. en + mnesrenerea eS orth ener sknseaterae a SCIENCE AND ARTS. t CONDUCTED BY MLN SILLIMAN, M. D Mem, Geol. Soc,, Lo D. LL.D. Min. fe. | in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. fae, Arts, Man and | Com. and ; - ’ ndon; Mem. ; - Roy. %, CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIII. NUMBER I. Pag Arr. I. Geological and Mineralogical Account of the Mining Dis- tricts in the State of Georgia—western part of North Carolina and of East ———— with a _— by Hon. Judge Jacos Prcx, il. On the temperature and Saas of the ‘Waters of the Ocean at different depths, Ili. Note on the Progressive ican of Pemperatare be- neath the surface of the Earth IV. Universal Terms—Disputes sey ite Gai aga their Causes ; by Emma VY. On the action of the second pics of icqeparens plates osha ht; by Day Brew LL. D. F.R.S. Vis Hail Storms < mg ° ee eorgia VIL. ipeorement in Field Scion: VIII. On the Origin, Extension and Conitnasode of Prairies ; ; : by Dr. Rusu Nutt, of Rodney, State of Mississippi, IX. Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers, to produce Double Flowers; by E. T. Lerrner, - X. Miscellaneous Geological Topics relating to the lower part of the vale of the eh ; by Dr. Rusa ues of Rodney, Mississippi, XI. Notice ofa ai a American Utensil; by Prof. Wiis R. Joun XII. heaake’s on ae Strength of Cylindrical eeam Boilers; : by Prof. Warrer R. Jonson, XU. A one sae of Dr. Wollaston’s Reflective ere by R. Graves, Jr. Civil Engine XIV. bat a the Plants of Chile; ccaikiad Son the “ ee curio — ” WS. W. ee M. D. U.S. Navy, XV. = otice of a Somiats of Petroleum, called the oil il Spring. XVI. Notice of Wood's pking Maching noe - XVII. Observations on Inclined Planes; by J. Tuonsor, - 715 107 iv CONTENTS. —* Pa XVIII. Notice of an improved instrument for Venous Injection, with a figure; by Dr. J. Mauran, of Providence, R. I. XIX. Francis Huber.—Notice of his. Life and a by 1 . De CanpdoLie ‘| 3 XX. = the Uses of Chlorides and ‘Chlorine; by - Weaver 1 XXI. Acton of Chloride of Linea on Alcohol ; by M. E. be: 1 ‘XXIL Vegeta iin: in falas to , Rotation of Coops: £ ACAIRE, - y XXIII. Facts in relation to meen Sintbcdebia Deaths Sues 1 ted to Hydrophobia, — - = - s MISCELL AN ee AND eer 5 la 1. Museum of Gipcon Manrett, Esq. of Lewes, in Sussex, ne 2. British Association for the advancement of — - 3. Leipsic Fair, Autumn, 1831, - - - CHEMISTRY. 1. New Experiments in ee performed by, means at the 1 Thermo-multiplier. - 2. New process for chtnintiid Morphine ~3. Action of Oils upon Oxygen gas, ‘ the temperatore oF the atmosphere ee 4. On the injurious action of gases on 0 Vegetation, ee - 5. On the Distillation of Bread, —— a. = 6. Imitation Siheeric oe Sate eS oS GEOLOGY. Cuvier. and Bivingaiart’s report on M. Deshayes’ ‘“ Tableau comparatif des coquilles vivantes avec les fossiles’ des io _ rains htertiaines de Europe,” - “i NECROLOGY. Batavia.—Count Charles Viduale Gonzano,. - = - OTHER NOTICES.© de Pies of treatment by carded Cotton, — - 198 2, 3. Preservation against rust, dampness, tc. Costing for the ~ preservation of eer! Leather and Yes ont the ef- fects of moisture, - | & 4. Economy of Sealing Wax, = - = 5, 6, 7. Composition for r mending crystals, pin: irnebin ail ris Tran Ink. gonna Linen—How to is i901 Potatoes, - ae ee ee Sppaps en fke 199 200 z a 5 v Page 8, 2 9 » ee to boil wi gies ks Cheese—Colletng swarms 8, - - 11. Trilobite ~ win Se - The Editor was absent on a journey, when the ‘abstract of the experiments, 4 p: 185 of this Vol., by MM. Ae — Mellon, by the oe ope oaleeah was ip- —a it was not observed, th d been already giv- in the preceding ated Vol. XXIT; p. 370. L_ Vole xx1t, A 184 and {35. The expressions marked (8), (9), o, ®, (C), a jhould each be the proper place. came to hand too late for insertion in ora. 3 fi alteration tuk Tha Vol p- 20 — top, and p. 398, 1. 1, for Myrmecotdes, read Myrmecopn’™ op Arr. I. XL Notice of an Ancient American ‘Utensil by Prof. Watrer | i, * CONTENTS. —O-—— P Geological and Mineralogical Account of the Mining Dis- tricts in the State of Georgia—western part of North Carolina and of East Tennessee, with a MRP by. Hon. Judge Jacos Peck, . On the temperature and Saltness of the “Waters of the Ocean at different depths, - - . Note on the Progressive Increase of Temperatare be- neath the surface of the Earth - . Universal Terms—Disputes concerning faa a their Causes; by Emma Witiarp, -~— - . On the action of the second surfaces of transparent iiss upon light ae pinched Spates ae >» ria, Prete tient in Field Seneitiianieies - . On the Origin, Extension and Coellangpeel of Preisied: ; by Dr. Rusu Nurr, of Rodney, State of Mississippi, . Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers, to — produce Double Flowers; by E. T. Lerryer, . . Miscellaneous Geological Topics relating to the lower part of the vale of the Meiosis ; by Dr. Rusa Nutt, of Rodney, Mississippi, “R. Jounson, : pote on the Strength of Cylindrical Steam n Boilers Prof. Watter R, Jonnson, _A ingliliti of Dr. Wollaston’s Ri fee ' ter; by R. Graves, Jr. Civil Engineer. . List of the Plants of Chile ; Fepinted fon the ae Wee: _curio Chileno,” by W. 5. W. ot M. D. U.S. Nay » Navy; . Notice a a Poapiis of Petroleum, sek the Oil i spring. . Notice or Wood's oe Raat: - ; . Observations on Inclined Planes; Me J, aon, F oak po 10 © ii ’ CONTENTS. Page. XVIII. Notice of an improved instrument for Venous Injection, with a figure; by Dr. J. Maunan, of Providence, R. I. 114 XIX. Francis Huber.—Notice of his Life and ore by | . De Canpo.te, 117 XX. On eh Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine ; vy A. Come XXI. Aetion of Chloride of Line a on Moshot ; by M. E. Sov- 134 — XXII. Vegetable Physiology: in FrelelioR to , Rotation of Crops; y M. Macarre, - 138 j XXIII. Facts in relation to — Renatinbis Deaths attribu- ted to Hydrophobia, - - = ~- 143 — MISCELLANIES——-FOREIGN AND DOM, 1. Museum of Giozon Manrext, Esq. of Lewes, in Sussex, Eng. 162 2. British Association for the advancement of oo - 179 3. Leipsic Fair, Autumn, 1831, - - 182 CHEMISTRY. 1. New Experiments in Caloric, performed ie means of the Thermo-multiplier, - 2. New process for obtaining itérplitie, - . Action of Oils upon ayes gas, at the temperate of the atmosphere, - 4. On the injurious action of gases on Vegetation, 5. On the Distillation of Bread, 6. Imitation Silver, - GEOLOGY. Cuvier and Brau: report on M. Deshayes’ “Tableau comparatif des coquilles Sibi avec les ee des ter- rains tertiaires de Europe,” - NECROLOGY. Batavia.—Count Charles Vidua le Gonzano, ~ OTHER NOTICES. . 4. Case Ss treatment by carded Cotton, - — - 2, 3. Preservation against rust, dampness, &c. = for the preservation of gepnonc Leather and co from the ef- fects of moisture, — - 4. Economy of Sealing: Wax, Sb 5, 6,7. Composition for mending crystals, int porcelain and— ee = _ — me ee to boil Potatoes, CONTENTS. aE P 8, 9, 10. How to boil Rice—Potatoe ee swarms of Bees, - ; tii Trilobite - - - - - - - - - 203 DOMESTIC. 1. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North —— illustrated by figures drawn on stone, from a 2. Declination of the ses ster a . si 3. Boring for Wat 206 4, 5. Alluvial Sigs of the iksksioachiaiaisicn of Comin ‘Sublimate, = - 207 ERRATA. Corrections and Alterations. e 1,1. Be — top, “ Wuaka, read Unaka, and so at the ee latee where the word oc —>p. 3, 1. 9 fr. top, for Waldeus, read Waldens ; 1.15 fr. bottom, for Withero, read | Withero 3 1.10 fr. aoe for strong, read stronger. —p . 4,1..10 fr. bottom, for view, read vein; 1. 5 fr. m, for Six, read Six’s.—p. 5, L? 7 fr. top, dela nd - 11 fr. bot. , and i insert and.—p. S$, 11% fr ig for veins are ‘placed, r ead views are for Cone, read Cane. ne.—p. 10, 1.9 fr. » for cave, read ove . 1. 15 fr. top, for Onetoan read Chilhawee ead Gero te fami cove peculiar.—p. 191, 1. 13 13 fr. "top, for observed, read absorbed. Olmsted's Introduction to Natural Philosophy. for the use of the Students in Yale College ; by Denison Olmsted, — A.M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. In two- volumes; pp. 346 and 352... New Haven, Hezekiah Howe & Co. This work, which has been for some time in the press, is now com- pleted, and in use as a Class-Book in Yale College, and, as we un- derstand, in séveral sister Institutions. We reserve a more extended An Introduction to Natural Philosophy : designed as a Text Book, | notice of it for our next number. . : BOTANICAL BOOKS. . Mr. 0, Rich, No. 12, Red Lion Square, London, has published 2 2 Catalogue of Botanical Books, comprising the library of Ortega, the Spanish Botanist, and a portion of the Duplicates of the Linnaan Sock ety. The catalogue contains 223 articles. - | ; . 3 BOOKS RELATING TO AMERICA. F __Mr. O. Rich, No. 12, Red Lion Square, London, has published Part! of a Catalogue of Books relating principally to America. 4 Orders for books are requested to be addressed direct to Mr. Rich, and if accompanied by remittances, or a credit on some respectable house, will be immediately attended to. Messrs. Goodhue & Co. of New York, are authorized to receive money from persons to whom it would be inconvenient to make remittances direct. 2 3 OS: os tends GR EB wk CAG gr 3 Kk NWLO X ff P oie ae : ates CO. pre e <> Dnuek’ ‘ : re) i < e Lead met Ss e. Br, c pe 5% & i pe ® Yad R. ps Z : <= ets Ee = , i} ' ark she nape Jones Cove y ” es ye ee ye? ~ em gston we SHAE ANS | " Zz My na ’ VAM 4 ; tts i Sa Bx ss war ) .F DESO, ZX NZ ‘a WP ae Kos FS e Jp ls =m NWFP 7° Nae / Zé. ee Pa te Mere Re : : Se) ron Ove ol Tt I wA Ss S algae Ss Py S any S yz Ze y ee es 3° ay) ig) |e = (X) >: RY He : >. f batt, . a i) ~ : es inne es > ae a SS if J = NSE 2 ‘iy as y ia * peel ae ; a — : Sy mc! ii * ne = yy I S&S Pr TE mG ide, ( mt a ot i) = Qu MA c OCN a on Se - ee Se ee zn Sor ' me Wee) ioe (0 =< Ocoee wee & Zi ee Wy uy a 7 WwW F ath S 2 CoO mm ‘ace Wl =< no ry Lit Py RO \ er Vig (Mv SK MS an 2 Sie ees Pn Lenny Ney eg tb, ah, on. 3 Get itr lton,,. ener : \ s Pee : : ee : 5 ae aS aN Foe" ie elt ie. eo <. . e ane 74% Py ory == ny RS x ts : SS ek f 4 a, = caf x8 YS ee SF 4 ree Eee 4) : : € 7 % es aa ye at s We z ie { a ee Ro, 1s. re re 44 x ig! porn re 2 = ZS Mee ff as I lag Es GEOLOGICAL : EX A of fer NS see e of the ay: ) _—“_" MINING DISTRIC ICTS am the State of saan Ff t \ cS ms a te S 4. } fa piuunesnasestsenseberennns Unt ay, ~ - Mow , supbiaverecdis seceded m2 te opt BO ay ie a j forts” ts ye Tied nu om, «aoe -e*" - --* on eee tee ais Nig. 4 ay oe pi ef hoe Cold Gold ' a i ‘A RR oO tha a Q Clerk, FW Aarber Jp i * « - x x WV. Me.Naary “ert a THE i S beehe oo AMERICAN i ea OF SCIENCE, we itt A = ae Anr. p-Lesologica and Mineralogical Account of the Mining Districts in the State of Georgia—western part of North Caro- © Tina and of East Tennessee, with a map; by Hon. Judge Jacos Peck. E * Te most remarkable geological features presented in traversing the country from Knoxville, on a line south-east through the mining regions, are three principal ranges of mountains. The first is the _ Wuaka, more frequently called Smoky mountain. ‘This eminence is the line between North Carolina and Tennessee. The next is the - range ; and between thirty and forty miles in the same direc- tion, the Blue ridge. The first and second of these ranges are bro- __ ken by the waters running into the Tennessee river, as they pass off in a north and north-western direction. ‘The Blue ridge divides the waters emptying into the Ohio, and those passing directly south-east into the Atlantic. To these mountains there are shcrditinte hills and spurs of the ‘main ranges. Most of them have a general parallel direction con- forming to the range of the main mountains. It seems to me that nothing will strike the inquirer into the geolo- gy of this section, as more impressive or worthy of remark, than this general parallelism of the principal mountains, and of ——_ accompany, and may be said to form them The range runs north-east and sconlicwridt, and although deviations are observable ; still, in the main direttion, the feature is distinct _ _ Mountain and the Blue ridge; but I am not apprised of any ob ne ie ' -vations which may be relied upon as fixing the probable mediun ye He a Vol. RAM ie t ie 9 : Gold Region of Georgia, evation. Professor Troost, who has explored part of Smoky or the - Wuaka range, comparing it with other mountains he has visited, the altitude of which has been ascertained, believes this mountain may be safely stated at four thousand feet above the level of the sea. The Blue ridge is still more elevated ; though the approach to this eleva- tion is so gradual at most of the places where the road passes, that we might at first doubt of its having a superior elevation. ‘The very great fall of the waters having their source in the Blue ridge to the point where the Wuaka is broken down by their current, and also views taken from midway elevations between those mountains are saetelagtory to prove the superior elevation of the range dividing the waters Smoky mountain separates the transition from the primitive for- mation. ‘This may however not be uniformly true; in Washing- ton county, the primitive is found at one place on the north-west _ side, and some of the graywackes may be found in places south- east ; still without descending to minutie, the mountain, may well serve for this boundary. From the Chilhowee mountain, which ranges north-west of the Wuaka, and about twelve miles from it, until one has passed over the Blue Ridge in Georgia, there is presented a series of mountains. The larger streams winding amongst them afford narrow bottoms, ‘and with the exception of three or four small vallies at the of the large streams next the Blue ridge, the country. may be ‘said | be almost uninhabitable ; each side of the Wuaka mountain pr esents -Rature in aie most romantic aspect— ; « Alps on Alps arise !—” - le whe delights in the wild and picturesque will have before bes an ample field. ‘To me it seemed strange that so little had been known of this section, where each remove and change of p al- ways presented something new and charming. to“the nal ‘Streams, waterfalls, towering cliffs, peaks and hills of every degree of-acclivity, as we ascend the mountain; these features present a pleasir ‘striking assemblage of the beautiful and sublime. The field for the painter is infinite. I might dwell upon trees, plants, flowers, animals and reptiles, but my business is with the rocks. The natural division of the country between Chilhowee and the Yeona range gives three separate sections; one in Tennessee, one in, western North Carolina, and the other east of the Blue ridge in North Carolina and Tennessee. 