THE AME RIC AN JOURNAL. OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, ¥rofessor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &. in Vale College; Corresponding Member of the Society of Acts. sr nse ere of Lendon eh re Royal seareosien ai 3 iets of Dresden: of the laura Agricaltural So- 3 ciety of | 5 i Member of the Linne ty of 77 “OF the Natural Mistory Society ; ious Literary a i Societies in America. VOL. X. Fesruary 1826. é ‘i WNEW-HAVEN: PBINPED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR. SOLD BY THE PUBLISHER; BY E. LITTELL, PHILADELPHIA, AND TRENTON, N.J.; AND By Hezekiah oD ix oe Ha Huntington , Harton’ Goodale, Glas ier r,& Roe. Hal well, line; A. Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Otis ; Thomas J. Ray, Au Cummi ings Hillia ball ven; Pishey Thompson, Washington, D. C. : rd, & Co. B ric oan Ga.; Whip- ple e & Lawrence, Salem m, Mas ward J. Coale, Baltimor ; B. D. Plant, Columbia, $. C.; John Hutchins, Providence, R. 1. ; ” Phom igs R. i ag Ste rt,R.1.; William T. Williams, bas a, Ge en ttsburgh, Pa.; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Mai rofesso D E.M , Chapel Hill ‘College, N. C.; Miller 3 ne 69 Jleet-street. London. Missourr fora: GARDE? Nk . F. Backus, Al i pee ' EERO RRP PP RPRPOTE 4 emmy & Lt pier & oOo a ey F : * i iri AMERIC AN JOURN AL | SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralocy, &e: iw Yate a Correspomling Member of the Society of Arts, Poor te ceiprerae and enscen eee pe Pee ai za So HOT imperi grict clety Moscow Hones rary Member of the hb a ray 3 of Paris; of the Natural History Scciet of various Literary res Sctentitie hocieties: iw Aiperica VOL. X. No. 1.—Ocrozenr 1825. FOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. NEW-ILAY PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR. eters SOLD BY THE PUBLISHER; BY FE. LITTELE, PHILADELPHIA, AXOD TRENTON, N. 3.5 AXD by Locomia Howe, New F ; bi shey ‘Phouspe Ou, Washington, D.C m & ie ins, ies if : iard, & Co, et azier, & Co. Ha Howat i-ine; A. T. Gostrich, New-York ; _ Galeb Atwater, “Circleville, Ghio; Piimas Jd Ray, Augusta, Ga.; Winp- Pp e & Lawrence, Salem, Mass; Hbwar rd J. Coste, Baltimore; B. D. Plant, Golambia C.; John fiatchins. Providence, K.1.; Thomas K. i row tame, Say ann: sh, Geo. Lake niet Stine. Brunewie! aine; Professer ' - Se ed, Chapel Hill Cotleze, N.C ; Jehan “igen, "No: 69 Flee: = a oa i] oe He 283. ae -~ ae ee pers a i ee sti ahd sae ke Ay DEC 5 1945 CONTENTS. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. Arv. a — relating to certain parts of the atate of Suen - = sion, 6 0. Enemies See ee D- Mason, - - 1 M scellaneous Localities of Mimera!s, lV. Noti otice of Minerals, &c. from Palestine Bey, Bion i ina aletter from the Rev. Isauc Bird to the BOTANY Vv. le he ae Ag by Prof. Dewey; continued from Vol. IX. p. ZOOLOGY. Vi. gree and Considerations concerning Two-Headed Sakae by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill VIL. wt several new apeuios “of Batrecian Reptiles vations on the Larva of ate ot by Richar Harke, = Se ‘Vii. Remarks coveivaned bey Art. X. Vol. 1X. p. 288, we CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, MECHANICS, &c. 2 3, 46 A << ES s ig 7 p rh : = . ae: M. D. — - . ee X. General Reflections on Hea AL Remarks 0 ets Mr. Quinby's. wale on | Crank Motion, in the ber of this Journal, XII. neneeks a on Art, XXIV. ‘of No. Z, Vol. 1X. - 356 XL 3g es on AntHracite, risa — by Larduer 102 sy: Papers roma to the Fusion of Car ks on the Cut 1 ting of Steel i colt i ive, ina letter to af. the editor, from Thomas Kendall, XVI. Gn fe te of Water- Wheels; sstenct of a letter home ‘ rof. veland, XV. Notice of the Brewater Wool Spinuing Frame, in @ letter rom 8. D. H $q-, 0 Vill. Agatpek of ae "Ma land Aer. lite by George Chilton, Lec- * turer on Chemist rg seins : ee 131 MISCELLANEOUS. XIX. On ~ ashe og Passage; by leaac Lea, 138 XX. An Fpitao f he Improved Bestataietign System of Pauca us Watiam Maclare, Esq., 3 XXL Notes * by Dr. —— in answer to inquiries made by Caleb Atwater, Fq., " 2 Y SAR, ppreor of Dr. "Phameon ‘a fies principles of Chethisiry 5 & tracte from forcic gp letters oa various Disa s%5 eldcened <— CONTENTS OF VOL. x. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. P Facts a to core a pert of Po peed state of Ohio. By Dr. Bir cies in an- Wotice ered a Rocking § Stone. Se ECO Mews 0. Mason, “irae ities i peaien: a zi rMinerals, ‘&e. from Palestine, Exyst, &e., in a letter from the Rev. c Bird to the Edito Memoir = the New or Variegated Sandstone of the United States. By: a: Finch, F. B.S. M. C.S., &c. f Roce of Rocks and Mingrais in 1 Westfield, Mass. Byk Emerson Davis, - as on Bowlders. By Peter Dobson Ae i! ieeatinseces Localities of Minerals, vat pe On the Tertiary —— on the borders of the Hudson river. By John — e the Geology of Sicily. By Charles Daubeny, 'M F.R Chemistry in the University of Oxford. Bea at ay ‘Bristol, Phi los osophical Institution, April 14, 1825. With a M 23 * _ BOTANY. Carcogapy: y Prof. Dent 1 € contiguadkivens | Vol. IX. p. 263, ere cooraiels the pone: of oem yo of Iinois and Missouri. - “By Lewi f Botany 5 eee; ae in a bee aer School, : F Caricography, (continued). By Prof. Dewey, : mien as ee ZOOLOGY. —_—— Considerations concerning Two-Headed Snakes ; by Dr. Samuel Descriptions of sev veral new ‘sp of Batracian Reptiles with h observat the Larve of Fre Richard Harlan, seve, 58 Remarks en ae Vol. IX. p. 288, . : : vanes 85 iy CONTENTS, Descri: 3 of a new speciesof North American Quadruped. By Richard akin , M. D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy to the Philadelphia : Mu c: Notice of . 7 apoee ‘of Salamander, (inhabiting Pennsylvania). By Ri- ehard Harlan, M. D, LC., 286 Facts me Obscene a ‘ded bee iustrate the Natural and Economical His- of the Eatable Clam Noe York and its vicinity. Ina letter to Ae 3 ae E: henge de ia eston, ., &¢., author of a work itis Lp. Catalogtie of recent shells By Samuel L. Mitchill, M. and _ LL.D : dated New York, Oct. 20, 1825, . : ; ee at CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, PECHBNIS, AND MISCELLANE- - OUS. An account of some Pacpenens kes an amprcaat Papeasion. By Seba Ha abet Reflections on Hea 78 r. Qu secre fg soit on n Craik Motion, in the last number of this 93 ; V..of No. 2, Vol. IX, p Antes 99 son the Furi lum we oe By inde Vanuxem, = nomas comdall” Jt, 127 On the ea “at Water-W ‘heels ; : extract ofa letter from Prof. Cleaveland, 129 Notice aie Brewster Wool Spinning Fri ume | ina letter from S.D. Hub bard, Analy of ig Maryland Aorolite, by George sent Lecturer on Chemis On the assaige. “By Isaac ‘teas’ . "138 An as art rhe Panes Pestalozzian Seatele of Sdigation: By William aclur Sq. 145 Notes as Oni, By Dr. r Hildreth, in answer tolinniries made by Caleb Atwa- Botice 0 of Dr Thom s first principles of Chemist stry ; and extracts from for- eign letters on scene subjects, addressed to the dpe yee ager ations made by President Caldwell "st Chapel | Hill N. C. during the years 1820, 1821, and 1822. Lat. 35° ted ty ‘Prof Olmsted, Notices of the excessive heat durin gs ome e parte of the late summer, (1825) Notice of the Susine ula of Michigan, in relation z its To a eae iculture, —— tion, Resources, &c. By James Pierce Notes on certain parts of the state of Ohio. By Dr. Hildreth. i __ from page 162 oft this volume, ~ oy BID fP lvania, * Remarks upon i its Properties and Eco- ces ahs Uses. Py the Eaitor 331 opaz, ‘ 352 Notice = certain prove sses in the arts. Communicated to the Eieri ina Tet n American ——. — vnapees Nov. 25, 1 Lluminating G Gas trom — Seed, , "362 ‘ i . y : ‘ . «(S65 Notice of two sel with parhelia, Silos ‘ ; 368 cue ager’ ir x7 “3 Sense A : 369 sb EGLO, af CONTENTS. 2 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES, 1. Forsien. Steam-Engines of extraori nary dimensio: 170 Large ane of. Aan r found in the ‘alata of New Providence —Free Com- ial S og 171 Baneve: Moen um one inne iety, ‘ : : : ate Model School of Mutnal eaitsirss Liga snch PB osts, ; é ‘ 5 174 Laplace’s System of the World—Public Instruction, ‘ ; ~ ie = Canton de Vaud (Switzerland)—Gymnastic Science 1 Limits = — and Cold—Sweden —The American Journal of Science and ; 178 Surge nes-Thatiee f Professor Picte ee ee a ss eg 3 Manufacture of Salt by evaporation ‘on F aggots, = 3 : ; : . 4180 Effects of Mercurial Vapou ‘ : é 181 sag of Entomology Remarkable Water s rSpout, iS Spe ecg ee “ahr r Com —- with Vi a lee-shore, ‘ , 194 . onometers 185 ‘Bosdawaliteys anew “Mineral—Influence of sounds on the Elephant ‘and Lion, 186 _ Aurora borealis—Curious lunar ogieeen= 187 Vibration apo the | ely colours— Declinations of stars proportion- ed 188 On the effe a of Anima Charcoal in n prev the putrefaction of stagnant water—On the Phosphorescence of a sub-resin 189 Minerals produced Gy heat— Ammonia dis 0% a pani during vegeta: tion—Influence of Prussic Acid u gaan af Somme siioh Le. cnivert Eilat tees H dro lirics Acids found in Rio Vinagro—English Locality of Metallic Lead, hei return of migrating Sains to the same spot—Red Snow—Portable Gas ompanies, a in the contents of Brine Springs—Paper Making Manufacture of Hats, ; 193 English Opium— —Menstraum for Biting-in on Steel Plate : Bereges | General oo of the Linnean sported of Paris, eres ee Ee Pe Le em Subterranean Sounds—H lelve etic Society, : y ‘ . ‘ pe Lk - Rectification of Alcohol without heat, . i 3 ‘ % ‘ Ue eae Fundpuion -Pelyiachairc Tintitate.of Vieni, ®.i 6 ee a imal Heat— Heat by Combustio: SeeAits id é « 382 sana uf rons tai ta Instruction, — poet 383 a ee of Quinine—Chloruret of time, ‘ eee : 386 Paper—Hygrome an —Method of procuring good yeast, —. F : ‘ 387 Method o inaking So ope tudone Printing upon Zine, . Mea kas Oe ~ Medicinal Leeches, : : ; : 389 , Influence of the Nerves on Animal Heat—Notes of Birds, ; : ‘ . 390 * Civi lized Nation in Africa, ; ; : t 392 2. Domestic. ¥ Peete of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, — - : : 998 A eological Society, — - pei ate i eos ae ' Correction by = B ee by G. W. Ca arpen nter, . Indian Summe Recipe for or driving Insects from trees, Notice of the "Asthractes region of Pennsylvania, . : ‘ ; . 205 vi CONTENTS. New locality of Rubellite, Beryl eee ead _* fick ties. oe Andalusi Origin of Fountains, ees s Sy es 5 ee Tails of Comets, Lyceum of Natural stony of New York—Cutting of Steel, &e. by Iron— erent eee Rew ” York—Erie C anal—Lead Mines of the ‘United States— Education of the Indians—Effects of Temperance, Cold weather of the winter of 1 399 Officers of the Lyceum of Natural gees = the Berkshire Medical Institution —Mannal of Mineralogy, . 408 peor oe 398 I eee ae ee eee wry BRRATA. Pegs 99, bottom lino, for C read b. 17%; line 2, fo tasty se rg ies for were 2 from bot nae sig or Sok siviaiid pidstner eased bottom line, for 6 read by. 16 from top, for rp and read Iceland. 22, for vi. visible. 8 from weed om, rt entirey read entirely. i from top fon Jt for variolus — agente from to tneraloy read 7 from reds oo ae F. D. read J. B. D. a ae THE AMERICAN Biersraale JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. REMARK. THE letter at the bottom of the page will explain the origin of this article. Although the communications of Dr. Hildreth to Mr. Atwater are dated in 1819, the information appears to be valuable and interest- ‘fag. As it was drawn up in answer to certain queries relating to sub- jects of a miscellaneous nature, we shall not hesitate to separate the different topics as they happen to correspond with the general divisions of this Journal.—Ep. Arr [.—Facts* relating to certain parts of the state of Ohio. ‘“Naturk of the soil, hills, valleys, plains, caverns, rocks, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams; the quality of the water, *% Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Caleb Atwater, Esq. dated Cir- eleville, Aug. 4, 1825. Dear ons EVERAL years rang a be prion to collect information as to the early dittietndet of this s its geography, geology, natural history, &c., with the intention of publishing “ sagem on Ohio.” Cire —, entirely beyond my control prevented my publishing the w ak and rward you a small portion of ai cient: which I have collected. ave oth esting communications, on the same subjects, from gentlemen of science furnis prove satisfactory to your readers OL. X.—No. }. ! . 2 Facis relating to certain parts of the state of Ohiv. the nature and composition of rocks, and their position, whether in strata or otherwise, inclined or horizontal; the strata observed in digging wells, whether for salt or common water; petrifactions and shells?” The soil in Washington county, except the river and creek bottoms, is composed principally of clay, intermixed with loam. It is in most places, except upon the south sides of hills that have been frequently burnt over by the spring and autumnal fires, covered with a coat of black, loose, ve- getable mould, of from two to six inches in thickness—where fires in the woods have been least frequent, there this vege- table mould most abounds. The soil is no where very stony: the hill-tops are in some places covered with secondary limestone, in a stratum one or two feet in thickness, full of crevices, cracks, and broken pieces, as if the composition had been exposed to the sun, while it was yet moist and soft, and it had cracked, and shrunk in drying. The soil in some parts of the county is sandy; but those tracts are usually in the neighbourhood of large streams of water, and appear to me to be alluvial. The river and creek bottoms are entirely alluvial; being composed of earth brought from the higher grounds, by rains, and periodical freshets, in the long lapse of ages that have succeeded the receding of the ocean from this part of our globe. The surface is composed of de- cayed vegetables; and as you proceed in depth the compo- sition ‘is more clayey, but still mixed with vegetable mould, until you reach the gravel and loose stones, on a level with the present bed of the stream, on which the bottom land is situated. The face of the country is generally broken; being much diversified with hills, ridges, and Jong slopes of uneven land; but will generally admit of cultivation, either for corn, wheat, meadow, Or pasture; and if for neither of these, it will do for wood-land and timber, of which in a few years there will be a great scarcity in many parts of our country, unless our far- mers pursue a more systematic course in clearing up their inds, and cease to burn and destroy the most valuable timber their farms with as little remorse as they would a field of wheat stubble. Indeed, at this day, there are many farms in this county, particularly near the rivers, where they have often Jost their fences by high water, which have not timber enough on them to keep their fences in repair. Extensive pains are not common in this part of the state, Those of F ; facts relating io ceriain parts of the state of Ohio. 3 the greatest extent are alluvial, are in the neighbourhood of rivers, and pip: to have been at conte remote period here is a large one at Belpre; one at Union on the Muskingum river; and one at Marietta, on which works are built The surface of that at Marietta, is 65 feet’ above the present bed of the river. Insinking wells on this plain, ou first pass through a stratum of gravel of considerable thickness ; after which it is loose sand, until you come ona level with the bed of the river, when you again find gravel, and other : appearances, much resembling its present state. The water in many of our wells, is supplied by the rivers; more particularly in those on the bottom lands, and it rises or falls in accordance with the rivers; others are supplied by springs, and not influenced by the fluctuations of the streams. ~In that part of the town of Marietta, subject to be flooded, the water is sometimes for two or three days together from six to eight feet deep over the tops of the wells. All this time there 1s a continual whirlpool over the well’s mouth; and while it is rising, and only a feot or two deep on the adjacent surface, the water rushes with great violence and noise down the well. A bystander would think the well must soon be full; but so far from this, there is a continual draft of the water, so long as it remains above the surface of the earth at the well, and it passes off through the gravel, and sand at the bottom, and finds its way to the river again; some wells are much injured by the floods ; their walls giving way, or settling; and all re- quire cleansing after the water subsides. The water in most wells is hard, and not good for washing ; while the springs and rivalets have generally soft water. The water of the Musk- i 1m is rnated with dime, while the water of the Ohio is gets and mixes readily with soap. A great part of the inhabitants, living on its banks, make use of it for drink- and culinary purposes, both summer and winter, me caverns, of any great extent, have as yet been due eer. ed in this county. There are some of considerable magni- tude, near the heads of the west branch of the little Hock- hocking. It was formerly a noted place for bears, and was much frequented by hunters. The most icnlaive that ¢ have heard of in the Ohio Company’ s purchase, are ont head waters of Raccoon creek. The rocks are sandstone, and form cliffs and precipices of vast height and magnitude, for this country. Saltpetre-earth is found in most of them, 4 Fuets relating to ceriain parts of the siate of Ohio. and as many as 1000 Jbs. of saltpetre have been obtained from one cavern. The rocks in the county of Washington, are generally coarse and fine sandstone. ‘The finer sort are used for finishing and ornamenting our fire-places; for win- dow-sills and caps; and for monuments in our grave-yards. They are susceptible of a finish nearly or quite equal to mar- ble. The coarser kind are used for the walls of houses, for underpinnings to brick buildings, for cellars, and for wells ; some quarries split so freely that stones may be obtained of any length and thickness that is desired; and with almost as little trouble as would be required to split a log of wood. me of the quarries are in strata of various thickness, from four to twenty-four inches; | believe always in horizontal layers. Others are in vast cliffs of perpendicular rock, from 50 to 100 feet in height; in strata of 10 or 20 feet; these are usually in the narrows, near the river Ohio. Limestone is eommon all over the county. It is found on the tops of many of the hills, but in far greater quantities in the earth at their bases; beds of it being brought to light by the washing away of the superincumbent earth in the courses of rivers and ereeks. It is generally impregnated with iron, whieh gives it a brown, or ochreous cast, when burnt and slaked for use; this does not prevent its making excellent mortar, when duly proportioned with sand; and to give it that clear white so much admired in the plaister for inside work, we make use of a coat prepared from lime made of burnt shells, than which nothing can give a purer white. Below these beds of limestone, you pass through a stratum of clay, and sometimes fossil coal; this is of various depths, in different parts of the county; after which you come to that vast and extensive bed of rock, which underlies the country, from the Alleghany mountains to the Mississippi river, for aught I have heard. he thickness of this rock kas never yet been ascertained, but, at the depth of from 150 to 400 feet, this rock is strongly impregnated with salt, and if on boring to that depth you are so fortunate as to find wa- ter, I believe that water invariably bolds in solution a greater or less quantity of the muriate of soda. Two attempts at boring for salt water have been made in this county. The first was made two or three years since, about 40 miles from Marietta, near the Muskingum river; they proceeded to the depth of about 200 feet, and, their prospects of obtaining water rather diminishing than increasing, they gave up the work. ae "acts relaitng to certain parts of the state of Ohio. 5 The other trial is now making, on the waters of Little Muskingum creek, about 12 miles from Marietta. It is two years since they began to bore, working at it only in the summer and autumnal months. They have penetrated the rock to the depth of 300 feet, and have.as yet found no salt water ; but the cattle are very fond of licking the fine dust of the rock, which comes up on the drills in the form of mud, which is an evidence that it contains salt. ere is a con- tinual discharge of carbonated hydrogen gas from the well ; and also from the bed of the creek on which the well is situ- ated, at various places, for the distance of halfa mile. This wind. It was this discharge of gas that induced the present °® that has been discovered in this western country. It is this discharge of gas, that brings the salt water from ‘+ such vast depths in the bowels of the earth, to the surface, And where water has been discovered, and the supply of gas has failed, the water has immediately sunk in the well, and could not, by any means used, be brought again to the top of » well. They commonly bore, at the well on Little Muskingum, io the depth of 400 or 500 feet, unless salt water is found be- fore they reach that distance. They are encouraged thus to continue, from their knowledge of the depth at which others obtaifed very good water, on the west branch of Duck creek, four or five miles above the line of Washington, in Guernsey county. They have sunk two wells, which are now more than 400 feet in depth; one of them affords a very s and pure water, but not in great quantity. The other dis- charges such vast quantities of petroleum, or, as it is vulyarly called ‘ Seneka orl,” and besides, is subject to such tre- mendous explosions of gas, as to force out all the water, and afford nothing but gas for several days, that they make but little or no salt. Nevertheless, the petroleum affords con- siderable profit, and is beginning to be in demand for lamps, in workshops and manufactories. It affords a clear brisk light, when burot in this way, and will be a valuable article for lighting the street lamps in the future cities of Ohio. 6 Facts relating io certain parts of the state of Ohio. The rock in which these wells are sunk is of various den- sity and composition, In some places for one or two feet, the workmen can gain only an inch, or perhaps half an inch, in a day, and then they have their drills to sharpen every few minutes ; the rock is so much harder than the hardest stee), ‘that'tt is very difficult to get a drill to stand it at all. At other places in the rock, they penetrate from one to three feet ina day. In this course of drilling they often pass through as many as three or four layers of fossil coal, at va- rious depths in the rock ; and it is generally the fact, that im- mediately before the galt water appears, they pass a stratum oh Hone coal of considerable thickness—perhaps six or eight Becilactions are common, but not so frequently found as in many other parts of the state, particularly in the neigh- bourhood of Zanesville. The greatest collections are found intermixed with the gravel, on the elevated plains, I have be- fore mentioned. I have seen several bel were full of cells, and resembled bits of honey-comb, or wasps’ nests, turned to stone—others appear to be shells of various forms and sizes, but different from any I have seen in our rivers. Vegetable productions are also found in a petrified state ; seme resembling bits of corn-stalks. I have in my posses- sion a petrifaction. which appears once to have been a large Poke soot (Phytolacca Decandra). It is the best preserved of any I have seen; it retains the internal structure of the root, as perfect, and distinct, as if just pulled from the earth ; and those fine lines, and circular impressions on the cortical part, are as plain and as easily distinguished as they are on the fresh root. It appears to be silicious, as it affords fire readily, with the steel. I have discovered, at two different places within a few miles of Marietta, some very curious im- pressions of vegetables, in a loose slaty stone, and ina red ochreous earth, that was in a middle state between ochre and slate. The impressions in the first resembled the leaves of white clover, and were very perfect; they appeared to be distributed through the whole mass of stone, which easily separated into thin layers, and, between the contiguous lay- ers, was-to be seen the perfect i impression of clover leaves. Those in the ochreous bed, were the perfect impressions of fern leaves; they were to be found in almost every piece T examined, and what is a little curious, the impressions were all of the same kind of leaf, and as perfect, and fair, as ee Fucis relating to certain parts of the state of Ohio. 7 if male ki: yesterday. The masses in which they were found. to appearance extensive in both instances; and are soft pees first taken out of the earth, but become hard as stone, on exposure to the air. At what period of time these, depositions of leaves were made, and from that revolution in nature, I must leave to geologists to determ *‘ Mines, minerals, fossils, quarries of stone, nat particular- ly flint, slate, soapstone, marble, limestone, marl, gypsu m; salen ta: iron, copper, lead, silver, piumbago, salt, nitre, and the ochres of various kind ?” No mines have as yet been opened in this county, but it affords plenty of iron ore, of the richest kind, It is usually of that sort denominated red, or brown ore, and is found in Jumps or nodules of various sizes, from that of the smallest shot up to pieces weighing 80 or 100 pounds. arth appears to be full of it in many places; and in others it is deposited in beds of considerable extent; pa as no one has as yet erected any works, it is not known how abundant the ore may be; but I have no doubt of its beibe’ in sufficient quantity to supply any Or that may be built. Someo it has been melted dov common blacksmith’s furnace, and worked into selene iron. Ores of any other metals lave not been discovered, in such circumstances as to make them an object of attention. Some small lumps of native bismuth were found in the bed of a run in this Reepueos hood, a few years since, but the vein from which they were washed has not been discovered, although repeatedly search- ed for. Isent some of it to Dr. Barton at iladelphia, who pronounced it to be of the purest kind. I have in my pos- session, a small ingot of metal which was obtained from ore found in the S. E. part of this county, which appears to me to be tin and zinc combined. I have not been able as yet to learn, whether it exists in quantities sufficient to make it an object of attention. Flint stone bas not been found in this county. Limestone is plenty. Sulphate of lime has been found in several places, but not in sufficient quantities to be nsed as‘an article of manure. The greatest collection that |. have heard of, was found in digging a well, between Duck creek and Little Maskingum creek, within the limits of Marietta Township. The stratum was about ten inches or a foot in thickness, and about twelve feet below the surface. How extensive it may be is not known ; as the workmen soon after came to water, and the well was stoned up without fur- 8 Facts relating to veriain parts of the state of Ohio. ther examination. I have seen some specimens of this gyp- sum. It is of the purest kind, in a crystallized form, and al- most transparent. ed and yellow ochres are found in various places. *Phe most extensive bed of red ochre, that has come to my knowledge, is five miles above this place, on the Muskingum river. It was discovered in digging into bank, nage? ‘low water mark, to lay the foundations of a . The bed is four feet in thickness ; some of it was weit to paint one or two doors in the house of Capt. Devoll, the owner of the mill. Tt has stood for several years, and looks equally well with soy of the imported pane genet called “ Spanish brown.” is also a large bed of it on Federal creek, in Athens Sante: Tt extends entirely across the bed of the creek, and up and down it for several rods. It is of so bright a red, that when the water is low it can be seen plainly ata considerable dis- tanee. Some of this ochre, was used, in the early settle- ment of Marietta to paint the roofs of one or We houses ; but from its not being well prepared, or from some defect in the quality of the paint, it did not stand the weather well. Clays of various qualities are abundant; some sufficiently white or pipes, or the manufacture of ‘“‘ queen’s ware ;” other kinds tinged with blue, and to all appearance the eee with that used for the construction of pots in glass hous Pyrites are found, but more generally in the daighbountieea of coal beds. We have some very elegant ones that are found imbedded in clay, in globular crystals, of various sizes from a smal] shot toa musket ball, and nearly the colour of brass. In my observations, in answer to the previous inquiry, t neglected to mention that some of those quarries of sandstone are of the proper quality for grindstones ; within a few years, they have beeome quite an article of commerce; and hun- dreds of excellent grindstones are every year sent down the Ohio, into the lowes part of this state, and to the states bor- dering on the river, where they meet with a ready sale, as the sidera le distance down the bio. In many of these quar- grindstones ; so that the stone cutter has but little more to do, than to give the stone the circular form, and cut the hole for the crank, and his work is completed. , aatha ceeneiicaimineans ESF Notice of a Rocking Stone. 9 Art. Il.—Notice of a Rocking Stone. ProvinEnce, July 28, 1825. TO THE EDITOR. : DeEAR I raxe the liberty to transmit you drawings, and a short description of two Rocking Stones that exist in this vicinity. No notice of these has ever been published, except a very hasty one, drawn up by myself, for one of our newspapers. f you conceive that it would subserve any useful purpose to publish this account in the next number of your Journal, itis at your service. ‘Fhe subject has lost much of its in- terest, since it has been ascertained, that these moveable rocks are of not very rare occurrence in this section of our country ; but one of these I suspect equals, if it does not sur- pass in stze, any that has yet been descri Upon S. Brown’s farm, in North Providence, 33} ais from this town, there is a Sroad bed of limestone, which rises 3 ot 4 feet above the surface of the earth. Upon this bed lie the two bowlders, of which Fig. 1, is a south-west view. The rock A is so poised upon the imbedded rock and the top of its fellow, that it can be easily moved back and forth 4 or 5 inches with one hand, though it probably weighs 8 or 10 tons. It iseven moved by the winds when they blow brisk- Jy from the south east. . 2 presents a north-east view of a tigre cht ae which is found ona pee belonging to Mr. Paine of Smithfield. It is 12 miles north of this town. It is a bowlder of granite, and reposes upon a mass of the same kind of rock. Thereis considerable resemblance in its form to the rocking stone described in No. L. Vol. IX. of your Journal. It is an irregular pyramid, 15 feet in height, and 12 feet in diameter at the base. Itis omer to weigh can be made to oscillate 4 or 5 inches. When moving, the rock appears about to tumble down the declivity upon which it is situate, and very few have the resolution to stand near its north-east side while it is moving. ft is probable, however, that it will ever remain in its present situation; as many years since, a number of men, — with levers, ropes, and Vou. X.--No. 1. 2 ie Miscetianeous Localities of Minerals. even the aid ef oxen, made an ineffectual effort to overturn it. Respectfully your servant, O. MASON. Art U1.—Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. i. By O. Mason. ProvipEnce, R. I. May 12, 1825. TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir, I] nave recently obtained the following minerals, from lo~ calities which have probably never before been visited by a mineralogist, viz. 1. Epidote, from Smithfield, handsomely crystallized. 2. Fibrous and glassy Tremolite, from Johnston, 24 miles west of this town. They occur in magnesiadn limestone, pretty abundantly. The former is fine fibrous, grouped in radiated and fascicular masses, white and yellowish white. The latter is in flattened crystals, confusedly aggregated. The glassy variety was found, and noticed in your Journal, by the late Mr. Taylor, within half a mile of the above. 3. Fetid Quartz in abundance, in clay state, fromCr anston, When struck with a hammer it exhales an odour resembling burnt animal substances, 4. Actynolite, one fourth of a mile north-east of Leach’s iron ore bed, in Cranston. This is by far the most interesting locality Rhode Island affords, both on account of the beauty of the mineral and its great abun- dance.* There appears to have been an excavation made many years since, into a talcose rock, and the actynolite is found in the masses thrown out. I noticed many pieces, how- ever, as large as a man could well lift, consisting eutirely of actynolite. The most beautiful specimens are those which gccur in indurated talc, as the actynolite appears very dis- * It is in sufficient quantity to satisfy the rapacity of those mineralo- gists whe have recently cerried off eur minerals by the cart load. Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. il tinct, from the strong contrast between its bright bottle green colour and vitreous lustre, and the gray earthy appearance of the mineral it is imbedded in. It generally presents groups of compressed’crystals, which either diverge froma centre or are promiscuously interlaced. It is fully equal to any I have ever seen. , Respectfully your servant. 2. By E. Emmons. Cuester, Mass. August 6; 1825. Dear Sir, During the last Spring, the following minerals were ob- served by me in this vicinity in addition to those heretofore noticed. : 1, Heulandite, (Foliated Stilbite,) in right oblique angled prisms, which is the primitive form. The greater angles were found by an attempt at measurement to be 130° and a few minutes, approaching so near the measurement given in Brookes’ Introduction to Crystallography, that all doubts re- specting the mineral vanish. Modificatton— Acute edges of the prisms replaced by single planes. The mineral possesses a high pearly lustre, and a foliated structure. Folia often waved or undulated. Colour white. Geol. Sit,—Heulandite is found associated with chabasie and stilbite in mica slate, Chester. 2. Pimelite, (Nickel colouring clay.) As yet I have dis- covered only small quantities in cavities in stalactical quartz ; colour, fine grass green. masses when first broken, pre- sent a granular structure ; when dry, become compact, and full of cracks and fissures. Geol. Sit. Occurs in quartz con- nected with serpentine, Middlefield. : ae 3. Pinite, generally in amorphous masses, in granitic veins traversing mica slate; one large crystal has been obtained, measuring 2} inches in diameter.—Not abundant. ; 4. Pargasite. In short green crystals, in carb. of lime, associated with idocrase and epidote, Chester. Not abun- nt. 12 Miscellaneous Localittes of Minerals. 3. By Simeon Colton. Monson, Mass, July 26, 1825: TO THE EDITOR. Sir,—On looking over Dr. Robinson’s catalogue of locali- ties of minerals, I find there are several, which come within my knowledge, that he has not named. | take the liberty to send you a list of some of them. I do not know that you will think them worth noticing; you will, however, dispose of them as you please. 1. Sulphate of Alumine. Thereisa locality of this im Bol- ton, Conn. This is found in decomposed mica slate, in the eastern part of that town. The specimen I have is ofia very decided character, and there is an abundance of a similar kind to be found in the same place. ‘ Quartz. Crystals, both plain and coloured, perfectly transparent, are found in Stafford. Conn., about two miles west of the Springs, of about half an inch in diameter. One I have in possession is of a beautiful yellow, the others tage 3. Garnets. These are dispersed in great abundance through the gneiss and mica slate rocks, in Monson and Staf- ford, and in other parts of the same range of mountains. Some crystals are found that are quite transparent. In Stafford, around the margin of what is called Square Pond, among the gravel, garnets may be collected in great numbers. 4, Steatite. There isa mountain in Somers, Conn. where a considerable quantity of this stone has been found. © It exists in beds in different parts of the mountain, im gneiss rock, and is accompanied with several minerals that are found in veins.and in fissures, Within two years past, consider- able quantities of this stone have been quarried. Blocks are transported about a mile and a half, to a mill built for the pur- pose, in the form of a common saw-mill; it is there sawed into slabs, and thence carried to Springfield, Hartford, and else- where, to be wrought. It receives a fine polish, and is an excellent stone for fire-places, as well as other purposes for which soap-stone is used. _ 5. Sulphur.” Smail quantities of this are found, very pure, in the crevices of the soap-stone rock, in Somers, Conn. Se te ee So selene scone aia Ske hey Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. i3 5. Sulphuret of Iron. Considerable quantities of this are ‘ound in almost every town through which the first range of mountains east of Connecticut river. passes. I In Monson, it is found in régular crystals, and also scat- rocks. in an irregular manner through quartz and mica slate ro Stafford. it is abundant im different parts of the town, ~ particularly about the region of the springs, omers, considerable quantities wn it are found on the sail -stone mountains, traversing the rock in veins, in differ- ent directions. When first’ broken, it exhibits an. uncom- mon brilliancy ; but after being exposed to the air for a short ume, a white crast of Sulphate of Iron is forme Connected with these localities of the ‘sulphuret of ron is a ciréumstance »worthy of notice: .it is, if may use the eneneson the existence of a sort of minia- ture volcanoes. The late Dr. Dwight, in his Travels, Vol. Il. p. 203, imhis Seoctapess of Stafford, makes mention of a volcanic eruption, reported to have taken place in that town. The spot alluded to is a high rock forming the west- ern bank of the valley of the Willimantic, and distant nearly a mile from the springs. Similar-eruptions are said (o have taken place on the mountain that has.been named in Somers. After a long continued rain, it is said by some of the in ants living near the place, that reports have been heard from the mountain, in frequent succession, louder than that of musketry. On examining this rock, not long since, a small hole, of about an inch and a fourth in diameter, was found, which extended to a cousiderable depth into a bed of the iron ore. The mouth mena was extended in the form ofa tunnel, and-was filled with leaves, earth, and a mixture of the sulphate of iron _ Eruptions. of the kind mentioned, have probably taken p place on this spot. In Monson, also, it is ro 3 that some years since, a similar eruption took place on a spot which abounds with’ this ree and there are not wanting indications of the trath of the story A recent account, we have had in the public prints, of a volcanic erup- tion, in some town, in the state of New-York, may perhaps be ~—— in the same manner. 7. Magnetic Tron._This js found in abundance scattered through the gneiss rock, in Monson. A specimen also I have in my possession, of the size of a hen’s egg, taken from among the gravel stones of an old field in Palmer. l4 Miscedlaneous Locatities of Minerals. 8. Bog tron Ore.—This article is found in almost every town on or range of mountains east of Connecticut river, in the south part of Massachusetts, and north part of Con- necticut; in Wilbraham, Monson, rimfield, Western, Brookfield, and Sturbridge, Massachusetts ; in Stafford, Union, Willington, Tolland, and Somers, Connecticut. In Union, a person pointed out a spot to me, from which he had twice sold the ore fora considerable sum, a second bed having been deposited in place of the one remove 9. Schorl.—This mineral is found, in small quantities, in see and in gneiss rock in Monson. 0. Mica. — This is found in large plates of several inches square, in aiaevs particularly in a rock denominated, by r. rappel pseudomorphous granite. e some other mineral substances I might name in shia ve ag particularly the chalybeate springs of which there are several in the towns in this vicinity, and in which Iron is an abundant ingredient. There are also, I think, several particulars in the geology of this section of country, not em- braced in Mr. Hitchcock’s description, that are worthy of notice. P. S.—I have omitted to mention Talc, found in the Somers mountain, of a beautiful pale green colour; also Hernblende, both crystallized and common. 4 By Elijah L. Hamlin® REMARK. An apology is due, both to Mr. Hamlin, and his associate, Mr. Holmes, for the long delay in noticing the very beautiful minerals, mentioned in this catalogue. This delay was owing entirely to accident ; both the box, which was very small, and the explanatory letter, and catalogue, * Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Elijah L. Hamlin, dated, Paris, Maine, Nov. 20, 1822. Daar Sia, 1 herewith see atl hands of Hon. Enoch Lincoln, a small package of minerals, and easing: bar stagger box of more numerous r specime aris, the shire town of Oxford county, (Maine ne,) pe been settled way about 40 years, and the country around it is comparatively yet a wilder- noes; and until withia about a year, thee bins never been any examina- tion made of its mi ; and the only search that has been made within this time, has mest richly rewarded the labour. Mast of these i aa vial Miscellaneous Localities of Minerais. 16 uaving been accidentally mislaid, and concealed in the laboratory, till a very recent period.—Eprror. I. Green Tourmaline.—Locality—Paris, one mile east from the court-house, on the road leading to Buckfield, and on the farm of Mr. Nicholas Chesley. They are there found in cylindrical prisms, striated longitudinally, and in some in- stances so deeply as to make their surfaces appear acicular. They vary from one eighth, to an inch and a half in diameter, and from one to six inehes in length; no specimen, as yet, but this, has been found with a regular termination, and this is evidently triedral. Some specimens have been found un- commonly beautiful; they are perfectly transparent, and exhibit colours from the light to the deepest green. iated green Tourmaline.—F ound at the same place in small prismatic crystals, semi-transparent, and of a leek than an inch in length, diverging from a common centre, attached to an ate of mica and quartz, and in some instances are found between the lamina of a large foliated mica, and spreading into that a fine green colour, where it comes in contact. 3. Acicular green Tourmaline.—Found at the same place, in small cylindrical prisms, from one to six inches in length, of a bright green colour, sometimes transparent, and in posi- tions similar to the former. 4. Acicular green Fourmaline.—Encompassing a darkish blue crystal, probably theindicolite. Green tourmaline of this character is frequently found forming a kind of incrusta- tion over ill defined masses of black tourmaline. 5. Actcular Indicolite.—Similar in all respects to the aci- cular green tourmaline, excepting its colour, which varies from an indigo blue to a black. 6. Indicolite.—Some of its small crystals, that are found in a beautiful granular kind of quartz, exhibit a fine light blue colour, while its larger ones have a deeper colour, pass- mine’ as you will perceive, have the same locality, are found near by, ms fe a short time singe, by Mr. Ezekiel Holmes, a student in medicine at this place, and myself, while ona mineralogical excursion. is place seems to resemble much the Haddam and Chesterfield Hater 228 ns age tai imil 1 d ica, and embraces nearly, if not entirely, the whole family of the tourmaline. The country around here, elsewhere, seems to be peculiarly rich in minerals. 16 AMhiscellaneous Localities of Minerals. ing off into black or brown, and are esa = Ml in connexiort with the red and green tourmaline. 7. Tabular crystals of this kind are mostly found imbedded in mica, and are from one to three inehés “in length, its general appearaiice being almost a velvet black, except the edges, which are translucent, and transmit a pale green light bordering on blue. Some - cal : this kind exhibit a pi polish, and are extremely handso » Rubellite—It is mostly found achotee in crystals of tbe greet tourmaline, or else encrusted with that on its sur- face, and varies in its colour from a pink to a deep crimson red ; some are found very beautiful. 9. White Tourmaline.—It has longitudinal striz, and like the others becomes electric ty friction ; most of them are slightly tinged with red. 10. Ltlac coloured Mica, This is found in small globular concretions, aanceh of minute folia, placed one upon an- other so as to form short columns, situate mostly parallel to each eiBer, and held together by a siliceous cement, in which are discovered’ small crystals of quartz, and occasion- ally of the tourmaline. These folia are easily had Seat from eo other, end aa to be hexeedral tables . Lilac coloured Mica.—This kind, possessing a bright- er rated otcurs in more massive forras, atid with larger folia, and is found in connexion with a beautiful laminated 12. Prismatic Mica is found in long capillary threads, on the edge of the common mica, resembling much the fila- ments of amianthus, and in some instances “exhibiting itself in the form of long prismatic tables. * Mica is also found at the same place, crystallized in beau- tiful hexadral pyramids. Similar crystals of black mica are also found imbedded in white. Large plates of white laminated mica are also found here, measuring six inches by op * 13. This specimen exhibits partially the gangue in which the —— are foun oie , Faickse! Hie —Specimens of this kind of the und very plenty here in almost every ledge, me sommetianee _ beautiful. They are frequently. be- tween three e and four inches in diameter, and more than one foot in length, Viduie most of the forms mentioned by Cleaveland, ee Misceliancous Localities of Minerals. 17 15. Specular Oxide of Jron.—But few specimens of this mineral have yet been found, and they were in detached pieces, at the bottom of the hill. Itis not affected by the magnet, but the prussiate of potash, poured into a solution of it by nitric acid, flings down a fine blue precipitate. 16. Arsenical Iron.—Only one specimen of this mineral has yet been discovered, and that was in the fissure of a vein of quartz, traversing a body of coarse granite ; it was in a globular form, about the size of a six pound shot, fine grained, exhibiting a fine silver-white lustre, and being uncommonly heavy. By friction, it exhaled the odour of garlic. All these minerals are found at the same place, on the top and declivity of a small hill, its surface measuring erbaps one acre, and elevated not more than forty or fifty eet above the land around it. The base of the whole hill is probably a ledge ; but it breaks the surface only on the top, in the space of about four rods square, exhibiting a ledge of eoarse granite, thickly filled with mica and tourma- lines, of which the black principally predominates. But little search has been made, and only in one place have we gone under the surface ; and it was there that we found the best specimens loose in the soil. 17. Graphite-—This occurs in Greenwood about six miles from here, in a north-westerly direction, and is found attached, from one eighth of an inch to one inch in depth, to the surface of a coarse granite, and occasionally very much mixed up with the black tourmaline. Sulphuret of molybdena is also found in the same ledge, in connexion with sulphuret of 1r0on. : ; : : 18. Sulphuret of Molybdena.—This oceurs very frequently in most of our ledges, sometimes apparently communicating to them a slaty form. It is found in folia, disseminated through the rock-like mica ; and occasionally it is very diffi- cult to distinguish it, by mere inspeCtion, from the black mica, which it accompanies. This's pecimen seems to contain pyritous copper, and the feldspar is of a greenish colour. 19. Staurotide in mica slate, which contains also minute crystals of garnet. It exists in plantation letter E, about 40 miles from this, in the north eastern angle of this county, and was discovered a short time since, by the Hon. Enoch Lincoln, who informs me that it exists there in immense quantities, frequently presenting beautiful, well defined, erystallized forms. Vo. X.—No. 1, 3 18 Miscellaneous Localities of Minerals. 20. This specimen contains some Iron, and we think it to be an argillaceous oxide of iron. Itis found in veins from four inches to two feet in cae traversing beds of granite. 21 Bog Iron Ore.—Found in Greenwood, near the locality of f graphite. 5. By Jacob Porter. PLAINFIELD, Mass. May 1, 1824. 1. Rhomb Spar, well crystallized i in Mente: and associated with green foliated talc, at Cummingto 2. Stalactical Quariz, re saci the Middlefield variety, at from Mount Oli- vet, called Frank mountain, a little S. E. of Bethlehem; said to ice been the last fortified hill surrendered by the Crusad Conchoidal hornstone, verging on chalcedony ; seer ~ gray, fires with steel abundantly. 98. “From the sides of the cave said el be that of Saul and David, a few miles S. E. of Bethlehem Agray compact semi-crystalline Hineatene. 29. ‘Formation from the deposit of the waves of the Dead Sea; multitudes of sticks, and stones, and other rub- bish on the shore are overlayed in this manner.” This 1s a calcareous tufa ‘deposited i in layers so very thin that twenty are-easily counted in a thickness of three feurths Notice of Minerals from Palestine. 2, of an inch; as the mass is coneave and convex, it looks at first like an oyster shell. ; 30. “ Kedron and Cedron.” The fragments that are thus labelled are calcareous stones, both primitive and secondary, not bearing any strong marks of attrition. 31. “* Two pebbles from the brook Cedron. 1824.” One of these is very interesting : it is a fragment probably once detached froma rock of mica slate, the mica being al- most black, but the most interesting feature of the stone is, that it is composed principally of beryl, there being several distinct and beautiful crystals of a deep sea-green, besides a mass of less distinct configuration ; it must evidently be a stranger in the bed where it was found. 32. “From the temple of Carnac.” Trap; the hornblende has an almost vitreous appearance. 33. “Carmel.” sp Flint well characterized, looking almost exactly like the English flint, being like that in the form a of grotesque no- dule, and its dark colour penetrated to the depth of a line or more by a shade of gray ; derived, evidently, from the cal- careous mass in which it had been imbedded, and which ap- peared, from the adhering pieces, to be rather compact lime stone than chalk. The adhering matter effervesced with acids, and gave out the smell of burnt oyster-shells. 34 “Jerusalem Much of the marble seen in Jerusalem is of this colour and quality.” This is a compact limestone, clouded with flesh red-and ray. . 35. “ Broken by a Mussulman boy fram the mosque of Omar in Jerusalem; supposed to occupy the site of Solo- mon’s temple.” There are three pieces which are the same as 34. 36. ‘‘Common stone of the mountains of Gornoo, where are the tombs of the kings in Egypt.” ; Three pieces of compact limestone, dull, and very little dif- fering from the compact marl. of Beyroot, (44.) in which the h are contained. There is alsoa large and very perfect petrified shell fish from the same place ; it is a bivalve. : 37. “ Jordan.’ Two waterworn calcareous pebbles. 38. ce Tyre.” 3 Notice of Minerals from Palestine. A similar pebble, handsomely veined with black and ite. 39. “ Nabi Jonas, near Sidon.” A white granular limestone, two pieces—knocking off a éeerner from one of them, | observed it to be fetid, like some of the primitive marbles a yin eee abi Jonas, from the to A dove-coloured, and white: ainda granular marble, fetid also on percussion. *s Nabi Jonas, from a modern monumen This is like the first two mentioned sae this head. * Beach above Nabi Jonas.” = white calcareous erat . ‘Gethsemane = brown conchoidal hornstone. a. * Picked up by Mr. King on the shore between Joppa and Cesarea.” is is a calcareous breccia, consisting of entire shells, cemented by calcareous matter, and fragments of shells ; évery part of it effervesces with acids ; it bas net a fetid a2 when struc 2. “ Mount Lebanon.” . _ Teaainite of a yellowish colour and striated structure. Among the specimens from Lebanon and Carmel are many shells and other calcareous petrifactions. 43. * From the ruins of an edifice in Tyre, said to have been one of the early Christian churches. This is a compact limestone, very nearly analogous to chalk ; there is upon it a cornice carved, and below it is painted green for the ground, with lines in reddish bllines and figures in agg 44. From t Kernen, 20 miles north of Beyroot— found about 20 ‘silos north of Beyroot—from near Beyroot.” bere are six pieces with the above labels ; they are evi- dently from the same bed, and are very interesting. They are very similar to the yellowish compact marl, which con- fale ie etrified fish at Mount Bolca, near Verona. The eyroot is sometimes so compact that it resembles ~ mh alae limestones ; but it is without lustre, and in some ef the specimens, it is ‘so loose in its texture as to soil the —. by handling. Its colour is very light gray, inclining irr Notice of Minerals from Palestine. 29. Like the marl of Mount Bolca, and of Maestricht, it em- bosoms great numbers of fish. Sometimes half a dozen are found in one piece of a few inches dimensions. Like the fish of Verona, they are preserved in the condition of mum- mies, the skeletons remaining more or less entire, and the muscles dried and preserved; the colour is exactly that of the fish at Verona. This interesting and important locality should os further investigated. There are good specimens of bituminous coal, burning freely with abundant flame ; and very well characterized bi- evident from these specimens that there is good coal in that country, and probably it is abundant. eenemearertnerperanmimere The specimens being forwarded by the way of Smyrna, many were left behind which may perhaps be received here- after ; and of a considerable number more the labels appear to have been displaced, so that their localities cannot now:be determined. ost of them, however, as is evident from the very distinct organized remains which they contain, belong to the transition, or earlier secondary limestones. It is evident from the nature of the specimens that if they represent the country correctly, Mr. Bird has sketched in his letter the true character of those parts to Thich the speci- mens refer. If we were to indulge in those associations of sentiment and feeling which so many revered and vemerated names are adapted to awaken, we might extend these remarks much further. This has been recently done by Professor Hall, in a not dissimilar notice of minerals from Palestine, already published in this Journal. Those missionaries who, while pursuing the benevolent objects of their perilous and noble enterprises, find time also to observe facts illustrative of science, confer an incidental favour on mankind, and give their missions an adventitious advantage i in the eyes of those who may thus be led to regard the main design with more favour. ¥ale College, Sept. 7, 1825. 30 Caricography. BOTANY. Art. V jeaemnaganpne. By ie Dnmgte Continued m Vol. 1X. p {Communicated te the Lyceum of Natura) History of the Berkshire Medicai Institution. ] ¥: 47. Carex miliacea. Muh. Muh., Pursh, — Pers. no. 171. and Ell.* no. Sc Schk, tab. Ooo f fig. 151. C. prasina. Wahl. no. 118. Rees’ Cyc. no, 137. Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera solitaria sldeighen gracili; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis ternis elongatis cylindraceis sub- tenuibus, suprema subsessili, ceteris pedunculatis omnibus bracteatis cernuis ; fructibus ovatis triquetris glabris subros- tratis subbifidis vel ore integris, mt oblonga emarginata vel obcordata scabro-aristata longioribus. Culm 18—24 inches high, slender, triangular, scabrous above, glabrous, leafy ; leaves linear-lanceolate. highest often equalling the culm, rough on the edges, striate and mostly flat ; bracts leafy with short sheaths, the lowest surpassing the culm ; staminate spike single, slender, long, pedunculate, larger above, with decurrent florets; staminate scale oblong, rather acute, white on the edge, with a short awn; pistillate spikes 2—3, long, slender, somewhat loosely flowered, high- est nearly sessile, the others pedunculate, and all nodding ; stigmas three ; fruit ovate, somewhat three-sided, glabrous, with a short beak and entire or somewhat bifid at the orifice ; pistillate scale oblong and emarginate, sometimes obcordate, terminated by a scabrous awn, white on the edge and green on the keel. Whole piens.t is rather pale green. Flowers in May and rune ORES in.wet meadows, com- mon, but not very abundan * Elliott’s “ Sketch of the Botany of Sonth Carolina and Georgia.” Carwcography. 3] This plant has a slight resemblance to one variety of C, crinita, for which it is sometimes mistaken. ‘They differ however in their spikes, and especially in their pistillate scales; and, though the scale of C. miltacea is sometimes so slightly emarginate as to require nice examination, they are easily distinguished. 48. C. umbellata. Schk. ae . Pursh, Eaton, Pers. no. 172, Schw, chk. tab. Www fig, 171. Spicis demgctios spica staminifera brevis, solitaria longa pedunculata; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis subjuaternis, una sepe subsessili et staminifere Sepees mere. sag sub- radicalibus exserte-pedunculatis, omnibus ovatis subumbel- latis ; fructibus ovatis utrinque acutis rostratis centchlatins tis nine enh squamam ovato-lanceolatam equantibus, m half an inch to four inches long, leafy; leaves sub- ae linear, rough on the edge, rather stiff, 6—12 inches long, purple at the base, inclosing the peduncles of the lower spikes; staminate spike single. long-pedunculate, short, round; staminate scale oblong, rather acute, tawney 5 pistil- late spikes 3—5, often one near the staminate, subsessile and bracteate, the others exsertly Aap ie erect, subradical, with five to fifteen fruit standing in a subumbellate form ; fruit ovate, attenuated at the base. rostrate, nerved, ie en and slightly bidentate; pistillate seale ovate-lanceolate, green on the hes about equalling the fruit. Whole plant is pale 7 Flowers ‘in May—grows in small tufts on on sy ills in 2 light soil. I have aes ‘it only in this town. Phillipston, N. ¥ —Dr. Barra This is a finely. " characterized species, The pistillate spike near the staminate is not mentioned distinetly Py - author, and though it is very common, is not univ found on the specimens growing here. Schk. has Seared two forms of the fruit, but has not given the upper and ses- sile pistillate spike ; yet as both varieties are found growing together, there can be no doubt of their identity. 49. C. laxiflora. La Muh., Pursh, Bons 1s Pers no. 152 and Ell. no. and Rees’ Eye 136. Schw. Schk. tab. Kkk fig. 1 C. grisea. Wahl. no. 35, and Rees’ Cyc. no. 150. C. paupercula. 32 Caricography. Spicis distinetis ; spica staminifera solitaria oblonga gra- cili raré bracteata ; spicis fructiferis a ternis laxi- floris remotis erectis, suprema breve et inclusé pedunculatis, infima exserte pedunculatis ; ; fructibus pa vel oblongo-ova- libus subobtusis glabris ventricosis nervosis ore integro sub- — squama ovato-mucronata et scabra pauld longio- Culm 10—18 inches high, triangular, Jeafy ; leaves linear- lanceolate, rather soft, rough on the edge, shorter than the culm ; bracts long, lealy, ee the culm with rather short sheaths; staminate spike single, oblong, generally from the same bract with the highest pistiline, slender ; staminate seale obovate, lower ones acuminate ; pistillate spikes three, erect, alternate, remote, loose- flowered, about 6—8 flowered but varying from 3—1:', the lowest spike supported ona long pedunele, the others by a shorter, and the highest by a short and inclosed peduncle,—sometimes there are four or five spikes with two or three approximate and near the staminate spike, with nearly inclosed peduncles; pistillate scale ovate- mucronate with a rough point, white on the edge and green on the keel, a little shorter than the fruit. Colour of the plant varies es from a pale to a bright green Flowers in May—grows in meadows and woods and about* hedges—common over the country. his is a beautiful species, and is finely figured by Schk. There can be no doubt that the plant described by Mr. El- liott and others under this name is the C. daxtflora, Lam. ac- cording to Schk., and that it is the C. grisea of Wahl. ‘The last described it from a specimen in the Herbarium of of Swartz, and inquires whether it was from N. America. This speeies is doubtless the C paupercula, Mx., though his description does not in every particular exactly agree with it. In Rees’ Cye. this species is described under driee two differ- ent names given by Lam. and Wahl. 50. C. folliculata. LL, Muh., a Eaton, Pers. no. 153, Mx. Ell. “Wahl. a 72. Rees Cyc. no. 144. Schw. . bk. tab. N fig. 5 Spicis distinctis ; spiea Seti solitaria oblonga pe- dunculata ; spicis feuctiferis subbinis approximatis pauciflo- ris eveetis sub-pedunculatis, inferiore interdum remota et , Caricography. 33 subexserté pedunculatis ; fructibus ovato-conie€is acuminatis rostratis bidentatis maximis glaberrimis nervosis inflatis di- vergentibus, squama ovato-cuspidata triplo longioribus. ulm 12—24 inches high, acutely triangular, scabrous above, leafy ; leaves linear-lanceolate, rather rough, nerved, glabrous, shorter below, upper ones surpassing the culm; bracts long, leafy, nerved, much surpassing the culm, with short sheaths; staminate spike single, pedunculate, oblong, slender; staminate scale long, lanceolate, tawney ; pistillate spikes 1—3, generally two, approximate, erect, with inclosed and short peduncles, the highest nearly sessile, the lowest sometimes remote and exsertly peduneulate, three to nine flowered but generally about six ; fruit ovate, conic, rostrate, two-togihed, much inflated, nerved ; pistillate scale ovate, te, about one-third as long as the fruit. Colour of the whole plant dark green—very glabrous. e018 B. C. intumescens ? Rudge, Pursh, Rees’ Cyc. . 145. Flowers in te—scar in marshy situations—common. From the description of this species by Linneus, which has been repeated by most of the authors until the publication of Muh.’s Gram., it would seem that the specimens first sent to ag e had ony one epee wes Hence the descriptions 2 Willd., Pa Eaton, Rees’ Cyc. &c. are defective, as there | is Sueraly more than one sa spike. The writer be’ never seen. There can oe no douot that the c. lucid Wahl. is not, as is supposed in n Rees’ Cyc., the C. intuenaae cens, Rudge; but is the C. — Muh. Of this, if it Vor Xn-No, 1 34 Caricography. were not evident from the description, we have the express declaration of Muh, 51. C. tentaculata. Muh. Muh., aR Eaton, Pers. no. 116. Ell. no. 30. Sc Schk. tab. Gig. fiz. 130. C. rostrata. Mx., “Petal, Perk no. 154. Schk. tab. Hhh fix. 134. Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera solitaria: oabwobit braeteata ; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis binis vel ternis ob- longis cylindraceis bracteatis, suprema sessili. ceteris breve et inclusé pedunculatis ; 3 fructibus ovatis inflatis longo-rostra- tis bidentatis nervosis glabris divergentibus arcté oppressis, squama ovata parva scabro-mucronata duplo longioribus. Culm 1—2 feet high. Senet, scabrous above, leafy; leven linear-lanceolate, nerved. longer than the culm, rough on the edge; bracts long, leafy. surpassing the culm muchy and with short sheaths 3 staminate spike single, oblong, bracteate ; staminate scale long, linear. epceoueic wit a scabrous point; pisiillate sprkes 2—3 rarely one or four, i hea oblong-cytindric, thick aid large, ses- sile or with short peduncles nearly or quite inclosed in the sheath, rarely ovate, varying in length from half an inch to two inches, very densely flowered. somewhat horizontal, with long, large bracts; stigmas three ; fruit ovate, long- beaked, two-toothed, inflated, much crowded, nerved, diverging; pis- tillate scale ovate, small. but as noticed by Muh., broad at the base, linear, mucronate, scabrous, about half the length of the fruit. Colour of the plant rather yellowish green. Flowers in May—grows in wet, marshy situations, in small rcs sometimes forming small bogs—common over the ntry. » ethough Schk. has given figures.of C, tentaculata and C. rostrata, as if they were different species, yet they are too similar to be considered more than mere varieties of the same ies, They are thus considered by Mub., Pursh, and others. In the fig. of C. rostrata, the fruit is rather more diverging and the spikes smaller. But it is not uncommon to find specimens of C. tentaculata very closely resembling the fig. of C. rostrata in Schk., and differing less from it at least than the varieties of C. tentaculata differ from each ether. Mr, Schweinitz supposes that a variety of C. hysteri- by ' cei yn Caricography. 35 cina, is referred to this species, but the accurate observer cannot make the mistake. 52. C. hysterieina. Willd. Muh , Pursh, Eaton, Pers. no. 155. il. no. 41. Schw. Schk, tab. Fff fig. 127. ; Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera solitaria triquetra brac- teata pedunculata ; spicis fructiferis subternis tristigmaticis alternis subdistantibus oblongis cylindraceis bracteatis cernuis, suprema inclusé pedunculata, ceteris exserté pedunculatis, et infima sublongo-pedunculata ; fructibus ovatis glabris infla- tis subtriquetris rosiratis ore bifido nervosis, squama oblonga emarginata scabro-mucronata duplo long‘oribus. Culm 15—24 inches high. triangular, scabrous above, leafy ; leaves linear-lanceolate, rather rough, about the length of the culm, with short sheaths terminating in large, leafy bracts which surpass the culm; staminate spike single, rather slender, triangular, bracteate ; staminate scale ovate-oblong, short-mucronate, tawney, green on the keel; pistillate spikes 2—4, generally three, rather distant, bracteate, cylindric, ob- long, nodding. uprer nearly sessile, Jower rather lonz pedun- culate, with quite short sheaths; stigmas three; fruit ovate, somewhat triangular, rather long beaked and bifid at the ori- ce, glabrous, nerved, nearly horizontal, not so crowded as in the preceding species; pistillate scale oblong, distinctly | emarginate, terminated by a scabrous point, white. green on the keel. Colour of the plant is yellowish green—of the spikes, brown near maturity. id ' Flowers in May—grows in wet places with the preceding species—common over the country. oe I: some of his letters, Muh. first called this plant C. erina- cea, but afterwards adopted the name given it by Willd. The description given in Pursh corresponds to the plant, when there are only two pistillate spikes, which is not very com- mon.in this species. The fig. of Schk. is excellent. “This species flowers just after C. tentacu/ata, and is very liable to be confound-d with it, especially as it grows in the same situations and as its spikes are not at first nodding. Its pistillate spikes are commonly longer and smaller in propor- tion to thei: length ; and by its recurved peduncles, fruit, and pistillate scale, it is readily distinguished from all its related species. I have very rarely seen any fruit upon the staminate 36 c aricography, spike, though Muh. seems often to have noticed such speci- mens. . C. miliaris, Mx. Spicis sieigcis ; spica staminifera solitaria pallida longius pedunculata ; spica fructifera sessili ovoidea Branton are brevi; fructibus spheroideis levibus. s I have never seen this plant, I have merely changed the dae pd ~ x. so asto be in conformity with the pre- culm is erect, slender, scabrous above, leafy ; leaves vetyte narrow and flat ; pistillate spike single, ovate, tawney, sectile,—sometimes two, the lower being distant and sessile; bract bristly and ev? fruit spheroidal and smooth.. Grows in the northern marshes of Canada according to Mx. There is reason to doubt whether it is found in one of the localities mentioned by Pursh. The plant appears to be en- tirely distinct from others yet described, and if the descrip- tion be at all complete, wil] doubtless hereafter be found about the northern lakes, and not improbably about ponds among the mountains of th spt an part of the United States. 