma nucleus, which being aided in the com- mencement of its motion by the aerial part of the wheel, would revolve in the same direction. ith regard to these condensed portions of the wheel, there are two difficulties to be obviated; the resistance which they would meet in pro- ceeding to the central nucleus, and their liability to strike it in a direction differing from a tangent to its circumference. With respect to the first we may suppose, that the density of the aerial and condensed matter might be very greatly different ; and the supposition is perfectly consonant with our experience. The cohesion of the falling bodies might be so great as to prevent their being dissipated, while at the same time their fluid or plastic state would enable them to assume all the length of form which is necessary to reduce their resistance to its smallest degree. The other difficulty is no less easily obviated, for the state of the case renders it
134 On the Formation of the Universe.
necessary that the condensed parts, most remote, should by the motion of the aerial parts, be most turned out of a direct course towards the centre of the nucleus; and the supposi- tion is perfectly reasonable, that the deviation might be so regulated, that all, or nearly all of the condensed bodies would strike the central nucleus in a tangent to its circumfer- ence. By the expulsion of heat and light a compression would take place in the nucleus a little different from that in the aerial part of the wheel, but the same in effect. The various portions of the nucleus, having acquired a degree of actual velocity, would merely by their approach to the cen-
tre, increase the angular velocity oi the nucleus. It is obvi- _ bs :
at the motion derived from this complex source in the nucleus, would not stop at its surface, but would be constant- ly conveyed by means of friction between the concentric strata, to the extreme circumference of the aerial wheel, till the angular velocity become uniform throughout. While this complex process was going on in the planetary wheel, it would collect a belt of the ejected matter from all parts of its orbit, whose width would depend on the extent of that orbit, or the quantity of matter ejected within given limits from the solar wheel, and likewise in some degree on the rapidity of condensation. Great extent of orbit, great quantities of matter ejected within given limits, and rapid contraction in the solar wheel, would tend proportionally to increase the width of the belt; while rapid contraction in the planetary wheel would tend to diminish it. It is obvious that all the causes favourable to great width of belt, except slow con- ‘traction in the planetary wheel, would belong peculiarly to to the higher planets. If the planetary wheel should ac- quire sufficient magnitude and motion, it would in its turn ect portions from its circumference, in the same manner as the solar wheel, and these portions would form its satellites. The motion of the’ planets and satellites, both on theit axes and in their orbits, would be generally in the seme di- rection with each other, and with the equator of the sun- Suppose ; fig. 1*, an accumulating planetary wheel, at the same distance from the solar wheel as b. A body at would be equally liable to fall to the right or left towards P, and of course the whole of:the matter in the same circle as b, would leave the direction of P’s diurnal motion doubtful. But as the solar wheel shrunk from P, its emitted portions * See Plate at the end.
, e—————
On the Formation of the Universe. 135
would be more and more rapid, both in their angular and. real velocity. Therefore a body at r would strike P before, and the general tendency of the matter in the vicinity of P would be to commence its motion the wrong way. itis necessary then to iene rg nee sufficient to. reverse the
motion. Suppose a bod as an excess of velocity above that of P. : a * hittle mane than what it would acquire in falling to m, from a paint a little above the point nearest to.b, in the.circle of m’s emission : it would evidently rise and fall to the right. As the body is supposed to start from points nearer and nearer to the centre of S, it would rie out the curved line b n of projectile separation ; till the ference of angular velocity between P and the toe body, would be equal to the velocity acquired in falling from near b to.n, and then all the ejected matter on the left side of S would pass over to the right towards P, or not pass at all towards it. It e evident that all this excess of matter passing to. the right, would strike P or its outer hemisphere, on account of its eee? to continue in a right line, and of course the motion of P on its axis, would be generally in the same direction as in itsorbit; and if P should produce any spies, they also, both on their axes and in their orbits,
uld revolve in the same direction.. It will doubtless be
bt that this, as well as the other demonstrations, shews a.want of exactness, which leaves the mind some- what dissatisfied; but. it will also be observed, that as it aims only to prove general truths, because no others are ne- cessary, so it enables the mind to perceive news truths with the utmost certainty. The first in the series of planetary wheels would. obviously be most liable to geragecent | in its equator, because there would be nothing above it to aid in regulating its position, whereas all the succeeding ones would be more and more influenced by the solar wheel, and would also be influenced by the planetary wheels above: so that . the plane of their equator would on that account be more likely to approach the plane of the solar equator.
It may be objected to this mode of formation, that it would require an immense quantity of heat and light, which. would be of no use but merely to aid in forming the system, while the energies of an intelligent spirit might mL Place as well, and prevent this profusion of materials. it appears to be: by no means certain, that such an abundance
136 On the Formation of the Universe.
of heat and light would afterwards be useless. The heat by a general diffusion might maintain the system in a mild tem- perature for an immense length of time after its internal heat was almost exhausted ; and the light by its being very slight- ly latent on account of its abundance, might enable an acute organ to observe surrounding objects. by the smallest motion of the atmosphere, after the system was enveloped in dark- ness; in the same manner as we now see the dashing of the waves, or the motion of meteoric rocks in the sky. Ina metaphysical point of view, there is no reason why the sys- m might not have been formed by the immediate agency of an intelligent spirit, as well as by the agency of light and heat ; but there are phenomena actually existing which are perfectly consistent with its formation by light and heat, but which on the supposition that it was formed by the immedi- ate agency of an intelligent spirit, are utterly inexplicable. The relative diurnal motion of the various bodies in the sys- tem, present not the most distant indications of design ; and yet they are about such as they must be, on the supposition that the system was produced by condensation from an aeri- al state. These motions in case of such a formation, would ‘be proportionally increased by magnitude of orbit, and quantity of matter, and diminished by the mass, number and distance of the satellites. Saturn’s diurnal motion is not quite so rapid as that of Jupiter; its orbit is much larger, but its mass is less, and its ring and satellites are heavier and extend to a greater distance than those of Jupiter. Mars is less than the earth, but its orbit is greater, and it has no moon: its diurnal motion is a little slower than that of the rth. Venus is about equal in size to the earth, and it has no moon, but its orbit is less than that of the earth: their diurnal motions are about equal. The orbit of Mercury and its quantity of matter are much less than those of Venus; and so is its diurnal motion. ‘The moon to acquire its wl sent velocity, must have fallen to its present distance
.
its primary, through a space about equal to ~4; of the diam-
On the Formation of the Universe. 137
by collection they acquired a very considerable degree of motion round their axes, their constituent wheels would im- mediately assume a shape elongated on a line drawn through them from their primaries, and would tend to remain in this position; so that however great the velocity of the internal parts might be, it would be continually diminished by fric- tion proceeding from the exterior, till the wheel became stationary on the abovementioned line, or the whole became
solid.
Multiplying the width of the rings of ejected matter which it is reasonable to suppose was about taken up by each of the planetary wheels, into the length of their orbit; and di- viding its comparative quantity of matter by this product, we shail obtain the proportionate average quantities of matter ejected in a given space from the solar wheel, through the various steps of its progress: The result gives for Herschel 0,093. Saturn 1,552, Jupiter 14,812, Pallas 0,075, Ceres 0,054, Juno 0,016, Vesta 0,010, Mars 0,086, the earth and moon 2,946, Venus 4,357, Mercury i ,490. From the state of the case the calculations are unavoidably loose ; but ifwe vary the premises within any rational limits whatever, the same general result is inevitable. If the two sources of emission described above, were regular in their increase and diminution; and if the ejected matter composing the two series of planets, instead of collecting together, be sup- posed to remain at the same distance from the common cen- tre at which it was emitted, and to be distributed in two
from the solar wheel, that is, to move in a circular orbit, 18
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138 On the Formation of the Universe.
would be about v, nearer the vertex. In the part H, those points would obviously be reversed, so that somewhere be- tween the partsJ and H,they mustcoincide. What would hold true of such a poriion of the ring, would, in respect of gravi- ty and velocity, be true of the whole. Planets formed at the place where these points coincide, would move in circu- lar orbits ; and the excentricities in the various orbits would ve a general proportion to their distance from the place of coincidence. ‘This is the case with the eccentricities in the solar system. The cause of emission being much more rapid and powerful in its operation, and the orbits being larger in the upper than the lower series, the planeta- ry wheel in the upper series, as was shown above, would of course be the largest. - Between the upper and the lower series of planets there is alarge space, where the quantity of matter thrown o from the solar wheel must have been comparatively small. Suppose tbat two distinct bodies were formed in the same circle of this diminutive portion of the great belt, at opposite sides of the circumference. Many such bodies of a smaller size must of necessity be formed, and must proceed to meet and combine with the one that commenced the formation, and had acquired a superior influence above the rest. Those which came in last would of course be the largest: and it is perfectly reasonable to suppose, that the last of all might be nearly equal to the principal one. The smaller body im proportion to its inferiority to the larger one, would havea tendency to strike it on its higher hemisphere, or the one most distant from the solar wheel. If it should strike the laryer one so far up.as to bound off from it, the smaller one would obviously be thrown in a direction diverging from its natural course, and from the solar wheel. If the smaller body should strike the larger one on its posterior hemis- phere, the original motion, or the motion which it had when rown off from the solar wheel, would be accelerated and that of the la-ger one retarded. But if the smaller should strike the larger one on its anterior hemisphere, the original motion of the larger one would be accelerated, and that of the smaller ove retarded. This is evident from the fact,
their mutual attraction prior to percussion, or else they would remain together. Here then we find three causes of eccen-
On the Formation of the Universe. 139
tricity ; the general one arising from the difference in the rapidity of emission; the change of direction by percussion, and the change of velocity by the same cause. But the cause of the obliquity of their orbits is one, and therefore renders that obliquity a surer basis of calculation. If the point of percussion were not in the plane of the equator of the solar wheel, the two bodies would evidently be thrown out of that plane, and the relative obliquities of the two bodies in each pair, would at least approach an inverse proportion to their quantities of matter. With regard to the coincidence among their nodes and perihelia, it may be re- marked, that the greater asteroid of. the lower pair would, in all probability, commence its formation near the greater one of the higher pair ; and likewise the smaller one of the lower pair near the smaller one of the higher. This would obviously be true on the very probable supposition that not a very long space of time intervened between the formation of the upper and the lower pair.
‘be extended to the other planets; for it is obvious, that on
account of mutual attraction, each planet would commence its formation as near as possible to the one next above it. It may also be remarked, that the smaller asteroid of each pair would take the direct course towards the greater one, and of course immediately after percussion, it would have the most rapid motion, and eventnally the largest orbit. On this subject a close inspection of the demonstration respect- ing the rotary motion of the system, will be conclusive. In this respect theory agrees with the actual state of the aste- roids. The explosive theory proposed by Dr. Olbers, is indeed practicable: but if the asteroids had been separated from a solid planet, they would still float through the hea- vens, the obvious fragments of spheres; and i ; been separated from a pulverulent or plastic or fluid planet, they would have been driven into a multitude of parts, unless the planet had been thoroughly divided by regular and uni- form strata of the exploding substance, a most wonderful device in an omnipotent Creator to split a planet, and make its parts move irregularly. But it would seem as if the cir- cumstance alone respecting the atmosphere might put the subject atrest. . . ' : he ring of Saturn, while in its present situation with re- gard to the planet, could never have been in a state wholly
140 On the Formation of the Universe.
fluid or aerial; for, being destitute of an equilibrium, the mutual attraction of its parts would immediately have redu- ced it to a spherical figure. But suppose the matter con- tained in Saturn and its ring, when condensing from an ae- rial state, had been retained by the force of its satellites, in the form of a flat spheroid; it would gradually stiffen by the expulsion of light and heat,and most rapidly at the edge on account of its tenuity. Eventually the edge, by reason of its greater increase of density, and excess of velocity above what would keep a satellite at its distance from the centre, would be abandoned by the interior part of the wheel, and forma ring around it. The slender edge of the planet, as soon as released from its connexion with the ring, wou
fall into the planet, and inevitably produce a depression about its equator. The planet being in a plastic state, could not restore itself to the form which it would naturally as- sume if it were fluid; so that it must still remain at least in some degree depressed about its equator. Such is Saturn’s form in reality. Astronomers have accounted for the forms of all the other bodies in the system, by the principles of gravitation. This stands a single anomaly, and by all the principles of gravitation and motion in which it is now con- cerned, it is wholly inexplicable. If we suppose half the
quantity of matter contained in the ring of Saturn to be sol-.
id, and perfectly regular, and the other half to be fluid, the
parts having an attraction for each other, the lateral per- pendicular action of the solid part could do nothing to pre- vent accumulations from commencing, and when they had once commenced, they would unavoidably continue, till the whole would be collected together ; and the most of the solid part, being much more distant from the fluid parts,
than the fluid parts from each other, its comparative action
would of course be feeble. From this example it is easy for the mind to perceive, that however small the fluid part might be, it would have a similar tendency to accumulate in
adegree proportioned toits quantity. If the ring, after its -
formation, remained entirely regular, the least bias possible, as La Place has shown, wink destroy its es se and it would be only and inseparably attached to the planet. For if the planet P, fig. 3, receive a bias toward the parts
the regular concentric ring m nr s, the parts m, n, 8, hav- ing the same force as s, could not by revolving change the
=
—— ——
oS a ee
On the Formation of the Universe. 41
direction of P’s motion, which would be continued toward the stationary point at s, because toward that point the force would be instantly and’ constantly increased, while toward that at m it would be in like manner diminished. Butif
part of the ring at s were considerably more massive than the other parts, then as s passed round, P would incline to follow it: buts constantly changing the direction of its force on P, would tend to draw it from its original direction; while the momentum, acquired by P, would tend to continue itin that direction; and P would eventually move in a small orbit within the ring. Forsometime after the commencement of P’s mo- tion, s would act upon it in some chord of P’s orbit. The direc- tion of its action would continually move toward the centre of motion, till it arrived at it, and there it would stop; and the centre of motion would coincide’ with the centre of gravity. For P having acquired its greatest possible motion, and that of s being reduced to its least degree, s would have no ten- dency 10 vibrate to the other side, and of course could not draw P backward in its orbit. The same reasoning will ap- ply to the sun and planets, and to the primary planets and — a reemses and the general centres of motion and of
than the explosive theory of the asteroid. Notwithstand- ing, there appears to be considerable difficulty womans it. form which glass assumes, by whirling when State, gives it a very considerable degele of phamibiligy 3 but the mutual attraction between the parts of a small glass ~ must be very trifling compared with that in the ring of aturn, so that the analogy is very incomplete. The dis- tance between the limits of the smaller and greater spheroids, which may be produced in the same body of fluid or aerial
- matter, by the same angular velocity, is very great; and the
y while passing between these limits could not maintain an equilibrium. Its parts must of course while passing through the whole of that distance tend to collect together irregularly. Besides, a whirling plate of glass is thicker at the circumference, than at the parts between the centre and circumference ; so that the analogy, imperfect re it is, mili- tates against the theory. But if the case were attended with Ro difficulty, Dr. Robison has, at least in some fap, gone
142 On the Formation of the. Universe.
counter to one of the laws of investigation laid down by Newton; by assigning causes more than sufficient to pro- duce the effects in question ; for it would obviously be as easy for the Deity to create a body of whirling viscid mat- ter in the greater as in the smaller spheroid ; and then the process of driving it out from the centre would be unneces- sary. This is only taking a wide step toward the theory of condensation from an aerial state; for it would be just as easy for the Deity to create whirling spheroids of aerial, as of plastic or fluid matter, and then a mechanism for the motion of the satellites is contrived, as well as for that of the
ring. ae Seibel for the relative densities of the various bodies in the system, seems at first beyond the grasp of the theo- ry, because we cannot inspect the interior even of our own planent, much less can we that of the rest. But it isa well known fact that all large bodies of condensing homogeneous substances, stiffen first on the out side ; and the supposition is perfectly reasonable; that the bodies of the solar system might so stiffen near their surface, while the interior remain- ed very much d and expanded. Beneath this crust, the interior parts would collect and condense upon it, a8 water on the lower surface of ice, until it became strong enough to support itself by its own density. It would then cease to sink any further toward the centre, and the remain- ‘ing fluid or viscid parts of the body, as the heat gradually abandoned them, would shrink so as to form immense cav- erns, or would collect together on a central globe, which might eventually become entirely disunited with the exter- nal shell. In such a case it is easy to see, that it would first be disunited from the polls of the external shell, because they would cool most rapidly on account of their distance from the great solar fire, and the obliquity of the rays from that fire, which aided in continuing their heat. It would then gradually be detached from the equator of the shell, till it adhered only at a single point; and eventually, if it separated from the whole, and its centrifugal force from the common centre of gravity of the two parts, were, by disturbance, in the least diminished, it is rigidly de- monstrable, that the internal globe would immediately move toward one of the poles of the external shell, and there }8 an infinity of chances against one, that it would change both the direction and degree of its diurnal velocity. ‘The inter
»
ee ee —
‘shell would be formed while the interior remains much
On the Formation of the Universe. 143
nal globe also would have a tendency to form the external fluids of the shell into an oval figure, hich would be most raised at the place where the internal globe was situated, so that whenever this globe changed its situation, the situation of the external water would also be changed. This i is. prob- ably the best account of the deluge, that it is possible to give. The comparative density of the bodies in the sys- tem, would depend on their nearness to the central fire ; their magnitude ; and their liability to be disturbed during formation. The bodies most distant from the central fire would cool most rapidly, and their permanent external more heated and expanded than if they had been nearer it. Also large bodies would stiffen on the outside while their interior remained more expanded, than the interior of small- er bodies at the same distance from the sun ; and therefore
shells broken up, when if they had been free from dieters bance those shells would have remained permanent. Dis- turbance, therefore, would increase the density. It is need- less to remark, that so far as we know the relative densities of the system, with this theory they are perfectly coinci- dent.
The motion in the great solar aerial wheel, assumed at the commencement, has not yet been accounted for: but by an inspection of the argument respecting the motion of the ye wheels, it will be seen, that the assumed motion
the solar wheel might have been 2 in the same eee All that is necessary, is to suppose, that the mat- ter in the system was diffused subsily through a space ex- tending to an immense distance, perhaps half way to the nearest fixed stars; and it is worthy of remark, that the power of gravitation would bring the whole to the centre very nearly in the same period of time: a circumstance without which, the formation of the system as explained - above, could not have been effected. The great length of this period, probably about 28,000,000 years, seems at first a very considerable objection to the theory : but when the vast resources of eternity are opened to view, and when it is considered, that the matter might as well be moving du- ring that period, as to be at rest or not in existence, the ob-
i44 On the Formation of the Universe.
jection cannot be deemed insuperable. The comets may be supposed to have been formed from the lingering por- tions, that did not come in soon enough to be combined with the system; and with this supposition their characteristics perfectly agree. They would be liable to come equally from all directions, and their elliptic orbits must have been produced principally by percussion on the solar wheel. Agreeably to this, the planes of the planetary orbits about the perihelia of the comets, are the most irregular. plane of Mercury’s orbit and that of the solar equator make nearly the same angle with the ecliptic, and it is reasonable to conclude, from the motion of Mercury’s nodes, that at the time the system may have come into existence accord- ing to the theory, the plane of Mercury’s orbit about coin- cided with that of the solar equator.
If the matter in the solar system has once been diffused
regulating force. But if the finite ocean required a disturb- ing force to effect its concretion, it would evidently begin t0
ES
On the Formation of the Universe. 145
if they were crooked as * : : is ‘the parts about a and c would continually retard those at b, till the strata approach- ed very near toa regular figure. If the ocean were infinite, and of such a nature as to concrete without a disturbing force, its formation into worlds would of course be simulta- neous throughout, and the collective forms would be wholly and inevitably accidental, without any immediate or subse- quent law whatever to effect regularity. If the ocean were infinite, and if particular gravitation were not infinite, there appear to be two possible modes, in which the formation might be effected. The strata, as accident made them so, might be flat, prismatic, and cylindrical, formed by accumu- lations at their ends, and continued in a direction parallel to each other, and to the course of progress. These nebulae, having the greatest power of attraction at their ends, would continue generally in a rectilinear direction; for if it were otherwise, they would indicate a tendency to accumulate at the sides rather than the edges. It is obvious from
appearances, that such has not been the actual mode of for-
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146 On the Formation of the Universe.
mation. Under the last mentioned conditions, only one other mode of formation is possible. It might take place in plane parallel strata, perpendicular to the course of pro- gress, in the same manner as in the finite ocean, where a disturbing force was fequireds and, it is alike obvious in both cases, that the strata would be regular.. With this lat-
that a finite one would fall infinitely short of the power of the Deity. It would leave his angelic subjects without any practical proof of his complete omnipotence. It seems al- so the most consistent and exalted conception respecting a wise moral agent, that his work is never terminated, and that the power which he possesses is for ever exerted. From reasoning a priori, then, it seems a very natural con- clusion, that each act of creative power is expanded through an infinite plane, and that the successive acts form an eter- nal series. Ifthis idea appears too grand, let it be remem- bered that it is formed respecting the works of the Deity. Metaphysical reasoning, however, is not the only ground on which our opinions on this subject may be founded. We see the celestial systems arranged into forms which are ut- terly unaccountable, unless their formation bas been .pro- gressive. The account which Dr. Herschel has given, is only placing one difficulty on the shoulders of another: for it is not less impracticable to account for the position of those ruling luminaries, which he supposes may have mar- shalled the starry hosts of smaller magnitude, into their present regular arrangement, than to account for that ar- rangement without such assistance. If the formation mto systems has been progressive, we are perfectly at 4
ss to say where it began, or where’ it will terminate. By far, the most natural supposition, is, that it will have ne termination, and had nocommencement. If the universe is finite, it is obvious, that without a constant miracle, © which we find not the least indication, so far as observation
(2 Seg a ER
On the Formation of the Universe. 147
can Carry us, it cannot be permanent, till the whole is col- lected together in one vast mass at the common centre of gravity. In like manner, if the creation of matter from nothing, constantly preceded its formation into worlds, a constant miracle would be necessary to prevent them from forever approaching each other, by gravitation from empt
space towards the boundless ocean of worlds already crea- ted. If we suppose that matter has been eternal, and still perfectly dependent on the Deity for its existence and its properties, and that on one side of the infinite progressive plane of formation, it is in a quiescent erial state, and on the other side collected into worlds, nature obtains a balance,
the belief of many with regard to the meaning of scripture ;
that its destiny is to break, and not to be broken. Though
the theory is the solution of the problem for which atheists, from time immemorial have been seeking, and though it may induce perverse and superficial minds to inquire, ‘ Where is the promise of his coming? for since the fathers fell asleep, all things remain as they were from the beginving of the creation ;” yet on the other hand it carries design through the whole of the universe, and stamps intelligence on all its departments. Should it be asked why comets fly through the.system to threaten ruin on its regular subordinates; and mountains lift their barren and inclement heads only to frown on surrounding fertility; the answer is ready. ey are the impalpable dust on an exquisite piece of watch work;
148 On the Formation of the Universe.
mere grains of sand, in the corners of an immense and ma- ' jestic edifice. It appears from the observations of Dr. Her- schel, that most, or all of the stars are collecting into subor- dinate spherical clusters, and forming what he calls, “ the chemical laboratories of the Universe.” The principles of gravitation will bring the stars in each individual of these clusters to their common centre of gravity, in about the same period of time; and their appearance argue, that such will be the result in reality. The universe, then, was not intend- ed to be perfect in its present state: but its various con- stituent parts are adapted and destined to happier and more sublime realities. It is the shoot just springing from the acorn, and pushing its way through the hardy soil, to a no- bler existence :—a soil not particularly adapted to the ten- derness of the youthful twig, but to the magnitude and vigor of the princely oak. Itis an infant struggling in its cra- dle, whose mighty and majestic manhood no troubles or convulsions shall weaken ; over whose immortal perfections death and destruction shall never prevail. The astrono- mer, as well as the prophet, has declared, that its various parts are advancing to the final conflagration, when the ele- ments shall melt with fervent heat; when the heavens shall
shall arise to a perfect and ani endless existence.
Through the kindness of the Hon. Mr. Bowditch of Sa- lem, I received, a day or two ago, an extract from the fourth edition of La Place’s Systéme du Monde, which he marked ‘and permitted to be copied. From that, I learn that in the
Dr. Cutbush on the Formation of Cyanogene, &c. 149
ginal, would not be a sufficient apology for publishing what was published before, were it not, that more than half which have written, and which cannot well be ey te from the rest, is not to be found in the writings of La Place. As Mr. wditch, from such an examination as the time permitted, judged La Place’s and my own theory to be in substance the same, and as in some of their principal “euwaaea 3 they are soin reality, i itseems proper to point out where the Place’s mode of explaining the sources of motionin es system, is almost entirely dissimilar. So far is he from showing or even supposing them at all regular in their operation, the tenor of his remark evinces, that he considered them other- wise ; he has asserted that the planets would move in the same direction on their axes as in their orbits; but his illus- tration is totally distinct and diverse from mine. The condi- tions which he has assumed might take place in cases where the condensation of the primary wheel was extremely rapid: in cases of slower condensation my own must be substitu- ted. To the two distinct series of planets; to the regular course of their eccentricity ; to the causes of their relative difference in density; to the causes of their relative degrees of diurnal velocity; to the causes of the obliquity and ec- centricity of the orbits of the asteroids ; to the cause of the depression about Saturn’s equator; and to the cause of the regular parallel drrangement of the stellar strata, and the plansibiliey, or perhaps “probability of an eternally progressive t
ormation into worlds, as well as a variety of Jess importan partiealrs he has in no bene alluded. ~ igh respect, Your obedient servant, ISAAC ORR.
Hartford, Nov. Sth, 1822.
~
Ane. VIIl.—On the formation aay cyanogene or prussine, in some chemical processes not heretofore noticed: by James Cursusn, A. 5S. U.S. A. Acting Professor of Chemistry Poise Mineralogy, in the U.S. Military ery at West
In 1815, Gay Lussac, the able experimental associate of Thenard, discovered the gaseou which, from its constituent parts, Is ; also called carburet of
¢
é
150 Dr. Cutbush on the Formation of
azote, and more lately Dr. Ure has denominated it prussine. We know that cyanogene is usually obtained from the cya- nuret of mercury, by heating it in a glass tube, and that it is susceptible of combining with several substances, formin
peculiar acids; of these, the hydrocyanic (prussic) and fer- rocyanic, are the most prominent and important. The com- bination of cyanogene with hydrogen affords a triple prepa- ration, distinct from that which has been called the ferrocy- anic acid; for it is known, that prussic acid, as such does not unite with oxyd of iron, as heretofore supposed, to form Prussian blue, but only a compound of cyanogene and iron, and consequently the cyanogene is changed into a new acid, the ferro-cyanic. It is admitted, nevertheless, that the fer- ro-prussic acid stil] retains a portion of hydrogen. ‘Vhe hy- drocyanic acid may be obtained, however, from the ferro- eyanite of iron, and by distilling the cyanuret of mercury with muriatic acid; but then we separate al] the iron from the cyanogene, or decompose the ferro-cyanic acid in the first instance, and in both cases the cyanogene combines with hydrogen, forming hydro-cyanie acid. The cyanuret, cyanides, and cyanidides are synonimous terms. We must suppose, when we admit the formation of an acid, that cy- anogene unites with the particular substance that changes its
iron a third and with sulpbur a fourth, possessing respee- th
miasmata, and in all probability the separation of hydrogen from its combination, the chlorine changing to the state of
Cyanogene or Prussine. 1i
hydrochloric, or muriatic acid. J believe it will be found, that, that compound (carburet of azote) is the basis of the mi- asmata, which produce malignant bilious diseases ; and it is equally certain, that similar causes, actin er cir- cumstances will generate it in the cities of New-York, Phila- delphia, or Baltimore, as in the West-Indies. We admit, as in the formation of nitric acid in artificial nitre beds, by the concurrent corruption of animal and vege substan- ces, that nascent azote unites with oxygen, furnished by free air, which attaching itself to an alkaline or earthy base, as the case may be, produces an alkaline or earthy nitrate, and that calcareous substances. facilitate considerably the union of azote and oxygen. _ This is the oneal course of that pu-
originated as well as the azote from the paaetacae” substan- ces. Whether oxygen unites directly with azote in a nas- cent state, or separates the azote from hydrogen, in amm
may infer, that either the ammonia was decomposed, or that the acid itself combines with it, forming nitrate o monia. Here th then we have two inst ances of the combina-
thus become acidified. Hydrogen, as it is a solvent of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. may be evolved in com- bination, as we find more particularly the case in the pe- culiar miasmata, evolved from marshes, and low wet land, which appear to be produced in such cases by weceraus decomposition. Marsh miasmata are generally the cau
of intermitient fevers. Now under particular cirewinstate ces ofaction, may we notadmit the generation of carburet of of azote, or cyanogene? And if so, as it readily unites with hydrogen, may it not be the miasma, which produces ma+ lignant bilious ee since it is known that hydrocyanic
-
152 Dr. Cuibush on the Formation of
acid is distructive to animal life, and a most virulent poi- 2 Cyanogene, and its compounds, may be generated in particular places, and, in fact, in the holds of ships.
It is admitted, I believe very generally, that hydrogen enters into the composition of gazeous effluvia, but wi what substances, or in what state of combination is not known ; I mean those effluvia, or miasmata, which produce disease. Hydrogen combines with sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, &c. but its combination with carburet of azote ap-
to ih Aaa a and impartial mind. The facts deduced by the
We stated that when animal substances were calcined wit potash, a cyanide of the alcali was produced. When this
LS eS ae
Cyanogene or Prussine. 153
cyanide is dissolved in water, it is changed into the hydro- cyanite, for the hydrocyanic acid is certainly formed,wheth- er by the decomposition of water, orotherwise. —- When the solution of the cyanide of potash in’ water, whatever change it may have undergone during its solution, is added to a salt of iron in which the metal is peroxydized, as in the persulphat of iron, the precipitate which is formed is the perferrocyanite of iron. Admitting the formation of hydrocyanic acid in the first instance, we would infer, that, when brought in contact with the salt of iron, the acid it- self is decomposed, or in other words is changed into the ferrocyanic acid, before its union with the oxyd of iron. Porret, however, considers the ferrocyanic acid as a com- pound of iron, oxydized to the minimum, and hydrocyanic acid. The conclusion of Dr. Thomson was, that it was mere- ly a compound of metallic iron and cyanogene, but he sub- sequently inferred, that it is composed of iron and ne Ges y- ic acid. When the cyanide of potash is dissolved in wa- r, and added to the sulphate of the plus oxydized iron, we obtain a due precipitate, but if we employ the protosul- phate, properly so called, the result is a white precipitate, which may be converted into the blue ferrocyanite either by exposure to the atmosphere, or by the affusion of an acid. If we admit that metallic iron enters into the com-
such proportions as to formit. This indeed may be the fact in sundry other processes ; as, for instance, in the pu- Vou. VI....No. I. 20
154 Dr. Cutbush on the Formation, &c.
. trefaction of certain substances under particular circum- stances and conditions. ;
The fact, however, | purpose to notice is, that sometime since I was exhibiting to my class some experiments on the decomposition of nitric acid, and of nitrate of potash by charcoal, in relation to the subject of gunpowder. When I affused nitric acid on charcoal, there was, as is usual, a disengagement of the deutoxyde of azote, and on standing, the acid became thick and brown, and to all appearance resembled artificial tannin, which we know is obtained by a similar process. It struck me as acircumstance not im- probable, that besides the formation of nitrous gas and car- bonic acid gas, cyanogene might be formed. It appeared to me, that whilst a portion of carbon combined with a part
of the ‘oxygen of the nitric acid, and the deutoxyde of.
azote was disengaged, a part of the carbon might unite with a portion of azote, and thus generate cyanogene.
must have combined with the carbon, and that another portion of the carbon, by uniting with the oxygen of the de- composed nitric acid, produced carbonic acid. The carbon in this case must have taken up a part of the azote, as well as a part of the oxygen.
if the carbon abstracted the whole of the azote from @ given portion of nitric acid, the inference would be,
sini enamani en nene eae,
Analysis of a Manganesian Garnet. 155
that pure oxygen was liberated ; and if it took the oxygen, ora part of it, from the deutoxyde, already generated by the union of carbon and oxygen in the formation of carbonic acid, thereby leaving a compound of azote and oxygen in the state of nitrous gas—it must have reduced it to the protoxyde, or gazeous oxyde of azote, its first degree of oxydizement. i
t is known that charcoal, especially when newly made,
has the property of absorbing sundry gases, and particular-
y hydrogen. Might not the charcoal I used have contain- ed hydrogen ? If so, might not the nascent hydrogen during the action of the carbon, have combined with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid, and formed water; whilst that portion of the azote thus set at liberty, by combining with the carbon, may have formed the carbnret of azote ?
The existence of cyanogene, however, is indisputable, in whatever manner it may have originate azote and two atoms of oxygen form the deutoxyde of azote, and two atoms of carbon with one atom of azote form cy- anogene. I have not had leisure to repeat the experiment, in order to determine the quantity of cyanogene thus gene- rated.
Art. IX —Analysis of a Manganesian Garnet, from Had- dam, Connecticut, with a notice of Boric Acid in Tourma- lines; by Henry Seyperr.
gmen terminate. Scratches glass and scintillates with steel. Very frangible. Structure lamellar. Specific gravity 4.128. Fusible, before the blowpipe, into an opake black bead.
Analysis.
A. 3 grammes of this garnet, in the state of an impalpa- ble powder, were exposed to a red heat in a platina cru- cible; after the calcination, the colour of the powder was not sensibly altered, and it weighed 2.98 grammes, there-
156 Analysis of a Manganestan Garnet.
fore, the moisture expelled by this treatment, was 0.02 grammes on 3 grammes, or 0.66 per 100. sis
. The residue of the preceding calcination, (A) was calcined, at a red heat ina platina crucible, during 30 min- utes with 15 grammes of sub carbonate of Soda, the mixture
cible was also intensely green—an indication of a large quantity of Manganese. enan excess of muriatic acid was added to the liquor, chlorine was abundantly disenga- ged, the*solution was not perfect until the evaporation of the liquor was considerably advanced, it was then of a deep orange colour; to effect the separation of the silica it was evaporated in the usual manner to a dry gelatinous mass, then treated with water, acidulated with muriatic acid, and again moderately evaporated; more water was added, and the solution was filtered; the silica remaining on the filter, after edulcoration and calcination, weighed 1.075 grammes on 3 grs. Or 35.83 per 100.0% 2-9; ou, Ro et C. The silica having been separated, (B) the excess of acid was neutralized with caustic potash, the solution was treated with hydro-sulphate of potash, this occasioned a precipitate, which at first was black, but the latter portion of it was nearly colourless. The precipitate was well was ed and dissolved, in the humid state, in nitro-muriatic acid,
D. The residue, which was separated from the alcaline liquor, (C) was of a dark red colour; it was treated while humid, with acetic acid, the solution was evaporated, at a moderate temperature, to perfect dryness, the dry mass was treated with water, the peroxide of iron, collected on 4 filter. proved to be free from alumina and manganese, it weighed 0.486 grammes; a portion of'the pulverized min- eral was treated with nitric acid and calcined; the powder, which was flesh coloured, now became nearly black, this
BL vee WALES eat AE Se I I gs Phe eA ee ee ene rE aT a
Analysis of a Manganesian Garnet. 157
change of colour clearly proved, that the iron and manga- nese existed in a minimum state of oxidation, therefore, the 0.486 grammes of peroxide of iron must be reduced to the state of protoxide, and are equivalent to 0.448 grammes of protoxide of Iron on 3 grammes, or 14.93 per 100.
. The filtered liquor, (D) was boiled with an excess of sub-carbonate of soda, the carbonate of manganese thus pre- cipitated, was washed and strongly. calcined, the tritoxide of manganese weighed 1.007 grammes, and on examination was found to contain neither alumina nor iron: the 1.007 gr. of tritoxide are equivalent to 0 929 grammes of protox- ide of manganese on 3 grammes, or 30.96 per 100.
F. The liquor (C), after filtration was successively tested with oxalate of potash, and with caustic potash, and thus proved to contain neither lime nor magnesia.
According to the preceding experiments, the constituents
of this Garnet are
Per qer pra eee A. Water, - - 00.66 containing oxygen — B. Silica, - - - 35.83 - mle eo 3 C. Alumina, - . 18.06 - - 08.43 D. Protoxide of Iron, - 14.93 - - 03.39 E. Do, of Manganese 30.96 - - 06.79
100.44 18.61
And its mineralogical formula will be fS+2mgS+2AS. Boric acid in Tourmalines. |
To detect the Boric acid in the green Tourmaline, from Chesterfield, Massachusetts, a portion of the mineral was pulverized, and calcined at a red heat, with three parts of caustic potash ; the mixture after calcination, was treated with muriatic acid and evaporated to a dry gelatinous mass, which was afterwards digested in alcohol; the alcoholic so- lution, when ignited, burnt with a beautiful green flame, a proof of the presence of Boric acid ; the same acid was al-. so found, by a similar treatment, in the Rubellite and Indi- colite from Massachusetts, and in the black Tourmalines pn Haddam, Connecticut, and Chester creek, Delaware
ae
0.
158 Letter from Dr. Wm. Meade.
Art. X.—Letter from Dr. Wituiam Meape, communicating " an account of a travelled stone, &c.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir, In your Journal for June, 1822, an anonymous commu-
nication appeared, giving an account of certain rocks sup-
osed to have moved without any apparent cause, in the town of Salisbury in Connecticut. Finding that this ac-
our anonymous correspondent, that there can remain no doubt of the main facts, or that they were produced by the same causes. lam farther induced to send you this paper, from the transactions of the Wernerian Society, not alone from its establishing the fact of the occasional change of position of certain large masses of stone, but from its tendency to ex- plain some Geological facts, which as yet appear to be lit- tle understoo . I have the honor to be, Sir, your very obedient servant, WM. MEADE.
Account of the Travelled Stone near Castle Stuart Invernes- shire ; by Tuomas Lanver Dick,
{Read 17th May 1819.]
This stone isa large mass of conglomerate, being a COD cretion composed of distinct irregular fragments of granite, gheiss, quartz, and other rocks of the primitive series, C& mented together by a highly indurated and ferruginous clay
¥
Letter from Dr. Wm. Meade. 159
slate. Iam not aware that any rock of the same nature exists much nearer to it than sevenmiles. Its present situa- tion is on the sands in the little bay near Castle Stuart on the Mercey Firth. Its size is very considerable, being as near as I could guess above four feet high at its most eleva- ted point, calculating from the surface of the sand and be- ing to all appearance about one foot imbedded in it. It measures between four and six feet one way by six or seven the other ; its shape, which is very particular, is peculiarly well adapted to admit of the mode of transportation, it underwent, as it had a projecting edge, all round it, the low- er edge of which, is above a foot of perpendicular height from the surface of the sand, and from this edge downwards, the stone is suddenly bevilled off in a form resembling that part of the bottom of a boat which is under the bell and approaching the keel. On as near a calculation as I can make, it may weigh about eight tons. ~
his large mass is remarkable for having been removed from a situation which it formerly occupied, about 260 yards farther to the S. S. E.. by natural means, and in the course of one night to the position where it now stands. It had formerly served as a boundary stone between the proper- ties of Castle Stuart and Culloden, the former belonging to thé Earl of Moray and the latter to Duncan Forbes, Esq. As it is too ponderous to have been moved by human pow- er, at least in that part of the country, it must have been originally deposited in that its first place of rest, by causes similar to those whi ve covered whole countries: with boulders, the nature of which bespeaks their having be- longed to rocks no where existing in situ in their entire and native state, in the vicinity of their present place of abode. The stranger scarcely recognizes the spot from which it was last removed, it being marked by a woode post which the two contiguous proprietors were u necessity of erecting in order to supply the place of the stone, and to serve as an object for defining its line of march. At a fishing village situated above a mile to the westward of the stone, I learned several particulars with respect to its extraordinary migration. But it was recommended to me to call on the miller of Pitly for a fuller detail of the facts, who, living much nearer the stone, and having it constantly in view fora series of years, not only recollected every circumstance about it, but was.
160 Letier from Dr. Wm. Meade.
thg first person who on the ensuing morning noticed that it had been removed during the night.
- [lost no time in seeing the old man whose name is _Al- exander Macgillivray, and | was lucky enough to find him at home, he informed me that this remarkable circum- stance took place on the night between Friday the 19th, and Saturday the 20th of February, in the year 1799. There had been a very severe frost, and the greater part of the little bay had been’ for some time covered with ice, which was probably formed there the more readily owing to the fresh water from the stream running near to Castle Stu- art, emptying itself into the inlet of the sea in the imme- diate neighbourhood. The stone was, by this means, fast secured by the ledge, which I have described being bound round by a vast cake of ice of many yards in extent, which being froze hard under the projection of the stone, must have produced an admirable mechanical means for its ele- vation, for which purpose it afforded an extensive draft.
The miller told us he had measured some of the ice and ~
found it eighteen inches thick. The stone was. then sur- rounded when the sea left it at its ebb, and the whole of the circumjacent land was left covered by this solid and unbroken glacier. Itis evident that as the sea began again 1is WOU naturally buoyed up by the return- ing water imsinuating itself underneath it on the night of the 19th of February, the tide which happéned to be re- markably high, was full about 12 o’clock. About this time, the wind began to blow a hurricane, accompanied with drifting snow. The old man stated that this tremendous storm blew directly from Dulcross Castle, and accordingly I found that by placing myself at the stone-and looking at Dulcross, the post marking the former situation of the mass appeared quite in the line between those two points, and that the strait line or furrow described by the stone in the course of ils voyage lay in this direction.
_ When the old miller got up on the morning of Saturday, the 26th, the storm and drifted snow was such that he could hardly make his way to his barns, though they are but a few yards distant from his dwelling house. When the weather had moderated in some degree, and the storm and snow had cleared away, so that he could see across the lit- tle bay, he remarked to his wife with much astonishment
Letter from Dr. Wm. Meade. 161
tinctly its yesterdays site, whilst its track across the flat oozy sand was very perceptible, extending in a line from its old to its new situation. In addition to these partic- ulars I have since learned from my friend Mr. Bradie that he visited the stone the day after, when he found all the traces remaining quite apparent and an extensive cake oh ice adhering to the stone being attracted to its outer 4
ee rise geet oer le Naas y H j It is evident that this vast mass of stone must have been
so far rendered specifically lighter than the water by the
great cakes of ice within which it was bound, and by which it was supported, as to be in some degree buoyed up, and that whilst in this state, it was carried forward by the out- going tide, assisted by the impelling force of a tremendous hurricane blowing in the same direction. .
By the correspondence just detailed, we are furnished with a comparatively recent and perfectly well attested example of one mode by which large masses of detached rock may be carried to considerable distances. For al- ihough the waters of the tide which fill the bay in question, were on account of their shallowness, incapable of buoying up the extensive float of ice supporting the stone so per- fectly as to prevent the keel of it from ploughing the sand in the course of its ress over it, yet there is no reason to doubt if it had been once fairly carried into deeper
ay even conceive it probable that the stone might have been deposited upon some remote shore, where no rock of the same nature was to be found, and where it might have fur-
Vor. VI.—No. 1. 91
162 Snow Balls.
which cannot be so easily traced to their parent rock, or to ascertain whether such means may not have had some share in transporting these to their new situation, may perhaps merit investigation, and with such a view an accurate and well attested narrative of the particulars of the conveyance of the Travelled Stone near Castle Stuart, from its former to its present place of quiescence, cannot be considered as altogether useless in the pursuit of Geology.—Vide Me- moirs of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, Vol. Ill. p- 250.
Art. XI.—Remarkable Balls of Snow, observed at Bruns- wick, Me. April 1st 1815.—By Prof. CLeaveiann. —
Eu
Miscellaneous Notices by Prof. J. F. Dana. 163 however, were observed in the woods, and in small yards and other inclosures, sheltered from the wind, thus indica- ting that their formation commenced in the atmosphere. Similar balls were observed in most of the contiguous towns. Their appearance on the river Androscoggin was extreme-
ly interesting,
Art. XII.—Miscellaneous Notices by Prof. J. F. Dana, of : Dartmouth College.
1. Connexion of Electricity, Heat, and Magnetism.
The notices which have appeared in your Journal on the connexion between Electricity and Magnetism have indu- ced me to make some experiments, and as they tend to con- firm those made by Mr. Bowen, I will mention them. The apparatus consisted of the Leyden bottle and glass tubes sur- rounded by brass wire. I have not yet had opportunity to repeat any of the experiments with the galvanic battery, ex- cept in one instance when a piece of steel was inclosed ina glass tube half an inch in diameter and surrounded by a spi- ral coil of brass wire, and the influence from my battery, consisting of two hundred plates six inches square, was pas- sed through the coil for one minute, the steel] did not appear
next the negative, whether the jar was charged with posi- tive or negative electricity. These two experiments con- firm those of Mr. Bowen. In using a tube surrounded bya coil passing from right to left for one half its length, and then in the contrary direction, as in Mr. B’s. experiment, I found, when the jar was charged with positive electricity, and the coil began to pass from right to left on the positive, that both
164 Miscellaneous Notices by Prof. J. F. Duna.
ends of the enclosed steel became north, and the middle south ; if on the contrary, the coii began to pass from left to right, on the positive side, both ends of the steel acquired a south polarity and the middle a north polarity. When the jar was charged negatively, and the coil began to pass from right to left on the negative, both ends acquired a south and the middle a north polarity ; if the coil begin to pass from — left to right on the negative side the polarities are reversed.
hen a wire is bent into the form of a staple (thus and inclosed in a glass tube surrounded by a spiral passing from right to left, the ends acquire anorth polarity, and the middle a south polarity, if the ends of the staple be next to the positive. If the situation of the staple be reversed, or if the coil pass from left to right, then the ends become south and the middle north. Circumstances did not permit me to make the experiment on a staple surrounded by the coil passing from right to left, and from left to right. We should, a priori expect, that the middle of the staple in such cireum- stances, would acquire the same polarity as the ends, while at some intermediate points on both sides of the middle an opposite polarity would be found, so that five poles would be formed in one piece, and if the wire was again doubled on itself, (thus ———-, ) two _ additional poles would be formed. _The above «xperiments were many times tri- ed with the same result, and have been repeated by myself and my friend Hon. Thos. Whipple, M. C.
2. Preparation of Euchlorine Gas.
I perfectly well recollect, when I bad the pleasure to be introduced to you at Cambridge, that the conversation turn- ed on the preparation of euchlorine gas ; we naturally wish to know whether experienced chemists meet with the same accidents as. ourselves, in experiments, and it was no small degree of consolation to learn that the laboratory at Yale had also witnessed accidents in the preparation of this eX- plosive gas.. For two years past I have prepared it in the following manner; strong phials capable of holding half an
“ounce OF an ounce measure are provided, into which are put a few grains of chlorate of potash, and then, four or five drops of sulphuric acid, just sufficient to moisten the salt, are added ; the phials are then inverted over mercury, @-
a ee ee eee
i]
Miscellaneous Notices by Prof. J.F.Dana. 16
uy air bubbles escape; but in a few minutes the phials ap: pear filled with the euchlorine, which is readily known
its colour and odour. The gas thus prepared is of course impure, but is doubtless as pure as most gases used for chemical demonstrations ; it explodes violently by heat and — on the contact of phosphorus; itis absorbed by water, to which it communicates its peculiar colour. Since I have
employed this method, only one accident has happened to
me from this gas, it then exploded spontaneously and threw the phial with great force against my forehead, and the mer- cury in the vessel over which it was inverted was dashed around in all directions.
Memorandum.—The remarks of Professor Dana, induce me to add, that, for several years, I have obtained euchlo- rine gas, without accident, by the following process. Chlo- rate of potash and muriatic acid diluted with an equal vol- ume of water, are placed in a small oom flask, furnished with a glass tube, bent twice at right an and passing to the bottom of any clean dry phial, ih ap or tube, rather deep and with a narrow neck; a spirit lamp, a water bath, or any mild heat, applied beneath the flask, soon disengages the euchlorine gas, which, by its great weight, displaces the common air, from the 4 Sa and occupies its place. By using tongs, of a peculiar form, furnished with correspond- ing curvatures on their opposite sides, so as to embrace tubes, or the necks of vessels securely, the glasses filled with the euchlorine gas may be so managed that the operator can perform all the experiments, without touching them with the hands, by which means the Pr of premature explo- sion is avoided.—Editor. Dec. 19,1
3. Concretion from the Tonsil.
Mr. Bancroft, a medical student, was afflicted with a severe inflammation of the tonsils ; it separated and a small concre- tion was discharged psn it. he concretion was of : an ir- regular form, and fies 0g less than half a grain. Its col- our, light brown ; surface smooth, and through a Jens ap- pears composed of smooth rounded grains, exhibiting a botryoidal appearance. Before the blow pipe it blackens and then becomes white, and is infusible. Soluble in muriatic
166 Notice of an Ancient Mound.
acid ; the solution affords a precipitate by oxalate of ammo- nia, and by pure ammonia—hence it consists of phosphate of lime and animal matter.
aie
Art. XIII].—Notice of an ancient Mound, near Wheel- ing, Virginia ; by S. Morton.
To the Editor.
Wuee ine, Aug. 7th, 1822. My Dear Sir, .
Since I attended your lectures, | have resided at Whee- ling, Virginia, within twelve miles of the Great Mound, at Grave Creek, on the Ohio river. A few weeks since, Thad the curiosity to measure this remarkable monument of antiquity, and as the following results, with a genera description of the mound, may not be uninteresting to you, I therefore humbly submit them. J. Morton.
The plain on which this mound is situated, extends back from the Ohio river about a mile and a half, is of a semi- circular form, open towards the river, but enclosed on its back part by high hills. It is nearly level, forming a beau- tiful site for atown. The soil is a yellowish loam, mixed with a small portion of clay; it is at present, rather un- productive, having been nearly exhausted of the vegetable mould by several years cultivation. The principal mo stands about an eighth of a mile from the river, nearly im the centre of the plain, from northto south. The form of this remarkable tumulus is nearly a circle, at its base, Con” . verging gradually like a cone, but terminating abruptly.
he circumference at its base, is about two hundred and fifty yards. The summit is sunk like a basin, making a di- ameter from verge to verge, of about twenty yards. Judg- ing from this circumstance, it has evidently been much higher than at present, but this is also evinced by the im- mense quantity of soil about its base, which has been wash- ed from its sides by the rains of ages. Its perpendicular height, is now nearly seventy feet; the slope from base to summit, or verge of the basin, measures about one hun- dred and twenty-four. From this sunken appearance of
—— ee
Notice of an Ancient Mound. 167
the top, and the form of other mounds in the neighborhood, it is reasonable to conclude that its perpendicular was once twenty or thirty feet higher.
It is composed of a soil similar to that of the plain which surrounds it, but there are no local marks to determine from whence such a quantity of earth could have been taken, as the surface of the plain is nearly level. The mound itself is covered with trees, consisting of white and black oak, beech, black walnut, white poplar, locust, &. and many of them are of a large size.
A white oak, in particular, on the verge of the summit, measures twelve feet in circumference, three feet above the surface of the ground. From its size, and the decayed appearance of some of its branches, it must have been the growth of four or five centuries. There are several others of nearly equal size. The vegetable mould in the centre of the basin, is about two feet in depth, but gradually di- minishes on each side. About one eighth of a mile distant on the same plain, in a northeasterly direction, are three smaller tumuli of similar construction; and several other small ones in the neighborhood. Near the three alluded to, on the most level part of this plain, are evident traces of ancient fortifications. The remains of two circular en- trenchments, of unequal size, but each several rods in di- ameter, and communicating with each other by a narrow pass, or gateway, are to be seen, and also a causeway lead- ing from the largest towards the hills on the east, with many other appearances of a similar nature, all exhibiting marks of a_race of men more civilized than any of the tribes found in this section of the country when first visited by Europeans.
Several attempts have been made to open the principal mound, but they were arrested by the proprietor of the ground, ,
In stamping or strikmg with a club on the top of this huge heap of earth, a hollow, jarring sound may he heard and felt, similar to that which we feel in walking heavily ona large covered vault.
With regard to the object of these structures, it is now, I believe pretty well agreed, that they were repositories for the dead. A good evidence of this is, that a substance resembling decayed bones has generally been found in those which have been opened, with implements of war
168 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
and various articles used by savage nations. Otherwise we
whites, were more ignorant, if possible, of the origin and uses of these mounds, than we are. They had not even the shadow of tradition to give them the smallest light on the subject. All me) signee of them is derived from a very few obvious facts, the rest is spatalenon drawn from slight probability. Very feapiclicl y, yo As. , MORTON.
Wheeling, Virginia.
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. Domestic.
1. Prorest of Mr. leew Sey bert, in Siedigation of his claim to the discovery of Fluoric acid in the drodite (Brucite of Col. Gibbs, Maclureite of Mr. Seybert), in reference to a passage in the Memoir “on the miseny &c. of Patterson, and the Valley of Sparta,” &c. bys Thos. Nuttall, with the reply of the latter.
Remarks by the Editor.
As Mr. Nuttall happened to be present with me, when Mr. Seybert’s communication was handed in, I thought it but "ieokid to show it to him and to receive his reply. I will not deny that [ was actuated also by the hope of bringing this difference to a prompt issue, without having tt continued into a subsequent number.
Letter of Mr. Seybert. Ra Trenton, Nov. 11, 1822. Absence from Philadelphia, until within a few days, pre”
vented my having an opportunity, to peruse the second number of Vol, V. of your Journal of Science and Aris.
ee ——_e
lle
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 169
Some of Mr. Nuttall’s “‘ Observations and Geological Re- marks on the minerals of Patterson and the Valley of Sparta, in New-Jersey,” excited my surprize ; and] regret, extreme- ly, that the necessity of the case forces me into a controver- sy; justice, however, demands that I should notice some of the remarks of that gentleman.
When speaking of the Condrodite* Mr. Nuttall says, that it is according to an unpublished Analysis, which he made in 1820, “a Silicate of Magnesia, with an accidental portion of Fluoric acid and iron,’’} thus leading us to be- lieve, that he was the first, who detected Fluoric acid in that mineral: the following facts will satisfy the reader, in how far he has any claim to that discovery. On the 3d of April
1821, a communication, concerning the Condrodite, from
Mr. Nattall was read before the Academy of Natural Sci- ences, in Philadelphia; in that essay he made known the re sults, which he obtained from an analysis of that substance,
without enumerating Fluoric acid as one of its constituents ; es the contrary, he satisfied himself that that acid did not exist in the mineral in question. These are facts which Mr. Nutall dares not venture to contradict, and they are known to the members of the very respectable institution, to which they were communicated. Why does Mr. Nut- tall now pretend, that he detected Fluoric acid in the Con- drodite in 1820, when ina paper read before the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1821, he denies its ar with- out any allusion to a previous discovery ? uttall’s Communication was referred to a committee; on account of its chemical imperfections, it was deemed unworthy of a place in the transactions of the Academ:
In March, 1822, I detected the Fluoric ydi in the mine- ral found at "Sparta, New-Jersey ; this fact was a subject of conversation amongst our Chemists, immediately after it was substantiated ; it was announced to you, in a letter da- ted 18th of April, 1822, and you noticed it in the first number, volume 5, p. 203, of your Journal. On the 17th of May last, my paper, on this subject, was read before the
* The same mineral which I age sé Maclureit” for reasons assigned in the Journal of Science and Arts, V p. 343.
Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. V. p. 245. Vol. VI aN. :. 22
170 Intelligence and Misceliames.
American Philosophical Society, the results of my experi- ments were noted in their minutes, and to these Mr. Nuttall being a member of that Society, had free access. From the sources abovementioned, he could, in 1822, correct the results, which he had laid before the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1821, and thus pretend, that he anticipated me as early as 1820. He pretends that the Fluoric acid, in the Condrodite, is accidental, without informing us of | quantity, or of the method which he followed to detect it. did he neglect to publish his analysis in detail? The subject was worthy of such notice, more especially as the Fluoric acid, in this mineral, had escaped the sagacity of the celebrated Berzelius. To every Chemist, the error of Mr. Nuttall’s statement must be evident, because the 4.086 per 100 of Fluoric acid, which I obtained from this mineral, must be an essential, and not an accidental constituent, otherwise we cannot account for the saturation of the bases, which enter into its composition. It was the want of the knowl- edge of the presence of this acid, that forced Professor Berzelius, to resort to a peculiar formula, (formule pariticu- liére) founded on the principles of definite proportions, to represent the condrodite, in his system of Mineralogy, as Silicate of Magnesia.* ~ Mr. Nuttall was mistaken when he told us that “ Haiiy
referred the Condrodite to the peridot. On the contrary, the celebrated crystallographer remarks, that although, from an analysis of this mineral, made by Berzelius, the results were similar to those afforded by the peridot, they cannot be referred to the same species. The following are the words that Hatly employs, when he refers to the analy- sis of Berzelius. “On en avait méme fait analyse, dont le resultat se rapprochait beaucoup de celui gue donne le peridot. Mais ayant entrepris déxaminer la structure de ces cristaux, je trouvai que leur division mécanique con- duisait 4 un prisme rectangulaire & base oblique, ce gui les rendait incompatibles dans une méme espece, avec le peridot qui a pour forme primitive un prisme droit.”t
* Annales des Mines, Tome 6, p. 528.
t Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. 5, p. 245.
t Annales des Mines, Tome 6, p. 528.
Ee
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 171
great reluctance, that I offer the above for publication, in the next No. of your Journal, and ith sentiments of regard and esteem, I remain your obedient servant, ENRY SEYBERT.
Pror. Sittiman, Yale College, New-Haven. Letter of Mr. Nuttall.
Philadelphia, Dec. 15, 1822. Dear Sir, ‘
I have hitherto avoided controversy, . of occasionally borne the lash of unjust criticism, in silence, rather than run oat ble by e of trespassing on the patience - cause’ of the
Tet that imperious circumstances, and suc ay as are connect- ed with the support of moral Seney should have urged me to this unwelcome task.
I believe no man can more highly or ust appreciate ie scientific character of your correspondent t ther wise I should have suffered his assertions to have passed un-
eded. .
= I am called upon, as you are.aware, by Mr. H. Sey-
when and where | had heard of the existence
of Fluoric acid in the Brucite or Chondrodite I might refer him back to a period when he was too young to have been uainted with even the name of Chemistry. I might bring
ry recollection, the name of an amiable and scientific man tos late Dr. Bruce) in honor of whom it was calle Co- lonel Gibbs, and in whose laboratory this result was obtain- ed by Doctor Langstaff,* of New-York, then his pupil. It
* On the subject of this experiment, I received the following note from Doctor L, dated Nov. 27th, 1822. “* Agreeably to your request of the 25th inst. I have referred to my notes made on the Sparta mineral, (Brucite) and
that my experiments on the composition of that su tance were made in the fall of 1811. A want of time prevented me from making an accurate analysis, — from the sreernans | then sande, I find - yieldees about,
Oxid of iron, - - - - - %
172 Intelligence and Miscellanies
was announced by Professor Cleaveland in his first edition of Elements of Mineralogy under the name of Brucite as a
luate of magnesia without noticing the presence of silex so distinctly obtained by Doctor Langstaff. Nor can | omit the experiments made five years ago ) by my friend Doctor Torrey, who also found the existence of Fluoric acid as well asthe other ingredients mentioned in the analysis of Doctor Langstaff, in the Brucite ; but omitted their publi- cation in deference to the prior labors of Doctor L. from
he expected an analysis.
My assertion that this acid (the fluoric) may be accidental rather than essential in the composition of the Brucite, is grounded, hope with some reason, on its absence in the analysis made by a chemist so celebrated and so accurate as Berzelius. ‘The contiguity of slender veins of fluate o lime to the masses of Chondrodite or Brucite near to Frank- lin furnace at Sparta was also an additional inducement to consider this acid as accidental. Its variable proportion ” pears also in corroboration of this opinion.* After all, in no way anxious on the subject, and am perfectly willing that Mr. Seybert should consider the fluoric acid as essential, while ie oe want of better proof, shall still be inclined to
as accidental. I would hope, that as lovers of
science ‘and “of truth, these and many other discrepancies of on matters of this kind, might harmlessly and even honorably be entertained, without any necessary reference to the opinion of the public, who may be inclined rather to rid- icule us for contention, than credit us for any claim to: merit.
Magnesia, . agoake 51 Water, who $ he ence Band by abstraction Fluoricacid, - ee - . 9
100 ours truly, Ww. LANGSTAFF.” from his Wiinutes made at the time that the Fluori¢
Doctor L. assured me acid then obtained from the Brucite was. sufficient to engrave and corrode @ a plate of glass,
* Since publishing the account of this mineral, several other localities © of it, particularly at Wes a Point i
I have likewise observed it in several more specimens, with Idocrase and mi- rom Vesuvius ; in thes no trace of fluoric acid has as yet been discover~
bn ‘it is consequently, very nearly related to olivin, in its chemical composi-
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 173
Not having an opportunity to refer to the original com- munication of the celebrated Haiiy at the time when I has- tily drew up the account you favored me with publishing of the minerals of Sparta, I may possibly have been inadver- tently led into some trifling error in the statement of the cir- cumstance alluded to by Mr. Seybert. |
, “To err is human,—to forgive, divine.” For assuredly, I never entertained the presumptuous idea, of attempting to grasp at a single leaf of the immortal lau- rels of the great, and venerable and lamented Haiiy!
But, I hope in future, Mr. Seybert will view me with less jealousy, for I should be sorry to beconsidered any thing less than his friend, orthat of any young man of such eminent pre- tensions to useful science. I have no pretensions to analyiti- cal chemistry, having ly amused myself occasionally with a few imperfect essays, to satisfy an ardent curiosity concern- ing the character of a few ambiguous minerals. I under-
I am, Sir, with high respect, y umble servant.
THO’S. NUTALL. 2. Iron Conduit Pipes.
The increasing efforts which are making in this country to supply our cities with good water, give a peculiar interest to every thing connected with this subject. One of the princi- pal practical difficulties in these undertakings arises from the bursting, leaking and decay of the waterpipes. Many years ago they were formed of cast iron in Scotland, and it ap- pears that cast iron pipes are now in full and successful use
the new river water works near London. We have be- fore us the report of the watering committee of Philadelphia, which contains an important correspondence between the committee and Mr. Walker the engineer of the London new river water works. We are assured by Mr. George Vaux of Philadelphia, to whom we are indebted for these facts, that the information communicated by Mr. Walker, “ has been found by experience, during the last four years to be
174 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
most correct and important.” It is not possible to do jus- tice to the statements of Mr. Walker without copying his let- ters entire. The most important results however are that cast iron pipes of any necessary diameter, even to two or three feet, may be employed—that their strength is suffi- cient to resist any desired pressure, when the thickness of their sides is very trifling, three quarters of an inch being sufficient for pipes of twenty inches diameter—three eights of an inch for ten inches, and three sixteenths for a five inch
casting of one foot diameter and a half inch thick, is capa- ble of resisting: the tenacity of a square inch of the best cast iron, having been found by experiment to exceed twen~ thousand pounds’’*—that the joints of the pipes can be rendered impervious and secure—that the iron is very en- during—imparts no disagreeable taste to the water—is, when properly prepared, always to be depended on, and in the . — of years is more economical than any aaner sub-
The joint used i in London, fo or connecting the pi — is the spigot and veveanda made tight in some cases, by lead cast around, a hers by a cement which is composed of two pounds ora ats Seeaaten with one hundred pounds of borings of iron, with the addition.of a little sulphur. These mate- rials are mixed with water which “ oxidizes the iron, and in a short time the mixture becomes extremely hard and quite impervious to water
When lead is used it is ; contracted by cooling, and it is necessary to upset the joint with a hammer and chisel.
The following extract of a letter to the Editor, dated, December 25, 1822, from Mr. Vaux, contains much valua~ ble information.
“Our experience I consider to be decisive, especially in aut to the all important matter of the joints of the con-
ults
and cocks is made by the hydraulic pen dens sent out ps we Mr. alker to Philadelphia, aes proved by a press equal to a column of water of three hundred feet i in height, that is of the weight fi ares or ten atmospheres.
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 175
“‘ The pipes of whatever size, are usually cast in sections
of nine feet, and are always laid so as to have a covering of
earth at least four feet thick. During the last three or four years about thirty thousand feet have been put down by the city of Philadelphia, and between three and four thousand joints have been made. The pipes vary in diameter from
removed.
In making the joints the directions of Mr. Pere are pursued, but our workmen instead of stopping the openi between the pipes with clay only, previous to pouring in nthe liquid lead—clasp the inserted pipe with an iron ring com- posed of two semicircles of common hoop iron bent edge- wise and united on one side, by a joint or hinge, and on the other by a FRG sore. a C5: This ring being pla- ced directly against the end of the recetving pipe, covers the space between the two pipes, and the clay i is then appli- edover it. When the lead is poured in, the surface next to the ring will be smooth all round, and the troublesome ope- ration of ‘ chipping” and “ dressing” is entirely save
The persons engaged in making the joints have acquired such confidence in their work, that they no longer deem a proof necessary, but fill up and puddle the ditch before the water is turned into the pipes. -
The information now possesed I consider of great import- ance, not only to our city but to the country at large, as without it iron could not be used for conduits—there bein I believe no other effectual mode of securing the joints; in fact a knowledge of this matter twenty years ago would have saved us at least $100,000. When the water works were first erected by Mr. Latrobe, he put down about a mile of wen pipe, but from the contraction it was found not to suc-
eed. Various attempts were made to obtain information fom England, all of which failed previous to the applica o Mr. Walker.
Our new water works are not upon the plan recommend- ed by Mr. Walker, though some of his recommendations
176 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
have been adopted. There is no description of them in print, and I cannot personally furnish you with answers to our enquiries at this time. In the course of a few weeks, Teces to be able to do it satisfactorily. Your friend and servant, GEO. VA
B. Silliman, Esq.
3. American Andalusite. To the Editor, ;
5; New-York, Noy. 25, 1822. Dear Sir,
I am much pleased to have it in my power to announce an American locality for well characterized ndalusite. 1 lately discovered in Litchfield, Connecticut, a group of ir- regularly aggrégated crystals, the interstices being filled with granular quartz.
‘hey are principally four sided prisms, nearly rectangu- lar, varying in form to the rhombic. One of the prisms (being very perfect) has an acumination of two of the sol- id angles on the opposite ends of one of the diagonals of that termination of the prism which is in view. This acumination is formed by three converging planes of trun- tion, two of which cut obliquely the two lateral planes, and the other the terminal one.
The solid angles are thus replaced by three faces. There are no lateral truncations. The structure is folia- ted; the laminae of strong lustre; the color is bluish gray: The crystals translucent at the edges. Spec. grav. 32.
The Litchfield andalusite is so very analogous to foreign Specimens In our cabinets, that it needs no further descrip- _ _ is more — and beautiful, however, than aay ha: ve seen. The largest crystal is in its diameter ! a — rgest crystal is in its diameter 1;
It appears to have come from granite, but there are né decisive indications of this Say beg
Very respectfully, your obedient servant, J. DELAFIELD. To Professor Silliman,
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 177
4. Observations on the novetus IGNIARIUS. shewing its anal- ogy to animal blancs in closing its severed Parts; ty Prorrsson Kar
TO THE EDITOR. Sir,
Few persons take the trouble to watch the steel of Cryptogamous plants; therefore, accidental observations, may with property | be preserved.
igniarius, or the commom touch-wood is a very upsile fungus. We often observe it full grown and generally several years old; but few persons, I presume,
ave observed its progress while i in the growing state.
A fungus of this species first: appeared, growing from the trunk of a decaying Lombardy poplar; + ¥ ey yard, about twelve inches from the ground, in July, 1 During that season, it grew to the extent of four inches } in diameter, Last June it commenced growing again; and about the first of September following, it was fifteen inches'i in diameter, measured across the base of the semi-circle. The first sea- son it approached a globular form; though it presented it- self as an unfinished, rather shapeless mass. Now it has assumed its regular form, and seems to have completed its growth; which, if correct, proves it to be a biennial plant.
The most remarkable fact observed in the oe of this fungus. was its flesh-like property, manifested when parts were severed. A deep gash was cut in rite periphery | in Av- gust; and the severed parts shortly afterwards united, by the process which surgeons denominate first intension. A
and after lying on the ground two days; it was joined on again. The piece united, as in the case of the incision be- fore heen ag and continued to grow with the other parts of the fungus. Now there is not even a cicatrice nor any other suidiaes left of the incision or of the fracture.
Troy, Dec. 15th, 1822.
Von. VI....No. I.
to as
178 7 Intelligence and Miscellanies. 5. Notice of the Plumbago of Ticonderoga: by PRoressor Hau.
Middlebury College, August 27, 1822.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
I do not remember to have seen in the “ American Jour- ual of Science,” any account of the Plumbago, Graphite, or Black Lead, found on Cobble Hill in the town of Ticonde- roga. That which occurs in the vicinity of Roger’s Rock has been frequently described. 1 visited the locality on Cobble Hill, last week. It is about three miles N. W. from the Upper Falls. The Plumbago is found in numerous places, on the south side of the hill, in deep veins, from one to eight inches in thickness. The veins are, generally, perpendicular to the horizon, and nearly parallel with each other. The gangue is graphic granite.
itatfthe hill the ni h
? Near the th : Pp g is ji ii it Jit all parts of the gangue, occurring, sometimes insmall nodules, but oftener, inthin lami hibiting a brilliant metallic lustre.
Some of the plates are very large. I measured one which
“at the most elevated locality, is found a greenish stone, ex- tremely hard, which jn its external appearance, resembles Green Hornblende, but it is too hard for that mineral. I am ata loss what it is.
The graphite, in veins, is uncommonly pure. It occurs, here and there, in irregular, hexahedral prisms. I saw very little that was granular. Most of it is foliated. In a few instances, it appears to be fibrous; but, on examining it more closely, you perceive that the fibres, which are often long, running across the whole vein, are composed of narrow, thin lamine.. It is removed from its gangue by means of chisels, pick axes, and iron bars, and conveyed to the Falls, where it is pulverized and purified. It has been prepared for the market, chiefly hy Guy C. Baldwin Esq. who informed me, that about three tons are disposed of annually. The average price, at which it is sold, is sixteen dollars a hundred.
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 179 6. Notice of a curious Fluted Rock at Sandusky Bay Ohio.
Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Epenzer Gran- GER, Esq. dated
Zanesville, Ohio, July 2d, 1822.
Tn an excursion which I made last summer, [ observed some most curious appearances on the rock ata place cal- ied Portland, or Sandusky city, on the Sandusky Bay.
he shore of the Bay at the town rises about eight feet above the water, and ranges nearly east something more than a mile, and then turns abruptly to the south. The rock appears to be what is vulgarly called bastard lime- stone. Ido not know what it would be termed by Geolo- gists, but its base is silex in fine grains strongly cemented with ime. It contains a great variety of shells, andis un- questionably a marine deposit. ia
In digging the cellars on the front street of the town, they come down, through four or five feet of earth, to this rock. Its position is nearly horizontal, with sometimes a trifling dip to the east, sometimes to the west, but more generally to the east. Its surface is fluted, with lines or grooves, in a di- rection nearly east and west, and though differing in width and depth, perfectly straight and parallel with each other. It appears to have been once polished as if by friction; and this polish it still retains in a considerable degree. 1 was told this rock had been examined by a scientific gentleman from England, who ascertained the direction of the lines to be, north 71 degrees east; agreeing exactly in this particu- lar with a similar appearance, which, as he said, had been discovered in one place only on the old continent.
I examined the bottoms of a number of cellars, and found them similar. I also observed the same appearance in the rock on the shore ; and in more than one place, | observed this fluted rock overlaid by another stratum of similar con- Sistence. From the shore to the farthest cellar inland, in which I observed these impressions, must be more than one hundred feet, and | entertain no doubt that the impression, at some short distance farther, is overlaid entirely by anoth- er stratum: what its width is, therefore, it is impossible to ascertain.
180 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
At the shore of the Bay, where as before observed, it turns abruptly to the south, the fluted rock again makes its appearance, running in the same direction. Here ime rock dips gently to the east, and disappears with the impressions under the water of the Bay. From the most westerly point where I observed the impressions, to this place, must be more than one mile, there can be no doubt that it is contin- ued all that distance ; how much farther west or east it may extend is unknown.
It has to me the appearance of having been formed by the powerful and continued attrition of some hard body. It resembled in some slight degree, the sides of asaw gate, (if you understand the expression) which has been for a long time rubbing against the posts, which confine and direct it. It was said to have been observed, by the gentleman before
himself examined this earance; for to me, it does not seem possible that water under a ircumstan have effected it. The flutings in width, depth, and direc-
lane. This, running water could not effect, nor could its _ operation have produced that glassy smoothness, which, in
7, Extract from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. 2d, Part II.
Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram iron ' works in Columbia County, New-York, erroneously supposed
to be a new mineral. By Wm. H. Keatina. Rent Sept. 10th, 1822.
In the second number of the first volume of the New-
York Medical and Physical Journal, Dr. Torrey has pub- lished a description and analysis of a substance, which he considered as a new mineral, and for which he proposed the name of green oxide of zinc; a specimen of this sub- stance having been handed to me last spring, I immediately
aia i aia in ci ilies
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 18]
recognized it to be similar in its nature and appearance, to a product of the iron furnaces of Belgium, which has been described by Mr. Bouesnal in the “Journal des rezweh (Vol. 29. p. 35,) under the name of Cadmia. Having had an opportunity of collecting on the spot* the most satisfac- tory proofs in support of my opinion, I beg leave to offer to the Academy the following account of this substance: It was first noticed at Ancram in the year 1812, when it was found in pulling down a stone wall connected with the iron urnace, which belongs to general Livingston, and is now under the direction of Walter Patterson, “Esq. It excited some interest among the mineralogists of New-York, but no public notice was taken of it until lately. Mr. Boues: nel’s observations on this subject are very full; these and a few short notes by Messrs. Collet De scotils, Heron de Villefosse and Berthier in the “Journal and Annales des Mines,” are the only notices of it I have ever met with; 1 sought in vain for a mention of it in English works. The cadmia of Belgium is a new and rare metallurgical product, which is formed in iron furnaces about five or six feet below their orifice, and immediately under the charge; it there forms an annular disk or ring, which increases ne in thickness, and which, if not removed, would choke furnace ; it forms in the Belgian furnaces, according to un Bouesnel, a ring of about sixteen inches in height, offering in the profile or vertical section, a curvilineal triangle, a base of which rests upon the sides of the furnace; and apex which corresponds with its greatest breadth, is but lit tle distant from the lower part of the ring, so that the trian- gle appears in some cases almost rectangular.” T have seen a piece found at Ancram, which presented tolerably well the above described characters, and corresponded exacily with Mr. Bouesnel’s description; hke the European, it was found in tabular masses, presenting in many cases a distinct slaty structure. The substance has often a striped aspect; its color is grayish, inclining to yellow, green or black. The specific gravity of the European is 5. ae the American 4.92; this difference is not very great, and may in part be accounted for, by the fact that the foptier
These observations were made during a short visit to Ancram pany with Mr. ee ee kewise, at the first i inspection, Reciaisol
this subsiance to be cadm
182 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
contains a small quantity of lead, which varies from 2, 4 te 6. 0 per 100. 0.
The Chemical analysis of this substance made in New- York, has rendered it unnecessary for me to undertake that which L proposed making. I shall merely add a compara- tive view of the results of the analyses, made upon the Eu- pean and American.
Bouesnel. Drappier. Berthier. Torrey. 4.0 87. 0 93. 5
Oxide of Zine 90. 1 9
—__——. Lead 6520 2. 4 4. 9
———- lron eee ees 3.6 3. 5 Carbon | $0 6 te 1. 0 Silex, earths, sand, &c. 1. 8 | 224
100.5» 99. 5 99. 5 98. 0
These analyses present a remarkable coincidence, except
in the presence of lead in the European, and its absence in the American cadmia; but this difference is of no impor- tance; in Belgium Mr. Bouesnel tells us that the iron ore is visibly intermixed with lead ore, and this accounts for its existence in the cadmia; we are also told that lead is found there in the furnaces below the metallic iron. It is not dif- ficult to account for the presence of zinc with the iron ore, for in examining the ore bed at Salisbury, (14 miles east of the furnace) we ascertained that the hematite was found in the side of a hill, incumbent upon the shist and, as it were, incased in the decomposed part of it, and that the adjoining shist was very much broken up and altered; it does not ap- pear that the hematite is the result of infiltration alone, for masses of micaceous iron ore are found connected with it, which appear to indicate that it results in part, at least, from the decomposition of oxidule or oligist iron ore. “now that this shist contains blende or sulphuret of zinc, in some places at least, as at the Ancram lead works, and this may account for the presence of zinc. oe Mr. Bouesnel has endeavoured to explain the formation of these cadmia, in a manner which does not appear to me to be satisfactory, I would rather admit that it results from a reduc- tion of the oxide or carbonate of zinc, which is. intermixed
in small quantities with the iron ore; that this reduction
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 183
takes place in the furnace; that the zinc sublimes and oxy- dates as it rises, and settles i in the form of a ring at the iofe- rior part of the charge, where the temperature of the furnace is considerably lowered by the successive additions of cold ore, charcoal, &c.
This substance is not, it is true, found at present forming in the Ancram furnace; but this may in a great measure be Owing to a better ~— of the ore, previous to its intro- duction into the furnace. It may also be occasioned by the se shit all the ore destined for Ancram is picked
great care, at the ore bed. I must not, however, omit e state that I found in the flue erected above the orifice of the furnace, for the protection of the workmen, a red, pul- verulent substance, to which the workmen have given the name of su/phur, a name which, as the editor of the Empo- rium has well observed, ae been most unfortunately given by furnace and forge me every product which puzzles them, and without any bape to its real composition: this powder I supposed to be a mixture of ashes and fine ore, blown out of the furnace by the rapid current of air; I con- ceived that if there was any zinc with the ore, it would be
roe on the subject may have led him into error. For instance, he was misinformed (I think) when he stated, that
furnace erected in the year 1744.” We were told by Mr. Patterson, that it had never been found but in taking down a wall connected with the furnace, and which having been built after the furnace, may have contained mate- rials which had been pont from it at different times. This observation is of more importance than it at first appears; for if, as Mr. Patterson ‘told us, the Ancram furnace was the fist erected in the colonies of North America, or at least, the first in the province of New York, and if, accord- ing to Dr. Torrey, the cadmia had been found in the wall
184 “Intelligence and Miscellanies.
of the first furnace erected, the substance must have pre-ex- isted to any furnace pi to have been erected there, which we think is not the c ~ Bat, in addition to all es above mentioned proofs, and
to those which might be drawn from the circumstance of its.
being found in the vicinity of a furnace, I have been able to obtain the evidence of men to the fact of its having been formed in it. Having been infarindd that ore from the same bed was used at the works belonging to Messrs. Holley and Coffing, near Salisbury, I repaired there with a hope of finding the cadmia near that furnace also. After a short search, I found i it in its immediate vicinity, and was inform- ed by Mr. Holley, that he had himself taken it out of his fur- nace about twelve erg ago, when they renewed the stack. He was positive that it was the same; that it had been found about six feet below the orifice of the furnace, and that if ee occasionally removed, it would have eventually choked I even understood him or his partner to say, that this mania was even at present occasionally formed in the furnace in pieces of almost one-eighth of an inch in digg One of the reasons why it is still formed at Salis-
bury, and not at Ancram, is probably owing to the ore used at peer ets being picked and vee other not. Mr. Patterson
se anes to Mr. Heron de de V illefosse, a similar substanee is formed in the copper and lead furnaces of Julius, Sophia, and Ocker, near Goslar, in the Hartz. At Goslar, as wel as at Jemmapes in Belgium, this cadmia is considered as the best material that could be used in the manufacture of brass ; as it is purer than the roasted calamine, it is prefer- red to it, as well as to all other zinciferous substances. It had not, I believe, been used in Belgium before Mr. Bou- -esnel described it. Should it be found in any quantity at our furnaces, it would no doubt be equally advantageous to work it with copper for brass. his substance has not yet been observed in many places. { belies the only spot where it has been noticed, in — tion to the above mentioned, is at Verrieres, in France where I discovered it in the year 1819.* Tam inclined to
As no account of the cadmia of Verrieres las as yet been published, i shall here add the note which I made on the subject in my journal. “J uly
-
aarti
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 185
think that if more care were taken by our iron masters, in observing the progress of their furnaces, and the products which they yield, it might be found in many other places; certainly it must have been formed in the old Franklin fur- nace, in Sussex county, New-Jersey, where so many fruit- less attempts were made to work the Franklinite.
efore | conclude these remarks, | must observe, that it
ties of iron. In Belgium the iron is of good quality ; and it is an interesting fact, that the bar-iron of Ancram is in great demand at $120 per ton, a higher price than is at pres- ent paid for any imported iron. The castings from the An- cram furnace are in sucha repute, that no other pigs are used at the West Point foundry for the heavy guns (32 and 42 pounders) now casting for the United States’ navy. The Ancram furnace equals, in beauty of workmanship, and economy of means, any that we have seen; and we en- tertain no doubt, that all works carried on with such admira- ble perfection, must and will always prove equally honoura- ble and profitable to their owners and directors.
8. Inflammability of Ammoniacal Gas.
I have recently found that ammoniacal gas is much more inflammable than it is described to be in the books. Hav- ing filled with this gas, over mercury,some jars* which were
igh et . 1 gby ‘ Pees qua temo: Rinwneban Bi ‘ound on bringing a pendent candle over one. whose mouth was covered with a glass plate, which was withdrawn at the moment, that the gas burned readily as it rose through the
*The same that belonged to Dr. Hare’s first deflagrator.
6, 1819. visited the furnace of Verrieres, in the department de la Vienne, in France. The director mentioned that his ore was good, and that the iron it produced was hkewise }
which formed in the furnace, five feet below its orifice ; it was i > !
i e said, have choked the furnace if not removed, which
aring. It would, h at times was a di undertaking. 1 mentioned to him that it appeared to be analagous to the cadmia of Belgium. The specimens w 1 th
[nal E S E anna & g 3 o S 5 S fn S wn Be 3 -_ S B we ° 5 ps = a PD c s 7 ® & 4 o be '
rmed peor ed that the Engineer of mines De Cressac had discovered calamine in that vicinity the year before.
Vor. Vi.—No. 1. 24
186 Intelligence and Miscellames.
air, exhibiting a voluminous yellow ame. ‘The reason why, in common cases, it appears nearly uninflammable, is, that itis used in very small quantities, and in narrow vessels, in- to which the common air can,at the moment,scarcely enter, and the gas is not sufficiently inflammable to burn (like pure hydrogen,) merely at the surface of contact, at the mouth of the vessel. But if it rise through the air suddenly, in large volumes, and in its ascent, strike the flame of a candle, it is then sufficiently inflammable to be seen through a large room, and forms a handsome experiment.—Editor.
9. Crystalization of Sulphuric Acid.
It is very well known to every chemist, that sulphuric acid, diluted to about 1780. water being 1000. readily con- eals and crystalizes with a moderate cold. It is also well known that this crystalization, when the acid is not fully concentrated, often happens spontaneously, and it is aie that even carboys of sulphuric acid have been broken by the expansion, resulting from the crystalization.
- Having occasion, recently, to clean out a neglected car- boy, which had been nearly emptied of its sulphuric acid, we found a few cubic inches of liquid in the bottom of the eucbodiand on shaking it,to wash out the adhering sulphat of
‘ie eee eee * y we
Me _ taped wes dil sur- prised by the rattling, produced by thirty or forty distinct crys- tals of great size and firmness. On being withdrawn from t vessel, they proved to be isolated crystals of sulphuric acid; some of them were two inches in the greatest diameter; they appeared as firm as crystals of alum—were white an transparent, and their form,which, on account of their cor- rosiveness and their rapid deliquescence, it was difficult te examine, appeared to be that of very obtuse and flat rhom-
boids, like the lenticular crystals of calc spar—the téte de
clou of the French.
It is evident, in this case, that the little acid remaining in the open carboy, had attracted water enough from the air, to bring it to the degree of dilution, which makes it crystal- ize most readily, and that the moderate cold which it ex- perienced in a garret, ina mild night in November, ha been sufficient to produce that result in the manner above stated. —Lditor.
Intelligence and Miscellanies. 187 10. Explosion of oxigen and Phosphuretted hydrogen.
The violent action of phosphuretted hydrogen and oxi- gen, of course, induces every demonstrator to be extremely cautious in bringing them together. Like others, I have been accustomed to permit a succession of single bubbles of phosphuretted hydrogen, to rise through a column of wa- ter, into a few cubic inches of oxigen gas, in the upper part of a bell glass, and thus to exhibit the splendid flashes of light, which are renewed at every contact of the gases. In some former years, explosions, attended, however, with no other injury than the breaking of the vessel, have result- ed from the fact that, occasionally, a few bubbles of gas, probably less charged with phosphorus than others,
ave broken in the oxigen gas without exploding, thus pro- ducing, however, an explosive mixture, which a succeeding bubble, more highly charged with phosphorus, has kindled, and thus caused the whole to detonate. bs .
_ Ata recent lecture, the usual arrangement being estab- lished, a single bubble of phosphuretted hydrogen passed up into the oxigen, and, as I was afterwards informed by an observer, remained unbroken. The mouth of the retort was plunged not more than an inch and a half be- neath the surface of the water, and this slight hydrostatic pressure, giving a little condensation to the gas, probably caused rather a larger volume of it than usual to pass into the oxigen, when the next bubble rose through the water. It is not probable that more than three common bubbles of the inflammable gas were mingled with as many cubic inches of oxigen gas, when a very bright flash of light, accompa- nied by an extremely violent detonation, ensued—shatter- ing all the glass vessels in the vicinity, and projecting frag- ments of the bell glass in every direction, among an audi- ence of three hundred persons, and to the extreme distance of forty feet, slightly wounding a large number of the spec- tators.
So sudden, violent and unexpected a result from so tri- fling a cause, appears to me worthy of being mentioned, as an inducement to the most scrupulous caution in the man- agement of these violent agents. —Editor.
*
188 Dr. Borré’s Notices of Foreign Geology.
If. Foreien.
i. Dr. Borré’s notices of European Continental Geology, with remarks on the prevailing geological arrangements in a@ letter to Dr. J. ly. Webster of Boston—commumca- ted by him—
To the Editor, Dear Sir,
T send you the following extract from a letter I have received from Dr. Borré, whose essay on the Geology of Scotland has been so favorably received in Europe.
**} have been in the northern and southern parts of Ger- many and in the Hungarian empire. I have only room to tell you the principal results of my travels, without being able to enter into sufficient proofs of the correctness of my opinions, these you will soon learn through the medium of some of our public Journals. First, the primitive class of rocks contains two kinds of rocks, viz. mica slate and gneiss no where, even at Freyberg is there a perfect mantle sha- ped stratification; the granite cuts the strata every where, and formsveins in it, it is in fact a posterior Huttonian rock, perhaps even of the transition period. There is certainly no decidedly primitive granite.
The transition class contains the slate formation associa- ted with quartzose and chloritose rocks, and grau wacké. Some masses of Sienite have protruded through this forma- tion, aud nearly all the Sienites known, are newer than the
,
grau wacke, or at least than a great part of it. This is gea-
of Dresden metalliferous Sienites of Hungaria which contain small veins
limestone, of coral banks, and of Huttonian masses, or lay- ers of greenstone with augite. (The encrinal limestone of
Dr. Borré’s Notices of Foreign Geology. 189
England is a deposit of this kind, alternating with the oldest part of the Ist floetz limestone of Werner.) The transition class ends with the porphyries, or the secondary class commen- ces with them. The porphyries and trap rocks (which Dr. B. considers as loca) igneous formations) appear very dif- ferently in many places. In Cumberland, and the Fichtels- gebirge the grau wacké contains masses of porphyritic and trap rocks, beds of reaggregated rocks of this class, with here and there masses of Sienite or sometimes hilloc
often containing hypersthene, or diallage. The superior and inferior surfaces of these masses are often scorified—
the d
The coal formation is found upon the old red sandstone in Scotland, and Silesia; at Thorandt near Dresden and at Halle it is below, and in Bohemia it is in the old red sand-
appeared during the deposition of coal, the coal field is cov- ered by the sandstone, and when they have appeared through the whole period, there you find hardly any of the sandstone of the coal formation, but the coal field is the old red sandstone. On the other hand where no porphyries
190 Dr. Borré’s Notices of Foreign Geology.
have appeared, the old red and coaly sandstone are more like grau wacké, and a sandstone distinguished by the small remains of vegetables. Such is the composition of the old red sandstone of the northern part of the Alps.
On the south side of the Alps, porphyries abound under the limestones, with the old red sandstone. he Zechstein is there separated from the sandstone and alternates with the rocks of the coal formation. When the porphyries have appeared late, and the old red sand stone presents itself be- low the coal, there is a great deposit of red ground or se- cond floetz sandstone, as for instance in the Vosges, the Hartz, &c.
In Germany, you find above the old red sandstone, the Zechstein more or less compact, porous and magnesian with Flustrae, Terebatrule &c. it is truly the magnesian limestone of England with the same organic remains. It also contains the ferriferous limestone of the Germans and the Hohlenkalk ofthe Thuringewald. This limestone exists in France, also. Above this rock is the red ground or variegated sandstone, it is the common repository of the salt. In the upper part there are sometimes beds of oolite belonging to the musehel- kalk or second floetz limestone which lies every where up- onthisred ground. This formation is characterized by its com- pactness and by its encrinites, terebratulites and pectinites, it is very abundant in Germany—it is found in the north east part of France, at Nevres &c.—it is unknown in England.
Above the last is the Quadusandstein or third floetz sand- stone, which is also wanting in England; it exists also here and there in France. It is whitish, yellowish or brownish,
d sometimes ferruginous; it rarely contains mineral char- coal, pit coal, bituminous wood, impressions of monocotyle- dons and branches of trees. Pectinites, turbinites, bivalves, strombites, and gryphites are often found in it. ve this is the Jura limestone or third floetz limestone, the superpo- sition is seen in Suabia, Westphalia and France. In Eng- land, the Jura limestone includes all from the Lias to the Tron sand. Jn the true Jura chain, the second floetz lime- stone appears, here and there, under the Jura limestone, aS near Basil. The Jura limestone is sometimes divided into
# iS) 5 a. 5 = ¢. os - a “ — = ft ° e 3 5 a= pS) ° o- ey 3 a. ° =} S S 8 ke
Dr. Borré’s Notices of Foreign Geology. 191
Pappenheim, Eichstadt and in part of Normandy.) It is dis- tinguished from the second floetz limestone by its turreied orm, &c. The green sand is abundantly distributed in Germany, above the Jura limestone, and also in Bohemia where it forms the Raiierkalk; it abounds in Westphalia near the Hartz; it is some times full of hydrate of iron as in Moravia, in some parts of France, on the borders of the Hartz, in Pavonia, &c. The chalk is abundant in Polonia, above the green sand, with all the preceding members, and also here and there in the north of Germany, especially near Padesborn in Westphalia. Above the chalk is the plastic clay with sand and rolled masses, forming a great part of the extensive alluvial tract south of the Baltic; it here and there contains shells. Inthe north of Germany you rarely see
are fresh water deposits of different ages with Planorbis, &c. At Pest it is very compact, at Vienna marly, at Baden tufaceous. Near Nicolshitz in Moravia it contains insects (diptues.) Basaltic deposits are abundant and true volca- noes with craters and scorie exist at Egen, at-Hof and in the Reisingebirge, ancient sub-marine accmulations of lava and tuff are frequent in Germany, and the scorie are often infil- trated. The dykes are numerous and have produced an ev- ident alteration in the rocks adjacent. Basaltic cones, ele- vated as explained by the Huttonians, not by the volcanists, or in the form of streams, are met with here and there, es- pecially in Hessia, and the red ground and shelly limestone are much altered in their vicinity and present the same black aspect as at Sky and in Ireland.
Trachytes are seen in five places in Hungary, on the bor- ders of the Rhine, and in Stiria. They may be divided in- to five varieties. ‘Trachytes existing in hills. Trachyte porphyries (couleés.) Porphyry more or less vitreous (a kind of couleés.) Silicious porphyries, probably consolidated by water, and having been once pumice-porphyries. Jra- chytic and pumaceous tufas (being reaggregated matters
’
oa
a
192 Mineralogy of the Island of Ceylon.
of the age of the coarse limestone of the Parisian for- mation.”
2. Mineralogy of the Island of Ceylon.
A letter reached me, a few days since, from the Rev. Miron Winslow, American Missionary in the East-Indies, dated Oodooville, (Jaffna,) Jan. 11, 1821. It contains a number of facts, relating to the mineralogy and geology of Ceylon, some of which, { suspect, are not generally known to the readers of your valuable work. I therefore copy a large part of the letter, and send the transcript to you for examination; and, if you think it of sufficient importance, for insertion in the “American Journal of Science and the Arts,” please give it a place. Yours truly,
. FREDERICK HALL.
Pror. Sruiman. Middlebury College, 27th August, 1822.
“] earnestly wish that hy delaying so long I could now say something as satisfactory to my own mind on the other subject,—that of the mineralogy of this Island. I did hope, in accordance with your request, to be able to send you some specimens of the precious stones, at least; but have as yet entirely failed in my attempts to obtain any ; and had { obtained them, should have found it very difficult to for- ward them from this corner of the Eastern world,which has very little communication with any other part of India. 1a coming to the Island we first landed at Trincomale, and af- terwards at Point De Galle and Colombo, at all of which places I tried to obtain specimens; but could find none except at Galle, and there only in the hands of the jewel- lers, who demanded a great price for them. The precious stones are found only in the interior of the Island ; and as very few here pay attention to science of any kind, there have been no considerable attempts to explore mineralogic al treasures, that might be there found; and no cabinets of minerals have been formed from which one might borrow- A Society has lately been instituted at Columbo, called the ns Ceylon Literary Society,” which promises to do some thing in this way: and I do not despair of being able here- after to give you a better account of the mineralogy of this Island than J] now can.
Mineralogy of the Island of Ceylon. 193
“As far as my sources of information (which perhaps are not as good as your own,) enable me to state, I can say, that compared with most parts of the world, the precious stones in Ceylon are numerous; but not of a particularly fine quality. The ruby, the topaz and the diamond, are said to be much inferior to those of Brazil and Golconda ; and the tourmalines here are destitute of electric qualities. With- out pretending to any thing like an enumeration of all the minerals, I shall mention some of the more important, and their classification according to the Wernerian system. TI. Diamond Genus. 1. Diamond. This is inferiour to the diamond of Golconda, or the Coromandel Coast, which is better, even than that of Brazil; but, like the former, I believe crystalizes in Octahedrons, and exhibits all the va- rieties of that primitive form. JI. Zircon Genus. 1. Cin- namon stone. I have seen several specimens of this, but am able to say nothing of its comparative qualities. It is rather common, I believe, in the interior. 2. Hyacinth. This is of a reddish color—may be rendered white by fire, and is thencalled Jargon. It is heavier even than the dia- mond, and like that, exhibits but one refraction, which in- deed is common, I believe, to most of the Oriental stones. Ill. Flint Genus.(a) Garnet Family. 1. Garnet. They /
Family. 1. Sapphires, blue and green, and heavier than those of Brazil. 2. Ceylanite of which I know only the name. 3. Topaz. This assumes the Octahedral form.(c) Shorl Family. 1. Emerald. The Emerald of this Island is, I believe, fine. 2. Shorl. 3. Tourmaline. The con- stituents are alumine, 50. silex, 34. lime, 11.iron, 5. It is said not to be electric, but | cannot answer to the truth of it, especially as I know it is usually reckoned as electric, when heated to 200° of Fahrenheit.(d) Quartz Family. 1, Quartz—Amethyst. 2. Rock Crystal, (black and white.) 3. Carnelian. 4. Opal. (1 species) 5. Cats-eye. This has a point, near the middle, from which greenish traces seem to proceed, ina circle. It is rather plentiful. Of the metals, Jead, tin and iron ore are found in the interior; the latter only is wrought, and on a small scale. The na- tives have long been accustomed to work small quantities ofthe ore in small fires made by the operation of hand bel-
Vou. VI.—No. 1. 25
194 Mineralogy of the Island of Ceylon.
lows; and lately, an attempt, has been made by Govern- ment to establish a forge in Han
Of the above minerals, and of almost all others, indeed, the part of this Island which we occupy is entirely desti- tute. The District of Jaffna is a perfectly level bed of sand, sometimes of a clayey order, on a continued substra- tum of a Coral. This species of stone (if it may be called such,) is almost the only one in Jaffna. In those parts of
line, which goes into the composition of this stone, is of the most ordinary kind. It grows in the shallow waters all
Description of a Mermaid. 195
8, oat, appear very beautiful. You might think them beds of varie mosses and flowers, so various are the shapes and colors which they present. If you break off a sprig, you will often find it tipped with something like a small flower, with very brilliant colors: red, green and purple; which, however, penny lose their color and become white, on exposure to the a erceive, on oer to your very kind letter, receiv- ed just as I left America, you enumerate some minerals, as natives of Ceylon, which | have not mentioned—the Corti dum, Chrysoberyl, spinelle; also silver and gold. : can add nothing concerning them are ties I do not know, indeed, of any gold mines a that are ought at present, but the precious metal is found in small quantities in the mountains of the interior.”
3. Mermaid.
The following letter is 4 so respectable a source, that we hesitate not to publish it in this Journal. The maid spoken of in this et ‘5, as we are informed, the same that was purchased by Captain Edes, of Boston, and carried to England. As it will probably be soon exhibited a ba nary, both the credulous and the incredulous, 1 have an opportunity to judge whether the Japanese sive fabricated a Mermaid, or whether it is a genuine pro- duction of nature. Eprror.
ovat of a letter to Mr. James S. Wallace, of New-York, Baravia, March, 10th, 1822.
** What I have seen with mine own me and felt with mine own hands, that I believe.” I send youa description of a Mermaid taken on the shores of Japan sometime last year, and brought to this place a few months since, by one of the regular Dutch 1g The measurement I made my-
i96 Deseription of a Mermaid.
self, having the animal in my possession an hour, and the description is from my own observation, taking minutes at the time. I regret it is not in my power to give a Scientific description, but you must use these facts for that purpose, and lay it before the Society of which you are a member. I offered for it $1000, which was as much as [I dare risk. I have heard the animal is taken to Europe, where it is prob- able a particular account of it will be published. Until this came under my observation, I was a disbeliever in the existence of an animal inhabiting water, so much resembling a human being. Now I ain convinced—I was only disap- pointed in its size. I had conceived the idea they were much larger, if they existed at all.
Its extreme length from head to tail, 27 inches. Arms, including hand, 13} divided thus, 8} from end of finger to elbow—from thence to shoulder 5;—the hands beautifully formed—fingers tapering and nails long, delicate and white, projecting a little beyond the flesh—it isa female, and froma every appearance, full grown. The breasts were of good size, resembling those of a human being, and were rela- tively situated—immediately under them, commenced the
The head large in proportion, of human form, rather
round—the hair upon it coarse and black—most upon the right side—the other appeared inclining to baldness, cheeks project nearly in a line with the nose, which is perfectly hu- man, rather flat, and with large nostrils. The ears were hu- man, and properly placed—there isa little hair down the back e neck to where the shoulders set on—eye sockets rather large—the head was so set, that its vision when pros- trate was at about an angle of 45° upwards—which as you hold it erect gives it the appearance of a hump-backed per- son. Ihe neck finely formed, rather long, and upon the Adam’s apple, a small lock of hair. Lips human—mouth large, and the eye teeth were like tusks—the others were like those of a human being. The line of demarkation be- tween the fish and woman, is at the commencement of the scales immediately under the breasts, where the scales are sO fine, you can only see them with a powerful magnifying glass—they gradually increase in size as you approach t tail, where they are little larger than those of a haddock, and adhere firmly. The skin above, was evidently smooth and
Foreign Literature and Science. 197
tawny. Just under the breasts are two fins, — tn “w above them, say j to} a
the fins and hair, commence the cant Brain these, ie a ches, are two others larger than the upper; and lower, one long fin extending nearly to the tail—on the back one long fin just over the two middle ones upon the belly. The outer edge of the fins appear to be of areddish hue—the backbone shows itself from the neck down to where the scales commence, and is there lost to the sight. The first part, if I recollect right, resembles in its fins the fish of our shores that feed upon the rocks, and is of a dun color. In what position it gives suck I am at a loss about ; but am in- clined to think, prostrate upon the rocks. I learned from the owner, that the Japanese say they are often seen, but are very wary. This is ected sheath ear shrunk
much, and to accommodate it to a box es shorter than the first—they ingeniously ver its at whith cannot now be straightened. OHN SHILLABER.
4. New edition of Parkes’ Rudiments and Chemical Essays. ‘We hear that Mr. Parkes, the author of the Chemical
Catechism, has in the press a new and enlarged edition of the Rudiments of Chemistry, printed on fine paper, me a
at Leipslo? . ——o Foreign Literature and Science. Extracted and translated by Professor Griscom.
5. New work on Fossil Shells——A work in one volume 4to. with eleven lithographic plates, price 12 francs in boards,
oe
a4 ~ 198 Foreign Literature and Science.
on the natural history of fossil shells, has been published in the her ast by those able mineralogists, A. Brog- niart. and A. G- Desmarest. It is entitled, “ Histoire natu- relle des crustacés fossiles sous les rapports zoologiques et geologiques ; savoir, les Trilobites, par M. A. Broneniart, membre de institut, et les crustaces proprement dits, par M. G. A. Desmarest, professeur a I’ Ecole'd’Alfort, &c.
6. 4 New Journal of Natural Science has been commenced at Copenhagen, under the editorship of professors Girsted, Horneman, and Rheinhardt, and Dr. Bredsdorf.
7. Color of Sea Water.—The color of the polar seas pre- sents various tints from intense blue to olive green. These tints do not depend on the state of the air, but solely upon the quantity of water. ‘They are divided into bands of va-
- rious shades, in which whales are more frequently found than in all other parts of the sea. It has long been thought that those greenish waters take their tint from the depth of the sea. Captain Scoresby however, has discovered in these waters by means of a microscope, a great number of spherical globules, semi-transparent, accompanied by de- tached filaments similar to small locks of very fine hair-
These globules are__'_ and —!— of an inch in diameter, 1720 730
¢ 1 and on this pig os 12 nebulosities, composed of brown-
dimensions, are —— of aninch. Examined by the most powerful lens each filament appears to be a chain of moril- iform articulations, the number of which in the largest fila- mentis about 300. The diameter is not more than ——
erof locomotion; but he is convinced that it is to the presence of these microscopic beings that the polar seas owe the various tints of green which are observed in them. He calculates that one cubic foot of this water may con- tain 110,592 globnies of these Medusxe, and a cubic mile about 23,888,000 hundreds of millions. He supposes that these animalcule furnish nutriment to the Actinia sepia
= : é
Foreign Literature and Science. 199 »
Limax and other mollusces very abundant in the polar seas, ~ whilst these in their turn, are devoured by the various spe- cies of whales that inhabit the same regions.
8. Abbeville department of Somme France.—Fossil re- mains.—There have just been found in several sand pits in the neighbourhood of this town, the bones of Elephants and Rhinoceros, Stagg’s horns, and teeth of a carnivorous animal
_ which M. Traule of that town regards as those of the Lion. These remains have been found at the depth of twenty-five - feet detached and mutilated. They consist of an elephant’s tusk, an atlas and a metatarsus of the Rhinoceros. he en- closure of these fossils is a bed of sharp grained sand.
9. Singular disease.—T he workmen of a cotton manufacto- ry at Argues, near Dieppe, were attacked in the beginning of February last with nausea, vertigo and Midian which so much affected their imaginations, that they thought they saw spectres and other fantastic objects flying at them and seizing them by the throat. The Doctor not being able in time to calm their troubled brains, the villagers and country people did not fail to declare according to custom that 2 was owing to a spell that had beencast upon themat the manufactory. A thousand ridiculous ceremonies were performed to make
a
+
threats, and the fear of being dismissed and thereby losing their means of subsistence, tended at length to restore them to reason. .
A memoir on the causes of this malady has been pre- sented to the medical society of Dieppe by M., Nicolle, an apothecary of that town, which contains a very exact and curious recital of the distinguishing traits of these spasmodic affections. The author attributes them to the gaseous oxide of carbon, resulting from the decomposition of the oil by the heat of a cast iron stove on which they were in the habit of plating their vessels of that fluid. This gaseous product as
1s well known, is lighter than the atmosphere, and in this way the author accounts for the fact, that it was in the upper stories of the manufactory that the people were first affected
be i hd
& oe 4 * » 10. The preservation of Potatoes has been lately held up to . , view in France, as the best security against famine. An account has been given by Cadet de Vaux, of an establish- ment of M. Ternaux at Saint Quen, for the economical preservation of grain, potatoes, ac. The potatoes are pared, (the parings being given to hogs _ and other animals) boiled in steam, spread while hot upon _a table, divided by a light instrument, which enables the moisture to evaporate, cooled, and then passed through a granulating sieve, and thoroughly dried in a stove, con- structed advantageously for this purpose. The dry mate- rial when taken from the stove has the form of vermicelli. It may easily be reduced either to coarse or fine flour, by
>
4 grinding. It is éalled by M. Ternaux polenta, and requires nothing but a little warm water and salt, to convert it im- mediately into an agreeable and savoury potage. Two ta- ble spoonfulls, which cost only the hundredth part of a roam aS sufficient, to make two plates of soup. When added to bouillon, no time or preparation is necessary, and it is superior in this respect, to vermicelli or flour.
__ At Moulins, 550 individuals reduced to want, were fed
Re
te
ii. Zodiac of Denderah——This remarkable and curious spe- cimen of antiquity, transported with so much labor and ex- nce from upper Egypt to Paris, has been purchased by the ing, and will be placed in a suitable position in the Louvre-
, oe Mr. Griscom’ s communications on foreign literature an science, excepting the above articles, came too late form sertion in the present number; the remainder are una voidably amet Epitor. -
*
be THE ie P “a, AMERICAN goat ' JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Sane _ r :
: ae GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &e.
Arr. IL—J4 Sketch of the sreiboes Mineralog , and
ety of t egtons contiguous to River Connec-
ticut ; with eological Map and ings of a
: ins; and oceasional Botanical Novices. Read be-
the American Geological Society at their vot Sr 11th, 1822; bythe Rev. Epwaap Se
Conway, Massachusetts.
_PART 11.
Pie: Sut Meh anges
Metatick one and Beds.
, Be pcan giving a fe of die simple minerals found along the Connecticut, it may perhaps be acceptable to the Bool gist, to present a short account of those veins and beds of ore, that occur in the district, which either have ce or may be wrobent as mines.
1. Southampton Lead Mine.* This is a vein containing sulphuret, carbonate, sulphate,
ybdate, muriate and phosphate of lead, with blende, py- copper, Xc. The gangue is quartz, with sulphate
_ “Fora deséripti ion of this mine, by eae Silliman, who examined i: in May 1810, see Bruce’s Journal, Vol 1 ‘a Vou. VI.—No. il ° . a
“S col 202 -. Geology; he. of the Connecticut. F ee * ob tastes and fluor spar intermixed. The vein declines ten or fifteen degrees from a perpendicular ; is six or eight feet in diameter, and traverses granite and other primitive rocks. It has been observed at intervals from Montgomery to Hat- field, 4 distance of twenty miles: but it is very doubtful, whether it continues, uninterruptedly, the whole of that ex- tent; indeed, from what I have observed of other lead veins in the vicinity, I have sometimes been disposed to ques- tian, whether the veins observed at many of these intervals, _
inch, toa foot in diameter. At the depth above mentioned, the water became so abundant, that it was thought advisable to abandon a perpendicular exploration, and to descend to ihe foot of a hill on the east, nearly eighty rods from the vein, and attempt a horizontal drift, or adit, and ever since its commencement, seven or eight years ago, the working of the vein has ceased. This drift is now carried into the hill,
rewarded for the great expence they have incurred, but, al-
so, that many a rich specimen will be found to ornament the
Geology, &§c. of the ain ae.
duineral cabinets of our SOMBER and to vie in beauty sigh the lead ores of Europe.
e mouth of this drift is four or five feet wide, and about three fet above the surface of the water. The water is deep enough, the whole length of it, to admit the passage of
a loaded boat. € person wishing to explore this internal pe must fire a gun at the entrance, or beat heavily with a sledge on the timbers that support the soil; in ten or fif- teen minutes he will perceive a gentle undulation of the wa- ter, and soon after a boat advancing with lighted lamps and a rower; having seated himself on the bottom of this boat, and provided himself with an additional garment, he is pre- pared for his subterranean expedition. As he enters the passage, he will, for a moment, experience, or imagine he experiences, a little difficulty of breathing. But he will soon become reconciled to his condition; and after passing about one hundred feet in the excavation, for which distance on soil is supported by timbers, he will find occasional
ore that he can stand erect. If he looks back, Ps having advanced several hundred feet, the light at the entrance will appear diminished to the size of a candle; and before he reaches the extremity, it becomes invisible. About half way from the entrance to the end of the drift, he will pass a shaft; down which a small brook is turned, for the purpose of aiding the ventilator. When he reaches the end of the drift, he finds himself to have penetrated nearly sixty rods chiefly into solid rock; a voyage which although inferior to that performed in the celebrated navigation anine, inthe Peak of Derbyshigag is still extremely interesti
The miners do not quit the drift when they blast ; but re- tire behind a breast work thrown up for the purpose. En- tering immediately after an explosion, I did not perceive the air to be in any degree more oppressive than when powder is fired above ground. One man told me that he had been an inmate of that dark recess, eight or ten years, without suffering in his health, and when he returned alone into his dreary prison after conducting me to the day light, he struck p a cheerful song, indicating buoyant spirits and a content- ed min
ve ry. mineralogist passing that way, will of course visit this drift. Intelligent gentlemen without professional views,
204 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
nd even ladies not unfrequently enter this cavity, and find themselves amply repaid for their trouble.*
2. Vein of Galena in Whately.
This occurs in the north west part of the town, and I for- merly supposed it a continuation of the Southampton vein. But the Southampton vein runs north east and south west, and this in Whately almost exactly north and south. Be- sides, the Southampton vein must turn almost at right angles from Hatfield, in order to be found in the north west part of
hately. _ ‘This vein may be traced at intervals one hundred rods, and extends into the edge of Conway. At the extremities it traverses mica slate ; butin the middle, it cuts through an extensive bed of granite. Its diameter is usually six or sev- en feet, and the gangue is wholly common and radiated quartz. Galena, which is the only ore found in this vein, is disseminated through this matrix in considerable abun- dance. Very few efforts have been made to explore this vein, though appearances at the surface are not unfavora- ble ; and if a horizontal drift were necessary, a deep valley within a few rods on the west, would afford a favourable op-
tunity for making it. As nearly as I.could determine, this vein is not far from perpendicular to the horizon.
3. Vein of Galena in Leverett.
In the south west part of the town—traversing granite— only a foot wide—gangue, sulphate of barytes—deviation north and south—galena the only ore.
A. Vein of Galena, Pyritous Copper and Blende, in Leverett.
_ About two miles north of the vein last mentioned; and it ay be a continuation of it. The gangue is quartz, united
ith sulphate of barytes ; and the galena and pyritous cop- per are disseminated through it in nearly equal quantities.
*I have often thonght Professor Cleaveland must have selected the ap- propriate motto prefixed to his Mineralogy,. when entering this or some similar drift. ,
SR ne SN itumest in viscera terrae &c,
Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 205
The blende is much less abundant. The vein is several feet wide, traverses mica slate and granite, and has been conside- rably wrought.
5. Lead Mine at Middletown.
IT am unacquanted with ihe geological situation of this mine. I put it down on the authority of Professor Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.
6. Vem of Galena at Bethlehem.
I mention this on the same authority without any person- _ al knowledge of it. It is, however, a little beyond the lim-
its of the map. 7. Vein of Galena and Pyritous Copper in Southington.
Same authority—gangue, sulphate of barytes and quartz. I believe this vein occurs ia the coal formation.
