_ PHILOMATHESIAN eae
SOCIETY LIBRARY NO,

THE NBs

AMERICAN

AND ARTS.

NDUCTED B
BEN. AMIN SILLIMAN,

PROFESSOR OF CHE RY » “MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE; CORRES:
ING aneaee ete a a OF og MANUFACTURES AN com-

M
“SOCIETY Pipe DRESDEN, shit apicnc i AG LTURAL
SOCIETY OF Mosc ND ~ Sages ce aay

m : 2 m 2
‘s P VOL. VII....1824.
ca
b —— i ae
* - a . all -. = .
eaaiienamemeiicmeeemmeel
« * ‘ = :

*
» NEW-HAVEN: , ;
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE, FOR THE oe

3 4 “3

—>—

*
SOLD BY THE PUBLISHER; ae E. LITTE
PHILADELPHIA, AND 7 N. L3.5/AND

By Howe & Spalding. , New- aven; Davis & Fo orce = % (D. C- C5 2
Huntington & Hopkins Hartford ; Cummings & Hillia: Pesy 3 on; #
e Glazier & Co. Hallowel, Maine; A. T. Goodrich &'G é ea York: .
Caleb Atwater,Circleville, Ohio; Thomas J. Ray, . Auguste,Ga.; Whigpe
wrence, Salem, Mass.; Edward J. Coale, Baltimore; B. D. Pi
i i id Thomas

m3
by a.; Daniel Stone, wick, Me. ; Professor D. og
; Lanes Chape at EA Cihtees: N. C.; John Miller, No. 69, Fleet-street, 3

0

\

CONTENTS OF VOL. VIL
geal MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.

i. P.
Geology, Mllerslony, and Scenery of the Connecticut, with
ogical map, and drawings of _— og ae =

the Rev. Edward Hi itchcock, A. M. 1

Geological Be on the dae "Formation of nen! by
John Finch, . 8.

shee ofa Pires mine on Lake Superior, by! H. R. School

43

: lities of mec by Dr. William Meade, ie ey AQ

cellaneous 5 ee of Minerals, - - - 64

a “Fluor Spar by Thomas Webb, ae - om.

laf Hi. Spt «16, BB

3. B H.N. ome — ee

4. Sulphur in Granite, oa < we.

5. By Dr. Cutbush, West Point, - - a Oe

6. By Dr. Jacob Porter 2 eee

7. By Prof. F. Hall, - - ib,

Account of theRoxbiiry Rocking-Stone, a" gee

__ Notice ofa Rocking-Stone in Warwick, R. I. 22> 901

Review of “ Outlines of the Geology of Fagland and W;
_ by the Rey. W. D. Cee id William Phittioe. 203
Vis he Eliz-

Notices of the Geology of Martha’s Vineyard, and t
th Islands, by Rev. itchcock, A. M.,; - 2
ae Notice of | tine by Prof. reat inetd 28
Notice of a Silicious Petrifaction from ind, -
Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals, * -- ee
1. Yenite std Green Fee: by. ¢, v. Shepherd, ge. 3!
. By rter, - -* 252
3. By Steuben Taylor, ss ko OEMS
4. By Dr. E,

. mmons, 254
Observations on + gga Travels in Mine kK wil. “i

liam Maclur
Miscellaneous Remarks on the Systematic
Roc

iam Maclure, Pp - 261

8 <0" popes? 2% 10 agi 98
New Fipecies from Alabama, by M. C. nae: - 61
a” by Prof. C. Dewey, - 264

ir “CONTENTS, = %

PY Page.
ODLOGY.-
Observations on the Pincers of North America, by Samuel

L. Mitchell, M. D.,
bs sion of ave spout of Ghiton, by D. W. Barnes,

M.A,

; se: 69
MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS,
Review oe 4 Treatise of Mechanica, by Olinthus Grego- ;
L 7
On ths For orm of. the Teeth of | ‘Cog: Wheels, by Eli W. Blake, ag

New Algebraic a by Prof, J. Wallace, Coliimabia, S. C. 278

Second Memoir on Navigable Canals, by M. P. S. Girard,
(Ann. de Chimie) Translated by. =D Doolittle, - - 286

On (Crank Motion, by A. B. Qui nby, Se .: 5

PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &e.

Essay on the Question, whether the > bet Ele rie
Fluids, or only one, by Robert Ham
Description of a new Electrical Plate Machine % R. Hie.

co fe

ai: mg ie an “improved. Blowpipe by Alcohol, 4 R.
are, .
peecaae uM Perkins? _New Steam- Engine, (Bainb.

ilos. Journal, No. - 111

cs pn.the Chinese Brilliant Fires, by James Cut ay

101 Se Dr. olen, (Editor. - 140
‘s on the - Water- = 6. abiph 141

by cgi, 326
plyir new meth-

Ps CONTEN?S. ¥

; P
Late - the Editor, on pose improved form forms of the Gal- il
c Deflagrator, &. by Prof. R. Hare,M.D., -. 347

Anuoael ‘of Mr. F araday’ s experiments on the condensation
gasses, (Edinb, Philos. Journ. No. XVIII.) -. - 352

~~. .. ANTIQUITIES...
On ne Antiquities of America, by John Finch. F.B.S, 149
: EDUCATION. =

Notice of a new work spied, “¢ Plage ine the: Anstreiction
and Government of Boys 161

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
m3 ee

of the N. Y.
Velocity of the he Missa ippi, -

s

Mr. Hitchcock’s New Mineralogical Hammer—Naviga-
tior of Tapida, - 175
urnace for ‘Ventilating S Sewers, - 177

Dr. Torrey’ oF fern: Pte and M. Sties Finch’ ; Geol-
178

American 6 Geological Society—Prof, Datton’s Conic ‘Sec-

ns and ghee

Bostae denshaber Philosophy site Arte—~Anoa of the

H..4 IGN. " sia

Sot in “Sicl A, Bec On
the ca f 86
Pyro-Cetrie Achy Carbo Sagi Acid, - - -: - 187
188

Brard, Mineralogie—F umiga' al
Society of Christian MoraleFlour and Meal: frouiiLegumi
nous Fru ruits, a? ~ 189
Am Ph otal i in Metallic Casting —Ca-
Navigation, - - - . = - 196
— .
» Fc

¥i CONTENTS.

Page.
New site of Printing Designs—Artificial Slates, - - 191
Porosity of Glass, &c. —Metallic Titanium—Congelation of

New Electro Magnetic’ Experiments —Employments of Po-
tatoes in Steam-Engine boiler 3

New Tests of Alkalis and Acids—Colouring Mom Crystals
—Green oe of Uranium

Prussian Trav. re—Electro-Magnetic “apparatus —Com- |

__ pression of Water, - 195
Superior Green Dye, - - 2. -" - 196
Artificial Formation of Formic Acid. - — -

197
Brunel’s Saw—Soc. of Nat. scrtngy’ Frinte—P ortogaly 198
me and Infection— ction—Public a ay 8 sen
oting ies i As mtruction,

mo oe 5
5 a . a Literature and Bina, prepped iy

Ores oe Mine’ ése, - - + - es.
M. Stromeyer’s Analyses, - | - 868
Philos at Paris for the socemregers at e ‘National Ir

Past p~Solieriog sheet i iron set $79
Plumbago in coal-gas retorts-— Analyses of Uraaine,.: - 3880
Leipsic Fair—Switzerland—Society for the enco ee

es. St. wall Canin of rans 381
Is—El n—U versity of Leyden, 382
“hse. Piechal f Zz Ontinaire, - 383
Sulphat of Rhubarb, - - - - 385
cent a Green, - é =] “ ~ . - 386
neral spring containing lodine— i
of Gatvakian ” tam
Peak of Steel b soft iron ali cavelnite, - . - 390

making sheet lead, - 391
Willie 1 lute— _ recin gas apparatus—Method of discover- oe
ing very —

- dgganaate Mercury, - 392
at : ¢;
+3

© AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c,
GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &e.

a
Art. L—-4 Sketch of thee Ccolory, ey: and
at OR ery of the SS ontiguous to the River Connec-
logical Map and Drawings of Organic
Heat 3 and oce ceasional Botanical Notices. Read be-
fore the American Geological Society at their Sitting ;
Sept. 11th, 1822; by the Rev. Epwarv Hrrcucocx,

A. M. of Conway, Massachusetts, * ;

va
PART III.

ScENERY.

_ BETWEEN the geology and scenery of acountry, —_
is an intimate and interesting connection. Let the
“perienced oe be fe, a upon an eminence, and chi
contour of the surrounding region will enable him to decide
with a good deeree ability, concerning the nature of #
its rocks. The pti will at once be pronounced alluvic

The swelling hillock or ridge with mural faces—if eir
aspect be dark—indicate some member of the trap family ;

if light coloured, they indicate granite. The conical eleva-
tion of a reddish hue will be immediately referred to old red
sandstone. And those moderately steep hills, that stretch
away over many a league, and form continuousand extensive

* For the - and drawings see Vol. VI. No. I.
Vou. VII.—No. I *

~ 3
7 ~ Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

‘mountain ranges, will be known as mica slate, or gneiss, or.
some other rock of a schistdse structure. a
Such is in fact the aspect of the country along the Con-
necticut; and of couriers re find a rich diversity of
scenery, so that not only the geologist. but the poet and the
painter, and every man of correct taste, will find an interest
in its beauties. My object at this time is to refer to a few of
the most interesting and romantic spots along this river,
ann ‘ing a short description to each ; in which I shall be
~ most particular concerning those with which [am most fa-
miliar. It is not in my power to describe these scenes with
the skill of the poet or the painter: But if I can succeed in
inducing the ate them, it will be tohim amore
agreeable disappointment to have the reality exceed the des-
cription, than fall short ofit. =~
S

“ie

<rat
a Ee

East and West Rock.

_ .The eminences thus named have Jong-been celebrated,
and attract. the attention of the visitor who first enters the
harbour or the city of New-Haven, as most singular features
in the landseape ;—the one lying north west and the other

st, about two miles distant. They present their na-

her long Une of colleges
side, and her extensive

Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 3

hills of Long Tsland.* = cee of the harbour the
country gently rises into hills of moderate elevation, and
is pleasantly diversified wich cultivate: and uncultivated
patches; and often the neat magere is seen half covered
by the trees.

East and West a Rook hee ome interesting objects to the
students of Yale Col 2, being asso ssociated with a ‘thousand
grateful recollections To these cliffs they a resort in

e hour of rela caticey to enjoy heopleatarg o he
diversified landscape, to study the geology
rocks and to breathe the serener and more brac .
tain air. Whoof them, while standing there, andi seeing the
white crested waves breaking on the rocky shore, will not
remember the ill —— cliffs of ee.

Prospet Hull, Bou Howe

- Pro
greenstone hil, v | ove
the harbour ;_ but, rom | its top te prospect | is extremely
interesting. New-Haven is presented to you in a direction
nearly opposite to that in which it is seen from East or
West Rock ; and the view is, in some respects, superior.
East and West Rock, seen from this hill, are themselves
striking objects in the rear of the city; constituting the most
prominent part of that amphitheatre of bills, which almost
encloses New-Haven. Still epi back, mount Carmel ,
and the Berlin mountains m 5:
valley of Wallingford River ;.

and a fine opportanit,

-® A few years since, as] was
Rock, in company with Doct. A

© alt bear the

oe 0 ‘
surace ofth “vag 1 y reads

a

4 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

rival and departure of vessels. Indeed, the beauty of the
prospect from this spot is much greater than one wo d
suppose possible from such a mere hillock. The top
of the eminence has a circular redoubt upon it, which
was constructed by the inhabitants of New-Haven during
the Revolutionary war, and repaired during the late
war with Great-Britain. The ditch is dug in solid
greenstone ; but fortunately not being wanted, it is now
abandoned. and has become the resort of the flocks that
graze in the field; the magazine serving as a place of shel-
ter from the storm.*

Eminence in West-Haven.—(Now Orange.)

Near the western line of this town, one or two miles south
of the turnpike from New-Haven to Milford, is an elevated
swell of land, which commands an extensive and delightful
prospect. When I visited it, a thick fog was just breaking
away and developing one object after another, till, at length,
the coast of Connecticut from East-Ha to Stratford, and
not less than fifty or sixty miles of the coast of Long Island
became visible, as well as the villages of Milford and North-
Milford ; and just rising over the trees, appeared the spires
of New-Haven. now not any specific appellation for
this commanding plateau.

Prospect from Middletown, Upper Houses.

Atthe north end of the village thus denominated, a few
rods from the public house, is a hill, from whose summit
is obtained a fine view of the basin in which Middletown is
placed, with the city and the river. Here too I had the
pleasure, on one occasion, of seeing the various objects of
this landscape, artificial and natural, partially covered by a

; the spires of Middletown and the more elevated trees
and hills appearing above it, and reminding me of the ante-
diluvian world half buried in the deluge.

* Attached to the red conglomerate at the foot of this hill, I found the
beautiful Borrera chrysophthalma Ach: And this is the only place in which
J have rad seen it in New-England, except upon the puddingstone of Rox-

Geology, &¢. of the Connecticut. 6

‘Monte Video.

This is a particular part of Talcot Mountain, eight miles
northwest of Hartford, at the top of the greenstone ex-
tending from Berlin to Amherst. It affords one of the most
interesting p' ts (and with the exception, pte of
Holyoke, the most interesting) to be found a along the Con-
necticut. ‘ The diameter of this view, in two i
is more than ninety miles;” and the spires of more
thirty churches are visible, scattered through the broad and
delightful vallies on the east and west sides of the eminence.

he beauties and sublimities with which nature has invest-
ed this spot, both on a limited and an extensive scale, are
greatly increased by the displays of an enlightened and cor-
rect taste in the disposition and adaptation of the various ob-
jects which = sstaweee mosetey popidente exhibits ; such
as the tenant coi a tet 3 the summer house; 7
the boat ups Pamuneuneaindes ‘rising in Gothic gran-
deur above the trees, the hexagonal tower, whose top is
nine hundred and sixty feet above the Connecticut. But
after the minute and accurate description given by Professor
Silliman of these objects and this view, it is altogether un-
necessary in this place to go into particulars. To the
* Tour between Hartford and Quebec” the reader is with
— referred for a complete account of the scenery of

ideo, which, in some respects, is altogether u-
nique in this part of the coun

Along the same extensive ridge of greenstone, there are,
no doubt, many other peaks commanding views of delight-
ful landscapes; but not having visited them, nor seen any
account of them, I am of “ee unable to describe them,

Mount Toivehs.

This is another of the commanding wateh towers of the
Connecticut. The view from its top is delightful ; and -_
traveller, whether he be a lover of natural
geologist, will find himeot? amply repaid for turning. aside
halfa sag to visit its summit

he look from this elevation with an eye that is ac-
customed to range with pleasure over a variegated land-

5 Pia
ae
a :

Geology, &c. of the Conneticut

scape? Here then will he find m:
grandeur impressed upon the w
him. Immediately before bim
extensive meadows. through iniagira the Connecticut winds
in silence and majesty ; and as if to pay a tribute of respect
to this venerable mountain, it here forms a graceful curve of
three miles in extent, while: its actual advance towards the
ocean, scarcely exceeds fifty rods. These meadows are in a
high state of cultivation, and during the summer months, the
parallel strips, luxuriant with different vegetables, present a

rming variety. Just beyond the Connecticut, on the
western margin of the meadows, lies the beautiful village
of Northampton, vieing for situation and elegance with any
country town in New-England. So distinct is the view of

this’ place from Holyoke, that with the naked eye the in-
"habitants may be seen as they walk the streets ; while their
— and elegant house of worship, a ‘fine urt
and many seats of private gentlemen rise in’a tich
and sdivtrsifed relief. A little to the right, inthe same
wales as neat iS of ae and Hatfield. and still

a forms of beauty and
d

farther. its “meeting house and
sg nence, form restig
points in this. gre at gore on which eye i me with

did-distabee wt fifty or sete miles. Southwest appears
Mount Tom, ‘a few miles: distant, separated from Holyoke
by the deep =a through which the Connecticut flows ;

fifty miles distant, in the northeast, rises the “ cloud- -capt?
Monadnock.

Turning southerly, the observer will have a full view of
the broad valley extending from Holyoke to Middletown ; ‘
adistance of more than fifty miles. He will be able to
tate the river, in: aii its windings, as far as Long Meadow,

<a 83 * Recently destroyed by fire.

as

c.0f the Connecticut. 7
which is twenty mile;

-and by an optical deception,*
"it seems to ascend the ¥ iti

xtent, about as much as it in

around me had subsided, I began to examine, one by one, the
ob, visions»

cts before me through the glass. The hour di
and indices, on the dial plate Northampton meetir
es Nida ete Sc aS ES "ey “Spt aly

It is a general opinion that East and West Rock are visi-
ble from Holyoke. But I am satisfied that the two perpen-
dicular bluffs appearing in that direction, are those between
Berlin and Meriden ; and that these conceal the New-Ha-

- ceived, near the horizon, a low range of hills, about as dis-.
tinct as the belts of Jupiter; which, I have little doubt,
were a part of Long Island.

Suppose, next, that the man, who visits Holyoke, is a
geologist. He has reached an interesting spot, if he look
no farther than the naked trap on which he stands. But he
will find his attention, on first visiting this pinnacle, irre-

“®* Explained by the common principles of perspective.

pel,

8 Geology, Ye. of the Connecticut.

sistibly drawn to the striking and diversified geological fea-
tures before him. For he has a view of nearly all the sec- |

ondary region, extending from New-Haven about 110 miles
northerly ; and he sees a vast extent of primitive on its
borders. As he casts his eye over this extensive tract, he
perceives many of those grand characteristics of the differ-
ent rock formations, which are not derived from their com-

diluvian stream. He may be pointed also to the South-

ampton vein of lead ore in its whole extent; and to the
localities of the beautiful beryls, sappars, tourmalines, &ce.
of Haddam and Chesterfield.

‘This geologist cannot but perceive that the extensive val-
le , north and west of Ho yoke, must, at some remote pe-
riod, have been covered by the waters of the Connecticut,
ere the passage between Holyoke and Tom was worn
through—And_he will also conclude, that another similar,
but much larger lake, must have existed in the extensive ba-
sin south of Holyoke, before the waters of the Connecticut
had forced a passage through the mountains below Middle-
town. Hence he will be led to speculate upon the pe-
riod. when these waters began to subside, and upon the
ume requisite to wear away such immense masses of rock :
and ere he is aware, his thoughts will be led back to the
period, when the cataract of Niagara began its seven mile

ni MS

t Geology, Yc. of the Connecticut. 9
retreat, or when the deltas of the Mississippi and Ganges,

__ began to encroach upon the ocean, or even to that time

%

~ when “all the high bills that were under the whole heaven

were covered” with a de

Last of all, his attention will be directed to the rock on
which he stands. And he will find near him those regular
columns and those sloping debris, that evince it to belong
to the trap family, so singular in its structure and position,
and whose origin is so hard to be accounted for.*

Mount Tom.

Mount Tom is higher than Holyoke and the prospect
from its topis grand and extensive, but there is not that in-
teresting grouping of objects in its immediate vicinity ; and
while Holyoke attracts so many visitors, Tom is rarely as-
cended. — ins are merely distinct peaks of |
same greenstone range, separated by Connecticut river.

Sugar Loaf. |

es 3
aE pe Beno 9 eg

It has already been stated that this is a conical elevation
of old red sandstone, rising five hundred feet above the Con-
necticut, in Deerfield, immediately on its banks. An
one passing along the stage road from Whately to Deerfield,
will be struck with the singular form and aspect of this
peak, and he will not regret a visit to its top. ‘This he will
find to be an ellipse, whose diameters are about ten and
thirty rods. On the east and west sides are perpendicular
walls several hundred feet high. Connecticut river is a

autiful object on the east and south, and a_ bridge across
this river, and the village of Sunderland on the opposite
bank, appear to be distant scarcely astone’s throw. One -
fourth of the horizon is hidden on the north east by the
trees. On every other side the view is distinct and com-
manding.

In the meadows near the south point of S Loaf, a
skirmish took place in August, 1675, between the Indians
and the Massachusetts forces under Captains Lathrop and

* It ought perhaps to be mentioned that recently two commodious build-
ings have been erected upon Holyoke, where the visitor will find ample
means of refreshment.

Vou. VII.——-No. 1. 2

10 : Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

Beers ; in which the former were defeated with. considera-.
ble loss. And in the plain on the west side of the moun-
tain, at a little distance, this same Capt. Lathrop, in Sep-
tember 1675, was drawn into an ambuscade and cut off
with his company, consisting of eighty ‘ young men, the
very flower of the County of Essex.” Hence the parish of
Muddy Brook, which was originally called Bloody Brook,
derived its ancient name.

n Sugar Loaf a two story building has recently bee
erected for the accommodation of visitors.* 2

Mount Toby.

This eminence is two or three miles northeast of Sugar
Loaf, on the east side of Connecticut river in Sunderland.
It is made up of the slates and pudding-stones of the coal
enon, and is little less than one thousand feet higher

an the river, and twice as high as Sugar Loaf. The view
from its summit is, of course, more extensive : but as item-
braces for the most part the same regions that are seen from
Holyoke and Sugar Loaf, it is unnecessary to be more

| Deerfield Mountain.

ticut, It is not very extensive ; but the basin in which
Deerfield village stands, presents a Picture of rural beauty
of singular delicacy and luxuriance. The village, lying at
the foot of the mountain and running parallel to it, appears

* Growing out of the almost naked rock on the top of the Sugar Loaf, I
noticed the following rather rare and interesting plants: Ascl + verti-
eillata. Artemisia canadensis, Arbutus uva ursi, Clinipodium vulgare, Pea
quinguefida, Celtis occidentalis, &c. &c,

~ Geology, &c ce of the Connecticut. Ba

: Wes River Mountain* ‘8

gist for greenstone hillocks. It is nine hundred ada forty
8 above the Consdetiout, and stands on its eastern bank,
ectly opposite to the east village of Brattleborough. That

village and the intervening river are the most interesting ob+
jects in the landscape that is seen from this mountain. One
fancies himself almost able, by a single leap from the sum-

mit, to throw himself into the*village. Almost every other
part of ‘the landscape calibie a tumultuous sea of moun :

mtain volcanic in Sortie — but obser

—
f the Is is fri
quently indicat ted’ by a flame e which Aris es from the ground at night,’’? lam
} M4 n

Dr. Allen ; (Jour, ei. Nal. 3. p- 13) wi acoounta.| lor this ‘ 4 the falling

of immense masses mense s of rock have oid
not only from the ate % enitle er . refers, bat also from
of in, no one will deny aad has visi aoe betes: hat
e falli these wo ea **noise like thunder,’ which Id be
h

ni me prea pegenonic upon the base below.
city is often as loud as a six pounder.

as pt over ne Wee est ee Mountain a - years since, near the to

rattle snake was announced ; or rather he a pete x msl by the th
ing shake of his serie a a a eh had b been a companion of Wil-
son the ornithologist in one of his pedestrian tours psn ugh the western wil-
derness, ) mies dia ately Gaupaiohen the snake and found him to measure a-
bove four feet in length. I mention this fi act because it is uncommon in

per-
haps one exception. I recollect however, meetingsome years agoa Man in
Leverett, who was barefoot with sev eral rattle sna’ pan over his
ders told me he hunting

w had
* On the fragments of rock at et ee scm apreline
tichens | grows | the Stereocaulon paschale. ae

Basie from which: they will oeobesly aa ae extirpated ;.a
tied one is now before me measuring ees feet caged 4 length which

‘killed last summer on the Woo odbridge greenstone greenstone ridge near New-
Ml te March 6, 1823.

iz Geology, dc. of the Connecticut. %

tains ; Black mountain on the one hand, and the Monad-

nock on the other, being prominent, and here and there, a

spire, or a village, crowning a hill, or enlivening .the val-
ye

Black Mountain.

A general description of this mountain has been given in
the geological part of this sketch, and I mention it here as
presenting an interesting view from its summit.

Fall Mountain.

There is a great resemblance between the situation and
appearance of this and West River Mountain. Both are of
mica slate—both are nearly of the same height—both are
precipitous on the west side—both stand on the east bank
of the Connecticut—both have a pleasant village opposite to
them on the west bank, and both a bridge across the river
directly in front. Bellows Falls village i is nearer t

in than B ugh, because the river is there
narrower. "The observer: from. the top of Fall Mountain
looks down almost perpendicularly upon the Connecticut,
here reduced to a few rods in width, and foaming and falling
among the jutting rocks, presenting an image sat disorder
and danger, while the neat village on thé river’s bank exhib-
its an image of peace and security.

Numerous other eminences in the primitive mountain ran-
ges on either side of the Connecticut, command extensive
— Interesting prospects. But the most conspicuous have

a described, it is unnecessary to go into farther particu-
ars.

Bellows Falls.

Every thing at this romantic spot conspires_to impress
the beholder with the idea of wild sublimity. The perpen-
dicular fall of the water is of no great height ; but the whole
ps8 is here compressed into a channel of a few: rods in

a out of solid granite, a quarter of a mile, or
rage length, down which the current dashes, as if i impa-
tient of its confinement in so narrow a bed ; ; and at the foot

Geology, &e of the Connecticut. 13

of the sluice, it spreads out i ae its accustomed width
and soon resumes its wonted

Near the middle of these Falls a alles: is thrown across
the river, and from this, a fine view is afforded of the ra-
pids and surrounding scenery. The first time I visited the
spot, I chanced to cross this bridge from the east, as the

hii nothing but the se seemed to separate me from
destruction, on cays up, I saw the venerable Fall moun-
tain, rising soeint ss pnpens "ec ipices, and threatening
to.

Nearly a mile or ne falls. on the Vermont side, is a
favourable spot for viewing them and the surrounding
scenery. From this point you see the cataract nearly in
front, with the bridge crossing it at right angles, with the
line of vision ; while the mountain, here seen in its whole
length, formsa lofty mural barrier on the eastern bank. At
the foot of this mountain, Just beyond the bridge and al-
most overshadowed by the shaggy rocks, stands a large and
elegant mansion house ; and on the opposite side appears a
neat compact village.

Turner’s Falls.

These cross the Connecticut, near the point where the
towns of Greenfield, Gilland Montague meet. There is no
distinctive name by which they are known in the vicinity ;*

gpery race: aneeaearact Miller’s Falls (See Tour.
to Qusiee F oe But Miller Chea ulegs three miles higher up the riy-
at the mouth of Miller’s river, and not in the Connecticut.
ndian, who lived om ‘Turner’s falls, was thet

tated overthem: But by his dexterity in swimming, » he hat
feet forward as he descen nded, he esc pat alive. Some t

however, as the ice in the spring time was ing u erolie unfortu-
nately carried over among the broken fragm ed Wit River sppoarcd'’ again.

14 Geology, Se. of the Connecticut.

and I have ventured to denominate them Turner’s Falls, for

crossing the rock strata nearly at right angles; and an arti-
ficial dam is raised upon these rocks of the coal formation,

so that the whole stream, which is here more than one
thidiisatia feet wide, falls thirty feet perpendiclaly. This
sheet of water, however, is divided near the middle by a
small island on which the dam | pep. For three mileé
below the principal soa aa the water continues to descend
so as to render a canal necessary.

The proper and almost the only spot for viewing this
cataract to advantage is on the elevated ground forty or ~d
rods below the oo on the northeast shore.* Standin
this spot, you e the principal fall of water early" in
igs or at right alas with the line of sight ; and you can

see the river above and below the dam one or two miles.
The contrast, is, however, very great. Above the cataract
water is unruffled to the very verge of the precipice, dow
which itrollsin Yeas majesty. Below, ittumbles and foaiin’
al r the rocks as far as the eye can trace it. A little far-

ther down the srbih than the station of the observer, the
river strikes directly ; against a greenstone ridge,t two hun-
dred feet high, by which it is forced to curve to the left,

ue
addition to the scenery, Several rods below this island a-
nother is planted of similar aspect, but smaller, and at a
much lower level, and apparently inaccessible, ane A 34
island may be reache by a canoe in safety 5 then we
can descend to iH very foot of the falls and ‘end Die voice
drowned by their roar; and in favourable circumstances,
see the rainbow arching over the falling sheet.

= Ad this spot a view of these falls re mar in 1818, by a pte se and
the Port Folio for December of that year, with a short descrip-
The dam era

; and the removal of the dam. ae has rather inj ured the view.
Ask , * At the foot of this ridge, in the bottom the stream, and adbe wos hel

rocks, g'

-

Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 15

_ The country around these falls is little cultivated and there
are but few settlements on either side of the river. In_al-
most every direction you see gently rising hills, covered
with trees; of which the pine forms a large proportion. For
CoE miles above the falls is a fine spot for a sailing excur-
slo ou immediately enter between wooded, and mode-
rately lertted hills, exhibiting all their original wildness $
and so placid is the stream, gently curving among these hills,
now and then spreading out so as to form coves along the
shore, and here and there chequered by small islands, that
you fancy yourself to be in the midst of a romantic moun-
tain lake. To the coves along the shore, parties frequent-
ly resort for taking fish.

ese and other circumstances render Lae s falls and
the vicinity an attractive spot to any one who takes an in-
terestin the wild and sublime seanes of nature. Bya ies
tence to th a ge Bus ° sabe ere it will be seen.
that the geologist and mineralogist will find here | much to.
awaken and gratify curio :

Bellows and Turner’s falls are in many respects very dis-
similar. At the former, the river is narrow and the fall,
viewed by itself, is not the principal object of interest ; but
at the latter, the Connecticut pours a broad and unbroken
sheet of water over a precipice comparatively lofty, produ-
cing a roar thatis frequently heard at the distance of twelve
mile

One bundred and fifty six years ago, a party of Philip” ~
Indians, having joined those residing in Hatfield, Deerfield,
&c. all being at war with the white inhabitants, ‘resorted to
Turner’s falls to take fish, and encamped on the north east
shore. On the 17th of May, Capt. Turner from Boston,
marched from Hatfield with one hundred and fifty men,
consisting of the garrison and militia from wopachess
Northampton and Hatfield, and came by surprize up
Indian camp the next morning at day light. The In
were totally unprepared for the attack, and fled in aoe die
rection. Some sprang into their canoes, and pushing from
the shore without paddles, were hurried over the cataract

* Lam at a loss to account for it, that these ple erences # title at-

tention and drawn so few visitors. They are but three miles from the vil.
es ena the road is good, and the he accommodations decent, ata
public house on the bank. ;

is Geology, &c. of the Conneciicul.

and dashed in pieces—while some reached the opposite
bank. Three hundred Indians are said to have been killed
and only one Englishman. Yet the Indians who survived,
being joined by another party, fell upon the English troops
as they were returning and made dreadful slaughter among
them. So that before they reached Hatfield, Capt. Turner
was killed, and thirty seven of his men.

After reading this piece of history, no one will doubt the

propriety of denominating this cataract Turner’s Falls.

Shelburne Falls.

ameter and depth, and the stones, &c. by which the water
wears them out, are still found at their bottom.
PART Iv.
MIscELLAnIEs,
‘The greater part of the subjects to be presented under
this division might, without impropriety, have been connect-

ed with the first, or geological part. But as that division
swelled more than was ex ected, i

: ever have suggested themselves
since the geological part was written.

Ancient Lakes,

Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut. 13

older formations ; and that organic remains are found
in these rocks. For every geologist knows’ that all this
must be referred to a period anterior to that, in which
the last grand diluvian catastrophe happened to the
globe and left our continents in their present form.* Nor
is the mere occurrence of masses of stone, evidently round-
ed by the attrition of running water, any evidence in favour
of this hypothesis ; for we must look for the cause of this
also, as far back at least as the Noachic deluge.—No cur-
rent of water with which we are acquainted i is sufficient to
transport such masses of rock into the situations in which
_ we find them: for though we can readily conceive how
agency of violent currents may have driven these blocks
down an inclined plane, or, if the vts a fergo were sufficient,
along a level surface, or even up a very slight and gradual
acclivity, it is impossible to ascribe to them the Sisyphean
labour of rolling rocky masses, sometimes of many tons in
weight, up the face of abrupt and high escarpments.’’t
Rounded masses of rock may however occur under such
circumstances as_ to show them to have been removed by
currents posterior to the deluge.

The principal evidence in favour of the supposition that
the waters of the Connecticut once flowed over the broad
valley onits banks, consists in the appearance of the chan-
nel of the river where it passes through certain mountains.
Thus, every one perceives that this river must have cut its
deep passage through the mountains below Middletown :
in other words, this supposition will account for that gulf
several hundred feet deep in which this river now flows, and
we are not acquainted with any other agency that will ac-
count for it. And if it be admitted that this passage was

#8 § i t work of se
beare and Philips, cited “ Outlines oF is Geology of et
es 57 Introduct:
t Vid. same work aah 29, 5 ateaciuctioe *
Vox. VIL — 3

18 — = Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

once closed up nearly to the general level of the neighbour-
ing mountains, it must have thrown back the waters of the
Connecticut over the whole of the secondary tract marked
on the map, with the exception of some of the highest
ridges and peaks of greenstone and sandstone, which then
probably formed islands in this extensive expanse of wa-

ers.

At the outlet of the Connecticut through the mountains
below Middletown, a little south of the Chatham cobalt
mine, and six or seven hundred feet above the present bed
of the river, I saw rounded masses of old red sandstone,
several inches in diameter, mixed with the fragments of the
rocks in place. Sucha fact I never noticed at any other
place in the primitive region along the river: certainly not
on the east side of it. And I was led irresistibly to the con-
clusion, that they were conveyed thither by the ice of the
ancient lake, which would be floated to the ocean through
this outlet.

In the northern part of the tract supposed to have been
covered by this lake, other evidences of its existence pre-
sent themselves. In the southern part of Deerfield, the
sandstone cliffs of Sugar Loaf, four hundred feet above
the present level of the Connecticut, bear evident marks of
having been worn and undermined by water :—that is, they

ar very much like similar rocks which now form the
beds and banks of the Deerfield and Connecticut rivers. In
the north part of Deerfield, at the west foot of the green-
stone ridge, and two hundred feet at least above the Con-
necticut, is the channel of a stream ten or twelve rods wide,
that once ran southerly, as appears from the little eminences
of greenstone that were exposed to its action, which pre-
sent a perpendicular front on the north side, while the south
side is sloping and presents an accumulation of broken
pieces of the rock. One mile west from this spot, anda
few rods south of the village of Greenfield, appears the
bed of a smaller stream which there formed a cataract,* of a
few feet over a ledge of red sandstone rocks. In this rock
are numerous spheroidal excavations of two or three feet in
depth, leaving no doubt that a current of water once flow-
edthere. This channel isless than one hundred feet above

* See Dickinson's View of Massachusetts, p. 33.

- Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 19

the Connecticut.. A little to the northeast and especially
one or two miles northwest of the village of Greenfield, the
old red sandstone rocks are smoothed and fluted in a great
many instances; indicating a former exposure.to currents
of water. These various circumstances render it very
probable that the country was once covered by a lake.

s the passage of the Connecticut through the moun-
tains below Middletown was gradually worn deeper and
deeper, this lake would be lowered also—and in process o
time, the lofty greenstone ridge, extending from near New-

aven to Amherst, would preseut another barrier, and at
length the original lake would be divided into two ; the one
extending from Northfield, on the west side of this ridge,
nearly to New-Haven, and the other, on the east side, from
South-Hadley to Middletown. There is every appearance
that the Connecticut has worn down a passage through this
ridge between Holyoke and Tom. |

As this process of draining continued from century to cen-
tury, these lakes intly contracted their limits, until at
length the greater part of the extensive vallies they occu-
pied were laid bare. In the western lake however, were
three basins, at Farmington, Westfield and Deerfield, a few
miles in extent, which would remain filled with water until
the three rivers of the same name, which supplied them,
had worn away passages through the greenstone ridge above
mentioned. ‘That they have done this, will be doubted by
no one who will examine their course through this mountain.

Thus after the lapse of years would these lakes all be
drained, leaving a rich valley for cultivation, And whoev-
er will examine the alluvium of Farmington, Westfield and
Deerfield, will be led to suppose that the period when the
work was finished could not have been many centuries be-
fore the settlement of this country. ‘

Sunderland Cave.

This is about three miles northeast of the village in the
rocks of the coal formation. It forms nearly a quarter of a
circle, is about ten rods through, opens on the north and
west, is from two to twenty feet wide, and from ten to sixty
or seventy deep. A few rods to the south is a fissure ten
feet wide, nearly parallel to the cave, and sixty or seventy

20 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

feet deep. Both the cave and the fissure are in an immense
mass of pudding stone with scarcely any thing like stratifica-
tion throughout ; and this is incumbent upon a soft, decom-
posable, argillaceous sandstone slate. ‘The disintegration
of this slate, either by the waters of the lake above des-
cribed, or by simple exposure to the vicissitudes of the cli-
mate, ‘has probably caused this enormous stratum of con-
glomerate to fall partially down and thus to form the cave
and the fissure.

Favourable situation of Yale Colieze as a School of Mine-
ralogy and Geology.

It is a curious circumstance, that this Institution should
have been fixed by its founders, who must have been alto-
gether unacquainted with geology, at the very focus of
most of the Wernerian rock formations. It stands at the
southern extremity of the secondary region of the Connec-
ticut; and had experienced geologists searched the whole
of N ew Eogiaid. + they could not have -: a more eligible
ue for a geological and mineralogical school. It is

a fortunate coincidence of favourable acekdenth, that
re first mineral cabinet in the United States should have
been deposited in Yale College, before there was much
known concerning the interesting nature of the surrounding
country.

The geological ‘Pate at Yale could, even from his
lecture room,* point out most of the rock formations 6f the
e: He could veer the attention of his pupils to the
plain around them, as.alluvium ; and to the hills of Wood-
bridge and Milford, as exhibiting interesting deposites of
diluvium. On the north they would see the striking sec-
ondary greenstone eminences of Bast and West Rock ;
on the west, hills of primitive greenstone. In this same di-
rection, only four or five miles distant, he might point them
to the West-Haven chlorite slate, to the Woodbridge argil-
lite, to the Milford werd antique and serpentine, and a little
yond, to the mica slate. A few rods to the north, or
east, they might see the old ‘aa sandstone and the green-

* The cabinet which is in the third story and in
the lectures are given commands a view “of a andi ater hills.

Geology, §c. of the Connecticui. 21

stone dikes they contain. In East-Haven, also, six miles
distant, occur the red and grey slates of the Coal Forma-
tion; in Northford, the fetid carbonate of lime ; at South-
ington the bituminous limestone ; ; at Westfield the bitumin-
ous shale with ichthyolites; at Durham the coarse con-
glomerate of the coal formation, and at Berlin the green-
stone and slates of the coal formation with interesting locali-
ties of coal, galena, blende, harytes, agates and zeolites in
the greenstone—all within half a day’s ride. In East-Haven
appears the sea beaten granite ; and, a little farther to the
north and east, the gneiss, hornblende slate and mica slate
formations.

The mineralogy of the vicinity of Yale, is also rich and
diversified. Suffice it just to mention the chalcedony, car-
post amethyst, agates, stilbite, zeolite, canoe “ame

analcime, &c. of the neighbouring gree : the na
tive copper, et dod and lead ores, so sosadiadant i in 1 the same
formation :—t
mon pyrites, walemr blende, the thee ores of 1 tungsten,
tellurium, fluor spar, epidote, titanium, &c. of Huntington :
the asbestuh, bitter spar, sahlite, serpentine, &c. of Milford :
= cobalt ores at Chatham; the corundum, andalusite,*
&c. of Litchfield ; ; and the chrysoberyl, beryl, eae
garnets, magnetic iron, columbium, &c. of Haddam

Uti’

’ Geological Position of Amherst Collegiate Institution.

This is situated on elevated ground, and commands an
extensive and delightful view af the surrounding cou —
It stands on granite, here covered by diluvium; but the
granite appears a short distance both north and south. On
the west, stretches out an alluvial plain; on the south, rises
the lofty Holyoke of greenstone ; on the east, of gradual as-
cent, a mountain of gneiss; on the north, appears, a few
miles distant, mount Toby, composed of rocks of the coal
formation 5 and also the rounded Su gar Loaf of old red
sandstone :—while beyond the alluvial tract, on the west,
ee a high range of mountains made up of granite and sie-

ie granite, (containing the interesting lead mine of South-

* Recently announced by Major Delafield. Vide Amer. Journ. Sci. Vol.
6. p. 176.

22 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.

Hampton,) primitive greenstone, greenstone slate, mica

te and gneiss, so that without mentioning therare mine-
rals found in the vicinity, it is evident that an interesting
assemblage of rocks is presented in the neighbourhood for
the instruction of the geological student.

Fac Simile of Goshen Graphic Granite. [See Plate 1, Fig. 1.]

A description of this granite has been already given in the
First Part of this Sketch. But having since discovered
some more perfect specimens, I thought it might not be un-
acceptable to have one of them copied. It is not common
to find specimens so wel! marked as the one from which the
plate was taken ; yet, in general, they are quite handsome.

points, triangles, &c. of quartz, usually enlarge, or di-
minish, as they traverse the feldspar. Thus, the specimen,
of which the plate is a copy, exhibited on its opposite side
(about four inches distant from the surface that was copied,)
the same characters but four times as large. .

Pseudomorphous Granite. [See Plate 1, Fig. 2.]

Tt is not an easy matter to give a good graphic represen-
tation of this rock. Perhaps however, the one annexed may
assist in understanding the description given on p. 17, vol. vi.
The dark part represents the plates of mica ;—the red part
the quartz, and the uncoloured portion, the feldspar. This
rock occurs abundantly in Goshen, connected with the
graphic granite above described ; and the transition of the
ene into the other is usually very sudden.

Lusus Naturae. [See Plate 1, Fig. 3.]

For a description of this, see page 15, vol. vi.
Desiderata in the Geology and Mineralogy of the Connec-
tteut.

_ It may be remarked in general, that but a small part of
the geology and mineralogy of this region has been brought

to that degree of perfection to. which these sciences have
heen carried in some countries in Europe; and, therefore,

Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 23

there are desiderata in the whole. But some parts are more
deficient than others ; and I shall take the liberty of noting
some of those points which seem more particularly to de-
mand the further attention of the geologist. Among these
the following may be named.

- A more exact determination, in many instances, of
the boundaries of the several formations. |

urther examination of the exact relative position of
the old red sandstone and the coal formation.

3. Further search for greenstone dikes, not only in the
old red sandstone, but also in the coal formation, and even
in primitive rocks.

4. Whether the beds of secondary greenstone detach
veins from one to the other, as in the isle of Sky.

5. A further examination of the granitic beds, to deter-
mine whether like connecting dikes or veins may not be
found uniting them also. LBGCOE ran seioeth 49

+ A more a arch to in wv ler ail our
granite does not exist in the form of beds and veins.

7. ‘To find more instances in which the coal formation and
greenstone form alternating beds.

n examination of the beds of clay and gravel, found
along the Connecticut, for shells and other organic remains.

9. Further search in the coal formation for organic re- ©
mains.*

10. Examination of the bituminous limestone of South-
ington, especially with the query of Prof. Silliman in mind,
(Journal p. 63, vol. 6.) whether this rock may not itself be,
or be connected with, bituminous marl slate ?

1, The extensive range of greenstone, running from Ber-
lin to Amherst has as yet been but little examined for mine-
rals, as well as many other greenstone ridges. Indeed, the
mineralogy of this whole region requires farther exp)
tion, and promises the diligent student much fruit.

Meteorological Fact.

The following circumstance, although connected with
ogy, does not strictly come within the limits of this
* Dr. Cooley informs me that he has recently discovered another locali

locali-+
ty of ichthyolites in Deerfield, about three miles from the locality in San-
derland.

24 Geology, &c. of the Connecticut

Sketch ; Vet it seems worth noticing, but hardly of sufii-
cient importance to form a separate paper.

In going westward from Connecticut river, we first pass
over an alluvial tract and then continue gradually to ascend,
for twenty miles, to the top of Green and Hoosak moun-
tains. As might be expected, the winters on this elevated
land continue two or three weeks later than in the valley ;
that is, the farmer can sow his seeds two or three weeks
earlier in the valley than on the hills. But in autumn,

e destructive frosts are usually as much later on the hills
ae ong the river:—so that one frequently passes from
the riverin October, where almost every vegetable is des-
troyed, and finds the crops uninjured on these hills ; and
the crops there are about a fortnight later than those in the
vallies, so as to require this lengthening out of their time of
ripening. I have been disposed to attribute this fact to the
greater moisture of the atmosphere of the vallies, arising
from the more copious exhalations from the river, whereby
the effects of frost are greatly increased, even at the same.
temperature.

Tabular Arrangement é the Rock Formations along the

Connecticut.*

* There follow with jPlossure the very simple yet ingenious arrange-
ment of rocks, which is adopted by Conybeare and paca as ered basis
i England an _ It has

of
rare merit of being entirely free from bh Se i d be well ifa
similar ion ea e

loch, Greenough, Buckland, Webster, Borré, Cuvier, Brongniart, &c. we
confidently e expect | tha it will be speedily seoomplisbed.

e, I me rocks in the Inferior Or-
der, which the authors of this arrange peer place i os _ Sp yomgn Or-
der. For their acoount of these orders is not yet published ; and in the
—— sketch, they have given, oe a a patt of the fecks Neseeee to grhoa

er are enumerated.

Geology, &c. of the Connectieut. 25.

I, Inrerion Orper.

Rocks observed in contact ca
wed in the leading column
. Sienitic Granite ] N. Hampton Belchert’ D&C.
Gneiss " erett granitic ra
Common _ | Hornblende Slate Do. Granville, &c.
1, Gra- | Porphyritic | Mica Slate — Conway if = ompangg§
nite.< Graphi ine "s Westfield, Mass
= n0d Liennges (No. Conway”
vium Passim
Alluvium Northampton

pempenpton, &c,
Whatel

{ Granite
2. Sienite, or Sien- | Hornblende Slate
itic Granite.* imiti eenstone

Northampton.
Leverett, &c.-

regular order of succession.

f

Litchfield County.
eae Granville,
“i eS am _ [&e,

cal
a
= Granite | Granville,
= Sienitic Granite | sama
= Y neis iy
€ | Mica Slate | fr a Colerain, &c.
= {| Dilavium ssim,
= ran. Conway, &c.
= Gneiss Monson, Wilbraham, &c.
2 orn Shelburne, Heath, &c
3 Limestone, (No. 7) | Deerfield, Conway, &c.
a} Argillite ay
ia Chiorite Slate hiti
3 | 5. Mica Slate 4 Greenstone Slate }W *
& pentine | Mi ;
= Steatite New-Fane, &c.
es Sandstone | 4 i
Coal Formation $. Hampton Lead Mine.
Dilavium ama
L | Allaviam Wilbraham.
6. Talcous Slate 1 Chiort Sate enarontne Hawley, &c,

Aggregate of Silex, Carb,

Chlo

%. Limestone, or a Gra Granite (in veins) Conway.

Mica Slate Deerfield, &c.
Lime and Mica Argillite

is is undoubtedly ves 9 era Vales. p 299 20d 300.

" Wee vil oe i i, 4

Geology, &c. of the Connecticut.

Rocks observed in contact with those in the leading column.
i ern —" Whiting ham
a Slat

Ar Avsillite Guilford, Vt. and Woodbridge.
8. Chlorite Slate: Verd Antique Milford.
Prim. Greenstone | Do.

Diluviu me Do.
Allauvium | Orange, (Ct.)
Gnei New-Salem.
9. Steatite

Mica Slate Middlefield.

Minin Mass. (Eaton,)
ica i
10. Serpentinnes } Gran aL saat ddlefield, (Dewey.)

Midd, (Do.)
il. Vera Antique {Sin Greenstone ie

Chlorite Slate .
ica Slate Wolcott ?
Chiorite Slate Milford.
12, Primitive { Unrated Sieni Whately.
Greenstone ? Gre Slate} Verd Antique Milford
Old Red Sandstone | Whately, Gill.
{Coal Formation _) Gill, Northfield.

The order of succession of the seven preceding rocks is very variable and
uncertain. ‘

: W Svewevitd, Orper.

Mica SI Putney, Woodbridge.
Limestone, — 7.) | Do.
Prim. G Woodbri
13. Argillite Chiorite s late .
Old Red Sandstone Do.
Diluviam Do.
Alluvium J Brattleborough.

Ul. Mepiat. Orper.
Granite

14,

% i
Shige Pm % ' : f

Old Red yorey 2 | Prim. Greenstone
Sandstone § Conglomerated § } §
{
I
F

% \lovium

Geology, &e. of the Connecticut. 27

Rocks observed in gaietwith with
those in the leading
“Wacke*
4 Dat yi Lim
: rk estone re *
§ | Bituminous pare ne games 2 od
2 Do. Mica Slate 3. H.lead
~ Seams of Coal Ola R a gma ogggaias
ice } Prim. Greenstone Sa
3 poe ed Siliceous Do, Res: sain
a oer Dilavium ee
$195 | Biomieour Shale . | LAMoviam.—,_J Enfield, (Ct)
S|. | Finer Puddi
& 2 | Coarse ; :
ze] = Granite ') East-Haven ?
3 = 2 ompant Old Red Sandstone | East and West
“1338 a : Span! Se a
as} Pp orpby - Coal Formation | Gill, Berlin, &e,
PSO laa z ee oe oY
‘Sei es aes. See “— NS eRe aa es 4°
sa RS ee, Bigee is Mae 2
nV. BorEon: at rf
17, Dilaviam Above most or all of the preceding formations.
Oceanic rae )
Beds of Gra
‘ Do. pt Above most of the
18, Alloviam. Do. Sand preceding formations,
Loam
| Decomposed Rocks and Vegetables

* Prof. Silliman has ca the affirmative, the question wheth-
er this rock exists along th i Keppentionnt Vide Jo Journal a Scien cco Vol,
6. p. 51 note.
Conybeare and S11) the B come soming, Aastra on the Geology of
England and Wales, (p. 311, the Bituminons arle Slate, with the ac-

permedial wont that i is, immediately above the rocks of the coal Forma-

tion; and if t above denominated the — Formation a
prove os Mg 929 —— eean e Format:
Brongniart’s opinions, mus ced in the Capertee 1 order ae.
But what of the old red sandstone todte liegende) which li
immediately Ww tumi Mar! Formation in German:
low the coal ation nd? writ rather Rev. W. D.
. e the article here referred to) regard the rothe todte
liegende of the Germans, as d oO of England.
rocks al are real formation of
not the red sandstone east of the river in Chatham, Fast-Hart-
ford, Windsor, &c. be the t 3 west of the river
old Sof an
This same

?
writer, speaking of the real coal formation, says that “at
least ten characters will be fonnd 9 codalteeen the carboniferous

28 Geology, Sc. of the Connecticut.

FS, Coal Formation.

Since the publication # ye description of this series of
rocks along the Connecticut, I have had an opportunity to
eXamine more extensively ve I had done before, the coal
formation of Rhode-Island ; and thus to. institute a com-
parison between the two. And I feel satisfied that they are
very distinct from each other ; and that the Rhode-Island
pre is the oldest. ‘There is a sort of general differ-
tween them, which is readily recognized by the eye,

vet which it is not easy to describe. In ‘the Rhode-Islan
rocks, however, there is agreater resemblance, in the eed
ral aspect and in the fracture, to primitive rocks than in
those of the Connecticut ; and the former are, in general,
harder and more compact than the latter; and their cement
is more argillaceous. The coarse puddingstone, so ubun-~
dant in Roxbury, Dorchester, &c. and which is seen at in-
tervals inost of the distance to the anthracite beds in Ports-
mouth, approaches, in certain a very neara a

rock ds Meuaares ‘Sunderland, Durham, &c. To th

pow rock, however, the cement is. rate more aes
the rock, as Maclure very happily expresses it, ‘ has
the ganas as if the cement at the time of formation

ry.
Both omy are transition; yet dia one may gts claim to
a greater age than the other.

so momen class (of Werner) for one which could lead to an opposite
—tbat i is with the facta | clasts | pad. also “ that the sandstones
pn

viously mechanical varieties of ereywacke, and ; ietely po
into that rock, that in maw , ra indent 0 se cep
a2) ‘transition caine ean only. be abr eon assigned, Kam oy He} ee and

Geology, &c. of the Connecticut. 29
Gneiss.

The more I examine the rocks in New-England, the bet-
ter convinced I am that the extent of this rock in this re-
gion, has been overrated by geologists. The truth is, that
almost in every place which I have examined, mica slate al-
ternates with gneiss, or overlies it, so as to oceupy nearly,
sometimes more than half the surface. Hornblende. slate
and granite, also occur in the same series. In passing fre
Northampton to Boston, I have never found any gneiss
of Worcester ; although in going from Providence to Hart-
ford, this stratum occurs only twelve miles from the former
place and continues with alternations of mica slate, 4

in the vicinity ; and vice versa, ,

slate appeared, 7 have he been able to ‘discover veins
or beds of granite. And wherever granite veins exist, gra-
nite beds are not usually far off. 1 might say more on this
subject: But it has only recently attracted my particular
attention, therefore I desist. Iam satisfied, however, that
—— of the phenomena of Glen Tilt are patente in New-
unglan

Sa a ane er age secondary.
TL j > 20. © » err eh pay id and

secondary greenstone of the aceasta is very imper-
fectly stated page 32 vol. 6. The mere fact that the
tive greenstone forms beds in other rocks does not distin-

same situation. But the former, at the sides of the a
passes by imperceptible gradations into other rocks, suc
as ponies chlorite slate, &c. thus excluding the
idea that it could have been forced in between _* strata of
other rocks after their consolidation: whereas the latter
rock is distinctly characterized to the very line of junction
with the sandstones and puddi unless there be a
pg os Sea changea few inches on either side of this line,

as if by hea

30 Geology, Se. of the Connecticut.

It may not be amiss to state here that the greenstone of
the Connecticut has a very different aspect internally and
externally from the epidotic and sienitic greenstones in the
vicinity of Boston. ‘The latter are evidently transition, be-
ing associated with the sienite, porphyry, gray wacke, argil-
lite, &c. But | am not prepared to state precisely in what
respects they differ from the greenstone of the Connecticut.

And although it does not strictly belong to this place, it
may not be amiss to refer to the interesting dykes of basal-
tiform greenstone occurring in sienitic granite in the vicini-
ty of Boston, of which I do not recollect to have seen an
account. Ihave noticed them in Sudbury and Weymouth
in real granite—that is, the rock was destitute, at the place
of hornblende. One in Weymouth, or perhaps in Brain-
tree, I traced several rods, and it retained its width with
mathematical exactness, and the sides were perfectly
smooth. These dykes deserve more examination and bet-
ter description. Perhaps some of them contain real basalt.

White Augite.

‘Since writing the account of this mineral found in Go-
shen, which occurs on page 225 vol. 6. I have visited the
locality again, and find it in immense abundance. About
two miles north of Goshen meeting house, a few rods be-
yond a tavern on the west side of the road, is a pasture al-
most covered by bowlders of granite. These bowlders are
full of augite, some of the crystals of which are from twelve
to eighteen inches long and three or four wide, although
they are very imperfect. Every cabinet in the world might
be supplied from them. I noticed also in the same rock
some crystals of beryl more than an inch in diameter.

Bree! Precious Garnet.

This occurs abundantly in gneiss in west and south
Brookfield. Some are an inch diameter; their colour is
light poppy red, and it is rare to find any exhibiting the
form of the crystal distinctly, so that perhaps they ought
to be referred to pyrope.
aS Peek Prismatic Mica

‘Found in the northern part of Williamsburg in granite.
Good specimens may thence be obtained. 3

Finch on the Tertiary Formations 31

Art. i> Gealegstel Essay on the: Tertiary: Forteations in
America, by Joun Fincn, Fellow of the Philosophical
Society of Birmingham, Professor of Geolegy and Mine-

ralogy.

{Read before the Academy of Natural a ieee at Philadelphia. July 15,
1823. - ss

IntTRODUCTION,. “i

TO trace the connexion between the rocks of different
continents, to observe the order of their superposition, and to
examine the exterior formations of the earth, are the busi-
ness and study of the Geologist.

: tain masses, which oa ae in cepa tach of
y one neral law ; ‘and t $ “

"no fossils, and ae equally called primitive

stantly found in the same position. When v we Easctad : in ti
scale of formations, and arrive at those rocks which contain
fossils, we find each stratum decidedly marked by the re-
mains of zoophytes, or shells, peculiar to it. ‘These fossils
constitute the medals of the ancient world, by which to as-
certain the various elt during which the exterior coat
of the earth was consoli

It has been observed, hat these organized remains oc-
cur in so regular an order, that itis like examining a cabi-
net of shells, where you are sure to find, in every drawer,

r ones which have been deposited within it.

The order of position among secondary rocks is also sel-
dom bid fin one quarter of the world you find a
aa containing saltand gypsum, eee above anoth-

po 1 ‘

This law is the foundation of Geology, gee ahah I

rests; and every portion of either the old or

that is examined, seems to produce fresh eeidbabe of its
truth,

Among the discoveries made, in consequence of the ge-
nerous rivalry which takes place between nations in scien-

32 Finch on the Tertiary Formations

tific pursuits, none have given a greater impulse to the sci-
ence of Geology. than the researches of Messrs. Cuvier and

der

"Phe m next memoir which elucidated these strata, and gave
rise to the opinion that they might be found in other coun-
tries besides France, was published by Mr. Webster, in the
Transactions of the Geological Society in England; he
proved the existence of two basins, in the Isle of Wight,
and near ae ete possessing fossil remains similar to those
found near Pari

By fmucesediag Naturalists these formations have been
found in several parts of Europe, in Asia, and Africa, let
us endeavour to trace their existence upon this continent.

e primitive, transition, and secondary rocks obey the
same laws in America, as in other parts of the world, and
why should she be supposed to be destitute of the tertiary
formation, the discove Eg of which has conferred such splen-
dour on the ge I schools of London and Paris.

InA an immense tract of country, extending from
Long-Is -Island to ibe sea of Mexico, and from thirty to two
hundred miles in width, is called an alluvial formation, by
most of the geologists who bave written upon the subject and
by some it appears to be considered as an exception to the
general arrangement and position of strata, which are found
to a in other countries

an examination of fossils brought from that quarter
of the United sss from a personal inspection. of some of

of the United States. 33

view, from that in which it seems to have been hitherto re-
garded.
In the first place, the opinion that it is alluvial or deposited
y the ocean or by rivers, ata comparatively recent period,
seems quite inadmissible. The eastern shores of continents
are more liable to lose than gain from the ocean, and there
are no rivers on that coast which could have deposited such
an accumulation of sand and marle, and the bills of lime-
stone which that country contains. 2
In strict geological language the term alluvial can only be
applied to the depositions which take place on the banks, or
at the debouchure of rivers, such as are formed by the
Ganges, the Nile, the Danube and the Mississippi, the ex-
tent of which is easily ascertained by a correct map. Small-
er rivers, such as occur more frequently on the Atlantic
‘border of the United States, do not in centuries deposit suf-
ficient sand to alter the geographical features of a country.
the ‘ ! : ing s ri te = ‘ttt fond near the At-
lantic are taken partly from my own notes on the few which
I have seen; from the publications of Mr. Maclure, Dr.
Mitchell, and Mr. Hayden, and from the personal informa-
tion of several friends to geological science, amongst whom
i wish more particularly to mention the names of J. G. Bo-
gert, Esq. and Major Delafield of New-York, and Major
Ware of Philadelphia, all of whom are well known in the

tions in Europe.and those of America, leaving it to abler
pens to correct the mistakes, and supply the deficiencies of
the present essay.

~ Vor. VIL—No. 1. 5

=
34 Finch on the Tertiary Formations
1. Ferruginous Sand... ‘

- This formation, which occupies a situation between the
oolites and chalk in England, is to be traced in the following
meoceen which is derived from Mr. Maclure.

erable deposits of bog iron ore occupy the lower
sauations in New-Jersey, and many of the more elevated
and dividing ridges are crowned with a sandstone, and pud-
dingstone. Quantities of ochres, varying in color from
brightyyellow to dark brown, are found in abundance i in this
runes in flat horizontal beds.

2. Plastic Clay and Sand Formation.
consists of an indefinite number of beds of sand, clay,
= and lignite, which appear to alternate without any
ry exact order. The following is a description of it as it
occurs in Englan
ANDS of various colors, in beds varying from an inch
to fifty feet in thickness ; the pure white. silicious sands
used for making Glass are generally. obtained. from these

‘ata.

CLAYS in beds of various ‘thickness, aad at the bright-
est and most variegated hues, so that they have sometimes
been compared to the colors on the leaves of a tulip: white,
red, blue, grey, yellow, black, indeed almost every variety of
color may in different situations be traced in these clays.
Their utility is great, as in fact they are necessary for the
porcelain manufacturer, potter, for bricks, and every pur-
pose where a pure elay is required ; some of the varieties
stand the heat of the strongest fires, and are used in Glass
houses; sometimes it assumes the appearance, or is repla-
ced by ‘marle seeieinicr peculiar fossils.

GRAVEL or small, rounded pebbles form whole
strata in this ereaiien and exhibit as strongly as the largest
bowlders, the great attrition which spa must have under-
gone, to reduce them to their present siz

LIGNITE, or Wood Coal, always = bessmecane the
Plastic Clay and sand, and is generally stratified, although
it sometimes occurs in solitary masses. It usually contains
amber, and sulphuret of iron.

Plastic clay and sand formation may be readily iden-
tified wherever it presents itself, the character of the clays
and their bright color, and the alternation of beds of clay,

*
of the United States. 35

sand, pebbles and lignite render it easy to distinguish it. At
the same time it may be considered as the most important
of the tertiary formations, on account of its use in the arts.

was first discovered in France, but is»peculiarly prom-
inent, and finely illustrated in England, at Alum bay in the
Isle of Wight, where from some unknown cause, the stra-
ta have assumed a vertical position, and the sea washing
the face of the cliffs has presented a fine section to the

ist.

08

In England the plastic clay is, I believe, found only in

this formations but in France, a bed of white clay and sand

accompanies some of the higher formations. Jt must re-

main for future observations to ascertain whether some of

the white oe — of America belong to the higher or
lower: forma I am inclined to think that most of the

eas are contemporaneous with the English

plete dey. and lower French strata, but i it isa point which

must be decided at rand

a future time, whe
position of these formations is known in America.

This formation is the most extensive of the tertiary strata
in the United States, and presents an important feature in
its Geology ; it may be traced at different points nearly to
the distance of a thousand miles. The following are some
of the localities where it occurs.

he situation where it ‘may be studied with the greatest
advantage and where it is exhibited in greater perfection
than in any other part of the United States, isat Gay Head, on
the island sometimes called Martha’s Vineyard in Mass,
The cliffs are two hundred feet in height, and consist of a
succession of beds of clay, sand, ochres and lignite of the
brightest hues, and the waves of the ocean which flow at
the foot of the hill are tinged by the coloring ower of the
sands and clays. Iam informed by a gentleman of Phila-
delphia, who has visited this place, that sani has been
found floating in the ocean, near, undoubtedly derived from
the lignite - — formation, and I have a specimen of it in
my collect

At Sand’s | Point upon Long-Island, it is very conspicu-
ous, consisting of beds of very white clay and fossil wood.
The range of hills which extend through the centre of this

island, are composed of diluvial sand, gravel, &c. accom-
panied by enormous masses of rolled pebbles and bowlders.

*

36 Finch on the Tertiary Formations

The plain to the south of this is well known to consist prin-
cipally of sand, distinguished by the evenness of its surface,
and nearly the whole of Long Island. at the depth of thirty
to fifty feet, consists of a stratum of sand and gravel, in which
are various shells, venus, ostrea, murex. In the same stra-
tum are found boughs and trunks of trees, bark and damag-
ed wood. Nearly the whole of this island may therefore
be considered as forming a part of the plastic clay and sand
formation, unless indeed the sand hills near Brooklyn may
be considered as part of another formation. Upon: Staten
Island the plastic clay is conspicuous in several situations.
In New-Jersey this formation occupies a very exten-
sive tract of country; the clays from Amboy, the port
where they are shipped, have been long celebrated in com-
merce. In ascending the stream of the Raritan, I had
great pleasure in tracing this formation on the south-east
shore, to within three miles of Brunswick ; it probably ex-
tends across the whole of New Jersey. At Bordentown,
on the Delaware, it is very conspicuous: the banks of the

.

river, for two miles south of that town, afford as good an op-

few feet. Beds of lignite and blue clay, interspersed with
iron pyrites, with which in one or two ‘situations the shore
is covered; large masses and beds of ochre of the most
brilliant appearance ; the waters of the Delaware colored:
by the wreck ofthese strata; altogether present a fine view
to the admirer of tertiary formations. In some instances
the banks are undermined by the river, or by land springs ;
large masses of the cliffs give way, and what are called land
slips occur, in which sands, clays, lignites and pyrites are
mingled with the wrecks of the kalmia, liriodendron, carex,
and magnolia.

I have been informed by Professor Vanuxem of South
Carolina College, that amber has been found in the lignite
of this formation ; some of the white clays of commerce are
obtained at a distance two miles up the creek at Borden-
town.

It is probably a continuation of the same plastic clay and
sand which appears in New Jersey, on the river Delaware,
three miles above Philadelphia. It is there distinguished

of the United States. 37

by beds of white sand, pebbles and porcelain clay. I am
rather inclined to arrange the sand of New-Jersey in the
same class; but future observations must determine this

point.
Philadelphia is built upon a plastic clay and sand forma--

tion; the sand is of variegated hues; clay, which is

very pure, is found at thirty feet below the surface of the
un ;

At Cape Sable, in Maryland, vast beds of lignite are:
found, containing amber, which has been described by Dr.
Troost in the American Journal of Science. It is well
known that the amber of Prussia is found in a similar situa-
tion, and thus in distant parts of the world similar strata
contain the same mineral substances; and the amber of the.
Baltic has an ally and a brother in the formations of plastic
= sand, and lignite, at Gay Head, Bordentown and Cape

Die, po bse: F ie do eft yey 2 ett e:

The clays of this formation abound in Florida; speci-
mens are deposited in the cabinet of the Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences in Philadelphia, from Escambia bay, seven
miles above Pensacola, and from Mobile bay in Alabama.

I am informed by Major Ware, who has travelled over
great part of the southern frontier of the United States, that
the plastic clay extends over several hundred square miles,

In the tract of country which this embraces, in every exca-
vation which the inhabitants make to obtain water, they dig
up a fine dark red clay, which in some instances they use
to paint their houses ; the surface is composed sometimes
of the clays and sometimes of the sands of this formation.

Another situation where it appears in a very conspicuous
station, and with prominent characters, is at Chicasaw
Bluffs and at Natchez, which have been described by Mr.

uttall under the term alluvial, in his tour to the Arkansas.
It also abounds in many other situations, and on a reference
to Cleveland every locality which is noticed as affording

38 Finch on the Tertiary Formations

American public, because it shows that for many thousands
years there is an ample supply of the materials for the
manufacture of earthenware, porcelain and glass, whenever
the country shall consider it desirable to support or encour-
age those manufactures more extensively than at present.

It is a subject of some interest to ascertain whether the
fossil shells ef this formation in America are similar to those
of Europe. At Powleshook, opposite New-York, and at
the celebrated village of Communipa, on a small elevation
one quarter of a mile north of it, and to some distance in-
land, are extensive strata of fossil oyster shells, forming
beds, from six inches to two feet in thickness. Mr. Pierce,
in his description of New-Jersey, also mentions many banks
of them, and I have heard of one which extends several
miles ; they may probably be classed as belonging to this
formation. In the opinion of many persons, both learned
and otherwise, these are shells left by the Indians ; but an
examination of the places where they occur, especially at
the hill near Communipa, wlll, | imagine, satisfy every ge-

ologist as to their origin. —
sii at ate ris Wied 0 Metlceee: Se ° . Lad pqs
3. Calcaire Silicieuse, of the Paris basin.

The siliceous limestone or Buhr stone’ of Georgia, is a
formation decidedly contemporaneous with the above men-
tioned stratum; although the principal part of the celebrated
French mill-stones are froma rock higher in the series, the
Meuliere sans coquilles, yet some are obtained from the
Calcaire Grossier ; and to this stratum and the C. Sili-
cieuse, I consider the Georgia Buhr stone allied, both by
the similarity of mineralogical character, and the nature of
fossil remains. The American Buhr stone contains splen-
did impressions of two or three varieties of mactra. Tel-
lina, melania and turritella, and many others will no doubt be
found in it on future investigation.

- The cavities in the limestone, which are numerous, are
lined with siliceous incrustations, and if great care was ex-
ercised in the Georgia quarries to procure only the hardest
Stratum, it would no doubt supersede the introduction of
French Buhr stone, but at present they appear to make no

ion ; consequently many of the softer varieties come
to market, which are of no use, and prevent their general

of the United States. 39

adoption. 'The Buhr stones, which are used extensively in
the western States, and are obtained on Racoon creek; at
Huntsville, and many other situations, belong to a very dif-
ferent formation ; they are composed. of chert, containing
an enormous quantity of organic remains of encrini, and
consequently are more ancient than the Georgia stone. .

4. London Clay. od

In the banks of James river, Va. there is a large quantity
‘of organic remains imbedded in a bank of clay. _ At Rich-
mond are found fossil triangular teeth, apparently belonging
to sharks, and other pieces of bone, at a ‘distance of, sixty
feet from the surface. oi Oi i yeta Le
- All these fossil remains are similar to those found. in the
London clay, and from the same spot I have seen’ fossil
shells, similar to those which are deposited in the collection
of. the Geological Society in London, and which were ob-
tained in the deep excavations. at Highgate hill. to insas
t Washington, under the; mass of diluvian gravel, of
which the higher part of the capitol hill is composed, thefe
is a stratum of clay, which contains many organic remains.
Trunks and branches of trees are found ata distance.of fifty-
four feet from the surface ;, and: farther down the river} in
digging wells, shark’s teeth are often met, with. An.the cab-

been observed, and a careful examination would. establish
tHe similarity of the strata in which they were found.

s <a i 2
5. Caleatre Ostrée, ......., sittgiohs

tion in the world, when we consider. the almost incredible
quantity of fossil shells which it contains. sted inal

40 Finch on the Tertiary Formations

_In works upon Geology, when noticing the extent of
banks of fossil shells which are known to be abundant in
various parts of the world, that near Tours in France, has
generally been considered: as:most extensive. It is a bank
of shells nearly unchanged, nine leagues long and twenty
feet thick, but in the Southern States of America the stra-
tum of shells, which is now to be described, extends six
hundred miles in lengih, from ten to one bundred_ miles
in width, and if the known measurement in one part of the
line may be supposed a fair criterion, three hundred feet in

ness. The principal part of the formation is composed
of shells, and therefore may be hereafter classed as the lar-
gest collection of fossils in the world.

All my information respecting it is derived from Nath’).
“A. Ware; Esq. member of the Academy of Natural Scien-
ces, Philadelphia, on travelled over many parts of this
formation, and paid great attention to its character. »In
Bartram’s travels to. the Southern States, the commence-
seen of this wear is mentioned, and the termination of it

w country is noticed by a writer in Silliman’s

Jotirndly — this is the first memoir which waces it through

its whole extent, and the geo are solely indebted to Ma-
jor Ware for the accoun

Character. It is a pase of shells, in some situations

united by a scanty calcareous cenyent, but from b
shells may be readily detached; in this state it is called by
the inhabitants a soft limestone, which in the quarry is ea-
‘sily cut by any edge tools, but becomes harder on exposure
to'the air. In other parts it presents immense banks of
loose , tenor fifteen miles in length, without the mix-
ture of any foreign substance.

Fossils. This extensive formation is chiefly composed
of a large species of ostrea, which | believe has not yet
been described. A specimen of it may be seen in the Phil-
adelphia museum; it is twelve inches long and two and
three-quarters wide, and each valve from half to two and
‘a quarter inches thick— —Major Ware says they occur larger ;
‘on account of their great size I propose to call them Ostrea
=. The shells appear but slightly changed by

nee in the earth, and are in many parts used jor

e.

of the United States. 41

Mineral Contents. om some situations it contains large
quantities of iron pyrite
Springs. The water miele by this formation is very
unhealthy, and in many situations the scarcity of it presents
a serious impediment to cultivation; in Alabama they have
sunk in this stratum three hundred feet to find good water,
but have not succeeded in penetrating through the limestone.
Geographical Extent. It commences at the Eutaw springs
near Santee river in South Carolina, passes to Orangeburgh,
and crosses the Savannah river fifteen miles below Augus-
ta, occasionally disappearing under the san
be traced to Burke County i in Georgia,
erosses the Ogeechee near Louisville; then near Sanders-
ville, passing through Wilkinson County ; it is then found
at St. Mark’s in Florida, where the tower and fort are built
of this limestone. The basis of the land omits the north-
east boundary of the Sea of stesooe tae ervey of it it;

and proceeding in a north-w st head of
the Choctaw creek, it ment “the Alabama! river "near ear Ca-
hawba, where thie: formation expands, and forms a basin
one hundred miles square, comprising the counties of
Montgomery, Dallas, Wilcocks, Greene, Marengo, and
part of Washington, in the State of Alabama. On many
parts of the surface in these signe Ye there is a-rich loam ;

to Alach re

Ga piaiis

6. Upper Marine Formation. -

a7 Europe one part of this is usually, distinguished by
large tracts of sands, which not only afford no return to the
farmer, but rebel against bis dominion, and destroy his im-
provements.

‘The

sands of Norfolk, Pomerania, Ostend, Bayonne and

coast of France, - of sand re like an enemy upon
Vou. VII.—No.

42 Finch on the Tertiary Formations, §c.

the peaceful villagers, overwhelm houses, trees and forests
in their irresistible progress, and many villages marked i
the records of the middle ages, have been destroyed by it.

The same soil produces the same effect, though upon dis-
tant continents ; and the upper marine sands of Virginia
imitate upon a small scale the devastations committed by
their brothers in Guienne.

At Cape Henry, the sands yearly advance, surround the
cottages and light-house, overwhelm gradually a. noble for-
est, and carry devastation in their train. The description
applied by Latrobe to the advance of one of these sands,

And that system of agriculture which has converted the
barren sands of Norfolk into fertile and beautiful farms,
might be introduced upon the same formations in America,
making some allowance for difference of climate.

At Staten Island, the sand upon one part of the coast be-
gins to. overwhelm a grove of white cedar; and upon some
of ihe hills of Brooklyn opposite New-York, 1 have ob-
served the sand gradually carried forward by the wind, and
the whole surface of the bill apparently changing its posi-

tion.
ne 7. Diluvial,

HOS.

After the production of these regular strata of sand, clay,
limestone, &c. came a terrible irruption of water from the
north, or north-west, which in many places covered the
ceding formations with diluvial gravel, and carried along
with it those immense masses of granite, and the older
rocks, which attest to the present day the destruction and
ruin of a former world. bond

‘Many more instances might be adduced to establish the
identity of what has been called the alluvial. district in
merica, with the tertiary formations of England and the
continent of Europe ; but the object of the present memoir
is merely to draw the attention of Geologists to the subject.

Schooleraft on the Copper of Lake Superior. 43

It is probable that upon an accurate investigation the coun-
try between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic will be found
to consist of eight or ten distinct formations, agreeing pre-
cisely in their general character with the newer strata in
England and France. The fossil shells from the various
beds would not, perhaps, all be exactly like those of Eu-

from many of these various strata, preserve their angles
and sharp tender edges unbroken; the skeletons of fishes
and animals which are found, are many of them entire:
they must have heen deposited at the bottom of a tranquil

ocean.

It may be said that a knowledge of these strata is of no
use, but not only is it desirable to pursue science to its far-
thest bounds, but it will be found that a knowledge of these
png nr ee

rin strata are found mate rials necess or the pot-
ter. glass-maker, builder, &c. ‘They are the reposi ed
for clay, sand, pyrites, ochre, fuller’s earth, &c. ; and when
the boundaries of the various formations are accurately de-
termined, it will be known where we can expect to find
these different substances.

Geology will achieve a triumph in America, when the
term alluvial shall be banished from her Geological Essays,
or confined to its legitimate domain, and then her tertiary
formations will be seen to coincide with those of Europe,
and the formations of London, Paris and the Isle of Wight,
will find kindred associations in Virginia, the Carolinas,

ia, the Floridas, and Louisiana.

Ant. Ifl.—Notice of a recently discovered copper mine on
Lake Superior, with several other localities of minerals ;
by H, R. Scnoovcrart.

Sault Ste. Marie, July 29th, 1823.

_ Dear Sir.—I transmit to you, through the Secretary of
War whose permission I solicit to have it published in the
American Journal of Science, a copy of a letter which I
have addressed to him, announcing the discovery of a vein

44 Schoolcraft on the Copper of Lake Superior.

of copper ore, upon the shore of lake Superior. I have |
taken some pains and been at some expence to investigate
this subject, and to procure specimens of the ore. From
all I can learn, the vein is a very large and rich one, run-
ning horizontally into the shore, and the ore is very easily
detached. And Iam disposedae think, from the specimens
received, it will yield as great a per centum of metal, as
similar ores (it is a Malachite) produce at the best European
mines.