54 ae anceps uh, : Patty Ent, Schw., Pers. no. 134. Ell. no. - Schw Schk. ab Fr fig. 128, and ig Kkkk fig. 195. C. plantaginea. Muh. Gra C. pit: lige Wahl. no. 67. C. strintula. Spicis esuotins spica staminifera solitaria oblonga breve pedunculata ; spicis fructifcris tristigmaticis subternis subfili- formibus erectis alternis sparsifloris pedunculo ancipiti, su- prema subsessili, ceteris subremotis exserté pedunculatis ; ‘ructibus ovali-ventricosis basi elongatis apice attenuatis alter- nis subtriquetris glabris striatis ore membranaceo vel integro “ee Se om oblonga mucronata vel ovata acuta paulo “Gulm foil one foot high, acutely triangular, often nearly two-edged above and scabrous, leafy; radical leaves, tiving through the winter, linear-lanceolaie, rather long, distinctly nerved or ribbed, from one fourth to more than half an inch wide, glaucous and often remaining glaucous through the win- ter, sending forth the culm in the spring ; those of the culm Caricography. 37 lanceolate, nerved, with white sheaths especially opposite to the leaf; staminate spike single, pedunculate, oblong, round- ish, rising from the bract of the highest pistillate ; staminate scale oblong, rather obtuse, white on the edge; stigmas three ;_pistillate spikes 2—5, generally three, erect, alternate, loose flowered and with a zig-zag rachis, rather remote,—the highest nearly sessile, the others pedunculate, supported by leafy bracts with short sheaths and on two-edged peduncles ; stigmas three ; Muh. observed fruit on the staminate spike of some specimens, but I have never found any; fruit rather oval, attenuated at both ends, and seeming to stand on small pedicels, striate, turned back at the apex. membranaceous or entire at the orifice ; pistillate scale variable, oblong and mu- cronate, sometimes ovate and acute, sometimes obtuse with a short point, often differing on the same spike, white on the edge, green on the keel, more than half the length of the fruit. Colour of the plant rather glaucous. Flowers in May—grows about woods and hedges, very rarely in wet situations—common. _ The name of this species is credited to Muh. by Schk. Yet Muh. describes it under the name of C. plantaginea, while he refers the plant to the fig. of C. anceps, and asks whether it is not “C. anceps, Schkuhr?” It seems certain that Muh. could not have seen the true C. plantaginea, for his description corresponds most accurately to C. anceps in Schk. and disagrees entirely with that of C. plantaginea, tab. U. fig. 70. In the same work, as well as with the descriptions of the plant by Lam., Wahl., Schk., &c. The leafless sheaths _of C, plantaginea, as well as other characters, clearly distin- guish it from «’. anceps. The latter flowers a little later, but is found in the same situations. _C. latifolia in Mr. Schweinitz’ “ Analytical Table,” seems to be only a variety of C. anceps, having more broad and more distinctly nerved leaves and broader sheaths. Both varieties are common here, and the gradation from the narrower to the broader leaves is readily traced. This variety is certain- ly not the C. latifolia, Wabl., as he expressly refers his plant to the fig. of C. plantaginea in Schk. tab. U fig. 70. and de- scribes the-sheaths as subaphyllous. It is well known that the sheaths of C. planiaginea have sometimes an elongated termination remotely approaching to the form ofa leaf. Al. though the plant in Schk. tab. Kkkk, fig 195, is referred by Schk. to C. plantaginea, it is certainly the broad-leafed va- 38 _ Caricography. iety of C. anceps, and the reference of this figure should ua- questionably be to this species. Schkubr was probably led to consider this variety of C. anceps as belonging to C. plan- taginea, from the striking resemblance of the leaves of the two plants, while in every other respect they are different. This difference is sufficiently obvious to those who are fa- miliar with both. Mr. Elliott observes that this species has been to him “ obscure ;” a fact which others have found too true. Ii is hoped that ‘this attempt to remove the principal causes of obscurity in ascertaining this plant, will be an ade- quate reason for the length of these remarks. 55. C. Oederi. Ehrhart. Mx., Pers. no. 125. Rees’ Cyc. no. 417. ‘ Schk. tab. F fig. 26 C. flava 8 Oecderi. Pursh, and Agardh. B flavescens. Wahlenb. r C. wr epularis. Schw. Aualyt. ch oe ternis aggregatis subsessilibus bracteatis evi oblobete ae. prema androgyna nunc. superne sinister nunc inferne vel uttinque; fructibus subobovatis subinflatis nervosis rostro subulato yesthitento bidentatis, squama ovata paulo longi- oribus. Culm 4—10 inches high, obtnsely triangular, leafy ; leaves ph nie aginst rather smooth, somewhat turned in at the edges ; bracts long, leafy, Surpassing the culm, with very short sheaths; ‘staminate’ spike single, oblong, rather small, sometimes pedunculate, with an ovate-oblong tawny scale ; pistillate spikes 3--5, often four, clustered, oblong, round, short, nearly sessile; lowest often remote; highest often androgynous with staminate flowers sometimes above and sometimes below, or both; the other spikes sometimes hav- ing a few staminate flowers above ; stigmas three; fruit rath- er obovate, nerved or costate, sub-triangular, diverving or sub-reflexed with a nearly straight two-toothed beak ; pistil- late sea'e ovate, acutish, tawny, a little shorter than the fruit. Colour of the whole plant yellowish. owers in May—grows in wet situations. Abundan all its varieties at Niagara Falls near Table Rock, with ¢. Byriformts, C. scirpotdes, C. stipata, &c Thongh 1 found ©. Ao with C. alba upon Goat Island, I did not see eri on the Americanside. Penn. Schw. Cartcography. 39 Having received specimens from Mr. Schweinitz and ex- amined his large collection of Carices, as well as this plant at Niagara Fails, it is certain that C. irregularts, Schw. is the C. Oederi of Europe. ae tanists are not agreed in considering this plant as a dis- tinct species from «'. fiva. But, as it is in Europe and our country a much smaller plant, grows in different situations, has its spikes and fruit considerably different, and appears so different to the eye, ! have followed Ehrhart and others in considering it a distinct species. Our plant agrees exactly with specimens from the north of Europe. ~ 56. C. Buxbaumii. Wahl. . Muh., Pursh. Eaton, Schw., Ell, Agardh. _ Pers. no. 96, Wahl. no. 129. Rees’ Cyc. no. 77. ‘Schk. tab. X and Gg fig. 76. : ~ _ @. polygama. Schk. ews sila Spicis distinctis vel androgynis subquaternis spica su- prema staminifera. sepe androgyna pedunculata clavata su- perne fructifera, ceteris fructiferis oblongis subremotis sessili- bus bracteatis distigmaticis et tristigmaticis ; fructibus ovato- oblongis et obovatis obtusis subtriquetris nervosis ore subin- tegro glabris, squame oblonge mucronate subequalibus. Culm 1—2 feet high, slender, leafy towards the base, subscabrous above; leaves linear-lanceolate, long, rough, eronate scale. i P Flowers in June and July—grows in marshy places. Penn., Muh. Carolinas, Schw. : In our country this species seems generally to want the staminate spike, and to have the upper spike staminate below like C. hirsuta, &c. to which it is closely related. It occurs, however, as in Europe, under both varieties of the spikes. Wahlenburg calls it pseudo-androgynous. 40 Caricography. . C. flexuosa Schk. ea Porsh, Eaton, Schw., Ell. Pers. no 166. Schk. tab. Ddd and Azaa, fig. 124. C. tenuis. Bains secund. Muh. and’ Rees’ Cyc. no. — De ‘ili se Mx. Spies distinctis; spica staminifera solitaria filiformi; spicis tructiferis tristigmaticis quaternis filiformibus flexuosis cernuis sparsifloris longé et exserté pedunculatis; fructibus oblongo- anceolatis subtriquetris alternis glabris rostratis bifidis, squa~ ma ovato-lanceolata vix duplo longioribus. Culm 1—2 feet high, triquetrous, scabrous above, ayy leaves linear, long as the culm, shorter below, scabrous on t edges, with striate sheaths; bracts linear, leafy, surpassing ihe culm, the lower ones with very long sheaths; staminate spike ‘ingle, very slender, long, with rarely a few fruit, staminate scale oblong, obtuse, white on the margin; pistillate spikes four, filiform, nodding. loose-flowered, from one to two inches long, rather remote, alternate, lower ones very long, exsertly dunculate ; rachis flexuous; stigmas three ; fruit t oblong- ‘anceolate, alternate, isbrous: subtriquetrous, nerved, ros- trate and. frewwibecreh 3 pistillate scale ovate lanceolate, whitish on the margin iad green on the keel, a little more than half the length of the fruit. Colour of the plant light and dark green. Flowers in May and June—grows in moist woods and meadows—common. Penn., Muh. There can be little doubt that C. debilis, Mx. is this plant, as he notices its resemblance to C. syloatica, Huds., to which this plant is certainly closely related. The specimens I have seen have many more fruit than Muh. mentions, though not many more than are given on the figure of this species in the C. Forsteri, Wahl. no. 81, is a very different plant from ©. debilis, Mx. 58. C. sylvatiea. Huds. Pers. no. act Rees’ Cyc. no. 148. chk. tab. ‘01. Cc. oa carat heh. secundum Wahl. n Spicis dis ica staminifera solitaria pale brevi podetaglon: pues aa ctiferis tristigmaticis subquaternis fili- x Caricography. 41 ‘ormibus sparsifloris remotis cernuis longo exserte peduncu- latis ; fructibus ovatis triquetris glabris subventricosis longi- nscule rostratis bifidis, squama ovata mucronata membranacea Vix superantibus Culm 9—18 inches high, leafy, seabrous above, trique- tvous; leaves linear-lanceolate, shorter than the culm, rough on the edges, and like the preceding with brownish sheaths at the base; bracts leafy, about equal to the culm, lower ones long ; staminate spike single, erect, subpedunculate, slender ; staminate scale oblong, acute, membranaceous, white, green on the keei, pistillate spikes generally four, an inch to an inch aes a half long, loose-flowered, nodding, filiform, remote, sertly pedunculate,—lower ones with long peduncles ex- ‘ending from long sheaths ; stigmas three ; fruit ovate, tri- quetrous, glabrous, rostrate, bifid ; pistillate scale ovate, white on the margin, green on the keel, 27 ene nearly equal- sg PH fruit: Colour of the plant light gree lowers in iin son June—grows in ey same — as the precedin mon, but not abundant, in this co Newburgh, N pee ai near Little Falls on the Mobawi. This species has not heretofore been credited to our coun- try. Schk. has given two figs. of the plant with which ours well agrées. It differs from C. flexuosa in the particulars mentioned by Willd. Its fruit is shorter and more inflated than that of C. flexuosa, and its pistillate scale is longer in proportion, as well-as different in form. 59. GC. limosa. L. Pers. no. 179, aoe Rees’ Cyc. no. 130. Schk. tab. X. fi Cc. jenticubeotin 5 and Schw. Am. Journ. Vol. VII. p. 273. Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifere Solitaria ebraeteata ; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis subbinis ovatis vel oblongis sub- endalis subremotis ; fruc- tibus ellipticis compressis brevissime rostratis ore integris, squame ovate-cuspidate et ovato-lanceolatz vel oblonge: sabe ualibus ulm about one foot high, ascending, obtusely menieteees, subscabrous above; leaves subradical, rather glaucous, narrow, flat, carinate, a a little. rolled in on the = ; scarcely as long the culm, with brownish sheaths at the base ; bracts leafy, linear, surpassing the stem with very short brownish heat staminate spike single. Vor. X.—No. 1. 4> Curicography ; rising from the sheath of the highest pistillate, and peduncu- late ; staminate scale lanceolate, often oblong, brownish ; stigmas three ; pistillate spikes one to three, ovate or oblong, sometimes cylindric, long pedunculate, pendulous, remotish; fruit compressed, elliptic, or lenticular, rarely obovate, searcely rostrate, entire at the orifice ; pistillate scale ovate cuspidate, ovate-lanceolate, or oblong and obtusish, some- times a little longer or shorter than the fruit, or equal to it, becoming brown or = So a green keel. Plant rather era changing to bro . wrrigua, Wahl Has subcylindric spikes, and long cocaine dark red pistillate scales. Stockbridge y. C. variflora, Wabl. Has sub-linear spikes, rather loose lowe red, with subcircinate pistillate scales, and ov«l stami- nate scales, with ovate-suboblong fruit é C. livida, Wahl. Has abonée peduncles, few-flowered, eblong pistillate scale about equal to the fruit, and obtusish, with rather ovate-oblong fruit, and sub-incurved leaves. Becket &. C. “oblonga, (mihi,) spikes rather long eylindrie. White Mts. N. H. owers in June. Grows on marshes about ponds Stock- bridze and Becket — Dr. Emmons. Aci —Dr. J. Porter Mt. Washington, N. H.—Dr. Bar In Vol. VII. p. 273, the peerinion of C, lenticularis, Mx. was an as well as the popular characters of the above lant. The resemblance of our plant to C. limo a was also heigl sin it was then supposed to be a different spe- e jittle doubt that C. lenticularis, Mx. is the same plant. as the beak is scarcely to be perceived on some speci- mens. From an examination of our plant from different places, of whieh at least three varieties are now before me, and one different also from those given b lenbergh, and from a comparison of them with C. diosa from England and Sweden, there can be no doubt that our plant is the C. imo- sa, L. The Carex, Vol. IX. Tab. A. fig. 2, named C. Jen ficularis, must be considered a var. “of Cc, limost: 60 C. leucoglochin. res Wahi. no. 8, Pers. no. C. pauciflora. Schk. ee A. fg. 4. Rees’ Cye. ne. 9- C. pulicaris. Lin. Flor. Suec * This is not ©. pulicaris, Setrk. the C. ysyllophomi, Eth. I ea ee Ca ricegraphy. AS Spica unica androgyna subquadriflora; flore staminifere terminali subsolitario; fructibus tristigmaticis lanceolatis sub- triquetris teretibus valde reflexis, squama oblongo-lanceolata vix duplo longioribus. ulm S—8 inches high, ascending, triquetrous, scabrous above ; leaves subradical, two, sometimes more, linear, sub- convolute, about the leagth of the culm, sheathed at the base; spike single, terminal, androgynous; staminate flowers above, subsolitary, with a lanceolate scale becoming brown- ish; fruit 2—4, long, lanceolate, roundish, reflexed, slightly triquetrous, with a caducous scale, which is oblong-lanceo- late, and a little more than half the length of the fruit; stig- mas three. Flowers in June. Common in the marshes of Sweden; in our country found at Ashficld with C. /imosa, in a marsh, and at Hawley, in a bog near the meeting-house, by Dr. J. Porter, from whom my specimens were received. This is a singular and beautiful species, finely figured by 61. C. lacustris. Willd. Pursh, Eaton, Schw. Ell. ?, Pers. no. 200. Schk. tab. Oooo fig 152. iparia. Muh. _ Spicis distinctis; spicis staminiferis subquaternis erectis, inferioribus sessilibus ; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis binis vel ternis oblongis cylindraceis erectis brevi-pedunculatis, suprema subsessili ; fructibus oblongis nervosis glabris bifur- catis, squama oblongo-lanceolata paulo longioribus. } ulm 2—3 feet high, triquetrous, scabrous above, large ; leaves linear-lanceolate, longer than the culm, rough, large, broad, carinate; bracts long, leafy, large, surpassing the culm, with scarcely any sheaths ; staminate spikes 3—4. ob- long, large, erect, highest pedunculate ; staminate scale ob- long, rather obtuse, mucronate, dark brown; pistillate spikes two or three, oblong, cylindric, short pedunculate, ereet, highest nearly sessile; stigmas three; fruit oblong, nerved, glabrous, brown, bifurcaie, scarcely beaked ; pistil- Jate scale oblong cuspidate, brown, nearly equalling the fruit. Colour of the plant rather light green. aoe owers in May and June. Grows in marshy situations and along ditches in low lands; common. his species is nearly related to C. riparia, Curtis, C. paludosa, Gooden., and C. evoluta, Horton. Muhienberg 44 Caricog raphy. appears to have considered it ih same as C. riparia, ai- though he referred it to the fig. of C. lacustris, Schk., and although Schk., Persoon, and i consider the two as dif- ferent species. It cannot be C. striata, Mx. as Persoon sus- pects ; for that species has pebeeey fruit, and is doubtless the C. pellita, Muh. . C. ovata. Rud “hi on. Trans, vii tab. EX. fig. 1. rsh, Rees’ Cyc. no. Spicis andieacgiis apice Sy quaternis vel ‘quinis ovatis densifloris pedunculatis pendulis bracteatis, fructibus tristigmaticis Ovatis compressis acuminatis bifidis, squaine ovate acute equalibus. Culm acutely triangular, scabrous; leaves erect, slender, scabrous on the edge; bracts leafy, with very short sheaths; spikes 4—5, staminate above, ovate, pedunculate, closely . flowered, pendulous; fruit ovate, compressed, acuminate, bifid, stigmas three; pistillate scale ovate, acute, begme, The species seems to be very distinct and well characterized, and the writer is very desirous of obtaining a specimen. 64. C. cristata Schw. Spiculis androgynis inferne staminiferis sessilibus 6—14 areté aggregatis globosis bracteatis; fructibus distigmaticis ovato-oblongis compressis divergentibus alatis rostratis acu- minatis bifidis convexo-concavis margine ciliato-serratis, squama oblongo-lanceolata longioribus. Culm t—3 feet high, acutely triangular, scabrous abot glabrous; leaves Jinear-lanceolate, abbreviated below low, shorter than the culm, striate, with long st ‘sheaths ; bracts ovate, setaceous, the lowest nearly the length of the a whole spike; spikes 6—14, crowded into a head, globose, — sessile, with a few staminate florets at the base; rule: ovate-_ oblong, winged, rostrate, acuminate, bifid, striate, very rough on ed ‘ed es so as to have a sub-crested appearance, convex abov rather concave below, diverging; stigmas two; pists illo oblong-langeglate, membranaceous,, about two- a Ye 45 Flowers in June. Grows in moist meadows and slbng wet hedges; common. Penn.—Schweinitz. This species belon 1s in the same natural division as C. festucacea, with which it has probably been confounded. It appears, however, to be distinct from it, and is very appro- priately named. In the number of spikes it resembles C, (agopoduoides, but is a very different plant. . C. floridana. Schw. Analyt. Tab. Spicis distineti spica staminifera solitaria sessili parva ; spicis fructiferis distigmaticis sub-quaternis aggregatis ovatis sessilibus bracteatis, infima sepe sub-remotis, fructibus ova- libus basi subattenuatis sain pivaill convexo-planis rostratis brevé bifidis, squame ovato-oblonge scabro-cuspidate equa- libus. Vide ig. Obs. -spica terminali superne staminifera, secundum Culm abet s six inches high, triquetrous, slender, scabrous above; leaves radical, linear, flat, narrow, sometimes a foot long ; bracts linear-lanceolate, leafy, lower ones surpassing the culm; staminate spike single, short, small, cylindric, sessile,—pistillate at the base according to Schweinitz but entirely staminate in my specimens ; staminate scale laucee- late, tawny on the edge; pistillate spikes three to five, ovate, short, sessile, aggregate, bracteate, lower one sometimes rather remote; stigmas two; fruit oval, compressed, some- what dthetuate: at the pine: rostrate, glabrous, me bifid ; pistillate’ scale ovate-oblong, gt and quite scabrous, white and membranaceous, green on the keel, long as the fruit. Colour of the plant light yee. Found in Florida by Mr. Le Conte,—appears to be a very distinct De uid C. oy in the same natural division as C. nove-a e, and C. pyriformis, unless the upper spike should prove to be generally androgynous. a my speci- —: am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Torr a 66. ee Blanda. (mihi) Cs h. Mu Spicis eetactis: spica staminifera solitaria erecta pedun- quetra; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis subternis oblongis cylindraceis subsparsifloris alternis bracteatis, st- 4G Caricography. prema subsessili, infima longé pedunculata, pedusculo anci- piti, fructibus ovalibus vel obovatis subtriquetris nervosis apice recurvis et integris glabris, squama ovata scabro-mu- eronata vix longioribus. ulm S— 12 inches high, triquetrous, scabrous above, leafy; leaves linear-lanceolate, rough on the edge, long as the culm, shorter below, with striate sheaths white opposite to the leaf; bracts linear-lanceolate, leafy, longer than the culm, with short sheaths; staminate spike single, erect, pe- dunculate, short, triquetrous, from the same sheath with the highest pistillate; staminate seale oblong, rather obtuse, sometimes submucronate, yellowish; pistillate spikes two to four, oblong, cylindric, alternate, rather loose- flowered, high- est nearly sessile, sometimes the two highest approximate and aubsessile, the others remote, exsertly pedunculate, the ewest long peduneulate; peduncles two-edged; stigmas three ; fruit oval or obovate, nerved, somewhat triquetrous, entire and somewhat recurved at the apex, glabrous, be- coming yellowish; pistillate scale ovate, mucronate, with 4 scabrous point, the lower scales often lon ug mucronate, about equal in length to the fruit. Whole plant rather light greeu and 16) aucous. Flowers in May and June. Grows in a woods and meadows; a ie Sheffield; Newburgh, N. Y; Penn- Muh, and Sch Thi F vhot is “excellently described in Mub. Gram. and the as Rwy is to ©. eonoidea, Schk. But this is an entirely different species from the C. conoidea, Schk., as is evident from the deseription of Muh. and the comparison of speci- mens from Muh. in the Herbarium of Mr. Schweinitz. The C. granularioides, Schw., described in this Journal Vol. IX. p. 362, is a uns C. conoidea, Schk., and the fig. there refer- red to, Tab. A fig. 4, is only a variety of this species of Schk. "Phe reason rer the mistake may appear singular, when it is stated that both these species were correctly ascertained nearly two years before that paper was written he mis- take, into which I was led, is now corrected or some rea- son Muh. had changed the plant after Schk. had described ©. conoidea ; to the plant deseribed by Muh. it becomes necessary to give a new name. There can be no doubt that the ©. conoidea lately de- scribed by Mr. Eljiot is the true ©. ¢onoidea, though it is not the plant intended by Muh. ar eee. i Caricography. 47 . . . . . i and that this is the plant described under this name in Pursh, Eaton, and Pers. no. 150. C, conoidea, Schk. bas oblong, obtusish, and terete or oblong-conic fruit, which is entirely different from that of C. blanda, which is more nearly related to C. granularis and C. pyriformis, while the true C. conoi- dea is related to the C, pallescens. Remark 1. As the specific name of the species described in Vol. VII. p. 277, had been previously adopted by R. Brown for another species, it becomes necessary to give another name to the former. A description from more per- fect specimens here follows. C. Torreyana. (mihi) Vol. 1X. Tab. A. fig. 1. Am. Journ. C. aristata. Vol. VII. p. 277. Spica terminali androgyna inferne staminifera; spicis fructiferis subternis oblongis sparsifloris remotis exserte pe- dunculatis subpendulis ; fructibus tristigmaticis oblongis basi subattenuatis subinflatis subtriquetris nervosis acutiusculis brevi-rostratis ore bilobo, sqaamz oblonge scabro-aristate subequalibus. ' Culm 12—20 inches high, triquetrous, scabrous above , leaves linear-lanceolate, long as the culm, shorter below. with striate sheaths, seabrous on the edge, flat; bracts linear- lanceolate, surpassing the culm; lower ones with rather long sheaths; androgynous spike terminal, oblong, clubform, staminate below; stamivate scale lanceolate, acuminate, white, green on the keel; pistillate spikes 2—4, about three, oblong, rather loose flowered, more or less exsertly pedun- culate, rather remote, filiform when young, somewhat pen- dulous with a flexuous rachis; stigmas three; fruit oblong, somewhat attenuated at the base, terete above, glabrous, nerved, subi:flated with a short beak two-lobed at the orifice ; pistillate scale oblong, white and hyaline, green on the keel, with a long scabrous awn, variable in length, shorter or even longer than the fruit, but generally nearly equal to its length. Colour of the plant rather light. green; leaves and sheaths pubescent. | Flowers in May and June. Grows on the alluvial mea- dows of the Housatonic in Sheffield. 48 Two-Headed Snakes. This plant is now known to be the Carex, No. 46, Mah. Gram. The resemblance of that plant to C. castanea, Wahl. no. 90, was remarked by Muh., and is true also of ours, yet as he considers the C. flexilis, Rudge, found in Newfound-— land, the same as C. castanea, Wahl., which the descriptions of the two plants seem clearly to authorize, there can be no doubt that ours is a very different plant. Its name is in honour of one of our distinguished botanists. The C. Tor- reyana, Schw., it should be remarked, is a very different plant, being only a variety of C. retrorsa, Schw. Remark 2. By comparing a specimen of C. aurea, Nutt. with C. pyriforms, Schw. described Vol. IX. p. 69, it is evident that they are the same species. Mr. Nuttall bas in- deed placed C. aurea among those species which have three stigmas ; but it has always two only, in the numerous locali- ties in New-England, in the state of N. ¥., and at Niagara Palls in Canada. It belongs to another subdivision. __ = - FOOLOGY. Art. VIi.—Facts and considerations showing that the Two- Headed Snakes of North America and other parts of the world, are not individuals of a distinct race, but universally monsters. Ina letter from Dr. Samuet L. Mitcnint, o New-York, to Dr. Gedman of Philadelphia. Tus two-headed serpent has long been an object of admira- tion and research. ‘The rarity of its occurrence has added interest to the inquiry. It has, however, been found in so many, and such distant places, that several authors have been induced to make delineations, and various collectors to procure specimens. The production to which I allude is not the @mphisbana of hot climates, erroneously alleged to have a head at each extremity of the body, with the capacity of moving both Ways, as its name imports, at will. The one I possess from He ae GP oe 4 Stn Sena aa ii i Bis eee Sy =, cc reinnitae WSs Two-Headed Snakes. 49 the island of Jamaica, has no such constitution. Such a _two-headed being betongs to fabulous, and not to real zool- . But it is an aphedian reptile, having two distinct om heads, or a double head, at one extremity of the body. In the usual cases, among the mammalia, the departure from the ordinary figure and structure, has been uniformly considered as indicating or constituting monstrosity. Wheo a similar sadaeend of organization occurs in serpents, it seems to have been viewed by many, with a different regard. The sedibaeas have attracted notice asa distinct race, and perfect in their kind. is opinion has probably arisen from the size which the animal has attained, and the agility with which it performed all its functions. Hence a sentiment arose, that a Serpens biceps, belonged to a specific breed, begaaniy and naturally formed with two heads. | ‘The circumstances were powerful and imposing’s and for a time, | was myself inclined to that belief. But latterly | have acquired information, that: ‘has obliged me to abandon During the year 1823, a female snake was killed about six miles west of the Genesee river, together with her whole brood of young ones, amounting to one hundred and twenty. Of these, three were monsters; one with two dis- tinct heads; one with a double head, and only three eyes ; and one with a double ee furnished with three eyes anda single lower jaw ; this last had two bodies. The figures correctly drawn from the acids in my collection, iis sent the ere and size of the several individuals. - (See annexed plate, fig. 1, 2, and 3.) My friend, Dr. Voight, or Rochester, having heardwf the occurrence, travelled to the place and inquired into the facts. He procared the three which were deformed, and very obligingly piaced them at- my disposal. The dam, or mother, was of the sort called the ack Snake or Runner, one of the most frequent and prolific of the New-York serpents. The species is very well known, andis apparently the Coluber constrictor of Linnzus, and Le Lien of La Cepede. It frequently a‘tains the length of six feet, and has been known to equal twelve; is sleek and slender, with a black back and a bluish belly, with a white throat, and sometimes a white ring around the neck. The vulgar name is derived from a tale, that in the amorous sea- _ son, the male is bold enough to chase buman beings, and en- ~~ Vou. X.-—No.}. - z 50 Two-Headed Snakes. circle them with his folds. 4t is nevertheless free from poi- son This species belongs to the tribe of viviparous - snakes, — such as are in strictness, containers of eggs, but do nevertheless hatch them within their bodies, and bring forth the young alive. This has been long known 2 as happen in the case of the European viper, called Vi derivative from Vivipara, from the known seers of exeluding the offspring from retained or unlayed oy e have here an example of the monstrosity of three in- dividuals belonging to a single litter of serpen that monstrosity conspicuous in the twofold Peden of the head. It might hence be inferred from analogy, that all ser- pents of this irregular constitution are also monsters. Still, as these mis-shapen productions have somehow been regard- ed as exceptions to the rule, I shall add a few more obser- vations. Intelligence by a most credible source has reached me from the Black river, near Lake Ontario, of a snake with three heads. ‘lhe specimen was promised to me, and I do not yet despair of receiving it. _ I offer as part of this communication, a somewhat circum- stantial description of a two-headed serpent, I received from one of the Fejee Islands, a few years ago. The length is four inches and three quarters.. Though there is some diffi- culty in counting the shields, yet, as nearly as [can ascertain, the scuta of the belly are one hundred and twenty-five, and the scutella of the ae pati There are two pairs of Among the ancients, two-headed snakes have been men- tioned 4 coe and Avlian. Among the moderns, Joseph | | | } | ee ee ae \ Fwo-Headed Snakes. 91 -Lanzoni relates that he had seen such an animal. Francis Redi has left a very particular account of one that was oe: catched near Pisa, on the bank of the Arno; and which lived | from January to February, after it was taken, affording = sap aimarie for experiments and remarks. When arting, the right head appeared to die seven e oases life was y's Sours: before the left. Aldrovandus had one in his cabinet at Bologna; and there is one in the museum of the king of a France, at Paris. or further intelligence on this curious and controverted oe _ Subject, | refer to the Count La Cepede’s able disquisition, (D V. rpens monstreux,) on Serpentine monsters, (Vol. pp- 311—326 of the e copy I had the honour to receive from me wherein, like a sagacious reasoner, he decides the se productions to be anomalies _ A two-headed serpent. is figured, in ‘ovens! views, by George Edwards in the fourth volume of his history of birds, plate 207, and described. The drawings are of the natural magnitude. - He intrudes the subject by observing that he did not propose to exhibit monsters in his work, but that the species, even if it had not two heads, might be better known to the learned world. He mentions an English serpent, that had been biome ht to him, with two aioe heads. The specimen he describes was from Barbadoe The other sdiislliaomce touching this ‘oasing has been so fully and peetty posted up by Mr. President Clinton, in the note FF, subjoined to the discourse he delivered before - the New-York Latctary and Philosophical Society, in 1814, and published in the transactions of that learned body, (Vol. Il. pp. 160—162.) that I avoid the transcription of his Juminous statement. rom the facts stated, and the references made, it ap- pears that two- headed snakes have been found in the West- Indian and Polynesian Isles, -in Great Britain, in Italy, and im the state of New-York. An inference arising naturally from the ‘premises is, that they are wndividuals of differes uf species, and probably of different. genera; inasmuch as it is very unlikely that the two- headed ss of remote siitua- tions’ on the continents, and more distant localities on the islands, were the issue of the North American, or New- York Black-Snake. This conclusion is fatal to the suppo- sition, that these singular productions constitute a race of their own, and propagate their kind in regular succession. 52 _ Pwo-Headed Snakes. Cee a ag of the species, there is no evidence A procreating association, or union of male and female ‘parents, has never been observed. because such connexions do not exist. The birth and parentage of these strange and enormous productions, have been hitherto un- known; because, until Dr Voight’s important disclosure, nota naturalist could tell whence they came. own judgment on the case under consideration, i is, that the miscreated and extraordinary constitution of the three young black snakes is owing to monstrosity ; and by a simi- lar anomaly in nature to that which — produces monsters in the black snake, they may be engendered in other serpents belonging to the numerous species of Coluber. Ifit should be asked, wherefore it happens that two-head- ed monsters are more frequent among serpents than other animals, it may be answered that this is very far from being ascertained and established. Two-headed births are by no means uncommon in other creatures; among which may be enumerated dogs, cais, swine, sheep, kine, and even the hu- man race. Generally they are still-born, or very short lived ; mei by reason of their hideous and disgusting shapes, are soon removed from sight. The like happens to other animals; and, among the ovi- pareus elass, to poultry, and domesticated birds. two-headed monsters usually die soon after hatching. - I have heard of a two-headed tortoise (Testudo,) that lived to acquire a considerable size, by having taken food at both mouths. Two- “headed serpents, hitherto, seem to have been of small or diminutive size; leading toa belief that their organiza- tion, which allowed them to live and enlarge for a short term, or aseason, forbade them to reach entire eepention, and o:d. Serpents are destitute of limbs, and are consequently in- capable of monstrosity, in feet, legs, hands, and a either by defect, redundancy, or malformation, when p therefore, monstrosity must be in the head or tail, and the head is most frequently the seat of it. The prominent peculiarity in these monsters, is that they can continue alive so long, that they can receive and con- coct food, and that they can thereby be nourished, and ac- quire balk. It is to those qualities differing from the gene- New Species of Butracian Repiries. 3 vality of other monsters, that the two-headed snakes owe the notoriety they hold <7 sotsogene and soar commen New-York, August 1, 1825, ART. VII.—Descriptions of several new syctle of Batracian Reptiles, with observations on the Larve of eee m-By Ricwarp Haran, of Philadelphia. THe genus Rana of Linneus is subdivided by modern a tologists into three sections, which inelude the genera Ran Hyla, and Bufo of Lacépéde, seer ae Latreille, Daudin, and others. of The cn phenomena comiee the inetamer phot the young frog or eset early attracted the attention of sen of science; and the works of Swammerdam, Roésal, Mal- pighi, Laurenti, Given and Spailanzani, furnish the most * The pobeat essay — eo ae and ready for the press, when No. 1X. of the Ann he Lyceum of Nat. Hist. of N. ne peared, con pains a paper ss Dette! J. rac Conte, entitled “ the American mee of the genera ora and Rana.” In its pra this learned indefatigable rng as ats cali tee se viz Hyla versicolor, ‘ana palustris, and R. on the indications of his new s species fontinali, pumila, and gryllus, the author has been so exceedi aconic, and the characters he has noticed are so indecisive, as side: ren ener iti or not they really differ from of my species; the characters of the “¢ fontinalis,” for ete will a apply with equal certainty to three or t e contrary, his R. nigrita is a beautiful, well dete upper ie: vah a white line; beneath me e whitisk; irides ; legs barred with whitish, hind part of the thighs brown; hind legs very long.” Poca R. gryllus is Leos the same as was supposed by Daudin vs bo tt a a species 0} oy D Mia Hist. Nat. des Grenouilles, Raibeties et des Crapauds, p. b4 New Species of Bairacian Reptiles. curious details concerning their organization, development, and functions. ‘The science of experimental physiology has been more indebted to this than to any other class of animals. Frogs, being easily procured, and submitting to torture with- out any expression of pain, either by cries or convulsions, have always been preferred by physiologists as objects of experiment, when the peculiarity of their organization offered no barriers to their views. For this purpose their remark- live habitually upon them. In order to support this intmense estruction, their enemies, and each female discharges from six to twelve hundred eggs annually s exist at the present day some points of their organization in- volved in obscurity, and some errors have been perpetuated trom author to author. * + -In-order to become better acquainted with their habits, and watch the progress af their developement, ! have this season confined great numbers, of both tadpoles and frogs, in con- venient receptacles. My observations on the former were interrupted by an ac- cident, after an attention of rather more than two months. ve however collected a few facts worthy of publication. ‘specimens were of different species and of various ages ; but. observation was more particularly directed to the larve or tadpole of the Rana pipiens, Linn. as being larger than any others inhabiting this state. Though not full grown, about the latter end of May they generally measured in total length four inches five tenths: New Species of Batracian Reptiles. a5 length of the tail wera inches eight tenths; gencral colour dark slate-green; abdomen white or cllow, s sometimes mixed: beneath the throat noulede tail elongated, compressed, fur- nished with a membranous fringé on the _— rand lower orders. The extremities, or legs, which are shout ct pt ob are not merely hid beneath the skin, as was asserted by ut exist as mere rudiments, and grow out like the stem ‘of a a tree. It has not yet been accurately ascertained how long a time it requires for these larve to complete their metamorphose, or how-frequently during the year the frogs produce their spawn: we know that some ofthe young of these animals pass the winter ina larva state. on @ commencement na ord A stenilas henomenon has been observed: in the whe sco- vedasma. Vide Dict. des Sc. Med., Art. Germ. p. 259. It was by inquiries directed to this stage of the animal’s ex- istence, that Spallanzani, een Swammerdam, was ena to detect one of the most curious facts which physiology has gained from natural hiatostps The egg of a frog plunged into water, swells, and, becoming transparent, permits us to see a blackish body, wh hich the microscope proves to be a tadpole.” And Spallanzani convinced himself of the existence of tadpoles in the eggs laid by a female which had been entirely excluded canst period varies under various circumstances, as the degree of eat, &c. to which the spawn is exposed. Shaw, in Zool. Gen., mentions es month. or five weeks. bb New Species of Batracian Repiiless from the male. Concerning the rapidity of the ie of these reptiles, Mr. G.. Cuvier has only remarked, ‘On — que la Jackie (Rana paradoxa) ne perd sa queue que rt tard et long tems apres Ses branchies, et que ses branchies > mo ne tombent que quand elle a déja sa Ser de ee (Sur les Animaux douteux Voy. de M. Hum- Idt. It is very probable that the period = for the mefa- morphose varies with the species. In the ze of the Rana pipiens, which we detained, expressly for. bee Be ie for more than two months, no sonsible alteration was observed in this atte or scarcely any visible approach towards per- fec a umerous ‘Bove occurred to corroborate the re- = of Mr. vier, e organs of oeers exis! § eae are many species of aos which have but one oper: culum on the left side ; nies are the larve of the R. paradoxa. and those of the brown toad; but those of the common frog (Rana a Linn. appear to me to have two holes, both placed bene This fact I raat verified in all the tadpoles which J have jected to examination: after dissecting great numbers of tad pales of different species and at different ages, both before and after the appearance of their legs, in no instance was there observed more than one opening or operculum, always on the left side; though dissection at all periods de- monstrated the existence-of gills or branchiz on both sides, covered by integuments.—‘ Les seules Jarves ou tetards des batraciens, c'est & dire des salamandres et des grenou- illes, rainettes, et crapauds reunissent des branchies et des mons, respirent 4 la fois, du moins pendant un certain temps, et Pair Merions en nature, et celui que contient lean, paricipent t par consequent, Pune maniere égale, de la nature des animaux aériens et des animavx aquatiques, et peuven! New Species of Batracian Reptiles. a done, si on vent, porter le nom d’amphibies dans son ac- ceptation la plus rigoureuse.”’ (Cuvier Anim. douteux, Voy. d’Humboldt. In specimens which we subjected to examination, we found the lungs and nostrils to exist in a rudimentary state ; the lat- ter are small, and barely admit the passage of a very fine bristle; the former are of a deep black colour. That the larve do not depend altogether upon their branchia for the decarbonization of the blood, we were satisfied, by observing them to rise frequently to the surface of the water, in order to discharge the foul air and to respire: this process was re- peated every three or four minutes,- on some occasions, in a number of these animals confined in a tub of water.—Accord- ing to Swammerdam and Roésal, the branchia of tadpoles are exterior and free during the first days of theirexistence. This statement was not verified by observations we have made on very young tadpoles of this country, in which not the slightest vestiges of branchia or of feetare visible. We subjected a num- ber of individuals to examination, both with and without the ye ’ f a their colours. The Rana pipiens, or common bull- frog, i : fie a light ash, or nearly dirty white colour, to a light green Vor. < ssNo. L 8 ; 58 New Species of Batracian Reptiles. and black, and the reverse ; Abonigh the specific markings are more or less unchangea _ Though the frog is subjected to change of cuticle, this does not take place throughout the body at once, as in the serpent, but falls off in detached pieces. I could not determine how frequently this process was repeated ; but certainly not every ‘eight days.’? With these preliminary remarks, | proceed to the more immediate object of this paper, the description of — new species - Rana flaviviridis. (Nobis. ) Yellow-throated green at Spring frog? Bartram, Manneceip otes Char. essent. “Body rather slibesy 3 abdomen large ; snout 2 Jittle obtuse ; colour above clear lively green, beneath white : under the throat yellow; buttocks mottled with black spots. Dimensions. Length of the body three inches, of the hind legs four inches four tenths; breadth of the head one inch. escription. (Male.) Body rather contracted; abdomen enlarged; ‘prevailing colour green; skin smooth, with the epee pices of the sides, which are inbesleniaa the back is separated from the sides by a longitudinal cuticular fold; the sides are obsoletely spotted; tympanum very hie suboval, lane. ses k-coloured at es circumference, protuberant and green at the centre; buttocks and posterior part of the thighs chotfled with black spots; hehe and legs above marked with obsolete black bands; toes of the hind feet palmated, granulated, and of a blackish colour. Haint. Not very active; destitute of any RenUHE odour ; destructive to small fish, grasshoppers, an : Inhabit the middle states; abound in the waka of Phila- delphia. Sp. 2. Rana sylvatica. (Le Conte, Ann. of ve tts of . Hist. of ork, vol. 1. no. ix. p. 282.— Wood ice ) This species | had described os a the name of R. Pennsylvanica. Char. essent. Olive brown or drab colour above, white be- neath; a black vitta, commencing on the side of the snout, passes backwards dilating, and involves the eye and tympa- num; posterior extremities obsoletely fasciated. sions. ther smaller and more slender than the R. clamata. ~ Description. Body long and wletdee snout rather elon- gated; a longitu Bic sk band on each side of the head, New Species of Batracian Repiiles. 59 commencing anterior to the eye, involves two-thirds of the iris and the whole of the tympanum; lips with dark borders; lower parts of the body white, the flanks light green; upper parts of the body drab colour, with the.exception of a few scattered spots posteriorly ; and the hind legs with broad, ob- solete, transverse, blackish bands. abit. A great leaper; travelling far from the water in search of insects, &c. ; is difficult of access, leaping with great facility and hiding beneath the dead leaves, which the colour of the upper parts of the body closely resembles ; more fre- quently found in the fetes than in the fields; this beautiful Species is not very co Inhabit Penbiyleania: ad AenicTecieey Sp. 3. Rawa scapularis. (Nobis.) ‘Char. essent. General colour above shea olive brown; snout green; beneath the throat yellow; abdomen white ; a golden coloured line above the scapule. Dimensions. Length of the body t three inches ; “a the hind legs four inches. “Description. (Male.) Dark olive brown, white beneath ; throat, anterior part of the thorax, and interior of the fore legs, of a bright yellow colour; the outer surfaces of the fore ~— and thighs the same colour as the back; Jeg, tarsus, and foo dark a colour; sides tuberculous and mottled with hone membrane of the tympanum very large, with a greenish pro- tuberance at its centre; dn sien, golden coloured line passes from its inferior wlio: across the scapula. Eyes very prominent, nearly approximate; snout contracted, and wit the ss te lip of a dark. sea-green colour; legs obsoletely and Bening banded with black. This. species atone the R. clamata, but differs in the colour of its throat, in the form, colour, and length of the snout, in the size and proximity of its eyes, in the colour and size of its tympanum, (which is double the size of the same part in the clamata,) in the proportion of its limbs, and last.y in the golden line across the scapulze Habit. As far as Peat resembling that of the clamata, me h less noisy and timi nhabit Pennsylvania. ar, 4. Saige ee (Le Conte, Ann. of the Lyc. ‘ad Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. 1. no. ix.) This species I had ee under the name ae pasdalis: Leopard frog. ni) New Species of Bairucian Repiiles. Char. essent. General colour dark cineritious above, white beneath, lighter on the snout, flanks, and extremities ; interior surface of the limbs yellowish; a row of dark green spots on each side of the spine extending the whole length of the back ; two other longitudin al rows on the flanks ; ; posterior extremi- ties striped with broad, transverse, greenish lines or bands. Dimensions. Len th of the body three inches; of the pos- terior ee four inches pripiadanr’: breadth of the ace onigcles a dark green spot on the inner and. upper surface of the orbits, they ‘k coloured line on each side of the snout, extending fain the nostrils to the eyes; a silver coloured line, or cuticular fold, extending from the orbit on each side along the back to the thighs, inclosing the dorsal spots ; thigh, leg, and tarsus striped with broad, transverse, nish bands; a row of spots on the sides of the nding from the henge to the thighs ; another irregular row r spots beneath; anterior extremities spotted ;- hind feet ¢ completely webbed all the toes with tubercles on the inner surfaces of the joints ; body smooth, or, when viewed with a glass, embossed with fine tubercles ; snout rather pointed ; tympanum small, rather circular. Habit. Very active, timid, leaping to great distances, leav- ing the water in search of insects, always found in or near to ponds, &c.; diffusing a rank odour; the slime which covers the skin is more excoriating se that of other frogs ; appear early in April; are not very noisy. Inhabit ponds, ditches, im of the middle states; common in the vicinity of Philadelphia.* Sp. 5. Rawa utricularius. -) Char. essent. Colour dark oliyaceous-green above, white beneath ; with suboval blackish spots scattered over the back ; 2 vocal vesicle on each side of the neck; legs and at thighs with a few blackish bands. _ *if the i zebra, aphortg described in Nicholson’s Encyclopedia, isi * to represent es, the name is pre-occupied. Vide Shaw, Gen. . vol, 3. pt. aie Vew Species of Buiracian Repiiles. Gl Dimensions. Length of the body about three inches ; of the hind legs more than four inches escription, Dark olivaceous-green above, spotted with suboval dots; white or pale yellow beneath; snout small and angular; head rather fattened: a greenish vocal bladder, extending on each side of the inferior jaw and crossing the arms, in the male; in which respect this species resembles the R. typhonia, of Surinam, but is very different in its colour and markings. Inhabit Pennsylvania and tole fk ae Oe Sp. 6. Rana halecina. (Daudin.) _R. pipiens. Schneider, Schreber, Shaw. R. aquatica, Catesby, p. 70. v Shad frog. Bartram, ‘ta. x. America, p- 274. R. ocellata? Kalm’s Trav. in N. America, vol. 2 p. 88; who says that the Swedes one thea siPhoapetee ser or herring-hoppers, from. their making their appearance early in the spring, at the commencement of the herring season. Char. extent. Colour light cinereus above, white beneath ; marked on the ag hae Pees of the Peay! with sitet green bloiches, sand dispose, ae occasions! lo; b sha marked with three or four ak: toes fereeaiied op a rose-coloured tumefaction ; palate of the mouth with two mid- dle serrated eminences ; transverse eminences smal] ; the pos- terior nares opening in cavities. This species in many respects resembles the R. palustris, but is distinguished, ist, by its tympanum, which is much larger; 2d, by the colour ; 3d, by the number and arrangement of the blotches ; ; 4th, by the * A specimen preserved in spirits in the cabinet of io: Philadelphia hed. of Nat, Se. is choret 4 labelled R. halecina. 62 New Species of Batracian Reptiles. elongated form of the body, snout, legs, and toes; Sth, by the posterior nares, which are much larger, and open between two transverse palatine ridges in this species, there being but a singe ridge in the palustris. wie : abit and locality. These are active hunters, and travel a considerable distance from the water; are common in the vicinity of Philadelphia, in ponds, canals, and marshes he following species have not hitherto been well described from the living animal. _ Sp. 7. Rana pipiens. (Linn.) Bull-frog. Bartram, Catesby, Brown, Kalm. R. maxima. Catesby, Carolin. vol. 2. p. 72. pl. 72. _ R. catesbeiana. Shaw, Gen. Zool. vol. 2. part 1. p. ~-.” t FO. : Char. essent. Brown cinereus above, whitish beneath; but- tocks mottled; arms and legs striped with black; head and fore part of the body more or less green. Dimensions. Length of the body from six to ten inches; of the hind legs from eight to twelve inches. Description. Eyes very prominent, iris golden mottled with black ; tympanum large, brownish, with a semilunar border posteriorly, extending anteriorly to the eye. Internal border of the upper jaw serrated, covered with the upper lip; within this Bier is a semilunar ridge ; palate divided by a trans-~ verse ridge, interrupted in the middle by two serrated emi- nences; borders of the lower jaw not serrated, notched ante- riorly ; colour above cinereus-brown, or deep olive-green, beneath dirty white; throat greenish-yellow; exterior surface of the extremities, or legs, irregularly striped with black. Habit. This unwieldy animal frequents ponds, ditches, marshes, lakes, and canals; is exceedingly gluttonous, swal- lowing young chickens, aquatic birds, small frogs, and tadpoles. The late Mr. Bartram states, that, on whipping one, it vomited forth three live frogs of considerable size; when confined and starved, they have been known to attempt swallowing each other; they are most destructive to fish ponds; seldom leave. the water for any length of time. Their voice is harsh, some- what resembling the suppressed voice of the bull; hence their vulgar name, “ bull-frog.??7 When taken, they frequent! utter a cry like the squeaking of a rabbit: when whipped, they cry like a child. They appear early in April, but are not heard to make much noise until the weather becomes warm, or during the season of their amours. when they may be _New Species of Batracian Reptiles. 63 heard at the distance of a mile, more particularly during the silence of the night. This species is not known by the name of “ sha ”’ as was stated by Daudin; that name being applied to the halecina and palustris: though I haye not ob- served that any one species makes its appearance much earlier than the others. When immersed in spirits, this frog changes to a lively green, with a stripe along the back;.in which state it was figured by Daudin. Inhabit the middle states ; very common near Philadelphia. Sp. 8 Rana clamata. (Daudin.) Char. essent. Colour above dusky cinereus, beneath whitish; snout more or less green. Dimensions. Length of the body three inches; hind legs four inches and two tenths. Diy ie oe Description. (Male.) Body above dark cinereus, approach- ing to green, tuberculous; snout green; beneath the throat, breast, and interior of the fore legs, bright yellow ; tympanum large; longitudinal folds of the back not extending the whole length of the body, and of a light colour; the belly and inte- vior of the legs white; thighs and legs obsoletely banded or - spotted with black; sides more or less hg ie with black ; buttocks mottled. (Female rather larger, gether white beneath.) abit. Noisy; generally crying just as it leaps into the water, and skimming over the surface previous to diving; screaming when caught in most instances; very active and tenacious of life. A dog of Mr. Bartram’s having accident- ally swallowed one of these animals, it was observed to strug- le and to cry piteously for at least half an hour, to the great liversion of the spectators, and no small confusion of the dog, who was at a loss to comprehend this species of intestinal ighter, and alto- uence. Inhabit the middle states; the most common of all our frogs. a eS Sp. 9. Rawa ocedlata, (Linn.) aes . maxima virginiana. Seba. R, pentadactyla. Linn, Gmel. Argus frog. Shaw, Gen. Zool, vol. 2. pt. 1. p. 108, e 34. Grunting frog. Bartram, Tray. in N, Amer. p, 272. ‘This bade is badly figured by Daudin from a specimen in spirits. I have not observed this specimen in a living state : it is very doubtful whether they exist north of Charleston. 64. - New Species of Batracian Reptiles. Char, essent. In form and size resembling the “ pipiens.” Body above brownish or greenish, with irregular deeper co- loured spots; a small cuticular fold extends from the eye to above the flank; body beneath whitish, granulated under the belly and thighs; round brownish spots, surrounded with a clear teint, upon the flanks, buttocks, and thighs; fingers and toes furnished with small callosities beneath each articulation. of the phalanges. ; Inhabits Florida and Mexico. Sp. 10. Rana melanota. (Rafinesque, Annals of Nature. first annual number, 1820. Char. essent. Back olivaceous-black; a yellow streak on the sides of the head; chin, throat, and inside of the legs, whitish with black spots; belly white without spots; eyes large, iris gilt-violet; anterior feet four free toes; hind feet five palmated toes. . mensions. Total length two and a half inches. Inhabit Lake Champlain and Lake George: vulgar name Black-frog. ANA grunniens, (Daudin.) ‘Rana fusea, aut subrubra, luteo post oculos maculata.’? This species, which Daudin - erroneously refers to the ete Bartram, J believe to be the R. oculata ; it is most probably not a native of North merica, A New Species of Hyla. Hyia erucialis.—Char. essent. Above dark green or slaty, beneath yellowish; head broad and flat; eyes prominent; a ae crucial groove on the back of the neck; hind legs very ong. . : umensions. Length of the body three and a half inches; of the hind legs, five and a half inches; breadth of the head one inch four tenths. ~ Description. General colour above slaty, beneath yellow- ish; head very broad and flat; mouth large; top of the head scabrous ; a curved, scabrous, cuticular fold, extending back- wards the whole breadth of the occiput from ear to ear; a similar fold extending from each eye to the nasal apertures: the latter are projecting; a scabrous eminence above each ympanum; a deep sulcus extends across the back of the DP Fiemarks en Art. X. Vol. IX. p. 288. > neck, crossed by a smaller longitudinal groove ; fore feet ro- ust; hind feet exceedingly long, with five toes webbed to the - last joint; soles yellow tuberculated; tubercles at the end of e toes large and flattened. . Inhabit Jamaica: presented by Mr. Betton of German rown. ra ) i SETS Arr. VIIIl.—Remarks occasioned )y Art. X. Vol. IX. p. 288. - In his account of the appearance of the insect, which ea/ out of a table of fir, Mr. Fogzo seems to maintain that the egg was not deposited in the tree, but © that the larva pene- trated the tree in.order to prepare for becoming a chrysalis.” I am not certain that this is the meaning of Mr. F., because he implies just before that insects do from instinct deposit their eggs in the appropriate place for the animal to undergo its changes. The general solution of the phenomenon by Mr. . is probably correct; but the other notion does not seem authorized by fact. The egg was doubtless deposited in the trer, whatever were the causes which prevented the earlier developement of the perfect animal. In the Literary Philosophical Repository, published at Middlebury, Vi. .816 I gave some account of the fact of bugs eating eut of a table of appletree, the property of Mr. P. S. Put- nam of this town. The last bug appeared in 1614; two others several years before. The place of the last was near- est tothe heart of the tree, and all of them made their course along the grain between the cortical layers. The apple-tree of which the table was made, had then been cut down twenty- - eight years,-and the bug was covered by thirty cortical lay- ers besides those of the sap-wood, which had been cut off. Allowing ten cortical layers for the sap-wood, the egg must have been deposited forty years before the tree was cut down, and sixty-eight years before the insect emerged into light. Now there can scarcely be a doubt that the egg which - produced the last insect was deposited before the others, es- pecially as there were several cortical layers between them, and its developement was consequently retarded by some a Remarks on Art. X, Vol. 1X. p. 288. cause which did not affect the others in so great a degree. t should be remarked that the insects emerged in a few weeks after their eating began to be heard, and that none of them eat more than three inches in length. I have just ex- amined the table of Mr. Putnam again, and can discover no appearance of the insects having eat intothe wood. An ex- amination for the same object was made by Mr. P. at the time the insects appeared. The form of the insect, so far as { recollect, was similar to that of which a figure is given by Mr. F. ; it was doubtless'a species of Urocerus. Now, although a part of the passage ‘may have been eaten by the insect before it became a chrysaiis, aud some acci- dental cause may have retarded the appearance of the last insect beyond the usual period peculiar to the’ species; which catise may have affected the egg, or the larva, or the chrysalis; there can be no doubt that the egg was originally deposited i in the wood of the tree. Many insectsare furnish- ed with efficient instruments for piercing the substances in whieh they are led by an over-ruling hand under the opera- tion of instinct to deposit their eggs. The cause which ope- rated to retard the changes ofthe last insect, may also have prevented the developement of the others long beyond the usual time. In the case of these insects we have no proof that any part of the passage was formed by the larva. A particular knowledge of the insect is necessary to determine the point. .The larva of insects, though often most vora~- cious, are not always so; as we know in the case of the lo- cust, grasshopper, and others. Se ee Dr. Hare’s improved. Eudiometers. ea _ CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, MECHANICS, &e: Ane. 1X.—An Accouat of some Eudiometers of an Impr * Construction.. By Rosert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. — . In the ‘dacoud volume of the American Journal of Science, T published an aceount of some Eudiometers, operating by a meehanism which, previously, had not been employed in Eu- _ diometry. A graduated rod, sliding intoa tube through a col- lar of leathers, soaked in lard, and compressed by a screw. so as to be perfectly air tight, was employed to vary the ca- pacity of the tube, and at the same time to be a measure of the quantity of air, or of any other gas, consequently drawn in or expelled. About one-third of the tube was occupied ay the sliding rod. The remainder, being recurved, and converging to a perforated apex, was of a form convenient for withdrawing measured portions of gas from vessels inverted over water, or mercury. ere were two forms of the sliding rod Eudiometer, one designed to be used with nitric oxide, or with liquids absorb- ing oxygen; the other, with explosive mixtures. The latter differed from the. Eudiometers for explosive mixtures previ- ously invented, in the ¢ontrivance for exploding the gases, as well as in the mode for measuring them; a wire ignited by galvanism being substituted for the electric spark, as the -means of infammation. T now send you drawings of several Eudiometers, operating upon the principle of those above alluded to, with some mod- ifications suggested by experience. Fig. 1. represents a hydro-oxygen Eudiometer, in which the measurements ate made by a sliding rod, and the explosions are effected by the galvanic ignition of a platina wire, as in an instrument former- ly described, excepting, that the method then employed of cementing the platina wire, in holes made through the glasg, 68 Dy. Hare’s Improved Eudiomeiers. having proved insecure, a new and unobjectionable mention has been advpied. A Fig. 1. WW. In the instrument represented re the preceding cut, the igniting wire is soldered into the summits of the two brass wires (WW), which pass through the bottom of the socket (5). parallel to the axis of the glass recipient (G), within which they are seen. One of the wires is soldered to the socket, the other is fastened by means of a collar of leathers, packed by a screw, so that it has no metallic communication ‘with the other wire, unless through the filament of platina, by which they are visibly connected sags and which | have already called the igniting wire. The glass has a capillary orifice at the apex (A), which by means of a lever and spring (appa- rent in the drawing) 1s closed, unless when the pressure of the spring is counteracted by one of the fingers of the ope- rator. The sliding rod (seen at R) is eccursiely graduated 10 about 320 degrees So easy is it to wonbpulite with this instrument, that any number of experiments may be performed in as many min- utes, The ignition of the platina wire, is caused by either of four calorimotors, each consisting of four plates of zinc, and of five of copper. They are all suspended te one beam, as as my he seen in fig. 2. following. { Se ee EEE —OOOewrdmLmL VCO Dr. Hare’s Improved Eudiometers. 68 ' aH Tut RAEN OA LT it Dire ce ma UL AN ay th Ts, “Fwo furrows are made in the wood of the beam, one on each side. These are filled by pouring into them melted solder, after having caused a metallic communication between one furrow and all the copper surfaces of all the four calori- motors; also between all their zinc surfaces and the other fur- row. ‘The acid for exciting the plates is contained in the jug below, which may be so uplifted as to surround with aeid either of the calorimotors, _ Hence, while one is in operation, the others are by repose, recovering their igniting power. Fig. a. Or by using a vessel (Fig. 3.) large enough to receive, and containing acid enough to excite, two o! the calorimotors at once. the igniting power may be doubled. The vessels for holding the acid are made of copper, covered with a cement of rosin, rendered tough by an adequate admixture of mutton suet. 70 lor. Hare’s Inproved Eudiometers. In order to use the Eudiometer, it must be full of water. and free from air bubbles, and previously proved air tight,” the rod being introduced to its hilt, and the capillary orifice open, in consequence of the pressure of the finger on. the lever by which it is usually closed. . Being thus prepared, Iet us suppose that it were desirable to analyze the atmosphere. Draw out the rod 200 measures; a bulk of air, equivalent to the portion of rod thus withdrawn, will of course, enter atthe © capillary opening; after which the lever must be allowed to close it. Introduce the recipient into.a bell glass of hydro- gen, and opening the orifice, draw out the rod about 100 de- grees; close the orifice, and withdraw the instrument from the water. Apply the projecting wires oe severally to the solder (in the two furrows in the beam, fig. 2.) communicating with the poles of the four calorimotors, then raise the jug so as that it may receive one of them, and subject it to the acid. By the consequent ignition of the wire, the gas will explode. The instrument being plunged again into the water of the. pneumatic cistern, so that the eapillary orifice, duly opened, may be just below the surface; the.water will enter and fill up the vacuity caused by the condensation of the gases. The residual air being excluded by the oe. the deficit will be equivalent in bulk, to the e portion of the rod remaining with- out; and its ratio to the air subjected to analysis, may be known by inspecting the graduation. In the case of the gaseous mixtures above described, ie deficit has, in my experiments, been 126 measures. Where- — *-Fo prepare the instrument and prove it to be im order, depress the ian receiver below the surface of the water in the prema pep the capillary orifice being uppermos of its tube, and — it ae so tig at wa “trae, a partion of water may pass in, and a portion of air may pa uring this = — the instrument should be occasionally held it in i a ‘a postare, as the air may rise into: the a be aos ga which its ex its ts place ‘This degree of Pk nn is easily sustaifed in a well-made cg ae iy * en Br. Hare's Improved Eudiometers. 