3 Georgia. A remarkable chain of mountains lies along the course of the heads of Frenchbroad. Some of the highest peaks in this chain have been described in the American Journal of Science. At the other extremity of the bounds I have allotted myself, the parallel position of mountain ranges is in some measure lost. The Blue ridge and the Wuaka approach each other and form jointly the sep- aration of the eastern from the western waters. As this new formed range continues west, another range not less formidable approaches from the north, Waldeus ridge and Cumberland mountain ; these unite themselves with the former, and this union takes the name of the Lookout mountain. At this point of intersection, where the un- ion of immense mountains on either side once formed a barrier to the streams which flowed from fifty thousand square miles: of coun- try ; the evidence at this place of the war of elements is the admira- tion of all who pass the broken mountain, through the suck and boil- ing chaldron, near the confines of the state of Tennessee. The pow- er that gave such magic to the scene at Harper’s ferry, had operated ‘here also ; and while the trident made in the one place, a passage for the slippery element to the east; another stroke at one thousand miles distance, cleared a passage for the same element to the saad romantic and not less sublime. - Leaving for the present further delineations in saileni let us tun to the section in Georgia, east of the Blue ridge. The discovery of gold in Habersham county has been so recent, not more than two years since, that but little has been done to develop the metals concealed there. A gentleman of the name of Wilhero, made researches by comparing the face of the country and appearance of the branches and streams with the gold section in North Carolina, and found deposits of gold through Habersham and Hall counties, and then discovery follow- ed ed discovery. In the Cherokee nation which was. — by the Chestetee river, the indications of gold were not strong, but caused it to be proclaimed richer than any part of the region hitherto explored. The nation was intruded on asa common, and for a time, not less ihan five thousand adventurers dug up the face of the coun- try ; rich, as it certainly was, it is questionable whether the counties spoken of were not equally so; the lands in the latter being private property, were not overrun as was the nation ; and all the hands em- - ployed in collecting gold on the lands granted, amounted, it is be- lieved, to not more than one thousand ; the owners of the land were many of them poor and destitute of enterprise. With the exception ee Gold Region of Georgia, of a few deposits, the most valuable tracts were sold to speculating — adventurers ; many of these have frequently changed owners at en- hanced prices; a few companies, not exceeding four, have com-_ menced regular operations with a view to gold. ce In a few instances, in the yicinity of rich deposits, veins had been — discovered and opened, but more skill has pointed out other indica= _ tions of gold veins ; they are founded principally upon the fact that every brancly contains gold arising evidently from the disintegration — of veins. The veins in this country must be numerous ; and it has been remarked by miners from Spanish America, that until they op- erated in North Carolina and Georgia, they had not been enabled to — find veins at the surface ; one cause of the hazard in mining for gold in Mexico, is said to be the absence of the indications so abund- — ant here. While the Georgian finds the vein with the gold visible © at the surface, the Mexican miner at the base of a mountain searches _ fora slate, (the taleose,) and when found, he drives ina tunnel with — the hope of striking a gold vein traversing its bed. Perhaps other striking differences may have been produced by the volcanic action — in Mexico, breaking, distorting, or forever concealing the vein, while in Georgia no such agent has operated. Here the veins have a reg- ularity, a uniformity of position wholly i inconsistent with the supposition © of fire having been the agent in giving laws to the veins and-strata of - the country which I have examined. This I speak with due defer- ence to the friends of the god of fire. To prove Vulcan the agent, his advocates must draw distinctions between his manner of working — where his fires have been long extinct, and where at present he — heaves to the skies his confused masses; and to escape lashings for my infidelity, I will not venture to give all the credit to Neptune, al- though he has left more visible marks than any which may be — to the credit of the former. A view of hornblende slate, (diabase,) passing throughout the gol region of Georgia, though it produces little or no elevation of the — surface is remarked by every gold hunter; it occupies a middle space between the Yeona and Horse range mountains. It is used as ‘an index to the gold country, and has been traced from Alabama, — through the Cherokee country near the Six, passing Cane creek, — the corner of Hall county through Habersham and Rayburn, into” the Blue ridge, ina direction to reach the gold works in Burke coun- ty, North Carolina. The-general course is between north 35° and 40° east. For miles on both sides of this vein has been found the © 4 SE Oe ae AE mS ee eR Ee ep Oe Oe) a ee ee ee ee ee ee Pe a oe North Carolina and Tennessee. 5 greatest abundance of gold; most of the veins opened, are near and lie parallel to it; thus have been discovered the finest deposits. ~ At some distance on either side, the granite rears its wedge like top in lines generally parallel. This rock, by disintegration, is usual- ly rounded off. Gneiss and mica slate are common ; these alternate _ with diabase. Veins of talcose slate, hornblende, garnet, euphotide, imperfect soapstone, and with veins and beds of kaolin. Most, if not all these lie in parallels, (to use the workmen’s phrase,) like the leaves of a book ; their relative position 1 was not enabled satisfactorily to fix. The strata are generally vertical, though when a dip i is observed, it is to the north-west toward the base of the Blue ri When it is in veins, more gold has been found in quartz rock than in any other substance. The vein of quartz may be found at the surface, usually running with the talcose slate, and sometimes with that slate passing into mica slate. Very frequently it is associated with hepatic pyrites, often greatly decomposed, (particularly at the surface.) Such is the quantity of iron in some veins, that it would seem to be the gangue ; but much as it may predominate, still a por- tion of quartz is present ; and the same remark applies to the talcose slate where it is found-to contain gold ; there is always a portion of quartz associated with it; usually it is granular, and disseminated with the gold ; and with this rock there is less of the pyrites, and if any, the cubes are small. Gold is found in veins of quartz, running with greenstone, penkitgy into chlorite ; often the quartz is diffused and splintery, with a trace of iron and kisolins; but in general this substance is in the wall of the vein on one sides Some of the best deposits seem to have had their supplies from such sources. Loud’s and Hughes’s deposits may be placed to this latter class of veins. ‘They are rich; the gold is in large and rough pieces, holding in its filaments and thin plates, por- tions of finely granular quartz. I did not see any vein of this char- acter so far opened as to develop a satisfactory view of its associa- tion; one, in which the writer had an interest, contained much gold, but it was hard to penetrate the gangue, and for the first ten or twelve feet, was found in confusion : my opinion is, that should these veins in the descent become ochery, they might be easily worked. Humpbrey’s vein on the Chatahoochy, was quartz, walled with talcose slate. The masses of quartz containing the gold were reni- form; it is rich; it had not been opened to the water. At the base 6 Gold Region of Georgia, of the hill, where the stream had laid bare the formation, the horn blende slate crops out, affording evidence that the talcose slate rests upon it. ‘This I have remarked in many places, as well where dig- ging has made the disclosure, as where the streams have broken the E hills. A Mr. Lyon has opened at least two veins exemplifying this | position ; and Loud’s vein is another example. The end of the orse range mountain, broken down by Duke’s creek, gives still fur- j ther proof of the superposition of the talcose slate, upon the diabase, the gneiss and mica slate. ae While penetrating the talcose slate, the veins of quartz are seldom : found in situ ; reaching the diabase in the descent, the vein is usual- — ly larger and richer in gold. This rock, the base of the talcose slate being compact, holds the water above it ; it doubtless rests up- ’ on gneiss or granite, If it be true, as some suppose, that the depth — of veins is somewhat te to their length, we may in this country anticipate very deep mining before veins are exhausted ee wedged out. Before I quit the subject of the gold veins of Habersham, I vill mention one differing in structure from those treated of ; it is on the Tesantee ; the wall is talcose slate ; next the vein it is a protogene or talcose shan; passing into mica dime with quartz. ‘The center of the vein contained quarizose blocks, or thin flag, lying parallel to the wall;_ the whole was very dark and ferruginous, and full of gold finely dif- fused through it: the wall and vein could be separated in ——— and was easily reduced, [broken ?] The variety observable in the veins of Georgia, cionsimnel onesie on form in which the substances were associated, than in the sub- ‘stances themselves. . The black crust observable on the rock taken out near the surface, could best be accounted for by examining one of the veins opened below the water. At Loud’s,a strong smell was" given off as soon as the rock was pel agen to the air ; this arose from decomposing pyrites, the ore containing this then in its own angue, and thus produced the black stain and apparent scoriz, sup- posed by the diggers to have some resemblance to lava or cinders;_ and it is attributable to this mineral that the stain on the boulders is- produced in branches, and ee smaller pebbles are ccoglomereianeny : _ gether by this ferruginous m: ) Of the other metals, and of the crystals of this region, —~ say little : there is iron and oxide of titanium in great abundance 5 also, copper pyrites in Rayburn ; of these the specimens shown me were FT ee eee Se Sia ie Sh, he eee gee Me eR Se ee AE A SS aa as) olan Na beautiful ; its locality was kept a secret, but it was said to be cael dant. ‘There is lead on the head of Mill creek, Habersham. The specimens of the ore furnished to me were in cubical crystals. There is a report of mercury taken out of deposits with gold at places where had not been used in the stream by the washers. I had no ocular proof of the fact, but must rely upon the information of re- spectable gentlemen, who affirmed their knowledge of its existence. | Silver is associated with the gold at New Potosi, on the Chistitee. Garnet, tourmaline, small — prismatic quartz, zircon, &e., and varieties of pyrites, are also ~ I shall enter into no gooey o0 the probable results to the from the new pursuit of mining. So far as it may be seen in Georgia, I will not anticipate an unfavorable issue to adventurers, or to the country; in a country where monopolies are unknown, every new enterprise is likely to be carried by some beyond the point of discretion; and where sobriety and education are both upon. the advance, I may hope that the profligacy which has been the bane of society in other mining countries, will not find place, or at least take deep root in this. The section described is immensely rich in met- als, and the wise will no doubt turn this gift of providence into a blessing ;. the country has as fine water and air as is drunk or breath- ed in the world, and there is much good land. I now pass from Georgia over the Blue ridge, into the western parts of North Carolina. This mining section is mostly in the Cher- okee country. 1 will not pretend to enumerate all the places: where gold has been found. Immediately bordering on the north-west side of the Blue ridge, there are fine table lands; the country is high, and a northern exposure renders it cold, and the season short for the latitude. ‘Twelve miles out of the valley, in Habersham, over the ridge to the head of the western waters, makes a change equal to several degrees of Jatitude, arising from the eastern declivity meeting the sun’s rays, and having the western winds broken off by the moun- tain. ‘These lands are formed by the disintegration of hills of the Blue ridge ; the rocks and base of the formation is much covered up; where the surface is so formed, it would be natural to suppose that gold in deposit would lie deep in these western parts, situate in Georgia, which includes the upper waters of Highwassa and Brass Town. ‘The digging for gold is forbidden by law on the Nan- tiale, Valley River. On the head waters of Little Tennessee and the Tuckasage, all in North Carolina, gold has been found; how far, e Gold Region of Georgia, in general, it may be called a country rich in that metal, I will not — pretend to say. The whole region is like Habersham, primitive, — and the rock and ferruginous hue of the soil are the same ; being alike _ in geology, and but little as yet developed, I would not pronounce it — less interesting ; in extent, it surpasses the region described in Geor- — Vautiey River, if viewed in any respect, is very interesting. — _ The scenery is picturesque beyond description. ‘The talcose ‘slate — predominating in the hills, leaves them barren of timber, but clothed with grass, rounded off and destitute of those bold cliffs, so com- mon in the smoky mountain ranges; the veins are placed, with re- mote mountains in the back ground, which ever way the view is — taken. But to the rocks again... The formation in which the gold is found — differs from any thing I had before seen. It is a protogene mica slate, passing into talcose slate, holding within its masses the largest stauro- _ tides, many of these crystals are of the size of a man’s wrist,* most dis- _ tinctly crossed and interwoven and of every size, from that of a straw up to several inches in diameter. The slate rock which I now men=— tion breaks up into rhomboidal portions. The quartz is in great mass- es, very compact and of a yellow hue, the gold is large and I con- fess I could not fix its gangue; much deposit gold is found in the | bottom of the river. Every part of the valley did not present like ap- pearances. ‘There were ferruginous spots of deposit, where the gold — was abundant and in fine particles, but the value of it was depressed — by an alledged alloy; one of the localities where it was thus found gave signs of much labor having been performed. An Indian oc- cupied and claimed the spot. * In this vicinity are the remains of ancient works ; many shafts have. been sunk, and (judging from the masses thrown up) to great depths; — one of those was through quartz rock. About thirty feet of it in depth lay open to the view ; there is alsoa deep and difficult eut.cross- ing a very bold vein of quartz, it is much filled up having been used — for an Indian burying place. Not far from this work of art where nothing short of the steel pick, could have left the traces found, are the remains of a small furnace; the walls had-been of soapstone ;_ out of the inner wall I broke off cinders. In connexion with these — 3 Staurotides are found with the gold, in Cone creek. i be BN i i pelt i North Carolina and. Tennessee. 