Iam making up a small box of specimens for you, taken
from this vicinity. Init you will receive pieces of the ore
referred to. Unfortunately (for cabinets) itis a very crum-
bling vein, and the person I employed to visit it, not having
any taste for such pursuits, handled the specimens without
proper care, so that the richest pieces are reduced to frag-
ments.

I annex a few localities of minerals, in the region of the
lakes, more particularly of Michigan Territory, which have
not, I believe, been heretofore noticed.

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Professor Silliman, New-Havenw

[Corr]

(Communicated for this Journal by permission of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun;
Secretary of War.) * ’

Sault Ste. Marie, July 28th 1823.

Str.—Having on a former occasion been requested to
communicate such information as I possessed respecting the
_ existence of copper upon the shores of lake Superior, I now
take the liberty of transmitting to you, through the inter-
vention of Governor Cass, specimens of an ore of that met-
al, which were taken from a vein recently discovered in the
region referred to. ;

The precise locality of this ore, is, the extremity of the
great peninsula of Keewiiweenon, which stretches from the
southern shore of the lake towards La Baie Noire, and is
distant about two hiuantene 1 ty Ps niles fi th) post
A deepbay washes the eastern cide of this peninsula, which re-
ceivesa river that has its source near the banks of the lake, and
running at right angles with the point, nearly ifsulates it

Schoolcraft on the Copper of Lake Superior. 45

from the main land, forming a route of communication
which is generally passed i in light canoes. . There is a por-
tage of only two hundred and seventy-five rods from the
source of this river, to the shore of the lake west of the
point, and the distance saved by the route is commonly es-
timated to be ninety miles. Se

This is the channel nurse by the expedition through
the upper lakes in 1820, and consequently we were preclu-
ded from making any personal observations upon the ex-
tremity of that point of land. Heavy barges, such as are
rea noapenes by the fur traders, cannot, however, cross
t

his p ut are compelled to keep out in the open
lake ed tra versing around this peninsula, they must pass
a small bay and point of rock known among the Canadian

bene by the name of La Roche Vi erte, which is, in fact,
the vein of copper ore, of which aeons: are ants —
it a out abruptly‘apon jthedele:
whom 5 ed to to procure are these. apec

mens sek this place early in the month of May last, but fae:
ing other pursuits likewise in view, did not return until with-
in a short time. He reports, that the vein of ore is about
one fathom in width, rising with a broken, hackly surface
out of the water, ond that it extends in a direct line from
the lake into the interiour—its course being marked upon
the bed of the lake by a broad green stripe reflected th
the water, and upon the shore by parallel = of the
enclosing rock, which constitutes the matrix of the ore.
He further represents that this peninsula rises into conical
mountains of considerable elevation, and that the strata fre-
quently. show themselves. in precipitous cliffs upon the wa-
ter’s edge. From the specimens of this formation which
lie before me, and the best information I have
procure, I am led to conclude that the entire peninsula con-
sists of a spine of granite, with sandstones, a
secondary trap deposited around its base. t, red-
dish brown, ferruginous rock, which ps in con
with the ore, is probably allied to the former strata. No
experiment has been made to determine the quality of the
ore. It appears from external characters, to be the com-

pact Malachite of authors ‘which is stated generally to yield,
at sani mines of Cornwall and Saxon aay fifty-six to sev-
enty percent, of oxid of copper, the cinder ating chief-

46 Schoolcraft on ihe Copper of Lake Superior.

ly carbonic acid and water. It is consequently among the
number of the ores of this metal that are most profitably
wrought in the large way. Should you entertain a wish to
place a portion of the ore transmitted in the hands of a chem-
ist for the purpose of analysis, I take the liberty to suggest
that the envelope containing the small granulated masses,
would probably afford the fairest test.
t may be pertinent to add to the foregoing remarks, that
I have succeeded in the course of the present season, in
procuring from lake Superior, a mass of native copper
weighing forty-two pounds, which is very pure and mallea-
, and contains small points of native silver! This mass
is from the waters of the Ontonnagon, but it is no part of
the great mass formerly described.
HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
U.S. Indian Agent, resident at St. Mary’s.
Hon, John C. Calhoun Secretary of War.

Localities of Minerals.

_ Sulphate of Strontian—Presque Isle, on the Maumee
river, Wood C ; Ohio. This locality is the site ‘of
Wayne’s celebrated victory over the confederated Indians
in 1794. The Maumee river here washes a rocky shore,
surmounted by a grove of oaks, with an extensive prairie
back of it. ‘The crystals of Strontian are plentifully inn-
bedded in the rocky bank of the river, which is a compact
limestone, similar, in its characters, to that which pervades
the shores of lake Erie. It is about 40 miles south of the
noted locality of this mineral upon “Strontian Island,” ‘and
indicates how extensively this substance is distributed
through that section of country. There is nothing peculiar
in the forms of the crystals found at this place, or other
characters, unless it is a tendency in the colour of all the
specimens observed, to assume a full sky blue. Some of
crystals contain other crystals of calcareous spar im-
bedded. {{ first visited this locality in July, 1821. I bave
also in my posession a nodular mass of limestone from the
north shore of lake Huron, having impressions of the ma-
spore upon its surface, which, on being broken upon one
end, disclosed radiated crystals of Sulphate of strontian,
in connexion with, and shooting into, limpid masses of folia+

Schoolcraft’s Localities. 47

ted gypsum. This mass is about 9 inches in diameter, and
the cnaenn merely forms a crust around the aggregated
mass of crystals.

alcareous Spar.—Roche de Bout, on the Maumee ri-
ver, Wood County, Ohio. Imbedded in limestone, and
exhibiting its most common forms of crystalization. Fre-
quently in perfect dodecaedrons of a light yellow hue, Al-
59 massive and translucent. of a honey yellow colour, for-

sing a ae. te bend of the ri wi so esta oub his right, a le-

el prairie with a small Indian village upon its margin,
ope echieslghaeiaiapdiaamtaneion ns cao tees of
Love desiabciemaecioeeeaer ieee with forest a
small and recent growth. These cliffs are a cale:
more or less spongy or vesicular in their structure, and im-
bed, plentifully, fragments of shells, stems of vegetables,
leaves, and other remains. The external surface is some-
what blackened, by the weather, wo the fresh fracture dis-
closes a light grey, yellowish grey, or greyish white colour.
This is probably the newest rock formation between the
Ohio and the Mississippi rivers! How ciateiins it is, can-
ps ne stated. It disappears, or is hid below alluvial soil, as

the mouth of the Tippecanoe
a) us Gypsum.—N eekimenis,* or Genie Island, lake

Horo, Michigan Territory. This small island is situated

e miles distant from Michilimackinac, on the route to
Pe “Sault of St. Mary. The gypsum is imbedded in a kind
of loamy clay, which forms a pretty’ extensive: flat, upon
ihe south-eastern end of the island, which has so little ele+
vation above the water, that it is partially inundated during
the prevalence of certain winds. The masses are detach-
ed. Sometimes the fibres are 4 or iebonds long, and pos-
sess a pearly white Where e to the air,
are somewhat decayed, and broken down. This gypsum
is associated with a gray a variety, imbedding small

#T he nam, eee ee) ee 1

to if.
—- = ¢

48 Schoolcraft’s Localities.

erystals of brown, or yellowish-brown foliated gypsum, va-
riously grouped.

Compact Gypsum.—At Sandusky Bay, Ohio. This
gypsum forms a continuous stratum extending horizontally,
from the flat shore of the lake, near the Light House, into
the bed of lake Erie. It is situated so low as to be entire-
ly covered by the water during the prevalence of easterly
winds. It is of a uniform white colour, with a fine close
grain, and its surface presents very minute glimmering fo-
lia. It yieldseasily to the knife, or can be turned in a lathe,
and is sometimes so compact and hard as to take a polish.
These varieties may be considered a gypseous alabaster.
Some attempts have been made to convert this material in-
to inkstands, and other utensils. It has also been ground
for agricultural purposes, and if found to answer expecta-
tion, may become an article in the commerce of the Lake.

Smoky Quartz.—At point Keewiiweenon,* Lake Supe-
rior, M. T. In a crystaline mass, associated with ame-
thyst. This mass separates with a blow of the hammer,
falling into innumerable translucent, dull crystals deeply
striated across the lateral , and inated
by smooth six sided pyramids. The colour is not equally
intense, but often appears in clouds, and is sometimes in-
termingled with the violet hue of the amethyst.

Amethyst—With the preceding. Its colour passes from
violet to purple, and is seldom uniformly diffused. It is in-
timately counected with the preceding variety, and the
colours so mingled, in some pieces, as to make it difficult to
determine to which subspecies they ought to be referred.

‘say subspecies, because, it would seem, from this connex-
ion, that the former is entitled to that destinction as well as
the latter !

Greasy Quariz.—At the Sauit de Ste. Marie, County of
Michilimackinac,Mich.Ter. In detached fragments, white,
opaque, laminated, and possessing the peculiar fatty lustre.

Mil artz.—With the preceding. | Neither of these
varieties has been traced in situ. I suppose them to be-

to the primitive ranges along the north shores of lake
perior.

~

*Called Keweena in my Nar. Jour. and upon the maps of Sir Alex. Ma-
Kenzie. Theabove pronunciation is taken from the Chippewa Indians
who inhabit the country. The double vowels are caleulated to convey
their long sounds.

Schoolcraft’s Localities. 49

_ Chalcedony.—At Point. Keewiiweenony Lake Superior,
imbedded in Amygdaloid, in globular masses from the size
of an ounce ball to that of a hen’s egg. Also, very plenti-
fully, along the shore, more or less abraded.

Agate.—With the preceding. Imbedded, or detached.
All the specimens which I have obtained from this place are
Onyx agates, consisting of parallel stripes of variously col-
oured chalcedony, jasper, hornstone or quartz. They va-
ry in size from small nodules, to that of a 32 pound shot.
When broken from the rock they present a uniform dull
brick red surface, which is worn off from the masses tbat lie
along the shore. I possess the fragments of a single speci-
men; that was probably 5 inches in diameter, in. which the
outer layer, which is ,4,ths of an inch broad, is a light vio-
let coloured umethyst. ) vasteses}

Mica.—This substance is so generally wanting in the
granitic rocks of this region, that 1 -had-doubted whether

Gihite

a ne: read

It exists, however, in the granite of the Porcupi
tains of lake Superior, in large folia, of a silvery and some-
what pearly hue. The specimens brought to me from
those mountains, in the course of tbis season, are connect-

r

loose masses along the banks of the river. It assumes vari-

‘us imitative forms. © H.R. S.
J uly, 1823,

Ant. 1V.—Localities of minerals, communicated by Dr.
| ELAM Meape. ;
Philadelphia, April 9, 1823.
Sir,
Having made an extensive tour last Summerto the East-
ward, particularly in the States of Connecticut and Massa-
Vou. VILL—No. 1. Ss

50 Dr. Mead’s Localities of Minerals.

chusetts, 1 had an opportunity of examining the Mineral-

ogy of some districts which have hitherto escaped notice.

If the observations which I have drawn up on this: subject

are sufficiently interesting to deserve a place in your Jour-
nal, they are much at your service.

ours very respectfully,

MEADE.

Pror. SInuiman.

On visiting Worcester, Massachusetts, I met with a Spe-
cimen in the Cabinet of William Lincoln, jun. Esq. which
attracted my notice. This promising Mineralogist was po-
lite enough to accompany me to the place where it was ob-
tained, and where | procured sufficient to ascertain that it
was Vesuvian or Idocrase of Haiiy. The Character of it
is as follows.

t occurs in Groupes and in Cavities, seldom imbedded,
massive or crystalized; form, a short rectangular four sided
Prism, more or less truncated on the lateral edges so that
some of the crystals are distinctly eight sided. The ter-

deeply striated so as to resemble the Egerine of Werner.
Colour brown, lustre brilliant, translucid, some of the
crystals are imperfectly transparent, about the hardness of
quartz, easily fusible with intumescence into a transparent
glass. It is accompanied by small pale green crystals of py-
roxene, and beautiful smal] garnets of a wine yellow colour,
crystalized in rhomboidal dodecahedrons. The matrix of
all these appears to be a compound rock containing a mix-
ture of massive Garnet,Pyroxene, and Idocrase. The Cay-
ities are lined with Calcareous Spar in which the crystals of
Idocrase of about one fourth of an inch in length appear to
be set; by submitting the Carbonate of Lime to the action
of dilute Nitric acid, beautiful and distinct Crystals of Ido-
crase and of Garnet can be obtained.

cavities and leaves the crystals unaltered; this is very
much the case with respect to other minerals particularly

Dr. Meade’s Localities of Minerats 51

the Macle or Chiastolite of Stirling and the staurotide
at Northampton and Winthrop, where fine Crystals can on-
ly be procured by long exposure of the Matrix to the action
of the Atmosphere.

Though Vesuvian or Idocrase is generally found in Vol-
eanic Rocks and has been at one time supposed to be pe-
culiar to them, yet it is now well ascertained that it occurs
in primitive Rocks also in Norway, Piedmont, and other
places. There can be no question with respect to the
primitive formation in which these specimens are found
near Worcester, but as I believe it is the first instance
where it has been observed in this Country it is worth no-
tice. A mineral of a green colour has been observed at
Franklin near Sparta, which some Mineralogists here have
talle be

ra

in his admirable memoir on the mineralogy of Sparta, the
first which has appeared on the subject, takes notice of
this but calls it epidote though resembling Idocrase.
Proceeding from Worcester towards Boston | was indu-
eed to deviate from the direct road in order to visit Stir-

The crystals which are some inches in length, are im-
bedded in a dark bluish argillite, and would escape notice,
except where the terminations of them appear on the sur-
face where the schist has been weathered. It is only by
dividing the slate across its natural fracture or cleay-
age that the real structure of the Prism can be demon-
strated. When a transverse section of the schist is thus

52 Dr. Meade’s Localities of Minerals.

made and the surface polished many varieties of crystaliza-
tion may be exposed to view.

Within about eight miles of Stirling on the Boston road
in the town of Bolton a very remarkable limestone quarry
has been worked for some years, chiefly for the purpose of
making lime for which it is well qualified; it is little noti-
ced as it lies off the road and is very limited in its extent
shewing itself only on the surface of a ledge occupying a
few acres of land; it is a large grained white marble similar
to that of Kingsbridge and New Milford, imbedded in
gneiss and appears to be connected with that extensive
deposit of granular limestone which accompanies the prim-
itive formation from the Hudson through the Western
parts of the New-England States to Canada. Wherever
this deposit of primitive limestone has been examined it
assumes nearly the same character and is accompanied by
the same class of minerals more or less interesting from
their variety.

At Bolton the first mineral which attracted my attention
was augite, pyroxene of Haiiy, it occurs sometimes in sin-
gle crystals half an inch long imbedded in the granular
limestone which so loosely invests them that the crystals
fall out when the stone is broken: frequently howeverthese
crystals are observed in considerable groups firmly set
on one end in particular, the other end of which is always
terminated and can be easily examined. These crystals
which are from a very minute size to that of half an inch
long, are in the form of four sided prisms truncated on
their lateral edges, and terminated by four sided summits
whose faces correspond with the alternate lateral edges.
Colourdark green on the surface though sometimes near-
ly white in the centre; when the crystals are small they are
of a lighter green and translucid: it is fused with difficulty
by the blowpipe into a brown scoria. Some of the crys-
tals have*a very interesting appearance, they are dark
brown of an oily lustre, and have a bronze surface some-
what chatoyant so as to resemble extremely the description
given of the elaolite or fettstein, which as far as I know has
not as yet been observed crystalized : however as Haiiy
considers both scapolite and elaolite as only varieties of
pyroxene, J see no reason why this mineral should not be
so distmguished, though I will not take it upon me to as-
sert it without farther observation.—Associated with these

£
= Dr. Meade’s Localities of Minerals. 53

minerals I have also noticed the titane siliceo-calcaire or
sphene; it occurs disseminated in the granular limestone in
irregular grains as well as beautifully crystalized; the form
of the — are rhomboidal prisms ‘with diedral summits
similar to t which are found accompanying the py
ene both at Pideudanigs and at Sparta, but the *colour is
darker being a clove brown with a fine metallic lustre. —
Fine specimens of tremolite are also found here mtimately
mixed with the carbonat of lime; it is in large and distinet
crystals, structure foliated, of a pearl white colour and sil-
ky lustre, mghly phosphorescent either by heat or friction.
Intersecting the limestone at Bolton lie beds of white
quartz as at Kingsbridge: imbedded in this quartz rock pom
specimens of scapolite are to be found; it occurs massi
a a ee part of the rock, in distinct ies
pneiicis 3 rystalized ; colour pearl white, | the crystals
Uh t, their form

fe esemne? gee 1, the two lateral. edges of which are i
clined at angles of. 93, and the other two at angles of 8’
the lateral edges are generally truncated by planes which
form with the corresponding sides of the prism angles
of 133, fracture foliated, cross fracture fine grained, and
uneven, sufficiently hard to scratch glass, easily frangible,
phosphoresces slightly on hot coals, fuses before the blow-
pipe with intumescence into a white enamel, some of the
crystals are from one to two inches in length, and half an
inch in diameter, ri are slightly streaked Jongitudinally,
and have been at sight mistaken for white beryl, but
their crystaline aa has on examination no resemblance,
indeed the character of scapolite is strongly marked in the
appearance of many of the specimens which consist of
groupes of acicular crystals aggregated into thick per
composed of parallel or diverging fibres. The c tals
are imbedded in a friable vitreous quartz, and can be ose
ly dissected from their matrix in which they are rather
loosely invested ; by this means groupes of large and dis-
tinct crystals can be obtained. Itdoes not appear that there
is much difference between scapolite and augite either in
their chymical characters or crystaline form; indeed Haiiy
considers scapolite and elaolite as only varieties of pyrox-
ene: the most distinguishing character that I perceive is,
that scapolite is ealy fusible into a white enamel, ‘while
the augite is very infusible before the blowpipe; this shows

»

54 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerais.

a striking difference between what is called the white py-
roxene of Kingsbridge and the common augite, as the
Kingsbridge augite is as fusible as the scapolite of Bolton,
which would rather induce us to place this variety of py-
roxene with the scapolites which in many other respects it
resembles,

Before | conclude it may not be quite uninteresting to
inform you that while on a visit to Chesterfield, Massachu-
setts, [ had.an opportunity of seeing a fine specimen of the
- siliceous oxyd of manganese, which was obtained in that

nei urhood, but the precise locality | was unable to as-
certain, owing to an inadvertence of my companion in hav-
ing prematurely given an opinion of its value. I however
obtained a few specimens from the mass which was shown
me, which I shall describe as follows ; it is of a bright rose
red colour, and translucid, particularly at the edges, with
some lustre, structure rather granular, found in compact
masses accompanied with the gray oxyd, hard, scratches
glass, takes a fine polish and in this state constitutes a beau-
tiful mineral which is rather rare, found only in Sweden
in England, it isso exactly similar to specimens which
Ihave from Devonshire that it is impossible to distinguish
the difference. W. M.

Art. V.—Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals.
Notice of Fluor Spar by Tuomas H. Were.

“ Since writing you, I have had the pleasure of being able
to trace out the new locality of Fluor.* It is situated in
Cumberland, about one mile beyond Diamond Hill, on the
direct toWrentham. Itis found at a number of differ-
ent places. At one it is imbedded in a vein of quartz tra-
versing a granitic or sienitic rock, and at another it is found
with quartz loose in the ground. The colours of the speci-
mens which I obtained are purple, blue of various shades,
from pale to indigo, blue with a tinge of green, and white.

hey all, (with the exception of the white,) appear of a
beautiful purple when viewed by candle light.”

'* For another locality of Fluor, in Sekonk, Mass. ommunicat ;
Webb, See Jour. Sei. v. iv,p. 52° eu ee eee

Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. 55

New Localities of Tourmalines and Tale.—Extract froma
letter to the Editor.

of an inch in length ; from this they are of all sizes down-
wards to that of nearly the smallest grain, : but still are regu-
larwell defined crystals, as may be easily ascertained by the
aid of a magnifying glass.

e tale differs from any that [have ever heard mentioned
or seen described. Thissingular variety is from near Worces-
ter, Mass. The mass has a brownish cast and is com 3
two The one is compact, of a at Bates and yellow-
ish colour, constituting the base ; the other is in thin
of a yellowish and blackish cast, and resembles mica very
much in appearance. It exhales an argillaceous odour up-
on being moistened. When pulverized it seems to consist of
a yellowish powder interspersed with small shining laminz.
If subjected to the flame of a blowpipe, or that of a common
lamp, it expands and shoots out into a variety of fanciful
forms, resembling most generally small worms having the
vermicular motion exact. It sometimes expands with such
force as to be thrown some distance. These vermiform
remnants are composed of small irregular scales, loosely
adhering to each other, having a silvery white appearance
and metallic lustre.

If this proves to be a new variety, would it not be better
in giving it a distinctive appellation to select one that will
indicate the peculiar property it Ses, than to
use of an arbitrary name. | term it Vermiculite (worm bree- —
der) from Vermiculor, to breed or produce worms.

THOMAS H. WEBB.”

56 Miscelianeous Localities of Minerais.
Coal, Gypsum and Baryies, by Honatio N. Fenn, M. D.
G N.Y.

eneseo, N.

. Small specimens of Coal, collected about eight miles
from Geneseo, The vein from which they were taken is
about six inches in width and half an inch thick. tis situated
in the face of a cliff fifty feet in height—composed of a
dark coloured, calcareous slate, which by friction emits a
fetid odour. ‘This cliff forms the boundary of a narrow
valley or Glen, through which flows a brook, bearing the
Indian name of Quisequagh. A considerable residuum is
lefi behind, after burning ; “but think it the best bituminous

‘coal 1 have seen in this part of the State.”

Foliaied gypsumof a rose colour. Several specimens were
found below the falis at Rochester, one of which is very
beautiful, It is composed of a bivalve shell, resembling
that of the common round clam, the inside of which is com-
pletely filled with sulphate of Lime of a beautiful rose red.

Nodular Sulphate of Barytes, from the bed of the Gene-
see river, afew miles below Rochester. _The Nodules are
e din red sandstone, and externally have the gene-
ral appearance of agates. je

Sulphur in Granite.
Extract of a letter from Mr. Ropert Mair, dated

Sramrorp, (Con.) Aug. 25, 1823.
“ A few days since, a stone of a curious nature, nearly
the size of a bushel, was broken to pieces. 1 procured a
w specimens, which I send you. The minuter fragments
were taken from the center of the stone; the larger shew
the outward appearance. — ;
he people in the vicinity imagine it fell from a thunder
eloud. The hill on which it was found they have already
named Brimstone Hill.”

Note. The specimens above alluded to are granite, in-
closing sulphur. As far as can be judged from them, the
stone was originally a small bowlder of granite, inclosing a
collection (geode) of crystals of iron pyrites. The granite

3

Miscellaneous Localities of Minerais. 57

is fine grained, with but little mica, except in some veins,
which seem almost completely formed of it—feldspar white,
quartz limpid, with a bluish tint. Part of the granite re-
tains its a colours, but the greater part is deeply stain-

brown yellow, with oxide of iron. Some points of
it are ofa. Senta! pink colour, as if stained: with manga-
nese. e minuter fragments consist of the quartz and

felspar, covered with delicate incrustations of: minute crys-
tals of sulphur, having the appearance of su ted
-phur. The sulphur is sometimes pale yellow, but has most-
ly a greenish tinge—much of the sulphur came to hand in
the state of powder full of crystals of wron pyrites, from the
size ofa pea down to the minutest grains. The explana-
tion of this appearance seems easy—the centre of the gran-
ite probally formed a geode, lined or filled with pyrites.

a taneous decomposition, attended with the extri-
cation of heat, ars sulphur ‘was. sublimated, and the iron
converted into oxide has stained the stone

This apparently ubimportant fact t may “have no little
weight in settling the question of the origin of volcanoes.
It may have been only on a very small scale, what Alma
is in the large way. o2G. BP

Localities of Minerals near West-Point, from Dr. Cutbush.

— of Molybdenum, in granite and gneiss,’ West-
Point, and Constitution Island, opposite the Point.

Kalin, from decomposed feldspar, accompanying quartz.
West-Poin

Trenalite, glassy and fibrous, or aavereiort, in sienite.

‘est

Schorl in granite. -West-Point.

Adularia in granite rock. _West-Poin

Coccolite, Feet! Putnam, West-Poin, in wager This
mineral I observed atais two years sin

Garnets, common in gneiss, and jetbedded’ in mica slate.
care t

Precious Serpentine, Putnam County. This is Sietks-
bly elegant The locality was first observed oe ge

ouglass.

Glassy Actynolite. Vicinity ns West-Point

Magnetic iron ore. Constitut

Vol. VIL—No. 1

Lie

58 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals,

Epidote. West-Point.

Stliceous schistus and Lydian stone. West-Point.

Dialiage, more or less metalloidal. West Point.

Ferruginous sand, and some specimens resembling de-
composed greywacke, containing organic remains, such as
the chamite, cochlite, gryphite, musculite, ostracite, pecti-
nite, terebratulite ; and about four miles from here, to-
wards Newburg, where the secondary formation commen-
ces, we find orthoceratites imbedded in gr ke. The
former, containing organic remains, has been found a few
feet below the surface of the level of West-Point.

Localities of Minerals, by Dr. Jacon Porrer.

Radiated Zeolite, at Livingston, New-Jersey.
Red Oxide of Titanium, at Cummington, Massachusetts.
Sulphuret of Molybdena, at Chesterfield, Massachusetts.

Localities of Minerals, by Prof. F. Hauu, Middlebury, V1.

Ammonite, or Cornu Ammonis, on the surface of secon-
dary limestone, in several places, in the vicinity of the for-
tifications on Crownpoint, N. ¥. They are from half an
inch to two inches in diameter ; are very frangible, and can-
not be detached, entire, from the rocks, without a mallet
and chisel.

Massive Garnet, containing magnetic oxide of iron, erys-
talized in regalar octaedrons, which are about the size of
a large pea, and of a brilliant, steel gray colour. Chester,

Red Sandstone, between the village of St. Albans and lake
Champlain, where are extensive quarries of it. It is used.
by the inhabitants of St. Albans as a building stone.

Steatite, of a very excellent quality, Fletcher, Vt.

Epidote, crystalized and massive, Middlebury, Vt.

uh he crystals are small, of a light green colour, and stri-
ated.
Epidote, filling cavities in a stone, which appears to be
quartzeous.
In some instances, the Epidote forms only the lining of
the cavity, leaving a smaller cavity in the Epidote itself.—
This Epidote is all amorphous, and of a lamellar structure.

Roxbury Rocking Stone. 59

Epidote, massive and in crystals, Chester, Vt. This is
connected with hornblende, some parts of which are in very
beautiful crystals, grouped together in a form resembling a
sheaf of wheat.

Hornblende Slate, on the turnpike road, one mile south
of Proctorsville, Cavendish, Vt.

Marble, wrought at Swanton, Vt. of two kinds. The
one is black, and is brought principally from Missisque
Bay, within the Canadian territory, The other, which is
dove-coloured, occurs about one mile south of Swanton
village ; in which village is a large establishment for sawing
and polishing this substance. Both kinds are susceptible of
an excellent polish, and are manufactured into tombstones,
chimney-pieces, window-caps, &c. &c.; and the marble is
transported, for sale, to Montreal, Quebec, Boston, New-
York, and various other places.

Quartz, Mount-Holly, Georgia; Middlebury, and
Chester, Vt. as

Favosite, Champlain, N. Y. ee

Fluate of Lime, a few rods below the bridge, Bellows-
Falls. Also one mile N. W. of the Falls. It is green, not
crystalized, in quartz. Rock crystal is very abundant in

same locality. The Fluate of Lime, at this place, was
discovered by Mr. Hezekiah M. Wells.

Art. VI.—/ccount of the Roxbury Rocking Stone, ex-
tracted from letters to the Editor by J. Porter, H.U.
Cambridge, and T. H. Wess, Providence, R. I.

This moveable rock is situated in erst Mass. about
one mile, nearly south from Dr. Porter’s eeting-House,
and about three fourths of a mile east of the Dedham turn-
pike ; about one and an half mile south of the Boston line,
and about five miles from Cambridge. It is easy of access,
and stands with a majestic aspect, on an eminence in an
open field; but it is not seen from the street, which passes
within a few rods, on account of intervening trees. It is
composed of the rele Stroe or Puddingstone, so predomi-

eight to sixteen feet from the earth in- which it is imbedded.
Itis oblong and very irregular, but resembles an egg in its

60 Roxbury Rocking Stone.

general outline. Upon the north eastern side the lower
some resemblance to a shoe.

Mr. W. observes, “ the lower side, on the East, is arched
_ from the middle to the northern end, where in descending
it terminates ina short rounded projection, upon which ‘this
end is supported, as may be seen in the N. E. view :* from
the middle to the southern end, itis nearly upon a straight
line; the point upon which this end rests is not so evident
as the other. It is marked by the letter A in the N. Ey
view The average elevation from the lower rock, on the
east, is about an inch and a half. On the west the lower side
is gradually elevated from the northern to the southern end;
where it is raised a footand a half from the supporting rock.
On the western side of the northern end the weightiest part
is at the bottom, but on the eastern side at the top.”

By a line drawn around it, from end to end, Mr. P. found
its largest circumference to be thirty seven feet and four
inches ; its smallest twenty feet and eight inches. From its
irregularity, he could not obtain its cubie dimensions with ac-
curacy ; but concluded that it was equal:to-a regular solid of

teen feet in length, six in breadth, and six in thickness ;

quivalent to five hundred and forty cubic feet. A small stone
of a regular form composed of the same ingredients as the
moveable stone, and containing by admeasurement thirty six
cube inches, he found to weigh four pounds ; which is atthe
rete of one hundred and ninety two pounds the cubic foot.
Consequently, the weight of the rocking stone is one hundred
aud three thousand, six hundred and eighty pounds, or forty
six tonsand upwards. A child sixyears of age can easily move
it with one hand, and any adult person with a single finger ;
indeed Mr. P. could move it very perceptibly with the little

Mr. W

_ When set in motion, it vibrates. nearly a minute before
it Becomes poised in its accustomed situation. I have no
doudt, says jr. P. that it is agitated by every strong wind,

x » oe® See Plated. Figs 4, ba: 7

Plants from Alabama, 6)

of it; for one of its faces exactly orb to a face ex-
atter has a seam in

— sufficient to raise about twenty tons of its weight.
0 commanding position can be selected so-as to see the

his rock has been noticed in the neighbourhood for at
Jeast six years, but although in an field, in the imme-

diate vicinity of Boston and Cambridge, it has hitherto at-
tracted very little attention among the lovers of curiosities.
No account of it has been hitherto published, as far as our
information extends.

** These rocks,’”” Mr. W. observes, “ are not so. rare as
has been generally supposed. There was formerly one
upon the Salem turnpike road, which was so nicely poised,
that a child might move it. There are three at different

aces in the vicinity of Providence, all still moveable;
also one in Framingham, Mass. that was a few years since,
and probably still is moveable, and one in Foster, R. I.
about twenty two miles from Providence.”

BOTANY.

e ot 3 ak
of SEE

scence
Arr. VII.—Notice as four new species collected in Alabama;
y M. C. Leavenworth. ‘
Acacia Lut«.:—Inermis, glabra. Foliis bipinnatis; Par-
tialibus numerosissimis, lineari-oblongis. Spici sub-
bo-is, solitariis. Pedunculis axillaribus, longissimis:
gumine magno, obovato. Bee

62 Plants from Alabama.

_This plant is found in company with the A Glandulosa ia
the prairies* of Green county,Alabama. In habit it conside-
rably resembles the Schrankia Uncinata, for which it might
be mistaken by a superficial observer, when not in flower ;
flowers golden yellow ; stamens, longer than the corol+
la, ten in number; peduncles about an inch and a half in
length ; first found in August, probably in flower also in the
month of July.

Dentarta Dissecta.—Glabra, erecta. Caule, foliis duo-
busmultifidis ; laciniis linearibus : floribus racemosis.
: in h; about

height,
slender. Leaves many — segments three fourths of an
inch in length, perfectly linear. Flowers in long slender

racemes which are somewhat secund; flowers of a middl

size, purplish ; found in the Cherokee country,

Sitrene Axriuaris.—Viscosa, pubescens. Caule ra
Foliis ovalibus, subdentatis, petiolatis. Floribus sessili-
bus, solitariis, axillaribus.

Found in the prairies of Green county Alabama, August.
In general habit considerably resembling the Cuphea. About
eight inches in height, stem much branched, leaves ovate
acute at the base, flowers purple.

re ;
black, very adhesive when wet, covered with luxuriant grasses, and in the
n, with a ion of gay ‘8. There is

composes. There is a great iency of water, particularly in dry seasons,
and what there is of it, is very bad. e limestene rock has not been perfe-
rated even at the depth of three hundred feet. '

Doct. Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie. 63

Carpamine Untrtora.—Well described by Pursh and
Mich. Omitted by Nuttal, probably as doubtful, or per-
haps inadvertently. Found in the rocky Prairies of Jeffer-
son County, Alabama, in March.

ZOOLOGY.

HERPETOLOGY.

Art. VIII.—Observations on several Reptiles of North-
} the family of Proteus.

jesty Francis Emperor of Austria, and director of the
Imperial Museum of natural history, &c. ; dated New-
3

(Read before the New-York Lyceum, June 9, 1823.)

Sir,

[ have long ago acknowledged the receipt of your letter
Ain 17th September, 1821,by the handof the con-
sul Baron

The creature I mean, is that which the white fishermea
have called by the vulgar name of Hell-bender, and the In-
dians Tweeg. It is surely aquatic ; but can live, it is said,
twenty-four hours out of the water. univalve
molluscas ; for on dissecting one of them, | found several

64 Dr. Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie.

individuals of the lymnza heterostropha in the mouth.
Within the mouth too was a crustaceous inhabitant, of the
oniscus family, a cymothoa with fourteen hooked feet, and
a pair of antenne. Often takes the bait employed to al-
lure the silures and other fishes, and is catched by the
k. One of those I possessed was taken in this way.
Swims or creeps with a slow and serpentine motion along
the bottom, in which he is assisted very much by his broad,
compressed and vertical tail. Acquires the length of from
12 to 18 inches, or even more. — Is often killed by the gig
and spear. Though the flesh is white and resembles that
ofthe cat fish and eel, it is never eaten, there being a
strong prejudice against it. Under an unfounded opinion
that the creature 1s venomous, it is beheld with a sort of
abhorrence, and thrown away. The general appearance
is thick, chubby and clumsy.
‘Skin slimy, spotted and scaleless. Tie spots during
life resembling those of the brook trout or salmo fontina-
iS. e mouth armed with two sets of pointed and some-
what curved teeth in the upper jaw, and with one set of
similar sharp, uniform and pointed instruments in the lower.
Tail surrounded by a skinny film or rim, but without the
rays which distinguish the caudal and other fins of fish.

Four legs, each ending in four toes- without claws.

Three tufts or bunches, appearing to be gills or branchie
on each side of the neck, supported by the three branchial
arches, between which there are two openings or slits, a
parently for the transmission of water. [hese seem to be
respiratory organs ; and as far us the habits and manners of
the creature are known, endure through life.

Two air-sacs, reaching longitudinally from the pharynx or
throat, toward the vent, one on each side of the vertebral
column ; of such a constitution that they may be considered
as auxiliary organs of respiration, or as air-bags resembling

e vesica natatoria in fishes.

A persistent tail, flattened laterally, resembling in figure
the temporary tails of the tadpoles, or gyrini of frogs, and

Epemanest ones of the Water-Salamanders.

* With all these peculiarities of structure, 1 observed fur-
ther that the eyes were small, destitute of lids and covered
by the common integuments. Instructed by your commu-
nications, warranted by the near analogy which I

“a

Dr. Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie. 65

thought I perceived between my animal and yours, I ven-
tured to introduce my new acquaintance to the public asa
Proteus. ,

But there were difficulties in the execution of my wish to
procure his reception under that title. Other animals of the
same family, and supposed to belong to the same species
had been observed by several of my friends. Certain of
these gentlemen entertained ideas of classification different
from mine. Their sentiments on this point merited due re-
gard. Under these circumstances, 1 felt myself both wil-
ling and able to attempt a methodical distribution of these
animals which had caused so much perplexity, and embar-
rassment to zoologists.

-bender race belonged to one and the same species, it

has been represented that he was a TRITON.
ou know, that the T'riton has been latterly discon-
considered as

defines the Triton as having “ a body equal, cylindrically
round, somewhat verrucose, and scaleless ; tail compress-
ed and lance-shaped ; elegantly active in water.” He enu-

merates eleven species.
la Cepede in his valuable history of oviparous quad-
rupeds and serpents, vol. 2. p. 211, et seq. treats of Sala-
manders with flat tails, otherwise known as newts and water
or marsh lizar He affirms the females of this section to
e so different from the males as to have been regarded a
i Pe-

them were mistaken for males. He does not admit the
Mexican reptile, called Arolotl, to be any thing more than
a water Salamander. Triton and Proteus are not found in
his synoptical table. ee

he genus, however, is retained, you know, by Dume-
ril in his Zoologie Analytique, p. 94—5. Triton embraces
according to him all the species of water Salamanders. He
says ‘they lay eggs and live in the water, at least until the
time of their fecundation. The species seem to be very

Vor. VII.—No. 1. 9

-

66 Dr. Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie.

numerous ; of which fewhave been described. They have
been distributed under several heads; such as, 1. those
having the toes of the. hind feet intirely free and without
membranes; 2. those having the toes furnished with sepa-
rate or lobed membranes; and 3. such as have all the toes
united by a single membrane, or are palmated.”
he very animal before me, which has prompted this in-
quiry, has been called a Salamander. 'The late Professor
.S.. Barton, mentions him distinctly, in the second volume
p- 196 of his Medical and Physical Journal, published about
the year 1806, asa Salamander. As ,the species of this
genus are small reptiles, seldom exceeding five or six inch-
es in length, he proposed to call him Salamandra maxima,
or 5. g:gantea, the huge or gigantic S.; or from the dread
entertained of him by the fishermen, S. Horrida. . Cuvier
has placed him accordingly, on this authority, among the
Teno or Water Salamanders, in his Regne Animal, vol.
, p- 101. ;
The character given of Salamanders by this eminent
naturalist, is ‘that they have a lengthened body, four feet
and along tai!, giving them the general form of lizards; on
which account aaa left them in that genus. But they,
have all the characters of Batracians. Their head is flat-

the water. The fore feet are evolved sooner than the hinder.
+e toes grow on the one and on the other in succession.”

Dr. Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie. 67

‘Some creature, + te of the same family, has been
called a Siren. M. P. de Beauvois in the 4th volume of the
Philadelphia Philosophical transactions, has described an
aquatic four legged reptile, which he denominates the Oper-
culated Siren. The character of this latter genus among
other particulars, is to have but two feet, and these on the
fore part of the body. The animal described by this ob-
server having four feet, could not be a siren

My inhabitant of the North American Lakes, has so ma-
ny characters in common with yours a Carniola, that I feel
an inclination to consider him a Proteus. Among other
particulars, his two triple-bunches of eaten and persistent
gills; his two elongated, internal air bags; his four feet with
toes; and his vertical flat tail, all warrant this decision.
his spotted skin, flabby lips, and toes to the number of four
‘on each of the feet, might authorize me to bestow upon bim
a distinct name. I am averse to the unnecessary oa
tion of genera. Science has been injured by the liberty som
naturalists have indulged in constituting new ones when spe
cific distinctions would have answered a better purpose. By
some these innovations have been so wantonly introduced as
almost to threaten, in the end, the erection of every species
into a distinct genus
* If the definition by the discriminating Daudin in his ad-
mirable history of reptiles was a amended in one particular, it
would comprehend several sorts of creatures which now

arrass us exceedingly. His character of the Proteus is
that i it has an elongated body, with persistent gills. and four
legs with two toes on the foremost, and i on the hind-
most; with a tongue reseinbling that of a frog. Now, all
that is wanting is to strike out the number of the toes, and
to leave them unlimited. It will then include the creature
before me, and the other congeneric species. And th
modified, it will exclude the Crysadonta, Salamander and
Siren: the Triton havi ing no pretensions to be considered
‘ genus. The generic character I propose rire 8 this.

Proteus
Body ‘long and lacertine ; with a flat tail and branchial
—— both persistent; and four feet furnished with claws

n> *

68 Dr; Mitchill on the Proteus of Lake Erie.

Under the genus so modified and framed with logical pre-
cision, the following species seem, at least, as far as I can
comprehend them, to be capable of easy and natural dispo-
sition, to wit:

Species 1. The Proteus of New-Jersey ; with a whitish
body ; invisible nostrils; posterior feet five toed, anterior
four toed. Described by Professor Green in the Journal
of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, as the
P. Neo- Cesariensis, vol. 1.No. 13; and followed by the re-
marks of l'h. Say, in No. 14. Seems to be the same that
was described and figured in Philad. Philosoph. Trans. vol.
4, as the Operculated Siren.

Species 2. The Proteus of the Alleghany river, with a
black fillet passing from the nostrils through the eyes, dilat-
ing over the sides and becoming obsolete on the tail. Seems
to be the Triton Lateralis of Say ; and the animal descri-
bed by Dr. Edwin James in his account of major Long’s
expedition to the rocky mountains vol. i. p- 4-7, with a dis-
section by Professor Harlan. I refer to that instructive
note for the particulars. We must by further observation
determine whether the Lake Champlain reptile of Schnei-

i here.

» or where
pecies 3. The Proteus of the Lakes,—with spot

skin, flabby lips ; a duplicature of skin under the throat; large
fleshy head ; and broad flattish snout. This animal is men-
tioned by Barton as before quoted, for the huge or gigantie
Salamander; in which Cuvier bas followed him. Des-
cribed in my paper printed in the Amer. Journ. of Sci. as
herein mentioned.

To render the subject as plain as possible and to prevent
all difficulty in identifying the animal I mean, I annex draw-
ings of his external form, executed by Issachar Cozzens,
Jun. from nature. Fig. 1. Pl. 2. represents him as seen by 0
bird’s eye view, on the bottom of a Lake or River. F ig
2, exhibits him as beheld in a side view, after being raised
tom the water. And that another view may be given I add
a third figure thereof, (Fig. 3,) as delineated by John Neil-

son, Jun. M. D. during the display of the individual which
urgeon Delavan of the U.S. army brought me afew days

im. Governor Cass of Michigan, who informs me they
are Commonin Detroit river. In the dissection I was as
sisted by James E. Dekay, M. D. Corresponding Secretary,

Barnes on the Genus Chiton. 69

ceum. The notes and sketches we made, are re-
served for a future publication, after the arrival of other
specimens which measures have been taken to procure.
. Such is my present view of the manner in which these
several reptiles ought to be disposed in zoology :_ observin
at the same time that if they or any of them should hereaf-
ter be discovered to be gyrini, larve, or immature or im-
perfect beings, they must be referred to the genus of Sala-
mander, and not to the Tritons any further than this word
signifies the Salamander with a flat tail in the state of Larva.
n this attempt to disentangle an intricate subject, I have
had the anatomical description of the Larve of aquatic Sala-
manders by Dr. Mauro Ruconi, in his letter to Sign. Broc-
chi, constantly before me ; as also the monography, by the
same able observer and his friend, Professor Configliacchi
of Pavia, of the Proteus anguinus : together with their ele-
gant illustrations by coloured figures. =
MIG.» of TSigiiie. east. tists deigy flock.

- th eee pare

Art. I[X.—Description of five species of Chiton, by D. W.
Baryes, M. A. Member of the New-York Lyceum of
Natural History.

The rapid advancement of Natural History, in our coun-
try, during the last ten years, has been owing, i
considerable degree, to the zeal and liberality of gentlemen
attached to the Publick Service. Many of the officers, both
ofthe Army and the Navy, delight to gratify their friends
at home, by transmitting the products of their researches
abroad. Hence it results that specimens are aggregated, on
the spot, in greater abundance than they could be, ‘by the
most laborious journeys and extensive voyages, of any in-
dividual. Ore
Among the praiseworthy contributors, to the stock of our
knowledge, in Natural History, we mention, with pleasure,
Captain C. G. Ridgely of the U. S. Navy, who,
on his late return from the Pacifick Ocean in the Constel-
lation, brought as usual, his offering to science ; consist-
ing of a number of small marine animals, found attached to
the rocks, and collected by himself, on the coast of upper
Peru. The specimens, preserved in spirits, were preser-

70 Barnes on the Genus Chiton.

ted to Doctor Mitchill; who, with ry Se ee
liberality, transferred the: duplicates to the

Referred, as usual to a:‘committee for edairitnstion; they
prove to be five species of the genus Curron, three of which
are probably undescribed.

SPECIES.

1. Curron Macectanicus. Che tz:
Shell with a black dorsal band, edged ‘with yell

Hab. Coastof Peru. Capt. C. eT nse

2.Cuiton Srriatus. Fig. 1. Pl. 3.
Shell with eight finely eentek "valves, and the

~ Shell walang to its —- than Chiton

squamosus, which it resembles in the direction of the striz
Be marginal triangles, being striated transversely, and the
dorsal longitudinally, and the terminal valves radiated.
Strie' very fine, somewhat sumieid and interrupted.
Margin narrow, covered with small, round, shining,
ofauniform dark bronze colour. Specimen dark green}
in its dried state, cinereous : inside light bluish green.

3. Cniton Peruvianus. Lamarck. Fig. 2. PL3.

Shell with onda valves, margin thickly set with
black hairs, a fringe at each joint.

Hab. Coast of Peru. Capt. Ridgely.
"Tana 1.5 Breadth .75
binet of Dr. Mitchill.

Shell slightly siriihed: somewhat rough, cinereous, with @
tinge of red in the center. Margin thickly covered with
black or dark roan hairs, which, in the living specime®,
are nearly half an inch long ; and also a thin fringe or row

Barnes, on the Genus Chiton. 7t

of hairs between the valves, at each joint of the shell.
Hairs, in the dried specimen, very brittle.

New.York; to whom our thanks are due for the elegant
figures illustrating this paper.
4. Curron Nicer Fig. 3. Pl. 3.

Shell with eight concentrically striated valves:
and the margin furnished with elongated scales. © _

Hab. Coastof Peru. Capt. Ridgely.
Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill.
Length 2.5 inches. Breadth 1.0 exclusive of the margin.
readth 1.5 including the margin.

Shell oblong oval, intermediate valves oblong ; colour
black or dark brown ; surface shining ; margin half as broad
as the shell, coriaceous and furnished with elongated, red-
dish white scales, or irregular and interrupted longitudinal
ridges. Animal pale green.

Remarks.

This shell is fragil though not thin, and has a coarse rou
appearance caused by the erosion of the back part of the
valves; which are inhabited by a minute species of Lepes,
perhaps the Lepas strémia of Muller, and the Balan
verruca of Brugiére, having the shell white and the
operculum of only two valves.

5. Cuiton Ecurnatus. Fig. 4. Pl. 3.
Shell with eight valves covered with a rough,
green epidermis, ern broad,coriaceous and spiny. :
ab. Coast of Pere. Capt. Ridgely =~

72 Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics.

Cabinets of the Lyceum and Dr. Mitchill.
Length exclusive of the margin 2.6 Breadth 1.0
Length including the margin 3.0 Breadth 2.2
Shell oblong oval, coated with a coarse, green, rough
epidermis, closely adhering to the shell, and concealing the
whole, except a small part of the carinated center of the
back, in which the shell appears black, smooth and shin-
ing ; colour, under the epidermis and on the inside, pure
ivory white; margin more than half as broad as the shell,
thickly studded with unequal, irregular, white, round head-
ed spines. se ger pale green : inner margin lighter colour

than the animal.

Remarks. |
The spines are white, in the specimen figured, or white
with a black center: but the native colour is black or dark
amethystine, and the white is a calcarious accretion, which
appears to be a microscopick Cellepore.
ew-York, March 3, 1823.

< *

MATHEMATICS.

elite

.

Anr. X.—A Treatise of Mechanics, theoretical, practical’
and descriptive: by Ovintaus Grecory, LL. D.—3
vols. 8vo. London, 1815.

(Communicated.)

The science of mechanics, whether considered in its the-
ory as a subject of curious and refined speculations, caleu-
lated for the learned, ingenious, and contemplative, or in
practice as contributing to the conveniences and elegancies
of life, and the wealth of nations, may be ranked the first
and most important of all human acquirements. What

ord Bacon says of all true philosophy, is eminently appli-
cable to this branch of it, * that it enlarges the powers of
man, and extends his dominion in nature.” By it, her
most refractory and opposing powers have been subdued,

Review of O. Gregory's Treatise on Mechanics. 73

and some of her most potent agents have been converted
into auxiliaries for the aid and relief of man. 'To a nation
aspiring after wealth and greatness, or to individuals aiming
at the same, or the more important objects of mental en-
largement, what study, what art, or science, is more enti-
tled to encouragement, or ardent pursuit, than the science
of mechanics, both in theory and practice !

Our author, who has given us two closely printed octavo
volumes on this important subject, together with another of
plates, has certainly been happy in the selection of a sub-
Jeet, which is worthy of the attention of the learned through-
out the world. |The theory of mechanics he considers as
having been little attended to in England, a country which
has n almost the cradle of the science, and which under

: ‘genius of Newton has afforded it, almost its
whole vigor and expansion. Since his time, however, he
thinks. the dieve'tha lanratintes and are behind their neigh-
bour he continent, in many important particulars —
Among these, he accounts their neglect of the analysis of
their great countryman, which foreigners have seized, and
applied, with great success, to the development of many
valuable principles. Without the conjunction of theory and
practice, he thinks no one can be a complete mechanician,
and to deliver a system, which shall comprehend both, ‘is
his professed object. In what manner he has executed this
work, is our present purpose to show. .

Originality, in productions of a scientific character, which
are necessarily chained to principles fixed and immutable
as are the laws of nature, can be little expected. In that
now before us, which is intended to comprise whatever has
been discovered or investigated on the subject of mechan-
ics, it would be impossible even for Newton himself to be
more than partially original; yet our author sets out. with
an appearance of originali'y, and would have himself con-
sidered, if not the author, discoverer, and inventor of what
his book contains, at least entitled to some credit as such.
This, though & common artifice with book-makers, is un-
worthy of one who has indisputable pretensions to the very
highest attainments in science. In the introduction, he
says, “In the composition of the first volame, I have de-
rived material assistance from the labours of several of my
predecessors in this department of science.” Now, if there

Vor. VIE.—No. i 10

74. =Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics.

were any thing of consequence in this volume, which truly»

was his own, and not the property of others, such language
would be excusable. The fact however is, that the mate-
rials, and in many parts, the work itself, is a literal trans-
cript from the writings of others, and that we only see now
and then remarks, notes, or observations of the compiler.

This compilation then, for it cannot with truth be called
by any other name, should be estimated only by those
principles, which are requisite, and applicable, in works of,

is ki These are judgment in selecting, arrangement,
order and connexion of materials gathered from many dis-
cordant sources. On these principles we have graduated
our opinions in reviewing the present work.

The writers to whom our author is indebted for the first
volume of his treatise, are Franceeur, Prony, Poisson and
Bossut in French ; Newton, Emerson, Simpson, Hutton,
Martin, Young, Vince, Smeaton, and others in English ;
Gallileo and Frisi, in Italian, and Don Juan in Spanish. The
first sixty or seventy pages on Statics are a literal translation,
without the variation of any material point, from Franceeur
and Prony. The next following subjects on the mechani-
cal powers, and the strength and stress of materials are al-
most altogether from Emerson and Simpson; that on cords
and arches from Hutton. Thus the whole subject of Stat-
ies is an excerption from other writers, If we consider only
the subject matter, this is all well, and perhaps better than
if the compiler had attempted to treat it de novo, for he has
furnished abundant materials even for the most ambitious
student ; but there is a discordance in those materials, ill
calculated either for taste or improvement in science.—
Franceeur and Prony are diffuse and prolix, and though
lucid and explanator

rary

igher branches of science, even though intended for begin-
ners. In proportion as we attenuate a subject by minute de-
tails, we destroy its interest, and something always should
remain for the exercise of the student’s own powers of

wae

Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics. 75

investigation. The whole subject of the reduction of for-
ces to rectangular co-ordinates, and the formulas dependant
on it, is only a simple corollary from Newton’s laws of mo-
tion; and all that is said of parallel forces is but a corollary
of oblique forces acting at a poi

In the preliminary remarks, the author says that vis iner-
tie is improperly called a force, “* because if it were a force
it would be of some definite quantity in a given body, and
an impressed force less than that would not move the body;

whereas any impressed force, however small, will move

we fix the idea of agent, or patient to either of them. — ‘o
destroy motion, requires the same force as to produce it;

y the bo.iy, which was at rest, the one may as properly be
said to be a force as the other; both bodies are inert, and

tion, even by the least force, as its adequate effect ; and the
quantity of motion produced,or the magnitude of the change,
is the true measure of that force, considered either as act-
ing or resisting. This force, though not constant, is defi-

ite, and is used in mechanics as the measure of force gen-
erally, This is sai rtant an axiom in the science, that
it is astonishing that the author should doubt of its certainty.

16 Review of OQ. Gregory’s Treatise on’ Mechanics.

If F be put for the force, M the mass, or number of parti- —
cles in a body, and V its velocity, then is Fa MV, and
Vo. If V be constant, then is F proportional to M, the
mass; but why is it so, unless it be by the inertia, or the
greater force of a greater mass? If M be indefinitely small,
and F be constant, then is V indefinitely great, or if the
mass or inertia be nothing, the velocity would be indefinite-
ly great, so that if there were not in matter a force of iner-
tia proportional to its mass, the least force would cause ®
body on which it acts. to move with an infinite velocity;
but that it is not infinite, and that the velocity is modified to
a definite quantity in the inverse ratio of the mass, is wholly
the effect of the force of inertia.

After delivering Newton’s three Jaws of motion, the au-
thor goes into long arguments @ priori, and @ posteriori, to
prove their validity. Now nothing can be more obvious,

mental principle is advanced, that the resultant of two equal
forces, acting at a point, bisects the angle, which the direc-
tions of the forces make with one another. No proof is
given of this, but the Leibnitzean, and metaphysical one of
the sufficient reason. It ought either to be proved directly,
or by the reductio ad absurdum, or assumed as an axiom
or intuitive truth, not susceptible of demonstration.
same objection lies against another fundamental proposition,
in oe

- a

m Art. 38, which is not attempted to be proved, though it
is made the basis of the succeeding proposition, intended
to demonstrate the parallelogram of forces

. This demonstration, if it may so be called, appears to be
compounded, of what had been done by D’Alembert and
others, by the analytical and far-fetched method of the
moderns, which, however valuable in itself, is certainly de-

Review of O. Gregory's Treatise on Mechanics. 7%

ception even by mathematicians, and wholly unintelligible
to. rs. Such are all those pretended demonstrations
by the differential calculus, generally used by the continen-
tal mathematicians of Europe, and now wit j

attempted to be introduced among the English population
throughout the world. To us there appears as much of
sanity in this new fangled mathematics for demonstrations,
as in endeavouring to lay the foundation of a structure.at its
top, or to prove obvious truths by deductions from those
which are the most remote and recondite. It was against

78 Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics.

and strictly fluxional, cannot indeed be reduced to the
Euclidean method of demonstration so much celebrated ;
but a great number of them may be illustrated, if not de-
monstrated, on principles depending on the common ge-
ometry, or those which are obvious, and universally re- .
ceived as incontrovertible. This is abundantly manifested
by what has been done by Simpson, and the more elegant
and profound Maclaurin. These remarks, though applica-
ble to the writings of some of the most celebrated modern
mathematicians, are more particularly so to those books
written. apparently more for the purpose of making a pa-
of science, than affording instruction to readers of the
common class. The spirit of ancient times, when difficult
arts were intentionally enveloped in mystery, has not
wholly evaporated at the present time. Even mathematt-
cians appear desirous of gaining celebrity and admiration
-by unnecessary and most elaborate extensions of the most
recondite, and to any besides themselves, the most myste-
rious and unintelligible part of their noble and favourite

to extend the knowledge of it, and of that branch of science
of which it treats, hitherto little cultivated in theory, in
this country, by an impartial analysis of that, which we
consider, on the whole, as the best, and by far the most

rofound treatise on the subject, which has appeared in
the English language.

It is not within the compass of our design, to select many
portions of this book which are most deserving of praise,
or liable to censure. Works of science should he estima-
ted by their effect on their ultimate objects, truth and
practical utility. We shall, therefore, in our remarks, be
confined chiefly to those parts of this production, which in-
volve principles, as being by far the most important to the
scientific reader.

_ In Art. 71, we have this proposition, “ If two parallel
forces act perpendicularly on a ee, line in the > 2 di-
rection, their resultant is parallel to them, acts in the same

lirection, is equal to their sum, and divides the line of ap-
plication into two parts, which are reciprocally proportion-

Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise ow Mechanics.

al to the components.” This proposition, though taken
from Francceur, and repeated by other French writers
venture to oppugn, as mathematically and physically in-
correct.

‘A force aeting perpendicularly on a mere mathematical
line, it is evident, can communicate no force to it, either
longitudinally, or laterally, except at the very point where
it acts: for the action, in such case, in the direction of
the line is nothing by the principles of mechanics, and no
other part of the line, admitting it to be cohesive, can be
affected by'a force at a distance from it, unless there be
some longitudinal action ; this can take place only when
the line is riot perpendicular to the direction of the force
acting on it, or when it is oblique to that direction 3 but it

di-
rection. Without the consideration of an oblique force, it
appears to us impossible to solve this problem, as its cons
ditions are evidently impossible. . ME wor

Bat supposing the line to be a physical quantity, or m
the practical sense, to have length, breadth, and_thick-
hess, each of which is of some definite quantity, in this
Case, it is no longer a line, but a material. b Y, possessing
the properties and dimensions of a solid. . If this. material
substance be of sufficient cohesive strength, parallel forces,
acting in the manner of the proposition on its ‘surface, will
Produce a lateral action, together witha lon itudinal ac-
tion, which, though the forces be unequal, at different dis-
tances, may counterbalance each other. . But it shouid be.

-

80 Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechames.

is that, which is fundamental in the demonstration of the
principle of the lever, and other mechanical powers, some
lustration of it may not be unacceptable to the reader.
- Let AB be a right
line, perpendicular to =
which two weights or | eee Snes '
Ages

=~

are supposed to act, ww
and to be kept in equilibrio by the reaction of the prop P,
the pressure on the prop would then be equal to the res
sultant of the two forces W,w. This supposed pressure
on the prop P, when AB has no thickness, or vertical di-
mension, or becomes a mere mathematical line, would ev-
idently be nothing; for the forces W, w, communicate no

CP, but the action of these is not in the direction AB, but
oblique to the parallel forces, and the equivalent or joint
action of all these cohesive forces will be represented in
direction by some oblique line, drawn to some point c,
from AB. Now in these directions are the weights W, w,
sustained by the cohesion of the bar at the line CP, and

Wx AP+Pe, and w x BP+Pc, whereof W xPctwx Pé;
are annihilated by the reaction of the prop, aud there re-

the resolved parts of the forces, viz. AP and BP,
which are in one continued line, be what was intended by
their action on a straight line, even in this sense the propo-
sition is incorrect ; for the forces in the direction of AP,
and BP do not act in the line AB, at P, but at ¢, and pre-
vent the bar from turning about the point P. 7

Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics. 81

the weight sustained by it, will be inversely proportional to
the length of the cord. |

ifferent forms. Considering the triteness, and tediousness
of this subject as handled by most writers on mechanics,
and that the author’s sole object must have been to select
om allof them, we think he has done this with aangmens
if we except the solutions in articles 118, 121; the first is
circuitous, formal, and prolix,and in the author’s usualsty le
elaborating every thing; the latter is erroneous either in

the premises. or conclusion; it is rather a jumble of two
different solutions. ;
Vol. VII.—No. 1. 11

$2 Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics.

» Chap. 4, treats of the mechanical powers, and contains
much useful, and interesting matter collected from differ-
ent sources. The definition of a machine “ that it is any
thing which serves to augment or regulate moving forces,”
would be more correct by the omission of the word aug-
ment. In what machine, has any augmentation of force, m
a mechanical sense, been produced? Estimating force as
we do, by the product of mass into velocity, or time the
reciprocal of the velocity, it will in all cases be diminished
by the intervention of a machine, on account of its friction
und the aerial resistance. The advantages of machines con-
sist in their capacity to alter the components of force, or
change their direction, or to change the magnitude of the
factors M, V, T, which compounded constitute the mea-
sure of force. Thus, when we have a great velocity, and
little mass, or weight, we may put in motion a great mass,
or raise a great weight, with velocities, however, in the
inverse ratio of the masses ; but the force, or product of ve-
locity into the mass, disregarding friction, &c. will always
be the same, so that, what we gain in mass or weight is lost
in velocity.

_ This and the following chapter, if they had not been too
much intermixed with unnecessary discussions, and experi-
ments, we consider as valuable portions of the book.

The 6th and last Chapter on Statics, is that which treats
of cords and arches. The subject is difficult, and if the
author meant to be understood, he should have aimed at a
good arrangement, and that /ucidus ordo, so essentially ne-
eessary for the induction of a student into a knowledge of
this intricate subject. In this he appears to have failed.

We come now to the very important subject of Dyna-

ics. This is introduced with remarks, somewhat meta-
physical, and obscure, and in our opinion unnecessary for
the subject, as the whole of it is founded on principles of
common sense, and common experience. It would be dif-
ficult, indeed, to conceive why Fluxions should be intro-
duced to prove the fundamental truths of any science, whem
those of its own are the least evident of any of the branches
of the mathematics ; this fault, and that of generalization are
predominant throughout the whole work. We have alrea-
dy animadverted on the former, and the obscuri its
symbolic reasoniug, if that can be called reasoning, of which

Reevew of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics. 8%

not one step is perceived by the mind; of the latter, we
shall make some remarks before we close this review. -
Though the author’s predilection for analytics, and ie
struse theories, leads him far from that plain, and obvious
course, which is adapted to the understanding of learners,
there are nevertheless to be found some beautiful illustra-
tions of principles, which serve to relieve the mind from the

of the space divided by the square of the time, or in symbols,
that F a= This, and the other fluxional formule in va-

riable mesiie are all founded on the 39th proposition of the
ist book of Newton’s Principia, which as much transcends
all copies, and imitations of it, in elegance, asin the merit of
originality. It may have been, however; considered as too
abstruse for beginners.

Other specimens of that kind of ithustheloin; which tends
to illumine the mind of a student, and to advance the knowl-
edge of the sciences, may be found in Art. 230, 251, 328,
370, 498, 532, and 417. 1 would select these as Scaliger

some odes of Horace as eae beautiful, and as
forming a contrast to many ot

The part of Chapter 2d, on ir descents down inclined
planes, &c. is an old subject, and has been repeatedly de-
monstrated, by thc» plainest principles of geometry, and
F ase crn ee established on the most cer-

foundat f human knowledge; yet our author in
compliance vit his own taste, or the fashion for analytics,
has thought fit to introduce a new set of demonstrations
pending on algebra, and the properties of goniometrical lines,
which are inferior in evidence to the propositions them-
selves, which were to be demonstrated. :

In Art. 277, we have the solution of the problem for find-
ing the curve of swiftest descent; the solution given by the
compiler is that of Thomas Simpson, but without any of the

~~ lemmatic principles, which are absolutely neces-

sary, for logical, and mathematical conclusions. We

— se whole, therefore, as nites and nugatory, but

as compensated in some degree by the fine illustrations,
which follow.

84 Review of O. Gregory’s Treatise on Mechanics.

~ Chapter 3d, on contripetal forces is taken almost, word
for word, from Simpson’s Fluxions, with the exception ofa
proposition, or two, introduced by Mr. Gregory, perhaps
from some other writer; that in Art. 280, to prove the equal
velocities at equal distances from the center of bodies de-
scending in curves, or right lines, isan awkward attempt by
a blind, and circuitous route to supersede what had been
done better by Simpson, and infinitely better by Newton.
Few learners can be made to understand the jumbled solu-
tion given by our author. id

Chapter 4th, treats of rotatory motion, aad of the centers
of Gyration, Oscillation, Percussicn and spontaneous Rota-
tion, together with other subjects connected with them. We
find not much to censure, or much to applaud in this, ex-
cept a more glaring instance of that pedantry, and ostenta-
tion of learning, of which there are so many in this book.
After having proved, what is very easily, and evidently
shown by elementary principles, that the force of bodies, or
the particles of bodies, in rotatory motion, is as the squares
of their distances from the.axis of motion; sucha plain Eu-
clidean ¢emonstration does not appear to have satisfied the
magnificent ideas of the author, who every where prefers
demonstrations even of the simplest theorems, if derived
from the most exalted and obscure source of Analytics.
Accordingly, we have in Art. 302 a long demonstration de-
pending on the differential-calculus, and the principles of
D? Alembert, to show that the force of bodies in rotary mo-
tion is uly as had been before estimated by the prinei-
ples of geometry and mechanics. As the differential
calculus, and D’Alembert’s principles, are founded on these,
if they have any foundation, it is evident that this proof isa
mere argumentum in Circu/o and therefore ostentatious,
and delu-ive.

Chapter 5th, is a treatise on Percussion founded on the
principle of its effects arising from a continued, and succes-
sive action of the particles of the bodies, which undergo
percussion, and therefore, that it is in itself a kind of
ure produced in a very small moment of time. On this
hypothesis, the deductions are made a priori are con-

ntaneous to those derived from other principles: The

servatio virium, of Huygenius and Bernauilli, follows easi-
ly from this doctrine, but all this had been shown with much

Review of O. Gregory's Treatise on Me-hanics. 85

more force, and elegance by Maclaurin. The whole of
this long, and elaborate investigation is taken from Don
Juan’s examen maritimo. f.!

The 6th and last chapter on Dynamics is that, which
treats of the maximum effects of machines. As this part of
the work censists chiefly of problems selected from differ-
ent authors we pass it over in silence.

The next great division of our author’s work, which he
has brought under the denomination of Mechanics, is what is
usually denominated in English Hydrostatics, and Hydrau-
lies, but by our author, and the French writers, the latter is
termea Hydrodynamics. Considering fluids as subject to
the laws of mechanical philosophy, the latter nomenciature
is perfectly proper, and analogous to that of the first part of
the work. .

We might go into details of this part of our author’s book,
as we have into some of the first, but it would not be con-
sistent w:th our prescribed limits. The same character per-
vades the whole, excepting, that the latter subjects are more
incumbered with experiments, often of a frivolous import,
than the former.

In addition to what we have before remarked, another,
and very material fault of this book is the spirit of generali-

Ps tule ais
it Cl

pervade it. In philosophy,according to Baconian principles, a
general principle ought never to be assumed, unless so ma-
ny particulars unite in one principle as to render it wholly
indisputable. But admitting the particulars are sufficiently
numerous, and well selected, so as to bear the test of in-
stantia crucis, or experimentum crucis ; yet ge princi-
ples and formule so useful to the mathematician, who must
be supposed to be well versed in particulars, are not those
by which a subject can be best illustrated, and rendered
comprehensible to a learner. ‘This assumption of general
en in the exact sciences, before the mind has been
amiliarized with the reasonings and results of particular ca-
Ses, borders very near on Cartesian Hypotheses, or at least
is no great discrepancy in the two methods. We
therefore agree with Dr. Watts, who, in his improvement
of the mind recommends, that a student of the mathematics,
proceed from practical or particular cases coming under |
notice and observation, to those which require more general

‘principles, or in other words, that he begin with practice
oe in theory, This is the very order of nature, for
our first notices of things, are simple, and practical, and we
then proceed to enquire into their foundation, and the causes
of their phenomena,

The second Vol]. of our author’s very extensive work on
mechanics is occupied altogether with what may be denom-
inated practical mechamics; this not only applies to prac-
tice, some of the important theories of the first volume, but
goes very extensively into the description by language and
drawing, of almost every machine, engine, or mechanical
work of ingenuity, which as yet, has resulted from the exer-
ercise of the human faculties in this branch of science.
This portion of the work, will, we believe, be by far the
most acceptable to the real mechanician, as that of the first
volume can only be so for the most part, to profound math-
ematicians, or,men of rare genius, and acquirements,

We will conclude our remarks, which we fear, have: al-
ready been extended too far into details, with a concise
opinion of the merit and importance, which may justly be
attributed to this work asa whole, embracing a mass of sci-
entific materi n this respect, we consider it as the

the ] - Though the theoretical part has
been studiously rendered abstruse and difficult to beginners,

by the overweaning attachment of the author for analytics,
and sometimes for metaphysical discussions, there is besides
an abundant supply of useful theory, illustrated in a plain

entary style and method. No reader can be at a loss

work, he will have little else to search for, to obtain all the

scoveries, and improvements, which have been made in
this science.

RS aR EI a Shah hee eo

Ant. XI.—On the form of the teeth of Cog-Wheels; b
ee Eu: W. Buaxe, A. Ms Neletiote, : ;
It is very important in most kinds of Wheel Work that

such a form should be given to the acting faces of the teeth

Blake on the Teeth of Coz-Wheels. 87

that they may act with a constant and equable force, and
produce a uniform velocity. Several of the most eminent
mathematicians of the last century gave their attention to
this branch of mechanical science. ‘I'he first who came to
any practical result was Olaus Roemer, sae celebrated as-
tronomer and mechanist of Denmark. He discovered that
wheels possess the property of sastveiiieg a uniform force
and velocity, when sections of the acting faces of the teeth
one of them are the incipient portions 0: extertor Epicy-

same generating circ
M. De \a Hire soon wialieneed took up the stibjeee ov"
proved that it is not necessary, as Roemer had supposed,
that the diameter of the generating circle’ should be half
that of the circle on which the interior epicycloid is ‘déscri-
bed, since the same result will follow if the generating cir~
cle be of any other diameter whatever. He also
that it is not necessary in order that the teeth’ may possess
the property of transmitting a uniform force and’ velocity,
“that they should be exact epicycloids in the sense to
ich geometers usually restrict that term, since they will

ute, and of an epicycloid.”

The subject was afterward ——— by Camus, fio
ler, Varignon, and others on the Continent. But their la-
bours, though they afforded some ara ‘elucidations “of

ae contributed nothing to extend it beyond the dis*
cmevineok De la Hire. Nor has any abit iat oe. been’
since made in the science, except by Professor’
of Edinburgh, who pointed out a single spetieu on tot
Possessing this property, which are not embraced in” the
sfieyelcidat principle of De la Hire. These teeth’ are in
the form of the involutes of circles, smaller than the pitch
circles, and concentric with them, whose diameters are to
each other as the diameters of the pitch circles. Mr.
Brewster has erroneously remarked that “the principle of
these teeth is not new;” and classed them among the’epi#

38 — Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

eycloidal teeth; and in this view of the subject, the suc-
ceeding writers have hastily concurred with him. That
they are entirely distinct from that principle may be seen
by referring to the subsequent re remarks on involutes of cir-
cles, taken in connexion with the rest of the subject.

The hese discoveries of Roemer, De la Hire and Robison
constitute the whole extent to which the science has hith-
erto been carried.

I apprehend that the subject has not yet been placed on
its true and proper basis, and that those who have written up-
on it have commenced their labours at one of the branches,
and not at the root of the principle; in consequence 0:
which they have not only failed to cireumscribe it with
those clear and distinct outlines which should always define
the extent of mathematical truth, but, as the following trea-
tise will show, have embraced in their views only an infi-
nitely small part of the subject. It is true, as shown by
Roemer and De la Hire, that opioyeloidal curves peanan

poh ie ip na same. property,
or are capable of being generated by
any curve or line whatever, rolling on the pitch circles.—
Nor is it necessary, as in epicycloidal curves, that the tra-
cer or describing point should be situated in the generating
curve, for the curve generated will possess the same prop-
erty if the describing point is any where else in the plane
of the generating curve.
propose in the first part of the following treatise to set
forth in a few concise propositions the true principle in its
whole extent ; embracing all possible curves which possess
the p of transmitting a uniform force and velocity ;
to which will be added such remarks and illustrations as
readily flow from the subject, and are thought of practical

ity.
Since the principle thus exhibited will be found to em-
brace an ean variety of curves, most of which are un-
to maticians by any appropriate name, yet
salanca one common property ; to avoid circumlocu-
tion we shall call them Isosacistic curves, a term sig-
nificant of characteristic property. It is proper to re-

Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels. 89

mark here that it is by no means intended that all the
curves which are included under this name are adapted to
practical purposes, for even the epicycloidal curves are not

so.— But it is not improbable that further investigations
may show that some of them are better adapted to mechan-
ical purposes than any of the epicycloidal curves.

tis another great desideratum in wheel work that the
teeth should act without friction.—But this point, though

€

guage.* propose to show in a few remarks, under the

significant of their common property. They will therefore

treated of under the head Araipsic curves, where the
general principle which embraces all possible curves of this
sort, will be given; together with the means of determining

cha , Q% We $+ r a © £.

t This remark is intended to t pp 0 Hing re
Made up of straight lines parallel to the axis of the wheel. It is not true o:
the spiral or Helicoid teeth, invented a few years since in France, and now

ith great success i branches of mect in tk

gre:
Von. VI.—No. 1. 12

ett Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

whether any given curve possesses this property, and of
finding its Atripsic fellow

In pursuing this plan, I shall endeavour to advance noth-
ing which is not susceptible of rigid mathematical demon-
stration, and to take no point for granted without proof

which will not be sufficiently obvious upon slight considera-
tion, to those who are versed in mathematical. and mechaa-
ical science.

Isosagistic Curves.

Prop. I.—If two circles which are in contact have equal
power at the point of contact to revolve about their centres
in Opposite directions, and if a curve be attached to one of
them, acting on acurve attached to the other, the circles are
in equilibrio when the curves are perpendicular to a line
drawn from their point of contact to the point of contact of
the circles.

Let the two circles (Fig.1,P1.1V.) have an equal tendency
ate, their point of contact, to move in opposite directions, the
one in the direction eh, the other in oe direction ef and let

point of contact g let them both be peupeotists to the line
ge. These circles will be in equilibrio. Draw the lines be,
ad perpendicular to the line ge produced, and let the pow-
er at ein the direction eh be P, and atc in the direction
eg, p3 and let the resistance at e in the direction ef be R,
and at - in the direction dg, +.

By the principles of mechanics P : tp: ibe 3 be and R:

:iad 3 ae. t by similar triangles be} be::ad ? ae.
Therefore Pip::Rir. But by the hy pothesis P=R..
Therefore p=r. That is the power at c in the direction eg
is equal to the resistance at din the direction dg.
these forces are respectively the same at g as ate and d.
Therefore the forces are equal and opposite at g and the
circles are in equilibrio.

Derivition.—Curves attached to circles, acting upon
each at we shall call acting curves, and the point at

they are in contact, the point of action.

Prop. 2.—If the acting curves are such, that while one
drives Kos other, they both keep constantly perpendicular

Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels. 91

to the line which joins, their point of action to the point at
which the circles are in contact, and if the driving circle be
moved with a uniform force and velocity, the other will
move with uniform force and velocity.

First. Let gi, gh, Fig. 1. be curves so constructed as to
answer the condition ot the proposition. By the preceding
proposition, when the circles are acted upon by forces which
are equal in opposite directions at the point e they are in equi-
librio. t an additional force be exerted upon the circle a.
Then the equilibrium will be destroyed, and the curve gi
moving toward e will drive the curve gh. before it. Itis evident

om Prop. 1, that when the curves are both perpendicular
to the line ge, an equal additional force applied to the cir-
cle 6 will restore the equilibrium; but by the Hypothesis the
curves are constantly perpendicular to the line ge. There-
fore if the additional force exerted upon the circle a be uni-
form and constant, it will constantly require an equal addi-
tional force upon the circle 4 to resist it; that is it will move
with uniform force. :

Secondly. Since the corresponding points g in both curves
are in contact with each other, their velocities at any given
instant of time in the direction ge are equal. But the velo-
Cities at d and c in the direction ge are respectively equal to
the velocities at g in the same direction. ‘Therefore while
one curve drives the other the velocities of the circles at ¢
and d are equal. But the velocity of the circle a at d is to
its velocity at e, as ad to ae, and the velocity of the circle 6 at
eis to its velocity ate as be to be. But be: be: iad ? ae.
Therefore the velocities of the two circles at ¢ are to each
other as their velocities atc andd. But it has already been
shown that their velocities at c and d are equal. herefore
their velocities at e are also equal. Consequently if one be
uniform the other is also uniform.

Derinirions.—When a circle moving about its ¢
with a uniform force and velocity drives another circle by
the acting curves, with uniform force and velocity, we shall
call the acting curves Isosagistic; and with reference to
each other, fellow isosagistic curves. ;

point in the plane of one traces on the plane of the other,
another curve, the curve thus traced is said to be GENERA-
TED; the point by which it is traced is called the pesumis-

She ie:
92 Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

ING POINT; the curve to whose plane the describing
point is attached, the GeneRaTine cuRVE; that upon whic
the. generating curve rolls, the BAse cURVE; that part of
base curve with which the generating curve comes in
contact, the BASE OF GENERATION.
Cor.—During the action of isosagistic curves, the veloci-
ties of ‘heir circles are equal at their point of contact.