7 as, according to the theory of volumes, it ought to be only 120. But I have not as yet operated with hydrogen, purer than it may be obtained from the zinc of commerce; and some allowance must be made:for the carbonic ‘acid of the air, which may be condensed with the jaquetias vapour pen duced by the oxygen and hydrogen ‘In the invaluable work om the Prinetiles of Chemistry, lately published by Dr. .Thoimson, it is suggested, that-in order to obtain correct results in analyzing thevair with the hydro-oxygen Eudiometer, more than 42 per cent. of hydro- gen should not enter into the mixture. | am ‘not as:well satisfied of the correctness of this: impression, as | am general- ly with the results.of the wonderful: industry. and ingenuity displayed in the work above-mentioned If oxygen is to be examined by hydrogen, or hydrogen by oxygen, we must of course have a portion of each in vessels over the pneumatic cistern, and successively take the requisite portions of them, and proceed as in the case of atmospheric air. , fig. 1. represents a glass with wires ‘inserted through small tubulures, in the usual mode for passing the electric spark ; should this method of producing ignition be deemed desirable for the sake of varying the’experiments, or for the purpose of illustration. This glass screws on to the socket. , the other being removed. ‘The wires (WW) remain, but should be of such a height as not to interfere with’ the pas- sage of the electric spark; and the wager! is operated with as usual, excepting the employment o ma- chine, or electrophorus, to ignite the pineont pte in lieu of a calorimotor. . For the travelling chemist, the last men- tioned mode of ignition may be preferable, because an elec- trophorus is more portable than a galvanic apparatus. — damp weather, or in a laboratory where there i bh — matic cistern, or amid the moisture arising from the respira- tion of a large class, it is often impoem to accomplish ex- ioc by electricity. * 73 Dr. Hare's Inproved Eudiometers. Or THE Merourrat oe, Roo Evpiometer, with A TER GavGeE. The Eudiometer which | have described, though satisfac- tory in its results, and in its conveniency, when used wit water, has not been found’so when used over mere: ry. The great weight of this fluid caused-the ind:catio ts to vary in con- sequence of variations of position, during manipulation, too slight to be avoided. The instrument represented in the fol- lowi.g cut, (fig. 4.) is furnished with a water gauge, which being appealed to, enables us to render the density of the gases within, in equilibrio with the air wivhout. Hence we can effect their measurement with great accuracy. Fig. 4 4 *, er lin yer et ae BE es Dr. Hare's Improved Eudiometers. 73 Let us suppose that this Eudiometer has been thoroughly filled with mercury, the sli rod being drawn out to its greatest extent; and that it is ‘firmly fixed over a mercurial cistern in the position if which it is represented in the draw- ing, the little funnel-shaped part at the bottom, des ending into the fluid to the depth of half an inch. Abave this part is seen a cock (C), the key of which, in addition to the per- foration usual in Legon has another, at. right angles. to, and oe in, the ordinary, perforation. When the lever (L) attached to the key of this cock is “ines as it is seen in the drawing, the tube ye the sliding ‘rod communicates with “the recipient, but not with the mer- cury of the reservoir. Supposing the lever anil through a ‘quarter of a circle, to the other side of the glass, the tube in which the rod — will communicate at the same time vibe _ rahavins the reservoir. By means of the ), the passe ‘between the gauge and the: recipient | is opened. at shut at pleasure. sidiary to this Sidiocoa, sioner te provided with fod and aang i §! similar,* excepting its being shovter: (See fig * In order to ensure. accuracy in the measures of gas, made by the subsidiary Eudiometer, it is necessary to attend to the following ‘pre- first i cautions. ce, the instrument must d air t, ‘thet Botionagter tor me sath the =n ee ae — en Me hese he ei of the tubes, always on ble of air, the effect is very much augmented. The E be introduced into the vessel whence the gas is to be mw abet ten ‘per cent. more than is necessary being drawn in by opening the orifice and duly ae out the rod. The Eudiometer being lifted from the th as little change of position as possible, the red may be hg Vo. X,—No..1. om : Se poe 74 Dr. Hare's Improve! Exudiometers. Fig. 5. The method of analyzing atmospheric air by means of these instruments, is as follows. Supply the subsidiary Eudiome- ter with its complement of hydrogen gas, by introducing the apex of the glass recipient into a bell glass containig, over mercury, the ;:as in question, and drawing out the sliding rod, the orifice ‘being kept open only while above the surface of the mercury, and inside of the bell. The gauge cock (C, fig. 4.) of the principal Eudiometer being closed, and that which opens a communication between the recipient and the funnel F open, and the instrument ha been previously thoroughly filled es Pe id a > pce over the mercurial cistern, as al: g.Gtoduce into it. through the funnel, the gas fro hed | Sia ©“Sncluded in the subsidiary instrument (fig. 5); next shut off the communication with the mercurial cistern, re establish those between the recipient and the rod and gauge, and push the rod into its tube up to the hilt. The re-entrance of the rod, by raising the mercury into the recipient, forces the hy- in bubbles through the water of the gauge, and dis- a all the atmospheric air which it previously contained. ow shut the passage to the gauge, open that which commu- nicates through the funnel with the mercurial cistern, and draw out the rod to its utmost extent. Into the thus situated and prepared, introduce successively 100 mea- sures of hydrogen and 200 measures of atmospheric air, by “means of the subsidiary Eudiometer: then closing the pas- sage to the mercurial cistern, and opening the passage to the gauge, push in the rod, until the water in the gauge indicates that the remorse on the gases included is equivalent to that Of the external air. The gauge cock being closed, the gases are ready to be exploded. ‘The explosion is produced by galvanic ignition, as in the case of the Eudiometer for water Dr. Hares Improved Eudiometers. te (fig. 1 ): excepting _ deve of re the Eudiometer to the calorimotor, the circuit is established by lead -ods seve- rally sina to the patie poles, by gallows and screws. (see gg fig. 2.) One of the lead ae terminates in a piece of iron, immersed in the mercury, the other is fastened to the ‘inesiagd wire of the Eudiometer. Under these circum- stances, one of the calorimotors is surrounded with the acid contained in the jug, and an explosion almost invariably suc- ceeds. Before effecting the explosion, the number of the degrees of the sliding-rod, which are out of its tube should be noted; and it must afterwards be forced into the tube, in order to compensate the consequent condensation of the gases, as nearly as it can be ceaced e Pas water will rise in one of the gauge tubes, and sink in the other. Other liquids may be substituted for water, in the - gau.e. when de irable.. In addition to the principal collar. of leathers, and screws » for rendering that collar compact, there isin the’ mercurial FKudiometers, a smail hollow cylinder, (a sine ofa aie rel,) with au additional collar of cork for confining oil about . the rod, where it enters the collar of leathers; otherwtse in | operating with mereury, the leathers soon become so dry as.« fo permit air or mereury to pass by the ro dit may be proper to point out, that in operations with, the - hydro-oxygen Eudiometer, accurate measurement is necessa~ ry, only, with respect to one of the gases. In analyzing an ~ inflammable gas by oxygen gas, or oxygen by hydrogen gas, it is Only necessary that “the quantity of the gas. which is to. be.analyzed, and the deficit caused by the explosion, should. be ascertained with accuracy. . The other. gas, wh must — he used i in excess, sometintes greater, sometimes less, must, — in using the Mercurial Eudiometer, be made to occupy the | gauge. In analyzing the air, or any mixture containing oxygen, the gauge is filled with hydrogen gas, as already stated ; but, mm examinng inflammable gas, the atmospheric air may be ‘left in the gauge, as its only active qualities are those of oxygen gas Figs. 6 and 7 represent those forms of the sliding-rod Eudiometer, which I have found most serviceable for experi- ments: with nitric oxide gas; with the solutions of sulphurets 5 or those of sulphate, or muriate of irun, saturated with nitri¢ : Fig. 6 | ~ Dr. Hare’s Improved Eudiometers. P Fig. 7. The receiver (fig. 8.) shaped like the small end of an egg, is employed in these experiments, being mounted so as to slide up and down upon a wire. splat acs plese ‘This vessel being filled with water, and immersed in the pneumatic cistern, the apex being just even with the surface of the water, one hundred measures of atmospheric air, anda like quantity of nitric oxide, are to be successively introduced. he residual air may then be drawn into t udiome- ter, and ejected again into the receiver through the water, to promote the absorption of the nitrous acid produced. Lastly, it may be measured by drawing it into the instrument, and ejecting it into she egg-shaped receiver (fig. 8.), or into the air, when the quantity of it will appear, from the number of degrees which the sliding-rod enters during the ejection. That in this.way gas may be measured with great accuracy, may be demonstrated by transferring any number of measures, taken * 78 General Reflections on Heat. separately, men the semi-oval receiver, and subsequently re- ee The Eadiemeters (figs. 6 and 7.), with the accompanying semi-oval glass vessel. (fig. '.) may be empioyed with the dissolved sulphurets, or with solutions of iron, impregeated with nitric oxide in the following way. Let a smail phial, with a mouth large enough freely to admit the point of the Eudiometer, be fied with the solution to be used. Intro- duce into the bottle, over the pneumatic cistern, 300 mea- sures of the air or gas to be examined. Transfer the bottle, still inverted, to a small vessel containing water, or a quantity of the absorbing fluid used in the bottle, adequate to covet the mouth of the phial, and compensate the absorption. When there has been time enough for the absorption rye be completed, transfer the residuum to the receiver (fig 8.), measure as in the case of nitric oxide. soon as 1 can make a sufficient number of ge observations with the various Eudiometers, of whic ave now given an account, I will send them to you for soblichtas ArT. KcGeneral Reflections on Heat. To THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Dear § Tae following observations on heat, fovsied originally one of the concluding lectures of a course of chemical instruc- tion. I beg leave to retain the form in which it was address- ed to my pupils, on account of the difficulty I have experi- enced in attempting to mould the matter into the shape of an essay. | am induced to offer it for publication, not with the hope of instructing proficients in the science o istry, (who will find in it little that is new) but with the belief that it presents some considerations, which may be interesting to another class of your readers, who are not peneainy de- voted to this science. M oie ost re y ours, ; Maton ee gorbe elt Ke General Reflections on Heat. 79 LECTURE, &c. GENTLEMEN, I have several times asserted, that Heat is the most im- poriant agent in the Natural World,—at least of all those agents that come under the cognizance of the chemist. . Its influence over matter is surprisingly extensive; its effects _are exceedingly diversified. ‘[o the phenomena of Heat your attention was called at an early period of our course ; but it isonly at anadvanced siage of chemical studies, that one is qualified to appreciate the full importance of this agent. a us then takea general review of the effects of heat, as they are exhibited in combustion and natural temperature ; as the great source of power in the physical world ;. as con- trolling chemical phenomena ; and as allied with the princi- ple of life itself. 1. Fainiliarity with the process of Compustion, has brought us to behold it under its ordinary forms without emo- tion: Isay under its ordinary forms; for when it is present- ed to us under any unusual shape, we still contemplate it with delight and admiration. Among the numerous and di- versified experiments, that accompany a course of chemical lectures, | have never found any class appear to interest the spectators so much, as those attended by combustion, espe- cially when supported by oxygen. gas.. Indeed, the taper, which is the first object that arrests the infant eye ; the bon- fires, that raise such ecstasy in the days of childhood ; the illu- minated city, that proclaims the joys of peace; conspire to testify how pleasing is this spectacle to the eye of man. Exhibited also, as it sometimes is, in the burning of a forest by night, or in the conflagration of a city, where can we find objects that comprise more elements of the true sublime ? It is no wonder therefore, that to account for the pheno- mena of combustion, has been an object of long and earnest inquiry. Indeed the attempt to explain it formed almost the first philosophical theory, that was ever instituted to account ‘or a class of chemical. phenomena; and various other at- tempts, more or less successful, have been made in later times. Combustion was at first accounted for by ascribing it to the agency of Phlogiston, a name given to a supposed principle $0 General Reflections on Heat. of inflammability, residing in combustible bodies. This ex- planation amounted to little more than to say, combustion is eaused by the principle of combustion. In the same manner we might account for the origin of light, by ascribing its phe- nomena to the Speowming principle ; which is obviously no explanation at all. € was no proof of the existence of sucha substance in intiatieable bodies as Phlogiston was sup- posed to be, and there were certain phenomena, already fa- miliar to you, which were inconsistent with the supposition that bodies lose an ingredient in their composition during combustion. When a more rigorous*mode of reasoning was introduced into our science, by those master spirits that laid its present foundations, the fallacy of this ae was fully perceived ; and the hypothesis would probably have been much sooner abandoned by its advocates, had not the discovery of hydrogenfurnished them with-a real substance, ‘which they could substitute for the unmeaning. phrase “ in- —— principle.” According to the Phlogistic theory, ‘thas ed, “combustion is owing to the separation of perdi ” Almost all those combustibles which burn with flame, do in fact contain hydrogen ; and flame, it is true, is commonly nothing more than burning hydrogen, either alone -orin combination with carbon. © Still there are conibustibtes, as phosphorus and sulphur; which burn with flame, and yet éoctinlar no hydrogen,— ase ee which are quite suflicient to overthrow the hypothesis, that combustion is owing to the separation of hydrogen. ~ Indeed, if it could be proved, that in all cases of combustion, hydrogen is separated. combustion itself would remain unaccounted for. This discovery would teach us what it ts that 1s burning, but it would not tell us whatmakes it burn. What would they say of hydrogen itself ’ Does that burn by the extrication of hydrogen? \t is evident that the burning of hydrogen, ar well as — of every other combustible, is an effect, a consequent, d endent on some cause which had not at that time been discovered ; for if hydrogen were admitted to be the substance on fire in every case of combustion, the — would still recur, what sets iton fire? what keeps it on The discovery of oxygen a8 led the way to the first ra- tional views that ever were entertained ‘respecting the cause of seers It ascertained the immediate agent on process depends. But in order to render the ob- iaialing which I propose to offer on Lavoisier’s Theory of General Reflections on Heai. Bi Combustion, more intelligible, it will be necessary to insti- tute the inquiry, When is a phystcal fact or phenomenon ad- eguately accounted for? Itis accounted for when it is shown to be similar to a number of other phenomena, which are al- ready arranged under a general fact, with which they are known to be invariably connected, and. which is therefore considered as their cause. Thus we account for the sound of a violin by classing it among those phenomena which are known to be invariably connected with vibrations of the air : and since this circumstance—naamely, vibrations of the air— has been found to be connected with all those cases of sound which have been investigated, we are led to believe that it is invariably connected with it, and therefore denominate it, universally, the cause of sound. It is evident that we account for the sound of the violin, merely by classing it among phenomena that are known to be connected with vi- brations of the air; for in this individual instance, we do not examine to see whether the air undergoes vibrations or not. If we proceed one step further and inquire why vibrations ef air upon the organs of hearing should produce the sensa- tion of sound, we are utterly unable to assign the reason: this inquiry leads us to ultimate causes, which are known to exist by their effects, but their existence is all that we can Jearn respecting them. In most cases before we reach the ultimate cause, we pass through a series of causes and effects, or antecedents and consequents, and deem each effect in order adequately accounted for, when we show its invariable connexion with its immediate antecedent. Thus we account for the movément of a steam-boat by the turning of the wheels in the water ; for the motion of the wheels, by the ascent and descent of the piston; forthe ascent and descent of the piston, by the elastic force of steam, aad its power of forming a vacuum by condensation ; and, finally, for the elas- ticity of steam, by the agency of heat. ‘This brings us to one of those general forces in nature, whose existence is known from their effects, but to which we can assign no an- tecedent. Here then our series of antecedents and conse- qe n ts, or causesand effects, terminates ; and we in vain look for a reason why heat should impart elasticity to steam. The principal difference between philosophers before and since the time of Lord Bacon, consists in the different order they would pursue in investigating phenomena like the foregoing. The ancient chemists would have begun at heat, and ae > Vou. X.—No. f. 1! a“ General Reficctions ov Heat. have endeavoured to deduce all the phenomena from reasou~ ing on the nalure of that agent; the modern chemists, pursu- ing the reverse order, end at beat, satisfied that they have ac- counted for each effect, when they have ascertained its inva- riable antecedent. e may assert in general, then, that a fact in chemistry i is adequately accounted for, when we have ascertained its in~ variable antecedent; but since the process. would be tedious to do this for every chemical change, by an analytical exam- ination of the result, we refer .each pease, change to a class of phenomena which it resembles, of w ee rn number have been examined, to show their saenarable con- nexion with their antecedent. Thus, when we hold melted lead over the fire ina ladle, we account for the dross that forms on its surface, by saying that the lead has combined with oxygen; not because we have, in this instance, ascer- tained the fact, but because its external appearance is suc as to justify usin classing it among similar phenomena, where the fact has been ascertained by actual experiment., This is another fact to’ show, that our explenations of phenomena are little else than mere classifications. ‘The same remark hold true in.every department of physics : we account for a phy- sical fact by assigning its ew cause or antecedent ; but we ascertain this, not sofrequently by actual experiment, as by reducing the fact in question to a class of phenomena, whose cause has been ascertained by actual experiment. . With these principles in view, let us now proceed to in- quire how far Lavoisier accounted for the phenomena of -[tappears to me, that Lavoisier must have been considered as ade equately accounting for combustion, pro- vided that the combination of oxygen with a base had always _ proved to be, as it appeared to him, an invariable antecedent to that process. In the progress of our, science, however, a number of examples of cpaladees have been discovered, in which no oxygen is present. Thus certain substances burn in an atmosphere of eulpbueatiog hydrogen, or chlorine, or iodine ; and even certain solids into which no oxygen seer as sulphur and -iron filings, or sulphur and copper filings, exhibit similar phenomena in their action on each other. Oxygen therefore has now lost its character of inva- riable autecedent, and its combination with inflammable bodies san pe longer be pronounced the cagse of combustiea. at . Ce a a SE RE Oe a Siete imac ee Tea a oa 2 Eee ose General Reflections on Heat. 83 it now rauks only as one among a class of agents, which by their combinations can produce that phenomenon. By the discovery of other similar or analogous bodies, oxygen, which before stood at the head of a genus, stands at present only at the head ofa species, although the cases of combustion in- eluded under it are far more numerous than_ those of all the other species, But Lavoisier, having observed that oxygen was absorbed in every process of combustion that fell under his notice, and that, in general, the vigour of the process was proportioned to the rapidity of the absorption, was justified in his infer- ence, that combustion is universally owing to a combination of oxygen with an inflammable base. Though we cannot now employ the term universally, yet the proposition is still true in all those instances adduced by. Lavoisier. ‘ _ If we are asked, however, why the absorption of oxygen should produce light and heat, and communicate to the in- flammable body the power of spontaneous and vehement con- sumption,—circumstances which chiefly characterize _ this process,—we may fairly reply, that we cannottell, and that we are not bound to tel). It is demanding of us to explain the connexion between the cause and the effect, which we are generally unable to do. ‘To call upon us to say why the ab- sorption of oxygen produces light and heat, is like calling combustion was the best that could possibly have been de- rived‘at the time when it was given, though subsequent dis- coveries have shown, that oxygen is not the anly agent in combustion. If we demand that the cause assigned for this henomenon shall explain the reason of the heat and light exhibited, this, and probably every other explanation of the same process, will be found inadequate; but if we deem it sufficient, in accounting for a physical fact, to specify its inva- riable antecedent, then we must admit that Lavoisier reduced by far the greater number of cases of combustion to a spe- cies under their proper head: that is, he accounted for all those cases of combustion which depend on the agencies of oxygen gas, though he failed to assign a cause which embraces not only these, but every other possible case in which this process occurs. In the present state of our knowledge, the phenomena of combustion admit of a higher classification, as 4. General Reflections on Heai. I shall attempt to show by and by ; but Lavoisier’s docirine will still be only limited and not disearded. When, however, we meet with a list of the-different theo- ries which have been proposed to account for the same thing, and see how each one supplanted all its predecessors, and was itselfsupplanted in its turn; when wesee, moreover, that the theory of Lavoisier, though at one time held to be a de- monstration, is nevertheless still deemed erroneous by some and inadequate by others; we are apt to imagine that this is no better than those that have gone before it, and that it will ere long share the same fate. But let us reflect, that Lavoisier differed from all his predecessors in the knowledge of oxygen, whose agency in most cases of combustion is un- questionable: that he reasoned from a known cause; they entirely from hypotheses and imaginary causes. We ar therefore by no means to distrust his explanation, because so many false explanations had gone before it. In order to show how much more confidence ought to be reposed in those who argue from facts than in those who ar- gue from hypotheses, Fontenelle, a French writer of great vivacity, borrows a happy illustration from the representa- tions of the stage. “ Let us imagine,” says he, “ all the sages d@ at an opera, the Pythagorases, Platos, Avis- totles, and all those great names which now-a-days make so much noise in our ears. Let us suppose that they see the flight of Phaeton as he is represented carried off by the winds; that they cannot see the cords to which he is attached; an that they are quite ignorant of every thing behind the scenes. It is a secret virtue, says one of them that carries off Phae- ton. Phaeton, says another, is compo «d of certain numbers, which cause him to ascend. A third ays, Phaeton has a certain affection for the top of the stage. Phaeton, says a fourth, is not formed to fly ; but he likes bet er to fly thun to leave the top of the stage empty, and a hundred other absurdi ties of the kind, that might have ruined the reputation of an- tiquity, if the reputation of antiquity for wisdom could have been ruined. At last come Descartes and some other mo- derns, who say, Phaeton ascends, because he is dr wn vy cords, and because a weight, more heavy than he, is descend- ing as a counterpoise.”* In the same manner | regard La- * Brown’s Lectures on Intellectual Philosophy, i, 104. General Reflections on deal. $a yoisier as the philosopher who argued for the ascent of the gure, from a knowledge of the machinery that was worked behind the scenes, but which was entirely concealed from those who had attempted the same explanation before ne then we admit that it is a true mode of reasoning, a sure progress in science, to collect a number of individual phenomena into a. class and arrange them under @ common antecedent, we must allow great merit to Lavoisier for having discovered, that the absorption of oxygen was the antecedent of nearly all the known eases of combustion. If, however, we demand something more in. explanation of this class of phenomena than the discovery of their invariable antecedent, we may pronounce all chemical facts as still unexplained, and may rest assured that they will for ever remain so. Sometimes the immediate wechegralesi ee may be traced one, two, three, or four links back. but the chain will uniformly ter- 8 ut humble views of the power of man to the besle of Omnipotence, we may rest contented with the fast fact in the series, that we have ascertained, and instead of vainly attempting to penetrate into -secrets which were never designed for. us to know, we may now examine to see to what manifold purposes the knowledge of causes that we have already acquired, may be applied. “ Newton stopped short at the last-fact which he could Weare in the solar sys- tem; that ali bodies were deflected to all other bodies, ( 1g to certain regulations of mice and quantity of matter. When told that he had done nothing in philosophy ; that he had discovered no cause, and that to merit any praise, he must show how this deflection was produced; he said, he knew no more than he had told them; that he saw nothing causing this deflection; and was contented with having de- scribed it so exactly, that a good matheinatician could now make tables of. the planetary motions, as accurate as he pleased, and with hoping, in a few years, to have every pur. pose of navigation and. philosophical curiosity com»letel answered.” (Life of Newton, Encyclopedia.) Thus th: most ignorant man knows as well as the greatest philosophex that light is essential to vision, and the la ter knows but one fact more jn the series ; all beyond isas incomprehensible tc him as to the other. This additional fact i is, that light ena: bles us to see external objects. by its power of undergoing re- fraction in passing through Jeases, so as to form au image of a6 General Reflections on Heat. them on the retina of the eye. But the knowledge of this fact has enabled him, with the telescope, to carry the range of his dim eye beyond the stars; or, with his microscope, to read, with no less astonishment, the wondrous volume of ter- restrial nature. Who does not ‘know that heat will convert water into steam? Yet it was the philosopher only who, by studying, all the circumstances or laws of this change, taught w, with this substance, to bear the loftiest ship through the waves, and to disembowel the earth itself. ° But Lavoisier; ambitious to account for every thing. and not, like Newton, being ready to rest satisfied with the dis- covery of causes merely, without attempting to explain their connexion with the effects which they produced, proceeded to attempt an explanation of the reason why the combination of oxygen with a combustible base should produce light and heat. This he did; by referring it to the condensation which the gas was suppo osed to undergo, its base only entering into combination, while the light .and heat that were befor re united with it, were set at liberty. Condensation, howev is by no means an invariable antecedent to the — “of light and heat in combustion. In the course of our experi- ments, gentlemen, you bave witnessed a number of shaliples ‘of this process where the evolution of light and heat was'at- tended witha great rarefaction of the ingredients. I need only refer you to the inflammation of gunpowder, to the ex- plosion of the fulminatiny powders, to’ the action of nitric. acid on spirits of turpentine, and of the solid nitrates on the metals, as that of nitrate of copper on tin foil, or of nitrate of potash on melted tin. But even if it could have beea shown, that condensation is always an antecedent of light and heat in combustion, it would only be ascertaining a general fact exactly analogous to this, that oxygen is an invariable antece- dent to the same process. We can no more assign areason why condensation should produce light and heat, than why the combination of oxygen with a combustible base should do it. The idea that the heat is mechanically forced out by compression, like water from a sponge, is “a crude idea,” wholly incompatible with the known subtilty of that agent; and, moreover, that there is no necessary connexion between condensation and the production of Jight and heat, is manifest from the fact, that light and heat sometimes, as in ) several casés cited above, accompany rarefaction. Greperal Reflections on Heai. 87 n the present state of our kKnowledye, since we have dis- cdeéred that oxygen is not the only supporter of combustion, we are prepared for a new classification of these phenomena, and must search out some circumstance in which all the cases of combustion agree. e shall find that they all agrec ina rapid’ combination of chemica! elements. In some cases, as in the fulminating powders, considerable masses enter into new combinations instantaneously ; in all other cases of ac- tual combustion, the union of the elements is more or less rapid ; and finally, itisa general law, that the union of the same elements, as oxygen and iron for instance, will take place, when slow, without, and when rapid, with combustion. In order therefore to express the only invariable antecedent, see no objection: to our defining this precess, with Professor CHEMICAL acTIoN. It has been objected to this definition, ‘that it explains nothing ;’ and that is true; it does not ex- plain, or attempt to explain, why combustion should result from intense chemical action; it merely states the fact, that this is, so far as we can see. the invariable antecedent under which the several species of combustion may be united ina class The ledigth: into which we have been drawn in reviewing the important subject. of combustion, has made us almost lose sight of the other topics which we proposed to consider, in our general reflections on heat. Let. ci now pees this agent in its ecreesis Bo N ATURAL Sauuns ‘We can nab find any thing in the Papier woeld. more evincive of design, or more indicative of the wisdom of the Creator, than the means used to keep up that uniform temperature, which, with some slight variations, is constantly maintained at the ‘surface of the earth. You are well ac- quainted with the power of heat to be yew meets by _ tural means far beyond what mortals could endure; and y are aware also of the fatalleffects which would pial rag se reduction of temperature below its ordinary limits. But, ac- customed to see the variations of temperature on the surface of the earth limited to so small a scale, you might content your- selves with thinking that this was the hatural ¢ course of things, without ever taking the trouble to inquire, whether any ma- $3 General Reflections on Heat: chinery of the natural world were adjusted oa eameceers to support this equilibrium of temperature. jut this happy adjustment was by no means accidental; we can even see the springs by which it is effected. In the first place, heat manifests the strongest tendency to diffuse itself in every direction. Let us concentrate it in any given spot, and it flies off with inappreciable velocity ; and, unless the intensity be ae by constant additions of heat, that spot or body shortly becomes reduced to the same temperature with Ristcianlian bodies. Upon this agent itself, therefore, is impressed a character, that — the violence which it seems constantly prone to exe the second place, the ain, by its elasiny, affords the means of conveying off all excesses of heat. This cause operates in maintaining the — of temperature on a most extensive scale ee its action, at one time, in gentle gales and breezes; i ane in the northern blast; at another, in dreadful hurricanes, that sweep around this solid ball. All these, whatever partial evils they nivalis contribute to this grand benevolent design; to eep ‘t the element of fire within its own narrow ds. In the third place, the vast collections of water, which cover so great a part of the rae furnish another means of regulating the temperature of the earth. So happily does it conduce to this object, that were the art of navigation still unknown, we might fancy that lakes and seas and oceans, were made on yh to be reservoirs of heat in winter, and fountains of cool breezes in summer. The multiform changes of state which water undergoes, including congela- 4on and liquefaction, evaporation and condensation, are all made subservient to the same end. These operations are the special barriers which Providence has set on the terres- trial part of the globe to check sudden excesses of heat and cold; and few instances of the proofs of intelligent =e the works of creation, among all those happy illustrat which Dr. Paley has collected, everstruck me as: more con vineing than these. On the approach of a cold night, it is pleasing to watch the thermometer: and note the progress of its descent, oe sudden change of weather has caught the mercury ata high degree. You may see it descend rapidly to the freezing point; and, were you unaccusiomed ‘o the result, you might imagine that a most terrible frost was ‘-hand. But the mercury no sooner reaches the «freezing Generad Refleciions an Heai. .) point than its course is. suddenly checked; congelation itself is made to contribute a portion of heat sufficient to mitigate the severity of the impending frost; and hours, in- stead of minutes, are occupied in carrying the mercury through a few degrees below. In like manner, it is pleasing to remark, how retarded are its movemeuts, as it approaches the extremes of heat. A hot day is _passing over our heads, although, as often happens, the morning was cool and —_ perate. In two hours, perhaps, we have seen the ter rise from 50 to 80 degrees. Will the heat of two cele carry it forward 30 degrees more to 110? Experience alone ‘could ensure us against the so of such a_ consuming fire... But what prevents it?. The evaporation of water from the: entire surface of the earth, is now set on foot, with hur- r slbecaniely prone, are so nicely balanced, that, among many thousand degrees that lie between the known sas of heat and cold, the whole range of natural temperature is only 90 or 100 degrees. Pleasant and delightful as is a little space in the vast scale of temperature, where all animals so securely dwell, and where the flowers of spring bud and blossom and the fruits of autumn are matured, still it lies, like a small island in a sandy desert, between two regions desolation and death, which seem about to blast it, on the ene hand, with withering frosts, or to consume it, on the other, with devouring fire. The eauses which we have just enumerated are those effectual. aus that Omni has placed, to guard this blooming animated spot against the dangers that encompass it. And among all the inn causes thatare continually at work to disturb this equilibrium of temperature, we may rest assured that no eoenget irregi- larity will occur, until, in the sublime language of Young, : «« All the formidable sons of fire, _ Eruptions, earthquakes, comets, poo gers play Their various engines ; all at Their blazing magazines, epee by stor This pure terrestrial citadel of man. Vau. X.—Né. 1. {2 90 General Reflections on Heai. an Itis an idea which has often struck me most foreibly, I have often wondered at not seeing it more noticed in ba * that heat is the ultimate source of all the grand ex- hibitions of Power in the natural world. This is the imme- diste agent in producing elasticity; and nearly all the exhi- bitions of power in nature arise, either directly or indirectly, from clastic eriform matter suddenly expanding itself. Hence the winds that roar through the sky and convulse the ocean; hence the earthquake and volcano, that shake and rend the solid globe ; Hepes the desolating whirlwind that bears the tempest on its win Bat it is not in thiedé sublime: and dstonishing scenes of nature alone, that we become acquainted with the energies of this omnipotent agent. Is not every thing great in art, that depends on motion, also the offspring of its power? Among all the ministers of art, none is to be compared in energy ‘with the elastic powerof steam. M. Dupin, a distinguish- ed member of the French Institute, bas recently a d the Pigtthabin forcible illustration of the potency of this agent. apa pyramid of Exypt required for its erection, the of 100.000 ae a ie twenty years. Its weight is esti- a fair calculation, the ‘steam petra at work i in 1 England, would constitute a force ad- uate to the accomplishment of the same object in con beeek To bave raised the pyramid in eighteen hours, at the rate at which the Egyptians proceeded, would have te- quired 974,000,000 of men; to man the engines in England are required hot more ‘than 36,000 hands. By the aid of ‘the steam engine, therefore, one man can now accomplish as mueh labour as could have been performed ‘by 27,055 Egyptians, aided by such machinery as they could command. Until a very recent périod, Lord Bacon seems to have been ‘the only philosopher, who had fornied any adequate concep- tions of the dominion which man would ultimately acquire over matter, by studying the laws by which it is controlled. His Novum Organum is full of anticipations. of wad the pre- ree) Li. de ‘ *The idea, howeved, did not scape Black and Foureroy, both of whom made forcible of it. aa taving access to the work of Dupin, the writer is dependent extracts or the data on which the canes statements are founded on in public Journals. ee ee ee ore General Reflections on Heai. 91. sent is a bright reality. But whence does steam derive this power? What renders its force so omnipotent, that, asin Per- kins’s engine, a bubble can lift a ship over the waves! ? Lan. swer, itis HEAT IV. Over the laws of CHEMICAL ARFINITY, the same agent exerts a powerful control. If we attentively consider the séate, in which all bodies are found, whether solid, liquid, . ol, BI ly, form, whichever of these forms the body is in at any, su moment, depends on the quantity of heat that happens to. combined with it. . Were it not for this agent, HP povice we could suppose them to exist without it, would be in the. state of solids, Water and all liquids, air and all gases, are maintained in their Feapsciing states by its influence alone. In the nepdonon: of all chemical phenomena, indeed, no agent.is of so frequent recurrence. as this, Some nts, we unite into a. compound. by heat; some. Pap ae resolve, by the same means, into their elements. to this dominion which heat exerts oyer chemical Lb Sade! it becomes the chief resort.and dependence. in so many. pepnennes of the arts, both the usefyl and the ps Eats he greater number of. the arts, indeed, are so entirely der . pendent on this power, that they can advance hardly a step — without.it. Iron, from its intimate relation, and indispensa- ble utility in all the mechanical operations, has. been. propstik denominated ‘the soul of the arts;’ but if we go one step. further, we shall find that i iron pital’ is opt, ane, epuld not. be, touhioh.is is afterwards — over it to bring it to the metallic state! ‘These are Fiewonen' to convert it into steel. By heat it is manufactured into those. numberless forms that every where meet our eyes. Fourcroy sums up the uses of fire in the following comprehensive sen- pty Itis with fire,” says he, “that man prepares his food, he dissolves metals, vitrifies rocks, hardens clay, sof on and gives to all the productions of the earth, the forms and combinations which his necessities require.” Y. But our attention has been hitherto engrossed with cons, templating the agencies of heat on the unorganized forms of ed General Heflections on Heat. matter, without reflecting that this is also that principle by which r1rz itself, both animal and vegetable, is nourished and sustai ack, at the close of his incomparable lec- tures on heat, has ses this subject, in his asuat plain but impressive language. * Tis influence,” he observes, ‘*is mani- festly so universal, and its action so important and necessary to the progress of all the operations of nature, that, to those who eonsider it with some attention, it will appear to be the | eet material principle of all motion, activity, and life, in be. Heat is inseparably necessary to the existence pe vegetables and animals. Without it they want the power te attract their nourishment, or to set it in motion through their system, or to refine and ripen it in their different parts. Their vigour and life depend on its influence. It is only when énlivened by heat, that they make it assume the mt forms and qualities, which we find in the wood, the root, he leaves, the juices, the fruit, the seeds, and the benotifet forms and colours displayed in the flowers. They decay and die when heat departs. Nor is animal life less dependent en heat for es ae than vegetable. Heat is the main-spring in the eorporeal a of an animal, without which all motion and life would instan a After referring us te the vivifyin ‘aftadnee of heat exbie bited in the incubation of an egg, the same excellent author : © But, after the animal is thus brought into ex- istence, heat is still necessary for its support. If heat be di- minished toa certain degree, although no visible damage be produced, all motion and life are quickly extinguished. The animal is seized with a sleep and insensibility, under which it expires.” He goes on next to enumerate some of the endless changes which oecur in nature in consequence of va- riations of temperature, and thus concludes: “ But, in this sue- cession of forms and operations which water undergoes, you will perceive that it is set in motion and adapted to these ends, by the nice adjustment, and gentle vieissitudes of heat and cold, which attend the returns of day and night. and sum- mer and winter. Were our heat to be diminished, and to continue diminished, to a degree not far below the ordinary or es the water would lose its fluidity, and assume the of a solid hard body, totally unfit for the numerous which it serves at present; and, if the diminution of were to go still further, the air itself would lose its elas- ticity, and would be frozen to a solid useless matter like wa- NTN | A dejoinder to Mr. Quinby on Orank Motion. 2.3» ter; and thus all nature would become a lifeless, silent, and dismal ruin. On the other were the heat w present cherishes and enlivens this globe allowed to increase beyond the bounds at present prescribed to it, beside the destruction of all hon and vegetable life, which would be the immediate and inevitable consequence, the water would lose its present form, and assume that of an elastic vapour like air; the solid parts of the globe would be melted and confounded together, or mixed with the air and water ‘in smoke and vapour; and nature would return to: the me, on — ~~ 3 : P " oe Bical > z ; a€ ree Kad’ om. ey Mr. Quinby’s 6 aint be Crank Mo- tion; in the Tt number of this Journal. T® THH EDITOR. IR, My reply, in one of : your former numbers, to Mr. ‘Qain- by, charging him with misrepresenting a passage in the North American Review, has drawn along answer from that ntleman, which may be bere to require some notice. With that part of Mr. Quinb r, which combats the — the writer of the: article ing m Engine, in Rees’ yclopedia, I have no concern. 1 quoted that article for its facts © 7, and these I believe’ Mex Quinby: mesocaeigien able to overthrow. ‘The question between Mr. Quiet ‘saditayenll ta; very ow. | had stated that there was in the steam engine a leek of power, in changing the direction of its action, from nme to rotary, as no ets from Messrs. Leans’ re- ports performance of the engines used at the mines in coer: me I further specially stated that this loss aime not very satisfactorily accounted for.” Mr. Quinby ha a short time after, made the very new discovery “ pares crank occasions no loss whatever of an acting — "dt suited his purpose to suppose that I attributed the loss in question, to the use of the crank, which is now most com- ee eae the agents in changing the direction of the me- can construe the passage in question, as walt as Mr. Quinby, or myself; and determine whether } at O4 Rejoinder to Mr. Quinby on Crank Motion. iribute the loss to the crank, any more than to the fly _ the connecting rod, or any other, the most insignifi- cant part concerned in the motion. ‘The loss. was said to belong, not to engines of any peculiar structure, but was ex- tended to all the met in ‘* common tice ;”’ thus in- cluding engines in which the rotation is produced by the sun and planet wheels, and which consequently has no crank about it, as well as those in which a crank is used, The fact was rested on Leans’ reports, in shel it is stated that taking an average of a vast number of the engines used in Cornwall, those which raise their load directly by the danagh sien mass es sg in which it no up a continuous rotary motion; the engines being alike in other re- spects, except indeed in size, it being declared that they were of the peculiar construction of Watt or Woolf. It is true thet in the particular cases stated the force was transferred pes 9 te crank, yet this being in any eeiee merely an arm of a lever, and consequently on capable of i force, ees sometime ‘before Me ie a fact Quinby’s * demonstration of the crank problem,” namely, in the age of Archimedes; such general terms were used as indicated the Joss under the codditions i in which it happened, without fixing it to any mere instrument by which the change of motion was produced. In my answer to Mr. Quinby, J disclaimed attributing the loss in question to any mechanical agent, and it seems Mr. Quinby cannot conceive to what I did attribute it. 1 can give him no aid in his dilemma, as I professed in \the oa that | would not undertake to account for it. - r. Quinby has discovered, after doubting the fact of in question, circumstances which to him satisfac- tasly zecount for it. These are “first the injudicious or wasteful application of the coal consumed ; and secondly. the want of a constant and sufficient load in the buckets during the time the engine is in action.” It seems to me very clear ae a wasteful application of coals en not belong exclusively to the engines, but that the pumping en- gines would f gould oullen:te the — . That it would, at least in some solitary instances of the numerous ones happen that the greatest waste of coals in the worst pemp- - Rejoinder to Mr. Quigby ow Crank Motion. 65 ing engine, would equal the least waste in the best rota ; thus furnishing a case where the work was equal, if — roma arises patie a in of coals. But this does not happen in any instance. The pum engines alwa perform much better than the anne the a esncetn. ed in the formation of the steam being of like structure. As to the load in the buckets being too light, it is a sheer assumption of Mr. Quinby, not warranted by the statement of a single fact, and subject to the obvious general objection that | have made to the assumption of a waste of coal, which is that some of the pumping engines are just as likely to be in the same condition, of working with an insufficient load. But this is not all, for presuming the Pe a i of the mines have a common share of judgement and capacity of observation, and being in the constant habit of working their engines; experience alone would inevitably teach them very nearly the load for a maximum effect, and interested as they are in making every possible saving, we may be certain that they would take the means to have their engines worked with the proper loads to produce it. But there are, in Corn- wall even, men of high endowments, familiar with every —_ relating to the construction or working of engines, striving with each other to produce the greatest effect their different machines ; and is it to be supposed that 4 fact, which would be before their a Madi day, has so long u nperceived or neglected self — - own statement to he true? ‘His very lier confidence ce ia be, tie Soke uneet follow as a necessary consequ haste Ag doubts the fact of any loss; ‘ doubt Yana applic to that, which, if it existed, must inevita oo arene Mr. Quinby’ 3 next shift is that wr mption of tails js not an accurate measure of the po wer ioheed. A very short examination will show us a weight of this objection. It is very evident to every one, that in any abe simi- larly constructed in all the parts concerned i thes ~ steam, the same quantity of coals of like porize equal quantities of water, under a like i In practiogs the quantity. of water fi ? vaporized by one bushel of Newcastle coals, is ae. by: Mr. Watt ie the limits: of rom eight to twelve cubie-feet, andthe steam thus produced '3 found capable of raising, orth Woolts pumping engine, an 36 Rejoiader to Mr. Quinby on Crank Moti. average of thirty-four millions of pounds one foot high; witli Watt's pumping engine, an average of twenty-eight millions ot pounds one foot high nearly; while with the rotary engine it never exceeds eleven millions of pounds raised one foot, ‘as appears from the reports of the performance of the en- gines used at the mines in Cornwall.’’ . It happens also, that the consumption of coals is the only practicable measure by which the work of different engines, through any length of time, can be c . Mr. Quinby tells us that ‘* with, a view to clearness, and for the information of the writer et the article in the North Ameriean Review, I shall here give a a ete of the power of asteam-engine. ‘The power of steam-engine is the product of the elastic force " the stoam employed, and the surface [area I suppose] of. the iston upon which it acts.” But every body knows that the pressure of the steam upon the boiler, is no certain indica- tion of the pressure in the-cylinder, or upon the piston ; and although an instrument has been contrived for determining the pressure in the cylinder, yet it appears to have been rarely used, owing probably to its complicate structure and obtaining from it the mean of the constantly yeuying : pressure. in. the cylinder.* But even if the force of steam in the c cylinder and in the boiler were exactly the same, during the ames the induction pipe is open, still from ihe constant variations of the intensity of the fire, constant observation .of a gauge would be required to obtain the mean pressure ; nor would this be all, for a constant know- ledge of the perfection of the condensation, would also be uired. But the best of the matter is, that Mr. Quinby’s depnition, introduced with no small flourish, is not suflicient for the end proposed. ‘The power of a steam-engine caa- not be determined by it, even for any instant of time, or ‘during any part of the stroke, as he has neglected to notice ete nazetin 8 effect of the elastic fluid in the condenser 5 and “ defining’? the force to be the excess of the ae ‘of the steam upon one end of the piston, over the pressure of the elastic fluid epan the other end, which is the iieiecac oui tpi titulo t ebpci'tn Miike li bans OAD +95 egg dey seagate h the invention of it is ascribed to Mr. W: wake he seems foie Nate sotieteha with, te minmnendesined from the ccn- ‘option ot cons a enapartivepurpones 1 ase eal Rejoinder to Mr. Quinby on Crank Motion. 97 true and whole force, leaving friction out of the qneslivs, with which the piston moves, he. declares it equal to the whole elastic force of the steam acting upon the piston... ies Quinby next “ takes the liberty to state thatthere is o Messrs. Leans’ reports oné. word that justifies, or-even — admissible, the assertion that there is.in the. steam- engine a loss of power in changing the direction of its action from rectilinear to rotary, by the methods in common prac-' tice! In Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine we have. the whale series of reports on the performance of the engines at the mines in Cornwall, by Messrs T. and J. Lean, pre a August 1811, and ending November 1818; and in these reports the case noticed by the writer of the article Stcamengine,, Hae? CY¥clopedia, 1 is not epboned,", 4 looks like something quite decisive of the. question ;_ but unfortunately for. its presi upon. the case, it. is, not true, Tillooh’s Philosophical Magazine does not contain the whole series of repo.ts on the performance of the Susinek Aas the mines in Cornwall. . The S azine are professedly nothing more than. extracts from ae reports. No comment seems necessary on this statement. The writer in the Encyclopedia states the cases, as formerly. quoted by me, with all the circumstances, and declares them to be taken from Leaus’reports. Mr. Quinby charges him,.or. me, or both of us, with falsehood almost in.so many words, because the same facts are not A ipl ina SAE sci eat presence, irom, the same peapariay me age nr rbeuerr ge ete aie eae - ans + “As. corrubesstive of ie teeth of the siatement made fr om Lean reports, that the rotary motion is tained without loss of force, I may are ae the report ¢ of the | cotamitine of the House of Commons . made al the follow- dingy pastaiges: re: pian remer ser simsesaapaaates nate motion of the piston into the rotary motion Sof thepadilen.” set emer eeviion might be brought of Deans” upon m this ae but thou _answerab sli & necessary . pursue the subject. ‘Regarding t ral question of loss, some individual have doubt “believed, vei absu finds some ao that the. eine rdity “ occasioned a coset soaat® » but it is by no e, as Mr. Quin- - —— stated one that “all the one a that have b om made ‘to apply of the steam «directly to , or to construct preteen Sa temernbiee inter Sittin and for the tingle purpose of obyiating the reat loss of power which different individuals: have ieponalll socduenle from the application of the era ” Indeed F 13 ‘ Vou X.—No. 1. 38 Rejoinder to Mr, Quinby on Crank Motron. Having already taken up more room than the subject demands, I will conclude with merely noticing Mr. Quinby’s last paragraph. ‘This, setting aside what is personal and in the form of a challenge, appears a curious attempt to pass off a light proposition, by covering it with two of full weight and current value» He says ‘‘ can the writer of the article in the North American Review invent a right angled [why ‘right angled ?] plane’ ier igh whose three angles shall not be equal to two rightangles? Can he invent a steam-engine that shall be able to impart to the appending machinery more power than is applied ? ? It is now established that all double stroke engines do impart to the appending machinery all the power that is applied, and consequently a saving of power can = -be effected by the invention “of'a machine that. shall more power than is applied to it; and this, in the indecent of the writer of this rely, is not possible.” I Mr, ‘Quinby withes to establish onsist ide of iron ga dt cea iia Bade Loss, 10 3 100.00 Experiment 5th. A specimen of Plumbago remarkably pure from near Bustietown, Penn was tried with the blow- pipe. The "tases were formed with difficuity, probably owing to its foliated texture, the fused parts spreading over the surface. The colour in places was white and translucent, ip others so dark as to be almost black. With the flux before mentioned, the fused matter was re- duced to a transparent glass. The analysis of this Plambago gave ae ae ee eee * = j - Bios Sil, 2 Residue by incineration, 7 Oxides of iron and colour light brick red, {50 Gommisting of manganese, : < Pm Kwperiments on Anthracite, Phunbago, &. 107 — experiments were mad: with Plumbago from several other localities; the results of which were no wise teem and therefore need no further mention. Experiment 6th. A piece of charred mahogany, during its combustion by the compound blowpipe, presented numer- ous small, imperfect globules, owing to the foree of the flame, which dissipated their support before they had time to form or to accumulate to any considerable size; many of them adhered tog ther, ramifying like flos ferri, which they resem- bied; they were collected by placing a dish under their sup- port. ws ‘the Pra a flux, they readily fused into a ble to the naked eye or to the microscope. The heat was equally as intense in this experiment as in all the other in- stances, and no condition was wanting to produce the same effects, except the difference of composition. After burning the lampblack for as long a time as was thought necessary to make the experiment a fair one, it was again weighed, and found to en lost four grammes, ;43,, for it weighed but twe grammes, Five have merited a reply of the ‘gute: of that submitted.” 2d. That, “ If Mr. Vamuscass paper be an ners a is one nuade with the instruments of the Laboratory, and should be as by the same means.” 3d. That, “ If the Academy is to be called in as a second, ta this tiherary. contest, it should see that the antagonists use the Same weapons.” Ath, That, in a journal, ‘ established” for the aii of facts, « at Gould he inconsistent” to introduce “ a.paper which. Papers relating to the Fusion of Carbon, 117 utthough on an experimental subject, compsate of arguments alone, whatever ingenuity these may ex wht ibit. Those nie Live read Mr. Vanuxem’s last rhemoit ir, (page 102, 02.) and my strictures upon it, will be enabled to judge how far this reasoning does honour to the body whence it originates. If it be indeed the duty of the ' ; Journal, “use “ —. weapons,” one of the combatants having come into the field with a deflagrator, his assailant ought not to have Ss a Mr. t his inability to fuse carbon by a compound Mew tine, ptoved i it infusible by a deflagrator ; wa secondly, ‘that Pro- fessor Silliman had sanctioned this procedure. How were these fallacies to be corrected, agreeably to the views of the Committee? Were they to be met with the “same weapons,” gee! to _one part of the reasoning; or, according to another part, by the : Eaboratory;” rendered so especially appropriate, ‘a ‘being ina “ Fiterary contest 2” The latter passages of Mr. Vanuxem’s memoir will show “that Jit is both controversi al, and argume mentative ;.and that the commenc ing para- graph was int iitended to convey the erroneous impressions which it was uty object to correct. r- Vanuxem’s friends opposed the ene ey of my s aitinkee ae the plea, that criticism is not permitted in the Journal of the Academy, which i is, virtually, the same Seams as that taken in the rage agreea- po to the ee me which has been made from it; yet a ‘the the wor on in question “vill show, that, in the late num- >: there is much criticism ‘on Wilson’s Ornithology ; and, for an earlier instance, I sats cite the paper of Mr. Say, Vol i at A05. «. ‘I ecannot unders tand, how temperate criticism is to be ex with- out injury to the cause of trath. ae if the ¢ Academy are r d at all events, to deny its admission, ‘they should _ee must give false i This must always ensue, aaa rrect prwareak toe or experiments are incorrectly associated or applied. th gts pe siete ery, one afimal or plant, may be mistaken for another, and re aa 8 comm i be 3 ki e confu sion of malleable fron PL Aes carbon, or a 118 Papers relating io the Fusion of Carbon. 1V. Examinution of the projections which arise upon char- coal wee oe between the pe of a galvanic defla- © grator. Hare, M. D. &. Warne | conceive it impossible that a globule of malleable tron, of the size of that described by Prof. Vanuxem, should be derived from a portion of wood charcoal, small enough to be comprised within the sphere of intense galvanic ignition ; I have never been of een that there might not be a mi- nute portion of iron in some kinds of charcoal. In my ine- moir on the supply and saplisetson of the blowpipe, publish- ed in 1802, it was suggested, that the dark colour acquired by some of the earths, during fusion, might be owing toa trace of iron ia the coal. Dr. Clark, afterwards, sanctioned this conjecture. _ About two years ago, in examining some projections formed on charcoal, pursuant to Professor Silliman’s observations, it occurred to me, that there was in the texture, a rese nce dee lately subjected several. specimens of fused carbon, from Prof. Silliman, to nitrate of potash intensely heated by different means. Sometimes, a small platina tray, containing the nitre and fused car>on, was made to complete the circuit of a large calorimotor ; in others, it was subjected to the flame of the hydro-oxygen blowpipe. In either case, the deflagration of the carbonaceous product, with the nitre, = effected. When it had all disappeared, the tray was subjected to water, heated in a glass tube, until all the soluble matter was dissolved. Being thus cleansed from the salt, it was introduced into another glass tube, containing pure, colourless, muriatic acid. The acid instantly assumed a straw colour, and gave a blue colour with the prussiate of potash, although on mixtufe with the same test, before the tray had been exposed to it, the acid underwent no change of colour, on admixture with the prussiate. The soluble matter removed by the water, — ssayed with lime water, gave a very copious precijitate hen one of the projec- tions, held in a pair of slender forceps, was papnedd to the pe flame. it burned readily, leaving scarcely any Papers relating to the Fusion of Carbon. iig -'[he quantities of fused carbon, with which these experi- wents were made, were too limited, to admit of my ascertain- ing the ratio of the iron to the carbon; but, the proportion of e metal was evidently very minute, being productive only of a slight and partial discolouration of the platinum. From these experiments, it would seem, that the sub- stances examined, are carburets of iron. The copiousness of the precipitation with lime water, indicates that the nitrate of potash had. met with enough carbon in the fused product, to generate a considerable proportion of carbonic acid, which combined with the potash, and was afterwards yielded up to the lime; while the discolouration of the prussiate of potash, and the minuteness of residuum occasioning it, prove, that a ] proportion of iron ieee also in he subject of exam- ination. I beg leave here to reiterate ‘the opinion advanced at. ‘the close of my strictures on Prof. Vanuxem’s memoir, that the ence of a minute portion — —_ in the projection arising on charcoal exposed to galvanic ignition, cannot materially diminish the interest excited ro the fact, tise matter, so fixed and infusible, should be thus mysteriously accumulated on one pole, at the expense of the other. The combustion of the fused sets of charcoal, by the flame of the compound blowpipe, as ntioned above, de- monstrates the impropriety of omy deat: secre to ob- aa such products, agreeably to the course pursued by Prof. eoememetmarasce Vi ent ex, ents on Chercoa, &e. Notice of some ree " Pee By LLIMAN. Ever since the publication. of oe apenas on this sub- ject in 1823, I have been anxio te the inquiry further, but have been aie sapoteal mee a0 hel ste by indi ven now, | am not prepared to pre- sent that full view of the subject, which is deuirable, but a few facts may be ae on this occasion I carefully prepared a sufficient quantity of the best maple charcoal, by selecting that which had been made from young 120 Papers relating to the Fasion. of Carbow. and vigorous limbs—sawing it into cylinders of convenient » size, and igniting it thoroughly, ina blaek lead pot,* covered by another of the same kind—the whole being placed in a powerful wind furnace. Other pieces of the same kind of charcoal were treated in the same manner, after being pre- viously boiled in distilled water, or in diluted muriatie acid, the object of which obviousiy was to remove alkaline, fer- ruginous. or other soluble impurities. | may observe, once for all. that there appeared to be no difference in the sensi- ble phenomena attending the experiments or in the results, whether one kind of charcoal or another was-employed, or whether it had been boiled with acids and water or not : af- terboiling, it was always oar Nest in the — — it was uséd in the deflagr A leading object of ren sepeieetite now to be ‘stated. was to ascertain whether there was any change of weight in the ignited charcoal. March 4th, 1825, bgiediie being used, which had been boiled in mente muriatic acid, afterwards in slistitied water, and finally. ignited anal in close vessels i nieces gett HII I ought perhaps: to mention: that the dotigintet poche had been enlarged by the addition of eighty of the ; nd coils suspended on two parallel beams and dip- ping into their appropriate troughs ; thus the surface of metal was doubled, and the power of the instrument very consid- erably increased. No difference however was observed itt the phenomena, except in the rapidity and energy with which they were produced. It should also be observed that the word positive here refers to the zinc, and the word negative to the copper pole. These terms ‘having been erroneously applied, when the instrument was first invented, and the error not being discovered until after my former experiments were petted: the designation of the poles is therefore oppo- site, in these remarks, to that employed in the former papers. 1, The points of charcoal were instantly fused, with a —— of the charcoal, the result exactly resembling he- te—the projecting cone or cylinder being formed rapidly on the negative, while a ene oes cavity was po 1 the positive charcoal. @oThe same. Sie vert ; A fey Ey cut Be peed * No sand was used to cover the pieces, Papers relating to the Fusion of Carbon. 