8. Mine of Galena, Blende and Pyrites in Berlin.
This occurs in greenstone, at its junction with the coal formation. The gangue is sulphate of barytes. The galena crystals are small ; those of the blende larger ; the pyrites is the least abundant. The vein is not now wrought. (Vide Dr. Percival’s Notice, Journal of Science, Vol. 5. p. 44.)
Copper Mines and ei
It has already been mentioned, in the geological part of this sketch, that these ores (like the mine of galena &c. last mentioned,) exist along the‘junction of the greenstone with the coal formation. The veins frequently pass into both
*
206 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
9. Vein.of Pyritous Copper and Green Carbonaie of Copper; at Cheshire.
In greenstone and associated with sulphate of barytes, quartz, carbonate of lime and sandstone. (Silliman in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, Vol. 2, p. 559.)
10, Mine of the Red Oxide of Copper, Green Carbonate of Copper, §c. Granby.
This is better known by the name of Simsbury Mines al- though it occurs within the boundaries of Granby. It was formerly wrought, but being at length abandoned, its shafts and galleries were converted into a state’s prison. The mineralogist who explores this spot, must here contemplate the painful spectacle ofalmost y variety of guiltand crime
ixty or seventy whites, mulattoes and negroes, scarcely distinguishable through filth, from one another, are here com- pelled by the point of the bayonet to labour at the anvil; while we read in their sullen and ghastly countenances, the inward workings of hearts rendered desperate by crime and punishment. As we descend into the shaft we observe the offensive recesses in the rocks, where these prisoners were formerly confined during the night. But only a few of the most refractory are now compelled to sleep in these damp and dismal dungeons; the government of Connecti- cut being satisfied that this kind of rigor served rather to harden than to reform the criminal. About seventy feet be- low the surface, the conductor pointed out to mea bolt driven into a wet rock, where, recently, one of the prison- ers had been fastened for a week or fortnight, as an extra punishment for peculiar obstinacy; and where he lay, 1 saw scattered, the leaves of a bible, which, in his desperation he had torn in pieces:—thus spurning alike the laws of G and man! .
If we judge from the presen appearance of this excava-
greenstone and enters the red and gray micaceous sand- stone of the coal formation, which underlies the greenstone- All the varieties of ore I saw at the place were the red ox-
. Ses
)
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 207
ide disseminated in sandstone, and mixed with a small pro- portion of green carbonate of copper. How productive this mine has been, I do not know.
in Greenfield Mass.
11. Vein of Green Carbonate of Copper and Pyritous Copper G ;
This is found on the west bank of Connecticut River, one hundred rods below the mouth of Fall river, and about the same distance in a direct line from Turner’s Falls. It occurs at the junction of the greenstone and red slate of the coal formation, and passes obliquely into the hill of green- stone on the one side, and into the slate on the other in the bed of the river. The principal vein is five or six feet in diameter, and the matrix, toadstone, which is traversed, in the direction of the vein, by several veins of sulphate of barytes, which form sealbandes. The principal ore that appears at the surface is the green carbonate, the pyritous copper being rarer.
12. A similar vein in the same township.
About a mile below the vein just described, (down the stream,) is another, which I am told is very similar and therefore needs no description. In other places between these veins, I have noticed, in the red slate, veins of the green carbonate of copper, not more than a quarter of an inch thick, while the walls are glazed so as to resemble pol- ished steel; constituting handsome specimens of the Slhek- enside of the Germans.
Mines, Veins, and Beds of Iron Ore. 13. Micaceous fron Ore in Veins, in Montague.
Near the north line of the town, a little south west of the. mouth of Miller’s river, a granitic hill of considerable extent and elevation is traversed by veins of this ore in all direc- tions; constituting one vast stock werke. The principal vein is nearly ten feet in diameter, and the gangue is quartz. do not see why this ore could not be profitably wrought. See Journal of Science, Vol 1, p. 438, where this ore is descri- bed under the general name of specular oxide of iron.
208 Geology, dc. of the Connecticut. 14, Mine of Magnetic and Micaceous Owide of Iron, in Haw- ley.
This exists in the north western part of the town, in beds, in talcose slate. The folia of the slate are nearly perpen- dicular to the horizon, and the principal bed of the ore va- ries from six inches to three or four feet in thickness, and numerous thin beds occur at the sides. ‘The mine has been opened twenty or thirty rods long, and thirty or forty deep. The magnetic oxide is probably most abundant: but the micaceous oxide has not till lately been wrought, through an impression that it could not be smelted! One or two tons of it lie beside the mine ready for the mineralogist. I have never seenany ore of this sort, that will bear any comparison for beauty and richness of appearance with this. It has a schistose, gently undulating structure, and plates of it may be easily obtained, a foot in diameter, possessing a highly glistening aspect. But it is no very easy matter to get at this mine, on account of the extreme roughness of the coun- try for several miles around it. ;
15. Mine of Magnetic and Micaceous Oxide of fron, in Ber- : _ nardston. ~
This occurs in beds in talco-argillite, and is so similar to the last described, that additional remarks are unnecessary: I donot know to what extent it has been wrought.
16. Vein of Micaceous Oxide of Iron, in Jamaica in Vermont.
This exists in dolomite, and is very beautiful. It has been used as a substitute for smalt, and answers well. 1 do not knowits extent. Itis a few miles beyond the northern lim- its of the map.
17. Mine of the Brown Oxide of Iron, in Salisbury in Con- cul. This, as well as the two following mines, occurs a consid-
erable distance beyond the limits of the map. I merely men- tion them, however, because of their interesting nature; and
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 209
in giving a list of the simple minerals, I do not intend to be scrupulously confined to the region embraced by the map.
is mine is wrought in a bed in clay. For further partic- ulars see Prof. Silliman’s — of this ore, in the Journal of Science, Vol. IL. p. 212
18. Mine of the same ore, in Kent, in Connecticut.
This is found, like the last, in a bed in clay. See Vol. IT. of the Journal of Science, P- 216.
19. Mine of Carbonate of Tron, in New- Milford, in Connecti- cut. :
This exists in a vein, in gneiss ; é geeks its s gangue is quartz. See Journal of Science, Vol. ate
20. Bed of Bix: Iron Ore, oa n Nezw- Braintree, i in Massachu-
Se
This ore is not uncommon along the Connecticut; but | have never examined a bed of it, except in New-Braintree, in Massachusetts. It lies in a valley, ina country of gneiss, only a few feet below the surface; and has been explored to a considerable extent.
2h Mine of oro Sct Seal in peas mn Connecti-
It exists in a bed, ia mica sate: varying in a width from a few inches to afew feet. The matrix is a mixture of horn- blende and actynolite, in which the ore is disseminated. _It was explored several years since, and has been again open- ed recently; the undertaking is now, however, abandoned. Arsenical sulphuret of iron, arsenical nickel, and arsemiate of cobalt are found in this mine in smal! quantities.
Vor. VI.—No. Il. «eer
210 . Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
22. Mine of Bismuth, Silver, Argentiferous and Common Galena, Blende, Tungsten, Tellurium, Magnetical and Common Pyrites, Spathic Iron, Native Sulphur, Pyritous Copper, Sc. in Huntington, in Connecticut. ;
In the above enumeration several small and unimportant veins of ore have been omitted ; and probably many impor- tant ones are yet undiscovered. In some instances I have met with men who profess to have found beds or veins of ore, but will not disclose the spot, because they intend to render themselves independent by their discoveries. In- ‘deed, were the mineralogist to pay attention to all he will hear on this subject in his travels, he would be led to sup- pose that every town, and even every farm, is a rich reposi- tory of metals. For he will often be told, how in such a mountain the aborigines used to obtain iron, lead or silver; or how, in such a place, the lightning frequently strikes, as a certain indication of metallic ores; or how in such a place the mineral rod will work; anda thousand such mummeries, by which horest but credulous men are frequently deluded, and sometimes ruined.
List of Simple Minerals found along the Connecticut.
I have already remarked, that in giving this list, I should not be confined precisely to the limits of the map; but where an interesting mineral has been found a few miles be- yond these, I shall notice it. I shall annex to each species and variety, merely the localities and name of the discover- er, except in cases where I am able to add some particulars not heretofore published. 'To save all further trouble: of reference, [ have taken the second edition of Cleaveland’s
scarcely be made, in the present state of the science, than that excellent work presents.
Geology, 4c. of the Connecticut. 211
The a and sub-species are numbered in order Wom first to last. The varieties also, whenever they occur, are usually numbered.
1. Nitrate of Potash. ‘Efflorescing on the soil under old buildings, &c.
2. Sulphate of Barytes. At Cheshire, Southington, Far- mington, New-Stratlord, and two miles from Hartlord. (Sid- Also: at Berlin. (Percival.) Also at Hatfield, (Gorham.) Also at Middlefield. (Baton) Also at South- ampton lead-mine, at the Leverett lead veins, and at the Greenfield copper veins. At the three last mentioned pla- ees it is chiefly the lamellar variety.
3. Caleareous Spar.
t Cryeeitlived: At the Marble Quarry in Milford, in rhombic crystals; also in the lead mine at Middletown. (Silliman.) Also at the lead mine in Southampton, in lim- pid and straw-colored crystals on galena and quartz. Forms of the crystals: 1. A dodecaedron, composed of two six- sided pyramids, applied base to base. (hog-tooth spar.). 2. A short six-sided prism, terminated by three-sided pyra- mids. 3. The same, with all the solid angles of the prism truncated; forming a crystal of twenty-four faces. Also, in greenstone in Deerfield and Greenfield; and in a coarse limestone in Leyden, Conway, &c. in siaishn:
. Laminated. At Milford ine (Sdtiman.) Also, in ‘ld in greenstone, Deerfield
4. Granular Limestone. At Milford Hill, embracing the bed of Verd Antique Marble. (Silliman.) In Wilmington, Vt.P
5. Concreted Carbonate of Lime.
. Calcareous pichustanans. In the Coal Formation in Stidedend &c.
212 Geolog » &c. of the Connecticut. 6. Argentine. At Washingion, Litchfield Co. (Brace.) 1. Magnesian Carbonate of Lime.
abl: Crystalyzed. (Rhomb Spar.) Near New-Haven, with Mcstus in Serpentine. (Si/diman.) Abundant at the Milford ,,aible Quarry. Also at Middleneld, in Soapstone. (Dew- 4,) Also at Southampton lead mine. (Eaton.
2. Dolomite: At Washington and Milford Hills. (Si¢i- “< man.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.)’ Also at Middlefield. ~ (Dewey.) Also at Jamaica, in Vermont. (J. 4. Allen.)
8. Brown Spar. At Leverett, in a vein of galena, pyrites, copper and blende. grouped in rhombic crystals on quartz; the Jameilae usually curved.
9. Fetid Carbonate of Lime. At Northford. (Silliman.) 10. Bituminon>Carbonate of Lime. Near Middletown, with [chihyolites. (Siddiman.)- Also at Southington, in the Coal Formation, » ree oe, ‘A. Phosphate of Lime. 1. Apatite. At Milford Hills. (Silliman.)
_ 13. Gypsum. In amygdaloidal greenstone in Deerfield,
_in smal] quantities; “crystallized—white, and retaining its water of crystallization.” Found by Dr. Cooley, and de- termined by Professor Silliman. This has been already mentioned in the geological part of this sketch.
Se a a a a a
_
' Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 213
14, Sulphate of ‘Aleoisha and Potash. (Alum, ) In Ley- den, efflorescing on bastard argillite. Also in Convey on mica slate. :
15, Ccaiece Quartz.
1. Lind Quartz. At Grafton in Vermont, ‘remarkably pure. (Hail.). Also at Plaufield. (J. Porter.) Also in the veins of lead, &c. at Southampton and Leverett, and the copper veins in Greenfield, in six-sided prisms. At the lat- ter place it occurs with both the terminations perfect. Also in veins in sienitic granite, at Northampton. Also in ge- odes in greenstone at New-Haven, Berlin and Deerfield. Also in veins and geodes from one to ten inches diameter, in mica slate in Conwa The crystals are of every size from one tenth of an inch to two inches diameter, and occur > in vast quantities. In the same town fragments of crystals occur, as transparent as the quartz from Madagascar. :
2. Smoky Quartz. At Torrington and Cornwall. (Brace.) Also at Plainfield and Brattleborough ? amorphous,
3. Yellow Quartz. In crystals at the Southampton lead mine; of a honey yellow, resembling the Siberian topaz. | The coloring matter appears to penetrate the crystals. Al- so in small quantities at the lead mine in Leverett,
4. Rose-Red Quartz. At Southbury, very abies (Sil- liman.) Also atChatham and East-Haddam. (7. D. Porter.) Also at Deerfield ; a single specimen in alluvial soil.
Si ised Quarts At Plainfield. (J. bee Aso a at “obese in mica slate
« Milky Quartz. = Litchfield. (Benes ) eset Cass eecion att Plainfield. (J. Porter.) The specimens that [ have seen of this way a they are scattered abundant- ly over the mica slate regiom west of Connecticut river,) are rather poorly uanbatioater seeming to be intermediate be- tween limpid and milky quartz. :
214. Geology, &c. of the Connecticui.
1. Radiated Quartz. In the Southampton, Whately and Leverett veins of galena; in abundance. Also in Conway, in veins and loose masses.
8. Tabular Quartz. In greenstone, Deerfield—Lamellae -usually applied to one another by their broader faces, and separating as thin as mica, but very brittle. Sometimes they intersect and produce cells of various forms. Also in Conway, in large loose masses among mica slate. Pieces more than a foot in diameter have been noticed, having both the structures above mentioned. The plates forming the cells are sometimes covered on their broader faces with mi- nute quartz crystals. In some specimens there is a gradation rom tabular to common amorphous quartz; the folia becom- ing less and less distinct, and finally disappearing.
“9. Granular Quartz. At Vernon, Vermont, forming @ bed in argillite. (J. 4. Allen.)
" cretion never much larger than a musket ball. But thezeo- lite, it is well known, does occur in radiated masses several
Geology, $c of the Connecticut. 215
inches in diameter, the outer extremity of which presents the form of the prism. Iam rather disposed to believe that these cavities were once filled by a mineral not differing much from the Thomsonite of Dumbarton in Scotland.
ome varieties of quartz occur along the primitive region of the Connecticut that can hardly be referred to any of the preceding. ‘Thus, there isa variety very abundant in beds and tuberculous masses in mica slate and argillite, which differs in nothing from limpid quartz, except that it is color- ed crimson red ; and perhaps it ought to be referred to fer- reinots quartz; but it differs from that commonly so cal- ed.
black, and only semi-transparent. Another variety has a tinge of yellow—another of green, &c.
16. Amethyst. At Wallingford, Farmington, Berlin and East-Haven. Aijso at Mount Tom in East-Hampton. (Sil- liman,) Also in greenstone, Deerfield, forming geodes of a light purple; crystals from one tenth of an inch to an inch indiameter. Also in Westminster, Vermont, in crystals an inch and an half in diameter.
17. Ferruginous Quartz. At Litchfield. (Brace.)
18. Fetid Quartz. I have recently found this in several laces, from Woodbridge, near New-Haven, to Bellows- Falls in New-Hampshire, a distance of one hundred and fifty. miles, in loose rolled masses. In the vicinity of Con- Way it is very abundant, and occurs crysta!lized in the com- mon six-sided prisms ; which are sometimes so flattened ae to be three times as broad as thick. In Conway it occurs in veins in mica slate and granite ; less fetid, however, than that which is found loose on the surface. It is traverse by thin seams, or veiis, apparently ferruginous; its color is nearly milk white and its lustre a little resinous, In some specimens the fetid odour is very strong.
&
ee Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
19. Chalcedony.
1. Common Chalcedony. At East-Haven, in greenstone. (Silliman.) Also in the same rock at Southington, Far- mington, Hadley, Sunderland, Deerfield, Greenfield, Gill, and indeed, in almost every greenstone hillock and ridge from New-Haven to Gill. Its color is light grey, deep grey, brownish, yellowish and greenish grey; it occurs botryoi- dal, mammillary, cylindrical and reniform, and is often of a cloudy or milky appearance, and frequently, strongly trans- ucent.
2. Cacholong. In greenstone, Deerfield. It is associated with common chalcedony, and frequently, envelopes it, or constitutes some of the bands of agates. Its color is milk or yellowish white. é
3. Carnelian, In greenstone, Deerfield. United with common chalcedony and cacholong, into which it passes. Its color is usually pale or yellowish red. It is not abundant. Also at East-Haven. sas.
‘4, Sardonyx ? Some specimens of the carnelian in Deer- field greenstone, being reddish yellow and orange, appear to belong to this variety ; but it occurs in so small quantities as hardly to be worth noticing.
Agate. This occurs at East-Haven and Deerfield ; and as it is composed of varieties of chalcedony and quartz, this seems to be the proper place to notice it. A description of a part of the agates occurring in these localities. has already been given with sufficient minuteness in the American Jour- nal of Science, and in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy. But since the publicatiog of those accounts, Dr. Dennis Cooley has discovered a new locality in the Deerfield greenstone, from which he has obtained specimens so much superior to those heretofore found that they deserve a particular notice. The following is a description of specimens in his possession.
No. 1. Longer diameter of thé face of the agate, nine inches—shorter diameter, sixinches. Outer zone, green!s chalcedony, half an inch broad. Second zone chalcedony,
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 217
a little tinged with red, a quarter of an inch broad. The cen- ire is occupied by an amethystine geode of a light purple. Weight of the whole agate, twenty-three pounds.
No. 2. Face seven inches by four—Quter band, one fourth - an incly wide, of yellowish red carnelian ; second band greyish white chalcedony, one fourth ofan inch. The remainder of the space is occupied by a geode of limpid quartz. The outer coat of carnelian is broken off from a Jarge part of this specimen, leaving bare the whi ish chalce- dony, and it has a strong resemblance to the human crani- um ; orhilating similar protuberances and concavities.
No. 3. Face three inches in diameter—outer band of yellow- ish red carnelian—second do. chalcedony alittle tinged with red, one tenth of an inch—third do. cacholong, one tenth of an inch—fourth do. light carnelian, one tenth of an inch. The centre is oecupiad by common quartz, not forming a geode. .
No. 4. As it appears at one end: Diameter of the face three inches—outer zone three fourths of an inch thick, of yellowish green chalcedony—second do. carnelian, one fourth of an inch—third do. quartz, siete a greasy aspect —fourth do. dark grey translucent chalcedony, a mere ling in thickness—fifth do. quartz or milk colored chalcedony, one tenth of an inch—sixth do. dark grey chalcedony, a line
road—seventh do. quartz, one fiftieth of an inch—eight do. dark grey chalcedony, a line broad—ninth do. quartz, one tenth of an inch—tenth do. chalcedony, a line broad—elev- venh do. quartz, one fiftieth of an inch—twelfth do. a line of chaleedony—thirteenth do. quartz, one thirtieth of an inch—fourteenth do. a line of chalcedony. The centre is occupied by limpid quartz. This is a fortification agate, and the parallelism of the several bands is most exactly preserved, and the angles are perfect. Viewed on a face at right angles to that above described, this specimen exhib- its a striped-or ribband agate. ij
No. 5. Made up of an almost countless number of dark- er and lighter colored bands of whiteand grey chalcedony —two or three ns agates — on the same face.
Vol. VI.—No.
oe ees Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
This appears to be a real chalcedonyx ; and such mga are not uncommon.
‘No.6 Fortification and Eyed Agatta, in the same speci- men. bn of the latter is an inch in diameter, and has six or seven zones of lighter and. darker chaleedony and one of carnelian, enveloping a nucleus of light blue chalcedony.
daloidal, but contains ae a few large cavities; anid so firm- ly are the agates fastened into their bed that one is often obliged to break them out by piecemeal; thus ruining the most superb specimens. The largerones are not very abun- dant. The rock, however, has not been penetrated very ar. : ‘
20. Siliceous Sinter: At East-Haddam, in gneiss and in- crusting mica slate. (7. D. Porter and Webster.)
- Opal. “Common opal has been found i in. Litchfield, eee rarely.” (Brace é.)
22. Flint. Near New-Haven oe ‘in Woodbridge i in roll- ed masses. (Sidliman.):
i Hovnstoni. At Litchfield. Ebves. ) At the Soman ton eer mine; also in Conway. Also in greenstone at Southington and Deerfield. At the latter place it oceurs in nodules often four or five inches in diameter. Its colors are grey, green, black with a tinge of red, and dark blue. Its fracture is sometimes a little chonchoidal and glistening, sometimes dull and splintery ; and it is scarcely translucent atthe edges. Some specimens considerably resemble sili- ceous slate, and others appear like prase. But Professors Silliman and Dewey <the latter of whom has examined it chemiecally,) agree in calling it hornstone. Also in Sunder- land in greenstone, in narrow veins—well characterised.
24. Jasper. Near New-Haven in rolled masses. (Gibbs.)
Also at Cummington on the banks of Westfield river. (J- Porter.) Also on'the banks of Deerfield river in Deerfield,
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 219
and in conmels meee Xe. in esiied Spucwnee red, black and yel
- Corundum. At Litchfield, massive and in paaaapier — imbedded in massive sappar. és) {
. Cy anite. At Litchfield, Harwinton, Watertown ad near nap aes en. (Silliman. ) At the former place a mass of this mineral, associated with talc, sulphuret of iron and corundum, is supposed.to weigh one thousand five hundred pounds. (Brace.) Also at Middle-Haddam. (aton.) Al- so at Chesterfield, Mass. in loose masses in mica slate; where its bladed or imperfect prisms are two feet long. | (Huni.) Also at Granville. (Dewcy.) Also at Plainfield. (J. Porter.) Also at Grafton, Vermont, and Charlestown, New-Hampshire. (Hall.) Also at Bellows Falls. eat man.) Also at esnips in mica slate. ( Williams.)
27. Staurotide. At Boliong, Eaot-Havtlord; Béacopttilt; Litchfield, Harwinton and Chatham. (Silliman, Brace, ‘Ba.
Also at Bellows Falls. (Hail.) The range of mica slate in which this mineral is found in Bolton, Chatham, &c. extends, with little interruption, into New-Hampshire and Vermont, at least as far as Bellows Falls;-and its aspect is very simi- lar throughout, and scarcely a mile of the distance is it want- ing in staurotide; or rather, wherever | have crossed it, (in perhaps fifty places.) this mineral occurs; as in Vernon where it is in vast quantities, in North-Wilbraham, Ludlow, Shutesbury, Leverett, Northford, Hinsdale, Chesterfield,
‘utney, Westminster, &c. In Chesterfield; Ne ew-Hamp- shire, Dr. J. A. Allen found cry . fa inch and one fourth in diameter, and two inches an half long, in the valley south-west of the meeting-house. ag range of similat mica slate extends through Chesterfield, Mass. into Cummington, Plainfield, Hawley, &c. and here also staurotide occurs in abundance. In Chesterfield I noticed a mica slate rock, two or three feet thick, containing seven or eight distinct layers of this mineral.
28. Pinite. At Haddam, in mica slate and granite. (Sil- liman and Webster.) Also at Bellows Falls. (alt)
220 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
29. Chrysoberyl. At Haddam, on both sides of the river, in six-sided prisms and six-sided tables, in granite. (Gibbs.
30. Zircon. At Sharon, Litchfield county, in quartz. (Siliman.) Also at Brimfield, in gneiss. (Euton.)
. Siliceous Slate.
1. Basanite. Sometimes fonnd m alluvial soil on the banks of Deerfield river; but perhaps brought thither by: the aborigines, who made use of this and of jasper for conte to their arrows_and pikes.
82, Pitchstone Near New: -Haven. (Silliman. Mics 33. Mica: BS ces : 1. Laminated. At Leverett, Alstead, &c.
2. Lamellar. -At Woodbury it is violet, (Silliman.) Also at Goshen, Mass. yellowish green and violet, and some- times in rhombic tables. (Gibbs.) Of the same aioe 2 Bellows Falls, in granitic veins. (Silliman.) Most o mica in the granitic veins in Conway, Ashfield, a burgh, Chesterfield, a is straw yellow, sometimes rose- red, and in these ve ns it exists in excess. It occurs in these and other foie te in granite of a smoky or nearly black color
. Prismatic Mica. Near Watertown. Oye At Litchfield. (Brace.)
a4, Shori. Bei 1. Common Shorl. At Heads ee six- sided prisms, ter- nmainated by three-sided pyramids. (Gibbs and Webster.) It occurs in almost every town in the primitive region along the Connecticut. Localities where it is found abundant. or beautiful, are Pelham, Shatesbury, Orange and Brattle- borough. At the latter. place it is found abundantly near the centre of the town in mica slate or hornblende slate; nd also near the northdine of the town (mentioned in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy ‘as occurring in Dummerston, ) it
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 221
exists in crystals half an inch in diameter and often four or five inches long, sometimes terminated by three-sided pyr- amids, in common white quartz. The contrast renders the specimens quite beautiful, and one large loose mass lies on the surface nearly iwo feet in diameter, which would be an ornament to a mineral cabinet.
2. Green Tourmaline. At Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass. (Gibbs.) These interesting localities have been so well described by Col. Gibbs, as to render — farther remarks unnecessary. (Am. Jour. Vol. I. p. 346
3. Indicolite. At Chesterfield and Goshen. (Gibbs.) At Bellows Falls. (Sildiman.) At Hinsdale, New-Hamp- shire, in granite, in great abundance. (J. 4. Allen.) This locality is found _ sty ron by noe the road from Hins- dale to Wincheste
35. Rubellite. At Chesterfield wt CadieasNisek: (Gibbs. ) See his account in the Journal of Science, as above cited.
36. Feldspar.
1. Common Bekiqpor. Near Haddam, greenish and trans- lucent. (McEwen.) » In the same vicinity itis of a light flesh color, and in large masses in granitic veins and beds. Also of the same color in pudding-stone, Deerfield. Also in large, bluish, imperfect crystals, in granite, Leverett. It occurs, of course, abundantly in all that ae of the map colored as granite, gneiss and sienite.
. Adularia. At Haddam. (T. D. Porter.) At West- Sprivetfield and Southampton lead mine. (W. aterhouse.) At Brimfield. (Eaton.)
‘ighe Sihictous Feldspar. (Gibbs.) At Chesterfield, Mass, and Haddam. (Gibbs.) Also at Goshen—a new variety, discovered by Dr. Hunt.
. Precious Emerald. At Haddam? For a discussion of this “hele whether this mineral exists in te United States, see Cleayeland’s Mineralogy, Vol.-t.p..3
222 | Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.
38. Beryl. At Brookfield, Huntington and Haddam. (Si- liman.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Chatham. (Mather.) Also at Chesterfield, Mass. and Goshen. (Gibbs.) At Chesterfield and Haddam the crystals are sometimes from nine to twelve inches in diameter. At Goshen some are rose-colored. I found some crystals of beryl four or five miles north of the centre of Haddam.
drons; color brownish red; size of a pea. Also at the same place, in dodecaedrons, truncated and striated on all their edges by hexaedral faces ; presenting thirty-six faces in’ the whole—color dull red—size of a common_ bullet. Also at the same place in talcose slate, in dodecaedrons of the same color, sometimes two inches in diameter. Also at Chesterfield, Mass. with sappar, in trapezoedrons ; color light rose-red—size ofa pea. Also in hornblende and mi- ca-slate, in Conway and Deerfield; color nearly black— crystals dodecaedrons—sometimes as large as a common bullet. Also in Conway, a loose mass, almost wholly made up of small black garnets in dodecaedrons—size less than one tenth of an inch in diameter, and with scarcely any dif- ference in the size of hundreds. Also at Marlborough, Ver- mont, one mile south of the mecting-house, in dodecaedrons of a cherry-red, in chlorite slate; but hardly the precious garnet. They eccurat this spot in immense quantities, and beautiful specimens may easily be obtained. A hun- dred other localities of the common garnet might be men- tioned; since it occurs in all our primitive rocks: but the most interesting have been noticed.
I. ‘Pyrope. At Brimfield, Mass. in granite, the feldspar of which is light green—in rounded irregular masses of a del-
err
Geolooy, Yc. of the Connecticut. 223
icate poppy red, much resembling some varieties of the ru- oy
“Tt scratches crystallized quartz,” says Professor Dewey, “and melts, rather hardly, into a dark . Found in digging 4 a well.
2. Colophonite. At Conway ?
0. Magnesian Garnet. At Haddam. wen Cleaveland’s Min Vol. * p- 777
41. Epidote. At Milford Hills, in nie. greenstone. (Stdliman.). Also at Litchfield and Washington, in graphic granite and an: segeeeliaee (Brace.) Also at Had- dam, crystallized. ‘Also ite Nand. (Webster.) Also at Athol, Worcester county, ‘Mas in prismatic bladed crys- tals, associated with black aunad schorl and hornblende. Also in Shutesbury, in smal] crystals in gneiss. It occurs also ina great many other places, mat oncnpciigs in various rocks, and not very interesting.
. Zoisite. At Haddam. (Webster.) Also at Wardsbo- Be Vermont, in much compressed, greenish grey, pris- matic crystals; sometimes a foot long and ae or two inch- es wide. (Dewey.) Discovered by Dr. Allen. Also at eyes Brattleborough and Woteoinek ( Hall.)
. Arenaceous Epidote.. At Haddam. (Webster.) Also at ees Leyden, Shelburne, Buckland, Whate ely, Belchertown, ee ‘and a great number of Placery in hornblende and greenstone slate.
42. Prehnite. Near New- Haven, in secondary green- stone, in radiated masses, or in veins. Also at Woodbury, in the same sort of rock, in mammillary, botryoidal and al- most globular masses. (Silliman.) Also Retpeen Simsbury an -Wintonbary, in mammillary masses in greenstone. (Hayden.) Also in Deerfield, candied; and, indeed, in algae every part of the secondary greenstone ranges from New-Haven to Gill; in all the forms mentioned above. In Deerfield the radiated masses sometimes contain pyritous Copper. They occur there, also, on pseudomorphous quartz, having evidently been peed since the decomposition of the crystals originally occupying the cavities. In the same
224 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
place, [have found prehnite crystallized in groups on chal- eedony; but could not determine the form of the crystal. Also near Bellows Falls in primitive rocks. 1. saw speci- mens in the cabinet of Dr. Wells; but was not informed of the precise locality: yet the mica attached to the speci- mens indicated their detachment from the older classes of rocks.
hia is pearly, and they are usually a little curved; color white. On hot coals it whitens and before the blow-pipe intumesces and melts into a white spongy enamel. It is but rarely met with. Bee eee
44. Zeolite. Near New-Haven it is found in secondary greenstone, crystallized, or radiated, or mealy. (Sildiman.) Also at Deerfield, in radiated fibrous masses, sometimes as large as amusket bullet, or morerarely an inch in diameter-
45. Laumonite. In secondary greenstone, also in loos¢ rolled masses of pudding-stone near New-Haven. (Silliman-)
46. Analcime. At East-Haven, with chalcedony and agates. (7. D. Porter.) Also at Meriden, Connecticut. (Silliman.) Also at Deerfield, usually in laminated or ra~ diated masses, which are reniform, cylindrical and nearly spherical. Very rarely in trapezoidal crystals—color white, grey and flesh-colored. Associated with calcareous spar, quartz, te pec &c. and frequently effervesces a little
ids. b,
*
with the ac
47. Chabasie. At Deerfield, in cavities and seams in $¢- condary greenstone ; usually crystallized in transparent, OF brownish, or yellowish crystals ; presenting the primitive form, from one twentieth to one fourth of an inch in diame- ter, insulated and grouped on limpid, pseudomorphous and
Geology, &c. of the Connecticul. 225.
tabular quartz, chalcedony, balls of zeolite, &e. Hundreds of specimens have been obtained at this ereg To procure them, however, requires much labour. — %
48. Apophyllite. Near Saybrook, Connecticut. (Gibbs.)
* 49. Tremolite. At Milford, Washington, Goshen, Canaan, (Conn. ) &c. in dalomie and granular limestone. (Silliman. )
A mineral is found at Leydenin great quantities, associated with quartz, limestone &c. and sometimes forming the gangue of the red oxid of titanium; the same occurs also at West Ha- ven or Orange in hornblende—also at Leyden ? at Colrain? at Shelburne? at Conway? at Goshen? (Mass.) at Guil- ford? and Brattleborough ? Vt. and in various instances, in vast abundance: this mineral has generally been called iremolite, aed: sometimes zoizite, but it is probably scapolite.
. Ash ahs: At New-Haven and Milford, in il sg very weet (Silliman.) Also at Pelham, Mass. _wher rei occurs with serpentine and talc.
Amianthus. At New-Haven and Milford. Also at Wash- ington. (Silliman.)
gite. At Litchfield in dolomite—the whitish varie- i “Bice, Also at Brookfield and Washington in dolomite. on.) Also at Goshen, Mass. in granite, in flattened a gray prisms, sometimes eight inches long and two inches wide. This locality is one mile north of the meet- ing house, on the road to Ashfields Also at Deerfield, in secondary greenstone, associated with quartz and calcareous spar, either in irregular veins or imperfect crystals—colour black—not abundant.
1, Sahlite. Near New-Haven in serpentine rocks belong- ing to the formation of verd-antique marble. if kas )
2. Common Hornblende. This, of course, occurs in great quantities as a constituent of several rocks marked on the map; indeed, it may be found in a good degree of pu- rity almost every mere 5 Woe the Connecticut, either in place or in rolled masse
ol, VE—WNo. 2. 29
226 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
4. Lamellar Hornblende. Good specimens are found in _ Holland Mass. (aton.) Also in Leverett, Sunderland, Con- way, &c. of a black colour, in Shutesbury it is green. {t is found in sienitic granite and gneiss, in scales that are:
easily mistaken for black mica.
2. Fibrous Hornblende. At Leyden, the fibres very fine. Also near Bellows Falls, extremely beautiful, associated with quartz. Also in Shelburne, Conway, Goshen, &c. in mica slate, in large and broad fibres or lamellae.
3. Fusciculite. This is composed of fibres, or ratherin many instances, of lamellae, frequently more than ;; of an inch broad, diverging at both ends, soas to o¢cupy usually, as man as 60° of a circle.’ These lamellae are commonly inserted perpendicularly to the folia of the slate in which they occur. and are applied to each other by their broader faces, being bent outwards on both sides. somewhat like a bow, and pre- senting elegant and very perfect fascicles. Tne fibres or lamellae, scarely, if ever, cross one another; yet some- times they diverge in nearly straight lines, and sometimes are so much curved as to resemble very exactly a sheaf of grain when standing erect. (See Plate 9,) The figure in the plate does not give a representation more regular or dis- tinct than inany of the most perfect specimens present. The length of the fibres or lamellae varies from one to four inch- es. Itis found i mica slate and talco-micaceous slate ia Hawley, Plainfield. and.Conway. Probably this variety is comprehended under Fibrous Hornblende by Cleaveland ; and perhaps specimens as perfect as those described above are not unfrequent. But so exact and striking an instance do these exhibit of the fascicular structure of minerals, that I a not resist the temptation to denominate them Fusci-. cuirte,
4. Hornblende Slate. For an account of this, see the Geo- logical part of this sketch.
53. Actynolite. At Saybrook, and near N. Haven in ser- pentine. (Silliman.) Also at Litchfield. (Brace.) Also at Middlefield. (Dewey.) Also at Hawley. (Eaton.) Also at Cummington. (J. Porter.) Alsoat Windham in compressed
Be ae ee ee eee
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 227
four sided prisms, in steatite and tale; the specimens su- perb. (Hall.) Also at Chatham Ct. near the bank of the river Opposite the tebe ferry in Haddam, in an enormous granitic veins associated with black schorl, ntagnetic oxide of iron, &e. "Also at seabone tonite Also at Shutesbury in gneiss. " Alsoat New Saler larcrystals in chlorite. Also at New Fane, where it was discovered by Dr. J. A. Allen. It occurs in steatite in four sided, sometimes very perfect, sometimes flattened and striated erystals, five or six inches long, often half ah inch broad, generally radiated, sometimes curved and crossipg one another. he colour is a dark beautiful green, and the specimens are Mery: elegant.
4. Anthophi lite. It is said to have been found near Sistine ( Cleavelio d’s M ineralogy. )
. Diallage. In serpentine rocks near New-Haven— ae characterised. (Hall.) Also in Conway? in granite.
| «56. Macle. At Bellows Falls, Croyden, Cornish, Charles town, Langdon and Alstead in argillite. .(Hall.) According to Mr. Nuttall, the foliated mineral occurring so abundantly in the mica slate in Chesterfield, Plainfield, Hawley, Heath, . being usually inserted in smal] bronze coloured plates,
nearly at right angles with the folia of the slate. may be macle.
57. Berpentingy:
1. Precious Serpentine. At Milford, in nodules or irregu- lar masses in primitive limestone. (Silliman n.)
Yommon Serpentine. In extensive beds and variously blended with limestone at Milford and New-Haven, forming the Verd Antique. (Silliman.) Also at Westfield in granite. (Eaton,) Also at Middlefield, associated with steatite. (Dew- ey.) Also at Grafton, Windham and Putney, Vermont, in large insulated masses weighing many tons. (J. A. Allen.) Also ‘ Pelham Mass. in a large loose mass penetrated by asbestus ‘and associated with talc. Also. at Leyden, Shel- Bias, Deerfield, &c. in small rolled masses.
58. Tulc.
228 Geology, Se. of the Connecticut.
1. Common-Talc. At Haddam, Litchfield and Southamp- ton. (Cleaveland) Also at Cummington in steatite. (J. Por-
ter.) Also at Middlefield in steatite. (Dewey.) Also at.
Windham in steatite—laminz very large and beautiful. (Hall.)
Also in New Fane in steatite—speciinens laminated and el-.
egant. (J. A. Allen.) Also at Pelham, associated with ser- pentine and asbestus. Also at Rowe.
2. Indurated Tale. At Milford marble, quarry. (Silli- man.) * eyes :
3. Sealy Talc. At Windham and New. Fane. (J. A. Allen,)
59. Steatite.
i. Common Steatite. Near New-Haven and at Litchfield.
2. apber: At Grafton, Vermont, in large quantities.
(Hall 60. Chlorite.
Also at Saybrook, crystallized. (T. D. Porter.) Also at
Miller’s Falls in Montague penetrating milk white qaartz- Also at New Salem. Also in greenstone amygdaloid at Deerfield, Greenfield, Gill, &c. — It fills two thirds of the cavities in somé varieties of greenstone, and to the naked
eye has a radiated aspect, but Professor Dewey remarks,
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 229
that it does not appear to be radiated under a magnifier, great or small; but to consist of folia curiously arranged often with no regularity and their length somewhat greater than their breadth.”
2. Chlorite Slate. For an account of this, see the map and the Geological part of this sketch.
‘3. Green Earth. A part of the chlorite described above in the amygdaloid in Deerfield, &c. appears to belong to this variety.
61. Argillaceous Slate. (1. Argillite. 2. Shale.
3. Bituminous Shale. For a‘description of these minerals the reader is referred to the Geological part of this sketch.
62. Claystone. This is found in rolled peices in the bed of Connecticut river below where it cuts through the coal formation at Gill; and probably this mineral is worn from thence by the water. The pieces frequently occur in the form of a prolate spheroid, sometimes flattened, even to the shape of a wheel, and sometimes assuming shapes bearing a resemblance to the sculptured images of Persia and India. It is opaque——colour, light gray—scarcely adheres to the tongue, and yields a slight argillaceous odour—fracture dull and uneven,wa ‘little conchoidal—easily scratched with a knife and even by the finger nail; y€t its particles scratch iron. It does not effervesce with acids.
63. Clay.
1. Porcelain Clay. At Washington Ct. in small quantities. (Cleaveland.) Also at Plainfield. (Silliman.) Also at Con-
way and Leyden in small quantities.
_ 2. Poiters Clay. In the older alluvion along the Connect ‘cut, abundant.
a Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
3. Loam. In the newest alluvion along the Connecticut.
4. Fuller’s Earth. At the bed of iron ore in Kent. (Silli- man.)
64, Sulphur. This occurs pulverulent in small quantities in mica slate, in Warwick, Shelburne, Conway, &c. FPer- haps it proceeds from the decomposition of some sulphuret.
65. Graphite. At Cornwall, Connecticut. (Brace.) Also at ‘Tolland. (Webster.) Also at Hebron and Sharon. (Cleaveland.) Also between Sturbridge and Holland, Mass.
lead mine. From some of these localities, the coal is high- ly bituminous, in others scarcely so at all.
67. Lignite. 1. Jet. At South Hadley. (Gibbs.) 68. Peat. In small quantities at Leverett, Mass.
* 69. Native Silver. At Huntington in the bismuth mine: Also at West River Mountain, Chesterfield, New-Hamp- shire. (Silliman.) After the remarks and explanations giv- en by Prof. Silliman. (Am. Journ. Sci. Vol. Uf. p. 74 note,) no reasonable doubt can remain concerning this last locality. * ¥
.
70. Sulphuret of Silver. In Connecticut it is said to have been found. (Cleaveland’s Mineralogy.)
71. Native Copper. . At Bristol, Connecticut, in a veil with the red oxide of copper. (Gibbs.) Also on the Ham- den hills, a mass of about ninety pounds, adhering to the rock. Also twelve miles from New-Haven near the Hart- ford.turnpike, a mass of six pounds in alluvial soil. (Silli- man.) Also at Whately, Mass. in geest, onthe. limit be- tween the primitive and alluvial soil, and about five miles
Geology, Yc. of the Connecticut. 231
from secondary greenstone or the: = formation. The piece weighs seventeen ounces and very much resembies the last mass above described, exhibiting a rudi- ments of octaedral crystals on the surface, and encrust- e green carbonate of copper. he cavities also con- tain a very little red oxide of copper.
2. Sulphuret of Copper. Near New- Haven, at oe mine, &c, (Silliman. ) .
73. Pyritous Copper. At Cheshire, Simsbury, &e. (Silli- man.) Also at the Southampton lead mine, where it occurs amorphous and crystallized in regular tetraedrons which are insulated on calcareous spar. For the specimens contain- ing these crystals, | am indebted to Dr. David Hunt. Also
at the Leverett lead mine amorphous. Also in greenstone, Deerfield. Also at tewinelss in veins, in greenstone anc sandstone.
74, Variegated Pyritous Copper. This occurs ease disseminated in calcareous spar in sandstone of the coal for-
mation. In the island in the middle of Connecticut river at the falls in Gill. 1am indebted to Prof. es for the de- termination of this mineral.
» Antimonial Gray Copper. Near Hartford, in the red ph whe formation. (coal formation ?) (Maclure.)
76. White Copper. At Fairfield ?* Connecticut. it. man.) :
77. Red Oxide of Copper. At Bristol, in a vein with na-
_tive copper. (Gibbs.) Also with native copper in the green-
stone’ mountains eerecesy northerly from New-Haven. (Silliman.)
78, Geen Eachus of Copper. At Greenfield, near the
Falls in Gill, in two veins with pyritous copper, in considera- ble abundance near the surface. It is amorphous and ever earthy.
* There is great reason to believe that this locality is not correct. —Editor.
232 Geology, &c. of the Connecticul.
1. Fibrous Malachite. At Cheshire, &c. in small but good specimens. (Silliman.) :
79. Arsenical Iron? or Arsenical Sulphuret of Iron? At Gill in a loose mass weighing several pounds. Found by Dr. Alpheus Stone.
80. Sulphuret of Iron. (Pyrites—Iron Pyrites.) This is found in every town and in almost every rock along the Connecticut ; as in the bituminous shale at Westfield and Sunderland, compact and amorphous; also in other rocks of the coal formation. Also at Plainfield, disseminated in limpid quartz. Also at Hawley, compact and unmixed with any gangue. Also at Halifax, Vermont, in an immense mass found in digging a cellar. . Also with micaceous oxide of iron at Montague. Also at the Southampton lead mine, beautifully crystallized in octaedrons which are truncated in all their angles. It is grouped or insulated on crystallized quartz, and the crystals are about as large as a small shot, yet perfectly distinct and well marked. =
81, Magnetic Sulphuret of Iron. At Brookfield, abundant in granite. Also at Huntington with bismuth, &c. (Silli- man.) Also near Woodbury in gneiss. (Eaton.) -
82. Arsenical Sulphitret of Tron. At Derby Middle- town, and the Chatham Cobalt mine. (Silliman.) Also at Leicester, Mass. in gneiss. (Dewey.) . 2
83. Magnetic Oxide of Iron. At Somerset, Vermont, in beds from one inch to two feet thick, in mica slate. (J: A. Allen.) At Chatham, near the bank of the river, opp0- site the upper ferry in Haddam, in a granite vein with schorl, actynolite, garnets, &c. The crystals are octae- drons, well defined, and often nearly an inch in diameter. Also at Plainfield, Shelburne, Athol, Shutesbury, &c. in smaller octaedrons in mica slate and gneiss. Also in beds
in talcose slate at Hawley. Also in beds in Bernardstown-
1. fron Sand. At West Uaven beach abundant. (Silli- man.) Also on the beach near the Light House in East
Haven in great abundance. Also a little below Turner’s
Falls in Gill, on the southeast bank of Connecticut river.
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 233
84. Specular Oxide of Iron... Sometimes covering quartz and other sasha as at New Fane and Pe UPTHER but not abundan
85. Micaceous Oxide of Iron. At Jamaica, WE in | dolomite; very handsome. (J. 4. dilen.) Also at Haw- ley and at Montague : for a description of which, see the general view of mineral veins and beds that precedes this list of minerals.
86. Red Oxide of Iron.
1. Scaly Red Oxide gy, Iron. At Kent, Connecticut. Goss 3 |
2. Red Hematite. At-Kent. (Gibbs.) | 87. Brown Oxide of Tron. :
} ey é ra) ia 4. Brown Hematite. At Salisbury and Kent, Contact
cut. (Sidliman.) Also at Westriver mountain in Cheiek
field, New-Hampshire, in mica slate.
88. Argillaceous Oxide of Iron.
. Granular Argillaceous Oxid of Iron. At Salisbury. (Cleaveland. )
2. Nodular Argillaceous Oxide of en At Putney, Ver- mont, in beds of common clay. masses are oval and elongated, embracing an earthy Kectets. Also near the falls in Gill, in a dark hard slate of the coal formation.
3. Bog Ore. At New Braintree, Massachusetts, where itis wrought—also at Greenfield.
. Carbonate of Iron, (spathic iron.) At New-Milford, in Wisaaice. (Silliman.) 90. Sulphate of Iron. ‘Effloreseing « on mica slate in small quantities in Conway, Hawley, &c. 91. Chromate of Iron. At New-Haven and Milford ; dis- Vou. VI.—No. II.
234 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
seminated in the verd Antique marble. (Si/liman.) Also at Middlefield in serpentine. (Eaton.) Also at Cummington, well characterized and almost exactly resembling the Bal- timore chromate ; in a loose mass—Found by Dr. J. Por- r.
92. Sulphuret of Lead. At Middletown, Southington, and Huntington, where it is uncommonly argentiferous, and at Bethlehem, (Silliman.) Also at Berlin, (Percival.) Also at Southampton, Montgomery, Hatfield, Leverett, where are two localities, and Whately. At these places the struc- ture of the ore is commonly foliated, sometimes granular and sometimes in cubical crystals.
93. Carbonate of Lead. This exists in the cavities of the matrix of the lead mine at Southampton. Its colour is white or mixed with yellow. Before the blow pipe it de-
-
another.
! b could not determine. These tables frequently cross one
94. Carbonated Muriate of Lead. At the Southampton lead mine in light green groups of cubic crystals, termina- ted by tetraedral pyramids. (Meade.) :
95. Sulphate of Lead. At Huntington with argentifer- ous em (Silliman.) Also at Southampton lead mine, in plates or tables on galena. (Meade.)
_ 96. Phosphate of Lead. At Southampton lead mine, in light green spherical masses, having a radiated structure.
_ 97. Molybdate of Lead, At Southampton lead mine in tabular, wax yellow crystals. (Meade.)
98. Sulphuret of Zinc. At Berlin, (Silliman.) _ Also at Southampton lead mine, foliated and crystallized. The
Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 236
crystais are so grouped that it is difficult, in the specimens which I saw, to seize upon the precise form. I think, how- ever, I found the octaedron with truncated pyramids. Also at Leverett, foliated.
99. Arsenical Ni er At Chatham, associated with ar- senical cobalt. (Pierce and Torrey.)
100. Arsenicat Cobalt. At Chatham. (Silliman.)
101. Arseniate of Cobalt, ‘At Chatham. Cro Torrey.)
102. Oxide of Manganese. At Leieiet in alluvial sail forming a bed five or six inches thick a few inches below the surface. It isin rounded irregular masses from the size of a pea to.an inch in diameter and considerably resem- bles granular oxide of Iron. Also at a eet forming crusts on quartz, and mica slate.
103. Native Bismuth. At Huntington. (Silliman.)
104, Native Aritinnohiy: At Harwinton, Litchfield ¢ coun- ty, in broad plates. (Silliman.)
105. Sulphuret of Antimony. At rine a * (Silli- man.) Also near South Hadley.- (Gibbs.)
106. Native Tellurium. At Huntington, associated with tungsten, bismuth, silver, &e. Cape
107. Sulphuret of Molybdena. ° “At Saybrook. (T. Porter.) Also at East-Haddam and pnatesury (Silliman. ) Also at Brimfield. (Eaton.)
108. Yellow Ovide of Tungsten. A new species discov- ered, analyzed and described by Professor Silliman. At Huntington i ina gangue of quartz.
Calcareous Oxide of Tungsten. At Huntington. (Silliman -) 110. Ferruginous Oxide of Tungsten. At Huntington. (Silliman. ) * 104 and 105 need confirmation.—Editor.
236 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.
crystals penetrating a vein of quartz in mica slate in place. In Conway a few small crystals have been observed exhib- iting the primitive form and presenting the “kind of twin crystal,” described in Rees Cyclopedia, Art. Rutile. This mineral, indeed, may be found in almost any spot between Conway and Brattleborough, ona strip several miles wide.
112. Silico-Calcareous Oxide of Titanium. At Brattlebo- rough, near the north line of the town ina bowlder of gra- nite, which has flesh coloured feldspar—colour dark brown, or chesnut. Some of the crystals appear to be six sided prisms. (Dewey.) These prisms are terminated, if IJ mistake not by three sided pyramids. I also noticed a four sided, flattened and striated prism, whose terminations could not be determined.
113. Ferruginous Oxide of Columbium. “At Haddam, in granite. (Berzelius and Torrey.)
Remark.—Since the above list of localities was comple- ted the following have occurred; but as they cannot be conveniently inserted in their proper places they may be
mentioned here. ..
Fibrous Limestone, Satin Spar, in bituminous shale— a “es pa at Sunderland, Andalusite, at Litchfield, elafield.
[To be concluded in the next N umber.]’ -
| pe ABR Ste ES Sa cereale IMUM Sl i icra SN FEB an
sotranerniss
Mr. Prerce on the Alluvial District of = 237
ArT. LN otice of the Alluvial District of New-Jersey, with remarks on the application of the rich mari of that _ region to agriculture. By James Pierce, Esq.
The triangular peninsula situated in the southern part of New-Jersey is bordered on the south and east by Delaware Bay and the ocean, on the north by the Raritan, and west by the river Delaware. It is about one hundred and ten miles in length by eighty in breadth, and is entirely alluvial. South of the Nevesink hills it seldom rises sixty feet above the sea. These hills border Amboy Bay and the entrance of Shrewsbury creek for several nicl and extend with di- minished height to the Delaware. They are elevated adja- cent to the sea three hundred and ten feet above its level, and occupy ground where formerly the waves of the ocean roll-
ed. They rest in some places on banks of — and other marine relics, blended with clay and s ud. Above the calcareous beds is.a layer of dark clay. =) sand earth highly colored by oxide of iron and imbedding red- dish brown sand and pudding stone cemented by iron, com- poses the higher strata—large rocks and beds of ferrugin- ous sandstone, apparently in place; of a more recent forma- tion than the alluvial region below, and embracing sufficient metal to be called an ore of iron, are of frequent occur-
rence.
Particles of iron are blended with the sand of the beach. Some of the streams which descend from the top of the clay strata are red with oxide of iron.
fflorescences of the sulphates of iron itd alumine a are
often observed. Flame proceeding from the spontaneous combustion of gases. probably generated in nit of sulphu- ret of iron, has been noticed on these mountain
The Strata of the steep eastern declivities ss exhibited by frequent land slips. But a small portion of the eastern section of the Nevesink hills is under cultivation. They present a woody region, in which deer are sometimes shel- tered. From the summit of these hills a view of the ocean is disclosed in grandeur unrivalled on our sea-board. The Coast is presented to the north-east and south as far as vis- ion can reach. The land prospect is extensive and inter-
esting.
\ 238 .Mr. Pierceon the Alluvial District of New-Jersey.
Sandy-Hook, situated east of the Nevesink hills, from which it is separated by a narrow bay, is six miles in length ; in width it seldom exceeds half a mile. It was formerly an island, butthech laffording a direct water nunicati beiween the sea and Shrewsbury river, isnow filled up. This peninsula exhibits an alternation of barren sand _hillocks, plains and cedar thickets. The sand-banks are often laid low by sweeping tempests. The hillocks of Sandy-Hook and of our southern sea-board are many of them formed by the lodgment of sand around a cedar or other bush, increas- ing with the growth of the plant, and when the bush is no more the hill disappears. The beach and sandy elevations from a short distance resemble a snow covered surface.
re is no creek or inlet on the sea-shore from the lighi-house, which is situated on. the northern extremity of Sandy-Hook, to Long-Branch, a distance of twelve miles. A walk or ride upon the hard beach at low tide is interest- ing, particularly by moon-light, when an extensive range of coast is seen, whitened by successive breakers—wrecks of vessels are visible at short intervals, melancholy monuments of the dangers of the sea. cs 5
For many miles no houses, enclosures or signs of human occupancy are in view. Long-Branch is much resorted to for sea-bathing ; its situation is good... The land adjacent to the ocean is at this place compact, and rises perpendicu- larly from the beach near twenty feet. Waves in a tempest often rol] over this bank, making encroachments by their friction. The neighboring country is level, free from marshes, and under cultivation. The boarding-houses. are situated about twenty rods from the water, leaving hand- some lawns in the intermediate space. “The high banks of the sea and of Shrewsbury river are formed by strata of sand, clay and sea-mud. The clay isin many places white with
uine efflorescences, principally sulphate of alumine,
Much of the land situated in the northern part of the pe- ninsola is under cultivation, and in some of the townships of Monmouth county, adjacent to Amboy Bay and the oceam,, a considerable portion of the land is good, and has been ren- dered very productive by the application of marl. Six years since, but one or two small beds of this valuable ma- nure were known in this region, and but few experiments 0 its utility had heen made. The inhabitants, ignorant of it
Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. 239
character and value and of modes of examination, had pass- ed rich beds without regard; mar] is nowextensiveiy used and highly esteemed. bea; | The | district extends from the hills of Nevesink ad- jacent to the ocean, to the Delaware, and is in width about twelve miles. Marl has been discovered in numerous pla- - ees ofthis tract. It is often noticed on the banks of streams ‘ and breaking out of hills of which it forms the nulceus, way- ing with the surface, and thus rendering accesseasy. =~ ‘These beds, apparently inexhaustible, are in some places elevated near one hundred feet above the level of the sea. This marl is composed of sand, clay and calcareous earth, blended. with shells and other marine organic remains, in different stages of decay. The shells, more or less entire, are not mineralized. Exposed on the surface they gradual- ly decay, furnishing fresh manure for ee visited several beds of marl and found them of a pretty uniform character. The color is generally grey or greyish white, and good in proportion to its whiteness, which indi- cates the quantity of caleareous earth it contains. From thirty to eighty loads of marl, according to its strength, are spread upon an acre. Itis believed that a good dressing will last from twelve to twenty years. The lands of Mon- county are said to be enhanced in value more than halfa million of dollars by the discovery and use of marl. A respectable farmer of Middletown mentioned to me, that five years since he contemplated abandoning his large farm for land of other districts, as his own was unproductive. arning the discovery of marl, he made himself acquainted with the modes of examining, and found good beds of this manure in almost every field, and liberally applied dressings to the soil. In walking over his grounds I observed rich white marl breaking out of banks and hillocks, and the streams paved with decaying marine shells. For more than a century this land had .been regarded by the proprietors as useless. Se 3 The farm in its improved state exhibited a gratifying sight; the hills where ierensty thorns, thistles and mullens disputed the dominion, now supported luxuriant corn. Ex- tensive verdant meadows were clothed with a rank second crop of grass; numerous stacks of grain and well-filled barns evinced the productiveness of these fields, which are nOw estimated at three times the former value.