Prop. 3.—Any curve generated by one curve rolling up-
on another is at every point of it, perpendicular to a line
drawn from that point to the point in the base, which was
in contact with the generating curve when that point was
described.

Let a }, Fig. 2. be any base curve; c d any generating
curve rolling upon it; f any point in the plane of cd, and
gh the curve described by f. Now during the time when
a small part f of the curve hg is described, the describing
point revolves about the point e asa centre. Therefore if
a circle be described from eas a centre with a radius ef, the
circumference of the circle will coincide at f with the curve
Ag. But the circumference ofa circle is every where per-
pendicular to the radii. Therefore the curve hg, which coin-
cides with the circumference of a circle whose radius is fe,
is perpendicular to fe. ;

OROLLARY.—THence it is manifest that no curve on the
plane ofa circle is susceptible of being generated by anoth-
er curve, rolling on the circle, unless perpendiculars from
every successive point of it, commencing at one extreme,
fall on corresponding successive points of the circle.

be taken.as the describing point, it will have moved to p
and described the curve pi on the plane of the circle a

ae

% = es
Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels. 83

and the curve pA on the plane of the circle b. These
curves are isosagistic.

For the line pd is constantly the describing radius to
the successive points of both curves pi, ph. hese curves
are therefore both constantly perpendicular to the line pd.
Hence the curves pi, ph are constantly coincident at the
point p. Consequently the point p is constantly the point
ofaction. Therefore the curves are constantly perpen-
dicular at their point of action to the line pd. Wherefore
(Prop. 2.) they are isosagistic.

or.1.—Any curve on the plane of a circle which is sus-
ceptible of being generated by another curve rolling on the
circle is isosagistic.

Cor. 2.—The base circles being considered as the pitch
circles of two wheels, the curves generated are sections of
the acting faces of fellow isosagistic teeth.

Cor. 3.—When the base circles and generating curve si-
multaneously roll together, the describing point and point
Ol action constantly coincide. 5 :

cHOLIuM.— When the generating curve is a circle, and
the describing point its centre, the curves generated are cir-
cles concentric with their bases. ‘These are manifestly in-
capable of acting on each other, and therefore, though they
are rather in than beyond the limits of the principle, they
will not be considered as included in.the general term, tso-
Sagistic curves. ;

94 Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

circumference of the first concentric circle as a centre, with
a radius equal to dm, one of the divisions of the arc, inter-
sect the next concentric circle at 7; and from the point 7,
with the same radius intersect the next, and so on, till all
be intersected. ‘Then, if a curve be traced through these
several points of intersection, and applied at the point p to
the point d of the circle, and rolled round upon it to e, the
point oin the plane of this curve will trace the curve bc.
Take or equal to op and join p,r; and take np equal
to db, and joind.n. fdm is infinitely small, pi is also in-
nitely small, and they may both be taken as straight lines.
The angle por is also infinitely small. But since the three
angles of the isosceles triangle por are equal to two right |
angles, when the angle por is infinitely small, or vanishes, ~
the remaining angles are equal, each to one right angle.
Since therefore pro isa right angle, pri is also a right
angle. Again; when dm vanishes, mh coincides with
db. Therefore, when dm is infinitely small, mh may be
taken as parailel to db, and bh will be infinitely small. and
may be taken as a straight line. But nh is equal to db,
therefore dn, 6h, are parallel. Consequently the angle
dnm is a right angle. Since by the construction po is
equal to db, and mh to to, and since nk equals db, and or
equals op, nh is equal to ro, and the remaining parts mn, ir,
are equal. In the two triangles dmn pir, dm is. equal to
pi by the construction, and it has been shown that ir is
equal to mn and that the angles at n andr are right an-
gles. Hence the angle mdn is equal to the angle ipr. To
the angle mdn add the right angle ndb, and to the angle ipr
add the right angle rpo. Then the angle mdb is equal to
the angle ipo. If therefore, the point p of the curve be
made to coincide with or touch the circle at the point d, po
eoincides with db and o isin 6. If the curve and circle

the curve pi Xe. are by the construction equal in length
and number to the small arcs dm Wc. of the circle, the cor-
responding points p, d, i, m, &c. will successively coincide.
But it has been shown that when these points are in contact,

Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheeis. 95

the point o is in a corresponding point of the curve dc.
And since the equal arcs are by the construction indefinite-
ly small, the point o is constantly in the curve bc; first at
6, and lastly at c. Therefore the point o describes the
curve bc.

Cor. 1.—Curves are susceptible of being generated by
two different curves, rolling on different arcs of the circle as
the base of generation, when their perpendiculars produced
fall on another part of the circle, in the same order of suc-
cession.

_ Cor. 2.—Any curve being given on the plane of a circle,
itmay be ascertained whether it can be generated. and if
itcan be generated, its generating curve may be found.

96 Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

Prop. 7.—Any curve being given on the plane of a cir-
cle it may be ascertained whether it is isosagistic and its
fellow isosagistic curve may be found.

For since all isosagistic curves can be generated (prop. 6.)
and all curves which can be generated are isosagistic (prop.
4. Cor. 1.) the given curve is isosagistic if it can be genera-
ted and not otherwise. But it may be ascertained whether
it can be generated, and if it can be its generating curve
may be found (prop. 5. Cor. 2.) And this being applied in
the prescribed manner to any other circle will generate a

w isosagistic curve.

Cor.—lIt may be determined with regard to any given
tooth-wheel whether its teeth are isosagistic. For thev are
so then, and then only, when sectionsof their acting faces can
be ~~ on the given pitch circle, if it be given 5 or on
any circle concentric with the wheel assumed as the pitch
circle, when it is not given.

Pror. 8.—In simultaneously describing any corresponding
portions of fellow isosagistic curves, the describing point
main in the line of centres.

‘If the describing point remains in the line of centres it is
either at rest or in motion in that line. First, let d, Fig. 5,
be the describing point, and let it be at rest while the circle
a turns on its centre through the arc eh. Then the genera-
ting curve is necessarily a circle, and the describing point, its
centre, andan arc di of acircle concentric with the circle
a will be described on the plane of the circle a. This, as

‘res and move in that line while it traces isosagistic curves.

Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels. 97

Cor.—Since (prop. 4. Cor. 3.) the point of action and
describing point constantly coincide, the point of action or
t of the acting curves does not rena ad remain in

the line of centr

Pror. 9.—No Isosagistic curves act apon: each other
without friction.
gi, gh Fig. 6. be two isosagistic curves in action at
the point gand attached to the circles a and 6 in contact at-e:
Now (by prop. 2. Cor.) during the action of the isosagistic
curves the velocities of the circles at e are equal. -Conse-
quently the circles may be considered as rolling together at
the point e. ‘Then(by prop. 3.) the point a considered asa
describing point traces a curve ad on the extended plane of
the circle 4 which is constantly perpendicular to the line ae
>that is, to the line of centres. "Now let it wea sg that

: i plese :
curve which is constantly perpendicular to the line ag. But
the line Aa does not constantly coincide with the line ae, ior
(prop. Cor.) the point g is not consiantly in the line ad.
ook te the — ad is constantly perpendicular, at the
Same point of it, to two. different lines which do not constantly
Therefore the

&' do not roll upon = other aa si friction. The same
eer be proved of any other fellow argue curve se! oo

Enierctoms..

Sa Whanth aa e

describing tis in the. mi er a ‘the curve genera-
ted on one a fellow. circles is an exterior epicycloid and
thaton the other is an interior epicycloid. When the diame-
ter of the generating circle is half that of the circle on which
the interior epicycloid is described, the interior epicy-
me aw a straight line tending to the centre of the circle ;
and the forms traced on the planes of the circles are those
which are recommended in the practical. treatises, for fellow
teeth which are designed to act sihes-a wholly before or
~ r-the line of centres. the interior epicy-
neds curve the action is before the line of cen-
Aa Me fF 13

98 Blake'on the Tecth of Cog-Wheels.
tres, and when ‘itis deiven the action: is behind: thes same

“When the e generating curve ea up ial the ares:oftwo
Re one of which is convex and the other concave to-
ward the centre of one of the base circles, the diameter of

these ares being. half that of the base circle toward
waste centre it is concave, and the describing point being at
their point of junction, the forms traced are those which are
recommended for adellow:: teeth which: oan — to act

~ ESS 2 dees 271 ;

oe instdnges enidalsi all a
ers, when the interior epicycloids are igenatived by circles
less than the base on which they roll, the friction between
the interior and: its corresponding exterior epicycloid is as
the DirFEReNcE of their lengths ; and when the generating
circles of the interior epicycloids are larger than the baseon
which they roll, the friction is as the sum of their lengths.

For in nthe! first case, every part< of the shorter curve is ap-

plied to F zp 1e longe _ Now if the

on the longer without sliding, it is ap-
plied to it only to the extent of its | Consequently
the must slide upon the longer to the extent

curve slides cetaely over the whole of the wphddes Conse-
quently the friction is as the sum of their lengths.
Cor.—Hence the friction is the same, whether the
action is before the line of centres or behind it
Scuotium.—The rule for determining the quantity of
friction between epicycloids, as exhibited in the preceding
ition, is applicable to all isosagistic curves whatever.
e tule may be thus stated: The friction’ between - ae
two’ fellow isosagistie curves is as the difference of th
parts of them, which are described by:a generating corve
more, concave thav the circumference of the base’ circle
pc whose centre it is ae peaerasiny ee ren
be a 9 ott Ip. gonne hoof tt 2tepol mcs
wails PEED Invortires. 0091 Sia f
& Stebut i
_Semonseae-—When ‘the geuevstiieg cutve isa siattight
ine, theisosagistie curves: generated | nneghinisent a Abe

Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels. “99

piteh circles, (See Fig. 7.) “If the generating straight line
‘be considered as a circle with an infinite diameter, the curve
described on one ‘virelé® may be considered as the last of
the exterior epicy clos) and that on the other as the last of the

Arrmipsic Curves.

Prov. 11.—If a describing point be made to move in a
tine which joins the centres of two circles, and if at the same

ime the circles be made to revolve in such a manner that

100 Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

the velocities of their planes at the describing point shall be
constantly equal, two curves will be traced on the planes of

contact in the line of centres. Now sinne ed is equal to py:
ad is equal to af: Therefore, in the progress of the mo-
tion or action, the points c and d meet and coincide with
each other at f, But it has been shown that these two points
are equidistant from the point p. . Im the same manner it
may be shown that any other points which are equidistant
from p meet and coincide with each other. Therefore, in
any given space of time, equal quantities of the two curves
pe and pd pass through the point of contact p. Wherefore
they roll upon each other without silding, and consequent-
ly without friction.

or.—By varying the relative velocities of the circles and
describing point, an infinite variety of atripsic curves may

uced,

sHOL.—By a similar process of reasoning it may be
shown, that no curves are atripsic, but such as are described,
or are capable of being described in this manner.

Blake on the Teeth of Coz-Wheels: 101

’Pror, 12.—If the velocity of the circles be uniform at
the point of contact, and the velocity of the describing point
be also uniform, the curves described aré Logistic Spirals.
' For since the velocity of the circle a, Fig. 9, is uniform at

point p, and of the point p. Divide the arc of a circle gf
into indefinitely small equal parts, and through the points of
division draw the lines ad, ap, &c. Now in the triangks
aed, adp, apc, the angles at a are equal, because they sul-
tend equal arcs, and the remaining angles have already been
shown to be respectively equal. Therefore the triangles
are similar each to each. Hence ac? ap:iap : ad::ad: a,
&e. That is, the radii ac, ap, ad, ae, &c. are continued
Proportionals ; which is the fundamental characteristic of the
‘ogistic Spiral. The same might be shown of the curve
hi on the plane of the circle b. iat!
Scuo..—The Logistic Spiral is perhaps the most simple
form for atripsic teeth of wheels.

Prop, 13.—Any curve on the plane of a circle may be
driven by some other curve without friction, when evely
Successive part of it, commencing with that extreme whica
48 nearest the centre, recedes continually both from the cer-
tre and from the radius in which it commences. :

Let a, Fig. 11, be the centre of the circle, to the plane cf
Which is attached the curve pe answering the condition cf

Proposition. Through p, the nearest extremity of the
Curve pe, draw the line ab, and through the other extremity
€, draw the arc ec of a circle whose centre is a. Now it
the circle a revolve on its centre till the point e comes into
the line of centres at ¢, the point of intersection between the
furve pe and the line ab will advance from p toc. F

102 Blake on the Teeth of Cog-Wheels.

therefore the point of intersection be considered as a de~
scribing point, and if in the mean time another circle be
‘made to revolve about a centre 6 in such a manner, that its
welocity shall be constantly equal at the point p to the velo-
wity of the other circle at the same aoe then the point of
wntersection will simultaneously trace the curve pe and a-
nother aint on the plane of the circle 6. These b y propo-

si'tion 9 are fellow atripsic curves.
Cor.—Many curves may have eitheran atripsic or an isos-
apie: — Ae Aaa of the isosagistic curves recede con-
from the centre and from the radius” in which

th sascha

i on.The CoRRESPONDING Ponts of fellow a-
tripsic curves are those points which come in contact with
each other.

Cor.—Since the contact of fellow atripsic curves is al-
whys in the line of centres, the sum of the radii drawn from
the centres of the circles to any two corresponding points of
the curves, is equal to the distance between the 2 ta of
the cireles. Hence itis evident, thata fellow atripsic cu

be described for any curve whatever which is apatite
prs sete one, in the following manner.

» Let a, Fig. 12, be the centre of a circle to so Sono
is attached a curve 1 4 capable of acting without
Divide the curve 1 4 into any number of iadefinitely roa
equal parts by the points 1, 2, 3,4, &c. and join those
points with the centre @ of the circle.

‘rom 6 as a nt cles whose radii
ave equal to the successive differences ab—a a; ‘ab—a 2,
ab—a 3, &c. From any point in the first concentric circle
with a radius equal to one of the divisions of the curve, in-
tersect the next concentric circle ; and from the point of
intersection with the same radius intersect the next, and so
on till all be intersected. Then a curve traced through the
several points of intersection will be a fellow atripsic curve
for acircle whose centre is

Hare on. Electricity. 103

PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c. |
7 +, heaps .
Art. XII.—An Essay on the Question, whether there be
two Electrical Fluids, according to Du Faye, or one, ac-
cording to Franklin. By Rosert Hare, M. D. Profes-
sor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. 9»

- By those who allege the existence of two electrical fluids,
much stress has’ been laid on the fact, that light bodies,
when negatively electrified, separate from each other no less,
_ than when in the opposite state. The absence and»:pres-
ence of a fluid, cannot, it is said, have the same effect of
producing repulsion. ‘To this, it has been answered, that
the separation of such light bodies is not the effect of repul-
sion, but of an attraction between them ———

ing medium ; which must e ensue, whether they
electrified minnie or plus: am either case, that diver-
sity of electrical excitement between them and the sur-
ding medium, arises, which is always productive of at=

In support of this viewof the question, I propose to make

a few Aneta In san pce seers with moveable
Coatings, like the galvanometer of Mr. Pepys,* the diver-
gence of the leaves is facilitated, in proportion as the coat-
iNgs are approximated to them. In this case, “it must be
admitted, that there is an attraction between the coatings
and the leaves ; for, were repulsion — the leaves the

: je. 2

Cause of their divergence, the: approach the coatings
Would not increase it. © “3 a
ay, however. the repulsion be-

More or less, in all cases, by the electric tension of the sur-
rounding medium, the coatings may permit the electric fluid
to recede through them with greater facility. ;-and thus les-
sen the electric tension, in the direction im which they are

‘Were this supposition to avail in the ease of an electro-
er with two leaves, it cannot apply inthe case of an in-

* See Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, vol. x- p- 38.

104 Hare on Blectrietty.

made to touch the leaf, or retire from it to the distance of
and inch, by means of a screw which supports it. (See

be true, although a second leaf were, as usual, suspended
beside the first. ;

In a common electrometer, it is usual to have pieces of
tin foil pasted on the glass case opposite the gold leaves.
If attraction be exercised between. the leaves and coatings,
when moveable, it must also be exercised by the fixed coat-
ings thus pasted on the glass. It is therefore established,
that when coatings, whether moveable or fixed, are em-

obstacle to this conclusion. When equally acted. upon in all
irections, as it must be in the case in point, air resists like
an arch, or an elastic solid. The electric attraction may

»

y means of an instrument with a single leaf, since constructed, I am
enabled to detect the electricity produced, by one contact, between ®
enpper and zine disk, each six inches in diameter.

Hare on Electricity, 105

made divergent, in pleno or in vacuo, in a small vessel, will
se ected by a like influence, if suspended in an

exhausted receiver sufficiently large. 1 am aware, that the
air prevents the electric fluid from escaping, by its insulating
power, and that when it is removed, electrometrical leaves
cannot be sustained in a state of excitement much higher
than the rare mediumabout them. Thus situated it may be
alleged, that repulsion can no more act between them, to
produce separation, than it does without them to keep them

ether. But this reasoning would apply, equally, whether
they be ina large, ora small receiver; and, of course, does
not account for the influence which the size of the receiver
has on the divergency.

Iwill now adduce some additional facts and arguments,
in opposition to the doctrine of two fluids.

According to Franklin, positive and negative, as applied
to electricity, merely designate relative states of the same

id. If, of three bodies, the first have more electricity
than the second, and less than the third, it will be positive
with respect to the second, and negative with respect to the
third. According to Du Faye, there is a radical difference
between vitreous and resinous electricity ; and though sep-
arately exercising intense action, they neutralize each other
by union. It is universally admitted, that the fluid evolved
by the prime conductor of a glass cylinder machine, and
that evolved by the cushion, are of different kinds or states.
ding to the American theory, the first is positive, the
last negative. According to the French theory, the first is
Vitreous, the last resinous.

the other. . In this case, the conductors, thus associated,

with a cushion on one side, and collecting points on the
other, might be substituted for both. When this compound

: * See Plate—Figure 2.
Vor. VIT.--No. l. 1

206 Hare on Electricity.

with Franklin’s doctrine, as above stated: but how can wv
be reconciled with the idea that the electricities are radi-
eally different, that the same state of excitement may be
confounded with either. It may, indeed, be alleged, that
the fluid is never completely vitreous, or resinous, or neu-

tral; that although the proportion of either fluid be great, it
may still be imcreased : that one conductor may ——_
vitreous than a second, but less so than a third—o
resinous than a second, but less so than a third; aa hence
in either case, gn give sparks with either. | This i is, to me,

complicated and ner ecmerie 6 solution of

difficulty.
Pursuant to the Franklinian theory, there can be no r

ly neutral point; though the earth, as a reservoir, infinite-_
ly great, anmapared with any producible by: art, furnishes an
invariable standard of intensity, above and below which, all
bodies slecwriealiy excited, are said to be minus or plus.*
It is perfectly consistent hey this theory, that sparks should
pass, as they are often seen to do, from conductors in either
state ; not only es one alk the other, but to bodies nomi-
nally ‘neutralized by their communication with the earth.
As the difference between the electrical states of the op
sitely electrifi ies, must be greater than between A
of their states, and that of the great reservoir, the sparks
between.them will be longer, but, in all other characteris-
tics, will be the same. This practical result is irreconcile-
able with the doctrine of two fluids, according to which,
there can be no electricity in the earth, which is not in the
state of a neutral compound, formed by these opposite elec-
tricities.. For it would be an anomaly, to suppose the re-
action between a neutral compound, (a tertium quid,) and
either of its ingredients, to resemble in intensity, and in its
characteristic phenomen ena, the reaction which arises between
the ingredients themselves. a“ well might we expect aque-
ous vapour to explode with hydrogen or oxygen gas, as

*In some discussions which took place some years ago, between Mr.
Donovan and Mr. De Luc, in a Wendion son’s Journal, it was erroneously
charged against Franklin’s doctrine, that he supposed that there was an ab-
solute: state of neutrali doctrine of one universal fluid, is, to me,

ed.
sible degree, as the quantity < water in the ocean; and it ma’
he assnmed to be invariably the

at idea, otherwise 1e.e:
é quantity of electricity in ss globe, is as unalterable in any sen-
i may therefore

Hare on Electricity. 107

into it to supply the deficiency ;
ives from it a surcharge.

hon, in which a fluid,
is suddenly relieved from

108 Hare’s Electrical Plate Machine.

ameter should be less. The deficit caused in the hand in
contact with the negative coating, is supplied by electricity
from the arm; and this, again, from the body, where if the
charge be inconsiderable, it is so much diffused as not to be
perceived. In like manner, a slight surcharge received
by the hand in contact with the positive coating, is diffused,
as it proceeds up the arm to the chest, so as to be too fee-
ble to be felt there. 0

A piece of tin foil, interposed between paper, has been
found not to be perforated by a charge, which had pierced
the paper on both sides of it.

1 were but one current, it is alleged that tin foil,
situated as above mentioned, would be pierced during its
passage from one coating to ihe other—a fortiori, then, it
should be pierced, if two currents be necessary, passing
each other. Besides, the explanation afforded, in the case
ofa shock received by the hands, applies to this: owi
to its great conducting power, the tin foil diffuses the
attraction from each side, so much, as not to be dam-

Art. XU1.— Description of an Electrical Plate Machine, the
Plate mounted horizontally so as to show both negative and
positive Electricity. Ilustrated by Engravings. By Ro-
Bert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. .

The power of electrical plate machines, has been gener-
ally admitted to be greater, than that of machines with cyl-
inders. The objection to the former has been, the difficul-
ty of insulating the cushions, so as to display the negative

‘ich, c r
count, may not be unacceptable to the public.*

*See Plate — Fig. 3%

Hare’s Electrical Plate Machine. 199

My plate (thirty-four inches in diameter) is supported
upon an upright iron bar, about an inch in diameter, cover-
ed by a very stout glass cylinder, four inches and a half in
diameter, and sixteen inches in height, open only at the
base, through which the bar is introduced, so as to form its
axis. The summit of the bar is furnished with a block of
wood, turned to fit the cavity formed at the apex of the cy-
linder, and cemented therein. The external apex of the
cylinder is cemented into a brass cap, which carries the
plate. The glass cylinder is liable to no strain; it is only
pressed where it is interposed between the block of wood
Within, and the brass cap without. The remaining portion
of the cylinder bears only its own weight, while it effectu-
ally insulates the plate from the iron axis. The brass cap
is surmounted by a screw and flange ; by means of which, a
corresponding nut, and disks of cork, the plate is fastened.
A square table serves as a basis for the whole. The iron
axis, passing through the cover of the table, is furnished
with a wooden wheel of about twenty inches diameter, and
terminates below this wheel in a brass step, suppor
cross of wood, which ties the legs of the table diagonally
together. The wheel is grooved, and made to revolve by a

may of course be turned by means either of one or both. It
'8 supported on two strips of wood, which, by means of
Acrews, may be protruded, lengthwise, from cases, which
confine them from moving in any other direction. By
these means, the distance between the wheels may be va-
tied at pleasure, and the tension of the band duly ad-
Justed.

suspended upon wooden axes, surmounted by plugs of cork,
turned pabsantaty to fit the space which they nenin jhe
cylinders are kept steady, below, by bosses of wood, w

110 Hare’s Compound Blowpipe by Alcohol
rround them. In this way, the conductors are effectually
insulated, while the principal strain is borne by the wood-
en axes.

~ | consider this mode of mounting an electrical plate pre-
ferable to any with which I am acquainted. The friction
arising from the band may render the working of the ma-
chine a little harder for one person, with one hand; but
then it affords the advantage, that two persons may be em-
paren we this purpose, or one may use both hands at once.
lhe intervention of the band, secures the plate from being
cracked, by a hasty effort to put it into motion, when ad-
hering to the cushions, as it does at times ; and the
s ans of which the distance of the wheels is
increased, obviate the liability of the band to slacken with
wear :

Art. XIV.—Description of an improved Blowpipe by Alco-
hol, in which the inflammation is sustained by opposing
jets of vapour, without a lamp: Also, of the means of ren-
dering the flame of Alcohol competent for the purpose of
‘Hlumination.. Mlustrated by an Engraving. By Ros-
srt Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
» sity of Pennsylvania.

In the ordinary construction of the blowpipe by alcohol,
the inflammation is kept up, by passing a jet of alcoholic
steam through the flame of a lamp, supported, as is usual,
by a wick—otherwise, the inflammation of the vapour does
not proceed with sufficient rapidity, to prevent the inflamed
portion from being carried too far from the orifice of the
pipe; and being so much cooled by an admixture of air, as
to be extinguished. By using two jets of vapour in oppo-
sition to each other, I find the inflammation may be sustain-
ed without a lamp. If one part of oil of turpentine, with

seven of alcohol, be used, the flame becomes very !u-

ualize and regulate the efflux, I have con-
Sg a gasometer. It consists of two con-

Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steam-Engine. lt

ter, and alcohol introduced into the innermost cylinder, it
soon boils and escapes by the pipes. These pass through
stuffing boxes in the bottom of the cylinder. Hence their
orifices, and of course the flame, may be made to approach
hearer to, or recede further from, the boiler.

The construction of this instrament, which I call the
compound blowpipe by alcohol, may be Sigtecce from
the engraving (Plate — Fig. 4 )

The idea of making the flame of bydtagdos gas, Be 2
holic vapour, more luminous, by an admixture of oil of tur-
pentine, occurred to me in 1819; and I put the idea into
practice, in the summer or succeeding winter of that year,
when my pupils witnessed the result.

_It seems, that Mr. Morey, by another catenation of ideas,
was led to a similar inference, employing, in an alcohol
blowpipe, whiskey and turpentine. hie endeavours so
to Gneeuniaie the efflux of a single jet-of the vapour of

these fluids, as that it may continue gn burn, when anne

ted

This process is too troublesome and precarious, ‘baat
dinary use. A mixture of alcohol and turpentine, are
burned with a wick ina lamp, in the same way as oil,
according to my plan. It is of course perfectly practica-
ble, and I shall be surprised if it be not aoa in the
Western country, where alcohol may be had very cheap,
and oil must be comparatively dear. asd sit Yo

eek

Art. XV — Description of Mr. Perkins? New Steen Bl
and of the application of his Invention to Engines of the Old
Construction. (Edinb. Philos. Joarnal; No. xvii; P- aia)

We have already communicated to our readers:in the
two last Numbers of this Journal, all the authentic informa-
tion which we could obtain respecting Mr. Perkins’ new
py ihe 3; and we have used the inva,

hate been so long considered as the greatest triumph of art
and science, that it was deemed a sort of heresy to regard it

412 Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steam-Engine:

as capable of improvement; and, notwithstanding all that
has been done by Mr. Woolff, and other eminent engineers,
the undoubted merit of their engines has scarcely yet been
admitted by the public. Under such ae jateene Mr.

Sand again it, imaginary enced sions of danger were
excited, and short sighted politicians sounded the alarm,
that such an invention would precipitate our country from
its sent Sareea among the manufacturing nations of
the w
Most of these grounds of opposition have been now re-
moved by direct experiment. Mr. Perkins’ engine is ac-
tually at work. Its operations have been witnessed, and
mre examined by engineers and philosophers of all
ki the most unreasonable sceptics have been com-
to acknowledge the justness of its principles, as well
energy of its operations. The active and inventive
waa of Mr. Perkins, however, did not remain satisfied with
this experiment. He has discovered a method, which we

convey the benefit of his — preg to steam-engines
of the old construction; an s has been recently suc-
ceeded, we are told, by a sit extraordinary discovery,
that the same heat may be made to perform its part more
than once, in the active operations of the snes
Jn order to convey to our readers some idea of these
it. Monteolie inventions, we have obtained a drawing, made by
tgolfier, jun, and given in plate IV. Fig 16.* which,
though it does not represent the actual machine, yet con-
tains such a view of its parts as is necessary for understand-

Be ea generator, which supplies the place of the boiler in
ordinary steam-engines, is a cylinder ABCD, made of gun-
metal, mich is is more tenacious, and less fs eg to eee.
then po aa r. The metal is about three inches th

and the vessel, containing eight gallons of water, is claus

* See Plate V.

Description of Mr:Perkins’ New Steam-Engine. 113

at-both, ends, with the.exception of the five openings for
tubes, shewn in the figure. ‘The generator is placed verti-
cally an a cylindrical furnace EF, whose chimney is G, the
t being sustained by a pair of bellows, H, wrought b
the engine, and conveying its blast in the direction IK 10 F.
A.heat of from 400° to 450° of Fahrenheit is thus applied
to the generator, which is entirely filled with water. The
valves in the tubes m,n, which are steel cylinders working
in hollow steel-pipes, are loaded, the one with 37, and the
other with 35 atmospheres; so that none of them can rise
ull the heat.creates.a force greater than the least of these
weights,

Let us now suppose, that, by means of the compressing
pump L. whose handle M is wrought by. the engine, water
is forced into the generator; this opens the valve above n,
loaded. with 35 atmospheres, and instantly a portion of the

ed and compressed water flashes out in the form of
steam of high elasticity, and of a temperature of 420°; and
communicating by the steam pipe 2, 2, 2, with the valve
ox V, it enters the cylinder PP, lying horizontally, and
gives. motion to its piston PQ, which performs 200 strokes
ia minute, and drivesa crank R, which gives a rotatory
motion to.a fly wheel, as seen in the fizure*. When the
“duction-valve is opened, the steam, after having produ-
ed_its stroke, is carried by the eduction-pipe 3, 3, 3, into
the condenser STXV, where it is condensed into water at
a temperature of about 320°, and undera pressure of 5 at-
Mospheres ; from thence, by the pipe 6, 6, 6, it is drawn in-
tothe pump L, whence it is forced along the pipe. 4, 4, 4,
to the generator, thus performing a complete circuit.

The forcing-pump acts with a presure exceeding 35 at-
mospheres; consequently, when the. water received in it
from the condenser is urged into the generator, itmust ex-
Pel a portion equal. to itself in volume: this portion, as
above described, flashes instantly into highly elastic steam.

eCY ay age

rcing-pump, too, is so contrived as to act w

be driven from the generator in a steady current, ana thus

-*The parallel motion represented at PQ, is not the correct one used by
Mr, Perkins. . Phe sieeiend is connected by a flexible joint, with a sort of
‘lage with four wheels at each end, and working ia a. strong horizontat

tox of steel. |
“Vek VIRNo. TL 15°"

114 Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steam-Engine.
steam of constant elasticity is supplied to produce the

power.

‘Some philosophers are of opinion, that the heat of the
portion of water which escapes, is of itself sufficient to
maintain the steam at that high degree of heat and elasti-
city with which it reaches the piston, and, consequently,
that this engine is nothing more than a High Pressure En»
gine. Other persons, however, have supposed, and we
confess we are among that number, that the portion ‘of wa-
ter which escapes, must necessarily carry off ‘a quantity of
heat from the adjoining stratum (the temperature of which
may be thus reduced below the freezing point.) But it is
more likely, that in virtue of some new law of the trans-
mission of heat under the combined conditions of elevated
temperature and high pressure, while the water, also, is for-
ced to remain in contact with the red hot generator, the
whole water in the boiler may be laid under requisition te
furnish the discharged fluid with its necessary supply of ca-
loric.

It is almost unnecessary to state, that the motion of the

by the difference ,

the reUbdeflier, acts with only 70, the dherenoal or 230Ib..
being the true tated e ined.

which is w vig the engine. ‘This pump draws the wa-
ter by the pipe 6, 6, 6, from the condenser STXYV, and re-
turns it by the pipe 4, 4, 4; that is to say, when the handle
M is drawn up, the water ‘rushes into the menpetys of the
forcing pump, through a valve in the pipe 6, 6, 6, opening
into that cylinder: This valve, of course, instantly closes
when the downward stroke of the pump is made, ‘and the

Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steamekngine, 115

water now escapes through a valve opening outwards, along
4, 4, 4; thus effectually cutting off all direct or uninterrupt-
ed.communication between the generator and the condens-
er. In order to keep the water in the condenser at a press-
ure of 5 atmospheres, the blast of the bellows H goes round
the condenser STXYV ; but when it is not sufficient for this

engine, notwithstanding its tremendous energies, much

more safe in its operations than even the common low pres

ure engine.
ae tube 8, 8, 8, communicates also with the indi-
cator ¢ d, having a dial-plate ¢ e, and an index ¢ J, which,
by means of a suitable contrivance at v, 2, indicate the
Pressure or number of atmospheres with which the engine
18 working,
The cylinder and piston PPQ, have been separated from |
et the engine, for the sake of distinctness. Their
proper sige however, wil] be understood by supposing
the two lines 9, 9 ; 9, 9 to coincide.

116 Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steam Engine.

The engine which we have now described, is at’ Bree
performing actual work in Mr. Perkins? manafacto ee
is calculated as equal to a ten-horse power, though the cyl-
indéer is no more than two inches in diameter, and eight-
een inc long, with a stroke of pay twelve inch-
es. Although the space pile by the engine is’ not
greater than 6 feet by 8, yet Mr. Perkins considers that the
apparatus (with the exception of the working cylinder 9
and piston PQ.) is perfectly sufficient fora “30-horse’ en-
gine. When the engine performs full waite ‘it consiimes
only two boshels of coal in the day.

On the application of Mr. Perkins? rene to serra
gines of the old construction.

Great as the invention is which we have now described,
yet we are disposed to think that the application of the prin-
ciple to old steam-engines is not less important.* When we
consider the enormous capital which is at present embod-
ied in Great Britain in the substantial form of steam en-

se noble machines impel and regulate the vast popula-—
tion of wheels and pinions over which they reign, we feel
as if some vast innovation were proposed upon our estab-
lished usages, by the introduction of N Mr. Perkins’ engine.
The very idea that these potentates of the TRAE RAN?
worid should be displaced from their thrones; that thei
strong holds should be dismantled ; their palaces demolish
ed, and their whole affairs placed under a more economi-
cal management, is somewhat startling to rian who dread
change, and admire institutions that both work and wear
well. Mr. ins, however, has saved them from such a
degradation. Ble Tas allowed thei to retain all their hon-
ors and privileges, and ——— only to invigorate them

with fresh influence and er.
In this new system, the old engines, with their cue are
retained unaltered. The furnaces alone are removed. Mr.

Perkins constructs a generator consisting of three horizon-
tal tubes of gun-metal, connected together, filled with wa-

*This invention appears to have been fully established by direct experi-
Et eT ne nem encine, with with all its ts great promis, sail only wader

Description of Mr. Perkins’ New Steam Engine. 117

ter, and supplied with water from a forcing pump, as in his

W i his generator is exposed to t in an
analogous manner, so that, by means of a loaded valve,
which opens and shuts. the red hot fluid may be constrain-
ed till forced out of the generator into the water in the
boilers of Bolton and Watt. By this means, as much low
pressure steam of four pounds on the square inch may be
generated by one bushel of coals, as could be produced it
the old engine by nine bushels. This most important result
was obtained by actual experiment.

Since these great improvements have been effected, Mr.
Perkins has made a discovery that seems, in its practical
importance, to surpass them all. He now entirely dispens-
es with the use of the condenser, and works the engine
against the atmosphere alone ; and by methods with which
we are not acquainted, and which indeed it would not be
prudent for bim to disclose at present, he is enabled to ar-
rest the heat after it has performed its mechanical functions,
and aciually pump it back to the generator, to unite with a

sh portion of water, and renew its useful labors. In an
operation like this, a considerable portion of the heat must
still be lost, but the wonder is that any should be saved ;
and we venture to say, that the most sanguine speculator
nthe omnipotence of the steam-engine, never dared even
to imagine the possibility of such an invention. =

We are well aware that, in announcing this discovery,
We are exposing ourselves to the criticisms of those whose
belief is naturally limited by their own experience; but it
is satisfactory to know, that Captain Basil Hall, (whose ac-
count of Mr. Perkins’ discoveries and inventions, as deliv-
ered before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, gave such
universal satisfaction,) has been entrusted with Mr. Per-
kins? discovery, and that speaks confidently of t&
soundness of its principles, as well as the practicability of
ils application.* tee

We cannot quit this ject, without congratul: ting ‘the
“ountry on the brilliant prospects with whick thee invea-

* After the 10th June, Mr. Perkins, whose address is Perkins & Co.
3}, Water Lane sirlect Street: is ready to take orders for his new engines,
a :

his
nary engines. The
of Bolton &
years which we have not heard stated.

us Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &cs

tee mise to inyest all our national concerns. At any —
eriod of the history of British industry, they must have

ati he the highest expectations ; but, originating as they
are one, when our commerce, our mapufactures, and our
agriculture, 3 the three stars of our national prosperity, have
just passed the lowest point of their orbit, and quitted, we
trust for long, the scene of their disturbing forces, we can-
not but hail them with the liveliest enthusiasm, and regard
them as contributing to insure the pre-eminence of our in-
dustry, to augment the wealth and resources of the nation,
and, by giving employment to idle hands, and direction to

minds, to secure the 2 Integrity and the permanence o!
our national institutions.

Ant. XVI.—Remarks on the composition and properties of
the Chinese fire, and on the so called Brilliant fires:
by James Cutsusn, A. S.U.S. A. acting Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy, U.S. Military Academy.

In pyrotechny a variety of compositions are employed
for the she oh of giving gisiiehinn appearances to flame,
and to accelerate as well as retard, according to circum-
stances, the iomaing of pyro-preparations. The im-
provement in fire works depends altogether on this princi-
ple, viz. to vary as much as possible, with the greatest
number of colours, the flame produced by the combustion

gun powder, or of charcoal, &c. in contact with nitrate
of potash. Hence we find, that sundry saline and other
substances are used for that purpose. By the presence or
absence of particular substances, certain fires, so called, are
designated. The name also is made to ——— either
with that of the inventor, the composition made u
appearance of the flame, or some remarkable seh

*It is due to the truth and candor of So history to mention,
that Mr. Perkins is not our countryman ; but the age of jealous

nd pageesbey

cannot but respond to mt rareipnt sapere a oscrmage 4 a
feo opener and intelligence we shall henceforth be
indeed companions.—Ed. . Amer. Jour.

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, Gt I>

which it exhibits when burnt. Hence the name of serpents,
stars, crackers, tourmilons, ordinary and brilliant fire, ‘Chi-
nese fire , &c. Our object is at this time to notice in
ticular the Chinese and Brilliant fire, to which we porpose
to add such remarks, with certain formule for the }

i of fire works, as to present a view of the subject in de

With respect to Chinese fire, it appears that 4

ry in India, by the name of lncarville, dlidovanett igeue
position, and mode of making it—a composition, which im-
parts so much splendour and effect to their fire works, and
i seems to have been also used by other oriental ‘tia-

What i is denominated brilliant fire, of which there are
several kinds, although partaking in a’ great measure of the
Sele of the Chinese fire ele from it neverthele in

spot et Lam of opinion, that certain
oe calciform kind, such as the ¢ !

ihenachainite apprehend, would als6 answer. Crude

Seems to possess, in an eminent a ge! the property of pro-
ducing avery brilliant fire. nulated iron of the
Chinese, however, puceat no other bos gett 3 than np

ee was old tron ‘gee, whieh pint Beat tito nile not Iz
ger than mustard seed. These they bey ae into s sae,
Ornumbers, in the manner of centtiig Boyes = .
sieves, The extraneous iron of castin poet
tained from the foundery, if it be free gue eed (which is
used in making the mould,) will answer every purpose.
ow far wootz, or the metal extracted from certain kinds
of iron ore in he East-Indies, sometimes called Indian steel,
Would answer the purpose of ordinary cast iron, we are un-

120° ‘Dri Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

' able to. determine; but it is certain, that it contains more
nthan steel, and less than cast iron, and hence in all
probability might be used with advantage for the same pur-

In consequence of the brilliant light produced when iron
filings are thrown into the fire, an improvement in’ the fire
of rockets was suggested. The honorary rockets, which
we purpose to notice hereafter, owe their brilliancy to iron ;
which renders their fire much more beautiful than) when

powder, or the substances of which it is composed,

E eamoyed alone. Both i iron filings and erenuined: cast
iron have been used in the rocket-composition, not only for
the so called honorary rockets, but also, occasionally, for
signal rockets. There is one defect, however, in the com-
position, when iron is added ; it isapt to rust,in consequence
of moisture. To prevent which» some have suggested in-
mersing the grains. or filings in melted sulphur, which we
apprehend would be almost as injurious, owing to the grad-
ual formation of the sulphate of iron; and others, with more
epg Re have recommended the use jof a few drops of
Pnenating the filings or grains so as to receive a por-

vot have already mentioned the intention, or design of
the composition of Chinese fire. We may
bate oe et the scintillations produced by hammering ig-
nited i iron on the anvil, the combustion of steel in a 8
gas, &c. are similar instances. To combine all the

of cast-iron, according to the use to which ne Se reuie
is applied, and adapting it to different sized cases, or cali-
bers ; the Chinese, after granulating the iron, and assorting
it as we before observed, separate it in numbers, as No. 1,
2,3. Thesame practice is followed in Italy and F eens
where the most perfect fire-works are made. Indee
experiments of the French, have confirmed very ibis
sorily the account given by the French missionar

_ Of the ts, into the composition of which i ‘ines sand
amor there are two; one producing a red, and the other a
white fire. The proportions of the different ingredients for
such rockets, from 12 to 33 Ibs. are as follows:

“Bie nis

2 eee ak: it

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 121
For red Chinese Fire.

Calibres Saltpetre| Sulphur | Charcoal | Pulverized Cast iron, No. 1. :
Pounds. | Pounds. | Ounces. | Ounces. ASAE SETAE co a

12to 15| 1 3 4 £4

18to21; 1 3 5 7 8

24 1036) 1 4 | 6 s 0

The standard proportion, according to this formula, for
rockets of 12 to 15 ponds, is in the ratio of 16 oz. of salt-
petre, 3 oz. sulphur, and 4 oz. of charcoal to 7 oz. of
cast iron ; and for those of a larger size the quantity of cast
iron and charcoal is increased, and for those still larger, the
proportion of sulphur, charcoal, and iron is augmented.
There are other formule, however, for the same purpose.

For white Chinese Fire.
Calibres Saltpetre «) powder| Charcoal Pulverized Cast iron, No. 2.
Pounds. | Pounds. Ounces. Oz. dr. Oz. dr.

12

121015) 1 7 8 12 0
18to2i} 1 il 8 0 11 8
241036) 1 | il g.. Bbw AS 28

In the first formula the proportion of the cast iron to the
saltpetre is as 7 to 16, 71 to 16, or 8 to 16; butinthe sec-
ond, the quantity is greater, viz. as 12to 16, and 113 to 16.
Now we may remark, i |

salt-petre than the sulphur in the first formula. These
proportions, therefore, are so adapted as to produce a differ-
ently coloured flame. When the quantity of iron is con-
siderable, with an increase of charcoal, and the addition

gun , besides nitre, the fire of the rocket will be
white ; but when the quantity of iron is less, and in lieu of
meal powder, sulphur is used, the quantity of charcoal be-
ing also smaller, the fire will be then red. There are seve-

that description of rocket, denominated the honorary rock-
Vox. VIT.—No. 1. 16

122 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &e.

et, both iron sand and iron filings are used in different
paeportians: paste.
fore we introduce the preparations for forming the dif-
ferent kinds of fire, according to the present improved for-
mulz, we purpose to notice the effect which such composi-
tions possess, and at the same time the general rationale of
their action.
It is apparent by the substances that enter into the rocket
compositions already given, that when the mixture is in-,
med, carbonic acid, sulphurous, acid, and probably sul-
phuric acid, &c. are generated, and the iron in the state of
combustion is thrown out. That the brilliancy of the combus-
tion, is owing to the presence of iron, which is in its crude state,
and therefore not converted into soft or malleable iron, is evi-
dent from the effect ; and this effect is obviously more per-
fect than that which is imparted by malleable iron, or even
by steel. The process of forming malleable iron, it must

liant; hence it is used in some of the so called brilliant

wrought iron, and hence also it is used for the same pur-
pore. But fire workers give the preference to crude iron.
be beauty and brilliancy of Chinese fire is, therefore, at-
tributed to the peculiar state of the carbon and oxygen in
the cast iron ; for wrought iron, having an inferior effect for
that use, is deprived in a great measure of these substances,
or, in other words, the iron is rendered more pure. Steel,
however, being superior to malleable iron, must owe that
superiority to another state of combination of the iron
and carbon, and _in which the proportion of carbon is con-
siderably less. We may thus account for the difference in
appearance of the flame in Chinese fire, and the ordi-
nary brilliant fire.
e will not attempt to explain, or precisely account for
the obvious. difference in the combustion, and consequently
appearance of the flame, of crude iron, wrought iron,
and steel in the respective compositions of Chinese fire, and
illiant fire. Some facts, however, may lead us to a more
perfect knowledge of the subject, by considering the na-

\
Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 123

ware of the several sorts, or modifications of iron. In the
white, grey, and black crude iron (the best of which for fire
works are the two first) carbon and oxygen, with occasion-
ally other substances, as siliclum, Sc, are differently com-
bined ; which, when made into malleable iron, loses from
ene fourth to sometimes one half of its weight.

According to Mr. Cloud, the quantity of carbon in cast
iron is equal to 1th of the whole weight, and M. Vauque-
lim gives the average quantity in steel at ;3,th part, which
differs, however, from the experiments of Mr. Mushet.
Without considering the presence of oxygen, &c. in cast
iron, or its agency when combined in a certain proportion
with iron, we may infer from this statement that crude iron
owes its superiority for fire works to its containing a /arger

quantity of carbon.
- The experiments of M. M. Berzelius and Stromeyer, by
which they uced a compound of iron, carbon, -

as
so called carburets of iron. Mr. Mushet has shown that
soft cast steel contains ;},th of carbon, common cast steel

s45th, the harder common: cast-steel ;'th, and when pee

quantity of carbon is 7th, steel is then too hard for draw-
ing; and that white cast iron contains ;th, the mottled
cast iron !,th, and black cast iron ;;th. It is found, that
when the carbon amounts to th of the whole, the hard-
hess is ata maximum. In wootz, or Indian steel, there 1s
a small quantity of aluminum and silicium. Mr. é

(Quar. Jour. Science and Arts, ii. 280) observes, that white
cast iron i upon but slowly by acids, and exhibits a
texture composed of a congeries of plates, variously aggre- -
gated ; and that the grey or mottled iron, which is softer

and less brittle, and readily bored and turned, affords, when

=

t24 Dr. Cuibush on the Chinese Fire, &e.

treated with dilute muriatic acid, a quantity of black inse-
luble matter, consisting of carbon, iron, and silicium.

In all pyrotechnical compositions, therefore, into which
iron enters as a component part, attention must be paid to
these facts, in order to form a just estimate and conclusion
of the effects they produce. In such compositions, the iron
is first ignited by the heat generated in the combustion of
the gun powder, of the nitrate of potash, charcoal, and sul-
phur, and in this state is thrown out and undergoes a com-

e combustion of the iron ing
more than its okigMamenns 3 according to the rapidity of
which, the flame is also rendered more or less brilliant.—
This fact is obaibein but the character of the fire depends
on the kind of iron employed, and hence the Chinese fire
differs considerably from the ordinary brilliant fires. The
oxidizement of the metal is never at the maximum, for
when iron or steel is burnt in oxygen gas we obtain only
the black protoxide, which consists of 28 iron + 8 oxygen
= 36, or 100 iron + 28.68=128. os

There: is.another.fact:to--be- obser d, namely, that al--
though the iron is ignited by the serra of the com

as for instance in a rocket case, the combustion of
the iron itself does not take place within the tube, or only
in part, but receives for the support of its combustion the
oxygen of the atmosphere; for the greatest brilliancy of the
fire is actually in the air, where the ignited and minutely
divided iron is acted upon by the oxygen gas of the atmos-
here.

4 As the substances which compose cast iron are chiefly

, carbon, and oxygen, we may conclude, that as carbon
by combustion in oxygen gas, or in atmospheric air, w
contains it, is converted into carbonic acid, the carbon of
the crude iron, during its combustion, forms carbonic acid.
The products then are oxide of iron, and carbonic acid.
These products are produced independently of those that
result from the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, or gunpowder,
or other substancas employed. |

That the heat produced, as well by the combustion of
gun powder, as by that of the charcoal and sulphur in con-
tact with the nitre, ignites the iron, and the iron, as we re-
marked, is thrown off in this state, and. minutely divided.
are facts which must strike the eye of the observer.

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &. 125

The quantity of iron, it will be seen, which enters into
the composition of different preparations, is various accor-
ding to the purpose for which they are used. The effect
may be varied with the quantity of the metal. With res-

There are no preparations, perhaps, which require more
care and exactness than pyromixtures ; for their perfection
depends on the quantity of the materials made use of, the
exact proportion of each article, and the intimate mixture
of the whole.

There is a method, however, required for preparing the
composition for Chinese fire in particular. ‘The substances,
except the sulphur and pulverized or granulated cast iron,
are to be passed several times (three generally) through a
sieve.

ur and cast iron are mixed by themselves, and
afterwards with the other ingredients. They are then to
be turned over frequently by the hand. Cases, which are
usually made of paper, in the form of cylindersyare filled in
the usual manner. These cases are several thicknesses of
paper, and when filled are primed with meal powder and
quick match. i
n order to make the mixture of the sulphur and iron
more intimate, the latter may be moistened with spirit of
‘wine, which contains no water, as water would rust the
iron, and destroy its effect. When the cast iron is reduced
to powder, or rather grains, it is divided into several sorts,
Proportioned to the calibre employed. These sorts are
marked and numbered as follows: for calibres under Taths
of an inch in diameter, No. 1; ;7;ths to +$ths, No. 25 and
No. 2 is ad.
In charging with the composition, care must be taken to

126 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

rays of the sun. In porportion to the velocity of which, the
flame is more perfect.
. There are certain compositions, commonly denominated
white-fire, which are used in cases, and give motion to wheels
and the like. This motion is on the rocket principle, and
depends on the propelling power (gaseous products,) of
the inflamed matter acting against a resisting medium,
namely, the atmosphere. Chinese fire, however, possesses
in this respect but little force ; and hence when itis used in
rotatory works, it is accompanied with two or more jets or
cases of white fire. Cases charged with chinese fire,
when it alone, will not communicate motion to a wheel.
As the effect of Chinese fire on wheels, to the periphery of
which the cases are usually fixed, depends greatly on the
motion given to the wheel, its velocity should therefore be
accelerated; which although the duration of its effect
would be shorter; but more brilliant, may be produced by
employing several cases of white fire, and communicating
their fire one to the other by means of quick match in the
usual manner.

he accelerated motion, thus given, would cause the com-
position to burn with more rapidity, in the same manner as a
bellows would excite the heat of a furnace, and necessarily

es
te the impelling power; for the resistance which the fire
meets from the air, in the immediate vicinity of the calibre

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &e. 127

of the case, causes a pie enatr that produces the recoil, and

consequent motion of the wheel. The ascension of a

rocket may be regarded as asing more than its recoil, the

direction of which is given by the rocket stick, which serves

also.as a balance

ith regard is the approved formule for the preparation

of Chinese fire, which are said to surpass even those of the
Chivne, the ioloning are the most perfect:

Composition of Chinese Bre. for: calibers under ten twelfths
Sig

of an inch.
tMeal powder - -— - 16 oz.
Nitrate of potash - - - 16do.
ulphur - er taut - 4 do.
Charcoal - - - : 4 do.
Puly. Kans: iron - . - 14 do.
Another of the same.
Meal powder 16 oz.
Sulphur - - - . - 3 do,
Charcoal - - - - - 3 do.
Puly. cast iron - - - 7 do.
enother, —e — trees -_ psa
Nitrate - potash 12 oz.
Meal powder . - . - 16do. -
Sulphur: - - - - 8 do.
Chareoal - - < - - 4do.

Pulv. Cast iron =. 9 - + 10 do.

~Inother, oe for Po Be Us oe t £ of an inch,
of potash 16 oz.’

Sulphur - - - - - 8 do.
Meal powder - - - . 16 do.
Puly. Cat iron - “a - - $5 ao:
. * The term lion i ish the di ter of thecout, or taba, in
= be © composition is put

ised.
der is u understood the granulated gun powder pulver:
The oe wep done on a aay with a roller, and the

The mealing nH ncnere memanes om it is put into a leather sack, and
Beat With mallets,

128 Br. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.
Another, for gerbes of ten and eleven twelfths, and one neh
calibre.
Nitrate of potash tres anebotirs I oz.
Sulphur -

i - - - Ido.
Meal powder - - - - 8 do.
Charcoal - - - - Ido.
Puly. Cast iron - - - -« > 8do.

stances is various, viz. to meal powder as one to five, one
to ten, &e. In one formula the proportion is still greater,
and in another less ; but by mixing seven and a half ounces
of steel dust with meal powder, salt petre, and sulphur, in the
proportion of eleven pounds, one pound two ounces, and four
ounces respectively, is the best calculated to produce the or-
dinary brilliant fire. .

With respect to what is denominated fire jets, or fire
spouts, we may add that they are similar. They are cases
eharged solid with particular compositions. These jets are
made with a calibre of one third of an inch, to one and one
third of an inch in interior diameter. They are seven ot
eight exterior diameters in length, and are charged with the
particular composition, driving each charge with twenty
blows of a small mallet. The first charge is the ordinary
fire composition. Fire jets are calculated for turning, as
well as for fixed pieces.

Common fire for calibres of one third of an inch.
Meal powder -.-+, - so
Charcoal ee 3 do.

Common fire for calibres of five twelfths to half an inch.
* Mealpowder - - - ~ 602.

Charcoal... ions ae? 3 do, 4 dr.

Common fire for calibres above half an inch.

Mealpowder - - - - 160%.

Charcoal - - ~ - 4 do.

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &e.
Brillcens Sire thor aim paliless.

Meal powde 16 02.
Filings ofiron- = - -~ = 4 do.
facies, more ish, hate
Meal powder - 1602,
Filings of steel - - | - 4 do,

cangeach he more sete, for any calibre
Meal po 0z
Salt — Co. 2 do.
Filings of steel - - - - 6§do.

Brilliant fires more meh for any ‘ealre
eal powd 6 OZ.
Filings of Needle re es ‘3 do.

129

Silver rain, for calibres above two thirds ‘of an inch.
'Mealpowder + = = = 1602.

Salt petre BED FAO NO BN 1 do.
NINES: fk tiie santo He-Pee
Filings of steel, fine - —- - 4 do. 4dr
"Grand —— “od my: opto
Meal powder 16 oz.
Salt petre a ae ee 1 do.
Sulphur - - 1 do.
Filings of spring steel os 6 do.
Small — —
Meal powder - 16 oz.
Salt aber eee ee a ; de,
ur vac na = — i o.
Filings ema. 6+. 5 do.
White fire. idem.
Meal powder - - * 16 oz.
a — - - - : =

7

Vou, eS gare 1. 17

Dr. Gutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

White frre, idem,
Meal powder ~— - - - ~ 1602
Sulphur ee 3 do.
Blue fire, for pram at eaondion.
Meal powder - 8 oz.
Salt petre - - - - 4 do.
Sulphur - - - - - 6 do.
Zine ors goes st 33 oto 6 do.

Another Blue jire, for anne — half an inch and up-

Salt pe - - - 8 Oz.
: Meal p powder eacls tress tak oe Ado.
Sulp - - - - - 4 do.
a - - - - - 17 do.

The cases charged with this composition are only em-
ployed for furnishing the centre of some pieces, the move-
ment of which depends on other cases, as these having no

force, would not produce motion
Blue Fire, for any Calibre.
Meal powder, - 16 oz.
Salt-petre, - - - - 2 do.
Sulphur - - - oa 8 do.
a Fire, idem.
Meal powd - - 16 oz.
Filings of ies dlongiin) -.. ° Sdo.
Green Fire, idem.
Mealpowder, - - - - {602
Filings of copper, - -~ — - 3 oz. 2 dr.

a Fire, idem. °
Meal pow - 1602.
Gold tes a (Poudre Pry - $do.

~~ Italian Roses, or bob = Stars.
Meal powder, - «78 Og,

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 131

Another for the Same.
Meal powder, - ~— - - - 1202.
Salt-petre, —- - - - 16 do.
Sulphur, - - 4 - 10 do.
Crude Antimony, - + - 1 do.

ose of theso called fire jets, in order to show thatartificial

red
highly important to the practical pyrotechnist. Thus we
find in the composition of fire rain, that charcoal of the
oak and pit coal will give the appearance of rain. The
following is one of the formule :

Salt-y ; © ° - 8 oz.
Sulphur, —- 5 - - - 4do.
Meal powder, - - - 16 do.
Charcoal of Oak, Sis oben ssc QEip,
Pit coal, - : : - 23 do.

Pearance which characterizes it fro r fires, is im-
Parted to it simply by lamp black. The composition is
41 Ibs.

Salt-petre, sa " + oat
~ sage ag : 1} do
Lamp black, - > ™ = ‘ 3 .

132 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fin, se.

Besides the admixture of several saline substances,
which communicate particular colours to flame, we know
that the most brilliant red is given to flame by nitrate of
strontian. A preparation in which it is used for theatrical
purposes in France, is made as follows: take forty parts
of dry nitrate of strontian, thirteen parts of finely powder-
ed sulphur, five parts of chlorate or hyperoxymuriate of —
potash, and four parts of sulphuret of antimony, and mix
them intimately in a mortar, observing at the same time to
pulverize the chlorate of potash, separately. A little sul-
phuret of arsenic is sometimes added, and if the fire should
burn dim, a small quantity of pulverized charcoal is added.
The portable fire works made in miniature, and exhibited
in rooms or close apartments, are much of the same na-
ture as already described. Another description of fire -
works are made to communicate an agreeable odour, hence
called scented fires. Vases of scent were greatly employ-
ed in the public feasts and ceremonies at Rome, Athens,
and particularly in Egypt. The vessels which contained
the composition, were placed by the Athenians in sculp-
tured vases. We know but little respecting the compo-
sitions they used. Myrrh and frankincense were the mos
common, as well as the most prominent articles. It will
be suflicient to notice two modern preparations of this
kind. The pastilles or fire crayons, calculated for this
purpose, are conical troches, which are set on fire upon a
plate. They are made up o

Storax Calamit. - - - 2 oz.
Benzoin, = - . + - oi}, Oly

um Jupiper, - : - - 2 oz,
Oli - ‘ - e, fiom
Mastic, - banlimie a. - 1 oz.
Frankincense, | - - . =o Sh Ome
Amber, - . . no} Halk 1 oz.
Camphor, - ohi a) oy ft sebherts aah gol OMe
Salt-petre, - - - - 3 oz.

illow charcoal, - - - 402.

In the Dictionnaire de? Industrie is a composition for the
same purpose, called the odoriferous paste; it is nearly the
same as above, but contains cascarilla, cloves, oil of lemon
and tincture ofamber. In the Archives des Decowvertes, iit-

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 183

328, may be seen the account of M. Brillat Savarin’s irrora-
‘eur, for scenting apartments.

The vases of seent, so much in use among the Greeks and
Romans, were nothing more than earthen vessels, which
contained a certain composition that was set on fire. A
modern preparation of this kind is as follows +

Storax, - - - - - 4 0z.
Benzoin, - - - - - 4do.
Frankincense, - . . - 4do.
Camphor, - - - - ~ 2 do.
"4 - - 1 do,
Charcoal of willow, - - - - 1 do.*

Other compositions, with regard to the additions made
to gun powder. or to a mixture of nitre, charcoal and sul-
phur, in the formation of serpents, crackers, stars,
candles, rocket stars, variously coloured fire rains, white,
blue, and yellow illumination port fires, &c. show that the

our and appearance of flame may be modified, with al-
Most-as many variations as the mixture of pigments employ-
ed by the painter.

Before concluding this subject, however, we may add,
that the so called Bengal lights, although in some recipes
orpiment is added, pwe their particular character to the
Presence of antimony. The preparation was kept secret
for some time. The true formula is the following:

Salt-petre, - - 3tbs. 0 oz. Odr.
Suiphury) o!!o) - ,aemeQ@e 4083, %, 4°
Antimony (the sulphuret,)}0 “ 7% 4 ‘

The salt-petre and antimony are reduced to fine pow-

» then mixed with the flowers of sulphur, and the mix-

ture passed through a sieve. ‘This composition is not used

in cases, but is put into earthen vessels,usually shallow, and

as broad as they are high. A small quantity of meal pow-

ig the Vestal Fire of the Romans, in honor of the Goddess Vesta, was 0
‘at : : it was wal

by’ pete but if by carelessness they suffered the fire

to go out, they were severely. panished, and in the inerin. business wae

134 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

der is scattered over the surface, and a match is inserted.
Pots thus prepared, are covered with paper or parchment,

prevent the access of moisture, which is removed before
the composition is inflamed. Blue lights, or blue fire, is a
preparation in which zinc and sulphur, or sulphur alone
are used. The particular colour is communicated by the:
zinc or sulphur. The most perfect blue is made as fol-
lows :

Meal powder, - 4 parts, . or Meal powder, - 4 parte.
Salt-petre, - - 2 do. “¢ Salt-petre, - 8 do.
Sulphur, a=: 3 Othe “Sulphur, -.- - 4 do.
Zine filings, - - 3 do. Aineiiin-ic.sn097 19 do.

The representation of cascades and parasols are made
with the above or similar compositions as already noticed ;
but the ordinary blue lights, used sometimes for signals,
and adapted to any calibre of a case, is composed of six-
teen parts of meal powder, two parts of salt-petre, and eight
parts of sulphur. pper and zinc in the alloy of brass are
added in the sparkling and green fire. To prepare which
about three parts of brass ices are mixed with sixteen
parts of meal powder. The amber lights are constituted
of amber and meal powder, in the proportion of three ot the
former to nine of the latter. Copper communicates a green
colour to flame. Verdigrease and antimony are frequently
joined for that purpose. In the green match, for cyphers,
devices, and decorations, the rule is to melt one pound of
sulphur, and add one ounce of pulverized verdigrease, and
half an ounce of crude antimony ; cotton loosely twisted is
soaked in the mixture when melted. en used, it is
fastened to wire, and the wire is bent in the particular
shape required. It is primed with a mixture of meal pow-
der and alcohol, and a quick match is tied along the whole
length, so that the fire may communicate to every part at
the same time. A strong decoction of jujube, treated with
sulphur, imparts to cotton the property of burning with
a violet coloured flame. Sulphur alone, or zine and sul-
phur, gives a blue device. ;

As to rocket compositions, more attention has been paid
than to any other. ‘The formule are, therefore, numerous.
M. Morel, who has made many experiments with sun-
Se has given the following as the most ap-
proved.

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 133
1. For Summer.

Salt-petre, i = 17 oz.
Sulphur, - - - ° - 3ido.
Meal powder, - - ‘ 2 1ido. |
Charcoal of oak, - - . wHhoaaiae
2. For the Same. ;
Salt-petre, - - - 16 oz.
Sulphur, - - ~ ‘e «* ta
Charcoal, a ignaiiing 6 saris OPE agg

3. For Winter.
Salt-petre,- - - - ~ 17 oz.
Sulph

ur, - - - - - $3do.

Meal powder, oh ee 4 do.

Charcoal of oak, - - - 8do.
4. For the Same.

Salt-petre, = - - = = — 44 02.

Sulphur, - - - - = 4do.

Charcoal, - = - - 16 do.

5. For the Same.
Salt-petre, - - : 16 oz.
Sulphur, - - - - = 2oz3dr.
Charcoal, - - = bhe 6 do. ;

6. F or the Same.
Sulphur, - gre: ies - 3 oz.
Salt-petre, - - - = 20do.
Charcoal, = - = = (= 8}do.

: For the rockets of honor, which are a particular kind,
either cast iron or antimony are used. ‘The Chinese com-
Position is the following :

Salt-petre MG 5 oz.
Sulphur, je ira oo ee eee it do.
Charcoal, ‘eee
Méal powder," <* Fa 1 a0.
Pulv. cast iron, AE ene do.

The charcoal is not pulverized very fine; the most im
alpable part is not used, except for small works.

*

136 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

M. Bigot has given an improved formula for the same
purpose, viz.

_ Meal powder, - - 2 parts.
~ Eacetxe, - - - -*10 do.
BHONGE, ko... 3 do.
Charcoal, “ - - - 6 do.
Cast iron, pulverized, - = - § do.

He has also given a particular composition, in whick
antimony is added in lieu of iron. It consists of

Salt-petre, - - - 16 parts.
ulphur, - - - : 4 do.
harcoal, - - - af 9 idot

Antimony, (crude) - - 2 do.

It was not our intention to have noticed at this time the
war or incendiary rockets, and particularly the so called
Congreve rockets ; but as the composition of the Congreve
rocket is supposed to differ from the ordinary kind in man
essential particulars, the analysis which we subjoin, refutes
such an opinion. vids

General de Grave transmitted to Paris, a Congreve
rocket, found on the French coast. The case was made of
grey paper and painted. The larger sort are usually made
of sheet iron.

The inflammable matter was of a yellowish grey colour,
and the sulphur was ire. ee with the naked eye. It
burnt with a quick flame, and exhaled sulphurous acid gas.
The ination was made ay Lussac. According to
his analysis (Archives des Decouvertes, ii, 303.) the com-
position i

Nitrate of potash, - bate. iS EOD:
Charcoal, - - . - - 56
Suiphar, Se ee

100.

Gay Lussac, after determining the proportions, made a
composition of a similar kind, and charged a case with it,
which had the same properties as the English rocket. The
aa rtion of charcoal is too small.

JUL

Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, §¢. 137

d ye
quence of some fortuitous and repeated trials, we find that
he has been successful, and moreover has presented a body
of facts, which, we may reasonably infer, may either be
rendered more perfect, or enlarged and improved upon by
the direct aid of chemical science. hie:
he Chinese have been longer acquainted with the art

of preparing fire works than the Italians or French. Bar-
row, in his Travels in China, mentions particularly some of
their exhibitions. After stating the appearance of their
different fires, he remarks, that “the diversity of colours
with which the Chinese have the secret of clothing en
one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny.” ;

It was not, however, until 1739, in consequence of the

French in the knowledge of pyrotechny.
_yrotcheny is at present considered under two heads,

Vou. VII.—-No. 2 18

138 Dr. Cutbush on the Chinese Fire, &c.

composition by charcoal, &c. were not investigated; and

infers, as the only certain mention of salt-petre is to be
found in the manuscript containing directions for props
gun powder, that our salt-petre was not known to the an-
cients. The knowledge of gun powder, however, Pain Fe
a new era in pyrotechny.

The fire works of the ancients consisted for the principal
part of illuminations, and the use of some particular compo-
sitions, in which certain oils, as naptha, were employed.
Alexander the Great, witnessed some experiments with

Senn at Ecbatana.

their sa and ceremonies. Of their rites, whether sali
gious or segiedatin they appear to have made use of fire
under some particular form.

The representation of figures in ithe wil age by the
Chinese, was common ory I.
entered a ag was an sadanen of that: kind, in
honor of his en

e ancients, a beeen, had two descriptions of fire
works; one of which they set off by hand, and threw amovg
the people, and some were merely illuminations. . Of this
description were cardons, stars, and fire balls. A writer of
antiquity mananeTER in speaking of these exhibitions, that

“he has seen a great many of these artificial machines, but
to speak vt truth, few which have succeeded, and it is com-
monly after acclamations of joy, the spectacle is finished by
the destruction of some, and the wounding of a great number.”

The other description of fire works was calculated for
theatrical exhibitions, which consisted of illuminations,
transparencies, various figures of man and beast clothed
with fire, &c. The art of wattage figures in fire, seems
tohave been the most pertect. e figure according to
modern art, is first covered with clay, or — scr
to prevent the action of the fire, and then deco with a
multitude of small cases charged with saslley: le
that produce, if so required, variously coloured fires. These
cases are so connected by means of quick match, as to com-
their fire to each other, in suecession or otherwise:

Dr. Cuthush on the Chinese Fire, &c. 139

‘Another mode consists in mixing sulphur with starch into a
paste with water, and covering the figure with the mixture,
observing previously to coat it with clay or plaster. While
moist, the coat of sulphur and starch is sprinkled over with
gun powder. When dry, matches are arranged about it, so
that the fire may speedily communicate on allsides. Gar-
lands, festoons, and other ornaments may be represented in
_ this manner, using such compositions as produce differently
coloured fires. In connection with this, cases of one third
of an inch in diameter and two and a half inches in length,
may be employed, charging them with different composi-
tions. These would produce an undulatirg fire. he

led hair, which terminate in a sbower of fire. These are
made of quills filled with the usual rocket-composition, and
primed with a little moist gun powder, both to keep int
composition, and serve as a match. It is to be observed,
however, that a rocket charged in the usual manner, and
loaded in its cap or head, which is conical, in the same way
as with stars, serpents, crackers, &c. would so disperse
them, on the termination of its flight, as to produce in the
atmosphere the appearance we have mentioned. —_ ra,
It has been supposed, that some of the ceremonies the
ancients, such as the feast of the lamps, /amp ta lamp-
lericee, &c. were exhibitions of the same character, in which
however lamps were used. But such feasts or tions
appear to have been con
lights

140 r Cryophorus.

cap. 62) notices this festival, and that it extended through~
out the country, and the lamps were kept burning during the
whole night.

In the festum enceniorum, or the feast of the dedication
of the temple, which was celebrated in December, and last-
ed eight days, lamps were also lighted. In Greece and
Rome such illuminations were common, and mostly in hon-
orof Minerva, Vulcan, Prometheus, Bacchus, &c. Such were
he lampadaria and lamptericece of the Greeks and Romans.

Among the oriental nations, there is even at the present
day a celebration in which lamps.are lighted. In China,
in particular, it is general throughout the whole empire, and
the celebration is conducted with great splendour.

While noticing this subject, we may remark also, that, as
the now common practice of lighting the streets of cities was
not in use some few centuries since, Caligula caused the
streets of Rome to be illuminated on certain occasions, as
when games were exhibited. After Cataline’s conspiracy
had been defeated, and Cicero was returning home, lamps
and torches were lighted in honor of that great orator. The
emperor Constantine caused the city of Constantinople to be
illuminated with lamps and wax candles. e primitive
christians, either dictated by policy, or compelled by authori- _
ty, often illuminated their houses on idolatrous festivals in
a more elegant manner than the heathens. On birth days,
the ancients illuminated their houses by suspending lamps
from chains. These facts show, that illuminations are of
great antiquity, and celebrations in that way not a modern
practice. With regard, however, to fire works proper, if
we judge correctly, the ancients were very deficient for the
principal reason, that they were unacquainted with gun
powder.

West Point, Dec. 31, 1822.

Art. XVII.—Cryophorus of Dr. Wollaston. Eprror.

We procured this instrument, with the balls one inch
and a half in diameter, and the connecting tube fifteen i
es long; the water was in such quantity, as to fill full half
of one of the balls. The empty ball was immersed in snow, -
and diluted nitric acid; a distillation of aqueous vapor took

Morey on the Patent Water-Burner. 4h

place; water condensed in the empty ball, and soon froze
into a film, lining its interior. A few minutes after, a film
of ice began to form on the upper surface only, of the wa-
ter in the other ball, and gradually increased, till it was a
quarter of an inch thick. All this is what might be expect-
: ently moving the instrument, (it was merely
lifted, and not shaken,) the ball in which the water was
freezing suddenly burst with a considerable explosion, and a
pretty loud report. ‘
he apparent cause of this event, (which we have not
heard of before, as occurring with this instrument,) appears
to be, that as the water filled a full hemisphere, (and we be-
lieve a little more,) the film of ice first formed, and occu-
pying an equatorial plane, and therefore the largest diame-
ter in the sphere, could not recede in order to give room for
the expansion of the water, as it froze beneath. It would
therefore, in all probability, have burst, had it not been mov-
€d; but, it is also probable, that the water beneath the ice
had been cooled to a point below 32°, and perhaps several
degrees below; when moved therefore, (agreeably to what
happens commonly in such cases,) the water below the film
of ice probably shot very suddenly into crystals, and thus,
bot having room to admit of the requisite expansion, the
ball of course exploded.* This little occurrence was thought
worthy of being mentioned, both as affording illustrations of
laws and facts before known, and as suggesting an obvious
Caution in forming the cryophorus—to introduce less water
than what will fill half the ball.

Arr. XVUI.—Remarks on the Patent Water-Burner ; By
aMUEL Morey, (in a letter to the Editor.)

Ornrorp, Juxy 30th, 1828.

Sir,

Trustive that I have in some measure reduced the Pa-
tent Water Burner, or Vapour Lamp, to a form that unites
utility with convenience, for general and domestic pu

again wish to submit to your perusal, for a place in your

*Itis possible that adhesion between the glass and the ice might bee. -
atributed to the effect, rs

149 Morey on the Patent Water-Burner.

Journal, if thought worth inserting, an account in part of
those improvements, including a few remarks and experi-
ments.

If we put into one of these lamps two parts water, and
one spirits turpentine, and raise the temperature to about
204° or 206°, the water boils, and the vapor that comes
over is composed of about equal Oe of each; or if
we put in two parts water, two of alcohol, and of one spirits
pone ae they boil at about 180°, and the vapor comes

y in that proportion ; or if eight parts of alcohol,
and sie ofthe oil is putin, they boil at about 160°, and the
vapor comes over in about that proportion. All these va-
| i when made to issue through small openings, like gas

r lights, burn with a pleasant white flame, free from smoke
orsmell. The water and oil give evidently the most intense-
ly white flame, but it is somewhat difficult to make them
burn without a sensible agitation of the flame, and a con-
_ Stant detonating noise, evidently arising from the perpetual
decomposition, and recomposition of the water. The ad-
dition of alcohol adds much to the bulk and mildness of the

e, but nothing to its intensity. The proportions in
which these substances will come over, can be made to vary
by varying the proportions in the lamp, and also by its con*
struction. It was desirable to have as small a proportion of
the oil come over, as would give sufficient whiteness to
the flame. For that purpose, the lamp is generally so con-
structed as to have the boiling round a tube, or on one side.
Whenever there is a proportion of water in the lamp, the
oil floats on the surface, and by the current created at the
point of boiling, it is carried as far off as it can recede, when
it will be less agitated, and of course will evaporate the

slower. In this wa , when I have put in a quart of water,
and only half a gill of the spirits sed rei the See
of the former that came over, was nearly two to one of the

latter, and I thought the arse to $e more tueciely white
than I had ever observed it before. There is no pretension
to exactness in these estimates ; by knowing the quantity of
each that was put in, from the appearance of the residuum
oe re an estimate was formed of what had been con-
water and oil only are used, the latter never
all ¢ comes over. oe appears to be per petually ebanging to a
_resin, by the decomposition of the water. For common

Morey on the Patent Water-Burner. 143

use, the common tin plate answers well for making nearly
the whole of the lamps. A conical form is the most con-
venient. When used, it may be placed on a stove overa
cylinder of charcoal, or in any situation where the heat will
be sufficient to keep up a gentle distillation. The vapor
then may issue above. If intended to support its own evap-
oration, the vapor will issue from a tube, projecting from one
to two inches below the bottom, and about one back of the
front side, opening forward, so that if it inclines to boil too
fast, the flame will be pushed out so as to lose its heating ef-
fect in some measure, on the bottom, by which means it
will perfectly regulate itself. To insure a regular issue of
the vapor, we pass it one or more inches through a tube, one
fiftieth or one sixtieth of an inch bore, and which we also
fill with very fine wire, if a light is wanted not greater than
three or four candles. ‘These tubes, when thus filled, ap-

the temperature of water in a tumbler is raised to a little
above 200°, having a sinall ball of charcoal sus nded in
it, there is no appearance of boiling; butif a small quantity
of spirits turpentine is added to the water, the ll of coal
will in a few seconds commence, and continue sending up a
Column of steam, nearly of its own bulk, while the bottom
of the vessel where the heat is applied, and balls of wood
and of metal suspended on each side of the ball of coal, fur-
nish none. Why is it so? The water’s temperature 1s not
high enough to form steam until it comes im contact with :

i44 Morey on the Patent Water-Burner.

the ballof coal. Can that add any thing to its temperature,
as its own is taised solely by the water? This experiment,
I have thought, as well as very many others, looks much as
if there was some action between the water and oil, as well
as coal, independent in some measure of caloric. In the
practical use of the pitch pine for light, and light and heat,
nothing more is necessary than to distil it by a gentle heat,
suffering the vapor to escape pretty freely through parallel
flattened tubes, surrounded by a quick current of hot air;
the light will be as clear and white as Argand’s lamp with oil.
If inflamed tar in a shallow pan is raised to a high tempera-
ture, and a very fine spray of water is thrown over it, for ev-
article of water that falls into the tar, there wil! shoot
up a vivid white needle-like flame. The spray may be so
fine as to fall quietly into the tar; it then burns with innu-
merable white shooting flames, about one eighth of an inch
long, giving the surface of the tar a most beautiful appear-
ance.

If we take a conical formed lump of moistened clay, and
immerge it in burning tar, nearly of the boiling point, and
it to remain a few seconds, then raise it about three
fourths of an inch above the tar, beautiful white needle-like
flames will continue for some time to issue from the clay,
and from the tar directly under it, giving sometimes such an
intense white light that the eye can scarcely bear it. The
flame too, appears to be pushed out in every direction, to
the exclusion of the atmospheric air.