121 3. ees i 4. Two plumbago points were Ssiniciped and the usual sppeerenctok resulted: the two weighing 11 grains lost $a psi 5. The positive pole of charcoal, and negative of plumbago: the charcoal lost nearly a grain; the ple imbago remained the same. 6. The positive charcoal weighing 6 grains; negative” plumbago weighing 11 grains : the latter gained } a grainand was covered with a tuft of melted charcoal ; the positive hav- ing a’corresponding hollow, and losing half a grain, exactly the amount transferred to the negative. 7. Phe eharcoal, 6 grains for the : Tons and that for pee positive we ighing 17 grains and ,4, : the former gained one fifth of a grain; and the latter lost ‘% of a — . 8. Positive: charcoal 6 grains ; negativ e plumbago 6 6 and 2: melted charcoal accamulated upon the lace cadens and below were perfectly limpid white globules ; weight the as nr the charcoal broke, and could not be w weighed. cmon Evperiments on —- which had been ignited but not beitad acitls, March 5, 1825. 1. Negative pole 14 grains 5 ; positive 11 grains: lost in one ee half'a grain; the negative gained nothing, nor did 2, ‘Negative 101, and overt 10: lost in one minute ¥, of a grain, and the negative lost ;';. 3. Positive O grainy; negative 10 grains : lost lof a grain ; the positive, lost ;°;,in one minute. 4. Negative On : ae 8’; of a grain: negative gained Fe; positive lost I 5. Positive Ba ; sage ive 9}; the same pieces as used ip (No. 4.): positive lost ,’,; negative weighed the same. 6. Megative 9 grains ; positive 6,°;: negative lost 3 2 ofa grain 5 positive lost 1% grains. April 12, 1825—Obtained several projections a iahetin an inch tong 3 ; one of them ;';of an inch makreesi, aod nearly ad a grain in weight. Vv iL: &:-No I te i22 Papers relaimg to ihe Busion of Carbon- Phe points being connected a‘ right angles ina cathe ex- cluding. the external air, the accumulation was at right an- gles, shooting off in a curvilinear form, and at last straight, till it was } an inch ‘in length. _ April 13—1. Negative weighed 4 grains ; positive 43 grains being brought together i in a small globe at right angles,— viele ignition—negative weighed the same; the positive 4 Negative cower 5 positive 3,7, : the same points as the last used in the’globe. On bringing the points together, there was a considerable explosion which blew out one of the corks—the positive lost ;°; of a grain, and the negative weighed the same as at first : this kind of explosion (arising probably from hydrogen) occurred. eee’ times. . Positive weighing 3,°;; aud the negative aw in this, and in many of the preceding pence Metco there was a pro- duction of prussic acid, evident from the sme acgeuse lost +5; and the negative gained 2;. In noinstance, when the spark was taken in a globe, did the negative Jose; but in some it gained. © In one case the weight of the charcoal in the. tive was Sie it eo Seite #5 more ; the ages Shaeees itch = accumu in that case w ene aor weighed wt 15a. : Negative G6. dos = OTS After the expervment. Negative do. do. - - = 77%. . Positive do. do.- - - 13,3. Lest 1,45. Ss Positive do. do. i se = Te: Negative do. do.- - - 7,3 “After the ayant Negative do. do. - - - 77%. Positive do, do.- - -‘1l. The white fume formerly observed ies condénsed in a glass globe, changed the red tincture of alkanet to b/ue, and was therefore probably alkali: but a similar white cloud arises mee ees of plumbago and is probably not alkaline. the preceding experiments it follows that both in the a air and in elese vessels, the positive pole always! loses ielillnaieliitiniasedenmeimmenemee er en Papers relating to the Fusion of Carbon. 123 weight decidedly and rapidly, and always evinces a part of this loss by the cavity formed on the ignited point. The negative pole in the open air sometimes loses weight also, butin a much smaller degree than the positive pole. In close vessels the negative pole does not lose weight and it sometimes gains. e most decided results were obtained when the charcoa} points were connected in a small: glass tube; then the pro- jection formed on the negative pole with great rapidity— became half an inch or more in length, and a deep cavity was formed in the positive pole. It is impossible to doubt the ex- istence of a powerful current flowing froin the positive to the negative pole. Wherever the projection | on the negative pole was allowed to touch the opposite charcoal, the two strongly adhered, thus antag the walioenned state of the mat- oints. \.. In edicnating the changes of weight, the following circum: stances are to be taken into view. Volatile matter, iene aiiatiiane vapoee; &e. (drningie part from unavoidable reabsorption after the preparatory igni- tion) are expelled by the intense heat, and the carbon itself is probably exhaled in vapour, and when the air has access; some portion of it is burned, so that only «a part (a part which will of course vary with circumstances) of the matter lost by the positive pole can be expected to be found upon the neg- ative. The negative being subjected to similar causes also loses weight, probably in every instance, if we speak of its own A matter—but, as matter from ihe opposite sale accumulates upon the negative, this substance. is water just sufficient to restore the weight lost from the other causes, and at other times it is more than sufficient, thus causing 4 positive increase in weight. The reason why these facts are more observable in close vessels obviously is, that the air being in a great measure excluded, there is no waste by combustion, which, although materially obstructed by the extreme rarefaction of the air, and the vaporization of the | charcoal, iss suggested by Dr. Hare,) still I suspect goes on in a. There appears to be little waste of the points, smcus where they are opposed, but considerable (and more consid- erable than I had sti supposed) on the laterally ane portions of the charcoal. oes the melted matter pocenelated. apes the negative pole consist in whole or in part of carb 124 Papérs relating to ihe Kusion of Carbon. The examination of this subject by Prof. Vanuxem, as'stated in his first memoir, (p. 292, Vol. 8, of this Journal.) is en- tirely irrelative ; for the thing examined was not the same with what | have called melted charcoal. - It was clearly a different substance, and it cannot be expected of me to ex- plain how the mistake arose, It is true that in my earlier publications, I did not mention. trying the melted masses with the magnet. Although there was no reason to expect any thing more than a very slight trace of iron, in any matter obtained from charcoal, I have frequently subjected the melted mat- ter obtained by the deflagrator from charcoal to the action of powerful magnets, and never could I perceive the slightest action either upon the melted masses, or even upon the finest powder obtained by pulverizing them. Much less could I discover the malleability, toughness, impressibility b —_ a - capability of receiving a polish, &c. mentioned by nuxem. The magnet has failed to act upon us = ama after it has been exposed to acid, salts, alkalies, &c. an if there is iron init, which is probable, it isin too — quantity _ to be discovered in this way. Much less can we suppose that re ite matter procured from the fusion of charcoal should present iron, for one half ofthe whole matter upon the - ‘begun, and nearly five sixths of all that was for. J transmitted to Prof. Hare some of the largest ofthe melted masses obtained in the experiments described above, and he made the trials upon them which he has related, and which deeidedly prove that they contain carbon in notable quan- tity, ws traces of iron, and possibly other inkpurities of the chareoa It oud appear from the experiments of Dr. Hare, that chareoal, in common with many vegetable substances, affords traces of iron capable of being indicated by delicate chemi- eal tests, but probably too inconsiderable to be easily appre- éiated by weight: at any rate there is nothing in his results analogous to those obtained by Professor Vanuxem. The mere traces of iron eannot justify this inference as observed by Dr. Hare, any more than it would be proper, from the small portions of iron which most minerals afford, to infer that er are oe alee to the proper ores of that metal... *&¥ge the result of Prof. Vanuxem’s first memoir. Papers relating io the Fusion of Carboy. 1g5 ‘Phe following eaten were suggested by those of Dr. Hare. ‘l melted some chlorate of potash in a silver spoon, to drive off the water of ene: taking ‘care not to expel its oxygen gas by raising the heat too high. Seven grains of this melted chlorate of potash were mixed with one grain of the melted matter from charcoal, and the two were triturated together in a mortar; the powder was then put into a glass tube, bent into the form of a retort well luted about the sealed end, where it was about 4 an inch in di- ameter. The luted end was then heated in a small French earthen furnace, connected with a small Pneumatic cistern. The tube was scarcely red hot when the gas came over with very great-rapidity, and so much sooner than was expected, that a considerable quantity, probably two-thirds, was that which was. caught was received in nae filled with lime- water, which it precipitated instantly an inily, not only when agitated with the linear ine each bubble as it passed indicated its course by “a distinct trace of white flocculi of precipitated caressa of lime; the heat raised, gas continued:to come, although much more 5 ing- by, but ev ‘ery bubble to the very last, continued abundantly to precipitate the lime-water, and the precipitate, when the vessels were set aside, formed a dense stratum as it settled to the bottom of the flask. My object being merely to ascer. tain in a che whether carbon existed in the fused matter, I did ‘e the precautions requisite to decide on the pro- ih can therefore state only this fact that the pre- cipitete: of carbonate of lime colleeted and dried, wei two grains implying one fourth of a grain of carbon, and if we allow for the gas which was lost there can be little doubt thatthe greater part of the melted matter was carbon. - The adhering to the melted masses. But most ‘of pret: i examined by a good magnifier, appeared entirely destitute of any such appendage ; and if any adhered, the quantity was evidently so small that it could not have seriously affected the result. ‘The residuary salt in the bent tube still contained portions of the melted matter dispersed about in the mass ; they were not affected by the magnet, and my engagements have not allowed me to examine them any further. What- ever impurities exist in charcoal are probably to be found in them also, but whether they contain more carbon FI cannot 126 Papers relaung io the Kision of Carbon. say without renewing my trials upon them. It would be useless to examine for silex, &c. which might obviously be derived from the glass tube. Perhaps itis not necessary to — that the residuary gas, after the carbonic acid was ashed out, was oxygen gas. I objected to the conciusion of I Mr. Vanuxem, stated in his first memoir, that he found no carbon in the matter which he examined, on the ground that he did not collect the gaseous products, in which alone, in his method of operating. _ evidence of the existence of carbon would have been foun The experiments which I have just related will mlm be thought to cnnkps this: opinion. Half a grain of the fused charead was sien 3 in halfea an ounce. of strong nitric acid in a flask with a bent tube, and communicating with the pneumatic cistern; as soon as the air of the vessel was expelled, the gas which next came gave a decided precipitate with lime-water, but much less so than in the He porate the acid ees boiled nit the e to resume it in due time; at present I see no reason to doubt that the charcoal has been fused, and of course what- ever impurities it contains. But it would be singular indeed, if the impurities alone were transferred from one pole to the other; if they alone were subjected to the current of igavous and electrical influence, while the carbon made its escape. he discovery of siliceous, pf eries and other impuri- those obtained by my my in a similar manner and cone of a similar appearance had also a similar constitution. 1 did not examine them chemically, owing to causes which have been stated; and I distinctly admitted the pos ssibility of the re- sults obtained by Professor Vanuxem, as stated in his late memoir. Remurks og the Cutting of Steel by Soft Irew. 127 Arr. XV. gaflererie, on the cutting of stecl by soft iron, in u letter to the Editor, Bid om Tomas Kenpatu, Je. As the subject of cutting steel by ‘soft iron, has excited considerable attention, and seems not yet to be exhausted, I take the liberty to communicate such facts connected with the subject, as have come under my own observation, to- gether with some remarks, which ere at your disposal. In the cutting of revolving tron by tempered steel, experience proves that there is a certain velocity beyond which it can- not be well and freely done. Much depends on the purity and state of ren iron, much on the form, temper, and sharp- ness of the cu instrument, much whether the work is performed 8 a ept constantly wet with water oroil, and also much on the disposition of the particles of tron to ehip. There is a great aeron in different samples of iron in that respect, but much more difference in copper and its alloys, some of which, although sufliciently soft, can ‘scarcely be wrought by. turning, filing, drilling. or grinding. Whenever the steel or cutting tool, from any cause, ceases to act on the iron, and the heat is perhaps at the maximum, the iron if revolving will act on the steel; the greater the velocity the more freely it acts, and the progress is marked by differ- comes heated be ecaaail the cutting tool to a blue clout if moving with ter sign gaged. These become ignited because, 9 connected with, and forming a part of the plate, they are by the motion disengaged with a velocity that does not admit of the trans- mission of the heat to the other parts of the steel. Perhaps the ignition is commenced and carried to that degree de- nominated biack heat, before the particles are separated, and is completed by the friction attending the separation. It is a fact, perhaps not generally known to those who have written on the subject, that at the heat called black heat, (but which is in fact nearly or quite a red heat in the dark ) 128 Remarks on the Cutting of Steed by Soft tron. steel is broken or separated by fracture,* with much less force than when heated less or more, the requisite temperature va- rying probably in proportion to the carbon contained in the el. The result of the copper wheel mentioned by MM. Da- fier and Colladon having no action on the steel, goes far to prove that the effect depends at least as much on heut soft- ening the steel, to a certain degree, as on percussion, copper having but little disposition to generate heat under any eir- cumstances, a fact duly appreciated by the manufacturers of u " ‘he veo reason why. “the heat should be nearly all concen- trated in the steel and scarcely perceptible in the iron,” I think to be this; the percussion against the steel is continual, but against any one part of the iron cutter, perhaps not more than from 34, to ste part of the time ; consequently the leat received by each would be in an inverse proportion of the thickness of the steel to the circumference of the irom, making the proper allowance for what may be thrown off from: the circular cutting iron in its egesae trough the ay which must be considerable P. Se bs evidence: of ’ the ae ate of “see it is fainted in the of MM. Darier and Colladon that the smail — -of steel adhering to the edge of the cutter, “seen hrough a lens, did not appear as if untempered, and when ished with a file, were found as hard as: the best tempered: steel.’” I have never observed the appearance of the particles, or examined their temper, but have examined the: burr: raised incu @ plate of steel, which before the operation was sufbein soft to file with ease, but in the operation beeame hardened on the outer edge much harder than before, which was evidently caused by the great heat and by being sudden- ly-cooied by the current of air caused by the motion of the cutter; the same would be the case with particles disen- seged se or when hot, Wwe! adhering to som edge * ~ acmeneel Ave disposition to be eas separated yacture at a particuley hanlsadvcneoute carbonized or oy pny fw 3 at and of tim, is very perceptible in flint glass, and perhaps’ in all factitious : ee compounds ; some requiring a moderate, and others a plore intense heat 7 On the Motion of Water-Wheels. i2p cutter; the process of hardening in air is applied by artists to the a of very small drills. banon, Aug. 8, 1825. ; Art. XVI.—On the motion of water-wheels—extract of a let- ter from Prof. CLeavevaNp, to the editor, dated Bruns- wick, May 30, 1825. My Dear Siz, : I a former letter, I mentioned the opinion existing in this part of the country, that saw-mills move faster duri the night than the day. The explanation usually given by the workmen is-that the air becomes heavier after sunset. I selected'a fine day in August, and requested that all the mill-gates mightremain stationary for twelve hours. At 2 o’clock P. M. I suspended a Barometer in the mill; the pressure of the atmosphere was equal to 30.19 inches; the temperature of the water just before it passed the raill-gate was 72° Fahr.—The log was then detached from the saw, and the number of revolutions of the wheel, being dapper: d counted by different persons, was 96 ina minute. At mid- night, I again visited the same mill. ‘The Barometer stood at 30.26 inches, the pressure of the atmosphere having tn- creased seven hundredths of an inch. The temperature of the water Was 72°, the same as at the preceding observation, although it had been a little higher during the afternoon.— The log being detached, as before, the wheel was found to revolve precisely 96 timesin a minute, showing the same ve- locity as at the preceding noon. The depth of the water was the same during both experiments. The workmen were satisfied that the result of the experiment was correct; but still they seemed to believe that it would be different in a Vou. X.—No. ay 17 120 = Notice of the Brewster Wool Spinning Frame. Art. XVII.—Notice of the Brewster wool spinning frame— in a letter written in answer to inquiries from the Editor, by S. D. Hunpagp, Esq. and dated Middletown, July 28, 1825. Peas Sr, In reply to your inquiries in your favour of the 21st.re- specting the Brewster wool spinning Frame, of which the Sanseer company of this place are the sole proprietors and builders, I have obtained the following brief, but | trust sat- isfactory statement from the Secretary of the company. The Brewster Frame, deriving its name from the inven- tor Mr. Gilbert Brewster, a distinguished mechanist and na- tive of this State, is so constructed that by the continued ro- winding up the yarn, to form the cap are to the attendant no othet labour than thatof ; tauch greaterconvenience. The length ofthe draft or quan- tity of slubing to be drawn out and the time of throwing in and continuing the twist being comprehended within the priaciple of the frame, they may be varied at pleasure. It is only necessary for the person in attendance, after ascer- taining the description of yarn, she is wished tospin, whether _ fine or cdarse, hard or slack twisted, to adjust the frame with a wrench tothe quality, shortening or protracting the peri of the closing of the jaws on the slubing as she may wish it finer or coarser, and varying the time of carrying on and off the belt from the twisting cylinder, according as she may de- sire her yarn hard ae twisted. When once adjusted, the frame continues in the same state producing a uniform thread, and possesses the additional advantage from its me- chanical construction, and the uniform regularity of its movements, of furnishing, if required, a thread slacker twisted for filling, and for warp, one harder twisted than can be spun On a je e expense of keeping a frame in repair, Analysis of the Maryland 4erolite. 131 and the power necessary for its successful ‘operation, are not greater than is required by power Jennies doing the same work. A frame of 300 spindles will spin 300 runs, 1600 yards to the run, per day, and will with ease turn off 100 Ibs. offourrun yarn in twelve hours. Two girls of sixteen years a age, will attend a three hundred — frame one on each Art. XVIII.—Analysis of the Maryland Aerolite. By Georce Cutton, Lectarer on Chemistry, &c.* Tue piece of Maryland zrolite subjected to examination, weighed 228.30 grains in air, and lost 62,25 grains by im- mersion in water, at 60° temperature. Its specific gravity is therefore, 3.66. The external crust was taken off, and the remainder powdered, not very finely, and separated into two parts by the magnet ; 40 grains were obedient to the magnet, 25 of which were taken for examination. The same quan- tity was taken of the unmagnetical portion. Feomianiop 2 the smmpagpetical portion of the Maryland erolite. Process 1.—The 25 grains were digested in dilute nitric acid; an undissolved part floated, which, together with the solution, was decanted from a heavier part, which remained at the bottom of the flask. To this last, muriatic acid was added, and digestion continued till every thing soluble was taken up. The two insoluble parts managed in : way, and carefully dried, weighed 15.87 grains. ng sure to a red heat, ina crucible, sulphur burnt off with its usual oe flame, and left siliceous earth which weighed 14.6 Proces: nae 2,—The acid solutions were mixed together and cuaperaial slowly to cat ; during which nortan” of * a of the fall af this erolite was grams our last number, 1. IX. p.351. For a more particular di scription of the stone and ie illustrative remarks respecting it, see the end of thts paper.—-En, 132 Analysis of the Maryland Aerolites matter fell ein which, together with a portion left after treating the dry mass with water, weighed 0°7 gr at the eommon lancet: -On further examination, they proved to be silica and oxide of iron. By estimation, 0.3 silica, and 0.2 oxide of iron, in the perfectly dried state. Process 3.—Bi-carbonate of potassa was added to the solution, whieh was heated a little. The precipitate was separated by the filter, washed and digested in. pure potassa. The caustic liquor. drawn off by the syphon, super-saturated — with muriatic acid, and treated with carbonate of ammonia, yielded a preeipitate which after ignition weighed 0.1 gr. It appeared to be alumine contaminated with oxide of iron Process 4.—The ae solution, from which the first occasioned a farther deposite. On heating, it fchenied roe a cinnamon-brown colour; dilute sulphuric a‘, added i éxcess, dissolved it, with the exception of a brown sei dit which weighed, after ignition, 0.2 gr. Before the blow- pipe, with borax and phosphoric as this brown: matter yielded Mite beads—indicatin yA: Process 5.—The sulphuric solution ef the last process was evaporated to drymess, and heated further, to drive off the excess of acid. On adding water, a part only dissolved ; on adding more water, the whole dissolved, except a portion ef a brown colour, which by solution in muriatic acid, aid subsequent Saget by ammonia, yielded oxide of iron Seis 6 Process 6. 2 The last watery solution was gentl : 5 hg apo ed to a small compass ; sulphate of lime fell down during es! ‘the evaporation. Op leaving it to exhalation in the open ir, sulphate of magnesia crystallized. These crystals, to- 1er with the deposited sulphate of lime, were exposed lull red heat. The weight, while warm, ‘was iaodee out out the sulphate of magnesia, a portion was left, w ed after ignition 1.f grains. This subtracted from the t of the mixed sulphates, leaves for sulphate of mag~- Besia 7.9 grains. Process 7.— The pre cipitate, (process 3.). which had been digested | in pure seen was re-dissol yed in muriatic acid. a ceses Analysis of the Maryland Aeroiiie, 133 Ammonia added in excess rae down oxide of i iron, which after ignition. weighed 3.9 grains. Process 8.—The last ranvscksal solution, whieh had a bluish green colour, was evaporated to dryness. After the further application of heat, to volatilize the ammoniacal salt, a residue was Jeft of a dark brown colour, which, on solu- tion in nitric acid and precipitation by potassa, gave a bulky apple-green precipitate, which turned to a dark-brown by etd 7 be ees It weighed 0.3 gr. .--The liquor, from which the apple-green i eipitats re been separated, had a wine yellow colour, ther by affording a suspicion that.it contained more metal. Neu. tralization and heat were both tried without effecting a fur- ther separation. Hydro-sulphuret of ammoniathrew down a black precipitate. This precipitate aeated, re-dissolved in nitric acid, and precipiteted by potassa, por another apple- grees: precipitate, which, ignited, weighed 0.2 gr. solution, being still a little coloured, was again treated sith hydi -sulphuret of ammonia, re-dissolved in nitric acid, and precipitated by potassa. By this treatment another pre-. cipitate was obtained which weighed 0.1 grain. Process 10.—20 grains of the same unmagnetical erolite were mixed with an equal weight of nitre, and heated ina bright red heat. On dissolving out the matter of the cruci- ble, and neutralizing the solution, it neither produced a yel- low with nitrate of lead, — ved with nitrate of pass heace-it contained no ‘From the 25 grains there were obtained by. these: pro: hi. 3 =Silica 14.90 E 7.9 Sulph. Mag. =Magnesia 2.60 — 1.1 Sulph. Lime =Lime 0.45 3.9-+0.2+2.0+0.5=Oxide of Iron 6.15 0.2+0.3-+0.2+0,1=Oxide of Nickel 0.80 Sulphur ¥.27 Alumine 0.05 : ee It would seem supéiions to remark, that the increase oi weight in this, and ibe following analysis, must be accounted for from the change of condition of the iron, with respect to oX ygen. St Analysis of the Maryland Aerolite. Examination of the magnetical portion of the Maryland ; . Aerolite. * Process 1.—25 grains exposed to the action of nitro-muri- atic acid left, by the usual management, 3 grains of silica, after ignition. ‘ Process 2.—Ammonia, added to excess, threw down from the acid solution, oxide of iron, which weighed, after igni- tion, 24 grains. ; Process 3.—TFo the ammoniacal, which had a bluish-green tinge, potassa was added. On the application of heat a por- tion of earthy matter precipitated, too trifling for examina- tion. Hydro-sulphuret of ammonia threw down a black precipitate, which, heated, re-dissolved in nitric acid, and precipitated by potassa, yielded an olive-green precipitate, which ignited weighed 1.70 gr. and had a light-brown colour. ‘ a. Nitric acid added to this precipitate, did not dissolve the whole of it. Muriatic acid was added without effectin a complete solution. The mixture was heated and evapo- rated nearly to dryness. On standing till the next day it formed a gelatinous mass of a green colour. Water was added, and the insoluble portion separated by the filter. It weighed 5 grains, and had a gray colour. b. Ammonia was added to the nitro-muriatic solution (a.) in excess, which re-produced the bluish-green tinge. By evaporation to dryness, and exposure to a red heat for some time, the ammoniacal salts were volatilized, and a yellowish brown oxide left. c. Before the blowpipe, with borax and phosphoric salt, beads were produced of a brown colour, and opaque when the oxide was in considerable proportion to the salt, but when diluted with more salt, blood-red globules formed, which changed on cooling, to hyacinth-red, and when en- tirely cold had a fine yellow, with, in some instances, a slightly reddish cast. The undissolved portion produced the same appearances, nearly, but less distinctly. Regarding, therefore, the precipitate 1.70, in process 3, as oxide 0 nickel contaminated with siliceous earth, perhaps 1.25 may be put down for oxide of nickel ; we shall then have, as the result of analysis of the magnetic zrolite, Analysis of the Maryland Aerolite. 135 Oxide of Iron eaten - 24.00 Oxide of Nickel - me 1.25 Silica with other earthy matte 3.46 Sulphurs trace. 28.71 The presence of sulphur was indicated by the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, on the first addition of the acid. S ieeenaeemneetantaill Additional notice of the physical characters of the Maryland Aerolite, b~ As the visits of these extraordinary strangers to our plan- et are frequent, and their origin is not yet satisfactorily ex- ined, it is obviously proper to register carefully all the cts respecting them, that thus we, or those who follow us, may, by and by be ina condition to reason correctly respect- ing them. We hastened to lay before our readess the account which \ * Vol. EX. page 351. 136 ; Analysis of the Maryland Aerolite. “ This c ircumstance is much less apparent upon the erolites of Weston (1807,) L’aigle ( 1803) and Stannern in Moravia _ (1808) : it appears to have arisen from the rapid cooling of | the external vitreous crust after intense ignition. It is im- possible to doubt that this crust is a result of great and sud- den heat. In the Maryland erolite it is not quite so thick as the back of a common penknife, and, as in that of Weston and Stannern, it is separated by a well defined line, from the mass of the stone beneath. The mass of the stone is, on the fractured patats. ofa light ash gray colour, or per- haps more properly of a Sreyeh white ; i is very uniform in its appearance, and not marked by that strong contrast of dark and light gray spots, which is so conspicuous in the Weston meteorolite. ‘The fractured surface of the Mary- land stone is uneven and granular, harsh and dry to the touch, and it scratches window glass decidedly, but not with eat energy. To the naked eye it presents very small glisten- ing metallic points, and a few minute globular —— bodies scattered here and there, through the mass of the stone. With a magnifier all these appearances are of ea much increased. The adhesion of the small ef the stone is pe that it a to pieces with a slight cine wrid-eniide : most like oa of sand. The metallic parsare conspicuous, but they are much less numerous than which, whe ee separated, are nearly white, ott have a pretty high vitreous lustre, considerably resem- bling porcelain. They appear as if they had undergone an incipient vitrification, and as if they had been feebly aggluti- nated by a very intense heat. 1 cannot say that I observed in them asM. Fieuriau de Bellevue did in the erolites of Jon- zac (Jour. de Phys. tome 92, pa. 136) appearances of crystal- ization, although it is possible there may have been an incip- jent process of that kind, especially as the small parts are translucent.* The Maryland stone is highly magnetic ; pieces as large as peas are readily lifted by the ee and that instrument takes up a large tt poo of the smaller frag- * This vitreous rea ep e I believe has not been observed before (at least as far as appears in any account that I have seen.) It seems to Weave resulted from intense heat; the some doubtless, which the exterior, with the black crust, and the aaiovelit of the two is ae ably to be ascribed to the one being covered and compressed, and to other being on the outside. tg* Analysis of the Maryland Acrolite. £33 ments. T hej iron is metallic and perfects malleable ; although. none of the pieces are larger than a pin’s head, still they are readily extended by the hammer. “The iron in the crust is lazed over, so that the eye does not perceive its metallic character, but the file instantly brightens the innumerable points, which then break through the varnish of the crust, and give it a brilliant metallic lustre, Af: * the points where the file has uncovered the iron. The same is the fact with the Weston stone, and with that of L’Aigle, but not with that of Stannern in Moravia; specimens of all of which and of the meteoric iron of Pallas, of Louisiana, and of Auvergne, are now before me. The erolites of Gonzac and of Stan- nern as stated by M. Bellevue, are the only ones hitherto discovered that do not contain nativé iron, and do not affect the magnet ; still their analysis presents a good deal of iron, which is probably in the condition of oxid. The iron in the metallic state is very conspicuous in the Weston stone, sometimes in pieces of two inches in length, and both in this stone and in that. of Maryland, it is often brilliant oa the fracture of: the meteoric iron of Pallas and ° uisian In the cali of the Weston stone published in 1808, I did not discover chrome, although it was afterwards an- nounced by Mr. Warden. I have desired Mr. Chilton to re- analyze the Weston stone and he has nearly completed the labour, the result of which may be given hereafter but he via that he has not been able to discover any chrome. I not quite sure that I discover pyrites in the Maryland zrolite, although it is mentioned by Dr. Carver in his letter in the preceding volume.—Epr TOR. October 4, 182 Vou. X—No. 1. - 18 138 On the North-West Pussage- MISCELLANEOUS. Art. XIX.—On the North-West Passage. By Isaac Lea, Pexuars no geographical problem since the discovery of America, has excited a more general sensation than the pos- sibility of discovering a passage round the northern part of this continent. A deep‘interest was at a very early period felt by those concerned in the commerce of the Indies, and expeditions were fitted out with strong hope of opening a way that would prove more direct, and shorien the voyage io, those countries at least one third of the. time it took to double the Cape of Good Hope. Ro horne, a merchant of Bristol, in wats first sug- gested a practicability of. this passage, and t o ships were sent out by Henry VIIL. One only of those ee returned, bate what success we are not informe ‘Since that period, nearly one hu heel ‘expeditions have been fitted out by different naGons to obtain the desirable object, few of which met with even partial success. Among the most important are those of Hudson in 1607, Baflin in 1614, and Parry in 1819. The idea of a passage had duriag this period scarcely ever been abandoned. The interrap- tion by the ice alone restrained most of those er voyagers from pushing their barks into the waves of the cific Ocean. That the water of this ocean flows throus 7h Behring’s straits and the Polar sea into the Atlantic,- there cannot now be a doubt. The constant current, according to Cooke, Burney, and Kotesbue, which flows from the Pacific through Behring’s straits, must carry a vast body of water towards the North Pole. The undeviating direction of the current in Baftin’s bay and Davis’s straits, to the S. E. carries off this flow of water into the Atlantic. Large quantities of drift wood are thrown on the southern shores of the Aleutian islands, which streich from the western coast of America to Asia, ahout the parallel of 53° N. lat. ‘The same current carries On the North-west Passage. 139 drift wood to the polar basin, and deposits it along the N. coast of this continent, as well as along the W. coast of Greenland. eS Capt. Clarke, who accompanied Capt,. Cooke, observes that they collected enough in Behring’s straits to serve for fire wood, for the Resolution and Discovery, and what is curious it was not in the least water soaked. Some large trunks of the trees of mahogany and logwood have been picked up on the coast of Greenland. - The Governor of Disco, a settlement on the west side of Greenland, has in his possession a table of mahogany made from a plank drifted on the coast. These are productions of the tropics and could have been brought here only through Behring’s straits from the N. W. coast of America ; in corroboration of this, the wood is frequently found perforated with worms, a circumstance which neyer takes place in the northern seas. E eget _ We have much reason (o believe that there is no great ex- tent of land approaching the north pole. Whales that have been harpooned in the Greenland seas, have been .found in the Pacific ocean. They have been taken with stone lances sticking in their fat (a kind of weapon used by no nation now known,) both in the sea of Spiczbergen and in Davis’s straits. The following relation is given by Scoresby. ‘ A Dutch East India Captain of the name of Jacob Cool, of Sardam, who had been several times at Greenland, and was of course well acquainted with the nature of the apparatus used in the whale fishery, was informed by Tischal Leeman of India, that in the sea of Tartary there was a whale taken, in the back of which was sticking a Dutch harpoon, marked with the letters W. B. This curious circumstance was communi- cated to Peter Jansz Vischer, probably a Greenland whaler, who discovered that the harpoon a had belenged to William Bastiaans, Admiral of the Dutch Greenland fleet, and had been struck into the whale in the Spitzbergen sea.” The Russians to the N. E. of Korea frequently find the har- nsof the French and Dutch, who practice the whale fishery in the north of Europe, in the whales they capture. The crewof the Volunteer Whaler, in July 1813, foundin the fat ofa whale “a lance ofa hard gray stone of a flinty appearance, about three inches long and two broad—two holes were pierced in one end of it by which the handle was secured.” The mas- ter of the vessel showed Mr. Scoresby this weapon. 14p On the North-west Passage. These facts, I conceive, sufficiently prove the existence of a water communication. It remains now to examine what are its obstructions? These are many and difficult, but may perhaps be overcome, though not to serve any useful year, west of Greenland, render the navigation difficult and dangerous. We have every reason to believe that Greenland and all the land west of it to Behring’s straits form a great chain or congregation of islands, and that Baffin’s bay, Hud- son’s bay, Prince Regent inlet, and other waters of the same description, are arms of the polarsea. ‘The numerous islands discerned by Parry and by Franklin fully illustrate this idea, the existence of those islands displays to us at once the source . of such a constant supply of ice. » It is admitted by most per- sons who have made observations on this subject, that ice is seldom formed at sea. The currents in Baffin’s bay and Da- vis’s straits are uniformily from the N..W. and Capt. Parry observed, that a N. W. wind always cleared the southern shores of the north Georgian islands, and gave him a clear Sea to navigate in. These numerous islands are prolific nurs- eries for the creation of ice. The quantity of earth and stones found attached to the icebergs, must satisfy us they have been formed in inlets and under cliffs, and we may safe- ly conclude, if once launched from the shore, there is little to be apprehended by getting to the north of them. e whalers uniformily agree in their statements relative to the diminution of ice beyond the 80° of N. lat, and as Mr. Scoresby is of the most respectable authority, I quote the following passage from him, “ Our latitude on those occa- sions, in the month of May (1806) as derived from observa- tions taken with a sextant by myself and my father, was 80° 50’ 81° 2’ and 81° 12’; after which we sailed so far to the northward as made about 81° 30’. Here Mr. S. could not “have been repelled by the ice, or he would have mentioned it. He does not assign any cause for returning—it is to be Presumed that his fishing required his atterttion, ee a _f F On the North-west Passage. ‘141 The Hon, Daines Barrington collected much valuable in- formation on this head, which he read before the Royal So- ciety 1774.—From this paper I have extracted the following narration. | ** Mr. George Ware, now living at Erith in Kent, served as chief Mate in the year 1754, on board the Sea Nymph, Captain James Wilson, when, at the latterend of June, they sailed through floating ice from 74° to 81°; but having then proceeded beyond theice they pursued the whales to 82° 15’ ; which latitude was determined by Mr. Ware’s own observa- tion. As the sea was now perfectly clear, as far as he could dis- tinguish with his best glasses, both Mr. Ware and Capt. Wil- son had a strong inclination to push further towards the pole ; but the common sailors hearing of such being their intention, remonstrated, that if they should be able to proceed so far, the ship would fall in pieces, as the pole would draw all the iron work out of her. et re n this Capt. Wilson and Mr. Ware desisted, as the crew had these very singular apprehensions ; especially as they had no whalesin sight to the northward, which alone would justify the actempt to theirowners. It need scarcely be observed,how- ever, that the notion which prevailed among tne crew, shows that the common seamen on board the Greenland ships con- increase. It should seem also, that the practicability of hemselves. In this same year and month, Mr. John Adams, who now is master of a flourishing Academy at Waltham Abbey in Essex, was on board of the Unicorn, Capt. Guy, when they anchor- ed in Magdalena bay, on the western coast of Spitzbergen, and north latitude 79° 35’. They continued. in this bay for three or four days, and then stood to the northward, when the wind freshening from that quarter, but the weather foggy, they proceeded with an easy sail for four days expecting to meet with fields of ice to which they might make fast ; but they did not encounter so much as a piece that floated. On the 5th day the wind veered to the westward, the weather cleared up, and Mr, Adams had a good observation, (the sun above the Pole) by which he found himself three degrees to the north of Hakluyt’s Headland, or in north latitude 33°— Capt. Guy new declared, that he had never been so far to the 142 On the North-west Passage. northward before, and crawled up to the maintopmast head, accompanied by the chief mate, while the second mate to- gether with Mr. Adams, went to the foretopmast head, from whence they saw a sea as free from ice as any part of the Atlantic ocean, and-it was the joint opinion of them all, that they might reach the north pole. is The ship then stood to the southward, and 12 hours after- wards Mr. Adams had a second good observation (the sup beneath the Pole) when their latitude was 82° 3’... In both these observations, Mr. Adams made an allowamce of 5’ for the refraction, which he says was his captain’s rule, who was now on his fifty-ninth, or sixtieth voyage to the Greenland Daines Barrington made a numerous and respectable col- lection of facts, but he was an enthusiast, and we must re- ceive his opinions with great caution; he did not hesitate to believe that many of the whalers who reported themselves to have been in 80° or 84° with a clear sea could have sailed to the Pole withont difficulty.. The approach to these high lati- tudes, it will be observed, was always made to ihe north of Spitzbergen, in the longitude of which the sea appears to be more free from ice than any other place of the same latitude. But may we not conclude by analogy, if we have a ‘clear sea” in this longitude from 80° to 85° N. latitude, that a pas- sage might be made from Baffin’s bay to Behring’s straits be- tween 70° and 85°? I should presume that a barrier of land in the Greenland seas. These could have received their wounds only in the Polar Ocean along the northern part of America. - Mackenzie’s and Copper-Mine rivers are important aux- iliaries to the evidence in favour of the existence of this ocean. we cast our eyes over the map of N. and 5. Ameriéa we shall find {that all the great rivers disembogue pps riet etna On the North-west Passage. 143 in some extensive sea. Copper-Mine river is but 200 miles long, and cannot therefore discharge much water into this with those of Cooke and Mackenzie, any longer to entertain a reasonable doubt.” In addition to this we have the re- practicability of a north west . e general line of coast segpaee Habe east and west, nearly in the latitude assi ackenzie’s river, the sound into which Kotesbue entered, and Repulse bay; and 144 On the North-west Passage. very little doubt can, in my opinion, be entertained of a con- tinued sea, in or about that line of direction. The existence whalebone we found in Esquimaux coves, may be con- and there are good harbours at convenient distances. entertain indeed, sanguine hopes that the skill and exertions of my friend Capt. Parry will soon render this question no longer problematical.”’ decide this import geographical question; three parties by his success. The recent return of Capt. Lyon militates not against the probable success of his former commander. The recent seale of rewards offered by the British govern- ment may induce individuals engaged in the fisheries to haz- ard its accomplishment. Ist. To the first ship belonging to any of his majesty’s sub- jects, or to his majesty, that shall proceed to the longitude of - 110° west, or tothe mouth of Hearne’s or Copper-Mine river, by sailing within the arctic circle, £5000; to 130° west, or to the whale island of Mackenzie, £10,000; to 150 west by sail- ing westward within the arctic circle £15,000; to the Pacific ovean, by a north-west passage £20,000. ; Pestulozzian Sysiem of Education, 146 _2d. To the first _ - ——— that shall sail to 83° of orth latitude, £1000; °, £2000; to 87°, <> 38°, £4000, and to a9, as baie allotted, the full reward of pe » Arr. XX.-—An Epitome of the Enproved Pestalozzian Sys- tem of Education, as practised by William Phrquepal and Madam Fretageot, formerly in Paris, and now in Phila- delphia ; communicated at the hick hs the Editor. BY “Wirtiam Maczure, Esq. Tue great ‘aod fundamental gr is, never to attempt to teach children what they do not comprehend, and to teach them in the exact ratio of their understanding it, without omitting one link in the chain of ratiocination, proceeding always from the known to the unknown, from the most easy to the most difficult, practising the most extensive and accu- rate use ofall the senses, exercising, improving, and perfecting all the mental and corporeal faculties by quickening combina~ tion; accelerating and carefully arranging comparison ; judi- ciously and impartially making deduction; summing up the results free from prejudices, and cautiously avoiding the de- lusions of imagination, the constant source of ignorance and error, The means of effectuating the above are, first, a careful examination and inspection of the objects ganache a of tangible and visible instruments, calculated to dem their properties and bring them within the. reach "of es senses. If these cannot be obtained, then accurate designs, or representations, and books, and descriptions, although im- perfect substitutes, are employed ; but these are not to be re- soried to apt every possible means of acquiring the first two has fail They pur rn ad sida by the machines or exact models of them; siege by an instrument called: the arith- mometer; geometry, by an instrument called the trigonome- ter, and ete pe the nent, by which the Vou. Be No a 19 : ; ” 146 An Epitome of the Improved most useful propositions of Euclid are reduced to the com- prehension of a child of 5 or 6 years old; marhematies. by the help of the last mentioned instruments 5 and all the mathe- matical forms in substance, by solid figures. Natural bisto- ry in all its branches, is learned by examining the objects in substance, or accurate representations of them, in designs or prints; anatomy by skeletons, preparations, and wax figures; geography by globes and maps, most of the last of their own construction; and hygiene, or the preservation of health, by their own experience, in attending to the conse- quences of all the natural functions. They are taught the elements of writing and designing by the freedom of hand, acquired by a constant practice, in forming all kinds of figures, with a slate and pencil put into their bands, when they first enter the school, on which they draw right lines, di- viding them into equal parts, thereby obtaining an accuracy of the eye. which, joined to the constant exercise of judging of the distances of objects and their height, gives them a per- fect idea of space, and practises them in a rapid and correct coup d’@il, so necessary in the useful arts and manufactures, and on which the accurate knowledge of the . properties of every species of matter depends. They learn music by “the distinct difference of sounds, through the medium of an organ constructed for the purpose, and a sonometer; and first, Jearn sounds before they are taught the notes or signs of those sounds; gymnastics, or the exercise of all mus- cular motions. they acquire by the practice of all kinds of movements, always preferring those that may lead to utility, such as marching, climbing, the manual exercise, &e. &c. They are taught the greatest part of those branches at the same time, never fatiguing the mind with more than an hour’s attention to the same thing, changing tke study, and rendering ita play by variety. The pupils learn as many modern lan- guages as there are different languages spoken by the boys of different nations at school, each instructing the others in the vocabulary of his language, while be acquires the words corresponding in the language of those he converses with, until he bas a complete vocabulary in his head, when be be- gins translating his own language into the foreign, and the master, when he corrects his translation, gives him the rules of grammar, by which he is guided in the correction, by which means the pupil learns the practice and theory o! grammar at the same time; and while the rule is imprinted Pestalozzian Sysiem ef Education. 147 va his memory, he has a tolerable idea of the reason and utility of the rule confirmed by the example in his transla- tion, and supported by the explanation of the master, which avoids the dry, disagreeable, and disgusting study of the the- ory of grammar, than which nothing can be more irksome, tiresome, and unpleasant to the learner, or more difficult for the schoolmaster, to command attention to; and often renders correction and punishment necessary, to force the pupils to choose the lesser evil. Education ought to be the apprenticeship of life, and chil- dren ought to be taught what imperious necessity may force them to practice when men, always preferring the useful to the ornamental; preparing them to withstand the reverses of fortune,.leaving the choice of their amusement and pastime, until their pecuniary, independence shall permit them to ma a choice of their pleasure. | To court pleasure and avoid pain, includes the greatest part of the motivés of human actions; to accomplish which, children ought to be taught to avoid remorse, fear, misery, and ennui.. To prevent the first, act always honestly and uprightly ; do as you would wish to be done by: secondly, retain all your instinctive courage and view every thing as it really exists: thirdly, allow a moderate indulgence of the natural appetites, and enjoin a total prohibition against_ac- quiring any artificial tastes or appetites; observe frugality, and the strictest economy in the smallest expenditure, recol- lecting the old proverb, “take care of the pence, the pounds will take care of themselves:” fourthly, obtain a knowledge of the objects of nature and art, and an early habit of re- ceiving pisbake from the examination of them. - Hume’s definition of man, that he is a bundle of habits, is as true as laconic, and points out the advantages that instruct- ors of youth might derive from that propensity, namely, that of acting from habit. By constaatly and habitually asso- ciating pleasurable sensations with all the useful and necessary operations of life, we thus turn the common occupations which the wants of man require into amusements; and form t e life of man into an agreeable pastime. If we examine how the trifling diversions of hunting, fishing, gaming. &e. &e. be- come pleasures, we shall find the cause to exist in habit, and frequent use, which might be more easily attached to some useful employment, the advantages of which would be per- manent and lasting, and not finishing when the action was 148 An Epitome of the Improved os ebte or productive only of remorse and a ike nine-tenths of the fashionable amusements. Upon th great and powerful lever of the mind, which as yet has iene employed only by crafty politicians, and by that portion of ecclesiastics who have abused religion for their selfish and antisocial purposes, volumes might be written to: explain its beneficent connexion with all the ‘ramifications of society ; soe: _ digression would take us too far from our ee pur- Two of the best gifts of nature to man are, health and time; and perhaps the total neglect and abuse of b ay be the cause of most of his _ miseries and poset both ample, and experience, can do it, ought to be one of the principal objects of instruction. This is to be effecied by adopting the most effectua] means of preserving the one, and making the best possible use of the other, before it is too Jate ; for unfortunately the youth of all countries have squan- dered the greatest part of both before they hans eared their alue. The immense advantage of the energy. @ and ebietion springing fro m free will, over the cramped and snail-paced ed by coercion and force in the government “ men, as well vi of the animal creation, must be evident to the most superficial observer; but in no case does the evil so materially injure and destroy the best and most valuable in- terests of society, as in the coercion and punishment of chil- . dren during their education This is the source from which spring all the violent ma- lignant passions of anger, revenge, hatred, &c.; this is the destroyer and exterminator of all their « amiable and benevo- ae sentiments: it is the corruptor of the heart; it — head, and suppresses all talent and genius, breaks down a spirit of natural independence, and fits men for slaves —— nn Rarer pote cerns. Pestalozzian System of Education. 140 tions. Th st complicated studies are but an amuse- ment increases with ihe difficulties they encounter; and this concatenation of pleasurable idea th moral study proposed, in place of the circuitous metaphysical method adopted by the old system, as if teachers were afraid of giving knowledge too cheap. By setting types they practice accu- rate spelling, and become familiar with the construction of al! the languages which they print, and they can earn their bread in case of necessity. It is also a great source of econo- my to the school, and answers all the purposes of a recreation from more difficult studies. The immense advantages of the system are more evident when applied to the great bulk of mankind ; namely, the pro- ductive, labouring, and useful classes. ‘Those who from cop- quest, force, fraud, or the industry of their ancestors, are left with a sufficient revenue to live without labour, may remain in astate ofignorance. Perhaps this may be the fact without injuring materially the state of civilization in the mass of so- ciety, as the ignorance of the class spoken of facilitates and accelerates the division of property, a state of things so ne- cessary to general happiness, and to the elevation of mankind to the highest conditiom of moral and physical perfection. The pupils are capable of obtaining an accuracy of sight, which they acquire by a constant practice of measuring dis» tance and dimensions, which gives them, when they leave the school, an experience equal to the acquirements of many years of instruction of an artisan, as they can; at a glance, de- cide whether a horse-shoe, a nail, a board, or any other piece of iron, wood, &c. will answer the purpose for which it is in- tended, without the trouble of trying. They learn natural philosophy by the most improved and simple instruments; chemistry by the latest and most accu- rate experiments, never departing from the. golden role of 150 An Epitome of the Improved proceeding from the most simple to the most compound, from the easiest to the most difficult, from the known to the unknown, and preferring the useful to. the ornamental, making at the same time the application of ali the necessary arts and nt ah ae that their ulility may not be lost ngut of for a momen One of the saerstenad attached to the system is the facility of forming professors. The popish attribute of infallibility being exploded, the master loses none of his influence with his pupils by acknowledzing that he is ignorant of the subject in question, but will learn it along with them, according to system, in accomplishing which, he has only to keep one les- son before the class, and the boys have a better chance to learn that particular science or art well, than if the master had been an old professor; for by learning it himseif so re cently, he is instructed in all the difficult places, ane is more capable of teaching the children how to get over them 5 an ad- vantage which the Lancasterian or monitorial ayn has over the old method. Lithography being the best, cheapest, and easiest mode of making accurate representations of every thing, and this system iring so great a number of exact representations, as they are in all possible cases substituted for books or de- scriptions, the pupils are all taught bow to design on the stone or cartoons and bow to make the proper ink and pencils, as well as ali the manipulation of printing and working the press, &c. &c The advantages of calculating in the common way of st by cyphers is the smallest part of the great and ial mental improvement, gained by the calculation on memory; without the aid of any artificial figures, as it exer- cises, improves, and accelerates the combinations, and ren- ders comparison easy and accurate ; while it accustoms the young mind to rapid deductions, facilitates the drawing of just and accurate consequences, and lays the foundation for a quick, impartial, and logical. judgement, in deciding on all questions of intricacy and difficulty, by. furnishing to the mind the necessary elements to uoravel the most complicated ° subject The public are now penbtadle informed that the Pestaloz- zian system of education has been introduced into this coun- try by the public spirit and liberality of Mr. Maclure. a a te Pestalozzian System of Education. 151 The following facts in relation to the actual state of the schools at Philadelphia were igo by him in an- swer to the inquiries of the edito Extract of a letter dated Philadelphia, August 19, 1825. ‘Madam Fretageot’s school has been established here 4 years next October, has 32 pupils, as many~as she can take, and severe] are waiting for eee she has already com- pleted the education of some, whose parents thought them sufiiciently instructed in’ all useful and necessary informa- ae . Phiquepal began his schoo! a few months ego, has 18 sptiite and will very soon have as many as he wishes to take; as the me thod requires more Constant attention on the part of the instructor than that of the old schools, par- ticularly at first; as the greatest part of ‘the scholars have been treated differently by previous education, and have habits that must be changed before they i be effectually benefited by the system It would be necessary, t the full advantage of the method, that the children itt be sent before they were at any school, except being taught by the mother, who would be aided much by a small book pub- lished by Pestalozzi, called the Mother’s Manual. I have school, and the present practice, reersereat. in many countries of Europe seems to sanction I have seen nothing printed itote ‘itie system except Neef’s ‘Sketch, which is all sold, and scarcely a copy is to be obtained in this country, although 18 volumes have been printed at Stuttgard in Germany, on the Pestalozzian method, which sold so well, that ow Baia gave Pestalozzi 60,000 francs for his share of the ts. The above ae est Pithions, ") by attesting the reader to consider himself as author of ali he reads or finds out by his own reflections, The fault I find with a great many books, is that mania of making things too plain, leaving nothing to cogitation, and nor too contemptuously the intellectual faculties of the rea 152 Notes on Ohno. i. XXI. > Nelees on Ohio. By De Hixpseru, ip answer to inquiries, made by Caleb Atwater, Esq. “Tue name of your town, or county, iis situation, gxtens and number of acres ; the history of its settlement; the num ber, general character, and manners of the first setters’: ; ess whence they came, and at what time; the latitude and lon- gitude of any particular place in your county £” Marietta is situated at the junction of the Muskingum with the Ohio river, and lying on both sides of the Muskingum, but principally on the east side; that part of the town which lies on the west side, is usually ‘Called: Point Harmar, in con- sequence of the fort built by Gen. Harmar, standing on that side. It is the seat of justice for Washington county, and lies in latitude 39° 28’ 42” north, and in Tongitude 4° 20’ west et Washington. T he streets are wide and Teele ; the aupoucts being tendi oerae hundred and eighty ca the streets cross each other at ght angles, thus forming squares, containing eighteen city lots; and these are again divided by an alley, running the length of the square, eleven feet in'width. ‘The commons are large, and the grounds reserved. for public uses extensive. ‘The public buildings are a court house, and jail, both under one roof;* four houses for public worship, two o brick, and two of wood: and one banking house, of gaa the public offices are, two post-offices, (one on Point Har- mar,) recorder’s office, U. S. register’s and eee ofc; ony and that of the collector of non-residenttaxes. Theo of dwelling houses is one hundred and forty-five; ory et which are of brick; these are exclusive of the. a me- chanies’ shops,. and buildings for manufactories, The number of stores for retaifing foreign ae is seven- teen; two coiton manufactories, the machinery of which is 922 there was saci a brick court-house of good size, and vitae al the necessary offi Votes on Ohio. 153 Set-Up in handeneae brick buildings, erected for that pur: ose, One latger steam vedill of thirty horse power, built of free stone, for the inediafictuce of flour; it has also attached to it, wo machines for carding fine and coarse wool. There are also two other carding machines ia the town, which are worked by horses; a brewery is now building, and will be in operation, in the course of the fsammer; and one or two rope walks are in constant operation. Boat building, including steam boats, is also cirri’ on to considerable extent in Marietta and the neighbourhood. — ‘The county of Washington, was the first organized county in the North Western Territory ; it then embraced princi- pally or quite all the inhabited part of the territory; it is now reduced to nearly constitutional limits; it extends, a on the Muialeexam, 27 miles; and east and west, the Ohio o river, following the meanders thereof, 55 miles; it ect 448,000 acres, and is at present composed of the following townships, viz: Marietta, Unien, Adams, Water- atertown, Wesley, Barlow, Sarge Belpré, Fearing, Salem, Lawrence, Newport, and Gran The first court was held in Sapredtion 1788, by judges Parsons and Varnum. ‘The settlement at Marietta, commenced the 7th April, 1788. ‘This was the first that.was made in the county, and indeed in that tract of country which now constitutes the state of Ohio. This settlement was begun under the-direc- tion of the Ohio er The emigrants were New-Eng- landers, from the states of Massachusetts, a opt d, and Connecticut, forty-seven in number, and u the guidance and superiatendence of General Rufus nee That season they planted 50 acres of corn, and built a stockaded fort, or garrison, on the elevated plain near the Muskin, dians, should they prove ‘hostile. fn the summer and au- tumn they were joined by about twenty families; the first settlers, were prineipally revolutionary officers and soldiers, inured to fatigue, and habituated to danger. It was, I pre- sume, owing to these military habits, that they suffered so little from the attacks of the Indians, in the war which broke out the third year after their settlement commenced; being always on their guard, and going into their corn fields with their guns near —— and one or two of their number ele- Vo 20 5 eee i564 Notes on Ohio. vated on a high stump, like a sentinel on his watch tower, they were always prepared for an attack, or wa cir- cumstances which no way suited the Indian mode of war- fare; they invariably preferring to attack the unwary oe the unguarded, calculatiug on success more from the sudden and unexpected manner of attack, than on their own physical power. » On the eleventh of April, 1789, settlements | were begun at Belpre and Newbury. The first is fifteen miles below Ma- rietta, on the Ohio river; the latter is twenty-five miles. Strong, garrison-houses were built at both these places, to which the settlers fled in any alarm; but the greater number lived within the garrisons so _ as any danger from Indians was apprehended. There were three of these garrisons in Belpre ; the strongest one was ales “‘ Farmer’s Castle.” After the Indian war commenced in 1791, four or six a scour the woods daily, and. make report immediately on discovering signs that Indians were in the neighbourhood ; soon as any thing serious or alarming was discovered, the ‘‘ spies” gave notice, the alarm gun was fired, and every man hasted — the field, from the wood, or wherever he might be, directly to his post; the gates were shut, and in a few minutes all_were ready for the expected attack. But the often threatened attack never took place. The “ yankees”? were always in preparation to recieve company; and of course the Indians did not choose to call; but would occa- sionally knock at the door to see who was at home. “he settlement at Belpré, however, lost a few of its num- ber from individuals venturing too far from the garrisons, and not expecting any danger, as serayee had not been seen Jately in their vicinity. in 1793, Major Goodall, a native of Massachusetts, was taken by the Indians, bile hauling timber, with an ox team, from the adjacent forest; his team was destroyed, but of m3ijor Goodall no wetaee could be discovered. It was ge- nerally supposed that he was taken a prisoner, removed a considerable way into the. wilderness, and murdered; as 0 tidings could ever be gained of his being a prisoner among them, when the diffrent Indian tribes were in at Greenville, to form a treaty in 1795. His loss was a severe one to the settledionn, as he was one of the most active and enterprising Notes on Ohio. 155 men they had amongst them. He left a wife and several children, Captain King was shot while chopping, a short distance from the garrison; he left a wife and two children, and was a native of Rhode Island. Jonas Davis was shot and sealped, near the mouth of Congress creek, about a mile from the garrison. Benoni Hurlburt, one of the spies, was shot, at the mouth of the Little Hockhocking, as he was returning _ from a scout, in the spring of 1791. hese were the principal losses the mens an at Belpre experienced from the Indians, which may be called almost miraculous, when we consider their exposed i being the frontier settlement, ms seniurely open for several years to the numerous tribes of indians who inhabited the waters of the Scioto and kia. rivers. © The settlement at New- ury was parser Sonederably by the depredations of -the Indians. -One woman and.two children .were killed, and a child she had in je arms was tomahawked, but afterwards recovered of its wounds, as they were going to a party of men who were at work in a field, a short distance from the garrison. The ladians Saapee without loss, al- though pursuit was instantly.m In the year 1790, i were begun at the forks-of Duck creek, at Waterford, on the Muskingum river, about miles above Marietta, at the mouth of Meigs’ s creek, and at Big Bottom 35 miles up the Muskingum ; another was wands containing 100,000 acres, in lots of 100 acres, which lots were given to any person who would make an acttal set- tlement thereon. These lands were first given by the Ohio Company, but were afterwards assumed ae Congress, and other lands given to the Company in exchange. This tract lies a few miles north of the settlement at Marietta, and ex- tends east and west across the waters of Duck creek, Musk- ingum River, Olive Green creek, Meigs’s creek, and Wolf creek, affording many eligible situations for settlements. At the close of the year 1790, it was found that these several settlements, could muster four hundred and forty-seven men ; one hundred and three of which had families. - The number of children I have not been able to learn. The settlers were nearly all from the New England states, and many of them young men, without families. . The settlement at Big Bottom was destroyed by the Indians, January 2, 1791. Fourteen 145 Noies on Ohio. persons: were killed, and five were taken prisoners. Amongst the slain was one woman and two children; the remainder were young nen. The settlement was somposéd of young men, who had drawn their donation lots, and had just com- menced improvements upon them. They had built a block house, and two cabins, a few rods from the house, all of which were-occupied. They were in no apprehension of ey from paaigiti: as the war had not yet commenced; and they visited the settlements in a friendly manner frequently. The Indians, it seems, had been watching the settlement nearly all day, from the top of a neighbouring hill, and just at dusk in the evening, they commenced their attack ; one. party ap- proached the blo¢khouse, and at the same time another party approached one of the cabins, in a friendly manner. It was oceupied by four men of the name of Choat; they en- tered it without noise, beckoned to the men to be quiet, or they would tomahawk them; confined them with cords, and mide them prisoners. By this time the other party had reached the blockhouse. ‘The men had just come in from work, and were busily occupied in getting their suppers ; sir arms were ae carelessly by in the corners of the 1 room ; a n’ led the van, pushed open the door, d it in that t position, until the other Indians had dis- Saree thaierilids upon its astonished inhabitants. No re- sistance was made except by the woman, who seizing an axe made.a blow at the big Mohawk, which cleaved the flesh, from his scull to his shoulder ; but before she could repeat the biow, the other Indians rushed in with their tomahawks, killed her, and all who survived the first fire. Afier the slaughter was over, the Indians proceeded to plundering, and under the beds, pile ed up in the corner of the room, they a boy 14 or 15 years of age; him they saved alive, with oe other prisoners “to Detroit. The othe decupied by two men by the name of Ballard, w the fring at the blockhouse, rushed out, and mate cape just as the Indians were approaching, which t covered by the cracking of the brush, as they were con ming 4 in the dark. These two men reached the settlement at olf creek that night; by this mead notice, they were ena- = to be in readiness for the Indians, who arrived early the morning, but finding the settlers prepeted to meet them, they retire ‘without making any atte ye Had it not been ‘for the fortunate escape of the two Ballards, this settlement ~ Notes on Ohio. 157 } sp bd have shared the’ same fate with that at Big Bot : The: settlement at Waterford was also attacked by the In- dians; they were beaten off without any loss of lives; but they suffered a considerable loss in cattle, which the Indians drove away. It was afterwards discovered that one Indian was shot through the shoulder. In 1794, Abel Sherman was killed at Waterford; and in 1795, Sherman Waterman was killed on Little Wolf creek. “he settlement at Marietta suffered but little from the de- predations of the Indians. ‘Their cows would occasionally come home with arrows sticking in them, and sometimes they drove them off, or destroyed them. It was against tlie re- gulations of the settlement, for any. horses to run at large, they being an object of plunder of the first consequence to the Indians, as they are not only easily removed, but also assist them in their retreat; this regulation, with two or three at- tempts, which they ‘made on this settlement, proving dis- astrous, was the reason why they so seldom visited the place. A man by the name of Robert Warth, who was chopping in a field, within gun shotof the fort on Point Harmar, was killed by an Indian i in open day, in the year 1792; the Indian escaped unhurt. Matthew Kerr was shot at the mouth of Duck creek, while crossing it in a canoe. About this time one of the “spies,” by the name of William Rogers, was killed a few miles from Marietta, as he was returning from a scout, in com- pany with another “spy” by the name of Henderson. The Hg waylaid the path, and fired upon them as the “passed Henderson had a ball shot through his blanket as it nee at his ‘back, but without injuring him. The Indians chased him several re 2 but by his superior activity and bravery, he Seg: gg nning of fey 408 R. # Meigs,* Jr. Esq. (since corer’ of the State of Ohio, and Post Master General) had. ow van from the attack of twoIndians. Mr. s com with a man by the name of Symonds, and s black hoy Gout 14 or 16 years old, was ee an at ‘ht, from his cornfield where he had been hoeing Fig had secreted themselves by the side of the path, be- tween him and the fort, on the west side of Muskingum river ; as he approached the river for the purpose of crossing it, some * Since deceased. 