9 remains of art found here, I will mention some ‘lics discovered in Habersham. From Richardson’s deposit, not far from Yeona mountain, there were taken out of the washed mass hundreds of Gun flints, perfect and beautifully fashioned ; they are very large, and Dr. Troost says of French manufacture ; I presented him one for his museum. Lately out of another deposit a small vessel in form of a skillet, was dug up at the depth of fifteen feet. It is a com- pound of tin and copper with a trace of iron, and this it is said by the‘assayer Dr. Troost, is an evidence of its antiquity. A stone wall remains on the top of Yeona mountain; it exhibits the angles of a fortification, and guards the only accessible points of ascent to the top. Timbers in the Cherokee Gountry bearing marks of the axe have been taken up at the depth of ten feet below the sur- face. Indian tradition reaches none of these reniains. I leave them to the antiquarian. In the order of my return to Smoky mountain from Valley River, a passing notice of the prospect of mines on Nauteale and Tennessee, e mountain must not be omitted. Both these streams and their lower branches contain gold. At Wealch’s below the mouth of the Tuchasage there is much deposit gold, of which I procured some very fine specimens. The rock formation in this section, is a fine grained gneiss, mica slate and an indurated talcose slate mixed with quartz and garnet, with small cubic iron. Between the Smoky mountain and Blue ridge, and its transverse from the upper waters of the French bread to the Lookout mountain, containing five thousand square miles, there is a field presented to the mineralogist not perhaps equalled for extent and interest in the United States. The whole range of Smoky mountain is interesting ; as before remarked it is the line between the primitive and transi- tion, its acclivity is very steep, and its top extremely narrow. Quartz, talcose slate and greywacke are the principal rocks. Gold has been taken out of all the streams descending from it, on either side. Dr. Troost has explored a portion of it, thirty miles, and so far as he has examined, pronounces it a gold region. ‘The formation on the Ten- nessee side being different, [ cannot hazard an opinion whether it will yield other valaable metals, besides gold. Iron ore in many of its varieties, titanium and native silver with the gold washed our at oco creek, may be taken as favorable indications. 'The rocks of this mountain are unlike those of = Blue ridge. » That mountain Vou. XXIL—No. 1. 10 On the Temperature and Saltness of is: gneiss, with few veins of quartz, but Smoky mountain contains — immense masses of quartz rock, and where the quartz does not pre- — dominate, the graywacke takes its place. Where the spurs and — belts of this mountain have been broken away, veins of quartz run- — ning with the talcose’ slate are observable. Here, as in Georgia, — gold has been found in quartz rock out of place, but no vein has — been opened. Coco creek is a very rich deposit, but as yet few — deposits have been opened or washed. In Washington county near — this mountain, an interesting cave produces out of the same bank, ~ iron, lead, zinc and copper, but the mine has not been explored to any considerable depth. That science and enterprise should not — have been awakened, to explore this whole region, may well bea — matter of some surprise; mining however, is but just Si -_ countries thought to be richer, have called off adventurers. Leaving the auriferous regions, -we reach the Chitteawee range of mountains ; here roofing slate of a superior quality may be traced for fifty miles. Marbles of many and very beautiful varieties are traced parallel to the strata, which, as we observed through our ex- cursions, have never lost their position. We have next the gray- wacke slate, and with it the.red sandstone formation ; lead, in a line © parallel with the range of mountains, may be traced fone Viaheng a ton county into the Highwassa district. Conscious that my sketch must be imperfect, I with diffidence, resign it into the hands of more scientific observers, with the ear-— nest hope, that while it awakens curiosity, it may call into the field — those who have more time and superior means for investigation. Art. IIl.—On the temperature and Saliness of the Waters of the Ocean at different om : From the Edinburgh Journal of Scisnee i April, 1832. a Mee tain to the expedition of Kotzebue, made a social : of well conducted experiments on the temperature and_saltness of the ocean in different latitudes and at various depths. The instru- ment he employed for ascertaining the temperatures was an improve- ment upon that of Hales, being a large cylinder closed at both ends — by valves opening inwards, to one of which was attached a thermom- a the Ocean at Different Depths. — 11 eter, and surrounded by a highly non-conducting substance.—The results are contained in the following table :— 4ACES. E . Time of observa-| he Depth in at a : tion. enz. |Lat.w.| Lon. w.]| toises.* |° face : 1/1823.) Oct. 10, Atlant. Oc. | 7° 21, 21° 59/ 539 25°, 80C. 2°,20 2)1824., May 18, | So ith Sea. ee Paid 196 1 140,7 26,40 16. 3 ee 6s “se 413,0 * “ss 3,18 “ we ng6 ‘cs ‘ 6 665,1 2,92 ra “ ss ‘c ‘sc 914,9 ‘“s x " 61825. Feb. 8, « (95 6\155 58| 167 21,50 14,00 « | Aug. 31, “ 32 6/136 48| 89,8 | 21,45 13,35 ‘ 6s “sé “ce “sé 214,0 ss i 1 se ce ce sc “6 450,2 * 3,75 ct See Se “ _ 6 «se “e 592,6 sé 2,21 11/1826. Mar tlant. Oc. |32 20} 42 30 /} 1014,8 20,86. 2,24 12/1825, ‘Aug. Hs South Sea. 41 12/141 58 205,0 19,20 5,16 13] “« “sc “6 “ sc 512,1 “ce 2,14 14]1826. Mar. 24,| Atlant. Oc. |45 58) 15 17 | 197,7 | 14,64 10 15 | “* ss ‘e 96,4 ‘ec 9,95 From this table the following conclusions may be drawn: 1. Between the equator and 45° the temperature of the ocean decreases regularly to the depth of a thousand fathoms,—beyond no experiments have been made. __ 2. The decrease of temperature is at ‘first a it gradually de- and becomes at last insensible. “8. The point where the decrease becomes ceaniatia appears to rise with the latitude. At 41° and 31° it is between two hundred and three hundred fathoms, at 21° it is near four hundred. ‘To this remark there appears to be a slight exception at 45° 53’, when the temperature at four hundred fathoms is still at 10° C. but perhaps at observation is modified by the proximity of the land, since it was made in the Atlantic Ocean only 15° W. from Greenwich, and consequently near the coast of Europe, while the others were made in the south sea far from any continent ; but even. in this case the point where the decrease of temperature becomes insensible is still evidently near two hundred fathoms. 4. The lowest temperature observed is 2.29 C (36° F. ) and it is perhaps that of all the depths at which the decrease is insensible. The locality of that temperature rises with the latitude ; and it would be interesting to know at what latitude it reaches the pa i _The results of M. Lenz, in regard to the saltness of the sea, have been deduced from its specific gravity. It had previously been * A toise = 1.066 English fathoms. 12. On the Temperature and Saltness of shown by M. Ermaan that salt water having a specific gravity of 1.027, the mean of that of the sea, diminishes in bulk gradually down to — 5° F., and does not reach its maximum density before congelation. — M. Ermann’s experiments on this contraction extended from 59°F. to 25°, M. Lenz extended them up to 86°, and thence deduced a — law for reducing the specific gravity at any one temperature to what — _ it would be at any other. The following table exhibits the specific — gravity corrected to the temperature of 63.5° F., distilled water “ 4 that temperature being reckoned unity. S| Depth in] SPECIFIC GRAVITY. e No.| Lat. N. Lon. E. ' a og | At surface.] Beneath. Difference. ¥ } 7920". 21959" 539,0 | 1,02574 | 1,02645 | —0, i] 2.) 21 14 ).196. 3.2... 660,124 0220) 1,02666 +0,00035 | se se 66 From this table we see ‘that in the experiments No. 1 and 4 the - specific gravity of sea water towards the bottom is a litde greater than at the surface, but that the contrary holds in Nos. 2, 3, and foe In experiaett 7 the specific gravity of the surface differs so little 1 that of the bottom that we may consider them as equal, For the first two cases we may suppose that a rapid evaporation had at that time determined the slight increase of density at the surface, a5 abundant rains may have diminished it in experiments 2, 3, and 5. It is remarkable that in the same place the specific gravities are al- most exactly the same for different depths, if we except that of the — surface. No. 6 alone offers a striking exception, giving at the depth — of a thousand fathoms a specific gravity much less than at the sur- — face. , We cannot suppose this difference to be due to an error of after. The irregularity may perhaps be due to a current of colder and less salt water fowing at the bottom from the pole to the equa-_ tor,—a point, however, which can be determined only by repeated | 929.4 1,02659 | +0,00042 /3 25 6 | 156 58 | 167,0} 1,02706 | 1.02674 +-0,00032 4 \ 41 12 | 141 58 | 205,0| 1,02562 | 1,02609 | —0,00047 ‘“ ee 512, ‘c ,02658 — 0,006 6 | 5 |82 6 | 136 48 | 214,0/ 1,02678 | 1,02624 | +:0,00054 | «|e “ 50,2; | 1,02651 | +0,00027 «| « « | §92,6' « {| 1,02629 | +0,00049 | 6 | 32 20 | 42 30 1014,7/ 1,02825 | 1,02714 | +0,00111 | 7 |45 53 [15.17 | 3964 1,02738| 1,02732 | +0,00006-| a 3 ation, the specific gravity at the bottom being the mean of ations agreeing with each other, and that of the surface onding with the observations of the day before and the day the Ocean at Different Depths. 13 observations. Leaving out this latter observation, we may conclude that from the equator to 45° N. lat. the water of the sea to the depth of one thousand fathoms possesses the same degree of saltness. © M. Lenz gives also two tables exhibiting the results of 258 ob- servations made on the saltness of the sea at the surface, 105 of them . made in the Atlantic Ocean, between 56° 41’ S., and 50° 25’ N. lat., and 153 in the South Sea and Indian Ocean, between 57° 27’ S. 56° 22’ N. Lat. From these tables he deduces the following re- sults :— 4. The Atlantic Ocean is salter than the South Sea; and the In- dian Ocean, being the transition from the one to the other, is salter towards the Atlantic on the west than towards the South Sea on the east. 2. Ineach of these great oceans there exists a maximum of saltness towards the north, and another towards the south,—the first is far- ther from the equator than the. second. The minimum between these two points is a few degrees south of the equator m the Atlan- tic Ocean, and probably also in the South Sea, though Mr. Lenz’s ob- servations do not extend to latitudes sufficiently low in the South Sea. 3. In the Atlantic Ocean the western portion is more salt than the eastern,—in the South Sea the saltness does not appear to differ with the longitude. 4, The greatest specific gravity is found in the Atlantic at the maximum point above alluded to, at 40° W. Long—t.02856. : In the South Sea at 11° 9’ eee: 1.028084. This last is the only one in the South Sea giving a specific gravity reaching 1.028. _ 5. In going north from the northern maximum, and south from the southern maximum, the specific gravity diminishes constantly as " “Whence then, says M. Lenz, come these maxima towards the north and south, why is the maximum not rather at the equator ? To answer this question, we must inquire what chiefly determines the saliness of the surface. Evaporation exercises the greatest influence, and by this evaporation the occurrence of these maxima may be explained. In fact, evaporation is influenced both by the heat of the sun, and by the more or Jess rapid motion of the currents of air. The solar heat is greatest on the equator, but there, on the other hand, the motion of the air is least. It is remarkable that in the Atjantic Ocean the minimum coincides precisely with the locality of almost con- 14 On the Progressive Increase of Temperature stant calms. The vapors raised by the heat of the sun remain suspen= ded above the surface of the water, and prevent farther evaporation. The sea loses thus less of its aqueous particles, and it is consequently — less salt than at 12° N. and 18° S. Lat. In these regions the trade winds carry off immediately the vapors formed by the solar heat, — which is bere little less than at the equator, and give place to other — vapors which rise immediately. In this way evaporation proceeds, — and the saltness increases rapidly. This consideration would explain also the greater saltness of the western part of the Atlantic Ocean; — for we know that the more we approach the coasts of Africa, the — more frequent and more continued are the calms. In the South Sea; great calms are not experienced towards the east, and hence the —_ E gitude has no influence on the saltness of i its waters. ‘2 Arr. IlI.