As good and steady a fire, for light and heat, as pleasant
perhaps as any other, and cheaper and easier made, it is
thought, can be furnished from tar, by putting a quantity in-
toa tnetal vessel, three or four inches deep, and setting that
vessel in a pan of water. Drop on to the tar three or four
drops of spirits turpentine, apply a flame and your fire is
made, and will continue to burn with little (or not any)
smoke, if a strong draft, until the whole is consumed, leav-
ing very ltttle residuum, and that apparently a good japan.
Lhe water appears to preserve the tar at a low temperature,
prevents a possibility of its boiling over, causes the evapo-
ration to be much slower, thereby allowing the atmospheric
air to mix more freely with that of the tar, as well as the va-
por of the water, which certainly contributes much to the
consuming of the smoke. Sometimes the cutrent of ai?

Seybert’s Analysis of Pyroxenes 145

carries over the vapor of the tar, and mixes it with that of
the water; when the proportions are right, it is then
curious to observe the very white, silver-like appearance of
the flame. When the snapping of the tar would be incon-
venient, it may be prevented by boiling it a few minutes be-
fore it is used, to get rid of the coarser particles of water.
But when it is desired to give a steady, durable light of any
size with tar, the best mode I have yet tried is to raise the tar
by machinery to the upper part of the tar vessel, passing it off
through a small tube into a small cup, say to hold half a gill.
Another small tube, from near the bottom of the tar vessel,
passes upward through this little cup, about two thirds the
way tothe top. The machinery for raising the tar may be
kept in motion by connecting it with any moving power.
The tar, when raised, flows out into the small cup, is there
inflamed, and then continues to burn, without apy further
attention, so long as the supply is kept up. It is furnished
faster than it is consumed, but the overplus flows out before
the small cup is full, down the small tube into the tar ves-
sel at bottom, where, by its high temperature, it preserves
the body of the tar at a temperature that makes it flow free-
ly if ever so cold, As the tar in this little cup is all that is,
or can be inflamed at atime, it renders it perfectly safe,
and the time of burning in a sense unlimited.
ours very respectful
SAMUEL MOREY.
Pror. Sruuiman.

Art. XIX.—Analysis of the Pyroxene, found at the Frank-
lin Iron Works, near Sparta, Sussex Co. New-Jersey, by
Heyny Seyserr.

Aw account of this mineral, by Messrs. Wm. H. Keating.
and Lardner Vanuxem, was published, in the Journal of the
Academy of Natural Sciences in this city.* After an at-
tentive examination, they decided, that it was a mew species,
and called it Jeffersonite. M1. Keating analysed it, and this
they observe “ fally confirmed the conclusions drawn from
its mineralogical characters.” His analysis gave the fol-

* Journal of the Academy, Vol. 2, p. 194
Vou. VIL.—No. 1 ° 19

146 Seybert’s Analysis of Pyroxene.

lowing results per 1000, viz. “Silica 0.560; Lime 0.151 ;
_ Protoxide of Manganese 0.135; Peroxide of Iron 0.100;
Oxide of Zinc 0.010; Alumine 0.020. Loss by calcina-
tion 0.010=0.986 ;”’ and the substance was accordingly de-
termined to be a Trisilicate. This mineral was separa-
ted by these gentlemen from the Pyroxene of Hay, be-
cause they say “its cleavages are essentially different 5”
that it is remarkably different from pyroxene in being de-
cidedly harder; that these minerals differ in their specific
gravities, and add, “ the chemical analysis offers another
important difference, in the absence of Magnesia, which
ppears to be essential to pyroxene.” ;

Dr. Troost, of this city, has lately paid particular atten-
tion to the crystallographical characters of this mineral, and
found, that they perfectly coincide with those of well char-
acterized pyroxenes ; a full account of his investigations,
will, very soon, be published in the Transactions of the

{ was, therefore, anxious that a further examination of
this subject should be made, more especially, as so much
depended upon the results of the chemical analysis. It
would have gratified me very much, if this could have been
done by Mr. Keating; but his absence, from this city,
will, probably, continue several months ; I therefore deter-
mined to undertake it myself.

The specimen, which I examined was shown to Mr.
Vanuxem. Without any hesitation, he said it was well charac-
erised Jeffersonite from New-Jersey. The recent fracture,
of this mineral, is of a very deep olive colour; the exter-
nal surface, owing to exposure, is deep brown; colour of
the powder, yellowish brown. Externally, it is dull ; its
recent fracture is resinous. Opake, crystalline, presenting

Seybert’s Analysts of Pyroxene. 149

two easy cleavages in opposite directions. When fractured,
it frequently yields very regular rhomboidal. fragments.
Scratches glass, and scintillates with steel. Its specific gravi-
ty is 3.407. It isnot magnetic. Before the blowpipe, it
readily fuses into a black vitreous globule. _

. ANALYSIS... ——

A. 3 Grammes of Pyroxene, finely pulverised, after ex-
posure toa red heat, became a shade darker, and weighed
2.965 grammes; therefore the dimunition by calcination was
1.166 per 100.

B. The product of the calcination (A,) was mixed with
9 gr. of caustic potash, and exposed to a red heat, during

of alemon yellow colour, was evaporated toa dry gelati-
nous mass, which was treated with acidulated water and
again moderately evaporated ; more water was then added
and the liquor was filtered ; the Silica, remaining on the fil-
ter, after perfect edulcoration and calcination weighed 1.36
grammes on 3 gr. or 45.333 per 100.

C. Caustic potash was added to the liquor (B,) to neu-
tralise the excess of acid. On the addition of hydro-sul-
phate of Potash, a black precipitate was obtained, which
was well washed and treated with nitro-muriatic acid, the 1-
quor was evaporated to dryness to expel the excess 5 when
the residue was treated with water, it appeared that a por-
tion of the precipitate had resisted solution, the liquor there-
fore was filtered, the residue was moderately calcined, to
expel the sulphur, and after being heated to redness weig'-
€d 0.06 gr. This product was Alumina, and as it will ap-
pear, that no Alumina was taken up by the acid, the quantity
contained in the mineral amounts to 2.00 per 100.

The filtered liquor was boiled, during thirty minutes,
with a considerable excess of caustic potash; 1 was filtered,
toseparate the fluid from the dark coloured precipitate
which was formed ; it was supersatura

and then treated with an excess of ammonia : a white pre-

148 Seybert’s Analysis of Pyroxene.

cipitate was formed. which entirely redissolved in the ex-
cess of Alcali; therefore no Alumina was dissolyed by the
nitro-muriatic acid. The ammoniacal liquor was supersatu-
rated with muriatic acid, and boiled with an excess of sub-
carbonate of Soda; the white precipitate of sub-carb. of
zinc thus formed, after being well washed and strongly
calcined, yielded 0.06 gr. of oxide of zinc on 3 gt. or
2.00 per 100. :

The dark coloured precipitate was dissolved, inthe hu-
mid state, in acetic acid ; the solution was evaporated care-
fully to a perfectly dry mass, which, after ebullition with wa-
ter, was filtered: the peroxide of iron collected on the filter,

ed 0.43 gr. of Tritoxide of Manganese, equivalent to 0.397
grammes of Protoxide on 3 gr: or 13.233 per 100.

: ' per 100 parts,
A. Loss by calcination, 01.166 containing oxygen
5.333 22

B. Silica -802
C, Alumina 02.000
C. Oxide of Zinc 02.000 ——
C. Peroxide of Iron 09.333 02.861
C. Protoxide of Manganese 13.233 02.900
D, Lime 0.666 05.805
FE, Magnesia 04.333
98.064 11.566
100.000

Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America. 149

According to this analysis, the essential constituents of
this mineral are Bisilicates, and its mineralogical formula is,
S?+-2

S?.

observes, that the analyses of different specimens show,
“that all minerals which have the crystalline form of py-

rg, in Wermeland,” which yielded 4.99 per 100 of Mag-
hesia, he says expressly, “if ihe magnesia is not taken into
Consideration, this pyroxene belongs to the second divis-
lon,” viz. to that of “ pyroxenes with lime and protoxide
of iron as bases.”’

ANTIQUITIES.
anpeelerin

Art, XX.—On the Celtic Antiquities of America. By
Joun Fincn, F. B. S. &c. Professor of Geology a
Mineralogy.

From our earliest infancy we are aceustomed to admire
every thing connected with ancient times. The sentiment
Seems implanted in our nature, and if the monuments we

per 7te Proportions of the silica obtained from i trials, were
» Ist. 45,333—2d. 45. -333._ In my

ments, the magnesia was detected, after the silica had been gern

treating the liquor wi excess of sub-carbonate of ammonia; cag sep-

rating the precipitate, the liquor was treated with ammonia, @' phos-

Phate of soda ; ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia was precipi

t Annals of Philosophy, new series, for March 1823, p. 224.

¥ Annals of Philosophy for March 1823, p. 227.

150. ‘Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America.

of years. Itis the duty of Americans to refute this ground-
less accusation, and at the same time fill up a chasm in the

ing their attention to the rude stone monuments with which
their country abounds, although they have hitherto escap-
ed their notice, or been passed over as unworthy of regard.

ho is there within the limits of the wide world, that has
not heard of the name and fame of the Druids, of their re-
ligious sacrifices, and of their instruments of gold, with
which they severed the sacred mistletoe from the venerable
father of the forest, the wide-spreading oak. The object of
the present essay is to extend their empire a little farthed
than has hitherto been imagined, and to suggest that the Ab-
origines of America were of Celtic origin, that their monu-
ments still exist in the land, and are the most ancient na-
tional memorials which America can show, and that if anti-
quity is to be a boast, this continent can produce monu-
ments nearly as old as any in Europe, and derived from the

tribes who have successively inhabited the world may be
traced by the peculiar features of their architecture. hat

.

e primitive families of the earth were destitute

Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America. 151

of tools with which to shape and polish masses of rocks:
and the first national monuments we read of in sacred writ,
were rude stones, either placed alone, formed into a circle,
or piled into a heap.
These shapeless stones are proofs of the highest antiquity
in any nation where they are found, and were erecte by
rved even the
name; they remind us of times to which our calculations

The monuments which they erected, while in distinet
hordes they successively traversed the various quarters
the world, may be divided into five species. Ist. Cro
lechs. 2d. Stones of memorial or sacrifice. 3d. Circles of
memorial. 4th, Rocking Stones. 5th. Tumuli or Barrows.

‘The barbarous priests some dreadful God adore,
And sprinkle every stone with human gore.

The voice of history, with perhaps too just.a decision, af-
fixes the perpetration of this enormity upon all the tribes
Who departed from the land of Scythia; but whether these

re the altars consecrated for such purposes, is one of those
Secrets which perhaps even time can never solve.

152 ~— Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America.

On my arrival in this country, I thought | had left the
land of Celts and Druids far behind me, and great was my
astonishment, on a perusal of Silliman’s Philosophical Jour-
nal, when I read in the second volume, page 200, to which
the reader is requested to refer, the description of a most
noble cromlech, although the writer, the Rev. Elias Corne-
lius, is evidently not aware of the valuable relic of antiqui-
ty which he has described. It is mentioned by that gentle-
mab on account of a geological fact supposed to be con-
nected with it ; the highest stone is of granite, and the pil-
lars which support it are of primitive limestone, which is
therefore supposed to be of equal age with the granite
above; but in fact, it isa magnificent cromlech, and the
most ancient and venerable monument which America pos-
sesses, and establishes a common origin between the Abo-
rigines who erected this monument, and the nations who
erected similar cromlechs in other parts of the world.

It is thus described :—* In the town of North-Salem, and
State of New-York, is a rock which, from the singularity
of its position, has long attracted the notice of those who
live in its vicinity ; and being near the public road, seldom
escapes the notice of the passing traveller. Although
weighing many tons, its breadth being ten feet, and great-
est circumference forty feet, it stands elevated in different
parts, from two to five feet above the earth, resting i
whole weight upon the apices of seven small conical pillars.
Six of these, with their bases either united or contiguous,
spring up lke an irregular groupe of teeth, and constitute
the support of one end of the rock. The remaining pillar
supports the other end, and stands at the lowest part of the
surface over which the rock is elevated.

“ Notwitstanding the form of the rock is very irregular,
and its surface aneven, its whole weight is so nicely adjust-
ed upon these seven small points, that no external force
yet applied, has been sufficient to give it even a tremu-
lous motion. There is no mountain or other elevation
near it, from which the rock could have been thrown.”

Geologists in Europe have made an attack upon
some of these ancient monuments, and assert that they were
produced by the decomposition of rocks of granite; but in
this instance, the pillars underneath being of limestone;
and the large stone on the top of granite, we cannot con-

Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America. 153

sider it as the production of nature, because those rocks
seldom or never occur in that relative situation. — It

tance. Others may suppose that some ardent admirer of
Celtic antiquities erected this monument for hisown amuse-
ment, but the immense weight of the upper stone renders
this improbable.

2. Stones of Memorial or Sacrifice.—Mr. Kendall, who
travelled in the northern parts of the United States, seems

fountry, AH that distinguishes them are the crowns of
oak and pine branches which they bear, of which some are
fresh, others are fading, and the rest decayed.”

aptain Smith, in his description of Virginia, relates that
the Indians had certain altar stones, which they call Pawco-
Fances ; these stand apart from their temples, some by their
houses, others in their woods and wildernesses, where they
Met with any extraordinary accident or encounter. As you

upon many other occasions. ;
Charlevoix mentions the worship of rocks as one of the
superstitions of the Northern oe

ol. VIE.—No. 1

154 Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America.

In Messrs. Lewis & Clarke’s Travels there are noticed
several of these rocks.

Stone Idol Creek, on the Missouri, derives its name from
three rude stones which the Ricaras, a tribe of Indians,
worship. Whenever they pass by, they stop to make some
offering of dress, in order to propitiate these sacred deities.

On the bank of the Chissetaw Creek is a rock which is
held in great veneration by the neighbouring savages, and
is visited by parties who go to consult it as to their own and
nation’s destinies

and the Minnitarees resort to it for the purpose of propitia-
ting their Great Spirit by presents, fasting and lamentation,
which they continue for a space of three or five days.
Under this class of Indian monuments may be arranged
the figured rock at Dighton, in the State of Massachusetts,
which has been described in various publications ; also the
sculpjured rocks that occur in many parts of the American
continent, at Tiverton, Rutland, Newport, Scaticook, Brat-
tleborough, Ohio, &c. &c.
[tis to be regretted that a manuscript of the late Dr.

my of Arts and Sciences, and contains an account of many
of Me 5 remains, has not yet been published.

s the intricate question of American ance

Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America. 155

fered to the gods; but he adds, that in his time, this super-
Stiion of worshipping great stones had altogether ceased.

Gomara, in his account of Peru, mentions the same prac-
tice as still continued amongst the old inhabitants in that
country,

Thus in the various regions of America, the natives had
carefully preserved the stones of memorial and sacrifice, in
the use of which they had been instructed by their Celtic
ancestors, and which in some instances may have been the
individual monuments erected by that people.

If accurately examined, there can be little doubt that
America. contains an abundance of these rude stones, which
were erected by the ancient inhabitants as memorials of
their history and exploits in war, or as altars‘on which to
sacrifice to the Deity. Tbe books of the first historians of
America, contain many accounts of the homage which was
. paid by the natives to shapeless rocks, and the sacrifices of-
fered upon them ; but in the lapse of time, the Indians be-
ing nearly destroyed by diseases or by war, and these stones
offering no particular feature to the common observer,
scarcely a trace of their present position can be distinctly
marked ; but to the historian these rude stones are objects
of the highest interest, and every exertion should be made
to identify the situations where they occur.

in America. I have been informed of one by Dr. E. James,

i
|
*

156 = Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America.

In Machenzie’s tour from Quebec to the Pacific ocean,
there is noticed a circle of stones, artificially laid on a high
rock, upou the banks of the river Winnipigon, which dis-
charges itself into a lake of the same name. The Indians
are accustomed to crown this circle of stones with wreaths
of herbage, and with branches; for this reason, the carry-
ing place which passes it has received the appellation of Le
Portage de Bonnét.

In Purehas’ Collection of Voyages, vol. 3, page 1052,
one of the historians of Peru, in describing the manners and

toms of the children of the sun, says: “*'To make the
computation of their year sure and certain, they did use this
industry ; upon the mountains which are about the city of
Cuzco, where the kings beld their court, there were twelve
pillars set in order, and at such distance the one from the
other, as that every month one of these pillars did note the
rising and setting of the sun. They were called Succanga,
and by means of these stones, they taught the seasons fit to
sow and reap, and other things; they did certain sacrifices
to these pillars of the sun.”

hese are no doubt connected in their history with the
other Celtic remains, and resemble those druidical circles, -

e so common in Europe and Asia, and which from

cles. And thus in ages long since. past, perhaps at the
same instant of time, though under different skies, the Dru-
ids of England, and the priests of Cuzco, the astronomers of

*
Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America, 157

Ireland, Hudson, and Winnipigon, seated upon the lofty
hills, and surrounded by their sacred circles of stone, were
calculating the progress of the seasons, the revolutions of
the planets, and the eclipses of the sun, ‘by the same formu-
lez which their ancestors had first practised in the central
plains of Asia

4. Rocking Stones, are memorials raised by the same

it 5 sometimes even the touch of a finger will cause it to

There are several of these memorials of a former race, in
the United States of peda but of the origin of the whole
of them we cannot be c ertain, ae an accurate account is
published of their size, appearance. and situation, and it
would be desirable if they were siMustr ated by correct draw-
ings. In the State of New-York there are probably ifs
or more. Professor Green has bene one, in the A
tican Journal of Science, vol. 5. page 252. It is funated
hear the top of a high bill, near rtbe village of Peekskill, in

‘utnam county ; the moveable stone is thirty-one feet in
circumference ; the rock is of granite, but the mica con-
tained in it being schistose, gives it some resemblance to

eiss, and it is supported by a base of the same material.

‘his rocking stone can be moved by the hand, although six
men with iron ek were unable to throw it off its pedestal.

Silliman’s Seuiual this rock presents eve pearance of
an artificial monument, and may perbaps th safety be
classed amongst the celtic antiquities of merica.—

Putnam m’s rock, which was rows from its as vation ono one

of NewYork of whicl ic account has yet been ished.
In the State of Massachusetts, | have heard of some
. ston, between Lynn and Salem, but do not vouch

the accuracy of the statement, until they undergo a

or
careful ‘-erenges n.
s one at Roxbury, near Boston, described ia

the seal of Science, edited in that city.

* Ee
* -.

stan

G58 — Fruch Bn the Celtic Antiquitics of Amerien.

A small rocking stone occurs at Ashburnham, in the
same Siate.

In New-Hampshire there are two; one at Andover,
weighing filteen or twenty tons, and the other at Durham.

is was a short time since a very splendid rocking stone,
weighing between fifty and sixty tons, and so exactly pois-
ed, that the wind would move it, and its vibrations could be
plainly seen at some distance. But, two years ago, a
party from Portsmouth visited it, and after several hours of
labor succeeded in moving it from its position. A proper
feeling on the part of the persons who effected this mischief,
would cause them to restore it to its original place. e
rock is forty five feet in circumference and seven in thick-

2

5. Tumuli or Barrows, are found in every part of the im-
mense expanse of American territory, from the Lakes of
Canada to the Mexican sea, from the shores of the Atlantic,
to the borders of the Pacific ocean, and they may be con-
sidered merely a continuation of the same monuments which
extend from the icy promontories of Kamschatcka, through
the barren steppes of Tartary, the level plains of Russia, and
all the northern regions of Europe.

These tumuli were the simple repositories of the Celtic
dead, the tombs of their warriors, the last resting place of
those who were wise in council and valiant in war, and an
enlightened people aout respect the remains of the former

rica

blanch under a meridian sun, but in the western states this
may be said to occur every day, and thus the vestiges of
former times are effaced by the advance of the plough, and
even Antiquarians have assisted to open and rifle these sanc-
tuaries of the dead. Surely the land has been acquired
cheap enough from its aboriginal possessors, and humani-

vent dictate that their tumuli, their mounds, their camps,
_ their altars, and the bones of their warriors should be al-
lowed to restin peace.

Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of MAmericc. 159

It seems probable that if these untutored nations wished,
in a more particular manner, to perpetuate the memory of
some one, who was near and dear to them, who had given
his nation important councils ip peace, or raised the fame
of his country in war, then they thought the mound of earth
too humble a covering for his remains, and raised high a
pile of stones, to mark to future times, thé tomb of their fa-
vorite chief. In the Celtic language, these were called

airn.

J. C. Atwater mentions them as occurring near Newark,
and in the counties of Perry, Pickaway and Ross.

In Dr. Dwight’s travels in Connecticut, there are noticed
two of these stone tumuli, which appear to have been erect-
ed over offenders against the law. ;

Adair, in his History of the North American Indians, sdys,
“in the woods we often see innumerable heaps of small stones
in those places, where according to tradition. some of their
distinguished people were either killed or buried. ‘There
they add stone to stone, still encreasing every heap, as
lasting monument and honor to the dead and an incentive to
great actions in the survivors.”

In the same volume it is said, “ the Cherokees continue to
Taise and multiply heaps of stones, as monuments for their
deceased warriors.”

Mr. Jefferson says they occur in Virginia ;—they are al-
80 Mentioned by other historians, and tradition relates that
the Indians in passing these tumuli still add a stone to the

fap to shew their respect to the memory of the heroes
of other times, the ancient Celtic chiefs. :

ese monuments of the aborigines, carry with them un-
doubted evidence of their Celtic origin, and although few
ire at present described, yet when the country is fully ex-
plored, many other remains of the same character may be
observed. Moderns build their temples in crowded cities,

buildings made by the hands of men. ‘They worshipped
them in the SE and silence of retired groves and woods,

160 Finch on the Celtic Antiquities of America.

and it is there we must look for the remains of their altars
and cromlechs, their kistvaen and Tolmin.

tmay be asked if these are really druidical sae
where are the Stonehenge, or the Abury, or the Carnac 0
America, the reply is that the insular situation af Britain,
and the mountainous country of Bretagne were favorable
to the institutions and genius of the Celts, and it was in those
countries alone that the Druids erected those more splendid
monuments of their religion, which have attracted the most
powerful feelings of admiration and awe from passing ages.

What connexion can there be between the ancient Celts

and Germans, who have been described by the pencil of a
Tacitus, and the WEHCENE tribes who now inhabit the inte-
rior parts of America?

. Beneath the majestic language of the Roman historian,
you may discover a picture of uncivilized tribes, varying not
much from the North American Indians. But these scorn-
ed even the slight reine which must be the bond of any
civilized society, and wished to be as free as the air they
breathed ; the love of Eearts was to these poor savages a
meteor light, which divided Se into weak, independent
tribes, who were continually

Before I close this me a A be allowed to say one

ord to plead for the preservation of these monuments,
which - ay be to all Americans a subject of the most
anxious ¢

ayaa aoe superstition and despotism have contri-

rae to the overthrow of many a noble Celtic monument,
but in this land of AS ae it Re be well, if legislative
power, or better still, if public opinion would throw its shield
around these remains, and protect the last monuments of a
former race. Americans should consider that one of these
cromlechs or Cairns, does more to elucidate the history of
their native country, than the learning of Robertson, of
the je of Buffon

The Celts ciated: these monuments in order that they
mighi speak to their children.

<i Quid nobis dicunt isti lapides? ;
Positi sunt in monumentu m.’

They pose that a nation of Celtic origin once inhabited
this continent.

cg

161

Notice of “Plans for the Instr Ac -

Nore. . In concluding this essay, I wish to express my
obligatios to the members of the New-York Historical So-
ciety, for the very liberal manner in which they have allow-
ed me access to the valuable library, collected under their
auspices, which is extremely rich in all. works connected
with American Antiquities. a

» New-York, No. 126, Broadway.

EDUCATION.

tT. XXI-—Notice of a new work on Public Education, enti- |
tled * Plans for the government and instruction of boys in
large numbers ; drawn from experience.” London 8yo.
1829. : nee sui th ae

(Communicated for this J ournal,)

estow upon us as his choicest blessing.

. It may perhaps to many minds, be a new mode of con-

sidering the subject, but the fact undoubtedly is that our

Method of teaching our children to sustain their parts in a

Sountry of liberty is by placing them during some. of the
Le . 21

VIE.—No. 1
a

162 Notice of * Plans for the Instruetion and

most important years of life under a despotism=-not a Turk-
ish or a Russian depotism, we grant.

‘The genius of Education no longer bears the rod. ‘The
best gift of one generation to another is not forced upon
the recipient with blows nor received with tears and exe-
crations. But the rule, though mitigated, 1s nevertheless a
mitigated despotism; not a particle of real freedom has
yet found its way into these important microcosms.

The causes of the general neglect which the subject of
boy-government has so long endured; while every other part
of the field of science is teeming with improvement, are
worthy of consideration. In the first place, it is only
among the few nations which can really be called free, that
improvements would be encouraged or perhaps endured.
Where the fashionable creeds teach that man cannot be
entrusted with government, unless endowed with such @
stock of hereditary wisdom as is possessed only by the de-
scendants of a line of rulers, it would be no welcome dis-
covery to find the profound mysteries of legislation and
jurisprudence fathomed by children. Another cause is to
be found in the feelings and inclinations of those by whom
experiments must be made. Schoolmasters like other men
are far from being insensible to the blandishments of pow-
er. It is so pleasant to see our-will carried into prompt and
complete effect: so delightful to pronounce our opinions
ex cathedra without fear of dissent; that he who can resolve
to forego such enjoyments and encounter opposition, must
be actuated by motives which it would be idle to expect,
should impel the actions of men in general.

Thus, without an attempt to overcome the difficulties
naturally attendant on such an undertaking, it has been set
down (sub silentio) by almost every man, as an impossibility
that boys should ever be able to form self-governing com-
munities,

We have however, evidence before us, which will we
think shew the contrary, and that most satisfactorily, but
before we enter upon it, we had better perhaps make a few
observations on the desirableness ofa free government for
boys ; for so much are even the most enlightened under the
dominion of custom, that whatever is new is sure to be op-
posed and stands in need of defence. -

It is an excellent rule in education, so to teach as that
the pupil may have nothing to unlearn, What then more

Government of Boys, &e. 163

important than for the freeman to grow up without the as-
sociations of tyrant and slave; without the habit of track-
ling to power on the one hand, or on the other of aspiring
afier the means of tyranny ?

The excellence of a popular government will always be
in proportion to the knowledge possessed by the people of
the art of ruling. Can their minds then be called to the
subject at too early anage. Government is an art as well
as ascience: does not he who is to practice it in after life,
require some practical experience to preserve him from

But let the subject be considered only in its most con-
fined point of view ; let the government of boys be thought
of importance, only as it facilitates or impedes the acquisi-
tion of such information as the teacher may wish to im-
part even then there is much to be said in favour of free-

is ;

m.

Even if a despotism were in the nature of things unavoid-
able, it were much better that the despot should not be the
instructor. Where the burden of government rests altogeth-
er on his shoulders, his attention must necessarily be much
drawn from his duty of imparting knowledge. But this is
the least inconvenience. A line of demarcation is drawn
between him and his pupils. He is the fountain of reward
and punishment—judge without appeal—often witness and
executioner. His fiai islaw. His words are the sentence
of fate. How is it possible that his subjects can be at ease
in the presence of such an absolute monarch? With what
unfortunate associations are all his lessons surrounded. Can
We wonder that so man rsons shut their books for ever
when they leave school? It ought to be more matter of
Surprize that the love of knowledge can in any ease survive
the shocks to which it is so constantly exposed. __

Another objection to the despotic system is that it checks
all voluntary action on the part of the pupil. Fignpine was

not see that such a system would reduce us to automa-
‘a. All.mental pleasures eel be destroyed, for the mind

3 =.
164 Notice of “ Plans for the Instruction and

itself would die away for want of exercise. The ordinances
of nature have irrevocably decreed that labour’and enjoy-
ment cannot be long separated with impunity. Now a des-
potism, in as far as it interferes with human actions at all,
has the degrading effect consequéit on such a separation.
Indolence and apathy have always been its constant and in-
evitable accompaniments. Fielding forgot that the science
of governmeni, while it furnishes a high and ennobling' ex-
ercise for the human mind, excites it strongly to action.
And it will be with schools as with nations—keep them in
continual coercion, and they will become like soldiers ata
drill, mere machines, moving only as they are moved, an
containing within themselves no spring of voluntary exer-
tion.

It is time however to Ict the author speak for himself : we
shall only premise that we have obtained satisfactory proof
that the system which he lays down is in actual operation.”

“The principle of our government is to leave, as much as
possible, all power in the hands of the boys themselves: to
this end we permit them to elect a Committee, which en-
acts the laws of the school, subject however to the reto of
the Head Master. We have also Courts of Justice for the
trial of both civil and criminal causes, and a vigorous police
for the preservation of order.

-* Our rewards consist of a few prizes, given at the end of
each half year, to those whose exertions have obtained for
them the highest rank in the school; and certain marks,
which are gained from time to time by exertions of talent
and industry. These marks are of two kinds: the most
valuable, called premial marks, will purchase holiday ; the
others are received in liquidation of forfeits. Our punish-
ments are fine and imprisonment. Impositions, public dis-
grace, and corporal pain, have been for some years discard-
ed among us. . ie.

acquirements ; and our arrangements according to excel-
lence are so frequent, that no one is safe, without constant
exertion, from losing his place. .

Government of Boys, &c.” 165

“The boys learn almost every branch of study in classes,
that the Master may have time for copious explanations ; it
being an object of greatanxiety with us, that the pupil should
be led to reason upon all his operations. ,

“Economy of time is a matter of importance with us; we
look upon all restraint as an evil, and, to young persons, a
very serious evil; we are, therefore, constantly in search of
means for ensuring the effective employment of every min-
ute’ which is spent in the school room, that the boys may
have ample time for exercise in the open air. The middle
state between work and play is extremely unfavourable to
the habits of the pupil. We have succeeded by great atten-
tion to order and regularity, in reducing it almost to nothing.

e outline which we have here given is followed by a
minute detail of the means by which his principles are car-
tied into operation. ue

‘hapter 3d, is a review of the system examining and de-
fending the principles of the work. We give the following
€Xtract, because it furnishes additional reasons to those which
we have enumerated fora popular form of government

_ ‘We shall be disappointed if the reader has not already
discovered, that by the establishment of a system of legis-
lation and jurisprudence, wherein the power of the master
is bounded by general rules, and the duties of the scholar
accurately defined, and where the boys themselves are
called upon to examine and decide upon the conduct of
their fellows, we have provided acourse of instruction in the
great code of morality, which is likely to produce far more
Powerful and lasting effects than any quantity of mere i
cept. If morality is a science as well as a practice, (and

ho will deny the classification?) it must assuredly be a
Science of the highest importance: but in every other

ranch of scientific education, that mode of instruction
wherein the pupil is merely passive, as in listening, has

een gradually exchanged for others which dema his ac-
tive eo-operation. Who would think of teaching arithme-
tic by lectures, in which be should work all the proplea
himself, while his pupil sat silent and inactive? or who

166 Notice of “Plans for the Insiruetion and

would think the scholar likely to become a profound geom-
etrician, whose master was contented with reading demob-
strations to him? Indeed, it is an acknowledged truth
among teachers, that no man can do them a greater ser-
vice, than by reducing every art and science, which the
extending information of society from time to time de-
mands, to be made a part of juvenile education, under the
dominion of “ Practical Instruction.”

‘We shall not be called upon to prove that, to give a
knowledge of the science of morality is an excellent means
of ensuring a correct practice of it; because, the position
being universally allowed as respects every other depart-
ment of human learning, we may fairly call upon the ob-
jector to show why the analogy, which holds good in eve-
ry other instance, should fail here. But even if the effect
of this science on the conduct of the student were as re-
mote as it is immediate, still, exercising his mind, and ex-
tending his information, it would equally well deserve his
attention, with the objects to which it is usually directed.

“They, however, who willltake the trouble to glance over
the history of their early years, and call to mind the perti-
nacity with which their school-fellows screened each other
from the most deserved punishment; and the many acts of
oppression which remained unredressed, because the suf-
ferers dared not to disobey the stern edict against ‘‘ bearing

by us, lest the influence of a leading boy, which in every
school must be considerable, should overcome the virtue
of the jury; but our fears have been uniformly relieved,

*Trial by Jury was established early in 1816. This chapter was writ-
ten in November, 1818; since that time two other verdicts have been giv-
en, in which the teachers did not concur; they were appealed against, a9
it has been already stated, and were reversed by the committee. A remark-
able instance of conscientious feeling was lately given by a jury who eon-
victed a boy on a charge of prevarication ; ugh they were so
moved Rae distress of mind which he evinced during bis trial, as to pay
halfhis fine from their own pockets. The remainder was immediately
aubscribed bythe spectetors. —

%

ae
Government of Boys, &c.” 167

and the hopes of the offender crushed, by the voice of the
foreman, pronouncing, in a shrill but steady tone, the awful
word—Guilty !
_“One exception there has been, and but one ; and then it
_ was the opinion of the attending teacher, that the jury did
not understand the case. The boys who composed it hap-
pened to be very young, because the number present be-ag)
tmusually small, the elder scholars were all engaged in the
various offices of the court.’’ ;
Chapter 4th is ‘‘ On the best method of acquiring Lan-

79

translations. He objects to urging students to converse
with each other in a language which they are acquiring, lest
ime should form bad habits of speech. do
hapter 5th is on Elocution. ig %
“The practice of elocution,” says the author, “ is inti-
Mately connected with the cure of impediments in the
speech. Slight defects of utterance, as lisping, muttering,
and the elision or substitution of certain sounds, yield to it
almost immediately. Stammering isa more obstinate ene-
my,and is notsubdued without much time and labour.

'ytnay be thwarted ; and it will be thwarted by every thing,
Which disturbs the mind, and irritates the temper of the pu-

es. jae
“ Frequent opportunities for exercise in the open air with
ompanious of his ownage,—a system which regulates his

ey, es
168 Notice of “Plans for the Instruction and

actions without hastily coercing them.—the_ spectacle of »
machine working its numerous parts. without hurry or con-
fusion ;—these appear to us to be circumstances more than
commonly favourable for placing the pupil ina state of body
and.mind to receive the lessons of the master with profit.
We have also facilities for inducing the perception of time ;
the pupil is constantly witnessing the measured movements
of others, and is trying to act in concert with them. To
learn to march he finds indispensible to his comfort. The
motive to exertion thus obtained, his daily practice, and the
effect of example soon overcome any natural inaptitude for
making the acquisitions.

** Every starnmerer, the reader will have observed, can
sing ; at least the defect of stammering offers no bar to his
being a singer, if he is in possession of the usual qualifica-
tions of voice and ear. e ear, we are convinced from
experience, may in almost all cases be educated to a sufficient
degree of accuracy for our purpose, and the voice is a mat-
ter of little importance to us, as our pupil would not learn to
sing with the view of exercising the art, but simply to quali-
fy him for learning to speak.

In extreme cases, then, we would have the pupil taught
to sing. From singing, let him pass to recitative, which so
nearly approaches to speaking, that the Siennese, we are told,
actually practice an intonation, which may be considered a

pecies of it, in common conversation.

wards verse of more difficulty may be adopted; than mea-
sured prose, as Barbauld’s Hymns, Do isley’s Economy of
Human Life, or (to go at once to the models from which

of Job, and the Prophecies.. From these we would proceed
es —— from didactic works, and, lastly, to narrative and
ia

e.

“In going through this course, the teacher gradually ceas-
es to accompany his pupil, either in marching or speaking,
until at length he directs the boy himself to stand still. Re-
ctative may be sometimes changed for reading, and instead
of the sing-song tone almost inseperable from the plan in

‘
Government of Boys, &c.” 169

@s early stages, more natural inflections may be substituted.
The pupil should now be taught to relieve his difficulty o
utterance in conversation by forcible gestures, and by pro-
nouncing his words with acadence, marching also, or beat-
ing time, when he finds the impediment cannot be sur-
mounted otherwise.

This plan of proceeding we have never found to fail, when
a fair allowance of time has been afforded for the experi-

Chapier 8th is a Comparison of Public and Private Edu-
ein. The author hes entered the lists with the advo-

he Appendix contains some curious papers >
Case of appeal from the Magistrate to the Commitee a-
Vou. VEL. ee 2

ViL--N

170 Cleaveland’s Notice of the Late Meteor in Maine.

gainst the conviction of a boy for climbing a tree to witness
a battle, the law being that all battles shall be fought with-
out spectators (except the magistrate and constables) to pre-
vent the artificial incitement to boxing matches, arising from
the stimulating shouts of the by-standers. The ground of
appeal was want of jurisdiction in the magistrate, the tree
being on land of the appellant’s father, and the time being
out of school hours. After a long debate, the order of the
magistrate is confirmed. 2nd, An account of the erection
of a tool-house, or work-shop by the boys without any as-
sistance—* No workman having been employed either in
the masonry, carpentry, slating, glazing, or painting.”

There are also the answers to questions in Mental Arith-
metic which have been made at public examinations. Some
of them remind us of Zerah Colburn.

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
RC
J. Domestic.

1. Notice of the late Meteor in Maine, by Prof. Cleaveland;
: Brunswick, Oct. 11th, 1823. ;

This aerolite fell at Nobleboro’, Maine, August 7th, 1823,
between 4 and 5 o’clock, P. M. on land belonging to John

the exception of a small whitish cloud, apparently about
forty feet square, nearly in his zenith, from which the

if about to fall on him, and made a noise, like a whirlwind
among leaves. _At this moment, the stone fell among
some sheep, which were thereby much frightened, jump-

Proceedings of the N. Y. Lyceum. 171

ed, and ran into the woods. This circumstance assisted
Mr. D. in finding the spot, where the stone striick, whic
was about forty paces in front of the place where he was
standing. The aerolite penetrated the earth about six inch-
es, and there meeting another stone, was broken into frag-

hen first taken up, which was about 6ne hour
after its fall, it exhaled a strong sulphureous odour.
whole mass, previous to its fracture, probably weighed
between four and six pounds. Other fragments of the same
Meteoric stone, are said to have been found several miles
distant from Nobleboro’.

2. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural -
tory, New-York.

the rivers San Juan and Atrato. :
verbal communication was made on the probability of

the successful cultivation of cotton in this state, from sun-

dry experiments made by Levi McKeen, Esq. of Pough-

Mr. Halsey presented shells from Saugatuck, (Conn.)

Fi ebruary 17th, -Specimens of the minerals, petrifactions
and shells of Antigua, were laid on the table, a donation
from Capt. Redwood.

172 Proceedings of the N. Y. Lyceum.

_ Specimens were received from M. Milbert illustrating
the geology of the island of St. Pierre Miguelon, near New-
foundland.

Dr. Van Rensselaer presented specimens of the marbles
and of the iron ores of Vermont and Crown point.

worms. Dr. Dckay offered drawings and descriptions of

President, Samuel L. Mitchill, M. D. LL. D. &c.
Ist. Vice President, John Torrey, M. D.
2d. Vice President, Rev. D. H. Barnes A. M. °
Corresponding Sec’y. J. E. Dekay, M. D.
Recording Sec’y. 4. Halsey, Esq.

ll, Esq.

Treasurer, L. Bu
Mi

Dr. Dekay, \ Curators.
l

r.Van Rensselaer,
Anniversary Orator, Dr. Van Rensselaer.

March 3d.—Mr. Barnes reported on specimens of Chi-
ton, animal and shell, from Peru ; he considers them as two
new species, and describes them at length under the name
of Chiton niger and C. Echinatus.

10th.—A translation was read by Dr. Dekay of a letter
from Mons. Geoffroi relative to the organization of dia-
delphous animals, in which he proposes as subjects of en-
quiry, Ist. To verify at any period of gestation, the exist-
ence of a feetus in either uterus. 2dly. To ascertain
whether the ovula is found in the fallopian tube or ovary-
Sdly. If this product is discovered, to note its characters:
Is it an egg, i.e. with centre yolk and exterior white, or on-
ly an ovule 7

17th.—Mr. Barnes read an Essay on the genus Alasmo-
donta of Say, and described three new species, A; arcuata ;
A: mite A: complanata. (Published in No. XIV of this

Proceedings of the N. Y. Lyceum. 173

24th.—The Anniversary Oration was pronounced by the
Rev. Mr. Schaeffer.

A note was read announcing the receipt of zoological
specimens brought by Mr. A. Vaché from the S. Atlantic
and Pacific ocean.

31st.—Mr. Barnes delivered an Introductory Lecture
on the study of natural history.

April 7th.—Dr. Dekay reported on the scutella quinque-
fora, and on the ophiura tetragona.

r. Barnes presented a specimen of an extinct animal,
(sosupposed,) and described by Say as the pentramite,
commonly called althea bud.

Dr, Dekay delivered a Lecture for the evening, being a
oe on the Literary History and Anatomy of

hes.

origin. It strongly resembles in external appearance the
amygdaloid from Patterson, N. J.
_ Dr. Akerly delivered a Lecture on Polyps or Zoophites,
illustrated by splendid transparent figures. e :
—Dr. Mitchill read a Lecture on Parasitical Ani-
mals which he divides into molluscous, arachnidal, crusta-
ceous, insects, and zoophites.
28th --Dr. Mc N sivik read a Lecture on Electrick Mag-

netism.
_ May 5th.—A suite of minerals opp — _ Mex-
ico, illustrating the geology of Mont Catherine de Urevas.
Mr. Gecene predated some interesting shells from Wap-
Penger’s Creek. :
_ Dr. Mitchill read an analysis of a work lately aa
in Paris, on Fossil Trilobites by M. Brongniart, a pes
Crustacea by M. Demarest. It is a matter 0 reat ee
80 few of the N. American Trilobites are known to the dis-
Unguished author.
12th._-Dr. Van Rensselaer rea
Formations of America.

da Lecture on the Salt

- *

174 Velocity of the Mississippi.

19th.--A suite of minerals, consisting of petrifactions,
agates, jaspers and madrepores from Antigua, was present-
ed by Capt. Redmond.

Mr. Halsey reported on the Kalankoe Pinnata of La-
mark, which possesses the singular property of sending out
gemmz from the dentations of the leaf, which take root and
become new plants.

3. Velocity of the Mississippi.

To Professor Silliman.

ing perpendicularly 1330 fee

_ But even admitting the correctness of the hydrodynamic
principles assumed by your correspondent, still is there not a
great mitfake ip the estimate? For it is generallyknown that

ter of a second ; in which case its mean velocity is 4 ft. per

New Mineralogical Hammer. 715

sec. and the last acquired velocity being double of the mean
velocity is, in this case, 8 feet per second. But the spa-
ces described are always as the squares of the last acquired
inch. sqr. of v inch. sq, of vel,
velocities. Hence,12 : 8 X8=64 :: 51 : 928,
ence 1/28=5.29 feet per second, or upwards of 31 miles
per hour, is the velocity acquired in falling 51 inches, in-
stead of 1} feet per second, and 1; miles per hour, as es-
timated by your correspondent. J,
June, 1823.

4. New Mineralogical Hammer, by Rev. E. Hitchcock, A.M.

“T have lately constructed a geological hammer* on such
a plan as toembrace three or four of those used in Europe,
both for convenience and economy. Fig. 1 is a side view
of the hammer. The lower part @ of the head a 4, is a
little rounded to endure a heavier blow. Yet this curva-
ture ought not to be very great, as a flat surface is often ad-
Vantageous. The upper part 6, of the head, is brought to

an edge: the direction of the edge coinciding with that of

the handle, as shown in Fig. 2. In the handle, a hole six
or eight inches deep, and half or three quarters of an inch
in diameter, is made to receive a steel drill, e f. This,
when not wanted, is confined in the handle by a spring d,
closing down so as to cover the hole ate. The hammer

Without the handle, weighs about two pounds. The handle
should be made rather larger than is common, as itis liable
‘0 split when heavy blows are struck while the drill is in-
Serted in it.

: rounded face of the hammer a is used in breaking
specimens from the obtusely angular surfaces of rocks ; the
edge 6 serves to cleave schistose or laminated specimens,
and to break common specimens in the cabinet, and the
drill is often wanted to assist in disengaging petrifactions or

- >

minerals deeply imbedded in their matrix.
: 5. Navigation of Rapids.

Mr. Edward Clark has recently published in Philadel-
ia, a “Description of a plan for navigating the rapids in

* See Plate 5.

176 Navigation of Rapids.

rivers, with an account of some experiments instituted te
establish its practicability,” in a pamphlet of 11 pages, 8vo.
He has taken out a patent for his method, and has put it ia
successful operation at the rapids of Columbia, on the Sus-
guehannah. His principle is the following :—If a water-
wheel be attached to a boat at anchor in a rapid, or to any
other fixture, and a rope be made to revolve around its
windlass, the current of the rapid will turn the wheel, and
will cause a boat attached to the rope to ascend the rapid.
This is certain; but it has this inconvenience, that it is ap-
plicable only to a rapid in one direct line ; and in such rap-
ids as make one or more curves in their course, two or more
such wheels, or a system of pulleys would be necessary-—
Mr. C. obviates these inconveniences by the plan he has
here explained. The wheel is attached to a boat moving
against the current ; the rope is fastened at the upper end
of the rapid to a fixture, (a pier, anchor, &c.) and is made
to coil around the windlass; in this way, by inverting the
process of the former method, the attachment of the rope

depend on that of the boat. It is only necessary that the
paddles expose a greater surface to the action of the cur-
rent than the transverse section of the boat, The force

ad

Purnace for Ventilating Sewers. 477

with which the boat may be made to ascend will be as the
difference between the surface of the paddles, and the
transverse section. Consequently it may be increased at
pleasure by increasing the surface of the paddles. ‘The
force thus obtained may be employed in moving a tow-boat
(and in this way a heavy-loaded river boat, seventy feet
long, and a canoe almost as large, were moved against the
current almost with the facility of the tow-boat alone); or
the machinery may be attached to the common river-boats,
(as it will be no great incumbrance) and nothing more will
be necessary than to fasten the rope around the windlass, at
the foot of the rapids, where the rope may be sustained by
abuoy. The same rope may be made to move several
boats at the same time, each furnished with the proper ma-
chinery. A chain would be preferable to a rope, as it woul
wear less, and would oxidate very slowly under water.

6. Furnace for Ventilating Sewers.

___ Mr. R. Bulkley has recently proposed, in a memorial to
+ the Mayor and Common Council of New-York, to remove
~ the foul air of sewers by means of purifying furnaces. His
plan is, to construct furnaces above the sewers, so that their
may be supplied by the air of the sewers ; conse-

_ currents of air will be made to set towards these
urnaces through the openings of the sewers, instead of the
exhalations which now escape from them. The air of the
Sewers will have to pass through the fire and the chimney of
the furnace before it can mix with the atmosphere ; of
course it will be deprived of its noxious properties by the
€composition it will undergo in the furnace. This is a

and no other means of forming a head of water sufficiently
Powerful can be adopted.
Vor. VIL—No. 1. 23

178° — Brongmiart, Sur Les Vegetaux Fossiles.
7. A Hora of the Middle and Northern States.

Dr. Torrey of New-York has now in the press a Flora
of the Middle and Northern sections of the United States,
being a systematic arrangement and description of ail the
plants hitherto discovered in the United States, north of
Virginia.

This work will contain original descriptions of all the
species which have come under the observation of the au-
thor, to which will be added copious synonyms.and_locali-
ties. Its plan will be nearly similar to that of Mr. Elliot’s

_valuable Flora of the Southern States, and will with that
work and the promised Western Fiora of Mr. Nuttall, form
as Complete an account of the plants of the United States
as our present knowledge will afford. 7%

8. Finch’s Geology.

Mr. J. Finch intends soon to publish 4n Introduction to
the Study of Geology, designed to facilitate the acquisition
of that highly interesting branch of Science.

Il. Foreien.

1. Analysis of a Treatise, “ Sur la Classification et la dis-
tribution des vegetaux Fossiles, (On the Classification
distribution of fossile vegetables,) par M. Adolphe Brongni-
art.

(Communicated by James G. PERCIVAL.)

After a few general observations, and an enumeration of
authors who have written on the same subject, the most im-_
portant of whom are M. Schlothei d Sternberg of Germa-
ny whose works are in the German Language ;* the author
proceeds in his first Chap. to his Classification of fossile ve~
getables, of which he gives a tabular view and a detailed
exposition. In the second Chap. he gives a descriptive ac-
count of the fossile vegetables discovered in what he calls
the formations of superior sediment or tertiary formations,
which extend from the plastic clay and the lignites which

* Die Petrefactenkunde (The science of Petrifactions) von Schlotheim :
Flora der vorwelt (Flora of the ancient world) von Sternberg.

ie

Brongmart, Sur les Vegetaux Fossiles. 179
cover the chalk to the surface of the earth, or the most re-

water deposites. In the third and last Chap. he com-
pares the fossile vegetables of these formations, with those
of earlier formations—viz those of middle and inferior sed-
iment, including chalk, oolite, alpine limestone, and their
subordinates—and those of Coal and Anthracite with the
copper lignites of Catherineburgh.

His classification is artificial, but in his detailed account
of the particular Genera, he points out their affinities with
existing families and genera of vegetables. e also proves
in his second Chapter, that there are many fossile vegeta-
bles. in the superior formations, which are referable to gene-
ra if not to species still existing. We will give a tabular
view of his Classification with the principal facts referable
to each genus gathered from his chapters. 3

= I. Stems, whose internal organization is recogni-
Zabdie.

Genera. 1. Exogenites. Wood formed of regular concen-
tric layers. These must have belonged to arborescent di-
cotyledonous plants—they cannot be referred to any

hown species. They are chiefly found in the superior
formations, where they occur in the state of lignite, or ina
silicious state, (as in resinites, wood-opal,) they are also
found in the state of lignite in the formations of inferior
sediment. They are not found in the coal formations.

2. Endogenites. Wood composed of insulated bundles of
vessels more numerous at the circumference than the cen-
tre. These must have belonged to arborescent monocoty-

nous plants such as the Palms, the Draceenas, Yuccas,

- There are also distinct contorted fibres found in mas-
ses of lignite, which seem to have been formed of decom-

the state of lignite or silicious. They are not found in the
erior sediment nor in the coal formation. |

Class II. Stems whose internal organization Is no longer

Gistinct, but which are characterized by their external

180 Brongniart, Sux les Vegetaux Fossiles.

Genera. 1. Culmites. Stems articulated smooth, only one
impression at each articulation. They sometimes. want
this impression, but have then many cicatrices on the in-
ternodes. They are considered analogous to the grasses
and the jast variety to the creeping roots of grasses. The
are found only in the coarse limestone ef the superior sedi-
ment near Paris,

2. Calamites. Stems articulated, regularly striated, im-
pressions rounded small numerous, forming a ring aroun

red to the Genus Equisetum, to which they are at least anal-
ogous, although arborescent in size. They are found only
in the coal formations, and in the copper mines of Catha-
rineburgh.

3. Syringodendron. Stems channelled not articulated, im-
pressions punctiform or linear, disposed in a quincunx.
They cannot be satisfactorily allied to any known plants.
Found only in the coal formations

4, Sigillaria, Stems channelled, not articulated, impres-
sions in the form of a disc disposed in a quincunx.

5. Clathraria. Stems neither channeled nor articulated,
impressions in the form of rounded dises disposed in a quin-
cupx.

ese two Genera are referred to the Arborescent
ferns—found only in the coal formations.

6. Sagenaria. Stems neither channeled nor articulated,
covered with rhomboidal conic tubercles, disposed in a
quincunx, bearing at their summit an impression in the

rm of a disc,

These are referred to the Lycopodia, although arbores-
cent. Found only in the coal formations.
4s Stigmaria. Stems neither channeled, nor articulated,
impressions rounded, far apart, disposed in a quincunx.—
Their analogy is doubtful, but considered nearest to the ar-
borescent Aroide, viz. the Dracontia, Pothos, &c. Found

rineburgh, __
Class III. Stems and leaves united, or leaves insulated.
Genera. 1. Lycopodites. Leaves linear or setaceous,

und the stem or on two rows. There are four very dis-
rour | ry
tinct sections. 1. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, inserted all

Brongniart, Sur les Vegetaux Fossiles. 181

around the stem, which probably belongs to G. Sagenaria.
2, Leaves setaceous arranged in two rows and not appear-
ing to leave reticulated impressions. 3. Leaves broad,
without apparent nerve, scattered and inserted without or-
derall around the stem. ‘hese are found only in the bi-

the aquatic mosses. Only the last section is found in the
superior formations. In the inferior sediment, the third
section is found at Mansfeld and a species with thrice pin-
hate divisions in the Oxford oolite. The true Lycopodites
or those of the second section are very abundant in the
coal formations, but are not found ia any more recent for-
mations. The Lycopodites are not all distinctly referable
to the Lycopodia; but the two first sections may be consid-
ered analogous.

2. Filicites. Frond disposed on the same plane, symme-
trical; secondary nerves simple, dichotomous, or rare

ferns.” The five sections. 1. Glossopteris—frond
simple, entire, traversed by a single median nerve, without
distinct s nerves; resembles ophioglossum, but in

analogous in structure, though not in form, to no-
Phyllum. Only one specimen of filicite has been observed
: i superior formations, and this very

“‘temely abundant in the coal and anthracite formations to
‘4 theyseem peculiar. There is no ce example
of them in any more recent formations.

18% Brongniart, Sur les Vegetaux Fossiles.

3. Sphenophyllites—Leaves verticillate, cuneiform,
truncated, with radiating dichotomous nerves. Analagous
to the Marsileacew, (a family allied to the true ferns,) and
although not referable to G. Marsilea, yetnear it. Found
oniy in the coal and anthracite formations.

4. Asterophyllites—Leaves verticillate, with a single
nerve, linear, lanceolate. Not referable to any known fam-
ily of plants; found only in the coal formations, except one
species found in the superior formations, very unlike the
more ancient specimens, and analogous to the G. Cerato-
phyllam.

5. Fucoides—Frond not symmetrical, often disposed on
the same plane; nerves wanting or indistinct—distinctly
referable to the unarticulated Alge or Fuci. A few species
are found in the superior formations, very similar to exist-
ing Genera and even species; found principally at Monte
Bolca in the Veronese, a limestone formation abounding in
remains of fishes. In the inferior sediment found with great
masses of carbonated exogenite, in Isle d’Aix. Alsoinsever-
al localities in France, Italy and Austria, all similar in their
geological character. These three classes of Fucoides are
entirely distinct. ‘They are not found in the coal forma-

ent nerves are rather referable to certain monocotyledonous
families, viz. Aroides, Piperacee, Dioscorew, &c. The

might form a distinct Genus. The Phyllites are found only
in the superior formations accompanying the Exogenites.
They are analogous to none of the plants now growing in-
Europe, and rather belonged to trees and shrubs than

2 be
7. Poacites—Leaves linear, with parallel nerves. These

Genus or species. They all belong to the existing division
with flabelliform leaves, while the fossile fraite of palms

Brongniart, Sur les Vegetaux Fossiles. 183

belong to the division with pinnate leaves. The leaves and
fruits are found in distinct localities. They are altogether
confined to the superior formations.

Class 1V. Organs of fructification.

Order 1. ere — and Seeds.

2. Antholithes, Flow

at Monte Bolca. They are vers rare, and hard to be re-
Cognized. They preserve only theenvelopes; one, however,
has an ovary with three stigmas, and six divisions to the en-
— three exterior and three interior, resembling the
ili
ndix. Fossils referable to known Genera found in
the superior — Three species of fruits referred
to G. Chara, two found in the mill-stone of the superior
fresh water Secstakiaas and one in the fresh water formation
inferior to the coarse limestone near Paris. A species of
Juglans intermediate to the regia and nigra found in the
Superior sediment near Turin. Three species of cones, of
G. Pinus, one found in the sea-shell formation, at the foot
of the Appenines in Placentia, carbonated and mixed with
Sea-shells, bones of cetacea and carbonated wood. (2d
found in the coarse limestone at Arcueil, entirely destroy-
ed, marine only its —— in the mould. 3d in the supe-
rlors Ar ‘an imperfect mould remain ing.
All the fruits eo superior Teecialvons are distinctly refer-
able to known Genera; of stems and leaves only a few spe-
¢ies can be so referred, viz. the Equisetum Brachyodon, found
in the coarse limestone near Paris—and a specimen in the
mill-stone of Lonjumeanu, resembling very exactly the cree-
Ping su ubmerged roots = Nymphea Alba, after the fall of
the “pecttg and petioles
capitulation. 1. T ‘he formations of superior sediment
including plastic ey resting on chalk, the coarse limesto one,
mill-stone rock, and gypsum of Paris—the limestone of M.
Bolea, the shell- limestone of the Appenines, the fresh water
formations above and below the coarse ae une
bis Contain fossile vegetables belonging the G.
es, Endogenites, Culmites, iaotonee folcnaiiély ‘Fae

184 Brongniart, Sur les Vegetaux Fossils.

coides, Poacites, Phyllites, and the orders Carpolithes and
Antholithes, beside nine species referable to existing Gen-
The Palmacites are found only in this formation. .

2. The formations of middie and inferior sediment, inclu-
ding chalk, Jura limestone, oolite, alpine limestone, some
lignites, and the bituminous schists of Mansfeid, contain
specimens of only three Genera, Exogenites, Fucoides, and
Lycopodites.

3. The formations of coal, anthracite and copper lignite,
contain specimens of Calamites, 5yringodendron, Sigillaria,
Cla ia, Sagenaria, Stigmaria, Filicites, Sphenophyl-
lites, Asterophyllites, and the true Lycopodites, which are
all unknown in the more recent formations. The Filicites
are far the most abundant; they almost give a character
to the coal formations. Poacites are also found in these
formations, more abundantly than in any other. The cop-
per lignites contain only Calamites and Stigmarias similar to
those in the coal formations. The anthracite formations
only Calamites, Filicites, Asterophyllites, Sphenophyllites,
and Poacites. The coal formations contain all the Genera
in this division.

periods, and became very abundant in the form of exoge-
nites and phyllites in the more recent.
The author thinks the coal beds were formed by plants,
growing onthe spot,and not brought from another place and
| there; while the more recent formations are partly
formed of plants growing on the spot, as Fucoidesin marine
formations, and Charas, Nympheas and Poacites, in fresh w2-

Carlsbad Waters and Uranium. 185

ht fh i 5 abies su ire a Bae

terformations, and partly by plants broug
floods, and deposited. Hence the more delicate parts are

preserved. As the cryptogamic monocotyledons which
constitute nine tenths of the coal fossils are not articulated,

grew where they are now found. ;

e volume is illustrated by six lithographic plates, il-
lustrating the Genera and Species described in the text,
and exhibiting some of their analogies with existing veget-
ables.

2. Earlsbad Waters and Uranium.
Extract of a letter from M. Berzelius, Stockholm, March
20; 1822.

“] have nothing of importance to communicate from my
own laboratory, except ananalysis of the waters of Carlsbad
in Bohemia, which I visited last summer. 1 have found in
thetn many substances, which had not hitherto been found
in mineral waters, viz. fluate af lime, Carbonate of strontian,
Phosphate of lime, and phosphate of Alumine. 1) -sub-
stances are found there dissolved in carbonic acid uncom-
bined. The tufas, deposited by these waters, are arrag-
onitic, which corroborates the idea of M. Stromeyer that
it is the carbonate of strontian, which determines the arra-
Zonitic form of this species of carb. of lime.

M. Arfredson, who has been engaged in researches on

to redness. The combinations of the yellow ene of Ura-
iron, |

same way and give metallic Uranures, which take fire when

come in contact wi

‘he experimeits are so easy that they can be made dur

ihg a lecture.”

Vou. VH.—No. 1 . 24

186 _. Drought in Sicily &e,
3. Drought in Sicily.
Extract of a letter from Abbe F. Ferrara, Palermo, Oct.
10, 1 }

“ There has been an extraordinary heat, and dryness,
throughout the whole island, during the present year.(1822.)
The harvest has beenalmost nothing in Ba-te rn,Sicily, where
there has been no rain from Dec. 1821 to Oct. 1822. They
have lost a great many trees, and the water has failed in a
great many fountains. ‘The thermometer has stood at Pa-
lermo, in the months of June, July, Aug. Sept. and Oct. at
‘80°—100°, Fah.”

4, Secondary Granite—M. Marzari bas observed in the
vicinity of Recaro, in ltaly, the following arrangement, pro-
ceeding from below upwards: 1. Mica Slate; 2. Dolerite ;
3. Red sand-stone, with coal and bituminous marls; 4.
Alpine or magnesian limestone ; 5. Porphyritic syenite. In
the valley of Lavis (Aviso) he observed the following suc-
cession of rocks from below, upwards: 1. Grey-wacke ; 2.
Porphyry; 3. Red Sandstone; 4. Alpine Limestone ; 5.
Jura ye tee 6. Granite and augitic masses, without
olivine. And Brieslac, in a memoir lately published, says,
that the secondary granite, placed upon alpine limestone, is
the same as the beautiful granite of Egypt, and contains
great masses of quartz, with imbedded tourmaline.

Edin. Philos. Jour.

detailed account of a new fluid, of a very singular nature,
which he has recently discovered to exist in the cavities of
minerals. It expands about thirty times more than water;
and by the heat of the hand, or between 75° and 83°, it al-
Ways expands so as to fill the cavity containing it. The va-
cuity thus filled up, is of course a perfect vacuum; and at@
temperature below that now mentioned, the new fluid con-
tracts, and the vacuity reappears, frequently with a rapid ef-
fervescence. ese phenomenz take place instantaneously
m several hundred cavities, seen at the same time.

Pyro-eitrie Acid, §. 187

The new fluid is also remarkable for its extreme volubil-
ity, adhering very slightly to the sides of the cavities; and is
likewise distinguished by its optical properties. It exists
not in sufficient quantities to admit of chemical analysis. It
is almost always accompanied by another fluid like water,
with which it refuses to mix, and which does not percepti-
bly expand at the above mentioned temperature.

In a specimen of cymophane, or ehrysoberyl, Dr. Brews-
ter has discovered a stratum of these cavities, in which he
has reckoned in the space of ith of an inch square, thirty
thousand cavities, each containing this new fluid ; a portion
of the fluid like water; and a vacuity besides. All these
vacuities disappear simultaneously at a temperature of 83°.

If such a fluid could be obtained in quantities, it is ob-
served, that its utility in the construction of thermometers
and levels would be incalculable. There are many cavities
in crystals, such as those opened by Sir Humphry Davy,
which contain only water, and which, of course never ex-
hibit any of the properties above described. |

Edin. Phil. Journ,

6. Pyro-citric Acid.—A new acid has been thus named by_
HM. i ssaigne who discovered it. It is produced by the
distillation of citric acid. It is white, inodorous, and of a

oxides it forms salts, differing in their properties from the ci-
trates, M. Lassaigne has examined the pyro-citrates of

potash, lime, barytes and lead.

188 Fumgation, &c.

slightly coloured oil, which must be freed from sulphuric
acid by washing. It is acid and astringent to the taste. It
reddens litmus paper. It burns readily, giving out sulpbur-
reous fumes. Its odour differs from. that of sulphuret of
carbon, and is decomposed by heat. Its compounds have
been termed Hydro-carbo-sulphates. |

Ann. of Phil. new serves.

Articles of Foreign Literature and Science, extracted and translated by
Professor GRiscom.

8. A work has been published in France, by M. Brard,
late director of the mines of Servoz, entitled Mineralogie
Appliquée Aux Arts. It is in 3 vols. 8vo. with plates, price
21 franes.

The style and arrangement is rather severely criticised in
the Rev. Ency. but the reviewer admits that it contains
much useful matter, facts and observations hitherto but lit-
tle attended to, and that the author has evinced extensive
knowledge in many branches of physical science and of the
useful arts.

_ 9. Pumigation—The Swedish public have been much
interested lately in a new medical discovery of considera-
ble importance. It had been known for some time that

’ tre
ing for itself, this process and its results, sent for Anderson
to Stockholm, and engaged him, on the payment of his ex-

Six new patients are now under the Operation of the new
remedy. M. De Weigel, president of the College, and
several other physicians of the city, who have observed this
curative process with the greatest attention, bestow upon it
* just tribute of praise, and have induced the Directors of

Flour or Meal from Leguminous Fruits. 189

the hospital to make the discoverer a present of three hun-
dred and sixty-six rix dollars de bangue and to ensure him
an equal sum in addition, in case that the health of those
whom he has cured, should in two years undergo no altera-
tion that can justly be attributed to their former malady.

he memoirs of the Medical Society will doubtless soon
furnish a detail of the method of M. Anderson,

10. The Society of Christian Morals at Paris, having
appointed very respectable Committees on the subjects of
Gaming and Lotteries, an unknown person, under the mod-
est title of a Christian, has deposited with the society one
thousand francs, to be adjudged in equal portions to the au-
thors of the best essays or memoirs against those enormous
evils.

Each memoir must consist of not less than one hundred
Nor more than one hundred and twenty pages 12mo. The
author is advised to take the excellent work of Lémontey
00 Savings Banks, or Franklin’s Poor Richard, as the mo-
del of his essays.

11, Flour or meal from leguminous fruits—A manufac-
ory of this kind has been established in France, and the
benetits of it have obtained the decided approbation of chem-
ists, public economists and of the society of encouragement.
The flavour of the different fruits and roots is completely
Preserved, and it is believed that in the state of meal their

flour 31 |hs. for a franc, (==182 cent.) Flour of large beans, 3
‘hs, do, ib oe 2 lbs. do. . Garden beans 1ilb. do.

190 American Plough, &c.

Chesnuts 1! francs per lb. &c. Combined with gelatine the
prices are 20 per cert higher.

12,—An American Plough was presented to the pa
of Encouragement at Paris, by J. C. Barnet, Esq.
S. Consul, and by the Society it was referred to a special
committee, who engaged M. sate postmaster at Villeju-
if, to make atrial of it. This was done on the 13th of
June last, in presence of the aininitbe and a number of
Sg she friends of M. Benoist. Two French ploughs
at the same time, for the purpose of comparison.
The satitiines admit that the American performed extreme-
ly well, cutting the sward smoothly, and laying a neat aud
well-turned furrow. But on trying it with the Dynamomeler,
it was found to require a draught of 180 to 190 kilogrammes,
while the plough in common use there, required only!
to 140, and one of a newer kind, with an avant train moved
with 110 to 120 kilogrammes. They attributed the greater
draught of the American plough to the manner of conduct-
ing it, and to the irregularities of its motion, which, they
say, could not be avoided after a long trial. A neat figure
of the American aoa is given in the Bulletin of the Soci-
es for August, 18:

13.—Improvement in Metallic Casting. —Iron and metal-
lic castings are said to be very much improved, by subject-
ing the metal, when in moulds, to pressure. This is done
by making a part of the mould ‘of such a form as to receive
a fag which, on the metal being introduced. is made to
n it with any required force. It is stated that cast-
ings Sbtsincd } in this way are not only free from the imper-
fections generally incurred in the usual mode, but have a pe
culiar soundness of surface and closeness of texture, quali-
ties of the utmost importance in ordnance, rolling cylinders,
- The improvement belongs to Mr. Hollingrake, who
has obtained a patent for it.

| ta. Canal Navigation—The tread-wheel has been ap-
vote alg M. Van Heythuysen, to the propelling of barges f

- The object is to obviate the use of horses.
apparatus is made light and separable from the barge, ‘i
itis found that two men can propel a ba arge by it, at the

New Mode of Printing Designs, &c. 191

rate of five miles per hour. The saving of the expense of
horses and track-roads promises to make this application of
human power very valuable.

15. New mode of Printing Designs.—A discovery has
been made in the department of Calvados in France, by
which the finest strokes of the crayon or pencil, upon por-
celain, may be infinitely multiplied. These strokes, traced
with a particular metallic composition upon the polished
surface of porcelain, are incrusted by the second applica-
tion of fire, without the slightest injury. ‘The parts thus de-
lineated acquire a sort of roughness, insensible to the touch,
and only to be discovered by its perfect retention of ink,
which is easily wiped off the other parts of the surface.
This method seems to have decided advantages over litho-
graphy.

then
The following are some of the various proportions recom-
mend

2 parts paper pulp, 1 glue, 1 chalk, 2 bole earth, 1 lin-
Seed oil ; thin forme 7 thin, hard, and very smooth sheet.

‘

192 On the Porosity of Glass, &c.

3 parts paper pulp, 4 glue, 4 white bole earth, and 4
chalk, oil? produce an uniform sheet, as hard as iron.

“1 paper pulp, 1 glue, 3 white bole earth, | linseed oil; a
beautiful elastic sheet.

en these plates or slates were steeped in water for

four months, they were found not to alter at all in weight,
and when exposed to a violent heat for five minutes, ne
were hardly altered in form, and were st into blac
and vey hard plates. Teh: Rep. 11.

tals ehich are found to contain these seuss of water,
were probably once hydrated, or rather contained through-
out their mass an excess of water, and that this fluid harang
afterwards separated from the crystals, passed by
illary attraction, either to the surface, or to any aceidebtal
void space within them.

ge Lcpahaerh thinks it obvious that the water wate =

eee | that all siliceou si bettiesy on en glass &c. are ~

bottles when sunk to 0. preat depths in the ocean, depends
on the water passing through the glass, and not through the
materials used to stop the bottles, thongh these were only
cork, sealing-wax, and oil-cloth. We would, however, re-
fer our readers to the paper itself in the Phil. Mag. Vol.
60, p. 310, but wish them at the same time to read one by
Mr. Scoresby, in the Edin. Journal, VI, 115, also’ relating
to sunken bottles.

18. Metallic Titanium.—Dr. Wollaston has lately dis-
covered that the small cubic crystals of a metallic lustre
and reddish colour, which are occasionally found in the
eavities of the slags from iron furnaces, are pure titanium.

19. Congelation of Mercury.—M. Gay Lussac states in
amemoir on the cold produced by the evaporation ©

Employment of Potatoes in Steam Engine boilers, &c. 193

fluids, that he has readily frozen mercury, by surrounding
it with a frigorific mixture of ice and salt, in the apparatus
in which aqueous vapour is produced and absorbed by the
process of Mr. Leslie, and he has_no doubt that with analo-
gous means and very volatile liquids, a degree of cold might
em below that produced by mixtures.—Annales de
ime. {

20. New Electro-Magnetic experiments.—T he followingis a
Varvnr - SP a: J } . Pe = rs oi kK
7 v r c Pa
Dr. Sebeck of Berlin. ‘Take a bar ofantimony, about eight
inches long, and half an inch thick; connect its extrem-
ties by twisting a piece of brass wire round them so as to
form a loop, each end of the bar having several coils of the
wire. If one of the extremities be heated for a short time
with a spirit lamp, electro-magnetic phenomena may be
exhibited in every part of it-—4nn, Phil. iv, 318. We

have repeated this experiment with every success.
brass is in that state which would be produced by connect-
ing its heated end with the negative pole of a voltaic batte-
ry, and its cold end with the positive pole.——Editor.
Electrical Effect.—The following effect is. attributed
by Mr. Fox, who observed it, to electricity. A piece of
Iron pyrites was fastened with a piece of brass wire ina
moss house, the moss being damp, On the following day,
wire was found broken and excessively brittle, and in
those parts in contact with the pyrites much corroded. On
One occasion, after the brass wire had been fastened once
or twice round a piece of iron pyrites, and had remained
for some days enveloped in damp linen, the constituents of
the wire were separated, and it was converted into
Copper wire, coated with zinc.—An. Phil. iv. 449.

194 ») -.\.\ > Green Ore of Uranium.

toe dissolves in the boiling water, forming a somewhat
viseid liquid, which envelopes every particle of the precipi-
tated calcareous salt (usually Selenite, sometimes Carbonate
of Lime) renders them slippery, so to speak, and prevents
their mutual contact: and cohesion. After a month’s ser-
vice, the boileris emptied, and new potatoes added along
with the charge of water. ;

22. Flowers of the common Mallow (Malva Sylvestris)
an excellent Testof Alkali —M. M. A. Payen and A, Cheva-
lier state,that an alcoholic infusion of these flowers (previously
dried by a steam heat out of contact of light) gives a sen-
sible tinge of green on being mixed with water containing
moon Part of potash, 1, part of Carbonate of Soda and
3; of lime water.

_ According to the same chemists, the colouring matter of
the fruit of the Cerasus Mahaleb (wood of St. Lucie,) isan
excellent test of acids, but inferior in delicacy to litmus.
Infusions are more sensible to change of colour than colour-
ed paper. Ae .

23. Method of colouring Alum Crystals.—In making these
crystals, the colouring should be added to the solution of
alum in proportion to the shade whichit is desired to produce.

Coke, with a piece of lead attached to it, in order to ma
it sink in the solution, is the best substance for a nucleus;
or if a smooth surface be used, it wiil be necessary to wind
it round with cotton or worsted ; otherwise no crystals will
adhere to it.

Yellow.—Muriate of iron.

Blue.—Solution of Indigo in sulphuric acid.

Pale Blue.—Equal parts of alum and blue vitriol.

Crimson.—Infusion of Madder and Cochineal. *

Black,—Japan ink, thickened ED CAT oc a

dpe eT) di of alum and blue vitriol with a few
drops of muriate of iron. ; 3 2
_ Milk pale crystal i alum held over a glass contain-
ing ammonia, the vapour of which precipitates the alumina
anit surface

24. Green Ore of Ur anium.—R. Philli has ascertained
that the green ore of Uranium Frou taiomele contains

Instrument for Measuring Water, &c. 199

phosphoric acid, and not merely the oxide of Uranium and
eopper combined with water. '

_ 25. Prussian travellers —The Prussian naturalists, Drs.
Ebrenberg and Hemprich, in their tour in the interior of
Northern Africa, arrived safely at the celebrated Dongola,
the capital of Nubia, on the 15th of February. These zea-
lous collectors have sent six remittances to Berlin, and have
again accumulated more than they can pack in ‘twenty
chests. Their collection consists of mammalia, birds, am-
phibia, insects, plants, and what are more rare, fishes and
insects of the Nile.

26. An Electro-Magnetic Apparatus of extraordinary
dimensions has been constructed at the London Institution,
by W. H. Pepys, Esq. F. R. S. It consists of two plates,
the one of copper, and the other of zinc, each two feet wide,
and fifty feet long, giving a total surface of two hundred
square feet. These plates are wrapt or coiled round a com-
Mon center, and are prevented from contact with each other
by the interposition of three cords of hairline, and also of
notched slips of wood placed at intervals. Iwo con-
ductors of copper wire, nearly three fourths of an inch in
diameter, are attached, one to the zinc, and the other to the
eopper plate. In order that so large a mass may be readily
employed for experiment, the apparatus is suspended by
means of pulleys and a counterpoise, and so let down into a
tub of acid, or, when not in use, into one of water. It re-
quires fifty five gallons of fluid. ¥:

his instrument exhibits very powerful magnetic effects :
When the contact was made, a change in the direction of
compass needles was produced, at the distance of five feet;
steel bars enclosed in cylinders of glass, with a spiral of
Wire round them, were rendered magnetic, and cd om
Suspended together; when the contact was br he
bars fell, but ite éf thea was immediately taken up again
®n restoring the contact, though it weighed above dat eal

e electric intensity of the apparatus Is very slight i it has
Rot any decomposing action, and will not make a spark Wi
eharcoal, nor will it deflagrate the metals.

27. Instrument for measuring the compression of ma-
PLM ar fu ple uses a very simple instrament for

196 . A Superwor Green Dye.

measuring the compression of water. After having depriv-
ed the water of atmospheric air by ebullition, l
glass cylinder with it, whose upper part is mounted with a
brass cover, hermetically sealed, a ich is traversed by
a screw, with a small brass piston at its lower extremity
which presses upon the fluid. In the cylinder is placed a
ball with a small thermometer tube, both filled with the wa-
ter of the cylinder, except that in the upper part of the
tube, which remains open, there is a small column of mer-
cury, which on account of the extreme fineness of the tube,
keeps its place without falling into the ball.

Now suppose that the water is compressed by turning the
screw of the piston ; this pressure being equal both within and
without the ball and its tube, they will undergo neither expan-
sion nor contraction, and consequently the position of the
mercury above the water in the thermometric tube will im-

in the cylinder. He has ascertained by this instrument
that the compressibility of water diminishes very rapidly
as the pressure increases, and that the mean compressibili-
ty under a pressure of three or four atmospheres is z57¢s03,
for each atmosphere, a result which very nearly accords
with the experiments of Canton.

ad

Artificial Formation of Formic Acid. 197

merce in water until no more carbonic acid is disengaged.
3d, mix this solution while hot and concentrated, by a hitle
at a time, with the former; continually stirring it until ef-
fervescence ceases. Care must be taken not to add the
arsenite of potash in excess. An abundant precipitate is
formed of a dirty yellow colour. 4th, add acetic acid, (about
three parts) or such a quantity that there may be a slight
excess of it sensible, by its odour after the mixture ; by de-
grees the precipitate diminishes in volume, and at the end

small quantity of this green, it favored the production of the
superior color, somewhat in the same manner as a cry
attracts its kindred molecules ina saline solution. :

The colors which we obtained by the precee method
were judged by several persons to be more lively than that
of Schweinfurt.

29. Artificial formation of Formic Acid.—Dobereiner
has discovered that when tartaric acid, or cream of tartar,
Peroxide of manganese and water, are heated together, a

ntity of carbonic acid
quid acid distils, which, on superficial
examination, might be taken for acetic, but which, on a

nic acid, water, : t
quently be obtained a larger quantity of the la
best proportions of the mixture are—

198 sHechanical Saw, &c-

A. part crystallized tartaric acid, 2} peroxide of manga-
nese, 2} sulphuric acid, diluted with two or three times its
weight of water.