158 Notes on Ohiv. turn inthe path placed him with his back to the Indians. At this juncture, one of the Indians fired, and shot Symonds through the shoulder. Being an excellent swimmer, he took immediately to the river, and the black boy followed him ; ‘but the boy being unable to swim, was pursued by the Indian who had discharged his rifle, dragged to the shore, tomahawked and scalped. Symonds floated down the river, to the fort, was taken up and recovered of his wound. T he other Indian, who it seems was only armed with a tomahawk, now approached Mr, Meigs with motions for him to surren- der. Mr. Meigs presented his gun, which from some mis- chance happened to be unloaded, and approached the Indian at a pretty rapid pace ; as he passed by him, he struck the Indian with his gun, and the Indian returned the blow with his tomahawk—it stunned him a little, but did not check his rogress. The Indian immediately pursued, but being una- ble to overtake the object of his pursuit, he stopped, threw his tomahawk, which narrowly missed its aim, uttered the Indian war-cry, and gave up the chase. Had Mr. Meigs tried any other expedient than that of facing his enemy and rushing immediately upon him, he must inevitably have Jost his life. On. his left was the ‘river, on his Aight acrery ee sec and high hill; beyond him the path- less wood, and between him and. the fort, his Indian foes. To his sudden and “anexpected attack, to his dauntless and intrepid manner, and to his dexterity in the race, Mr. Meigs undoubtedly owed his life. The Indians were immediately pursued from the fort and a number of shots were fired at them by the “ spies” on the east side of the river, but they ance to their pursuers, escaped uni njured. Durit ing the whole of the war, only two Indians were cer- Pee killed. One of these was killed by Mr. Henderson, one of the ns incompany,when they were Henderson, with a party of Indian was killed, the ek, about three miles nt had pean begun, : Indian day balers’ on mill one of the inhabit- the hill which overlooks the town, and biddiag deft ; Notes on Ohio. 159 ants, as he was returning with the cows. ‘Ihey were so in- tent on examining the path for the footsteps of pomenes that they did not see him, although only a few rods from e made a Circuit round amongst the hills, and reached the garrison in safety. Early the ensuing morning, a party of men turned out in pursuit of the Indians. It was "jud ed b the spies. that they would pass the night at the abandoned settlement on Duck creek. Approaching therefore with caution, the Indians were discovered without giving any alarm; one of them was amusing himself with turni ga- large grindstone, to him probably a novel sight. The other had clambered upon the outside of a cabin, wand was looking down the little wooden -chimney, to see what discoveries he — make within. Hamilton Kerr, one of the spies, (and on of Mr. Kerr, killed at the mouth of Duck a te ont the Indian on the cabin for his mark ; th of the escaped with impunity. The reason why they so often escaped, was Owing to their perfect acquaintance with the woods, through which they had sv often pursued the deer id the buffalo; and to their selecting their ‘most pis ey cunning, and brave warriors for transactions of this 3 and above all to that love of fame, so dear to the viiidiex, bat far more dear to the heart of an Indian. Whoever knows t ia a must know, with what unremitting igene es his foe ; whole days and nights, in cold a P will lie Without fire, concealed in the forest, perhaps out food, waiting with untiring patience the f ment when he may spring upon hi without danger to himself, All. eye astonishing quickness the small r tinctly the most trifling sounds ; ; his pliant limbs ed to activity, and strengther by long mare him in the hour of trial—and his pity, never relents at the cries of int ens to the supplications and entreaties of destroying arm knows no distinctions of | < S drink us blood of bis enemies and feast pol 160 Notes on Ohio. in triumph, and in salety, his levee 3 is complete ;—his person is highly re respected, and-his name enrolled among their he- roes, 1s Faded down to pace in their war songs, as an object of emulatio ome of the nettlemesi suffered | severely from the want of ndian War. Their sup- plies had pernplore hess principally brought from Pittsburgh’; and the war broke out before they had land enough under psn Ea Rs supply Sawislves, after which time it was very hazardous to navigate the river ; the boats being often destroy- ed by the Indians, and all on "board killed: a they were in pei danger, w when attempting to open new fields. ese difficulties had-well nigh produced a famine ; but, by the interposition ofa kind Providence, they were enabled to overcome all their difficulties ; and escaped without any very great losses, from their numerous enemies. _ “The Indians that formerly inhabited your county—their number, condition, customs, manners, language, myiolont: urylng piaces, monuments, forts, tumuli or mounds, wea- pons, utensils, and other traces of their settlement ; their his- tory, migrations, traditions, character, trade, wars, and eas- ties ; their names and places, and their signification ?” “So far as I have been able to learn, the Indians bre no Paatehte: within the present boundaries of Washing- ington county. But the tract of country embraced within it was used as the common hunting ground of several different tribes, more particularly the Shawnees, the Delawares,and the Wyandotts. That tract of country embraced by the Ohio Company’s purchase, is reputed to have been the best hunt- ing ground, north-west of the Ohio river; and is remember- ed with regret to this day, by many of the old Indians. I have been Jold by some of the first settlers of this place, that the hills were literally covered with buffalo, deer, and wild turkeys ; that the hunters made a business of killing the deer, for their skins and tallow only, and that one expert hunter could kiJl several hundreds in the course of a few weeks. At this time they have become scarce; the best hunters cannot kill, in a favourable time, more than three or four in a day, and. perhaps not one in a day. The buffalo have been driven from the country many years since, and the race of tkeys.| is almost extinc know of no regular burying places that they had, in this neighbourhood ; but they seem to have been buried as the Notes on Ohio. iGi occasion required near the spot where they fell: this usually has been in the bottom lands near the rivers, their bores being often exposed to view from the falling in of the river banks, after freshets. he remains of their stone hearths are also brought to light in the same way, near which are discovered vast heaps of calcined clam-shells, bones of fish, and of deer. This has been more particularly the case nearthe mouth ofthe Musk- ingum river. This spot, from the vast quantities of shells washed out of the bank, must have been a place of their oc- casional residence for many years. Such places are fre- quent on the Ohio river, and near them are often found bits of broken potter’s ware, of a coarse construction, appearing to be made of pounded shells, and clay, in composition. I once saw a perfect vessel of this kind ; it would hold about two quarts, was handsomely proportioned, nearly the shape ofa large cocoa-nut, and had four neat handles placed near the brim, opposite to each other. It was found in the bank, on. an island in the Ohio river, near Belpre. —.- Arrow heads of flint, are found in ploughing the fields, scattered all over the bottom lands, some so large that they must have been used for spears’ heads. Stone hatches, and stone pestles for pounding corn, are alsocommon. On the beach near the- mouth of the Muskingum, was found a curious ornament, which from the neatness of the workmanship, must have belonged to some distinguished per- sonage amongst that ancient race of inhabitants, who con- structed those wonderful works in this neighborhood. It is made of white marble, its forma circle, about three inches some On the heads of Jonathan’s creek, in Morgan county, whose bases are formed of well burnt bricks, of about four or five inches square. There were found lying on the bricks, charcoal, cinders, and bits of calcined bones ; and above them Vou X.—No. 1. 2] 162. Dr. Thomson's First Principles of Chemisiry.- the superstructure of earth composing the body ofthe mound, evidently showing that the dead had here been reduced to ashes, after the manner of several ancient nations, and that the mound of earth had been erected over the remains, to perpetuate the memory of some companion or friend Mounds are generally iniind on level land, and near streams of water, thereby indicating that the dead were deposited near their settlements. Some mounds are oval, and: others circular. Those vast remains of mounds, elevated squares, parapet ditches, &c. on the elevated plain, within the town lot of Marietta, have been so often described, that I shall not attempt it at this time.* Art. XXII.—Notice of Dr. Tuomson’s first priccipine of Chemistry ; and extracts fram et et letters on vartou sobistte, addressed to the Editor. {x is not within our purpose, or present limits, to do any thing more than briefly mention the admirable work of Dr. Thomson. For more than twenty years, we have diligently followed this distinguished author, through all the numerous editions of his sy stematic Chemistry, in which he has shown himself the vigilant and faithful historian of the science ; through his Annals of Philosophy, one of the best of the nu- merous scientific journals of this day, and through his smaller works, and separate memoirs, with which he has favoured the ‘public ; and we have listened, with high interest, to the in- structions of his lecture room. But after all, predisposed, as we were, to expect much from a great effort of the mature age of such a master, our expectations have been more than equalled. There is nothing, the offspring of the present age, which, so far as we are informed, surpasses this ‘* attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Experi- ment.” The vast amount of labour scihonised— the patient and persevering repetition of tedious and often difficult pre- *See the descriptions and drawings, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. in the first Vol. of the Archeologia Americana, where much very interesting iuformation may be found.—Editor. Dr. Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry. 163 cesses, frequently to the eight or tenth time—the consum- mate skill discovered in devising and executing the experi- ments, and the surprising coincidence of the results of analy- sis, with the deductions of theory, excite ourastonishment, and prove, beyond a question, that chemistry,if not founded inin- tuitive, is built on demonstrative truth. Dr. Thomson, after ut sint et fixa, que dixero: sed ut homunculus, probabilia conjectura sequens.” Tusc. Quast. Lib. {. c. 9. r. Thomson has dedicated his work to those eminent hilosophers, Mr. Dalton, Prof. Gay Lussac, Sir Humphrey avy; prof. Berzelius, Dr. Wollaston, and Dr. Prout, who have laboured so successfully in the same field, and _notwith- standing some differences of opinion among these gentlemen, _ they will doubtless hail the work of Dr. Thomson asa vast » acquisition to the Atomic theory. Dr. Thomson does not always agree with the views of Prof. Berzelius, but he does justice to the exalted merit of the Swedish philosopher, to whom the science of chemistry is under such great obliga- tions. reat fundamental truth is now established beyond all controversy, that every body enters into chemical combi- nations always with the same weight, or with a weight bear- ing an accurate arithmetical ratio, to the smallest weight of the given body which is capable of entering into combination: hence, some body being agreed upon as a unit, the weights of all others can also be expressed by numbers, which will always represent one proportion, or two, ormore, of the com- bining body. Unfortunately the gentlemen who have writ- ten in support of the atomic theory have been divided be- tween oxygen and hydrogen for the unit. This occasions considerable inconvenience to learners, because different numbers are of course used to denote the weight of the same body, but it affords no ground toassail the theory as untena- ble. We annex some extracts from a letter received from Dr. Thomson, by which it will appear that he is still prosecuting this important inquiry, and that we may hope to hear from him again on the subject. te4. = Dr. ‘Fhomson’s First Principles of Chemistry. Extract of a letter from Dr. Thomson to Prof. Silliman, dated Glasgow, March 30, 1825. Dear Srr, I po myself the pleasure of sending with this letter a copy of a work of mine, just poblished, on what I consider the most important point which can at present occupy the attention of the chemist. It has cost me five years hard labour, and an almost infinite number of experiments. But I have been at so much pains to secure accuracy, and have repeated my ex- iments so frequently where I considered them as funda- — mental, that I entertain the fullest confidence of their almost mathematical accuracy. I have been delighted with the sim- plicity of the numbers, and with their connexion with each other. You will perceive that they raise chemistry to the rank of a mathematical science, and that henceforth chem- ical analyses may be subjected to the test of mathematical ealculation. oe ee intend now to devote myself for some time to come, to ‘@xamine the mineral kingdom. I expect to find the same simplicity in the composition of minerals, if we can by any means disentangle the true chemical compounds from mix- tures. Berzelius and his pupils have done a great deal on that subject, and their labours will be of infinite use to me ; though I do not approve of the method of calculation employ- ed by Berzelius. Probably several years will elapse before I shall be in a condition to give any thing to the public on the subject. But I have already begun, and have made some ° little progress. I find for example, that our magnesian lime- “stone is an exact chemical compound of n f e atom carbonate of lime - 6.25 Orie atom carbonate of magnesia - 5.25 11.50 It gives me much pleasure to see with what spirit you are going on in America in investigating the mineralogy of your yast continent. America will soon have to boast of many exeellent mineralogists, and some accurate chemists. Mr. Owen’s Establishment ani Improvements. 165 Extracts of a letter from William Maclure, Esq. to the Editor, f dated Paris, May 2, 1825. 1. Commerce—its relation to knowledge and civilization.— famglad you have introduced the Belfast society to some one who will exchange specimens of natural history with them, as it is the easiest ahd most accurate mode of giving ideas, the commerce that tends more to the happiness of mankin ‘than any other, and which will become of more consequence to all ranks, as civilization increases. Indeed one can fore- see a state of society where the exchange of ideas would be the only commerce, where mankind will be so well informed, as to raise every thing they want themselves, and restrain those wants within the limits of their own productions. The commercial system has done good, but-at present rather re- tards than advances improvement, because the merchant has an interest in opposition to that of all others; for it is his interest to gain upon the whole consumption of the commu- nity, and thus far he prefers of course that all should pass through his hands; as a merchant, he must wish that all should consume foreign produce, although it is evidently the interest of all other members of society to be independent of foreign supplies, always excepting those satellites of power, removed so far from a state of nature, as to be collectors of indireet taxes. 2. Mr. Owen’s Establishment and Improvements.—It is fortunate that Mr. Owen has pitched upon a‘location, where prejudices will not have their force of combination to obstruct improvement: that is but too lamentably common in com- munities where there isa more dense population ; for it would be exceedingly mortifying if our industrious producers of pub- lic and private wealth, should reject so great a benefit as the introduction of his plans must be to every kind of labour, and our disgrace and humiliation would be much aggravated, if the two establishments now forming in Britain were to succeed, and the attempt now making in America were to fail. A prospectus of the British establishments, with the first lecture on human happiness, by John Gray, has been pub- lished: it places the present state of society, in anew and highly interesting point of view, extremely favourable to lib- erty. 166 = Mr. Owen’s Establishment and Improvements. - Labour in some shape or other is the cause of all produe- tion; of course all the revenue of every society is created by . those that work. The annual production of Great Britain, is estimated at £54 sterling for every man, woman, and child; but only £11 sterling per annum, falls-to the share of those who produce it; viz. about 4: the other 4 go for tithes, taxes, masters, &c. &c. Such an order of things is neither reasonable nor just, and to rectify itas far as possi- ble, by laying the axe to the root of the evil, taking away the temptation to avarice, cheating, and crime, is the object of the newsystem. li proposes to remedy theevil, by enabling the in- dustrious producer to retain a far greater proportion of the produce of his labour, and removing the necessity of his working more than a few hours in the day, to obtain every necessary comfort, leaving the rest of his time for moral im- ovement and recreation. While the whole legitimate host of those that benefit by the present order of things are closely united and strongly combined, to support all abuses, it would be in vain for individual exertion to strive with such an array of well disciplined antagonists, and the only chance of suc- ceeding is by a coalition of those useful and industrious pro- rs, to retain as much of their own, for their consumption 1d be as the nature and independence of their situation will admit. To obtain these great, good, and devoutly to be wished for, effects, the co-operative societies endeavour toes- tablish rules and regulations. For instance, for the sake of economy and sociability, they eat all at the same table, and cook all in the same kitchen, by which they will save fully one half of the expenses, and nearly 2 ofthe labour and fuel. omen are placed on an equality with men, for education, privileges, &c. and thus half of the human race, will be re- lieved from the inability of aiding in the great work of civil- ization. By amutual guaranty of all the necessaries and con- veniences of life, they annihilate the competition and struggle for riches and power, and that lust for dominion and command, which is the cause of envy, malice, hatred, cruelty, and of most of the miseries of mankind. The only objection urged by the enemies of the system is, that it is impossible ! the eternal cry against every thing new ; for, say they, how can you eradicate the passions of men ?— +here is no intention of rooting them out ; but the firm reso- lution is taken of not planting the violent antisocial passions, all of which are nourished, strengthened, and fortified from the cradle to the grave, by the unjust and cruel treatment of most ana a i f Scenery, &¢. of some parts of France. 167 of the rulers of mankind. The consequences of the new system to mankind will be so beneficial to the world, that it is at least an a fair and impartial trial. ichaux’s North American Sylva. —Finding that Michaux intended to sell his whole edition of the American Sylva with coloured plates, and thinking it a useful book, that we ought to have in the United States, I bought the whole edition with the 156 Copper-plates, which 1 shal —. with me, and shall send a copy to the American Geological Soci- ety and give others to some of ihe Agricultural Soccties, all of _ whom ought to have such a description of our forest trees, be- fore they yield, and are eradicated by cultivation and civiliza- tion; for the greatest part of them will never be replanted, but be extirpated with the forests that at present support them. 4. Thorn Fence.—-I think 1 have found a tree that has all the good properties of a hedge tree: viz..quick growth, from 6 to 10 feet ina year, and nea spines, or prickles, rll ma a ie much, as wood grows more scarce. Notice of the Scenery, &c. of some parts of France : extracted rom a letter written to the Editor by an American gentle- man, and dated Lyons, May, 14, 1825. For the last two months I have been travelling in this country ; and as most of my route was not in the part = visited by ourcountrymen, it may grati ify you to learn som particulars of my journey. "I left Paris on fey 15th of March, incontpany with Mr. P. We travelled slowly, on account of the bad state of his health, and were compelled by unsea- sonable cold weather, to rest ‘several daysat Orleans. There we little there to gratify curiosity, except the cathedral, | have heard it called the finest in France, but it seemed to me inferior to that of Rouen, and I presume you have seen much grander churches in 1 Englan The country between Orleans and Tours, was very fine when we passed it, though the season was too early to exhibit all its beauties. From 168 Scenery, §c. of some parts of France. Blois to Tours especially, the. ride is one of the sees that [kno The road runs upon the levée, an embankm made to bainarys elie low grounds from inundation. Out our right was a plain covered with corn, and bounded by a hill, which presented many a graceful curve and romantic preci- pice, and whose declivities were every where decorated with white houses, — and towns, cae among the grain and vines. On our left was the river with its beautiful bridges and aaboie: and the further bial which was pictur- esque and wild in some parts, and then again cultivated like that on the right, but still with difference enough for agreea- ble variety. In the hill near a many houses have been formed by excavation. Their windows and doors are in the perpendicular side of the dlealky eliff, the chimneys spring out of the green turf ah and over the roofs are gardens and fruit trees. Tours is a ie pretty town, inhabited by many English emigrants. It has a.very fine street, in which the houses are nearly alike. The pie are ef hewn stone, and were erect- ed by Louis XVI. at the expense of the nation, after a fire had destroyed a great part of the tee At this place we left the Loire, and: turned southward in our way to Bordeaux. There was little n the two plate to remark upon. rdeaux is one of the finest towns that | ever saw. 1 know of none whose private houses seem to m ood. They are here built of hewn stone, of that eacaveous kind so abundant in France, At first it is almost as beautiful as marble, and even when turned brown by age, it has a grand appearance rom Hardesnx to Nismes, our road Jed through one of the richest.and most fertile on that [haveseen. Even the plain of Lombardy can hardly be more productive. It is cultivated more by the women than by men—I should think the proportion was certainly two, if not three, or four, toone. They get but twelve sous a day, and as our people express it, “find themselves.” The languages of Guienne and Languedoc are very different from the French: 1 think them much more harmonious. That of eae too, has much of the softness of the Italian. They were all incom- prehensible to me, and someof them are so tie Frenchman ; es generally the inn-keepers and their servants understood nough of French to converse with me Scenery, &c. of some paris of Frances 169 Nismes has some antiquities in excellent ga The amphitheatre is much more entire than the m, but it is much smaller as it could contain but 17000 peo- ple, while it is believed that 107,000 couldat once witness the exhibitions in the latter. The ‘ Maison Sarcée’ is a beautiful temple, which is dediested to Caius and Lucius adopted sons of Augustus. Ithas thirty fluted eg columns. The Pont du Gard, about tweive miles from Nismes, is part of an aqueduct, which formerly supplied ae with water, from a dis- tance, measured by the windings of the water course, of 26 miles. It extends across a river from one high hill to anoth- er. It bas three rows of arches one above another, and rises to the height of 150 sass ~ Gromoyt length is more than seven hundre The face of the country in Provedse’ is very different from that in Languedoc. Instead of the fertility which had every where surrounded us, we found, after crossing the Rhone, barren stones, and rocks most thickly scattered about, and sometimes rising into bleak desolate mountains. These hardly support a few blades of grass, though formerly they were covered with forests. Probably when the wood was cut down, the soil was dried up and blown away. Marseilles is a beautiful city, scarcely, if at all inferior to Bordeaux, but I have not room te give you any account of it. Voi, X. —No. I. 22 179 Steam Engines. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. 4. Foreien. Foreign Literat d Science ; extracted andt lated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Steam-Engines of extraordinary dimensions.—The cop- per mines in the neighborhood of Redruth, in Cornwall, whose workings have been recently resumed, contain former workings of great extent, which it was necessary to drain out. Their length is about a mile, and their depth at the level of the canal, which conveys their water to the sea, is about 900 feet. In order to drain this old opening, and te dig deeper, Arthur Wolf bas erected three steam engines ; the one which isin the western part of the mine has a cylinder 70 inches in diameter, and moves pumps at the depth o! about 400 feet. A second machine is placed in the middle and a third in the eastern part of the mine. These two last have cylinders 90 inches in diameter, and the motion of their pistons is ten feet. Each machine has six boilers, three of which are so disposed that they can be heated by two fires, and are sufficient to move the machine. The other three are in action when the first stand in need of cleaning or re- pairing. These three enormous machines, are constructed inthe nicest manner, having all their parts in the most per- fect proportion. Though they are the largest machines hith- erto known, their motion is smooth, and free from shaking. The pistons making from ten to twelve strokes per minute, with perfect regularity. The first of these machines consumed in 35 days $800 bushels of coal, and lifts every day nearly 39,000,000 gal- Jons of water, a result which surpasses that of any other ma- chine known. The weight of these gigantic machines is as follows : The cylinder, without its cap and bottom, weighs 27,000 Ibs. The stem of the piston and its axis weigh 56,000 Ibs ; that Which moves the pumps and the iron connected with them, about 90,000 Ibs. and if we add to this the column of water Free Commercial School, Paris. 171 raised by the pumps, and half the weight of the great lever eam, we have a weight of nearly 220,000 lbs. on one side of the axis. This is balanced by counterpoises on the other side, making upon the pivot of the machine, a weight of 440,000 Ibs. The piston moves through 262 feet per minute, carrying this enormous mass with an astonishing regularity. These machines do honour to the geniusand talents of Wolf ; and the county of Cornwall is indebted to him for many -improve- ments in steam-engines which have rendered the most im- portant services to the country. Bib. Univ. Feb. 1823. to be scented with a very strong odour ; and when he learn- ed how it had happened, he invited him to return, and en- deavour to bring away the stone. ‘The former had at first no inclinationto comply in consequence of its being too heavy; so much the better replies the other, you will make your for- tune the sooner, for I believe it to be a large piece of Amber which will sell for a large sum. He immediately mounted a horse, crossed the Island, and brought away the stone. He showed it at first to a Jew, who offered him only the tenth part of its value. The circumstance soon spread, and the Captain of a merchant vessel, then in port, purchased it of the sailor; and after passing through several hands, it was finally sold ia England for £2300 sterling, at the rate of shillings per ounce.— /dem. 3. Free Commercial School, Parnis.—The course, which requires two years for its completion, will continue this year. It comprehends the studies which prepare young men for commercial knowledge, and the theory of commerce. in its strictest sense. The preparatory studies are, Ist- The art of commercial writing, that is to say, the art of collecting, connecting, and expressing one’s ideas upon all subjects re- lating tocommerce ; 2d. commercial chronology, including the grand epochs of commerce, and details relative to the WZ Eree Commercial School, Paris. progress of agriculture, manufactories, arts, maritime discov- eries, and navigation; 3d. the geography of commercial nations, comprehending the astronomical, geological, and po- litieal considerations, which enter into the science of com- meree, 4th. the historical revolutions of commercial nations from the most ancient to the present time. The theory of commerce, properly speaking, pag ive 8 1, Outlines of the commercial system in the following order: Notions of commerce and its branches, pers of ex- change arising from agriculture, mines, fisheries, hunting, and the arts, means of communication by caravans, navigation, an roads. Measures of merchandise, or systems of weights and measures. Prices of merchandise or theory of money, and its paper representatives, commercial relations, and the bal- ance or rates of exchange, effects produced by commerce, with proofs that it is the source of industry, wealth, popula- tion, and happiness. 2.. The commercial state or degree of riches, power, and strength, of all commercial people, an- cient and modern. 3. The legislation of commerce, 0 ue at of soenblishnig. in any nation the basis. of a extended merce, 0 organizing imeem trade by wise regulations, and ensuring * the contin~ uance — its exterior relations, upon. j ustice, strength, and — 4, Commercial Jaws or analysis of the laws of omm ore ge Colbert, under Colbert, during the French Revelolion, and the developement of a new code of com- merce. 5. The moral duties of a merchant. 6. The ele- ments of practical commerce, viz: arithmetic, geometry, exchange, and book-keeping. This plan, besides embracing the science of commeree, on a wide scale, presents a course of instruction which is connected with almost every branch of human knowledge. The school is absolutely gratuitous and open to every body, the pupils being under no formali- ty but that of presenting their names to the professor. H. C. Guiiue, Professor. Lovis Fapre, President. A. Vernier, Secretary. Rev. Encye. Dec. 1823. Linnean Society. 173 4, Geneva. Museum.—The donations. have been nei- ther less rich t nor less abundant, than in the preceding year. They are not only the product of the generosity of our fel- low-citizens, but many strangers of distinction have been deport to give to this establishment proof of the interest they take in it. The apartments of mineralogy and orni- thology, have been particularly enriched by these new gifts. The museum has acquired a new kind of importance and usefulness ; its halls, laboratories, and instruments, were used during the ‘last two winters, for gratuitous courses of chem- istry and philosophy, applied to the arts, and of elementary mete mates which the committee of industry has opened to sts. These courses given by able professors, have been cagbely: attended. The municipal council of Geneva ee given anew proof of its desire to encourage and favour culture of the sciences, in granting the sum of 40,000 Martie: (about $3700,) for the purchase of the collection of appara tus of Professor Pictet,. ancient PRC NEE STN of public Instruction.— Rev. Encye. Nov, 1824. rpeavx Linnean Society.-This learned society. seiatientan for the seventh time, the féte of Charles Linnée, its illustrious patron. In. the hall of the’ conservatory o arts, elegantly decorated, and ornamented with the bust of H. M. Charles X. a numerous and select company collected at an early hour. . Dancenas, the president, opene the session by an interesting discourse, on the preseies and utility of the natural anes: and particularly of botany. The lectures then commenced in the following order: A report upon the biben urs ae the ews from November 1823, to the present time, by M. Cuave, secretary. The history of the coffee tree, by M. Venot, M. D. Notice of the French colonies of Senegal, by M. Teuterr, M. D. This notice informed the meeting that the Linnzan Society of Senegalgcherished the hope of naturalizing the coffee plant in that colony, the first stalk which had been produced having ornamented the room at the time of their celebration in July. Reflections upon the sensibility of vegetables by M. Cuansaner, M. D. Notice of the vine and its pro- ducts, by M. Parton, M. D. A poem, entitled Rural = lustons, in which was ‘exhibited the portrait of an old m who wished, before he expired, to enjoy for the last ine, the spectacle of nature, produced in the meeting, feelings at 4. 174 French Posts. once tender and melancholy. Statement of the annual transactions of the society, French and foreign, by M. Larr- BRADE director. In this were noticed the scientific progress of the society in almost every part of the world, and the constantly increasing number of its members. Finally, M. Guitue, honorary member, terminated the session by a charming piece of poetry, entitled Més adieux @ la cam- pagne & la fin des vacances.—Idem. : , 6. Perteveux.—Model School of Mutual Instruction.— The distribution of prizes took place in this school on the 22d of September last. Neither the bishop nor the curate being present, M. Lausresser, first adjunct of the mayor- alty of the city, took the chair. The assembly was numer- ous and brilliant. The chairman opened the meeting by a discourse in which he remarked that this school, founded by the commune, not only maintained itself in spite of nume- rous obstacles, but surpassed the hopes that it had excited. M. Gaudel, director of the school, then recommended to his pupils never to forget the sentences of the ancient sage, lected by Fenelon, the proverbs and moral sayings of poor Richard; the maxims recommended to youth by the d Rollin, and especially the divine precepts which they may learn every day from the New Testament.—Jdem. 7. Frencn Posts.—The income of the post-office in France, amounted in the year 1824, to about 26,560,000 francs,being the postage of about 60,000,000 of letters. If to this is added the number of letters and packets transported free, theamount will be 110 millions, without reckoning 25,000 printed sheets which Paris forwards every day to the de- rtments, and 25,000 others which originate in, and circu- late in the departments. The service of Paris produces an annual revenue of about 4,310,000 francs. It is esti- mated that 40,000 letters (of which from 28 to 30,00? are taxed, and from 10 to 12,000 free,) leave Paris every day, and that there arrive daily in that city about 30,000, o which 18,000 are charged. This gives a reciprocal inter~ course between Paris and other places, foreign and domes- tic, of 25,500,000 letters per year. The little post of Paris #ccasions a daily movement of about 15,000 letters. Rev. Encyc, Dec. 1824. Public Instruction. 175 8. The Exposition of the System of the World, by the Mar- quis de Laplace has reached its edition, revised and augmented by the author. In the conclusion of a brief, but well written notice of this new edition, the reviewer (Fran- ceeur) observes: “ After having explained those movements in the system of the world which must be regarded, not only as certain, but as affording a standard of the highest degree of certainty which the human mind can attain, M e La- place reproduces his ingenious hypothesis of the origin and formation of the planets. It is well known that he regards these bodies as resulting from the condensation of some parts of the solar atmosphere. This would very well account for their motions being in the same direction, and their orbits nearly circular, and but little inclined to each other, instead of moving as the comets do, in all directions, and in orbits ex- tremely eccentric. This opinion would seem to conform to the observations of Hersche!] upon the nebula, and to all the well established principles of physical astronomy. Never- theless De Laplace presents this theory “only with the dif- fidence; which ought to accompany every Opinio », not found- ed upon observation or calculation”? ‘This reserve ina_phi- losopher of the highest order, is not sufficiently imitated by certain writers, who, less circumspect, are able to under- stand and explain every thing, without observation or calcu- lation. Nothing is more easy than to connect, by a theory, facts, but imperfectly understood, and as imperfectly repre- sented: the beginning of the present century has given birth to many concéptions of this nature; but the “system of the world,”’ more than compensates us for such defective and flimsy productions.—Rev. Encyc. Jan. 1825 9. CopennaGen.—Public Instruction.—In the month of invitation was attended with the happiest results. The society formed in July 1824. has already named two commit- tees, viz. a physice-technical committee, and a committee of commerce. ‘The courses were about to commence, and M. 176 Gymnastic Science. Oerstedt had also agreed to superintend them gratuitously. Prince Christian, who affords so noble a protection to the sciences, bas not only contributed to the funds of the society, but condescends to preside as its patrons The king has taken it under his protection.—Jdem. — 10. SwitzerLanp.— Canton de Vaud.—M. Benjamin De- lessert, deputy from Paris, has just given to the town of Cossonay, the cradle of his ancestors, a fresh proof of his liberality, by placing under its control 10,000 frances to aid in that district, the establishment of a school of mutual in- struction.—Rev. Encyc. Feb. 1825. 11. Gymnastic Science—The French government having resolved to encourage the Institution of M. Amoros, profes- sor of gymnastics at Paris, the minister of the interior, ap- pointed five commissioners to examine in all their parts the gymnastie exercises and to report thereon in detail. M.Am- oros first gave the committee an idea of what he calls element- ary exercises, which consist in chaunting different pieces, the rhythm of each of which ponds with various movement of the legs,armsand body, wl i htt ' i pil on x € spot A metrometer (metronome) regulates these motions. ‘he pu- pil thus learns to measure time and space, to regulate with precision the common step, the accelerated step, and the Jeaps of the gymnastic course. ‘These exercises impress upon their different movements a rhythm which befits them ; they give greater developements to the voice, and more force to the lungs ; they render the joints more supple, prepare the. pupils for fatigue, and dispose them to exercise in the openair. ‘The committee were too enlightened not to ap- preciate the advantages of chaunting in connextion with gym- nastic exercises. ‘To accustom the pupils to preserve their equilibrium, so necessary in certain cases of danger, M. Am- ores made three of the professors take a ball of 6lbs. and hold it sometimes with the Jeft hand, sometimes with the right, the superior extremity horizontally extended, and ad- vanced in front. The same exercise was repeated with the inferior extremities, the ball. being supported alternately by each foot. To sustain the effort, maintain the station, to keep all the moveable points of the body in a fixed position, to subject the extremities to the tarsus and make the difler- ent points of the latter a solid pivot which maintains the ef- i aa No Gymnasiic Sciences 177 fort and re-establishes the centre of gravity ; are the princi- pal muscular actions which this exercise require. he pn- pils in the coart and stadium, then applied the theoretic prin- ciples which they had just learned, and here the committee witnessed the utility of the gymnastic method. They saw with what precision all the various exercises were perform- ed; as well those that required great rapidity of motion as those that depend on firmness and strength. Many among them obtained 350, 440, and 550.degrees. of the free dyna- mometer, for it is by this instrument that Amoros calculates the progressive developements of their muscular powers. We haveseen feeble and titnid men acquire in a short time, by. gymnastic -exercises, very. considerable ‘strength and boldaess, and their moral energy rise_in proportion to the ‘and where they performed the exercises of run over inclined: planes, clearing barriers, climbing masts, walk- needful precaution is taken to secure, the pupils from acci- Pe A thick bed of sand is spread at the foot of each machine, nets are extended rourid the masts, and the less skilful pupils are supported by, belts, while their motions are Ven. Bete 2 : 23 a4 178 Phe American Journal. carefully watclied ae" encouraged by the professors. ‘The pupils in. this romnceshie session evinced the greatest do- cility.—Jdem. 12. Merrorcioey, Famits of heat ae cold. —In uniting and comparing a great number o rvatio ith the thermometer, M. AraGo has deshoc teh the following: con- sequences: Ist. In no place on the land, andin no situation, will a thermometer elevated two or three metres (from 6 to 10 feet) above the cate and sheltered from a)l reverbera- tion rise to the 37th of Reaumur or degree of the centigrade scale (=1153 Farenheit): 2d. In the open sea, in whatever place and season, the temperature of the air never surpasses 24° Reaumur (=86° Far.) : 3d. sd. The great- est degree of cold observed on our globe, with a thermome- ter suspended inthe air is—40° Reaumur (=—58° Far.): 4th. The water of the sea in no latitude or season, acquires a tem- perature superior to 24° Reaumur, or 86° Far.—Idem. 13. Swenen _—Agreeably toa printed report made to the % Society forthe propagation of mutual Instruction,” in Stock- pe atthe, egnessl meeting held the 19th of i otSweden bs it ap- P cae ees io # gt: opal dist porns cota tneransi ng The eels ip contains a statement of the rece and expenses, of the society, a list of the 86 pci, me composed it, and a discourse of t, Fryxell, ec order, on the 7 of the new method.—WM, 4. Rev. Encyc, Ave. 1825. 14. Tue American Jovrwat or Sctence anp ARTS con- ducted by B. Stuuiman, M. D. &c.—The February number of this journal! is thus noticed i in the Revue Encyclopédique for i May 1825 “This ahmber of an excellent journal from which we have often entertained our readers, is very rich in articles of geology, mineralogy, and natural history. The mathematics also occupy a remarkable portion of it.” A brief analysis is then given | of the most important articles in the number un- der review, and the writer concludes with the following ob- servations :—‘* We see that the journal of M. Silliman is among the number of those which are read with pleasure “e curidhity, as soon as they appear, and which, as a com- Onent part of our fibraries yap e vat all times consulted, a will furnish useful materials to philosophers off the-pre- ent and future generations.” Death of Professor Pictei. 179 As a just return for the friendly opinions of this jour- ual, expressed by our Parisian fellow- icieity ‘we may re- mark that if there are, among our readers, any individuals whose taste for general science, and acquaintance with the French language, would be gratified by the perusal of a monthly journal, published at Paris with great regularity, and forwarded, punctually, to this country by the Havre packets, they cannot do better than to become subscribers to the Revue Encyclopédique. We know of no work which comprehends, within the same limits, so muck information, with respect to the current literature and science of Eu- rope, and the world, “Each number consists of about 300 pages 8vo., aan printed, and contains, besides original reviews of new works, in the manner of the English. quar- terly 1 ek a notice, and brief peli of the principal Bay be of Europe and America, which come glo tt ibe of th the editors ; ; and of thes ae ie pith: in science and the arts. The terms of ~ i scription are 46 francs per apna. or 26 -francs for six months. "This work may be obtained on application to A. Desplaces, French bookseller, "No. 105 W illiam-street, New-York. | 15. Hampune. Surgery. —A physician of this town, has just invented a new surgical palrymenty by which a leg may be cut off in one second, and which benumbs the pain of the pa- tient by a pressure simultaneous with the amputation.—/dem. 16. Geneva. Mare- Auguste Picrer.—Our republic and the phy ea: and i be Picasa have just sustained an im- mense loss’ in rofessor Picret, who. died on the night of April (acs fon months has scarcely elapsed since death deprived us of his younger brother, the Coun- sellor of State, ©, Pictet de Rochemont, one of our most distinguished magistrates ; and again the tomb is open to deprive us, after an illness of three weeks, of a man whose vast knowledge, and the generous and useful employment which he made of it, rendered him dear to al his #5 inaesit: The loss of this distinguished savant, so impressiv ely. felt in Switzerland, will be equally so in those countries in which he supported a scientific bE and especially. in 180 Manufacture of Salt by Evaporation on Faggots. France, where he filled with distinction, during many years the station of Inspector General of education.—Idem. = % * * i. & t Other Extracts from Foreign Journals. © 17, Manufacture of Salt by Evaporation on Faggots.*-—Thie salt works at Montiers in the Tarentaise, are perhaps the best conducted of any in the world. The water from which the salt is manufactured, is only about half the strength of sea water; yet by the simple and ingenious method of evap- orating, the works are rendered very profitable. In the first attempt to make salt at Montiers, in 1550, the water was concentrated by trickling through pyramids of rye straw, ar- fanged in open galleries, and afterwards evaporated in boil- ers by fuel. The present buildings were erected in 1739. here are four evaporating houses, called Maisons d’Epines, (literally, houses of thorns.) Nos. 1 and 2 are each 350 yards in length, about 25 feet in height, and seven feet wide. ‘They are uncovered at top; the frame is filled with double rows of ots of black thorn, placed loosely so as to admit the air, en, firmly in their position by transverse pieces of Ww . " : , e water being received from the reservoir trickles through the faggots, and falls into troughs arranged under- neath ; from which it is raised by pumps worked by a water- wheel, when it again takes the same course. Is process is continued until the water is concentrated to about three degrees of strength, i. e. until half of the wateris evaporated, (the water, as received from the springs, containing from 1.75 to 1.33 percent. ofsaline matter.) The process is conducted with more nicety in Nos. 3 and 4, and these houses are cov- ered at the top, to protect the salt-water from the rain. No. 3, is 370 yards long : in this the water is concentrated to the strength of 12 per cent. when it is passed along channels to faison d’Epines No, 4, a building only 70 yards in Jength: here the concentration is continued nearly to the point of saturation. In dry weather the concentration is ° . . cy + : : " ll J or a as Bakewell, Esq. in the Lond. Philos. Mag: Effects of Mercurial Vapow. 181 carried to 22 degrees ; but in rainy, moist weather, to 18 de- grees only. When the water is nearly saturated, it passes toa large building, where are the pane for boiling, and the salt is crystallized in the usual metho us, 8000 hogsheads of water, in passing through the Mai- sons d’Epines, are evaporated to about 550; and only one sixteenth part of the fuel is consumed, that would be required for evaporating the whole quantity of water by fire. The faggots are changed at periods of from four to seven years. Those in Nos. 1 _and 2, where the saline impregna- tion is yee 9 oH decay sooner than in Nos. 3 and 4. In No, 3 all t¢ ‘acquire so thick a coating of selenite, that when ‘broken noe they. resemble srertis an branches of encrini n_ des Cordes was ivudired by ani fortes baa Sa- voyard titted’ Battal. The original intenti bir to save the expense of fuel, by cyan the salt itself n cords, from which it was broken off by a particular i in- afrighaat for the purpose. | ‘This phic is at present aban- doned for crytallizing ; but the cords are’ still used for evap- orating, and are found to answer better for the’ higher con- centration of the water than the faggots. This method did not answer for the first evaporation, because the water rotted the cords ; bat the water which is considerably concentrated, deposites a coating of selenite around the cords, completely ah et them from the action of water. The cords have poe of them’ remained in use thirty ‘eats, without being The fuel used at ie pans” fot the last process is partly wood, and partly anthracite from the ne tgs untains. The quantity of salt made here annually is about 2,250,000 Ibs, and of sulphate of soda about 187,000 Ibs. The other alkaline matter-which adheres to the of is sold to the glass makers. Thé annual expense of works is about 100, 000 franes, aud the net anntal profit about 50,000 francs. 18. Effects of Meveiorial Vapour—In the e Philosophies Transactions for 1823, Part Il. William gives a very intatestiay’ ‘eeebant of ‘the effects of mercurial vapours on the crew of his majesty’s ship Triumph in 1310. Phe Triumph, of 74 guns, was lying in the harbour of Ca- diz, in March, 1810, when a Spanish vessel laden with quick- silver, was wrecked under the batteries of that town. The 182 Effects of Mercurtal Vapour. boats of the ship were sent-to her assistance, and about one’ hundred and thirty tons of the quicksilver were saved and carried On board the Triumph. The mercury, it appears, was confined in bladders, the bladders in small barrels, and the barrels in boxes. ‘The heat of the weather was at this time considerable, aud the bladders, having been wetted in the removal from the wreck, soon rotted, and the mercury to the amount of several tons was speedily diffused through the ship, mixing with the bread, and more or less with the other provisions. The effect of this seriself was soon seen, he a een! ee of the ship’s crews a well as several Corresponding Secretaniee. Joun Griscom D. OtmusTeD, Curator Cuavuncey A. Guowsics, Treasurer. B. Struma, R. Har ' BBS, : ak: 3 : P. Creavevann, +Committce of Nomination. * | a Wes, 2Q2 dimerican Geological Society. G Gress, — tole zs + Committe of Publication. B. Sinuiman, omiributions to the sn Geological Society, since our $ By the Dcsdn William Maclure, thictysiliree volumes quarto, full bound, of the Journa Pay sig LIV to LXXXVI inclusive, besides parts “af some other vo- lumes. Mr..Maclure’s intention was to present the work complete; including preliminary and, supplementary yo- lumes : it extends to about one. hundred volumes, and Society, through - bounty of Mr. ao tarae are now * possession of the whole of this. grand magazine. of «mo- dern science,except Vols. LI and LUE which are ae want- ing, as are also two or three volumes or, parts.of volumes at the end of the series. With the exception above named, it is coals to ya ROW inglyalees which comes. down from ea ty will take c: care that the few deficiencies i in their copy, shall, if hosubeet be supplied. The Revue Encyclopédique.—From the same gentleman there been received all the numbers from XLIX to LXEX inclusive, and as the ane had before received all the numbers before KLEX; they have now received from Mr. Maclure XXIII snc nt of this work down to Sept: 1824, Michaux’s North American Sylva, with one hundred and fifty-six coloured engravings. ‘This magnificent work in two large volumes, in Mr. Hillhouse’s translation, has been fe presented by Mr. Maclure. It has been already stated in present number, that Mr. Maclure lately bought at Paris the balance of the edition of this celebrated work, and brought it out to this country for the benefit of American Science. rench Romances, Tales, Poems, &c.—Between forty and fifty volumes, 12mo. of these, most of them oozes bound, besides pamphlets, were contained in the same with the ourcat de Physique; they were put in to fill’ ae box, and although most of them bear no relation to science, they will be acceptable to the lovers of French literature. Ti ene ai ase ae sri CS ea Pe Aso mee ce Ree z Correction. 303 The spice Review.—Several of the ur numbers of this ve sae ve been received from Mr. ure. bie Fo ee Geology.—A copy of this srork has basins presented by the author. 3. Correction communicated by A. B. Quinby. Pror, Situ an, Sir, Since my solution of the crank problem was pub- lished in your Journal, it has been stated to me by several in- dividuals, that “the London Journal of Arts and Sciences contains a solution of this problem, in which the writer finds the same restilt as that which | have established in y demonstra tion.” As this statement has recently been much reiterated, and as I wish not to rest under the charge of I aving copied the demonstration of another writer, I beg the liberty to state, publicly, in your Journal, that the solution PeBilisbed in the London Journal is not the same as that which [I have given inj; your Journal, The solution contained in the por Journal, (Vol. 3. p. 252.) besides being different from mine, is erroneous ; i does not embrace the principles of the crank problem. The author paces precivels the same error as was committed by Mr. Ward in your Journal; by as- suming that * the effects produced _ atibe several points of di- vision of the quadrant, are as the perpendiculars respectively from those points to the Jine of force.” is error is shown in my demonstration at page 318, line 2; and page 321, line 8, Vol. VII. ‘ A. B. QUINBY, New-York, Aug. 24, 1825. N. B. There is a second paper in the faded Journal on the crank ; but it is less scientific than the first, and embraces = same error. - AoB, Q. 4. Correction ‘ihaaoetill: by Gi W.. Carpenter —In the communication on Cinchona Bark, p. 365, Vol. IX, the fol- lowing passage, i. e. “ Experiments which I made upon the Carthagena bark, of rather better quality than the market generally produces, yielded about one twelfth less quinine 204 “Recipe for driving Insects from Trees. than the Calisaya,” should read thus, as it stands .in my original manuscript, (the error having been made in trans- scribing,) “Experiments which I made upon the Cartha- gena bark, of rather better quality than the market generally produces, yielded one twelfth the quantity of quinine pro- duced by the Calisaya arrolenda.” 5. Quere—Indian Summer. ‘To tHE Eprror, Will you please to insertin the next number of your Jour- nal, the probable causes of the peculiar aspect of the sky du- ring that portion of the month of November, commonly call- ed “Indian Summer?” The only object sought for by this question is information ; by publishing an answer to whic you would oblige, 7 ir, A CONSTANT READER. Fisbkill, May 21, 1825. . The above inquiry eats a fair topic of discussion, up- om which we should be willing to receive a communication. . j . Eprror. 6. Recipe for driving Insects from trees—communicated. —Bore a hole into the trunk of the tree, as far as, or into, the heart, fill this hole with sulphur, and place in it a well fitted plug. A tree of from four to eight inches in diameter re- quires a hole large enough to admit the little finger, and in the same proportion for other and larger or smaller trees. This will usually drive the insects away in the course of for- ty-eight hours, but uniformly succeeds, perhaps sometimes after a longer time. These facts were mentioned to me by the . Dr. Woodhull. He stated that a fine large shade tree in Albany, was so infested with worms and caterpillars nd in whieh were almost lifeless were restored. B. D. §S. Pe ee Cees: > fae ee ee ee Notice of the Anthracite Region of Pennsylvania. 205 . Notice of the Anthracite Begs of Pennsylvania, in a late i to the Editor from William Maclure, Esq.—We made an interesting tour through the avatars region of this state, and found an immense mass of combustible matter, more fa- vourably situated for being extracted from the earth, on with less labour than any ‘coal F have yet seen. The co beds are situated in hills from three hundred to six tididred feet above the level of the rivers and canals. The beds or strata of coal, being inclined at a pretty high angle from the horizon, may all be wrought by subterranean canals, going from the rivers made navigable by dams. ‘The hills which at present, by the carriage on the surface, are the cause of much expense, von! by canals following the beds, be worked every where water level, at little or no expense, and at the same time the whole field will be effectually drained ; an advantage that few or no coal fields in Europe enjoy, and from which ae Duke of Bridgewater has derived great profits. This immense formation of anthracite will render this state the most productive in the union; for as soon as they can contrive a good mode of smelting iron ore with the an- thracite, this will become one of the greatest iron countries on the globe, because having so much fine magnetic iron ore, and the natural state of the combustible rendering it capable of producing a very strong heat, without any preparation of coaking or adulterated with any mixture injurious to the making of iron ; these circumstances constitute so many advan- tages as are scarcely to be met with in any one locality as yet known. The benefit that will arise to the nation from a pro- per method of smelting iron with anthracite, is such an object as to interest the ingenuity of all classes. For the purpose of experiment, it is necessary to p rocure a furnace on a small scale, as the high furnace is too expensive. The fault com- plained of being that the mass freezes, or does not retain its fluidity sufficiently, perhaps from the blast being too weak or too cold, or not sufficiently disseminated through the mass, owing perhaps to the want of the proper proportions of ore, coal, and flux ; the form of the furnace used for charcoal may not be fit for a much greater heat, &c. &c. In short, it may be necessary to try all proportions of blast, fuel, ore, and flux, with all forms and dimensions of furnace. 206 Middletown Minerals. . 8. New Locality of Rubellite, Beryl, Tovrrmaline, §-. Extract of a letter from Mr. Stephen C. Wiliams to the Editor, dated : ' Mipp.erown, Oct. 8th, 1825. Dear a , I have taken the liberty of sending you with this letter specimens of some minerals, no localities of which have beer before noticed in this place. The light green erystals were found imbedded ia the gra- nite rocks near the lead mines, two miles below the city. Their form; most of them being six sided prisms, their co- Jour, and their hardness, which is greater than that of quartz, duce me to think that they are deryls. Some have been obtained five or six inches in diameter, and eight or nine in ength, The pink coloured specimens were discovered ina detached mass of the granite inthe same vicinity, and from the informa- tion which I have been able to gather by referring to Cleave- land, 1 flatter myself you will prone ane them rubellite. Jp the larger of the two, you wi a greens substance which I concluded must be tourmaline ; in the e-cime picec there is also a small c rystal i in which the et if it be 80, istexclosed in the rubellite. A small specimen of rose co- joured mica accompanying it was found at the same place. These particulars, corresponding so neatly with thie deserip- tion of the Chesterfield locality, seem to afford strong ground of Sends that the minerals discovered here are of the same spe Remarks by the Editor. We have the satisfaction of agreeing with Mr. Williams in all the — t has expressed, and of adding, that the spe- chatacterized as to justify further research, and there es oe lithe dowbt that these interesting minerals will soon be found tin place, unless indeed they were years ago thrown out from the pits and?galleries of the old aban- doned lead mines which are now filled with water. Mineral- -ogists will learn with interest, that the place mentioned by Middleiown Minerals. 207 hess Williams, is the e where eae Gobnecsicus river, éme of the rubelililes are half an inch id ialeroaiee the erystals are distinct, and the colour lively and delicate. A sroup forwarded me by another gentleman for inspection, and to be returned, is singularly rich. It is situated in a mass of granite, and covers a space of about four inches on each side. This space is filled with crystals of rubellite, laterally aggre: gated like columns of basalt, or like the column: argillaceo von Ore ; there appear to be forty or fifty of them, and the <3 are as distinct as erystals so closely compressed usually are. In the midst of them there lies a large crystal of the size of a thumb, of a dark leek green which much resembles sallite, but as there is in another part of the stone a large crystal of rubellite, containing a distinct crystal of the green substance, perfectly threaded, longitudinally through it, in the manner of the Chesterfield tourmaline, although in the reverse or- cats it appears probable that the green crystals are tourma- ine a3 We trust that every attention will be given to this new and interesting tocalit ity. P2s, oetolee 15,1825. The honest information has just been recabecll from Mr. Williams, in a letter dated : MippierTo™ %, Oct. 12th, 1825. Iam happy to ay ae you that I have discovered rubel- lite, beryl, &e. in place. The rock in which they are siteated i is two anda half miles south-east ate the eity, and forms part of the primitive region, which crosses the Con- necticut river atthe narrows. The ru ellite i is oiiia 4 ina bed of granite, where it is associated ties green tourmaline in a vein of quartzand feldspar traversing the granite. The green tourmaline is frequently inclosed in the red, the sides and an- ee of both nag corresponding : a crystal of this kind, which but was unable to detach from the rock, measured / Bice quarters of an inch in diameter. The same granite Small-Pox. contains rése coloured mica, garnet, and beryls, similar to those in your possession. With the assistance of a com- petent person, I blasted the rock yesterday, and sbiaied some fine specimens of the green tourmaline and very good sized beryls, one four inches in diaineter, and six inches in ength. The rubellite and rose coloured mica were not as abundant as I could bave wished. 