—Note on the Progressive Increase of Temperature descend beneath the surface of the Earth. ce From the Ediuburgh Journal of Science for April, 1832. Tr is long since the attention of scientific men was first directed — to the observation of the high temperatures of mines, and the natural — inference it appears to suggest. The deeper the mine, the higher : in general is the temperature; and data have been carefully collect- ed, and an expression deduced from them, of the rate at which the — temperature increases as we descend from the surface into the bowels of the earth. The mean rate of i increase, calculated from experi- — ments made in six of the deepest coal mines in Durham and Northum- — berland, is 1° F. for a descent of forty four English feet. Cordier found it in some French mines to increase more rapidly ; and the — latest and apparently most carefully deduced result, that of Kupfier,* makes the temperature to increase 1° for every 36.81 Er But objections of various kinds have been made to this result. -have even refused to believe that the high temperature of mines i indicates any increase of heat in the centre of the earth. They a to discover in the presence of many workmen ‘the — candles burned,—in the gunpowder frequently employed fe blasting, —and more lately} in the condensation of the air Lo rushing — ; prs i _™ Pog. An. xv. p. 159. ; t Edin. Review, Noveltc® ae ” a age et ae Ue ea beneath the surface of the Earth. 15 from the surface, sources of heat amply sufficient to raise the air and water to the temperature they are found to possess at great depths. These objections have been severally and satisfactorily answered, and the last and most ingenious: of them has beer ably refuted by Mr. Fox,* who has shown, that in the Cornish mines the ascending has generally a Aigher temperature than the descending currents. The difference varied from 9° to 17°, showing that, instead of imparting heat, the currents of air actually carry off a large quantity of heat from the interior of the mines. It has been objected also to the doctrine of a central fire, that we perceive no traces of increase of temperature in the ocean at great depths, Now, in the consideration of this point, two principles are involved, first, that to which Mr. Fox has adverted, that the strata at the bottom of the ocean, were they composed of solid rock the most favorable for transmitting heat, would yet propagate it much more slowly than the water which covers it, and thus all accumulation must necessarily be prevented; second, the principle of the maximum density of water. All the observations hitherto made on masses of fresh water show, that at great depths} the temperature differs only a very few degrees from the point of maximum density. At greater depths it will prob- ably be found to be very near. that point. The latest experiments make the maximum density of pure water at about 38.75°, while those of Hallstrom make it, 39.38°. If the water be impure the point of maximum density will fall more or less, according to the nature and amount of the foreign bodies it may hold in solution. The experi- ments of Exmann show that the point of greatest density sinks very rapidly as we add any saline ingredient. Now, as the heaviest parts of any fluid will always find their way to the bottom, the deeper we de in a mass of water, either salt or fresh, we must find it the colder until we come to the limit of greatest density. In fresh water lakes of great depth the tempera- ture of the water will decrease as we descend till we reach the limit of 39° Fah. when the temperature will undergo no farther change. In salt water the point of maximum density increases with its saltness towards the poles,} so that the depth at which the temperature be- * Phil. Mag. and An. Feb. 1830 ¢ At 1000 feet Saussure found the lake of Geneva to have a temperature of 42° F. t See this Number, page 11. ; pens eo 16 On the Progressive Increase of Temperature comes stationary at about 36° Fah. varies from two hundred to five — hundred fathoms. Below this there is probably no change of tempe- rature. M. Lenz found it to sink no lower as far down as one thou- 2 sand fathoms; but we can expect no increase of temperature without a complete subversion of the law of nature, by which a —— = _of density is imparted to water. | It would appear, then, that the evidence at present is decidedly in i 4 favor of a great central heat in the globe, even leaving out of consid- eration the easy explanation it affords of so many geological phenom- a ena. Buta new source of evidence has lately been opened, and one much less liable to objections than the high temperature of minesx— in the borings for water lately practised to such an extent in sia ; 4 and Germany. @ It was an important observation of Mr. Fox, that the water whieh 4 gushed out from springs at the bottom of the Cornish ape had al- ready the temperature of the air in the places where it and — was completely convincing as to the source of the heat so lone observ= | ed. The Artesian springs of the continent confirm his observation. In general, the water which flows from them is of a higher tempera- _ ture than the mean of the earth at the place, and is warmer as its — source is deeper. At Vienna forty or fifty have been formed, and the water of all has a temperature varying from 52° to 58°, mean temperature, according to Humboldt, being 50.549 F. “At Heilbronn in Wurtemberg, five borings.sunk to supply a paper mill to the depth of from sixty to one hundred and twelve feet, deliver water having a temperature of about 55°; and the proprietor has — taken advantage of it to warm his works in the winter, and succeed- — ed in keeping the apartments at a temperature of 46° when ae ol the air was 25° below zero of Fah. = There are, however, many exceptions and anomalies which are 7 not to be wondered at, when we consider, a from the i * of the strata and other causes, the depth of the boring is no sure:in- a dication of the true level from which the water comes. It is only when we are sure beforehand of the nature of the strata, that we can come to correct conclusions in regard to the ‘true Tore of ae earth at any given de 4 One of the most interesting of the exceptions we have met with, a and which illustrates best the nature of the anomalies we may expect | to meet with, is the case of a tube of three inches and a quarter in diameter, sunk to the depth of three hundred and thirty five feet at 4 sek beneath the surface of the Earth. oa the city of ‘Tours in the basin of the Loire.* The spring ceasing to flow so freely, it became necessary to draw out the tube to within twelve feet of the surface. Immediately the water gushed out one third more plentifully, and continued so for several hours, carrying with it a large quantity of fine sand, and many remains of plants and shells. Among these were twigs of several inches in length blacken- ed by the action of the water; fresh stems and roots of marsh plants, —of one species in particular so fresh, that they could not have lain more than three or four months in the water ; seeds of five or six dif- ferent species; and fresh water and land shells, (Planorbis margi- natus, Helix:rotundata and striata.) All these are such remains as are found after a flood on the banks of small streams. The water in this remarkable case, therefore, must proceed’ from some subterranean stream, the source of which is to be sought for at a distance among the higher grounds of Auvergne and Vivarais, and from the temperature of such sources, it is evident we can infer — regarding the interor temperature of the earth. _ 'M. Magnus} has made some observations on the a ofa boring at Rudensdorf, about five German miles from - which seem entitled to some confidence. It passes through jietiestiones, gyp- sum, and sandstone, alternating with clay-slate, to a depth of sixty five English feet. "The mean temperature of the place on which no ex- periments have been made is assumed to differ very little from that of Berlin, 49.1° F., and the results are as follows: Temper. Diff. from mean. For 1° F. At 675 feet 67.66 +18.56 36.3 feet. 516 63.95 414.85 34.7 392 62.82 13.72 28.5 The first of these results is the only one to which we can Jook for any approximation to the truth. And it comes very near 36.81, the result of Kupffer. The other determinations, however, are not with- out their valye, they all indicate a more rapid increase of temp than the truth, as we should naturally expect. For though the water ‘as it gushes from the bottom of the tube must undergo considerable cooling on its way to the surface, yet it must still retain a considerable excess over the temperature of the strata through which it passes, and thus indicate a less distance for each degree of the thermometer, as * Pogg. Ann. xxi. p. 353 1 Pog. Ann. xxii. p. 146. Vou. XXIIT—No. 1. 18 Universal. Terms. in the results above quoted. The same fact is also evident from the high temperatare of many of these springs when they reach the surface. M. Magnus has prefaced his paper with an account of a very inge- — nious maximum thermometer, with which it is highly desirable ; that frequent observations should be made in favorable circumstances, where borings to great depths are effected. dicks Arr. IV.—Universal Terms—Disputes concerning them and their Causes; by Emma Wiuuarp. A curious and knotty question in metaphysics is still stadiadh whicli has been in discussion .more than two thousand years. Among — its disputants were numbered the master spirits of the ancient world, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. ‘The-controversy slumbered during the — flask ag but revived with the first dawn of light which broke their _ not only mustered the philosophical talents of. Roseel- linus, Pour helaed and William Occum, but the regal power of the — sovereigns of France and Germany ; and blood was shed and aceu- — sations bandied of the unpardonable sin against the Holy Ghost. We are astonished that a simple question of fact concerning the philosophy of the human mind should have been thus keenly dispu- ted in former days; and still more so, when we find, thaé® notwith- — standing all the light of modern philosophy, itis this very.point which is more warmly contested than any other, by the first metaphysicians of our own times, Stewart and Brown. What-then is this wonder- ful question? ‘Simply this. What is the object of our thoughts when we employ general terms? Is it ideas or words? Isa por- tion of the mental imagery called up by their use, or do we employ ourselves merely with significant sounds? The most celebrated pneumatologist of our times, Dugald Stewart, maintains the doctrine of Roscellinus and Abelard, said to-have been 3 ae eS —— of 4 : derived from Zeno, that, in the use of general terms, “our ae ise is not ideas, but words or names. Hesse this sect ‘ise Nominalists. A doctrine opposite to this was held by Plato, ristotle, and their followers, down to the time of the improvement in the theory of perception, attributed by Mr. Stewart to Dr. Reid. These philosophers supposed that the mental images derived from — E external perception, (keeping in view the sense of sight,) were re- ceived into the mind, as the furniture into a house, and were there real a existences, called ideas ;—existing in the mind, but separate from ity - i Shalt F io a i Universal Terms. 19 and constituting the objects of our thoughts: and they farther believed, that some of these real existences corresponded to general terms. Hence this sect were called Realisis. When, in later times, it was shown that the supposition of ideas or existences in the mind, distinct from the mind itself, was gratuitous and unfounded, the doctrine of the Realisis concerning the nature of universals, was of course over- turned. But still, as the mental eye turns inward, it sees a splendid imagery, the transcripts of things beheld by the bodily organ of sight: It is now the common belief that these are not inthe mind, but that they are mind itself—mysterious mind! from its very nature in per- petual action, and forever shifting the intellectual scene. But call these pictures by what name we will, and be they in the mind or of the mind, still they are there. The home of my childhood, the flowers that I tended, the venerable forms of my father and mother, I see them at this instant; and thus things that I have perceived, become wrought into the very texture of my mind. My intellectual eye sees them not always, but words have power to call them forth, although I am, before their utterance, unconscious of their existence. But have that class of words called universals, a power to call up mental pictures, or have they not? This is still the question, al- though we have introduced the new term conceptions as the techni- eal word to express these internal and mental transcripts, of external and material things. Here then our later philosophers take their point of divergency. Mr. Stewart maintains that we have no con- ceptions or ideas, (for the word is retained though the signification is changed,) corresponding to general terms; that the object of our thoughts, when we speculate or reason concerning them, is not ideas but words ; consequently we can neither speculate nor reason con- cerning calerenis but by means of words. After Mr. Stewart had thus, as he supposed, settled this question, having treated it at great length, Dr. Brown came before the public, in his celebrated lectures, and with the air of a man who marches to certain victory, attempted to establish the doctrine of general con- ceptions, formerly maintained by Locke, Reid, and others. He states the theory of the Nominalists, in the formation of universals, to include merely the perception of the objects, and the invention of a name by which to designate them asaclass. He adds, to this process of two steps, a third, which he supposes nature places be- tween them—as thus. In the formation of classes, we first, says he, perceive the objects; secondly, have a feeling of their resemblance ; 20 Universal Terms. and: thirdly, invent their common name. After the death of Dr: — Brown, Mr. Stewart published a continuation of his great work on — the philosophy of the human mind, on the very first page of which — we find that he is unconvinced by the arguments of Dr. Brown, and still contends for his former opinions; or rather takes for granted that he has established them.