240 Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey.
This marl is adapted for both sandy and clay earths. - It was remarked to me by farmers of Monmouth county, that lands manured with marl are less affected by dry weather than other grounds. This doubtless arises from its render- ing the soil a better medium to retain moisture. When there is too much clay, the numerous shells and fragments in the marl keep the soil loose and suffer water to penetrate —and if too sandy, the calcareous ingredients attract and retain moisture, while the clay of the marl improves the texture of the soil. :
The rich marls found in Monmouth county adjacent to navigable rivers, might be advantageously transported to fertilize the sandy lands of the southern part of Long and Staten Islands. - a hos
Though marl is now employed in a comparatively small district of New-Jersey, it is probable from the character of the region, that it may be found throughout our alluvial sea- board, and would be very valuable where gypsum is power- less. Strata of marl have been passed through in sinking wells many miles south of Scie iianeh, and also near the Delaware. wcoelis =
Shells and the bones of fish are often disclosed by exca- vations, made far from the ocean. Banks of oyster-shells covering extensive tracts and of unknown depth, have been
red in the interior of the southern States. It is from such calcareous ingredients that marl principally derives its virtue, |
Organic remains of the land and sea have been found as- sociated in the marl beds of New-Jersey, at a considerable elevation above the Atlantic. Among these are bones of the rhinoceros and other animals of the eastern continent, some of them of extinct species, elephants’ teeth, deers’ horns, bones of the whale, sharks’ teeth and entire skeletons of fish, together with gryphites, belemnites, cardites and various shell-fish.
The origin of these banks of shells and bones may, I think, with propriety be ascribed to the deluge recorded in sacred history. The events which have since occurred within the observation of man can account for the various phenomena remarked in this alluvial district.
The interior of the peninsula is covered by extensive for- ests of pitch pine and shrub oak. Settlements are here and
Mr. Pierce on the Alluvial District of New-Jersey. 241
there located in this region of wood. The soil, except on the borders of creeks, is pretty uniformly sandy.
Adjacent t to the Delaware river and bay and the sea coast, there are wide tracts of salt meadow which are in a few places improved by embankments. The climate near the coast is so mild that herds of cattle subsist through the win- ter upon these meadows, and in the neighboring thickets, without che to the ee Cattle range the forest in a wild state. Deer, foxes and rabbits are wae ee and wolves He bears are sometimes seen in the wilds of New- Jersey. Much fine wood is shipped to Philadelphia and New-York from this region.
The peninsula, four fifths of which is now a useless waste, might by proper cultivation be rendered very productive. Its situation.between the two largest cities of America, and nearly environed by navigable waters, would enable the in- habitants readily to bring their produce to a good market. A tract of a few miles in width from the sea-board might be improved by marl, sea-weed, fis af &c.; the remainder
y gypsum, which is adapted for sandy soils. Pine lands, situated in the counties of Columbia, Albany and Saratoga, and other parts of the State of New-York of a similar char- acter with those of New-Jersey, have been rendered very valuable by gypsum and rotations of crops, often producing from twenty to twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre. The sandy soil is in time changed to a rich vegetable mould —gypsum would probably render the pine lands of the southern states productive.
The climate of New-Jersey is well adapted for grain, In- dian corn, fruit and melons. Cotton might perhaps be there _ pe ee and profitably cultivated.
H cattle and sheep can be supported at little ex-
ense. The sea-coast is said to be favorable for the pro- duction of good mutton and wool.
he creeks and rivers of the peninsula are not numerous or ‘considerable—they are generally bordered by a rich sol
Salt m may be advantageously manufactured on the islands ‘a Atlantic shore of New-Jersey, by evaporating sea-
"Biiniive beds of the variety of argillaceous oxide of iron called —— are‘common in the south-western part Vol. VI.—No, 2. 31
242, On the Origin of Salt Springs. =<
of the alluvial of New-Jersey, from which good iron for castings may be extracted. It is generally mixed. with mountain ore in the furnace. The phosphate of iron is not
ay and the Delaware. The inhabitants of the New-Jer- sey sea-board generally subsist by a little farming, wood-cut- ting, fishing, and grazing of cattle on the salt-meadows.
ae * : Aur “il.—On. the probable Origin f certain Salt Springs. — . By Professor Amos Earon. ~
To the Editor. ~ -
Z
Wile:
y act which tends to disclose that hidden operation ure by which the Salt Springs of the west are produc-
ery, made in my first excursion on the canal route, in the the Patroon of Albany, (the Hon. S. Van Rensselaer,) I take
ee ee
On g-hephng Stiaia:i in Durham, N. Setipshies 4 243
i the s spontaneous manufacture of salt. I say the floor, because I have ascertained that all the salt-springs along the canal route, from Lenox to Montezuma, are sup- ported on the same continuous rock.
It has long been a prevailing theory, that a vast mine of salt exists in the vicinity of these springs, which is continu- ally dissolving, and thus yields the supply of salt water. Much time and money have been spent without success, in boring to great depths with the expectation of bets 2g this mass of rock salt. But if such rocks as Nine- mile Creek, be found of sufficient extent, the ice of the salt waters of the west will find a more satisfactory solution. And there may be many kinds of rock, besides the water
limestone, which contain the elementary constituents: Nea
common salt.» lam, et eepeeunry: ° 2 a. You urs, &c. a _ AMOS
Troy, Pah ae 823. REMARK.
The observation made by Mr. Eaton is very interesting ; but (if we understand him correctly,) the water-limestone forms the roof of the salt-springs, or, at least, is so situated, that the water can percolate this stratum, by the natural ef- fect of gravity. We can have no doubt, that this is Mr. Eaton’s meaning, although there is some Prsinale sa be in va language. “ Edito
Arr, IV.—On a i Stone i in 7 magia New-Hamp- shir » ‘By. Jacos B. Moo
Concord, N. H. Oct. 22, 1823.
ROFESSOR SILLIM Sim—Having noticed inthe last Sumber of the “Ameri- can Journal of Science” an account of a Rocking Stone in Patnam county, New-York, in which mention is also m of the rock at Durham in this State,—I take the liberty to enclose you a description of that rock, which you may rely upon as accurate. :
~ $
~
S
‘ae. 244 Ona Rocking Stone in Durham, N. Hampshire:
‘In the town of Durham” says Dr. Morse, “is a rock computed to weigh sixty or seventy tons. It lies so exact- ly poised on another rock, as to be easily moved with one finger.” Curiosities of this kind naturally excite attention,
and from their rare occurrence, seem to merit a particular description; for were they the works of art, we should be surprised at the human ingenuity which could adjust the mighty balance ; and as works of nature, they do not fail to excite our admiration. The rock at Durham isa detached block of coarse granite, of about fifteen feet in diameter on the top, and nearly round ; and averaging about seven feet in thickness. It is situated ona rise of ground in the south- erly part of the town, and in the neighborhood of a chain of
moving it from its balance with levers. It was a barbarous curiosty, of which it is hoped the persons concerned are now ashamed! The rock cannot now be moved; although, in looking at it on the sides marked 1 and 2 in the following plan, a person would be led to think otherwise.
The left band bottom figure (See the plate at the end,) represents the rock at Durham as it now lies, thrown to the right from its equipoise, and resting on two points. It also presents the side marked 3, The figures 1 and 2, present views of the sides thus marked, in the figure first mentioned. The figure 4 represents the surface of the rock, fifteen feet in diameter, nearly round. The weight of this stone prob- ably approaches the estimate of Dr. Morse.
sides this, I know of no rocks of a similar description, excepting One, weighing from fifteen to twenty tons, in An- dover in this State, and one of smaller size in Ashburnham, Mass. Both these may be easily moved several inches by the hand; but their appearance is uninteresting, compared with the former situation of the rock at Durham.
Lvealities of Minerals.
Arr. V - —_— Localities of Minerals, cammunica- ed by various persons.
aS By Professor. J. F. Dawa, of Hanover, N. A.
1 Hornblende. Superb specimens of crystallized horn- blende, imbedded in lamellar hornblende, or confusedly ag- gregated—bladed and promiscuous, in quartz; Iron mines, Franconia, N. H.
Garn t. Amorphous and imperfectly crystallized—the faces of the crystals remarkably smooth and perfect; Fran- conia mine se
3. Evidote. Crystallized; same pla
. Green quartz. Containin ng hornblende—colored by ep- neoni
and of various extent. The fibres are intimately united, and are curved in every direction. Franconia 6. Staurotide. Franconia. Sulphuret of Copper. Franco- nia. 7. Cyanite. Of a light bluish grey. Hartford, Vt. 8. Sulphuret of Iron. Deeply truncated on the angles of the cube, forming a solid of fourteen sides. Hartford, Vt. - Galena. In a vein of quartz traversing mica slate. Lebanon, N. H. 10. Granular Argillaceous Oxide of Iron. Sharon, Vt. 11. Carbonate of fron. In rolled masses of quartz, on the banks of the Connecticut. Hanover, N. H. 12. Plumbago or Graphite. Lar = specimens—equal to the Borrowdale. Bristol, N. H. This has just been discover- ed—it is abundant; five hundred e008 were sent to Bos- ton as asample, as ‘the owner informs At the Franconia iron mine, near ie Falls I noticed a peculiar slag, which resembles perfectly some varieties of pumice-stone.
2, By Mr. Srrupen Taytor, Preceptor of a Charles- field Street Academy, at Providenc
1. Quartz Crystals are found pure and well defined, from one to two inches in length and from one third to three
246 Localities of Minerals.
fourths of an inch in diameter, in the western part of Gran- by, in a field a few rods north east of a blacksmith’s shop, occupied by Mr. Tracy Cannon. In some of the rocks they form geodes of considerable size. Of these I obtained some specimens which, when placed near the blaze of a candle, exhibit a remarkably brilliant and beautiful ap- pearance.
2. Black Tourmaline. Of this mineral there is a remark- able localitity in Barkhampstead, on the farm of William Taylor, Esq. The rock in which it is found is a fine-grain- ed granite, penetrated by a vein of quartz nine or ten inches wide. From this vein elegant specimens may easily be ob- tained by means of a hammer or sledge. 1 succeeded in getting one crystal, which is more than an inch in diameter and five inches long. e rock is situated about fifty rods W. N. W. of Mr. Taylor’s house, and about the same distance east of the turnpike road leading from Hartford to Albany.
8. Garnets of twenty-four sides, of the size of a musket- ball, are found in great abundance on what is called West- Hill, in the town of New-Hartford. The spot which I visit- ed is on the farm of Mr. Silvester Seymour, about forty rods west of the house occupied by Mr. Michael Olmstead. The rocks and stones in which they occur are easily broken in pieces, and the visitor will be detained but a few minutes in obtaining as many specimens as he wants.
3. By Dr. Jacos Porter.
1. Caleareous Spar, beautifully crystallized, at Chester. Emmons. -
2. Stalactites and Stalagmites, at the cave lately discov- ered in Lanesborough. When this cave was discovered, it was filled with stalactites and stalagmites of the most fantas- lic appearance, some of which were shown at a house neat the cave. The most curious have been removed by the visitors ; I obtained, however, a plentiful supply of the less interesting ones. There are several turnings or windin I cave. Breathing is free here and lamps burn perfectly well.
*The other facts stated by Dr. “44, Vol IV. of this Journal. y Dr. Porter may be found at p. 41,
Localities of Minerals. 247
3. Black Fluate of Lime, in Huron county, Ohio. 4. Gibbsite, of Torrey, on iron ore, at Lenox. Emmons. 5. Limpid Quartz, at Newport, N. Y. ninety-five miles north-west of Albany. The crystals are perfectly transpa- rent, and terminated by pyramids at both extremities. The largest that I have been able to procure is about an inch long and about three fourths of an inch in diameter. These specimens, together with those from Fairfield, which exact- ly resemble them, are the most beautiful rock crystals that I hae ever seen. - Blue Quartz, in amorphous masses, at Cummington, Bridgewater, Pembroke and Marshfield. . Rose Quartz, beautiful, and in considerable quantities, ina tiadge at the east part of Chesterfield. rised Quartz, in large quantities, at Chesterfield. Its colors, which are generally red, yellow or orange, and very delicate, seem to arise from a thin coat wes metallic oxid on he surface of the specimen, or in its fiss 9. Milky Quartz, at Abington, the “cavnias frequently lined with crystals. 10. Greasy Duarix, at Plainfield. 11. Arenaceous Quartz, at Plainfield and Cummington, ea in large masses. It is sometimes burnt and pulverised or san 13, Stalactical Quartz, at some falls in a brook in Middle- field. The crystals, which are small and have a slight tinge of red, are formed on serpentine, evidently in a man- ner similar to that of — The specimens are singu- me beautiful. mo 3 3. Amethyst, a anes crystal of a delicate purple, dis- come at Abing 14, Fetid on z, at Cummington 15. Chalcedony, at Middlefield. It is of a milky or sod~ dish aoe with blood-red spots. e cavities are lined with the most minute and beautiful crystals, which are sometimes blood-red, but generally white or bluish. Em- mons. 16. Opal, at Middlefield. It is covered with small erys- tals, —s ect is white, slightly tinged with blue or yel- ow.
Em 27. Dacistand: at Middlefield. Emmons.
248 Localities of Minerals.
es ee 18. Jasper, dark-colored and red, on the beach at Marsh- field, many of the specimens beautiful,
19. Agate, at Chester. Emmons.
20, Kyanite, very dark-colored, in mica slate, at Chester and Chesterfield.
21. Mica, dark-colored, at Savoy. The layers separate surprisingly on being heated.
Green Mica, at Cummington and Plainfield. 23. Black Mica, associated with garnets, at Plainfield. 24. Mica, white and yellowish, abundant at Williamsburg.
25. Chabasie, in cuboidal crystals, at Chester. Emmons.
26. Tremolite, well characterised at Chesterfield.
_ Tremolite, in shining, radiated fibres, associated with white quartz and beautiful gurney at Cummington. The rock in which these minerals are contained, has a Strong smell ofsulphur. ,
27. Asbestos, adhering to a large mass of actynolite, at Windsor, near the Cummington soapstone quarry. _
28. Hornblende, at Hawley, Plainfield and the neighbor- ing towns. Many of the specimens, particularly those from Hawley, present crystals resembling bundles of rods tie together near the middle, and thence diverging, which give
em avery singular and beautiful appearance.
29. Serpentine, in loose masses, at Cummington and Plainfield. It takes a fine polish. :
30. Chlorite, abundant and extremely beautiful, at Haw- ley and Plainfield.
31. Graphite, at Hinsdale.
a Sulphuret of Iron, in small but beautiful crystals at
awley. :
: 33. Micaceous Oxide of Iron, beautiful and in large quap- tities, at the iron-mine in Hawley, When pulverised 1t makes a beautiful paper-sand.. At a manufactory in Cum- mington it is enclosed in tin cylinders, and used for clock- - weights,
* Brown Hematite, bearing 2 striking resemblance t0 the Salisbury ore, at Richmond. Emmons. .
35. Chromate of Iron, at the Cummington soap-stone quarry. Only a small mass has as yet been discovered.
36. Plumbago, at Cummington, Worthington and Chester
These minerals may be seen in the collection of the wr! ter. Specimens have also been presented to the cabinet of
Localities of Minerals. 249
Yale College, the Lyceum of Natural History, New-York, and the Troy Lyceum of Natural History. Plainfield, November 1822,
REMARK by Dr, Porter.
Some of these localities are already known to the public, -and are here cited again for the sake of conveying some ad- ditional information. For my knowledge of several of them, Tam indebted to the gentlemen whose names are annexed.
4, By. Mr. J. Sruarrt, of Peacham, Vermont.
i. Asbestos and Serpentine. One piece of the latter was from the mountain in Kellyvale, and the other from the streets of Peacham, where it is stated to be very abundant.
Of the asbestos, one Kind occurs in rolled pieces, which, when eke are found to contain a substance in color and texture resembling the finest cotton. ‘The other is discov- ered in crevices of the rocks of serpentine, and more resem- bles flax. The place from which they were obtained is in Kellyvale, about twenty miles from Canada. The adjoin- ing country, like most of Vermont, is primitive. The stones are principally granite. Farther back in all direc- vee are almost Alpine mountains. Approaching the quar- r m the south, it is level for some distance, until we ar- ee nal the top of a steep precipice, about two hundred feet high, at the foot of which there is a very small stream.
All along the declivity are masses of serpentine, much of which is rolled to the bottom; and from appearances rs a same mineral extends to a great distance into the side of |
the precipice. The quantity of asbestos as well as serpen- tine, seems inexhaustible. But though the serpentine would make excellent chimney-pieces, &c. yet it will probably never be wrought, on account of the difficulty of transpor- tation.
2. Quartz. ey Sg ge as usual in six- “sided prisms. Lyndon, Vermon
3. Cyanite, in smal] acaptiies, small ee and tourma- line, are found in beg ress and its vicinity
Vor. VI.—No. 32
250 Locahties of Minerals. 5. By Dr. W. Lanestarr.
1. Quartz, and a green substance which appears to be augite or coccolite—found in gneiss near Cold-Spring landing. :
2. Coccolite, in foliated limestone ; same locality with the zircon. .
3. Do. in quartz—same locality.
- ( Do. in mass—same locality with the zircon. ~ 4 J Augite, abundant in the the gneiss rocks at Cold- ‘ Spring Landing. ' | Do. containing sphene. Cold-Spring Landing, N. J.
5. Scapolite, containing Plumbago. Hamburgh.
6. Brucite. Hamburgh.
7. Black Mica, in augite. Cold-Spring.
6. By J.P: Brac.
In Southbury, the greenstone formation visible in Wood- bury continues west of the meeting-house, between the Pompanaug creek and the Housatonic—extending six or seven miles in length, being composed of several ridges, in all about a mile in breadth. The minerals connected with this range are :— =r _ 1. Chalcedony, resembling that of Patterson, N. J. of a beautiful blue—covered frequently by botryoidal concre- tions of cacholong.
2. Amethyst. The crystals of this mineral are often quite regular, with both terminations visible, and the coloring matter more uniformly diffused than is common in the ame- thyst of Woodbury, New-Haven and Patterson. Some specimens which J saw in the cabinet of Dr. L. Smith were very beautiful.
Localities of Minerals. 251
or five inches in diameter. It is principally hornstone; its cavities are lined with minute quartz crystals and la ayers 0 chalcedony. Itis of a grey or black color—speeific gravity
Th + hg ma of Lime, in bituminous limestone, exists
8. The Hai Oanrie' is south-west of the meeting-house about three miles, and is in great quantities. It requires blasting, however, to obtain good specimens.
wi Laminated Feldspar, of a pearly white color, is found’ in
Bethlem, resembling in external characters the siliceous Eber. of Chesterfield.
10. Plumose Mica, in Woodbury and Wishin fon:
erry hes in reniform masses of minute fibres, and in Lice groups of fibrous erystals—in a vein in mica slate.
itc
Fetid Quartz, in Litchfield, well characterized—of a
dark greyish blue, (the common volor) and of a pure white,
ble—massive—im reetlent foliated—-cross fracture uneven-— color dark brownish green—fissures stained by iron—soft, easily scratched with a knife—powder unctuous—streak white. Spangles of a hexagonal or nearly circular form appear on the fracture when ‘held to the light. Lustre of
the to
8 byte apireated on the surface of the mass—apparently six-sided prisms, truncated on all the an- gles, and, in consequence, having a = bere ages form. Asso- ciated with quartz, mica and oxide of iron
REMARK,
The Editor’s opinion being requested, respecting the last mentioned mineral, he has to add nothing more, than that he coincides in opinion with Mr. Brace, and that there isa great resemblance between the Litchfield pinite and that of Haddam.—Ed.
*Dr. L. Smith will supply in exchange, any gentlemen with the South- bury minerals
252 Notice of a curious Water-Fall, &c.
Art. VI.—Notice of a curious Water-Fall, and of Excava- tions in the Rocks. By Professor Haun.
To the Editor.
miles from the tavern he crosses a rivulet, a little above where it empties into the former stream. He advances a few rods farther, and meets another. It comes from the north, and is called by the mountaineers, the North Branch, A little more than a quarter of a mile from the turnpike, Up _ this stream, is an object which merits the attention of the curious.’ I have recently, been in company with the Rev. Professor Keith of William and Mary College, Virginia, 10 examine it. =~ oS
There is-a road cut, but not much travelled, along the western side of the North Branch, at a small distance from the stream. From the road the water is seldom visible, be- ing concealed by a thicket of evergreens, and, in some pla- ces, by the banks which intercept the view of it. Its noise may be distinctly heard.
The better to accomplish our object, we proceeded up this road nearly halfa mile, which brought us to the head of a succession of the most singular and interesting rapids that Teversaw. Here the student of nature would stand aston- ished to see how great effects have been produced by a0 apparently trivial cause: 7
At the northern extremity of the rapids, the ledge over which the water passes, is a variety of common chlotite rock, of a very dark brownish green color, containing veins of milky and greasy quartz. I have never before seen chlorite n such large masses. The fracture in one direction is eX- tremely uneven. It may be scratched easily with the fin- ger-nail. It is composed of minute scales, which are some-
Notices of a curious Water-Fall, &c. 253
what unctuous. At numerous places in and near the stream, we saw chlorite slate in abundance. Along the lower part of the rapids, the rocks are chiefly mica-slate. These rocks, as well as the chlorite, are in situ. But there are thousands of tons of stones, principally rolled quartz, scattered over the surface, on both sides of the rivulet, forming an irregu- lar pavement, which are evidently out of place. They were,
be seventeen feet in width. is capacious basin has, manifestly, been formed in the chlorite rock, solely by the incessant friction of the water. From the south side, where the basin is open, the water flows off calmly in a canal in the rock, a few inches wide, and regular, as if cut by the chisel, for two or three rods, and then precipitates itself into a second cavity, eighteen feet in width and fifteen in depth, produced, evidently, in a manner similar to the first. The water, after travelling about six miles farther, has formed another basin, still larger, but less deep, than the last; its width being twenty-six feet and its depth twelve.
There is a succession of cavities, or basins, at small in- tervals, for a distance of three hundred and thirty paces, or nearly one fourth of a mile. They are all wrought in the solid rock. Their forms are very dissimilar ; some resem- bling a deep pot, and others an immense oven, inverted. We observed but a few small cavities, such as are generated in the Connecticut river, at Bellows Falls, by the rolling of a single stone.
I am aware, that the traveller who visits this spot at the season we did, will, at once, pronounce this puny brook to- tally inadequate to the production of these wonderful cavi- tes. ut his sentiments will alter, when he considers that a vast stratum of snow falls, annually, on the Green Moun- tains; which, when it dissolves in the spring, swells this rivulet,during a number of weeks, to a mighty torrent. Marks
‘
254 Dr. Tully on Datura.
of violence are every where visible in the large collections of logs and brushwood, and even of whole trees, accumulated in various places, and in the transportation of ponderous quartzy stones for many miles, and in the heaving of them up, on high masses of chlorite and mica-slate, to which they have no re- lationship.
hould you, sir, ever find it convenient to cross the Green Mountain from Windsor to Middlebury, I hope you will take the trouble to view this admirable specimen of nature’s workmanship. The labor will, I assure you, be richly re- warded. Your very obedient
F. HALL.
BOTANY.
Art. VII.— Diversity of the two sorts of Datura found in the United Siates. |
Two sorts of Datura, which present considerable differ- ences to the eye, are well known to on in man parts of the United States. One of these has been general-
supposed by botanists to be the Datura-Tatula, and the other the Datura-Stramonium of Linne. Their specific di- versity, as far as Lam informed, remained unquestioned till Dr. Bigelow advanced the opinion that they are mere varie- ties, and stated the concurrence of Sir James Edward Smith, who, it seems, made his decision from an examination of the specimens in the Linnean Herbarium. Mr, Elliott has since expressed his doubts upon the same subject.
a most of the principal authorities, such as Linne, Gmelin, Willdenow, Persoon, Turton and many others in Europe, and likewise Muhlenburg and Pursh, in America, are in opposition to the opinion under consideration, yet, a5 there can be no question that the decisions of the gentle- men above mentioned are entitled to the highest respect, I should not at this time venture to suggest any doubts of their correctness in the present instance, had not long-con- tinued and close observation convinced me, that they are, in fact, perfectly distinct.
Dr. Tully on Datura. 255
nous pericarps, the ovate or, if tens the cordate and sharply dentate and glabrous leaves are unquestionably com- mon to both the American sorts. Even most of the addi- tional circumstances which are commonly mentioned inci- dentally, are nearly uniform ineach. The D.Tatula, although occasionally larger and less slender than the D. Stramonium; is by no means generally so, nor is there a regular and uni-
an acute Pin the leaves are as sharply dentate and as muc sinuated in one as the other, and in some instances they are both attenuated into ee pebble; or both, as it were, truncate at the base. In the smaller plants of each sort, the stem is commonly pithy, and in the larger of each, it is hollow.
e white corol of the one, which verges to a cream col- or, a the pale blue or light purple of the other, striped with deep purple on the inside, are indeed almost always observable, but not sufficiently prominent for distinction; but the purple stalk sprinkled with green points in the one, and the uniform green stalk of the other, I have reason to think, are invariable and permanent.
ave been many years in the habit of observing the two sorts mse noticing this difference, and for ten years at least, I have viewed them closely, in reference to their distinction of species. My observations have been made both where they grew entirely separate, and where they grew together, and I have cultivated them in both situations,without ever be- ing able to discover the least approximation ‘of the one to the other, or to detect any intermediate specimen; and contra- ry to my expectations, I have never seen, among the plants produced from seeds, and growing together, any evidence of promiscuous impregnation and the production of pach”
ven in the spring season, the last year’s dead and half de- cayed plants of each sort, may always be distinguished with perfect facility.
aces where only one sort has been common, time immemorial, I have never known the other make its appear-
256 Dr. Tully on Datura.
common, by the ice which was deposited in such immense quantities, by the freshet of 1818.
In fact, I find the strongest reasons for concluding that there are as fixed and permanent specific distinctions be- tween what has been supposed in this country, to be tula, and what has been considered D. Stramonium, as are to be found in the science of Botany. I am well aware that the maxim, that for the distinction of species, regard is not to be had to color, size, taste, smell, or to the external sur- face, is, in general, correct; but as there is no one of those characters which are commonly the most permanent, that "is not occasionally variable, so too rigid an adherence to the above principle, may lead to error. Color, at least, when established by sufficient observation to be permanent, I think
safely assumed as a specific character.
Were I to define the term species, I should say it deno- ted all such individuals as are alike in every characteristic which is incapable of change by climate, soil, cultivation, time, or in short any accidental cause, and which is permanent an
Dr. Tully on Datura. 957
cies of Trillium, Erythronium, Statice, Actea and of a vast number of other genera, has long been a fruitful source of discrepancy among botanical ala and a multitude of instances may be specified, in which plants for a long time, not even considered as distinct varieties, have ultimately been found to be different species, as for instance, Veratrum-album and viride. Berberis-vulgaris and Canadensis, etc. etc, Although I have never seen any other species of the ge- nus Datura, yet judging from the descriptions given by au- thors, | am inclined to think that there is much of this close similarity and affinity, between several of them, and al- though it was mot my intention to raise any question at this time, except respecting the two American plants, yet I can- not. forbear remarking in this place, that if the best repre- sentations of the European Stramoniwn are correct, there is some ground for suspecting at least, that the Straronium of that region, is specifically distinct from either of the sorts found in America. I have formerly compared our plants ’s plate, and [ now very well recollect the conclusion, without being able to specify the precise rea- sons. At present I have only a wood cut of Bewick before me, which appears at least, to be very well executed, and which to the best of my recollection, corresponds to the engraving of Woodville. In this, the shortness and infla- tion of the perianth, the companulate rather than the infun- dibuliform corol, the round-oval form of the anthers, and
can specimen at ohedeslad; or even approximate to thaws,
be diligently compared in their living state. If they are distinct, it is most probable, that more definite peculiarities may be found, but even if there should not be, still, provid- ed these should prove uniform, invariable, and permanent, it might possibly warrant considering them distinct. I am no advocate for the hasty and careless cee cats of spe- cies, and till decisive and distinct marks can be found, those
which are closely allied, should by all means be catisidenl as varieties. Inthe present state of my information, howev- er, I cannot but view the two American sorts of Datura as specifically distinct, and I believe this has long been the de- ne opinion of Professor ‘ans ‘eel and some ; No.
258. Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
others whose attention has been particularly turned to the subject for some years past. Under this impression I shall venture to-suggest an emendation of the specific characters of the plants in question, in the following terms, viz.
Datura Tatula, caule purpureo punctis viridibus asperso, pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ovatis dentatis gla- bris. "4
Datura Stramonium, caule viridi, pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ovatis dentatis glabris.
The facts that the coro] of D. Tutula is generally pale blue, or purple striped with deep purple inside, and that of
- Stramonium white varying to cream colour, ought to be added by way of observation.
he Datura from the Cape-of-Good-Hope, which has
been lately called Tatwla, must, without doubt be consider- ed as entirely out of the question in this discussion, and even if the Eurepean and both the American plants, be ul- timately decided to be mere varieties, that ought unques- tionably to have another name. . 7
Middletown, (Conn.) Jannary 1821.
CONCHOLOGY.
: —~—
Art.—VIII.—On the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta; with Introductory Remarks : - H. Barnes, M. A. Mem ber of the New-York Lyceum of Natural History.*
(Concluded from pa. 127.) | UNIO. ** Cardinal teeth moderately thick, direct. OBSERVATIONS. ot
Tue shells of this section are, in thick. C , In general, not very They have the beaks slightly elevated, or nearly flat, The
[*Read before the Lyceum.]
’
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 259
‘ 2 external surface is neither waved nor tuberculated. The teeth are less sulcated than those of the former, and only cren- ulated, or striated, generally triangular and elevated, and, in magnitude, bear a proportion to the thickness of the shell. The cavity of the beaks is small, or none, and neither angu- lar nor compressed. The shells have a smooth and regular appearance, and five of the seven species have the inside pur-
ple. SPECIES. © : . @. outline 10. unio eLtipticus. Fig. 19 ee : : Pe a d. sizes.
Shell regularly oval, thick, convex, glabrous, beaks depressed. ‘Teeth elevated, triangular, striated.
Unio Crassus. Mr. Say. Plate 1 fig. 8? Mya Complanata? Dillwyn. page 51. Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. r. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. Diam. 1.0—2.0 Length 1.7—3.2 Breadth 2.5—4.9 inches. Shell long before, and short behind, equally rounded at both extremities; beaks nearly flat; ligament elevated above the
beaks considerable. .Naker pearly white, iridescent, and Sometimes, of a beautiful flesh colour.
; “a. inside. . , Ss. Fi * 10. 11. UNIO CARINATU 5 b. outside.
Shell oblong oval, biangulate before, rayed, hinge margin straight, compressed, keel-shaped, teeth finely striate.
Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection.
260 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmedonta.
—1.3 Length 1.2—2.3 Breadth 2.1—3,7 inches. Shell ee elongated, sub-pentangular, moderately
shaped, longitudinally furrowed, fuscous with submembra- naceous strie; anterior dorsal margin straight and sub- truncate; basal margin rounded; epidermis greenish yellow, with broad dark green rays; surface glabrous. Cardinal teeth slightly striated, nearly smooth; posterior cicatrix
eep and striated; naker very white, iridescen
Variety (a) obscurely rayed, more SOBVEE, compressed on the base, and gaping behind.
Inhabits Lake Champlain.
My Collection.
Beas RKS.—This is a beautiful species. It cannot be confounded with any of the varieties of the Cariosus or Ra- diatus, on account of the primary teeth, which are entirely different. We have so many specimens of this shell, and they are all so perfectly Sean etenats and so much alike, that there can be no doubtof its being entitled to a distinct appel- lation. In several of the specimens, the epidermis is worn off, exhibiting a fysh-aalgamd substance beneath.
12. UNIO ALATUS. —Shell ovately triangular ; hinge margin elevated into a large wing ; valves grow- ing together on the back of the nti inside purple.
Unio Alatus. Mr. “Saye Unio Alata. M. Lama American Conchology, Hate 4, fig. 2. Inhabits Fox Eeier. Mr. a Wisconsan, Capt. Douglas Cabinets of the Lyceum id Dr. Mite hill. We have every size of this shell from one inch to six nches and nine tenths broad. A full grown specimen measures as follows, viz. Diam. 2.0 Length 4 Breadth. 6. A = - = very splondid specimen measures D16 L40 B6
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia. 261
Shell moderately thick; disks flat and compressed, long before and short behind ; beake depressed ; ligament conceal- ed within the valves ; hinge margin very much elevated and compressed; basal margin nearly straight; anterior dorsal
margin incurved or emarginate; anterior margin rounded and broad ; posterior sets ie rounded, and narrow ; surface deeply wrinkled. T elevated and crenate ; anterior ci- catrix very broad ; eatin composed of three distinct impressions, two small ones before the large one, and alsoa row of very small impressions across the cavity of the beaks, before the cardinal tooth. Naker red-purple and very bril- liant ; cavity of the beaks small and indented with from six to ten minute impressions in a row nearly longitudinal.
—The hinge margin is less elevated, and the colour less ‘brilliany, j in old than in young and middle aged specimens. ‘The form - approach the regular oval form, the latter are broad ov
None of the specimens in our collections exhibit the char- acter mentioned b ry, viz. “the external laminated tooth obsolete, only one in each valve being perceptible ;” and the tubercles, mentioned by him on the inside, appear ae in very old specimens
Le Sueur ‘thinks that the remarkable union of the 08 above the ligament ought to characterize a distinct genus. This union can seldom be observed in Cabinet spe- cimens, as the part is very fragile. Of the numerous speci- mens in our collections, one only retains the full elevation of the wing ; the rest having been broken in transportation. This is the most splendid species of the Unio yet known, and it is so remarkably characterized as readily to be distin- guished from all others, except perhaps the Unio Gracilis ; which, though perfectly distinct, might, at first view, be mis- taken for the young of this species.
outline of ©
three sizes.
Shell much elongated transversely, narrow, thick, tumid, beaks flat; lateral tooth long, thin ; inside purple.
13. unio pratoneus. Fig. 11.
262 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonia.
Unio purpurata? = M. Lamarck. _ Inhabits Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. y Collection. Diam. 1.7--2.1 Length 2.5—2.7 Breadth 5.8—6.4 Shell very long oval; anterior side somewhat pointed, posterior side short, rounded, obtuse ; beaks depressed ; lig- ament elevated above the beaks ; basal margin slightly com- pressed, shortened, or, in old specimens, arcuated; in young rounded; epidermis blackish brown, with fine interrupted wrinkles placed in ee ee rows, having somewhat the appearance of striz. Young specimens are rayed with yel- lowish olive, and have the epidermis smooth and glabrous. Naker purple of different shades according to the age or per- fection of the specimen, sometimes tinged with irregular spots of greenish, particularly under the beaks, with a row of small muscular impressions in the cavity.
Remarks.—This shell is probably the Unio purpurata of M. Lamarck. (See introductory remarks.) We have every size from the breadth of one inch, to six inches and four
ines.
Variety (a.) Shell on the inside striated longitudinally. Naker red-purple, very splendid.
Variety (b.) Naker whitish green on the margin, and pur- ple in the centre. An uncommonly beautiful shell, tinged ath copper ?
é My Collection.
14. unio GiB 2 gk? aN ipposus. Fig. 12 b. outside.
Shell elongated transversely, thick, gibbous ; lateral tooth very thick, incurved, inside purple.
Inhabits Wisconsan,, Mr. Schoolcraft. ly collection. Lyceum’s Cabinet. Mr. Say’s Collection. Philadelphia. Diam. .75—1.3 “Length 1.15—1.9 Breadth 2.4—4.0 _Shell much elongated transversely, thick and heavy, T- pidly narrowed and rostrate before, narrow and rounded be-
Oe Te! a a er re ee ei fy ee aoe ae ‘
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta, 263
hind, sub-cylindrical, disks somewhat compressed ; anterior side very much produced; beaks flat ; ent ‘elevated; anterior dorsal margin depressed and flattened; basal m
gin nearly straight 5; epidermis blackish brown, finely stria- ted and deeply wrinkled transversely; naker purple of dif- ferent shades, often with a purple centre and white m ; Teeth crenate; lateral tooth rough, very thick, bentlial downward, terminating abruptly and folded over pire: the interior of the shell.
Remarxs.—This shell in many respects resembles the preceding, but it differs from it in being less, thicker in pro- portion to the size, more attenuated before ; and it may be distinguished from all others by the unusual thickness of the /ateral tooth. Itis also more depressed immediately be- hind the beaks, and the thickness of the anterior part of the shell is very unusual, being in some specimens greater than that of the posterior. In one specimen the lateral tooth of the left valve measures two lines in thickness, and the chan- nel of the opposite valve is two and a half lines broad.
UNIO CUNEATUS.—Shell ovate wedge-shaped, thick, gibbous ; disks swelled, anterior lunule fur- rowed ; lateral tooth thin ; inside purple.
Inhabits the Ohio. Mr. S. B. Collins. Mr. Collins’s collection. Diam h 2.3 Breadth 3.8 Shell ane and sub-triangular, thick and ponderous; anterior side narrowed, thin, angulated, wedge-shaped, compressed ; umbones large and somewhat elevated; beaks low and distant; anterior lunule long-heart-shaped, large, distinct with an elevated ridge and longitudinally furrowed ; posterior lunule small aiid deep; basal margin slightly rounded ; anterior margin narrow and angulated ; anterior dorsal, rapidly narrowed ; posterior dorsal impressed ; “3 dermis blackish brown, somewhat ferruginous ; surface ly wrinkled, an elevated ridge extends from the beaks to ee anterior basal margin, and terminates in an angle on.the fore part. Cardinal teeth deeply divided and sulcated ; lat- eral tooth long, curved, and not very thick; cicatrices deep ; ; cavity of the beaks small and not angular; naker browgish purple, iridescent.
264 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
MARKS This shell differs from the foregoing one, in its outline ] th.less breadth and) mn being more tri-
Seale. In that the lunules are not distinct; in this they are strongly marked. The lateral teeth of the two differ in Jengih, thickness, direction and surface. This shell, if the thickness only were observed, might be mistaken for a vari-
ety of the Crassus; but the teeth are totally different.
16. Unio Purrureus.—Shell not very thick, ob- liquely sub-truncate before; beaks depressed; epi- dermis without rays, glossy;
_ ' Unio Purpureus. Mr. Sa Unio Purpurascens. WM. 5 \
Unio Rhombula? t M. Lamarck. Unio roe ? es Unio Georg
Americano ecoitneeds Plate 3. Fi
ig. | ee ae Lakes and Rivers eastward of the Alleghany
ee of the Lyceum. My collection.
The varieties, which are exceedingly numerous, differ very much from each other in the length of the diameter, some measuring 13 lines, and some only 5, The length and breadth are generally in the proportions of 3 to 5, Mr. Say’s figure measures length 1°4, breadth 26, and many specimens are twice as broad as they are long.
Diameter 1°3. Length 2-5. Breadth 4°5.
Inhabits Stony Creek, near eevee ts. J. Mr. Sears:
1°8
Inhabits the Kayaderosseras. ' 15 3:0 Inhabits the Housatonick.
Shell sub-oval, ovate-oblong, ovate—rhomboidal, oblong- ovate; thin, or not very thick ; disks convex, convex x-de- pressed, or somewhat compressed ; before somewhat angi lated or rounded obliquely ; ms rounded, straight, a little shortened, depresse ssed, sub-sinuate, or coarctate-sinuate ; beaks not prominent; hinge eins elevated, compressed,
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 266
carinate or depressed ; epidermis has generally a silky lustre; surface with smaller wrinkles placed between larger ones, or with transverse elevated distant furrows, or smooth; wy dinai teeth small, or not very large, sulcated or striated ; naker livid, cerulean, green, purple, red, violet, white, with various shades and mixtures of these colors; no cavity under the beaks. ; : ay
Remarxs.~—The terms of the foregoing general description are taken from Mr. Say’s and from the six species of M. La- marck mentioned above. Thisis a very common shell, ofa reg- ular and uniform appearance, without prominence of parts, or sirongly marked characters; which perhaps induced M. Lamarck to say ‘it is nothing remarkable.”* Amidst a va- riety almost infinite, like that of the human countenance, there is still a characteristic identity of this species, which can scarcely be mistaken by an experienced observer. One variety of the Radiatus from the Saratoga Lake approaches nearest to this species, but the least appearance of rays for- bids its association.
* * * Cardinal teeth small, direct. 17. Unio Rapiatrus.—Shell broad-ovate, thin, fine- ly striated, glossy rayed, within bluish white, or tinged with red.
Unio Ochraceous. Mr. Say.
Mya Radiata. Mr. Dillwyn.
Unio Radiata. M. Lamarck.
American Conchology, plate 2, fig. 8.
Tohabits lakes and rivers of North-America. _
Cabinet of the Lyceum. My collection. Diam. ‘6—°9 Length 1:2—1:5 Breadth 2°0—2°5,
Shell with the anterior side broad, thin and fragile, disks in old specimens somewhat convex ; in youug, depressed ; beaks slightly elevated and approximate; ligament eleva- ted; hinge margin elevated, compressed, carinate; basal margin commonly a little depressed, and sometimes areua- ted ; anterior margin narrow; posterior broad; anterior dorsal sub-truncate; epidermis greenish yellow or olive-
town, rayed with dark green, and very finely striated trans
*See An. Sans Vertebres, Vol. V1. p. 74, U. Georgina. Vou. VI.—No. oe 34
266 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
versely ; strface smooth and shining. Cardinal teeth cren- ulated, cavity of the beaks small; naker bluish white, or reddish yellow; surface smooth and pearly.
Variety (a) very obscurely __ and much like Unie Purpureus in shape.
Inhabits Saratoga Lake.
tape (b) oval or very nearly as broad behind as be-
Tikiabits the Wisconsan. Capt. Douglas.
18. Unio Mucronatus. Fig. 13. wines of the
Shell ovate, broader behind ; base compressed, fal- ; beaks small, elevated, acute, inside pur-
°
Inhabits the Wisconsan.. Capt. Douglass.
My collection.
Diam. -7 Length 1:3. Breadth 2:3.
Shell ovate, moderately thick, produced, narrowed, and compressed before ; rounded and broad behind ; disks com- pressed ; pater Tunule long, distinct, with a marginal fur-
Ww rior lunule small, deeply impressed ; hinge mar- gin ceeded. “basal margin arcuated ; anterior dorsal rapid- ly narrowed and slightly emarginate ; epidermis horn-color, and obscurely rayed ; surface smooth; cardinal teeth ser- rate sulcate ; cicatrices deep ; naker purplish on the mar- gin, and whitish i in the centre.
Remarxs.—This species has somewhat the outline “of the Unio Tuberculatus, but the outside is smooth. The in- dividual above described is probably not more than half grown, as the umbones are very little eroded.
49. Unto Inrratus.—Shell oval, thick, tumid, beaks broad, obtuse behind, wedge-shaped be- fore, inside pearly white.
Inhabits the Sie ota and Lake Erie. Capt. Douglass. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabine ; sorcerer 3 ET
My collection, .
a J
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 267
Diam. 1-4 Length 1-7 Breadth 3 Shell about equally broad before ger behind, thick and very much swelled, the diameter being almost equal to the
: length ; beaks broad round and somewhat elevated; poste-
rior side very short ~ obtuse; anterior side wedge-shap-
ed produced. Hinge margin nearly straight, and parall
to the base; basal scale straight and slightly compressed in the middle; epidermis yellowish-green, rayed; surface wrinkled and striated transversely ; cardinal teeth elevated, pointed, sulcated; lateral teeth papillous; posterior cicatrix deep, and somewhat rayed with elevated lines; sabe ad the beaks moderate; naker pearly ahs: and iridescent; ternal surface papillous. abs
Remarxs.—This shell is less than the Unio Siliquoideus, and also more rounded and gibbous, shorter behind an proportionally longer before than that species. The varie- ties of the two species approach each other, and are to be distinguished only by the teeth.
B. TEETH OBLIQUE. ** ** Cardinal teeth, broad, oblique, compressed.
asmall size. 20. Unio Venrricosus. Fig. 14. 6 large size. ¢ the first variety. Shell large thick triangularly ovate, convex; um- bones large, round, prominent ; beaks recurved ; cavity capacious.
Mya Radiata. Dillwyn’s Letter to Dr. Mitchill.
Unio Cariosus.. Mr. Say’s Letter to the Author.
Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft.
Mississippi, near Prairie du Chien, Capt. Douglass.
Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill. My Collec- tion. Mr. Say’s Collection, Philadelphia.
Diam. 2.5 Length 3.5 Breadth 4.5.
Shell with the anterior side very broad, sub-truncate ; posterior side rapidly narrowed, sub- “angulated ; disks very convex ; umbones large, round, elevated ; beaks recurved
268 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
over the ligament ; ligament large and: prominent, passing under the beaks ; anterior lunule depressed at the margin, fuscous, broad-heart-shaped, longitudinally waved; hinge margin depressed between the beaks; posterior slope car- inate ; epidermis yellowish olive, becoming chesnut brown on the umbones 3 rayed with green, more conspicuous in young specimens; in old ones the dark chesnut brown covers the whole and conceals the rays; surface smooth and shining, reflecting the face of the observer; young shells are splendent, having a much stronger lustre on the outside
an on the inside; cardinal teeth broad, prominent and obliquely flattened ; lateral teeth broad, elevated and ter- minating abruptly before; cicatrices large ; cavity of the beaks unusually large ; naker pearly white; surface smooth, but not highly polished. :
Remarxs.—There is a remarkable uniformity in the di- mensions of the full-grown specimens of this species. This shell is more capacious than any other of the genus hitherto described. It most resembles the unio ovatus, but its great- er capacity, darker color, its smooth,shining and rayed sur- face will distinguish it without mistake.
Variety (a) shell broader, less ovate, nearly oval and nded on sid
A fine large shell. It measures
Diam. 2.3—2.8 Length 3.1—3.8 Breadth 4.1—5.4.
Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft.
Variety (+) shell light green, rayed, compressed.
Inhabits the Wisconsan.
Variety (c) shell with the teeth slightly elevated ; cardi- nal one formed by a serrated edge of the shell, and a slight prgecnyt within.
nhabits Barbadoes Neck, N. J. near New-York.
Mr. Bradhurst’s Collection.
Diam. 2.5 Length 3.5 Breadth 4.8. ‘
Variety (d) a shell from the Delaware approaches this species. The form and colourare similar. It is howeveT less, the largest measuring scarcely 2.3 inches broad ; .™a- king the shell not more than one fifth the size of those de- scribed above ; also the beaks and bosses are less prom-
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 269
nent, the rays fewer, Mite the — less brilliant. It ap- proaches the Unio Cariosu —Inhahits the Delaware at New Hope: Mr. ie: Sears. My Collection.
Remarks.—With the most decal deference to the two distinguished Naturalists whose names are mentioned above, I have ventured to differ from them both, as they do from each other. I think a slight examination of our Cab- inets would convince either of them that this shell requires a separate designation. Two bivalves can scarcely be more unlike than this and the Unio Radiata of Lamarck; and the recent discovery, of the variety C, in our own waters, which produce thousands of the Unio Cariosus, seems con- clusive as to that. . This variety it will be observed has precisely the same diametes and length as the shell from the W ioc pean and the difference in the teeth may be acciden-
is the same necessity for distinguishing these as any etlisie. They are totally unlike.
| outline 21. Unio Siniquorwevs. Fig. 15.< of the | shell. Shell long-ovate, sub-cylindrical, thick, regularly rounded, rayed, beaks slightly elevated, cavity small ; inside white
Inhabits the Ay aisbitet Douglas
Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Colle ction
Diam. 1°3—1°6 Length 1-8—2-1 ae dth 3:3—3°8,
Shell elongated pineoe disks swelled ; beaks about one roar) from t he gen a a hin e margin
and lamellar on the anterior slope; smooth and bright on je nay of the disks; cardinal ee elevated crest-like
ressed, and very oblique; i in some specimens nearly parallel to the edge of the shell; hieg teeth long and
270 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
straight; cavity of the beaks small and rather shallow, na- ker pearly white and iridescent,surface smooth and polished.
ariety (a) shell less, more ovate, broader before, hinge margin more+elevated.
- Remarxs.~This is a beautiful and elegantly formed shell. It somewhat resembles a pea-pod; hence its name.» It agrees in color and surface with the Unio Ventricosus, but _ differs in being of smaller size, longer in proportion, more
cylindrical, less inflated, beaks much less elevated, and cav- ity less capacious. gel }
22. Unto Ovatus.—Shell roundish-ovate, convex, umbones elevated, beaks recurved, anterior 1u- -nule flattened ; teeth crest-like elevated.
Unio Ovatus. Mr. Say. ——
Unio Ovata. M. Lamarck.
Inhabits the Ohio. Mr. Collins.
Maumee, at Fort Wayne. Mr. Sears.
‘Mr. Collins’ Collection. My Collection. |
Diam. 1-6—2°0 Length 2:3—3-0 Breadth 3°3—4-0.
American Conchology, plate 2, fig. 7. Shell usually broader before, and narrower behind the beaks; but in the figure referred to above, the contrary is observed ; thin when young, and not remarkably thick when old; disks swelled; umbones prominent; ligament partly concealed ; anterior lunule flattened, and fuscous, somewhat waved with strie and wrinkles becoming lamel- lar; hinge margin making an angle with the anterior and posterior dorsal ; epidermis yellowish, or horn color; su!- face glabrous, deeply wrinkled, wrinkles appearing on the inside ; cardinal teeth crest-like, elevated and compres- sed; lateral teeth elevated; in some specimens, short, crooked, and apparently deformed; in others, straight; cicatrices smooth and polished ; cavity large and rendered somewhat angular by the flattening of the anterior slope 5 naker pearly, bluish white ; surface, in old specimens, P? pillous, in young, smooth.
Remarxs.—The angular appearance produced by the flattening of the anterior slope, readily distinguishes this
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 271
species. It most resembles the Unio Ventricosus; but is
less, thinner, more flattened and even slightly concave on
the anterior slope, from the oblique carina to the -angle at
the termination of the ligament.” Mr.Say says the Ovatus is
not rayed, and our specimens accord es his description,
= M. Lamarck mentions a verieey with rays _— Lak ke eorge
23. Unio Carrosus.—Shell ovate or var’ rife, not very thick, beaks somewhat prominent, cav- ity moderate. :
Unio Cariosus. Mr. Sa
Unio Cariosa. M. Lam
Inhabits Lakes and Rivers fr N. America.
My Collection.
Diam. 16, Length 2-3, Breadth 3-7,
American ‘Conchology, plate 3, fig.
The dimensions and description of this shell vary se much that it is difficult to find a sufficient number of perma- nent characters by which it may be distinguished. It re- sembles in this respect the Unio Purpureus; for of the twélve characters mentioned by Mr. Say, and the six men- tioned by M. Lamarck only four can be considered as in any degree permanent ; and of these M. Lamarck has men- tioned but one, and that is “inflated.” The colour, form and size of the shell constantly. vary. It is commonly. broader before, but often equally broad at both extremities ; and somewhat pointed. Mt is never very thick ; often very "thin; commonly a medium. Those from the Hudson are thin and ‘genit from the Raritan thicker and broad ; from the western waters middle sized and of considerable thickness ; disks swelled, umbones elevated; ligament exterior and el- evated ; epidermis olive-brown or greenish, and commonly radiated. Internal <p bluish white, reddish, rose, or salmon ; surface often warty.
‘Variety (a) Cardinal haat multipartite.
Inhabits Lake Ontario
Mr. Bradhurst’s Collection.
272 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
aon Pune Fe 16 Sale
Shell ehoinbich=oval; pbs beaks depressed ; disks flattened, compressed ; teeth slightly elevated, smooth. :
Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft.
Myf Collection.
Diam, 1°3 Length 2:8 Breadth 4°8.
Shell with the beaks flat, ligament broad and deeply in- serted between the valves; hinge margin straight and par- allel to the base; basal margin slightly arcuated ; ; anterior dorsal margin subtruncate ; epidermis brownish yellow ; surface deeply wrinkled ; cardinal teeth smooth, polished and slightly elevated; lateral teeth long and slender; —_ catrices rough ; cavity very small; naker bluish white tin-
ged with purple and green. Anteraal surface wavy and tu- berculated.
Remarxs.—The flatness of the shell and the smootl- ness of the teeth, readily distinguish this species from all its congeners hitherto described. It has been supposed to be the of M. Lamarck ; but besides being four times as large, it has not at all the general habit of an
ta; wherereas M. Lamarck observes that his sbell “might be. mistaken for an anodonta unless it should be sarefully observed.”
*****® Cardinal teeth small, oblique. 25. Unio Triancutaris. Fig. 17. } bouilide eet eeapaler, faven inflated, rayed, gaping ; side mh Pigg attened, ribbed, cancellate ; in- side wh
Inhabits Bois-blanc ia Detroit River.. Major Delafield. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabin 3
Major Delafield’s Collection.
My Collection.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 273
Of this Ber pct shell we have — specimens ; ; Diam. *6 Len ngt th *625 Breadth 1°05 inch. "625 | Ari
‘15 8 1 5
8 8 1°3 Shell moderately thick, acutely angulated before obtuse and somewhat angulated behind; disks inflated; anterior slope flattened and forming a right angle with the disk, rib- bed longitudinally and wrinkled transversely ; beaks one third: from the posterior extremity, decorticated approxi- mate and somewhiat elevated ; anterior lunule oval-heart- shaped; posterior lunule not distinct; basal margin a little depressed near the anterior extremity ; ; anterior mar- gin straight, and its edge not entire; epidermis yellowish- green, rayed with dark green, finely striated transversely, and. with from three to six more conspicuous transverse wrinkles. Anterior slope marked with lpngtu deal ribs which are beautifully dancaiieise by the strie and w passing over them, ribs projecting and forming a po a edge ; shell slightly gaping at both extremities; cardinal teeth two in each valve, compressed and crenulate, lamellar teeth short, projecting, finely crenulate, and terminating ab- ruptly ; naker bluish-white iridescent.
Remarx.—This shell resembles, in shape, the dlasmo- donta marginata, but it is a well characterized Unio
26. Unio Nasurus.—Shell oblong-lanceolate, thin produced and pointed before, hinge margin ele- vated, compressed, carinate.
Unio Nasutus, Mr. Say.
American pr pass plate 4, fig. 1.
Tnhabits the Delawar
My Collection.
Diam. -5 Length 1-0 Breadth 2°2.
Shell thin and slender; disks compressed ; beaks depres- sed; ligament elevated afd slender ; anterior lunule dis- tinct, somewhat depressed at the margin, and with obsolete longitudinal ribs; hinge margin straight; basal margin nearly parallel with the hinge, slightly divergent ; anterior
Vor. VI.—No. 2. 35
174 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
extremity pointed, posterior rounded ; epidermis greenish brown ; surface striated, glabrous ; cardinal teeth slender ; lateral tooth long and thin; naker bluish-white varied with wax-yellow, and sometimes tinged with violet, and irides- cent; cavity of the beaks, scarcely any. .
Remarx.—This cannot as M. Lamarck supposed be his Unio Nasuta, for it has no sinuses on the basal margin, 1s. not “ crooked” nor “ obliquely attenuated.”
27. Unio Gracii1s.—Shell ovately triangular, very thin and fragile, hinge margin elevated ; valves connate ; ligament concealed. :
Unio Alatus. Mr. Say. Inhabits the Wisconsan. Mr. Schoolcraft. nd the Lakes. Mr. Say.
Cabinet of the Lyceum.
My Collection.
Diam. 1°0—1-2 Length 2°2—2°5 Breadth 3:1—4'1.