1 procured, however, all that was visible in the two veins, which I discovered, and from the great abundance of granite in = vicinity, which is frequently traversed by veins of quartz aad feldspar, exhibit- ing the green tourmaline and beryls, lam confident more will be found. 9. Small-Pox.—Dr. F. Pascalis, in an essay read before the County Medical Society of New-York, April 11, 1825, maintains that the virus of small-pox “is a compound and morbid formation from human «ffluvia”—that it “is an ani- mal poison, exclusively proceeding from human beings, and that when prevailing as an svidetaies it is of a recent aud fresh formation” ” ‘ene in car ce it appears is formed or aggravated by r dele~ effluv viii, which passing from pee to man, from biewth to breath, ‘gradualiy acquires its elementary intensity, by which a single particle or atom of it, similar to Jeaven, ex- cites a general ferment of the whole lymph of the human fab- ric.” ‘The variolus fomes can exist, Dr. P. thinks, under dif- ferent ~~ modified forms, such as chicken-pow, swine-por, ave — paces by the generic name of vari- cella. Dr. P. rds the commonly received opinion, ‘that the small- so is pe sisieally unique and sui generts ;” and holds that there is an important distinction between epi- demic small-pox, and artificial or inoculated small-pox. Vaccination, he thinks is.a complete preservative against arit- Jicial small-pox ; but neither the vaccine disease, nor the inoculated small-pox i is a —— preservative against the epidemic disease. Note,—Some Met etalon notices, and other items of lome ‘telligenee, are unavoidably — : mee, Doolittle te 2. American ANG ELLIGEN CE AND MISC BLLANIES. ; ey Foreign or » Steam- Engines of etbestdinas dimensio 17Q - 2; as Large masses of Amber fount} in = island of New Providence— : ree rei 171 +5 G — - 173 4; 5, Ge Museum ne - - seri & 7. Model School of Mutual Instruction—Fren ch Posts, $e TTS ence eee aes re of Salt by evaporation on F ots, aps ne eile 8 =a Ek eer ot Mere i Vape ins tae ae 19, 20. Cabinet of Ent chgyc dinate ‘Water Spon t, 183) 21. Kite for r Communicating with Vessels stranded on a Teeshore, 184 Es ae Chironom eters, - 185 23, 2 Serdawalie, a sew Mineral—fofluence of sounds on the Ble ; hant and Lion, - - 25, 26, Aurora borealis- urios lunar reftaction, is? aaa ibration producing the primitive coloute—Decliaatons of sn oportioned to their refrangibility, = 198 om 29, 80, On ‘the effect of Animal Charcoal in aes the putrefaction’ = of stagnant wates--Oi the ho e of several sub- - =: oisek 199 44, 8 35, 36. ‘Ccanposttion of Ftmini Acid—Sul aiphiecss alls | Biyae 3 chloric ia Rio °Vinogro™ Engh cay of oe “mnataliie 37, 38, 39. Annual retu sting bi rds to the same use : Snow-—Pertable G Gas ni oe aoe toes 40, 41, 42, pena rl ‘a —Ma 43, = lis mu a aoe gulation 46. Bail, - = st aes eae ; Seneca for Biti ting-in on n Stee el Plate, s } Of the —* Lage OF Fatty; ee 2. Daleeeete, . ao: cee f ‘Proceedings of of the New-York Lyceum of Natural History a, 4. Corsten by A. B. Quinby—do i by G G. Ww. ;Canpenter, Pies ea tp Sd dp Insects from : N of the An 8. New mg ed of Hubelite e Beryl i) Pourmalie, te, 9. Small Pox, — “ERRATA. bottom line, for C rend 6 - Page en, ere ao re Beton. galt fads requir ~ 18, cn i gerne 5 185, 3 from “ied 2 THI AMERICA sOURNAS oF "SCIENCE AND ARTS, a - OF YALE COLLEGE, nar 13 PUBLISHED AT NEW-HAVEN, FOR THE EDITOR, BY ~ SHERMAN CONVERSE, PRINTER AND AGENT. Ir is issuedy as nearly as may be, in quarterly numbers, of which two make a volume, stipulated to contain at least three hundred and twenty pages; the nine volumes, already pe lished, have averaged over four hundred pages, a and have bee prey fully ibesreajes YY bidaiaas Pe A ie Se MMH “a re “Three dollars’ volume in advance. Ain omission to remit for ay hew volume is of course a discontinuance. _ &- Term of credit to general agents, 6 ey from the publi 2 cation of No. L. of each volume. TAN “earn rr Ge Te rs, ee Meni 19 CORRESPONDENTS. disceeni The Editor requests that. i. Comihusications ‘be te: 7 a = Number may be forwarded £9.28. to, be in hand 8 the first of ener a 4% ae it It is expected that icograp hich *Bocioty of Arta, Manutseires, and A sigcgrrbeE ined of Potions Boba clety 2 M C.sVit CI State Formation Hit eee wis slate ; Beds found RA) pap “Sate ‘ormaton £ Oo Ps 4 D? Pt Sof pe! | es Sulphuiret of Iron, in a cubic ‘aiysls truncated on the angles ; at Bernard’s quarr 68. 'Egera n, in oe! Yells of a reddish brown colour ; at Berna uarry.. ei Brown Peat ne, in sett: limestone. Same lo- cality. New-Garden Township. 70. Stalactite, in ey and globular masses, of a foli- ated structure ; in Phi s lime aye on the Kennet- square road, 1 mile wear of Kennet-square 71. Brown tS ag in translucent crystals, i in granular limestone ; Phillips 72. Lam Laminated Mi Mica, iarte ti plates; near Phillips’s lime e 73. Phosphate of Lime, massive, in primitive limestone ; ‘on Thomas Brown’s farm, near White clay creek. 74, Magnetic Pyrites, traversing a vein of gneiss rock; in William Jackson’s lime quarries. 75. Augite, massive and crystallized, in gneiss; in W. Jackson’s quarry. New-Castle County, Delaware. 76. Chalcedony, in compact and drusy masses, of beautiful varieties ; on Chestnut-hill. a Brown i aeaiite: of various forms ; on Chestnut-hill. . Hornblende, of a lamellar structure, and metallic lustre, Searabliod the Hypersthene ; on Chestnut-hill. 224 _ dMisceilaneous Localities of Minerals. 79. Asbestus and Amianthus; in Jane’s lime quarry, ad- joining Isburne’s. - 80. Mountain cork and Rock papers Rte! in granular limestone, at Isburne’s lime ne 81. Dog-tooth Spar, in beaudful beet hes in hselk lime quarry. 82. echoes carbonate of Lime, of various formations : Jane’s lime quarry. 83. Limpid Quartz, in hexaedral prisms, terminated by ids ; in Jane’s lime quarry. 84. Red oxyde of Titanium, in compressed small prisms ; in Jane’s lime qu 85. Tremolite, “oh beautiful variety ; in Jane’s and Is- burne’s quarries. 86. Fibrolite, abundant on the Kennet turnpike, between Centreville and Blue-ball. As this is not in place, it is pe doubt from the locality on the Brandywine, described by Thomas Nuttall, in Dr. Robinson’s catalogue, as it Colmer all the characters given in his description. 87. Chalcedony, a very interesting and extensive locality ef this mineral, of various forms, colours, and varieties, occurs near rock springs, L Little Britain township, Lancaster county. This mineral | sree tade Cleave and’s Mineralogy, as at Little Bat n, but as we experienced avery con- siderable distance towards its source. Rock Springs are situ- ated on the property of Mr. Joel Jackson, and are =e known through all the neighbouring townships, for curious formation, and for the salubrity of their waters, which j issue out of a serpentine rock, on the mdge formation. GEO. W. CARPENTER. GEO. SPACKMAN. Philadelphia, Noy. 24, 1825. Bie er cee W. Carpenter, No. 294 Market-street, will the above minerals, of Chester and Delaware, for _ Ries caps 3 other districts, 2: fe JUiscedlaneous Localities of Minerals. 395 2. By Dr. Samuel Robinson, with Remarks on Spurious em ; Localities. te : 0 THE EDITOR: DEAR In eke the “ Catalogue of American mci of which there was.a aoe in the last number of you Journal,the auth ted the locality of no mineral whith had whi published Sahin his iid vote SS a few instances . calities are “genealy Peblighed, press the spot, but merely naming the ‘lownahipe The ab re had but few épportunities of detecting such instances, which are the more unfortunate, as they tend to deceive the public, and to sen ead the mineralogist who is travellin for the purpose collecting specimens.* The author had two objects in view, in republishing all localities: to induce mitiersogints to for- ward to the American Journal, or some other periodical wo a list of all such localities as have been exhausted, and of such as never existed,which may come within their knowledge and to notice any errors they may discover i in this cataloguo— and also to avoid th lities which were eek A writer in’ ‘the mb aon n ate ro which ¢ cannot be perfectly relied on.” ‘ ee - a * author is not aware that any locality of ee new ew mineral, in New-Euglani, has yet been found to be incorrect, wi ene excepto the idocrase, of ag sbury, has been found to be a variety rat garnet. Catalogue, p. 2 + See ped a ey KS 88, « Common Serpentine,” &e. Vou. No. 226 Miscellancous Localities of Minerais. , afew months since, over the minerals which te 2, Brow ita ar, at the same place. The planes of the ptale, which are brown and ay are curved, and the 3 Gras earth. On the banks of a creek, between South- bury and Woodbury, Con. the writer collected a green sub- stance, meh on examination was found to be green earth ; if isa «he ioe thyst, A considerable ae of detached, imper- fect-crystals, of a pale colour, a “a veer transparent, has been found. in Voluntow tr in tee alluvial bank of a which was excavated for the wheel of a mill, cesone- ins, t 2 of a mile from his tavern, 0 r ding from one Chestnae till to Stonington. 5. vActynolite. Very beautiful actynolite was discovered last: autumn, in Cranston, R. J. about halfa mile north of the iron..ore bed, in the woods, on Mr. Nicholas’s farm. It is found in fragments mostly covered with earth, which appears to have been thrown out, and the rock blasted, many years since, in.making an excavation. Some masses consist of dis- tinct brilliant crystals in talc ; other masses consist of pure crystals, of glassy actynolite, radiating from centres, of a vee greencolour. This locality was kept very secret, until it me known this summer, when the proprietor, finding so many anxious to obtain specimens, concluded it must be very valuable, and the replies of some, that good returns had been os for what had been sent to New-York, confirmed him and-determined him to secure a part of the pro- fits to himself, by charging most extravagantly. This cirgum- stance shows the i impolicy, as well as the impropriety of de- nm * owe On the Tertiary Formations of the Hudson. 227 fading the country people, on whose lands minerals are} fre- quen tly found, by giving vague and equivocal 7 oe “A their numerous questions, prompted by ape or sus cion of the views of the collector. If the real value of mineral, and the design for which it was “OUUaNbM wef plainly and candidly told them, by all visiters and collectors, they would soon believe they had not been design e- ceived, and that the minerals were not obtained for the pur- pose of extracting silver or gold from them, and the disposi- tion to endeavour to extract either silver or gold from the col- lectors would give place to that generosity and dene which would not only be a oe to themselves, but to’ th community in which sro be vidence, Oct. 11, 1825. . : chins. western states. S. ROBINSON. . yt Ant, V.-On the Sertlerg: Bbrniationsimi>the toldehel of th Hudson rivers By Joux Fixen, F. B. as &er bs a Dourine an excursion up ihe North river, a few: ‘ints: since, | observed some formations which ma bably be classed with the tertiary strata of Europe. They may be ° - traced, on one or both sides of the river, from near West : Point, to the city of Troy, and probably extend much further to the North; in width they vary from one to'fifteen miles,- The accompanying sketch represents their appearance at Hyde Park, near Poughkeepsie. The basin in which’ they are deposited, is form by ; Transition Clay Slate, with strata inclined at an angle’ of - 35 to 45 degrees: the lamin of the slate form an angle af $23 On the Fertiary Formations of the Hudson. 60° with the strata; colour bluish green, sometimes red: some of the varieties are made use of for roofing, others com- pact slate, pencil slate; frequently contains veins of quartz, and rarely thin beds of coal; sometimes passes into jasper slate, and alternates with transition limestone, containing the fossils, Immediately super-imposed upon the transition. clay slate, are the tertiary strata, consisting of an extensive deposi tion of Clay Marl, containing from 12 to 15 cent, of carbo- nate of lime, colour blackish blue, bluish gray ; sometimes contains iron pyrites and fossil wood, varies in thickness from 10 to 60 or 80 feet; the original deposition was probably of a uniform thickness, and the irregularities of its surface may have been produced by diluvian torrents. Adhesive Slate forms large beds in the preceding stratum, colour yellowish gray, grayish white ; particles of it adhere to the fingers ; it occurs in lamina, varying in thickness from half an inch to six inches ; fracture earthy; when dry, con- choidal, Used extensively in the manufacture of bricks. Clay sometimes occurs in large beds, in the clay marl, or eeupies its , colour various. uvial is the highest of these formations, and is distin- guished, as in every part of the earth’s surface, by sand and vel, containing detached pebbles of the older rocks. At Newburgh, the diluvial strata form numerous rounded ai J w may be traced to some distance in the coun- . . South of the town, the clay appears at the surface. One mile north, on the shore of the river, is adhesive slate. of the hill, but it may be seen to more advantage on the estate of Wm, Bard, Esq. immediately on the shore of the uiver, and adjoining the property of the Hon. Judge Pendle- ton. When ed t * action of small torrents of yas the marl assumes various singular forms, and marls occur in various other places, near the North ‘iver, and have been described in the Americal Journal of Brience. The diluvial strata at Hyde Park, are distinguished PE i PSE LEN Ge a nae lll On the Leriiary Formaiions of the Hudson. 229 as forming a level plain of some extent, on which the milage and several gentlemen’s country seats are situate lieve a plain of similar elevation, may be traced in many sins parts, bordering on the Hudson. Between Hyde Park and Rhinebeck, are extensive depo- sitions of clay. Albany is built on the clay marl formation, and in this fespect resembles London. The ground is traversed by nu- merous ravines, In the vicinity, the cascades of Arno and Tivoli, and the rapids of Norman Kill, which every one who sees will admire, are caused by the torrents wearing away the higher strata, until they arrive at the solid strata of the transi- tion slate. At Greenbush is an extensive formation of the adhesive slate. _Dr.3T. Romeyn Beck has deposited sreine in the Cabinet of the Lyceum of Natural History, in in Albany. a Tro oY the clay marl is abundant, and contains: fossil wood he plain above the city, from whence there is a fine distant view of the falls of the ohawk, is composed of diln- vial debris. The height of the formation at this place is pro- bably the same as at Hyde Park and Marlborough. 6 strata, in ne vicinity, have been described by Mr. Eaton in his Index to the Geology of the Northern States. At Sebsecsady the same formations are visible; they also form the whole tract of country, between that city and Al- “These strata may undoubtedly be classed with the ter- ay clays of Europe, but they vary in some particulars. e London clay contains numerous fossil shells, and the Bhatt of extinct animals,. but pone have hitherto been found, in the clay marl on the North riv , From the large depositions of aaheave Fa they agree more precisely with the formations at Mont Martre, near Paris, where there are alternating strata of “this mineral, and clay marl transition. "he menilite has not yet been found on the shores of the Hudson, although this is a position where we may expectit to be pat 28 Broadway, New-York. 230 Dr, Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. Art. Vi.—Sketch of the Geology of Sicily. By Cuarurs Davseny, M. D. F. R. S. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford.* Read at the Bristol Philosophical Institution, April 14, 1825. With a Map. In submitting the following brief outline of the geology of Sicily, 1 wish it to be understood that my principal objects are. ist, To afford an explanation of the suit of specimens from that country, which I lately presented to the institution ; and, 2dly, To supply such hints, with regard to the general bear- ings of the strata, as may facilitate the inquiries of other tra- vellers, who, with similar views to my own, may chance hereafter to visit that island. it; for, although, on a country already minutely explored, there might be no cue for publishing hasty or .imperfect ge ie , extend his views to this interesting Island, I submit to the Society the following remarks, persuaded that they will fur- nish the best corrective for any errors they may contain, by affording to others the means of detecting them. * From the Edimburgh Philosophical Jonrnalk Dr, Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily: 231 The geology of Sicily may, for convenience sake, be di- vided into three parts, corresponding nearly with the sides a the irene which represents the figure of the island. rst division will comprehend the rocks from essina, (or Peiier from Peeeany to Trepani, thos taking in whole of the northern coast, and a small portion of the eastern. They will be found to consist chiefly of the primitive, transition, and older secondary strata ; the most recent fo ae tion, in this part of the island, being the limestone of Palerm and Trepani, mee perhaps ‘corresponds with the jeceenel limestone of this country. The second avisiod embraces the rocks that occur near epoch in the history of our planet, namely, that posterior to the formation of the chalk. e third division, which takes in the line of coast on the cast, fron Cape Passero to Taormina, exhibits indications of volcanic action, occurring at very different epochs, from the Javas which flowed during the period at which the tertia beds were in the act of being deposited, to the comparatively recent eruptions that have taken place from Mount E e physical structure of the more central portions of the island need not be entered into at present, as x will be de- scribed in the course of this paper, and may be collected sufficiently for our present purpose, by an ampecton of the accompanying ma The plan, then, according to eho I si the subject, whilst it corresponds w of the ek adopted by travellers, has the oe of Slloeine Sered natural order of succession in which the rocks should be con- sidered. Let us commence, then, with the neighbourhood of Messi- na, the only en of the island in which rocks of a granitic character occ errara, ied, in his Account of Sicily, lays them down as consisting of true granite ; and my observations here were far too cursory to justify my contradicting him I may however remark, that, in the places which I pags” he rock seemed to have the characters of Gneiss; and tie i is the formation which probably extends on the Ttalian 232 Dr. — on the Geology of pee Ae Mitten: “of shells which I had collected from this and other localities,) has pointed out to me small cylindrical stems, which he con- ceives to be the trunks of the /sis Gorgonia. This discovery : eiacentG as Scilla, in his work “De Corporibus marinis descent! rug, states his having met with this fossil among oe hills in the neighbourhood of Messina, in a mineralized state, mixed with echini, shells, &c. He found the coral in beautiful branches, as well as fragments, the whole surface deprived of its colour, although in the thicker fragments, a parplish hue might still be found internally. It seems that he at first took this fossil for the leg-bones of some animal, but afterwards discovered it to consist of the yments of some jointed coral, bearing a strong resem- blance to the knotted coral described by Imperatus, as found in the sea near the island of Majo The limestone of Melazzo énthins imbedded fragments of gneiss ; and, at the line of junction with that rock, there is an | criniteettmmes ae a a * Seé Parkinson’s Organic Renfains, Vol. Il. p. 72. Dr, Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. 233 appearance of intermixture, caused probably by a disintegra- tion of the older rock having taken place on its surface, pre- viously to the deposition of the more recent one. : I have no data on which to rest any well grounded opinion with respect to the age of this limestone, having seen none precisely resembling it in other parts of the island. It wou appear, however, from the account given by Scilla, that a due examination of the mountains round Messina, would lead to the discovery of more of the same rock, and thus afford us the means of aacerthibing its relations. For the present, I am East of Melazzo, the gneiss is succeeded by a schistose of hills, extending in a south-west direction from thence to the coast, of which Noara is the most elevated peak. I striking across from Randazzo to the northern coast. This wild and little explored district, which Brydone de- scribes as the haunt of banditti, may be traversed at present in the most perfect security, and would deserve to: be visited by every traveller, were it only for the striking views it pre- sents of Mount Etna on the one hand, and the Lazo Islands on the other. . The prevailing rocks appear to be either some slate, which may be fairly considered a gray-wacke. Fer- rara, in his Campi Flegrei, notices the occurrence of 3 por- ca, red or > yale of quartz, and greenish-red chrysolite,” (Qu. olivine °) a, rolled masses of a hard porphyry, consisting chiefly of felspar, with some mica. The clay-slate also contains occasional beds of anthracite, as near Messina. ° The prevailing character of the slaty re is earthy and friable ; but.to this there are many exceptions, especially near Taormina, where we meet with 9 compact Wav. SNe 2, 30 os : << 234 Dr. Baubeny on the Geology of Sicily. eerste? in which quartz sometimes abounds. At Rocca- Lumera, and Ali, some miles to the north of the latter place, we meet wits a quartzose variety of slate, containing various metallic sulphurets, such as galena, sulphuret of antimony, together with iron and copper yrites. The decomposition of these have probably given rise to the formation of alum, for which Rocca-Lumera was once celebrated: but the works at present seem quite neglected. The same remark applies to the lead mines formerly worked in that neighbourhood. ui The slate near its southern termination, alternates with The j junction between the limestone and the subjacent ent slate, is well seen near the road, at the foot of the hill on which the _— of Taormina are situated, This hill, and probably most of those contiguous, consist of mn — which a far into the interior, constituti of ry line between the Volcanic and Repent ‘distiicts, a barrier et which ae mires of Etna have never yet To this’ ae lannntun seems to belong the series a rocks eee I before mentioned, as occurring on the northern coast, = Few of the rocks in this district, pre as those near Taormina, ary the characters of primitive mica-sla ¢ Minjivio isa septa of Mons Jovis, , temple i in heiies of Jupiz fer having formerly stood there. br. Baubeny on the Geology of Swily. 234 which appears to be to the south-west. However this may be, the whole series of beds seen at Cape ping rests finally on mica-slate, which itself appears to repose on the gneiss of Melazzo. After leaving the former place, however, the quartzy rock appears for some time to predominate, until we arrive -ata village called Giojusa, some miles west of the town of Patti, where it is seen at first curiously interlaced in thin strata, with a gray compact limestone, and afterwards giving place to that rock. This limestone contains several caverns, one of which was entered a few years ago, an feund to contain bones of some large animals, which, unfor- tunately, were not preserved. I explored another which had recently been discovered, but found no animal remains; the oor was covered with stalagmites, @ and a black mould. had been dug from it to render the access more easy. It would. be interesting ae ascertain wicthoe, this limestone be continu-— ous with that of the mountains near Taormina to which it seems to be ars valle 1. Between Guisa and Cape Orlando, we may obeerve- a repetition of the same slate formation as before, which is here of-very limited extent, speedily giving place to a red sand- stone, not micaceous like the former, and containing red iron- shot grains of sand, instead of angular fragments of quartz. This red sandstone continues all along the coast to Cefalu, uninterrupted, except by a bed or two of compact grayish limestone, used as a marble, and without petrifactions, This sandstone sometimes alternates with thin beds of shale, like that belonging to the coal formation. ’ The promontory of Cefalu consists of an isolated rock, which announces at a distance, by its bold and anupes that it is constituted of different materials - from those of the preceding country. It consists, in sesh of ibe a bluish fetid + hie stone, which, as 1 am informed, is ed by lapidaries a Lewechella . marble, being hard ‘enough to receive a polish, and having portions of sparry crystalline ares distributed. over it, which appear to be derived from the presence of organic bodies, although gine are rarely reiids except on the weathered surface of the stone. I found them best ex- hibited among the remains of the Cyclopean Temple, on the hill of Cefalu, the stones of which indicate, by their gigantic. size, the extreme antiquity of the fabric. On the weathered surfaces, acted upon during so man ages, the petrifactions, as being the hardest portions, seed 6. Dr. Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. out in relief, but having been unable to detach any of them, it is impossible for me at present to attempt CHUMICRaAae their species. I do not know whether any siratificationf’can{be discov- ered in the rock of Cefalu;. there is indeed a kind of separa- tion into three distinct masses, but these 4ook rather like the result of cleavage, which may take place in every rock, even down to peanite, than the effect of a deposition at distinct riods. Indeed, the rock itself seems to split irregularly, ina . direc- tion just opposite to that of the nearly horizontal seams above noticed. The whole of this calcareous formation Tests upon the sandstone just described, and may be referred to the one = hills, which, under the name of the apenas Range seen in the ‘back ground, running nearl parallel to the thee coast, between-Cefalu and Termini, and from thence extend- ing to Palermo, and perhaps to Trepani It should seem, however, that this is ‘the only spot within ras limits of this formation, in-which organic remains have been Prepac “Tenia a examined attentively the com- Ae “in prem their Soclimence seem, to: belongs t not to aes compact Diicrone: but to the re- yon - 8 gre which [ shall afterwards describe as rie : circumstance makes me adopt, with some degree of hesitation, the idea of the identity of the Cefalu with dhe: Pa- rmo limestone. Des us ow consider mi characters of this limestone, as seen at Palermo and Term It is generally of a Bhaishi colour, anid is then often found to emit, when struck, a fetid odour like sulphur ; sometimes, however, it is white, and of a compactness not much exceed- ing that of the hardest kind of chalk, or of the beds which are cecasionally met with in the Jura limestone. fo rere rer attain the elevation of 610 0 toiees, + Vide « Topografia di Palermo, abbozzota, da Dominico Scena, Rxo- fessore di Fisica nel "Université di Palermo, 1818.” _ agates rhe a Sicily has so gong. been ce This fo | Dr. Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. 237 jt is probable that the latter constitutes the softest variety of the Palermo limestone, and that the hardest may be seen iu the marble of Castronuovo, employed in the columns of the Palace at. Caserta, near Naples, and in on great staircase of the Convent of San Martino near Palerm The formation in general is, however, best marked by the beds of ‘chert, with which it is {accompanied ; these occur at Monti Giuliano near 'l'repani;* at Termini,. ‘and i ins the hills near Palermo,—others, as the Monte Pelegrino, being entirely destitute of them chert presents several pepatifal varieties, as. will be andevseadt when I remark that the Sicilian jaspers and agates are derived either directly from thence, or indirectly from the rolled masses in the valleys, or on the sea-shore, — this rock appears to have shales ished... « se beds have sometimes a’ brecciated or a conglo al . fier ‘structure, whilst at others, the siliceous matter com bined with a portion of alumine, ‘and just enough of lime to cause a feeble action with an acid, forms stripes.diverging in all directions, the interstices of which are filled up wit —— lighter coloured and softer variety of e ‘same materi The jaspideous beds are cher red or yellow, the two va- rieties often occur together, and are penetrated by veins of pure crystalline quartz, thus 5s those eo ebrated. onis also marked by the occurrence i it of a pulvemlent sue earth, which, by analysis, is found to con- peop ys weight of ma “ = ms in a el f phosphorescin vivi on live coals, it resembles the re beds ma mses in the magnesian: lime- stone near Buda, and ra Beudant has already noticed. In Hungary, this powdery substance is accom and perhaps derived, from, beds of a magnesian liméétone, with a harsh gritty feel, which, when — to the weather, - Formerly Mount Eryre, famous for the tower A of Venus. It is one of the loftiest mountains of Neptunian origin. height is stated by cy fees } The agates of Sicily were much p n among the ancients indeed, it i is well known that this stone soit its name. om Actes a river in Sicily. 238 Dr. Baubeny on the Geology of Sicily. decompose into rhomboidal fragments, Near Palermo there are beds of a siliceous limestone, segs a good deal of magnesia, which decompose muc the same man- ner. The pulverulent Palermo bideneone pan in great re- quest formerly, as a remedy for various disorders, and large quantities of it, under the name of the Earth of Biada, used to be exported or sold for domestic consumption: at present itis rarely to’ be met with in the shops, although it may have been useful as an antacid, for the same purpose fors which we employ magnesia, and, therefore, perhaps has better preten- sions to eeu than many substances that still maintain their place in pharmacy. Before I quit the subject. of the Palermo limestone, | must not omit a circumstance relative to the rock of Mount Pelegri- no, near that city, which seems to deserve notice. _ Notwith- standing the uniform compactness of this stone, wherever it as been recently quarried, we find it in those parts which have been exposed to the weather, honeycombed in an extra- ordinary degree, by holes of considerable ‘size, which pene- trate’ becencl iiches below the surface, bat indicate, from the _ gradual decrease of their dimensions, that the cavities were oat v8 we action of the weather, sinking gradually inte | ne. ties, in their size and appearance, remin ded an of thine hich occur near me surface of a hard siliceous one. stone, belonging to the Oolite formation, found near Cirences- ter in a eae = has obtained the local name of the hiciees alum-sto weather ; bit it would be interesting to discover, whether . itl ig in these two instances, be derived from any peculiarity in the nature of the rock itself or in the circumstance under.which it has been placed. | With regard to the age of the Palermo pi i I cannot speak with confidence, but I conceive, that the facts already stated, ean me in ‘considering it, for the present, as cor- res ing tothe Zechstein of the Germans,. and the Mag- nesian limestone of England; in corroboration of which, 1 may perhaps add, that most of the specimens contain mag- nesia, h not generally in very large proportion. I the high ground near Palermo is occupied PY this an- cient caleareeus fiemaiien; but the valleys and ceast ara Dr Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. 439 covered with a very different kind of material, which would appear to have been at one time of considerable thickness, as if constitutes hills, which, though they offer no comparison in point of elevation with those consisting of the compact lime- stone, are yet some hundred feet in height. hs The line of demarcation between this and the preceding rock, is very distinctly marked by the character of the vege- tation. The compact limestone, like that of the Appenines, or of Nismes in the south of France, is chiefly adapted for the olive, and affords but a scanty pasturage, vegetation being obstructed by the fragments of chert, which cover the surface. 1ere, as in many portions of the limestone district in Derby- shire; whereas, the formation now about to be described, affords the finest crops of corn, and is distinguished, even where uncultivated, by the luxuriance of the plants that grow every where upon it. PS EEA ayeceults his formation consists either of a coarse puddingstone, containing rolled and angular fragments of quartz, and of the compact limestone on which it rests, or of a calcareous brec- cia, in which sand is also present, though limestone be the predominating ingredient. — Wherever the latter variety is found, shells are’very abun- dant, so that we may be led tovattribute the presence of cal- careous matter in this instance, principally to the accumula- tion of decayed organic bodies. The genera of shells commonly most frequent in this rock, are the Pecten, Ostrea, and Venus; but in that variety of it which occurs at the foot of- Mount Pelegrino, and is only dis- tinguished from the former by its greater freedom from sandy matter, and the consequent whiteness of the rock, Serpule, Dentalia, and Venericardi, may be distinguished along wii those already mentioned. oy aided 2c I may remark once for all, that a breccia of this kind, re- plete with shells, not far, if at all, removed: from existing species, seems to fill up the hollows in most of the older rocks of Sicily. Thus, a formation of this kind-exists, as I am informed, at Messina, though, being at that time occupied on other subjects, I did not observe it. The same formation occurs at Syracuse, and along the coast upwards towards Catonia, where it must not be confounded with the calcareons rock afterwards to be deseribed, which alternates with vol- Dr. Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. ‘es, * Between Taormina and Giarre, at the foot of Fitna, is a limestone, with shells similar to the above, which i with a yellow sandstone ; these beds seem to re- pose upon the older lavas same recent formation occurs in various situations along the northern coast, as. near Melazzo and Termini, be- tween Alcanio and the sea, and at the foot of Mount Guillia- no near Trepani "In following the line of coast from the latter place to Gir- genti, we observe a white calcareous breccia, which appears to iy vat the same-date and origin.1. well seen near Marcola, where it contains numerous shells, evade Trochi, Becians, Telling, Cardia, Arce, Dentalia, Nerite and Murices. A similar breccia, but one of a more arenaceous character, constitutes the whole of the coast between Selinus and iacca, and is-in many places ascertained to extend several pales. into the intenor, for I found it at Castelvetrano, which, in this part of the inland was the farthest point frog the o to which I deviat he shells in these ices ‘ote mostly the same as those before. ane ba they here form an aggregate sufli- ing stone. Of this material were ples at Seinen, the stupendous ruins of which are ‘iaowh ey the names * the Pillars of the ergs whi dei Gigante;) and though the uneven surface of would have been ill-adapted for finished sculpture,{ jel < Dr, Maubeny on the Geology of Sicili. 29 three of such alternations occur within a few miles of the Cape. After this-a pause seems to have taken place in the volcanic operations, for the calcareous rocks continue without interruption for a distance of almost thirty miles northward of the Cape, to a line nearly parallel with the town of Palazzolo, when indications of ‘igneous action appear to recommence. The most numerous alternations, however, of these two classes of deposits occur between the town of Lentini and the Mountain of Santa Vennera, to which, as illustrating the general structure of this district, I shall chiefly confine myself. Santa Vennera, the loftiest mountain in the south of the Island, is capped with lava, full of cells, having that oval or voleanic matter similar to the first, and before we reach the town two other such alternations take place At length, as we descend the last hill, “ohh brings us thither, we find ourselves on a calcareous stratum singularly contorted, and dipping in a direction just the reverse of the preceding strata, which seem to be inclined towards the south-west. he volcanic nature of the beds which separate the ealea» reous deposits in this part of the island, being unquestionable, it becomes an interesting point to ascertain to what class of formations the latter must ® referred. In this inquiry the order of peraies will assist us little ; for, as the whole of these beds rest, as we have seen, on the Volcanic tuff of Cape Passero, so as they covered, in the rare instances in which any other kind of rock is seen above them, by the modern lavas of Mount Etna. The character, therefore, of the shells they contain, seems only method that remains to us for determining the date of rocks, and here, fortunately, the information afforded, if not absolutely conclusive, leads, at least, to a probable con: ect J in the south of the island, indeed, between Cape Passera and Palazzolo, few fossils occur, and these not of a decisive character, unless the rock of Cape Passero itself ed an exception, = gaa with the hippurite, & fossj? Vou, Xoo. 2hb Dr. Daubeny en ihe Geology of Sicily. common, as it would appear, both to the chalk and the first tertia ..uestone,* nummulites and melanites are also fre- quent, It is, however, to the country intervening between Sortino and ey that I would refer for the most aoa proofs of the real age of this formation, as we there see beds hounding i in shells, which, if not confined to the saat recent class of rocks, seem, nevertheless, in this instance, by their concurrence as well as frequency, to indicate the recent date of the beds which contain them. Among these, the cerithium, — turritella, venus, and venericardia may be mentioned as fre- quent; and near ee oe strombi, pectines, casts of treehi, and nerite, also [may add, that fossil fish Have been found near Syracuse, as ood In the rocks of a similar epoch at Monte Bolca near Vicenza. With regard to the volcanic rocks with which these beds semivitreous aspect of many of them is such as to preclude any class of geologists from entertaining doubts with respect to the manner of their formation ;f the characters of other portions present Part Fa he See to rocks ‘of the trap neti which, whatever may be their origin, must have a much o te assi ign ned to them. — ~ In some of the beds, for instance, there is a uniform com- tness, he a lithoide fracture, which seems to indicate the presence of a certain degree of pressure ; in others we may observe the presence of olivine, either disseminate in minute crystals through the mass, as in basalt, or assembled in nésts. r.. The cavities are also frequently filled up hie oleae? a - spar or with zeolites, just like the amygdaloids of more cient strata; and in some of the beds a eniletiege toa stot. nar arrangement is discernible. be According to Dr. Boué’s arrangement of Fossil Organic Remains, the number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for Jan- nary and April 1825, it appears that the Hippuritis rotula and H.e atus of Sch ogee wh est of Lentini, the volcanic rock has a superficial A ae of obsidian, ero it has internally a lithoide basaltic aspect, of the vein in the island of Lamlash, pee to Asis the sides of which are of pitchstone, whitst the centre is basalts en Heo Ss es pei ty eee ee Dr. Maubeny on the Geology of Sicily. 251 The explanation of these phenomena must be reserved for another occasion; at present I have only time to advert te the facts themselves. The volcanic rocks just considered may, in conformity with my friend Professor Buckland’s nomenclature, be term- ed Antediluvian,* as they have been all subjected to the ope- ration of the same general cause to which the formation of the valleys must be referred, It is therefore plain, that no craters are to be expected to exist in rocks so circumstanced, although it has been errone- ously stated that there is one on Monte Vennera, and others . on some of the contiguous hills.) The whole of this class, in short, though probably not formed, under the pressure of tke entire ocean, must have been produced, partially at least, un- der water, ee that at a period antecedent to the existing ‘order of thin This, indeed: appears to be likewise the case with some of the lavas that occur in the neighbourhood of Etna, in the greenstone of the Cyclopean Islands, near Catania, which, though now severed apart from the mainland, and from each other, once constituted a continued stratum, that seems ante- cedent to the mountain, at the foot of which it is now placed. * In adopting this term, I mean to express no opinion with respect ta. the much agitated question, as - a identity of the particular deluge re- co of the valleys and th e formation of beds of gravel are to not by asuecession of prep? $352 By. Baubeny on the Geology of Sicily. Amongst the other rocks on the same coast, that of Cas- tello d’Aci would appear to be submarine, or at least, of subaqueous origin. It consists of a volcanic breccia, the ce- eae substance of a sandy nature ; the nodules a ‘cellular kind of lava. The nodules, however, are not rounded mass- es, “Ay result from a sort of irregular cystallization, most of them possessing a radiated repre so that they resemble a clusture of prisms meetin mon centre. The above stellular arrangement is t : Ser anaes canta: but in other cases prisms have more of a fan-shaped structure ; and in both © instances, the point towards which they converge, as well a the interstices between them, consists of tuff. ne t bine} probable, indeed, from many circumstances, tha ruptions of mount Etna commenced at an era not only | apieced ent tothe time of Homer, but even perhaps to the A commencement of the present order of things. If the exist- ence of pebbles and other rolled masses, establish the opera- tion of a deluge, we have, in the gravel at the foot of Etna, abundant evidence of antediluvian ¢ eruptions, for both cellular and compact lavas are found among these deposits. Nor would it be difficult to point out, on the slope of Etna, espe- cially. on its hoeitae: side, valleys which, from their size and oe rable rather to diluvial action, than to the the erase beds of lava at Aci Reale, to which Mr. Bry- - done Pests ers in his entertaining Travels in Sicily,* where he Strout % The following is the pee to which I refer. F “Near toa vault, which is now thirty feet below ground, and has Ibably been a burial place, there is a draw- well, where there are several strata of Javas, with earth to = Branson i thickness over the surface of each stratum. Recupero made of this as an argu- mient to prove the great antiquity ae diet eruptions of this mountain. to form but a scan’ seil on the surface ofa lava, there must have been more than that space of time betwixt cach of the epinuaioas which have formed these strata. But what shall we say of a wih they a near to ae of a er t de nee Dr. Daubeny on the Geotogy of Sicily. 253 quotes an observation made him by the Abbé Recupero, which seems to him to impugn the faith of our received c wren are, in reality, of a date antecedent to the last gene- ral eruption of the waters, for I have perceived nothing anialbgerin to these beds among the lavas which the mountain sends forth at present. _ At all events Brydone has been grossly deceived, in im- gining that the seven beds of lava seen lying, one above ) the other, near this spot, have been successively decomposed vegetable mould; the substance which really intet vores For volcanic shee such as + aeally msi or follows an eg of lava, mixed up with mud, or consolidated by course, his inference with respect to the antiquity of es str falls to the ground, as being founded on the fact of the decomposition of so si: beds of lava, which turns out to be altogether a mist With regard to the m those modern lavas of Mount Etna, those, I mean, of manifestly postdiluvian origin, I have only to remark, that they exhibit much. less variety, both in the nature of their component parts, and in that of their accident- al ingredients, than do those of Vesuvius, The older lavas belonging to this class sometimes possess the characters of porphyry slate, and even of trachyte, from which there would seem to be a gradation, dependent on the relative antiquity of the beds, down to the lavas of the present aac iach : have the usual cellular and vitreous aspect of such mala 2 Having made this opiate whilst in Sicily, 1 was pleased on my return, to find, on perusing some papers o eelebrated:Prussian geologist Vou Buch, (in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy,) that a imilar observation is there recorded, on lavas in general, which are conceived by him to the conscience to make his mountain so young as that ag apr makes the world. The Bishop, who is strenuously orthodox,—for it is an ex- cellent See,—has already warned him to be upon his gward, "ae not Mose resume any thing that may in the sma mallest degree be deemed contradictory to his sacred authority.”——Brydone’s Tour through Sicily, Vol. 1. p. 140. Q54 Dr. Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. owe their peculiar characters to an admixture of trachyte with titaniferous iron. It would be inconsistent, however, with the limits of this communication, to-pursue the subject farther, as all general inferences, with regard to this class of substances, would find a more natural place in an essay on the Phenomena of Vol- canoes in genera To conclude then, it would appear that the Island of Sicily contains rocks of the primitive, transition, secondary, and ter- tiary classes. he primitive are only found at the north-east corner of the island, near Messina,.where the prevailing rock appears to be gneiss. The transition constitute a chain of hills, extending ob- liquely from Mellazzo on the north coast, to Taormina on the west. They consist chiefly of mica-slate and clay-slate, quartz-rock, gray-wacke, sandstone, and limestone. The secondary rocks are found chiefly in a line parallel with the north coast. They consist, Ist, Of red sandstone, with beds of shale, extending from Cape Orlando to Cape Cefalu. 2dly, Of a compact limestone, with beds of chert, Jasper, and agate, which constitutes the Madonia Mountains, anes extends Cefalu to Palermo, and from thence to Trepani. It perhaps, corresponds with the magnesian lime- ne of England. The tertiary rocks consist either o of blue clay and marl, containing much gypsum and selenite, sulphur, sulphate of strontian, alum, and common salt, 3dly, Of a calcareous breccia, replete with shells of a recent date, which is seen extensively on the western coast, at the level of the sea; and as we trace it south, is found to rest on the blue clay; or 4thly, Of beds of shelly limestone, which oc- cupy all the south of the island, and alternate repeatedly with beds of volcanic matter. e volcanic rocks of Sicily are, at least, of two epochs ; namely, Antediluvian, which alternate with calcareous rocks, in the Vai di Noto, in the southern part of the island. 5thly, Postdiluvian, which comprise the greater part of the lavas that have flowed, at different times, from Mount Etna. It is probable that this mountain was burning, at a period anteces dent to the time of Homer; and there are volcanic rocks at its foot, which seem to have been produced anteriorly to the commencement of the present order of things, . a Dr. Daubeny on the Geology of Sicily. B55 APPENDIX. Iy order to fulfil my promise of furnishing to ee the means of correcting the errors into which I may have fallen, I subjoin the following sketch of the route which the geolo- gical traveller should take, in order to obtain as complete a view as possible, in a short time, of the physical structure _of the island. ‘Ist — Messina to Melazzo. Pioinstary to sig examined. o ye Antiquities of Tyadaris ta 4. —— Cefalu. Cyclopean ruin. 5. ——— Termini. Baths. Madonia. Mountains near, : 6. —— Palermo. Recent mone of —_—— lies on the roads mi ei ales to Alca —— To Trepani. Temp mple of Segeste on the road. —— Marsala. At T ne Monte me uliano, ev Mount Eryx. About Marsala, — Breccia well se 4, Case einann Quarries of Compe Be ilo. $%. —— Sciacca. Ruins of Selinus on the way. Near Sciacca, Mount Calogero ge of Deedalus &. Monte Alleg Beds of selenite. 7, ee irgentir re leaving Monte Allegro visit the sulphur mines of Cattolica From pg os proceed, in general, along the coast to Ali- cata a erranuoya. I should recommend the following devia- tion, i in veer to ootain a knowledge of the structure of interior of the d. Ist ad Girgenti to cine ee by Macaluba (air Volcano) Aragano. ~ ulphur min es,) &c 2. os Cand pee sori where the salt mines of Alimena are seen. Vale of Enn 3 Sesesisone. Bridge thrown over a chas , ns she “awa hh Look for the junction of re blue-clay and ters tiary limestone. Haying regained the coast at Terranuova, proceed: ist day. To Ragusa. Sap Pie rock 2. aah —— Bachyno, ‘tar 0 eeing on the the road, = possible, the Vabey a f Tonics, curious for ite artificial ¢a- verns. ee oe & a e 3 Be Sea 256 br. Baubeny out the Geology of Sicily. 3d day. he 3 Beye ae visit the rocks of Cape Passero, and them pro- 4. celina. Antiquities of Acra. cpr rere the usual route is to Syracuse ; but I should recommend wing deviation, in order to obtain a full view of the vol- crt ot of the Val di Noto, _ day. To Vizzini 0 Palagonia. Lago Naftia. Lentiol sleeping at Carlentini to avoid the exhalations from the 8. —— Sortino. Séivetion of Pantalica. racuse. ia. ‘ 11. —— Giardini. Ruins ef Tenromenium. ssina. wt wes Aderno. Randazzo. i; stake fea comiaeeet isp g At Cefalu, neon _ Girgenti, T: uova, Giardini, tolerable. Nearly all the rest exe- Gann affording scarcely any than a Y shulter from the elemen | Botany of Illineis and Missouri. BOTANY. Ant. VII. a “eb cp Paes of the States of Ilinoie and Mistouri. By L C. Beck, M. D. Profes- sor of Botany, Mineralogy! fe. in iv thé Rénsielaer School, TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear S Dunue my residence in Missouri, in the years 1820, 2 and 22, a portion of my time was occupied in the act gation of the vegetable productions of that and the adjoining state. Upon my return, I was so fortunate as to receive, un- injured, the collections which I had made. Until the present season, however, I have not had leisure to examine them with seri a known plants differ from the eastern, this difference is stated. By this means we shall become acquainted with, at least, some of the peculiarities in the vegetation of that inter- ee: esting section of the United States. ncerning the more common plants, a re pets and times of flowering only are mentioned. Thec pe it is hoped, will contribute some- what to increase our ie of knowledge, and will be particu- larly interesting to geographical botanists, and to future wri- ters upon the botany of the United States. With sentiments of respect, Yours, &c. Albany, Nov. 1, 1825. LEWIS C. BEEK. Go Vou X.—No. 2, 3 258 Botany of Ulinois and Missouri. DIANDRIA. MONOGYNIA. Ligustrum vulgare La Ozss. This shrub attains the height fi seven or él ight feet, on rat prairies, near St. Louis. It is doubtful whether it is e nativ Dr. Torre y, inhis Flora of the Northern and Mid- dle States, says that itis introduced from Europe; but its situation near St. Louis, appears to be such as to lead to a contrary opinion. It flowers early in May. . Veronica porn cag Lin ABs On the banks of cree Ss, near St. Louis—common, It enol in May. Le ept tandra virginica Nu utt. Eas. Prairies near St. Louis—rare. June. Gratiola missouriana.* Root ime us, perennial. Stem erect, simple or sparingly beancheds pee from 4.to 6 inches high. Leaves narrow- lanceolate, connate at base, toothed near the apex, opposite. Peduadelaieiaticii rarely opposite, longer than the leaves. Bracts: Tonger than the ‘calyx. Segments of the calyx linear-lanceolate, unequal, more thar half the length of the tube ‘of the core Corolla yellow ; tube slightly curved. Filaments two, of the length of the tube. Capsule sovate, acute, shorter than the calyx. Whole plant viscid-pubes- cent. Oss. This plant differs from G. ip L. in the follow- ing particulars—viz. Its habit is more slender—leaves nar- rower, and but sparingly toothed at the summit—calyx leaves and peduncles longer—capsule smaller and more te. “Has. On the alluvion of the eee, river, near St. Louis. June. siheatfa dilatata Muh 1. Li 7 Haz. Ynundated banks of the Mississippi, at St Louisand ly. elsewhere. tI have, with few exceptions, omitted ” heads as these may be found in the works of Pursh, Torrey, and others Botany of Illinois and Missouri. 259 Catalpa syringeefolia Pur sh. Oxs. It is a subject of much dispute, whether this tree is @ native of the United States. Judging from the localities which I have visited at St. Louis, and elsewhere on the Mis- sissippi and Ohio rivers,-I am inclined to believe that it has been introduced. The existence of this tree, in the western sections of the United States, was one of the arguments ad- vanced by Jefferson and Volney, to prove that the climate there is much warmer, under similar parallels of latitude, than on the Atlantic coast. If, however, this tree is not a native, as is the opinion of Nuttall and other botanists, the argument is unfounded; for it will bear cultivation at Albany, and other places on the coast, far north of where it is found in the-west.f The few trees which I observed in the vicinity of St. Louis, were from 15 to 20 feet high, and when in flower were extremely ornamental. It flowers late in June. -— __ : Justicia pedunculosa Mich. Has. This plant, although rare, is found in the extreme parts of the United States. Elliott notices it in his Sketch ot the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia. It is found alsoin ereeks in the western parts of the state of New-York. In Missouri, I have observed it only on the inundated banks of the Merrimack river, 16 miles south of St. Louis. It is from 2 to 21 feet high, and flowers in June. - Cunila glabella Mich. Ha In the rocky banks of the Mississippi, at St. Louis. —In similar situations on the St. Lawrence, Ohio, and Ten- nessee.— August. Oxs. Nuttall and some other botanists follow Persoon, in placing this plant under the genus Heproma ; but it differs from this last in its calyx, which is eA neo 10-striate, nearly equal and subulate. Dr. Torrey’s description of this species is minutely accurate, so faras relates to the western specimens which | possess. + For further remarks on this subject, see a paper, by the author of these contributions, published in the New York Medical and Physical Jonrnal, Vol. I. p, 273. 260 Botany of Ilinois and Missouri. Hedeoma hirta Nutt. Root annual. Stem 4 to 6 inches high, branching at the base, pubescent. Leaves linear, sub-lanceolate, acutish at both extremities, entire, and veined. Bracts ciliate, Calyx po gg lowers in whorls, minute, shorter than the calyx yx. Has. Onthe rocky banks of the Mississippi, in company with the last. According to Mr. Nuttall, it is also found on the open alluvions of the Missoun, July. Monarda Bradburiana.* Root perennial. Stem about three feet high, simple, quad- rangular, solid, smooth, except at the joints, and on the gles towards the top. Leaves opposite, sessile, or on ve short ciliate petioles, hairy on both sides, oblong-lanceolate, dentate, rounded at the base. Outer bracts broad-lanceolate, ciliate, coloured. Calyx hairy, very densely bearded at the throat, terminating in five subulate, slivasibads teeth, which are more than an eighth of an inch long; teeth and upper part of the calyx coloured. Heads of flowers large, terminal. Co- rolla large, deeply divided into two lips ; upper one narrow, curved, enclosing the stamens, and about the same length, very villose at the end, pale purple; lower lip broad, with pe s ne pots. Sessile-leaved Monarda. Has. Barrens north of St. Louis. July. 1 have named this beautiful and very distinct spe- cies, in honour of the late John Bradbury, F. L. S.,as a tri- bute to the memory of a highly valued friend, and distinguish- ed botanist. : Monarda scabra.* somewhat hairy. Bracts ovate-lanceolate. Flowers in large — terminal heads, which are somewhat in threes. Calyx half an inch in length, hirsute, very densely bearded at the roat, terminating in short acute teeth, nearly straight. €orolla hirsute, pale purple ; upper lip straight, about the length of the stamens. Rough-leaved Monarda, 4B. Woods on the banks of the Mississippi river, one mile north of St, Louis, July—August. Botany of Illinois and Missouri. 261 s. This species can be distinguished by the surfaces and texture of its leaves; and by the shortness of the teeth of the calyx, which are almost obscured by the dense hairs at the throat, Monarda ciliata Pursh & Willd. Has. Banks of Riviere des Peres, five miles west of St, Louis. July. Some of the specimens have lanceolate leaves, on petioles of from half an inch to three-fourths of an inchin length, They should, perhaps, constitute a new spe- cies. + Circeza canadensis Mu hi. Cat. Has. Woods on the banks of the Mississippi—common. une. TRIANDRIA. MONOGYNIA. | Fedia radiata Mich. 7 Hap. Onthe banks of the Mississippi. April—May. Iris versicolor Lin., Var. sulcata Torrey. Has. Swamps a mile west of St. Louis—abundant. May. Sisyrinchium bermudianum ? central cusp. : 4 Has. On the rocky banks of the Mississippi, nearly op- posite to the mouth of the Missouri river—lIlinois. April. Scirpus pendulus Muh l. Gram. ? Has. Borders of ponds, west of St. Louis. June. be a Scirpus acicularis Lin. Hag. In similar situations with the last. June. Dulichium spithaceum Pers. Has. Banks of the Merrimack river, sixteen miles south of St. Louis. June. 202 Botany of Nlincis and Missour;. Cyperus inflexus Muhl. Gram. Has. “Near St. Louis. July. Cyperus strigosus Muhl. Gram. Has. Margins of ponds, St. Louis. July. TRIANDRIA. DIGYNIA. The following grasses were found on the prairies near St. Louis, viz Leersia oryzoides Swartz & Muhl. July. Agrostis alba Lin, June. Alopecurus geniculatus Lin. June. Poa reptans Mich. Poa reptans, Var. coespitosa Torrey. June. Poa compressa Lin. May—June. Poa annua Lin. March—April. Elymus glaucifolius Muhl. July . Panicum latifolium Lin, May. Andropogon furcatum, M uh l. Gram, oc “PRIANDRIA, ‘TRIGYNIA. aie Mollugo verticillata Lin Has. On the prairies in Illinois and Missouri—commobe July Lechea major Lin, Has. Prairies near St. Louis. June, TETRANDRIA. MONOGYNIA. Cephalanthus occidentalis Lin Haz, Banks of the Mississippi at St. Louis. June. Galium cireezans Mich. Wet rounds, near Galium bermudianum Lin. St. Louis. May. ' Houstonia minima.* Root annual? Stem 1 to 14 inches high, erect, simple, square, a little scabrous. Liane opposite, spathulate-ovate, Sebasincseb aeRO si He EI Botany of Illinois and Missouri. — 263 subacuminate, ciliate, scabrous on both sides.. Flower solitary, terminal, ore ga peduncle, which 3 is of about half an inch in length. Calyx inferior? segments large, ovate, Sy bacon oat persistent, as long as the tube of the orol olla blac; border expanding. Has. Fields about half a mile west of St. Louie Ma reh, Oss. When I first observed this plant, I supposed it to be H. patens of Elliott ; but upon a closer examination, I find it to be quite distinct. The stem of H. minima is simple: in a few specimens, however, | Baevve a small shoot protruded from near the.root ; the leaves and the segments of the Cal are of a different shade, the latter being much large peduncle of H. patens is armed in the middle with two scales, which is not the case with A minima, Mr. Elliott obserngy y to minema whole fields covered with this beautiful little plant, and it is uniform in its height, and the other specific characters above detailed. The segments of the calyx alone, would sufficient- ly distinguish it from H. cerulea Lin. ; and indeed from all the other species of this genus. Houstonia cerulea Lin. Hag. Prairies in Illinois and Missouri~common. May. Ms npociinany. age mostly dichotomous stems. ustonia longifolia Willd. Hin. rnd west of St. Nous —May. Houstonia purpurea Willd, — Has. In similar situations with the last. May. My spe- cimens all have lanceolate leaves,’ differing, however, in breadth. Hence the reason why Linneus and some of his correspondents confounded it with H. longifolia Houstonia ciliolata Torrey Fl. Has. Woods three miles west of St. Louis. May. Oxs. My Missouri specimens of this plant agree remark- ably with those which I received from Professor Hadley, of the Western ‘Medical College, and which he gathered at Niagara Falls. Previous to my having seen Dr. Torre description, I had labelled my specimens H, purpurea wth 264 Botany of Uhnois and Missouri. a mark of doubt. Iam now convinced that they do not be- long to that Was . Cornus florida Lin Has. On the banks of the Illinois river, 50 miles above tts mouth—not common. March—April. Cornus circinata’ Willd. Has. On the pmecigan bottom opposite to St, Louis. pril. | Cornus sericea Wi lid. Has. With the last. Plantago virginica Liu ‘a Has. Near St. Louis and Seewhare: akoaiae on. | Tt varies considerably in height and in the size of its leaves. Plantago pusilla Nu tt. Has. On the mounds about one mile north of St, Louis. April. The apecmens which | observed were Jape three inches high; and were not armed with the subulate bracts _ belonging to P. aristata of Michaux, with which this species sae been confounded, Ptelea erifoliata Lin Te. Timbered alluvions of the Mississippi, at St. Louis and elsewhere. May. In my specimens the leaves are ate pubescent on the under surface, and have a whitish olour. TETRANDRIA, TETRAGYNIA, ramen cee Fane Mich. Potamogeton aes a these ssietien are found in ponds west of St. Louis, (To be continued, ) et seeeaeomete Caricographij. IS Asr, VIIL—Caricography. By Prof. Dewey. (Continued from Vol. X. p. 48.) (Communicated to the Lyceum of Natural History of the Berkshire edical Enstitution.] 66. Carex acuta. L. Muh., Pursh, Eaton, Pers. no. 197. Ell. no, 21. Schw. Wahl. no. 136. Rees’ puted nos 156. chk, tab. Ee and Ff fig. 9 Spicis staminiferis pluribus vel una on ngis. erectis, Su- proms pedu unculata, ceteris sessilibus et abbreviatis ; spieis " : i : - i c feris, laxifloris vel subdensifloris ; fructibus ellipticis compres- sis acutiusculis ore integro et protruso glabris, ane ob- longo-lanceolata paulo brevioribus. 8. erecta, (mihi,) Spica staminifera solitaria brevi; spicis fructiferis binis erectis sessilibus pei subdensifloris brevi- cylindraceis. C. virginiana? Rees’ Cyc. no. 100. y. sparsiflora, (mihi;) Spicis staminiferis binis brevibus, inferiore parvula ; — fructiferis oblongis subsessilibus laxis subsparsiflori is Culm 1—2 feet high, acutel triquetrous, very shai and rough on the edges; leaves linear, often longer than the culm, very rough on the edges, carinate, sheathing the base ; sheaths striate, sometimes filamentous; bracts long, leafy, rough, surpassing the culm, slightly auriculate at the base; staminate spikes one to three, cylindri ric, sessile except the highest, variable in length; staminate scale oblong, obtuse, often rather’ acute, brown on the border; stigmas two; pis- tiles spikes about three, cylindric, from half an inch to two inches in length, often staminate at the apex, sessile except the lowest, and recurved, sometimes all sessile and adonly: erect, sometimes rather densely flowered, often very loosel flowered and fruit decurrent ; fruit elliptic, ae to ovate. and-obovate, smooth, with an entire protruded m ; pis- tilate scale ablong-lanceolte, dl on bréwn on hae margin, Vor. X.—No. 266 Cariwogrupiy. ae on the keel, a little longer than the fruit. Colour of e age bright green, of the spikes dar Flowers in May and June—grows in marshes ; common. recognised without difficult ‘ of its culm and leaves. It often grows in large, elevated, dense bogs. 67. C. cespitosa. Li. Muh., Pursh, Eaton, Pers. no. 195. Schw. Wahl. no. 139, Rees’ Cyc. no. 132, Schk. tab. Aa and Bb fig. 85. Spica staminifera solitaria, — Finis, erecta umlonges in- Yima sessile ; spicis fructiferis distigmaticis ternis oblongo- cylindraceis subdensifloris sessilibus, sepe apice staminiferis ; fructibus ovalibus et obovatis utrinque convexis obtusis ore integro et protruso’ glabris, squama oblonga obtusa paulo lon- gioribus, gt * Culm 12—20 inches high, triquetrous, slightly scabrous above, leafy ; leaves linear-lanceolate, shorter than the culm, reviated below, sheathing towards the: base ; bracts leafy, linear-lanceolate, rather shorter than the culm and without sheaths; staminate spikes one or two, oblong, lowest sessile ; staminate scale oblong, obtuse, purplish brown on the mar- gin, whitish on the ele ; stigmas two; pistillate spikes three, sometimes staminate at the apex, cylindric, rarely two inches long and often less than one, sessile, nearly erect, low- est slightly pedunculate, rather densely flowered ; fruit oval: or obovate, obtuse, with an entire and protruded mouth, gla- brous ; pistillate scale oblong, obtuse, rarely lanceolate and ybtuse, nearly black on the margin, green on the keel, and a little shorter than the mature fruit. The whole plant is of a fight. grec colour or yellowish green, and is rather soft to the Flowers in May—grows in dense patches along the banks of streams, and is often overflowed by the rise of waters: common, but not abundant. Four varieties. of this species are figured by Schk., but they are. easily recognised. n our specimens the pistillate spikes are longer than those represented on the wag Schk., or en my specimens received from England, This Caricography. 267 “Species is este related to the preceding ; but the differ- ence in the manner of growth, colour, and roughness, i is great and constant ; ‘and to the eye their appearance is very di- rse, 68. C. aquatilis. Wahl. Pers. no. 193, in! no, 135, Rees’ Cyc. no. 175. Schk. Car. Il. p- 2 m. Journ. Vol. x, tab. E, fig. 1 quantibu Culm 20-30 inches high, erect, triquetrous stiff ‘some- what reclined at the summit, rather obtuse angl on ara ly scabrous ; leaves linear-lanceolate, striate, stiff, 1c the culm, spreading ; bracts long, leafy, much Fon Fhe culm, without sheaths ; staminate spikes one to subsessile, lower one bracteate, staminate scale oblon ng, somewhat obtuse, tawny; stigmas two; pistillate spikes about Sate poerey. Ae suberect, cylindric, thick- en ch ie two inches long; densely flowered ; fruit atone ceaidehat lenticular, rather small, i tire and protruded at the orifice ; pistillate ical ther was tawny on the edge, about equalling the fruit, and as it is narrower, ene a light appearance to the spikes. Colour of the plant bright green, Flowers in Maye in the form of bogs in wet situa- tions ; common. This species has been confounded with C. acuta o whic it is closely related. But it differs in its larger a Packer spikes densely flowered, in its wider leaves, in its less acute and even obtuse angled culm scarcely. scabrous, and in its spikes being much lighter enn It is described by Schkuhr, but he has given no figure of it. Our plant agrees with a specimen from Sweden The three preceding species with C. stricta and C, crinita pee: a very natural subdivision in this genus. Excepting C. crinita, they strongly resemble each ote, and will not be. distinguished without particular attention. 268 Caricography. Note. ‘F hough the diagasuishing: characters of C, cepha- Jophord, were given Vol. VII. p. 269 of this Journal, a more- extended description is due to ee ase, and here follows. C. cephalophora. Muh., Pursh, Eaton, Sei, Ell. Pers. no 26. on.