* a Let a class of unbiassed young persons, who are sufficiently ad- vanced in the study. of intellectual philosophy to understand its — terms, be asked, what occupies your mind when you use general terms, is it ideas or mere words? All will be puzzled ; and about a half will incline-to one side of the argument, and half to the other. This question, then, has bewildered both acute and ordinary minds, for more than two thousand years. Is not this a proof that there is some latent fallacy contained in thé question itself? It is the nature of trath—of all which springs from truth—of all which tends to truth, to enlighten—to clear from doubt; but this question casts doubt and darkness. May we not, therefore, conclude that it springs not ‘from truth but from error? But where it its fallacy? Suppose you-are: asked, are the human race white or black? and required to answer’ directly in the words of the question. You can not, without asserting a falsehood ; because, in order to do’ so, yo must rank under-one head objects which in the respects: alluded to are dissimilar. _ So, tn this celebrated question, (are ideas or words” er the one expressing natural classes, the other artificial classifi- the doctrine of the Conceptualists is true; with regard to the latter, that of the Nominalists. ee To explain the subject more fully ;—natural classes of objects are those which, from a feeling of resemblance; arising as soon as they are presented, every human mind from its inherent constitution ranks: togetlier as things of thé saie‘sort.. Such are sheep, trees, horses; arid men. Concerning ‘these classes} we think it. may clearly be show that agreeably to the opinions of the Conceptualists, we have general ideas or conceptions; and further, that respecting these, the if _ Universal Terms. 21 doctrine of the Nominalists, that we can neither speculate nor reason concerning universals without words, is erroneous. Artificial classifications are composed of objects which, not resem- bling each other in appearance, are yet ranked together from some principle of resemblance, or'some resembling relation. Such words as subjects, things, articles, agents, and generally the technical terms of the sciences, express artificial classifications. In the use of these words, we believe, with the Nominalists, that no image in the mind corresponds to them, that when we reason or speculate by their aid our attention is occupied with the words themselves, much in the manner in which it is given to the signs and letters of an algebraical process; and with regard to these, we also consider the theory of the Nominalists concerning the formation of universals true; and that the third step of the process introduced by Dr. Brown is here incorrect. To invent, arrange and define, in this department, constitutes no inconsiderable portion of the labors of science and philosophy. That man is endowed with a capacity to go on forming classifications more and more general, in one of the most wonderful and useful parts of his nature, contributing perhaps more than any other faculty; as Mr. Stewart has s ably shown, = wee continual advancement of t fo ee Bo re | Pe eb os era See es ieppelels ; the system of Jussieu expressing the naturel, that of of Linneus the artificial. How could Linnzus have made his classifi- cation, unless he had invented terms? Or who can say, that in refer- ence to calling up ideas, it is the same thing whether we use the words Monandria, Diandria, &c. or mention roses, grape-vines and oaks. We now bring forward what we consider incontestible proof that we have, with regard to natural classes, general conceptions. - Con- ception is, by definition, a transcript of perception, and we think it can be shown that we have general perceptions. A‘hawthorn bush is before me. Who will say that every oné’ of its white’ blossoms and green leaves is to me an individual subject of consideration? and that the reason of their being ranked under the'samé head is because that in the infancy of language some person, happening to become ac~ quainted with one hawthorn blossom’or leaf gave it this name, and afterwards finding others which agreed in appearance with it he call- ed them by the same name? On the contrary, nature preneets these objects before us, not sin- gle, but in groups, and we see’ them generally, as many objects of the same kind, and’as such ‘erst conceive of them. ‘The'same thing occurs in numberless classes of objects, especially in things con 22 Universal. Terms. siderably smaller than ourselves. Nor does it at all affect the nature of the argument, if we find that individuals of a class sometimes, from certain peculiarities, so strike the mind as to be recalled, as such, — among numbers of undistinguishable similar things. ge To illustrate farther the subject of general perceptions, and its — bearing on the question proposed : suppose you are seated in a con- templative mood, at the hour when twilight is giving place to dark-— ness—a frightened child enters—you enquire the cause of his fears. As I was coming, says he, a man suddenly started from behind a tree. What man? Indeed, I do not know; it was so dark that I could not» distinguish whether he was white or black; all that I could see was” that it wasaman. But what tree was it? I cannot tell that either; 1 merely remarked that it was a tree, but could not distinguish of what kind ; but I know that I saw a man and.a tree; I have them now in — my mind, The possibility of such an occurrence none will dispute. — The child then had actual perception of a tree and a man in general, _ and of course its transcript conception ; and he needed no name of — the thing or sort of thing conceived, to reason or speculate concern= ing it, so far as regarded his own mind, though without words he could not communicate his conceptions to others. ‘That we do, even in such cases, use words in our mental operations, there is no doubt, — but is it not owing chiefly to our social nature?) We delight in fan- cied conversations with those we love. We like to contend. with those who give us an opportunity to display our wit, in our own men-_ tal field, where we are sure of the victory; or if startled friendship — sees tokens of moral aberration, we plan the pathetic address which shall recall the wanderer to virtue. Hence we perpetually use words _ in.our thoughts, not always because we cannot think without them, but because we perpetually recur to the communication of our _ thoughts.to others. _S The perception of things according to their general characteristic marks, is what always occurs when objects are seen at certain dis- tances, or by dim lights. _When we look up a long street or avenue, _ we may see hundreds of human beings whom we know to be men, _ women and children, merely by means of general characters. The — size of the objects is to be regarded, when we treat of the distances af at which we cease to distinguish by particular marks. But bow — , should we ever recognise new objects, as belonging to certain class- _ es, but by their correspondence _to our general ideas. Can it be — doubted that the deaf and dumb ‘as perfectly conceive of men, horses, trees, &c. as classes of objects, as those who know their names in va- OT eS Sar ee ee Universal Terms. 23 rious languages? and could they be taught a visible ‘sign. by which to express these classes, unless they had such conceptions previously in their minds? Mr. Stewart informs us that James Mitchel, the poor boy who was from his birth destitute of the senses of sight and hear- ing, was fond of horses. He knew them by the perceptions of his other senses; and their consequent conceptions. Even the brutes have knowledge (or instinct, it here matters not which) of natural class- es and their general properties. A dog will avoid the horns of the ox and the heels of the horse, and he resigns himself with affection and trust, to. no animal but that erect and lordly being, to whom alone of his lower works, the Creator has imparted conscience and reason. ¥et hear the language of Mr. Stewart:— Whether it might not have been possible for the Deity to have so formed us, that we might have been capable of reasoning, concerning classes of objects, with- out the use of signs, (i.e. general terms,) I shall not take upon me to determine. But this we may venture to affirm, with confidence, that man is not such a being.” ‘It has been already shown, that without the use of signs, all our knowledge must necessarily have been limited to individuals, and that we should have been perfectly inca- pable both of classification and general reasoning.” “Some authors have maintained that without the power of generalization,) which I have endeavored to show means nothing more than the capacity of - employing general terms,) it would have been impossible -for us to have carried on any species of reasoning whatever.” | Profoundly as we venerate the name and genius of Dugald Stew- art, we cannot but feel that here he lends them to perpetuate ab- surdities. From hence we may derive two lessons—the first, to search — of things, rather than to look for authorities; the second, to be umble 1 especting what we may fancy to be our own i find: that even minds like his may sometimes be mistaken, and there too, where they are most confident. As an additional proof that some such distinction of universals as we have made is correct, we adduce the very fact of the dispute so long and warmly kept up. Error, as Mr. Stewart justly observes, does not take a‘permanent hold of the mind, except by being associ- ated and blended with truth. ‘The mind being fully persuaded of the truth, receives without examination, whatever is conceived to be its necessary concomitants. So in the case under discussion, to re- cur toa former example, let it be supposed proper to demand a di- rect answer to the question, whether the human race be white or > 24 Universal Terms. “And where do we undertake to divide and distinguish even in the black. If this question should be put to an Icelander, he would say _ they were white, to an African, he would declare them to be black. Those who had seen both would answer the question generally as their _ attention has been most drawn to examples of the one class or the — other. So.when the inquirer into the intellectual philosophy has searched his own mind to find whether general terms call up images, _ or whether his attention has been given to words as to algebraic — signs, he has been led either to the doctrine of the conceptualists or to that of the nominalists as he has stated to himself examples of natu ral classes or artificial classifications. Let him propose to him such examples as men, horses, apples, roses, and he will bea con- ceptualist ; but let him consider such words as things, subjects, facts, &c. and he will be a nominalist. That some distinction of the subject ought theréfore-to be — sppaere clear : the absolute terminations to be given to the distine- tions made, are not equally so. In the question concerning the color 4 of our race, none would say we should not make any distinction of color, because there are some of an intermediate hue partaking — of both black and white, so in this question, examples may be given’ of classes of which it is difficult to say whether they should be call- ed natural or artificial, because they partake of the nature of both. natural world, without meeting similar difficulties ; much more must we expect them in the finer and more subtle fields of intellect. It would not injure the argument, if it should be found that in the — series commencing with the plainest natural classes, and going onto J the most abstruse artificial classifications, there were reasons for dr _ q viding general terms, into more than two sorts. No other divisions - needed for the solution of the problem* we have been discussing, a+ — though for other purposes, it may be proper to ‘take notice of other : - ee * Since this article was put in type, the writer has had the patshstion to find the following —— in Sir James Mackintosh’s history of Ethics, p. 45.—** The contro- n the Nominalists and Realists, treated by some modern writers as : of be = wrangling, was in truth an anticipation of that modern dispute ‘still, divides metaphysicians, whether the human mind can form general idea and whether | the words which are supposed to convey such ideas, be not general 4 terms, represeating only a number of rage agen ? questions so far from frivolous, that they deeply concern both the nature of reasoning and the structure of language.” From this passage, I find that se ‘ect is vias in three points, aM by that of this celebrated be first, that this cont: roversy remains now where it a P did centuries ago; secondly, , as to the 4 importance. Universal Terms. ae 25 differences in classes of objects, such as their size and inition rela- tive to man, the observer. ‘This question arises in the capes sieenee of iencuseet were, or were not, particular terms invented before general? Adam Smith has asserted that they were. Mr. Stewart, Professor Hedge and others have followed him, adopting his sentiments as expressed in the following quotation. *'The assignation of particular names to denote particular objects 5 that is the institution of nouns substantive, would probably be one of the first steps towards the formation of language. The par- ticular cave whose covering sheltered the savage from the weather ; the particular tree whose fruit relieved his hunger; the particular fountain whose water allayed his thirst; would first he denominated by the words, cave, tree, fountain; or by whatever other appellations he might think proper, in that primitive jargon, to mark them. Af- terwards, when the more enlarged experience of this savage, had led him to observe, and his necessary occasions obliged him to make mention of other peda aoe zoiner trees, and sales: Apuninins 5 5-be - waane eapealys bento same name by - ae i aL Lt first acquainted with. And thus, those words, which ¥ were © . ly the proper names of individuals, would’ each of them ee become the common name of a multitude.” _ Remark here the examples given by Mr. Smith; a cave, a tree, a fountain. Caves and fountains are objects of unfrequent recur- rence. Seldom are two of them seen together. It is doubtful whether they should be considered among natural or artificial class- es. The one is a cavity from which water flows; the other (more clearly a nonentity) a fissure in the rock or an irregular subterra- nean chasm; and though, from these resembling features, they are ranked indee the same name, yet they have so many points of dissimil- itude, that the savage inventor of language might well give names to each cave, or fountain asa particular object ; and if he generalized them at all, the process would probably proceed as stated by Mr. Smith. A tree is an object usually much larger than a man, and may be conceived as standing by itself, and if so, this example would not contradict the theory. But let us state other examples. A blade _ of grass, a peach, an ear of corn; all these are individuals as much as a cave, a fountajn, or a tree. Let us substitute them for these ex- amples, and see how Mr. Smith’s theory will then appear. Vou. XXI1.