Beaks depressed, and placed far back; ligament between the valves, and covered; anterior lunule distinct and obso- letely ribbed ; hinge margin elevated into a large wing; pce sea-green, wrinkled and striated transversely ; obscurely radiate and glabrous; cardinal teeth very small, scarcely projecting; lateral teeth very thin and finely stria- ted ; channel just sufficient to admit the point of the thumb nail; naker bluish-white tinged with violet, and beautifully
iridescent.
Remarxs.—This shell differs from Unio Alatus in being much thinner, broader in proportion, lighter color both in- side and outside, produced and somewhat pointed behind ; anterior slope ina straight line with the alated projection. It differs entirely in the shape and proportion of the teeth.
28. Unio Pinyin Fig. 18. eS
Shell oblong-ovate, small, convex, sides round- ed; beaks slightly elevated, inside pearly white, iridescent. |
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta, 275
Inhabits the Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft.
Cabinet of the ee ee
Mr. Collins’s Collectio
Mr. Say’s Collection, Philadelphia
Diam. *35—-525 Length -4—-6 Breadth *75—1°2.
Shell rather thin, beaks placed about one fourth of the
length from the posterior extremity, ligament very narrow, anterior lunule distinct and obsoletely ribbed; basal margin slightly shortened ; epidermis brownish ; an “obtuse ‘slight- ly elevated rib from the beaks to the anterior basal margin; lateral tooth rectilinear rounded at the end, and parallel to the base ; ; naker very brilliant.
Real RK.—The smallest and most beautiful of all the genus yet discovered in America
| Summary of the thio:
Species described, ants oe ae
Varieties pérticularieed. poe = "3. =
Total of species and varieties, ig ae ae
Of which Mr. Say formerly Sea ete - 8 e Sk given new specific nam 20
Of which M. haraticr had perhaps previo no- a
End of the Unio.
ALASMODONTA.* Generick Character.
Shell transverse, equivalve, i eta free; beaks decorticated ; posterior muscular impression compound ; hinge with prominent cardinal teeth in each valve, but witheat lateral teeth. '
*“<From a, without, seeue (atricue ?) a scale, and svc a tooth.”’—Mr. Say.
276 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. OBSERVATIONS.
‘This genus was established by Mr. Say. The shells are distinguished from those of the genus Unio, by the want of the lateral lamellar tooth, the place of which is commonly occupied by a slightly elevated fold; but no channel can be perceived, norany interlocking or matching together of the opposite folds. Tn many specimens the part is perfectly smooth. The sinus at the anterior termination of the lig- ament is visible in all, and exactly resembles that of the Unio ; as do also the colours of the epidermis and of the interior ; but the polish of the inside is generally much less brilliant than that of the Unio. The habit of the shells is similar, many of them becoming thick and large.
M. Lamarck seems not to have noticed this genus. He ~ makes the same remark of his Hyria,* that Mr. Say does of this, “‘ that together with the Dipsast of Dr. Leach it com- pletes the connexion between the Unio and Anodonta.” But no part of his generick character agrees with the pres- ent genus except that the shell is equivalve, which is the case in the whole family.
The auriclesf of his Hyria and the lamellar tooth forbid the supposition, that he could have intended this shell by his description. It is however properly one of his Naiades, and should be placed next to the Unic.
W ivi enus into two sections, commencing with those that resemble the Unio and ending with those that approach the Anodonta.
Sections.
* Shells thick and large. * * Shells thin and small.
Seatice Dipsas of Dr. Leach, has the lamellar lateral tooth, but no cardinal
} Processes on eash side of the beaks, like the seallop, Pecten opereularu.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 277
* Shells thick and large. Species.
1. aLAsMoponTa arcuata. Fig. 20. b y pe old.
Shell ovate, elongated transversely, thick ; base ar- cuated ; ligament elevated ; beaks depressed ; ci- catrices rough.
Hab. West Canada Creek. Mr. R. N. Havens.
Asmall streamin Tappan. Mr. J, Sears.
Cabinets of the Lyeeum and Dr. Mitchill.
My Collection. Mr. Say’s Collection. Diam. 1.2—1.6 Length 2.1—2.6 Breadth 4.1—5.5 Shell thick; disks convex above, and compressed below; anterior side very much produced ; beaks slightly elevated; ligament elevated above the beaks ; ‘hinge margin elevated, compressed, carinate; basal margin arcuated; anterior margin narrow and somewhat pointed; posterior margin rounder and broader than the anteriour ; ant. dorsal margin rapidly narrowed and subiruncate ; post. dorsal impressed behind the beaks; epidermis brownish black ; surface, in young specimens, smooth and glabrous, in old ones, much eroded, scabrous and broken. Teeth two in the right and one in the left valve, triangular, elevated and crenate ; muscular impressions rough; cavity of the beaks small ; naker bluish white, on the fore parts, lightly iridescent, the rest dull. Young specimens have the center of a pale flesh colour, and old ones are frequently marked with ir-
regular greenish spots.
Remarxs.—The remarkable change in the form of this species by age, as represented im the figures, might induce an observer to suppose that the shells belonged to different species; but the specimens in our collections of every va- riety of form, from those that are straight or even slightly rounded on the base, to those that are deeply arcuated, show clearly that they a// belong to the same species. It is sur- prising that a shell so large, and frequently occurring in our waters should so long have been overlooked. This has
278 Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta.
probably arisen from the supposition that it belonged to the genus Unio, as in its exterior it resembles some varieties of the U. purpureus.
2. ALASMODONTA RUGOSA.—Fig. 21. Shell oblong- oval, anteriour side with deep divergent folds.
Hab. Wisconsan. Capt. Douglass. ox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Dr. Mitchill’s Cabinet. My Collection. Mr. Say’s Collection. . ; Diam. 1.0 ngth 2. Breadth 3.7
Shell oblong-oval, about equally broad before and be- hind; beaks slightly elevated, wrinkled and decorticated, exhibiting a wax colour beneath ; ligament external and as high as the beaks ; anteriour lunule distinct with a slightly elevated ridge extending from the beaks to the ant. basal margin; basal margin a little shortened; the other margins regularly rounded; epidermis chesnut brown, with a silky lustre ; surface of the anteriour part folded in a pinnate form; folds deeper above and somewhat obsolete below the ridge, curved upward and extending to the hinge and anteriour margins, indenting the edge and visible on the interiour. Teeth large and elevated with a fold behind ; cicatrices smooth ; cavity small; naker pale flesh coloured in the center, pearly white on the margin with a narrow border of dark chocolate colour; surface smooth and gla-
rous
Remarxs.—This is a very beautiful shell, and unlike any of its congeners. In the one figured, the left valve is slight- ly compressed, the right a little gibbous and the base crook- ed, which may perhaps be accidental.
3. ALASMODONTA CompLaNata. Fig. 22. Shell ovate- ly quadrangular, hinge margin elevated into @ pris wing ; valves connate ; ligament conceal- ed.
Hab. Fox River. Mr. Schoolcraft. Wisconsan, Capt. Douglass.
Mr. Barnes on the Genera Unio and Alasmodonta. 279
Cabinets of the Lyceum, "i Dr. Mitehill. My collection. Mr. Say’s collection. =~ Diam. .9—1.4 Length fron ae to base 3.0 Breadth 5.0 , ength from the top of the wing 4.3—4.5 Shell very short behind ; disks much flattened; umbones depressed; beaks slightly projecting ; ligament between the valves ; anterior lunule much compressed and folded across the transverse wrinkles; hinge margin eleyated into a large wing, straight and forming an obtuse angle with the post. dorsal margin ; basal margin slightly rounded, nearly straight; anteriour and posterior margins somewhat angula- ted; anteriour dorsal margin arcuated, or somewhat emar- ginate ; epidermis chesuut brown, glossy 3 3 surface some- what deeply wrinkled and striated transversely ; slightly elevated age and furrows diverging from the beaks to the anteriour margin, and distinctly impressing the inside. Teeth elevated, sulcated and radiating aioe the beaks; ci- catrices smooth ; cavity small and angular; naker bluish white and iridescent; surface smooth, and polished, i in old specimens spotted with green.
Remarks.—This shell resembles the Unio Alatus, in the elevation of the wing and the connexion of the valves, and might at first sight be mistaken fora variety of that species ; but it differs in generick character, in shape, and in colour.
** Shells thin and small.
4. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA.—See Mr. Say’s de- scrip |
5. ALASMODONTA unpuLATA.—See Mr. Say’s de- scription and figure.
These two species were the only ones known when Mr. Say published his description. .The former of them is very common and assumes a great variety of forms and colours, Those that were brought by the N. W. Expedition are lar- ger than those of our eastern waters. They have the epi- dermis pale green, rayed ; ae are gibbous ; have ‘the beaks elevated, and base falcated.
Diam. 1.0 Tength 1.4 Breadth 2.4
280 Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections.
Our thanks are due to the following gentlemen, for spe- cimens and information. Gov. Cass of the Michigan Territory. __ Capt. D. B. Douglass, ideaaeaphicnl Engineer tothe N. W. Expedition. Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, Mineralogist to the N. W. Expe- dition. Mr. Thomas Say, Philadelphia. Doctor S. L. Mitchill, Majer 28 : ; Mr. S. B. Collins, Mr. J. M. Bradhurst, of New-York. Rev. J. Sears, Mr. R. N. Have
Havens, Mr. E. Norcross, of the American Museum.
MATHEMATICS.
—_ Ant. IX.— Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections. By Assistant Professor Davies. —
Military Academy, West-Point, Jan. 20, 1823. To the Editor. .
Sirr—In the first volume of Dr. Hutton’s Mathematics. (second American edition. p. 470,) we find the following article—“ If there be four cones, having all the same ver- tex, and all their axes in the same plane, and their sides touching, or coinciding in common intersecting lines ; then. if these four cones be all cut by one plane, parallel to the common plane of their axes, there will be formed four hy- perbolas, of which each two opposites are equal, and the other two are conjugates.” The intersections of a plane, and the surfaces of four cones, having a common vertex; touching each other in right-lined elements, and having their axes in one plane, are not conjugate hyperbolas, a¢
Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Section. 281
asserted by Dr. Hutton; and the principle which he has adopted as general, obtains in one case only. As I have not seen this error corrected, nor any other method laid down by authors on conic sections for obtaining conjugate hyperbolas by means of intersecting four cones situated as above, | send you the following, thinking that it may possi- bly merit a place among the mathematical articles of your Journal.
Let LAC, HAF, HAL, and : P e
AF, be four cones, having a: \ common vertex A, their axes inthe plane of the paper, and touching each other in the right-lined elements, CAH, and LAF
Ifthe two cones CAL and FAH be cut by a plane QCBDE, parallel to the line PO, it will intersect the cones in opposite hyperbo- Ay las ; and if we take the plane i
N
Al i
perpendicular to that of the oe these hyperbolas will
orthographically project- edin the line EQ. If through
“4
meets the right-lined ele- , G s AC ee *
plane be passed parallel to R
the line KAB, this plane will intersect the two cones LAH and CAF, in opposite hyperbolas, and these hyper- bolas will be conjugates to the former.
Demonstration.
Pass any plane as GF perpendicular to the axis of the cone GAF, it will intersect its surface in a circle, and the plane QE in a right line, which will be a common ordinate at the point KE, to the transverse axis of the hyperbola, and the diameter GF of the circle. Since the triangles CAB, CGE and DEF are similar, CB is to AB as CE to EG, and CB is to AB as DE to EFy and by multiplying together
Vou. VI.—No. 2. 36
282° Demonstration of a Problem in Conic Sections.
the corresponding terms of these proportions, we have CB? to AB? as CED toGEF. But the rectangle GEF is equal to the square of the ordinate of the circle or hyper- bola at the point E, therefore AB is the semi-conjugate ax- is of the opposite hyperbolas, whose transverse axis is CD. Let now a plane HL be passed perpendicular to the axis AK of the cone HAL, it will intersect its surface ina circle, and the plane DI in a line ; this line will be a common or- dinate of the hyperbolas whose transverse axis is DN, and to the circle whose diameter is HL. Since the triangle DAO, DLI and HIN are similar, DO is to AO as DI to IL, and DO is to AO as IN to IH; by multiplying the correspond- ing terms of these proportions, we obtain DO? to AQ? as DIN to HIL. But the rectangle HIL is equal to the square of the ordinate of the circle orhyperbola at the point I, and therefore the hyperbolas having DN for a transverse axis have AO for a semi-conjugate. _ Since CB is equal to AO, and AB to DO, the transverse axis of the hyperbolas whose vertices are C and D, is equal to the conjugate axis of the hyperbolas whose vertices are D and N, as they are respectively equal to QCB and QAO, and the transverse axis of the latter hyperbolas, is equal to the conjugate © the former; the four hyperbolas are therefore conjugates.
It follows from this demonstration that, if either two of the opposite cones, be intersected by a plane parallel to their common axis, the distance of this plane from the axis, is always equal to the semi-transverse axis of conjugate by- perbolas, and that these hyperbolas may be formed by in- tersecting the other two cones by a plane parallel to their common axis, and at a distance from it equal to the semi- transverse axis of the first hyperbolas. The cutting planes are at unequal distances from the axes of the cones, to which they are respectively parallel, unless those axes make with the right-lined elements of their corresponding cones, angles of forty-five degrees, in which case the hyperbolas are equilateral, and may be cut out by one plane paralle! to the axes of the four cones.
I am, Sir, with great respect and consideration, you obedient servant C.D
Asst. Prof. Nat. and Ex. Phi’y. To Prof. B. Silliman, New-Hayen.
Cambridge Course of Mathematics. 283
_
ART. MiasElenests of Geometry. By A .M. os ape Member of the Institute and Legion of Honon, of the R al Society of London, &c.; translated from the eck for the use of the students of the University at Cambridge, New-England. macehrle, NE. Hiltiard & Metcalf, 1819, p. 208. >» M. Legendre has long been regarded, as one of the sreat luminaries of mathematical science. His rectilineal and spherical trigonometry, appended to his Elements of Geometry, though not very extensive, is marked with pro- foundness and a His ‘ Essai sur la Theorie des Nombres,” (of which the second edition, much larger and more complete than the first, was published at Paris in 4to in 1808,) contains the principal results of Fermat, Euler, and Lagrange, together with the fruit of his own investiga- tions, upon that difficult and —- branch of mathe- matics. It contains also some of the most interesting dis- coveries of M. Gauss, upon ‘the same’subject. ‘The first elements of the “ Theory of Numbers,” or, as it is some- times called .“* Transcendant Arithmetic,’ are demonstra- ted in the seventh book of Euclid, with elegance and rigor. We have some other ancient fragments on the properties of numbers, but this branch of ees has been much more cultivated by the moderns t y the ancients. In- deed, our system of Arithmetical Notation, which ap- proaches erhaps as near perfection as any in this world, and the resources of our Algebra, aa given the moderns pospoie ne advantage over the ancients in investigating the ea ofnumbers. Of the “Theorie” of Legen- dre, M. Gauss thus speaks : : Dans cet intervalle, il a paru un excellent ouvrage dun homme qui avait déja rendu de trés-grands services a roa tr ———— dans lequel il a non-sewlement rassemblé et mis en ordre tout ce qui a paru jusqu’a‘présent sur sua science, mais ajouté beaucoup de choses nouvelles qui lui sont propres.* Be- sides these, he is author of anew method for the determin- ation of the orbits of comets; Exercises upon the Integral
*Recherches Arithmétiques traduiteg par Delisle, preface p. 14,
284 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
Calculus; and various academical memoirs. In the late
reat trigonometrical surveys in France and England, op- erations which have contributed so much to our knowl- edge of the earth we inhabit, and to the honor of the na- tions engaged in them; the instruments used were of such exquisite construction, that the angles were measured to a fraction ofa second. Hence, the spherical excess, that is, the excess of the three angles of the triangles, measured in these surveys on the surface of the earth, above two right angles, became apparent. It was necessary, therefore, to estimate this excess. The prompt genius of M. Legendre
stration of this very valuable theorem, in the appendix to his Trigonometry.
The Elements of Geometry now under. consideration, were composed during that period.of the French history, when the ancient foundations of society and government were undermined, and the political edifice throughout Eu- rope, rocked with fearful convulsions on its base. The great French philosophers and mathematicians saw plainly, that in order to conciliate the popular favor, and avoid the jealousy of the reigning authority, they must, as far as p0S- sible, render their favorite pursuits subservient to objects of immediate and practical utility. They had seen the eml- nent talents and conspicuous virtues of Lavoisier, insufhi- cient to save him from the scaffold ; and the illustrious but unfortunate Bailly, who had formerly been the idol of the French nation, and who had devoted his life to the inter-
Legendre’s Geometry. 285
ests of science and humanity, had fallen a victim of the most sanguinary tyranny, before their eyes. The subse- quent organization of a system of public instruction, gave the French mathematicians an opportunity of rend eminent services to the government. The _— of the exact sciences to the views of the French nation, as con- stituting the basis of the science of war, salle 32 full ex- ercise all the mathematical talents in the kingdom. But above all, the establishment of the National Institute con- centrated the talents of the nation, and the pensions and high honors which were liberally bestowed, especially up- on those who successfully cultivated the exact sciences, gave an astonishing impulse to mathematical learning. To these circumstances we owe the geometry of Legendre, the numerous mislemobinry treatin of Lacroix, Laplace’s System-of the World, Lagrange’s Theory of Analytical pene aie Poisson’s Mechani bar “and an immense number other works of the highest inesit, which cannot now medidatohed The exact sciences are vastly indebted to the rench revolution and its long train of consequences, what- ever may be its ultimate effect upon the progress of knowl- edge ingeneral. The science of calculation is now invest- ed with such resources, that almost nothing is too compli- cated, or too stubborn to yield to its power. efore proceeding to a particular examination of the work before us, we feel called upon to say a few words up- on the enquiries,—what ought an elementary treatise of geometry to contain, in the present state of the pure and applied mathematics ?—and = we should adopt M. Le- gendre’s treatises, or that of any other modern writer, in preference to “ Euclid’s Danie’ which have been real os the most part, asa dextchsiebient in the American college With respect to the first enquiry, it is plain, that an . ele- mentary treatise cannot contain all the truths within the compass of elementary geometrical investigation. The
each other, are innumerable. Some of these properties and relations have never been applied “a any practical ob- ject, others form links more or less important in a long chain of connected truths, others are truths important in
286 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
themselves, independently of their connections, while a multitude of others, without doubt, remain still undiscover- ed. The general principles with a view to whichan ele- mentary treatise of geometry ought to be composed, in the present state of mathematical science, we think, are these: ist. All those truths should be selected, which admit of extensive applications as well to ordinary practical purpo~ ses, as in the higher branches of mathematics. 2d. The
connection with other truths already known, and render sensible, the transition from a proposition to that which follows:it. 5th. The traths demonstrated should be ar- ranged in the most natural order, and well connected with each other. 6th. The synthetic method of demonstration should be employed, as being peculiarly appropriate to el- ementary geometry. 7th. Great care ought to be used to
larity of the propositions, their demonstrations ought to be similar. ‘The preservation of this analogy not only gives elegance to the demonstrations, but much assistance to memory. . , as?
The question, why students in mathematics should use @ modern treatise of geometry, in preference to the Elements of Euclid, is of far more difficult discussion than the prece- ding. Euclid’s Geometry has come down to us clothed with the authority of the high antiquity of two thousand
e)
“Wy
Legendre’s Geomeiry. 287
years, and in this work he appears to have collected all the elementary truths of the science, which oo disc 4 ov- ered at the time in which he lived. It was com
der the patron age of the Ptolemies, aid in the oot of Alexandria. | ith respect, however, to the influence which antiquity ought to have upon our opinion of an
time when its attainments were the highest; and before we suffer ourselves to be guided by the veneration of anti- quity, we ought to consider in what real rime # —- With regard to the progress of knowledge an ment, we are more ancient than those who went belere us. The human race has now more experience than in the gen- a that are past, and of course may be expected to ave made higher attainments in science and philosophy.’’* Euclid’s Geometry is the only elementary work on the subject, that has come down to us from very remote times. But we do not know how it can be proved, that it was the only work of the kind which existed at that period; much’ less do we know, how it can be shewn that it was the best. if we had other ancient. elements of Geometry, our views of Euclid’s might possibly be considerably different. Notwithstanding what is here said, we profess the high- est veneration for the genius of Euclid, and we are perfect- ly aware of the extent of our obligations to this great father ef geometrical science. But while we would be foremost to grant him the full measure of his merit, we are convin- ced that the admiration bestowed on him, has sometimes been extravagant and absurd. His Elements have been re- presentedas absolutely perfect,—incapable of improvement. Take the following passage as an example: “ A geometer who hasstood the test of more than two thousand years ; who has resisted the attacks of so many critics, and supported the weight of s0 many commentators ; whose writings kept alive the sacred fire of science when it was almost extin- guished over the whole earth, and now shine with undi- minished lustre amidst the greatest splendor of scientific discovery ; such an author is not to be moved by the praise or the censure of modern criticism; his place in the tem- ple of fame is irrevocably fixed, and nothing remains for us
*Diss, on Math, and Phys. Science, p. 50.
288 Cambridge Course of Mathematies.
but to hail him as one of the immortals.”* As aspecimen of rhetoric, this may be very fine, but we are persuaded that its merit ends here. hile a multitude of books, which cost their authors much labor and reflection, are dai- ly passing into oblivion, and while the whole volume of na- ture lies open to our investigation, it is absurd to say that any human work in any age, or in any department of learn- ing, ever has or ever will put a period to the progress of improvement, and arrive at perfection ; a state which van- ity on the one hand, and enthusiasm on the other, have dreamed of, but which the nature and destiny of human things forbids us to expect ever to attain. Dr. Johnson flattered himself for a while, he says, that his Dictionary, which he had labored many yearsand with so much appli- cation, would fix the English language, and put a stop to those alterations which time and chance had before been suffered to make in it without opposition, but he after- wards found, that he had indulged expectations which nei- ther reason nor experience could justify.
But to be more particular: we shall endeavor to shew, that Euclid’s Elements contain many imperfections which are remedied in those of Legendre and Lacroix; and that their Elements contain much valuable information which will in vain be sought for in those of Euclid. Our remarks.
rer, will be very brief, as it would be inconsistent
*Edinb, Review, Vol. TV. p. 257. +Preface. ~
Legendre’s Geometry. 289
English writers on geometry to the present time, while the French mathematicians have for a long period investigated _ the principles of ratios and proportion by arithmetical and algebraic methods. Even the Edinburgh Encyclopeedists, who have made Legendre’s Elements the basis of their ar- ticle Geometry, have in this part entirely deserted him, and have introduced the theory of ratiosand proportion essential- ly after the manner of Euclid. Atthe same time, the author of the article referred to, confesses, that “it might with pro- priely be inserted, rather asa preliminary theory, than as orming a part ofgeometry,* It was necessity, and not choice, thai ied Euclid to connect the theory. of ratios and propor- tion with geometry. In his time algebra, to which we have before said that this theory in all its extent belongs, was unknown. . When, therefore, Euclid wished to apply pro- portion to geometrical figures, it was necessary for him to investigate its principles by geometry, as the only means _ with whi e was furnished. Euclid is not in fault for the
course which be pursued. He did all that could be done, ‘in the circumstances in which he was placed. But for us, who are in possession of algebraic methods, at once easy and elegant, to pursue the same course, is entirely a different thing. ‘To do so, is not less absurd than it would be to set about determining the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator by means of the gnomon, when we have the theodolite and repeating circle; or to pursue Aristotle’s method of philoso- phising, when we have so long followed that of the illustri- ous Bacon, with such splendid success. The theory of pro- portion as given by Euclid, is extremely tedious, circuitous and difficult to be understood by beginners. The reason of this is, that geometry in its nature is of very little generality, and in its construction is not sufficiently flexible to admit o easy application to the subject. But by making use of al- gebra, which at the same time accommodates itself to the suject with great facility, and is a language vastly more gen- eral than geometry, the whole theory of ratios and propor- tion flows in the most natural and easy manner, from the simplest properties of equations.
Again, the Elements of Euclid contain too many proposi- tions merely subsidiary, and propositions which are of almost No practical utility, and have no connection with the suc-
* Edinb. Encye. Vol. IX. pp. 658,669.
Vor. VI.—No. 2. 37
290 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
ceeding and higher parts of mathematics. The seventh proposition, B. [. difficult for beginners, is given only for the sake of the eighth, and isof no further use whatever. The sixteenth is evidently implied in the thirty-second, and therefore is of no use, except as being subsidiary to the de- monstration of others. Propositions forty-fourth and for- ty-fifth, are not of sufficient use to compensate for the space which they occupy. In B. II. the sixth, eighth, tenth and eleventh propositions, with some others relating to the properties of straight lines variously divided and produced, are very unimportant and tend to discourage beginners by the tediousness and difficulty of their demonstrations. They are omitted by Hutton and other late English writers, as well as by Legendre and Lacroix. Many of the proposi- tions in B. III. are, also, of small practical utility, and are not used in subsequent parts of the science. The demon- strations of many of them are indirect, of some of them, ar- tificial; and the construction of some of the figures, is un- natural and difficult to be conceived. To one or another of these objections, the following propositions are liable ; fourth, fifth, sixth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth. The fourth B. contains an incomplete view of. that part of the science which it embraces. It ought at least, to comprise an investigation of the approximate ratio of the circumfer- ence to the diameter of a circle. Of B. sixth, we have to say only, that M. M. Legendre and. Lacroix have demon- strated the same truths in a more simple and equally rigor- ous manner, that they have divested them of much techni- cal language which rendered them difficult to be understood, and that they have supplied many propositions of extensive use in the subsequent parts.
Another particular, on account of which we must give the preference to the Elements of Legendre and Lacroix, respects the arrangements. It is by a different and more skillful ar- rangement, that they have contrived to avoid, much more than Euclid has done, subsidiary propositions,indirect demon- strations, and unnatural constructions. Perhaps we may here be expected to furnish the instances, in which their arrange- ment Is superior to that of Euclid. But by way of excusing ourselves from this, we must beg leave to observe, that a question of arrangement is of so extensive a nature, that we could not do justice to our views of the subject, without en-
Legendre’s Geometry. 295
tering into long discussions. and giving numerous details,
which must be imperfectly understood. without diagrams and without a minute comparison*ef the arrangement adopt- ed by the writers of whom we are speaking. This is a particular upon which a sound opinion cannot be formed without personal inspection. We think that the conclusion at which we have arrived, and which we have stated at the beginning of this paragraph will be inevitable in the mind of every one who will be at the pains of a comparison some- what extensive and elaborate. All that we ask of our read- ers on the point now under consideration, is, that they will - not conclude us to be entirely and. necessarily wrong, until they have given the subject an attentive examination. “In his judices desidero, qui tractarunt in sua amplitudine.* We trust that this will not be considered an unreasonable claim upon their candor
On the geometry of solids or volumes, also, the elements
than those of Euclid. On this point, it is impossible: to convey an adequate idea to those who are not, to a consid- erable extent, acquainted with the subject. At the time of Euclid, the geometry of solids appears to have been quite imperfectly investigated. It is true, that before this period, the five regular bodies had been studied 1 in the celebrated school of Plato; and A iscov- eries in relation to the properties of the sphere and cylinder. But the properties of Polyedrons in general, and their meas- ure, have not received, until within a short period, the at- tention” which their importance merited ; and | egendre in particular, has contributed heh to die elacidatian of the subject. M. Cauch , also, has done gaat towards
etry. e are now sufficiently prepared to ate: with advan-
definitions and axioms are laid down very much in the usual style. .The latter are nearly the same in substance with those of Euclid, and differ from them principally in the cir- cumstance, that the idea of equality is not drawn out into a They are but five in number. It is evident
e does not attempt a complete enumeration of them, a thing which no geometer has accomplished. A. straight line is defined to be, “the shortest way from one point to
* Valckenaer ad Herodotum, p. 585.
292 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
another,” which is better than any other definition of if, since it is of more easy and extensive application than any other. We think the most natural way of giving a general definition of a point,a line, and a surface, is, to contemplate a surface, as one of the limits terminating a solid, which has necessarily three dimensions; a dine as a limit terminating a surfacé; and a point, as a limit terminating a line. ‘These definitions flow naturally from the definition of a solid, in defining which there is/no difficulty. When these defini- tions are obtained in this way, and viewed in this light, they have less the nature of abstractions, than when stated m
the quantity whether greater or less, by which they depart from each other as to their position, is called an angle; the point of meeting or intersection is the vertex of the an- gle; the lines (comprising the angle) are its sides.” Very various definitions of an angle, have been given by geome- ters. That of Euclid, is certainly faulty. In fact, if we define an angle by the inclination of its lines, the expres- sion is both obscure and pleonastic. If we say that an an- gle is the meeting of two lines, the expression directs the attention entirely to the vertex. On the whole, we believe it best to understand by the term angle, the indefinite space comprised between two straight lines which meet each other. ‘The celebrated D’Alembert proposed to limit this space by an arc of a circle described from the vertex as a centre with any convenient radius, but this is introducing a foreign idea into the definition. The space in question, is perfectly distinguished from all other space. The defi- nition suggested above, comprises all the properties usual- ly ascribed to an angle, such as addition, subtraction, coin- cidence by super-position, &c. But besides this, the ad- ditional valuable circumstance included in the idea of an angle, that it comprises the space included within its sides, prevents the awkwardness and tedious circumlocution, with which every one must have felt the geometry of planes and solids to be invested. This is a point, in which we thi
Lacroix has the advantage over Legendre. Euclid has
aa
Legendre’s Geometey. 293
sometimes used the word angle in the sense above defined. (B. XI, 20,21, 22, &c.) and dif any one will make the exper- iment he will find it more natural to attach that idea to it in all cases. Ifit is objected, that the space which we in- clude in the idea of an angle is indefinite in extent, we an- swer, so are the sides of the angle of indefinite length ac- cording to the common definition. If the indefinite space be an objection in the one case, so are the indefinite sides in the other. But the fact is, that the circumstance of the sides and space comprised being indefinite, has no connex- ion with any of the properties of an ree: nor with any in- vestigations in which angles are em The elements of Legendre are divided in the original
into eight books, four of which treat of plane, and four of solid geometry. These books are changed into sections by the translator, and the principles are numbered from be- ginning to end, for the sake of more conveniest reference. The first section contains the properties of straight lines which meet, those of a the theorem upon the sum of the angles of a triangle, the theory of parallel lineé, &c. and corresponds nearly with B. I. of Euclid.. The doc- trine of parallel lines has long been considered as present- ing one of the greatest difficulties which belong to ele- mentary geometry. Euclid treated the subject, by intro-
ucing as an axiom, what is more justly considered a prop- osition. Later writers have uniformly experienced the same difliculty, ba some of them have fallen on strange means of poe ming ite ‘Bezout est diss issimule’ le vice du raisonnement,” says Lacroix.* Some writers have trans- posed and shifted athe difficulty, until they have obscured it under long and int tricate a Such a ae we
favtats editions. ‘He says in the preface, “6 Paprés Pavis de plusieurs professeurs distingués, on s’ est déter~ miné a rétablir, dans cette onzieme édition, la théorie des
* + Géométrie, p. 23.
294 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
proposition in which this difficulty is so reduced, is this; a straight line which is perpendicular to another straight line, is met by all those which are oblique to this other; consequently, upon a plane, there are none but straight lines perpendicular to the same straight line, which do not meet, that is, which are parallel to each other. The imperfection of the theory of parallel lines consists in the dithculty of proving this principle. Lacroix, making use of that definition of an angle to. which we gave the prefer- nce, has given a demonstration of it taken from Bertrand, which is short, free from obscurity, and perfectly satisfac- tory. After all that has been said, we have long been © the opinion, that the difficulty respecting parallel lines, 's mn a great measure, imaginary. ‘The method by which La- croix has disposed of the difficulty is much to be preferre to that of any other writer, yet we never examined the sub- ject as treated by any author, when, we think, any one
*Developpment nouveau de la partie élémentaire des Mathematiques, Geneve, 1778, 2 vols, 4to,
mma “23n) ESRORET O Bit geei r BE Ee' e rarpeeinmmmcee =a eT 4
Legendre’s Geometry. 295
could, for a moment have doubted, whether the conclusions were established with complete certainty by the evidence adduced. Those who have objected most to the theory of parallel lines, as usually laid down, belong to that class of mathematicians who insist upon a rigour of demonstration not accommodated to the imperfections attending all hu- man things, and which aiming at an imaginary perfection, is very unreasonably dissatisfied with evidence which es- tablishes its results with perfect certainty. The theorems that we possess respecting the properties of parallel lines, we regard as undeniably certain; any difficulties, therefore, relating to the manner in which they are demonstrated, we cannot but consider essentially imaginary. he second section, comprises the elementary proper- ties of the circle, together with those of chords, of tangents and the measure of angles by arcs of a circle. This sec- tion contains all the principles which are of importance in B.111. of Euclid, and some others both of great use in ordin- ary practice, and in the succeeding parts of the science. These two sections are followed by the resolution of a number of problems relating to the construction of figures. The third section contains the measure of surfaces, their
ures equivalent, whose surfaces are equal. Two figures may be equivalent, however dissimilar ; thus a circle may be equivalent to a square; a triangle to a rectangle, &c. The denomination of equal figures will be restricted to those which being applied, the one to the other, coincide entirely; thus two circles having the same radius are equal, and two triangles having the three sides of the one equal to the three sides of the other, each to each, are also equal.” In the use of these definitions, he is followed by Lacroix. We are persuaded that a distinction between equality by equivalence, and equality by coincidence, is expedient as a matter of convenience, and as a means of enlarging our
296 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
power of expressing the properties and relations of figures. According to endre’s plan, the meaning of the term equal, is unnatural. We should have preferred to apply the term cowncident to those figures which are proved to be equal by superposition, and to have designated by the term equiv- alent, all the remaining part of the common signification of the word equal. Coincident and equivalent figures are both equal, but these terms designate different kinds of equality, and, we think, the introduction of them would contribute to the perfection of the language of geometry. Equality by coincidence alone, is comprised in the sixth of his axioms, in which he says, “two magnitudes, whetber they be lines, surfaces or solids, are equal when being ap- plied the one to the other, they coincide with each other entirely, that is, when they exactly fill the same space.” This section is concluded, by demonstrating, that the diag- onal and side of a square, are incommensurable quantities, and by an investigation of the approximate ratio of the one to the other. Jt is remarkable what could have Jed Plato,* to attach such an importance to this principle, as to regard as unworthy the name of man, him who was ignorant of it. It is demonstrated in prop. CXVII. B. X. of Euclid, and in several modern treatises of geometry. It is of no great im- portance, either when veiwed by itself, or in connexion with other truths.
ne fourth section treats of regular polygons and the measure of the circle. [tis well known, that the problem of finding a square equal in surface to a circle whose radius is given, or as it is usually termed, the problem of the quad- rature of the circle, is much celebrated in the history of ge-
* Laws, B, vil.
. Legendre’s Geometry. 297
tion, though it has exhausted all the resources of human skill and invention, and it strongly reminds us, that imperfec- tion is attached even to the most certain and most perfect of the sciences. The approximation of this ratio, has, ‘however, been carried so far, that if it were exactly known, it would have no practical advantage over the approximate ratio. It would now be considered absurd, to spend much time in attempting to square the circle.
Archimedes obtained the ratio of 22, which is sufficient- ly near for common purposes, and has been much used. Metius gave a much more exact value of this ratio in the expression 323, Other mathematicians have found the value of the circumference, when the diameter is unity, 3,141592653 &c. Euler gives an approximation of this ra- tio which extends to 127 decimal places,* and this number has been extendedevento 140places. The roots ofimperfect powers are not known with greater exactness, than this ratio.
Legendre has not given the ratio, that has lately been discovered by the English in their researches into the learn- ing of the Eastern Indians, but we think it ought to have a place, both on account of its exactness and its remarkable origin. This ratio, which is $227, is contained ina work of the Brachmans entitled 4yeen Akbery, and is not only much more approximate, but also is regarded by them as more ancient than that of Archimedes. It is, doubtless, to be re- garded as a part of the immense wreck of ancient learning which is scattered all over India. In that interesting coun- try, “ we every. where find methods of calculation without the principles on which they are founded ; rules blindly followed without being understood; phenomena without their explanation; and elements carefully determined, while others more important, and equally obvious, are alto- gether unknown.”+ The Indian ratio corresponds to 3.1416, and must have depended on a polygon of 768 sides, where- as that of Archimedes depends upon one of 96 sides.
Two lemmas are given as the basis of the investigation of the measure of the circle, which is otherwise conducted after the manner of Archimedes.. Two methods of approx- imation are there given for its quadrature. An appendix
- Introduction 4 analyse infinitésimale, Tome I. p. 92:
+ Edinb. Encyc. Vol. lf. p. 550. Vo. VI.— No. 2. 38
298 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
is attached to this section, in which a few of the elementa- ry properties of isoperimetrical figures are demonstrated. Among the rest, it is shewn, that among polygons of the same perimeter and of the same number of sides, that is a
maximum which has its sides equal; that of ail triangles”
formed with two given sides making any angle at pleasure with each other, the maximum is that in which the two given sides make a right angle; that among polygons of the same perimeter and the same number of sides, the regular polygon is a maximum ; and that the circle is greater than
The difficulty, however, which had arrested the progress of this part of geometry ever since the time of Euclid, has at length been surmounted by M. Gauss, a Professor at the university of Gottingen, and one of the greatest mathema- ticians of the present time. The work containing the ori- inal demonstration is entitled, ‘‘Disqwisitiones Arithmetice, ipsie, 1801,’ anda French translation of it was published by M. Delisle at Paris in 1807. In this demonstration. it is own, that the circumference of a circle may be divided into a number of equal parts designated by the formula 2"+-1, when this is a prime number. Some of the numbers resulting from this formula are 17,257, 65537, &c. The circumstance that M. Gauss’ invention ‘is limited to the cases where the formula 2"+1 designates a prime number, greatly diminishes its value. No demonstration of this principle has, we believe, found its way into any elementa- ry treatise of geometry, and we are not sure, that it is cnnaie of a strictly geometrical elementary demonstra- ion. ;
The first section of part II, contains the properties of planes and solid angles. This part'is intimately connect- ed with the demonstrations of the properties of solids, and figures in which different planes are considered. A com- plete underestanding of it is indispensable, also, in descrip- ‘ive geometry, where the principal difficulty consists in
,
Legendre’s Geometry. 299
conceiving clearly the situation of the various planes used, and their projections. The niecciee is treated in a Sine and rigorous style.
The second section of par If. treats of polyedrons Fo of their measure. . We have before suggested, . that we feel ourselves unable pinogvey an adequate view of the merit of this part of Legendre’s work. Those who are only acquaint- ed with the geometry of solids or volumes as given by the older writers, we are sure, will be surprised and delighted at the luminous and novel manner, in which this part of el- ementary geometry is exhibited. On volumes he has made a distinction between two different kinds of equality anal-
» ogous to that which we before noticed with respect to the
comparison of surfaces.. “ Two solids, two solid angles, two. spherical triangles, or two. spherical polygons, may be
equal in all their constituent. parts without coinciding when applied. It does not appear that this observation pens been made in elementary books ; and for want of havin;
é as
of figures, are not exact. Such are the demonstrations, by which several authors pretend to prove. the equality of spherical triangles, in the same cases and in the same man- ner, as they do that of plane triangles. We are furnished with a striking example of this by ‘Robert Simson, who, in attacking the demonstration of Euclid, B. XI. prop. 28, fell himself into the error of founding his. demonstration upon a coincidence which does not exist. We have thought it proper, therefore, to give a particular name to this kind of equality, which does not admit of coincidence ; we have called it equality by symmetry ; and the figures which are thus related, we call symmetrical figures.”?* We think, as in the case of surfaces, that the defects in the usual language would have been better supplied by calling those figures which would coincide, coincident figures, ‘that is, figures equal by coincidence ; and those figures which will not coincide, symmetrical figures, that is, figures equal by sym- metry.
In the propositions relating to polyedrons, as well as in those relating to polygons and solid angles, those having re- entering angles are excluded as not belonging to the ele-
* Traus. Note L, p. 202.
300 Cambridge Course of Mathematics.
ments of the science. The author has very properly con- fined himself to the consideration of convex lines and surfa- ces, which are such, that they cannot be met by a straight line in more than two points. He has completely reformed the ordinary definition of similar solid polyedrons, though he has followed that of similar oe figures containing, as it does, three superfluous condition
In the latter part ‘of the note just resol to, Legendre says, ‘‘the angle formed by the meeting of two planes, and the solid angle formed by the meeting of several planes in the same point, are distinct kinds of magnitudes to which it would be well perhaps to give particular names. With- out this, it is difficult to avoid obscurity and circumlocu- tions in speaking of the — of planes which com- pose the surface of a polyedron; and as the theory of sol- ids has been little cultivated: hitherto, there is less incon- venience in introducing new expressions, where they are required by the nature of the subject.” According to the suggestion here made, M. Lacroix has introduced into the geometry of planes and volumes, a very convenient system of new expressions, and some slight alterations in the nota- tion, by circumlocution is avoided, and our power of expression much enlarged. The translator has adopted one of these changes in the notation, which con- sists merely inplacing the letter designating the vertex of the polyedron first, with a hyphen between it, and the oth- er letters. This very trifling change, contributes consider- ably to the facility of following the demonstrations. — La- croix’s improvements in general, could not be conveniently adopted by the translator.
The third section of part Il. relates to the sphere | and spherical triangles. This is an important addition to the el- ements of geometry, as it is not of difficult demonstration, and is of extensive utility in its applications to geography;
. as wellas'in the succeeding parts of mathematics. It is designed in particular to be aah a to spherical
tgenomety:
he fourth section of this part, is employed:i in sg 9 ting the properties and relations of the sphere, cone, and cylinder. The general method of demonstration in = section, is that of Maurolycus, a Sicilian geometer, W flourished in the middle of the 16th century. This ips
’
Legendre’s Geometry. 301
od is indicated i in Euclid B. XII. prop. 16th. It consists in assuming two concentric circumferences, and circum- scribing about the smaller a regular polygon which does not touch the greater; or inscribing a regular polygon in the greater, which does not touch the smaller. On these polygons, as bases, in case circumstances require it sregular polyedrons are supposed to be constructed, and it is de- monstrated, that the assigned measure of the solid or sur- face in question,cannot be that of one greater or less, with- out falling into the absurdity of cite Sete that a figure con- tained by another is the greater of the two, These de- monstrations are long, and on rantine of the frequent repe- tition of the same constructions, become somewhat tedious. But they have the merit of being plain, and satisfactory, although indirect; and we think, on the whole, that the method pursued by Legendre is the best. Lacroix’s man- ner as it respects these demonstrations, is much more con- cise, but it is too abstract, and difficult to be seized; and Cavalleri’s method of indivisibles is not sufficiently igorées to be used in elementary geometry.
After what has been said, it is scarcely necessary to ob- serve, that American mathematical science, is under great obligations to the translator, for giving Legendre’s elements in so handsome an English dress. The only fault we have to charge him with, is, that he did not furnish us with the entire work, as it came from the hands of the author. Con- siderable of that part which in the original is printed in fine type, and almost all the ss are omitted in the transla- tion. These omissions we very much regret. By pre- serving the original difference in type, the work would have been equally convenient for academical instruction, and the additional expense of printing the parts omitted, would have been quite trifling. As it now is, we are pur- suaded, that all lovers of mathematical pclae y after hav- ng perused the translation, will feel induced to go to the
expense of sending out for the original, for the sake of those parts, which the translation does not contain. The notes are a great curiosity, _— a be likely to inspire a taste for the higher mathemati
The translation is cancited faithfully, and it is accurate- ly printed. A list of errata, however, to some extent might be made out, though none is given. In the demon-
302 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
stration of No. 283, the phrase at east is used,where there should t most, and vice versa. e would suggest whether the reasoning of No. 283 is satisfactory; and whether it would not be better to deduce the lemma im- mediately, from the definition of a straight line. Such a tine being the shortest distance between two points, any line connecting these two points and varying from the straight line, 1s greater than it; and the more any line al- ways remaining convex,varies from the straight line between its extreme points, the greater is such line. The Edin- burgh Encyclopedists have laid down an axiom nearly equivalent to the lemma under discussion.
ed
PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, MECHANICS, AND THE ARTS.
a ee
Art. XI.—Remarks concerning the composition and proper- ties of the Greek fire; by James Cursusn, A. S. U.S. A- and Acting Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the U. S. Military Academy. = Si
Havuve been engaged for some time in collecting facts, both ancient and modern, in relation to pyrotechny, wit the view of forming a complete system on that subject; I ne- cessarily examined all the writings extant on the Greek fire, and other incendiary preparations. Although nothing fally satisfactory, asto the real composition of the original Greek fire, can be stated, yet we are assured from various author- ities, that the principal ingredient was naptha, which with other substances, (camphor appears to have been one,) in consequence of its great inflammability produced extraordinary effects recorded in history. ;
The Greek fire was invented by Callinicus of Heliopolis, a town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement, that he destroyed a whole fleet of the enemy, in which were embarked 30,000 men.* - * The Noveaw Dictionaire Historique par L. M. Chaudon et F. A. Delan-
dine, article Callinicus, speaks of him thus: “ Callinique, d’ Héliopolis e> Syria, auteur de Ja découverte du Feu grecque. 1.” empereur Constantin
Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 303 It appears that in the reign of Louis-XV, a chemist of
Grenoble; Dupré Mayen, discovered a com omposition similar in effect to the Greek fire of Callinicus, which was exhibited at Brest, and proved successful, but the prepara-
tioned. Writers have defined it to be a sort of artificial fire, which insinuates itself beneath the surface of the sea, and - which burns with increased violence when it mixes with water. They also say, that its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire, for the flames spread downward, to the right or left, agreeably to the movement which is given. That it was a liquid composition, we may infer from oi modes of using it, which were several. It was employe chiefly on board of ships, and thrown on the vessels of the enemy by large engines. It was sometimes kindled in par- ticular vessels, which might be quiet fire ships, and which were introduced among a hostile fleet; sometimes it was put into jars, and other vessels, and thrown at the enemy by means of projectile machines, and sometimes it was squirted by soldiers from hand engines, or, as it appears, ene through pipes. This fire was also discharged from he fore part of ships by a machine constructed of copper oe iron, the extremity of which is said to have resembled the open mouth and jaws of a lion, or other animal. were painted, and even gilded, and were capable of project- ing the liquid fire to a great distance.
In the History of Inventions and Discoveries by J. Beck- man, public professor of Economics in the University of Gottingen, I find the professor has examined the subject of Greek fire. He observes expressly, (Vol. IV. p. 85.) that the machines which the ancients employed to throw this fire, were spouting engines, and remarks, that “‘ John Cameniata, speaking of his native city, Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year 904, says, that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes, and thrown from other Pornh ma ’ on eke he. CaF eee ee EL led eeditaien 7 y pes Cet ii i nt qu’ seperncen aussi Phuile incendiaire, le ode marin, le few
dévoroit, dit-on, le fer and les pierres, suivoit toutes les directions qu’on voulait ui donner, and ne pouvoit étre éteint qu’avec du vinaigre, du sable ou de lurine,’ &c. Callinique vivait vers l’an 670 de J hrist.”
T "eau qui éieint
304 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
vessels. This passage, which I do not find quoted in any of the works that treat of the Greek fire, proves that the Greeks, in the beginning of the tenth century, were no longer the on- ly people acquainted with the art of preparing this fire, the precursor of our gunpowder. The emperor Leo, who about the same period wrote his Art of War, recommends such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the fore parts of ships, and be twice afterwards mentions engines for throw- ing out Greek fire. In the east, one may easily have con- ceived the idea of loading some kind of pump with the Greek fire; as the use of a forcing pump for extinguishing fires was long known there before the invention of Callini- cus.”
Writers differ considerably. as to the composition of the Greek fire, properly so called, as there were many prepara- tions some hundred years after the discovery, which went under that name. It is certain, however, that the Greeks had a knowledge of a very highly combustible preparation, which water could not extinguish, and which from its nature, (reasoning a priori,) must have had the property of decom- posing water itself; thereby furnishing a supporter of combus- tion sing so much oxygen as to support the com- bustion of the inflammable substances even in contact with water. Either one or other of these conclusions appears reasonable, if we admit that the composition actually burnt ‘under water. Some writers are of opinion, that nitrate of potash was one of the ingredients; but of this we have no positive proof. Mr. Parkes (Chem. Catech. p. 465) speaking of some of the uses of saltpetre, remarks, that “it was used by the ancients in that destructive composition of antiquity, the Greek fire. Sulphur, resin, camphor, and other combusti- bles, were melted with it, and in this melted mass woollen cords were dipped, which were afterwards rolled up for use. These balls being set on fire were thrown into the tents, &c. of the enemy; and as the combustibles were furnished with a constant supply of oxygen from the nitre, nothing could extinguish them.” He also observes: “For many centu- ries the method of making this dreadful article of destruc- tion was lost; but it has just been diseovered by the libra- rian of the elector of avaria, who has found a very old latin manuscript which contains directions for preparing it.” Mr. Parkes is certainly in error when he says that the origin-
Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 305
al Greek fire, if to such he alludes, was altogether used in balls; he may probably have inferred so from the manner in which our modern war incendiaries are prepared and used, such as the light-ball, various carcasses, &c. some of which are thrown by hand, and some from mortars and howitzes.
Liemanwick. Even the so called incendiary rocket of Congreve, which is nothing more than an ordinary rock- et having a sheet iron case, is Joaded in the head with a sim- ilar composition; in fact that, and other descriptions of the Congreve rocket, I can clearly shew was not an original in- vention of Colonel Congreve. On the subject of incendiary and other military fire works, the French have certainly laid the foundation, for the very preparations now used by the British, for the formule for such preparations may be traced to the French service.
It appears, however, that the Greek fire could be ex- tinguished only by urine, sand, &c. e following extract from James’s Military Dictionary p. 329 is to this point: “It is composed or made up of naptha, sulphur, bitumen, gum, and pitch; and it can be extinguished only by vinegar ee au urine and sand, or undressed leather and green
ides.
Respecting a similar composition to that of the Greek fire, or one which seems to partake of the same properties, | find the author of a French work, entitled Oewore Militaire, has given the following preparation, which it is said cannot be extinguished by water: Pitch, rosin, tallow, camphor, turpentine, salt-petre, liquid varnish, oil of sulphur (not sul- phuric acid) linseed oil, rock oil, flax, and charcoal finely pulverised. After melting the solid substances, as pitch, &c. with the oils and varnish, the charcoal and flax are ad- ded, and the composition made ifito balls, previously mix- ing with it before it grows cold, some quicklime in powder. This preparation we are told, is susceptible of the most sub tile and destructive fire. It is hardly necessary to remark, that a composition of this kind must be highly inflammable, and, with the addition of nitre, burn with great rapidity.
Vol. VI.—No. 2. 39
306 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
The fire stone of the French, an incendiary preparation, is
with powder, or mad
s were in possession of the secret for preparing the Greek fire in 1432, according to the testimony of Brocquire. Bertrandon de la Brocquire was in Palestine in 1432 as councellor to the duke of Burgundy. He was present at Barrat during one of the Moorish celebrations: “It began,” he remarks, ‘‘in the evening at sunset. Numerous compa- nies scattered here and there were singing, and uttering loud cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle were fired, and the people of the town launched into the air, ‘bein haut et bein loin, une maniere de feu plus gros fallot que je veisse oncques allume.’ They told me they made use of such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy’s vessel. It seems to me that it isa thing easy to be made, and at a little expense, it may be equally well employed to burn a camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry to frighten their horses. Curious to know its composition, I sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire, and requested him to teach me his method. He re- turned fo er, that he dared not, for that be should run
in some respects analagous; it is used either in bombs along or wae 3 } oy
fears, and he taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood, with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France.”
Although La Brocquire may have brought the secret to Europe, yet it does not appear to have been used, nor has it been promulgated. We may infer here, that as moulds were used, it is very probable that the solid ingredients were first melted together, and cast in moulds previously to their solu- tion in some inflammable oil, which io all probability was naptha; or that the composition was used in a solid state, as in some of the modern incendiary fire works. But the for- mer inference is more probable.
Whatever idea we mayentertain of the effect of the Greek fir e, or of compositions having a similar character, we may justly conclude, that the present gun powder possesses ma- ny superior advantages ; and in fact some authors are of opinion, among who: e may mention the celebrated French Pyrotechenist, Ruggeri, that the accounts we have
*.
Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 307
of it, such as its fire deseending, & i ible with the nature of things, and i sen exaggerated.
We have some remarks of professor Beckman in relation to salt petre, which have also a bearing on the subject of the Greek fire. Speaking of salt-petre, Vol. II, p- 462 he says: Though it can be certainly proved, that the nitrum of the an- cients was alkaline salt, it is difficult to determine the time when our salt-petre was mer nar ormade known. — ny
to the invention of gun ceniate aed the p rescrip- tions for the ie. Se of it. The oldest, and perhaps -
very maul that all 1 recipes ‘in which salt-petre occurs are either forged or of modern invention. Of this kind are those which Scaliger, at least according to his own account, found
nitro and sal petre. But it does not occur in — prescrip- tion of Marcus Gracus, and copied by Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280,” Beckman infers, that ‘he first certain mention of salt petre is in the oldest account of the prepa- ration of gun powder, which became known in the 13th century, about the same time that the Greek fire, of which there were many kinds, began to be lost. The work of Albertus Magnus, and the writings of Roger Bacon, who died in 1278, contain the oldest i rmation on penpeeder. Bat it is somewhat remarkable, that the manuseript preserv.
ed in the electoral library at Munich, announced for publi. cation b Mr. Von ie contained, it is said, the true re-
library at Gottingen by M. Laporte Dutheil, conserva- _teur des manuscrits de la bibliotheque.* He also adds, that it contains many recipes, with a few variations, as in Alber-
* Liber ignium ad cooniiarendes host, ot: ee Greco ; on traite des feux propres a détruire les ennemis, composé par Marcus le Gr ‘Publié @apres deux = anuscrits te la bibliothoque siutlonidaal Paris three sheets in quar
308 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
at the battle near Mecca. In 1798 -M. Langles read a pa- per in the French National Institute, in which he endeavour- ed to prove that the Arabians obtained a knowledge of gun powder from the Indians, who had been acquainted with it in the earliest periods. The use of it was forbidden in their sacred books.
that it may have lead to enquiries, which finally eventuated in i
was composed of the charcoal of willow, salt, burnt brandy, sulphur, pitch, frankincense, flax and camphor, and that a alone has the effect of burning in water. He re- ks also, that when Constantinople was attacked, the em- peror Leo burnt the vessels or boats, to the number of one thousand eight hundred, by means of the Greek fire. The Journal des Savans, 1676, p. 148, speaks of the origin and use of the same fire. In 1249, at the siege of Damietta, the French experienced the destructive effects of it. The Journal des Savans for 1666, mentions a machine which, when applied against avessel, communicates fire to it imme- ‘diately. withoutinjuring the person who uses it. In the French Gazettes for 1797, M. Chevalier announced that he had
Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 309
ge te Tie Td
invented an inexti » which is thrown by fire arms, and calculated to set oe eine rigging of ships. It appears also, that Dr. Dupre, whose name we have men- tioned, published in the French Journals that he had invent- ed a composition, which had the same properties and effects as the ancient Greek fire, and possessed the means of ex- tinguishing it. An experiment was made at Versailles, to
the satisfaction of all, and the secret was purchased by sas is KV. The Rev. J. P. Caste in 1794 laid before the French National Convention, a new invention for the pur- pose of war, consisting of a carcass-composition, which noth- ing could extinguish, and resembled in that respect the k fire
At the commencement of the late war with Great Brit- "ain, several persons directed their attention to the discovery some new incendiary preparation, which would possess - properties of Greek fire; but none of them proved suc- ssful. Of one in particular I was an eye-witness. A apart of the kind was shown to the corporation of pean of whichI was then a member, isd some ex- periments made with it. It was nothing more than spirits of turpentine, holding in solution camphor, and mixed I think with turpentine varnish; it was, when used, to be put into bottles, and by means of a fuse similar to that of a grenade, set on fire—the bottle being thrown by the hand into an enemy’s ship or among sails or rigging.