Gay Lussac confirms this interesting result of Dobe-
reiner.

30. Saw moved by Mechanism.—It is stated in‘an official
report made to the Society for the Encouragement of Na-
tional Industry, Paris, that the mechanism invented and ap-
plied by Brunel, in England, has been ascertained (accord-
ing to an investigation made by order of the British admiral-
ty,) to produce an annual saving to the government of seven
thousand pounds sterling; and asa mark of benevolence
and esteem for M. Brunel, this sum has been guaranteed to
_ him, notwithstanding he has for a long time derived a liber-
al benefit from his useful labors,

31. The Society for the Encouragement of National Indus-
try in France, expended during the year 1821, in the various
objects of its association, the sum of 43,955,°.5, francs. Its
income during the same year was 49,838,4,°, francs. A

hy, a university at Coimbra with six facul-
ties, and a college for preparatory studies. The university
and the college enumerate, annually, from 1280 to 1600 stu-

ae

Method of Public Instruction, &c. 199

dents. All these establishments were frequented, in 1819,
by 31,401 pupils. These institutions are under the direc-
tion general des etudes, but there are many others devoted to
special instruction. ‘The Royal Academy of Sciences at
Lisbon, publishes every year a volume of transactions.

33. Contagion and Infection—The Roya) Society of
Sciences at Rouen, in France, offer a premium of 300 francs,
or a gold medal of that value, to the person who shall best
solve the following question.

“Is it proved by exact observation that there are fevers
which can be communicated by infection, without being con-
tagious? In admitting the existence of these fevers, what
are the principal causes which give rise to their develope-
ment, and to their propagation? What are the means proper
to prevent them, or to arrest their progress ?”’? The memoir
is to be addressed to the perpetual secretary of the class of

sciences, before the Ist of June, 1823.

34. Public Instruction. Method of M. Ordinaire.—In
conformity to a special ordinance of the Rector of the
Academy of Paris, the pupils of the Institution Morin, in-
structed upon the method of M. Ordinaire, were examined
With the most scrupulous attention on the 28th of September
last. The results even far surpassed the expectations that
a knowledge of the theory had excited. It appears to be
proved that, by the employment of this method, a child
may acquire in fifteen months all the positive knowledge
usually required of a pupil of the fifth year. It is to be re-
marked that this method changes neither the customary de-
nominations, nor the class book actually in use, and that it

not oppose the progress of the course of instruction
enerally established.

relative to the object of the society. M. Jomard, the sec-
retary, gave a luminous account of the proceedings ries
Past year. He congratulated the society on the estab - -
Ment of 156 schools during the year 1821, notwithstanding

200 inimal Heat, &e.

the unjust opposition which checks the progress and tends
to paralyse the generous efforts of the friends of instruction.
At the school of Auzin the teacher fell sick and was detain-
ed from his class for three montis, During this time the

there are but 9,000,000 that can read and write. Henceit
may be stated that 15,000,000 of the French people are
without instruction.

36. Animal Heat.—The French Academy offer a prize
of a gold medal of the value of 3,000 francs for the deter-
mination by exact experiments of the causes, whether
chemical or physiological, of animal heat. It requires, par-
ticularly that the heat emitted by a healthy animal in a given
time, and the carbonic acid which it evolves by respiration
in the same time, should be precisely determined, and that
the heat thus set free should be compared with that produ-
eed by the combustion of carbon in forming the same quan-
tity of carbonic acid.

The Academy also offers a similar premium to whoever
shall determine by multiplied experiments: Ist. The den-
sity acquired by liquids, and especially in the ease of mer-
eury, water, alcohol and sulphuric ether, by compressions

equivalent to the weight of many atmospheres; and, 2dly.
. Pi 2

The heat produced by these compressions.

37. Necrology.—The w

- guished French philosopher, died at Paris on the 6th

- September last. Her charity and philanthropy are highly

eulogized in the public account of her death. She was
known in the literary world by a translation of Ad ith’

Theory of Moral Sentiments,

he

idow of Condoreet, the distin.

a)

THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, he

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, &e.

——

“Arr. I.—WNotice of a Rocking Si

Providence, Septer
Pror, Sinuran, Sir,

IT has given me some satisfaction to belicione Recegiated
with the particulars which Mr. Moore has given us in the
last number of your Journal, respecting the Durham Rock- —
ingStone. It is true, as jet intimates, that there are but —

tocks of this kind as yet known in our country ; still, as

losity is continually increasing, and the votaries of geo-

i ily becoming more, numerous, it will not

» itis believed, before ne will be found to exist
! ve recently visited one —

te
:
ad

: - under A, the other under B.
Doiats it is so exactly poised, that it moves: with the gentlest

*Fig, 1, Plate 1.
= ae VII.—No. 2. 26

202 Notice of a Rocking Stone.

touch. A child five years old may set it a rocking, so that
the side C will describe an arc, the chord of which will be
fifteen inches. The easiest method to rock it is by stand-
ing upon it, and applying the weight of one’s body alternate-
ly from one side to the other.

What renders this rock peculiarly interesting is, that
when the side D descends, it gives four distinct pulsations,
hitting first at EK, next at F, then at G, and lastly at H.
souad produced, is much like that of a drum, excepting that
itis louder. In consequence of this sound, it has very ap-
preereny entailed upon itself the name of “The Drum

ck.” It has been heard in a still evening at the dis-

o

tance of six miles. In the summer season, it is a place of
fashionable resort for the people of Apponaug, and of the
town generally.

The weight of this rock is estimated at four tons—up-
wards ofa ton heavier than the one at Kirkmichael in Scot-

rock on which it rests. Let A be turned round to I, and it
will unquestionably be in the spot where it originally belong-
ed. But by whom it was shifted into the places which it
ow occupies, is a matter of uncertainty. It has been attri-
buted to the Indians. The removal of such a mass seems
however, to have required some mechanical skill, more,
rhaps, than many will be willing to allow, that the savages
of this region ever possessed. As we have neverhad any Dru-
ids* amongst us, we shall probably never know for a cef-
tainty upon whom the honour of the enterprize is to be be-
stowed. mar
_ This rock is surrounded with interesting scenery. South
is a dark and dismal swamp, which comprises from fifteer
to twenty acres, containing the birch, the hemlock, the ma-
ple and the alder. West is a side-hill, which rises at an an~

* See Mr. Finch’s memoir in the last Number of this Journal. (Edit.}

¢

Review of ‘“ Outlines of the &. 203

gle of eighteen or twenty degrees, from the top of which we
have a view of the central part of the Narragansett, with sev-
eral of its beautiful islands. East, a plain presents itself,
intersected by a ravine, overgrown with shrubs, along which

ows asmall stream of water from the swamp. North, the
land rises gently, and for some extent is completely cover-
ed with huge, misshapen rocks, lying wholly above the
surface ; gray with moss, and exhibiting ten thousand frac-
t

S.
Very Respectfully yours
PEEPS ISS STETTBEN TAYLOR.
Preceptor of the Charlesfield Street Academy.

hw

Art. Il.— Review of “ Outlines of the Geology of England and
Wales ; with an Introductory Compendium of the General
Principles of that Science: And Comparative views of the
Structure of Foreign Countries. By Rey. W. D. Co-
nyBeare, F’. R.S. M.G.S. &c,and Wittiam Puituies,
F. L.S. M. G.S. &c. Part I: pp. 470. London,

1822,”
(Communicated for this Journal.)

Peruaps to no science, can the poet’s description .of
Fame be so properly applied, as to geology :

Mobilitate viget viresque acquirit eundo.

It is not much above thirty years since systematic and ef-
fective efforts were made in this science, by men of ener-
getic minds and persevering research. Previously to that
lime, indeed, facts were accumulating, and some efforts
Worthy of praise, were made, to find out a clue to their ar-
rangement. The names of several Arabian writers, upon
the mineralogical department of geology, as early as the
tenth century ; of some Ae ee the, pani rsaves ad

on fossil shells, among whom boccacie ;
Veihan fe Beswan: Me Palissey, Rouelle and Guettard,
in France; and of Owen, Woodward, Liwydd, aka
Mitchell, Holloway, Packe, Strachey, and others, a: ng-
land, will always be remembered with respect in Oe isto-
ry of this science. Still however, until the time of Hutton

%

204 Review of - Outlines of the

and Werner, geology consisted of little else than mere mem-
bra disjecta; and it demanded no small share of anatomi-
cal skill to bring ** bone to his bone.” Before their day. al-
so, appeared many an aeroscopic phantom, called a theory of
the earth ; to which, with literal propriety, we might apply
another line of the poet:

Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cut lumen ademptum.

buisson, Humboldt, Von Buch, Brocci, De Luc, Brochant,

Delametherie. In th nike
the last pavanty ‘seed n the hands of such men, geology, for
Instead of

Geology of England and Wales, &c.” 205

gling with almost every difficulty, and producing as the re-
sult ofa life of laborious, self denying effort, a single volume,
which, in the opinion of the world, placed its author among
the candidates for Bedlam; we now find in the “ crystal
hunter,” many a Reverend. and many a Right Honourable:
while numerous respectable societies, pour forth. their
splendid annual, and semiannual quartos, rich with subter-
ranean intelligence. So rapidly do facts accumulate, so im-
perfect are the former definitions found to be, so many old
principles are overturned, and so many splendid hypotheses
exploded, that it is hardly safe for a geologist in this coun-
tty, who has not a very direct communication with London
or Paris, and who has not read the European Journals of
the preceding quarter, it is hardly safe for such an one to
describe a geological fact, if he would not stand corrected
or ignorance in the next review. And even if all things be
favourable, he cannot be without some well grounded fear,
that the next arrival from Europe will throw all his efforts
into oblivion
fn this country. geological science was not commenced
until a period still later than in Europe. Most-of those,
who bore the heat and burthen of the day of its introduction,
still live and continue to devote their talents and fortunes to
the promotion of their favourite science. By one of these,
afew years ago, ( i818) the following testimony was given.
“ Only fifteen years since, it was a matter of extreme diffi-
culty to obtain. among ourselves, even the names of the most
Common stones and minerals; and one might enquire ear-
nestly. and long before he could find any one to indentify
even quartz, feldspar, or hornblende. among the simple min-
erals; or gramte, porphyry, or trap, among the rocks.

ed to, the: zeal of such men as Maclure,
Gibbs, Bruce, Cleaveland, Silliman, Waterhouse, and
Seybert, who Jed the vawin this effort to conquer the

206 Review of ‘ Outlines of the

dices. and sneers of their countrymen, were not to be
damped, or disheartened. They have presented to the
world the grand outlines of the geology and mineralogy of
this vast country, and left nothing to be done by the nume-
rous geologists, who have sprung up under their patronage
and instruction in almost every part of the land, but to sup-
ly the local details and put a finishing hand to the picture.
t is in our newer, or, as they are sometimes called, the
tertiary formations, that the greatest deficiency exists.
he work, at the head of this article, comes to us under
circumstances calculated to excite high expectations of its in-
terest and value. Itis the joint production of two gentle-
men. with whose names we have been familiar in the later
publications m Europe, on mineralogy and geology : and it
professes to embody all that has hitherto been ascertained
by themselves, or others, relative to the internal structure of
a country, which, asa whole, has probably been more
thoroughly explored, than any other on the globe. The
volume before us is only the first part of the work ; and em-

_ We have not read this work with the eyes of verbal erit-
ies, and we confess ourselves to have had sone prejudices
in favour of the writers, from what we had seen of their ear-
lier productions; too well known to need enumeration.
With the purity and neatness, not to say occasional elegance

Geology of England Wales, §-c.” 207

of style, in which this work is mostly written, we are much
gratified: especially when we recollect, how often works of
merit, inthis department of knowledge, give pain to the
classical man, by the homely and uncouth dress in which
they are presented. In this work “a satisfactory proof has
been afforded in opposition to the misrepresentations of
shallow sciolists, that the institutions of academical educa-
tion are far from being unfavourable to the cultivation of the
physical sciences, and thatan ignorance of the rules of clas-
sical composition, and of the languages and philosophy of
polished antiquity are by no means essential advantages in

ore us recognises, When those divisions shall have bee
carried so re ast no two species can be blended together,
and all the rocks of the globe are referred to their proper de-
&tees in the scale, then will geology have reached the u/tr
ma Thule of her dominions. =

ae
<

208 7 Review of “‘ Outlines of the

We must advert a moment in this place, to the introduc-
tion of the work before us, to exhibit the general classifica-
tion of rocks, which the authors have made the basis of their
arrangement of the strata of England and Wales. The fol-
lowing sketch, taken from page 7th, will give at a glance, a
comparative and synoptical view of their plan.

Character. Proposed Names.| Wernerian. Bone oe He
1. Formations (chiefly of NewéstFloetz!: .
sand and clay) above|Superior Order.) “°"*) Tertiary Class.
eas iam, as
2. Comprising a chalk, b

sand and clays beneath
chalk, ce calcareous
free-stones _ (oolites)/Supermedial Or- Secondary
°F pits Floetz Class. hae
d New
conglomera
nesian limestone.

|Sometimes referred to the pre
ceding, sometimes to the st
ceeding class by writers

| se sc

Carboni- =
~ eonuress Pf nen = Medial Order. | coal measures a efer-
Old red red to the former—the sub
jacent limesto d sand-
stone to the latter.
4 Hoofing Slate, kc. &c| Submedial! Or- Transition Intermediate
2 | der, ; Class. Class.
5. Mica Slate, eens
Gneiss. Inferior Order. Primitive Primitive Class.
Granite, Say Class.

The strata in England and Wales. described in that part
of the work under review, are, as already remarked, the
coal measures and all above these. In other words, it com-

Geology of England and Wales, &c. 209

prehends the three first orders in the preceding table.
Those in the Superior Order embrace all above the chalk;
viz. the Alluvial and Diluvial; the Upper Marine Forma-
tion; the Fresh Water Formations; the London Clay, and
the Plastic Clay The Supermedial Order comprehends
the Chalk; Beds between the chalk and Oolitic Series; the
Oolitic Series; and the formations between the Lias and coal.
The Medial Order embraces the Independant Coal Form-
ation of Werner; viz. the Coal Measures; the Mill-

occurring occasionally in the coal fields. :
The mode of description, adopted in this work, is sys-

tinct view of a formation.

*

roceed as proposed, to give a short sketch of ©

€ now
the English ation as exhibited in the work before us;
eginning with the SupE RIOR OrDeER. a
luvial. This formation embraces only those a:

97

210 Review of “ Outlines of the

rine Zoophytes,”’ as well as volcanic products, are not
reckoned as alluvial. In the work before us, particular
descriptions of this, as well as the next formation, are re-
served for the second part ; because a knowledge of the
regular strata, from which they are derived, seemed previ-
ously requisite. We perceive, however, that no place is
given, on the map accompanying this work, to alluvial* ; we
suppose because its extent, in great Britain, is so extremely
limited.

_ that the alluvial is one of the most extensive of our forma-

tracts, marked as alluvial in this country, really belongs to
that formation. It cannot be doubted however that along
our rivers, especially ‘the larger ones, and at their mouths,
examples of alluvium are not very unfrequent. The delta
of the Mississippi furnishes a noble instance, i ,
Diluvial. Ymmediate!y below the alluvium “ we find a
mantle as it were of sand and gravel indifferently covering
all the solid strata, and evidently derived from some convul-
sion which has lacerated and partially broken up those stra-
ta, inasmuch as its materials are demonstrably fragments of
the subjacent rocks, rounded by attrition.” “The frag-
mented rocks constituting these gravel deposites are heap-

fore, from the most probable views concerning the nature

of this great catastrophe, been proposed to designate these

ormations, which naturally constitute the second term of

our geological series, Diluvig/,”

i ee this is amistake. The Fens of Lincolnshire, and Ely, and
parts ; eg Bears RL: ar o ch ri i d.—{ Ed.]

Geology of England and Wales, &c.” PS

A fuller and very satisfactory account of the diluvial
formation is given in the Introduction : (p. 28 et Seq.)
And although it occurs in every part of the globe, covering _
probably more surface than any other ; yet has it hitherto *
been passed, by geologists, in silence ; or scarcely noticed;
or blended with alluvium. It is the geest of Kirwan ant
Jameson, und the diluvian detritus of Buckland ; (Rees’
Cyc Add. Art. Geology) which, however, he has put down
under the general name of alluvium. It must not be sup-
posed, however, that all beds of loose sand and gravel are
he Such beds often occur interstratified with regu-
Jar strata of clay, and even consolidated rocks ; as will be
seen in the sequel. Deposites of sand, gravel and bowlder
stones are not dilnvial, unless they occur above all regular-
ly stratified beds, and the ingredients are confusedly mingled
together. This formation exists abundantly, in the United
States. In-what places it is found sufficiently thick to re-
quire a place ona geological map, may a question of
some diffculty. Martha’s Vineyard, Elizabeth Islands and

ng Island. with perhaps some spots along the southeas-
tern coast of Massachusetts, and the region a few miles
west of New-Haven, are the only instances of this kind,
which we, at this moment, mention with confidence. _

We are pleased to find the diluvial formation so definite-
ly described and limited in the work before us: and
cannot but earnestly recommend to American geologists to
make that work, in this particular the standard of their de-
scriptions. a

Strata above the chalk. “ These consist of various beds
of sand, clay, marle, and imperfectly consolidated lime-

( ) No superior or more recent regular for-
i f the earth yet ex-
amined, with the exception of some trap rocks probably of
volcanic origin.” (Note.) These strata are subdivided as

=

212

follows,
Formati
Ww

Review of “ Outlines of the

reckoning downwards: 1. Upper Fresh water
on : 2. Upper Marine Formation : 3. Lower Fresh
i h

Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Hungary, Moravia,
Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Greece, Spain, Norway, Iceland,
Hindoostan, Lower Egypt, and we find the followirg re-
mark relating to North America.

“

D
lantic an

orth America the tract extending between the At-
dthe Alleghany mountains, appears to be composed

principally of formations of this character: organic re-
mains from this quarter are preserved in the Woodwardian
+9.

collectio

n at Cambridge.”

as alluvial by our geolagiets, But, as already remarked,
c

ay, sand and gravel have universally

part of the globe. There can be, therefore, but little doubt

that much of it answers

les ; none of them being consolidated, except the
feruginous gravel in an imperfect degree. Many other is!-

Geology of England and Wales &c.” 213

ands along the coast of Massachusetts a Connecticut, ob-
viously belong to the same series of stra
It is important in this place to sare Bod the various

beds above the chalk, and, indeed, of almost all the secon-

dary strata below this, are identified, in different countries,

not so much by any resemblance in external, or chemical
characters, as by the similarity of the organic remains found
in them. The discovery of this principle, ‘(to be credited
to William Smith,) is one of the most fortunate achievments
of modern geology. For it would be wholly impossible,

in many cases, for the most experienced eye to discriminate
between hand specimens from strata widely separated in
the earth. But here we have a clue, that rarely misleads;
and it shows us the importance and necessity of a study of
organis sed remains :—a subject, which i 1s yet in its infancy;

Bertin details are furnished. We have room to a
remarks concerning the several members of the
series.

e Upper Marine Formation occurs in three places iw
England : viz. the Crag of Suffolk,t Bagshot Sand, and
a basin in the Isle of Wight. The first of these consists of
nearly horizontal beds of sand and gravel, and friable
masses of ferruginous sand, somewhat cemented together,
all of them enclosing shells: the —— consists. of sili-
ceous sand and sandstone without any cement, but contain-
ing shells ; and the third consists hil of a: heh sen

marle, embra cing immense shells» In a
these beds, be: shell are of —, origin, and hence the

Lhe Fresh Water Formations, s o called because ‘ont
Contain only fresh water shells, are divided into Upper and
Lower. These are pepareiee by the interposition of the
Upper Marine Formation, which leads us to the certain
Conclusion, that these “different t beds must have been de-

ve was written, we bave terested in read-

* Since the abo eet Ter-
ea the last number of this nthe Sok veny by Mr. 2 Glan a fot

n America. ves
extended Sree js made to refer us to the localities of seven dis-
mem bers tions above the chal te our geologists

+# Crag is a local name for gravel.”—p. 11.

‘

214 Renew of “ Outlines of the

osited by successive inundations of salt and fresh water.
he fresh water formations consist of marle, argillaceous
limestone and sand, traversed by veins of calcareous spar ;
but they want the gypsum beds, so numerous in these
formations around Paris, and in which are found the
nes of unknown birds and quadrupeds.

The London Clay is an extensive formation in England,
and it is made up principally of a tough, bluish, or blackish
clay, occasionally marly, and embracing septaria, and beds
of sa

ate probably, to the well known Calcaire grossier of

_ Paris. “The organic remains in this formation are ex-

tremely interesting : among these are the crocodile, turtle,

at a place near Grignon in France, found 500 species of
shells in this formation. Among Mr. Crowe’s specimens,
are many which appear to have belonged to tropical cli-

mate
The Plastic Clay Formation is * composed of an indefinite
number of sand, clay, and pebble beds, irregularly alterna-
ting.” It embraces a few layers of coal, fuller’s earth,
some shells, teeth of fish, vegetable remains, and it is said,
also, fossil bones. We have already suggested that this
formation not improbably exists in Martha’s Vineyard, and

in several other islands along the coast of N ew-England.
_ Tue Sypermepiat Orper comes next in the descend-
ig series’; and comprehends the chalk, Beds between the
halk and Oolitic Series, the Oolitic Series, and the forma-
tions between the Lias and the 1 Strata. These dis-
tinct groups of strata have many general relations and

der, they are all lapidified. The account of this order oc-
Gee nearly three fifths of the volume under considera-

Chalk Formation.—This lies - immediately beneath the
Plastic Clay : but a bed of debris, made - of rounded

7

Geology of England and Wales &c.” 215

iragments of chalk and flint is interposed ; leading us to
the conclusion, that after the consolidation of the chalk, a
partial destruction took place by running water, and that,
of course, a considerable period must have elapsed between
the deposition of the chalk and the plastic clay.*
Subordinate beds of chalk, marle, and fuller’s earth. and
thin partings, or seams of clay, are found in the chalk stra-
ta. The numerous layers of nodular flints, and veins and
tabular masses of the same, so characteristic of this forma-
tion, are most abundant in the upper layers ; and hence the
distinction into Upper and Lower Chalk. We extract the
following ingenious hypothesis of the original production of
these flints, és

Aumerous remains of alcyonium and spongia.
Sate thickness of the chalk beds in England is between 600
‘nd 1000 feet.

chalk strata, with all the strata above them, are

ne i and be-
are also numerous ravines on the surface of the chalk,

th the upper or tertiary formations, which appear to have been formed

by the action ef currents ‘water, perhaps dilavial.—{ Ed. }

216 Review of ‘* Outlines of the

generally nearly horizontal ; but not always, as the follow-
ing extract will show.

**But crossing to the Isle of Wight, the chalk re-emerges
from the superstrata near its eastern point, and rises with
its usual magnificence into Culver Cliffs. Here, indeed,

vourable in some places, ere Vineyard,) that we
it would justify an exploration by boring:

of beds of siliceous sand, which probably have an aggregate
thickness in the greater part of their course of not less tha?
1,000 feet and form that extensive sand tract which is uni-

terminations of the chalky ranges.””—p, 11.

*he subdivisions of this series are 1. Chalk Marle ; 2
Green Sand; 3. Weald Clay; 4. Tron Sand.

The chalk marle consists of cretaceous, argillaceous, and
sandy matter, often sufficiently consolidated for architectu-
ral purposes, and a forming a fine grained gray

ston re. its minerals are iron pyrites;
septaria, calc. spar, selenite, and sulphate of lime ee its
fossils (all of marine origi
wood, zoophites, and testaceous mollusce.

Geology of England and Wales,” §c 217

* The Green Sand consists of loose sand and sandstone;”
the cement to the latter being calcareous. It contains par-
ticles of a green substance, probably green earth:* and hence
itsname. Subordinate beds and masses of chert and lime-
stone, with veins of oe fuller’s earth, sulphate of

iytes, quartz, &c., occur in it, with numerous petrifac-
tions. Among these are an alcyonia, some unknown
genera, and various testacea: a single quarry furnishing
150 species.

eald

remains have never been described.

Tron sand “is composed of a series of strata, in in which
sand and sandstone prevail, occasionally alternating with
subordinate beds of clay, loam, marle, faller's earth, and

ochre.” These strata coniain brown oxide of iron, in con-
siderable proportion, so as sometimes to be wrought as an
ore. “Phe texture of the sandstones is evidently mechan-
ieal, and they often, indeed, form coarse grained conglome-
rates,” Ferns, charred sii and even a kind of cannel
coal, occur in these sandstones. Their organic remains
have yet received but little attention: but they are probably
3 ly dispersed.

Webees nd means of determining ee any members

of this series of rocks exist in this cow

te series.—This is an iinportant series in an econom-
ical view, as it furnishes the best architectural materials in
England. It consists “of a ee of oolitic limestones, of
ealcareo-siliceous sands and sandstones, and of argillaceous
and argillo-caleareous beds, ernting together, and —
rally repeated in the same order; }. formation
‘ates of many beds of oolitic lsoetiae resting upon wal
of omg a sand, and that again upon ap an argillo-

mation.” The whole series is divided into

the Ripper, Middle, a Lower Oolitic System 5 and these
are subdivided. :

*This has been ascertained hal Barthser fe to be bab a tol IPOD,
wenn ae sony Liao Nog ie Limestone, at the Perte
du Rhone See Brongniart sur ee erate. —

Vol. VII. No. 2

and not an
t France,

218 Review of “ Outlines of the
Upper division of the Oolitic Series.

The first subdivision of this series is the Purbeck beds.
From these beds is obtained the Purbeck Marble, and they
consist of thin strata of argillaceous limestone, alternating
with schistose marbles. This rock contains subordinate
beds of workable gypsum and numerous shells ; some of
which are said to be fresh water shells: also beautiful im-
pressions oi fish, and the head of a crocodile.

The Portland Qolite, the next member of the upper
oolitic system, consists of several beds of coarse, earthy
limestone. It is quarried extensively and constitutes most

ale. Extinct genera, allied to the order Lacerta, are
among the fossils of this clay; and also a species ‘of Ich-
thyosaurus, a variety of Plesiosaurus? bones, apparently of
cetacea, and numerous shells.

Middle Division of Oolites.

The Coral Rag occurs first in this division. It compris-
es a series of beds from 100 to 200 feet thick ; the calcare-
ous matter prevailing in the upper part, and the siliceous
in the lower. upper beds are a calcareous freestone,

mmin b-

quantity.

The Oxford clay, the second member of this division,
forms beds of a tenacious and adhesive clay, of a dark blue
color, of immense thickness: the lower part occasionally
containing irregular beds of limestone “Iron pyrites and
selenite occur abundantly in this as indeed in all argillace-
ous formations.” ‘The organic remains are peculiar and

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 219

characteristic ; consisting of bones of the Ichthyosaurus
and numerous shells.

7 *
Lower Division of Oolites.

This division far exceeds the two preceding, in thickness
and importance. The subdivisions, which might with
propriety be made. in it, are so numerous, that the writers
very wisely refer the whole to two sections, viz. its upper
and: lower beds: all the upper beds being subordinate to
the great oolite; and the lower, to the calcareo-siliceous
send, which forms their base. Viewed generally, both
these’ series of beds consist of one vast oolitic mass, resting
upon calcareo-siliceous sand. These oolitic beds, howev-
er, embrace several varieties, characterized principally by
being more or less argillaceous. These are denomina
ina descending order, Cornbrash, Stonesfield Slate, Forest
Marble, and Great Oolite. The inferior members of the
third, or lower system of Oolites, are the Fulter’s Earth, In-
ferior Oolite Sand, and Maristone. The inferior is distin-
guished from the Great Oolite, by the larger proportion of
broww oxide of iron, that is disseminated through its mass.
be sand and sandstone are slightly calcareous, highly
ferruginous, and frequently micaceous ; containing but few
sils. The marlstone. is. sandy, gritty, micaceous, and
of a green color; preseating but few organized remains,
The lower division of the oolitic series, however, 1s pe-
culiarly interesting for the richness and variety of its fos-
. The testacea are very abundant: and a more com-
plete and extensive list of these is given in the work before
us, than of any other formation. Echinites, encrinites,
corralloides, madrepores, tubipores, millepores, and alcyo-
nia. are also found. But thé Stonesfield slate, which 1s
with great probability referred to the Oolitic series, 1s most
remarkable for its petrifactions. ey ongur A Ineaes of
idelphys, one of the Opossum tribe ; an Immense — ’
resembling the Tbh be, 40 feet long and 12 feet high; pe
or three species of tortoise; teeth, palates, and vertabrae 0
fishes; leg and thigh bones of birds; two of three species
of Coleopterous insects ; two or three varieties of the crab,
or lobster; and ferns, flags, and mosses. This remarkable

220 Review of * Outlines of the

assemblage is thus noticed by the writers of the work be-
fore us:

“If the calcareous slate of Stonesfield be correctly assign-
ed to this part of the series, (which is rendered sti re
probable by the occurrence of the same teeth and palates
in both instances,) we here find the only known instance
in which the remains of birds and terrestrial animals have
been found in beds of antiquity at all approaching to these;
they here occur mingled with winged insects, amphibia,
sea shells, and vegetables, presenting at once the most in-
teresting and difficult of problems connected with the dis-
tribution of organic remains.”—p. 207.

“We must account for the presence of the Didelphys,
birds, and coleopterous insects, in the same manner as we
do for the wood and remains of land vegetables, not unfre-
quent in the strata: the amphibia may have belonged to
species principally marine. It is evident from peculiarities
in their structure, that many of the fossil animals, generally
_ resembling the amphibia, lived entirely or almost so in the

sea, and were to the now existing amphibia what the ceta-

this formation are nearly horizontal, and the organic re-
mains unusualy interesting. More vertebral animals are

imbe in it, than in any other English formation,
excepting the Stonesfield slate. Among these, are two re-
mains of extinct genera of marine Lacerte, whose osteology
presents new and interesting links in the chain of animated
nature. Two or three species of a singular animal, denom-
inated fchthyosaurus, or fish-like lacerta, and of anothet
peculiar genus, called Plesiosaurus, are found: in the lias
It furnishes aiso the Turtle, several species of fish, one oF
two Crustacea, several Moilusce, numerous Testacea,
pcs A Encrini, Pentacrini, Corals, fossil wood, ferns,

- Ht may be doubted whether the Oolites and lias series 0c*
cur in North America. ‘

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. —- 221
Red Marle, or New Red Sandstone, or Red Rock, or Red
: Ground. age é

This formation comprehends the variegated sandstone of
Werner, and is described as “a series of marly a
rs i

conglomerate lowest. These beds are argillaceous, and
argillo-siliceous, with a variable proportion of calcareous
matter. The colours of the marle and sandstone are ofa
red chocolate and salmon colour; exhibiting streaks of
light blue, or verdiyris, or buff, or creamcolour,

“Some of the sandstone beds of this formation bear so
neara resemblance to some of the grits associated with the
coal formation, and to the softer strata of the old red sand-
stone underlying the mountain limestone, that a cursory
servation of them would: often lead to fallacious conclu-
sions. It may however be generally recognized without
much difficulty by the following distinctive characters 3 Ist,
its containing gypsum ; 2ndly, by the inferior consolidation
of its st beds; 3dly, by the regularity of its stratification,
and the general parallelism of its beds to the horizon.”’ pp-
280 and 281. Gi

Many other distinctive characters of this formation are

gular Masses of granite, calcareous spar, pone! chert,
steywacke, yellowish limestone, porphyry, preces 0! a com>

_ The amygdaloidal trap, occurring in the same connec-

sometimes covers, and at other times is covered, by
augite, bron-

. 222 Review of “Outlines of the

zite, or hyperstene ; and in this paste are imbedded calca--
reous spar, mica, gr chlorite, and indurated clay.

Newer Magnesian, or Conglomerate Limestone. Synonyme,
First Floetz Limestone of Werner.—This is the oldest rock
of the supermedial order. It is distinct fromthe older rocks
of similar composition, associated with the mountain lime-
stone, though sometimes blended with them. It hasa gran-
ular, sandy structure, a glimmering lustre, and a yellow col-
our ; andis associated with conglomerate limestone The
organic remains are not numerous: but they may serve to
distinguish it from the older formations. They consist of
fish, shells, &c.

In giving the foreign localities of the Red Marle and
Newer Magnesian Limestone series, we perceive the Ger-
man fetid limestone, cellular limestone, compact marly
limestone, and bituminous marle slate, to be included near
the centre : rocks, whose relative position has long per-
plexed geologists. Reference is of course made to all
other countries, where rocksalt, or gypsum occurs ; since,
in every known locality, these minerals, certainly the
latter, are accompanied by the red marle, or as it is some-
times » the saliferous sandstone. North America is
among these references ; as Louisiana, the banks of Hock-
hocking, Sciota, Wabash, Tenessee, Kanaway, Great San-
dy, &c. and the Salines, near Unondaga and Seneca Jakes,
in New York. We have seen a specimen of the rock from
which the salt springs issue at the latter locality, and have
no doubt itis the red marle; and we are informed, that the
2 ae lies above this rock, and the coal beneath it. It
will be of great importance to American geology, to
this rock identified with the English red marle; as it will
furnish a convenient starting point, from which geologists
may proceed to identify other strata above and beneath.
Should the New York rock and the English rock prove to

ler basins will be easily determined. We shall expect to
find this point settled by Mr. Eaton, in the Geological Sur-
vey of the rn canal, he is now prosecuting,

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 223

through the liberality of Gen. Van Rensselaer.* Our ge- °
ologists will thus be prevented from assigning new names
to those numerous aggregates, which occur in the United
States, to which no specific designation has yet been given;
and be also saved the mortification, of seéing their new
terms treated as the offspring of ignorance, or arrogance.
We trust, however, that no man will attempt a new no-
menclature of our secondary rocks, until he has proved,
that they cannot be referred to any of the series of forma-
tions which the work under review presents.

rock occurs in New-England, along Connecticut river,
which agrees in external characters with the red marie ;

in the series of rocks with which this is connected, no traces
of salt, or gypsum, and very little limestone ; so tit is
very doubtful whether this rock be the red marle.

EDtaL on Carponirerous Orper.—This embraces the

“The sandstones of the coal measures are usually gnitty,
Micaceous, and tender ; they afford freestones for buildings,

*We have been ically informed, that Gen. V.R. enquired of Mr
E. what might oe preconremdasite ofsuchasurvey ; andoa being an--
sWered, that it would not exceed $5000, he directed the work to be —_—

ificence certainly deserves this public mention of the.
fact ; and it augurs well for the cause of geology in this country.

224 Review of “Outlines of the

ceous matter, however, of inferior quality, and sormotinnes
used as fuel, isfound in thin seams, in other deposites. It
may be useful to present a view of the several einen
in which coal, or carbonaceous matter has been foun

1 Alluvial_—This furnishes peat ; which is rs by
ws ose ety of sphagnum palustre, or other mosses, or

e plants: the lower parts of the mass gradually
aera change into aed andeven into a substance
not differing essentially from jet

2. Diluvial.—Contains beds of fossil wood, passing, by @
series of gradations, into jet.

3. Basaltic Formation, or Newest Floetz Trap.—In Ire-
Jand and Germany, a species of lignite, similar to that just
mentioned, is associated she this formation

4. Plastic Clay—The coal in this forma ation occurs in
7 is obviously of vegetal le origin, and 1s of little
vaiue. |

5. Sand immediately below the Chalk.—This has all the ap-
pearance of an imperfect coal formation ; the coal existing
in the form of fossil wood, and in distinct beds ; but it is
very poor.

6. Oolitic Series. The Kimmeridge Clay embraces bi-
tuminous shale, which is sometimes used for fuel; and the

ing on the lias, present regular beds of workable

7. Newer Red or Saliferous Sandstone. On the conti-
nent of Europe, this rock contains se seams of coal; but
bas have not been noticed in En

» The Great Coal Formation. thie is the next deposite
of nny in the descending serie

9. el st — (Grey: Wacke Slate, &c.) Some-
times beds cite are contained in these rocks, as 10
Devonshire, = fas example exists also in Rhode island
in this country.

10. Mica Slate. This and other primitive rocks furnish
beds of anthracite and plum bago.

t coal, with the exception of the non-bituminous ¥3-

rieties, is of vegetable origin, seems now to be generally

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 225

granted. But it may be asked, “how are we to account
for such a surprising accumulation of vegetable matter ar-
ranged in repeated strata (sometimes to the number of six-
ty and even more in a single district) separated from each
other by intervening deposites of clay and sand?” Let u
hear these authors in re
“ Now the partial filling up of lakes and estuaries offers
us the only analogies in the actual order of thi with
which we can compare the deposites of coal; for in such
situations we often find a series of strata of peat, and some-
times submerged wood, alternating with others of sand,
clay, and gravel, and presenting therefore the model ofa coal
field on a small scale, and in an immature state.” p. 346.
r. Mac Culloch has instituted a series of experiments
to ascertain the nature, and account for the formation of
coal. The following are the general results to which they
conducted him. : i"
‘Examining therefore the alteration produced by water
on common turf or submerged wood, we have all the evi-
dence of demonstration, that its action is sufficient to con-
vert them into substances capable of yielding bitumen on
Lh otsho same action. havi ted through

distillation. —T

is there aught in this change so dissonant from other chem-

jet under compression, it was fused into perfect coal; and
he admits, that this might have been the process -

which the beds of coal, found in the earth, have passed ;
though of opinion, that the agency of water is all that 1s ne-
cessary to account for the ¢

oal measures are remarkable for the great abund

- Thee é
ance of yegetable remains found in them; the animal rel-
Vor. VII.—No. 2, 29

¥

226 Review of ‘ Outlines of the

ics being limited to a few testacea. The trunks, leaves,
and, more rarely, the pericarps of various vegetables occur
in this formation; and all of them are very different from
known genera and species, and apparently the growth of
a hot, rather than a temperate, climate ; and of moist,
rather than dry, situations. The trunks, that have been
discovered, belong to a peculiar order of plants, “ distin-
guished by the cortical part being entirely covered by reg-

ar impressions resulting from the petioles of fallen leaves,
ranging around them in spiral lines.” These remains form
but few genera, and, at the most, not above 400 species.

Trap rocks abound in the coal fields; and this “affords
the first instance in descending the series, in which any of
the great formations in England appear to be strikingly
connected with rocks of this family.” These traps are ei-
ther of the class of greenstones, or of the dolerite class of
the French, which is the augite rock of Mac Culloch, in
which augite predominates. Varieties of these rocks are
a porphyroidal trap and toadstone. They are connected
with the coal measures, either as overlying masses, resting
uncenformably on the subjacent strata, or as dykes, or as
beds, conformably interstratified and regularly alternating
with the other strata.

Dr. Mac Culloch found, in the Isle of Sky, that a single
mass of trap often occupied all the three positions mention-

ol
ee

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 227
mense manufacturing establishments, is deeply realized in
Great Britain.* :

Englishmen look forward, not without some anxiety, to
the period, when their coal mines will be exhausted.
following calculation, from the work before us, shows that
such a time is yet quite remote. It applies, however, on-
ly to the great coal field of Northumberland and Durham.

“To form an idea, says Dr. Thomson, of the quantity
of coal contained in the formation called the coal meas-
ures, let us suppose it to extend in length from north to
south twenty-three miles, and that its average breadth is
eight miles. This makes a surface amounting to rather

ds ; hole coal in this formation amounts to
bilere ain corel h of this is already

mous extent, that the quantity already
i ‘ve the quantity of coal exported yearly
siderable. [ conceive the q y “ions of chaldrons, for

ts 11 millions. A chal-
ise of tons of coals

, sect, its in . from

* Although an anpoetie subjeet, its importance drew forth a stanza

one i jest poets. F
sort apne the Persian would admire

3
E

Ju
ight, or would have store
or wanka.e dents oc Hi suns give more?
name, i

I

¢

I

(

Nay, what’s the sun, but, ma ‘erent
A seek gi ram or flame!
7

‘The sun's heaven’s coalery, and coals

+ The three last cyphers are omitted
sly a mistake. .

ee

428 Review of “ Outlines of the

are annually raised in these counties out of this formation.
Now a ton of coal is very nearly one cubic yard; so that
the yearly loss from mining amounts to 2. 8 millions, or
(adding a third for waste) to 3.7 millions of yards. Accor-
ding to this statement, the Newcastle coals may be mined
to the present extent for 1500 years before they be ex-
hausted. But from this number we must deduct the amount
of the years during which they have been already wrought.
We need not be afraid then, of any sudden injury to Great
Britain from the exhaustion of the coal mines. It is neces-
sary to keep in mind, likewise, that I have taken the great-
est thickness of the coal beds. Now as this thickness is
far from uniform, a considerable deduction (I should con-
cejve one third of the whole) must be made in order to

racite* and bituminous coal
bviously referable to different
epochs.

Mill Stone Grit and Shale.
beneath the coal measures an
The shale does not
the coal formation
sandstone,

These rocks lie immediately
d alternate with each other.
materially differ from the slate-clay of
‘ton; and the mill-stone grit is a coarse
consisting of quartzose particles of various sizes,
act clliptical transition formation, (embracing the Rhode Island an-
th : : é
se gee from to Newpo wn
Universi

ity in i instructi
we shall Se of this ellipse, may we not expect, that ere logy

?

Geology of England and Wales, §c.” 229

united by an an argillaceous cement. These rocks con-
tain subordinate beds of coal and limestone; the former
being thin and poor. ad and copper and iron ores, sat-
in spar, kitumen, petroleum, naptha, and asphaltum, also
occur in the shale and grit. The fossils are similar to those

Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone. This rock occasion-
ally alternates with shale, grit and amygdaloid, and some of
its synonymes are metalliferous limestone, and entrochal, or
encrinal limestone. 'We-cannot here enter into a particular
description of this interesting rock, but remark, that its strata
are often divided by thin partings of clay, and that it con-
tains nodules of chert, and is extremely cavernous. -
tween 60 and 70 caverns are mentioned, as existing in this
rock, in England and Wales; and also several subterrane-
an rivers. It is the grand depository of the English lead
mines. Various copper, iron, and zinc ores, fluor spar, cale.
spar,arragonite, selenite, carb. and sulph.of barytes, sulph. of
strontian, also occur in it; besides various minerals in the
accompanying toadstone. The organic remains are very
distinct from those in the oolitic series and the lias, and
belong, chiefly, to extinct genera. Vertebral animals are
rare ; but Zoophytes, Encrinites, Coralites, and Testacea
are numerous. The strata are often highly inclined and

orted.

slate, &c. “its colour is usually dirty iron-red or

brown, but sometimes passing into gray.” From the new-
er red sandstone it may be distinguished by its greater con-
solidation, but it is not so easily discriminated from the
i i It is, therefore,
highly pr that many rocks have been denominated
old <i ete that reals belong to formations widely
removed from it. It is often asserted, that coal is contain-
ed in, or lies beneath, old red sandstone. But the authors

w

1 iety thus designated, unless it the coe
aed They ests y even the red dead lyer, (rothe

230 Review of “Outlines of the

todte se ap or first floetz sandstone of the Wernerians,
as dist from the English old red sandstone ; because
the med lies above, and the latter beneath, the coal de-
seca and “where external characters are nearly the
same,” say they, “our surest guide must be the position in
the peelicioit series; and this rule will hardly permit us
to class a formatien uniformly uatow;' with one uniformly
above, the principal deposite of coal.”

It ought here to be remarked, as a fact of some conse-
quence, that the real English old red sandstone has always
been described on the continent of Europe, as a variety of
gray wacke ; and the carboniferous lime stone above it,
as transition limesto one

The old red sandstone in England is almost destitute of
organic remains; only a few shells a vegetable relics
occurring in its lower members, where it graduates into
limestone of the transition series. Its thickness, in some
parts, is 2000 feet ; and the height of some of its moun-
= above the sea, between 2000 and 3000 feet. bi

ted Seis: beviever; does underlie the sal ferdiation't for
instance, along the Connecticut river. And along the same

ir as a Seer the oon measures: but it eee
! e

since no virwled animal, we bite eve, has been uc
found in any rock beneath the bituminous marle slate. __

~The English old red sandstone re upon the transi
tion slates; and we much regret, that the work, whose
analysis we are giving, does not extend, in the part aw stg
ed, to a description of these slates. ially, we
anxious n the character and position these writer
would give to tithe far famed, illustrious gray wacce.” Since,
however, they represent the old red sandstone as reposi0g

Geology of England and Wales, &-c.” 231

on this rock, we anticipate, that nothing will be ealled gray
wacke, that does not lie between this rock and the transi-
tion argillite. We shall rejoice if it ean be confined within
these limits: for we really believe, that scarcely a seconda-
ry, or transition rook can be named, which has not, at one
time, or another, been denominated gray wacke: and, in-
deed, the usual definition of that rock will comprehend
them about all, without difficulty. In regard to the primi-
tive rocks, to be described in the second part of Conybeare
and Phillips’ work, we do not expect so much will be pre-
sented, that is new and interesting, as in the part of the
work, whose analysis we have now given.

It remains, in this place, to notice the geological map of
England and Wales, and the Sections, that accompany t
wor

coveries have rendered necessary. The tablets appended

Diluvial Beds, 2 Upper Marine, 3. Fresh Water

or four patches of ee

* Ifwe mistake these patches are nore an tract along bid
Comprise the Fens of Réumeteshing: Ely and dhe ‘ bese deo
E. coast of Lincolnshire, otbers on either side of the e ot only left
ted tracts along the coastof Lancashire. These districts = not only
'Ncoloured, but haded lik b

in common maps. (Ep.
£

232 Review of “ Outlines of the

The Sections are very elegant and instructive. Two of
them cross the whole extent of England, in its longest di-
rections : the one, from Land’s End to the German Ocean;

th additional brightness. We are glad also to see other
principles , springing up and flourishing, on the mouldering
-ruins of former systems. We have notroom to recapitulate
all these principles, as the work before us presents them ‘
but two or three points are discussed more fully thao the
rest, because newer and more interesting; and to these,

we would pay some attention. -
_ The first relates to the distribution and character of or-

= inst, we have a foundation of primitive rocks destitute
*! these remains ; in the next succeeding series (that

Geology of England and Wales, &c.” 233

iwansition) corals, encrinites, and testacea, different how-
ever from those now known, appear at first sparingly ; the
fossil remains of the carboniferous limestone are nearly of
the same nature with those in the transition rocks, but
more abundant ; the coal measures, however, themselves,
which repose on this limestone, scarcely present a single
shell or coral ; but on the contrary abound with vegetable
remains, ferns, flags,reeds of unknown species, and large
trunks of succulent plants, strangers to the present globe.
Upon the coal rest beds again containing marine remains
(the magnesian limestone) ; then a long interval (of new
red sandstone) intervenes, destitute almost, if not entirely,
of organic remains, preparing as it were the way fora new
order of things. This order commences in the lias, and is
continued in the Oolites, green, and iron sands, and chalk.
All these beds contain corals, encrinites, echinites, crusta-
cea, testacea, vertebral fishes, and marine oviparous quad-
rupeds, yet widely distinguished from the families contained
in the lower beds of the transition and carboniferous class,
and partially distinguished among themselves according to
the bed which they occupy. Hitherto the remains are al-
Ways petrified (i.e. impregnated with the mineral substance
in which they are imbedded ;) but lastly, in the strata
which cover the chalk we find the shells merely preserved,
and in such a state, that when the clay or sand in whic

they lie is washed off, they might appear to be recent, had
they not lost their colour and become more brittle. Here
We find beds of marine shells alternating swith others pecul-
iar to fresh water, so that they seem to have been deposit-
ed by reciprocating inundations of fresh and salt water. In

Coast ; and lastly, over all these strata, indiscriminately,

P- 11, Introd.
Vou. VII.—No. 2. 30

a

234 Review of “Outlines of the

The following is an account of the grouping of the organic
remains into distinct assemblages, in the various formations.

“They are not irregularly dispersed throughout the
whole series of these formations. but disposed as it were in
families, each formation containing an association of sp
peculiar in many instances to itself, widely differing from
those of other formations, and accompaning it throughout
its whole course ; so that at two distinct points on the
line of the same formation, we are sure of meeting the
same general assemblage of fossil remains. It will serve to
exemplify the laws which have been stated, if the observer’s
attention is directed to two of the most prominent forma-
tions of this island ; namely, the chalk, and the limestone
which underlies the coal in Northumberland, Derbysuire,
Seuth Wales, and Somerset. Now, if he examines a col-
lection of fossils from the chalk of Flamborough head or
from that of Dover ciiffs, or, it may be added, from Po-
land or Paris, he will find 8 or 9 species out of 10 the same;
he will observe the same echinites associated with the same
shells ; nearly half these echinites he will perceive belong
to divisions of that family unknown in a recent state, and
indeed in any other fossil bed except the chalk. If he next
proceeds to inspect parcels of fossils from the carbonifer-
ous limestone, from whichever of the above localities they

ot smeries

lae, spiriferae, &e. ; but if he lastly compares the collec-

will not find one single instance of specific agreement, and

Concerning those genera and species of fossils that have
not been discovered in a living state, we have the follow-

the latter do not at present exist because we are not ac-
quainted with them in a recent state, and this caution is
still more necessary with regard to those genera which the

dark unfathom’d caves of ocean”? may possibly conceal iP

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 235

heir recesses ; we must remember that we were long ac-
quainted with the encrinites,in a fossil state, before the an-
alogous beings in a recent state had found their way to our
collections ; yet the general facts seem too strong to be en-
ti ely thus accounted for. With the exception of those
contained in the most recent beds (the crag) only, nine out

i t

known recent, and the only recent species of the whole
genus is a very minute shell; yet the fossil species some-
times measure three feet in diameter. — Is it probable that

waters only. The same. remarks will apply to the belem-

any with which we are acquainted (e. g. Eapeaeeen:
Megatherium, Mastodon, dc.) or of distinct ————
fossil bear, rhinoceros, and elephant.; and M. Cuvier

236 Review of “Outlines of the

Another subject, that struck us forcibly in the introdue-
tion to _— is the inclination of the strata of conglo-
merate rocks. The following remarks may not coincide
with the views of the thorough-going Neptanian : but it
certainly requires something more than mere assertion to
set them aside. >
_ “When beds recomposed from the fragments and detri-
tus of older rocks (such as are called conglomerates and
puddingstones) which must previous to their consolidation
have existed as loose gravel, occur among vertical or high-

quantity of marine relics scattered over two thirds of all
known continents ; and some “hasty generalizations” of

hibit the writer’s ingenious train of remark. The subject
of the formation of vallies is also treated with ability : and
the conclusion is, that the agency of existing streams is by
no means suflicient to account for the phenomena these
vallies present. . The proof of this, is not merely the inad-
equacy of thecause to produce the effect, but, more emin-
ently, the occurrence of transverse, as well as longitudinal
valhies ; both of which could not possibly have been exca-

gv with: religious enquiries, especially with the Noachian
deluge and the age of the world.. We cannot avoid ex-

Geology of England and Wales,” &c. 237

meet the eye of our divines ; since we know not any other
work in which these points are exhibited more clearly and
candidly.

Upon the whole, we cannot but look upon the work
whose analysis we have attempted, as among the ablest and
most interesting the age has produced ; and as exhibiting
much, which can no where else be found, in a connected
form. It clears away much of the obscurity that hung over
some parts of geology ; and brings forward the newer for-
mations, from the caves of oblivion, where they have too
long been suffered to lie. We rise from its perusal, with
an impression, that we are much better qualified to exa-
mine the rocks around us than before ; while we are more
sensible, how vast is the field of American Geology, that
yet remains unexplored. We cannot Aa ooo the accura-
cy of the local details in this work rom the charac-
ter of the writers; from their situation in the ‘midst of an
host of able geologists, who will be jealous of misrepresen-
tation; and from internal marks of verisimilitude, we place
much reliance upon their faithfulness. Their freedom
from doubtful theoretical views is not among the weakest
of these internal evidences of fidelity. It is astonishing
how attachment toa particular system will warp the Judg-
ment ofa geologist in his observations. It has caused ma-
hy “to see what was not’to be seen ;”’ to discover particu-
lar strata, where no such strata existed ; to present us with
maps, and sections, and profiles, that would apply to the
moon, as well as to the district they were intended to illus-

i ink by ee

pressing a wish, that this part of the work, om not should

‘
subject, from the following extract from the wr of
Bacon ; which they, and the other members o the
London Geological Scciety, have chosen for their esnips
Quod si cui mortalium cordi et curae sit, non fantum 1n-
ventis haerere, atque iis iti, sed ad ulteriora penetrare ; at-
que non disputando adversarium, sed opere naturam bie
cere; denique non belle et probabiliter opmart, etal:

238 Review of “Outlines of the

et ostensive scire ; tales, tanquam veri scientiarum filii, no-
bis (si el se adjungant ; ut omissis naturae atriis,
quae infiniti contriverunt, aditus aliquando ad interiora pa-
tefiat. From Title page of Geolog. Trans. '
But though these authors thus cautiously avoid enlisting
selves into the ranks of system, yet we think it is ob-
vious, that, so far as the origin of trap rocks is concerned,
they (certainly Mr. Conybeare,) lean to Huttonian views.
He presents us, ina note, with a succinct statement of
the arguments for the hypothesis, that ascribes important

tised observer will be struck with the marks of the former
action of heat, which they present ; while the most acute
examination serves only to bring more of these marks to
light. The resemblance of the amygdaloidal traps to cer-
tain varieties of lava ; the convulsion and distortion of other
strata in their vicinity ; the change in other rocks in coD-

ith trap dykes, answering precisely to the actio®
of heat; and the fact, that the strata, through which these
dykes pass, are often bent upwards, near the line of con-
tact, to what, but a volcanic agency, can such circumstan-
ces lead the mind?

granite as wellas to trap rocks. Indeed, consistency seems
to demand such a conclusion. For although the proofs of
such an origin may not be so numerous in regard to gra0-
ite as to trap, yet the most important ones are common (0
both. Granite exists in the form of beds, veins, and irreg”

Geology of England and Wales &c.” 239

P
fusion of the strata in the vicinity of these masses, we must
conclude, in many instances, that they weed ebteuded
through these strata. We are acquainted, also, with in-
stances, in which granite veins have dislocated the strata,
through which they pass,in the same manner as trap dykes.
We are inclined, also, to believe, that in the granite of New
England, veins may frequently be found connecting the beds,
as is sometimes the case with trap. e happen to live in
apart of the country where our daily walks present to us
granite veins, beds, and protruding masses ; and we for-
merly had frequent opportunities to examine our green-
stones : (we speak here only of secondary and transition
trap:) and we commenced these examinations with preju-
dices in favour of Wernerian views. But we have been in.
sensibly led to lean to the conclusions above noticed. We
might have studied hand specimens in cabinets forever, and
remained firm to the Neptunian theory in all its length and
breadth. But really, nature’s cabinet seems to teach a
different lesson.

We mention such views as these, however, with a great
mixture of remaining scepticism. We say only, that after
an examination, of the rocks that have fallen under our n0-
tice, we are led to refer some of them to an igneous origin,
( ne Ms, popntie for instance,) and others to aqueous depo-

si or we consider the evidence of the agency of wa-

an hypothesis. We are indifferent whether we are called
Neptunians, or Vulcanists; and also, whether we have any

facts lead us, we o follow ; but no farther. We do
not believe the time has yet arrived, in which it is posst-
ble e any very extensive, correct gene

240 ~ Geology of Martha’s Vineyard.

he not be satisfied of this ? When the whole world shaii
een as thoroughly explored as England has been,
then, but not till then, can it be expected any general geo-
logical theory will be formed, which will stand the test of
ages. Ere two decades of years are gone by, we trust the
geologists of the United States will have done their part of
this great and interesting work.

Arr. IL1.—Notices of the Geology of Marthas’s Vineyard,
ee and the Elizabeth Islands.-

A short visit to the island of Martha’s Vineyard, in the

not coloured in the map of Maclure; and they may not
soon be visited by a geologist, who will have any better op-
portunity to examine their structure than I had, although!
confess my researches were hasty and imperfect. This
—_— however, may furnish some assistance to succeeding

rvers.
Martha’s Vineyard is about twenty one miles in its great-
est length, and from six to eight in its greatest breadth. It
is divided into three townships ,- Edgartown, the most pop-
ulous, occupying the south eastern part of the island ; Tis-
ury, embracing the north western part, and Chilmark the
western and southwestern parts. The name of this island,
given by the aborigines, is Nope, or Capawock. These
natives have long been celebrated in the annals of missions-
it those, whose blood runs pure fram foreign mixture,
are now nearly extint. A hybrid race, however, descende
chiefly from the intermarriages of negroes and indians, are
yet considerably numerous, perhaps about four hundred, who
inhabit the western extremity of the island, in the vicinity
of Gay head; and among them, there exists an organize
christian church. The small island of Chabaquiddick. lies
at alittle distance from the east end of the vineyard, a0
Noman’s land. not far from the south western extremity:
The Elizabeth islands. being about sixteen in number, are
situated a few miles from the north west end of Martha’s.

Geology of Martha’s Vineyard. 241

Vineyard ; and forma part of the south east barrier of Buz-
zards Bay. They contain a few scattered inhabitants.

In my route from the city of Boston, I passed over the
well known puddingstone of Roxbury and Dorchester; the
argillite and greenstone of Quincy; the sienite and sienitic
granite of Braintreeand Weymouth, with its beautiful dykes
of basalt, or greenstone; the gray wacke slate? of Abington;
the diluvium of East and South Bridgewater; the gray
wacke slate, diluvium and singular talcous rock, containing
feldspar, of Middleboro ; and struck at New Bedford, upon
mica slate, hornblende slate, and gneiss, inter-stratified, and
eontaining beds and veins of granite, In sailing out of New
Bedford harbour, these latter rocks appeared occasionally,
for several miles.along the shore; and., I was led to antici-
pate their continuance as far.as Elizabeth Islands and Mar-
tha’s Vineyard: but on. passing the former, I perceived a
diluyial coat to be spread over theirsomewhat hilly surface;
while the shores, in many places, exhibited steep, declivities
of sand. And on reaching the north western shore of Mar-
a’s vineyard, I found its aspect to be very similar These
islands so far as 1 have examined them, appear to be. made
up of the three following formations :, 1 Alluvial ;.2 Diluvi-
al: 3 Plastic Clay. these terms in the Modern re-
stricted sense ; that is, as the latest writers employ them, io
describing the strata of England and France. I take’for a
‘standard, the late work of Conybeare and Phillips, on the
geology of England and Wales. +

1 Alluvial. ne ee é

This formation, occupies a considerable _portic
southern part of the Vineyard ; reaching in, some places,
even beyond the centre of the island

isiand, — z
it consists of a perfectly level, sandy tract, uninhabited and

uninhabitable. I have rarely seen as extensive a region,
that was so cheerless and barren.

*

242 Geology of Martha’s Vineyard.

ately struck with the idea, that this sandy desart must have
been formed by the action of the waves of the vast Atlantic,
which have beat upon this shore, without obstruction, for so
many centuries, Inthe south westerly part of the island,
the high perpendicular cliffs indicate that the waves have
encroached upon the hilly part of the island; and it would seem
not altogether improbable, that the sands and clays, thence
worn down, might have been driven by tides and currents,into
this their retired bosom. J am aware, however, that no in
stance is known, in any other part of the world, of so ex-
tensive an alluvial deposition from this cause: and perhaps
if L had been able to spend more time in its examination,
especially its south eastern margin, I might have discov-
ered positive proofs of the incorrectness of such an hy pothe-
sis. In short, although this partof the island is coloured as
alluvial, 1 am strongly inclined to believe, that it is referable
to an older and distinct formation. Its inferior level, how-
er, the perfect evenness of its surface, and the entire ab-
sence of diluvial detritus, so abundant in every other part yf
_ the island, clearly discriminate this from the Plastic Clay

Formation; about'to be described. But as 1 am not pre-
pared, even to conjecture, with what other European stra-
tuin this is identical, it must, for the present, be denomina-
ted alluvial, © 0 bans .

2 Diluvial.

This formation invests, in a very conspicuous manner,
the whole of the Vineyard, with the exception of the part
justdescribed. All the north western extent of the island,
several miles in width, is ‘hilly ‘and tineven: with no abrupt
precipices, however, but’ rising into rounded eminences,
which together constitute a ridge of considerable extent, and
nearly as long as the island. ‘PF should judge that ir some
places. ihis rises. three hundred, or even four bundred feet
above the ocean; and the quantity of huge bowlder stones,
Scattered over these hills on every side, is immense. The
land is “mostly cleared, and the rounded masses are chiefly

anitic, and of course, of a’ white colour; so that they may

Seen at a great distance to good advantage. I had no

Geology of Martha's Vineyard. 243

and I could hardly believe the inhabitants who told me,
that no rocks were found in place on the island. But
wherever I had an opportunity to examine, these ledge like
appearances vanished on a nearer approach; and the dilu-
vial character of the surface became manifest. So that I
feel a good degree of confidence, that the same will be
found to be the case, with those eminences, that I did not
visit. These loose stones vary in size, from that of the
smallest pebbles, to that of masses, ten or even fifteen feet
in diameter. They are almost without exception, of a
primitive character; consisting of granite, gneiss, mica
slate and quartz.. I saw a few masses of a pudding stone,
similar to that of Roxbury ; but no other secondary rock,
In short, the detritus of this formation appears obviously,
to have been derived from the rocks, that occur in place
along the coast, on the mainland. —
The thickness of this diluvial mantle is not great. The
sand from the plastic clay formation beneath it, is indeed so
mingled with this, as to give a predominant character to the
soil, and even the clay beneath the sand, is sometimes seen
at the surface. In some tracts of considerable extent, little

so indeed itis. Some fertile tracts, however, occur along
the margin of the stnall streams, or brooks, and also in some
instances, in the immediate vicinity of the sea: and proba-
bly the soil in general, is of much the same character, as that
along the adjacent shores of the continent. — ,

The character of the diluvium of the Elizabeth islands,
appeared so precisely like that of the Vineyard, that I have
no doubt of their indentity [say appeared, for I did not
land on these islands; but having passed among them at
two places remote from each other, and approached often
within a few rods of the shore, fc k
with their exact resemblance to t
tour of the hills and vallies, i0 the colour, Saad
ty of the bowlder stones, in the sandy aspect Sapte Hee
it the high sloping sand oe so frequent along shore.

have accordingly coloured se | | ;
subjoined map 5 y auvial. It may be thought I do this on
very slight grounds, but as 1 have plainly sta

-

244 Geology of Martha’s Vineyard.

grounds are, geologists will place that degree of confidence in
the opinions advanced. which they consider them as de-
serving. Besides it must be recollected, that this paper
does not profess to give a finished sketch of the regions it
embraces, but only to furnish hints towards their geology.
diluvial bowlders, occurring along the south-east+
ern coast of Massachusetts, are often in immense quanti-
ties; and of a character, very similar to those on the above
named islands. :
I was told, by unquestionable authority, that a rocking
stone exists in Chilmark, a mile or two south-west of the
eongregational meeting-house. © But I could not visit it.

- 3. Plastic Clay Formation.

cliffs, a series of strata answering to the above description,
are exhibited usually in great perfection and beauty. Gay
Head is well known for the bright and variegated colours
ofits clay, sand and pebble strata ; which present a naked

sly coloured clays, sand, ferruginous sand, pebbles,
clay and pebbles, and clay and sand ickanked: e clay
pees are white, brown, blackish, red, light and deck yel-
ow, and finely variegated with spots of white, red, and yel-

Geology of Martha’s Vineyard. 245

low. The ferruginous pebble beds are brown, or reddish,
sometimes a deep blood red, and they are generally ce-

a
require a considerable blow of the hammer to separate the
fragments. This is particularly the case in the lower part
of these strata ; where the iron ore, which appears to be the
argillaceous, is sufficiently pure to be wroaght, although
penetrated by pebbles throughout. Some of the clay beds
are nearly half made up of small plates of silver coloured
mica, intimately mixed with the clay, which appears to be
kaolin. In this clay, beneath the ferruginous pebble beds,
! found good specimens of well characterised lignite.” It
consists of flattened trunks, or branches, several inches in
diameter, of a clove brown colour, retaining, very distinct-
ly, its longitudinal, fibrous structure: but the cross fracture
's conchoidal and shining, and the concentric rings are in-
visible. The bark isa mere line in thickness. It burns
without much difficulty, with considerable flame, and emits
a pungent rather unpleasant odour. It lies horizontal in

some
upwards, and in others they arch downwards. Whether
this irregularity does not proceed from a partial sliding
Thane masses of the cliff, I could not determine ;
though inclined to believe it doesnot.
_ The above description, it will be perceived, conennsoes
in its general characters, to the Kuropean Plastic - y
Fo ion ; and therefore the strata it embraces have been
thus denominated. But in order to establish their identity
with perfect certainty, a comparison must be oo ga -
tween the organic remains, occurring 1! eac rae
strata. It is not therefore, without some doubt, ae ave
denominated the formation, above described, the Plastic

246 Geology of Martha’s Vineyard.

Clay Formation.* It cannot, however, be referred to any
other European formation, of which I have seen a descrip-
tion. It is coloured, on the accompaning map, only asa
belt along the coast, in those parts where | have noticed it
to be more or less distinctly laid bare; although, as before
observed, it probably constitutes the basis of all the dilu-
vial part of the island. But the diluyial is so remarkable,
that it seemed to deserve a place. Probably, also, the
Plastic Clay underlies the diluvium of the Elizabeth Islands:
although the clay beds are not so distinct in the cliffs, and
are in general, hid by the sand. And from all I can leara
of Natucket, this island is, with little doubt, referable to the
same formation: if so, where, but to the same place in
the geological scale, shall we refer the sands of Cape
Cod? unless, indeed, they may belong to a formation still
more recent. ong Island, in those places where I have
seen it, is unquestionably very similar in its geologival
structure to Martha’s Vineyard ; and probably belongs to the
same era. I take it for granted, that the vast region along
the sea coast in the middle and southern states, marked on
Maclure’s map as alluvial, can no longer be considered
: ‘in the modern sense of that term. He describes 4
part of it, at least, as consisting of sandstone and limestone,
and regular beds of sand, gravel and clay; and some of this
gravel is cemented by oxide of iron: and, therefore, it can-
not be alluvial; but agrees with the European strata above
the chalk. If we take his map, and prolong the line, oF
rather curve, that separates the alluvial tract above name
from the primitive towards the north-east, we shall find
that it passes between Martha’s Vineyard and the conti-
nent, and crosses Cape Cod, leaving us to conclude that the
Vineyard and Nantucket are a continuation of that exten-
sive formation, hitherto called alluvial, of which Long-Is!-
anh has been regarded the north-eastern limit. If we pro
long this curve still farther, it will include within it Nova
Scotia, and, at least, a part of Newfoundland. Here ¥@
are reminded of the vast sand banks along that coast, and
- * The remarks of Mr. Fi who appears to be ocenlarly acquainted
Ppa ces ae pation ap Englan, on the veg nana Be of Nort
more haan a oe me bie ihe so
eel indebted to tha’

Plastic Clay 1 ormation in the Vineyard. I feel t gentle-
ts he has thrown out,

Geology of Martha’s Vineyard. 247

also, of the cliffs of gypsum and sandstone in Nova Scotia,
and the enquiry arises whether that gypsum is not identical
with the same rock in the vicinity of Paris, where it occurs
inthe lower Fresh Water Formations? If so, it forms a
continuation of the vast tertiary formations, stretching
through the eastern border of the United States, and em-
bracing some of the West India Islands, and adds to them
an interesting link. Finally, if we carry this curve across the
Atlantic, it will pass not far from the northern extremity of
reat Britian, and include within it the tertiary formations of
England and France, and, indeed, of all Europe. The en-
quiry then, immediately suggests itself, can it be, that the
tertiary formations of Europe and of the United States, are
merely the extremities of the same vast basin; the inter-
mediate parts of which, have been swept away by the
Currents and waves of the ocean, or by some mighty catas-
trophe? Whether such questions deserve any serious con-
sideration, or not, it is obvious, that there are facts enough
brought to light, to induce our geologists to subject those
parts of our country, hitherto called alluvial, to a oes
re-examination. And there is reason to anticipate, as the
fruit of such researches, the discovery of many more beds of
gypsum, than are now known ; and also, of chalk ? If this lat-
ter substance exist immediately. below Plastic Clay in Eng-
land and France, why may we not expect, that when the
Same formation in this country is penetrated, chalk will
be found beneath it ?. In England, the Plastic Clay is hot usu-
ally more than 100 feet in thickness: but in Martha’s Vine-
yard, (if it really exist there,) the ocean has already laid open
this formation nearly 200 feet in depth ; so that the bottom
of it might probably be reached without much difficulty.
I visited the Vineyard in the early part of June; and the
season being unusually late, am unable to say much of its
botany, if it be proper, in this place, to say any thing. A
Species of oak exists abundantly there, wh ich I have never
seen upon the continent: but it was not the season o
Owers, or fruit; and the leaves were but just opening, so
that I could determine nothing concerning the species. A
Species of Ranunculus also occurs, which, is stemless, and,
believe, undescribed. Very many of the bowlder stones
Contain, on their surface, large quantities of the elegant
rera chrysophthalma : —a lichen very rare 10 ron eee
of New-England. Associated with this, is dburdarce of

248 Additional Notice of Argentine.

yellow and beautiful species of Parmelia, with which I am
unacquainted : the same, that is so frequent on the pudding-
stone of Roxbury, and the petrosilex of Lynn. he
south-east shore of the island, where the waves of the At-
lantic incessantly beat, | observed.an unusual number of
species. ucus, Ulva, Spongia, and other genera of
zoophytes, unknown to me. The testacea were neither
numerous nor interestin

delicate species of Hotionia, that answers well, to the H.
mflata of Elliot; but is certainly not the H. palustris of
inneeus.

Arr. 1V.—dditional Notice of Argentine; by Professor
, Dewey.

To tue Epiror, Sir, ~

‘Since the account of the argentine from the mine
Southampton was published in Vol. VI. p. 333 of this Jour-
nal, I have examined several more specimens from the same
locality. Indeed, this is the only locality of any conse-
quence, I believe, yet discovered in this country. he
mineral has been seen by several distinguished mineralo-
gists the past summer, who supposed it to be from Europe:

rom its resemblance to European specimens. Besides the
silvery white, it ocours of a greyish aspect, not appearing to
be smoky throughout, though it looks as if it had bee?
slightly smoked. This appearance, however, seems not 0
be accidental, or induced in blasting the rock, but to belong
to the mineral. All the specimensT haye examined, are
beautifully phosphorescent on a hot iron or coals. The
ight is a bright and strong yellow, slowly increasing for
some time unless the mineral is reduced to powder. The
mineral rapidly decrepitates before the blow pipe, and the

‘agments of the lamine evidently tend towards the rhom-

dal tabular form. The laminz often pass into a relative
ly compact mass, so that the laminae cannot be seea-
have lately analyzed another specimen, which seemed to be

Notice of a: Silicious Petrifaction: og

very free from quartz, but I found nearly the same propor-
tion of siler as before, so that silex seems to enter into the

the quantity of water, and this will leave the carbonic acid
very nearly in the proportion required from ‘the composi+
tion of carbonate of lime. This mineral has been found in
abundance in Williamsburgh. It occurs in considerable
ae ofa beautiful pearly lustre, and laminated like ‘the
other. ~~ . ‘

Arr. V.—Notice of a Silicious Petrifaction, from \N.
agi ¥ ei i5Qarelind? fom fgand'ly 2iyeent
- ta ee “Gt, wee hh swe seer
'. [Extract of a letter from Mr. Toomas Sraope.} + ao }ret:

aye wit 2: BF

Fayerrevitue, No. Caro. 3d July, 1823. .

1 sewp you some specimens of petrifactions; they are
common through the union, but this appears to be froma
Pine tree, the first Lever saw, and what is remarkable, it is
on a high dry sand hill, elevated about neers

the level of the river, in a situation that would seem.almost
to preclude much moisture. Mr. Eccles, an intelligent and
respectable gentleman in the ueighbourhood, recollects it
thirty years past, when it was nearly the entire tree 5 the
change of wood into stone is certainly a chemical process,

Petrifaction.* I will remark that the stone in this vicinity
is sand united by the oxide of iron, of which I send you a
Specimen. | arm of opinion from some, th

experiments, that by pulverising this stone,

* : : eee ‘ally mixed with sand, (a ve-
We believa this to bes mistake ' 5 Se anal in a state of ane

and mixing it

‘heat of the sand. (J. G. P.)
Vor. VIl.—No. 2, 32

250 Notice of a Stlicious Petrifaction.

properly with lime, &e. that a valuable and cheap water™
proof mortar might be obtained.

N. B. The specimen of petrified wood is about eight-
een inches by six inches. It is entirely silicions, a part of
it resembling the coarser varieties of wood opal, generally
opaque white, but in some portions stained of a rust or vio-
let colour by oxide of iron. The wood is unquestionably
pine. The layers and fibres are distinctly preserved. There
is a knot, very exactly imitated, and on the outside of this

: rthere is a colleetion of resinous matter, such as-is com-

. “
binant

Pave.

mon HY similar ions in decayed trees now standing.
belonged to a dry tree, from which the bark had fallen, and
its surface exactly resembles the half decayed surface of dri-
ed trees, It is worm eaten, and the intervals between the
outer layers are filled with the dust deposited by the larveot
insects. ‘Though most of the specimen, particularly the
firmer parts, is flinty or opaline, (there is a clear line of sep-
aration between the opaque white and senti-translucent vio-
let coloured portions of which it is chiefly composed,) yet
the open spaces between the layers, and particularly around
the knot, are lined with minute quartz crystals. The s
cimen is said to have been taken from an entire tree, which
lately stood erect and imbedded in a hillock of loose sand.
It probably grew on the spot, and was killed and gradually
covered by the blowing sand. The specimen of the rock
18 a sand stone cemented by oxid of iron, formed of the com-
mon coarse sand of the southern pine forests. Such sand
stones are common all over the Southern states, from N-
Jersey to Alabama, particularly near the borders of the
primitive. They form entire hillocks in the barrens oppo-
site Philadelphia, where they have a striking resemblance
to sand hardened by frost. J. GP.)

Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. 251
Agr. VI.—Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals.
1. Yenite and Green Feldspar.
Amherst, (Mass.) Dec. 10th, 1823.
To Pror. Sittiman, Sr,

About eighteen months ago, I visited Comberian®, oe R19
for the purpose of obtaining the inter
‘are found in that place. Among the iaaatees which I
‘then obtained, there was one which escaped my notice, un-
til very lately. Upon examination, I do not hesitate to

itthe Yenite of Haiiy. Its character is as follows. It oc-
curs massive, and crystallized. ‘Its crystals are are scattered
over the surface, crossing each other in all ¢

hey are generally from three quarters of an inch to one
inch in length, and about one of an inch in diameter.
Their form is that of four sided prisms, with angles of 112°
and 68°; terminated. by four sided pyramids, They are
Opaque ; "and of a greenish black colour,—having a lustre
somewhat glistening, and approaching to metallic. ‘They
are of sufficient hardness to scratch glass, but may never-
theless be scratched by Adularia. When exposed to the
heat of the blow pipe, they readily melt into a Pome opaque,
black globule. e matrix of this rie com pound
tock ; consisting chiefly epidote, and magnetic
Oxide of Iron. S cuatpbieal oe wok ta wise 1 found tie
Specimen, is s generally known by the name of Tower hill;
where a nu ep aantona Genesee 2! ined. The
Precise s . am unable to te.

lam — happy in being able to increase the sesso
numerous catologue o of Chesterfield minerals. While

ed It is nular co
tetions, with daa glistening lustre. Tt contains

252 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals.

i] 1] octahedral crystals f

casi oxide of
iron. "Should you ‘deem this notice worthy a a —_— ‘in
your Journal, you are at liberty to insert, it.
Soeeests ae
284 AT at HARLES U. SHEPARD.

~ Beautiful green ee has been recently found at Bev-
erly Mass. by the Rev. Elias Cornelius ; small portions ¢ of
Beh Aust, etas: care Missaminated in its Finsies

A SS SRI Shiies}

ne ns Lenn tet a and lo a op at Pitts
"The. olour is yellow. orred tinged with yellow; the
crystals s * a ll de in and possessing a strong vitreous

berate generally of agra % tee colaans. sometimes
ed, at Pi Red ry ‘is.also. found on.the banks ¢
iver at Cumm on.
Prismatic mica, abundant at Chesterfield and Goshen, ia
granite. It separates very easily into pseu prisms;.,the
ss) tm ie beieties pene the saieiti amian-
wa li

aie “2 e sap Senko pone
Chesterf meee f } ware
ated, har Mee a Pak sin aon a en, they

Miscellaneous Localities of Minerais. 253
a a structure distinctly foliated, with a shining! -»
e.*

a Oe hornblende, well crystallized, at Washington 1 near
Pittsfield

~ Graphite, at Lanesborough.

se i of manganese, yielding vital air in » abundance, a
Plainfie

Pnksld September, 1823. 7s :

= sitcmuasel Localities by Mr. ie ia Tsceap x: ex-
et of a letter to the Edito
Providence, ‘Now. Sth, 1828.