—No. 1. 26 Universal Terms. — 4 The intellect of man is accommodated to the world around him. — It is the external world which, by means of his senses, particularly — the sight, comes to be transferred, as it were, within, and to hav there an immaterial being; and it is, that we may read out, to our — fellow men what we thus perceive, mysteriously existing within, that a we have invented language. If things exist in the mind single, man invents words'to express them as such; if they are perceived togetli- er as constituting a sort or kind, then he invents a word expressi¥ of a class. | Mark on this subject the words of the inspired historian, who i nothing is more particular in the history of creation, than in the state- ment of the fact that God expressly intended the things which he made should be in sorts or kinds.“ And God said, Let the earth bring forth | Brass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit itself upon the earth. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yieldi ing seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit whose seed was in itself, after his kind. “An God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and ev= — ery winged fowl after his kind. And God said, let the earth bring living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping ibe beast of the earth after his kind.” Man, in his works, has imitated his Maker, — his creations less are made each after its kind. ‘They are inventions to supply his necessities or minister to his pleasures, and being addressed wo a common nature, are ordinarily many of a sort. Such are the im= — of husbandry, of navigation, and of rural economy. "The names, then, that men have invented ‘to express the general conceptions of the mind, answering to the things which the Creator (and man in his puny works) sees good to make every one after his” kind, are no less early invented than those which express particu- jars. ‘This abundantly appears from the fact, that little the ease of familiar natural* classes of objects so small that the eye takes i in a number at once, learn the general before the particular ap- - Observe two children at a window, one of two years old, the othr of four 5 Tou will hear the younger exclaim, as these ob- x Chena that the w SB RI as “so used, refers not to the objeet, but fo the mind. Hence I would call chairs, tables, ae ships, natural classes, althoug! they are not natural objects, Nature did not e them, but natur e makes ev ery human mind recognize them as things of the same Universal Terms. ~ QT jects severally pass—man, dog, horse ; while his brother of four will repeat the proper names—there is Mr. Smith, see Jowler, look at father’s horse ; and their progress as they go through life, will be to: acquire more and more the discernment to distinguish the individuals of these natural classes ; but nothing is ever added by reflection to connect more closely in. one class these objects, which, before the. dawn of reason, they felt and knew to be things of the same sort. In fact, do we not all feel, even in our maturity, that we know many ob-. jects as classes before we know them individually? Look at a flock of sheep; you do not know their particular marks, yet the farmer who owns them knows every one; from the grave patriarch of the flock, to the least lamb which bounds from the hillock. “In this question then, whether terms expressing individuals or gen- erals were first invented, we think the probability clearly is, that in instances of such natural classes, as from their size and position the savage had seen together, and instantly recognized as of the same sort, he would first invent a name representing the class, and particu- lar appellations afterwards; but, in cases of such cee as are sey’ Jarge, and not to be seen together, he aNgeoes follow out described by Mr. Smith. Finally, then, recurring to the point from swine we “tbo: our departure, the doctrine which we have mainly sought to establish is, that ideas or images are commonly the subject of our thoughts, when, in the case of natural classes, we employ general terms, in that o artificial classes, rather words, claiming our attention something in the manner of algebraic characters, or arithmetical figures. - Names of artificial classes do however sometimes call up ideas or images ; but when this is the case it is from a different principle of our nature than that of a felt resemblance among the objects; ordinari- Ty, from the associating principle of contiguity in time and place. The botstat tells us that in one respect the currant and the pumpkin are to be classed together. ‘The word by which he designates them may bring them both to my mental view, but it is only as the name of a friend’s parlor recals the chairs, the pictures and the sofa. Take this sentence—* the stars of the sky and the flowers of the field are alike the subjects of God’s creating power.” Here the term subjects, evidently expressing an artificial Elsserication, comprehends two nat- ural classes, stars and flowers. ‘The word subjects seen in another situation, might then suggest them, from my having seen it in this’ connexion ; but the mind does not therefore recognise stars and 28 On the Action of the Second Stirfaces of flowers as things of the same sort, because the same word recals — them ; nor is it essential that any image should be recalled to the mind by the word subjects, to make it convey truths to our under- standing ; as if we say, ‘all the subjects of God’s creating power de= pend on him for continued existence :”—and the figure 2 might call ~ up mental pictures of stars and flowers, even though the eye cursorily. caught it in the date of the present year, 1832. As thus—I. readin a book, “ Pictures of 2 sorts of things, stars and flowers.” Here the uncommon use of the figure 2 might have so struck me as to re= — mind me, the next time I saw it, of the sentence in which it was thus used, and the mental-pictures of these objects thus be brought tomy — mind ; and if so, is it not the same process by which the word su jects mlabi suggest them ; and when they are suggested, does not the ind, in both cases, take cognizance of them as of two sorts of things,’ so unlike that no common name or common relation can make us conceive of them as of one kind. Yet by means of a name express- ing a common relation, we can reason and speculate about them in connexion, though we cannot conceive of them as of the same sort. If these facts are admitted, we think it must follow, that the doctrine” of the nominalists is no less true with regard to terms expressing ar- tificial classification, than is that of the pice geet with = to tae — natural classes. Arr. V.—On oe action of the second surfaces of meal plate wake by Davin Brewster, LL.D, F.R.S. Lond. Sze ae is Read before the Royal Society, February 25, 1830. ‘Ina paper on the Polarization of Light by Reflexion, aoianea in the Philosophical Transactions for 1815, I showed that the Law of the Tangents was rigorously true for the second surfaces of transpa-_ rent bodies, provided that the sine of the angle of incidence was less than the reciprocal of the index of réfraction. ‘The action of the second surfaces of plates at angles.of incidence different from the maximum polarizing angle, was studied by M. Arago, who conduct ed hi in the following manner. ith respect to this phenomenon,” says M. Arago, a remarka-- ble result of experiment ney here be —z ; that is, that en every. possible sclination A=A’.* aie ” A is the light polarized by reflexion, dnd A’ that polarized by refraction. Transparent Plates upon Light. 29° ye Bigs 2.2 “Let us suppose that a plate of glass ED (Fig. 1.) is placed in the "ze position that the figure represents before a medium AB of a uniform tint; for instance, a sheet of fine white paper. The eye placed at O, will receive simultaneously the ray 10 reflected at I, and the ray BIO transmitted at the same point. Place at mn an opaque diaphragm _ blackened, and perforated by a small hole-at S. Lastly, let the eye be furnished with a doubly refracting, crystal C, which affords two images of the aperture. “If now, by means of a little black screen placed between B and I, we stop the ray BI which would have been transmitted, the crys- — tal properly placed will give an ordinary image =A-+3B, and an extraordinary image =4B. But if the screen were placed between A and I, and the ray AI were intercepted, we should still have two images of the hole, and their intensities would be 4B’ and A’+3B’ respectively. Consequently, without any screen, if the whole of the reflected light AIO, and the transmitted BIO, are allowed to arrive at the eye, we shall have for the ordinary image A+4B-+4B,, and -for the extraordinary image $B+ A’+4B% ‘“‘ Now it appears, from actually making the experiment, that the two images are perfectly equal, whatever may be the angle formed by the ray- Al with the plate of glass, which can only be because A is always equal to A’. Consequently, “The quantity of polarized light contained in the pencil transmit- ted by a transparent plate, is exactly equal to the quantity of light polarized | at. right mee, which is found in the pencil saben by the same — We have no doubt that M. Arago obtained these icles partion. larly near the polarizing angle, at which limit they are rigorously true; but at all other angles of incidence they are wholly incorrect. When we consider, indeed, the nature of the experiment which has been Jauded for its elegance and ingenuity, we shall see reason to pronounce its results as nothing more than coarse estimates, in which the apparent equality of the two images is the effect either of im- perfect observation or of some unrecognized compensation. “ 30. On the Action of the Second Surfaces of If we make the experiment in the manner shown in Fig. 2 with a colorless and well anneal- ed prism of glass EF'D, in place of a plate of glass; and make the ray BI enter the surface FD per-_ pendicularly at I, we get rid of all - sourees of error, and we obtain, _ what is really wanted, the result for a single surface. In this case the experiment is not disturbed by the light reflected from the ; inner surfaces of the prism, which x B is a Bees off from the pencil which enters the eye. . Arago’s form of the experiment, part of the ray BI (Fig. 1.) entered reflexions within the plate, and there comes along with it to the eye, at O, a portion of light polarized in the plane of reflexion: in like manner the part of the pencil AI that enters the plate, under= goes partial reflexions, and the part reflected from the first surface carries along with it another portion of light polarized 1 in the plane ol of reflexion, so that four portions of light polarized in the plane of re- flexion reach the eye, while only two portions reach it polarized at — right angles to the plane of reflexion, viz. those which are polarized — 4 : ie i a OST by the refraction of each of the surfaces of the plate. Now the part of the pencil Al which suffers a first reflexion from each of the sur-_ faces of the plate, is, as we shall presently show, defective in polar- ized light compared with that which has experienced two refractions, © so that it requires the above additional quantities to produce a com- pensation with the transmitted pencil BO. If this is not the true” cause of the apparent compensation, that is, if M. Arago took means to exclude the reflected pencils which seem to have pr the compensation, we must then ascribe the equality of the two images . to inaccuracy of observation. But even if we admit that M. Araco’s experimental results are correct with regard to plates, it necessarily follows that they cannot © be true with regard to surfaces; for it is obvious from the slightest consideration of the subject, that the phenomena of the one cal never be interchanigesie With those of the other. Transparent Plates upon Light. 31 Fig. 3. _ Tn order to demonstrate these views by an analysis of the changes which the intromitted light experiences from the two refractions and the intermediate reflexion of a transparent plate, I took a plate of glass.of the shape MN (Fig. 3.) having an oblique face Md cut upon one of its ends. A ray of light RA, polarized + 45° and — 45°, was made to fall upon it at A, at an angle of incidence of nearly 83°, so that the inclination of the planes of polarization of the reflected ray A P was about 364°. Now the ray AC after reflexion in the direction C S, without any refraction at B, where it emerges perpen- dicularly to Md, would also have had the inclination of its planes of polarization equal to 364° if there had been no intermediate refrac- tion at A; but this refraction alone being capable of producing an inclination of 53° or a rotation of 53°—45°=8°, and this rotation being in an opposite direction from that produced by the second re- - flexion at C, the inclination of the planes of polarization for the ray - CS is nearly 444°, the reflexion at C having brought back the ray A C almost exactly into the state of natural light. Without changing either the light or the angle, I éemented 1 a prism Med onthe face Md, so that cd was parallel to dN, and I found that the second refraction at 6, equal to that at A, changed the incli- nation of the planes of polarization to 53°; that is, the two refrac- tive actions at A and b had overcome the action of reflexion at C, and the pencil }s actually contained light polarized perpendicular to the plane of reflexion. In order to to put this result to another test, I took a plate McNQ (Fig. 3.) of the same glass, which separated the pencil b s reflected at the second surface, from the parallel pencil A P reflected from the first surface, and [ found that at an angle of 83° the value of the inclination I or 9 for the ray was about 374°, while the value of I for the ray bs was nearly 55°, an effect almost equal to the refractive action of a plate at 83° of incidence. 