Ruggeri, a modern Pee ee in speaking of incendiary fireworks, mentions also re. He observes that it was composed of naptha, gia bitumen, camphor and petroleum, ra mixed together; that it was invented by Cal- linicus, and employed against the Saracens as an incendia- ry; that Pliny in his time mentioned a combustible cated stance, which was thrown upon armed men, and burn and destroyed them in the midst of the battle; that it was employed successfully by the successors of Constantine, and that its composition was kept a state secret; that the Turks used it, or a composition of a similar nature, at the seige of Damietta in 1249, forty-five years after the death of Roger Bacon; and that when the composition and effects of gun- powder became known, it was no longer in use, and the se- cret of the original preparation seemed to have been lost.
310 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
Several mets | writers have noticed the Greek fire, among whom én, and our learned and much to be la- mented Risiay) may becited. Gibbon, in his History oft “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. vii. p. 282. marks, that the deliverance of Constantinople may be chiefly ascribed to the Greek fire. It appears that Callinicus, the inventor, deserted from the service of the Caliph to that of the Emperor; and Gibbon is of opinion that this discovery or
thusiasm and youthful vigor of the Saracens. He is also of opinion that little or no credit can be given to the Byzantine accounts, as to the composition of the fire, although from their obscure and fallacious oa it should seem that the
Greek fire ae similar to that we have already stated ; viz. that the fire was strong and obstinate, and was quic sickened by water—that sand, urine and vinegar were the only substan- ces that could damp its fury; that it was used for the annoy- ance of the enemy both by sea and land, in battles or in seiges, and was either poured from the ramparts in large boilers, or launched into: red hot balls of stone or iron, of darted in arrows and javelins, twisted round with flax and tow, which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil; that at other times it was deposited in fire-ships, or blown ‘through long tubes of copper, fixed on a prow of a galley; that its
composition was kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge of it came from an angel to the first and
*In a note to Gibbon, p. 283, we read—*The naptha, the olewm incendia- rum hea the history of Je erusalem (Gest. Dei per Francosy p. 1167.) 7) the orien- tal e Vitry, is introduced on slight evidence, and strong Ge : by whi innamus calls the Greek fire, corres- ponds with the locality where naptha was found, between the Tigris and the Caspian sea. aunt ist. Natur. ii, 109.) says it was subservient to the revenge of Medea, and according to the etymology, naptha was —
ot a see ae iva no doubt that naptha was the principal ingredient efthe
Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire. 31t
greatest of the Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it under any pretext, &c. He also remarks, that af- ter it was kept secret above four hundred years, and to the end of the 11th century, it was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it against the crusaders. A knight it ap- pears, who despised the swords and lances of the Sara- cens, relates, with heartfelt sincerity his own fears, at the sight and sound of the mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of the Greek fire, the feu gregeois, as it is styled by the more early of the French writers. ‘It came flyin through the air,”’ says Gibbon, quoting Joinville, (Historie de St. Louis,) “like a winged long-tailed dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of thunder, and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of the night was dis- pelled by this deadly illumination. The use of the Greek, or as it might now be called the Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the fourteenth century, when the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur and charcoal, effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the history of man- kind.”
Dr. Ramsey, our learned historian, (Universal History, vol, ii. p. 150,) gives a similar account; and Morse, in his Universal Geography, p. 5598, after speaking of the Naptha springs of Persia, remarks that, when it is scattered on the sea and inflamed, the flame is often wafted to a great dis-
tance.
Thevenot (Travels in the Levant) tells us, that in the 52d year of the Hegira, (A. D. 672) Constantinople was beseig- ed in the reign of Constantine ag as by Yesid, the son of Moauir, the first caliph of the family of the Ommiades, when the Greek emperor found himself so pressed, that he was almost reduced to despair. But the famous engineer Callinicus invented a kind of wild fire, which would burn un- der water, an this means destroyed the whole fleet. The fact that the incendiary preparation of Callinicus was extremely destructive, and spread dismay among the ene- my, is therefore warranted by the historical accounts we have mentioned.
inkerton in his Petralogy, vol. ii. p. 148, speaking of the Naptha of Baku, which exists on the western side of the Caspian sea, concludes that this substance was brought to Constantinople, where it formed the chief ingredient of the
312 Dr. Cutbush on the Greek Fire.
noted composition called the Grecian fire; which, burning with increased intensity under water, became a most formi- dable instrument against an inimical fleet. The Naptha springs were visited by Hanway, who has given a detailed account of them: also by Kempfer, and Gmelin. Hanway observes, that the quantity is so great, that the Persians load it in bulk in their wretched vessels, so that sometimes the sea is covered with it for leagues together ; and that when the weather is thick and hazy, the springs boil up the higher, and the naptha often takes fire on the surface of the earth, and runs in a flame into the sea in great quantities, to a dis- tance almost incredible.
Besides the former use of naptha for the preparation of the re, the ancients, especially the Magi performed various tricks, or deceptions with it, principally on account of its extreme inflammability. Some of these deceptions are recorded in history. According to Plutarch, the great inflammability of naptha was exhibited to Alexander the Great at Ecbatana, with which he was astonished and de- lighted, and the. same author, as well as Pliny and Galen in particular, asserts that it was with naptha, that Medea de- stroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon. She sent to this princess a dress, previously soaked in it, which burst into flames as she approached the fire of the altar. It is sup- posed to have been naptha also, in which the dress of Her- cules was dipped, and not the blood of Nessus, that took fire in the same manner. When offerings caught fire impercep- — it is conjectured that this oil must have been employ- ed.
From the facts thus given we may conclude, Ist. That the Greek fire, so called, was composed for the principal partofnaptha; 2d. That the naptha, as it is a powerful sol- vent of rezins, must have been combined either with liquid turpentine, or rozin, and probably with camphor, as inflamed camphor resists considerably the action of water ; 3d. That the composition of the original Greek fire was fluid, as it was thrown out by forcing pumps, or through pipes which could not have been the case had it been solid; 4th. That although generally used in a fluid state, it was sometimes employed like the modern carcass by soaking in it tow, &c. and then used as an incendiary ; 5th. That it does not ap- pear upon any testimony extant that nitre, or salt petre en~
Dee eee Ree eee
Dr. Cuthush on the Greek Fire. 313
tered into its composition; 6th. That as it regards sulphar, that substance might have been employed, as oils will read- ily unite with it, a fact well known in the proportion of - balsam of sulphur of the old pharmacopeias; and 7
lastly, that when gun powder became known, it iaiperecded the Greek fire, the true preparation of which was lost. It is evident, nevertheless, that as we possess a more perfect knowledge of the properties and effects of bodies than the ancients, a composition might be made, or the present in- cendiary fire works improved, so that water itself would not extinguish flame, but on the contrary facilitate combus- tion. For this purpose I submit the following hasty interog- atories: .
What would be the effect of nitrate of potash, camphor, and naptha, if mixed and sagen: and then brought into contact with water ? _
What would be the effect if a given quantity of gun pow- der were added, the naptha eing previously thickened by the addition of turpentine, or in its place with tar, or some rosin dissolved in the naptha ?
If in lieu of nitre, chlorate or hyperoxymuriate of potash be used, would not the effect be more powerful, and deto- nation probably follow ?
ose the ingredients of which gun powder is compo- sda, viz. nitrate of potash, charcoal, and sulphur be added separately, in due proportions, to a compound of naptha and camphor, with or without the addition of spirits of tur- pentine ; would not such a mixture resist very powerfully the action of water
If to the above be added quicklime in powder, would not the quicklime when brought in contact with water increase the combustion by becoming s/acked, and consequently evolve caloric, provided that no combination was previous- ly formed with the oil and lime, forming a soap of lime?
What would be the effect, if with the substances before mentioned (the composition being sufficiently thick,) the filings of iron, or in preference zinc were added, especially if the matter in the state of combustion be brought i In con- tact with water ?
Vor. VI.—No. 2. 40
314 Dr. Cuthush on the Greek Fire.
If phosphuret of lime be used, would it not add to the combustion when water is thrown on, or the inflamed sub- stance put into water, by decomposing that fluid ; thus pro- ducing phosphureted hydrogen gas ?
ot having a sufficient quantity of naptha, prevents our making such experiments with that substance. As a sub- stitute, we would recommend highly rectified oil of turpen- tine, which might be employed, in many respects like nap- tha, and be susceptible of great inflammability. We knowit to have been used in incendiary fire works, especially in the experiment we mentioned to have been made in Phila- delphia during the late war. Nearly of the same charac- ter is the fire-flask or fire-bottle, which is nothing more than a bottle charged with grain-powder mixed with a com- position called fire-stone. The bottle is covered with a cloth and sewed, and then coated with pitch. The mouth is secured with parchment, and when used, a match is in- serted, and inflamed. Itis then thrown by the band. ~
Having mentioned an incendiary preparation invented, or recommended by Casimer Siemicnowich, which appears to have been predicated on the effects of a Greek fire, and - which is mentioned by him in his work, entitled 4rtis Mag- ne Artilleria ; it may not be improper to add, Stemzeno- wich’s Fire-rain, as the preparation is called, is calculated for firing the houses of a besieged place or city, which are covered with shingles, laths, stubble or reeds. It was na- med fire-rain from its resemblance to a shower of rain. Several formule are given for this preparation; but the original appears to have been the following: Take 24 parts of sulphur, and melt it in a copper or iron pot, over live coals without flame, and then throw in 16 parts of nitrate of potash, and mix it with an iron spatula. Remove the vessel from the fire, and when the composition has become rather cold, stir into it 8 parts of grained gun powder. Pour the mixture on a slab, and allow it to cool. Before using it, it is broken into pieces of the size of a walnut, and put into shells along with quick match and gun powder.
he shells are discharged from mortars in the usual man- ner, which burst, and thus the composition is dispersed in the state of inflammation. This composition it will be suffi- cient to add, is now disused ; but it gave rise to prepara-
Notice of several Meteors. 315
tions of a more powerful nature, and having the same use, fou dD
as, for instance, the roche ’a few of the French, usually called fire-stone ; a composition which is either used in lumps and put into shells with powder, or made into car- casses, or fire balls. We do not know of any imitation of the original Greek fire having been used in modern war- fare, but have no hesitation in believing, that naptha pre- pared as already stated would in many cases prove advan- tageous. It seems to be well calculated for close naval combat, if the object be to destroy the sails and rigging of anenemy’s ship. The rapidity and extent of its combus- tion, added to the circumstance of its peculiar properties, that of resisting the action of water in particular, contribute altogether to this opinion. . West-Point, Dec. 11th, 1822.
Arr. XII.—METEORS.*
Tue appearance of the Meteor, which in March 1822, passed over some of the northern states, brought to our recollection, some statements of similar events, which have been a good while on our files.. Perhaps we cannot offer
Meteor in Ohio.
Evctract of a letter from Dr.Henny Mannine, to the Editor, dated Youngstown Ohio, Jug. 9, 1819.
A large meteor made its appearance on the evening of July 24th. I had a clear view of it at the time it exploded
* This article was prepared for the June No. of this Journal 1822, but har been unavoidably postponed to this time, April 1823.
316 Notice of several Meteors.
and for a few seconds before. The pleasing surprise whicit_
course was nearly north. A gentleman who was in the township of Gustavus precisely 20 miles north from the place where I was, saw the light and thought the sound succeeded in something more than a minute.
It is a little more than 40 miles from this place to the south shore of Lake Erie ; and much of the country south of the lake, is still a wilderness, making it uncertain whether-any discoveries will be made if meteoric stones have fallen. I they should be discovered, perhaps they will not be worth sending a distance to analyze, the results of former experi- ments having been so uniformly the same. ae
The Pennsylvania Meteor of Nov. 1819.
The following account of the meteor which was seen in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 2tst of Nov. 1819, we have extracte n | .merican Watchman. After some introductory observations the Editor remarks :—
“While standing in the open air, we were surprized by a sudden flood of light sufficient to enable us to read the smallest print. We soon discovered a fireball in motion in a direction east northeast, and 50 or 60 degrees above the horizon. It passed a little to the south of our zenith, towards the opposite point of compass, and about 30 degrees
ve the western horizon it became invisible. This body was, perhaps, about two seconds in progression, before we saw it; from which we infer, that it first appeared about 30 degrees. above the eastern horizon; hence it travelled, whilst within view, about 120 degrees in the heavens, and ina period, we believe, of not less than five nor miore than ten seconds. The size of the body, when first observed, might be about half that of the full moon. The tail which projected from it was of a conical shape, well defined, and extending from the ball to the apex, about 4 or 5 degrees,
ae
Natoce of several Meteors. 317
No sparks were observed. The whole appeared to be a compact mass of fire, in which was combined all the red- ness of Mars, and the softer light of the moon. The whole appearance was sublime, beyond description. At about 30 degrees from the zenith, westward, it began rapidly to decline, and in two seconds became, to appearance, extinct; its tail, in the mean time, lengthening to 10 or 15 degrees, orming a narrow red streak of evanescent fire. About three minutes after it had disappeared, a noise was heard resem- bling cannon, or distant thunder, and in a westerly direc- tion. ‘ap oe
A letter respecting this meteor, addressed by Mr. Samuel Turney to the Editor, and dated Chester county, Pennsyl- vania, Dec. 9th, 1819, states :—
‘It passed near Easton on the Delaware, and a sound was heard in the direction of the body. aston lies nearly north from us. It first appeared here in the northeast at an elevation of about 45 degrees. Its light was very vi- vid—a blaze streaming from it to a considerable distance. When it had arrived at abont 40 degrees from the horizon in the south or southwest it suddenly disappeared, and after a lapse of two, three, or four minutes, two reports were heard. The sound continued (a succession of echoes I sup- pose) for many seconds.
You will not hesitate to pronounce this for the want of a better name a terrestrial comet. That it was a solid body cannot be doubted if we consider its velocity. Its height must have been at least twenty miles, and it passed through our hemisphere in a very few seconds. No gaseous body could be carried at this rate, moving as they uniformly do, 1 believe, with the currents in the air.
The sound heard at Easton about sixty miles north of us, could not be the same, I think, with that heard here, which came from a point not less than thirty miles to the south. The body then must have been ignited a second time.
I have not been able to get such information as I wish with regard to the apparent size of the body. Itis, by many who were capable of judging in such a case,declared to have
een of about one third of the apparent size of the moon, by which { understand that its diameter appeared to them
318 Notice of several Meteors.
about equal to a third part of the moon’s. Taking this
yarent diameter and the distance of twenty miles we shall make the body more than one hundred yards in diameter. My estimate of its elevation above the earth is obtained by comparing the observations made by various persons in dif- ferent positions. bes .
“he course of this meteor compares very well with that which passed over Connecticut in 1807. May it not be the same?* [I now suppose it to revolve round the earth. If it be the same, it is a little extraordinary that it should pass so-near to the former meridian. But perhaps it has made several revolutions since that period.”
Meteor of March 9, 1822.
As the only sources of information within our reach, we were laying by the newspapers, containing the accounts of this meteor, when we observed with pleasure, that Theo- dore Dwight, Esq. Editor of the New-York Daily Adverti- ser, had collected the most interesting of these accounts in- to one view, of which we gladly avail ourselves on the pres- ent occasion, as the facts are worthy of being preserved, and it is only by accumulating well authenticated facts of this kind, that we can hope to solve the phenomena of Meteors.
The Meteor.
The late meteor was seen in this city sometime after 16 o’clock ; its direction being from southwest to northeast. It appeared to many persons as large as the moon, emitting a brilliant light, which lasted but a few seconds.
It appears from a statement in the Troy Post, that it was seen by a number of gentlemen in that city. One of them, accustomed to astronomical observations, states, that when he saw it first, it was at the altitude of 46 degrees,
Its size, as conjectured by Mr. Turney, is much less than the estimated
size of that meteor.—Fd.
|
Notice of several Meteors. 319
bearing north 20 degrees east. It disappeared at the alti- tude of 22 degrees, bearing south 80 degrees west. T report, supposed to be caused by its explosion, reached the place of observation about seven and a half minutes after its disappearance. To several, who observed it in full view, it appeared equal to about two-thirds of the apparent diam- ter of the moon, leaving a luminous track in the heavens which was not totally extinguished in several minutes after the meteor disappeared. The same persons heard two dis- tinct explosions, with a very short interval of time between them, The last they supposed to have been caused by the bursting of one of the largest subdivisions, immediately after the main body had been severed by the first explosion.
Mr. Doty has published a letter in the Albany Gazette, communicating his observations on the meteor as it appear- ed to him. Heroes on the Mohawk turnpike, near Cana- joharie, about 10 o’clock P. M. when he observed it. He first observed a sudden flash of light which appeared to ex- tend from the heavens to the earth, and was followed by a momentary darkness, as if a cloud had passed over and in- tercepted the light. This darkness was soon dispelled, and the blazing meteor was in full view over his head, appearing to be twenty or thirty feet in diameter, and soon began to extend itself to the northeast and southwest, increasing in- extension, and decreasing in its flaming appearance, until nothing was to be seen but two detached parts of it rapidly moving in different directions towards the northeast and southwest. Mr. Doty calculates that it was five or six min- utes from the first appearance of the meteor until it finally vanished, and from six to ten minutes from its first appear- ance before the report of its explosion reached him, which resembled the noise of distant cannon, and was followed by a strong sulphurous smell, that lasted fifteen or twenty min- utes. Its explosion, from his statement, also appears to have sensibly affected several houses.
The Cherry Valley Gazette also mentions this remarka- ble phenomenon. It was seen about 10 o’clock from that place, globular in its appearance and uncommonly lumin- ous, moving with great velocity from northeast to southwest, and when it disappeared its explosion was distinctly heard. It was visible for several seconds, and from its uncommonly
320 Notice of several Meteors.
vivid appearance, caused many persons to ~— their eyes, rendering candles for an instant perfectly use The Oxford (Chenango) Gazette says, it wiionnisbig a
feet; and that it was more brilliant than the most vivid flashes of lightning, or even the meridian sun.
The Herkimer — observes, that an explosion was heard from the south, about four minutes after the meteor passed, which resembled the discharge of four or five pie- ces of artillery.
A writer in the sige: donee. Oneida, Intelligencer,
sa
Te A After passing aleiigst i in a direction from north to south,
for the space of half a mile, it passed me, as near as I coul
judge, about three hundred yards, when it burst with a vi- olence which seemed to throw all nature into convulsions. It discharged its massy balls of electric fire in every direc- tion, when all disappeared before they reached the ground;
Jeaving in its train an astonishing mass of livid fire, which remained after the explosion, for the — of Nee minutes,
and then gradually disappeared like the rain - The Sentinel (printed at Saratoga Satna seal — _ A very large and brilliant meteor passed near this vil- “Tage on Saturday = in the direction of southwest produced, for a few seconds, was sufficient to enable ay oT the sehatifiants to discern, in their dwellings, the most minute objects. A report, like the sound of distant thunder, succeeded.”
It was seen about 10 o’clock, at Ballston Spa, and a pa- per printed in that village, says, its light was so intense
“as to arrest persons walking as if they had received an electric shock. At an elevation of about 10 degrees it gave out corruscations like a beautiful rocket—leaving a lumin- ous train, and on its disappearance, two and some say three, reports were heard.”
‘The Montreal Herald, thus notices the meteor as seen at that place.
“ As two gentlemen were walking down St. Paul: street about half past 9 o’clock last Saturday night, their attention was attracted by a flash of light that illuminated the atmos- phere, notwithstanding the radiance of a full moon. As it apparently proceeded from the south side of the river, and
Notice of several Meteors. 321
the line of houses intercepted their view, they turned down one of the little streets leading to the quay,. where having arrived, they beheld a little to the westward of Laprairie, an arched chain of fire, vividly delineated in the heavens, an concaving towards the earth. After a minute or two, it dis- appeared, having been probably caused by the eruption of a ball of that element which emitted the flash.”
es he Quebec Gazette gives the following description of it.
“The meteor of Saturday evening, the 9th of March,
was seen from the vicinity of this city in a southwesterly di-
rection, at about 10 o’clock. It had, when first descried, the appearance of a shooting star, larger than a star of the first magnitude. Its altitude about 45 degrees, its direction in a straight line towards the earth, machining towards the west; at about half the descent, it dinide d into numberless pieces, having the APRoaTANes of the stars a thrown
sky rockets, but of a superior brilliancy and beauty, the whole disappearing before they reached the horizon. The sky was clear, the moon nearly at full, in an opposite direction, and the light of the meteor when it divided, was so strong as entirely to destroy the shadows of the moon light and throw them into a contrary direction. From the meteor having been seen at Montreal and Quebec very nearly in the same direction, its distance must have been
The Salem. (Washington county) Post, says,
Its first appearance was northeasterly about 20 degre es above the horizon, that it passed above the polar star, dis-~ appeared about 30 degrees above the horizon, near the con- stellation Orion; was visible about one Sainte, and that it appeared about as large as the full moon.”
In addition to the above named places it was seen a Bos- ton, Bennington, Vermont, Utica, Johnstown, i in Montgom- ery county, Buffalo, various places in New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania, but no particular observa- tions accompanied the accounts.
The Springfield (Massachusetts) Federalist, states, thet an extraordinary meteor was seen on Saturday night, the 9th of March, by several persons in that town and vicinity. It was uncommonly ae and brilliant.
—No. 4}
h. VE.
322. Notice of several Meteors.
The Eastern Argus, printed at Portland, state of Maine, says the meteor.was seen in that town at a quarter past 10 o’clock in the evening of the 9th, in a direction nearly: west, its maguitude << that of the moon—its brilliancy very great—and when sh ete: — not unlike those
York. The Bridgeport Courier says, “its size appeared to be that of a large artificial globe, and moved with great velocity in a direction from northeast to swipe leaving a trail of immense size and peculiar brightne
It is remarked by a Boston Editor that “this meteor must have been very large and the sound at its separation louder than the loudest thunder, as its explosion was not only seen in many opposite places, but heard from Portland, in the state of Maine to 60 miles west of Albany.
A writer in the Albany Daily Advertiser in commenting on Mr. Doty’s statement mentioned above, says;
** Eight minutes was the time between its appearance and the report of its explosion, its distance from him must have been about one hundred miles, for sound travels about thir- teen miles in a minute. From these data we may calculate that the place where it was vertical must be about seventy miles from Albany in a northwesterly direction, and that its size was near a mile in diameter; but to enable us to calcu- late with greater accuracy its height, dimensions, and the tracts of country over which it passed, observations at ‘places to the west as well as to the east of it are necessary.”
Remark by the Editor, December 9th, 1822. The following communication from Professor Dean of the University of Vermont has been recently received, and
we give it in connexion with the preceding communications to which it bears an important relation.
’ To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. Sir,
The meteor of bas March (1822) has ceased to be the subject of general conversation, but it is not the less inter-
Notice of several Meteors. 323
esting to those who wish to explore the causes of such phe- nomena. The following observations would have been communicated immediately had [ not hoped to obtain oth- ers to compare with them; but in this I have not suc- ceeded, and I now transmit them with such inferences as they afford:
Capt. Allen Wardner of Windsor, Vt. states, that on os 10th of March, about 10 o’clock in the evening, he. was walking. along the east side of what is called the tontine building in that village and had Just reached the southeast corner, when the first corruscation burst forth. His first thought was that a large barn northwest of the tontine had suddenly burst into a flame, and he hastened on. to get a sight of it across the southwest corner of the building, but
had not proceeded more than three steps when the body of
the meteor came in sight over the south end of the roof, and he had a full view of it for more than 40 seewte mov-
distant. It was excessively bright, and sparkles were fly- ing from it in all directions and left. a dusky reddish track which continued especially about the middle of its length for two minutes. He thought it was nearly round, and its diameter somewhat less than that of a ball which surmounts the dome of the Episcopal Church which was near its ap- parent path. The alae “ Windsor is by estimation in lat. 43° 29
lon. 72° 29’. I had no theodolite t to determine the azy- muth, ie I ascertained the meridian sufficiently Ay as I thought, by the north pole, and measured. the sides of a right angled triangle, one angle of which was ceulsinen be- tween the meridian and the end of the building, and find- ing the angles by the traverse table, [ ascertained that it declined 20° 30’ toward the west. The second or third steps taken. after the first flash subtended an angle at the west corner of 3° 45’, so that the bearing of the meteor when first seen was about north 65° 45’ west. Capt. had no object by which to regulate his recollections of the altitude, but he fixed on a point the altitude of which I found to be 29° 30’. I determined the azymuth of the me- teor at its disappearance in the same manner, and found 1 to ‘be, south 67° 30’ west, and its altitude 119 30. Then
324 Notice of several Meteors.
withdrawing from the ball on the top of the church till Capt. W. thought its apparent diameter was about equal to that of the meteor, I measured it with a sextant and found it 10’. : ess
* Col. Lemuel Page, of Burlington, Vt. was in his back yard at the time above mentioned, and had his attention ar- rested by what is commonly called a shooting star, no way differing from such as frequently appear in considerable numbers. When he first saw it he thought it about in the centre of the triangle formed by lines joining Mars, Castor, and Procyon. It moved on southwesterly, passing a little southeast of Procyon, and about one third of the way from
its apparent path.
The place of this observation is in lat. 44° 28’, lon. 73° 15’. The azymuth of the meteor during its whole course as determined both by the north pole and the globe, was about south 34° west. Its altitude when first seen by Col.
. was about 62°, the first coruscation when it became an object of general attention, and when Capt.W. first noticed it 35°, and at its disappearance 6°. Its apparent diameter, obtained by measuring the breadth of the chimney with a sextant was 12’
The places of the meteor computed from these observa- tions, by Dr. Bowditch’s rule given in Mem. A. A. Vol. 3, are, at its first brilliant coruscation, lat. 43° 54’, lon. 73° 47’, about fifty-nine miles from Burlington and eighty-three
rom Windsor, over the unsettled part of Essex county, N. ¥. about fifteen miles west of Crown Point, and at its dis- appearance from Capt. W. lat. 42° 45’, lon. 74° 49’, one hundred and forty-four miles from Burlington and one hun- dred and thirty-three from Windsor, over the western part of Schoharie county, and its motion south 34° west. In the former wee according to Capt. W’s. observation it was about forty-one miles from the earth, according to
a
Notice of several Meteors. 325
Col. P's. only thirty-four; in the latter place Capt. W’s. observation makes its height about twenty-nine miles. If these agreed better with each other, and could be depend- ed upon as nearly accurate, it would be easy to compute from them its height and distance at the beginning and end of its appearance to Col. P. Bat altitudes estimated: under the impression which such a phenomenon cannot fail to repeat must be considered as very uncertain what- ever may be the judgment and fidelity of the observers. The probability is that when first seen by Col. P. it was near the zenith of Essex, a village on the west shore of Lake Champlain thirteen miles from Burlington, and when it disappeared from him it had reached nearly to the zenith of Wilksbarre in Pennsylvania, about two hundred and fifty miles from Burlington.
The absolute diameter of the meteor, computed from the apparent diameter above estimated and the mean distances of the observers respectively amounts to about one third of
a mile. I hardly dare to make any estimate of its velocity. I
have heard no estimate of the duration of the appearance of the body ofthe meteor greater than -five seconds and this would imply a velocity much greater than that of the earth in its orbit.
The observation of its first appearances as noticed by Col. Page is I believe rather uncommon, though perhaps they may always commence in the same manner without being noticed till their light is greatly increased.
uch of the country over which it pa being a wil- derness, and none of it populous, it is not probable that if any fragments fell from it, they were hk ere next day as any thing more than common ston
The testimony of Mr. Doty who eins to the news papers saw it at Hanajohers] passing near the zenith con- firms the course above
Youn with high respect, Ta AMES DEAN.
326 Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations.
Art. XII1.—Pluviometrical Observations, made at Wesi- Chester, Penn. by Wu. Daruineton, M. D. and commu- nicated in a letter, sini
Wasuineton City, Feb. 14, 1823. Str,
Iv the year 1817, nat the 20th of June.) I commenced an account of the quantity of rain and snow which fell in the borough of West-Chester, in the State of Penn- sylvania—a statement of which I now submit to you; an if you should be of opinion that it is worthy of preservation in your Scientific Journal, it is entirely at your service. If observations of this description were made for a series of years, in the various sections of the United States, they would undoubtedly tend to furnish us with more accurate conceptions of the nature of our climate, as well as with the means of comparing it with that of other countries. They would also enable us to ascertain, in the course of time, the real character of those changes which are supposed to be ta- king place in the climate of this continent, by reason of cul- tivation, clearing of forests, and other causes. Some useful data, likewise, might possibly be afforded by such accounts, to assist Medical Philosophers in investigating the causes and character of prevailing diseases, in the country. In the present instance, I have to regret the occurrence of an hia- tus in the account, from 29th November 1819, to March 7th _ 1820, owing to the accidental loss of my memoranda for that period: but the statement, for the residue of the time “embraced, may be relied upon as being complete, and tol- erably accurate. I am sensible that it would have been much more satisfactory, if it had been _accompanied with Poerinomenitel and B it not in my. gti to furnish a statement of that sort as ful- ly as could be wished, and have therefore omitted it alto- gether.
Months. 1817 | 1818 |. 1819 | 1820 | 1821 | 1922 on January «te 21 1.1 ren ees 43| 23) 24. February Pear 2.0 4.0 - + 3.9 4.3) 33
, Moses
March --+ | sr] 45 {POS 46 | 24} Sa | April arr 2.771; 26 21 3.45] 321° 35 May = { 88) 475 | 79 | 72 | 35 | ee June irre a6| 18 | 34 + 415 235) 36
July o55| 8.251 3.47] 43 | 40] 36] #96 105) 4.7| 42 29 | 19} 22] 3.82
_ (September 42 4.4 1.95 41 |. 79 bs 45-45 October 2.07 1.2 LoS 10.1 Al Zbet 3.8
) | 1§ 1.4to } ‘aris
‘November 5.85 | 3.45 } mead ee | OS TD 45 ‘December 36 |. 1.86 <2 <3 238 |. SB}: 146L..28 'Inches 30.02 | 48.83] 3112 | 435 | 526 | 39.3 | 46.
Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations. 327
Synopsis of Pluviometrical observations.
Thus i it appears that the average quantity of water which fell in the time stated, was about forty-sea inches a year. The greatest quantity, 52.6 inches} ; Sine in 1821) and the least, in any entire year, 39.3 inches (in 1822.) The quan- tity, in 1819, was probably still less; Bains only 31.12 ineh- es from Jan. 1, to Nov.
nd by my notes, that the Saeti of snow which fell, ‘during the above periots was be follows
In 1818, there wae snow 12. eqnal to. 1.7 of water. AS. 5.3
“© 1819, (to Nov.
“ 1820, (fom Mah 6.) - - 3
“ 1821, Sn ee
« 1822, mi = 22. ie snow 113. 12.6 water
The water which _ in the form of snow, is included in the foregoing table he number of days of f falling weather, so called, (inclu- ding both rain and snow) in those years, is exhibited in the following table: by which it appears that the highest num- ber i : sant aS 1818) and the lowest, in any entire year, 84, (in The average number of days, on which there
328 Dr. Darlington’s Pluviometrical Observations.
fell either rain or snow, is about 91 out of 365; or about one day in four, of the year.
Tasxe, showing the number of days of fans: weather in each month, in the years note
| Months. | 1817 | -181¢| 1819 | 1820 | 1821 | 1822 bean January - - 7 5 - = 8 6 64 February ae 5 8 ee be 6 | 73 March a bev dara: ice) 7 ‘ke eat 6 4 8 | 10 | 8 Mey sh S298 betes 4 | 43 |: #4122 >, June ee Bae Oe to) 8 does Suly 9 8 9 9 9 | 9 August 9 10 9 6 § 4 y | September 6 8 8 3 II 7 3 October 9 3 4 5 6} 4s November 6 6 } ae 5 + 10 6 mber Bega fos 7 9/91] 8 Weve... ys ch: 60.4108: Lig 6 {99 | a lg
he latter part of the summer of 1822, was marked by a te wap mnch so, that many wells and springs hup, whic never before failed within the memory ie oldest inhabitants. Even the rain which did fall, » seemed to be speedily dissipated, without producing any re- freshing effect upon vegetation. The season was also re- markable for the prevalence of intermittent ae in the~ neighbourhood of West-Chester; a — of d which has hitherto been extremely rare in that vic cially F Along
the waters of the Schuylkill, and Susquebanna, levers of a more senna. re Steps extensively.
here ‘respectfully, your most obed’t. WM. DARLINGTON.
Prof. Sinuiman, New-Haven.
Cure of Asthma by a Stroke of Lightning. 329
Art. XIV.—Cure of Asthma by a Stroke of Lightning. (Communicated by the Rev. RatpH Emerson.)
Norfolk, Nov. 25, 1822. : To the Editor. Dear Sir,
I know not whether electricity has ever been tried for the relief of-persons afflicted with Asthma. If not, perhaps the following circumstances may suggest the propriety of making the experiment. es
One year ago last August, Mr. Martin Rockwell of Cole- brook, Conn. was severely affected bya shock of light- ning, which struck his buildings within about ten feet of him. He was standing at the time in a leaning position, looking out at a window, bearing most of his weight on his left foot, and supporting himself by his right arm, with his hand on a moist platform connected with a sink, and these together forming a connection with the part of the building where the charge fell. Without his either seeing the flash or hearing the noise, his right arm and left leg were instantly paralyzed, and sense and reason were for a few moments sus- pended. On recovery, his first thought was that his arm was gone, and he put up his left hand to feel if it were yet on him. He did not recover the use of his arm or leg for an hour; and they continued sensibly affected for some days. No other part of his body was particularly affected, except the chest. He felt a strong sensation at the lungs, and they continued sore fora number of days. I state these circum- stances, as they evince that a heavy charge of electricity passed through the vitals.
Mr. R. is now fifty years of age, and from his youth had been so subject to the asthma as to be often unable to rest in bed for a number of months together, especially in au- tumn. Since this event, however, he has been entirely free from it, except in one or two instances he has felt a very slight degree of it, after great fatigue, and under the pressure ofa severe cold. He has now passed the second autumn in health since this kind preservation of life and re-
moval of disease.
Vor. VI.—No. 2. 42
330 Galvano-Magnetic Apparatus of Prof. Dana.
-] visited him soon after the shock, and witnessed the de-.
molishing effects of the lightning. The place where it struck is a projection of one story, at right-angles with the house, which is two stories high, and within a few feet of their junction. Mr. R. wasin the house at the time. It was rather difficult to decide whether the lightning ascend-
where the first vestiges of the lightning were perceivable, was directly under the branches, and but three feet from the trunk of a lofty poplar, which remained unburt—thus affording an additional proof to what is stated in your No. for June last, that this tree isa poor conductor and no safe-guard against lightning. I would remark also, that there was'a good rod to the house, sixty-three feet distant
\
from the smitten. spot.
ArT. XV.—Galvano-Magnetic Apparatus of Prof. Dana.
(See Figure 6 in Plate 12 at the end.)
N S soon arranges itself in the plane of the magnetic meri- dian; the steel wire becomes a temporary magnet, and will
Mr. Seybert’s Analysts of Glassy Actynolite. 331
attract fine iron filings, so long as the apparatus remains in the dilute acid, but instantly loses that power when with- drawn from the liquid. One curious result is presented by this apparatus, which we should not have anticipated from experiments made by myself with common electricity, and which I sent to you when I last wrote, nor from the experi- ments of Mr. Bowen, with Hare’s calorimotor; it is this: when the spiral brass wire passes from right to left, the north pole is found on the negative or copper end; if from left to right, that pole is found on the positive or zinc end; this effect is like that noticed by Van Beck. _ It certainly in- dicates another point of difference, which Dr. Hare justly asserts to exist between common galvanic instruments and his calorimotor; and the result of Mr. Bowen’s experiments, and my own with common electricity, points out an analogy between the effects of the common electrical machine and ofthe calorimotor. I have triedin vain tocommunicate such a degree of magnetism to silver and platina wires by this little apparatus as to induce them to assume a north and south direction; and I have in vain attempted to influence delicately suspended galvanic apparatus by the rays of light separated by a prism; but I doubt not that some for- tunate philosopher, in possession of a heliostadt, will be able to produce some effect in this way.
Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.
Arr. XVI.—Analysis of the Glassy Actynolite from Concord Township, Delaware Co. Penn. By. H. Sevpert.
Coror in the mass, emerald green; powder greenish white. Lustre vitreous. Translucent. Fracture in one direction fibrous, in the opposite irregular. Very frangible. Scratch- es glass. Structure fibrous and fasciculated. Specific gravi- ty 2.987. Fusible, before the blowpipe, into an opake greenish enamel.
Analysis.
A. 3 grammes of the mineral, in the state of an impal- pable powder, after exposure to a red heat, with the contact of air, had assumed a reddish tinge, and weighed 2.98
332 Mr. Seybert’s Analysis of Glassy Actynolite.
grammes; but as the protoxide of iron contained in the mineral must, during the calcination, have passed to the state of peroxide, and as the absorption of oxygen, estima- ted by calculation, is 0.011 grammes, therefore the mois- ture expelled by calcination amounts to 0.031 grammes on 3 grammes, or 1.033 per hundred. ‘
B. The calcined mineral (4) was exposed to a red heat during thirty minutes, in a silver crucible, with 9 grammes of caustic potash. The cold mass was of a pale green co- lor; it communicated to the water with which it was treat- ed, a lemon yellow color, thus indicating a trace of chrome. The mixture was treated, in the usual manner, with an ex- cess of muriatic acid, and the yeilow solution thus produc- _ed, was evaporated to a dry gelatinous mass, which was treated with diluted acid and again moderately evaporated. The residue was treated with more water, and the solution was filtered; the silica collected on the filter, after being washed and calcined, weighed 1.69 grammes on 3 grammes, or 56.333 per 100.
C. After the liquor (B) was neutralized with caustic pot- ash, on the addition of the hydro-sulphate of potash, a black precipitate was formed, which, after being washed and cal- cined with nitric acid, weighed 0.19; this precipitate, when treated with caustic potash, was found to consist of 0,14 dager os: peroxide of iron, and 0.05 grammes of alumine,
y difference 1.666 per 100. Owing to the green color of the mineral, the iron must be estimated as a_protoxide, and the 0.14 grammes of peroxide are equivalent to 0.129
rammes of protoxide on 3-grammes, or 4.30 per 100.
he alkaline liquor holding the alumine in_ solution,
appeared to be yellow from chrome contained in the min- eral; to detect the chrome, the alumine was precipitated, by exactly neutralizing the liquor with muriatic acid; on the addition of acetate of lead, there was produced a precip- itate of muriate of lead, intermixed with a yellow precipi- tate of chromate of lead; to another portion of the liquor. nitrate of silver was added ; the muriate of silver was like- wise intermixed witha red precipitate of chromat of silver, but the chrome seemed to be ver trifling. _ D. When oxalate of potash was added to the liquor (C) it occasioned a white precipitate, which, after a strong cal- cination, afforded 0.32 grammes of lime on 3 grs- or 10.666 _per 100.
—_ — 0 tae
Analysis of Argentine and Steatite. 333
E. The liquor (D), when treated with an excess of caus- tic potash, afforded 0.72 grammes of magnesia on 3 grs. or 24.0 per 100. 5S a
The constituents of this mineral are, therefore, _
Per 100 parts. 1
A. Water — - -033 Containing oxygen, -- B. Silica §6.333...- - - = 2 028633 C. Protoxide ofiron 4.300 - - ~ - 00.97 C. Alumina - 1.666 é D. Lime - 10.666 ie je - ot QRS4 E. Magnesi - 4.000 - - - mites REQ 29 C. Protoxide of chrome a trace. ———— igo J) 92.998 100.000 2.002 Loss.
i enieeemeemmeenmmmmmmndll
y
Ant. XVII.—Analysis of Argentine and Crystallized Sleatite. by Professor Dewey.
Argentine.
At the lead-mine in Southampton, Mass. a mineral is found in considerable quantity, which is a nearly pure car- bonate of lime, and has the following characters. It gen- erally consists of undulated, not parallel, laminz, of a pear- ly shining lustre, often of a beautiful silvery white. _Some- times it is in thin plates, which intersect and form small cells, containing crystals of calcareous spar. The thin la- ming are translucent. Sometimes it is less laminated and more compact, with less lustre, and the cross fracture is slightly granular. It was supposed to contain magnesia, and three years since |] examined it without detecting any
of this earth. It was then laid by as a beautiful carbonate
of lime, without a suspicion of its being one of the sub-spe- cies of this mineral. The characters prove it to be 4rgen- fine. :
It occurs on very compact granite, and is also associated with fetid quartz, which is found in small masses in it and upon it. When it joins the quartz it is more compact and
334 | Analysis of Argentine and Steatite.
Carbonic acid - - Al. grs.
Lime Pe ee 54. NER > ae ea - °3.25 Magnesia and Oxide of Iron 0.75 ; ws Loss 1.00 probably carb. acid.
.100.00
If the the silex is to be considered an accidental ingredi- ent, arising from the specimen being associated with quartz, this argentine isa very pure carbonate of lime.
Crystallized Steatite.
Having ascertained that the mineral contained silex, magnesia, alumine, water, and oxides of iron and manga- nese, one hundred grains of a very large and fine crystal were analyzed to ascertain the proportion of the ingredi- ents. In the previous trials, the proportion of some of them had been found, but as they were not much different from. those obtained from this crystal, it was judged proper to rely on the results last obtained. In heating the mineral, there was sometimes more and sometimes less than fifteen per cent. of water liberated ; but the water is taken at fif- ‘teen percent. In heating the mineral with sulphuric acid, there was no indication of fluoric acid, which is sometimes found in a variety ofsteatite. Indeed, the corrosion of the glass vessel in which the experiment is performed, is some- what equivocal, as sulphuric acid heated to 500° or 600° will act upon the potash or soda in some kinds of glass at least, and an actual corrosion take place. Oxalate of am- monia gave no indication of lime. The method of analiz- ing those magnesian minerals which are decomposed by
Analysis of Argentine and Steatite. 335
acids, is too well known to make a more detailed statement necessary in the present case. Muriatic ots Soap all the mineral except the silex, which weighe 6 grs. From the muriatic solution carbonate of ammonia cheese down the
the aluenine, estimated at 0.15 or. The ammoniacal solu- tion contained the magnesia and oxide of manganese. This solution was evaporated, and the ammoniacal salts were separated by letra the magnesia and manganese remained. The e then converted to sulphates ; the solution erioresed to “dati and the dry mass was kept at a red heat for halfan hour. The water was thus driven off from the sulphate of magnesia, and the sulphate of man- ganese being converted to the deutoxide of manganese, a red- dish powder was thus diffused through the sulphate of magne- sia. The whole weighed 87.5 grs. and dissolved in water except one grain of deutoxide of manganese, equivalent to 1,1 gr. of the peroxide. This contained, therefore, 86.5 grs. for the sulphate of magnesia, equivalent to 28.83 grs, of pure magnesia. The result is,
Water - - 15.00 grs Silex - - - 50 Oxide of iron - 2.59 Magnesia : 28.83 Oxide of RARER NEES, 1.10 “igri - 0.15. Loss {ee ee ee = “100.00
This result contains a proportion of ingredients between those given by Klaproth in his analysis of steatite from two different places. There can be no doubt, therefore, that these crystals are real steatete.
The form of some of these crystals, is that of a six-sided
rism terminated by six-sided pyramids. often variously truncated. Some of them appear to be four-sided prisms terminated by a four-sided py ees aed are unques= tionably the crystals Intended by Jameson, as they are found ina similar situation to fia nigetieiaed by him,
336 On the Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron.
though they seem not to be RE eriiiysek The —s is described, Vol. V. p. 249 of this Journal. They sometimes palit with a very fine grained and close browih ish steatiie, in which, as in the asbestus, the crystals leave their form. The specific gravity of the crystals is less than that given to steatite. In the cnereay specimens I have tried, it has been found very nearly 2, sometimes a little more or a little less. ‘Their spite gravity — be taken at 2, water being unity.
Arr. XVIII.—On the Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron. —
Extract of 2 a auc to the Editor, from the Rev. Herman Dac- — Gert, Principal of the Foragn Mission School at Corn- wall, Conn.
Cornwall, Feb. 3, 1823. Dear Sir,
I take the liberty to communicate to you a fact, which has lately come to my knowledge, and which, I judge, may be of considerable use in canahnieie, and pethaps in philosophy.
may not, eb be new to you
r. Bai inet-maker of this place) had occasion to ropa Sets cdb saw, (a saw to be used by two persons) of a very hard plate, which would require considerable la- bor, in the usual way of filing. He recollected having heard that the Shakers sometimes made use of what he called, a buzz, to cut iron. He therefore made a circular plate ‘of soft sheet iron, (a piece of stove pipe,) fixed an axis to it, -and put it in his lathe, which gave ita very powerful rotary motion. While in motion, he applied to it a common file to make it perfectly round and smooth; but the file was cut in two by it, while it received itself no impression. He then applied a piece of rock-crystal, (a piece of which, he in- forms me, he once presented to you,*) which had the desir- ed effect. He then brought under it, the saw-plate, which, in a few minutes, was neatly and one cut through longitudinally. When he stopped the buzz, he found it had received no wear from the o operation, and that he could im- mediately ph his fingers to it, without perceiving much
*It was a peice of a very fine and large crystal of smoky quartz. Editor.
\
Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor. 337
sensible heat. During the operation, there appeared a band of intense fire around the buzz, continually emitting spark with great violence. He afterwards marked the saw, fo the teeth, and in a short time cut them out, by the same means. It seemed evident, that the buzz, in effecting the division, never came in actual contact with the plate. Was this fire the electric fluid? If so, might it not be obtained, in greater quantity, and be made more effective for chem- ical parposes, by some such machine, than in any other way!
s ig
Art. XIX.—On the relations, existing between the Defla- grator and Calorimotor, and between those instruments and the common Galvanic or Voltaic Batteries, in a letier to
Professor Robert Hare, M. D. from the Editor.
Yale-College, April 4, 1823. Dear Sir,
Through the medium of this Journal, (Vol. 4. pa. 201, and Vol. 5, pa. 102,) I have already communicated to you and to the public, the singular fact, that your Deflagrator will not act with the common Galvanic Batteries, in whatev- er mode they may be connected, and that, although belong- ing to the same class of instruments and evolving the same imponderable agents, there still exists between them a total incompatibility. This incompatibility, it will be remember- ed, does not begin to be overcome, until the pairs of galvan- ic plates are reduced to twenty, in number, when thé pow- er of the Deflagrator begins to pass, and increases until one pair only is interposed, when it passes apparently without diminution.
I am induced again to call your attention to this fact, for the sake of connecting it, with some observations which I have recently made, upon the relations between the Calori- motor and Deflagrator, and between these instruments, and the common Galvanic Batteries, for it is‘only by varying our observations and experiments, that we can hope to ar- rive at a just explanation, of the singular phenomena exhib- ited by these instruments.
Vol. VI.—No. 2. 43
338 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Calorimotor.
1. I connected the zine pole of the Calorimotor, with the copper pole of the troughs, and vice versa, and then dividing the troughs (containing three hundred pairs of four inch plates,*) at another place, connected them at these new poles by points of well prepared charcoal; the sparks passed free- ly and vividly, nor did it, apparently make any difference, whether the plates of the Calorimotor, were immersed in the fluid, or not. I then disconnected the troughs from the Calorimotor, and connecting them together, received the spark, which was quite as vivid, as when the Calorimotor formed a part of the series. I now immersed the Calori- motor, and found that it acted by itself, with its appropriate energy, readily igniting iron, and displaying its usual mag- netic activity. a:
2. The Calorimotor and Deflagrator were connected in such a manner, that the former was interposed between the two equal divisions of forty coils each, contained in the two troughs of the Deflagrator ; in different trials, the connexion was varied, sometimes the zinc poles, and sometimes the copper poles of the two instruments, being connected, and at other times, the zinc of the one being joined to the cop- per of the other, and vice versa.
When the metals of both instruments were in the air, only avery feeble spark passed through the charcoal points con-
necting the proper poles of the Deflagrator. When the plates of the Calorimotor were immersed, those of the De- flagrator being in the air, the spark was not increased, but remained feeble as before. The coils of the Deflagrator being then immersed, the usual splendor of light, instantly burst from the charcoal points, and all the dazzling bright- ness and intense heat of the instrument were displayed, but without any increase of power derived from the Calorimotor. The plates of the Calorimotor were now raised from the fluid, those of the Deflagrator remaining immersed, but the light and heat were equally brilliant as before. The flagrator and Calorimotor were now separated, and each produced its appropriate effects, in full energy. ae
3. The Calorimotor—the Deflagrator and the troughs,
gt hundred pairs of four inch plates, were now connected into one series, in such a manner, that the Calor-
1Ou chp
* Cemented in the usual manner, into mahogany boxes.
Dr, Hares Deflagrator and Calormmotor. 339
imotor was interposed between the two halves of the Defla- grator, the proper poles of the latter instrument were con- nected with the two divisions of the troughs ; first, zinc, with copper, and copper with zinc, and then the reverse, and the power was received at the proper poles of the troughs, char- coal pee being used as before W e metals both of the Deflagrator and Calorimotor were in. =the air, a spark passed, such as corresponded with the power of the troughs only; when the Calorimotor was immersed, this power was neither increased nor diminished ; but when the Deflagrator was immersed, its power owed freely through the batteries, and was received apparently undiminished atthe charcoal points, but did not appear to de- t
not, but the lifting of the coils of the Deflagrator out of the
id,. immediately reduced the spark, to that which the oan alone would affor
The several instruments being now disjoined, each acted y itself, in its own appropriate character.
. The original experiment of connecting the troughs with the Deflagrator only, was now again repeated, and with the same result as before; the power of both instru- ments was so destroyed, thatonly avery minute spark could be seen, and that with difficult
From these experiments, and those formerly related, the Sten conclusions may be drawn :—
vanic troughs and the Deflagrator. ee each other — me be made by any means hithetio d, to act in con
2, The lies does not impede the action of the es it allows their energy to pass through itself, but contributes nothing to aid their power and cannot be made to project its own power through the troughs.
3. The same fact is true of the Calorimotor in relation to the Deflagrator; the powers of these instruments cannot be made to pe only the Calorimotor allows a transit to the power of the Deflagrator ; but the Deflagrator does not in its turn, transmit the power of the Calorimotor.
. The Calorimotor, severe when connected, at “ip with the troughs and with the Deflagrator enables them far to unite, that the deflagrator acts through the ecabs,
340 Dr. Hare’s Deflagrator and Caiorimotor.
but without deriving any increase of power from them or from the Calorimotor ; the Calorimotor then is an intermedium for the troughs aid the Rd otherwise incompatible. 5. It is impossible as far as experiment has gone, to obtain any increase of power by combining the different kinds of voltaic apparatus, and indeed it may be doubted whether, when the power passes at all, through the instru- ments of different kinds, there is not always some loss; from S increased extent of connecting surfac hese various facts are probably all referable to the different powers, belonging to different proportions of the calorific, electrical, and luminous influence, excited by these different instruments, agreeably to the theory, which you have ingeniously proposed and ably defended; this view accords also with the known results of the combinations of cage elements, in different proportions, as of nitro- and oxigen, and of carbon and Geipen, and of carbon Bileieen: and nitrogen 7. We are thus sent rhs to study our imponderable el- ements anew, and t , that the voltaic power is not electricity alone, nor rhbat aii nor light alone, but a com- ound of these three agents, variously proportioned in dif- erent cases, and in different modifications of apparatus. This, it appears, is also true, of tie common mechanic and atmospheric electricity.
Remark.
As the magnetic influence attends all the modifications of electricity, natural and artificial, and of the voltaic power, including your new instruments; and as it is exhibited also by the solar beam, we are left in doubt, whether to regard it as a mere appendage of these powers, or of fee! ene or two of them, or as a distinct influence or energy, ly associated, with the colorific—calorific ae "eketiesl
w
But, as the magnetic influence is marvellously more pow- erful, in i the Calorimotor, than in the case of any voltaic,
Fusion of Plumbago. 34}
tendant, on caloric, or = least in a greater degree, than on any other power It is extremely obvious, that, on all these subjects, we a still very humble learners; we may however, Seandemiy hope, that out of these diversified. results, and from others still to be obtained—some grand simplification will hereaf- ter arise, which will reconcile all ef cea: oe aoa facts, and perhaps evince, that all the imponderable influences are merely modifications of one oierecflnd they consti- tute the atmosphere, which connects physical existence with its author, and exhibit to us, in the natural world, the most immediate and wonderful efflux of his omnipotent energy. Your friend and servant,
B. SILLIMAN.
Art. XX.—Fusion of Plumbago.
Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, Seca | called black lead,) in a letter to Dr. Robert Hare, M. po the Editor, dated March 26, 1823.
My Dear Sir,
In a former letter published in this Journal, (Vol. V. pa. 108,) and in an additional notice, (pa. 361 same Vol.) I gave an account of the fusion and volatilization of charcoal, by the use of your Galvanic Deflagrator. Ihave now to add, that the fusion of plumbago was accomplished de ten by the same instrument, and that I have, again ined t same results to-day. For this purpose, oa piece of
fine and beautiful plumbago, from North-C arolina, T sawed small parallelopipeds, about one eighth of an inch in diameter, and from three fourths of an inch to oneinch and a quarter in length; these were sharpened at one end, and one of them was employed to point one pole of the deflag- rator, while the other was terminated by prepared char- coal. Plumbago being, in its natural state, a conductor, (although inferior to prepared charcoal,) a spark was read- ily obtained, but, in no instance, of half the energy which belongs to the instrument when in fall activity, for the zine coils were very much corroded, and some of them had fail- ed and dropped out; still the influence was readily convey-
342 Fusion of Plumbage.
ed, through the remaining coils. As my hopes of success, in the actual state of the instrument, were not very san- guine, | was the more gratified to find a decided result in the very first trial. To avoid repetitions I will generalise the results. ‘The best were obtained, when the plumbago was connected with the copper, and prepared charcoal with the zinc pole. The spark was vivid, and globules of melted plumbago could be discerned, even in the midst of the igni- tion, forming and formed upon the edges of the focus of heat. In this region also, there was a bright scintillation, evidently owing to combustion, which went on where air had free access, but was prevented by the vapor of carbon, which eccupied the highly luminious region of the focus, between the poles, and of the direct route between them. Just on and beyond the confines of the ignited portion of the plumbago, there was formed a belt of a reddish brown color, a quarter of an inch or more in diameter, which ap- peared to be owing to the iron, remaining from the com- bustion of the carbon of that part of the piece, and which, being now oxidized to a maximum, assumed the usual co- lor of the peroxide of that metal.
In various trials, the globules were formed very abundant- ly on the edge of the focus, and, in several instances, were studded around so thickly, as to resemble a string of beads, of which the larg: of the size of the smallest shot ; others were merely visible to the naked eye, and others still were microscopic. No globule ever appeared on the point of the plumbago, which had been in the focus of heat, bat this point presented a hemispherical excavation, and the plumbago there had the appearance of black scorie or yoleanic cinders. These were the general appearances at the copper pole occupied by the plumbago.
_ On the zine pole, occupied by the prepared charcoal, there were very peculiar results. This pole was, in every instance, elongated towards the copper pole, and the black matter accumulated there, presented every appearance » of fusion, not into globules, but into a fibrous and 4 striated form, like the half flowing slag, found on the upper currents of lava. It was evidently transferred, in the state of vapor, from the plumbago of the other pole, and had been formed by the carbon taken from the hemispher- ical cavity. It was so different from the melted charcoal, described in my former communications, that its origin
Fuston of Plumbago. 343.
from the plumbago could admit of no reasonable doubt. 1 am now to state other appearances which have excited in my mind a very deep interest. On the end of the prepared charcoal, and occupying, frequently, an area of a quarter of an inch or more in diameter, were found numerous globules of perfectly melted matter, entirely spherical in their form, having a high vitreous lustre, and a great degree of beauty. Some of them, and generally they were those most remote from the focus, were of a jet black, like the most perfect ob- sidian; others were brown, yellow, and topaz colored; oth- ers still were greyish white, like pearl stones with the trans- lucence and lustre of porcelain; and others still, limpid like flint glass, or, in some cases, like hyalite or precious opal, but without the iridescense of the latter. Few of the globules upon the zine pole were perfectly black, while very few of those on the copper pole were otherwise. In one instance, when I used some of the very pure English plumbago, (saw- ed from a cabinet specimen, and believed to be from Bor- rowdale,) white and transparent globules were formed on tne Cope side.