* no. Schk. tab. Hhh fig. oF Spiculis androgynis superne staminiferis distigmaticis ovatis densé aggregatis ibauinte bracteatis ; fructibus ovatis acuminatis compressis bifidis marge scabris, squame parve scabro-cuspidate subaquali Culm 8—20 inches high, 24 feet, and decumbent ac- cording to Muhlenberg, triquetrous, scabrous above ; leaves e very long, often surpassing the culm, linear-lanceolate, sca- brous on the margin, striate, sheathing towards the base; ikelets. three to seven, about five generally, staminate above, ovate, becoming yellow or tawny, distinct but densely gated, often fordits a kind of head, lower ones often a little remote, with pec Ba ending in a scabrous bristle rue or thrice = long as the spikelets ; fruit ovate, acumi- compressed bifid, scabrous on the margin, labrous, pe ee erging ; sratllene scale ovate, small, cuspidate, and scabrous, about the length of the fruit. Colour of the plant rather light green. coe in May—grows along the borders of woods ; com- Phe particular difference between C. cephalophora and C. squarrosa, which were strangely confounded by Pursh, was remarked upon Vol. VII. p. 269—270. St . ¥See the “ Monograph of the esc American srecies of Carex ; Pky the Rey. Lewis D. De Schweinitz: Edited by John Torrey.” This paper, which is known to be phere indebted : or nae for its present ’ m and many of ‘its excellencies, es ie appear in “ Annals of | the Lyceum of Nat. History of New fl vee TL No 8. ‘The refer, Rice — Yeas will be Mook oy Schw. and Torrey. Cariwograplty. 269 69. C. stricta. Goo dei Schw. Analyt. Tab. ‘Wahl. no. 138. Pers. no. 196. Rees’ Cyc. no. 133. V fig. 73. Spicis staminiferis subgeminis erectis oblongis subtrique- tris; spicis fructiferis distigmaticis subternis cylindraceis erectis s@pe apice staminiferis superne acutiusculis, infima breviter pedunculata ; fructibus ovatis compressis acutiusculis ore a et protruso glabris, squama oblonga acuta paulo breviori ulm 12—20 inches high, erect an si acutely trique- irous, quite scabrous above, leafy tow stiff, erect, linear-lanceolate, rough on thie pe shorter than the.culm, filamentose at the sheaths ; bracts leafy, — ar-lanceolate, about the length or longer than the auri- culate at the base when young ; ae spikes two, some- times one, rarely three, long, triquetrous, highest pedunculate ; staminate scale oblong, rather obtuse, »oddlish brown on the margin, green on the keel; stigmas two; pistillate spikes about three, erect, subcylindric, one to two ge long, densely flowered, ‘often staminate- at the apex, tapering above, nearly black from the dark colour of the scales ; fruit ovate, compressed, small, rather acute above, entire and pro- truded at the orifice, g abrous, not-persistent but. falling off very early ; pistillate scale oblong, acute, nearly black on the margin, white on the keel, nearly as long as the fruit. Co- lour of the plant, except the spikes, glaucous green. Flowers. in. Preors m marshes. have found it —- a mars mile north of the Col Heges: AanTee. Se This species, found in England a and Sweden, was first re- cognised in our country, by Mr. Schweinitz.. Tt has proba- bly been confounded with C. acuta, which it much Saaaides. ‘There can be no doubt however that it is a distinct species. Though it grows in similar situations with C. acuta, it does not form a bog, but spreads over the surface of the marsh, It differs from that species too in its colour, in the appearance = its $ meget in its more stiff and erect form, and in its fruit be- In the specimens which I have seen, the pis- ‘il in spikes are as done as, but smaller than. those of the Huropean specimen 270. Caricography. This species is not the C. stricta, Lam., the C. hes roe Rees’ Cyc. no. 100, which is nee the variety 8 of acuta. 70. C. crinita. Muh., Pursh, saat Pers. no. 192, Ell. no. 20. Rees’ Cyc. no. 141. Schw. - Schk. tab. Eee atm va and Ttt fig. 164. Be pal C. paleacea, Wahl. Spicis fructiferis sub- quaternis Feugo-eylindracels s flagelliformibus densifloris =a maticis recurvis cum o longo reclinato ; pe ae lomgeyve serrata terminatis, fructu eo quam triplo longl- ori yrimele ra, Schw. Analyt. Tab. Spicis weenie. 9 ; Squamis fructu subduplo itor Culm 15—30 inches high, acutely triquetrous, subscabrous above: leaves linear-lanceolate, scabrous on the edge, stri- ate, shorter than the culm with striate sheaths ; bracts leafy, surpassing the culm, without sheaths, somewhat embracin ng the stem; staminate spike single, sometimes two, long; lax, often with a few 98 scattered above, or haat or alon the cronate ; stigmas two, saat three ; pst spikes two to indric, often larger in and attenuated at the base, pedunculate, nodding, sometimes: suberect, often’ staminate A ec rather dense ‘ flowered.; fruit ovate, subtriquetrous, subinflated, short-ros- trate, glabrous, entire at the orifice; pistillate scale linear: ‘i ESS SE RE Oe eae Sen Ete ae Carwograpty. 271 described under the name of C, leonura by Wah enberg, and as having three stigmas, which is sometimes the fact, it cor- responds to tab. Eee fig. 125. Schk. The second variety is the C. paleacea, Wahl., described as having two stigmas, and corresponds to tab. Ttt fig. 164, Schk. It flowers in. May—grows in light, alluvial soil, or along streams, colour yellowish green, often three feet high, long, cylindric, recurved, pistillate spikes, densely flowered, and supported on rather long reclined peduncles, and with a pistillate scale more than three times as long as t i terminated by a long, rough, serrate curve. ii aay Ps ck third maeioty is the one named C. g ‘ by Mr. weinitz, and, as appears from a comparison of specimens, differs but little from ‘he more common i of the species. 71. C. atrata. Lin. Pers. no. 28. Wahl. 114. Spicis tristigmaticis subquaternis oblongo-ovatis subcernu- is, terminali androgyna inferne staminifera, superis confertis sessilibus, inferis subdistantibus pedunculatis subrotundo- ovalibus compressis glabris breviter rostratis ore bilabiato, squama oblonga acutiuscula nigra paulo brevioribus. — Culm about a foot high, triquetrous, scarcely scabrous, leafy and brownishoventies base; leaves linear-lanceolate, short- er than the culm, nearly flat, striate ; bracts long and leafy ; spikes three to five, with three stigmas, oblong-ovate, densely ~ . flowered, rather nodding, the highest androgynous, staminate below, the others with scattered staminate florets, three highest sessile and approximate, the lower rather distant, and pedun- culate, sometimes nodding, and nearly destitute of sheaths ; fruit roundish oval, sometimes slightly obovate and somewhat acute at the base, compressed, glabrous, with a short, two- lipped beak: pistillate scale oblong, somewhat acute, black, a little longer than the fruit. Colour of the spikes black, of the plant light green ; agrees with the same species received trom- Silesia. 272 Caricography. This species inhabits the Alps, the mountains of England. &c. and was discoveredin our country onthe Rocky mountains by Dr. E. James. This species is very different from C. ni- gra, Willd. no. 115, Pers., and also from C. ustulata, Wahl. no. 92. 72. C. Washingioniane. (mihi.) - ‘Am. Journ. Vol. X. tab. D fig. 14. Spicis distinctis; spica staminifera solitaria erecta; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis oblongis cylindraceis subsessilibus subremotis erectis subsparsifloris ; fructibus ovalibus utrin- que acutis compressis brevi-rostratis ore integro glabris. Squamz ovato-oblonge acutiuscule subaquantibus. Culm about a foot high, triquetrous, subscabrous above ; leaves linear, striate, about as longas the culm, shorter low ; bracts leafy, linear, lower ones equalling the culm with scarcely any sheaths ; staminate spike single, erect, short pedunculate ‘with an oblopg and obtuse black scale, white on the keel and edge : stigmas three ; pistillate spikes two to four, oblong, cylindric, erect, about sessile, rather loose flowered, nearly aninch long, and separated from each r rather acute at both ends, the ‘orifice; pistillate scale ovate-oblong, subacute, about eens oe fruit, nearly black, with a white edge and white ine on tl helene Soe ecm cneepsn tte eager Caricography. 273 75, . ee = apne C. Parsh, Beton; Schr, Am. Journ. Vol. X. tab. G fig. 21. Spicis. distinctis ; spica staminifera solitaria erecta ; spicis fructiferis tristigmaticis subternis sessilibus vel incluse ‘pedan- culatis distonitiims per-paucifloris; fructibus subulatis vel subinflato-lanceolatis longis rostratis divaricato-reflexis ore ineeare Gian, squsims seseaacere: plus quam triplo longioeri- As Wahlenberg had published a species under the name of C. subulata, found in the Isle of Bourbon, and very different feanibit that dencribed by Michaux, it is necessary to give Mi- chaux’s plant a new name. [have chosen: for it the name of that eminent botanist. Culm a. foot high or more, triquetrous,: Viceder: smooth, lax; leaves flat, _Sibet striate, smooth, shorter than the culm with striate sheaths; bracts leafy, linear, flat, upper ones long as the culm; staminate spike single, — small, with.an oblong mucronaté white scale ; 5: paca _ tillate spikes about three, sessile or with inclosed peduncles, two to four flowered, quite distant ; fruit subulate, or long lanceolate, rostrate, slightly inflated, entire at the orifice, re~ flexed and diverging, somewhat two-ranked ; pistillate scale lanceolate, whitish, Reged one third as long as Colour of the sg ight green. Flowers in May and June. Found in Canada, Mx tread “ eC is) | Le) — ~J is! loo) = re 8 > ferinsou) fu vl soquiaaeq! roquie3;dag| * ra) a B 3 a = Oo a ) — fon > 2 a) o. a f=) roquraaoy! 1990190) saquiaydeg yndny Aqne ysno r ou f N.C., during the Aew ? oun Ae way » 4Y IA] Thermometrical Observations. . 35° 54’. Communica PHYSICS, &. AND MISCELLANIES., Caldwell, at Chapel Hill and 1822. Lat Bs ee 19 A beng “lee: Sp raqmiezaq ee be TIGUIDAO NS 92° F9 1990199 Pl ZL doquiay » 06° SZ ysndny 88° 6L Aine BL eunr Pe" 69 W 62" 19 Tudy Iz’ e¢] youryy] 6" &F Arenaqo,y a : Azenue rp “GBBL Afeniga y Arenur r ¥ yw Arensqaq. avenues} ArT, X.—Thermometrical Observations made 294 ‘TS8L Thermometrical Observations. 295 | 1820. 1821. 1829, i. Hottest day, June, 93.50 | June, 92. June & aie 65. 2. Coldest do. January,12 | January, 6. ney S 3. aoe month, July. August, July. 4. Co do. nuary. January. anuary. 5. Greatest my r’ge, | April. January. February. 6. Le ugust July. July. 7. Grenteet ary —— April. March. February. 3. Li July & Aug. | July. August. 9, Eetrenepot “the y? r..| 81.50 86 95 REMARKS, i, Our hottest month is commonly J aly, but sometin gust. Our hottest day is usually in e. 2. Our coldest month is Ta anuary, ‘tad the coldest day us usu- ay occurs near the beginning of the same mon . The temperature of our climate varies from 0 to 95° in its eat extremes ; but the mean oe the three years above gives only 87° 5’, as the annual ra 4, The greatest monthly rai is from 61° 5° to 66°, and eccurs from January to April inclusive: the least monthly range varies from 22° 5’ to 28°, and occurs in July or August. . The greatest daily songs * varies from 35° to 41° and oc- cia in February, March, or April ; me least. daily aes is from 12° to 20°, and occurs in July or A ugust. 6. The annual mean, from the observations of 1820 and 1821, is 59° 54’, corresponding. alk grok with the ‘mean as laid down in Humboldt’s. Isothermal . The va tion of 1822 would carry it a little higher ; tae the” accurat C) of this last is doubtful. . It was found that the observations of 10 orclotk, r M. correspond very nearly with the annual mean. Excessive Heat of the Summer of 1825. Art. XI.—Notices of ihe Excessive a ek ing some parts of (1825.) the late summer. “4. Observations on the Heat, &c. at Brooklyn, New York, for the month of July, 1825. The thermometrical observations exhibit the lowest ‘temperature in the morning and evenness and oe Mages! during theday. The lowest arefrom @ ther- ter always out of doors; the highest from one in an ae hall, where no refraction or re lection can have effect ommunicated by the Rev. Dr. S. Woopuutt. 165 ine uly, Morning} eidcie : ike Clear. S. W. 89. ae Fr Ww 71. Clear. N. W. - 72. Clear. W. 91. Cloudy. S. E. 81. Cloudy. S. E. = 7. Cloudy. S. W. Driz-|77. Cloudy. E. Rain. 73. Clear. N. W. Usually at 6 vey a ou ast 2 a k, P.M. Usually at 10, P.M. ling. 74. Clear. W. 7. £ 76. Clear. S. } Clow Wa F265 4 67. Clear. N. W. 7. Clear. N. W. 0. Clear. S. W. 5. Clear. N. 7. Clear. N. W. . Clear. S. , Cloudy. N. E. 7. Clear. E. 172. Cloudy. N: 5. Clear. 5. E. 1. Clear. S. W Clear. S, Clear. W. N. W. . Clear. S. fo. W. . Clear, S. S. W an. Wve. 94, Clear. S. W. =, p 92. Clear. S.S. W -. W. 94. Clear. S a A 96. Clear. S. W. . W. 95. Clea: ar. W. 97. Clear. S. S. W. . 5. W. 93. Clear. SW. — Rain.|79. Cloudy. N. W. 84. Clear. S. W. _ 486. Clear. S, W. 87. Clear. E. N. E. 85, Clear. S. OP bt cat tes om : $1. Clear. S. : Ss 90. Clear. S. Light rain inthe afternoon. A ly 90° Clear. S. : 76. Cloudy. N. W. S op = See 1925. mg ai P.M. TE *ML| Mean. lwina.| and bd ack.” Excessive Hest of the —— 1825. 297 - 9, ope: at mM lliams Coleg, sig a the eke excessive ly ho er. duly 10. 92.3] 81.1) 81.80)Nz W. At 34 P. M. temp. 93. 33 Ai il 96.8] 77.0) 84.60}S. 24 = Por, 0 Sunset 98, 5 12 = © 93.6) 74.6} 81.301N. W. hander shower at evening. 3.5L 9L.5]-78.4| -78.80,N. W. ee se At £0.3| 82.30] os ge? gepiges: ad 75.0| $1.67/S. Some rain at sunset. : 78,2 ee 2 ea 83.6] 86. Some rain. Temp. 98.5 at 3P. M, OTA) TLS 78.681 N. Ww. sae fest 5 “any. a ar ~The mean temperature ¢ ot the Sapte is eee ick is alittle less than that of July 1820. ‘The temperature was at no time in that yearso high as that given above. Thémean ‘temperature of the month of July for the last nine years is 69.61, and for the last ten years including this July, is only 70.14, This shows the excessive heat of the late: meh of ~ July. “here were some hot days in June, but tech petatire ss not above 96° in the hottest part of the The thermometer is suspended six feet foot the ground o the ses sd oes exposed to a free Ra of the b ec Il reflected heat. ig. 22. ‘Observed three epee ie the sun—two large es from the ener % ~ Hartford, Connecticut, July 18.—Such excessive hot wea- ther as prevailed ae the last week, has rarely, if ever been experienced | ur oldest. inhabitants. During Sunday, Mosdsy, Paesdy, and Wednesday, the thermometer ranged from 96 to 102 degrees in the shade. On Monday, most a the labouring wage were compelled to quit their work, a our farmers out of ‘hamanity or piace probably a "ttle OL 2 298 Excessive Heai of the Summér of 1825. of both, ee the horse and the ox to remain undisturbed — at Salem » Massachusetts, July 13.—Terrible weather—some of our gisies in the shade are as high as 104. Several gentle- men who have bash | in Mocha, when for many days the ther- mometer stood from 102 to 108, say they never felt the heat ort, Massachusetts July 12.-—The weather _ he rere hi her, we believe, than it had stood before this season. (In one ve it stood at upwards of a hundred.) On Mon- day, at noon, the —— stood at 94.—At 2P. M.at se in hes shade of a tre tland, Maine, Fi 11.—The weather on Sunday was omstally hot and oppressive—about two o’clock the mercu- p bes thermometer rose to 93, and continued at that height most ee whole afternoon, ant at sunset 91. In the even- _ ing there Sian much sharp lightning, and about to: oiieek. a sh Neo Bedford Massachusetts, July 12. —Our thermometer. stood cat 90 ae yesterday (Monday) morning before sunrise ; a oon the mercury rose to ~ in the shade, and veel very hale ftom that point till sunse _ Several persons died at Philadelphia on Wosals July 19, in ee of drinking cold water, and the heat of the weather. A thermometer in the shade, in the village of Pennyan, ° Yates county, New York, stood at 106, on Sunday, duly’ 7, at 12 o’clock. : ~~ Springs, Virginia, July 20,—Thermometer 99 5 in s Albany, New York, July 20. The thermometer at the aca- TA 3 on Monday night at 9 o’clock, was 81. Yesterday at fete’, New York, July 19.—The heat on the 10th, tithe and 12th of this month, was more oppressive than has : ‘nced for a nu ember of years. ‘The thermometer in this village, fluctuated during the three days from 90.to 98 degrees, i in cool situations. 7 Excessive Heat of the Summer of 1825, 299 Montreal, Lower Canada.—Thermometer at 7 A. M. and 3 . July 9th, 76,85. 10th,75,91. 11th, 77,93. 12th, 81,90. 13th, 69,91. 14th, 70, 89. 15th, 73, 89. Wiscasset, Maine, July 15.—During the present week we have had uncommonly warm weather. By a thermometer * kept in Edgecomb, it is stated that the mercury stood on Monday, 9 0’clock, A. M. at 103. Tuesday morning, 107— — 104 in the shade. fed : It has been much warmer however in the interior—at Gard- _her, on Sunday, the mercury stood at 130 degrees in the sun. Baltimore, Maryland, July 19.—The heat in this city on Sunday and yesterday was again very oppressive. The _ , * : Windsor, Vermont, July 1 8.—The tem perature of the air by a well situated thermometer, on Monday last, was 96 degrees F. and continued near that temperature for several hours. on the latter day it was 95 F. ; quantit of water in the at- mosphere sueh, that if wholly condensed would be nearly nine storm of thunder and lightning. Itis believed that the present is the warmest summer we have had for the last fourteen years. The summer is but lit- tle more than half spent, and yet we have had more extreme- ly hot days than we frequently have in the whole season. _ 300 Excessive Heat of the Summer of 1825. Sedieriey the nou was at 932, nearly as high as it has been this seaso Ver ennes, Favs, July 14.—On Sunday last, about six o’clock in the afternoon, a violent gale of wind passed through this and several of the adjacent towns. ‘The weather had for some hours previous been excessively hot, the sky entirely unetuaeds and scarce a breeze of air was perceptible. A few moments before the storm commenced, a small cloud, ers ed es terrific eSrrosions of thunder, and sharp flashes of light- d in the north-west. e wind first breezed derate , but soon its velocity and force increased to so great a degree of violence that it seemed fora time as though the earth would be stripped of its vegetation and the people deprived ofa tere: ‘The damage | to crops, orchards, &ce is ver Kec, 0 Upper Canada, July 8.—We regret to learn that the crops in different parts of the Province have suffered se- verely from the dryness of the season. The face of the country however, in this neighbourhood, is much improved in appearance since the heavy rains, which we had on Tuesday and Wednesday last. But those rains we fear have = too late to be of much est ier to the wheat wt ‘was the = extrsoniinary, Rest of ibe 10th, 11th, 12th, a 18th of this month, as to deserve a full an nd minute te- cord. We have taken the highest elevation of the — that is reported. In this town, on Monday, at 20 an ri eh - 6 oe 98h ce Y. same day and time,°s - 1.04 {eee 98 j New York city, July 12, 1 veloc POMS sere 5 Philadelphic Pa. vino 11, northern exposure, Fea: *963 Southerndo., . : eon ee sewerk, Naw, July i 4 et ere er ee n, July 11,120 ‘clock, fe SE eA New Haven, July 11,3 — P. M. > wy ee ae Providence, Be 4, July 1 ee Oh: 16 Gee Boston, Ms. July 11, Heer Py Muscidae do. ie. 12,2 o'clock, PUM 7. eae 0.: 12,:4 o'clock, P. Miyi oo he ea Salem, July 12, in thie’ shade, 35. . ss ee ee Newburyport, Mass. fo ae ee 4 EincessivelHeat of the Summer of 1825. 301 Dover, N. H. July 11, 2 o’clock, P. M., bie 699 Portland, Me July: 10,.<.. 3s 6. a .. 79 Gardiner, Me.Jaly 10, intheshade, “. . . . 5 92 do ete ge eed. as. oo Now-Bediord;July 11, oon: 6k 4 a Hampden (Massachusetts) Journal. On Thursday! July 21st, the mercury stood at New Ha- yenin the same,situation as reported on the 11th, at 94. piace cat New Haven (Connecticut) Journal. - We observe this morning that the civil authorities are put- _ ting’ cautions upon the the pumps, printed in large letters. oe New York, July 25. On Wednesday, the mercury at Salem rose to 102 degrees. On Monday and Tuesday, at the same place, it rose no high- er than 90. At Albany, during the first five days of the week, the mercury has stood at about 97 in the hottest part of the day, and morning and evening at 80. The heat in France has been exceedingly oppressive. On the 19th of July, about 30 miles from Paris, on an elevated spot, and in a shade witha northern exposure, the merc rose by Reaumur’s scale to 32 degrees above 0, equal to 104 of Fahrenheit, Water, in a brass kettle, was so heated that rsons could not hold their hands in it, and stones and metal- lic substances were so hot that they could not be held in the 302 Excessive Heat of the Summer of 1825. hand. There had not been for seven weeks the least moist- ure in the air, or the least dew on the leaves, and there had been a constantly burning sun, without clouds, and a parching wind from the north-east during the whole time, 4. Extract of a Letter to the Editor, dated : ‘ New Yong, July 22, 1825. “We are sufferin an sitesi and continuance of heat, al- ; together See ed; to-morrow will be the fourteenth day, which the thermometer has ranged from 88 to 92 and 95.— -frequently 87, at 7 0’clock in the morning, and hee a pression durin ng the ‘nights, which are suffocating. of rain has fallen during this time; and except a little. lighh ning last evening no symptom of change. > ° 303 nines ~ ° r of the weather at Fort Brady, Sault de Ste. outlet ef Lake Superior. (Comraunicated by Dr. Lyman Foote.) iary © Excessive Heat of the Summer of 122 5. Di ) [99 {Le zo |09 [69 )1eh 108 99 {18 Of > 19 1p9 A 89 }€8 169 [6c 1189 [6° G 16S 99 {08 8¢ > lge ips lez : OL “TA VP 3? PFZz9 y 42% ) ZS [Lz "WW ‘d #2? B6/9z HV » EPPS 9 : 9% Wd S 88/92 gS [99 19 ]Sz ~ > leo leg let : Va ‘d € 3° 68704 9g !P9 bz ) vd 3 8g 8% £% 3 L9 (oa > zo Ce i "IN ‘d 1 98 £8) 92 0% 0% GL 61 6t ‘IN ‘d 1 38 16/92 (68 81 $1 | ) W'd Lt £8/69 (28 LI LT 91]|Z9 81 49413 04) Jo"dut9 7, <9 ) 191 » 199 |91 SI Sl ) ct 3 PL 89 ) WPL fal y 1 £9 y HEL el ‘Wd T 4 e3g9 1 rat 8¢ mata rae y ) LT £$ » HIT It ) 46S (OL "I ‘d ¥ FP 0692 OL ol » 199 6 IN ‘d F 8 S802 6 ) 16 8 09 (99 8 ihe 8 ‘ L 95 L ‘IN 'd € 38 £8 y |Z 3 fe9 9 I¢ |19 9 |} » 19 |" ‘Wd & 32 08 g 9¢ {49 ) |08 }P9 1g ; t 19 v We ‘d & aed jyey 42 6209 % ' lg 69 iy ; Ve me ra r9 1% y , iA ena I 09 199 | a ‘pb 18¢ tap it ° L In riding the distance of four anda half miles from Pontiac in this vicinity, I passed near the borders of eight lakes and ponds. -Two of them, lakes Orchard and Cass are more than ten miles in circumference, and are handsome, pure bodies of water : ce ot eb sandy bottoms and ers. i ir banks g t thirty feet, with a steop clivity. The adjace ent sdiaitaars which is table land, or: iy sindulatings- tere with a aetasweaee ey — owers. Trees of yellow oak siiiat or associated in groups.” A pleasant fertile island, containin + aon: fy teen; which there is an orchard, rises in t ee of Orchard Lake, and is cuitivated by Indians, who occupy g huts in the primitive state, situated adjacent to the Eire on the table land isthmus, that separates lakes Orchard and Cass, ommands a view of these extensive sheets of water. old Indian burial ground is placed near the dwellings. pert of corn mottled with a diversity of colours, and dried fish, were suspended within and around their huts. The lit - e furniture the 8 possess is mostly of their own fabrication— kets spread on the ground, or on wooden platforms con- 310 Notiee of the Peninsula of Michigan. stitute their beds. Ornamented dresses, and implements ot war and hunting, were displayed. The females are com- fortably clad, a ‘some much decorated Mop silver. Indians seen navigating and fishing in the adjacent waters. This remnant of the aboriginal | darice, will soon be driven from their native lakes, their orchard, and favourite isle, by swarms of emigrant pioneers Some of the lakes have no apperent outlet; _ their wa- ters derived from springs are pure and contain ee ante dec sii is much less known shear the eastern, to have fewer lakes. Not many were esi in pose cae western section of the Chicago road. Thoug'! — is a deficiency of small rivulets and springs in parts of the territory, rendering some sections, otherwise good, undesirable for settlement, yet valuable streams often occur, and there are many rivers that derive a peculiar ad- vantage from having their sources in numerous large a deep reservoirs, making the quantity discharged much less variable than from most streams of the west. The waters slowly drain from the lakes, swamps, and flat country of Michigan, filling the river channels in rainy seasons, but rare- h poner ees os the banks, which are almost invariably higher than the cl eason of ———- district, - dom fail in any season 0 sufficiency for navigation, mills, and manufac- € ri ears BaClaird dnd ‘Detroit seldom vary a foot in inaltvode iete the Ohio the variation is in many places forty feet, and this stream is annually for months fordable, and too low for navigation—some rivers west of the Mississippi that in winter wind several hundred miles with full banks, are often dry in summer. The St. Joseph and Grand river, are the — streams of the western declivity of the peninsu- Ja that discharge their waters into lake Michigan. The St. Pc iy ‘of Joseph has its origin in the rolling country of thei the peninsula and in Indiana. It is navigable 150 miles for large boats. The portage between the waters of the St. Jo- seph and the Maumee, is but a mile and a half in width, at thich place the former river, though narrow, is not fordable, as experienced by Mr. Risden: he remarked. that the western part of the course of the St. Joseph is. through beautiful, fertile, and healthy valley; the ground on side rising with a gentle acclivity toa a elevation, enting hickory and oak openings, coppice, F , and natural meadows. In fertility, it has been crept to the Notice of ihe Pernsule of Michigan. 311 valley of the Mohawk, to parts of which the scener resemblance. There is no Sbiacle to the na‘ igation 0 F the St. Joseph for a great distance from the lake. ef oo river has a bar at its mouth, oa within, the wien deep, and it is navigable a camidenie distance. In the soil adjacent to this stream, in many places, predominate, and it is considered by Mr. Risden aed as much inferior to that in the valley of the St. Joseph. - Se Several minor streams of the western declivity, have @ course of between forty and sixty miles from the interior hills to lake Michigan, watering a generally rich SOLGs Some are navigable.a considerable distance for boats. -_- _Saganaw, one of the largest rivers of Michigan, rises in ie centre of the territory, and discharges its waters. into Saganaw bay in lake Huron. It has a deep channel, and is” navigable to the old cantonment for lake vessels, and fifty miles for considerable craft. Its auxiliary branches, the Sawasse, Flint, and Tiptuosse are considerable rivers, that together with the Saganaw drain a level, rich, but often low and wet region, described as being about seve nty miles in breadth, and generally clothed with lofty forests. Much of _itwill probably be unhealthy until it is extensively under cultivation, The Saganaw often overflows its banks in rainy seasons, forming morasses in the adjacent flat country, which is less elevated than the borders of the stream. he river Clinton, formerly called Huron, which terminates in Lake St, atlas, and the rivers Rouse and Huron, that dis- change heir waters in Lake Erie, have their origin from | rous lakes and. ces of the undulating interior, | Pins nee situate in i itomcoate and. af le ee sie int : every part of their course, as they spape-thre h- ings, they afford rareiy failing m ee : gaged a er: are limpid and pure. They slowly wind about twenty ped through the rich wood-clad plain that borders the eastern part of the territory ; the current is often impeded by fallen tim- ber. The Clinion is accessible for large boats six miles to the ‘village of Mount Clemens, and a considerable extension of i its pevigation is practicable by clearing out obstructions. i Fe this river, I noticed much white oak timber of un- il bene: The Meche is navigable fifteen miles. It passes through a good tract of openings; large oak, hickory, and black wal- nut, often occur on its banks, B12 _ Notice of the Peninsula of Miciugan. On the ee and Raisin there is much good iad) and bu ettlemen t of the course of the Maumee isin Michi- patios through a Tich, but a unhealthy region. ¢ andusky Bay, is located one of the ton ge swamps of the westerh of the 322 Notes on certain parts of the State of Ohio. way ; ibut “| late years our merchants have been buying hem, and either sell their lard and pork down the river, or ship it to the Atlantic states. This year two merchants of = oe have put shone ady thousand pounds of lard; thousand Soe Uk pickled pork, and forty-five thou- d pounds of Sipe: A: a vert of which was raised ia nth county, . he price of land varies from one ‘dollar, to fifty dollars yer acre. The bottom jands on the Ohio are most valua- le ; th -on the Muskingum, next in value—the creek bot- toms, : and rich uplands, are next in demand, and sell from two to four dollars per acre, as they are more or less con- veniently situated, in the neighbourhood of mills, public pees se ar. is Bo a ann ame ts of fine —— shan ibour generally Poe per cent, ogi than : thi Pig ub Chos ses, “gual iid: or D anporiee oe “phe grasses in cultivation in the county of Washington ¢ are aus imported. ‘Those cultivated in meadows, are imothy or Herds grass, Red Clover, and “ Red-top’? grass. The pastures are occupied by native grasses, white clover, and two kinds of spear grass. Our lands are so full of the seeds of white clover, that on ploughing them, the white cathe’ springs up spontaneously ; and if the clover become c3 ie ota aha 3 as ee to plough the by successive ears of — ‘, person ¥ was an aoe that he sawa piece of k saree with white clover. in consequence of its eine ma- Notes on certain ) parts of the Sigiz of Ohio. 323 hured with marsh JT. seed must have Jain i in this mud, probably f foranagh or tw aes a o, and y ‘yetret: mye e princi of life. Some attempts have ae at cultivating Lu. zerne—but they. have not been siecessfuk : from s defect in the soil, or peculiarity in the climate, bead poe hes dwindled. aad never came to maturity. . Manures, the different kinds and offecte: ee is The land in this county, has as yet borne cultivation so well, that but little attention has been paid to manures. But where they have been applied, the additional increase of the op has well repaid the labour and expense bestowe re are no other manures in common use, than the useal ‘stab ures—no attention is paid to composts, marl, lime, or Pilar of Paris. Some of our farmers, powsteas vhe preparing their ends for wheat, are careful in plough dn acrop of some kind of grass, usually clover? "This not only se res the earth, but leaves it light and mellow for the roots of the wheat to vegetatein,and thereby to produce a better crop of wheat, both in quantity and quality. The low meadow grounds on the Ohio and Muskingum, are kept fertile by the earthy depositions left on them, by the over- flowing of the banks in the spring, or fall freshets. This de- position, in many places, is made to the depth of one or two inches, Itis of a very fertilizing nature, and keeps the earth eis eee gery re whereyer it falls, ; en e\ a geezciore it will be difficult ep find their numbers. — Seoptich ured in great numbers in this town and count i ly the “ Merino” breed, I believe the first in his state were ‘owned in sale ge and brought here by Seth Adams, Esq. ms al Jain ifactures, of what kind, and the number of Mn om od fee ee have all been mentioned in some of wre articles é 324 Notes on certain parts of the Staie of Ohia. ~The State of the Roads. : eae _ The roads, through the summer and autumn months, are tolerably good. In the winter and spring, they partake of the quality of all the Ohio roads, an abundance of mud. Tn those roads, which border the Ohio and Muskingum rivers, the travelling is very delightful in the summer months. The feet in Bo with a kee down stream, they make use of oars. The prificipal merce of the country, is carried on in these boats. ‘They are usually navigated by six or eight men. —Ship-building was carried on here, quite briskly, fora number of years; and as many as twelve or fourteen vessels were built, of from one hundred and fifty to three hundred tons burthen. Some of them were completely rigged, at Marietta ; others were rigged at New Orleans. The embargo first gave @ eheck to the spirit of building; and the loss or damage of several ships at the falls of Ohio, has puta stop to any fur- - November, the sail is of great use tothem. In their voyages x ee com ) n i ther attempts. Steam-boats now seem to be the order of the ‘ Pe ae ee ee se eee ee a ; Dy ces eae ge ne © PT ea ee Se ee ee a eee pete a Notes on certain pots lt the State of Ohio. «3% day, and will kinds of navigation Fisheries, the kinds, quantity mad value ea Jish ; the - of taking and curing them—an account of the di iPerent vps of fishin the streams, ponds, and lakes. * When the first settlement was made in ih conntey; ish. were found in the greatest abundance in all the streams; but since somany boats are employed on the rivers, the fish ‘have — scarce and more difficult to take. which are usually caught, are yellow and. blac : hite peri spotted perch, pike, trout, buffaloe, 0 kinds of sturgeon, one with a broad flat nose, _The greater quantity cane in this neighbourhood, are ta- spine called. a * trot line,” where the water is tolerably still and deep: this uCe 4 ne baited with chy 8 or minnies. It is usually visited morning and evening, or oftener if necessary, the fish taken o and the baits renewed. In this = nner they sometimes take courte ee Sarat 100 pou the | rT mon hs, when ie water is low, seines are 4 5 with toi . them. times: find pike, pci 30° or 40 pr Another ‘kone at taking sh, 6 This is usually done in the maine se assistance of torch- Nig The fish, attracted by the light, comes to the surface of “the water, and falls an easy victim to the expert spearman But they are not in sufficient abundance to ae an article export, or even tu supply our own dem many bar- els of salt fish being annually brought from he sin al and sea coast, and sold in this market. Wi ild animals, serpents, tortoises, and other amphibious ani- mals; quadrupeds, insects, or the bones of the animal called he -. the mammoth, or of any Other unknown anima The wild animals of this county are of those kinds common 326 Notes on certain paris of the State of Ohio. to the state of Ohio. Amongst the carniverous animals, we have the bear, wolf, panther, wild cat, and fox. Of see fox ve two — the red and the gray: the gray far the most common. Of those which are partly pool rous and partly montane we enumerate the opossum, rac- coon, polecat, and mink. The ground hog, or woodchuck, and rabbit, are herbiverous. The gray squirrel, the black se | and the chipping squirrel, are the only kinds [ have red squirrel and flying squirrel oo not common re, though T believe they are found on the waters of the the mountains. The native rats are black, and pins The wharf rat has found his way into the country within a few years, and is now common in the neighbourhood of the Ohio river. Mice, of the same kind, common to the east side of the mountains, are found hare; Beavers. were once common here, but the hunters have destroyed them long since. A few otters and mink yet remain, and the musk- rat is common. Our serpents are, two kinds of rattlesnakes, black and spotted; copperhead, satan aa water-adder, garter-snake, and two kinds of blac long and slim, the other with a ge rin, see hee se the neck. These are all harmless, I believe, ae She: "Rattlesnakes andc pep were very "abundant in. the woods st settlement of the. ae but since n suffered to run in the woods, they Ter lave near: psig rored the race of snakes. It is said, ‘that the bite ofa poisonous snake does no injury to a hog. ‘If this. is the fact, | know not how to account for it, unless it be that the great quantity of fat with which the cellular membrane is load- ed, prevents its absorption into the system, or acts as an anti- dote to the poison, inthe same manner that olive oib-siaes: It is certain that hogs are fond of this kind of d eat it whenever they can catchit. Our tortoises are —the se e black tortoise, small brown tortoise with ye “spots, the soft-shelled tortoise. The latter kind nage ‘together in the water, will weigh from six to ten pounds, and ‘is said to be nearly or quite equal to the sea-turtle, for the Li sirds are very common in the woods, and in pleasant weather may be seen on old logs, lying basking in the san. News are found in our small streams; and in the Ohio an animal, between the newt and the aligator, is often taken on eek the hooks set for fish, in the spring of the year. Itis between the earth. From the 24th of May to a of June Notes on certain parts of the State of Ohio. $27 two and three feet i in ag —- a most ere ae ble disgustin vay fee are very sale i in the low nde they on Sometimes found six inches in length, and weighing near; half a pound. They taste very much like the lobster; rm like him, have the property of reproducing their antenna, or this limbs, when broken off, in the course of a Pad weehee “’ ‘noticed only one kind of them. We have a species of insect wiieh resembles the snail, but is destitute of a shell. It is eae in our gardens, and is fond of crawling upon ripe which it finds ‘on the ground, such as i peachiaae melons, ir insects are so numerous and so various, that it would tae a-volume to describe then alone:~ One of the most in- teresting and curious of this class is the Cicada. It nearly re- sembles the harvest-fly, but issmaller. They are said to ap- pear only at stated periods, which some have fixed at seven- teen, and others at fourteen years. - [ have one record of ing in this country, the 14th of May, 1812. I was then told it was seventeen ar since they were last here, viz. in 1795. They gra ont disappeared, and by the first of July were all gone. month of May was cold and wet, and very unfavourable “ as egress of the cicada from », their numbers increased daily, atan reas He ae or “ locust,” as — is ~~ when he firs ies from and one the earth, is about ch and a hadi. of an inch in neschaen While oats ae way to angina sur- face, he has the appearance of a er worm or grub; the hole which he makes is about the same diameter with his paca oe ore and seems to be made with When e nigh, they are white an soft. They then attach them- : to some bush, tree, or post, and wait until the ac- tion of the air has dried the shell with which they are enve- loped : the shell then bursts on the back for about one third of its length, and — opening the cicada creeps, as from aprison. Their bodies are then very tender, and they can 323. Notes on certain puris.of the State of Ohio. neither. fly nor crawl to any considerable distance. In. this state they remain until morning, their wings gradually unfold- ing, and as the day increases, they, by little and little, and fre- quent attempts, learn to fly fora few feet, so that by night they are able to fly forseveral rods. In their efforts to disengage. themselves from their shell or envelope, I noticed that many of them lost their lives—either from a arene of strength to . burst away, or from the narrowness of sage, occasion- their coming t pare of the euredie raghe coe alr. ding ourst th une rien Po day t the cicade tion to ees their eggs. June 4.—The ae Tae to p Reet their eggs i in the te der branches of apple-trees: they appear to be very fe oS pean trees of this kind, and of the forest-trees they soos ave a 2 .a decided preference for the. beech, on whic — were seen. making prepara: i ih he forms the. files to Sri je eg; deposits, an egg at the instan! a nia or holes are about : hth o Ny or pith of the Pee = its unc ( ] tie an immense number ; y the appe arance of d to day each wie is fried with at least ¢ | ee Notes ay certain parts of the State of Ohio. 39 are easily caught. The hogs are very fond of them and de- vourall they can find, and indeed they seem to have com- menced their attack upon them, by rooting, before they left the ground. SJtis thirteen days since they first began to break from the earth, but did not leave their holes; in an great numbers, on account of the cold, till lately..? The last of June, the cicade gradually disappeared. At this time the females were very weak and exhausted; and some which I examined, appeared to have wasted away to mere skeletons, nothing remaining but their wings and an empty shell of @ body. Since that time few, or none, have ap in this const but I have heard of their being seen in some of the -", ouring states, I believe east of the mountains. hile the cicade remained with us, I could not discover that they made use of any kindof food, although I examined them repeatedly and particularly for this pur All the injury they did to vegetation, was in depositing their eggs ; by this proeess they materially injured, and in some in- stances nearly destroyed, young orchards of apple-trees. Many of them to this day will bear ample testimony to the truth of this remark, in their mutilated limbs and knotted branches. ; In addition to the foregoing observations, I have learnt to acertainty, that it is seventeen years since the cicade were here before. Early in the spring of 1795, a clearing was eommencedeight miles above this place, on the Muskingum, and an orchard put out on the piece, perhaps half an acre, that was cut over before the cicade# appeared ; the rest of the clearing was made the same season, after they had disap- all the rest of the land, wherever there was a stump, or a tree had stood, the earth was full of holes made by the ascending eicade. These facts areinmy mind a sufficient evidence that it is seventeen years between the laying of the egg, and the re-appearance of the cicada. Through how many transfor- mations they pass, is to me unknown; but from the length of time they lie in the earth, it is probable the changes are more than one. But, that they do not travel far is evident, from their coming up immediately by, or under the spot, whére the tree stood in which the eggs were depdsited. : Vor. K:—No. 2. 42 336 Notes on eériain parts of the State of Ohio. An account of the Birds, whether migrating or resident—the periods of their arrival, departure and us ~ Our birds, with a few exceptions, are the same as aa ‘which are common to this country and common to © eastern states. I shall mention a few of those which are €onstant residents. Amongst these, are the turkey, raven, €row, turkey-buzzard, three kinds of hawk or vulture, pheasant, partridge or quail, blue jays, a small kind of birds, wren, and two kinds of owls, the large and senal, Fe-bepice owl, turtle dove—one or two kinds ducks, @ kinds of woodpeckers, amongst these sic the woodbex ‘ase yellow hammer, the king fisher, the bald headed eagle, sid ray eagle. These are all that! recollect at this time. Amongst our migrating soe we enumerate the wild pigeon. They usually appear the begin- ning of March, on their journey northward—they pass about a month with us, and proceed on their journey. os Septem- ber they visit us again, on their return to the south ; they then spend about six weeks, feasting on the new acorns, beach nuts, and berries of the phytolacca decandra, or poke, of which they are so fond that the plant has from this circum- stance pee le “ pigeon berry,” and is generally known by that na wt host Be se eo pass the summer with us ; but eh a586' or n the first settlement ref the’ coun when they built nests, a; ad hatched and reared their young in vast multitudes. “Several species of ducks visit us spring and autumn; also the wild goose occasionally stops awhile ‘with us, in her j jour- neys north and ‘south. Loons are frequently seen, but sel- dom amongst the spoils of the hunter. Their eyes and ears are so good that they dive beneath the water, before the shot of the fowler can reach them. The heron and crane Visit us inthe spring, and rear phe young in the course of the sum- mer. The robbin-red-breast black-bird, and blue-bird, were ‘Been this year the first of March; they sometimes appear in ‘in February. The bob-of-lincoln, or magpie, appears ata ; eriod in April or May. The chimney swallow, barn- swallow, and martin, make their appearance, as soon as the warm weather has produced a supply of insects for their ; rt. But last year the weather was so cold about the middle of April, that a great number of those birds which live upon insects, died with famine, and with cold. A ¥ fast variety of other kinds also suffered, and were so benumbed ede rable o in evalonble eats ae ei add a few r Anthracite Coal of ee . 33L and weak that the boys caught them n these were a number, Hs Saves ty) Rete to ee seen here Wein ; their. plamege, was very beautiful and va- riegated. Amongst those of our acquaintance, was the hom- as bird, goldfinch, red bird, yellow bird, ai e brown thrush is one of our finest sin birds, and ging bi Canar e. et the name of the “ mock-bird, ie cat-bird is so a singing bird, and appears sometimes to nearly equal» the thru Bath ot that variety and melody in its notes so much admir ihe mock-bird. We have two or three HW of 5 arrows, ce snipes, the real ortolan, and marsh quai he whip-poor-will, visits us with the fir rst warm weather 5, pal b pare ee heard his note yet, although i it is ee his r 31st March. T king-bird, so called from pe SenEnse and one is common ; and is very. troublesom > our domestic bees. He "watches them with gst pos while they are feeding on the blossoms of white clover, and as many as thirty or forty bees have been found in the stomach of one king-bird. The wren and “ pewee” visit us in the spring, and retire on the first appearance of cold weather. The paroquet has been seen as. far east, on the Ohio, as the mouth of the little Hockhocking, but is only a transitory visiter. Gulls are frequently seen in the summer before a storm, fromthe south-west. We have, besides those CAUIGEAL AY E other birds whose names I do not know. ; Ant. XIV. aa Coat of. Pen - Ti a ep Ge. _uponits Properties and econo il Uses, , be refer my readers, for an i introductory view w of this sol Mh St to the mE of Mr. Cist on the anthracite of Wilkes- ieee, ublined Vol. IV. page 1, of this Journal, and to the there annexed, of practical men, relativetoi its uses ary val = . As have, however, within a few months, oni d consic jera s of observing. the utility emarks, the ine of ofathers own oe also cite some of the observations mie > a2 Aathracile Coal of Pennsyloaniu ZIn our domestic commercial language, the anthracite of Bennsylvania is called Wilkesbarre, Susquehannah, Lehigh, and Schuylkill coal, and by other names, having reference to ihe principal places from which it is obtained. Although Pennsylvania is stored with this mineral to an unparalleled ex- tent, it is found also, abundantly, in Rhode Island, and more or less, as is said, in Massachusetts, and other parts of the United States. It is not my object, at this time, to give a precise descrip- them, and there are x7 rah in their properties more or less conspicuous, which adapt them to different uses. In mineralogical books, the anthracite is usually described as burning with little or no flame, and it is of course inferred, that such varieties of coal afford little or no inflammable gas.* Phis is substantially true of many re of anthracite ; but, in observing the combustion of that of Pennsylvania in the — stove, (or, more properly speaking, in the chemical which is now employed for warming — 1 eR from the first, struck with the abundance and pm boanaser of the flame. 1 first observed this fact in the Lehigh coal, but i is certainly not less remarkable in the Sehuylkill, This led me to make a few easy experiments on the quantities of gas afforded by severa) varieties of mineral il. The 1] specimens of coal were heated, separate- 77a v ‘iron tubes, about one inch in the interior dia- meter, stopped with a welded iron plug at one end—coated with a fire lute of sand and clay, connected by a flexible lead tube, witha hydro-pneumatic cistern, and placed in a Black’s Gnivereal furnace, Ravi aving a flue of 20 feet in height, and af- fording a heat which is above that necessary to melt cast iron: the furnace was allowed to draw with nearly’ io bie pow- er. The Lehigh coal, that of Will he Schuylkill coal, of each 876 rains, or about two pr were ex] to the heat of the He rnace in different tubes,t the result was WS: ange rama burns sels and with difficulty, yielding litileor no mM as it without flame, it cannot ae in rey — Iebinces””- Cloovelandly Mineralogy, 2d ed. vol. Il. page 499 to The foreign system: ree logy gi eer me y the same account of anthracite. " +The Lehigh andSchuyikill coal were in the furnace at the same time. tion of our i Sm there is a considerable variety among 4 Anthracite Coal of Pennsyleania. 333 "Fhe differe ies It within a few ictus the he Schuylkill sale fectibs thé Lehibhcans in the earlier stages of the 8 Saegea the gas from — coal was the most abundant; soon however the gas came from both with apparently équal rapidity , the Schuylkill cea first, and that from the Lehigh continued to come over after the other had done, until the entire product of gas wa s nearly the same from both varieties of coal, but rather greater from the Lehigh. The Wilkesbarre coal much exceeded both ee in the abundance of gas which it afforded. The ‘ise results will be — in a table farther yes slong with hose obtained from some other varieties. “most remarkable of titese was the Rhode Island an- chrelves From this I obtained no gas at all, although the ex- ‘periment was condueted in the same manner with the others that have been related. The specimen of he was one that had lain several years in a garret, but 1 am not aware that this could have had any other effect than to dissipate any moisture that might have been in the fissures. Combined hydrogen, or combined moisture, could scarcely have been affected merely by exposure toa dry atmosphere ; still | presume that a spe~ cimen recently taken from the mines, would afford some The Wilkesbarre coal had however lain several years ina very upper room. I next tried a comparative experiment with good bituminous Liverpool coal, using the same quantity, and nee “Aeal in the same manner. I found the result such as Thad | s before obtained, from this species of coal. Phe | nmable eee was ad td and money obtained, but not much more so. from the Lehigh anthracite. It will be seen in the table hat it ae. but one twentieth part more gas than the Lehigh, ve aes bes —— as o> y peg ihracite of Wilkerbaties™ : == Sp. pa Wegition REI 1] 3 ) — he ae eee ae Authracite. |e | woe rig: by ignition,|}gas givenout} ~ ive: vali ignticn| “grains. “['wine pints. | *® Tehigh, = 87 aa } ia 259 19 | Seratch the hard- huylkill, 876) . 1,52 1,77 324} 18 est window glass ilkesbarre, 876) 1,55 | 1,77 170 40 readily. node Island, 8 B75" fp 100 0 do. do. — - 76} 193 | 065 | 336 3 vi pie ABT: nis 0 do. do. * Leanets ie 3} eS — 352 40,75 {; do do. * It may at first view appear very extraordinary, that while ain thracites experienced so remarkable an increase of specific gravity by 334 Anthracite Coal of Pennsylvania. _ None of these varieties of coal would, before ignition, im- ss, but the Pennsylvania anthracites, after having ineined the heat of the furnace, became so hard that with an angular piece, 1 could write my name, on’green window glass, with a flourishing hand, much as with a piece of quartz. This is in accordance with what many persons have observed with respect to the effects of heat upon different varieties of eeivenks as in the: Surturbrand of lonlentiiers San of ubisp tained by Sir Humphrey Davy, with the great battery oF the Royal Institution, and those observed in the use of Dr. Hare’s instruments have been already described in this Journal. | Ihave often observed that well prepared charcoal, after very autins ignition, speedily spoils a knife, used in shaping at 0 points, and even the best files do not long withstand its action, as their teeth are eventually worn down by the hard ey molecules of the charcoal. » T have observed also that.even the coak obtained by. igniting i bituminous coal rapidly destroyed the polish of glass, thus perenne upon its surface, the eflects of the gritty powders, in grinding a these e comme al ie the in dura See senor to , find that the naa sey both Bone the £ommon bituminous Liverpool coal, and from the Cannel coal, allowed me to write rapidly and distinctly with the pieces ape the hardest green window glass, and when two or three pant ignition, the bituminous coals should, in this respect, haye more remarka ably diminished. Perhaps a satisfactory sol aiticalty can he found in the fact that the anthracites, soft in the fire, 1 ts, when suffering the aqueous ed water of erystallization. Thus the nce of pe of left “FY “si So nen ee Anihracite Coal — peat 835° t. of the Rebs tiacieed h gave sss uld scratch the same green sagletey and found shag it opcode spoiled its oaks, and gave furrows disti regia: by:the eye and by the finger sail and perfectly ath l- er. ‘Lhe same effect, although i in a less ance was pro: sia ele *t; but “by no means so dliatinetly 3 = We coak br ae heat is oat t pushed so far in the ordinar } preparatory to gas illumination. - sag Sb The inflammable gas, ohtninéd; in the experiment on related, stood over water two or three days before I had leisure to examine it. 1 did not remove the carbonic acid, which is produced in all such cases, but as there was but little more diminution in the volume of the gases ‘in the glass J jars, ai might be presumed to arise from mere cooling—(the ga: having issued hot from the furnace) and as there was no oi coloration inthe water of the cistern, although it was painted with oxide of lead, it seems fair to infer that there was not much carbonic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen.* For the sake ail facts e, decidedly, an thi ucthil combate tifa pre will of course be a great amount of carbonic acid, and other gases, forméd, of which it is foreign to my purpose now to speak. Iam not at present, able to account forthe great difference in 336 Anthracite Coal of Pennsylvania. of comparing the colour of the flame, I burned the gases, successively, from a jet, with the aid of pressure ;—the gas from the Schuylkill coal burned with a yellow flame—that from the Lehigh with a similar appearance but paler— that from the Wilkesbarre coal was tinged with blue, purple and red—while that from the bituminous coal and especially from the cannel coal gave, in its combustion, a brilliant white light, similar to that of the heavy carburetted hydrogen gas, ss intense. The flame from both Lehigh and Schuylkill coal is often of adelicate yellow in the furnaces, and not unfrequently, it is tinged with rich green and blue, indicating foreign sub- stances, perhaps copper, and sulphur, in solution in the gas or in mixture in the form of vapour. ev S richest variety. The difference then seems to be not so much in the quantity, as in the quality, of the gas: that from the anthracite is unfit for artificial illumination, as the light which it affords is too pale, while that from bituminous coal burns with a brighter flame—sometimes .equal to that of the brightest lamps and candles—but at other times it is com- Sgn pale, although it is believed to be generally ighter than that from the anthracite. 1 have not recently seen the Rhode Island anthracite burn; we should expect Bs the loss of weight sustained by the different varieties of coal, and for its want of correspondence with the gas evolved. It is certainly — ‘it may be owing to water, no steps having been taken to collect “s That west of the Alleghany is bituminous as that at Pittsburgh, oe + And this without the incumbrance of bitumen and other products the distillation of that species of coal, of wood, &c. and pro with less carbonic acid than in mostsimilar cases. . Ls Sates Wy eet Slounosiensier anthracite must fit pease “some importar purposes, (principally for varieties of furnace operati ns) which are very important in the arts—thus combining th aes of both kinds of coal. [tis well known that the maeit inten: is not produced by the bituminous coal, until it coaked—that is—the volatile part, inch ing the »n is driven. off by a smothered heat, and the laceous part is obtained by itself. Now the an- ane burned, produces always the intense heat of f it give at the same time the kines: of. abundant ath hate si a eee eae Meena : In domestic economy, both the 4 heh pede the Sehuylkill coal are nes with great advantage, both in parlour grates, and inclose stoves, for warming:a »part- po vneted well as in cooking. ~ Myo eeeepricnce is limited chiefly to thestoveor farnace.® ho is-constru o standin a hall or entry, orin some small t ae: ae vend it warms the contiguous apartments I revolution in the atmosphere of the ge_of specific aes a the colder aiv likclinds r effectually anda 'y warms both tl se oa the connecting passa SCS, and in a great re warms the two chambers and the passages immedi E Thesstloot is 22 feet, (24 including errceees;) ¢ office and passages 20. by 16, the heigh ae = ‘stove or furnace ahich - ted of Russia iron and lined, in with: ‘fire brick, Its. diameter ne antracite ti in pa my own house. ss [ie a 13 338 _ Anthracite Coal of Pennsylvania. ‘within the brick is 12 inches ; acorn * the brick itis 16imches- Tt is formed of three cylinders of sheet iron, growing smaller and smaller, and standing santos) one on another, to the height of about 6 feet. A tube, of 4 inches in diameter, goes off from the top, to conduct away the gases produced by the epmbustion, for there is no smoke, in the common sense of that word, and although this tube is 25 feet long, and most of it horizont al, there are only two joints where there is the least appeara ince of condensed water, and as this occurred but once, I am inélined to attribute it to some other fuel which was put into the stove, wood having been a few times used. The supply of air is through the ash-pit, which is furnished with an iron drawer to receive the ashes, and the front of this is pierced with register holes to regulate the admission of air. When the drawer is shut, the air passes in only through those holes, and when a greater supply is needed, the drawer is pull- ed out to any desired degree. ‘The bars of the grate should he about an inch in diameter, and nearly or quite that — Phe fire is first kindled with charcoal, and when this is veil ignited, the anthracite is added in es “* — size me or larger; and at first, only to the depth ofa w inches. W this is kindled, tbe will happen in 1, sor 20 minute, on is f in, until th e furnace is red thie vena ted 0 ttiom of the door—less, however, as’ the weather is the bottom milder. o The fuel may be added once in three, four, five, or six hous according to the weather, and other circumstances. It will need no other att ention, than eccasionally to stir the ashes, with a erooked poker, applied underneath, between the bars of the grate, or to runa straight one down to the bottom of — fire, to make a passage for the air, when the © —_ hoked. This is done most in cold a when it it is vei pony, tr mt ile ie oenenepticn sreeur ee eebate | ig ia the wonecetce i er oe ge hithravite Couk of Pennsylounies 39 tally from 65° to 72° or 7s" of Faht. Itisnot dificult to raise the heat ~highers 5 but in winter weather, a ly ps high enou h, set h for and comfort. The temperature i is very nearly equal through the whole of the apartments warmed, and often sii, hours scarcely varies a degree or two; at least thi e of the parts that are not warmed immediately by the si es da @ room warmed by a common fire-place, it is not unusual for the temperature of 80° or 85° to exist immediately before the _ on: neti 40° or 45° or 50° in the remote parts of the Lisa common error to suppose that an atmosphere, aly anne mad warmed, exposes pores: to take we continue acne opt Pro} we are wernt cote evenit peinigcke Ani 31, 1826, the thermometer has gradually ig sin © below,? while the tem mperature of the has — _ for three hours—but there is no wind, and there - is no fire on the hearth, the fire-board being shut asia sum» mer. The adding of more fuel depresses the thermometer a little until.the fire burns actively again. There is some difference of opinion as to the oomparanee value of the Lehigh and Schuylkill coal. The e , and although there are points of ‘difference, a eS -ailngh -be invidious. A correspondent date of Jan. ty. 1826, writes thus, respecting the Lehigh coal. « The structure of the Lehigh coal is more. dense and com- pact, and consequently as the heat is less rapidly absorbed, it does not ignite quite so readily, as the Schuylkill ; it makes less ashes, enduring from 15 to 20 per cent. lon er, and pro- es a. more intense heat than can be produced by any other known fuel, It is, generally speaking, free from sulphur, a of great importance to malsters, iron workers, &c. Some experiments have been made in smelting iron with it and charcoal mixed, but with various success. Some think the is so great as to burn up a portion of the iron, No theory has. yet been formed - any value, nor will there be perhaps for some time to com AS * At ‘ei Weleck, F . M. it was 11° below @. a 348 winihracte Coat of Panusyloaue. in some ‘sennitiacten) oe inches eros answer. nae aliens the most economical application of the coal, is beyond ations, in lined slasiniessman WES = a _As to future supplies of this coal there is no-doulil: they will be abundant, as the Lehigh Coal Company can easily furnish 100,060 tons per annum from their territory, since itis not mined but quarried in an open basin, where almost any number of men may be employed—so that they are limited: only by the eeepey of the Lehigh river to float it — to the Delawa The sehen in New York, will not probably vary swith two years, or until the completion of one of the New Jersey ca- nals from the Delaware to the Hudson or mormon river, ane the price will be $7 or less in New Yor f Another abies ere, — jouer is: dated Dec. -setly , remarks , * It. to be the settled o dies poe ‘Ttis a purer, m more reedy ignited, gives more flame, and burns freely with less draught. e ashes are of a brown colour, and more ponderous than the Lehigh and consequently less annoying to the lungs and furniture, &e. and what may be considered, perhaps, of Figo ar C Sdelly in pasadih she ‘Secherstkill cake "some, ho heaton tnthvacite Coab of Pennsyivunim. Sah ‘say that the Lehigh i the lurable—and this is dout true, under some circumstances—viz. If the same pocas ‘of Schuylkill coal: (which is are about 8 per cent. lighter than Lehigh) should be submitted to the same powerful draught, or blast, as the Lehigh, it would consume faster but I be-lieve an equal weight, and with a properly graduated draught, to produce the best combustion, that the Schuylkillcoal ' will be founda little superior to any other of the psig seecssan coals yet discovered. The grates for the Schuylkill coal are of various: construc tion, but generally with vertical bars, although many persons | urn the Schuylkill coal in the old Liverpool grates, with some newae nap sang in the draught. The best kindling is charcoal, and a little light wood to give it a quick blast, and with the aid ofa —_ iron blower, | have my ares wally nited in eight to ten min As to future supplies rae the mines, there is but one Kimits ‘ng cause—and that is the capacity of the canal to float it to Philadelphia. It is intended to bring 25,000 tons next year, which will be equal to 100 tons per “day, ‘for eight months. It is expected that ubtieaitely; four times that quantity will be ught to market annually. It is stated that 8,800 tons of the Lehigh coal had been received in New York during the present season up to Janu- . wk Sedat — that 6,000 tons had been sold in New York, be- is alloted to other markets. . The ton is patie 4 eight | ben cnbchineetin tor me to decide between the claims ne of as they exist in the markets of New York and | Philadephia. They are both so valuable, that there need be no competition ‘between them, and the anthracite of W Mhosherre ix, I pre- sume, not inferior to either, although at racpoamet it does: not find its way to the eastern Atlantic cities. Tt appears to me that the Schuylkill coal isi: more readily than the Lehigh, and begins to warm the apartment sooner, but with the same draught of air, it does not endure’ so long. I see no great difference in the degree of heat which is finally produced, and by checking the draght after ignition is thar established, it may be made to _ sylvania are the most Sadia bte Sachi in the world, and if Fi am pot deceived, they possess a character, with respeet to flame. AD Anthracite Coub of Pennsylvania. different from any other anthracites. They are apenren very” , in quantity inexhaustible, and accessible in the easi- est and least expensive*manner.* Tam not able at present to say any thing of much i pa ca tance, as to the Rhode Island anthracite. A quantity whieh had been promised to me for comparative experiment not having arrived, I have not been able to compare it with the Pennsylvanian anthracite, except as regards the gas. | hope to make these trials before the season is through, and cannot doubt that the Rhode Island coal will prove an important addition to our national resources, opeqel y with the aid of the practical pasate which has now been so extensively It is not necessary, as some. acippose, that a vik : | pass into a = which: is: tos be. warmed yaa will i in- of on circu lation of the airis quite sifcent without wm n,t and no es to see an iron tube pass through a handsome apartment. In future, ae who construct ‘houses, in situa- tions where the anthracite can be economically obtained, still do well to have reference to warming their apartments from a _ central situation. It is, however, necessary that thecommuni- cation from below with the chambers should’ pnw that it can be opened and shut at pleasure. If it cann ! sed, the lower rooms are occasionally chilled by the descent of the cold air from the apartments above, and taker are oc- easionally too much heated from below; but a door, like a valve in mechanics, enables us to preserve the equilibrium and wee shutting duors leading to other rooms, any one apart~ tment connected with the source of heat, may be immediately vy heated for use, and others if succession, as the cy are In houses having a hall through the middle, it is necessary _9See Mr. -Maclure’s remarks on this topic, aapeieos ccilacadle® } Direct radiation, very large room, ebiias aise aemieesly pewssfal tales the. shore are very sm) Pi ~ Ope! CE ee AE a ee Ll, Oe” eee Anihreciie Coal of Pewisyivania. 343 to divide the —_ vet a partition with a door, and it is’ easy, with a moderate expense, to render this arrangement or- namental as well as useful, the upper half of the door, asd perhaps the parts above and on the sides, being glazed. In most houses, it is, however, not difficult to find a situ- ation where an anthracite furnace can be conveniently placed, with the aid of bricks and plate tin—viz. tinned iron ; a very small space will answer, as itis easy thus to protect the wood that may be contiguous. The tube to convey away the gases may pass into any convenient flue, only it must be one devoted to this purpose, as two draughts cannot maintained in one flue, and the interference as be-particularly: inconvenient, in this case, as a strong cu is necessary to maintain the combustion of the fuel. "The nse ee of the anthracite as a fuel for houses, are as ale oe IPs; Finis st of oitr cities sand maritime Pesphonts; chee chan any other fuel : this is believed to be true even at this time, and when the facilities of mining and cease toler are in- creased, the expense must - much diminishe 2. Ibis the safest fire know cn furnaces or close stoves, soe sage sagen and secured, ‘be le ftin full action, way ie jot or Labapreren pu spovess &. The heat is also the most Leesa eset e uate: &. It is capable of being adapted to the wildest” as res as the severest weather. This remark is especially true of the entry or hall stove, in which three or four inches of coal in depth can be kept in active combustion, and by as difened, shutting doors, the heat, at pleasure more or less di — with colder air. The fire will, ‘without attention, burn through the whole etait maintaining the rooms at a temperature comfort- able for those who may be obliged to rise at onseasopable hours. and canvenient for early breakfast. : Bees dnthrecite Goal of Pennsyloania. 