32 On the Action of the Second Surfaces of When the pencil R A is incidenton the first surface at the polari- zing angle or 56° 45’, the rotation produced by refraction at Ai about 2°, or the inclination 1=45°-+4+2°=47°; but the maximum ac- tion of the polarizing force at C is sufficient to make I=0° whether @ is 45° or 479°. Hence CB is completely polarized in the pl of reflexion, and the refractive action at 8 is incapable of chan the polarization when I=0°: the reason is therefore obvious w the two rotations at A and 8, of 2° each, — no effect at tl maximum polarizing angle. If we now call @ =Inclination to the plane of —— produced by the Ist re- fraction at yp’ =Inclination poduesd by the reflexion at C, oe’ =Inclination pasa oy, the 2nd = at 5, We shall have pea irite or tan —s Gav) oe - cos(t+7) cos (t-+7’) Pan. of stan @ (S (t—2’) ~~ (cos (t—7/) )? (cos (4-2) )? 2 cos (st’)- ee These formule are suited to common light where r=45°, bai wh zs a varies they become - Cot »=cot x (cos (i—7’) ) se cos (i470) ) er Os (1 —2") )3 Cot o”=(cotx nn): Resuming the formula for common light, viz. cot 9!” = isos Cot o/=cot £ (cos (t—2))= os (¢ — i }): cos (+7). it is obvious that when (cos (i- V))?=cos (i-+-4), Co g. ils & and 9” =45°; that is, the light is restored to common lig 2 In glass where m=1.525 this effect takes place at 78° 7; below, 78° in diamond ; and a little above 80° in water. _ At an angle below this, 9 becomes less than 45°, and "the pen contains Tight polarized in the plane of reflexion ; while at all great- er angles gis above 45, and the pencil contains light polarized p pendicular to the plane of eelicxion. Hence we obtain the follow- ing curious law. — Transparent Plates upon light. - 33 “A pencil of light reflected from the second surfaces of trans- — parent plates, and reaching the eye after two refractions and an in- termediate reflexion, contains at all angles of. incidence from 0° to the maximum polarizing angle, a portion of light polarized in the plane of reflexion. Above the polarizing angle the part of the: pen- cil polarized in the plane of reflexion diminishes till cos (¢-+7)= (cos (t—2’) )?, when it disappears, and the whole pencil has the char- acter of common light. Above this‘last angle the pencil contains a quantity of light polarized perpendicularly to-the plane of reflexion, which increases to a maximum and then diminishes to zero at 90°. Let us now examine the state of the pencil C S’ that has suffered only one refraction and one reflexion. Resuming’ the formula tan = = aot it is evident that when (cos (1-7 ))?=cos (t+), @ 1A, and consequently the light is restored to common light. This takes place in glass at an angle of 82° 44’. At all an- gles beneath this the Saint contains light polarized in the plane of reflexion; but at all angles above it, the pone contains light zed perpendicular to the plane of reflexion, the quantity incr from 82° 44’ to its maximum, and rénareiing to its minimnm at 90°. _By comparing these deductions with the formula and table for reflected light given in my paper On the Laws of: the Polarization of Light by Refraction, the following approximate law will be ob- served. When ‘ Cos (i—7’) + =cos (t+7’) All the incident light i is reflected. (Cos (t—7’))? =cos (¢+7/) Half the incident light is reflected. (Cos (¢ —1’))*=cos (t+7/) A third of the incident light is reflected. (Cos (i- <> =cos (t-+2’) An nth part of the incident light nearly is reflected. This law deviates from the truth by a este progression as ” increases and always ities the value of the reflected light in de- fect. Thus Angles of Incidence. Values of n. Differences. ewe ee ee oe ee 8 a, ee ee + 75 38 4 21 68 56 . 8 38 4 11 43 Vos. XXIL*—Ne. 1: = 34 On the Action of the Second Surfaces, &e. Let us now apply the results of the preceding analysis to M. ARaco’s experiment shown in Fig. 1. Suppose the angle of inci- dence to be 78° 7’, and let the light polarized-by reflexion at A (Fig. 3-) be =m, and that polarized by one refraction also=m. Then sce the pencil 6s is common light, the polarized light in the whole reflected pencil AP, bs ism, whereas the light polarized by the two refractions is=2m}; so that M. Araco’s experiment makes two quantities appear sinicl: when’ the one is double that of the other. If the angle exceeds 78° 7’, the oppositely polarized light i in the pen- cil 6s will neutralize a portion of the polarized light in the pencil . AP, and the ratio of the oppositely polarized rays which seem to be compensated in the experiment, may be that of 3m or even 4m to 1. ‘Having thus determined the changes which light undergoes by reflexion from plates, it is easy to obtain formule for computing the exact quantities of polarized light at any angle of incidence, either ee CBSor bs. - The primitive ray RA being common light, AC will not be in that — state, but will have its planes of polarization turned round a quantity x by the refraction at A; so that cotw=cos(i—v). Hence we must adopt for the measure a the light reflected at C the formula of Fres- nel for polarized light whose plane of incidence forms an angle x with the plane of reflexion. The intensity of AC being known from the for- mula for’common light, we shall call it unity, then the intensity I of the two pencils polarized —« and as to the plane of reflexion will be sin?(t—w) = , n*(t—72') . i= ~ sin*(i-e)o°* e+ aGEr® (<< cos(t-++7i’ y= =) (cos(t— 2’) )? = 3 . cos(t-+-2 ) :) at (cos(¢— 7’) )2 :) In like manner if we ca l the ingensity of cB=1, we shall a sin? and and ae intensity I of the transmitted pencil bs cae Seem and — (1-2 een) Q=(1i- . ee “(eee Hail Storms. 35 ‘Tshall now conclude this paper with the following table, computed from the formule on page 32, and showing the state all the epee ae of the three an AC, GS, and és. Kgl of Refrac- Tnclination of oclinstion: ort nc. 7 Angle“ of Inci-| tion at firstsur-| plane o lane of po- | plane of po-— on the} face, snd angle| larization of | larization larization of | — satlece: * ‘incidence on} AC Fi S Fig: bs Fig. 3. =] _ oO « ; o] / ie} oO é nlite 2 0 0 0 0 45 0 45 0 45 0 a2 0 20 33 45 34 32 20 a2 51 . 40 0” 25 10 45 58 124° 12 24 56 45 0 27 55 46 17 17 49 18 38 66 30 33 30. AY. 22 70... Q 0 0 67. 0 37 34 48 57 18 20 20 50 70 O 38 30 49 33 23 34 27.«CG6 75 0 39 46 50 45 32 22 37 48 — 78. 37 40 29 51 49 38 10 44 59 42...:0 40 33 51 56 38 49 45. 46 80. 0 40 42 52 16 40 27 47 46 $3 0 | ie 53 21 44 39 40 86 30 41 23 | 54 47 50 58 42 90 0 41 58. 56.29 | 56-29 AD < Allerly, December 31, 1829. : : : = Arr, VL. in ‘Hail Ssacbas ; ce A. eorgi a. Jones, M. D. of Augusta, TEs storms very often occur in the Southern States during the spring, or the first months of summer. when the thermometer ranges between 70° and 80°. also more _f nt and occupies the above range. In hail storms I suppose it highly probable, that at 3 large drops of rain descend, till they come in contact in their passage, w: They are most frequent * Lightning is terrible in ahe south when me thermometer with a much colder current of air, when they suddenly freeze, in the act of doing which they expand, producing a hollow globular hailstone, which enlarges as it falls, by the aggregation and freezing of other drops of water, which seem to be drawn to it by some kind of at- traction. They in this way enlarge, until before they reach the earth, 5 they often attain a most astonishing size. They have been seen to fall in some places, of the size of hens’ eggs, and of still larger 36 + Hail Storms. imer Tt no doubt has appeared to many a strange circum-- _ Stance, that when falling of such large size, they have not been more fatal to animals. For if a pebble, or any other solid body of equal bulk, was to fall from the same height, we must suppose that its velocity, from its specific gravity, would be such as to render its effects terrible and destructive. We can only imagine the large hail-_ stones that often fall, to have in some way, their specific gravity so much lessened as to render the largest of them, comparatively light and inoffensive in their fall. This is done, by their expansion in the act of freezing, by which means a hollow cavity is. produced, filled with air. This air cell, with others attached as they enlarge, greatly les- sens their specific gravity. It acts like the air-bladder of a fish, which enables him to rise to the surface in deep water, or the air Cells in the bones of birds which lessen their specific gravity, so much as to assist their flying. 4: Bex I first observed this peculiar structure of hail-stones, during a short residence in Athens, Ga. in the spring and summer of 1831. In May of this year a cloud come over fromS SE. It presented the peculiar sea green appearance of hail clouds, and portions of it seemed to move in irregular directions, as if acted on by contrary currents of wind. It also was accompanied by a considerable wind and vivid flashes of lightning. After the rain had commenced falling, the wind was to a degree lulled, and Jarge pieces of hail commenced falling, and continued to fall till the ground was covered. After the storm had passed, I walked into the yard and examined many of the stones of the largest size. I was surprised to find in the center of each a circular air cell: The annexed figures in the plate represent their most common’ appearance. —The largest were a half, or three 4 Improvement in Field Surveying. , 37 fourths of an inch in diameter, and from one anda half to two inch- es in circumference, and from this size down to that of .a small buk let. Some were united by a narrow neck, as shown by Fig. 1. Some were irregular and ragged on their edges, and crossed by irregular fractures, as is seen in Fig. 2. Others again, were dotted, with several air cells around the center one, as exhibited in Fig. 3. The center of each represents the air cells. These hail storms are sometimes accompanied by violent winds. _. They make their approach from every point of the compass save directly from the east, and they come most frequently from the south- west or north west. A person who has once closely observed them, can generally foretell their approach, from the appearance of the rising cloud. It uniformly exhibits a sea green color, and often seems much agitated, and small fragments of clouds often linger beneath the main body, or seem to be suddenly formed and to fly in pursuit of it. They occur when currents of air in the heavens, retain their winter . coldness, and intercept the drops of rain and convert them into hail- stones. This operation is not a little aided also, by the sudden dis- charges of the electric fluid of the clouds... In the south of France, they are very frequent and often destroy extensive vineyards. The believe so fully in the idea that the discharges of electricity influence their production, that they erect lightning rods by means of poles in their fields to lessen their occurrence and effects. In this case, the discharge of the fluid is gradual; and unattended by hail, at least in proportion to what would be the case, if let off in- heavy discharges. Augusta, Geo. June 18th, 1832. Arr. VII.—Improvement in Field Surveying. - eg Tue genefal principle or method of computing the areas of irreg~ ular plane figures, as described in Art. III, No. 45 of the Journal of Science, was introduced by E. F.. Johnson, Esq. into the course of instruction in the practical mathematics, in the institution of Capt. Partridge, in the year 1824, and the method is now extensively prac- ticed by many of the young men graduates of that institution, in various parts of the country. 38 | Improvement in Field Surveying. The same principles were likewise applied by Mr. Johnson to other branches of mensuration, and the whole, as I am informed, in- corporated in a work, which is soon to be presented to the public, — _.. The following are the general directions as given by Mr. J. for calculating areas. by the algebraic process. Ist. Place in one column the courses and distances of she outlines of the field whose area is to be calculated, in the order in which they occur in traversing around it. 2d. Put the differences of latitude and the departures of each lime opposite the course and distance of the same line,—the differences — of latitude in one column and the departures in another. 3d. Distinguish the northings and the southings of the several dif- ferences of latitude by the signs plus and minus, and do the same with the eastings and westings of the departures; or otherwise, call the first difference of latitude, and all of the same name with it, af- _ firmative, and all of a contrary name, negative, and do the same ‘shes the departures. -. 4th. Take the first departure and place it opposite, as oe. first ; quantity in a column of multipliers. For the second multiplier, add together the first multiplier, the first departure, and the second de- parture; and universally, to find any multiplier add together these three quantities, viz. the last preceding multiplier, the departure be- longing to it, and the next succeeding departure ; the number of mul- tipliers to be the same with the outlines of the field, a elope to each outline. 5th. Involve each multiplier into the difference of latitude aaa against it, and the half sum of the several products thus obtained, will be the area of the field in square measures of the same denomination in which its sides are measured. : The operations of adding and multiplying, are in every case to be performed algebraically. If the additions -for the multipliers are made correctly, the last nn will be equal to the last departure with its sign changed. ° : Ilustration. pies a _.| Factors or {Products or | | - No.| Courses. Dist.|Dif. lat} Dep. |multipliers.| areas. _ ec 1.|S. EAB. E./AB pee a 2AEB) pas AEE ae cD] atte Boca 2BEKC! — 3.|N.GC wD Zep) i RAL 4.IN. HAD. E DA'— pete oH HD 2DHA 2\2ABCKLD 3 ABCKLD=ABCD . the triangles DLM and MKC being equal.* The first meridian NS passes through the first sta- tion A. EB, DGand KC are drawn perpendicular to, and FC parallel with » NS. tors or|Products or areas. i : Dist. : Courses. chs. | pie. lat.| Dep. 9.00; 4.50 7.79 7.79} 35,0550 : ( 7 10.99! 