“In the course of last summer I visited ce following, lo-
calities of minerals. Some of them have been known a long
time to individuals ; = none of them have been noticed in
the Journal of Scienc afl. Be iad

1, Feldspar, in poh a stals of an inch nd a half i
diameter, at Barkhampstead. — ieee Stay sone

2. Actynolite in potstone, at do.

. Prismatic do. at 0.
adiated quartz, at Canton. _ saint ae
. Kyanite, from a new locality in Chesbee: eratig 0
The specimens which | obteingdis iene
in the turnpike road, leading from °
Haddam, a few rods east of Mr. Asher Rowley’s... The
crystals are imbedded in quartz. and cross,each other im ev-
ery direction. Their colour is. rammeral lym pale eticsro
Occasional spots of deep blue. _ ow
9. Garnets. in mica slate, at Haddam. s
They are found about woe by rods east of the Landing.

CO -3 D> Kb 69
w
“6
a
a= ‘
°
o*
po
Coad
ra
is']

3
=e)
to
>
o
=
=

They occur. in vast abundance, and.are from one be hited |

diameter. Those. which have. been ‘no!
feta esis Cobels, miemnaee tain rs
With the rotate i ef roe 8 |

10. ewdate ot Plaip nfield.

gf mie splenig
11. Gneiss SOP MAY « stratified. at do.

men three fourths of an inch thick, wnich contains ten dis-
tinct layers. avcte a7) | F ane

* Published as Tremolite, i in Am. Jour. Vol. Vi, No. 2a."

4

ge

ate
+See he
Rk

254 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals.

12. Galena, at White Creek, N. ¥. It was discovered
about four months ago. It yields upwards of seventy five
per cent pure jead. ? rations for working it were com-
menced some time since. For this information respecting
this locality, I am indebted to one of the proprietors, from
whom I received specimens of the ore.

13. Smoky quartz at Killingly.
14, Ferruginous sand, in great abundance, at Block Is-
d

and.

15. Green Talc, at Smithfield, R. I. It is in the centre
of a public road, about a mile west of Cumberland Hill. It
was discovered nearly a year and a half ago, by the Hon.
Samuel Eddy, and Dr. Charles B. Halsey of this town.
Specimens have been taken from this locality, which weigh-
ed 2 hundred and fifty pounds. It is of a brilliant colour,
being of aijdeep green, particularly when viewed in the di-
rection of the laminae. From experiments which have been
made upon this mineral, it is found to lessen friction better
than graphite.”

A. Miscellaneous Localities, by Dr. Exen. Emmons, Ches-
iter, Mass.

Silico Calcareous Oxide of Titanium.—Oblique four si-
ded prisms, (rather imperfect,) of a light brown colour, as-
sociated with Augite and Actynolite ; likewise in Sienite, oF
an aggregate of feldspar and hornblende, not stratified.

Ph e of Lime.-In an aggregate of gray epidote,

zoisite, ho nde and quartz. Dissolves slowly in nitric

acid. Colour whitish yellow. Fragments transparent.

m a rectal four sided pri } .

Black oxide of Man web, P. Plainfield, sent me what

he calls iron ore. Ihave lately ascertained that it is man-
eas-

associated with the above mineral, occurs in single oblique four
sided prisms, with rhomboidal terminations and grouped,

Miscellaneous Locatities of Minerals. 258,

sometimes, in bundles and globular masses, and radiating
from a centre &c. This Mineral Prof. Dewey calls Zeolite,
but I cannot succeed in forming a jelly with acids.* Proba-
bly both stilbite and zeolite are found at this locality.

_ Carb. Lime occurs at the same locality with the two last,
in six sided tables and six sided prisms, truncated lightly on
every solid angle. Also in lenticular erystals or thin
scales, variously grouped. The three last mentioned occupy
fissures and veinsin the mica slate, about one mile east of the
meeting house in Chester. This locality is interesting both
for the minerals, and the situation and relative position of the
rocks, of which something will be said hereafter. Beryl,
Norwich, one crystal in my possession, is about five inches
in diameter, and is intersected on one of its lateral faces by
another at an angle of about 45°. Likewise found in Ches-
ter in an aggregate of carb. lime, chlorite and mart A colour
yellowish green and white. The beryl in Norwich is about

Ifa mile west from Pitcher’s bridge, near a mass of w

hite
rocks, to be seen from the bridge. Prismatic and Tabular

flat plates in mica slate. Though I do not mention these as:

Augite is abundant here in amorphous masses. 1 ha)
foand a few specimens of well characterized sablite and
coccolite. They occur in beds in the mica slate, both at
Chester and Middlefield. Magnetic oxyd of. tron is akun-
dant, disseminated in serpentine, mica slate, &e. ; form, oc-
taedral crystals and amorphous masses. Bthomt: spar,
(Middlefield,) in Dolomite or magnesian carb. lime; ws
‘ains a large proportion of magnesia. I have discov :

* Perhaps the proportions were not right. 2 is

256 . Observations on Mr Bendant’s

stance, in which is imbedded Hepatic sulph. of iron? which
on being moistened with sulphuric acid gives off sulph. hy-
drogen in large quantities. . } bebe Ae
gate, one large specimen which I found near Chester
village, in the sand, weighed upwards of 180 Ibs. after seve-
ral large fragments were broken off. It consists of yellow
jasper and chalcedony.» A large mass of chalcedony and
jasper which is in part agatized, I have since seen not far
from the meeting house, almost twice as large as the’ one
found at the village. qa a

oe

vels in Hungary,* &c. with miscellaneous remarks on coal,

volcanic rocks, where age has made still more diversity
complication in their structure, as is the case with what be

trap. It would be easy for any one who had sufficient p3-
tience to describe every Lava that has been thrown out of

other mountain produced by fire.

* The maps ¥ wkwarkly placed in the that they copid not
be opened without tearing them, which rendered it necessary to put _
on canvass to preserve them.

Geological Travels in Hungary. 25%

It being the only* attempt that has yet been made on the
continent of Europe to make a geological map, it will serve
to show you the vast confusion and intricacy of the stratifi-
cation of the old continent; how completely the different
classes of rocks are mixed and thrown out of their natural

tinent, and the ease with which the science can be studied
from the well defined boundaries which nature has given
to the different classes of rocks, running in the same direc-
tion, from one end of the continent to the other, having the
line of separation so distinct between the different rocks in
the limits of each class as to reduce to a certainty the place
that each occupies in the natural order. This results from
the fine opportunities afforded of examining the line of sep-
aration at every junction, through a distance of twelve to
fifteen hundred miles, by which means any observer can
obtain a more accurate knowledge of geology, in one year
in the United States, than he could ina long life spent in
travelling in any other part of the globe hitherto examined
and described. :
In the year 1815, six years after my geological map of
the United States was published, in the transactions of the
ilosophical Society of Philadelphia, Mr. Smith, I believe
under the patronage of Sir Joseph Banks, published a geo-
logical map of England, the nomenclature of which is to a
great extent composed of the local or vulgar names given to
s by the miners or quarry-men that wrought in them.
He likewise endeavored, like M. Beudant, to specify each
individual rock, in colors on the map—a thing very difficult,
perhaps impossible to be done, with any degree of accuracy.
Since this, Mr. Greenough has published a geological map
of England, which I have not seen. eee
Beudant proves that the anthracite does not belong
to the primitive class, but seems to think it may belong to
the secondary. The regularity of our stratification places

ae and Cuvier’s, of the environs of £9057) eaeege) s, of the Vicentin,
umerous other local continental maps. ‘(EprTer. ae
tidisteaedees contingmit from London tothe Geblogical S6ciety
m New-Haven

Vou. VIL.—No. 2. 33

208 Observations on M. Beudant’s

the anthracite in the transition class without a possibility of
doubt, as the same uniformity of arrangement fixes the nat-
ural position of a great many individual rocks, that remain
doubtful from the deranged state of the stratification in Eu-

rope. .
To be capable of applying the nomenclature of any sci-
ence to the substances, on seeing them, constitutes the

dary rocks
what I found to be the order of nature, by placing the Gres

as the oldest secondary, putting over it the oldest red sand-
stone, and covering it with the compact limestone. When
L first my geological rambles (considering coal as
the most useful and valuable substan be-

and under it, I should be able to ‘predict where coal
could be found, but was at last forced to conteat myself

shell limestone hills,
structure, and often not of the oldest formation. In this
position I found almost all the coal beds in England, Wales,
and Scotland, all the coal around i

limestone, although the quantity of mica in the coal meas-

‘
Geological Travels in Hungary. 259

ures, with their regular dip, gives them more the appear-
anee of gray wacke, than I have any where else seen; for
mica is rare in the slaty clay of most other coal measures.
Our immense coal field above’ Pittsburg is 30 or 40 miles
distant from Bedford, the termination of the transition forma-
tion, which space is occupied by secondary limestone full
of shells, and sandstone, on the back of which the coal crops

out.

M. Beudant found Gres houillier (coal measures) occupy
ing the greatest part of the north and summit of the Carpa-
thian mountains. I once went thirty or forty leagues from
Villiczka, across the Carpathians, but saw nothing that
l could’ call coal measures or Gres houillier, but immense
beds of transition. Froma note in page 171 of the 3d vol-
ume of M. Beudant’s elk: where he found the specimens

of the advantages which the geologist enjoys in the nited
States, in consequence of Hie, Fegalanity nd
Stratification, is to be coavince :
the ae afi et first glance, with their dip and direction,
and to have no doubts concerning their actual and natu-
ral relative positions. re
. i of the secondary
*When I go home I shall send to the Society speciné’s f nesd
imestone, 1 fields above-mentioned, as well as specune
ot thee Agpacuaen 9 are! all at Philadelphia, besides the suite of Italian
rocks which I gave to the academy.

e° Remarks on Rocks accompanying Anthracite.

..*M. Beudant’s tertiary class can be only local, confined:
to the basin of the north of France, and the south of Eng-
land, as it consists of all the-strata that lie above the chalk.
As there is no chalk in the United States, there can be no
tertiary class, and in many other countries, such as Norway,
Sweden, &c. I {ound a small band of chalk between Mos-
cow and the Black sea, in Russia, entirely surrounded by
alluvion. Chalk is a very rare rock and cannot possibly
be considered as a good foundation for a class.

REMARK BY THE EDITOR.
The above communication was received a good while

since, and ought to have appeared before—but owing to
the editor’s ill health it was acéidentally postponed.

Remarks on the rocks accompanying anthracite at Wilkesbar-
re and elsewhere, by Pres. Maclure, in a letter to the Editor
dated Madrid, dug. 20, 1822.

I observe in your Journal’a description of the anthracite
at Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, by Mr. Cist. In describing
the accompaning rocks (the most essential part of Geology)
he gives avery correct mineralogical description, but that is
not sufficient to be comprehended by the SR ccnien geolo-
gist; for all the aggregates, secondary or transition, have
pretty much the same mineralogical structure ; but the po
sition and relative situation decides the class and fixes the
nature of the rock. The whole region about Wilkesbarre
belongs to the transition class, and all the slate he describes
with spots of mica, must be gray wacke slate. Aggregates
of large rounded pebbles cemented by quartz, form the

*V° Reudant gfe ea + ‘a ct : his Gres how-
illier, and confounds it with the argillac cide of iron, found in :
~“— = eet out of ich the greatest part of the English iron #

te of iron rarely, if ever, occurs in —
is found in transition recks, ano ption that there is some
supposing Carpathian and A i
priueipally of Gres houillier or coal measures.
! in the United States for the study of geo

ogy, that itis probable when its it, will be
vishal Wp “thle ae its advantages are generally known it.

Maclure on the Arrangement and Origin of Rocks. 261%

proper gray wacke in which class all the anthracite of the
United States is found, and I believe in all other countries.

If the immense:confusion from the derangement of the stra-
ta would permit an accurate examination, it would, I be-
lieve, be found that the dip of the anthracite on one side of
the river is to the north and on the other side to the south,

WwW is a new occurrence in regard to

and seems to assimilate the anthracite to the bituminous
coal basins; a fact which deserves to be ascertained.

Art. VIII—Miscellaneous remarks on the systematic ar-
rangement of rocks, and on their probable origin, cae
cially of the secondary, by Witttam Macxure, Presi
of the Am. Geol. Soc’y. in a letter dated Alicante in Spain,
April 29, 1823, addressed to the Editor.
Dear Sir,

So much having lately aeemnica in

works concerning the universality of the psi Io forma-
tion (called by some diluvian;) the science having scarce-
ly got rid of the innumerable hypothetical suppositions of
the ori igin and formation of the earth, is I fear likely to
stumble into another hypothesis, though not so far back
into the dark annals of nature, yet sufficient to warp and
confuse the collection of facts, on which must

a —— theories. T'o elucidate by bcs 3 EB

so regular and undisturbed, any pe or “ena re
mation of the secondary, I shall here enregister my opinions
as being the result of what Iknow. Ihave been induced
to consider the two great aqueous depositions of alluvial
and secondary, as having a common origin in the aggrega-
tion of the detritus or particles. of more ancient rocks, re-
duced to inace formsby te eae ey differing only in the
lengt , and com-

ne 0 the the diet tion or de-
Ppesed of an Seanad drawn rom see far di

That the depositions of gravel, : a or clay, formed by the
sea, lakes, or rivers, or precipitations of from ee
by its evaporation or cooling, should dbe similar, one Ww

a reasonably expect as that the same cause

© 262 Maclure on the Arrangement and Origin of Rocks.

duce the same effect, over the whole earth; but that the

stratification of the different materials, follows any regular

series of alternation, or that the strata are placed in the

same order, one over the other, for any great extent of sur-
rs to me not fully established; I doubt w:

cons
class of rocks, undivided by any high ridge or chain of
mountains, offers a situation on a great scale most likely to

A ae, FE

e volcanic rocks, from their interfering with the two
great sweeping theories of the earth’s formation, have had
the smallest share of impartial examination. Having ov

i. 1 oe’ rc = ee ee rot

pendulum by the impulsion of Werner has been long kept
in the extreme e i i 5

found under the transition in some parts of this country i
that is to say, rocks that from rational analogy, 00 the ex-
amination of their structure and component parts, would

Maclure on the Arrangement and Origin of Rocks. 263 ©

rently alternating with the transition class, though their
relative position, from the smallness of the mass, exposed
by the decomposition of the superincumbent transition,
cannot be so easily ascertained. Col. Silvertope lately

nown agent r ng water, may have
made and aggregated the rest of the primitive rocks.
hen we gaze through our largest magnifying telescopes,
at the expanse of the heavens, or look into the past and
dream of eternity ; on considering the small atom of space
or time that exact observation has occupied, we must
be convinced that we have no right to limit either, nor to
tima’ i the operations

ture. All compact lavas are smooth and unctuous, - losing
great part of their characteristic roughness, even those full of

nall imperceptible pores, which in their fresh state con-
stitute that harsh feel, whi

tible pores to the very centre, of the apparently solid
rock. | first discovered this fact near Montpelie
have since remarked it in different places. It is bec
fore possible that a lava with small pores imperceptible

we
&

» 264 Professor Dewey on Caricegraphy.

the eye, might in process of time, (to which we are not
authorized to set any limits,) form a complete greenstone,
the lava imitating the hornblende and depositions in the
pores, the feidspar, which would account for the frequent
presence of greenstone trap as it is called, in the new
floetz trap of Werner; this rock I should bé disposed to
cail ancient lava. . iti

Some of our young geologists fascinated perhaps by the
brilliant wake of some Europeans, appear willing to ex-
plode the received artificial divisions : though no advocate
for the infallibility of stratification, formations &c. &c. &e.,
yet itis probable, that some such arrangement is neces-
sary, to facilitate the acquisition of the science, like the
shelves of a library, and perhaps it is equally convenient to
work with the old, until practice and observation shall
supply us with a newer and better,

BOTANY.
‘ et .
Arr. [X.—Caricography ; by Proressor C. Dewet,
sae Williams College.

in Rees’ Cyclopedia, art. Carex, 172 species; and in the
elaborate work of C. Schkuhr, about 220 species, and of

Species in

Professor Dewey’s Caricography. 265

Distinct as the species are seen to be when once known,
many of them have so great a resemblance in the charac-
ters employed in descriptions, that it has been found no
easy matter to select such distinguishing characters, or to
describe the diagnostics with such precision, that the care-
ful botanist should not be led to erroneous conclusions.
The magnitude of this difficulty will be more fully appre-
ciated by considering the fact, that Linneus is generally
thought to have confounded some species,—that some
distinguished botanists of England certainly confounded
different species,—and that some of our most accurate ob-
servers have done the same, or have been obliged, upon
further examination, to alter theif conclusions. It is this
difficulty which originated the works'of Wahlemberg and
Schkuhr, mentioned already; the Monograph of English
Carices by Dr. Goodenough ; the phat A ant Scanen-
sem by Agardh; and which renders a Monograph of the
Carices of the United States so desirable. Such a Mono-
graph of this genus is the more important, as there are
several species which have been confounded with others,
or have lately been discovered. Such a Monograph is
expected from that accurate botanist, Mr. Schweinitz.

-'To aid the student I propose to mention some species of
Carex, described by European writers, but not yet credited
to our country, and to make some remarks upon some spe-
cies described by the most popularauthors, = =

Besides the works already mentioned, reference w ll be
made to Persoon’s Synopsis, and Eaton’s Manual of Bota-
ny; and, for convenience, the reference will be made by
mentioning the name of the author. The specific names
are credited to the authors to whom they are ascribed by
Schkuhr. 22

Carex teretiuscula. eae a sate
Ci paniculata, 8 tereteuscula. Wane
; P'Schk tab. D. fig. 19. and T. fig- 69. Pers. no. 76.

C. Ǥ ike tWwite of thrice compou d, dense, rather
Pointed ; epics clustered; fruit spreading, gibbous ;
stem roundish.”—Rees’ Cyc. :

As Wablemberg considered this plant to be a variety of
C. paniculata, L. he adds only the following character,

3 Ae. ; ee i

thyrse decompound, squarrose. Schkuhr, however,

~ Vor, VIL—No. 2. ro an

266 Professor Dewey’s Caricography.

with Goodenough that they were distinct species. As they
are found in the same marshy situations and often associa-
ted, and are possessed of different and constant characters,
they may be considered distinct.

Like C. paniculata, it is often dioecious and polygamous.
But it may be distinguished from it by its less diffuse spikes
scarcely panicled and of a darker brown ; by its fruit which
is darker colored, and rather more rounded or gtbbous at. the
base, convex on the upper and slightly concave on the under
side towards the tip, and more distinctly scabrous than C.
paniculata. :

C. alba. Haenke.
Schk. tab. O. fig. 55.
Pers. no. 175. aud Rees’ Cyc. . ;
C. alba: spicis longiuscule exserte pedunculatis
sparsifloris paucifloris, bracteis vaginantibus hyalinis aphyl-
lis remotiusculis, squamis brevibus, capsulis subglobosis
cum acumine ; foliis setaceis. Wahl. no. ‘ :

The following description is translated from Willd. Sp.
Pl. Staminate spike solitary, peduncled ; pistillate in paws,
peduncled, about five flowered ; fruit obovate-globose, striate,
healer op liquely truncate ; bracts membranaceous, sheathing

_ Itis found in the mountain woods of Austria, &c. It has
been found in our country only at the foot of the limestone
hills in Pownal, Vt. :

This isa very distinct species. Four to ten inches high—
leaves sub-radical, bristle-form, and rather pale-green—one
staminate spike, often very nearly sessile, and frequen
rising to a less height than the pistillate—pistillate spikes
two or three, on peduncles, the a two rising nearly Md
the same level, about five flowered—fruit ovate or slightly
obovate, black when mature, longer than the ovate whitish
scale—bracts white, membranaceous, hyaline, scarcely half
the length of the pedunele, obliquely truncate. It agrees
with the fig. in Schk. and with the popular account !F
Rees’ Cyc.

Cy ampullacea. Gooden.
_-‘Sebk. tab. Tt. fig. 107.
Pers. no. 204. and Rees’ Cyc. ;
“-C. “Spicis sub breviter pedunculatis peace
crassts laxis, masculis pluribus, bracteis amplectentibus fol-

Professor Dewey’s Caricography. 267

iaceis distantibus, squamis lanceolatis, capsulis subglobosis
inflatis setaceo-rostratis divergentibus, culmo Sphere tp
foliis subangustis marginibus incurvis.”——Wabl. n :

The following description is from Willd. Sp. Pl.—
Staminate spikes three—pistillate spikes cylindric, erect, on
short peduncles—fruit sub-globose, inflated, with the beak

bifurcate, sn than the lanceolate scaie.

This is the C. vesioaria of Lightfoot in Fi. Scot., and
may be mistaken for C. vesicaria L., which is credited to

made to Ges 106, and not 1o 166. Both pe onan

marshes, but they are readily distinguished by their

and scales. C. ampullacea has an —— sub ‘phoblar

3 with an attenuated beak, er than its lanceolate oho
- vesicaria, L. has an inflated, bine smn te

subulate fruit, scarcely longer than the oma ‘Both: elias

helong to the same subdivision in Ph. &c

C. pallescens L.
Schk. tab. Kk. fig. 99.
Pers. no. 174, and Rees’ Cyc.

C. “Spicis pedunculatis subcylindraceis nutantibus,
brac eis subamplectentibus subfoliaceis subdistantibus, cap-
sulis ovali-ellipticis obtusissimis teretibus.”—Wabl. no. 121.

The following account, translated from the Car, Scan. of
Agardh, was taken from living specimens

“Culm erect, a foot high, three sided, ‘sulcate, leafy at
the base. Bracts scarcely erie ofien transversély
ragose. Staminate spike lanceolate. Pistillate spikes three,
ovate, obtuse, pale. Scales ovate, carinate, yellowish with
4 green keel, roe s Bene nand cia as the and ith

ao they agree minutely with species roi ‘Sweden.
The leaves = sheathes are slightly pilose, as are those
which I have from Sweden and Engla bract
often transversely rugose. ‘The inconstant difference a the
Scales it shares in common with C.

which Muh. considered the same with the plant so called
nour nageet though he remarked the difference in the

268 Professor Dewey's Uaricography.

scale. I had considered the €. pallescens as an undeseri-
bed species until I examined the fig. of Schk. But our

plant. ore embles the fig. in Schk. so exactly, except in the
ay the scale, that I'am satisfied it must be another of
the European species to be credited to our country.

C. filiformis, Noateban
» © Schk. tab. K. fig.
Pers. no. 190. ~ "Rees +

m BS & Spicis subsessilibus oblongis, bracteis eC
vagnetin ‘foliatis remotiusculis, capsulis ovali- i
1 ello bifurcato 5 foliis convolutis.”-—W abl. no. 77.

Agardh gives the! following popular description ot tims
species in his Car

* Culm two dent ea roundish, smooth; leaves bias
nelled, destitute of a keel, smooth, scabrous on the margin.
Bracts leafy, surpassing the culm. Staminate, spike one
or two, lanepolata; with an oblong, rather acute: —_ having
its nerve yellow; pistillate spike one, oftener
mucronate scale having a green keel, capsule ‘thickly to-
mentose.

Our plant, as well asthe European, inhabits marshes
It has been su dt be C. C. pellita. Muh.’ It differs from

= » Muh., so Sate shown in the figures of

Schk., *y omvbits in its leaves. The leaves of C. pellita
are flat ; of C. filiformis, are convolute. ‘The fruit of the
ormer is ovate, pilose, and sini’ tens of the latter, is
elliptic, villose, and bi-furcate. C, filiformis should be

laced in eran subdivision io Ph. agree we

I mie aed nonhdb. th
vn wages a infima longissi

+ hina Neston
epion mascule subapprens

flowered, pe atl tg and ses sie, the, folbest on
wah a very long peduncle ; fruit Shoreeetbane, three-si-

Professor'Dewey’s Caricography. 269

ded and very short-heaked, oblique at the orifice, and equal
to the oblong scale.

This is a very tine species, growing. in tufts upon hills
with open woods. It has a lax culm, and is clearly distin-
guished by its pistillate wie asi shape of its fruit. It
agrees perfectly with the figure in Schk., and answers also
to the description. . It has passed under several names. It
is scarcely peed 8 to remark that C. alpestris, Pers. is
avery different plan

the species of se found in our country and descri-
bed by various authors,some have evidently been confound-
ed with others, and some have not been so perfectly de-
scribed as to be readily distinguished from others to which
they are related. Among them are the following.

i. Carex panbnilephiotas
Pursh, Muh. Pers. Natt. ig alias :
Schk. tab. Hbh. fig. 1
The name. of this species, though credited to Wahl. by

Schk. is not in Wahl. Cariographen, and | am ‘unable to
find any description of his which corresponds to it. ~Con-
siderable difficulty has arisen in ascertaining this species on
account of the section in which it is placed by most authors.
Ph. places it in the section, spikes androgynous, and —r
Vision, spike single, staminate at the-apex. Yet s de-
scription, taken’ like most of them from Willd |
shows that the spike is compound, and Schk. has be Of

nate at the apex. Nuttall and Eaton put it in the same
Place. Parsh was probably led into this mistake by con-
sidering C. typhina ina, Mx. as the same plant, for he gives ‘it
as a Synonyme- The characters of €. typhina, prove it to
be a very different plant, pe it is generals considered as
the C. squarrosa, L, so well ribed by Mub. Sie ee
his description by the words, “‘4n Cit see es Mz. :

C. cephalophora is readily distingu
Sregated ets 3 als c ssed ovate fruit, s¢ scabrous 3
and its small ovate scale; scarcely half the length of the “hon ruit

and terminating in @ Euapidatt 3 scabrous awn Salen ng about pom
la the end of. the fruite It is said by Muh. to be o
to four feet high, but I have rarely found it to exceed twen-
ty inches, and it is often much less.

270 Professor Dewey’s Caricography.

BiG. a, sas Li,
h.: Pers. Rees? Sie: and Schk. »
tp ma, Mx. var. of C. squarrosa. Pers.
There i is no ie of this carex in Schk. but it is so well
described by him and Muh. that there can be no doubt
about-it. It should be in a new section in Ph. and Eaton,
under the general division, stigmas three, and a new —_
vision, spike single, staminate bel
ts descruton might then be as follow.
Spike oblong-cylindric ; fruit walbniaisbdaye ovate with a long
beak, two toothed, horizontal, enemas and sub-squarrose,
bi ale bos oe passer ae

than three. It sometimes has twos ikes, as Muh. re-
marks ; but they are far distant and the lower is supported
on is hat pedunc

ursh does not give ( c. squarrosa, unless he confounded
pone Cre seems indeed scarcely possible
that any one, who hdd seen both, should consider them a
at all ici! and yet it is singular that C, squarrosa s

of Ph.*

Ik Gam, indied tes to be expected that P , Port iat be ented
free from mintahes, But in some cases, t the iota is not easily accounted
for. Thus to the description of Pigseee 7 villosum, Mx. taken pot
— — nage Pursh ha pes Sided & » * baccis distinctis,” whch

been, that @

7 nd most of on all 3 i
is ered in the Harb k ies, and IS
= xX solos i Pea “ste ay to be probably a new operas,

Professor Dewey’s Caricography. 271

3. C. stipata. Muh.
Pursh, Muh. Eaton, and Pers.
Schk. tab. Hbh. fig. 132.

C. vulpinoidea, Mx.

This very distinct species is well described, but Pursh has
quoted C, vulpinoidea Mx.as a synonyme of C. muhlenbergii,
Schk. There can be litile doubt, however, from Mx’. de-
scription and his popular remark that it is closely allied to C.
vulpina as well as the remark of Muh. to the same pur-
pose, that C. vulpinoidea, is the same as C. stipata, C. muh-
lenbergii has very little resemblance to C. vulpina, and is
readily distinguished by its approximate spikelets, its com-
Pressed roundish ovate fruit, ciliate serrate at the apex, and
us ovate scale long as the fruit and terminating in a mu-
‘ronate point, extending beyond the fruit. A

4. C. retroflera. Muh. —
Pursh, Muh. Eaton, and Pers.
Schk. tab. Kkk. fig. 140. ae.
This species and C. rosea, Schk. tab. Zzz, fig. 179, are
Yery liable to be confounded, because one other particular
has not been introduced into the specific descriptions.
Mah. indeed says it may perhaps be a smaller variety of C.
rosea. Though they resemble each other, Schk. and authors
generally, consider them as distinct species. The great
difference between them is the following. In C. re :
the scale of the fruit is ovate acute, ovate-lanceolate, or ob-
long-lanceolate, and very nearly as long as the fruit; the
spikelets are nearer together, the t ovate-lanceolate.
In C, rosea, the scale of the fruit is ovate obtuse, and a ;
half the length of the f thin the fruit is less distinctly —_

lemberg describes a variety, C. radiata, found in this coun-
try. His description co’ s exactly to ;
bristly flaccid culm—the narrow leaves — the smal

3, ee Professor Dewey's Caricography

two species, as an essential difference. This renders it
probable that Wahl. ranked our C. retroflewa, and C. seir-
poides, Schk. also under C. stelludata.

5. C. Plataginea. Lam.
Mx. Pursh, Eaton, Pers. and Rees’ Cyc.
Schk. tab. U- fig. 70 and Kkkk. fig. 195.
C. latifolia, Gaert. Wahl. no. 94, and Rees’ Cyc.
This is among the plants that appear here earliest in the
spring. It is readily known by its broad nerved radical
leaves—its. leafless brown culm—its pistillate spikes,
whose peduncles are nearly enclosed in long brownish
sheaths, rarely terminating in a short leafet, and its long
cuneiform three-sided fruit, re-curved at the apex
leaves are often nearly an inch wide, and distinctly mark-
ed by three or many ribs or nerves like Plantago major.
uhlenberg seems not to have been acquainted with
this beautiful Carex. For, in the description of C. planta-

-

ginea, in the Des. Ub. Gram. Muhlenberg refegs to the fig.

anceps, the figure of which is accurately drawn by S¢8*-
It is most singular that Muh. should not have seen the true
C. plantaginea, Lam.; but the figures of it in Schk. are 8°
distinct and so different from any other that he would have
referred to them had the plant ever fallen into his hands. In
Rees’ Cyc. C.. latifolia, Wahl. and C. plantaginea, Lam.
are described as different species, and in the reference of
the former to Schk. there is a mistake. The language of
Wahl. and Schk. however, asserts the identity of the tv°
plants, as Wahl. refers his C. latifolia to Schk. tab. U- fig:
¢0. The other part of Schk. Car. which contains the ot>-
er fig. quoted above, was not published when Wabl. wrote:

6. C. Granularis. Muh.
Ph. Muh. Eaton. and. Pers.

Sent Sehk. tab. Vyv. fig. 169. —*<

This plant is much more perfectly described by Mub.
than by the other authors, His description of the fruit,
entire at the orifice and re-curved, is more readily appr”
hended. than that of Willd. given by Ph, obsoletely ema”
ginate, as well as nearer the truth. He has omitted es

Professor Dewey’s Caricography. 273

mention, however, thé beak, the very short beak given by
Willd. which is a very good character in this species. The
whole plant is rather glaucous green before the fruit is en-
tirely mature, and is thus colouréd in Schk. The upper ~
spikes are sometimes more Clustered than in the fig. of
Schk. or than the descriptions would imply. Its peculiar
roundish-ovate approximate fruit, entire at the mouth, ex-
tremely short beaked and re-curved, becoming of a dull yel-
low in full maturity, and its glaucous green readily distin-
guishes it from the other species in the same sub-division in

related to-C. panicea, will not justify the conclusion of Ph,
ersoon was an cautious, bre goes 3 asks whether the
two plants are the same. ;
At'the elevated marsh in Stockbridge, Dr. E. Emmons
foand:a Carex, growing in abundance, which seems to be
the C. lenticularis; Mx. The locality is similar to. that at
which Mx. found the plant, “ especially about Swan Lake.”
i iption of Mx, C. den-
i gracili triquetro
subequalibus : spiculis fem, pluribus, pedunculatis, oblor
gis ; masculae unica : capsulis lenticularibus, brevi-ovatis,

5 br
ey compressed, lenticular, five

oval 1
_nerved, scarcely rostrate, shorter than the large brown carin-

8B ieee ahh ey ae ff i many respects, that
irrigua, Wahl, . But it, diiters i_so.m espects, t
itis probably a different species. “It must be closely rela-
Vor. VII.—No, 2. 35

274 Professor Dewey’s Caricography.
ted to C. lenticularis Mx., and is probably the same plant.

7..C. trichocarpa. Muh.
Pursh. Muh. Eaton. Pers.
Schk. tab. Nnn. fig. 148.
C. lanuginosa, Mx. ?

This plant is very well described by Muh. But as the
works of Pursh and Eaton are most accessible by the stu-
dent, and as it is placed by them in a subdivision to wh
it will not often be found to belong, this species is very
liable to be mistaken. The subdivision in Ph., terminal
spikes staminate, the rest andro ous, is contradicted by
the description of every species under it. It should be,
terminal spike staminate below, the others pistillate, and the
subdivision would then include all the species except U.
trichocarpa. ‘This species should be removed to the last .
subdivision in Ph. and Eaton, staminate spikes several ; and
the specific description of C. trichocarpa should be amend-
ed by the character, staminate spikes sometimes pistillate at
the apex. Pursh indee fom Schk.,
and in the figs. of Schk. the plant corresponds to the de-
soe

Cc. lanuginosa, Mx., as he says the “pistillate spikes are
closely sessile,” while those of C. trichocarpa are pedun-
cled ; and the “fruit most dense and short.” while that of
latter is not very close-set and is ovate-lanceolate, or
ovate-conic, beaked, and two toothed. : ;
8. C. zanthophysa Wahl.
dee. | Rees’ @ yas? tact
Spicis subinclise pedunculatis sexfloris crassissim!s,
bracteis vaginantibus tats remotissimis, capsulis ob-
longa-conicis inflatis rostratis divergentibus ore bifido.”

.

Professor Dewey’s Cartcography. 275

Wahl. Car. no, 73.

This is the C. folliculata, L. 8. xanthophysa in Muh.

e have his authority that it is the above named species of
Wahl., and perhaps the C. intumescens of Rudge. Wahl. con-
sidered the two species to be distinct, and there is much
reason for adopting his opinion. The Fig. of C. folliculata
in Schk. bears no resemblance to this speci

C. folliculata, is readily distinguished by: its one to three
pistillate spikes, aggregated, scarcely peduncled, supported by
ong leafy bracts ; ats elose-set oval-conic or ovate-acuminate,

C. xanthophysa has two to four pistillate spikes, often on
| inate at the apex.

scale. The whole plantis pale yellow. = ;
Both species are commonly described as having spikes

scales. The whole appearance of the two plants is very
dissimilar. They differ much more than several of the

© prevent error, it may be
scriptions and figures of C. folliculata and C. intumescens,
are given by Rudge in the Li Trans., anc
acters of C. intumescens in Rees’ Cye., which seem to have

ge,

plant. The popular characters of C. intumescens are there
given, pisntlancapibes loosely imbricated and on short pedun- |
cles, with scales oblong-ovate, acute, and half the length 6

the erect, oblong-ovate, much inflated, long and acute beaked
frit. The C. intumescens may be a var. of C. follieulata
perhaps, but not of C. xanthophysa. Neither can the C.
intumescens be the same with C. /urida, Wabl., as stated in
Rees’ Cyc., which is more probably the ©. lupulina, Muh.

276 Professor Dewey's Caricography.

9. C. straminea, Willd.
Muh. Eaton, Wahl. and Pers

' Schk.. tab. Ge fige-34, and tabs Xxx. fig. 147.

This is a beautiful carex, and is easily recognized. by a
character distinctly marked by Muh, alone, its winged fruit.
The fruit is broad-ovate, beaked, compressed, distinctly cili-
ate-servate, two-toothed and widely winged, with an ovate-
lanceolate scale commonly shorter than the fruit. The di-
ameter of the cavity occupied by the seed is about one
third of the diameter of the fruit. Though the spikelets
vary from five to seven or more, it has sometimes only
three spikelets, clustered at the summit of the culm. In
this state it may be the C. deporina in Ph.’s Fl., as it differs
very little from the description he has given. Unless
the plant intended by Pursh, it has not been found and an-
nounced by any other botanist in our country. The refer-
ence of Muh. to fig. 174 of Schk. is a typographical error,
—it should be.fig. 147.

10, C, ovalis, Gooden.
_» Pursh, Eaton, Pers., and Rees’ Cyc.
Scbk. tab. B. fig. 8.
C. leporina, L. Sp. Pl. 8, according to Wahl.
and Agardh.

In this opinion he is. followed in Rees’ Cyc., though the
ig cease that Wahl. considers both to be C. eporina

uch confusion of names has arisen from the fact that
' seems to have referred to . leporina, Fl
Dan. t. 294 and the C. ‘Oxi: Hoppe. | Both these

ess there be other species for the same reference, that tse
C-leporina in Vh.’s Fl. and C, lagopina, Wahl. are the same
plant, a Tn his Car, Scan. Agardh describes C. leporina,

and quotes the fig..in Schk. taken from C. ovalis, Gooden+

Professor Dewey’sCaricography. 277

and subjoins the following pointed remark. “ Cel. Good-
enough primus statuit suam C. ovalem differre a C. lepori-
na Linnaei quam Alpium incolam esse et spiculas tantum
tres habere existimavit. Quod vero non facile credi po-
test, cum Linnaeus C. leporinam in Suecia vulgarem esse
et spiculas 5—6 habere asserit.” In comparing specimens
named C. leporina in Sweden and England, they ramen to
agree with the description of C. leporina in Wahl.
Agardh ; butthey appearto differ somewhat from my English
Specimen named C. ovalis, and from its fig. in - The
description of C. leporina in Mx.’ Fl. does not well agree
with C. ovalis or with the account of C. leporina by
Agardh or in Rees’ Cyc.

To ascertain C. ovalis by the descriptions in Ph. and
Eaton is impossible. . They do not accurately describe the
fruit, and omit the scale paticoly. The fruit 1s ovate acu-

minate, or ovate-oval acuminate, two-toothed, ciltate-serrate,
equaling the osateolpnesolatl acute se ca on the 7
ginand keel green. The spikelets have bracts, the lowest
being long a sub-leafy, and the colour of the ‘spikelets i is

‘rusty-green.” Muh. does not appear a have found the
true C. ovale if indeed it be in our country. He constd-
ered the C. scoparia, Schk., which he has so perfectly de-
scribed and which corresponds so entirely to the fig. of
Schk. tab. Xxx. fig. 175, as related to C. ovalis or leporina.
ey seems, however, to differ much from C. leporina of Swe-

—

Il. C. aristala.

fy
acute at both ents, slightly

pul esce

This slout is undoubtedly the unnamed Carex No. 46 2
Muh. It agrees most exactly with his popular description of
the plant. It belongs in the same su ubdivision in Pb. and
Eaton with C. virescens. It isa very distinct species, and
no fig. in Schk. corresponds to it. I have given the pacer
— name, on ricdeais of the peculiar awneo pistiiate

278 New Algebraic Series.

Culm about 20 inches high, leafy ; leaves sheathing, short-
er below, reddish brown at the root, linear-lanceolate,
slightly scabrous on the margin, higher ones longer than
the culm ; sheaths white or yellowish white opposite the
leaf. and like the leaves, pubescent: bracts scarcely
sheathing the peduncles except the lowest, leafy and lon-
ger than the culm, less. pubescent than the leaves; an-
drogynous spike from the same bract as the upper pistillate
spike: spikes filiform with a flexuous rachis, alternate,

at pendulous and rather loose flowered, peduncles
longer than the sheaths ; staminate scale lanceolate, long,
acute, hyaline with a green keel ; pistillate scale oblong-
lanceolate, extending more than half the length of the fruit
and terminating in an awn beyond the fruit, hyaline witha
green keel. According to Muh. the upper spike is some-
times wholly staminate and the scale shorter than the cap-
sule. The latter variation I have rarely seen, and the for-
mer has not occurred to me. )

MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS.
pile

_ Art. X.—New Algebraic Series y Prof. J. Wallace, Co-
lumbia, S. C.

z 2? 23
Let 1+ap+a(a+h)> 5 +a(a+k)(a+2k) 39 1

23

2 2?
and 1+bp +3(6+4)7y+b(b+k)(b+2k) Fog tH
be the given series, the latter differing from the former 00°

ly, in the substitution of 6 for a. If these two series
multiplied into each other, the resulting series will be °
the same form; a+é6 being taken for a or 6 in the above;
or the form will be ;
z 2
I+(a+8)5 + (a-+b)a+b+h)—> +(atb)(a+b-+h)(at
23

pte ue

or the series being actually multioli d the term:
placed in order, A en es

New Algebraic Serves. 279

1 lz <i _
+a) -+a(a+h)|-5 +a(a-+k)(a+-2h) 7 53th.

+ 6] +-2ab* +Sab(a+h) AG cit

+(b+k) | +3ab(b-+k) +
+ b(b-+k)(b+-2k)| +

Here the co-efficient of : is a+6; that of <> may be
decomposed into a((a+k)+6)=a(a+6+k), and b((6-+4)
+a)=b(+a+b+4), the sum of which is (a+b)(a+6+4).
= 3 may likewise be decomposed
#) (a+k)(a-+2k)+2b(a-+k)-+b(b6+4) 4 and |
(b+k)(b-+2k)+2a(b-+k)+a(a+k) 7
But the multiplier of a in the first part is evidently that

The co-efficient of

into

Which would become the co-efficient of <i when a is
changed into a+k, and the multiplier of 6, in the second,

is the same co-efficient that would result by ces b in-
to b+k. It follows, therefore, that, as the coefiicient of
z :
7.2» becomes (a+k)(a+b+h), the multiplier of a, in the
* bg :
first part of the co-efficient of 2? and that of bin the
second, will become a(a+b+k)(a+b+2k)+b(a+b+h)
(+642), that is (a+b)(a+s-+k)(a+b+2k). Hence,
from the preceding, the law is evident for the four first
terms. And to show that the law will hold for any number
of terms of the product of the above series, we have onl:
to prove that if the law holds as far as the co-efficient

it will equally hold for the next co-

Boson: Sat ge
1.2...(p—t inclusively,

= z* a
* In the actual multiplication 4 X 7 =900- 1.92, 9"
* 3 4

3 2
1 (a-+k) == 3ab(a+h) 79,39 &e- 98 above

280 New Algebraic Series

ee
efficient, or 12p*

Now for the first of these co-efficients we have

a(a+-k)(a+2k)(a+3k) - - - (a+(p—2)k)
mes +b. a(at+k)(a+2k) - - ° (a+(p—3)k)
Pah £ b(b+k). a(a+hk) - (a+(p—4)k)
Rain = dees |
+ s = a(a+-k). (b+) - (b+(p—4)k)
74 — a. (bk) b+9k) - = (b+(p—3)k)
+H(b+k)(b+2k) - - - = - (b4+(p-2)k)
And for the second
a(atk\(at%) - - - -- (a+(p— 1)h)
+. Sige gail - = = (a+(p—2)k)
oo P— b(b+&). a(a+k) - (a+(p - 3)k)
Xc.
2. Pe a(a+h). Bb+k) - - (6+(p—3)k)
‘+ a bb+k)(b+2k) - - - (b+(p—2)k),
FOOTE b+) = + = 4 (b+ (p—Mk)

But as ee

P: a fe. p-—2 pot

1 Po ae
Pp p-i vei pao par et Ti fae i
i

2 Bde er B

&e. ‘
ok is plain that the above co-efficient can be decomposed »
parts, the first of whichis

New Algebraic Series. 281

has: (a+2k) = - = (a+(P—1)h)

+ = Hak) (a+2k) « . (a+(p —2)k)
—ilp—2

+P FE 6(b-+h)(a+h)(a+(p—3)k)

a
es ee
—1
+P (ath)(b+K) = - +(p-3)h)
4b(b+K)(b+2k) = = (b+(P—2)h)
And the Second. .
a(a+k) (a+2k) - - - (a+(p—2)k)
=Y
+= (b+h).a(a+k) - - (a+(@—3)4)
oo - - ie Pes
: Be )
EP aa h(O+h) -- O+(0—3)®)
| Pa a(b+h (b+2h) = - 0+(P- 2h)
| +(G+4)(b4+2k) - - - (6-+(p—1)k) )
hat the multiplier of a,

_ In these expressions it is evident t
in the first of these two parts, is that which would become

—I
ficientof—— -, when aischanged into a+4;
and that the multiplier of 6 in the second, would become
the same co-efficient, when 4 is changed into b+k. The

co-efficient of 5-7. being therefore, reducible to

e2et

the form sch
(a+b) (a-+b+k) (a+b+2k) - - (a-+b+(p—2)h)5
the multipliers ofa and 4 will each become
(a-b-k) (a+b+2k) (atb+3k) - - (atb+(P— 1)k)
Both these multipliers being united, the co-efficient of
oe will therefore be (a+) (a+5+4) (a+b+2k) - -
fa+-b+(p ~1)k). |
Vou. ViL—No. Pz 36

282 . New Algebraic Series.

From the preceding it follows, that if this law holds for
any term, it will hold for the following term, and as it has
been proved that the law holds for the four first terms, it
must therefore hold for every term.

In order to abridge the above formula, let fa (fanction of
a) be put for the first series, or

22

_fa=!1 $a>+a(a+h)>-+ &e.
then fo=1-+45-—-+0(b-+b)— 5+ be.
and also f(a+b)=1 +(a+b) +(a+b)(a+b-+h)=s +b.

Our theorem then will be of the form

Sa fo=f(a+b). (1) .

making b=0, a=1, fo=f1=1

.

_ (fay"=fma. (IL)

That is, any entire and positive power m, of the series
Ja, 1s a series into which ma enters, in the same manner aS
a = the first. mea

rom equation (I) we have fb. fe=f(b+c), assuming
6-+-e=a, then c=a—b, and by substitution fb X f(a — b)=fa;

heme F =fa-) » (ILL)

*
New Algebraic Series. 283:

That is the quotientof the series fa, divided by /, is
equal to the series raw _— a—benters, in the same man-
neras a into fa,or

m the second eivation ( Siomefas whine mb=a,

we have b=—, whence ess “\ fa, or ms fa =f— 4043
In the same manner we obtain (fa) =/(ay =

fa, m. and n, being any two positive numbers. The equa-
Basar ( fa)" =fma, holds therefore oe the positive
Af m, be.a whole ey or a frac
a like reasoni may. be saat ipioded that the
same will hold when Sok value of m, is inco mmen-
on We have algo] for'any porns. value of m,(fa)-"

sia so aye 3 or, from: the. preceding, and, theo-

rem (I1,) ( py Hi scp ooh ae e- Whence it

follows that, whether m be agge a whole number ora
fracti ion, positive or negativ , commen nsurable or incom-
mensurable, ( fay" =fma, w will eis dyi hold, that is

zz?
(lta 4a(aPk) 5 re +&c. yr m+ ma (mak)
+&c., whatever be the values of a and f,
vot last equation, taking a=1, andk=—1, will be-

2 i @ ao
Co eee.

ANA et rena =

2° +&e.
The formula for the Binomial therefore easily follows

whatever be the exponent m-
Taking k=o, ie 1,m=Az, the same eer will

€come

O4c$s45 ae 5 seeey "2144 see

284 New Algebraic Series.

The series of the first member, as is well known, is in-
commensurable (which is easily proved, amoug other meth-
ods, by the theory of continued fractions) and comprised
between 2 and 3. Itis the base of Napier’s System of Log-
arithms. In representing it by e, as usual, we shail have

Ax ct Atx?. \ Ate
Se ea es 78

3
Ks &e.

Ae ey
Ifwe make ¢ =a, in which case A will be the Jogarithm

of a, according to Napier’s System, (or la,) we shall have
one _

FE as sd o@t 1808 te

_A formula which gives the developement of exponen-
tials iato series or of any number a, in a function of its lo-
garithm. If in this latter formula » be changed into m, and
a, into 1+, it will becom

y ml{1+-2) m?l?(1+2) m3l3(1+2 Rie.
(ee seh a ge 3 Ee CEA

But it has been already shewn that
‘ 2
(1+2)"=1+m;+m(m—=1) = 5+ &c. whence
mi2(1-+2) m?13(14 =.
12) + : 42°01 the. =j+(m—1) ty. 2

3

+(m—1) (m — 2) Tit &e.

By making m=», in this last equation, we have
Ki baler feet ke
Lee ola BS ter tie

A formula which gives the hyperbolic or naperian loga-
i of 1+, in a function of the number x:

A variety of other important applications of the general
principle, will easily suggest themselves, particularly 19 the
developement of circular functions into series, &c- 4A
branch of analysis of the greatest importance in moder As-

nomy and Physies.

oe
New Algebraic Series. 285

Professor Kramp of Strasburg calls the theory of these
kind of series, or such as has been assumed: under the form
fa, the theory of numerical faculties. (facultes numeériques)
and Vandermond reduces them to powers of the second or-
der. Kramp has given an ingenious memoir concerning
them in vol. 3. of Gergonne’s Annals. He has shewn their
application in the higher analysis, not only in the calculus

Lines, Exponentials, Logarithms, &c. but also in the in-
tegration of expressions of the following form St"-*e~'"dt
taken from t=o to (=w . Sy"-!(1—y’)"dy, taken from
y=o to y=1 &c. These investigations arising from the
theory of numerical faculties or of the doctrine of series,

it, deserves the attention of men
of science in general, and of Mathematicians in particular.

and from the extensive application of which they are sus-
ceptible, the subject is deserving of farther investigation.
It is well known that the most difficult parts of the higher
analysis can be deduced from the Doctrine of Series in
common Algebra. Even the whole of the abstruse calculus
of derivations as given by Arbogast, can be deduced from
the single theorem of Taylor so nearly allied to the binom-
ial theorem of Newton, which as we have seen, can be de-
duced from the above series. M. J. F. Francais Profes-
Seur a l’école royal de Vartillerie, &c. has shewn this in the
most satisfactory manner.

As the Theory of numerical Faculties, has not, to my
knowledge, appeared in any English publication, and is ve-
ry seldom to be found in any of the works of the European
continental Mathematicians, a ly view of it and of its
notation, may not be uninteresting-

n the aiaiiinicd a™'"=a(a+r) (a+2r)- er = Saat
1)r,) a is called the Base of the faculty, rits Difference, an
mits Exponent. By reversing the orderof the factors, it 16

286 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals.

evident that a _ a — r=o, this equa-
tion becomes a™!°=a". means of any convenient
Multiplier. the Base as well as the Siimenct may oe chang-

ed at pleasure. The following a gna contain the prin-
ciple of this transformation.

a\* a'r (r\" (ar
attzs (¢) P ether (¢ )-"-The equation

ALeT Ta . (a +(m— 8.) (a'mr). . “st +(m+n—1)

£ Hee. 2d Ein = Ayr) $2 Emr):
(n~ Ir) >3 according to notation above, will become
aimtnir a gmlr yc x(a + Side aking p=m-+n, whence n=P
—m, and.a’-+mr=a, whence a’=a—mr, and reversing the
equation we shall have (d—mr)™"". gp" = (a — mr)"; agait
mak gs p=m, and reducing, &c. we have a°?”=1.

ry faculty the amet of which is equal to Faro, i
ue a) io unity. If in the same equation we make p=®,
apts ihee ihe preceing seeing that (a —mr)or= 1, it will
bee

cor Fe BCE Corona |
4g 35 %
aie ¢ ves the “expression. for the numerical pig
when ihe. exponent is negative. It follows in the same

manner that, @ spre |

1
7 (am mr), (abr. > See.
_ Kraunp inhi eat Arithmetic, Breposes also this n0-

tation 1. wie
To aid tis short aheeoh. ~ the theory of the facul-
ties of numbers any further, and show its application
would trespass. too much on the useful pages of the
pee’ ; as it can interest but very, few it might perhaps be
as well to omit it entirely.

Se

Arr. XI.—Second Memoir on Nt avigable Canals considered

~ relation tite the lift and distribution of thetr Locks : by
IRARD.

[Translated from the French, Annales de Chimie et de Physique BA:
—by Isaac Heepennis,

othe first, in a memoir which I had the honor to
coiieasiicnis to the acadamy a few months since, the rig-

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Cangl. 287

orous equation which expresses the relation between the
lift of any lock whatever, the draft of water of the boats
which ascend that lock, that of those which descend, and
the volume of water expended in effecting this double pas-
sage.
From that equation I deduced the immediate conse-
quence that the expenditure of water, at the passage of a
ock, is positive, negative, or null, according as the lift of
that lock is greater or less than the difference of draft of
the boats which descend and those which ascend, 04 equal
to that difference ; whence it is easy to conclude, not only
that the expenditure of water may be rendered as small as
we please, but that it is possible to raise a certain. portion
of water from an inferior to a superior contiguous | vel.

itis true that to produce the Jatter effect the following
condition is necessary : that the draft of water of the boats
which descend should be greater than that of the ascending
ones ; but it is only necessary to consider the nature of the
productions which the canals are destined to transportyand
the situations whence those productions are derived, and
where they are ordinarily consumed, to be convinced that
th:s condition is almost always fulfilled —Whence, the con-
sumption of water in navigable canals will undergo very
great reductions ; and the difficuity of collecting a large vol-
ume of water in the cu/minating. point, will no longer be
an obstacle to their undertaking. ep

stined to enjoy the advantages
ture seemed not to have destin enjoy aaa ot

the most profound meditation, and discussion. Generally

Pa
r.
288 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals.

adoption. This is an additional reason for us to lose no
time in developing the principles more minutely, and
pointing out some new applications of it.

I] preserve for the same nrg the denominations
which I adopted in my first mem

Thus, considering only two ae Oe levels of the same
canal, I make the ag of the lock which oe
them, -

The horizontal iinction’ of the —_ ond of the boats
which navigate the can al, - =

The draft of water of the setanding boats ts, ~ aay

The draft of water of the descending boats, - =,

And the expenditure of water from the upper level,
occasioned by the passage of two boats in succession, =Sy.

The relation existing between og quantities is, as we
have seen, expressed by the equatio

=r —(t,,— re

which belongs to a right line, easy to co

We have already remarked that in ait "artificial canals,
three causes, essentially different from each other, coneur
to —— an expenditure of the water necessary to its

on Evaporation; filtration, and the passage of the locks.

The first cause is entirely out of our srstarae = is more
or less active according to climates and se:

The second, purely accidental, Sipaada 0 on n localities, and
may, with a or less efforts; be more and more attenv-
ated by art
The third and last belongs entirely to er it is of this
that we have undertaken the examinati

general equation,
=r —(t,—t,) |
supposes that two wie de one descending and the other as
cending, traverse, one after the other, the lock at which
they meet : now, if we admit that the difference #,,—!,
positive, we may substitute for it the draft of water 'D of a.
single boat which agg descend, and then the above equ
tion would beco
y=or—D.
It would onthe contrary, become

¥ y=r+D ;
in the supposition that ¢,,—t were negative, in which cas¢

M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canals. °89

D would express the draft of water of a single ascending
boat ; thus we have

+D,
for the generalexpression of the expenditure of water from
an upper level of a lock, when a boat whose draft of wa-
ter is expressed by D passes that lock in ascending or in
descending.

It is often difficult and expensive to accumulate on the
summit level of a canal, a volume ofwater sufficient tosup-
ply the deficiency occasioned by evaporation, filtration and
the passage of the locks ; whilst its lower level, almost al-
ways confounded with a river, naturally contains a greater
or less quantity of superabundant water. The essential ob-
ject of the theory should therefore be to seek the means, if

rimitive height of water contained in the upper level will
augmented by the quantity
g Lf $ (D—

\—a) ,

ot. VII.—No. 2.

290 M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canals.

fore require a certain number of successive passages to aug-
ment the apparent height of water on the summit level ; but
this level would nevertheless have received a certain vol-
ume of water, which could replace, in whole or in part, that
portion which should have been lost by evaporation and fil-
tration, and which, without this, it would have been ne-
cessary to supply from the upper reservoir.

Although the levels of a canal are generally large enough,
when compared with the capacity of the locks, to render
the above supposition admissible, nevertheless as the most
general hypothesis is that of a finite relation between the
horizonial projections of the levels, and those of the locks,
we shall proceed to examine this general hypothesis, and’
determine the law according to which the beight of water
augments in any level by the descent, into an inferior con-
tiguous level, of a series of boats equally laden.

In the first place it is evident, that by introducing into the
upper level of a lock a prismatic boat whose horizontal pro-
jection is S, and whose draft of water is D, the same effect
will be produced, to modify the height of water in this level,
as introduction ofa volume of water=DS.

If therefore we designate by h the primitive height of wa-
ter, that height, after the introduction of the boat, will be-

come
DS

A+
The lift x of the lock will-at the sametime become
: DS Bz+Ds

B
In the second place, it is evident that the water in the ba-
sin S, can only be raised to the height of the level B, by
operating in the latter a certain given depression 2, 25 W@
may assure ourselves by the equation

B= (“—2),

Whence
_ $(Br+ DS)
= miD :

(B+S)

Things being brought to this state we introduce the boat
DS into the basin, and shut the upper gate of the lock, and
the primitive height of the water in the upper level will be
augmented by the quautity

M. P. 8S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 29)
_DS_ S (Br+Ds)

S

v= — B (BLS) — B+S-*)-

We have supposed D greater than x; consequently this
quantity w’ will always be positive. Thus, then. the primi-
tive depth of the water in the upper level, which was=A
before the introduction of the boat DS, has become h+w
after it is withdrawn.

The fail of the lock, which was zx, has also become
a+’,

Let us now suppose a second boat DS introduced in the
level B, and that by repeating the manoeuvres we carry it in-
to the contiguous level below, whose height is constant; it is
easy to perceive that the height 4-+-w' will be augmented
by this second passage, by a quantity

ts)
u'=Bg(D —(z+u')). ; |
A third passage will cause a third increase :

S

w"= Big D _ (x-+u'+u")) ;

And, in general, the augmentation occasioned by the pas-
sage of the nth boat will be

u(,) = 5s (D —(e--u -ul fu... ty 1)

In examining this latter expression, we perceive that the
augmentation & (,) diminishes in proportion the
nm of passages increases, and that it is nol] when

D— (aw! bul pul vo Wn) HO

That is to say, when the sum of the successive elevations
and of the fall of the lock is equal to the common draft of
water of the boats, : a

After a number n of passages, the height of the level B,
which was = A at the cepepenrate ab being pcre? by
the seriesh--u’ eu! ful tu +. eee Ul
may be found be becteting for the successive augmenta-
tions u’, wu", ul, &c. their values in iunactions of the known
quantities D, B, S and zx.

We have already found, above,

$(D-—- 2)

B+5

a=

292 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals.
This value of uw’ substituted in the second equation

S
w= pa 6(D-(e'+u))

gives *

ne Sh B )
~. Spe (¢50-»)

Substituting, in the same manner. the equivalent of a’ and
u’ in the equation

Ss
We Bys D-(@+u'+u’)),

it becomes

Pah Ga)
* =B+S \(B+S)2
We shall find successively :

uw =ars(gpssP—y)

4 PS
+ ae (p5;r-=)) ‘
Therefore the sum of the successive augmentations on
the upper level B, that is to say Be
, ” a iv S pons
wee ha es uD BiS (D—x) (Cex)

‘ B 1 B 2 B 3 B n~4
(szs)* (ess )+(ar5) + me ee

Or. in other words, the whole elevation of the surface,
occasioned by the passage of a number n of boats, is eX

ssed by a decreasing geometrical progression, the num-
ber of whose terms is n, = whose ratio is

Whence we conclude that whenever the superficies of the
besin S is not so small, in proportion to the superficies B of
the upper level, as to be neglected, the rise of water occa
sioned by the descent of a boat S, will always be propo!
tlonate to a certain power of the traction ‘

B

B+S ? :
power whose value will always be so much the less as the
boat approaches the numerical close of the series of descend
ing boats,

M. P. S Girard on Navigable Canals. 298

Whence we see, further,that the passage of a boat will
always produce a real elevation of water in the lock, whence

it descends, unless the number of boats already gone through =

is ae and in this case the number of terms

La hae) 2 eee : os

(srs) +(aes) +(pps) + eee) tee
B+S

B +
aS a Agee) a
Therefore

Ss B+S
whe! pu! ul +. u(.-)=Bpg(D—2) =D —Z5
as we have already found.

The fall of the jock then becomes 2-+D—2=D. Con-
sequently, the descent of an infinite number of boats
through the lock which terminates the level B, would ren-
- der the fall of that lock, equal to the common dral re)
ter of the boats which pass through it; but it is evident that
the fall can never attain that limit since the number of
boats can never become infinite. .

Substituting ¢,, ~t, for D in the general expressien

n_t

“=BreD—2)(Brs)
of the rise on the level of B by the passage of the nth boat,
it becoines . i 2

Ss oe

An) = prs ts -1)—=)(Bz8) 3
and all that we have hitherto said of a simple succession of
descending boats, will apply to the double passage. or to
the case of boats passing alternately up and down the locks.

If all the boats are equally charged. or in other words, if
t,=t, the proce Se becomes 45

Ss rie

x
ee —pzsl B43) : i Age
which is always negative, and indicates that the height of the
upper level diminishes instead of increasing. ox
After a certain number of double passages, the gta
height of the water in the level A will evidently, in this by-
pothesis, be represented by 5 B

id B . eee ose eee
h—Ba5( 1+3 78+ BTS)? B+S)°*

.
=.

294 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canais.

Bu ee | SR
“++ Tipsy )=h-2+e( B73) ;
making; this height equal to the draft of water ¢,, or ¢, of the
boats which ascend and descend, or
B n
h—x+ (gy) ah, «

we shall have

and therefore
n=log. (t,+x—h)
oH

B
B+S.

This is the number of double passages after which the
height of water in the level B_wili have become precisely
equal to the draft of water of the boats, and_ will therefore
cease to be navigable, if it has received no new supply ©

log.

Let #’,
the levels B, B, B,,, B,, &c. by the descent of the first boat
through all the locks ;

uu, w",,, wy &e, the increased height of the same
levels by the descent of the second boat; he

ua", ww", &e., the increase by the descent oft
third, &c. 4

So that the upper index will designate the numerical vd
der of the boat in the series, and the lower one the ra? h
the lock in the canal, counting from the summit level; ¢2¢
of thes: quantities

M. P. 8S. Girard on Navigable Canals. © 298

wy pu tu’, +i, +, &e ;

wut, ul! + +, &e.;

Wy; U oe +ul",, +u,,+, Xe ;
indicates the total rise of each of the levels B, B,, B,,, B;,,
&c. after any number n of successive passages. ‘

Let us follow and examine the effect of a boat going
from the summit level B, through all the levels B, B,, &c.
of the canal.

We have just found that the boat DS. in passing through
the lock E,, whose fallis «',, has produced in the first lev-
el B, , a rise

Ss U

“=p 75(D-« ).

But the volume of water to produce this rise has been
borrowed from the second level B,,; the height of water in
the latter is consequently diminished by a quantity

4 u,

————

? :
whence we see that the primitive fall x’, of the second lock

e B,, . .
making this fall =z, ; and representing by v’, the rise pro-
decal’ the level B,, by the descent of the boat DS in the
evel B.,. ; igs 2

We shall find, in applying the same reasoning as indeter-
mining the rise in the first level B:

Ss
“= 5 19 (D—-2.)-
But it is evident that the final rise of water u’ of the level
1» above its primitive state, is equal to what is gained by
the passage of the boat into the second lock E,, minus the
quantity it lost by the passing 0 the same boat into the first
E, ; that is to say, we have
4 et
w=0,—z > -
or by substituting for v’,, and 2 their value

a

4 s 4 ge a
RQ =p pg(D—-« a we B,+5

eC
roa

296 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canais.

Itis evident that the volume of water u’,+-u’,, gained by
“se levels B, and B,, has been taken from the following lev-

© Butt the volume of water ‘gained by the level B,=Bw’,,
that gained by the level

‘he level B,, will therefore have undergone a depres-
sion

_Bw +B Ww’,

B,
Consequently the fall of the lock E,,, will have become
(

wu, ,/u a :

a alt

The descent of the boat through this lock will occasion &
neering rise of its level :
Ss S (Bw +B,’ uw)
Be i Fae Bi

ct we have :

: (Bw +B.u,)
ie? ar 8.
Therefore

5 Ss ; (Bu +B,u',)
“0B, +S Bas oe) (B,,+5S) °

~ Inthe same manner we shall find
Ay D (Bw +B,’ ,+B,,u le
69 (Bw-+S)
And, generally

Ss “ ‘ee wu +B, uv’, +B, Pig haces
*™)=Bo +S" =2/n))— (B,.) +8)
ss eS 1)

If we suppose ag extent and rise of water in each of t
levels which precedes the last B (,,), to be prer ager
the above equation expresses, as we see, the general rele
eae are the indeterminate aete B (n)o U ()
and a’

hiker te first boat shall have passed through all the ler
els B, B, B,,, the falls of the locks E,E,, Ew Ev

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 297

which, at the commencement, were Blog ati) 2 yy {Mace
will have become 2”, 2”, 2",,, x"i,, &c., and by nchatites
ting these quantities in lieu of the original falls, we may,
in the same manner, determine the angmentations, uu,
ul", Ui, occasioned on the levels as as :
passage of a second boat, we shall therefore have — ae

(D—=z"))

; B ul
BSO z a) ee (B, +5)
Fas -#")- Sa

vs Bias

Wn
u , pope

v= 5, = - B,,+S :
, ” (B, ul" 7B, * +B,,u",,,)
Tne eee ix) - (By +5)
gee Ca which will give the snemce eee: < sete
w";,, Sc. in. functions of the quantities S, BB B,, Bi ,
&c, and in functions of the primitive falls 2’, 2 de Ss 2 iy
&e, of the locks E, E, E,,, Ej, &c., in paying Sy al is
the new falls of, these locks

=v, +u,,— wiv &e-
The levels B “ B,,, — ‘&e. pie be respectively raised
by the quantities
when Ubu, oe Maen tu" iv, &e.
After the . passage of the second rl the all of locks
EE i. &c. will become x”, x”, 2",
a the same manner may be determined the nations Hy
m at", wy &. of water by the passage of a third boa
a the hei hts assigned in functions of the primitive eae
tities S, B, ie i Bj,, Sc. 2’, we Bn, Sih. in consider
ing that we have

=2) 4 tu.-—u —u', 2
=a +e. Sa Ogee we
a0! yea ‘ate i) aye iv aM oe

'
m
8

—u
(nt
sai og all sass falls of the bike A te hin
to the last, we h ci
ol i aly bales fe.-pa! ‘ .,
el bu! a’, e’ mits &e.-+2 oe W ntt) —* (nt1)
Vor. VII._—No. 2

co (n)

ad

298 M. P.8. Girard on, Navigable Canais.

And, since the last level Be of the canal, is the river
in which it terminates, and which may be considered as an
indefinite reservoir whose level is invariable, whatever
may he the number of boats which ‘enter it, we have w=
0, w’=9, and, consequently, after the passage of any tum:
ber (N) of boats ; ae
5, $2, 4. M04. ai 4) esa, a=
BAe Ae yay t+ 2 a ~ ta} tu," ul" Fu," S pehas
N ‘ ‘
Bs uy 3,04
whence we see that after the passage of any number (N)
of boats in the-canal, the sum-of the primitive falls of all
the locks ¢,-Pa’,,+-2',,, +8. is Increased only by the quan-
tity w+", +-w",+, &c. which has been raised to the sum-
mat eve RY) *e0neiia se li
What we have said of thé lower Jével which terminates
the canal, will apply equally to atiy intermediate level
which is maintained at a constant ‘height, by means of @
feeder, whatever might be the activity of the navigation.

of a navigable canal, wil! depend on the superficial extent,
and ‘on the rise and fall which separates them respective-

, This point established, it is evident that the elevations
mu, U',, wy wu’ produced by the descent of the first boat,

T

M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 299

DS, must be equal to each other; making this common
quantity =a, we shall have ,

a=Byg (D—2') Si
~ Ra ig
a=B +s (P-*)—(B +8)
. _ 5, BeBe,
a= Rpg (P—*,.)— (BS)
5 _ ._ (B,,+B,+B ja
=B,48 20> %)- B48

| And generally :
5 F B+B,4+B_+6,.+. . -+Bini,
‘B.S ( m+)
Now the position of the level Bg.), in relation to the
summit level of the canal, or, which amounts to the same

thing, the sum of all the levels B+B,4+B,,+....Bu-,
which precede it, being given and represented by (B), we
have : .

s Bi enqrg WAR)
ue oO tS

(n
or, to abridge, by making
is Ba) +S=y; D-2@)=%

n)

- we have

whi ' tes it, in order that tl ' ‘

bine eT ba it, shall acquire an uniform rise of

level at each passage of a boat, whatever may be the num-

For chet ¥ passage of the first boat, the falls of the
sluices on the whole length of the canal have become:
vj+a —a=s', :

- gah
3 . igs I ‘n the extent of the
Since nothing is changed, either in sap cgpeltie:
levels, or in the primitive fall of its sluices, it 1 i
d boat will cause the same rise @,
d so on indefinitely.

300 M. P. 8. Girard on Navigable Canals.

Deain)) ge +Bit-- . &e.)
Bois peo) Ss Bi) +8)

whence we immediately conclude that the length of the
level Bin being given, the fall of the sluice x(n) should be
so much the smaller as the rise of water A, destined to re-
place the loss attributed to this level, hecqmmes more con-
siderable.

stream. The quantity A changes its sign in this hypothesis

and the equation
== (D cee Q) ___(B.+B,+B,,+ )
(n) +5 (ny +S
shews that the fall x(n) of the sluice, which terminates the
level, may be so much the greater as the volume of water

brought back to the propositions laid down in our first me-
moir, :

If, in the general equation,

ae D—x,))- (Bu +B,u,4+B,w,,.. be)
MO a ee a i ae
Bo)+S (Bin) +8)
we suppose the rise of water in all the levels, except the
summit level u', to be null, the equation will then become
uv * 5

0

Ss +

Ps Zn) ~_

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 301

which answers to the case where each intermediary level
gains precisely as much water on the one side as it loses on
the other; so that the whole volume of water taken in the
lower level only tends to increase the quantity on the sum-
mit level.

If, in this equation, we substitute in the place of x’, its
value f

__(D—z’)
B+S
we can deduce from it
SD+B x’,
£(n) =—_.—

whence we see that the falls of all the sluices, whatever be
their numerical rank, after the first, are equal to each other.

Preserving the hypothesis of an equal rise in all the lev-
els of a canal, let us suppose farther that all these levels are
equal to each other in extent.

The general equation

(D—2@) )—a

ed (B,+B, +B +... Ba))
B (a) +5 aK Ons 8)

because B=B,=B,=---- Ba-

ad BB +B, +B,,+~ Boab= =(n 1B;

will become eS
n—t
-( D—2m)—SE a

(Ss 8)

Orns

whence a(n) =D — a —.

We have also: S ny * |
wo yeD gS O—DB) ;

aB
therefore B(n—I)— 2) =e

that is to say, the falls of two adjoining locks, taken at hangs
ard in sick canal, cae from each other by a con v4
quantity, or, which come e same thing, the falls of all
the locks of a system diminish, from the first to the last, in

a

an arithmetical progression, the ratio whereof is ~~

302 M. P. 8. Girard on Navigable Canals.

* We shall have the particular case of a number of contigu-
ous locks (sas accolés) in making B=S; in which ease the
general expression of the fall x(n) becomes

x(ny=D —a(n+1); ‘ se
by means of which we may determine the height of the .
fall of any one of a series of contiguous locks, in order that
the level of water may be raised in each of them, by the
descent of a boat, by a constant quantity =a.

It is the usual practice to give to each basin of a series of
locks, precisely the dimensions necessary to contain a sin-
gle boat. This is also what we have hitherto supposed ;
but if, instead of representing the draft of water of a de- .
scending boat, the quantit D represents the difference of
draft between the poe and the ascending boats, it
will then be necessary that two boats going in opposite ; i-
rections. can meet in each of the basins, and as it will al-
so be necessary that they should pass each other in the ba-
_ sins in which they meet, it will be proper to augment the
dimensions of the basins sufficiently to facilitate their ope
rations, which may be done by giving to the basin the ca
pacity of three boats; we shall then have B=38S, and the
equation :
x(n) =D —a(3n+1)
will express the fall of any one of the sluices in a series of
contiguous locks, according to the numerical ran! it occu-
pies in that series. :

We shall extend no farther the application of our, formule
to particular cases, but shall content ourselves with remark-
ing that the same equations by which we express the rise
of water in the levels of a canal, give also the fall or lower-
ing of the same levels when the* quantity D-—z is negative,
that is to say, when the fall of the lock is greater than the
difference of draft of water between the boats which a5
and those which descend through those locks.

In this case we find

, B 7 E
u = rer ngs e .
BS" (B.+S)

,

Bu +Bu
) poe 3 ( ia AR Site Whe
(x a“ - B,+5 Fr.

M. Ps S. Girardon Newigable Cuhalei OR

so that, naming generally X, X,, X,, Xiv, &c. the falls of

the locks E, E,, E,,, Ej, &c. and V, V, V,,, Vir &e. the dife
ference of Jevel produced by any number of double passa-
ges in the levels B, B,, B,, B;, &c. whose transverse sec-
tion is supposed rectangular, the general formula,

S pre
Vfi= et a. ae ui
ppg tD+%u)

S 1” B,V
V=———A+D X,)-—— 4
a oe eae ES

S oe ‘
=> eS acini: ‘4 fy é
Me abbot os has
will express either the rise or fall of the levels accordingly
as the quantities D and X shall be affected wit t
ot the lower signs ; and we may therefore, in either case
deduce analagous consequences from them.

Let us nevertheless repeat what we have already stated
at the commencement of this Memoir: that in projecting
navigable canals, we shall much more frequently find it ne-
céssary to raise water from the lower levels, which never
dry, into the upper levels which are sometimes subject to
that inconveniency, than to take from the latter, the water
required to render the others navigable ; it will therefore
be proper, whenever circumstances will permit, to con-
fine ourselves to the case where the difference D—-

itive quantity. ; Sg e
- ° ranean a few words what we have said hitherto :

of draft of water in the ascending and the descending boats.
We have found that, the number of double passages in-

el, and the number of assages to which these elevations
are due, may be graphically represented by the co-ordi-

304 | M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canals.

nates of certain points of the negative branch of a logarith-
mic curve. ae
From the nature of this law it follows that, continuing to

draft between the ascending and the descending boats. If
that limit could ever be attained, the relative height of the
two levels would change no more, and an indefinite num-
ber of boats might pass through the lock in both direcaons
alternately, without producing either a loss or gain of wa-
ter fo either level.

This leads us to remark that, in all cases where we caf
raise a portion of water froma lower to a higher ‘level, it
is proper to profit of this faculty as far as we can dispose
of it to advantage—for we raise so much the less as there

through a single lock, because those consequences are s!0”

fall of the lock which terminates it, but also on the
tent of all the levels, and the fall of all the locks situate
above the one in question.

In general, the rise of water in any given level, the
length of that level, and the fall of the lock which term!
hates it, may be considered as the three co-ordinates of ®
curved surface, so that from the equation of that surface:
the value of one of these three variable quantities May
‘mmediately determined, when the other two quantitie
are known.

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 305

Whatever may be the rise of water in each of the consec-
utive levels of a navigable canal, it is evident thatthe whole
body of water which constitutes this augmentation, and is
spread throughout the extent of them all, is taken from the
lower level, or rather, from the river in which the canal ter-
minates. ¢

If, by the effect of a first double passage through all the
locks of a canal, the surfaces of its different levels become
elevated, the primitive falls of its locks will be altered,
and we must calculate, assuming the falls as thus modified,
what will be the effect of a second double passage; and so
of a third, a fourth &c. whence we see that after a certain
number of passages of boats the rise of water on any given
level will depend not only on the rise of water on all the
levels above the one under consideration ; but also on the
number of double passages which shall already have taken
Se So that the expression of the rise om any gi

evel, becomes so much the more complicated as that level
is farther removed from the reservoir of the summit level,
and as the number of boats which have already passed be-

of the ground where the canal is made, and according to

extent of its levels, it follows that the rise of water on
each level should be made to vary to suit the permeability
of the ground, or such other considerations as experience

water in each level equally, or, which comes to the same
thing, that the water raised from the lower level should be
divided among the higher levels in proportion to their re-
spective lengths. ;
Our formula, applied to this particular case, shew that
the same relation exists between the length of a level and
Vou. VII.—No. 2. 39 .