3 “8. Phe heat is maintained with less trouble than im any. pc Less frequent replenishing and less — are ecessary, and there is less anu pai from dirt and effluvia, ne case of any other fue in tk In the case of the entry shostes the whole bustle and ines” venience of the fire are removed from ihe } nts, which may thus be kept as neatly as in summer, as. there is pe 7 ous andoyanee: to the most delicate x iat Sinthes,. 0 9. The halls and passages of the house may thus, be: kept erman The cold of these spaces is unpleasant am healthyva and pes injurious to the infirm, whose comfort in this manner essentially consulted. 10. Ae this, his fuel wilt n not burn without a strong draught, there 79 no annoyance from foul gases, which are necessarily car- ried up the chimney. It is not true however, as some imagine, that these gases are iene injurious than those from burning charcoal. They are equally noxious, and the very same deadly gas which is produced by burning charcoal, (the carbonic acid gas,) is generated i in ID ding gas, inc ime ew several times saanckeree same — the mineral was pure, of fluor was mingled with it ) “To anaes ne still greater certainty ae nature of this bem we were desirous of ascertaining the principal ele- ments that enter into its composition. To effect this o object, did not we attempted the following analytical trials. We expect to obtain an accurate analysis; and nel” not pay that scrupulous attention to every part of the proce which exact analysis requires. We are likewise aware, 1 some parts of the process are not so strictly scientific and direct as might have been pursued. ¥et as it is notin our power at present to repeat the fol- lowing steps, we have put them down merely as a tentative process, in the belief that they may throw some light on the nature of this mineral. _ A. Fifty grains of the mineral were reduced to an impal- pable: powder in a porphyry mortar, and subjected to a full red eal, ina covered platina crucible, - one hour. Thema: ively green. Ae pic ; ’ This is probably less than the true ceaeeieyye igelte ae - — Topaz. 335 became indurated, and mt eiresze ad which we wepatie. to be the water containe - B. To the calcined mass (A) were adducts 300 grains. ee crystallized carbonate of soda, and the —_— subjected toa high red heat, for one hour and a qua After cooling, distilled water was added and the amaea again raised to 212° Fahr. ; and the boiling was continued for some time. The whole contents of the crucible were then thrown upon a filter, and an insoluble residue (No. 1.) collected. The fil- bese — having been necessarily left three or four days a glass | r, the fluoric acid it contained, acted with iderable sorte upon the glass at the surface of the uid, corroding it and destroying its polish. On ing an excess of acetic acid to this solution, a copious white precipitate (No. 2.) was thrown down with | strong ef fervescence. This being collected on a filter, wash calcined, weighed 13.2 grains. It was soluble in diluted acid, and the solution vt mixed with sulphate of : -afforctendy on evaporation, octaedral and other erystals of alum, characterized by the peculiar taste of that salt, and thus proving the precipitate to be alumine. The liquor that remained after this second filtration, having acetic acid in excess, was heated with carbonate of ammonia, for silex, bu it gave no precipitate. It was again treated with acetic acid in excess, boiled to expel the carbonic acid, and treated with muriate of lime, which occasioned a white precipitate (No, HIE.) whose weight after auton and calcination, was 11.8 rains. This was heated with su 05 pret wi _— ac to be as 100 pane we obtain 4.56 erains of fluoric acid in 50 : acid was lost by its action on the glass as Shot: ened ©—C. The insoluble residue (B. No. 1.) was digested for some time. jn a silver crucible, with pure muriatic acid and thrown upon a filter. The filtered solution was saturated with car- bonate of ammonia, which produced a precipitate (No, 1.) whose weight, after calcination was 9.7 grains. ‘The insolu- ble gelatinous residue (No. Hl.) remaining on the filter after ‘the separation of the above solution, was digested with dis- tilled water, filtered. dried, and fiend to weigh 14,8 grains. 306 Popuz. which from its being insoluble in acids and gritiy betweei the teeth, we concluded to be silex. The liquor in which this residue was digested, and which was separated by the filter, was treated with carbonate of ammonia and a white precipitate obtained (No. III.) which being calcined, weighed 0.9 ~ This was entirely soluble in a mixture of diluted sulphuric acid and sulphate of potash, and crystals of alum We therefore oe this precipitate (C. No. J.) repeatedly siliceous residue (C. No. II.) might contain a small propor- tion of alumine, — pac: migh j aa process as th : genes C. No. I.) just described. Alum was formed and there was a loss of 3.33 grs. (No. III.) which was shown to be alumine. The remainder 11.47 grains, (No. 4.) was doubtless silex. E. The liquor that remained after the separation of B. No. 8. was tested with an infusion of galls, and gave decided in- dications of the presence of iron. No attempt was made to ascertain the proportion of this ingredient; and ir » we are not quite sure, bat that the muriate of lime used might have contained a small quantity of iron. F. From the dark stain that appeared on the platina cru- cible, in which the mineral was heated with carbonate of soda, a suspicion was excited, that lithia might be present. We made an attempt to decompose a small bit of the mineral with = soda, by means of the common blowpipe, on pla- tina foil; and we likewise began the like comparative trials with spodumene from Sweden and Massachusetts; a dark Btain in most instances appeared upon the foil around the Topaz. 357 alkali, (which siain could not be removed without washing and thoroughly heating the foil,) not as deep however, in the case of the mineral under consideration, as with the spodu- mene. But the trial we made was not a “ih as we have not bad leisure to pursue it farther, we merely make the suggestion that this mineral may contain lithia ; ane if so, it will account for the remarkable change from blue to which its powder produces upon vegetable infusions. The following are the collected results of the above — — Pitty oe contain ter. 2 1.45 seen hot. 19.9 r. 4(DNo.I-=6.3 5h ae A(C. Nox Ill. =0.9 g saien No: Iisa a asin Silex (D. Nowil=3.4 g)4(D iho. Ab: =11.47 gts.) 14.87 Fluoric Acid (B. II.) 4.56 fron ? Lithia ? mere as ae Rae. 5.39) “After this examination 1 we cannot hesitate to pronounce this mineral to be the topaz ; agreeably to your opinion ex- pressed upon first inspecting it. If this opinion be correct, it adds another interesting mineral to the list of American lo- calities, since, as we believe, no certain locality of the topaz kas been announced in this country. The enormous size of some of the crystals hitherto found does indeed detract from their delicacy and beauty, so that in these respects they will not compare with the topazes of the eastern continent. we doubt not, finer crystals will ere long be disclosed. At any rate, it - seiees a very curious Bich vs several of the minerals pe, should oc on < 338 dopaz. ‘Tt ought not to be forgotten, that in Europe, the topaz is Spork associated with tix. Perhaps this important metal accompany this oa in its known rie sc exist here in very considerable abundance; such as arsenical iron, the ores of ms my quartz, topaz, hornblende, EP and the — of lime ee aM 4, Geological Sduation.* "We have not visited the locality of this mineral, but it occurs ina a magnificent vein of fluor spar, consisting principally of that variety called the chlorophane. Itisin Monroe, next to the town of Huntington, 20 miles west of New Haven ; the vein of fluor spar traverses granular limestone in gneiss. Of this vein you have given a description in the second Vol. of the American Journal of Science, page 142. Some specimens in our pos- session exhibit the fluor spar on one side, and this | ‘mineral on the other. ae and a Cneemaish talcase mineral, which we acaplbely: 3 our ekest serva ania: : WARD HITCHCOCK, Sg: eet Professor Peat aati Sc. in Amhers t College, Mass, ; SILLIMAN, SNJAMIN D. ie all oy $1 tn ee are ~The locality 0 of ead cmoally ead L Lane’s mine, but it oa ebia te every sense. . Notice of certain processes in the Arts. 859 ART. XVL.—Notice of certain processes in the Arts. Commu- nicated to the Editor in a letter from an American ose man, dated Glasgow, Nov. 25, 1825. | Singeing of Cotton Stuffs by the gas flame. Te manufactories here are generally closed against stran- gers; but I have obtained access to two of them, which are inighlyi oe I believe the process of i, mig muslins s of the gas flame has been describ aunts. Within a year past it has been beagle toa great degree of perfection here. The process by which these fine textures were passed over red hot cylinders -_ was sufficiently astonishing; but one is ready to dou the evi- dence of the senses, when he sees a web which is so delicate as to be transparent, subjected to the direct operation of flame, two or three times in successi m, and with no change but an improvement in beaut The machine on which the operation is performed, consists ofan upright frame, sustaining two large rollers, one on each side at the bottom, and two pairs of rollers like those of a rolling-mill immediately above these, at the top. Between the upper rollers, the gas pipe passes the whole length of the frame, thickly set with openings serving as burners, so that th ppear to be from 5 0 to 100 in the space equiva- e bread oth. In performing the opera- the lower roller on one air above, pe TK age of mon La oiesd the flame ‘* the motion of the Siee, origina in laidiava engine and communicated by drums and heal in the usual nant It was not found sufficient merely to pass the muslin ve the flame, and thergfore another contrivance was added, of _ great ingenuity, which renders the operation more sur- prising. A pipe passes above the cloth in the same direction as the gas pipe, with longitudinal slits and openings to a main pipe above, corresponding nearly to the gas-burners. This is connected with the receiver of a large air-pump, whichis kept inmotion by the — A partial vacuum is thusmain- $60 Notice of’ eeriain processes in the Aris. tained at the openings of these tubes, and the flame from the gas-burners is drawn forcibly upwards, so that it passes di- rectly through the meshes of the muslin, and is seen as dis- tinctly above the web as below. This contrivance also serves to convey off the smoke produced by the burning fibres of the cotton, and which was formerly very disagreea- ble, and even distressing. The finest muslins are passed through this machine twice, once for each side, and the eoarser four times. They rarely take fire, although the mo- tion is by no means rapid and the improvement in the smooth- ness and texture, is obvious to the most inexperienced eye. In passing over the flame it is sustained by bands of fine twine at the distance of an inch from each other, and it is surprising to observe that after passing for months in succes- sion over the flame, they experience no change butthe ac- cumulation of tar from the gas. , Bleaching Powder, Sulphuric Acid, Alkalies, &e. was much interested in the manufactory of Mr. Charles ‘Pennant, near this town, whose personal liberality and intel- igence are not less gratifying than the results of We ingenui- ty. The original object was the manufacture of the bleach- ing powder now so extensively used; but he has combined everalo' swith it, in a manner whicli materially contributes to the success and profit of the whole. The buildings of the establishment cover a space of five or six acres. One large section is devoted to the manufacture of sulphuric id. The nitre, instead of being combined with the sulphur in this operation is paces in a separate portion of the furnace, retorts. 'T each, and weighing 500 or 600 ounces. Their value cannot be estimated at less than ¢ 2,500 for the whole, and yet itis believed to be more economical than to employ the perisha Notice of certwin processes in the Arts. 361 formed me that they appear to suffer no diminution or decay, butare liable to bend and break from the inten. tinuance of the heat. The whole produce of sulphuric acid is about 12,000 gallons weekly. The next process in order is the formation of the chicruteie lime. There are 15 or 20 leaden retorts for the evolution of the chlorine, about 5 feet in diameter, and weighing nearly three tons each. They are heated by steam, and the usi materials are employed for the production of the gas. With- in two years, the inconvenient apparatus formerly employed for the impregnation of the lime, has been greatly inproved by the ingenuity of Mr. Tennant, The gas the retorts, is passed into six chambers of hewn stone, about 30 feet long, 20 wide, and 6 high, which are covered with wood and ren- red impervious tu the gas by a resinous varnish. The lime is placed i in shallow boxes at the bottom of these ehnasbets- It is os itty during the process by iron rakes, inserted with lime which serves as a valve. Thei impreg- nation is generally completed in two days, when the supply is renewed s of wooden doors which are luted in. So Bee os Se is goo part of the apparatus fitted, that i in 304 building containing these immense volumes of imprisoned there was no disagreeable vapour, and the gas was ; not $0 perceptible as it usually is in a laboratory where a small quan- tity is rng for mere experiment. The powder, when com- pletely nen even in large’ quantities, has no perceptible odour, and th us shows the accurate manner in which the ye cess is c ted. Mlle resednides Of thie establishment is em loyed in turnin; the residue of these processes to — Phe sul ates ¢ soda and potash are converted into the alkaline ane te by two successive burnings, in union with Siteurbeen coal, and three lixiviations and evaporations. About eighteen tons” of sub- ’ carbonate of soda in its purified state are produced w By two successive crystallizations it is formed into furge rhomboidal tabular crystals, and surpasses in beauty any specimens of the article I have ever seen produced in the large we A part of the alkali is taken at an intermediate state, and employed in the last section of the manufactory, in the making of soap. Jt furnishes the chief supply of this arti- cle for this city and the surrounding country. Some idea may be formed of the extent of this establishment from the fact apg ake ap adaily bopply, of 60 tons of coal ‘add 20 tons ag2 Miuminating Gas fran Cotton Seed. flime,and the completeness of the parts is quite as surprisiug cas the magnitude of the whole. It is only doing justice to the ‘proprietor to state that it is the result of individual pelenneee od apes operating at first on a small scale. = | Lithography. _ Lhave been much interested aye: in nawsiting a lithographic establishment here,which furnishes mu countrymen to attempt the imitation = Europea arty al- sbeugh. ac may | have say eestriphions to guide t them _ The Is th peighth Lpeatons of. os Journal; we published some ees. id yeriments of Professor Olmsted on an illuminating. gas, which he had obtained from Cotton Seed. quality of the gas, the facility with which it is obtained from e seed, and the exhaustless abundance of the material in the southern states, suggested the probability that this ar arti- cle, which as is said constitutes by weight nearl -e-fourth of the entire cotton crop, and which as we e are ass now, in most of the cotton districts, neglected as use might be found an eligible substance for gas-lights, saueealy al United Sta _ Not having Moma the experiments of Professor Olmsted, indersianding that a very inferior gas had been ob by 1 rei the decomposition in a manner different from that dir in the original memoir, we requested Professor Olmsted to repeat the experiment in the laboratory of Xele College. “The result was entirely satisfactory—the gas : easily a and abundan nly ebtained, and alforded a We gree afk il- “S i he F ‘ cf ae Uluminating Gias from Gotion Seed. a iumination quite equal to that of the oil gas, (of which it is in~ deed only a cane ,) and superior to most varieties of the bitu- minous coa an Asecor to the pure olefiant gas and this is the eat Swick the inflammable gases obtained from per- haps every substance except alcohol decomposed by sulphu- ric acid. The kernel of the hickory-nut comes the nearest to the olefiant and is but little inferior ; the quality of the gas is considerably debased by using the entire nut—the we covering of which affords a gas which burns with a pales ame. he is very easy to injure the gas of cotton seed bya careless nt of the heat, particularly by using too much heat, this 3 is true, probably, of all other substances which af- ford inflammable gases ; in general the lower the heat, Lod vided it be sufficient, the better the gas. The following remarks were aa: by Professor Oln- sted at our request.—EpTor. * Cotton seed is highly oleaginous, and the obiect in “my arrangements for obtaining the gas, is to bring the oily va- pour, (which is expelled by a very gentle heaty into contaet with a surface of ignited iron, by which it is decomposed into carburetted hydrogen gas. For this purpose, a heat not exceeding the lowest degree of redness, is all that is necessary. If it be carried higher, a lighter kind of gas is produced, poms is greatly inferior to the other in illuminating power. A furnace’ of brick work, or even a common culinary fire, afford therefore the requisite degree of heat. ay. met eth- od of proceeding ha has been as follows : “¢4. An ounce of cotton seed is dried on the fire i ina ladle, and a red hot iron is introduced to sin; Ast the small remnant ef cotton that adhere: to the seed. It is dried, ecaikce vite _ moisture, by its decomposition, would i peadane an inflamma- ble gas, not sutficiently luminous for our purpose, and it is singed for a similar reason, the gas produced by the cotton being inferior to that of the see . Thus prepared, the séed is intreduced “into an iron tube closed at one end like a gun-barrel, and is pushed down quite to the bottom of the tube by a ramrod. «3. The tube is next laid across a farnace (a common ake would answer) in such a manner, that the closed end of the tube containing the seed, projects out of the furnace so far, that the seed may he removed entirely froin the direct action 364 Liuminating Gas from Eotton Seed. of the fire. A conducting tube is connected with the open. end, to convey the gas into a receiver standing over water. _ Simply passing the gas through water purifies it sufficiently for use. “4, Avery moderate fire is applied, sufficient barely to keep the part of the tube exposed to its direct action at a per- ceptible degree of redness. The heat being thus slowly communicated to the seed, converts successive portions of its oil into vapour, which traversing the ignited parts of the tube, is decomposed into carburetted hydrogen gas. The first por- tions may be burnt at the mouth of the conducting tube, until the gas becomes as luminous asa candle, after which it may e collected for use. “5, When the gas begins to come: over less freely, the tube may be drawn forward, by little and little, into the fur- nace. Near the close of the operation, the gas becomes again less luminous, and it may be burnt off at the mouth of the tube as at first. “If the furnace be of sufficient dimensions to permit a con- siderable space of the tube to remain ignited, the oily va- pour will be all ea “A ; but if the ignited space be small, : i : : a portion of yapour will make its way into the receiver unde- composed. A spiral or recurved tube for a small furnace, or a long iron tube for a broader fire, y effect the decom- * An ounce of seed, according to this process, yields 1018 cubic inches of gas, neglecting the first and last portions as before specified. Consequently, a pound of seed yields 16,288 cubic inches, or more than a hogshead of the gas. _ “ According to the former estimate, the quantity of seed annually pork at i quired for replanting, would afford 2,8°7,500,000 cubic feet of illuminating gas, but little ifat all inferior to that produced directly from oil. During the last year the culture of the cotton crop was greatly extended, perhaps doubled, and the quantity of seed proportionally augmented. - “ Tt was suggested by acorrespondent of South Carolina in alate number of this Journal, that the seed was more valua than what} had represented it ;—that it was a rich manure, and often sold very high for planting. Itmight doubtless be profitably Sopked compost, where its volatile principles might be arrested, and its powers rendered more permanent ; but the fact is, that in uced in the United States, above what is re-_ as a manure, especially, in the way of a- . Labrariory @ccurrences. — B65 many parts of the cotton districts, ‘no use at all is actually made of it, and the high price which it occasionally bears when re planting becomes necessary, is owing to the prodi- gality with which it is thrown out, and exposed to the weather, on the supposition, that there never can be any scarcity of a substance, which is accumulated in such quantities around the cotton-gins, The writer was assured by Henry Donald- son, Esq. the proprietor of an extensive establishment for cleaning and spinning cotton at the Great Falls of Tar river, in North Carolina, that boat loads of seed could be obtained there at five cents per bushel. I had also held some commu- nication with this gentleman on the subject of lighting his works with cotton seed-gas ; but my removal from the coun- try, and devotion to other objects, have prevented. Should this article be found as eligible for gas-lighting as it appears to the writer to be, its employment for sucha purpose will prove a public benefit, both by giving an increased value to this part of the cotton crop, and by diminishing the expense, and promoting the beauty and splendour of gas erg me 1) Ant. XVIII.—Laboratory occurrences.—Epitos.- {. Spontaneous combustion of Chlorine and Olefiant gas. It has long been known that chlorine and hydrogen in mix- iure are liable to explode, when struek by the direct rays of - the sun, and an instance is related in this Journal, (vol. Ill. pa. 341,) in which these two gases exploded, even in the diffuse light of a cloudy and snowy day. J have not met with any account of a similar action on the part of chlorine and olefiant or heavy carburetted hydrogen. It is well known that when mingled, in about equal volumes, they combine quietly, and become condensed into the peeuliar aromatic, oily looking substance, since called chloric ether. This effect 1 had so often witnessed, and had never seen any material va- riation in the result, that I was not oe to look for any thing else. But in an experiment of this kind, (January 5, 1826,) happening to mingle the chlorine with the olefiant gas insuch a manner, that the latter gas was uppermost, the combination went on more slowly than when the reverse or- der was observed; and the oily matter was gradually pre- Bit diuboratory Qccurrences.” tated, but was less abundant in eb rt than usual. Re- sites the experiment, in the same manner, the gases had remained in contact a few alae; apparently without ming- ling much except at their surfaces—the chlorine preserving its peculiar colour and the other gas its colourless transpa~ rency, when, suddenly, a bright flash pervaded the bell glass, which was of the capacity of five or six quarts; it was raised out of the water with a slight report—a dense deposit of char- coal lined the glass and floated on the water of the cistern, the chlorine disappeared. The appearances were much ike those which are exhibited when a rag dipped in oil of tu tine is placed in a jar of chlorine gas. flecting on the circumstances, I was led to believe that the peculiar effect, in this case, arose from the fact, that, owing to the great difference in the specific gravity of the two gases, the action took place principally at the two. of contact and thus the chlorine acting upon a comparatively thin stratum of inflammable gas, the two became so heated, as to pass into vivid combustion. Every new occurrence in practical chemistry, which may involve danger, ought to be exactly See’ that we may =~ aware of pease ns aio otherwise antic anticipated. ; : fe: & ee nyt es ‘2 osit of P - "A preparation of this substance, mpl, toon rade; was left eight or ten days well corked, in iron tubes, (the same in which it ‘was prepared,) and being opened, for transferring to another vessel, a common ramrod was introduced, te loosen the pyrophorus, the motion of which, uced: considerable friction ; when an explosion took place, loud as a common musket, by which the contents of the tube were blown out in a jet of fire, two or three feet long, scorchit the hair and eye-brows of the person conducting the oj tion, and a violent jerk was given to the hand that he ramrod, ane glove, with which his hand was tovtainetely as burnt in several places to a crisp. His eyes. and whole ae were affected in the same manner as if gun ¥ en discharged against them ; and this sensa- tion coutnied several days, passing off, however, without inconvenience. On putting the ramrod into a second tube, containing pyrophorus, and very sence 5 and gently tou uching the substance with the end of the rod, another ex- vlesion tack place. equally violent as the first. It was not pipe Re = 367 thou ght oe to t tl as the e third 200ks, we b ive us no caution. e po fyi ‘proper toanention that the spnphatane§ was, i this coe, prepared from a recipe furnished to me by Dr. Hare ;. it was as penta ‘Take lampblack three, calcin di alum four, and pearlashes eight parts—mix them thoroughly, and heat them, well in an iron. tube, to a_ bright cherry. red fos This ¢ yrophorus ed gone “When. ‘sali reparedand oured out upon a glass te and especially os lg aty 2} upon, it kindles with a series of small explosions, a little like those produced by throwing potassium upon water.. There is even some danger to the face and eyes from the number and rapid succession of these little explosions, and one is for- cibly impressed with the idea that they must be owing to pot- assium. . Since che discovery of this brilliant substance, there has been litde pasion that it is developed in greater or small s, during the formation of pyrophorus. The e cnt adapted to the production of ture a = x antity of the : it is now carrie is ses mas adept su gacible <0 of ———. and the liberated potas and potassuretted hydrogen burn with a brilliant deme’ anal the preg of satay, caustic alkali are extremely conspicu- Indeed it has long been known that charcoal will, by wee ignition, evolve potassium from potash. Curadeau first called our attention to this fact, and more recently Pro- fessor Brunner has shown that this process, skilfully con- ducted, is even preferable to any other [See Bib. Univ. Jan. 1823, ap in this Jornal, aid VU. p. 379. ] Netice of twe halos wiih parhetis. | Ann. XIX.—Notiee of two halos ail parhelia. om! mate by Isaac Lz, ina letter to the Editor, dated : . Puraperran, Feb. 6, 1826. nting for parhe ia’ most — hers, a lar Newton, ascribe them to the -ateaeion er sate artic ai or snow, and this is most likely to be their cause, as th refraction 4 os regular forms may be accurately ite latec M. Mari sad Ie . Wood attribute then to ‘vapour — ey, with a consists of hollow sphe first made its appearanc her h ht degree, 45 minutes past | 9 the ha —15 minutes past 11 o’clock it conti to increase, neers che halo disappeared. 3 The thermometer for several days had ranged from 96°10 101° and a heavy thunder-storm, without ‘Tain, ce night previous. a #3 The citizens of Huntingdon 35 miles cami Jack fied with a view of this splendid exhibi n twas not visible at ne Sessa 651 oe -* Notice of Scientific Societies. 369 portions of the two largest circles very dim—eastern extrem- ity of the small circle somewhat flattened. 2. Communicated by Mr, Leonard Pierce, Explanation of a Diagram of luminous circles about the sun, seen at Millbury, Mass. August, 14, 1825. S the sun; AB circle having the sun for its centre, and be- ing about the size of the common halo around that luminary ; CDan elipsis running in about the direction here represented ; EF alarge circle at the west of the sun over the disk of whic the circumference of this circle passed. i al or e wind was in the west and the sky was obscured by Cirrose clouds which moved very slowly from west to east. But one stratum of clouds could be distinguished. Where the clouds were the most dense the colours were the brightest, except the points GH where the Ellipsis intersected the circle, it was uniformly bright and had nearly the appearance of a parhelion. Where there were no clouds there were no colours, The colours, ex- cept at the points GH, were like those of the rain-bow, but not very distinctly marked. This phenomenon | first observed about eight o’clock in the morning, and it continued till past eleven. Ant. XX.—Notice of Scientific Societies in the United States, Communicated for this Journal. Tue following enumeration of Scientific Societies in the United States, was originally drawn up, at the request of a foreign correspondent, who was desirous of information res- pecting the progress of the Natural Sciences in this country. It must be Ginsdered of course as very imperfect, but it will nevertheless be sufficient to show that no inconsiderable share of our attention has been devoted to philosophical in- uiries. * Considered ina geographical order, we shall mention first, Tue East Inpia ais Society. Salem, Mass. This Society was founded in 1799, and incorporated in 1801, It Vou. 47 w—lVO. Z. 370 Notice of Scientific Societies. was originally instituted for the purpose of investigating and recording facts relative to the natural and physical history of the ocean. Noone can be eligible as a member, unless he shall have actually navigated the seas near the Cape of Good Hope, or Cape Horn, either as Master or Supercargo. A blank journal is furnished to every member when bound to sea, in which he is to enter the occurrences of the voyage, observations on the variation of the compass, bearings and distances of Capes, &c. and on his return he is to deliver the same to the inspector of journals. Sixty-seven of these jour- nals have been thus seliewted and preserved, and a museum of several thousand specimens in Natural History has been formed. The catalogue of this collection which was pub- lished in 1821, is drawn up with considerable ability, and we have a sufficient guaranty, as well for the present activity as the future usefulness of the Society, in the fact of its being un- der.the auspices of Nathaniel Bowditch. 2. AmericaAN ACADEMY oF ARTS AND Sciences. Boston, Mass. Instituted in 1780, and under the title of Memoirs of the Academy of Arts and Sciences have published four yol- umes quarto. The astronomical and mathematical papers are most numerous ; and the memoirs on Natural History by Messrs. Cutler, Cleaveland, and Peck, may be consulted with advantage. The paper by Mr. Cutler entitled an ac- count of some of the vegetable productions naturally growing in this part of the country botanically arranged, is still occa- sionally referred to by botanists 3. Linnzan Society or New Eneranp. Boston, Mass. Instituted 1 am not aware that this Society has pub- lished any thing beside a@ report of a committee relative to @ arge marine animal, supposed to be a serpent seen near Cape Ann, Mass. 4, FRANKLIN Society. } Providence, RL es of this kind, than the state of Rhode Island. As the ob- jects of both these societies are precisely similar, we should ning. 2: that more would be effected by a united effort, than by divided and rival institutions. : Notice of Scientific Societies. 371 6. Connecticut Acapemy or Arts AND Sciences. New aven, Conn. Incorporated 1739, The first volume of their Memoirs was published in 1810, and contains papers by Dwight, on the Meloe vesicatoria ; by Messrs. Silliman and Kingsley, on meteoric stones. The last part of their trans- actions appeared in 1813, since Me the society have ap- parently relaxed their exertions, It may be mentioned that the celebrated Experiments on the fusion of various refracto- vy posal by Prof. sion aa appeared in these transactions. gery see overlooked, and the pri- ority Planned by Dr. Clarke of England, in a work published in 1820, although he could not have been ignorant that these experiments had been performed by Prof. Silliman, in con- junction with Dr. Hare, of Philadelphia, nearly twenty years previous. 7. American Georocicat Soctety. New Haven, Conn, In- corposated 1819 Meet annually in September, and its meet- ings are held pein at New Haven. No separate trans- actions have as yet made their appearance, but many of the commenveations made to the Society have ‘been published in this Journal. 8. Pirtsrierp Lyceum. Pittsfield, Mass. Instituted 1823. 9. Society or Arts. Albany, New York. Instituted ; and have, under different titles, published four octavo volumes of their transactions. Some interesting botanical and geologi- cal papers are to be found in these volumes; it has been re- cently incorporated with the Albany Lyceum, and is now known as the “ Albany Institute.” Arrangements are making to publish a volume of their transactions.* of A Nes bids fair to become a pee for Naturalists. It is now ie success- ration. ils object is to —— prety for sepciyie arn “gs sons anddaaghters farmers and mech by lectures or otherwise, in the genet of eecanute onal, pt ae phy, ed a history, re, domestic vsti the arts, and manufac s. Mr E Natural Phi the vicinity of the ae _ saa d renga exercise for students, where the application of the scie may ost conveniently taught. They are alse exercised = sivVing rlactines et turas on all the branches 372 Notice of Scientific Scieties. 10. Urica yigecn or Naturax History. Utica N. Y. Incorporated 18 11. aE See anp GEOLOGICAL Fesccenev: Delhi, N. Y.. 12, Troy Lyceum or Natura History. Troy. Incor- porated 1819. 13. Hupson Lyczum or Nat. Hist. Incorporated 1821, 14. Carsxitt Lyceum or Naturat History. Incorpo- rated 1820. 15. Newsures Lyceum or Narurat History. Incorpo- rated 1819. 16. West Powwt Lyceum or Narurat History. Insti- tuted 1824 Th have published no separate eth are spiri'edly con- shale oe ig are ually mublished 1 in some scientific jour- nal. 17. Literary anp Partosopuicat Society. New York. serperet: in 1815. Meet monthly for the purpose of re- ceiving communications on subjects connected with science and ticenises: This society has. published one quarto yo- lume of its transactions, and has another in press, which is expesiat shortly to appear. 18. Lyceum or Naturat History. New York. In porated in 1818. Meet weekly. Under the direction of this society a catalogue of the plants growing within thirty miles of the city, was drawn up and published, and the specimens a with the society. Its advantageous situation for orrespondence with all parts of the world, seemed to invite a establishment of a Cabinet of Natural History. This has rs sealiinnas € taught by the Professors and their assistants. An ample scientific li- a very com the exhibitions of severa nts. We know of no institution in our country more useful in its aim, viz. the application of science to the eommon ae ge of life. See + tituti nd By-laws of the Rens selaer School in Troy,N. ¥.” Notice of Scientific Societies. 373 accordingly been attempted, and a collection, particularly rich in minerals and organic remains, has alrea y been formed. During the past year, forty-seven papers, (excluding reports of committees on new works, which were eicomabel by their respective authors,) were read before the Lyceum. During the winter months lectures are delivered in rotation, by the members, on the different branches of natural history. In 1824, thé society commenced the publication of its 4anals, ina cheap form, and as materials offered. . This pian of pub- lishing occasional sheets, presents decided advantages over the course pursued formerly by literary and scientific socie- ties, The frequent periods of publication, keeps up an ex- citement in the society, and the members are encouraged to prosecute their researches, when assured that they will spee- dily meet the public eye. a 20. New Yorx Atnanacae. This is enumerated as an association, supported chiefly by the liberality of opulent merchants, for the encouragement of science and literature in general. During the last winter, lectures on chemistry, ge- ology, botany, &c. were appointed ; and the full attendance given to these lectures, was a pleasing evidence of the inter- est taken in these sciences. 374 Notice of Scientific Societies. them by the state for the purpose of distributing seeds, &c. and paliching their transactions, of which two volumes have — appea 21. Lirerary axp Purnosormicat Society or New Jur- sey. Princeton, New Jersey. Instituted 1825. The .de- elared objects of this society, as set fourth in the discourse, recently delivered at its first annual meeting, by the Rev. Dr. Miller, are “the promotion of useful knowledge, and the friendly and profitable intercourse of the literary and scien- tific gentlemen of New Jersey.” 22. American Puitosopuicat Society. Philadelphia. Instituted 1769, The earliest in point of date established in North America. It is highly creditable to this city that two scientific societies should have previously existed there for many years.* The transactions of this society consist of two series ; the first comprised in five volumes, the second in two, the last of which has just appeared. The early papers of Prof. Barton, of Mr. Jefferson on the great fossil Megalonyx, the geological papers of Mr. McClure, and the zoological communications of Messrs. Say and Lesueur, will deeply in- terest the American Naturalist. * To those who are curious in the early history of phi ilosophic uiry in this country, the following translation from a German avelier may be interesting. “ This society is ‘ibde bted for its einer to the unwearied efforts of Dr. Franklin. For more than twenty years previous, he had established a private society composed of his particu- lar friends. As many crept in, however, ve had little pretension to learning, but were proud of parading among learned men, the socie eclined. Hence, in 1769, a new associa at was set on foot, without including al er who were excluded, from a irit evenge, established an opposition society, a every one, and o m nes. After a time, however, for the good of science, it was hae ae advisable to unite the two this did not allay the spirit of party. Many page persons bare in to the great earl of the elder members. These unfortunate oc- currences did n Sait th dent materially impede the advancement of sci- a Tn the sap 1771, appeared the first volume of the Trans ae f the American Philosophical Society, in quarto, containing many pa- pais ngs to Natural History. The war has eae prevented the 88 appea many papers that are now ready for the press. Congre: however, althugh still inter a and with its very existence still pre carious, , has cast a fa wourable look u n the muse atrse and has Wonianetkceenee staat ten.’ Yor Jehann, D, Sch 4 gen. 1788, Notice of Scientific Societies. 375 those engaged in similar pursuits. ‘The Journal of the academy, is absolutely indispensable to every American Na- turalist. In addition to the means of acquiring scientific information, afforded by these Societies in Philadelphia, the University of Pennsylvania, has a professorship of Natural History, at present filled by Mr. Thomas Say. Dr. Hare is professor of Chemistry ; Mr. W. H. Keating of Mineraloy, applied to the arts ; Dr. Barton of botany, and Dr. Hewson of comparative Anatomy. No salaries are attached to these professorships, and they are compelled to give at least ten lectures annually, The Philadelphia museum was incorporated a few years since, and as a corporate body, were privileged to appoint Professors. Accordingly the following gentlemen have been elected, and have already given several courses of lectures. Dr. Troost, on Mineralogy and Geology, Mr. Say, Zoology, Dr. Godman, Physiology, and Dr. Harlan, comparative Anatomy. It is gratifying to see in one city, these various efforts to promote and extend the study of the natural scien- ces: may others follow this good example. 25. Acapemy oF Science anp Literature. Baltimore, Maryland. Instituted 1821. Arrangements are making to commence a volume of their transactions, 26. Covumaran Institute. Washington City. Incorpo- rated . The President of the U. States is, ex officio, the President of this society. Under its auspices a Florula Co- lumbiensis has been published, and spirited efforts are now making to establish a botanic garden. 376 Notice of Scientific Societies. . Western Museum Society. Cinsinnati, Ohio. Es- tablished in 1818. The objects of an — are stated n constructed the ancient works now found in our country. Agreeably to these views, an extensive cabinet has already been formed which is rapidly increasing. 28. Lirerary anp Purtosopnican Society. Charleston, South Carolina. Instituted This society has a choice cabinet, but has hitherto, we believe, published no transac- — The distinguished Mr. Elliot is the President. . Lyceum or Naturat History. New Ori rleans, Loui- siana. Instituted 1825. Recent information respecting this society represents it as already in a flourishing state The above is as complete a list as I have been enabled to make out, and perhaps many others are still omitted. For these omissions | am not responsible, as it is extremely diffi- cult, if not impracticable, to obtain information respecting our societies in the interior. On the spot where Iam now wring, it is much easier to obtain information from Petersbur; Pavia, man from Cincinnati, Pittsburg, or Natchez. 1 feast to your superior means of information, for supplying all de- ficiencies, and remain, Respectfully yours, &c. New York, Dec. 12, 1825, S. E. D. As the preceding list, is probably incomplete, it is requested that the deficiencies may be supplied by appropriate communications. It will be observed that Historical, Literary, Antiquarian, and other Societies, not cultivating natural knowledge, and also academies for the are designedly omitted. Our correspondent promises to sup-. ply this deficiency, in part, in another article; but im the mean time, communications are solicited from others. Bprror.- March 1, 1826. nn er he ESSE OR ee pie, Le eae Cea ate psa i Ge a ae eee er a? I FOREIGN. ab as ae eae “<< ‘ ies a iy 7 as WF pe Subterrtiveltihe riaedieinsAs the ‘tess és ogi in bein centre of a valley in the Island of eof Babin in ae Adri- vg rem ese annie goals ‘and win : to the guns ie some ships of war, at a distance, in the open sea, and then to the exercise of Turkish artillery, on the Ot- _toman frontiers. These discharges were repeated four, ten, and even a hundred times in a “day, at all hours and in all rs, and continued to prevail until the month of Febru- ary, 1824, from which ti time there was an intermission of seven In smber of the same year, the detonations ni l, but apd feeble and rare, ‘to waters emissions a gas, ela rated in islands, are whic issuing: soon Alsen. strike the air with such force ¢ as to oon ced -Bib. ine: Aug. 1825. ae aciely.- -The anand sieeting of this Society the usual feeling of national ape. and vitality, on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of July of Soleure presided by M. Pfluger, aj oth In his opening discourse, the pres # ease, ee the preceding year, of Vou. X.—No. 4 318 Rectification of Alcohot. several of their most worthy members, among whom w professor Pictet, of Geneva, who had presided at the session of 1820, has attended all the meetings since the commence- ment of the Institution, and contributed richly to its useful labours. The meetings were attended by 76 members, ex- elusive of those of the Canton, in poms they were assembled. mong the memoirs read on the first day of the session, was one by Professor De Candolle, of Geneva, on the pro- perties of a reddish matter, from the surface of the lake of Morat, where it appeared during the spring; after a season of calms, eth in zones, along the borders of the lake, and especially among the reeds. In this substance were found two distinct matters. Ist. A greenish and fetid sedi- ment, which left the supernatant water of a fine red colour. . A lamellar substance, in irregular shreds, of a soft 2 spongy consistence. The first of these matters, submitted to a powerful microscope, peaneiied to De Candolle, Dr. Pre- vost, and Vaucher, all the characters of an oscillatoria, the motions of the zoophytes being distinctly perceptible. It was named hy De Candolle, oscillatoria purpurea. A chemi- ~ examination - this substance Lande that it consisted of, . Ared colouring matter, me soluble in- — 2d. or chlorophyllo Or Of gelatine in large pro 4th. . 5the Of some y and: slotine tals; atd Tittle: oxide of iron. ‘Fhese veselthsecriivi the opinion of some sc with respect to the animal nature of pro- ich are met with in a great number of mineral waters, a lend support to the observations of Vauquelin, on the green substance of the waters of Vichy, in which he met with a substance which had a close er to eat 3. Rectification of Alcohol without heat—As a eans of obtaining strong and pure —— without the aid of be of h or of an alembic, it is recommended by M. E. Pajot-Dest Feira to place the spirituous materia? whether low wine or proof, in.a deep vase with a flat bottom, and within this vase, supported by feet resting on its bottom, — a broad dish, containing dry muriate of lime ; cover the whole very closely, by pasting paper around the edges of the vase. In four or five days the salt will have deliquesced by the” attraction of moisture. Replace the apparatus, after replen -é ishing the dish with dry muriate, By continuing the operé eee + Polytechnic Institute of Vienna, 379 wen, alcohol (whisky or spirits) may be changed from ten to filteen degrees of Baus é, to forty or forty two degrees, Ann. de Chimie et de Physique Sutil. aes 4. Fumigation.—In consequence of the prevalence of. an obstinate fever in the Milbank prison, in London, it was deemed expedient to purify the apartments and _ galleries of that extensive building by fumigation. This was performed under the direction of M. Faraday, professor in the Royal Institution. Equal parts of salt and oxide of manganese were placed in earthen dishes, each holding about a gallon, and to two parts of the mixture were ad dded two parts of — acid, previously mixed with one pon of irae: and sabi 700 pou unds of common is 700 pounds of manganese, and 1400 pounds of sulphuric acid. The space fumigated was - about 2,000,000 of cubic feet, and the surface of the walls, aa and platforms, about 1,200,000 square feet, mostly in one and brick, and chiefly plastered with lime —Quarterly fees of Science, Now 35. ee The Polytechnic Institute of Vienna was Spent in 1815 the munificence o lit witha capi- i be a million of ogee This pect iestblshmentis a is at once an io ak in which a corps of pup ceive the best instruction, in ge the ‘fae of arts, puke and commerce, in order to practise their knowledge after- wards in workshops and manufactories; a a in of all the arts 5 and a society for the encouragement of ere : ich proposes and distributes prizes and re- maintains with the government systematic ee von sities subjects of monnlociinns industry. ,wh ich: & pete had. aia, not oe “for elementary i in- struction, but for. practical courses on mechanics, architecture, civil and hydraulic, drawing of machines, chemistry applied to the arts, natural philosophy, &c. Examinations and pub- 380 Polytechnic Institute of Vienna. fic theses are annually held, and the more distinguished pupils are employed in the public service, or engaged in the manu- factories. These pupils are not maintamed at the public ex- pense; their instruction only is gratuitous: their number, which in 1816 was only 300, amounted in 1822 to 720. Work- shops have been erected, in which models of machines, and mathematical and philosophical apparatus are manufactured. Courses of instruction have been opened also on Sundays, for the benefit of the workmen, which are well supported. The museum, or conservatory, contains a numerous collection of the products of industry, and is enriched by the legacies and donations of individuals, and successive acquisitions, It con- tains, besides, a choice library of near 9000 vols. a chemical laboratory, general and special, with more than 500 pieces of apparatus, a philosophical cabinet, enriched with 700 instru- ments, made by the ablest artists, a collection of 8000 speci- mens of minerals, another of 300 instruments of precision and observation, formed by Reichenbach ; a cabinet of 300 models, fabricated sts of the Austrian monarchy, and of their successive 2 goes They are arranged in methodical order, on vs oa which may serve as a model for similar collections. Metallic products, glass, porcelain, and potteries, occupy the first rank ; then the*tissues of linen, silk, cotton, and wool; bonnet stuffs, lacing, paper, leather, &c. A detaileddeseription of this collection is contained in the 4th vol. of the Annals of the Polytechnic Institute, a work worthy of attention for the im- portance of its memoirs on various portions of science and arts, drawn up mostly by the learned professors of the esta- blishment. ste ia ‘Independently of the above mentioned collections, the In- stite possesses a cabinet of more than utensils and in- struments, employed in the arts and trades, among which is a complete assortment of the instruments of the bookbinder, containing, besides presses, &c., punches, fillets, rollers, &e. bipetin well executed. To their national instruments are joined the same kind of English and French workman- ship. The various utensils, also, of the joiner and cabinet- é Polytechnic Institute of Vienna. 38t maker; screw-cutter and —- in metals ; ofeclock-making, watch-cases, wire-drawing, gilding, &c., are in the collection ; and, what is particularly interesting to an amateur in the arts, there are two complete assortments of turning instru- ments, one made by British workmen, and the other by artists. in Vienna. The apparatus of the brass founder, goldsmith, and a crowd of others. are also included. This x eee is not only useful in the lectures on technology, but as t consist chiefly of foreign instruments, spieielly English, nd tle known in the country, they afford to German workmen the most favourable opportunity of profiting by the know- a. ski i. eh PER ade | not yet fulilled the the doses of its institution. I appears ane they fessors and their adjuncts, occupied with their courses of in- struction; and with the classification of the objects of the mu- seum, have not yet decided, or even Aa tem any = ei : at least nals make no mention of hey have, however, been very useful as a soit of consultation, and have given their advice on 400 or 500 questions, which the government has submitted annually to their enlightened deci- sion. They have proposed important alterations in the law of patents, in the operation of which there is now much less abuse. Accordingly the number of patents, which had been only fifty-eight from 1815 to 1820, rose in 1821 to one hun- dred and eight, and in 1822 to one hundred and sixty-eight. At the expiration of their respective periods, they will be rendered public through the medium of the printer and en- graver, in the Annals of the Institute. One thing is ; worthy of remark, and that is, that the first a gas il on the continent of Europe was made in 1817, by the direction of the polytechnic institute. The halls of this vast establish- ‘eit oe are ne saabieeamests N fay igitien hs steam, which is now regularly established on the Danube, aud on the Adriatic between Trieste and Venice, is also indebted to this stitution 382 , Heat by Combustion. 6. Animal Heat.—The following is stated by Despretz to be the temperature of the bodies of the animals named, when the temperature of the air was 15.15. The scale is doubtless that of the centigrade thermometer. Mean temp. Nine men, aged 30 years, yg © Oak? _ Fourmen “ 68 years, 37.1% - Four young men, 18 years, 36.99. _. Three male children, 1 to 2 days, 35.06... - Twoadult ravens, eee, SRO OWIBs + a ee <* | ae An adult screech-owl, ... .. AAT, AG adult Rel i as ar" Sh Three aearow?, well feathered, 39.08 _ A full grown sparrow, 41,67. 208 Two rooks, just beginning to eat, 41.17 3 Dog, 3 months old, 39.48 ces Adult male cat, 30.78 Adult Guinea pig, (a Two carps, RiP) ee Two tenches, 11,54 © Annales de Chimie. Aott, 1825, 7. Heat by Combustion.—The same chemist found, during. his researches on respiration, that hydrogen melts, in burn-_ ing, 315.2 times its weight of ice, and carbon 104.2, It is remarkable that the numbers 315.2 and 104.2 are almost ri-_ gorously proportional to the weight of oxygen absorbed by. ydrogen os ay For, according to the chemical pro- portions of Berzelius, supposing the first number 315.2, the 7. Mutual Tastruction in Geneva. | $83 second would be 104.066. This observation is favourable to the conjecture of Wetrer ; “that the quantities of heat dis- oe hon in combustion are in definite proportions. —/bid. Oc- fob. 1824, _8. Royat Learniva. Phe Seven Seas; or Dictionary and Grammar of the Persian Language. By his majesty the king of Oude. Lucknow. 1822, In 7 volumes Soho, 15 inches tn height by 11 in breadth. Printed at his majesty’s press. — This magnificent work is the fruit of the labours and research- es of the sultan of Oude, Ubulmasafiir Muiseddin Schahi Seman Ghiatiddin Haider Padischah; that is to say, the father of the brave, the adorer of the faith, the Schah of the age, the conqueror of the faith, the lion, and the padischah. His ma- jesty has sent several copies to the East India Company, to be distributed in Europe. The first six volumes contain the _ dictionary ; the seventh is devoted to the grammar. Upon each leaf, and above the page, are engraved the arms of the oe ses wie a each a standard, two fishes, a thr: crown and the waves of the sea. Since the time of Abulfeda, ie Teafned prince of Hamah, of the aay Ejub, who died in 1332, and is well known in Europe as a historian and geographer, no: Asiatic prince has done such an €ssential service to science as that to which it will be indebted to the sultan of Oude, by the composition and publication of this dictionary, the most complete of all that have hitherte a evue Raye Sept, 1825. ee hitology. According to a work published in German: by the rite philologist Adelung, there exist on the ear 3,064 languages: 587 in Europe; ‘937 in Asia ; 276 in ‘Arie ea; 1,264in America, The author doubtless comprehends in this enumeration the various idioms. and patois in use in the different provinces of the same country.—Ibid. 10. Geneva. Mutual Instruction. —This method introdu- we into our: “country by the Society of Catechumens acquires, “year, an. ‘increasing influence. In the month of July, epi the schools of St. Gervais and la Grenette contain together 345 children ; that of St. Anthony was opened in the month of November of the same year, and in the beginning ef 1824 it contained 174 children. ‘This rapid progression in the nuinber of pupils is an indubitable proof of the success of 384 Compound of various Metals. this mode of instruction, and of the advantage which it affords to families. The methods practised in foreign countries have not been exactly followed in Geneva, but modified to suit our national habits and manners. Mutual instruction has been introduced with much success in music; and marches, = = ious, moral, and patriotic hymns, calculated to impre e and pious sentiments, have been admitted as a recwation We may well felicitate ourselves on the effects which result from these foundations the moral instruction of children. An increased degree of obedience, order, neatness, and decency of language is al- ready observable. A generation educated upon principles which are based upon religion and morality, cannot fail to supply the country with good citizens. The schools of the ay territory, placed under. the direc- tion of the committee of public instruction, have continued to prosper; their number amounts to 18, comprising that of Puplinge, recently founded, and they present altogether the interesting assemblage of 855 pupils. The method of mutual instruction established in all these schools (that of Aire la Ville excepted, where the number of achaiars is very ate) The ra success which we had scarcely dared to tor. course 0 Ww epatied | it with care, and who applies tt it a great success, The effect of this will be to excite emulation amon the regents, and uniformity in the schools, which will muc facilitate the management of them. Prizes have been distri- buted in the present as well as the last year, and the happy effects of them are every day manifest.—Revue Encyc. Nov, 1824, 11. Compound of various Metals.—M. Dittmer owe in the Hanoverian Magazine that the followiag® fines com- pounded by the privy counsellor Doctor Hermstadt, may be oo sounedy for gold, not only with respect to colour, but also ‘ific gravity, density, and ductility :-—16 loth (less than ch ounces) of virgin platina, 7 loth of copper, and 1 ick of ao equally pure: place these metals together in a crucible, cover oe with powdered charcoal, and melt them completely i into a Pai Se mass.—Rev. Encyc. Sept. 1 = ai a New method of Lighting large Apartments. 385 12. Successful treatment of Hydrophobia.—On the 28th of @Gctober last, a young apothecary was bitten in the left hand by a cat, which died two days after with confirmed madness. e satisfied himself with washing the wound, and pressing out the blood. Twenty-four hours after, he cauterized the pert superficially. Recommended by his physician to M. tossi of Turin, the latter discovered in the wound. marks of the peculiar virus, and prescribed a drink of pure vinegar every morning, and two glasses of a decoction of juniper (ge-- nista lateotinctora) during the day. — 1t was deemed necessary particularly to examine the small glands under the tongue. ~ . In the early part of December, unfavourable symptoms began toappear. The patient lost his vivacity, became taci- turn, seeking retired places, and weeping abundantly. His sleep was short and restless, his complexion livid, and his eye fiery. His physician then perceived that the leit gland was swollen and inflamed. He immediately ordered a deep ¢auterization upon the two glands, by means of a red hot iron. This painful but necessary operation was followed by a violent access of fever, which gradually declined, and finally disappeared on the third day. From that time the patient has been perfectly restored, and has not experienced the Jeast sensation from his wound.—TJbid, 13, New method of Lighting large Apartments.—M. Loca- telli, a mechanician of Venice, distinguished by many impor- tant discoveries, has invented a new process for lighting pub- lic halls. It is well known that Rumford and others endea- -voured in vain to discover the means of dispensing with chan- deliers, so inconvenient in theatres and other val f audi- ence. The new process employed at Venice has completely succeeded, and leaves nothing to be desired. Instead of pa- _rabolic mirrors, the light of several lanterns is concentrate ted on an opening in the middle of the hall, (probably the ceiling,) and falls upon a system of lenses, plano-concave, which fill the opening, (a foot in diameter,) and distribute through the apartment rays, which, falling parallel on the lenses, issue divergingly. From the centre, or pit, nothing is perceiy but the lenses, which resemble a chafling-dish of burning ) Henry H. Cuixps, M. D. Ornein Waicur, Curators. Cuarues A. Les, Ganpiner Dogrance, 15. Mineralogy.—A Manual of Mineralogy, in which the Seience is illustrated by cuts in the text, and a considerable number of coloured engravings is preparing for the press, by J. L. Comstock, M. D. of Hartford. oes __* As mercury would have been frozen by this degree of cold, of coursé we pre- th alenhal. SF prror. eitntitinineens Se. A reed Baars as INBEX T@ VOL. X.! ‘Acids found in the Rie Vinagre, 19 Aerolite of ators d, G. Chilton’s eer {si Affinity, chem Africa, Central, ‘uid — in, 392 Alcohol, re ctificatio SiS mber, large mass of, ui \nalysis of .~ a ca Aerolite, 131 Andalusite, 39 racite, S vimeieiNe experiments on, 1Q2 _ lvania, editor on Arts, notice ‘of certain processes in the, 359 Atwater Pensa notes on Ohio, 1 d F cal res sore a disengaged from plants, 190 ! is ing powder, 3 and Missouri, 257 Bowlde ers, Peter Dob: Brewster’s srockaptaning ha 130 €aldwell, c300 thermometrical a 294 @anal, Erie, 3 Carbon, ats of, ricography, b Prof. D ewey, 30, 265 t = er = Sos oe notice of minerals, 218 n’s Ps eat rn of, 162 — eo oe Chilton SS Gare eon 5 215. gn nA Mesa ai mnie * calabi “id lime, 386 ee ee ig Wee ae —— rs, 185 bcm ate Cinch chona bark, correction concerning, 203 Clam, i of the eatable, 267 Cleaveland, on the motion, of water-wheels, 129 Coal, an ice, of Pennsylvani a, 331 Cold’ nb me of 1825—6, nsf carnage by vibration, 188 Colto ‘on, notice of localities of minerals, 12 : Combustion ion, ea ~ spont 365 — Gongeind ioc: So -ompound resem |, Jo Cott “iuminet ng gas fro 62 Sotton stuffs, process of si si motion, remarks on Ms ein pone 93 Nene x. No. ities 51 492 INDEX. ceil peanibo, rocks and minerals of a Ria Daubeny, Dr. C = geology of Sicily, 23! Peckination of stars, 1 Dewey, Prof. C. his Spare far ie 30, 265 ee ad matter, pas Dobso: r, on bowlde a ' Dwight’s i Travele carretrion in, 19 Editor, es ia on minerals — Rae Qi ——— e fusion of carbon, anthracite coal of Pesinsy Ivania, 331 notice of the me Sieg aero e, 135 © n’s te ones of Chemistry, 162 Education 5 Peatalons an ‘system Emmons, EB. notice of localities of ite li 8, 22 Fire stones cand Sn the mann hikers of glass, 19 Foote, Dr. L. rye Masih Ke 1825, 893 Fumigation Eusion of carbon, 109 Gas, illuminating, from cotton-seed, 362 Gas-light companies. on tee Rab ote a abe = Pte < Geological society, American, eee Daubes on the, 230 Hail-rod, 196 Halos with parhelia, 3 age E. L. netice of Prats es of —" 14 Hare, Pro his s improved exdiomet ———_—_—._ strictures on Prof. V nokta s memoir, 111 a e on eee ofthe Aca of Nat. Seance, 174 ucts of fused o18 wre on the Warlan, R. ‘on ‘Batracian Sete 53 ———-—- new specie of Bsc 285 amandery. tata, mers of, 193 Heat, anima 382, 390 ww by consent tion, 382 r= general reflections on, 78. ~~ of the summer of 1825, 296 Helvetie society, .8. P. facts relating to Ohio, 1, 152, 519 icon Prot E. ex criments on peated 136 ox wool pinning machines \ INDEX. Tndian stmmer, 204 Indians, education of, 396 Insect in the wood of a tab ble, 288 insects—recipe for driving from trees, 204 Instruction, mutual, 174, 176,178, 383. oo ic, in Copenhagen, 175 J ournal, American, noticed in the Rev. Encyc., 178 Kendall, Thomas, on 9 cutting of steel ay soft iron, 127 Kite, e, Capt. Dansey’s, 184 Laboratory occurrences, editor’ : yeuee of, 365 — s system of the world, Lea, Isaac, on the north-west a ————— notice of halos with perl, 368 Lead, ietallic, English locality of, 1 Sains Ser nited States, 398 s, medici Leec Lighting of lange apartments mo wan society of 173, Lyceum of Nat. Hist. “of New Yor Maclure, Wm. on the Pestalozzian system, 145 ——__—_--+_—— letter to the editor, 165 —- to the Amer. Geol. Soc. 202 ———__—— on the anthracite region of Pesan. 265 Mason, O. notice of Sheet stones —_ ___—— of localities =! minerals, 10 Mercurial eer vitects of, —— of , 178 orth American aii 167 gan, * Mr. a, 8 notice of, 3 alogy, m Minerals, miscellancot localities of, se 218 aio" t, &c. ine, produ peal fags —_—. of Middlet Mitchill, Dr. S. L. on oe mead nakes, 48 + - on the eatable clam, 287 tapes their influence ne animal heat, 390 ew Yo oe ——- f, 398 tel a est passage, Isaac Lea on the, 138 Ohio, facts gen to certain parts of, 1, 152, 319 Olmsted, Prof. on illuminating gas from cotton-seed,8G2_ Owen improvements, 165 - ; Mr. his establishment and Paper-making, 193,387 le, or hail- 196 Panwtele, rod, Pascalis, Dr. F., on the small-pox, Pestalozzian a, of education, grt ology, Philo! Phosphorescence of sub-resins, 189 Pictet, Prof. death of, 179 Pierce, James, notice of Michigan, 304 Pierce, Leonard, not notice of a hal, 88 institute of Vienna, 379 Porter, Jacob, notice,of localities of minerals,’ 18 Fupon zine, Prossic acid, effects on vegetation, 198 198, 397 f the eckahire Med. Instit. 400 ae ew A403 apap eigen AWA 7 ; WNDEX. * x | uadruped, Dr Dr. Harlati on a pew species of, 285 - Quinine, sulphate of, 386 . Rana, new species 0 Befraction, curious Dae , 187 Robinson, Samuel, n ee of ore saad Royal learning, ca Salamander, Dr. Harlan, on a new species of, 286 Salt, pov of, by’ _ poration, 180~ Sandstone, new or varie pated, Mr. Finch on, 209 ciate 1 coos =a comme: wl ? > ine, 5 ee on topaz, 352 Singeing of cotton — 359 Small-pox, n, 208 Snakes, two-headed, Dr. Mitchill on, 48 Snow, red, 1 Societies, literary and scientific, of the U. States, 369 Sordawalite, a new mineral, Sounds, — of, * to elephant and lion, 186 erranean, 3 Soup, me sthod of makin ng, 38 . Haringey! brine, vere” eh in the contents of, 193 _ Stea ongings of extraordinary dimensions, 170 Steel, 1, the cutting of, by soft iron, 127, 397 Steel-plate, menstruum for biting-in.on, 194 Sulphuric acid, 360 Surgery, 179 ‘Pemperance, e effects of, 398 Te , natural, 37 Te formations on the Hudson river, = Lene rical cbaerviaidhe» Thomson, ~ = first principles of eer te . 'Fhorn fenc Sei, 5 Prof. L. renee tan on ae &e. 102 f. Hare’s strictures on the ise: 111 Volcanic eruptions, 13 5 ee eS ‘Water-spout in France, 183 Water-wheels, the cotien a f, 129 ‘Williams, Stephen n C., notice of localities, 206 Woodhull, S., on the heat of 1825, 296 Yeast, method of procuring, 387 - dig Sages Pd, oH Aas a alae Na 2 ae = Plate 1 f Mi ] po Tab. D. ugh RE 2 SEL Se Pareto se aera. Sr 5 Zi f. . de fale G wanthep PBS Var Vicina Tf wal Vol.X.p. $1. Vol. VIL p. 274. CW. avtheng Coniarea | . Vola pe Plate. 2. Tab. BE. BS Seed a decade TC fit Mix. of Oa ay 7 rd , a Stet COO a Oe oa : ‘fp wr eg WP P. Plate 3. \ s | “ i | é o be | ~ ‘ % i ‘ ~ 4 i i 6 4 j 12 4 \ 4 i. ee eS i x i Uetgecarha Veer ; fra: Vi eekiz Vol X. Pp % x te , Zé oP at : 0. sili lif tora Muh. 3 O siccnla: Dee ial iy ee & . . ae m, Vol IX p 60-61. Se — C:murosperme Wall - : Mie Vol X. p. Tab. G. Scale, Seed. {oY aye Fruit. \] ) VW y Merle: Vol. x. p. Cf atin Yous p45. Plate 4 f 2g. 2, 7 = DL), gram df ba ab Milthury Mass dug certain proce nS ey is ae ete hoe an American’ ee a reacesancicacnsene as aR mad eg | f OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, : CONDUCTED BY PROF ESSOR SILLI MAN, ~ OF YALE COLLEGE, 18 PUBLISHED ar new-maves, ¥OR THE EDITOR, BY ie "SHERMAN CONTERSE, PRINTER AND AGENT. ae S ‘@® lished, have averaged over four hundred ae and have been 4 a ees eee = 3 aye ‘ew ecu | is ee cotitees a 5p ae : a: aos > Term of credit to general agents, 6 months, from the e publ Ss S cation of No. 1. of aioe be ae ee og: * : “eee TO ) CORRESPONDENTS. -