L-~)j “ J} teh } I
most, no globules were formed on the | latter, and they were unu- ually numerous, and almost all black, on the opposite pole. When the points were exchanged, plumbago being on the zinc, and charcoal on the copper end, very few globules
- were formed on the plumbago, and not one on the charcoal;
this last was rapidly hollowed out into.a hemispherical cav- ity, while the plumbago was as rapidly elongated by matter accumulating at its point, and which, when examined by the microscope, proved to be a concretion in the shape of a-cau-_ lidower—of volatilized and melted charcoal, having, in a high degree, all the characteristics which 1 formerly deserib- ed as belonging to this substance. Indeed, I found by re- petitions of the experiment, that this was the best mode of obtaining fine pieces of melted charcoal.
In some instances, I used points of plumbago on both poles, and always obtained melted globules on both; the re- sults were however, not so distinctas when plumbago was on the copper and charcoalon the zinc pole; but the same elon- gation of the zinc and hollowing of the copper pole took place as before. I detached some of the globules, and part-
344 | Fusion of Plumbago.
ly bedding them in a handle of wood, tried their hardness and firmness; they bore strong pressure without breaking, and easily scratched, not only flint glass, but window glass, and even the hard green variety, which forms the aqua for- tis bottles. The globules which had acquired this extraor- dinary hardness, were formed from plumbago which was so soft, that it was perfectly free from resistance when crush- ed between the thumb and finger, and covered their surfa- ces with a shining metallic looking coat. These globules sunk very rapidly in strong sulphuric acid—much more so than the melted charcoal, but not with much more rapidity than the plumbago itself, from which they had been formed.
The zinc of the deflagrator is now too far gone to enable me to prosecute this research any farther at present; as soon as the zinc coils can be renewed, | shall hope to resume them, and I entertain strong hopes, especially from the new improved and much enlarged deflagrator, which you are so kind as to lead me soon to expect. from Philadelphia.
April 12.—Having refitted the Deflagrator with new zine coils, | have repeated the experiments related above, and have the satisfaction of stating that the results are fully confirmed and even in some respects extended. The De- flagrator now acts with great energy, and in consequence I have been enabled to obtain good results when using Plum- bago upon both poles. Parallelopipeds of that substance, 4 of an inch in diameter and one inch or two inches long, being screwed into the vices connecting the poles, on being brought into contact, transmitted the fluid, with intense splendor, and became fully ignited for an inch on each side; on being withdrawn a little, the usual arch of flame was | formed for half an inch or more. Indeed when the instru- ment is in an active state, the light emitted from the plum- bago points, appears to be even more intense and rich than from charcoal; so that they may be used with advantage, in class experiments, where the principal object is to exhibit the brilliancy of the light.
On examining the peices in this, and in numerous other cases, I found them beautifully studded with numerous glo- bules of melted plumbago. They extended from within a quarter of an inch of the point, to the distance of } or 4 of an inch all around. They were larger than before and per-
Fusion of ee 345
be distinguished by | tea eye from portions of dina; In different repetitions of the experiment with the lumbago points, there were some varieties in the results. isiems “ene stance only, was. there a globule formed on the point; would seem as if the melted spheres of plumbago as soon as formed, rolled out of the current of flame, and congealed on the contiguous parts. In every instance, the plumbago on the _ copper side, was hollowed out, into a spherical cavity, and the corresponding peice on the zinc side, received an accu- mulation more or less considerable. In most instances and in all when the Deflagrator was very active, besides the glo- wre of —_ matter, a distinct tuft or projection was form- ¢ pole, considerably resembling the melted ehineoul: deseribed 3 in my former communications, but ap- parently denser and more compact; although resembling the melted charcoal, as one variety of volcanic slag resem- bles another, it could be easily distinguished by an eye fa- miliarized to the appearances. In one experiment the cav- ity, and all the parts of the plumbago at the copper pole were completely melted on the surface, and covered with a black enamel. The appearances were somewhat varied when specimens of plumbago from different localities were used. In some instances it burnt, and even deflagrated, being ciessians dissipated in brilliant scintillations ; the substance was rapidly consumed and no fusion was sbéiined. This kind of effect shoueied most distinctly when there was a plumbago piece on the copper side, and a piece of char- coal on the zine side. I have already mentioned the cu- rious result which is obtained when this arrangement is re- versed, the charcoal on the copper, and the plumbago on the zinc side; this effect was now particularly distinct and remarkable, the charcoal on the copper side was rapidly vol- atilized, a deep cavity was formed, and the charcoal taken rom it, was instantly accumulated upon the plumbago point, forming a most beautiful protuberance, completely distin- guishable from the plumbago, and presenting when “ate by the microscope, a congeries of aggregated spheres, w Bs mark of ey fusion and i: a ‘perfect metallic hase
tr. VI—
346 Fusion of Plumbago.
melted plumbago were in some instances so thickly arran- ged as to resemble shot lying side by side; in one case they completely covered the plumbago, in the part contiguous to the point on the zinc side and were without exception white, like minute, delicate concretions of mammillary chalcedony ; among a great number there was not one of a dark colour except that when detached by the knife they exhibited slight shades of brown at the place where they were united with the general mass of plumbago. They appeared to me to be form- ed by the condensation of a white vapour which in all the experiments, where an active power was employed, I had observed to be exhaled between the poles and partly to pass from the copper to the zinc pole, and partly to rise ver- tically in an abundant fume like that of the oxid proceeding rom the combustion of various metals. I mentioned this circumstance in the report of my first experiments (see Vo 5, p- 112 of this Journal,) but did not then make any trial to ascertain the nature of the substance. Although its abundance rendered the idea improbable, I thought it pos- sible that it might contain alkali derived from the charcoal. tis easily condensed by inverting a glass over the fume as it rises, when it soon renders the glass opaque with a white lining. Although there was a distinct and peculiar odour in the fume, I found that the condensed matter was tasteless, and that it did not effervesce with acids, or affect the test colours for alkalies. Besides, as itis produced apparently in greater quantity, when both poles are terminated by plumbago, it seems possible that it is white volatilized carbon, giving origin, by its condensation, in a state of greater or less purity, to the grey, white, and perhaps to the limpid globules.
The Deflagrator having been refitted only at the moment when a part of this paper had already gone to the press, and the remainder is called for, { am precluded by these circum- stances from trying the decisive experiment of heating this white matter by means of the solar focus in a jar of pure ox- ygen gas, to ascertain whether it will produce carbonic acid gas. .
eta
+
Fusion of Plumbago. 347
‘Bhis trial I have this morning made upon the coloured globules obtained in former experiments ; they were easily detached from the plumbago by the slightest touch from the point of a knife, and when collected ina white porcelain dish, they rolled about like shot, when the vessel was turn- ed one way and another. To detach any portions of un- melted plumbago which might adhere to them I carefully rubbed them between my thumb and finger in the palm of my hand. I then placed them upon a fragment of wedge- wood ware, floated in a dish of mercury, and slid over them a small jar of very pure oxygen gas, whose entire freedom from carbonic acid, had been fully secured by washing it with solution of caustic soda, and by subsequently testing it with recently prepared lime-water; the globules were now exposed to the solar focus from the Jens mentioned volume 5, page 363. It was near noon, and the sky but very slight- ly dimmed by vapour; although they were in the focus for nearly half an bour, they did not melt, disappear, or alter their form; it appeared however, on examining the gas that - they had given up part of their substance to the oxygen, for carbonic acid was formed which gave a decided precipitate with lime-water. Indeed when we consider that these globules had been formed in a heat vastly more intense, than that of the solarfocus, we could not reasonably expect to melt them in this manner, and they are of a character so highly vitreous, that they must neeessarily waste away very slowly, even when assailed by oxygen gas. Ina long continued experi- ment, it is presumable, that they would be eventually dissi- pated, leavin only a residuum of iron. That they contain iron is manifest, from their being attracted by the magnet, and their colour is evidently owing to this metal. Plumba- go, in its natural state, is not magnetic, but it readily becomes so, by being strongly heated, although without fusion, and even the powder obtained from a black lead crucible after enduring a strong furnace heat, is magnetic. It would be interesting to know, whether the limpid globules are also magnetic, but this trial I have not yet made.
_ T have already. stated, that the white fume mentioned above, appears when points of charcoal are used. I have found that this matter collects in considerable quantities a little out of the focus of heat around the zinc pole, and occa- sionally exhibits the appearance of a frit of white enamel,
348 Fusion of Plumbago.
or looks a little like pumice stone, only, it has the whiteess of porcelain, graduating however into light grey, and oth- er shades, as it recedes from the intense heat. In a few instances I obtained upon the charcoal, when this substance terminated both poles, distinct, limpid spheres, and at other times they adhered to the frit like beads ona string. Had we not been encouraged by the remarkable facts already stated, it would appear very extravagant to ask whether this white frit and these limpid spheres could arise from carbon, volatilized in a white state even from charcoal itself, and condensed in a form analagous to the diamond. The rigorous and obvious experiments necessary to deter- mine this question, it is not now practicable for me to make, and I must in the mean time admit the possibility that alka- line, and earthy impurities may have contributed to the result. n one instance contiguous to, but a little aside from the charcoal points, I obtained isolated dark coloured globules of melted charcoal, analogous to those of plumbago. The opinion which I formerly stated as to the passage of © a current from the copper to the zine pole of the deflagrator, is in my view, fully confirmed. Indeed, with the protec- tion of green glasses, my eyes are sufficiently strong, to en- able me to look steadily at the flame, during the whole of experiment, and I can distinctly observe matter in different forms passing to the zine pole, and collecting there, just as we see dust, or other small bodies driven along by a com- mon wind; there is also an obvious tremor, produced in the copper pole, when the instrument is in vigorous action, and we can perceive an evident vibration produced, as if, by the impulse of an elastic fluid striking against the opposite 1 :
very little better, I cannot say I had any serious hopes o
Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Piumbago. 349
success. I have made various attempts, which have failed, and after losing two diamonds, the fragments being thrown about with a strong decrepitation, I have desisted from the attempt, having, as I conceive, a more feasible project in view. ; ; J trust you will not consider the details of the preceding pages, as being too minute, provided the subject appears to you as interesting as it does to me. The fusion ws charcoal and of plumbago, is sufficiently remarkable, but the evident approximation of the material of these bodies towards the condition of diamond, from which they differ so remarkably in their physical properties, affords if | mistake not, a strik- ing confirmation of some of our leading chemical doctrines. remain as ever your faithful friend and servant, B. SILLI
MAN.
Art. XXI.—Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago with the compound Blow Pipe, in a letter ad- dressed to Prof. Robert Hare, M. D. by the Editor.
Yale College, April 15, 1823. My Dear Sir,
Having last year, caused to be constructed, an apparatus, capable of containing fifty-two gallons of gas, for the supply of your compound, or, oxy-hydrogen blow pipe, and capable of receiving a strong impulse from pressure, | have been in- tending as soon as practicable, to subject the diamond, and the anthracite to its intense beat. Although their being non- conductors, would be no impediment to the action of the blow pipe flame on them, still, obvious considerations. have always made me consider the success of such experiments, as very doubtful. I allude of course, to the combustibility of these bodies, from which we might expect, that they would be dissipated by a flame, sustained by oxygen gas.
My first trials were made by placing small diamonds in a cavity in charcoal, but the support was, in every instance, so rapidly consumed, that the diamonds were speedily displa- ced, by the current of gas. I next made a chink ina peice of solid quick lime, and crowded the diamond into it; this proved avery good support, but the effulgence of light was so daz-
350 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthrante and Plumbago.
ling, that, although, through green glasses, I could steadily inspect the focus, it was impossible to distinguish the di mond, in the perfect solar brightness. This mode of con- ducting the experiment, proved, however, perfectly manage- able, and a large dish, placed beneath, secured the diamonds from being lost, (an accident which | had more than once met with) when suddenly displaced by the current of gas ; as however, the support was not combustible, it remained permanent, except that it was melted in the whole region of the flame, and covered with a perfect white enamel of vit- reous lime. The experiments were frequently suspended, to examine the effect on the diamonds. ‘They were found to be rapidly consumed, wasting so fast, that it was necessa- ry in order to examine them, to remove them from the heat, at very short intervals. They exhibited however, marks of in- cipient fusion. My experiments were performed upon small wrought diamonds, on which there were numerous polished facets, presenting extremely sharp, and well defined solid edges and angles. nese edges and angles were always rounded and generally obliterated. The whole surface of the diamond lost its continuity, and its lustre was much im- paired; it exhibited innumerable very minute indentations, and intermediate and corresponding salient points; the whole presenting the appearance of having been superficially soften- ~ed, and indented by the current of gas, or perhaps of having had its surface unequally removed, by the combustion. In various places, near the edges, the diamond was consumed, with deep indentations, and occasionally where a fragment had snapped off, by decrepitation, it disclosed a conchoidal fracture and a vitreous lustre. These results were nearly uniform, in various trials, and every thing seems to indicate that were the diamond a good conductor, it would be melt- ed by the deflagrator, and were it incombustible, a globule would be obtained by the compound blow pipe. In one experiment, in which | used a support of plumba- Are there were some interesting varieties in the phenomena. he plumbago being a conductor, the light did not accumu- late as it did when the support was lime, but permitted me distinctly to see the diamond through the whole experiment. It was consumed with great rapidity ; a delicate halo of blu- ish light, clearly distinguishable from the blow pipe flame, overed over it; the surface appeared as if softened, numer-
inc eetintt t—
Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. 351
ous distinct but very minute scintillations were darted from itin every direction, and I could see the minute cavities and projections which I have mentioned, forming every instant. In this experiment I gave the peat. but one heat.of about a minute, but on examining it with a magnifier, I was sur- prised to find, that only a very thin layer of the gem, not much thicker than writing paper remained, the rest having been burnt.*
I subjected the anthracite of Wilkesbarre, Penn. to similar trials, and by heating it very gradually, its de- crepitation was obviated. It was consumed, with almost as much rapidity, as the diamond; but exhibited, during the action of the heat, an evident appearance of being superficially softened; I could also distinctly see, in the midst of the intense ‘glare of light, — minute globules forming upon. the surface. These when examined b: a magnifier, proved to be perfectly white and limpid, and the whole surface of the bia Bog exhibited, like the dia~ mond, only with more distinctness, cavities and projections united by flowing lines, and covered with a black varnish, exactly like some of the volcanic slags and semi-vitrifications. The remark already made, respecting the diamond, appears to be equally applicable to the anthracite, i. e. that its want of conducting power, is the reason why it is not melted by the deflagrator, and its combustibility is si sole obstacle to its complete fusion by the compound blow-pipe.
I next subjected a eee of plumbago to the com- pound flame. It w nsumed_ with considerable ra i pe but presented at es me time, numerous globules o melt- ed matter, clearly ee by the naked eye, and when the piece was afterwards examined, with a good glass, it was found richly adorned, with numerous perfectly white and transparent spheres, connected also by white lines of the same matter, covering the greater part of the surface, for thie
*In Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. for November 182, Vol. 58, page 386, I observe the following notice by Mr. John Murray. “By repe por. axporing | a diamond to the action of the oxy-hy yatogen i blo W-pipe ina s of magne it became as ned as charcoal, and split into fragments which, Malayad the
It will be found, that this gem affixed in magnesia “area ff in minut ragments, exhibiting t the impress of the conchoidal
In lately exposing the diamond fixed on a support of pibe-clay, oe the igni- ted gas, I succeeded in completely indenting it :—examin r the ex- periments, it exhibited proofs of having undergone fusion.”’
352 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago.
space of }.an inch at, and around the point, and presenting a beautiful contrast, with the plumbago beneath, like that of a white enamel upon a black ground.
In subsequent trials, upon pieces from various localities, foreign and domestic, (confined however to very pure spe- cimens,) I obtained still more decided results; the white transparent globules became very numerous and as large as small shot; they scratched window glass—were tasteless— harsh when crushed between the teeth, and they were not magnetic. They very much resembled melted silex, and might be supposed to be derived from impurities in the _ plumbago, had not their appearance been uniform in the different varieties of that substance, whose analysis has nev- er, I believe, presented any combined silex, and neither
magnifiers, nor friction of the powder between the fin- gers, could discover the slightest trace of any foreign sub- stance in these specimens. Add to this, in different exper- iments, I obtained very numerous perfectly black globules, on the same pieces which afforded the white ones. instance they covered an inch in length, all around, many of them were as large as common shot; and they had all the lustre and brilliancy of the most perfect black ena- mel. Among them were observed, here and there, globules of the lighter coloured varieties. In one instance the entire end of the parallelopiped of plumbago was occupied by a single black globule. The dark ones were uniformly at- tracted by the magnet, and I think were rather more sensi- ble to it than the plaumbago which had been ignited but not melted. We know how easily, in substances containing iron, the magnetic susceptibility is changed by slight varia- tions of temperature. I am aware, however, that the dar globules may contain more iron than the plumbago from which they were derived, as the combustion of part of the carbon, may have somewhat diminished the proportion of that substance. I find that the fusion of the plumbago by the compound blow-pipe is by no means difficult, and the instrument being in good order, good results may be antici- pated with certainty. As the press is waiting while write, itis not in my power to determine the nature of all of these va- rious coloured globules, and particularly to ascertain wheth- er the abundant white globules are owing to earths combin- ed with the plumbago, or whether they are a different form
Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite and Plumbago. 353
of carbon. If the former be true, it proves that no existing analysis of plumbago can be correct, and would still leave the remarkable white fume, so abundantly exhaled between the poles of the deflagrator, and so rapidly transferred from ‘the copper to the zine pole, entirely unaccounted for. would add, that for the mere fusion of plumbago, the blow- pipe is much preferable to the deflagrator, but a variety of interesting phenomena in relation to both plumbago and charcoal are exhibited by the latter and not by the former. Hoping that if these subjects have not already engaged your attention, they will speedily do so, I remain 7 dear Be as ever, your friend and servant. B. SILLIMAN.
Postscript, April 18. Fusion or ANTHRACITE.
The anthracite of Rhode-Island is thought, to be very pure. Dr, William Meade, (See Bruce’s Journal; pa. 36) estimates its proportion of carbon at ninety-four ‘per oe This anthracite I have just succeeded in melting by the compound blow-pipe. It gives large brilliant black globules, not attractable by the magnet, but in other respects not to be distinguished from the dark -hitailes of melted plumbago. The experiment was entirely successful in every trial, -and the great number of the globules and their evident flow from, and connexion with, the entire mass, permitted no doubt as to their being really the melted anthracite
The Kilkenny coal gave only white and transparent glob- ules; but it seems rather difficult to impute this to impuri- ties, since this oe is stated to contain ninety-seven per cent. of ca
[ have Aine a diane this afternoon to the solar fo- cus in a jar of pure oxygen gas, but observed no signs of fu- sion, nor indeed did I expect it, but I wished to compare this old ie ar biepea with those related above
The diamond is now the only substance whink has not been perteatly melted.
I inserted a piece of plumbago into a cavity in quick lime, and succeeded in melting it down by the blow- pipe into two or three large globules, adhering into one mass, and occupy- ing the cavity in the lime; these globules were limpid, and nothing remained of the original appearance of the plumba- go except a few black poinis.
Vol. VI.—Na. 2.
354 Fluoric Acid of Gay Lussac.
Arr. XXIL—Flworic Acid of Gay ment its pppliiatts * to the eiching of glass.—EpiTor
As we have not seen any notice, that this powerful acid has been obtained in this country, we will briefly mention, that we procured it in full strength, during the late winter, and comparing it with the account given in the. lg tis in the “Recherches Physico-Chimiques,” of Messrs. Gay Lussac and Thenard, observed with much satisfaction that its prop- erties fully justify their statement; not that we think their researches or those of Sir. H. Davy, needed confirmation, but, notices of interesting facts by different persons eapepialy in different countries are not without utility..
The leaden apparatus, recommended for procuring pure fluoric acid, we have found so liable to fusion, and besides the failure of the axpeimssi pe the loss of the apparatus, the fumes are so noxious and even dangerous, that we were induced to resort to the use of vessels of pure silver. For this purpose, an alembic* was made of the capacity of 16 fluid ounces, with a head and tube of the capacity of two and a half, and the tube was made to fit > inna aed the mouth of a silver receiver of the capacity of three and a half ounces. The latter (see the apperains : represented at fig. 7, plate 10.) was made, in the form of a bott le, and furnished with a ‘sil- ver stopper, ground so as to fit air tight; it being intended to serve, both asa receiver, and a containing vessel, for the
acid, thus obviating the necessity of transferring it into another vessel,
Two ounces of very pure fluor spar from Shawneetown were introduced into the alembic, and four ounces of sul- phuric acid were added; there should be no excess of acid, lest it should attack the silver. . The whole apparatus was placed under a flue; the receiver was rake cold by ice, and a few live coals being applied beneath the alembic, served to disengage the acid, which was condensed in the receiver, without the aid of water.
*The alembic was made thick and heavy, and furnished og a silver cap, so pe ae on be used without iY head, as a . cruci oon tof the entire a t embic-he: receiver, Sek ehdnt slaty dollage ys reer wh rai.
Bc'\ >” tn peat ate peeeatmtins
Fiuorie Acid of Gay Lussac. 355
An ebullition was soon heard in the alembic, and occa- sionally there was a puff of dense fluoric acid vapor, from the mouth of the receiver, which, to avoid explosion, was allowed to remain a little loose around the tube. We did not measure the acid which we obtained, but Judged that it was about one ounce in quantity.
The fumes that occasionally broke out from the appara- tus, instantly and powerfully corroded some articles of glass that were near by, and the contact of them with the skin or lungs, was most anxiously avoided. For this purpose, the hands were covered with very thick gloves, and the acid was never poured from the bottle, except under the
ue.
Whenever the bottle was opened, a dense cloud of white vapor appeared, and when a drop of the acid was al- lowed to fall into water, it produced much the same com- motion and noise as red hot iron; excuing great heat and ebullition. A few drops placed i in a small concave copper dish, instantly inflamed aA waich burnt with a bri ght light, and was immediately dissipated.
A drop of the acid, let fall into.a dry wine-glass, or upon a dry glass plate, promptly corroded and dissolved the surface, with as much energy as that with which sulphuric acid acts on potash.
the purpose of procuring an acid adapted to the purpose of etching on glass, the experiment was repeated, with this difference, that half an ounce of water was placed in the receiver. This acid however, proved too powerful
pak bya aon theta same ae were perfectly etched in
the course of a minute or two. The progress of the corrosion
in the parts denuded by the graver, could be distinctly seen.
The same portion of acid, by ‘pouring | it fi ‘om one plate to h
as
another, served to etc : d with
Lussac and Thenard, made oy th melting together comm: Mer peor ine
356 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite.
this active agent, even when largely diluted, it is necessary be very much on our guard, lest the corrosion go too far, and attack the plain parts of the glass.
In this manner, the rich and beautiful picture, represent- ing the Oto Council, as delineated in the atlas, illustrating the narrative of Major Long’s expedition, was elegantly etched in two minutes. ;
We have, for a course of years, tried many experiments upon the etching of glass, by the fluoric acid vapor, an have usually succeeded more or less perfectly ; but-we can confidently recommend the pure diluted acid, as being en- tirely superior, in energy, neatness, and ease of manage- ment. Although the strong acid is viclent and dangerous, in the extreme, and should be by no means allowed to touc the skin, either in the fluid or vaporous state, the diluted acid may be managed with ease and safety. Still, a pupil, who incautiously dropped some of the latter upon his hand, experienced inconvenience for six weeks—that period hav- ing elapsed before the sore was healed.
It is proper to remark, that whenever the acid was pour- ed from the receiver, the latter was firmly grasped by tongs of a peculiar construction, in order to avoid the danger of having the liquid come in contact with the hand.
INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
———— I. Domestic.
1. Vindication of Mr. Henry Seybert’s claim to the dis- covery of fluoric acid in the condrodite, (Maclureite of Mr. Seybert, yellow mineral of Sparta, N. J.)
Philadelphia, Feb. 25, 1823: Sir,
But for some erroneous statements in Mr.Nuttall’s reply to my letter of the 11th November, 1822,* our Controver- sy might have terminated. I feel it, however, a duty to
*See Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. VI. p. 168, & seq-
On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. 357
correct these statements, and the more especially, as it will be done with the aid of facts that are — in the history of the mineral in question.
Mr. Nuttall says, “ If lam called upon, as you are aware, by Mr. H. Seybert to say when and where, I had heard of the existence of Fluoric acid in the Brucite or Condrodite, I might refer him back to a period when he was too young to have been acquainted with even the name of Chemis- try.”* J put no such questions to that gentleman: on a former occasion he told us, that “the condrodite, or Bru- cite, almost peculiar to Sparta, discovered likewise by the celebrated Berzelius, in Finland, accompanied by gray Spinelle is (according to an unpublished analysis which I made in 1820,) a Silicate of Magnesia with an accidental portion of Fluoric acid and Iron.”t Mr. Nuttall did not then refer to any analysis made prior to that which he pre- tended to have made ; my protest was therefore directly — his being the discoverer of the fluoric acid in this
ne From the fact containéd in my letter, above re- ferred to, Mr. N uttall, as far as concerns himself, has been obliged to renounce every pretension, heretofore made b him, on that subject. Mr. Nuttall seems still disposed to believe, that the fluoric acid in this mineral is an accidental ingredient, and he attributes its presence to “the contiguity of slender veins of fluate of lime to the masses of condrodite or Brucite near to oa "eye The fact, however, is that Sparta is six miles distant from Franklin furnace, and I do not big "thet any one has hitherto an- nounced that fluate of lime, lies contiguous to the carbonate of lime in which the Maclureite at Sparta is imbedded. I found none of it when I examined that locality. What in- fluence the fluate of lime, at Franklin furnace, may have had in the composition of the Sparta mineral, I must leave to be determined by those who are more disposed than J am, to speculate on this subject. Again, if fluate of lime had been found contiguous to the Maclureite of ‘Sparta, what chemist would pretend, that the magnesia in the latter
*See Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. VI. p. 171. tIbid, Vol. V. p. 245. Hbid, Vol. VI. p, 172.
358 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid inthe Condrodite.
would have decomposed the former,to combine with its flu- oric acid. Iii support of this peli we Nuttall tells us, that this mineral has been found a st-Point, in New-Yo and that it has been observed ss eae and mica from Vesuvius : he then says, ‘*in these no trace of fluoric acid has as yet been discovered.”” To obviate this seeming ob- jection, I will ask Mr. Nuttall if he knows, that the constit- uents of the specimens from the localities which he has ci- ted, have been ascertained. As faras my knowledge, ex- tends, no chemist has yet analyzed them, and I confidently anticipate, that when they shall be examined they will all prove to be fluo-silicates of magnesia. Analogy authorises such anticipations. Jf we even admit, that no fluoric acid has yet been discovered in the cases cited by Mr. Nuttall, we are not thence to infer, that this acid does not exist there, because we know that, that acid escaped the notice of Berzelius, when he analyzed the condrodite, found in Finland, and that | afterwards detected it in that mineral, though no fuate of lime accompanied the specimen which ] examined.* ae the next place Mr. Nuttall tells us, that the Sparta ral was announced by Professor Cleaveland in bis
ucite.”” 1am surprised at this assertion and will thank Mr. Nuttall, ie eet out the page in Cleaveland’s first edi- tion, where the word “ Brucite” is imprinted. I maintain
that it cannot Se Band in any part of that valuable work. he term ‘‘ Brucite”” was announced, for the first time, in 1819 to be “a new species in mineralogy, discovered by
the late Dr. Bruce.. We hope to publish in the next numbe a description and analysis of it.”’t Notwithstanding the anx- iety for an analysis of what somé now pretend tobe this mineral, none was published prior to mine, in 1822,{ al- though eight numbers of Professor Silliman’s Journal, ap- pes eared subsequently to its being mentioned in that. work. , dail that Dr. Bruce considered the Sparta mineral, a silica calcareous oxide of titanium. For my proofs, I refer
* Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. V. p. 366. tHbid, Vol. I. p. 439.
ftIbid, Vol, V. p. 336. .
lane tert nm
On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite. 359
to the Mineralogical Journal of Dr. Bruce,} to Professor Cleaveland’s works,{ and the late illustrious "Haiiy. § The last named philosopher has told us, that he received some specimens of this mineral from Doctor Bruce, with the in- formation that it wasa Silico Calcareous Oxide of Titanium, and that he, relying upon the Doctor’s account of it, adopt- ed the error, until it was removed by his ‘own crystallo- graphical investigation, and by Berzelius’ account of the analysis which he made of it; he then considered it a Sili- cate of Magnesva,|| substituting one error for another. Such was the state of their knowledge, on the continent of Eu- rope, concerning the composition. of this mineral, at the close of 1821, and in Gteat-Britets,* eet had made no fur- ther progress concerning it in 1822.*
Notwithstanding the facts above referred to, Mr. Nuttall, in his reply, relates that Dr. Langstaff, of New-York, as long ago as 1811, analyzed the Sparta mineral, and he then gives the doctor’s account ~ it as follows, viz. “it yielded about, : Silex ‘ -
32 Oxide ofIron - 6 sc - 51 Wa - - 2 and by abstraction, Fluorie Acid 9
100
The reader wil estimate the value and necessi “0 the - word “gbout” in the foregoing statement, when the num- bers given ebnabet us to so exact a result! Dr. Langstaff was'a pupil in Dr. Bruce’s Laboratory, and it is now as- serted, that the above analysis was made there in 1811. Is it probable, if such had been the fact, that Dr. Bruce would have remained, until his decease, ignorant of it? or that, if he had known it, he would, several years thereaf-
+Bruce’s American Mineralogical Journal, Vol. I. 239. tCleaveland’s Mineralogy, p. 158, first edition, 1818. §Annales des Mines, Vol. VI. p. 527. :
\[lbid.
*Journal of the Royal Iustitution of G. B. Vol. XII. p. 329.
360 On the Discovery of Fluoric Acid in the Condrodite.
ter, consider this mineral a Silico Calcareous Oxide of Ti- _tanium, and make a misstatement to Hatiy? Can we sup-
the world, without an indication of any one of its phys- ical or chemical characters; not a Word was even said about the bed where nature had castit! These gentlemen might with equal propriety claim any new substance con- taining fluoric acid and magnesia. Notwithstanding all their efforts, not one of them has cited a single experiment which he made with this mineral! When Mr. Nuttall first claimed the discovery of the fluoric acid, in the Sparta min- eral, he at the same time said, that his results were con- firmed by Dr. Torrey’s experiments.t Why did he then neglect the more important one which he now urges in fa- vor of Dr. Langstaff? he alone can account for the omis- sion. In his late reply to me he says, that Dr. Torrey, five ears ago, “also found the existence of fluoric acid, as well as the other ingredients mentioned in the analysis of Dr. Langstaff.”{ From these statements it would seem, that Dr. Langstaff, in 1811, made an analysis of the mineral from Sparta, and that his results were confirm- ed by Dr. Torrey in 1817; still the Bructte was introduced to the scientific world in 1819, only with its name, without . character, and regardless of its birth-place!_ Now they even dispute who discovered this mineral. Whilst Dr. Bruce lv- ed, that merit was given to him; but since the decease of that gentleman, his former pupil, Dr. Langstaff, claims the discovery for himself! This might be considered of no consequence to the question, did it not prove, how opinions concerning facts, that we supposed long ago well establish- ed, have been changed to answer temporary purposes. en the name “ Brucite” first occurred in the Journal of Science and Arts, | supposed it was intended to desig- *The annunciation of that mineral was made, not at the instance of Dr. Langstaff, but by the request of Col, Gibbs; the promised analysis was, however, never forwarded,—Ep.
+Journal of Arts and Science, Vol. V. p. 245. tIbid, Vol, VI, p. 172.
Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. 361
nate the red owide of zinc, pce near Sparta, and first analyzed by the late Dr. Bruce; there was great reason for this opinion, because we devad our knowledge of that new species from the wert of that gentleman. In conclu- sion It is presumed, that no new claimants will urge fur- ther pretensions, and r flatter myself, that the facts which have been stated will satisfy every candid reader. I have to express my regret for the necessity of this appeal, but, at the same time, hope you will Fane yas it entitled to a place i in the next number of the Jour With sentiments of regard arid tical your obedient servant, H. SEYBERT. 2. Abstract 3 the Biieee of oe ar of Natural - _ Mhsto tory, Ne Ne ew~ York ’ ‘
Mr. Pierce read some “ observations on the Geology of the Catskill Mountains,” (pub. in No. 9, of this Journal,) and presented a collection of minerals and fossils from the dis- trict ae ed.
an Rensselaer presented a perfect specimen of the vets papyrus, collected by himself from the river Ana- po, near Syracuse, in Sicily, accompanied by a beget illus- trative of its natural history, and its uses in the a
Dr. Dyckman, in the narhe of Dr. Sh eiesa: pee a collection of Plants, and a box of minerals from France.
A letter was received from Mr. Pier ierce, anpeunging the discovery of a copious chalybeate spring near |
Mr. Blunt sigma some fine specimens of Zoophifes from Bermuda.
A paper was read by Dr. Dekay on a new and beautiful species of Sertularia, pees the bay of N. York, the S. utri- cularis, with the following specific characters. S. caule
simplici, vesiculis.utricularibus diaphanis, ore aba mar- gine nigro, &c. itis nearest allied to the S. cupressina. By a letter since received from the celebrated Lamourous, it 5: ae he has adopted the name and description
r. Emmet read a report on an ore of iron from the Highlands of N. York, which was referred to him for ex- amination, It is a magnetic oxide of a granular texture, re with a substance a quartz in appearance, of
OL + oe
362 Transactions of the New-York Lyceum.
a yellowish white colour, and nearly opaque. This sub- stance Mr. Emmett submitted to a number of experiments, and determined it to be a phosphate of lime. _ It is probably the cause of that property of iron, called red-short.
A note was received from Mrs. Mitchill, accompanying a valuable donation of Shells. a
A paper from Mr. Jacob A. Vandenheuvel was read on the domestic origin of N. American Bees, and many inter- esting particulars of the Honey Bees of Guiana, 8. America accompanied by a case containing twenty species, collected by himself. Pub. in No. VH, this Journal.
Dr. Akerly presented a suite of Potter’s clay from differ- ent States. ee ny
r. Torrey presented specimens of plants collected by himself on Long-Island, among which were several new species of the myriopbyllum and Fuirena. ~
Mr. Halsey presented a collection of plants from the vicin- ity of New-York.
he committee reported a new species of Sphex carolina, and another species of Sphex from parasitic chrysalids.
A letter was read from Mr. Prince, communicating the fact of a new chesnut produced by the intermixture of the cas- tanea vesea, and the castanea pumilla. Specimens of the Hybrid were shown. Pub. in No. VIF, this Journal.
Dr. Torrey presented a collection of plants made by him- self in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey.
A letter was read from Mr. Schoolcraft containing obser- vations of himself and others during the Exploring Expedi- tion to the N. West, with a drawing of the Sand tree of Mich- igan, described in his Journal, since published.
memoir on the cetaceous animals was read by Dr. De- kay. It would appear that out of twenty species belonging to this order, thirteen are found occasionally in our waters.
Col. Gibbs presented, through Dr. Torrey, some fine specimens of Iron ore, and of the corundum of Naxos.
A communication was received from Major Delafield with a valuable donation of minerals and organic remains, collect- ed by him on the northern boundary of the U.S. The fossils and sulphates of Strontian are peculiarly beautiful.
President Mitchill communicated some interesting partic- ulars of the Xyphias Gladias.
a1 incepta pcnmeninen ae
Transactions of the New-York Lycewn. 363
Dr. Van isle ie — a collection of dried plants
from the Alps of Sav
r. Anderson pee anit specimens of graphite from Pen- sylvania and some pencils manufactured from the same, on which a committee reported favourab
President Mitchi]l communicated a description of an ani- mal brought by Mr. Schoolcraft from the regions situated around the sources of the Mississippi. It is a beautiful ani- mal, and resembles the Sciurus Striatus, or ground squirrel, Dr. "Mitchill terms it S. iridecem lineatus, or Federation squir- rel, in allusion to its thirteen stripes and numerous a A detailed account has been published in the New-York Repos. new series, Jan. 1821. The President at the ane time exhibited a dried specimen of the mus bursarius, seer or pouched, rat, (brought by Capt. Douglass,) from Lake Superior, with some observations upon its Pub, No. IX, this. a
communication was received from Dr. Dekay, with a collection of minerals made by himself in France and Great ritain
A letter was laid on the table from Mr. J. Blunt, accom- panied by a bone of a Mastodon from Catskill Moun- tains.
Dr. Dekay Saar or a deseription of a species of Ophisaurus, from the borders of Lake Michigan, brought thence by Capt. Douglas. It was conceived to be a new species and was named O. Douglasii.
Some remarks were read from. President Mitehill on ne Proteus Anguinas of Carniola and on the Siren Lacertina Carolina, and a letter from Judge Woodward on the tides of
ake Erie,
paper was read by President Mitchill on the Coca of
Pom: pattonylan Coca, much used by the natives for food and medicine
r. Schooleraft presented some minerals and fresh water shells collected during the Exploring Expeditions to the N, West, under Gov. Cass. Mr. Barnes, from the committee on these shells, reported several new species and varieties, particularly of the genus Unio, and announced his determin- ation of a more detailed report.
Collections of minerals from New South Shetland, and one of pumices from the same place was presented by Capt. Mackay and Capt. Johnson.
364 Transactions of the New-York Lyceum.
Dr. Torrey read a report an the ceraphron destructor, a parasitic animal that preys upon the cecidomya destructor, and which has been supposed any to bei injurious to wheat.
A communication was received from Dr. S. P- Hildreth on a species of Spatularia from the Ohio, supposed to be
ne r A ree donation of Scieniific books received from Mr. : t
Presideht Mitchill presented a description and specimen of a new eae of. Scomber, which he named S. qui nga aculeatu
A delistion was received from Dr. Hosack ofa splendid copy of Wilson’s Ornithology in 9 vols.
Mr. Barnes read an Essay on the Geology of the region around New Lebanon. Published in No. XI this Journal.
The Rev. Mr Schaeffer read a paper on a fossil bone (head of a tibia) of a mammoth found in Lancaster Co.
nn, Ten large bones were se but most of them were too much Ses ee to be preserv
Mr. Halsey read a paper on the cheirostemon pentadac- tylon of Humboldt.
Mr. Barnes read a paper on a new species of bivalve mo- lusea, found by Mr.’ J. Cozzens near eee an
= M r. B. names — Btetabs.*
A distbae and description of the Balenopterus acuto-ros- tratus was presented by Dr. Dekay. This animal was taken off Sandy Hook, and exhibited as a curiosity in this city.
Mr. Barnes read an Essay on the Genera Unio and Alas- modonta, Pub. in No. XIII this Journal.
tr. Van Rensselaer read an Analysis of Dr. J. W. Web-
slit: Work on the Geology of the Azores, accompanied by
bservations on the Lavas and Pumices of the — Is]- ands, in the Mediterranean.
Dr. Torrey read a description and analysis of a new min- eral from Richmond Mass. It is nearly a pure Hydrate of Alumine, and is named Gibbsite, i in honor of a distinguished Aanetican ee Pub. in the New York Med. and Phys. Journa
Transactions of the New-York Lyceum. 365
President Mitchill communicated an account of his dis- section of the Balenopterus acuto-rostratus mony exhib- ite
A communication was ‘received from Dr. Beckwith ac- companying specimens of the natural wall in North Caro- lina
Dr. Tor rey reported that a mineral from Hudson, N. Y presented by Mr. Barnes, was a variety of Jade, called Nephrite. It much resembles the N ephrite of Rhode-Island, being infusible by the blow pipe.
Dr. Torrey read a memoir-on the Usnea fasciata, a new cryptogamic plant from New South Shetland, with an ac- companying letter from Dr. Mitchill. Pub. in No. XIII this Journal.
A communication was received from Major Delafield, de- tailing information of a gun of ancient construction found in the Chesapeake, covered with siliceous pebbles, forming pyawesions,
valuable donation ‘of books was received from. Col. cis and another from Dr. Dekay.
e President read a communication on the progress of Natura History during the recess of the Lyceum since May last.
Mr. Barnes read a description of a new species of Myti- lus, from New South Shetland, which he names M. Antarc- ticus.
Dr. Torrey communicated an account of a new locality of Stilbite and Launionite. "hey occur in small crystals in a cellular felspar near cold spring in the Highlands of New York. ~The Stibite was described in No. XII. The Lau- monite is disseminated with the Stilbite, but is in much smaller quantity.. It occurs in small white four sided prisms, nearly right-angled, with summits very obliquely truncated. The lateral planes are distinctly striated longi- tudinally.
Mr. J. Cozzens read a paper on the acid existing in the berries of the common sumac, (Rhus glabrum) detailing the experiments by which he has ascertained it to be matic acid in‘nearly a pure state
Dr. Torrey laid on the table peeeisene) to illustrate his intended paper on the minerals of Sparta,
366 Efficacy of Prussic Acid in Asthma.
A combination of unavoidable circumstances has prevent- ed the earlier appearance of this abstract. It is intended to give a notice of the proceedings of the = ceum, in each succeeding number of this Journal.
3. Efficacy of Prussic Acid in fiber
-
To the Editor.
From Tuomas Hupparp, M. D. President of the Medical Society of Connecticut.
"By your politeness T was furnished, about three years since, with a vial of Prussic Acid, prepared by M. Robi- quet, according to the directions of Dr. Magendie of Paris.
Since that time, I have made use of that, and several oth- er portions of that medicine. The disease in which | have found it most useful is Asthma, and for the purpose of re- commending trials of that medicine i in this disease, I am in- duced to make this communication
Without going into the detail of the cases, I barely state the fact, that I have not failed to relieve the disease in a sin- gle instance, in which I have prescribed the prussic sat and some of the cases have been very — and m other means = relief had been tried in v
roper to mention the particular doses of the merce 3 as it is found of unequal strength i in the shops, and being a medicine of great power, it ought not to be ad- ministered without the direction of a physician. Suffice it to say, that the medicine should be given three, four, five, or six times in twenty-four hours, in such doses.as may pro- duce its peculiar effects, in some degree, on the system.
Ina few days the sy ne will probably abate, when the medicine may be n in smaller or less frequent dos- es, and if the sy mptoms entirely disappear, the medicine may be wholly omitted.
I do not pretend that the disease may not recur; but in each subsequent occurrence, by an early administration of the medicine, the paroxysms may be abated in violence and duration, by which means the general health of the patient will in most cases improve.
This J consider of great consequence in such a distressing disease a’ this ts, in some instances. I know a gentleman
onsets lay
Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer. 367
who has usually kept it by him for two years, and: resorts to it with as much confidence of relief, as a patient whose pains had been repeatedly relieved by opium, has recourse to that medicine.
Sometirnes he has not had occasion to use the acid for three or four months in succession.
Pomfret, March 24, 1823. .
4. Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer. (Communicated.)
“4 Gazetteer of the States of Illinois and Missouri,” 8vo. pp. 352. by Lewis C. Beck, A. M. has lately ety publish- ed by C. R. & G. Webster, Albany. Dr. Beck isa Mem- ber of the New-York Historical Society, and has resided sometime in Missouri. By traversing a considerable por- tion of these States, by the aid of several intelligent gentle- men in them, by access to the records of the States, and by
other means, Dr. B. had accumulated a mass of materials ©
which he has formed into this work, and which make it ve- ry valuable to the citizens and travellers, and very interest- ing to all who desire information respecting this. important section of our country. The Gazetteer contains a “general view of each State—a general view of their counties—and a particular description of their towns, villages, rivers, &c. &e.” It is accompanied by a map, “ protracted from man- uscript surveys, obtained at St. Louis and Vandalia,” ons appears to have been formed with great care. There also several other engravings, tilastrative of the dese trip: tions of particular objects. The “general view” of each State embraces those particulars which belong naturally to Geography, as well as antiquities, land districts, history, minerals, &c. The botanical names of the principal gene- ra of plants i in Missouri, and of the trees of lilinois, are also given, and will be relied on by all who know the success of . B. in the science of Botany. A Gazetteer must of ne- cessity be, to a certain extent a compilation; but the read- er will find abundant proof of Dr. B.’s diligenc e, research, and originality. The arrangement would perhaps be im- roved by placing all the towns, &c. in both States, in one alphabetical arrangement instead of two. The work is
in
368 Notice of Dr. Beck’s Gazetteer
well composed and neatly printed, and deserves the patron- age of the public. The article, Military Bounty Tract, 128, and p. 291, contains much very important information to the settlers, and those who propose to remove to these States. The articles, Pike County, Fort Chartres, Fort Dearborn, Monk Mound, and Vandalia, under Illinois ; and Fenton, Noyer Creek, St. Louis, Strawberry River, under Missouri, are particularly interesting.
On page sixteen, the length of the Ohio River is stated to be one thousand one hundred miles, but the true length is, by actual measurement, according to Mr. Darby*, nine hundred and forty-eight miles. :
On p. thirteen, is a correction of a mistake in Mr. School- craft’s ** Narrative Journal,” which was repeated in the North-American Review, No. 36, respecting the average descent of the Mississippi. Mr. S. states the elevation of the source of the Mississippi to be one thousand three hun- dred and thirty feet about the tide water of the Hudson, and the length of the river, three thousand and thirty miles. This would give an average descent of nearly forty-four . hundredths of a foot, or about five and a quarter inches a mile. This is a far less descent than is given either by Mr. S. or the Reviewer.. This mistaké was early pointed out to the latter, and is too considerable not to merit attention, especially as this descent is to account for the rapid current
‘the Mississippi, whose velocity is generally estimated from three to four miles, and by Dr. Beck, from two to four milesan hour. The velocity acquired in falling, with- out resistance, through five and.a quarter inches, is ‘about one foot and a half a second, and would be the velocity of the river, if there were no resistance. Allowing this to the mean velocity of the river, it would be only one mile and one forty-fourth an hour. But considering the resist- ance from the bends, sand-banks, counter-currents, &c. it cannot be supposed that, with only this descent a mile, the velocity can be more than one mile an hour. Mr. Darby thinks that the velocity of the current has been much over- stated, and that “below the Ohio the entire mass does not move as much as one mile an hour,””—that even the veloci- ty of the upper current is much less than has been general- ly stated. He also estimates the descent of the Mississippi
*Art. Mississippi River, in the New Edinb. Encyc.
Dr. Comstock’s Grammar of Chemistry. 369
below the Ohio, at only three and a half inches a mile, which would produce, were there no resistance, a velocity of only eighty-five hundredths of a mile an hour. He also estimates the elevation of the source of the Mississippi* to be less than that given by Mr. Schoolcraft; and, if the tide water of the Hudson is lower than the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the descent of the Mississippi must be propor- tionally diminished. It seems pretty evident that the al- lowed velocity of the river is too great for the estimated descent. » It is certain, at least, that a more accurate de- termination of the velocity of the current, as well as of the elevation of the source of the Mississippi, is very desirable ; and it is to be hoped that the remarks in Dr. Beck’s Gazet- teer will lead some of the western gentlemen to a satisfac- tory result on one or both of these particulars. D.
5. Dr. Comstock’s Grammar of Chemistry.
In the fifth volume of tne Journal, the publication of io work was mentionéd. y no means hold ourselves responsible to give opinions “of new works, but we owed the respectable author of this manual, good-will enough to have
said a few words on the merits of his book, had it not been postponed from mere inability to peruse it.
If our opinion be of any consequence in this case, we are gratified in saying that Dr. Comstock has executed his work with very creditable ability and address. It 1s concise, perspicuous and select, and bears strong internal evidence of being the offspring, to a great extent, of a practical man, who writes with the precision which can be derived from
try, the audivi may give a man many good ideas, useful to himself; the vidi will still more enlarge his knowledge— but it is ‘only the fect which qualifies him to instruct others. Dr. Comstock’s experiments are well chosen, well-describ- ed, and made intelligible and practicable by wood cuts in- serted i in the pages of the work. |—Ed. * Art. Navigation Inland, in the New Ed. Encyc. tPerhaps it is a mark of his good judgment and prudence that he has omit- Vor. VI.—No. 2. 47
370 Mineral Caoutchouc.
6. Mineral Caoutchouc.
_ This remarkable mineral, hitherto nearly or quite ou to the Owdin mine at Castleton, i in Derbyshire, has been céently found at Southbury, twenty m thiles N. W. of me Haven. This region is a secondary trap basin (see Vol. Il pa. 231 of this Souraad) and although only six or eight miles in diameter, it presents all the characteristics of the great trap region of Connecticut and Massachusetts described by Mr. Hitchcock. Among other things, it contains slaty rocks with bituminous minerals; these have induced a research for coal which is now going on. We understand that they find bituminous slate or shale with small veins of coal. Spe- cimens confirming this statement are now on the table, and they exhibit fibrous limestone, forming very distinct veins, or rather layers, running parallel with, and lying between those of the aoe The fibres of the satin spar or fibrous limestone, are one inch and more in length; they are often cracked in the ditecio’ of the fibres and between them there are veins occupied by the mineral caoutchouc. It has but little elasticity, it is soft, easily. impressible by the nail, and compressible between the a es ae otassium, and: can be formed into a perfect ball; our is jet
black; some varieties of it are a little ie far have a re-. sinous and splendent lustre, and a flat conchoidal fracture; it burns with extreme brilliancy with much black smoke and an odour between that of a bitumen and that of an aro- pines: during the combustion, drops of liquid fire fall in a ream, or in quick succession, and with a whizzing noise Seactty like the vegetable caoutchouc and it melts precise- ly as that substance does. Rubbed on paper it leaves a black streak and acquires a high polish, it does not remove pencil marks from paper. The veins containing this min- eral are about one quarter of an inch wide and several inch-
es long.—Ed. as 10, 1823. td bapa a0 lest his readers shoul intra in jury: from ntemptig the mcpitinnacte: are a few ty- ical errors; the most important which we observed is, is, that hydrogen
po Fy as the basis of nitric acide (p. 21.) We do not observe any table of errata. ‘I his little work cannot fail to be very useful in mares and to pri- vate experimenters, and contains a great deal ina small c
Hudson Marble and Kendall’s Thermometers. A713
% Hudson Marble. aS.
The territories of the United States are rich in marbles, well adapted by their beauty and firmness, to architectural and sepulchral and other ornamental, as well as useful pur- poses. We have omitted as yet to mention one which is wrought by Mr. Charles Darling at Hudson, and is obtained rom the vicinity of that town. We did not see this mar- ble in place, but no geologist would hesitate on inspecting it, to refer it to the transition class, and indeed Hudson is in the midst of that strip of transition country, which Mr. Ma- clure designates in his geological map, along both sides of the Hudson. oe .
This marble is of agreyish colour, with a slight blush of red ; its structure is semi-crystalline and in some places highly crystalline, especially in and around the organized bodies, which, in vast numbers, it embraces. Among them, the en- crinite, is very conspicuous, and frequent, and when the mar- ble is polished, the organized bodies, congealed in a bright cal- careous bed, and often more brilliant themselves than the me- dium in which they are fixed, give it a very fine effect; this is particularly true in large slabs, which present great diver- sity of appearance and could scarcely be distinguished from the similar transition marble of the Peak of Derbyshire which it greatly resembles, and quite equals in beauty and firmness.—Ed.
8. Thermometers. 4
We have observed with satisfaction, the progressive im- provement in this country, in the manufacture of glass in its most important branches, and especially of thermometers, so indispensable to all researches on heat, and to many arts, depending on its laws. Mr. Fisher.of Philadelphia, Mr.
ool of New-York, and Mr. Pollock of Boston, (besides probably others not within our knowledge or recollection) are advantageously known to the public, as manufacturers of thermometers, and of various articles, of philosophical ap- paratus. ‘Their situation, in our principal cities, gives them facilities for being known, and for introducing their articles to the public approbation which they have justly obtained.
372 Salem Manufacture of Alum, &c.
‘Perhaps it is not generally known, that in one of our vil- lages, excellent thermometers, of every variety of construc- ion, may be obtained. ‘They are the work of a self taught artist, Mr. Thomas Kendall Jr. of New Lebanon, whose in- _. genious device for graduating tubes of unequal bore, is men- tioned at pa. 398, Vol. 4, of this Journal.* We have sev- eral of Mr. Kendall’s thermometers, constructed for partic- - ular purposes, and with which, as regards both the neatness
and accuracy of their execution, we have every reason, to be well satified. Some of them are particularly convenient, as they are constructed with naked balls, and with the contiguous part of the tube descending below the scale, which fits them for im- mersion in liquids, at the same time that they are conven- iently packed in travelling cases, and will answer well for chemical, medical, and meteorological observations.
We are assured that upon Mr. Kendall’s plan of gradua- tion, if the bore of a tube is of a regular taper, there is no more difficulty in making a correct thermometer of it (even if it varies so much, that the space necessary for three de- grees at one end makes but two at the other,) than of one that is uniform throughout.
he substance of Mr. Kendall’s improvement, we under- stand to be, a method of dividing right lines into any number of parallel divisions, with equal ease and accuracy, whether equal or unequal: applicable to the manufacture of mathe- matical instruments, but more particularly to the graduation of thermometer scales, which almost universally require un- equal divisions. This method may also be applied to the division of circles, and would be of great use to the artist in manufacturing machinery which required a great number and variety of cogs, as with an engine constructed on this principle, one number would be as easily obtained as another. —Ed. |
9. SalemManufacture of Alum, &e.
We contemplate with particular satisfaction, every ad- vance made in our domestic arts and manufactures, and re-
_ * Tt will not diminish the value of that notice, if we mention, that it was Bs et by the late Professor Fisher, after mature consideration of the sub- ect.
Geological Survey of the Great Canal. 373
gard every new step of this kind, as an vaddition to our na- tional resources.
Excepting the natural alum of the caverns in Tennessee and of some other regions of the West and South, and that, occasionally found, in our schistose rocks, and needs in these cases, more or less, for domestic dyeing, and other purposes, we were not aware that the United States possessed any re- source for this article independent of the foreign markets.
since, we were informed that a manufactor
was established at Salem in Massachusetts, and the proprie- tors have recently put us in possession of a set of specimens,
which prove that the effort has been completely successful. mong the crystals of alum, are some of great size, and ex- quisite beauty and transparency, exhibiting to the naked eye, in a very striking manner, the successive ]ayers of super-posi- rt
edges and angles, which are in every part, fees by trun- cations. Some crystals of rather smaller size are quite or nearly perfect. We are aware that fine crystals of alum are not rare in manufactories, but we have not seen these equal- led even by the similar productions of the celebrated establish- ment near Glasgow. There can be no question from the appearance of these crystals, as well as from that of the amorphous masses, of the extreme purity of these materials. Perhaps they are even purer for this reason, that the alum is not manufactured (as we understand,) from the usual source, namely, the decomposed alum slates, but from the direc a thetical union of sulphuric acid with the argillaceous eart The sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) made at this estab- lishment, is equally seheet in its kind, presenting crystals of extreme finish and beau e skill manifested in the manufacture of these articles, clealy evinces, that the persons conducting this establish- ment, are quite equal to the task which they have underta- ken, and are fairly entitled to the public confidence.—Ed.
10. Geological Survey on the Great Canal.
“The of alibat of Albany, the Hon. Stephen Van Rensse- laer, with his usual liberality, has undertaken the expense of
374 Expedition of Majer Long and Party.
procuring a Geological survey, to be made of the whole re- gion, contiguous to the great canal, and ofall the interesting tracts in its vicinity, extending from Albany to the Falls of Niagara. For this purpose, he has employed Professor Amos Eaton, with the aid of several assistants, and their task is al- ready advantageously commenced. Mr. Eaton is well known to the public as an active, industrious, and faithful observer, and we look to a happy issue of this great enterprise, which we trust will be honourable to all concerned.—Ed.