306 M. P: 8. Girard on Navigable Canals.

the. fall of the lock which terminates that level, as between
the co-ordinates of the right line. ;

is hypothesis of an equal rise on all the levels of a
canal, besides the advantage it offers of replacing the wa-
ter lost by absorption in homogeneous ground, possesses also
that of maintaining the falls at their primitive height, so
that the succeeding double passages, whatever interval of
time elapses between them, will uniformly produce an ele-
vation of water, and this independently of the greater or
less degree of activity in the navigation.
__ We have said that the volume of water which served te
augment all the levels of a canal, was always taken from
its lower level, or reservoir ; we may now suppose chat this
volume passes wholly into the highest reservoir, or summit
level, which will necessarily be the case if each of the lev-
els comprised between the two extremes are neither raised
nor depressed, that is, if they gain by the double passage
through their lower lock, what they lose by the double pas-
sage through their upper lock : we may satisfy this condi-
tion in supposing the rise null in all the intermediate locks;
in this case also, the equation which expresses the relation
between the superficies of these levels and the fall of their
lower, locks, is that of a right line. _ Gi ¥
_ it may be advantageous to adopt this principle whenev¥-
er the levels contiguous to the culminating point, are those
which are exposed to the greatest losses, as is generally the
case. The water raised to the summit level may then be
applied to repair those losses, without descending to the
lower levels which suffer less. .
_ Retaining the same hypothesis of an equal rise on all
the levels of a canal, I examine the case, where. several
consecutive levels are each equal in extent to the basin of
alock, And I find, by the comparison of. the falls of the
successive locks, in a series of adjoining locks, that they
diminish in an arithmetical ratio from the highest. dow®-
wards: disposing them according to this law, and keep!?8
the connected locks filled with water to the same depth as
in the canal, which is always easily effected when the falls
of the locks are small, the passage of the boats through such
a seriesiof locks, will occasion no loss of water, as is thé
case when the falls of the locks are greater. It may A
be asserted that the Joss of water at the locks is less |

M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canals, 307

elsewhere on the canal, since these parts are generally con-
structed with greater care and solidity, and no filtration is
to be apprehended through the ground where they are situ-
ated si

ea. .
It is nevertheless proper to observe that, to affect the
double passages of a multiplicate lock, as it is done in a
simple lock, each basin of that lock must be of sufficient
capacity to contain two boats ; this condition may gener-
ally be fulfilled by giving to the basins the breadth of the
other parts of the canal. Thus, exercising double func-
tions, the basins of a multiplicate lock considered as basins
should have only the length of a boat, whereas, considered
as levels, they should preserve the same breadth as the oth-
er parts of the canal, of which they form a part.
The formule to which we have arrived, contain, proper-
ly speaking, the whole theory of canals of artificial naviga-
ion, and we may comprehend in asingle formula the two ca-
ses of the rise and the depression of the levels, by affecting by
the double sign + the difference of the draft of water between
the ascending and the descending boats, and the variable
falls of the locks. From this formula we arrive immedi-
ately at the following conclusion, which besides is self evi-
dent : that when the water is accumulating on the higher
levels, the quantity of water contained on those levels may
be augmented in proportion as the navigation becomes
more active : whilst on the contrary, when the levels are
depressing, that quantity of water necessarily diminishes to
acertain point, beyord which the navigation of the canal
comes impracticable. This conclusion reduced to this
summary expression, shows all the advantages that may be
derived from the application in practice, of the theoretical
Principles, which form the object of this memoir.
have been enabled to develope them with sufficient
clearness, we are indebted for it to the application we have
matle of Mathematical analysis to a question which had
hitherto appeared not be out of its reach; and in this we
believe we have rendered a real service to the cause of
science ; for so perfect an instrument as analysis should al-
ways be employed when it is question of improving any
“Useful invention; and, in our days no invention is better
Wiculated than navigable canals, te ameliorate the condi-

308 M. P. 8. Girard on Navigable Canals.
tion, Be Leeshety by the extension and distribution of public
rich

it will not be proper to carry the consequences of the
theoretical principles which I have developed farther than
[have done ; they rest on an analogy easy to comprehend,
and whichitis only necessary to remark,to circumscribe with-
in — bounds every case to which those principles are ap-
plica

In ane manner a certain volume of water descends
from a given height, it may always be made to raise, to the
same height, by means of a machine, a certain mass of wa-
ter smaller than itself.

The product of the difference of these two masses of wa~
ter muitiplied by the vertical ascent or descent is the meas-
ure of the active force absorbed by the machine, and the
machine is so much the more perfect as the loss of active
force i is smaller.

* What we here say of poxigohie eels spetions without cenrirtim to
every thing that can tend to nder the c pee s betw: we
aves, more conv onvenient ae ieen expensi bes i also applies “ all kinds of
constructions, and Popech eee (etmpored rs reflecting on ode he diffe irs

1.

ical analysis, we nies dgpein lock render homage to the trul balosopbieal

views which presided at the Senha ofa ed brated s cakes ohare analy-
sis is intended to serve as the basis of the instruction there received.

eve rtheless, among those who have been called to enjoy the advantages

. ooge institution, and who mi ight have applied very a the knowl-

e they there acquired, they do not all appear to have a ir = a

"*Siathemaleeat Seesaw isa fangnage — we forget ee vs "cease to
speak o to.

eit; and as resea sa paso
1, it wehadt rather ag
received opinions, though erroneous, , than saeitaes in their
a erie wen a knowledge of these new Aruthie < can an only be “nequit-
; we do not wound the vanity or self-love
of ay one sty ane what every body s e thus secure oursel
- men may po in certain situations believ e them-

: - i expect from those W
minds are exercised to the study of the exact sciences. We have too ote
had occasion to admire the success sae by graduates of the ‘polyt ech-

nic School, the exact sciences owe mich pr , the arts too ma-
by i 1ostly bythe: anion of analysis to o leave
any room to apprehend that the example of those am:
the powerful instrument, will become Sentero

tions -— T deem it ann ry to the aa
swer I shall make to the observations that-a young engineer has See
on pera first memoir. In submitting the matt er which I have there edo

rte ra that all his ins reas
ings, ingh belive caustic his conclusions, are founded on lox.

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 309

Now a body which floats in a fluid, represents in weight
a volume of the fluid precisely equal to that which is dis-
placed by the floating body.

When, therefore, a loaded boat descends from a higher
to a lower level, it is capable of producing by its weight
the same effect as could be produced by the descent of the
volume of water of which it occupies the place.

In the same manner, a boat which is raised from the low-
er to the higher level of a lock, is equivalent to a certain
volume of water which should be raised to the same height ;
and as the basin-lock is such in its nature that the loss of
active force, indispensable to elevate one boat and to low:
er another through the lock, is always proportional to the
square of the height, it is easy to conceive that accordin
to the relation which shall be established between the lift
of a lock, and the draft of water of the boats which ascend
and descend through it, the expense of water from the up-
per level may be rendered positive, null or negative: now
in the latter case, which we have specially examined, it
will happen, by the sole effect of the operation of this ap-

ratus, that a certain volume of water will pass from the

wer to the upper level: this ascension of water, as we
see, is the’ immediate and necessary consequence of the
fundamental principles of Dynamics; it is moreover evi-
ent that this elevation of water can only take place, inas-
much as the draft of the descending boats is greater than
that of the ascending boats added to the lift of the lock.

; first memoir, | noted some considerations on the
nature of the transportations to which artificial navigation
's usually applied, and proved that in general, the weight
of articles which descend from the plains and the mountains
‘nto the valleys is much greater than that of the articles
Which ascend from the vallies to the mountains. This
Scation opens a wide field for the application of our
theory. .

It may not be amiss to cite a few examples taken on ©
known localities.

The Foundery of Creuzot and the coal mines which are
there Wrought, are situated at 10 Kilometres (about 6}
miles) from the centre canal, (Canal du Centre,) by which
the productions of these establishments descend, to the
“aone on the one hand, and to the Loire on the other ; but
they must be transported by land to the creek of Torcy,

310 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals.

a distance of 6 Kilometres (32 miles) which occasions a
considerable annual expense.

According to the most accurate information, the weight
of matter annually transported from Creuzot to the creek
is about four millions of Kilogrammes, or 4000 tons;
while the weight of articles which ascend, and which con-
sist principally in soda to supply to glass-works, and in
castings from Pranchic Comté, does not exceed 400 tons.
The weight of matter which descends from Creuzot into the
canal, is therefore, to the weight of matter which is carried
up to the establishment; as 10 is to 1.
“A navigable canal which should be established from

Creuzo’ uld there-

proper proportions were observed between the lift of the
— and the draft of the boats destined to navigate the
canal.

lf, for example, the boats employed in this navigation
drew, when loaded, 1,%9; metres, (43 feet,) these boats
when returning would draw but 20 centimetres, (62 inch-
es); the difference of draft in the same boats when de-
scending with a full charge or returning with one tenth
part of a full load, would therefore be 11°, metres. (3 feet
74 inches, nearly.)

ne d nce of level above and below the lock.
_‘Wfit be objected that the multiplicity of locks would re-
tard the navigation, without considering that it is here 188
& question economizing time than water, it is mot difficalt
assure ourselves that this objection is without founda

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 31h

We have already seen that the exportations from Creu-
zot, in pit coals and castings, amounted to 4000 tons per
anaum ; let us now suppose that their transportation should
be effected in 200 days, this would be a movement of 20
tons per day ; Jet us suppose farther that boats of that ca-
pacity are employed, that is, of 20 tons hurthen, these boats
will be about 14 metres (46 feet) long, 1°, metres (4 feet
11 inch.) wide, fain wi i draw 1;°,°5 sacives (4; feet) of wa-
ter, including their weight.

The fall of each lock b being fixed at one metre it would be
necessary to draw from some other level 20 to 22 tons of
water to fill the basin of its descending lock. This water,
being introduced by orifices whose sum should be equal to
; of a square metre, (194 inches square,) we find, after ma-
king all necessary corrections, that to empty and fill the ba-
sin, it would not require, quite a ig aap two other
minutes for lost time, we see that the passage of the boat
through 48 locks would require pi two hours and an
half, allowing three hours for going the remaining length of
the canal, and the whole duration of the passage from the
lower pond of Creuzot to the creek of Torcy would be but
five hours and an half; which would permit a boat to de-
scend and return in the shortest days of the year.

is example suffices to shew how easy it would be by
establishing navigable canals, such as the one we have just
described, to increase the operations -of extensive iron

parts of their machinery are generally moved by water,
and the water wpe from the coal mines would be sufficient
to supply such a

If, instead of “a placed at the bottom of a gorge with-
ont issue, as are the establishments of Creuzot, the coal
mines, the Iron Founderies, the Marble quarries, the for-
ests, &c. to be worked, were situated on a culminating
point between two vallies traversed by navigable —_ the
canal which should unite these two rivers might be
structed according to our principles

ee arama ge articles par ay in thig:chse, front the

point of the canal must necessarily descend to

Bene at the point of consumption, and will never be re-
Beredic at the place whence they are taken, by articles of
equal weight ; it is evident that, in virtue of the excess of

312 M. P.S. Girard on Navigable Canais.

weight in the descending boats over those which ascend,
a part of the volume of water necessary for the navigation
may be raised from each of the two rivers where the canal
terminates, to the reservoir on the summit level. This re-
servoir would thus be supplied so much the more abundant-

as the navigation became more active ; this is the most
useful result that we can hope to obtain.

Among all the points of the kingdom where so advanta-

ous communications might be opened, | will point out,
e example, the plateau of St. Etienne in the department
of the Loire. An interesting memoir of M. Beaunier, En-
gineer in Chief of Mines, shews that this plateau furr ishes
annually 300,000 tons of pit-coals, which descend to the basin
of the Loire on the one side, and to the basin of the Rhone on
the other. Now which ever way these coals descend, it is
certain that their transportations on a navigable canal, es-
tablished according to our principles, might not only render
null the expense of water from its sammit level, but might
even raise a certain portion of water to the reservoir on
that level from the lower levels.

The memoir of M. Beaunier furnishes the fnndamental
data of the project of communication between the Rhone
and the Loire. ese two rivers are but 54 Kilometres,
er 10 leagues distant from each other in this place, 15 ki-
lometres of which are already navigable on the Canal de
Givors, which extends from Givors to Rive de Gier-
idea of uniting the ocean to the Mediterranean by this route
is already very old. But what would especially character
ize this communication over the plateau of St. Etienne, *
that we there should find in the mass itself of heavy arti-
eles in which that section of country abounds, a part of the
force necessary for their transportation, since in descending
along the canal which served for their exportation they
might raise from the lower to the higher levels, a portion
of the water necessary for the supply of the canal. ‘This 1s
one of the cases where it becomes as it were indifferent

whether we have a determined body of water in reserve:
on the summit level of a canal, or are able to ship on this
level an equal quantity of solid matter; this is an imme-
diate c¢ uence of our new theory, and one of the
a —; ones which it furnishes.

fer having thus pointed out the advantages of this ne¥
theory, let us give a moment’s attention A ecaiieade the

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 313

serious inconveniencies into which men have been led from
an ignorance of the true principles. |

hese inconveniences exist in the canal de Briare, the
oldest canal in France and the most generally known.

The number of boats which descended this canal in 1819
was 3380. These boats were of different dimensions ; but
we can suppose as a mean term that, loaded, their draft of
water was 0.66 metres (261 inches;) they are 24 metres
(79 feet) long, and 3.50 metres (i123 feet) wide. ©

The mean cargo of one of these boats, is consequently
about fifty tons.

The whole weight of articles brought to Paris, on this
canal, during the year 1819, was, therefore, about 170,000
tons.

The far greater portion of these boats were demolished
at Paris, and those that ascend the canal go empty. At all
events it is certain that the goods transported from the
Seine to the Loire, do not weigh one hundredth part so
much as those which come from the Loire to the Seine.

The whole length of the canal de Briare, from the di-
viding point to the River Loing, is 34582 metres (6934.4
rods, or 21.67 miles); its descent, which-is 78.74 metres
(258.4 feet,) is surmounted by 27 locks, the lift of some of
which is near 4 metres (1325 feet). 4

It is a long time since it’ has been observed that there
was a great loss of water, occasioned by the passage
through the locks where the lift and fall was 80 considera-

, and so disproportionate to the draft of water of the
boats destined to pass through them. But, such is the state
of things : in order to appreciate the consequences, let us
first determine what quantity of water would be absolutely
eae for the circulation of 170,000 tons of merchan-

nal de re.

Now it isevident thatif the number of locks had been quad-
Tupled, their mean lift would have been reduced to about 75
centimetres, (2;4°, feet ;) and if the draft of water of the
‘oaded boats had been carried to 1,5,°, metres (4,;°2, feet,)
it is also evident that in consequence of the diminution in
the lift, and the augmentation of the draft of the’ boats, the
1350 boats, which together would carry as much as the
3380 boats which descended to the Seine in 1819, that is
to say, which would displace the same quantity of 170.000
tons of water, would elevate, by their descent, the half of

Vou. VII.—No. 2. 40

314 M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals,

this volume of water from the River Loing to the dividing
level ; which would have augmented in so mach the quan-
tity of water in the reservoir of the culminating level which
is destined to supply the navigation of the other branch of
the canal, from that level to the Loire.

upposing, as we now do, an importation from that river to
the Seine, without reciprocity, it is indispensable to provide
for the expense of water in the ascending navigation of that
branch of the canal.

Its whole length is 32231 metres (6407;'5 rods, or very
nearly 20 miles,) the whole fall is 38.,3, metres, (1247s
feet,) and is overcome by 12 locks of different lifts.

By augmenting the number of its locks so that the lift of
each should be no more than 75 centimetres (2,4,%5 feet;)
equal to what we have supposed them on the other part
the canal, there would be expended, to raise the 170,000
tons of merchandize*

I1st.—85,000 tons of water, equivalent to filling the ba-
sins of the locks ;

2ndly.— 170,000 tons of water, representing the volume
of water displaced by the whole of the cargoes.

The ascending navigation from the Loire to the culmina-
ting point of the canal de Briare, would therefore require
an expense of 255,000 tons of water, which would necessa-
rily descend from the reservoir on the summit level to the

ire. -

But we have seen that the descent of the same mer-
chandize, on the opposite side, elevated to the reservoir
85,000 tons of water drawn from the river Loing; there
would therefore only require to be furnished from the
ponds and feeders, 170,000 to 200,000 tons of water, oF
thereabouts ; so that abstracting the absorptions and evap-
orations, that is the minimum quantity of water, indispensa-
ble for the annual supply of the navigation of the canal de
Briare, and the volume of which it would be necessary t0 _
be able to dispose, on the dividing level.

Let us now examine the quantity of water annually ex-
pended to maintain that navigation.

The ponds indicated in the work of M. de Lalande, con-
tain 6,080,000 tons of water, and are reserved for the sup-

Ps the canal de Briare.

we ccordi

ppose, g to an evaluation generally admit-
ted, and which would perhaps be here too high, that the

M. P. S. Girard on Navigable Canals. 314

evaporation and the filtrations absorb one fifth part of this
reserve, there will remain 4,864,000 tons of water for the
purposes of navigation alone,

By the application of our principles to the lift of the
locks, and the draft of water of the boats, we found that the
expense of water necessary for that same navigation, may be
reduced to 200,000 tons; whence it appears that at least
37 of the water specially reserved forthe use of this canal are
consumed in pure loss, and yet, the navigation on this canal
is ofien interrupted for several months in the year for thé
want of water.

This imperfection of the canal de Briare, inevitable
consequence of the excessive lift of its locks, compared
with the small draft of water of the boats which frequent
it, is also common. to some other canals of more recent
construction. “~ sik dics E af

The relation between the lift of the locks of a navigable
canal, and the draft of water of the boats which navigate it
ascending and descending through those locks, constitutes
as it were the regime of that canal ; and, this regime is es-
sentially variable. It depends not only on the disposable
volume of water in different localities, but also on the terri-
torial or manufacturing resources of the countries th h
which it passes, and on the nature of importations into
these countries. : sre sores? add earl )-2

Thus, in passing a canal in a direction where it could re-

316 « Ae B. Quinbycon Crank Motion.

see that the study of statistics is indispensable to arrive at

any degree of perfection, and.the knowledge it procures is

an essential part of the science of the engineer in tracing

canals; a truth which appears to have gone unheeded until

now, but which cannot be too loudly proclaimed since

public attention seems. specially directed to that important
‘3 . :

o . 3
Paris, 17th June, 1821.

Ward has written on the subject of this important pro-
blem ; but I take the liberty to assert, that the principle

ladrant, are as the perpendiculars repectively from those
pulls WEE Tie BF Herein te BPR RAO

the above quoted sentence is false; and that to obtain 4-

satisfactory result, in the case in uestion, we must attend

he matters which Mr. Ward’s demonstration does not em-
ace.

That the eff--cts produced at the several points of _divi-
sion of the uadrant are not as the perpendiculars. respeet-
ively from, those points to the line of force, may, be proved
in the fo OWing. manner, |

4. B. Quinby on Crank Motion. $17

Describe about C, asa centre, fix. 1, pl. 2, the circle
ADBE ; representing that in which the ant moves : sup-
ose Aland B, to be the upperand lower dead points. Join
and A, and produce the line BA to S.. Assume Ca for one
position of the crank ; and join Sa: then will Sa shew. the
position of the shackle-bar when the crank is ata. From
C demit the perpendicular Gr meeting Sx produced, in the
point e. Assume Cd for another position of the crank;
and from d mites a radius na to Sa, describe the are gh,
cutting the line of force SA, in.the point t.. Draw the line
tds and _ it will represent he position of the shackle-bar
when the crank is at d.. From C let fall the perpendicular
Cc, meeting td produced, in the point c. From the points
aand d demit upon the line of force, the perpendiculars am
and dx. Put P to denote the constant force that acts al-
ways.in bag yee SA, upon the upper end of the shackle-bar,
as at
Now = Re he to what is demonstrated in vol. 1, chap,
V1. art. 195 of Gregory’s mechanics, it is obvious that the
value of P, estimated in the direction Sa, or, which is the
same thing, the tension of the shackle-bar when in the po-

sition Sa, is equal to pee : S.° and the value of P,

estimated in the direction td, or the tension of the shackle-

wrens
(by mechanies) the tendency which P has to > prolidoaiaege
tion when the crank is at a; or, the effect produced by P
when the crank is at a, is equal to the tension of the
shackle-bar, at as time, multiplied by the distance ©e;

hint =(Px—= )xCe: : and the effect produced at

bar when in the position fd, is equal to Px

ya
the point d,.is equal to (Px— yeve

if the inference drawn by Mr. “Ward ip ‘true, then
ee ms id) xCe:( Px) Ce: ca

dn; or, oy dividing the first and esoedtd So. by P xrad.,
and substituting in pate of am and dn their proportionals

a ig e Cc; 2 but, by

xe and, omy

Ce and 3

os £ Abe * cosZ Atd**

318 A. Be Quinby on Crank Motions.

» Ce gseGe igrlce qicypbt: »
sisi Abie deca als Ce : Cc; there:
but ig ha De Gergen Ce Ce

Pat gar ZASa * cosZ Atd’*cos 2 ASa" cos Z ASa’
that is, (since the cos Z Atd is less than the cos Z ASa,) the
same magnitude has the same ratio to a greater magnitude
that it has to a less, which (Euc. El. V. XIV.) is absurd. ~

The effects, therefore, at the several points of division of
the quadrant are not to one another, as the perpendiculars
respectively from those points to the line of force.

Having now proved that the principle upon which Mr.
Ward has founded his demonstration is false, I shall remark
that an equality of ratio between the effects produced at
any two points of the quadrant, and the perpendiculars
drawn from those points to the line of force, has not, as !
. am able to perceive, any connexion whatever with a proper
and screntific solution; and what consideration it was that
led Mr. Ward to frame the inference, is not, I suspect, in
the power of mathematics, whether “ pure,” or “mixed,” to
discover.

That the crank motion occasions ‘no loss of the acting
power is true ; and may be demonstrated in the following

Euc. El V. XIV.

_ Describe, fig. 2, pl. 2, the circle ADBE, to represent that
in which the crank moves : suppose A and B to be the up-
per and lower dead points: join them; and draw the di-
ameter ED at right angles to AB. Produce BA to S-
y, now, as the quadrantal arc AD; CD::CD: to 4
fourth term. Make CG=this fourth term; and suppose 4
wheel Giow, whose radius is equal to, CG, to be fitted pet-
manently (in any way) upon the shaft or axle that carries
nk : suppose, also, two racks G4 and vd to rest upon
the teeth of the wheel Giow, and to stand parallel with the
line of force SA. If, now, a power P be applied upon t
end of the rack Gb, it is obvious that it will cause this
rack to descend, and turn the wheel Gtow, and raise the

rack td on the opposite side ; and, if a weight W,=to P;

two
other; and, if it be supposed to descend through any space

A. B Quinby on Crank Motion. 319

This, I understand to be a case in which there is no loss
of power. ; : ;
_ Let it next be considered what effect P would have du-
ring its descent through some particular, or assumed Space.
ake Py=AB, and it will be manifest that the effect of
", during its descent from P to y, will be properly express-
ed by PxPy, or PXAB=WxBA.. Let it also be con-
sidered, that during the descent of P to the point y, the
wheel and crank will be made to turn through half a revo-
lution ; for, since, by cons. AD: CD::CD: CG; and by
the property of circles AD ; CD::#G : CG, it follows that
(G@ is=CG; and consequently Gin =2CD=AB=Py:
and, therefore, if the crank be at A when P shall begin to
descend, it will have described the arc ADB, and have ar
rived at the lower dead point B, at the time that P shall
have arrived at y. é
ssume, now, Ca for one position of the crank; and
suppose a shackle bar, az, having upon its upper end the
Power P’,=P, to stand perpendicular, and rest upon the
wrist of the crank at a :—it is proposed to consider the ten-
dency that P’ would have acting upon the wrist of the ank
at a, to produce rotation, (or to give angular motion to the
wheel and crank); in comparison with the tendency which
P has to produce rotation, acting upon the teeth of the
Wheel, at the point G. Produce za to m3 and draw the
sine am; and it will be plain that the tendency of P’, to
produce rotation, will be to that of P, as Cn, or am, to CG,
If, therefore, CG be taken to express the tendency of P
‘o produce rotation; then that of P’ to produce rotation,
will be properly expressed by am; the perpendicular dis-
tance of the point a from the line ACB. And, in general,
the tendency of P’ to produce rotation, at any point what-
ever of the semicircle ADB will be expressed by the per-
\pendicular distance of that point from the line ACB.
Hence to determine the mean tendency of P’ to produce
rotation, (in terms of CG,) during its descent from A to B,
i must find the mean distance of the

Cc
Flux. p. 97, iso but, CG was made= AD”? and,

therefore, the mean tendency of P’ to produce rotation, du-

320 A. B. Quinby on Crank Motion.

ring its descent, (from A to B, through the arc ADB,) is
equal to that of P, estimated for the same time.

And as the effects produced by the two equal powers, P’,
and P, during any given time, will obviously be to one an-
other, as the mean tendencies of those powers, (during that
time,) to produce rotation; it follows that the effect produ-
ced by P’, in descending from A to B, in the arc ADB,
will be equal to that produced by P, in the same time; or,
=WxXry. ;

eases if the power applied to the crank be supposed to
act, at all times, in a direction parallel to the line SA; or,
which is the same, if we suppose the shackle-bar to main-
tain its parallelism there will be no loss of the acting power-

It now remains to be proved. that in the case in practice,
in which the upper end of the shackle-bar is confined to the
same vertical line, and the lower end is made to vary from
that line, there is also no loss of the acting power.

epeat, fig. 3, pl. 2, the first part of the last construction.
Assume the two points a and d, in the semicircle ADB, equ-
distant from the dead points, Join Ca and Cd; and draw
the lines am and dm. Let Sa represent the shackle-bar,
when the crank is at a. Through d draw dN, parallel to
Sa; and it will shew the position of the shackle-bar when
the crank is at d.

roduce Sa to n, and from the centre C demit upon Saw
the perpendicular Ce. Join ad: and suppose the three
powers P, P’, P’, to be all equal to one another. ;
~ Itis now to consider the tendency that the pow-
er P” has to produce rotation when at the point S, or whet
the shackle-bar is in the position Sa; and, likewise to consid-
er the tendency of the same power to produce rotation when
_ the shackle bar is in the position Nd: and, secondly,
compare the sum of these tendencies with the sum of the
tendencies of the equal power P’, to produce rotation,
acting successively at the two same points a and d.

By refering again to Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. 1, art.
195, the value of P’, estimated in the oblique or inflected
direction Sa; or the tension of the shackle-bar aan the

sition Sa, will be fo 1 ng ee
PRE: be found to be equal to P 7 ake
ieee (by sim. tri.) ah eel and (by mechanics)

A. B. Quinby on Crank Motion. 321

the tendency which the power P” has to produce rotation
when at S or when the crank is at a, is expressed by the pro-
duct of the tension of the shackle-bar, at that time, and the
perpendicular Cc, the distance between the centre of rota-
tion and the line in which the value of the power is estimated:
wherefore the tendency of P’ to produce rotation when the

crank is at a, is properly expressed by (poze x Cc
UC

=P” Cn: and in a similar manner it may be shewn that
the tendency of P’ to produce rotation when the crank is
at d, is properly expressed by P’'xCv. Hence the sum of
the tendencies of the power P’' to produce rotation, when
the crank is at the points a and d, is expressed by P XCn
+P" x Co=P" x (Cn+Cv)=(because vt=in) P’ x 2Ct.
It now remains to compare this sum wit sum of the
tendencies which the equal power P’ has'to produce rota-
tion, acting upon the crank (successively) at the two same
points, a and d. oats
From what has been already stated, the swm of the ten-
dencies of P’ to produce rotation, at the points a and d, is
ett by P’ xam+P' Xdm=P X2Ct.
Whence it appears (because P’ and P” are equal) that

. Pp
Ing points whatever, in the + ga AD and

Wherefore in the case in practice, as in the one before

d ‘3 no loss of the acting power. Q. E. D.
emonstrated, there is no loss of ting P OUINBY.

Vot. VIL.—No. 2. 41

$22 A. B. Quinty on Crank Motion.

Note.—Since I wrote the above solution I have learned
that the N. A. Review contains an article in which it is sta
ted that the crank motion occasions a loss of three fourths
of the whole power employed! ! ;

On refering to the article alluded to, (vol. 14, p. 407,)
I find the following statement relative to the loss of power
suppose o result from the reciprocating motion produced
by the crank

‘‘ There isin the steam engine a loss of power in chang-
ing the direction of its action from rectilinear. to rotary
by the methods in common practice, not very satisfactorily
accounted for, considering the magnitude of the loss, which
on an average amounts to about three fourths of the whole
power. as. appears from. the reports on the performance of
the engines used at the mines in Cornwall.”

* This, together. withthe hope of producing a more sim-
ple machine, has given rise to very frequent attempts to ap-
ply the action of the steam directly to a wheel, and by
that means obtain a circular motion primarily.”

With respect to the reports on the performance of the

w

Tt must, however, be concluded that a very great blunder
has, in some way, been committed by those who made the
estimates, since the reciprocating. motion of the steam en-
gine does not in truth (abstractly. considered) occasion any

to Fender its construction more simple, and especially to
generate steam at less eXpense, are highly laudable; and

On the Precession of the Equinozes. 323

will ever deserve the patronage and encouragement of the
public, and the auxiliary efforts of the Engineer and t
Philosopher, A. B. QUINBY.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

Seen comin
Art.XII1.—On the Precession of the Equinozes.
To the Editor of the American Journal of Science.

R,

In examining the Theory, which has long been received,
relative to the Precession of the Equinoxes, | have recently
been induced to consider it questionable, and to account
for this interesting phenomenon in a manner entirely new.
Not being in a situation, however, to make accurate Astro-
nomical observations, or to pursue the subject so far, as to
form conclusions perfectly satisfactory, I transmit to you
some of the objections, which I have to the prevailing the-
ory, together with the method of accounting for this phe-
- nomenon, recently discovered ; hoping, that the attention
of Astronomers will be directed more minutcly to this sub-
ject, and, that they will remove some of the obscurity from
the old theory, if it is still considered supportable.

It is unnecessary here to give the old theory at length ;
as reference may easily be had to those authors by whom it
is described ; and I shall notice only such things as are ne-
cessary to make known my objections. :

‘The precession of the Equinoxes has been attributed to
the effect of the Sunand Moon on the superior portion
of matter about the Earth’s Equator, which converts it
from a sphere to an oblate spheroid ; and the case
been represented as nearly parallel with that of the revo-
lution of the Lunar nodes.

until these are positively known, \
demonstration can be made of the nature and power of its

attraction. a
in, this cannot consistently be considered as a case
parallel with that of the Lunar motions. In fig. 1, pl. 3, let S
be the Sun, E the Earth, S E the plane of the Ecliptick, A
0 the ring.of matter about the Equater. New, it is evi-

324 On the Precession of the Equinozes.

dent, that whatever be the size of the ring, equal portions

it are on each side of the Ecliptick ; that is, the centre
of attraction passes through the centre of the matter of the
Earth and its ring ; so that all the effect, which the attrac-
tion of the Sun can have, in consequence of the ring, ari-
ses merely from the different distances of A and O equal
to the diameter of the Earth ; and such an effect as this, if
it is any sensible effect, it can have only at the solstices ;
for, at the Equinoxes, the portions of the ring on each side
of the Ecliptick are at equal distances from the Sun; and of
course, from the solstices to the Equinoxes the effect, if
any must be constantly diminishing. But while the Moon,
by reason of the angle of its orbit, is at a distance from the
plane of the Ecliptick on one side, there is nothing on the
other side to balance it, or to prevent it from being has-
tened, by attraction, tothe plane. In fig. 2, pl. 3, let LP bea
portion of the moon’s orbit, M the moon, and S E the
plane of the Ecliptick. It is evident, that when the Moon
is at L, there is nothing at P to balance it.

Again, suppose the orbit of the moon was a ring of moons,
or any material substance, the case would be different from
that of the Equatorial ring, because the greater difference
in the distances of the different parts of the ring would
more materially affect the ratios of gravitation.

The precession of the Equinoxes, if caused by the Equa-
torial ring, must arise, either from a diminution of the an-
gle of the Equator with the Ecliptick, or from a change in
the direction of the line of the Equatorial odes. j

ormer, we have no evidence, that there 1s
such a regular diminution of the angle ; but on the contra-

to see any method in which a regular and successive varia-
tion of the line’of the nodes should be effected. In rela-
tion to the moon, we can see no rational method of ac-
Counting for the entire revolution of its nodes, except the
eccentricity of its orbit. If the Earth was in the centre of
the moon’s orbit, there would still be a motion of the nodes
backward and porwr butno revolution. Thecentre of the
~qnatorial ring is the centre of revolution and att :
and we know not how a revolution of the Equatorial Nodes

On the Precession of the Equinozes. 325

regular, and could result in nothing like the annual preces-
sion of the Equinoxes.

How far these objections affect the prevailing theory, I
leave for others to judge. They certainly render it ob-
scure, and until some of them are removed, I shall be dis-
posed to give credence to the following simple, consistent,
and interesting theory.

Solar System revolves; A P Lthe orbis mundorum, or a
portion of the circle of this revolution ; S a fixed star, and
EL V the Ecliptick. .
When the earth is at the first of aries E, let a spectator
view the Star S carefully noting its position ; and if the
system did not move, while the earth was performing one
annual revolution, the star would appear in the same posi-
tion again when he arrived at the first of aries. But while
the Earth is performing one annual revolution in the direc-
tion EL V the system moves from O to P; so that in_
relation to the Sun the revolution is completed at R, and
RN T may now represent the Ecliptick. But the po-
sition of the Star S is different when seen from R, from
what it was, when seen from E: of course the earth must
move from R to E to complete the siderial year, and the
distance R E or OP is the precession of the Equinoxes,
or the difference between the Solar and Siderial year.
Since, therefore, no other satisfactory reason can be given
for this phenomenon, and such a revolution appears very
probable from analogy, the precession of the Equinoxes is
4 strong proof of the revolution. eee
Gproliary 1. The Solar System revolves from west to
east, like the Earth in its orbit: for if it revolved the oth-
er way it would produce’ an effect contrary to that of the
PDovedbany 2. This revolution affects all the bodies in the
solar system ; and the discovery of its effect upon any one
of them, would be an additional confirmation of this theory.

326 Description of an unproved Rain Gage.

Corollary 3. The earth and planets, in. their revolutions,
never perform complete circles or ellipses ; for the system
moving from E to R, during one revolution of the earth,
the earth cannot get back to the point EK, from which it

started, and of course its orbit will be a spiral line.

e past progress of science, we may confidently
expect, that the time is not far distant, when new investi-
gations and discoveries shall not only place beyond a doubt
the revolution of the-seiar system, but also make known
the distance of the system from its grand centre, and the
time of its revolution. U. CG.

Middlebury, Ver. August 28, 1823.

Art, XIV.—Description of an improved Rain Gage; by Mr.
Grorce Cuinron, Lecturer on Chemistry.

Tue quantity of rain that falls in any particular district
being an important item in Meteorology, any improvement
m the instruments of observation by which that quantity
can be determined correctly, must be acceptable to the
cultivators of that department of science. In the common
construction of the Rain Gage several causes of error are
manifest, which when taken separately, might be deemed
trivial, but whose combined effect is such as every accurate

it does not make due allowance for them must be erroneous.
In addition to these causes of irregularity, the cohesiot
of the fluid, which is necessarily connected with the meas
urement by graduated rods, renders it impossible to deter
mine the true height of it. ‘
But besides these obvious causes of maceuracy, the fluid
in the cone construction of the Rain-Gage, is too me
exposed to spontaneous evaporation. This might, in patts
be remedied by iaiteaning the neck of the" funnel, but
here another difficulty arises : if the aperture, by which the
Towocners the gage be too small, the funnel, in a smart
er, might led to overflowing; by which a
the water Would be lost. eee

Description of an improved Rain Gage. 327

Fig. 4 & 5, Pl. 2. whose top and bottom are, each 10 inc

This is all that is necessary for occasional experiments, as
for instance, to determine the quantity of rain, snow or sleet,
that may fall in winter when the evaporation is incon-
siderable, or the quantity of rain that falls in a single show-
er,atany otherseason. But to answer all purposes, it must
be provided with a cover, in the centre of whichis inserted
a funnel, whose top has the same area, as that of the top or
bottom, of the prismatic vessel above. To prevent evapora-
tion the orifice of the funnel is furnished with a valve against
which a weak spring, attached to the inside of the cover,
presses with a force just sufficient to close it, but which is
overcome by the weight of a few drops of rain. It is evi-
dent that in a shower the water will open the valve, and af-
ter it has passed into the body of the gage, the valve will
close the orifice again, suffering, however, the drainings of
the funnel to pass along the pendant wire by cohesive at-
traction.

This top, with its funnel and appendages, may be fitted
= the body of the gage, like the lid of a common tea can-
ister, :

The water being thus introduced into the gage, the
method of determining its altitude in inches and decimal
parts depends upon the following fundamental statements,
'n connection with the simple operation of weighing the
water in the gage.

Fundamental Principle.

A cubic inch of distilled, or rain water, under a
medium pressure and temperature weighs 252.525 grains ;
according to the latest corrections. ow this number,
multiplied by 100, the area of the funnel, in square
Inches, or that of the top, or bottom of the body

ge, gives 252525 grains for the weight of 100
cubic inches of water. Supposing this quantity of wa-

tes = ;

328 Deseription of an umproved Rain Gage.

ter in the gage, it would, evidently, form a stratum on
the bottom of one inch in height; and if we conceive
this stratum to be divided, by horizontal sections, into 100
equa! parts, these parts would form strata, each of which
would be the ;1,th of an inch in height; and, being equal
to a cubic inch, would weigh 222.525 grains. Let us fur-
ther suppose that one of these strata is subdivided into
10 equal parts by sections in the same direction, each ol
these parts would, evidently, form a stratum of water,
whose height would be only the ;'5;th part ofan inch; and
being equal to the 10th part of a cubic inch, would weigh
25.2525 grains,

Having then, the weight of 100:cubic inches correspond-
ing to one inch in altitude; the weight of one cubic inc
to the ;4sth of an inch; and the ;,th of a cubic ich to the
-aiyath part of an inch; it is easy to see that the height of
the water in the gage may be obtained by making one, OF
other, of the above numbers a divisor to the corrected
weight of the water, in troy grains. But this trouble 1s
rendered unnecessary by the use of the following '-

bles :-—

“Taste 1. Troy Weight. | Tapue 2. For Reducing 4
Grains.

One pound troy, = 5760 voirdupors ee th
One ounce, = 480; One pound. avoirdu-
One drachm, Le Ot eA ois, = 7000
One scruple,, = 20 | Half pound, .. = 3500
; _4iofa pound, = 1750
Two ounces, = 879 _
One ounce, = 437-9
Halfounce, = 21875
= 109.375

Quarter ounce,

Description of an Improved Rain Gage. 329

TaBLe 3.

Corrected Corresponding ed weig ‘arresponding
er ih altitude in oe Sater” a z altitude in

es &e. | = grains payee ;
25 2525 0.001 2525.250 - 0.10
50.5050 - 0.002 5050.500 . 0.20
75.7575 = = 0.003 7575.750 - 0.30
101.0100 - 0.004 10101.000 - 0.40
126.2625. - 0.005 12626.250 - 0.50
151.5150 - 0.006 ° 15151.500 - 0.60
176.7675 3 - 0.007 17676.750 0.70
202.0200 - 0.008 02.000 - 0.80
227.2725 - 0.009° 22727.250 - 0.90
252.525 - 0.010 25252.500 - 1.00
505.050 - 0.020 50505.000 - 2.00
757.575 0.030 _75757.500 - 3.00
1010.100 0.040 101010.000 - 4.00
1262.625 0.050 126262.500 - 5.00
1515.150 - 0.060 151515.000 - 6.00
1767.675 - 0.070 176767.500 - 7.00
- 0.080 202020.000 8.00
2272.725 - 0.090 227272.500 - 9.00
252525.000 - 10.00

An nope shewing the use of the tables.
the weight of the water in the gage, corrected
by subtracting the Weight of the to be 201b. 53 oun-
pode whe ee de has the height’ or number of inches

}. From Table 2. { 1b. pe se ai sii at = 14000
Ib. oz.

1750
20 51 = 1 do. = 437.5
2 do. = 218.75

The sum = the weight in grs. 142406.25

Lt. Vil ~* o.%:

330 Description of an Improved Rain Gage.

height, in inches &c. Enter the table a second time with
the difference and take the nearest /ess number to ¢f, to-
gether with its. correspondent height, which subtract from
the difference, and with the remainder enter the table again
if necessary, thus,

Wt, of water in grains. Cor-
ree resp’t
en height.
the nearest number in the table, less than 142406.25,
- 126262.5 500

which must be subtacted,is -

difference ~ - - 16146.75

The next number in the table, less than
the difference, is - . -

15151.5 0.60

which, when subtracted, leaves the re-
mainder - ‘2 - *, . 992,25

the nearest number corresponding to the ae
rem. in the table is - < - $010.1 0.04

The sum of the corresponding heights gives—Inches 5.64

It is obviously not necessary to be restricted to either the
form, or the size of the above described gage. If the cy-
lindrieal form be thought to possess any advantages over
that of a square prism, it is easy to find the diameter 0 ?
circle whose area shall be equal to one hundred square

inches, by the well known rule, viz. d= J ae

where d represents the diameter, a, the area, and .7854 the
area of a circle, whose diameter is unity. If any other size
ould be thougt ient. as for inst one whose

§

area is only half of that of the above described gage, the
same rule, if cylindrical, will give the corresponding di-
ameter, or if a square mouthed one be preferred, the
side of the square is obtained by extracting the square root
of fifty. But it must be remembered that whatever rela-
tion the area, we pitch upon, may bear to one hundre
ee will

square inches, the same re subsist between the f-

Description of an improved Rain Gage. 331

ual result, and that which is given by the tables: thus if the
area of the gage be fifty square inches, as this is the half of one
hundred, we must take half the sum of the tabular heights
for the true altitude.

It is not necessary to be very particular in the choice of
a balance ; a pair of good common scales will answer, with
true weights, either troy or avoirdupois. e gage may
be made of tin, or sheet iron painted or japanned, but cop-
per is more durable. The area of the funnel, and that of
the top of the body part, are the only parts that need atten-
tion in the construction. ese ought to be made tolerably
exact. A strong hoop should be fixed around them on the
outside to preserve their figure true.

In every operation of weighing, the weight of the gage,
moistened in the inside, must be deducted from the gross
weight; the remainder is the corrected weightof the water
with which the tables must be entered. © ¥ Lea?

In the case of hail, snow, sleet, or frozen water, being in
the gage, it isnot necessary to melt its contents into water,
as. the changes effected by temperature, and _ pressure
make no difference in the weight, ’

The use of scales and weights may be dispensed with, by
substituting a steelyard, so constructed that the moveable
weight on its arm might indicate by its positon, 3 the
weight, but the inches and decimal parts of its correspond-
ing altitude, without reference to the tables, and without
calculation. : aE

The advantages of this method of finding the quantity of
Tain, in linear inches of altitude, will be appreciated by ad-
Verting to the circumstance of our having a zangible quantity,
9s an unerring guide to that which is nearly imperceptible.
Twenty five grains and a half,a sensible quantity in a :
balance, pointing out the difficultly visible division of the
tesa part of an inch. Su the problem rev ersed;
that the cubical contents of the water, or its weight, were
required, from the observed attitude. The chances of ere
tor would all be against the accuracy of such aga gt
tion. The difficulties of the task, independently of th
aforenientioned causes of variation, would evidently be in-
surmountable. iit

i had gage constructed on this principle, twelve or
fourteen years ago, for my friend Dr. Akerly, who informe

332 Mr. Perkins’ Method of applying his New Invention

me that it answered the end extremely well. This testi-
mony in its favour is not among the least of those conside-'
rations that have induced me’ to make it more generally
known. ; G. C.

See plate 2, where Fig. 4 represents the rain gage in per-
spective.

Fig. 5 is a vertical section.

G the body of the gage, F its funnel, L the lid or cover,
v the valve, hinged to the lower orifice of the funnel, s the

ing to close the valve,w a wire to conduct the drain-
ings of the funnel into the body of the gage.

Art. XV.—Account of Mr. Perkins’ method of applying
his New M’thod of Generating Steam to the Boilers of
ordinary Steam-Engines. (Edinb. Philos. Journ. No.
XVIII)

Havine in our last Number given a very full, and we
trust perspicuous account of Mr. Perkins’ new Steam-Ea-

ne, we shall now proceed to lay before the reader Mr.

erkins’ own account of his method of applying the new
principle to steam-engines of the old construction. This
account is taken from the specification of his ‘patent, which
is Now <e to the inspection of the public.

In order, however, thata correct idea may be formed of
the original principle itself, we shall prefix Mr. Perkins
own account of the generator, although we have already
given a general desc iption of itin our last Number.

“ Plate IX. Fig. 1.* represents the general construction
of the apparatus; a, a,a, is the generator shewn in section.
It is a strong cylindrical vessel, made of metal, about three
inches thick in every part, which may be a guide to the
comparative dimensions of the other parts of the apparatus
This vessel is to be filled with water, and heated by? —
furnace circumscribing it. On the top of the generator

ere is an escape valve 6, pressed down by the weightet
lever c, the pressure being adjustable by the shifting of the
weight. The valve opens to the steam-pipe d, which is t©
be supposed as proceeding to the working piston of the en-
gine. The lateral pipe e, extending from the generator, '§

* See Plate IV. Am. Jonrn.

io the Boilers of ordinary Steam-Engines. 333

merely for the purpose of safety; and at the end of itthere .
is an apparatus f, attached, by which the pressure is indica-
ted; g, is the feeding or injecting pipe leading from the for-
cing pump h, which may be worked by a connexion to the
moving part of the engine.

‘In order to generate steam, the vessel a must be filled
with water, or other fluid or fluids, from the pump A, and
heated by a furnace, or otherwise: the steam, or escape-
valve b, being loaded by means ofa weight, with a pressure
greater than the expansive force of the steam, to be genera-

from such water, or other fluid or fluids, at the time of
its generation. When tlie water, or other fluid or fluids, in
the generator, has attained the necessary degree of heat, say
from 400 to 500 degrees of Fahrenheit, more or less, an
additional quantity of a Pion: or fluids, is
pumped into the generator, ient to out a portion
of ‘209 already heated in the generator from under
weighted-valve 6, into the steam-pipe d, where it instantly
beeomes steam. : :

“ An enlarged representation of the valve, and its seat, is
shewn in the section, Fig. 2. The valve is a spherical
bulb, falling into a concave seat, in the lower part of the
square chamber ; the upper part of the valve is a cylindrical
tod, upon the top of which the weight of the pressing-lever
is exerted ; the lower part of the valve is a triangular ;
sliding up and down the cylindrical passage. When the ad-
ditional quantity of water is injected into the generator, by
means of the force pump as described, the bulb of the

where the pressure no longer operating upon that portion of
the water, it immediately becomes steam, and passes forward

334 Mr. Perkins’ Method of applying his New Invention

out upon the graduated dial-plate the number of atmos-
pheres under which the steam is generated. The pipes
being in substance considerably thinner than any other patt
of the apparatus, is intended to give way, in the event of
the pressure within the generator being accidentally raise

dange height ; the consequence ich would

Bias in, TY 5 g, is the pi through which the water is ia-
jected by the pump h, os the reservoir to the generator 3

s the flue or chimney, from the furnaces below-

to the Boilers of Ordinary Steam-Engines. 335

“The continued:passage of high pressure steam (genera-
ted as above) through the tube z, heats the water, which
occupies about half the interior of the boiler, and by that
means a sufficient quantity of Steam may be produced in the
boiler for working an engine of the ordinary construction,
and with a very important saving in the quantity of fuel,
compared to what would be consumed, to effect the same
purpose, by any other plans heretofore adopted.” ©

** Now, whereas the materials of which my said improve-
ments are constructed, and the exact proportions of’ the
relative parts, are not subjects for which I hereby claim ex-
clusive privilege, though I have described those materials

lege is hereinafter made. And whereas, I have only repre-
sented in my said drawings annexed, such parts of a steam-
engine as comprise my said improvements, the various
mode of applying such said improvements, by means of the
steam-pipe being too well known to require particular des-
cription here. 4nd whereas, my said generator may be
heated by a variety of known furnaces, I have not described
any one in particular, but the one I have used and found to
be the best is one of the cupola kind, fed by a blast.
And whereas, I have described in my said drawing, Fig. 1,
a safety-pipe and indicator, and a forcing-pump, neither of
which are in themselves new, but which apparatuses, or

ination necessary to my said

Similar ones, constitute a combination

*: Secondly,—For causing such water, or other fluid or
fluids, so aan as aforesaid, to escape from under the said

336 Mr. Perkins’ Method of applying his dion Invention &c.

pressure, and pass at once from the generator into the
steam pipe, where it becomes steam or vapour, and in that
form may pass thence to the cylinder, or to any other situ-
ation connected with a steam engine, without the necessa
intervention of any steam-chamber, or other reservoir of
steam

H Thirdly, —For the manner of causing such water or
other fluid or fluids to escape as aforesaid, that is to say, by
forcing other water or fluid or other fluids into the genera-
tor, until the pressure against the steam valve shall cause it to
rise, valve being so mae as not to rise, except by
means of such extra pressure as aforesaid.

“ Fourthly,—For the aed application of such water,
or other fluid or fluids, so heated as aforesaid, and of
steam or vapour generated thereby ; whether sach steam or
vapour be employed through a steam-pipe without a
steam-chamber, or reservoir to act immediately on
piston, or to be collected in areservoir or steam-chamber,
and t to act on the piston, or only for heating wa-
ter to eenencons other steam, or for any other purpose or pur-

whatsoever, provided always, that such general ap-
cation aforesaid be for the purposes of steam-en-

the mode of applying this, pac toa variety of opera-
tions in which heating. may be requisite, is embra
by a second patent to specified in November, and that
the mechanical construction of the working parts of the en-
gine will be explained in the s is of the third pa-
tent, which will be enrolled in m

The same writer informs | that caret of the new en-

gines which have been ordered, are at present constructing;
and particularly, that an coin of about 80-horse power,
for the purposes of steam navigation, is in considerable for-

wardness, and will probably be in operation between Lon-
don and Margate before the end of the present summer-

Mr. Rendall’s Notice of a Halo. 337

Art. XVI.—Notice of a Halo, by Thomas Kendall, in a
letter to the Editor. .

New-Lebanon, Jan. by 1824,

Sin,
Le be age
On the 2nd of July last a most extraordinary phenome-
non of halos around and about the sun was witnessed in

this vicinity. I do not know that it has been reported b
any one: thinking that it may not be wholly uninterest-
ing to you, | shall attempt a description.. The weather
had been dry and warm for two or three weeks previous.
On the 2nd the atmosphere was a little smoky, at 1 o’clock
- M. the sun was hid by a thin stratum of clouds, not very
compact, and evidently assuming a more uniform appear-
ance, which was succeeded by a few scattering drops of
rain. At 2 o’clock, I first discovered the halos. The clouds
had mostly disappeared or had become thin and uniform,
having the common consistence of vapour which is usually
accompanied with halos. The sun was surrounded by a
circle or halo of the common size, but much more brilliant,
resembling the rainbow quite as much as it did the ordina-
ry halo ; the area of this circle was much darker than the
surrounding space. North of this, with its periphery pass-
ing into the sun, appeared another halo, once and an half
the diameter of the first, not'so bright as the former, but
more so than usual; the area of this was darker than the
surrounding space, but not as dark as the other. The
north side of this halo was intersected at one place by seg-
ments of two others not quite as brilliant as the last, whose
relative diameters could not bé ascertained but were evi-
dently larger, and if they were in fact portions of perfect
Sircles, | thought at the time, that like the last they were
bounded by the sun ; at each intersection the brilliancy
was increased in proportion to the number of circles cross-
ing each other. A little to the East of south, and about
half way from the south’side of the primary halo to the hor-
izon appeared a portion of 15 or 20 degrees of another ha-
_ do apparently having the ’sun for its centre, and as bright
as the pri one, this was mistaken ‘by some fora ratn-
bow ; at one time | discovered (as | supposed) portions of
Vou. VII.—No. 2. 43

338 ‘Dana on Nitrous Gas®

this halo intersecting the second on the east and west sides,
but at that time the intersections on the north side were
not visible. These appearances were not of long continu-
ance, nor constant in their arrangement, but, beautiful and
sublime beyond deseription. _ Unwilling to trust to memo-
ry as the only memento of such extraordinary phenomena
| made a sketch at the time, which, imperfect as it Isy 18
probably the only one taken, and is now respectfully pre- -
sented you. > loregret that it did: not fall to the lot of some
person better nalified than meen to describe it. (See
plate 3. ages .

halos :tnlbniabve sunin the centre; perhaps the cause
has been satisfactorily explained, but of those whose peri-
phery 1 is in-the sun, as respects their locality |. can myself
form no idea. From what was'seen at that time, | am how-
ever fully satisfied there is a/possibility of the atmosphere
being: so charged, as that the whole concave of Heaven
wou!d be covered with similar appearances. + Ke

Arr. XVII.—On the Theory of the action of the Hager

of Azote, or Nitrous Gas in Eudiometry y James

“reEMAN Dana, Professor of Chemistry Sd pgs
in Dartmouth College.

‘Tue deutoxide of azote or nitrous gas appears to be the
first substance introduced for the express purpose of ana-
lysing the atmosphere, It_owes its application, in the pro
cesses — a oaers to Priestley, its discoverer ; iis use

ded on the facility of its union with oxygene £453
heal the two gases come in contact, red os ce are pro-
duced, which Persil fe absorbed by wate

It appears to be established, by cealipiedd seaierrer
that the atmosphere contains 21 volumes of oxygene gas ™
100; yet the deutoxide of azote has sometimes indicated
inuch more, at other times much less, and has seldom -
forded uniform results. Priestley was led to suppose that
there was a very polo ected difference, as indicated by
nitrous gas, between the external air, and the air of his
study after a number of Sersobh had been sitting there 5 3
= air in the neighborhood of York was not as good 2®

wear Liveds. Vet there i is not found to be a percept

f

Dana on Nitrous Gas. 339

ble difference in the quantity of oxygene contained in the
air in different places, even in situations most favorable for
producing decided differences, provided no uneasiness is
produced by the respiration of such air. “Phe experiments

iron; Dalton affirms that, if dilute oxygene gas and dilute
i i a

or much less oxygene than 21 per cent. It is unnecessary
to refer to any other method of using this gas in eudiome-
try than that proposed by Gay Lussac ; a method which is
pteferable to any other, since it affords uniform results. — It
is almost unnecessary to say, that the method consists in
introducing a portion of air previously measured in a grad-
uated tube, into a wide vessel, like a tambler, over water,

re

vapours are produced ; the mixture is suffered to stand one
minute and then transfered to the graduated tube, and the
diminution in volume noted; this divided by 4 gives the
quantity of oxygene. The diminution, if 100 parts of air
and of nitrous gas be used, will be nearly 94 parts; and
+4 als of this method, there has
between the results, and those

as, has never yet been explaine
authors uniformly aseribe tt to t

{

340 Dana on Nitrous Gas.

tion of nitrous acid. The latest chymical publication, Ure’s
Dictionary of Chymistry, 2d edition, Lond. 1823, gives the
saine theory of its action. To shew the explanation of the
effect of nitrous gas in eudiometry, as given by chymical
- authors, I will quote a passage from this dictionary ; and
do this because the editor is not less remarkable for sound
criticism, than for fulsome flattery of Davy, for cavalier
treatment of Thompson, and for total silence respecting the
labors of the chymists in this country.

“* Nitric acid is composed of 100 parts of azote and 200
of oxygene, or of 100 oxygene and 200 of nitrous gas
= (100 o.+100 az.) Nitrous vapour, or more properly
speaking nitrous aci@ gas results from the combination of

)

f 300 of nitrous gas, united with 100 oxygene, produce 3
diminution, by absorption, of 400, it is evident that it can-
not be by the production of nitrous acid ; because, (since
nitrous gas contains one half its volume of oxygene,) the
nitrous acid so formed would consist of 150 azote-+ 250
oxygene ; a relative proportion of the two substances which

*Ia this edition of Ure's Dictionary no notice is taken of the New Gal
vanic Instruments of Hare, or of the splendid results. obtained by them 18
the hands of Silliman; nor is justice done to our countrymen peepe > .
the oxy. owpipe: the Editor of the Dictionary canoe! >
supposed to be ignorant of these subjects, and-a silence respecting them, is
at once uncandid, disrespectful, and disgusting,

Dana on Nitrous Gas. 347

does not exist in any known compound of oaygpre with
azote. Itis perfectly well established that

100 vols. of oxygene unite with 400 vols, of nitrous gas and form Hyponi-

[trous acid.
100. « $6 “6 200 sé “ Nitrous acid, and
100 « “ “ec 133.33 “<< sé Nitric acid.

The existence of the hyponitrous acid, which has been
doubted, is confirmed by the observations which follow.

When we mix, therefore, 100 parts of atmostpheric air,
with 100 parts of nitrous gas, the diminution in volume,

if nitric acid only be formed, should be 49 parts ;

if nitrous acid only, 66 poud :

if hyponitrous acid only, = 105 par

ut exper/ment teaches us that the diminution of volume

is actually 84 parts, and that all the oxygene disappears ;
now this degree of diminution can be produced only by the
formation and absorption of Ayponitrous acid and of nitrous
acid ; and the oxygene present is equally divided between
tem; viz.

50 vols. of ‘+0 with 200 nit g d form hyponitrous acid,
aa vols. e, “ 100 % «6 nitrous acid.
“100 300

Or, as in the analysis of the air, which contains 21 per
cent. of oxygene, and the diminution amounts to 84 parts
when 100 each of air and nitrous gas are st ti

One half its oxygen, equ 0.5 vols.
Unites, to Rit Ky foladtrodl ne with nitrous BAS, 120 vols.

e remainder of the ox gen 10.5 vols.
To form nitrous acid, unites with nitrous gas, 21.0 vols.
84.0 vols.

All of which are condensed, equal . ~

fact ; and the experiment confirms ig existence wl

Produces nitrites is no
Part we know very il

342 On the Cutting of Steel by Soft Tron.

ing a mixture of salts. having these acids in their composi-
tion, that the whole may pass to the state of nitrites by the
agency of air, heat, and moisture.

Variable quantities of these two acids mav be formed,
under the different circumstances in which the two gases
are mixed; “this perfectly explains the differences in the
results of those who have operated with them.” ;

A great degree of reliance may be placed on the indica-
tions of nitrous gas as employed in the method of Gay Lus-
sac; but for accurate experiments it will probably never
supersede the use of hydrogene and the electric spark in
Volta’s eudiometer, or in the improved form of that appa-
ratus proposed by Dr. Ure.

November 12, 1823.

an

Art. XVIII—On the Cutting of Steel by Soft Iron.
Eprror.

Philadelphia, execute, with a common foot, lathe, opera-

lave however since repeatedly seen the experiment
succeed, in the most perfect manner, at the manufactory of
< arms, belonging to Eli Whitney Esq. near this town. As

Bho rapidity, that the motion became entirely impercepti-

On the Cutting of Steel by Soft tron. 343

which the parts of gun Jocks are made, were Sai seninst
the edge, of the revolving soft iron plate, they were imme-
diately cut by. it, with a degree of rapidity, which was al-
ways considerable, but which was greater as the pieces of
steel were thinner. Pieces as thick as the plate of a com-
mon joiner’s saw, were cut almost as rapidly, as wood is cut
by the saw itself. Considered as an experiment, merely,

commenced upon cold and hard steel, will divide it with so
much rapidity, as this mode of applying soft iron. Afterall
itis evident that it is only a peculiar method of cutting red

mal be shewn, w , ie
pulse, should, nearly all be concentrated in the steel, and
€ scarcely perceptible in the iron. Neither is it perfect-

Pe

ly clear tha
the impinging soft iron. No smith probably ever
thought of attempting to divide steel by applying an iron
tool.

even ignited steel, should be so easily cut by

Arr. XIX.—Results of the Analysis of the principal
Brine Springs of the State of New-Nork, by Groner Cutt-
ton, Lecturer on Chemistry, &c.

TO THE EDITOR,

eS ee) aS f

Dear Sir,

As far back as the year 1810, samples of the differen
waters from the Saline Springs in the State of New York
were sent to me, for chemical examination, by Col. Gibbs,
who, as I understood at that time, intended to publish some
account of them in the Journal, conducted by the late Dr.
Bruce.—A paper exhibiting the particulars of this exam-
ination was left with Dr. Bruce some time before his death,
for Col. Gibbs, who did not receive it, and which bas not
been heard of sinve

The analytical results of the above examination having
been preserved in my note-book, I have thought that, at a
time when the growing importance of these springs seems
to arrest the notice of every observer, these results although
unaccompanied with the processes by which they were ob-
tained, might not be uninteresting to the public.

Col, Gibbs consents to their publication in your valua-
ble Journal. Should you think them worthy of a place,
they may be accompanied with the following brief state-
ment of the method of roceeding, made from memory-
2 1. " be vary of a bottle, after weighing it £5 ta-

ng its" specific gravity, was slowly evaporated to dryness

in a glass ig vad TATBBPREE d

A itd vice from the deep well at Montezuma was neglected in r ect
One te, Lek ities

oot the les h +} 4, Cc yew? which
Was not regarded in the exar ination. in consequence of the bottles being
mperfectly corked. I think they were those from Montezuma.

Analysis of the Saline Springs of New York. 345

2. The deliquescent salts were extracted from the dry
residuum by digestion in alcohol, and separate a from =
other by converting them into sulphates.i in the usual w
3. The mass, after the separation of the ieleaadecsl
salts, was dissolved in water and filtered. The carbonate
and sulphate of lime left on the filter were separated by mu-
mete acid,
. The ‘filtered solution was iroaiea with carbonate of
ou. boiled, and filtered; the carbonate of lime left onthe
filter indicating the quantity of sulphate of lime, decompo-

5. To the last clear solution, neutralized by the addition
of muriatic acid, muriate of barytes was added till it ceas=
ed to yield a precipitate ; the quantity of sulphate of bary-
tes shewing that no other sulphate existed in i. water.

Yours with great res
‘GEORGE CHILTON.
PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. |

Chemical examination of waters from - ret epee? in
the State of New-York, 1

Bottle No. 1, Galen.
_ Sp. gravity 1.0544.
10132 grains equal to 38 cubic inches, nearly, yielded _
by evaporation 884 grains of dry solid matter consisting of

Mur. of Lime, - . - 5 grains,
Mur. of Magnesia, - | - og

Sul. of Lime, = - 21
a of — - - - a
pie of Sse”: Fea - 853. 50
| $34
semen *

Vou. VIL—No. 2. 44

346 Chilton on Salt.

. Bottle No. 2, Montezuma.
Sp. gravity 1.0161.
10823 grains, equal to 427 cub. inches, nearly, yielded
by evaporation 266 of dry solid matter consisting of

Mur. of Lime, - - - 9 grains

Mur. of Magnesia, - wa a

Sul. of Lime, - - - 15.50

Car. of Lime, - - - isd

Mur. of Soda, ee oe - 235. 50
266

Bottle from the deep well, Montezuma.
Sp. gravity uncertain. ;
11760 grains equal nearly to 43 cub, inches yielded 940
grains of dry solid matter, consisting of . ,

Mur. of Lime, - - - 18 grains,
Mur. of Magnesia, - - ee ee
Sul. of Lime, - - : 50. 75
Car. of Lime, - - - 25
Mur. of Soda, - ‘ F 867.

940

ae Bottle No. 3, Onondago. :
Sp. gravity 1.0958. ' ‘
00 grains, equal to 34. 6 cub. inches, nearly, yielded
1357 grains of solid matter which consisted of

Mur. of Lime, - - - 8 grains,
Mur. of ‘Magnesia, - = 4
Sul. of Lime, = - pA f 37
= Car. of Lime, - . ofS 2
Mur..of Soda, - - - 1308

Hare on the Galvanie Deflagr ator, &c. 347

Table of the whole, reduced to centessimal proportions.

¢
100 cub. inch.{10U0 cub, inch.(100 cub. inch.(100 cub.inch
No. 1, Galen.|No. 2, Monte-! Montezuma; |No. 3,Onon-
zuma. ago,
Sp. gr. 1.0544.|Sp. gr. 1,0161,| Sp. gr. ——. |Sp.gr.1.0958
Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains.
Muriate of Soda, 2246.05 551.52 2016.33 3780.34
Muriate of s,ime,| 13.15 21.07 40.75 12
Mur.ot Magnesia 7.90 11.70 9.30 5.78
Sul. of Lime, 55.26 36.30 118.20 106.93
Carb. of Lime, 2.63 2.24 .60 5.78
Silex, 1.30
Solid matter, 2326.29. 4 622.93 2185.18 3921.85

Arr. XX.—Letter to the Editor, on some improved forms
of the Galvanic Deflagrator ; on the superiority of its de-
flagrating power ; and on tts anomalous polarity, wheth-
er tested by water, or the magnetic needle ; by Professor
Rogert Hare, M. D., &c.

ence. A better mode has since occurred to me. Two
troughs are joined lengthwise, edge to edge, so that when
the sides of the one are vertical, those of the other must be
horizontal. Hence, by a partial revolution of the two
troughs, thus united upon pivots, which support them at
the ends, any fluid which may be in one trough, must flow
into the other, and, reversing the motion, must flow back

348 Hare on some Improved Forms

again. The Galvanic Series being placed in one of the
troughs, the acid in the other, by a movement such as
above described, the plates may all be instantaneously sub-
jected to the acid or relieved from it. The pivots are
made of iron, coated with brass or copper, as less liable to
oxidizement. A metallic communication is made between
the coating of the pivots, and the galvanic series within. In
order to produce a connexion between one recipient of this
description, and another, it is only necessary to allow a pl-
vot of each trough to revolve on pieces of sheet copper, Se-
verally soldered to. the different ends of a rod of metal. To
connect, with the termination of the series, the leaden rods,
(to which are soldered the vices, or spring forceps, for hold-
ing the substances to be exposed to the deflagrating power,)
one end, of each of the lead rods, is soldered to a piece of
sheet copper. The pieces of copper, thus soldered to the
lead rods, are then to be duly placed under the pivots,
which are of course to be connected with the terminations
of the series. - The last mentioned connexion’ is conven-
iently made by means of straps of copper, severally solder-
ed to the pivots, and the poles of the series, and» screwed
together by a hand vice.

‘Fig. 1 pl 5; represents an apparatus, consisting of two
troughs, each ten feet long, constructed inthe manner
which I have described. Each trough is designed to con-
tain 150 galvanic pairs. The galvanic series in the upper
trough is situated as when not subjected to the acid. In the
representation of the lower trough, the galvanic series 1

mitted, in order that the interior may be better understood.
The series belonging to this’ trough, may be observed be-
ow it, in three boxes, each containing 50 pairs, fig. 2: In
placing these boxes in the trough, some ‘space is left, be~
tween them and that side of the trough on which the acid
enters, so that instead of flowing over them, it may "Um
down outside, and rise up within them.

The pairs of the series consist of copper cases, about 7
inehes long, by 3 inches wide, and half an inch thick ; each
containing a plate of zine, equidistant from its sides, a0
prevented from touching it by grooved. strips of wood.—

of the Galvamec Deflagrator, &c. 349

Each plate of zinc is soldered to the next case of copper,
on one side. ‘This may be understood from the diagram,

- 3. It must be observed, that the copper cases are o-
pen only atthe bottom and top. They are separated from
each other by very thin veneers of wood.

ig. 4. represents a smaller trough, differing from the
others only in length. This I made, with a view to some
experiments on the comparative power of the galvanic
pairs of the form of copper cases, with zinc plates, above
described ; and those made on Cruickshank’s plan, or of
the form used by Sir H. Davy, in the porcelain troughs.

if represents a box, containing 100 Cruickshank
plates, (each consisting of a plate of zinc, and copper, sol-
dered face to face,) and slid into grooves, at a quarter of
an inch distance from each other; all the copper surfaces
being in one direction, and all the zinc in the other. In this
case the zinc plates are exposed only on one side. The
surface on which the acid can act, is therefore the same
as in a deflagrator of 50 pairs, in which each zine plate is
assailable on both sides. It ought to be understood, that
the box containing the 100 Cruickshank plates is open at
bottom, and is of such dimensions as to occupy the place
of a box, containing 50 pairs of the deflagrator, receiving
ns acid in its interstices from below, in the same manner,

y a partial revolution of the troug Bi Seqqoo.

8 6. represents a box, containing 200 Cruickshank
plates. This differs from the common Cruickshank trough
only in having the interstices as narrow as those between
the copper and zinc surfaces of the deflagrator pairs, rep-
resented by fig. 2; and that the mode in which the acid is
thrown off, or on, the whole series, does not differ, materi-
ally from that described in the instance of fig. 1.

On contrasting the deflagrating power of the seri
50, represented at fig. 4, with Craickshank’s plates in the
box, that of the latter was _s nates tera feeble, and
even when compared with the Cruickshank trough, Hg.
in igniting indeole: or carbon, the power of the deflagrator

350 Hare on some Improved Forms, &«.

appeared incomparably greater. The shock from the
Cruickshank trough was more severe. You must recol-
lect, that in former experiments I found that galvanic
plates, with their edges exposed as they are in the porce-
lain troughs, used by Sir Humphrey Davy, were almost
inefficient, when used without insulation, as the deflagra-
tor pairs are. This demonstrates, that an unaccountable
difference is producible in galvanic apparatus, by changes

poles, takes place at the negative pole of the pile, and

n inspecting the diagram, No, 3, plate 5,it may be seem:
that by the section, each copper case, appears like two
plates C c, of which those marked C, only appear to be
soldered to the connecting straps. Removing the portions
of the cases marked c, the series would be reduced within
the definition, above given, of series used in apparatus on
the principle of the Couronne des Tasses, in whic the
zinc is positive. It would be surprising, that doubling the
extent, or varying the position of the copper surfaces:
should cause any change of polarity.

_ The observations, which are the subject of this commu-
nication, combined with those which you have made, of the

we

Hare’s Single Leaf Electrometer. ol

incapacity of the Deflagrator, and Voltaic series in the usual

- form, to act, when in combination with each other ; must
Justify us, in considering the former, as a galvanic instru-
meot, having great and peculiar powers. |

Since the above was written, | have tried my series ‘of
300 pairs. The projectile power, and the shock, were
proportionally great, but the deflagrating power was not
increased in proportion. The light was so intense, that,
falling on some adjacent buildings, it had fully the appear-
ance of sunshine. Having had another series of 300 pairs
made for Dr. Macnevin of New-York, on trying it, | con-
nected it with mine, both collaterally, and consecutively,
so a8 to make in the one case a series of six hundred,—in
the other a series, half that in number,but equal in extent
of surfaces, The shock of the two, consecutively, was ap-
parently doably as sévere, as the shock produced by
one; but the other phenomena seemed to me nearly equal-
ly brilliant, in either way. <a seit

The white globules which you noticed, were formed co-
piously on the ignited charcoal, especially in vacuo. ~
have not had leisure, to test them, being arduously occu-
pied, in my course of Lectures, and in some efforts to im-
prove the means of experimental illustration.

Constitutes the top of the instrument. Opposite to this
Single leaf, is a ball, supported on a wire, which may
made to approach the leaf ; or recede from it, by means of
ascrew. Above the instrument, is seen a disk of copper,
with a glass handle.* The electricity produced by the
Contact of copper and zinc, is rendered sensible in the fol-
lowing manner. Place the disk of copper, on the disk of
zine, (which forms the canopy of the Electrometer) : take
€ micrometer screw in one hand, touch the copper disk
*For the experiment with this electrometor a metallic handle would an-

‘wer. Its being of glass enabled me to compare the indication, thus
tained, with that obtained by a condenser.

352 Abstract of Mr. Faraday’s Experiments on tne

with the other, and then lift this disk from the zinc. As
soon as the separation is effected, the gold leaf will strike ~
the ball, usually, if the one be not more than 3, of an
inch, apart from the other. Ten contacts of the same disks,
of copper and zinc, will be found necessary to produce a
sensible divergency in the leaves of the Condensing Elec-
trometer. That the phenomenon arises from the dissimi-
larity of the metals, is easily shewn, by repeating the ex-
periment with a zinc disk, in lieu of a disk ofc The
separation of the homogeneous disks, will not be found to
produce any contact, between the leaf and ball. I believe
e has been heretofore contrived, by which the elec-
trical excitement resulting from the contact of heteroge-
neous metals, may be detected by an Electroscope, without
the aid ofa condenser. It is probable, that the sensibility
of this instrument, is dependent on that property of elec-
tricity, which causes any surcharge of it, which may be cre-
ated in a conducting surface, to seék an exit at the most
projecting termination, or point, connected with the sur-
face. This disposition is no doubt rendered greater, by
the proximity of the ball, which increases the capacity of
the gold leaf to receive the surcharge, in the same manner,
as the uninsulated disk, of a condenser influences the elec-
trical capacity of the insulated disk, in its neighbourhood.
It must not be expected, that the phenomenon above de-
scribed, can be produced in weather unfavourable to elec:
tricity. Under favourable circumstances, I have produce
it, by means of a smaller Electrometer, of which the disks
are only 2} inches in diameter. The construction, 48
respects the leaf, and the ball, regulated by the microme-
ter screw, remaining the same; the cap of a Condensing
Secon, and its disks, may be substituted for the zin¢
18 e

ee ec

Arr. XXI.— Abstract of Mr. Faraday’s Experiments 0%
the Condensation of Several Gases into Liquids. Ed-
inb. Philos. Journ. No. XVIII.

Tus very valuable and interesting paper, which will ap-
pear in the second fer of the Philosophical Transactions
for 1822, contains Mr Faraday’s Experiments on Sulphu- .
rous cid, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Carbonic Acid, Ev

ondensation of Several Gases into Liquids.’ 353

chlorine, Nitrous Oxide, Cyanogen, Ammonia, agate
Acid and Chlorine. Although these experiments are scarce-
ly susceptible of abridgement, yet we are compelled, by
ant of room, to leave out the few perin} the memoir
which are less essential than the rest.
- aed Acid. raple's We and

ed onit miata itor Bis aeglp. si
Liquid sulphurous acid is et d>dohwinaas
and highly fluid. Its refractive power,: fice by com:
paring it in water and other media, with water contained
in a similar tube, appeared to be nearly equal to that of wa-
ter, It does not solidify or become adhesive at a tempe-
rature of 0° F. When a tube containing it was opened,
the contents did not rush out as with ex , but a por-
tion of the liquid evaporated rapidly, cooling another por-
tion pisos ‘much as to leave it ia the fluid state at common ba-
ric pressure. It was however rapidly dissipated, not
pedis visible fumes, but producing the odour of pure
sulphurous acid, -and leaving

it.

“To prove in an unexceptionable manner that the fluid
was sulphurous acid, some sulpburous acid gas was
carefully prepared over pute je and a long tube
dry, and closed atone ; exhausted, was’ filled
with it; more sulphurous acid wantbedvtowtt in by acon-
densing syringe, nT there were three or four atmospheres ;
the tube remained perfectly clear and abt but on cooling
one end to 0°, the fluid sulphurous acid condensed, and

Vor. ViI.—No. 2. 45

354 Abstract of Mr. Faraday’ s Lxperunents on. the
all.its.characters, was like that,prepared by the former pre-

wit Sulpburous acid vapour exerts a pressure of about two
ameepncss at45°F.. Its specific. gravity was nearly.1.42,
“ Sulphuretted Hydrogen A tube being bent, and sealed at
the shorter end, strong muriatic acid was poured in through a
small funnel, soas nearly to. fill the short leg without soilinghie
long one. A piece of platinum foil was then crumpled up and
pushed in, and upon that were put fragments of sulphuret of
iron, until the tabe, was nearly full. hb this way action was
prevented until the tube was sealed. If itonce commences, it
is almost impossible to close the tube in-a manner sufficiently
strong, because of the pressing out of the gas. When closed,
€ muriatic. acid was made to. run on to the sulphuret of
iron, and then left for a day or two. .Atthe end of that
time, much protomuriate of iron had formed, and.on pla-
cing the clean end of the tube ina mixture of ice and salt,
warming the other end if necessary, by a little water, sul-
‘Phuretted hydrogen in the liquid state distilled over.
‘The liquid sulphuretted. ydrogen was colourless, lim-
Pith and excessively fluid., It did not mix with the rest of
the Huid it

inthe tube, which was. no

rs Perce | on it, tA? 3 ‘
opened, the liquid immediately, rushed. into vapour 3 and
this being done under water, and. th vapour collected and
examined, it proved to be sulphuretted hydrogen gas. As

more adhesive at 0° thanat 45%, -Its refractive power
peared to be rather greater than that = Rajan be ‘Pocidedly

surpassed that of sulphurous’ ac’ e pressure of its vav
pour was nearly equal to seventeen atmospheres at the tem-
_“ The specific gravity of sulphuretied hydrogen appeared
ln oder weal & bay “rio chin shea 8 ace ie
“Carbonic. Acid.—The materials used in the produc:
carbonate

Condensation of Several Gases into Liquids. 335

= or ‘more powerful explosions.» ‘Tubes which have
held fluid carbonic acid well for two or three:weeks: togeth-
er, have upon | some increase in the warmth of the weather,
spontar ‘exploded with great violence ; “and the’ pre-
pst glass masks, eat cep &ce. which are at all times
ces. in pursuing these images fa pt conn riy'so
with satlonié ecia: e <7 latly ,
* Carbonic acid is a limpid, rautdber leis body pox a
fluid, and floating upon the other contents of the tube.’ It
distils readily and rapidly at the difference of temperature
between 32° and 0°. Its ‘refractive power ‘is’ much! less
than that of water. No disnutition of temperature’ to>which
I have been able to submit it, has altered its’ appearance.
In endeavouring to open the tubes at one end; they! have
uniformly burst into fragments with powerfulve i.
“Its vapour exerted a a pedscedtotth irty six’at res,
at a pint = eee of 32° fie dent te ,2tetitieg £8 Bet)
rine. Fluid inh iintatin was obtained by inclo-
sing anlersie of potash and sulphuric acid in a oho tm
leaving them to act on each other for twenty four
In that time there had been much action, the mixture’ ries
lofa dark reddish brown, and the atmosphere of a beeps yet
ow colour. ‘The mixture’ was then heated | on = 100°
and the unoccupied end of the tube eooled to 023) ey de
grees the mixture lost its dark colour, von ‘very fluid ethe-
real looking substance condensed.” “I ‘was’ not miscible

f aohiel be

it; but when returned on to the mass of salt and acid, it'was
gradually absorbed, Fendering t “ = of! a a ar
er colour even than itself.”