11. Expedition of Major Long and party, to the Rocky Moun- eee. ' tains. ested abet
We have recently perused, with great satisfaction, the narrative of the expedition of Major Long and party to the
ocky Mountains, by order of the government of the Uni- ted States. This narrative is contained in two large octa- vo volumes, illustrated by an atlas with maps, geological sections, and perspective views. e happy and success- ful execution of this arduous enterprise reflects equal honor upon the government who patronized, and upon the gentle- men concerned in the expedition.
Their commission included the geographical and physic- al features of the country, the details of Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy, the condition of the native tribes, the climate, and in short every thing which could be inter- esting, either to science or politics, This difficult task was most ably and faithfully executed, and if it were consistent with the design or limits of this work to attempt an analysis of the volumes in question, we should find the task very dif- ficult, because it is scarcely possible to abridge the interest- ing and important details with which they abound. . '
_ A successful generalization may indeed be exhibited, with respect to the geological features of the country; but 1
- Would be unhappy to exhibit the subject in a state less per- fect than that which it assumes in the narrative itself.
e perused with no small regret the account of the vast sandy desert which, for the distance of five hundred miles from the feet of the Rocky Mountains, presents a frightful waste, scarcely less formidable to men and animals, than the desert of Zahara; and we contemplated with admira-
Silat mere tpt
Philadelphia Water Works. 375
tion and sympathy, the toils and sufferings and perils, en- countered by the adventurers, who, on more than one occa- sion were near starvation, or on the point of being over- whelmed by hordes of barbarians. —Ed. ,
12. Philadelphia Water Works. —
This fine city is now abundantly supplied with good wa-. ter, from the Schuylkill, and a magnificent establishment for that purpose is completed at Fair Mount, five miles aboye the city at the falls of the Schuylkill. The entire
feet, and the whole extent of the dam including the west- ern pier about one thousand six hundred feet,” backing the water up the river about six miles.
The water power created,’ is calculated to be equal to raise into the reservoir by eight wheels and pumps,upwards of ten millions of gallons per diem. e river, in the dry season, will afford four hundred and forty millions ev twenty-four hours;—andas it is calculated, that forty gallons upon the wheel will raise one into the reservoir—eleven million of gallons may be raised each day.
Many interesting particulars, detailed in the last report of the watering committee,* which is illustrated by a large copper plate shect, exhibiting a plan and perspective, we must omit—and proceed to state, that the machinery in ac- tual operation, is able to raise upwards of four millions of gallons in twenty-four hours into the reservoir, which is of such an elevation as to afford the hydrostatic pressure of ninety-two feet, throwing upon the pumps a pressure of seven thousand nine hundred pounds. ‘There are two re- servoirs, one of which is one hundred and thirty-nine feet - by three hundred and sixteen, and twelve feet deep, hav- ing the capacity of three millions of gallons ; It is connect- ed with another reservoir which contains four millions of gallons. The water being raised into these, one hundred
* Forwarded by the kindness of Mr. George Vaux.
376 Test for Platinum.
and two feet above low tide, and fifty-six above the highest ground in the city ; is thence conveyed in the iron pipes described in our last Number, (page 173,) the whole ex- tent of which is now thirty-five thousand two hundred and five feet, “and in no instance has a leak been discovered.” The greater part of the pipes now laid are of American manufacture, none ever having been imported except as samples.
The system obviously admits of indefinite extension. The committee justly remark that “the uses and importance of this water, it is impossible sufficiently to value. The additional cleanliness of the city, (which with the suburbs contains between 120,000 and 130,000 people,) the supply of the neighboring districts for culinary purposes, as well as for purposes of refreshment—the great advantage in case of fire—the ornament of fountains in the public squares so wisely provided by our great founder—the benefit to man- ufactures, and the establishment of water power in the city for various purposes, may be named among the advantages of this new work; but above all we are to place its effect upon the health of a great and growing community, which of itself would justify a much greater expenditure.””—Ed.
13. Test for Platinum.
In the course of various trials, with hydriodic acid, upon metallic soluiions, we were recently much impressed with its remarkable effect upon the muriate of platinum. If dropped into a solution of this salt, even when extremely dilute, it produces, almost immediately, (and immediately if the solution be of only moderate strength) a deep wine red, or reddish brown colour; by standing a few minutes, it grows much more intense, and becomes very striking, af- _ ter the lapse of ten minutes. It much resembles the effect of the recent muriate of tin, but is a more delicate test than that, as it produces decided results where that gives but a faint change of colour. By standing a day or two, the so- lution becomes covered on the top, and on the sides of the vessel, with a film of perfectly metallic platinum. From this circumstance, it appears that the test operates by redu- cing the solution to the metallic state. Perhaps this effect was favoured by the manner in which the hydriodic acid
On Animal Fat. 377
phosphoric acid, containing perhaps an excess of phospho- rus. I did not make the trial with the pure hydriodic acid, and cannot positively say what agency the phosphorus might have had,in producing this effect. Even if the phos- phorus should prove to be essential, perhaps the observa- tion may be stil] worthy of being preserved. No other metallic solution gave similar results.—Editor.
14, American Geological Society.
_ From its munificent President William Maclure, Esq.
the society has recently received a box of the lavas of Ve- suvius—Beudant’s Geological travels in Hungary 4 volumes with maps—a continuation of the Revue Encyclopedique, and of the Journal de Physique—Conybeare and Philips’ . Geology of England, and a case of the Glauberite of Spain.
Major Delafield has presented to the society a box of minerals consisting principally of the boulder stones found onthe shores of the upper lakes, but embracing also vari- ous domestic and foreign specimens.
15. On Animal Fat. Stearine and Elaine. [Communicated by Professor Eaton. ]
An intelligent tallow-chandier, Mr. W. Parmelee of Lansingburgh, informed me, a few days since, that the tal-
w of beeves, which are slaughtered during, or at the close of the hot season, makes much harder candles, than of those which are kept until the weather becomes cold. This fact, he said, had always been known to tallow-chandlers ; but he gave a reason for this difference, which I believe you will think worthy of scientific investigation. a _ Mr. P. had not noticed the distinction made by chemists between the olive-oil-like part, called elaine, which lique-
Vor. VI.—No. 2. Ag
378 Additional Notice on the Fused Carbonaceous Bodies.
fies at 60° Fahrenheit, and the hard part, called stearine, which remains solid at 100° Fabrenheit. But he had sepa- rated the two ee and re-combined them in various ways. Without any chemical analysis, he had compared the elaine of tallow with the sweat of cattle, and found a great resemblance in their sensible qualities; though the latter contained a larger proportion of water and of muriate of soda.. From these observations he aie that during the hot part of the season, when cattle sweat profusely, such
a large proportion of the elaine ” evacuated through their skins, that the stearine is left in a much larger proportion than that which is found in their tallow after the sweating season has aaa
With Mr. P.’s permission, J cpnmnenicle ‘hues observa- tions, inthe hope that some American chemist, who has suf- fic ient leisure, will compare the results of an accurate analy- sis of the elaine and sweat of beeves, It may throw some light upon the science of animal sbreee and of the prox- imate principles of animal matte
Troy, N. Y. Jan. 13, 1823.
16. Additional Notice on the Fused Carbonaceous Bodies.
— If melted ple shoals and anthracite do really approximate tow s the character of diamond, we ought, to expect that, in ng nies ears of fusion, there would a a amination of conducting power, with respect both to heat and to electricity. This I find to be the fact. As soon as the point of charcoal is fused by the ey the power of the instrament is very much impeded by it; but as soon as the melted portion is removed, the remaining charcoal conducts as well as before; and so on, for any number of Soe of the experiment, with the same pieces of char-
“The globules of melted plum! lut conduct- ors,as strictly so as the diamond. This fact is very peep exhibited, when a point of prepared charcoal, connec withthe zinc pole of the deflagrator, is madeto touch a ao- bule of melted plumbago, however small, still adhering to a parallelopiped of plumbago, in its uataea’ state, screwed into the vice connected with the copper pole; not the minu- test spark will pass; but if the charcoal — be moved,
Foreign Literate and Science. 379
ever so little aside, so as to touch the plumbago in its com- mon state, or even that which has been ignited, without be- ing fused, a vivid spark will instantly pass. This fact is the more remarkable, because it is equally true of the intensely black globules which are sensibly magnetic, and therefore contain iron, as of the light colored and limpid ones, which
when both poles are tipped with those substances, there is only a minute spark, which is but little augmented when charcoal terminates one of the poles. But the fact is re- markably the reverse with the Rhode-Island anthracite; this conducts quite as well as plumbago,: and I think even better, giving a very intense light, and bright scintillations.
ave now no doubt, that the deflragrator will melt it, but have net had time to complete the trial.
If it should be said that the conducting power of the R. I. anthracite may be owing to iron, we are only the more em- barrassed to account for the fact, thatits black melted globules are insensible to the magnet, and are perfect non-conductors.
t will now probably not be deemed extravagant, if we conclude that our melted carbonaceous substances approx- imate very nearly to the condition of diamond.—Ed.
April 23, 1823.
17. New Journal.—The first No. of the Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts will be published in the month of May.
18. Ittro Cerite.—Col. Gibbs has discovered the Ittro Cerite at Franklin in New-Jersey.
Il. Forzien. 1. Stereotype Edition of Newton’s Principia.—A very el- egant stereotype edition of the “ Principia’’* has made its appearance from the University Press at Glasgow, conduct-
*Of which a copy is now in our hands.
we
~*
380 Foreign Literdture and Science.
ed by Messrs. Andrew and John M. Duncan. Itisa reprint of what has been known by the name of the “ Jesuit’s edi- tion of the Principia,” first published at Rome by two learn- ed French ecclesiastics, Thomas Le Seur and Francis Jac- quier; and embracing their celebrated commentary. The objects of this commentary are, as explained by the authors themselves, “to throw light upon such parts of the work as are difficult or obscure; fully to demonstrate those truths which Newton has announced, but neglected the proof ; and to bring into clearer view some of the less obvious beauties that abound in the demonstrations.”
he authors of the commentary have enriched their work
_ with occasional treatises, taken from the writings of distin-
guished men, on various subjects, both mathematical and physical; as, the tract on the Conic Sections—a concise, but elegant specimen of geometrical reasoning, which ap- pears to be the production of a professor at Geneva; and the well-known essays of Bernoulli, Euler and M’Claurin, on the motions that prevail in the waters of the globe. To these are added dissertations on the general principles of Mechanics, and the elements of the fluxionary calculus; together with many of the observations, experiments and reasonings of philosophers, both before and since the days of Newton. Solutions also, of ingenious and useful prob- lems often recur. ae
Perhaps it is the chief fault of the work, that its authors have too carefully attempted to explain every point that seemed in the least degree obscure, and thus increased its bulk, without adding proportionally} to its value. The present edition is published in the Latin, and comprises four handsome octavo volumes.
When the value of the Principia and the scarcity of for- mer editions are considered, this must be deemed an impor- tant addition to the list of new publications; and the influ- ence which original works of this high character always ex- ertupon the progress of usefil science, renders it desirable that, if introduced into this country, the work may meet with encouragement equal to its merits.
2. Travels in America—J. M. Duncan, A. B., of the University. Press, Glasgow, author of “A Sabbath among the Tuscarora Indians,” is preparing for publication an
Foreign Literature and Science. 381
account of Travels through part of the United States and Canada, in 1818 and 1819, intended chiefly to illustrate subjects connected with the Moral, Literary, and Religious condition of the country.
Those who enjoyed the pleasure of Mr. Duncan’s acquaintance, while travelling in this country, will expect much from his intelligence and candor, and we confidently believe they will not be disappointed.—Ed.
3. Fossil Vegetables—We have received from Mr. Adol- hus Brongniart of Paris,a work “Sur la classification et la distribution des Végétaux Fossiles’’—illustrated by litho- graphic plates. It is an elaborate and valuable work and an analytical notice of it by Dr. J. G. Percival will appear in our next number.—Edhtor.
Communicated by Dr. Jeremiah Van Rensselaer.
4. Fresh water formations.—From the new edition of Cuvier’s work on Organic Remains, it appears that the fresh water formations of Paris and Rome are precisely similar : presenting the following order of succession from below up- wards.
1. A compact limestone analogous to the Jura limestone, or even perhaps to chalk—rarely containing petrifactions.
he coarse sandstone formation, composed at its low- est part of bluish argillaceous marl, with shells, and towards its upper part of reddish sandy limestone, and sometimes of marine sandstone. ek
3. The volcanic breccia, in all its modifications, lying” above this formation. $55 :
e fresh water formation.
Messrs. Brongniart and Brocchi, who have examined to- gether these formations, conclude that there are two kinds © fresh water formations, very distinguishable by external characters, which indicate their difference of origin. The one produced by solution and precipitation, more or less pure and crystalline, has issued from the interior of the earth with the waters which have carried them to the sur- face of the soil. They may be formed at all elevations where similar waters may have issued, and the height at
382 Foreign Literature and Science.
which they occur is not always a proof of that to which the fresh water has been elevated. ‘These are the most exten-
sive.
The other, of a coarser texture, resulting from the abra- sion and washing of the surface of the rock, is formed by means of sediment at the bottom of still watersinto which they have been carried. ‘They are much less diffused, less pure, and may contain remains of marine bodies. A part of the Limagne of Auvergne, the fresh water formation of the Swiss Molasse, and probably the plastic clays and lig- nites are of this formation. :
5. New Atmometer.—Mr. Anderson, of Scotland, has in- vented a new Atmometer, or Evaporometer, for measuring - the evaporation from water, in any given time. Itis said to be superior to those heretofore invented by Mr. Leslie, and to equal in simplicity and accuracy the method employ- ed by Mr. Dalton to discover the evaporation from the ground.
per. e Lazulite is a compound of phosphate of alu- mina, phosphate of manganese, and of phosphate of iron and oxide of iron.
7. Translation on Natural History.—Mr. J. S. Miller has published a prospectus of his intended translation of the “ Natural History of Alcyonia, Spongia, Corallina, Sertu- aria, Eschara, and Corals, from the French of Lamark.” - Mr, Miller is well known by his work of the Crinoidea.
8. West or Lost Greenlend.—The indefatigable Capt. Scoresby is about publishing his discoveries on the coast of West Greenland. Since the setting in of the Polar ice in 1406, the fate of near 300 villages or plantations, with 16 churches, 2 convents, &c., has remained in obscurity, as all attempts to reach the coast have been unavailing. e perseverance of Capt. Scoresby, however, has enabled him to land several times in different places, in nearly all of
Foreign Literature and Science. 383
which he discovered traces . pier a but saw no peo-
two dred miles of the presumed site of the lost colony. He “Bas nccuimaly surveyed the coast from lat. 75° to 69° including nearly 800 geographi- cal miles of the indented coast. e finds an error in the position of the land in lat. 74°, as laid down in charts, of about 15°, or 900 miles of longitude. In August 182] he found the weather oppressively hot, and the air swarmed with bees, butterflies and musquitoes. The coast was high- ly picturesque, but it was seldom that the ice eer him to approach nearer than 15 eae from the shore
d, Philos. Jour. San "1823.
9. On the limits of the occurrence of Fishes in high situa- _ ttons.—According to Raymond, the only fishes that occur in the waters of the Pyrenees, at heights of from 1000 to 1162 toises are Salmo trutta, S. Fario and S. Alpinus. Higher up all fishes disappear. The water Salamander ceases to live at the height of 1292 toises ; probably be- cause the higher lakes are half the year frozen. But cold is not the sole cause of the disappearance of fishes in high altitudes, since Humboldt mentions that in the equatorial regions of America, where the mean temperature of the aézing point begins 1500 toises higher than in the Pyre- nees, the fishes disappear earlier in lakes and rivers. No Trouts occur in the Andes. At a height of 1400 or 1500 toises there still occur Pocilien, Pimelodes, and ver remarkable new form Evemophilus and Astroblepus. Un- der the equator, from 1800 to 1900 toises, where the mean temperature is still +9° 5’ cent., and where few lakes ever freeze, fishes are no longer met with, with the exception of the remarkable Pymelodes Cyclopum, which are thrown out in thousands with the clay-mud, ay from rien in the rocks, at the height of 2500 toises. These fishes live in subterranean lakes:i—
10. Todine.—After the beneficial results * obtained. by Dr. Coindet, from the use of Iodine in the cure of Goitre, the Clinical Institute of the Royal University of Padua,
ave used it with a view of different effects. They detail the cases of persons submitted to its action, and conclude
384 Foreign Lateraiure and Science.
that Iodine, besides its being endowed with the property of
larly from the uterine vascular system, on which it would seem to exercise a direct action, excites the activity of the gastric functions, so that under its use the appetite is renew- ed and active, the work of digestion goes on with celerity and without inconvenience even in delicate females, and those with weak stomachs.—Lon. Med. and Phys. Jour.
Articles of Foreign Literature and Science, extracted and translated by , Professor Griscom.
11, Preservation of Anatomical Preparations.—Dr. Macart- ney of the University of Dublin employs for his anatomical preparations a solution of alum and nitre, which he finds, has the property of preserving natural appearances much better than spirits of wine, or any other fluid hitherto employed.
he proportion of the two salts, and the strength of the so- lution must vary according to circumstances ; and in order wholly to impregnate the preparations the solution should be renewed from time to time. This solution is so highly an- tiseptic, that it destroys entirely, in a few days the fetor of the most putrid animal substances. |
12. 4 Chain Bridge is in a state of forwardness, over the Menai an arm of the Irish Sea which separates Anglesea from N. Wales. It will have the unprecedented length of 560 feet, between the two supports,one on each shore ; and its height above the water will be 126 feet, so that vessels may pass beneath it under full sail. The abutments are of masonry, surmounted by wood pyramids 50 feet high, over which the chains pass. ‘The bridge is 28 feet wide contain-
ing a foot path of four feet wide in the middle. It will cost £70,000 sterling. ’
13, Vi egetable Analysis.—Dobereiner describes in his iy hytochimie Preumatique a little apparatus very convenient
of aglass tube A of 4, 6 or9 lines in diameters, and from 4
Foreign Laterature and Science. 385
to 9 inches long destined to receive the substance to be acted upon by the solvent. It isclosedat bottom by a cork a, a, (see pl. 10, fig. 5,) wee which passes the small tube b, b, open
at each end, except that it is covered with muslin at x to prevent the pulverised substance from passing into it. One half of the tube A is filled with the vegetable powder, and the other half with the fluid. The small tube is adapted by means of a cork to the small globe B, freed from air by a few drops of alcohol, which by the application of heat ex- pands into vapour and expels the air. The small tube is then tightly pressed into its neck, and the apparatus is set in acool place. As the alcoholic vapour contracts and then forms a vacuum, the pressure of the air forces the liquor through the pulverised mass and thence into the globe In a few minutes a portion of extract is thus obtained, which being withdrawn, the vacuuin may be renewed by alcohol, and the process thus continued at pleasure.
14. 4 Steam Boat either has been, or is about to be con- structed on the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland by our coun- _tryman Edward Church ; who was the first to bring steam navigation into succe .sefal operation in France by the estab- lishment of a steam boat on the Garonne. The Swiss boat, (the first, it is believed, yet attempted in that romantic coun- try) will ply between Geneva and Lausanne, stopping a few minutes at Copet, Niou, Rolle and Morges, and per- haps extending her voyage —— to Vevey and the Chateau de Chillon. A m picturesque and delightful navigation can scarcely be Sblecirad. qi
V esuvius.—By a letter from Naples dated Novem- bet si, 1822, published in the Bib. Univ. of Geneva for the same month, it appears that the eruption of Vesuvius which took place on the 22d of October was as terrific as any that has occurred since A. D. 79 described by Pliny. Day was turned into night by the clouds of ashes and other volcanic matter, which at a distance from the mountain, fell to the depth of 5 and 6 feet. The writer collected several pounds of the ashes from his Balcony in Naples. It was at first of a reddish brown, and then more white, and appeared to him like pulverised pummice stone. He states that it had been analysed by M. Pépé who — in it sulphate of potash,
Vol. VIL—No. 2.
386 Foreign Literature and Science.
sulphate of soda, of lime and magnesia, sub. sulphate of alumine, hydro-chlorate of potash and of soda, much oxide of alluminum, of calcium, of silicium, and of magnesium, much tritoxide of iron and of antimony,and a little gold and silver. The writer thinks that this result strengthens the hypothesis, which ascribes volcanic fire and explosion to the infiltration of sea water to masses of potassium, sodium, and other metallic bases.
16. The Mean Temperature of the climate at Salem Mass. and at Rome in Italy, nearly in the same latitude, was for the 33 years, ending in 1818 as follows
Se oF ge Rome, - - 41° 53! _ 60° 44 Far. Salem, - - 427 33" 48° 68’
Diff. 11° 76’
17. Skeletons of the Mammoth and Elephant have been re~- cently discovered in the district of Hontes in Hungary. i
8. Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres at Paris.—
A hae féte, the first of this kind in France, was celebra- ted on the first of April last, at the termination of the gen- eral session of the Institute. The members of this Acade- my united at a banquet around their venerable perpetual secretary M. Dacier, the Nestor of letters and of French erudition, to celebrate at the same time, his 50th Academ- ic year, the 42d of his perpetual secretaryship, the 80th of his age, and his happy convalescence after a serious indis- position, which had much alarmed his numerous friends.
-his union was a true family feast, each of its members of- fering the homage of his affectionate wishes to the worthy chief who for half a century has been charged with the in- terests of literature, and who has conducted the concerns of the Academy with as much honor to that nears as advantage to letters and solid studies,
19. City of Odessa.—This city which in 1792 consisted of only a few hovels, now contains ge 000 inhabitants, Rus-
foreign Literature and Science. 387
sian, German, French, Greeks, Jews, Americans, and Poles. It contains a French and Italian theatre ; a lyceum found- ed by the duke de Richelieu, which affords numerous ad- vantages ; schools of law, navigation, commerce, &c. eight churches, two thousand houses and numerous public build- ings. In summer, Odessa is visited by a great number of families from the north of Russia and Poland, for the pur- pose of sea bathing. The population of the suburbs is con- tinually increasing. :
20. The Greek Seminary founded at St. Petersburgh. in 1775 by Catharine II, acquires every day, fresh impor- tance. It educates about 200 young Greek and Albanian officers. There are 25 professors. But, besides military science, the French, Italian, and German languages are taught. When the students have finished their course, they may choose either the station of an officer, the place of interpreter in the colleges of St. Petersburgh or Moscow, or a return, to their own country. There are now in the Seminary many young people from Scio, Lesbos and Nax- os.
21. A House of Refuge was founded in the month of April 1817 in the Rue Gres Saint Jacques at Paris, and has been eyer since supported by charitable donations, for the pur- pose of receiving from the prisons, those juvenile offenders whose good conduct while in confinement, may entitle them to this favour. The Refuge is placed under the immedi- ate direction ofa person who generously offered to devote himself to this work of mercy. The boys are taught in six work shops directed by skilful masters. Cabinet makers, shoe makers, joiners, tinmen, painters on metal, workers in bronze, are here in full activity. The exposition which is annually made at St. Louis of the products of these children’s labour, proves their rapid progress and improvement. An experience of five years leaves no doubt of the success of the institution. Since 1817, one hundred and eighteen children have been received from the prisons. Their conduct has responded to the solicitude of those who have not ceased t watch over them. Ifa few among them who have deceiv- ed the expectations of the administration, have been sent back to the authority, the greater number have justified
388 Foreign Literature and Science.
them. Twenty-one young people have been restored to the society in a condition to provide for themselves, and even to assist their parents. ‘To render more certain the erseverance of those who annually leave the refuge, the administration gives them a protector selected from among its own members. This protector watches over his pupil, informs himself of his conduct, of his Work, of his wants, and ofhis success. During five years, those discharged pupils, may, if they are worthy of it, receive pecuniary assistance from the house. Every month, the council distributes re- wards to the best workmen, and at St. Louis, utensils and other useful things are given to the children, who have dis- _ tinguished themselves by their good behaviour, docility, and love of labour. A multitude of children are exposed in the risons to all sorts of danger. Resources are wantin extricate these unfortunate creatures from that melancholy indolence, and ti le towhich they are exposed.
i °
23. Sugar from Beets.—Extract of a letter addressed to the Editor of the “ Revue Encyclopedique.”
The good of France, the prosperity of our native soil, is what occupies incessantly every noble mind. 1 seek among the libraries, and journals, every thing that relates to na-
ae
Sain aan ie ci _p Sr cece il
Foreign Literature and Science. 389
tional character and public utility, and I attend very assidu- ously the discussion of the Chamber in order to inform my- self, by the light which is often there thrown upon objects of the greatest interest. I listened with extreme impatience to the discussion of the law relative to the tariff, because I foresaw that sugar would certainly be the grand war horse, against which, the lances of the strongest combatants* would be broken. All that I could there collect which amounted to demonstration, is that France consumes one hundred mil- lions pounds of sugar; that our colonies produced in 1821, © forty-four millions kilogrammes, and that the surplus is drawn from foreign countries. This consumption proves that of the whole of Europe must exceed six hundred mil- lions of pounds of sugar annually, and that in adding to this the value of the rum made from the molasses of this same sugar, it results that the new world, raises for this sin- gle object, an annual impost of six hundred millions of francs upon ancient Europe. Disgusted”at not hearing in this sol- emn discussion a single word relative to the richest discov- ery of the age, the fabrication of European sugar, | opened the eighth number of Annales Europeenns, and I there found a statement which demonstrates with mathematical evi- dence, Ist. that the sugar of beets, is made with the same facility as bread. 2d. That this sugar may be easily ob- tained, of a quality superior to that of the finest American sugars. 3d. That France may not only fabricate enough for its own consumption, but that it might dispose of per- haps a hundred millions to its neighbours. 4th. That this would be the means of employing very happily more than a million of poor persons, of producing a harvest upon many millions of acres left unemployed, of fattening annually a hundred thousand cattle ; in short, of realizing new treas- ures in favour of France, and of producing a great extension of comforts in every class of the nation. ‘
I could say much more upon this important subject, as well as upon many others of the same kind, but if you have the goodness to admit this letter into your Journal, I shall make it a duty to add something hereafter.
24, Statistics of Egypt.—Every traveller in Egypt attri- butes to the Vice Roy, all the qualities of a statesman.
(*In the MS. competents.)
390 Foreign Literature and Science.
The christians who live under his laws are under many ob- ligations to him; and enterprizing travellers of all nations and religions may now traverse Egypt with a security be- fore unknown in the Ottoman dominions. The army of the Vice Roy consists of not less than 45,000 men, compre- hending infantry, cavalry and artillery. His naval force 1s composed of 22 vessels, and the navigation of the Nile 1s protected by a great number of gun boats, each of which carries 40 men. The revenues of Mohamet Ali, as Vice Roy, amounts to 25 millions of Spanish piastres.. They arise from custom house duties, taxes, tolls, fisheries, pub- lic domains, contributions from conquered countries, and from caravans, &c. The Vice Roy pays in title of vassal 2,400,000 livres to the Sultan; he sends the same sum to
he Treasury of Mecca; 800,000 measures of rice, &c. to Constantinople, furnishes provisions to the caravans of Cai- ro; keeps a brilliant court, and often sends presents to the Sultan, to the favourite Sultana as well as to the ministers of his highness.and to persons in credit at the Seraglio. The actual population of Egypt does not exceed 3,000,000. __ It contains 2,496 towns and villages, of which 957 are in Up-
amined the best sources of information, and has left noth- ing to be desired with respect to the authenticity or arrange- ment of his facts,
26. Copenhagen.—M. H. Faber who has been three years in Iceland, and has examined every portion of that ‘mountainous island, has formed an ample collection of its birds and their eggs, which is now in the Royal Museum. He has recently published in Latin a preliminary notice 0 his oe under the title of a Prodroma of Icelandic
itho
27. Fine Arts.—Albert, duke of Saxe-'Teschen, has left to one of the princes of the imperial family his rich collec- tion, consisting of 300,000 engravings, from the earliest es- says in this art, to the most finished modern productions:
Sliaesten cost Tite aan ae —
| a niaharataate
Foreign Literature and Science. 391
82,000 portraits, and more than 40,000 original designs. This collection is one of the finest and most considerable in Europe.
28. Calligraphy.—Gov. Frederick Spang, has exhibited in his house at Augsburg a collection of 550 specimens of elegant penmanship of the late Abbey Werner. They con- sist of models of all the different kinds of writing; choice re- flections from the best writers in French, German, Italian, English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew ; representations of ar- tificial objects, portraits of sovereigns, philosophers, and celebrated men, all wrought simply with pen and ink.
29. Switzerland. Canton of Argovia.—The grand coun- cil of our Canton, decreed last year the establishment of a normal school for the formation of school-masters, destined not only for those who may desire to embrace that profes- sion, but-also to furnish the means of perfecting those who have already entered the career of public instruction. A sum of 6000 Swiss livres (about 1,780 dollars) has been ap- propriated which will provide for the appointment of pro- fessors, and afford also the means of instruction. € pu- pils, the number of whom is not to exceed 30, must possess on entering, the knowledge usually acquired in the primary schools. ‘This instruction will continue two years, and will embrace the German language, arithmetic, geometry, nat- ural history in its relations to raral economy, to the me- chanic arts, and to the daily wants of life; geography, na- tional history, music and drawing. Particular attention will be paid to the religious and moral instruction of the pu- pils, who will also be alternately exercised in giving mstrac- tion in the different branches of knowledge. 2
30. Abau.—The Society forméd a few years since in this town, for furnishing instraction during the winter months, to the young people of the Canton over eighteen years of. age, continued last winter its course of gratuitous instruc= tion with complete success, The subjects treated of in this course, were the history uf the Swiss confederacy, combi- ned with modern history; physical geography; the prinet- ples of natural law; geometry; mineralogy; and the fun- damental principles of mechanics. The pupils have been.
392 Foreign Literature and Science.
exercised in linear drawing; as well as in compositions in the German language. Those who wish to profit by this instruction, are at liberty to choose the course which they will follow, under the condition however that they are to remain at least three months.
cities, and the glory of their people. The most direct means of favouring them is to encourage artists and increase the number of amateurs. Such is the design of the Socie- ty, “ Des amis des Beaux Arts,” which has just been formed at Geneva, in imitation of those which have for some years existed at Zurich, as well as in many of the large cities of France. By means of these establishments, those things become of easy attainment which would be onerous or _ even impossible to individuals. It is to this noble spirit of union and joint labour that the city of Geneva is indebted for the greater number of its institutions. We may eyen say that to this it owes its existence as a Republic. The first general meeting of the society of fine arts, took place on the 17th of May last. A committee of ten managers was appointed and bye laws established for its government. The society consists of stockholders, each of whom take what number of shares he thinks proper. Each share Costs $5 annually. The funds of the society will be em- pores nearly in the following proportion. 1st: Three ourths of the income after the payment of incidental ex- peuces are applied to the purchase of pictures, designs, and sculptures, the original work of living Swiss artists. 2d. The other fourth is expended in ‘engravings. The articles thus acquired will be sufficient in number to be divided by lot among the stockholders at the rate of one lot to every ten shares. Every share not favoured by the lot, will have
|:
jae
foreign Literature and Science. 393
a right to a proof of each of the plates purchased by the so- ciety in the course of the year. The objects of art, acquir-
ed by the apa will be exposed to view, before the
32. Wire Drawing. —The common method of. drawing cylindrical wire, consists in forcing the metal through circu- lar openings in plates of iron, steel, or some other metal; but it is soon observable, that the whole gets worn or de- formed, and that the wire then ceases to have the desired regularity. Mr. Brookedon of London has nearly remedied this inconvenience by passing the metallic thread through conical holes made in diamonds, sapphires, rubies, or other
hard gems. lt appears to be unimportant whether the wire
be introduced at the large or the small opening of the con- ical hole, but the best results, upon the whole, are obtained
-when the wire is entered by the smaller base, and drawn
thracgh the larger one.
33. Hops.—The valuable discovery of Dr. Ives of New- York, on the powder of the Hop, as announced in his me-
_moir, published in volume II. p. 302 of this Journal, has
excited considerable attention in Europe. M. M. Payen and Chevalier, two French chemists, have made some re- searches apes the yellow powder (the Lupulin of Dr. i which they consider as composing one tenth of the
They recognize in it the following principles.
Essential Oil, about - - - .02 Sub. Acetate of pe hea - - - Gum - - Malate of os - - -
A bitter principle ~ - - ~ «5195 A well cbereranyes, resin - - -525
Silex 0 Traces af a fatty sutton, and some salts.
We limit ourselves (say the editors of the Annales de Chimie,) to a statement of these results, without any other
Vou. VI,—No.- 2. 50
394 Foreign Literature and Science.
detail of the proceedings which furnished them, because if, on the other hand, we consider them as suflicient to excite the interest of chemists in a plant so eminently useful as the hop; on the other, the various labors which we: have cited, still leave much to be desired.
34. Electro-Magnetism.—-M. Assiot, Professor of Natural
Philosophy at Toulouse, states an instance in which, during a heavy thunder-storm in that city, on the 22d of June last, a metallic tube that extended from the top of the house to a well or cistern, served as the channel of a heavy discharge of the electric current. The tube was much rent, and oth- er damage sustained by the house, which was a small one, and contained fourteen or fifteen persons, none of whom were injured. The magnetic effects of the stroke were the most remarkable. A spike which the fluid met in its way, was sufficiently magnetised to lift a table knife, and was used in magnetising other things. A tailor’s boy, at the mo- ment of the explosion, was smoking his pipe, with the back of his chairleaning against a post near the conducting tube ; he experienced no disturbance, but was greatly surprised on ‘the next Monday, in taking his needle-case out of his pock- et, to find that the needles were so magnetised that seven or eight of them would hang together in a chain. Another case, placed on the chimney, twenty feet from the tube, and containing five needles, was also strongly magnetised. M. Assiot says that he shewed those good tailors who brought him their needles, that two or three discharges from a sin- gle jar through a wire wrapt spirally round a tube, would produce the same effects upon the needles it contained, and that evidently without their forming part of the current.
35. Velocity of Sound.—A very careful experiment was made on the 2ist and 22d of June last, at Paris, by order of the Board of Longitude, in order to solve this problem with greater precision than heretofore. The experiment- ers were Humbold,Gay Lussac, Bouvard, Prony,Mathien and
g 1e former tl tati dth Ivesat Montlhery, and the latter three at Ville-Juif, two situations distant from
9549.6 toises. The experiments were performed in the night, by means of two six pounders, one at each station,
~
obese teem
Foreign Literature and Science. 305.
charged with from two to three pounds of powder. The number of seconds which elapsed between the flash and the sound, was noted by chronometers furnished by Bre- guets, one of which denoted even the sixtieth of a second. A singtilar fact in the course of the experiments was, that the firing was distinctly heard at Ville-Juif, by all the gen- tlemen, without difficulty, while at the other station not one half the sounds were audible. Very little wind prevailed, and what there was, was in favor of the persons stationed at Montlhery. The reporters do not undertake to explain the cause of this difference; for, say they, we can only offer to the reader, conjectures void of proof. The result of their trials, after all due allowances, is, that at the temperature of 50° I’. the velocity of sound is 173.01 toises, 337.2 metres, 1106-3026 English feet per second.
36. Steel._—The Society of Encouragement at Paris, has decreed a gold medal to M. Pradier, who has brought his stee] instruments to the highest degree of perfection. He has discovered the valuable art of rendering steel very hard, and at the same elastic. His steel blades can be bent double, and are yet so hard as to cut iron, without any injury whatever to the edge, however fine and thin it may be. This operation was many times repeated by M. Pra- dier, in presence of the committee, and always with suc- cess.
37. Sal-Ammoniac.—By the accidental combustion of a bed of coal in a mine near St. Etienne io France, in a situ- ation where it could not be extinguished, there is exhaled, in addition to the usual products of the combustion of coal a vapour which becomes condensed on the adjacent substan- ces, in the form of a white salt. It was considered by the country people as salt-petre, and some of the physicians supposed it to be alum. But from experiments made in the laboratory of the school of mines it proved to be very pure sal-ammoniac, (hydro-chlorate of ammonia.) During a few dry days the ground becomes covered with an efflo- rescence of this salt, and it continues to increase till dissolv- ed by rain. In the interior of an uninhabited house, are found those fine specimens which now make a show in some cabinets. During the years 1818 and 1819, the production
=
we 7 ee
396 Foreign Literature and Science.
of this salt was so abundant, that several pieces detached from the walls of the house weighed near a kilogramme, 2ilb. With proper avention, ~ collection of it might certain- ly be rendered lucrative. e proceeds the hydro- -chlo- ric acid of this iaisiohaed sah? This question it does not seem easy to resolve ; but one thing is certain, all the water of the coal pits of St. Etienne contains among other salts a notable quantity of hy dro-chlorates with earthy bases.
. Fa a@porisation of Ether. —Cagoiard de la Tour has ieee » y-eXperiment - Ether is susceptible of being re- | tovapour in a space less than double its primitive
Estes ‘alcohol in ties than three times its volume.
ese cases the former exerts a pressure equal to 37 or + #etatinospheres, and the latter, a pressure equal to 119
atmospheres. To effect such a vaporisation ether must be...
heated to 320° F. and alcohol to 405° F.
Paper Hangings.—To uard against the effect of
§ 2189. ap dampness in the injury and destruction of paper hangings, a
method has been adopted in London which proves to be very effectual. Very thin sheets of Lead are fastened to the walls by copper tacks, and to this the paper is pasted without any difficulty. ‘The lead is as thin as the sheet used in the lining of tea boxes, and effectually excludes the mois- ture of the wall
40. Brick-making.—A patent or privilege has been ob- tained at St. Petersburg fora press for making bricks, which is not only to diminish the labor, but to perfect the forms of the bricks. means of this machine, not only bricks, both solid and hollow can be made, but tubes straight or crooked, cornices, flutes for ouldiiis and other arghioets
‘tural ornaments. The patentee isa M. Chomas who pro-
poses to establish a model brickyard with improved ovens for baking the bricks. Three or four men can produce, it is said, with this machine from 10 to 12 nee — daily, of different forms.
Lei, ipsic.— The number of students attached to the acvicey of Lei eipsic, during the Jast winter session was 1102, of whom 480 applied themselves particularly to the-
€
Foreign Literature and Science. . 8a
ology, 381 to jurisprudence, 163 to ceca and 74 to I
philology. 42. Composition of meteoric stones.—The
generally ascertained, that it is considered almost as an es- sential or invariable characteristic; Laugier, however, has given an analysis of the large stone which fell at Juvenas on the L5th June, 1821, in which he states the entire ab-
presence of Nickel, as one of the ingredients of aerolites, has been so
he
seuce of Nickel, and the existence of a portion of cho as
One hundred parts of the stone e attgrde d
ilex, - 40: 3 = Be Oxide of ioe n, - - - + 2 23.8. i ¢ Oxide of ‘manganese, - + 6.5 eee bg Alumine, - - - 10,4 » ) Lime, - - - - - 9.2 : Chrome, - - - eae © _. Magnesia, - - - - 8 oe ulpbur, - ~ - - - Vo Potash, - - - - - 2 Copper, peti - - - A Unavoidable loss, - - 3.0 oss not accounted for - 4.8 100.00
A previous anaiva ‘of a meteoric stone which fell at Jon. s zac the 13th June 1819, afforded. this able chemist the same —
results and confirmed him in the accuracy of - his examina- tion, Vaugquelin, also, who examined the aerolite of Juve- nas discovered no ni¢kel, but recognized the existence of chrome, as well as the other ingredients, stated by Laugier. The complete absence of nickel, and the almost entire disappearance of sulphur and magnesia, replaced by an a- undant quantity of lime and alumine, establish between th © meteoric stones and those which have been pre- viously nown, a very marked difference. Another example of the non existence of nickel occurs ia a stone which fell in Finland, on the 13th of December, 1813, analy sed by I Nordenskiold, a pupil of Berzelius.
s
*
eae Say i *.
7H “A. 398. Foreign Literature and Science.
43. Preservation from rust.—IJt bas been ascertained by Arthur Aikin, secretary to the Society of arts and manufac- tures, that melted Caoutchouc is an excellent material ior the above purpose. Plates of iron and steel, half covered with this substance, were exposed six weeks in a laboratory, and at the end of this time the uncovered parts were almost entirely corroded, while the varnished parts were complete- ly preserved.
aoutchouc must be melted ina close vessel. It requires about the same temperature for fusion as lead. When melted it must be stirred by a horizontal agitator, the han- dle of which rises through the cover, to prevent its being
burnt at the bottom.
‘Mr. Perkins has perfected this process, by dissolving the caoutchouc in spirits of turpentine. The varnish thus ob- tained; after being suitably dried, becomes firm and does not change by exposure to moisture. It is laid on with a soft brush, and may be removed at any time by dipping the brush in hot spirits of turpentine. Mr. Perkins uses this varnish to preserve his engraved steel plates.
44. Geology.—There is found in the northern provinces of Russia, besides the bones of the mammoth and some oth- er remarkable objeds of natural history, a kind of fossil wood, in part petrified, and in part decomposed or rotten.
Professor Kounizin remarks that he formerly entertained the popular opinion that these trees had been blown down and gradually covered with sand and mud in or near the places where they grew. But he is now convinced that this is an error, and that they must have had an origin, quite remote from their present situation. For Ist. They are covéred to a great depth with earth, in the form of beds parallel to the surface. 2d. All the trees have their tops directed toward the same quarter, and they are only inclin- ed. 3d. Almost all have been broken by an irresistible force, the oaks alone retaining their roots. 4th. The bed of earth under which they are found is so thick that the wa- ters of the rivers do not reach them. This earth is partly sand and partly clay. The trees that are covered with dry sand are quite rotten and moulder speedily into dust. Those under moist sand are still in good preservation. The pines and firs are more decomposed than the others, but
~ a
IS
w
Foreign Literature and Science. 399
the species can be easily recognized by their position, their bark, the form of their fruits, seeds, and capsules. In the argillaceous soils, the trees are much better preserved, espe- cially where the ground is moist, and it is in these cases that they are often found petrified. It is ‘singular that trees which lie a side of each other are not equally well pre- served; and there are some petrified at one extremity and still tender at the other. The oaks which are not petrified, are susceptible of being split into staves, and the country peo- ple convert them into axle trees, and cabinet makers em- ploy them on account of their hardness. re remarkable fact
is, that these oaks are found in a country where none at
present grow, and which has been cleared from time imme- morial. It would be very interesting to discover the epoch in which these trees were buried, and by what events they were overthrown and buried. Perhaps it was by the same
force that transported so many blocks of granite in the north |
of Russia—and perhaps at the same time in which the en- tire race of the mammoth was annihilated, a which might have had their abode in these sombre for The tops of the trees are inclined either towards the seadc east or south west, and consequently the — which destroyed
“them must have come from north to so
These fossil trees are found in the aisle of northern Rus- sia, not only near rivers, but at a very Considerable distance from. their borders.
5. Cooking Ao eee & Fourier made a oy favorable report, on the 26th of August last, to the French Institute, relative to a new boiler (nouvean cale
teur) invented by Lemare. It appears to consist of a bot= tom or grate which contains charcoal, and from which the — heated air ascends into the space between two concentric
cylinders both of which contain water. The water in each vessel is heated at the same time, and that in the interior vessel, being surrounded by another vessel of hot water will retain its elevated temperature a great length of time.
y means of a damper, the combustion of the charcoal can be regulated at pleasure. The current of hot air can also be intercepted or left free as necessity requires. The ex- terior vessel has but three small openings. One at the top for pouring in water, one at the bottom with a cock for draw-
*
.
a ® ce ad
*
400° _ Foreign Literature and Science.
ing it off, and another, for which the first may easily be sub- stituted, for receiving a bent tube which conveys the steam out of doors. The exterior vessel does not rise higher than the interior, but it descends lower and rests upon the grate. ie & From an experiment of the reporters, one part of char~ , - coal is sufficient to vaporize 9.42 parts of water from the freezing point. Now, according to theory, charcoal can evaporate only 10.8 times its own weight of water, neuge it appears, that, taking into consideration the heat communica- ted to the vessels themselves, the actual loss of heat is only ;'s which is very trifling. “ , The superiority of this instrament for culinary purposes, especially for soups, vegetables, &c. is attested by these sei- entific reporters, who assert that they intend habitually to use it, as itis attended with an economy of time, and fuel, an improvement in the quality of the food, and a certainty of success.
46. Sait Petre.—M. Baffi, an able chemist, born at Per- gola, has received from the mee Roy of Egypt, a present of 100,000 crowns, and the title of Bey, for having discover-_ eda method of making salt-petre by the sun’s a alone,
without the aid of fire. ore this discovery every cwt. of salt-petre cost the Vice Roy ten crowns, an expense which is reduced by the new method to one crown. he
manufactory erected by M. Bafli on the great plain of Mem- phis furnished last year, to the Egyptian army, 3,580,000 ibs. of salt-petre.
% 47. Dr. Brewster bas published (in the Trans. of the Cambridge Philos, Soc.) an interesting paper on certain peculiarities in the structure and optical properties of the Brazilian topaz illustrated by colored figures:—also (in the Trans. of the R. Soc. of Edin.) a description and drawings of a Monochromatic lamp with remarks on the absorption of the prismatic rays, by coloured media—also an account of the native hydrate of Magnesia discovered by Dr. Hib- bert in Shetland, and, in a separate pamphlet, additional ob- servations on the connexion between the primitive forms of minerals and the number of their axes of double refraction. r. Brewster’s researches on the optical properties of min- erals continue to present very extraordinary results.
oii — ~ Pe
MM,
—_ 5; Abau, p. 39 Abstract of the ees of the New-York Lyceum of Natu. ral History,
Academy of inscription and belles-lettres, at Paris, 386 Account ofa travelled stone, 158 Acid, fluoric, 354 * sulphuric, wiping 2m of, 136 Alasmodonta, on the genus, 258 Alluvion, 80 Alum, manufactory of at Salem, 372 American — Society, 377 Analci * Biabyils es a maganesian garnet, 155 : ——— of t egiasey actynolite of Concord, 331 of argentine teatite, 333 ————_ of vege eee 384° Andalusite, genes 176 = Animal Fat, r Airy upon, 377 Anthophyliite, 227 Anthracite, fusion of, 353 P Apophyllite, 225 Argillite, 35
Asthma, cure of by lightning, 329
, efficacy of prussic acid in, 366 B. Barnes, D. H. Mr. on the genera Unio and Alasmodonta, 107. 258
Barytes, sulphate of, 211
Beck, Dr. notice of his Gazetteer, 367
Bellows. ee granite of, 11
Beryl, 222
Bismuth, a 210, 235
Black Moun
Blowpipe, on oe with, 349
Bodies, Carbonaceous, additional notice of, 379
Boletus Igniarius, observations on, 1
Bones, Fossil, 43 Vou. 51
:
402 INDEX.
Boué, Dr. his notices of Earopean Geology, 188 — egr of Philosophy and the Arts, 379
Brace, J. P. Mr. his notice of minerals, 250 Brewster, Dr. = memoirs, notice of, 400 Brick 1 making, 39
¢.
admi ath on, 180 Silcareodt Spar, 211 maleoiiny 216
a
i ©
C
C
(
(
{
{ Caoutchouc, mineral, 370
Carbonaceous bodies, erp notice of, 379 ( 688 marsha of, 1
Chabasie, 224
Chain bihige over the ee ‘te Chronometer, cosmogoni
Cleaveland, Prof. his nr of edi eB, 162 Coal form matio n, 61
Cobalt, arsenical, mine of 209, 235
Cc a 4 23,
( Cc. Cc Co
‘olumbium, 236
Sonic Sections, de monstration ofa problem
Amer
Ceneactions River, mineralogy and geology of the regions on, 1. 201
Conservatory of Arts and Trades, 388 Cooking apparatus, 399 C
en, 390 Copper, mines and veins
Corundum, Crystallization of Sulphuric Acid, 18
Cutbush, James, Dr. on the formation of Cyanogen, 149 , on the properties and formation of the Greek Fire,
Cyanite, 219 D.
Daggett, Herman, Rey. his letter on the cutting of steel, by soft iron, 336
omstock, Dr. notice of his Grammar of Raggett 369°
a nica on the probable changes in the Gedsey of North-
of, 2 ‘ ee green precio and red oxide of, 206 219
* ices...
INDEX. 403
Dana, J. F. Prof. his miscellaneous pips: 163
———_—___———— his galvano-magnetic yin
his miscellaneous locating of minerals, 245
Darlington, Wm. spk ey i uviometrical observations, 326
Datura, Dr. Tull
Davis, Prof. his ation eae of a problem in conic sections, 2
8
Dean, James, Prof. his letter on a meteor, 322 ‘ 5 Deflagrator, on its relations with the calorimeter and common
battery, ¢ Delafield, Major, on American Andalusite, 176 Denderali, zodiac of, 200 Description of a new species of ee Aiea 103 ——————_ of a new species of Usnea
urham, N. H. rocking stone in, 243 Dykes of greenstone in sandstone, 55
E.
Eaton, Prof. on pli Igniarius, 177 —_————— his communication on Animal Fat, Editor, his letter on the relations between Dr. “Hare? s galvanic instruments and the common battery, 337—on the fusion of ambago , 341—experiments upon the diamond and anthra- cite, sai. fasion of the latter, 349—remarks on the fluoric acid, 354—additional notice of the fused carbonaceous bodies,
378 rsypt, statistics of, 389 Electro-Magnetism, 394
uchlorine, preparation of, Expedition of Major pee notice of, 374
F.
Fasciculate, 226
Fat, ag on, 377
Fine Arts, 390
Fishes. on the limits of their occurrence in high latitudes, 333 Fluoric Acid, 354
Foreign Literature and Science, 197, 384
Formation, co
Fossil shells, new work on, 197
oe 76.
404 INDEX.
ae Static 199 —— vegetables, 3 Fresh water ries Ste 381
G.
Galena, veins of, 204, 205 val so apparatus, 330 Garnet, 222 Gas, ammoniacal, inflammability . vie Gazetteer of Dr. Beck, notice of, 3 eest, 83 : Geology, 398—conjectures on fest of North America, 98—Eu- ropean continental, notices of, 1 Geological survey on the great ste: 73 Ganuess, elements of, by M. sci. 283
Granger, Ebenezer, Esq. his letter to the editor, 1 Granite, 2—of Bellows-Falls, 11—Graphic, Pak ari
ae Fire, on the composition and 8 peas of, 302 Greek Seminary of St. Petersburgh, 3 Greenstone, primitive, si tbcomtuly ¥ , dykes, origin of, 56, 59 and primitive rocks, juxtaposition of, 58
Griscom, Prof. his foreign extracts, 197, 384
> Hs
Hall, Prof. his notice of plumbago, 1 of a water Sl, a of excavations in the
rocks,
Hare, Dr. a bt. editor’s letters to him, 337 to 354
Hitchcock, Edward, Rey. his sketch of the Geelong and Miner- alogy o the regions on the Connecticut, 1, 201—his descrip- tion of a new seg of botrychium, 103—his catalogue of minerals, 201,
Hops, Hornblende os be House of refuge, 3 yh ig Dr. on the use of the Prussic acid in asthma;
fetid Marble, 371
Ittro-Cerite, 379.
INDEX. 405
Incrustations, Calcareous, 211 4 flammability of Ammoniacal gas, 185.
on Conduit Pipes, 173.
~—, Magnetic and ceeins Oxide of, 208. Carbonate of, 209
lodine, 383.
Jasper, 218. K.
Keating Wm. H. Mr. his observations upon the Ancram Cad- mia, 180.
L.
Laumonite, 2
Lead mine of Scaiukge €
Legendre, de M. his elements ie Geometry, 283. Leipsic, 3
Letier of Shoes: Henry Manning on a meteor, 315. nas = ‘
, granular Fine. Si Silicate of, Pisahits and sulphate of, 212. Long, Major, notice of his expedition, 374. Lyceum of Natural History, New- York—proceedings of, 361.
M.
Magnetism, its connection with electricity and heat, 163.
Manning, Henry, Doct. his letter upon a meteor, 315.
Marble of Hudson, notice of, 371.
Mc’Clure, Wm. Esq. his conjectures on the probable changes in — American Geolo ogy, 98.
Mead, Wm. Doct. his account of a travelled stone, 158.
Memoir on the Catskill mountains, 86.
8, 315
eteor in Pennsylvania, 316. Mica Slate, 22. Mine at che ae er Mineralogy of Ceylo Minerals, Bobi vio testes of, 245. Mineral Caoutchouc, 37 Mitcsiliieius notices, 163.
wt ia INDEX.
Moore, Jacob, Mr. on a rocking stone in Durham, N ow-Hampe shire, 243. ees ¥ Morton, 8. Mr. his notice of an ancient mound, 166.
N,
New-Jersey, notice of the alluvial district of, 237. Newton’s ae stereotype edition of, 371. New Atmometer, 382. Notice of an Machen mound, 166. — of a curious fluted rock, 179. = Doct. Comstock’s Gram mar of Chemistry, 369. r. Kendall’s thermometers, Natal, “vont Mr. his reply to Mr. Seybert’s letter, 171.
O.
Observations oe 326.
18. ee: remains, 43. coal formats ons, 76. z _ Orr, "ay pe on the formation of the Universe, 128. :
.
Paper hangings, 396.
P Ivania meteors, 316.
Phil water works,
Pierce, James, Mr. his memoir on the Cattskill mountains, 86. his notice of the alluvial district of New-Jer-
sey, 237. Pinite, 219. a Platinum test for, 3 Plumbago of Ticonderoxe, 178. ———— fusion of, 341. leerogy observations, 326. ol Porter, Jacob, Doct. his catalogue of minerals, 246. ¥ Potash nitrate of, 211 Hei: es, preservation of, 200.
Preparations anatomical, 384.
Prussic acid, its efficacy i in asthma, 366. Pyrope, 222
* R.
Relic unknown, 80
INDEX. 407
Remains organic, .
in coal inating 76 vegetable
Remarks on the composition and properties of the Greek fire,
Rust, preservation from, 398
Sal ammoniac, 395
Salem alum, &c. manufactory of, 372 Salt Springs bes the origin of, 242 Salt Petre,
Sandstone, a red, 39 d , 216
Sardon
Sciatien haterab—anw Journal of, 379
Sea water, colour of, 1
Seybert, Henry, Mr. his analysis of a manganesian garnet, 1 indication of his claim to the rial of fluoric acid in the condkedite A
his analysis of the glassy actynolite of Con-
Shillabel, re ohn, Mr. his description of a mermaid, 195 a: nite, 28
Sie Skeletons of the mammoth and elephant, 386 a 7 “iy min. and geol. of the regions on the Connecticut,
an wath ie 20 ——, mica, 22 , talcose, 26 Snow balls, 162 Staurotide, 2 t, on the lake of Geneva, 385
Steatite, analysis of, 33 Steel, 395
cut by soft iron, 336 Stilbite, 224 Stones rolled, 85 , meteoric composition of, 3 Stuart, J. Mr. his localities of he 248 Sugar from beets, 388 Switzerland, 391
<.
Talcose sla Taylor ‘emivedtg Mr. localities of minerals, 245
a ers a we ae ee we
fi,
at
408 INDEX.
Temperature, mean, at Salem (Mass.) and at Rome, (Italy.) 386 Pest, for Platinum, 376 "hermometers notice of, 3 Piconderoga, Plumbago of, a Titanium, red oxide of Slicoaleareou oxide of, 236 onsil, concretion from the, Porrey, John Doct. ona neve Es of Usnea, 104 Pully, Doct. on Datura, 2 Pungsten, yellow oxide of, 235 urquois and Lazulite, 382 'ranstation on natural history, 382 ravels in America, 380
ioe Mae Hane fee ae Hee Hae fae Har far fae’
U.
Unio on the genu Universe on the formation of, 128 Usnea of Dr. Torrey, 1
Vv.
Vindication of Mr. thy claim to the discovery of fluoric acid in the condrodite, 3
Van Rensselaer, J. W. el his notice of fresh water forma- tions, 381
WwW.
Waterworks a Philadelphia, notice of, 375
Webster, J. W. Doct. his ne of Doct. Boué’s noti- ces of Europe ean Geology, 18
West or lost Greenland, 3
Winslow, Miron, Rey. his +a on the minerals of Ceylon, 192
Wire drawing, 393 :
- A 4 Zeolite, 224 | irc
, 29 Zodiac of Denderah, 200
we pe eens CE i Ti 4 - : . .
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