Euchlorine thus obtained is’ - every “Acid wansparent
substance, = a deep y ‘colour. A tube containing’a
portion 6f it in the clean end, was ‘opened at the ‘opposite
Grain. ; there was a dente re gre arts: _ ty

t ‘up the apertare ; whilst cleari :

pred ee ss ‘oid a violent biel se Seri rw

wine end ia in tr Reet where theeuchlorine’ pr
v bial , but the’ fluid had ee,
Ni Hay, ‘Oxide: —Some nitrate 0 (eiatone, igen

étid. “the Bile? being preserved ect. 4 By repeating the diss

856 Abstract of .Mr. Faraday’s Experiments on the

tllation, onee or twice in this way, it was found, on after-ex-
amination, that very little of the salt remained undecompo-
sed. 'The|process requires care. . I have had many explo-
sions occur with very strong tubes, and at considerable risk.
.{ When. the tube is cooled, - itis — to contain _
fluids, and a very com compressed atmosphere. The. hea
fluid, on examination, proved to be Sates: with a little seid
ope nitrous oxide in solution; the other was nitrous oxide.
t appearsin.a very liquid, limpid, colourless state ; and
50 volatile that.the warmth of the hand generally makes it
disappear in vapour. — application of ice and salt con-
denses abundance, oto the liquid’state again. . It boils
ee sie the differenee of temperature between, 50° and
| It does' not appear to have any tendency to solidify at
salons Lis refractive power is very much less than that of
water; and less than any fluid that has-been yet obtained in
these experiments, or than any known fluid. A tube being
opened: in, i air, ben nitrous oxide immediately burst into

va
» Rhe he pressure of it its s vapour is equal to above fifty atmos-
pheresiat 48° iin ¢
iat Si pure eyanuret of mercury was heated
was then inetosed in snap

id; notyappear to be very great; and npr hi wen ot
Lager showraess into the. state of vapour, pa

ed up wit with; event Shaan at one

, and.a-drop of water at the sciene: the fluid cyanoge?
=a epeogaes ineontact with, the Rupe vt sg iv
in} considerable ¢ quantity, w t, Bure;

but floated on. it,cbeing., lighter, though. apparently not S°
much, $o,as, ether a ‘In the course of some day sy syac-
tion had. taken, place, the water had become black, and
cliiages, ptohably stich as are _kngwn to take place in a"

Condensation of Several Gases into Liquids. 387

aqueous solution _ cyanogen, occurred. The pressure of
the vapour of cyanogen appeared to he 3.6 or 3.7 atmos-
pheres at 45° F abr. It specific gravity was nearly 0.9.

mmonia,—When dry chloride of silver is put inte
ammoniacal gas, as dry as it can be made, it absorbs a large
quantity of it: 100 grains condensing above 1/30 cubical
inches of the gas: but the compound thus formed is de-
composed by a temperature of 100° F., or upwards. A
portion of this compound was sealed up in a bent tube, and
heated in one leg, whilst the other was cvoled by ice or
water. The compound thus heated under pressure, fused
at a comparatively low temperature, and boiled up, giving
off ammoniacal ges, which condensed at the a end
into a liquid.

“Liquid ammonia thus obtained was colourless, trans-
parent, and very fluid. Its refractive power surpassed | that
of any other of the fluids described, and that also of water
itself. When the chloride of silver is allowed to cool. the
ammonia immediately returns to it, combining with it,
and producing the original compound. During this action
a curious combination of effects takes place; as the chlo-
ride absorbes the ammonia, heat is produced, the tempera-
ture rising up nearly to 100°; whilst a few inches off, at the

the evaporation of the fluid When the’ is retained
at the temperature of 60°, ihe ammonia boils ‘til it. ‘is a
pated and ae near The Das of the”

specific gravity was 0.76.

“ Muriatic Acid. —When ion from pure muriate of
ammonia and sulphuric acid liquid muriatic acid is ob-
tained colourless, as Sir Humphry Davy had anticipa-
ted. Its refractive power is greater than that - nitrous
oxide, but less than that of waler ; itis nearly. equal to that
of carbonic acid. The pressure of its vapour at vat the tem-
perature of 50°, is equal to about 40 atmospheres.”

“ Chlorine.—The refractive power of fluid chlorine is -
rather less than that of water,— — The pressure of it its vapour
at 60° is nea equal to 4 atm rs Ne

. Mr. say he made many y similar experiments ou
other gases, re ,, bat free he has not succeeded i in my pe

358 Prof. Dutton’s Conics and Spherics.

sing any others than those which we have mentioned, yet
there is reason to hope that he wi ultimately succeed
_ Some of a

Fe .
4

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.

f. Domesme.
1. bhi hes Gaslogicat mceays

Sinee the oe of the last notice the following do-
nations have n made to the Gm binet:, and ‘Library of
thin ntti, Viz.

Wm, Me Clure, Bea President a the Society.

6 oe of the Journal de Physique. i

6 Do. of the Revue et er

1 No, ana Journal of Physiology.

1 Do. Gre Grequomeh's observations on Raat

a 49‘ Traxeke io ry; 3 vols. Ato “ an Atlas.
aN Sadi ave of 5 pont

From Prof. Olmstead, 1 box of Yee

1 Do. from Hott. pene

oct. Emmons.
1 Do. from. Mare Delafield iMnatratipg, the Geology and
Mineralogy 0 of some ei of the shore of me seat Wes-
tla nal

ine m sy venti
b ty Tn. the. sal ou Treatise on Conics hag gf is
Rev se ale
“Col St

ea Phe Math. and Nat. Phil Ya

® +
me OD Reis « iy ney

Malis? i Ass |

Annalsof the New York Lyceum. 359

Dutton, that his work will.prove a valuable addition to the
department of learning to which it belongs. 4

3. Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts, conducted by
Drs. Webster and Ware, and Mr. D. Treadwell.

We owe an apology to the bdidaciate of this valuable
The four

9, Nickel 2.3. There is a very interesting account of
4” ascent to the extinct volcanic peak of Miste in Peru by
rt. §. Curson, late a resident in that country.

n much interested with the numbers already issued, and
we have no doubt that the future numbers of the Journ
will do much to promote the cause of Science inthis coun-
try, ie < erty

i)

4. Annals of the New-York Lyceum.

offer. Each number will be accompanied by one or more

Natural ey of our Country. The two numbers al-

360 Dr. Van Rensselaer on Salt.

proof of the attention the sciences are magna in this
country.

3. Griscom’s Journal.

Mr. Gawenn’s J nasil of iy year in Eeresei-w was nae
lished last September. We have read it with much inter-
est. It abounds in minute details, but they are generally
wellchosen.. The author appears to have accomplished
the great object he had in view, viz. to give a detailed ac-
count of his observations on the sciences and arts, the in-
stitutions of education and: benevolence, and the ot
tures of society in the countries he travelled over.

We have rarely seen so. much interesting information on
the above topics collected within the compass of a single
work. The whole bears the marks of an active and in-
quiring mind actuated by a pervading benevolence. . We
are not surprised at the zeal which Mr. G. exbibits in the

cause of general oupetty ae dar we recollect that he, was
himself self-taught, and o all. his public education to
the common ‘schools, aie goes such a peculiar feature
in the character of our country. ‘Those who are in search
ofa plain statement tement of interesting facts will not pegiens. A
pointed on a perusal of Mr. G’s volumes ; but w

romise the same treat to those who are pleased onty with
the delicacies of taste, or ae me L cxciae ees of politics-

J.G.P.

aah 8. Dr. Van Rensselaer on Salt.
“Ds. J. Van RENSSELAER has recently published an Es-
SAY ON Sar, read before the New York olga ; con-

the above topics, and ought indeed to form a text book to
net eats dual who engages in the search of this valuable

erve certain statements in 44 and 45 res-
ecting red sand stone, which we think may lead to error-
Van Rensselaer there says, that red sandstone may be

Dr. Van Rensellaer on Salt. 361

considered the peculiar repository of salt, and then alludes
to the lofty and detached columns of dark red sandstone,
found by Col. Long’s party at the foot ofthe Rocky Moun-
tains. as a member of the salt-formation.

He appears evidently to have confounded here, the old
red sandstone below the coal strata with the new red sand-
stone of red marl, which by the united testimony of Euro-
pean Geologists is the peculiar repository of salt and gyp-
sum. The order of super-position is very clearly laid
down by Dr. James in his narrative.—First, the old red
sandstone in highly inclined strata and steep ridges at the
foot of the rocky mountains—then an overlying mass of
grey sandstone or slaty clay connected with large bodies of
trapp, extending over a large district characterized by its
peculiar verdure—lastly, above this, the red friable sand-
stone, easily crumbling into sand and forming, when disin-
tegrated, the sandy covering of the deserts ; in which were
found large beds of gypsum and the numerous salines on
the Canadian and Arkansa. This new red sandstone ex-
tended across the deserts till it was overlaid by the hori-
zontal limestone. In the last number of the Geological

ransactions is an account of ajourney from Delhi to

mbay. This narrative discloses a similar arrangement
of rocks. The province of Agimere is occupied by a nu-
cleus of granite, gneiss, &c. Un the Eastern border of the
same, is an extensive tract of inclined quartzy sandstone
reaching from Delhi southward beyond Agra. West of the
nucleus is the extensive saline desert of Western India, con-
sisting of the new red sandstone or alternating horizontal
beds of rubbly sandstone, marl and clay. South o the nu-
cleus is one of the most extensive trapp formations in the
world. It extends over the greater part of Central India
from Malwa to Poonah and even Goa. It has this pecul-
iarity, that the trapp is not arranged in narrow ridges with
naked intervals of the subjacent sandstone, but is spread
like an uniform covering over the whole country e
Same peculiarity was observed, though in a less perfect de-
gree, in the trapp rocks at the foot of the rocky moun-
tains

Having visited the Western part of New York, and ob-
served the arrangement of the rocks in that interesting re-
gion, we have been led toconclude that they might be re-

Vor. VII.—No. 2. 46

362 New Work on Dying.

duced to a similar arrangement with the rocks of England
in the late work of Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips. The
upper rock is the horizontal limestone containing hornstone,
madrepores, branched corals, and numerous shells, partic-
ularly univalves. This we venture to suggest as belong-
ing to the great Oolite including the coral rag &c. Next
beneath it is a series of beds of clay and marl of various
colours, red, blue, &c. (perhaps the lias.) Lower down
isared friable sandstone containing the salt and gypsum
and nodular sulphate of barytes. Very fine sections of these
may be seen at Rochester and Lewiston, particularly the
latter, where the high banks exhibit a perfect display of all
the strata from the limestone down to the sandstone.
you cross the country ina line from Seneca Lake to the
Catskill Mountains—you find after leaving the limestone a
black horizontal argillaceous slate full of small bibalves.—
This slate forms the shores of Cayuga and Seneca Lakes.
Then advancing East to the head streams of the Susque-
hannah, you find a brown and yellow slate closely resemb-
ling the former.—As you go East, it turns red; till you
finally reach the sandstones of the Catskill Mountains.
East of that the country is evidently transition.—We have
considered the slates between the two small lakes and the
Catskill Mountains as belonging to the coal strata; east 0
which we find, among other rocks, limestone in inclined
strata, abounding in shells and hornstone, (perhaps the
Mountain Limestone.) Our principal object in these re-
marks is to fix the exact locality of the salt formation be-
tween the coal strata and the horizontal limestone, and to
ascertain the position of the latter rock in the European
order. We offer these remarks only as suggestions, and
we should be happy if they might aid any one in arriving
at more definite conclusions.
J. G. P.

7. New Work on Dying.

subject treated of. His remarks on the defects in our
woolen manufactures are interesting.

1. Dr. Brewster’s Memoirs. 363
II. Foreten..
1. Dr. Brewster’s Memoirs.

We have received from Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh, the
following Memoirs, which he had obligingly forwarded to
us, previously to their publication in Europe. should
have noticed them in our last number, had not ill health
prevented, (Ed.)

t. Description of a monochromatic Lamp, for microscopical
R. S. E

absorb the different portions of the prismatic spectrum.—
2. The influence of heat in modifying this absorbent pow-
er—and 3, the determination of the question, whether or
not yellow light has a separate and independent existence
tm the solar rays. This Dr. B. decides in the affirmative,
and moreover that the prism is incapable of decomposing
that part of the spectrum which it occupies.

2. Additional observations on the connection between the
Primitive forms of minerals and the number of their axes of
ouble refraction.—This is a continuation of a former pa-
per on the same subject. Since the publication of the
former paper the objections to his principle have been re-

364 1. Dr. Brewster’s Memoirs.

moved by correcting the primitive forms of the minerals
which then stood as exceptions,

The present paper is principally occupied by a compar-
‘ison of Haity’s Primitive forms with the fundamental forms
of Mohs and the Optical System of Dr. Brewster.

The following Table will exhibit the results of this com-
parison. ; cry

al Forms. cal System.

Haiiy’s Primitive ; Mohs’ Fundamen- Brewster’s Opti-
~ Forms. tal F S
Rhomboid
Reg. Hexahed.
iste homboidalSystem | Crystals wet

rism
Bipyramid. Dode- NE’ AXIS 0
‘ a Double Refrac-
ctohedron ? Base Wie y: tion.
Right Prism square Fyramidal System
Right Prism—Base :
not square | Crystals with
Oblique Prism —___ Prismatic System J two axes of
Octohedron-Base . Double Refrac-
a rectangle tion.
or rhomb.

Crystals with THREE
Cube ) rectangular axes 10
Reg. Octohedron \ Tessular Sys- } a state of equilib-
Rhomb. Dodeca- ? tem . rium and therefore

hed. producing no Doub
: le Refraction.

*

ted with great delicacy, and are all referable to the red,

o specimens
which exhibited the green rays. The crystals in almost
all Dr. B’s specimens are tesselated in a peculiar manners
not / rope or turned half way round or any determinate
portion of a circle, but polytrope, the principal sections #

~

1. Dr. Brewster’s Memoirs. 365

The Brazilian Topazes differ from the blue and colourlese
Topazes of Aberdeensh. and New-Holland in their opti-
cal properties. The resultant axis of the latter is about
65°, that of the former varies from 50° 5’ to 43°. The tints
of the former deviate more than those of the latter
from the colours of Newton’s scale and are produce

Topazes are generally phosphorescent on a _ heated
iron. The tesselated crystals exhibit it in a peculiar
manner. The light of the nucleus is less intense than
that of the border, sometimes it is entirely wanting.
Sometimes the greatest intensity is at the boundary of the
nucleus and the outer tessele. Many of the crystals con-
tain a white powder, resembling in its analysis, the zeolites.
Others contain a bright red substance in thin plates be-
tween the laminz and in long stripes parallel to the axis of
the prism. Its surface has a high metallic lustre and its
structure appears crystallized. Berzelius has analysed the
Brazilian Topaz and has found its composition exactly the
“same as in the other Topazes, except a little iron as col-
ouring matter. Dr. B. suspects an error in this analysis
from the great difference in optical properties, and he
quotes the authority of Mr. Gregor, who found it to contain
a portion of lime and potash. The white powder in some
of these T'opazes was found by Berzelius to consist of si-
lex, alumine, lime and water. Dr. B. thinks it may be
the topaz not crystallized.

4. Account of the native Hydrate of Magnesia, dicovered
by Dr. Hibbert of Shetland.—It was found (1817) in Unst,
traversing serpentine in all directions, | $
Carb. Lime, forming veins from ; in., to 8 in. broad.
Structure lamellar, colour white slightly tinged.with green
on the edges, transparent, opaque by exposure from disin-
tegration of the lamine, scratches talc; several specimens
crystallized in a reg. hexahed. prism. Spec. Gray. 2.336.
Composition, Magn. 69.75. water 30.25. It has one pos~
itive axis of double refraction perpendicular to the lam
ine.

366 Ores of Manganese.

[Articles of Foreign Literature and Science Extracted and Translated by
P iscom. |

rofessor Grisco

1. Ores of Manganese.—Berthier has analysed nine va-
rieties of the ores of Manganese, viz. three of the Peroxide,
one of the Hydrate, three of the Barytic variety, and two of
the silicate. The following table exhibits the results of this
able chemist. The Peroxide from Crettnich, near Saar-
bruck, is that which is abundantly used at Paris and in the
north of France. It is confusedly crystallized in needles.
The Peroxide from the isle of Timor, is amorphous, com-
pact, of a pure black grey, with a slight metallic lustre
and is intimately mixed with carbonate of lime. The Per-
oxide from Calveron is much of the same character. The
Hydrate is from Lavelline, department of Vosges ; it is
amorphous, cellular, of a deep metallic black, its powder
of a deep brown, its fracture commonly granular, and
sometimes lamellar. Its numerous cavities are filled with
argil and oxide of iron. —

The Barytic manganese forms a thick and extensive bank
at Romaniche, in the department of Saone et Loire. There
are two varieties called by the inhabitants grey stone and

stone. e former is much employed at Lyons and
in the south of France, and even at Paris. The other Ba-
rytic species, from Perigueux, has the same aspect as the
compact kind from Romaniche. — The silicate from Saint
Marcel, Piedmont, is of a greyish metalloidal black, com-
pact, with considerable kt It is penetrated with a
ella e, white and hard, the nature of
which is not known. The silicate from Pesillo, Piedmont,
is compact, of a slightly greyish black, but almost without
metallic lustre. It is intimately mixed with magnesian
carbonate of lime, white and crystalline, whence its frac-
ture is slightly lamellar, .

a
-g

Ores of Manganese.

: Barytic. Silicates.

Peroxide. Hydrate. = ————-*-- Sn
ae Nee CORomatnchee.— Perriguewx. St. Marcel. Pesillo.
- Crettnich. Timor. Calveron. Lavelline. Compact, Earthy.
Red oxide of Manganese, 0.823 0.750 0.640 0.762 0.688 to .703 .703 .641 650 842
Oxigene, §- - 0.115 0.090 0.087 0.055 O71 .072 .067 .075 - - 067
Water, - - - 0.012 0.010 0.011 0.078 .050 .040 .046 .070
Red oxide ofiron, - 0.010 0.020 0.010 0.055 .015 a .068 .012
Insoluble gangue, - 0,040 0.040 0012 - 026 020 .056 .100
Carbonate of lime, - = 0.090 0.240
Oxide of Copper, trace
Alumine, - - . - - - .0.050 - ~ - - - 0.30
Barytes, - - - - - - - - 150.165 .128 .046
Silica, ee se) OSB eS el Oe wen ogoly une
Lime, - - - - - - - - - : - - - 014
Magnesia, - — - - - - - - - - - - . 014
Peroxide of iron, 3 22) a ae - - og AB caer Mk UY ae oe 2 .028
Oxide of Cobalt, — - ~ - - - . - - - - . - - - 008

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.0001.0001.000 982. 1.013

368 M. Stromeyer’s Analyses.

2. M. Strromerer, a distinguished professor of Chemist-
ty at Gottingen, published about a year ago, the first vol-
ume of a work in which he intends to communicate in due
order the result of his researches. As the well known
ability and accuracy of M. Stromeyer, gives a high value to
his labours, we doubt not that it will afford satisfaction to
our mineralogical readers, if we state the analyses of the
principal substances which he has examined.

1, Arragonite—It will be recollected that M. Stromey-
er was the first who discovered the presence of Strontian in
this mineral, and thereby explained the singular anomaly
which it presented, considered as pure Carbonate of Lime.
Prismatic Arrogonite from Molina in Arragon, contains,
Carbonate of Lime 95.68, Carb. of Strontian 4.02, Wa-
ter of Crystallization 0.30=100. Nine of the Scapiform
varieties contain of Carb. of Lime, from 95.30 to $9.13,
Carb. of Strontian 0.72 to 4.10, Water 0.15 to 0.60.
Two of the fibrous varieties, (both from Bohemia,) Carb.
of Lime 98.76 and 99.29, Carb. of Strontian 1.02 an
0.51, Water 0.22 and 0.20,

2. Magnesite, hard, from Baumgarten in Silesia, Mag-
nesia 47.63, Oxide of Manganese 0.21, Carbonic Acid
50.75, Water 1.41=100.

3. Prcropharmacolite of Rugelsdorf in Hessia. This
mineral resembles in many of its properties pharmacolite,
(arseniate of lime,) but the magnesia which it contains
renders it remarkably distinct.

a

: =. oe
we es
Oxide of Cobalt, = - .. = 1.00
Arsenical Acid, - - - - 46.97
Water, - - - - =~ “@3.96

99.82

4. Fulpinite from Vulpino near Bergemi, called Bar-
glo Marble of Bergami. Vauquelin found it to consist

M. Stromeyer’s Analyses. 369
of 92 Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime and 8 of Silex. Ac-
cording to Sets ac it contains

“ = 41.41
Sulphuric Acid, S - - - 56.78
Oxide of Iro wee < a .03
Silex, - - - oe. ae .26
bg Beg OPE .94
99.14

5. ‘Stroutianite. o (Capoeite of Strontian.)

From near Strontian

RP nshore, ee
Carb. of Strontian, 96.24 - 93.51
Carb. of Lime, - - - £97 6.17
Carb. of Bagageia, - 0.13 0.10
Water, - + 0.07 0.08
98.71 99.86

6. Celestine (Sulphate of Strontian.)
Lamellar from

Suntel near

Munden

_Strontian, - + . . 55.18
Barytes, - - w: ogisd a) 86
Sulphuric Acid, . - - 42.74
xide of oe - - - - -04
Carb. of Lim - 02.
Bituminous substance and Water, - 05
ime, - mits ol
——

99.20

7. Phosphate of Iron of ——.

rotoxide of Iron, - - 42.23
Phosphoric a Ba ee ee
ater, = - : . 27.48
99.89

Vor. VIL.—No. 2. 47

370

8. Apophyllite.

M. Stromeyer’s Analyses.

Tyrol. Greenland
Silex, - - - 51.86 1.86
Lime, -— - . 25.20 25,22
Potash, - - a BA oe
Water, - . - 16.04 16.90

This mineral is rea
chloric aci It co
of Iron and Aisne ne.

98.24 99.29
dily attacked by concentrated hy dro-

ntains about half a hundredth of Oxide ~

9. Kieselspath of Chesterfield, ee,

* Mr Hausman eget this mineral in 1817

Silex, + 2 0.68
Alumine, - - - - - 19.80
oda, - - - . Ps 9.06
ime, - - - - - 0.23
Iron and Manganese, . f= 0.11

a base
10. Tafelspath (tabular spar) of Tschiklowa, in the Bat-
nat.
Silex, - - - - - 51.44
Lime, - - - - - 47.41
Oxide of Iron, - - . “ 40
Oxide of Manganet ee - 26
Water and Joss, - --.\* - .08
99.59
11. Hydrate of Magnesia of New J ersey, Ned a
Va
cea a - - Ye - “68.34.
re ater, _ a 29. - - 30.90
Oxide of Ine). £6. 2 - 0.12
lex, = . 2.0 - -
Oxide of Manganese, i 64
97.5

99 88
It is plain that this mineral is a species of Feldspath, with
Soda.

Society for the Encouragement of National Industry. 371

12. Spodumene from Utoe in Sweden.

Silex, - 63.29

Alumine, - - - - 28.78

Lithina, =- . . - og BBB

Black Oxide of Iron, - - 79
Oxide of Manganese, - - - 20

Water or loss, - - . . Bg
98.46

13. An Analysis of Taffelspath of Pargas, (Wollastor-
ite of Haiiy) by P. A. De Bonsdorf, gave
Si A typ Os el de ot

ilex, - ; 52.58
iia sie inti ik. ante Sk ae
Magnesia, OO ee 68
Oxidule of Iron, - - - 1.13
Alumine, a trace, Volatile parts, - . .99

99.93
The small portions of Magnesia and Oxidule of Tron, are
considered as foreign mixtures, and the mineral itself is re-
garded. as a bisilicate of Lime, hence its mineralogical
Formula willbe C.S?.

3.. The Society at Paris for the encouragement of Na-
tional industry held a general meeting on the 17th of April
1822. M. Chaptal; president, read_a discourse relative to
the object of the convocation. M. De Gerando, secretary
general, made a report upon the proceedings of the council
of administration during the past year. Besides the inven-
tions which have appeared worthy of the premiums which
were adjudged during the session, and of which an ac-

|
ed.
be immediately applied to watches of all kinds.—Janssens,
_ for various improvements on the clarinet.—Labbaye, for
his copper wind instruments, such as the ophicliede, the
french horn and the trumpet : this artist knows how to bend

d.—Larresche, for his reveil or alarm

372 Society for the Encouragement of National Industry.

tubes of brass without introducing lead.—Boucher, geo-
graphical engiveer, for a perspective instrument, and anoth-
er designed for trimming crayons for the use of. the panto-
h.—Clinchamp, for an instrument destined to form per;
spectives, and furnish several proofs upon paper.— Gam-
bert, for his admirable astronomical instruments, and _par-
ticularly his repeating theodolite, a master piece of work-
mansbip.—Lenoir, Coliardeau and Clouet, for their sliding
rules, and Hoyau for that which he imported from England
for determining chemical compounds.— Thomas, for an in-
genious system of wheel work which gives at sight the nu-
merical result of all sorts of caleulations, by simply drawing —
a cord which sets the mechanism in motion.—Laujosots,
Dumontel, and Gros d’Anisi for their potteries, remarka-
ble for elegance of form, and the enamel which adorns
them.—Garros and Bonnet, for their artificial Bitumen,
destined to improve the unwholesomeness of damp habita-
tions, and prevent the infiltration of water.—Arrago and
Fesxel, for their lamps with many wicks and a double cur-
rent of air designed for light houses. M. Dr. Geranvo
has justly praised in this report the steam engines of M.
Sauinier, and those of Casalis and Cordier of St. Quentin;
the machines of Risseler and Dickson for spinning; the
subterranean grannaries of Ternaux, and the methods of
Count Dejean for the preservation of grain; the memoir 0
Hericart de Thury upon steel; that of Valcourt on steam
engines; the collection of agricultural machines of Count
Lasteyrie and Le Blane. He has announced the com-
mencement of a work very important to the arts in France,
viz, a new Dictionary of Technology published by mem-
bers of this Society ; such a work is wanting in Europe-
The report terminates in noticing the experiments of Dar-
tigues on the extraction of Potash by the incineration of
divers plants; those of Despretz on the power of metals to
conduct beat : and the interesting operations of Bréant in
the fabrication of steel, who has succeeded in forming
blades of damascus equal to those of India: the process
will be rendered public in conformity to those prudential
neasures which the interests of French commerce render
From the accounts given of the financial situation of the
society, it appears that there are now near 900 subscribers;

.

4

46

Society for the Encouragemént of National Industry 373

and that the capital amounts to 237,258 francs independent-
ly of the legacy of the count and countess Jollivet, which
raises the funds to about 300,000 francs. M. De Gerando
pronounced an Eulogium on these two benefactors of in-
dustry, and shewed the advantages which this rich bequest
will naturally afford to the prosperity of the arts and manu-
factories of the nation.
The society then adjudged medals of encouragement to
e ingenious labours appear most worthy of this
honourable distinction. M, Mollard read a report upon the
superb establishment of M. Roguin at Garre, for preparing
and vending wood and stuff for carpentry, cabinet making,
c. This enterprise, managed upon the principles which
M. Brunel has established in England, works by the aid of
steam, in slitting fir and oak timber into boards fit for nice
work, and cutting them into grooves and strips suitable for
veneeringand inlaying. A Gold medal was adjudged to M.
Roguin.—M. Hericart de Thury made a stat toft ne
prosperity of the marble works of France, compared with
their present condition. He announced thatin 1821, France
drew from foreign countries 4 millions of Kilogrammes (4000
tons nearly) of marble, notwithstanding that that of its own
quarries is inno respect inferior to those of Greece and li-
aly. he mecting highly applauded a passage in which the
reporter revived the fact that M. Chapta/, during his minis-
try, introduced many portions of architecture, made of the

haif,
and at least as handsome as the Stanhope press. A silver

7 a Philosophibai Intelligence, 4c.

mon method.—Agreeably toa report of M. Sylves-
tre a silver medal was granted to Mad. Reine for her Leghorn
hats and the cultivation of the straw of which they are
made.—M. De Gerando reminded the society that M. Pra-
dier last year obtained the gold medal for his excellent
manufactory of Razors and of mother of pearl. An hon-
ourable mention was now again made to reward the suc-
cess of this fine enterprize, which now produces 9000 ra-
zors per month, and to which M. Pradier has added the fabri-
cation of table knives, penknives, metallic pens and seals with
changeable figures If this artist had not received the gold
medal last year, he would have been rewarded with it at
the present time.—Another honourable mention was made
in‘favour of M Vauchelet fo his painting on velvet

FRANCOEUR.

4. Philosophical Instrumenis.—In a report made by
, Franceeur to the société d’encouragement at Paris, on a new
theodolite made by Gambey, a distinguished artist, after
speaking inthe most favorable terms of the instruments,
adds, M. Gambey is not only an estimable artist,—bis
inventive powers place him in the list of Savans: he is the
author of a heliostat, conceived upon a new plan, and very
superior to that in common use; and also of a new com-
7 of declination, the precision of which is incredible. |
hese two instruments have been presented by the invent-
or to the academy of Sciences, and M. Arago, who W!
shortly report upon them, has spoken of them in terms of
great : ieee an opinion the more flattering, a5 '
comes from a_ philosopher who is known to be sparing ©
his praises. Baron de Zach, also, who seems to have
adopted the method of praising all foreign inventions at the
expense of our own, cannot refuse to acknowledge the dis-
tinguished merit of M. Gambey, and has ordered one of
his theodolites, This is a mark of respect which could
have been forced only by the belief that M. Gambey is the
ablest artist in Europe.

_. 5+ Astronomical obserwatory.—A new observatory has
ast been established at Bern in Switzerland, greatly to, the

the government, and of enlightened individuals in
that canton. It is erected upon the elevated plain of a

Astronomical Observatory. 375

bastion, at the N, W. extremity of the city ; and it enjoys
on all sides a clear and delightful horizon. Its isolated sit-
uation secures it from all agitation arising from the motion .
of wheels, and the ground, on which it stands, though
made, has had the consolidation of 200 years, and possess-
es sufficient firmness for the masonry, especially as it repo-
ses on a bed of sandstone. The observatory is a regular
octagon, 63 French feet in circumference. It is exactly
orienté ; its entrance is on the east, and opposite to it is a
niche, which includes a moveable stair case, and accommo-
dations for books. The - . N E., and NW
faces have large windows, before which, within, are stone
brackets, which have no communication with the building.
Two similar brackets are placed at each extremity of the
meridian. Each of these brackets as well as the two stone
columns which support the trunnions of the transit instru-
Ments, repose upon massive masonry,as does also the pedes-
tal of the clock. The upper demi-circumference of the meri-
dian, is exposed when the shutters are opened. The floor is
raised two feet above the outside level, so that the air may
pass freely under it.. The two floors are eleven feet apart,
and above is a wooden capula, so solid that very sensible
levels, placed upon brackets provided for them, remain
perfectly at rest during many series of delicate observations
of the heights of the sun or stars, taken with the circle of

rda. This observatory is already furnished,—Ist with a
transit instrument, by Ramsden, of three feet focus. Its
vertical movement is extremely easy. It is at rest in eve-
ry position, its axis passing through the center of gravity of
the system, its equilibrium is perfect. The meridional po-
sition of this telescope is verified by an object erected on
the Gourten, a mountain distant 12,000 feet, when it is
placed at an angle of 4°.23 with the horizon. 2d. The

376 Hydroxanthic Acid.

made by Schenk, an eminent artist at Bern, and a pupil of
Reichembach, worthy of that excellent master. This in-
strument is considered as a Chef d’ceuvre by several astron-
oters who saw it in 1821, among whom were Nicollet of
Paris, and J. F. W. Hersthel of London. 5th. A repeat-
ing theodoiite, by Reichembach, a foot in diameter, an ex-
cellent and beautiful instrument, perfected by Schenk, who
has given a double repetition by the addition of an entire
vertical circle. 6th. A 31 feet achromatic telescope, by
Dolland, with four powers, viz. 38.67, 100, and 150. 7th.
An equatorial instrument of English origin, but reconstruct-
ed by Schenk. - Lastly, Several smaller instruments intro-
duced rather for the instruction and use of amateurs,—an
object not foreign to such an establishment. Such are two
repeating theodolites by Schenk, of 7 and 8 inches, a neat
sextant by Carey, a tellurium, a beautiful armillary sphere,
as well as meteorological instruments, among which is a
very large and fine syphon barometer.
Bib. Univ. Sept. 1822.
The readers of this journal may ask each other with so-
licitude, when shall we see ae an establishment as this
in | any part of the United Stat
(says the ote Piofessor Pictet) the
meeting of the Helvetic Society should have offered us no
other object of interest, than a visit to this observatory, We
ould conceive ourselves amply paid for a journey of sixty
leagues. We regard thétime passed in this sanctuary of
astronomy among the most agreeable and profitable mor
ments that we have ever enjoyed. We feel ourselves pa
ticularly happy in belonging to a couutry favored by heav-
bod he w ot are manifest a noble emulation, 17
encouraging establishments, which have
for thety jet the progress of the arts and sciences. and
of useful and solid instruction. We have found in the.
government of Bern the principles and disposition with
which that of Geneva is animated.”

6. “Hydroxanthic Acid.—Professor W. C. Zeise, of the

“hepa dee has discovered that ed of
power of neutralizing potash or soda,

solved i m alcohol, although i it will not change turnsol, not

Calligraphy. 377

affect the same alcalies dissolved in water. This phenom-
enon. is owing to the formation of a particular acid by the
reaction of the carburet and alcohol, promoted by the al-
cali. ey ee teh :

The new acid contains sulphur, carbon, and hydrogene.
It is probable that the two first perform the same function
in this combination, that cyanogen does in the hydro-cya-
nie acid, and that they unite in a different proportion from
that in which they are combined in common carburet of
sulphur. Prof. Z. bas given the name of Xanthogene,
(from gavéos, yellow, and yewvaw,) to this compound radical,
because it forms combinations of a yellow color with some
of the meta!s ; and he has named the new compound, the
hydroxanthic acid. At commmon temperatures it has the
appearance of a colourless, translucid oil. It is heavier than
water, and does not combine with it. —

7. Calligraphy.—M. LeRoi has contrived a new and
very simple method for teaching the art of writings A thin
and perfectly transparent plate of horn, of the usual size of
a leaf of paper, has the polish removed from one of its
sides. When laid upon the copy the hand of a child easily
traces the letters upon the unpolished side, which neither
absorbs the ink nor allows it.to spread. _When the whole

late is written over, the ink is washed off with water, and
s ready for a new exercise. is the é which is
not liable to break, may serve indefinitely, and by this
means e a great economy of paper—a consideration
not to be neglected. Several analogous methods have
been adopted both in England and France. Oiled paper,
glass, a machine for guiding the pupil’s hand, &e., have
been used, but it is evident that the method of M. Rot
has none of their imperfections. The minister of the inte-
rior, who has witnessed the success obtained by this inven-
tion, has rewarded the author ; and the societies of encour-
agement, and of elementary instruction, as well asthe wrie
ting academy, have expressed their approbation of this new
process, Mothers may teach their children to write in the
absence of the master, or even dispense with his attendance
by the adoption of the horn.

Vou. VIL_—No, 2.

‘

378 Feeding of Engine Boilers, &c.

8. Feeding of Engine Boilers.—Thomas Hall, engine
man to the Glasgow Water Company, having remarked the
waste of fuel which occurred at those times when a steam
engine stopped working, as at night, &c., was induced to
alter his mode of feeding the boilers with water, with a view
to prevent as much of this waste as possible. Instead of
letting in a continual supply of water, equal to the portion
converted into vapor, he took every opportunity, when the
engine was stopped for a sufficient time, (30 or 40 minutes,)
as at meal time, night, &c., of introducing water into the
boiler to as much as 18 inches above its usual level, and it
was continued to this higher level as long as the engine was

rk bor was resumed, there was the

an abundant supply of hot water in the boiler, the steam
was ready, and no increase of fire to heat freshly introduced
water, required. The saving which arose from this mode
of management was 25 per cent. of the fuel. The appara-
tus for feeding the boiler in this manner with accuracy, and -
without trouble, is very ingenious, and is described in the
Trans. Soc. Arts, xl. 127.

9. Preservation of grain. &c., from mice.—Mr. Macdo-
nald, of pa, in the Hebrides, having some years ag
suffered considerably by mice ; put at the bottom, near the
centre, and at the top, of each stack, or mow, as it was
raised, three or four stalks of wild mint, with the leaves on,
gathered near a brook, in a neighboring field, and never 4
ter had any of his grain consumed. He then tried the same
experiments with his cheese, and other articles kept 9
store, and often injured* by mice; and with equal success,
by laying a few leaves, green or dry, on the article to be
preserved.—Phil, Mag.

10. Yeast.—The following methods for making yeast for
nd of good

a pound of mashed potatoes, (mealy ones are best,) add two
ounces of brown sugar, and two spoonfuls of common

poo
yeast, the potatoes first to be pulped through a cullender,

Paste.—Soldering Sheet Iron. 379

and mixed with warm water to a proper consistence. A
pound of potatoes will make a quart of good yeast. Keep
it moderately warm by fermenting. This recipe is in sub-
stance from Dr. Hunter, who observes that yeast so made
will keep well. No sugar is used by bakers when adding
the pulp of potatoes to their rising.— Yorkshire Gazette.

11. Paste-—Dr. McCulloch, in a paper on the power of
i ting mouldiness, gives the following di-
rections for the preparation of a paste, which, as it will keep

12. Soldering Sheet Jron.—Sheet iron may be soldered by
means of filings of soft cast iron applied with borax depri-
ved of its water of crystallization and sal ammoniac. Tubes
of sheet iron have been constructed at Birmingham lately

means of a process of this kind, which according to Mr.
Berkins and Mr. Gill is to be practised in the following
manner :—Tbe borax is to be dried in a crucible, not till
it fuses, but till it forms a white crust; then powdered, and
mixed with the iron filings: the joint is to be made bright,
and moistened with a solution of the sal ammoniac ; then:
e mixture is to be made into a thick paste with water;
and placed along the ee of the a and the whole
till the cast iron fuses.
PRET Tech. Rep. U1. 118.

‘

380 Plumbago in Coal-Gas Retorts, Se.

13. Plumbago in coal-gas Retorts.—The following de-
scription of an artificial plumbago, is by the Rev. J. J. Co-
nybeare ; he is speaking of the retorts in the Bath. gas-
works. The unserviceable retorts, on being withdrawn
from their beds, are found lined with a coating of plumba-
g0 averaging the thickness of four inches. . This coating is
thickest towards the bottom of the retort. The yeneral
aspect of the predominant variety may be thus described :
colour, iron-grey, somewhat lighter than that of native plum-
bago ; texture ataly-s ; structure mammeillated, usually in ve-
ry. close a aggregation—some specimens exhibit this structure
on the large scale, but, generally it requires the lens, to. be

seen ; hardness variable, but. always greater than the
native plumbago—scratches gypsum, but is scratched, by
calc. spar; dusire of the fracture sieaiie but small ; lustre of
the exterior. surface sometimes very considerable, ; the
ewder uniformly resembles that of common plumbago,
t is somewhat less brilliant. The quantity of iron in. it
seldom appeared to amount to 9 percent. It is hardly fit
for the finer purposes of art, but it is proposed to use it in
diminishing friction, in ibn sencibler furnaces, &c.

Phil. Ve, Rs *

rs Analysis oe Uemvacaih pa has lately reanaly-
zed this mineral and very unexpectedly finds it to contain
phosphoric acid ; a to bea net < A ApCGmRCE
from Cornwall gav:

Silicia . gan ‘ mete aad

oe hosphoric.acid,, 5.02... =. 4.49 «+..1600
, Oxide of Uranium, - ... -). - _,,60«
_. Oxide of Conpet, hestvaselttsecetn td Pacael ae
ater,....:; + Soult deek chert
: tT 100. °
re emp the Silicia, ,
: eee hate of cone Be aneed ori S
te . - hs =. -. eee
wre thE PRR oi

: - 14.5
Ann. Phil. v. 59-

Leipsic Fair, &e. 381

15. Leipsic Fair.—The catalogue of the late Easter Fair
(1823) at Leipsic, contains the titles of 2957 new works,
which have appeared since the September fair 1822! Of
this vast progeny of continental intellect, 190 are Roman-
ces, 484 on theological subjects, 136 on jurisprudence,

*155 on medicine, 398 on education, 184 on. belles lettres,
#50 on history, 137 on natural sciences, 378 poetry and
literature, 215 on politics, 159 periodical works, 30 on

ilosephy, 32 on the military art, 95 arein the French

language, 62 in Danish, 58 in Polonese, &c.
works in foreign languages, many have been sent by the
publishers in France, Poland &c. Of these 2957 works,
exhibited at the last fair, 214 were written by princes,
counts and other nobles, and 24 of the authors were females.

O 354 booksellers who sent their works to this fair,
8 have titles of nobility.. In Germany there is nothing in
the business of a bookseller which is derogatory to rank.

' 93 Rev. Ency.

16. SwirzERLanp.—The Society for the encouragement
of Agriculture, Industry and ihe arts, established at Sé.
Gall, has celebrated its third anniversary. The reports of
the past year, read by the president Doctor Steinmuller,
has just been printed. It occupies 75 pages in 8vo. and com-
prehends a great variety of objects which attest the useful
activity of the society, whose labours extend to all the
branches of rural economy. The society appears to have
had particularly in view during the last year, the per-
fecting of all the arts which relate to the care and man-

vantages which the cause of science and civilization, may

derive from the labours of societies, established upon lib-

eral and philanthropic principles, and the great utility

which such societies have already been of, to S nd.
BIG 4 Rev. Ency.

17. The Canton of Argow, is perhaps, of all the Swiss
Cantons that which enjoys the greatest share of liberty, in-
sdustry, ease and general extension of knowledge. This
canton has now 312 primary schools, (exclusive of those

382 Elementary Instruction, &c.

which exist in manufactories,) four secondary schools or
colleges, in the towns of Arau, Brugg, Lensbourg and Zof-
fingen ; two other schools of the second degree in the
Catholic towns of Rheinfield and Baden; a superior or
cantonal school, in Arau, in which the history of Argow,
read with interest and enthusiasm, excites in the minds of*
its young citizens the 4mor patrie ; a normal school for
forming teachers, one public, and various private schools
for females; and a school for the deaf and dumb, In
the town of Arau are three societies for public good, viz.
ne for patriotic culture, divided into sections for the dif-
ferent branches of agricultural and manufacturing ‘ndus-
- trys One for the assistance of poor children, and, a read-
ing society, which:has also the care of the cantonal library.
our periodical papers are published in the same town.
One of them, in German, the Swiss Messenger, had, afew
years since, more than five thousand subscribers. | The in-
habitants of Arau, celebrate in the month of August every
year, la Féte de la jeunesse. The houses and the streets, on
this occasion, are ornamented with garlands of verdure and
flowers ; and after a solemn religious ceremony, and a ser-
mon, the evolutions of the corps of cadets, and various gym
nastic ises place, in which young people between
the age of eight and eighteen, are engaged, presenting 3
very animated spectacle, and attracting crowds of obser-
vers. To this succeeds a banquet in the open air, in.
which the children of all the schools, instructors, members
of the government, and principal inhabitants take a nate
These joyful repasts are sometimes followed by the flight
a , Ora hymn sung in concert, and the fete !s
terminated by a rural dance.

18. Brussers.—Elementary Instruction. —The King by
two ordinances of the 17th off May, and 2d-July, 1823 bas
granted to the Society established a' Brussels for the encour-
agement of mutual instruction, a convenient spot of gro

for a building destined for a school of both sexes; and bas
added to this grant a donation of 12000 florins from his
own purse. The edifice is,designed to accommodate about

‘ 19. University of Leyde en.—M.. Reinwardt, whose te
turn from Batavia was expected with so much impatience,

Public lustruction. 383

and who notwithstanding the successive losses of his remit-
tances, in natural history and antiquity, collected in India,
has not failed to enrich his country with many very curious
things, took possession of his chair as professor of Physics
and natural history at Leyden on the 3d of May last, by a
discourse; De augmentis, que historie naturali ex India in-
vestigatione accesserunt. He fills the place vacated by the

eath of the celebrated professor Brugmans. Professor
Siegenbeck has celebrated this academical solemnity by a
piece of latin verse in which the success of an ‘illustrious
and more fortunate traveller is finely distinguished.
ic, meliore usus fortuna, Humboldius, ille
Inclyta Germani gloria lausque soli,
Ventorum sprevit rabiem, et graviora pericla,

ries inum que subiunda dabat,

Et, nubes superans nunc, mox in Viscera terre
Descendens, late qua patet orbis, opes,
Quas habet immensas rerum natura, stupenti
Intulit Europe, nomen ad astra ferens.

20. Public Instruction.—Method of J. J. Ordinaire.—T he
unequivocal success which has attended the method of
teaching latin, invented by Ordinaire, Rector of the Acade-
my of ancon, authorizes us to remind our readers,
that since the publication of this method in January 1821
we have directed their attention to the importance and the
happy results.of the applications which it has successively
received. 3

The theoretic principles upon which it is founded, had
obtained the unanimous approbation of the members of a
special commission, to whose ju nt the work had been
submitted by the royal council. This commission composed
of inspectors-general, and professors of great learning and
experience, terminated its report by proposing that a large
school should be established in Paris for the purpose of ap-
plying the system under the direction of the inventor him-
self. Various circumstances have delayed the execution
of this project. M. Ordinaire deeply convinced of the rec-
titude of his principles, and entertaining no doubt of the
success of their application, of which he had made such
rigorous trials, commenced on the first of June 1821, the
application of his method at Paris in the fine establishment
of M. Morin in Rue Louis le Grand. The superiority of

384 Public Instruction.

the results of this trial was verified on the 28th of Septem-
ber 1822 by the inspectors of the Academy of Paris, who
in conformity to the special desire of the Rector. gave it
the most scrupulous and severe examination. They de-
clared in their report, that the pupils knew and could em-
ploy, without having recourse to the dictionary, about 7000
latin words ; that the whole system of latin terminations,
comprising the nouns of number and invariable words, were
completely familiar to them ; that they knew and could re-
uce methodically all the fundamental rules of Syntax ;
that they could translate with exactness, not only the Epi-
rus, and Cornelius Nepos, entirely, as well as one
third of Quintus Curtius, but also from the French version
of these different authors, they could re-produce the latin
texts with surprising sagacity, making with equal facility and
precision, the grammatical and syntactical analysis of these
S.
The first part of the method of M. Ordinaire compre-
hends three sections. 1st. Preparatory exercises on the
radical and latin terminations necessary to enable the pu-
pil to comprehend and to translate the. classic authors.
ercises in translation accompanied with grammatical
analyses, together with the recomposition of the latin texts)
without which the pupils acquire with great difficulty Just
notions of the character and genius of the latin language-
3d. Exercises in themes which can only be useful, when by
the preceding exercises the scholar has obtained a sufficient
share of preliminary knowledge to render his composition
effective.

At the examination on the 16th June last, at which the
Rector of the Academy of Paris presided, the more ad-
vanced pupils whose period of study, deducting all vaca-
tions, was 16 months, not only translated with correctness
and rapidity, difficult latin texts upon which they had n°
preparation, but they turned into latin almost without the
help of a dictionary, and with as much correctness a5 intel-
igence, French texts which required a thorough know
edge of all the rules of Syntax. ‘The rector and examiners,
among whom was the learned M. Burnouf, expressed the

’ satisfaction with the results of this investigatioa-
They were not less struck with the uniformity of the knowl-
acquired by the numerous pupils whom they interro~
gated, than with the cheerfulness and pleasure which the

Sulphate of Rhubarb. 385

Rev, Enc. Aug. 1823.

21. Sulphate of Rhubarb.—A preparation has been ob-
tained by A. Nani, a Chemist of Milan which he con-

-

by two drams ofacid. |
The decoction, filtered, pressed and dried, weighed on-
ly two oz. having lost 4 oz. which remained dissolved in
the filtered liquor. 4
To the united decoctions, I added, when cool, in small
successive portions, three ouncesof quick lime, recently
pulverized, stirring the mixture frequently with a wooden
rod, to promote the reciprocal action of the materials.
* The decoction was of a fine yellow.; and by the addition
of lime it passed to blood red, communicating the same
colour to the walnut stick. After one day’s repose, I fil-
tered off the precipitate and dried it in the sun. It weigh-
ed six ounces. 1 then added to it four pounds of alcohol
at 36° and digested it two hours at an elevated tempera-
ture. The whole wasagain filtered and the residuum sub-

Uniting the two portions I filtered it through paper, and

_ distilled it from a retort until about 5 lbs. of alcohol

passed over. fluid in the retort was then evapo-
Vor. VII.—No. 2. a:

386 Schweinfurt Green.

rated in acapsule to dryness. This residuum weighed
two drams. It was ofa brownish red, intermingled with
brilliant specks, and had a pungent and styptic taste. _ It
was soluble in water, and its odour was that of native
Rhubarb. :

] presume that this preparation will be useful in medi-
cine, and will deserve the attention of physicians. Ist, be-
. cause the different kinds of Rhubarb have qualities so va-
rious, that in.many cases the ordinary dose is very uncer-
tain. 2d. because this extract will be of uniform strength

herever th p is followed. 3d. because it may be
given very safely in solution even to new born infants te
evacuate the meconium, one or two grains will be sufli-
cient for this purpose. 4th, because the remedy is thus de-
prived of its ligneous and mucous portions, which if not in-
jurious, are at least useless.
. Ishall esteem myself happy if the process which J have
thus pointed out, shall furnish a new resource to the heal-
ing art; and if those of my brethren who have its progress
at heart, shall concur with me in introducing this prepara-
tion into the practice of physic.

Bib. Univ. July, 1823.

_ 22. Schweinfurt Green.—Dr. Liebig, in the Annales de
Chimie of August 1823, states that the preparation of this
fine colour, as recommended by Braconnot, being tedious
and expensive, the following is much preferable. ;

~ Dissolve in a copper kettle by heat, one part of verdi-
gris in a sufficient quantity of pure vinegar, and add to
it an aqueous solution of one part of white arsenic; a precip-
itate of dirty green generally esha, which must be dispelled
by ae more vinegar untilthe precipitate is perfectly dis-
solved.

Boil the mixture, and after a time, a granular precipitate
will form, of the most beautiful green, which being separa
ted from the liquid, well washed and dried, is nothing more
oor less than the colour sought for. If after this, the liquor
contains copper, more arsenic may be added; and if it con-
tains an excess of arsenic, more’ copper may be, added, and
the pro ated. It often happens that the liquid con-.
tains an excess of acetic acid. It may then be employed

jor dissolving more verdigris.

A New and Curious variety of Combustion. 387

The colour thus prepared, possesses a bluish shade; but
the arts often call for a deeper shade, somewhat yellowisb,
but of the same beauty and elegance. T'o effectthis change
it is only necessary to dissolve a pound of common potash,
in a sufficient quantity of water, and add to it ten’ pounds
of the colour prepared as above, and warm the whole over a
moderate fire. The mass soon deepens and acquires the
requisite shade. Iftoo long boiled, the colour approaches
to Scheele’s green, but always surpasses it in beauty and
splendour. ‘The alcaline fluid which remains may be used
in the preparation of Scheele’s green.

covered in it, various earthy muriates, and a little oxide of
iron. At length Angelini, an Apothecary at Voghera, by
employing starch asa reagent, obtained the blue colour
which indicates Iodine, and he succeeded in presence of Dr.
Ricotti and Luc. Barenghi, in extracting a certain quantity
of this substance bythe process which is followed in procur-
ing it from the mother waters of salt petre.

It is remarkable that for a long time, the mineral waters
of Sales have been successfully employed in scrophulous
affections, and especially in the dispersion of Goitres.”

24,.—A new and curious variety of combustion.—Doberei-
ner, professor at the university 0 Jenaa, has discovered
that Platina, in a spongiform state, occasions, at common
temperatures, the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, and
that so much heat is developed from its action as to render
the metal incandescent.

placed in a stream of hydrogen gas, at the distance from the
orifice in which it mingles with the atmospheric air. In

388 4 New and Curious variety of Combustion.

plunging a piece of this spongein a mixture of two parts
hydrogen and one oxygen, explosion of course ensues; but
if the proportions of the mixture be very different from that
which forms water, or if a gas, foreign to the combination,
be present, such as azote, the combination takes place slow-
ly, the temperature rises a little, and water is soon conden-
sed upon the glass.

Platina sponge strongly calcined, loses the property of be-
coming incandescent, but in this case it produces slowly and
without any sensible elevation of temperature, the combina-
tion of the two gases. Platina reduced to fine powder, has
no action at common temperatures, nor has it in the form of
wire or plates. But the French chemists, state, that
when reduced to leaves as thin as the metal will admit,
it acts at common temperature, and acts upon the mixed
gases, with a rapidity proportionate to its. thinness, in
some instances causing detonation. But one thing is re-
markable, viz, that a very thin leaf of platina, rolled upon a
glass cylinder, or suspended freely in a detonating mixture,
produces no sensible effect, though exposed during several
days; but the same leaf compressed into a wad, acts instant-
ly, and produces detonation. _

eaves and wire too thick to produce any action,
when cold, will nevertheless, as Sir H. Davy had_ before
determined, act at the temperature of 2 to 300°, according
to their thickness. Palladiumacts as well as Platina at
the same temperature, and thickness. Rhodium occasion-
ed the formation of water at 240°

Gold and Silver in thin leaves act only at elevated a

-
.
-_

It is well known that iron, copper, gold, silver and plati-
na have the property of decomposing ammonia at a certain

cient than copper, an copper more than silver, gold or pla-

A New and Curious variety of Combustion. ~389

tina, with an equality of surface. Ten grammes of iron wire
_ issufficient to decompose, within a few hundredths, a pretty
rapid current of ammoniacal gas, kept up during eight or ten
hours, without the temperature passing the limit at which
the ammonia resists decomposition. Three times the quan-
tity of platina wire produces far less effect, even at a high-
er heat. .

These remarkable results depend, perhaps, on the same
causes as those which occasion gold and silver to effect the
combination of oxygen and hydrogen at 300°, platina in
mass at 270°, and platina in sponge at common tempera-
tures. Now, if it is observed, that iron which decomposes
ammonia so readily, effects with somuch difficulty the union

nia, we are induced to believe that among the gases,
some tend to unite under the influence of metals, while oth-
ers tend to separate, and that this property varies aceerding
to the nature of each. ‘Those of the metals which produc
one of these effects produce the other only in a very small
degree. Ann, de Chimie, Jug. 1823. -

In the original paper of Dobereiner, (translated.in Til-
loch’s Mag. for Octob.) he remarks, “* What useful applica-
tions of this discovery may be made in Oxymetry, the syn-
thesis of water, &c. I shall hereafter state more cireum-
stantially. I shall at present merely observe, that the en-
tire phenomenon must be considered as an electric one,
that the hydrogén and platinum form a Voltaic combina-
tion, in which the former represents the Zinc ;—the first es-
tablished instance of an electric alternation formed by an
elastic fluid, and a solid substance, the application of which ~
will lead to further discoveries.’ is

In another letter, dated Aug. 3d, 1823, he says, “ If hy-
drogen gas be suffered to issue from a Gazometer through a
Capillary tube bent downwards, upon the platinum con-
tained in a small glass funnel, sealed at the bottom, so that
the stream may mix with the atmospheric air before it comes
in contact with the platinum, which is effected when the
tube is from 1 to 11 or 2 inches distant from the platinum,
the latter becomes almost instantly red, and white hot, and
remains so, as long as the hydrogen continues to flow

390 Cleavelandite.

upon it. If the stream of the gas be strong it becomes in-
flamed, particularly if it has already been mixed in the reser-
voir with some atmospheric air. The experiment is very
surprising, and astonishes every beholder, when he is in-
formed, that it is the result of the dynamic reaction of two
species of matter, one of which is the lightest, and the other
the most ponderous of all known bodies. I have already
applied this new discovery to the formation of a new appa-
ratus for procuring fire, andof anew lamp; and f shall
avail myself of it for much more important purposes.”

The platina sponge alluded to, is obtained by heating the
muriate of ammonia and platina.

25. Cutting of Steel by soft iron.—This useful fact sta-
ted by Mr. Barnes of Cornwall, Con. in Vol. VI, p. 336 of
this Journal, has been verified by our countryman, Jacob
Perkins, in London. A piece of a large hard file was cut
by him into deep notches at the end, where also, from the
heat produced by friction, it had softened and been thrown
out like a burr. On the other part of the file, where the
‘plate had been applied against its flat face, the teeth were
remo i any sensible elevation of the temperature of
the metal. The plate which had previously been made
true, was not reduced either in size or weight during the ex-
periment, but it had, according to Mr. Perkins, acquired an
exceeding hard surface at the cutting part.

Jour. of Science.

26. Cleavelandite—From the examination Mr. Levy
has recently made in Mr. Turner’s collection, it appears that
_ half the specimens which have hitherto been ranked under
_ feldspar, belong to the species which had been called Al-

bite, and has recently received the name of Cleavelandite,
from Mr. Brooke. —

It is rather curious that the crystallographical difference
between this last substance and feldspar, should have been
detected upon specimens laminated, but not regularly crys~
tallized, and that the many crystals it presents should not
have been noticed. The varieties of form of Cleaveland-
ite are, however, at least as numerous as those of feldspar ;
the crystals are very distinct, of various sizes, but rather
large than small; they are very frequently marked parallel

Chinese process for making Sheet Lead. 391

to one of the primitive planes, viz. that which is the least
easy to obtain by cleavage. Several of the forms greatly
resemble some of the varieties of feldspar, being composed
of the same number of planes disposed in the same manner,
and it is only by using the Goniometer that the difference
can be perceived. Notwithstanding this great anology, Mr.
Levy believes that the forms of the two substances are in-
compatible. He considers the primitive of feldspar to be
an oblique rhombic prism, and not a doubly oblique prism,
as ithad been supposed by Haity, and he takes for the prim-
itive of Cleavelandite a doubly oblique prism. The crys-
tals of Cleavelandite are generally white, sometimes yellow-
ish and reddish. They are transparent, sometimes translu-

defined crystals. The localities of Cleavelandite are very
numerous, and this substance seems likely to become one of
the most important both in mineralogy and geology. All
the rocks of which feldspar is considered as a component
part, must be re-examined to separate those which really
contain feldspar, from those which contain Cleavelandite.

he localities derived from Mr. Turner’s collection are the
following : Daupbiny, St. Gotbard, Tyrol, Piedmont, Bave-
no, Elba, Vesuvius, Saxony, Sweden, Norway, Siberia,
Greenland, United States, and Rio Janeiro.

An. Philos. Nov. 1823.

27. Chinese process for making sheet lead.—The reduc-
tion of lead into thin sheets, is done by two workmen, one
seated on the ground, having before him a large flat stone,
very smooth, and holding in his hand another flat stone, a
kind of muller; along side is a furnace in which is placed a
crucible filled with lead. A second workman pours upon
the stone, a quantity proportioned to the size and thickness
of the intended sheet, and the other pressing his muller for-
cibly upon it, produces a leaf which is very thin, and of an
equal thickness throughout. It is immediately removed and
the operation repeated with extraordinary rapidity. hen
& certain number of sheets are obtained, they trim the bor-
ders which are always ragged, and tie them together.

+
392 Hydrogen gas apparatus.

M. Wadell, who has seen this process practised in Chi-
na, has applied it successfully to the preparation of zinc
plates for galvanic apparatus.

: Bul. de la Soc. d’encour.

- 98. Willis? Jute.—To prevent the materials contained in
earthen crucibles and retorts from penetrating through
their substance, the author prepares a lute composed
of two ounces of Borax dissclved in a pint of boiling wa-
ter, to which is added slacked lime in sufficient quantity to
form a soft paste. This lute applied to the vessel by a
brush within and without (if a crucible) vitrifies_ very
speedily, and prevents the penetration of the melted in-
gredients, but it cannot prevent the fracture of the vessel.
To accomplish this second object, the inventor covers re-
torts with a lute composed of linseed oil and slacked lime.
This is applied by a brush to retorts, and left to dry during
a day or two. It can be taken every time a retort is char-

ed to cover it with this lute, it may be used four or five.
times without breaking. Cracks may be effectually stop-
ped by the same composition, only powdering the surface
with a little slacked lime. This may be done without risk
even when the retort is very hot.

39. Hydrogen gas apparatus.—An instrument much
used in Germany and Russia, resembles the bottle of Gay
Lussac, except that the zinc is not suspended from the top,
but supported from the bottom on a tripod of lead, which
is not attacked by the sulpburic acid. When the stoppet
is opened, the gas escapes, the acid ascends and covers

e zinc and the action is renewed; but as soon as the
acid touches the zinc, the lead which before produced no
change, furnishes on all sides a great quantity of little bub-
bles of gas, and more copiously than the zinc itself. This
resulis evidently from the galvanic action arising from the
contact of the zinc and lead; but what is the most surpri-
sing is the prodigious. effect of this pile of a single element,
compared with the weak effect of ordinary piles.

~ Journal des mines.

30. Method of discovering very small quantities of mer
cury.—All the oxides and saline compounds of mercury,
placed upon gold in a drop of muriatic acid with a piece

Miscellaneous Notices. 393

of tin, promptly produces an amalgam of gold. A particle
of corrosive sublimate, or a single drop of its solution may
thus be tested. In this case the addition of muriatic acid
is not necessary.

Samuel Parkes, Esq. a L. S. &c. of London, has re-
ceived the honorary degree of a sk of Arts, from. the
President and Fellows of "Yale College.

Professor Buckland of the University of Oxford, and Dr.
J. Wright and Dr. J. I. Bigsby of the Medical Depart-
ment of the British Army in Canada, have been elected
honorary members of the American Geological Bevtety-

N. B. The Title of Art. III. should have been; « Noti-

ces of the Geology of Martha’s Vineyard and the Eliza-
sh egg by Rev. E. Hitchcock, A. M. Conway,
Mas

Vou. VH.—No. 2. 50

AcaTeE, p. 49, 52
Alabama, notice of plants from, 61
Alcohol, improved yore by, 110
Algebraic Series, new, 2
Alkali, flowers Hf the laine a test of, 194
Alluvial, 209,
Alum crystals, satin of coloring, 194
Amethyst
Amherst fatale geological position of, 21
_ Ammonia, condensation of, 357
Analysis of the Brine springs of N. York, results of, 344
——— of the ores of Manganese, 3
of Pyroxene from Sparta, N. J., 145
of Uranite, 380
Analyses, Pabied ba s, 368
Ancient Lakes,
Animal heat, too.
Annals of N. York Lyceum, 359
Anthracite, remarks on rocks accompanying, 260
Antigua Celtic, of America, 149
ent, Tabular, of the rock formations of the ier cl

4
Argow w, Canton of, 38
Argentine, additional bbiiee of, 248
Atripsic curves,
Augite White, 30

B.

s, D. H., Mr., Description of five species ee 69
chow Falls,

Berthier, Analysis of the ores of Mangane e, 366

Berzelius, letter on the Carlsbad waters re Orasionn, 185
Beudant’s Travels i ig Hungary, observations on, 256

Black Mountain, 1

Blake, E. W., on a6 form of the teeth of cog-wheels, 86
Blow | pipe, improved by Alcohol, 110

396 INDEX.

Boston Journal of Philosophy and the — 359

Brard, Mineralogie appliquée aux arts,

Brewster, Dr., new fluid in the éavities ig certain minerals, 186
—_———_——-,, description of a Monochromatic lam
———_———-, on the connexion. between the primitive forms of
crystals, ag a number of their axes of double refraction,
363

—_—___——, on the optical properties of the Brazilian To-
paz, 364

— ot = io native magnesia of Shetland, 365—

ri

Brine 8 ab of ew York, — examination of, 345
sults of the analysis of, 344

Brougniart, Ad., sur Tes Fegtiank foal: analysis of, 178

Broset elementary Instruction in, 382

Bulkley, R., furnace for ventilating sewers, 177

Cc.

Calcaire — 38

Calcarious spar, 47

90
Canals, navigable, second memoir on, 288
Ca sbonic acid, condensation of, 354
Caricography, 264
— irlsbad waters, te
allic, improvement in, 190
——- "of America, Essay on, 149
Chalcedony, 4
— G:, eaaea examination of the Brine springs in N.
, 345—Description of an improved Rain Gage, 326—
Remarks on the Analysis of the Brine Springs in New-York.

anes Fir ra

P for making sheet lead, 391

Chiton, Description of five speéies of, 69

Chlorine, condensation of, 357

eas s, Society of, i in Paris, 189

Circles of memorial, 155

Cees B.., a9 yihe navigation of rapids, 175

Chereli, Pr Prof — notice of the late meteor in Maine, ive
te,

ct

——~, on the cutting of steel by soft iron, 342

INDEX. 307

Coal Gas retorts, Plumbago in ase

Cog wheels, on the form of the pot 686 j

Con mbustion, new and curious variety o'

Compression of water, instrument for measuring, 195

Condensation of Gases, 352

Congelation of Mercury, 1

Conics and Spherics, Prof. Dutton’s, 358 10°

Connecticut, tit Sh and Mineralogy of the,

arrangement of the nae of the, 24.

Contagion and tnfection, 19

Conybeare and Phillips, Outlines ot the Geology of England and
ales, review of, 203

Copper of Lake Superior, 43

Crank Moti agape on, 316
Creuzot, + ates of, 3

Cc ec io

ples! © agi

Cutbush, J. Localities sof minerals at — Sa

———_—_——,, Remarks on the pmpeeine and SE of
the Chinese and Brilliant Fires,

€yanogen, condensation of, 356

D.

Dana, J. F., on Lon Theory of the operation é. Ditrous ine! in
Eudiometry, 3

Deerfield Ces 10

Deflagrator, on some improved forms of, tae! Sa

Desiderata in the Geology of the C t, 22 ail

esigns, new mode of printing, 19h

Deutoxide of Azote in Eudiometry, 338

Dewey, Prof. C., additional sate ‘of Aviesting: 248

, Caricography, 264
Diluvial, 42, 210, 242
Doolittle, I., translation of Girand's 2d Mavetitcs on 0 Navin

? RS
Drought in Sicily, 18 9
Dutton, Prof., Conics - Spherics, 358
Dy e, superior green, 1
Dying, new work on, 368

E.

East and West Rock, 2
Editor, remarks on the Cryophorus of Dr. Wollaston, 140

393 — INDEX.

Education, Public, notice of a new work on
eee F toide, on the question, whether Sa be two or one,

—— Plate machute, description of a “a 108
Electro-magnetic apparatus

Electro-magnetic exper riments, n

-pancesam with a single leaf, eae er 357

mons, , localities of minerals, 254
Engine Soils, employment of potatoes in, 193
of, 378

Engine, Steam, destription of Mr. Perkins’ new,
, of the old si mateo Ne the peed of Mr.
orem! new principles to, 116
England and Wales , review of eins = the Geology of, 203
Epicycloids, 97
quinoxes, greeny of the, 328
Etienne, St., plate:
Euchlorine, ‘coutfoneaaion of, 355
Eudiometry, Theory of the action of Nitrous Gas in, 338

‘ F

Facultés Numeriques, 285 [352

Fase? Mr. on = condensation of several gases into 10 liquids,
r Gre

Fenn, Dr. H. N. localities of coal, gypsum and barytes, 56

Ferrara, Abbe, oor eee in Sicily, 1 86 :

Ferruginous Sand, 3

> = "Geological Essay on the Tertiary Formations of Amer-

Pini on the Celtic Antiquities of America, 149

———— Introduction to Geology, 1

Fires Chinese and tice a remarks on the composition and
preparation of, 118

Fire Jets,128

Flora of the Northern and Middle States, 178

Flour or Meal from leguminous fruits, 189

Fluid new, the eer of crystals, 186

Fluor S

Foreign literature and ‘haan 188, 366
Formic acid, artificial formation of, 197
Fumigation, 188

G

Garnet Precious, 30

INDEX. ' 399

Geology of England and Wales, review cad of, 203
——_—— Introduction to, 17

pe 0

tices of, + nae
—— and Mineralogy of the onnectidut; 1

Desiderata in, 22
Geological Panny on the Tertiary Formations of America, 31
———— position of Yale College,
of craig oo 21
Society, America

Girard P. S. Second Me anti on n Navigable Canals, 288
Glass and silicious bodies, porosity of, 192
Gneiss,
Grain, preservation of ae mice, 378

_ Granite Goshen graphic, 22

Iph
Green ¢ een dye, superior, 196
Green Schweinfurt, 386
Greenstone,
regory, 0. Treatis ise of Mechanics, review of, 72 ae
Cocca ee — = Science; 188, 366
rope, 3

i Sica
———- Compact, 48

— he H.

Hall Prof. F. 1 ae of minerals, 58
Halo, notice of a,
ammer, new hares gical, 1
Hare, Dr. Robert, on the question af two Electric fluids, 10
, Description of an Electrical plate machine, 108
of an improved blow-pipe, by Al-

cohol, 110 Hien =
—_—_____—-, on some improved forms of the Deflagrator,
‘ account of an esechrstepet Se ee e leaf,

351
Feet k nimal, 200
laches Rev. E E. Sketch of the Geology &c. of the Connecti-
cut, 1—Notices of the Geology of Martha’s Vineyard and the
Elizabeth Islands, 240—New mineralogical Hammer, 175
ngary, observations on Beudant’s Travels in, 256
Hy iene one a 187
Hydrogen us,
Hydroxanthic | acid, 376

ha’s Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands, no-

400 INDEXs
* I.
— National, Society for the encouragement of, Paris, 198,
1

———- Society for the encouragement of, St. Gall, 481
Instruction Elementary, society for promoting, ee:
russels, 3820
——— Public, oe of ordinaire, 199, ;
~—, Philosophical, Gambey’s, 374, 383 a
Involutes, 98 ra

lodipe ine inca sping containing, 387

K. is} + ae ;
Kendall T. notice of a halo, 337

Lakes Ancient, 16

Lamp Monochromatic, a of, 368

Le worth M. C. noti plants from Alabama, Bt.
Lei ir, 38 a gs

Localities of eat, 38 R. sen aint 46—D
T. H. Webb, 54, 55—H. N. Fenn, 56—Dr.
Dr. J. Porter, 58, 252—Prof. F. Hall, 58—C. U.
251—S. Taylor, 253—Dr. E. Emmons, 254

London on 39, 214

Lusus

Lute Willis’ 392

Lyceum N. York, abstract of the proceedings of, 171

_ —, annals of, 359.

M. e

Mac
Maclue W. observations on Beudants Trav els in Hungary, 256

marks on rocks accompanying eee 260—re-
on matic arrangement of rocks,
a gah utive, of She 365
= ee aes of sulphur in granite, 56

oe a test of alkalis, Ane
Moginese st hades pe

Vineyard ad Elizabeth Islands, Geology of, 240
Mead Dr. W . localities of minerals, 49
Mechanics, review of a treatise of 72 *

INDEX. 401

Mercury, cocacleaes of, 192

———,, method of = tee small anantties a 392

Metallic castings, improyement ef, 190 207
eteor in Maine, notice ae the late, 170 Sif | +194g04

ie 23 1 Hi co

Mic “p? et) f Pe

Wing spring oaanene Iodine, 387 a ‘4d
‘Mineralogie appliquée en arts, 188 ‘7

Misissipp, ve velocity of, 1
_ Mitchel S.L. a eather te on the Proteus of N. patented,
2

‘on
oP lamp, description of, 368
Monte V
Morey rg on ne Patent water-burner, 141
Mount Holyoke, 5 b.caitntiedn!--——
Muriatic acid, condensation of, 857 44 t
1 PE Ie Fa ae
N, f a Pratt af a

Navigable Canals, Second Memoir vg ed si
Navigation Canal, 190——of rapids, wer
ecrology, 20C ;

Nitrous gas, pheory of i “ amen, in Ealisenct?y, 338°
Nitrous | onden: of, 355
Numerical Faculties, Theory of, 285

me

oO.

"Ghee Astronomical, Berne, 374
Ordinaire J. method of teaching latin, 383

Px

ola W. new work on Dying, 362

P. 37

Py reival J. G. analysis of Brongniart surles vegetaux fossiles,178
Perkins J. description of his new Steam-engine, 111.

——. aor: of his new principles to ——— of the

old construction, 116

, method of applying his new invention to engines of

the _— construction, 332 :

n the cutting of a es soft iron, 390 "

Phaute from a tey Notice of, 61
Plastic clay and sand formation, 34, 214, 244
# Vou. VII wan O, = 51-

402 INDEX.

Plou h, American, 1 190

Poms

Potatoes, opal of in steam engine hotlors 193°

Precession of the bay remarks on, 328

Primitive forms of crystals, connexion not wie the number of
‘scmunas axes of double refraction, 363 os

designe: new method of, 191 .
Maris aon on, 63

Prowall n Travellers, 1

Pooudomsdrpleaa granite, 22 ,

Public Education, notice of a new work on, 161

Instruction, method of J. ‘Ondinair, 199,.383
Pyro-citric acid, 187 ,

Pyrotechny, title of
Pyroxene of Sparta, N. h es of, 145
Q. if , cf iv?
ae ay

Quartz smoky , 48—grey, i3—milky, 48
Guinby AS Be on Crank motion, 316 ss

Rain-gage, description of an improved, 426 *
Rapids, navigation of, 176. — ff
Rhubarb, Sulphate of, 385

ock formations of the C ticut, Tabular arrangement of, 24
Rocks accompanying Anthracite, remarks son, 2
ks on the systematic arrangement of, 26)
Rocking stone, Roxbury, Mass. 59

k,

——-, Warwick, R.1, 201 __, ie
Rocking stones, 157 ; 7
Roxbury Rocking stone, 69°

2 S. 4 :

» Salt, oy on, 360

Bae ed by mechanism, 198
olite,

Scenery of the Sasa 5 1 sapien Bis
Scented fires, 1
Schoolcraft H. Re on the e cqEP SE of lake saben? 43 i

—_—_————— locali es of minerals, 4 We vn ,
Schweinfurt green ‘386

>
3 INDEX, 403

Secondary granite, 186

177
Seybert H. analysis of Pvroxene from Sparta, N. J. 145 i
Sheet Iron, soldeiieeo 9 s,
lead, chinese process for making, 391

Shepard dC.U. Yenite and green feltispar, 251 co

Slates Artificial, 191 ,

Society Geological, American, se

for the encouragement of National Wanwy, Paris, 198,

dustry, St. Gall, 381
——— for promoting Elementary i instock 199
mite heet iron, 379
Sphene, 53
Steam _—" description of Perkins’ new,
——_—__——_, application of New prince

constuction, 116, 332

—_——-, pen sepbbens of potatoes i in the boilers of, 193
f by soft iron, 342, 390

i 7 mes for the ae ea of industry &c. 381
Stone -morial and sacrifice,
1 asilicious = petition from N. C. 249

ses,

lphur in granite,
Silphoreted Hydrogen , condensation of, 354
Sulphurous acid, condensation of, 353
Sunderland cave, 19
Superior, ig of Lake, 43

Switzerland,
7

Tale, 55
Taylor S. account of a rocking eo 201
, localities of minerals, 253
Tertiary Jodeervag of America, Essay on, 31
———— =i om ei
ts) razi remarks on
eed: Dr. J. Flora of N. and Middle States, 178
Tourmaline, 55

’

‘ =i INDEX. *

li or ee 158

Turner’ s Falls, 1

»*

is. , Us
University of ‘ore 382 into
Upper Mari formation, 41, 213. Y
Uranium, 186 reen ore of 194

Uranite, sony of, 380

cage Tg cg Pen asin ain =

‘il es, caus of 1 178

Velo oft es

?

Ww.

Wallace Prof J. New algebraic series, 278
» Lheor a 4 numerical Fatticy 2

Warwick rocking stone, 20
Water-burner pat patent, sao wae nL

Webb T. H. Notice of fluor sp: spar, 54
ocalities of Talc and Tour

4a

Willis’ lute. "392 ae ;
Wollaston Dr., remarks on the Pe of, 140

Ws
Yale College, Geological osition of, 20
Yeast, 378 ee .
Venite, 251

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