71.9845 2 -|14.00|—4-79| — 13.10] — 6.76 32.9804 :.111.76|— 6.26] 9.96]— 9.96) 62.3496 . “as 22087695 : -10.088475 aers. Iti is stated in the article alluded to, that “in the common method of computing the area of a field, a meridian line is supposed to be drawn ‘at some assumed distance from the commencing corner.” This it is imagined i is incorrect. ‘The most ‘‘*common mode,” is to select for the point of commencement, the extreme East or West station of the field. Through this station, the first meridian is made to pass, and the necessity of an “ assumed dusk” is thereby avoid- *DL=KC by construction. 40 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. ed. The advantage of the algebraic process, consists in its simpli- _ city and in the universality of its application. This results from the circumstance that the meridian line not being limited in its position, may be made to pass through any station of the field, wherever it may be convenient to. commence either’ the measurement or the. calculation. . If its position is such as to divide the field into equal. or nearly equal parts, the multipliers or factors are lessened in quantity, and considerable labor is saved in the calculation, and the liability to error in the several computations ina —— degree dimin- ished. . en + ——=—= Arr. VIII.—On the Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies; “extracted and abridged from unpublished MSS. on a theory of the mot + by Dr. Rusu Norv, of Rodney, State of eer “Wee can conceive that a prairie may proceed from the j font action. of two causes. First, from the influence of a cane-brake ; and secondly, from wind and fire. It has been shown that cane atents a considerable — influence on a forest of timber; that it can completely obscure the rays of the sun, as well as form by its roots an astonishing mat-work over — the face of the earth, so dense that it is utterly impossible for any seed to vegetate and for the earth to bring forward a single tree. Our knowledge of the natural history of the cane, does not enable us to know the length of time it is in seeding. More than half of the cane of a and Louisiana went to seed in the year 1830. - It had not seeded to such an extent, during the fifty preceding years. _ A few stalks or.a few square yards of the cane, seed and die every year, but when stalks seed again from the same root, we do not know whether so general a seeding as that just mentioned proceeded from natural or from accidental causes; such as long feeding up, ha the unusual vicissitudes of the weather of a few preceding stalk and root die with the ripening of the seed, which will vege 4 and come forward the following year, unless prevented by sucha — drowth as followed the period alluded to. However, our want of a full knowledge of the natural history of the cane, is not very important — in the case before us, as we can readily conceive of a cane-brake contending with, and finally overcoming, extensive regions of forest trees. If the cané keeps possession of the same land for five han- : dred or a thousand years, (as we think it pes) it will of course wear fe s Origin, Extension and pean of Prairies. Al out almost any family of trees. When the cane has driven out every tree and has acquired exclusive possession, it then begins to experi- ence the consequences of-exposure, without the shelter from the sun’s rays which is afforded by the trees. ‘The influence of the sun upon a cane-brake, unprotected by the trees, will in time produce the destruction of both stalk and root, by which means the land will fail to be occupied again by cane, until it has been covered anew with trees. Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of grass are always at hand, as well as those of trees; but the grass ‘is quickest to shoot and grow, and will soon afford a dry carpet, which, if set on fire at the proper time, will readily burn and destroy any young.trees — that had sprung up; the grass will now continue to increase in quan- tity and to:improve in quality as the cane-roots are decomposed and the annual fire is continued. But, on the other hand, if the firing is not carried on, the trees will, in a very few years, by their shade, exclude the grass; and should the land be adapted to the kind of trees that spontaneously appear, they may become so thickly set, as to form such a complete barrier to the sun and light, that even the cane will be kept from returning, and can regain its former residence only by taking hold at the time the trees are exchanging places; as, for instance, when one family, composed of ‘such trees as usually accompany each other, are becoming thinned by death, and thereby _ making room for another to occupy the land. There is no fact that can be better established than that prairies are formed, and are now forming, by the operation of wind and fire. Very abundant proof. was exhibited to the writer, more than twenty eight years ago, when making a pedestrian journey through the dis- tant and extensive regions of the west. He has seen the prairie in all its stages; he has seen the pees at work upon the forest. He has seen places where the inraad had been made only the year before ; where the grass stood bit "it Milly on the ground, and where it had Spesitsaie sufficiently luxuriant to burn. the first. ing took place, the timber was, in some places, partly consumed, and in other places altogether burnt off, leaving holes in the ground, made by the action of the fire upon the trees, which were burnt when stand- ing, and thus the stump part was consumed beneath the surface of the _ earth. When a hurricane rakes a an inroad upon a forest, the rays of the - sun are then admitted to the earth, and this at once affords an oppor- tunity for the = to = up; = if the land is rich and the sun Vou. XXUL— e 42 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. freely admitted, the carpet of grass will be from six to eight feet in height, Should this grass be burnt during the fall season, or at any dry time through the winter or spring, and the practice annually con- tinued, the ground would become more and more prepared for the production of a still more luxuriant crop of grass, when not only the dead timber would be consumed, but those trees that are alive would _ suffer by the fire and in a few years be killed, unless they stand on the borders of ponds of water, or on some very unproductive spots; in either case the grass is found to be short and puny, and insufficient to support a flame that would affect a tree. In extensive prairies, We often observe little clusters of trees, which, by occupying peeuliar situations, are enabled to avoid the consuming flames of .a burning prairie. os In a few years, all the trees. which come within the reach of the ; will be killed, and thus the forest is annually dilapidated, until no ‘signs of it remain, except those which appear in the holes in the land left by the standing trees, and in the little hillocks made by the roots throwing up the ground when they are laid prostrate by the wind. The hillock will be, in time, brought down by the action of -yain3 but on a very level piece of land the holes left by the burnt stumps will remain, and perhaps would never be entirely obliterated. The prairie, which is now in its infancy, continues to make annue encroachments upon the surrounding forests. The grass of this prai- - rié becomes closely set, and may be from ten to twelve feet in height. It pushes close up under the trees of the surrounding forest, and eve- ry fire acts injuriously upon the nearest trees; and as they are killed, the grass not only surrounds them, but passes on and crowds hard - upon other trees, so that the prairie is constantly increasing, and woul always exist and extend its borders while fire was applied. Me FIRES IN THE PRAIRIES. . ? '. It is difficult to conceive of the horror excited at -the sight of a burning prairie. It is an ocean of fire, whose billows roll and heaves and run together, when the mountain of pyramidal flames ascends and drives detached bodies of fire seemingly into the very clouds. ‘The whole horizon appears to be on fire ; the earth and the sky are. hidden by the flames, and the eye can reach no point beyond their boundary: When the wind is brisk, the burning grass ascends and gives the appearance, as though the heavens were filled with fire- brands; and such is the rapidity with which the fame moves ovet : ; * Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. 43 the face of the earth, that an attempt at escape, “4 the swiftest ani- mal, would prove abortive. In these regions of natural beauty remote focus civilization, the exhausted spirits of the weary pedestrian are enlivened and fatigue is allayed, as he beholds the unrivalled charms of these vast prairies in their successive seasons of flowering. In May and June, they are robed in flowers of white and pale yellow; in July and August, .in those of sky blue and red; and in September and October, in others of deep blue and brown. Flora has here her paradise of innocence and beauty, and vegetable and animal life know nothing of the tyran- ny of man. He destroys vegetables and animals, to produce others in their stead, and thus maintains a constant warfare with animated nature. Domestic animals travel less than the beast of the Bis: and their journeys, when performed, are not so extensive ; hence they collect their food on a smaller and more contracted surface, by which means they break down and tread under foot so much of the grass within their usual bounds that the fire is either arrested on the borders of their range, or runs lightly over it without injury. to the shoots that may have come forward the preceding spring. Such circumstances favor the introduction of trees, which then immediately appear, and as they obtain sufficient size to shade the land, the grass itself is driv- en out; the cattle are thus driven toa greater distance from the plan- tations in some new direction, where they soon crop the grass, and place it beyond the reach of fire. As the cattle recede, they are followed by the forest; and so soon as a farm can be enclosed by the young trees, the farmer, for the convenience of his stock, moves nearer to the prairie ; otherwise, from the receding of the prairie, the cattle would seldom return to their home, and perhaps become wild by ab- sence. In this way, the prairies of Kentucky have disappeared; and those to the west of the Ohio and Mississippi, retreat as the settle- ments approach them. Itshould be remembered that some prairie are so very level, and retain water so long at the surface, that the seeds of trees will perish, and even the roots, if the seed had sprout- ed, and the shoots had been burnt, or left standing. Hence, you may observe such prairies to continue long after stock are turned upon them. So soon as the fires are restrained, trees come forth, upon all the prairies that are formed of rolling land, 44 Origin, Extension and Continuance of Prairies. A TORNADO. it We have stated that hurricanes and whirlwinds, by their irl upon the forests, are chiefly instrumental in forming prairies. It is believed that hurricanes are not so frequent and so violent as formerly. For the last twenty-five years particularly, they have dimin- ished in number and energy. The signs of hurricanes, previous to the year 1805, would indicate in their case, a frequency and violence unequalled in any subsequent period. “Tn the year 1805 it happened to the writer to be roving on that most beautiful lawn, extending from, Kaskaskia to Illinois, and which is called the American bottom. There was the most charming alter- nation of prairie, and woodland, and while he was musing on the causes which gave rise to forests of grass, or cane; and of stu- pendous oaks and cotton’ *~woods, he was roused, and his attention di- rected toascene of unequalled grandeur and horror. It was a whirl- wind that had ct ossed the Mississippi, and was making i its way through the swamp, until it was near the ‘charming prairie, which at that mo- ment afforded rest and comfort toa solitary pedestrian. By the irres sistible force of the wind, whole forests were ina moment twisted from the ground, and when thrown from the mouth of the vortex, such was the violent collision of tree against tree, that they were pounded into billets and splinters. A sound of universal distress burst forth from every quarter, and earth and sky appeared to be blended. In a twinkling the tornado scooped up a lake, with two or three feet of mud which lined its bottom. In one instant more, it tore away a house with its stone” chimney. In another moment thirty or forty horned cattle, and fifteen or sixteen horses, disappeared with incon- ceivable quickness. The whirlwind twisted off almost every spear of a wheat field, and bore it away with the fence, cattle, horses, lake, trees, house, and whatever was in the way. For more than a mile _ the heavens were black, and filled with the wreck of the = ie In this tornado, as well as many that had before occurred in ge on a smaller scale, there was nothing to justify a belief with Mr. Dunbar, “of a vortex with a central spot in a state of profound calm 5” or of Dr. Franklin, who supposed the “vortex of a whirl- wind to be a true vacuum.” From the lake to the house, was about two hundred yrds between which stood a huge cotton-wood tree of at least seven feet in diamée- ter, and more than one hundred feet in height. It was observed, _ when the vortex had nearly or quite reached the tree, that the leaves _ Observations on depriving sdilosoesh of their Anthers. 45 and limbs began to point upwards, and at the’ same instant of time they were crushed, and ran together, which gave the appearance of a mock body, by which the trunk seemed to be extended; but im-. mediately the trunk was twisted from the stump, leaving about ten . eet above ground, when with a quickness, that the eye could not follow, all ran through the throat of the vortex, and was thrown out to float with others in the regions above. ere was remaining of the stone chimney, about one foot above ground, and not one of the stones removed was tobe seen. Wheth- er they were carried up in the vortex and thrown out by the circular impetus of the air, and deposited beyond the reach of observation, we were unable to determine. The water and mud of the lake were deposited on the field which contained the wheat, and from thence to the wood land beyond the prairie in the direction of the tornado, was about three miles ; on which land, there were to be found only the bodies of two of the horses. and five or six of the cattle. This mighty wreck was seen to pass to .the north-west of St. Louis, more than twenty miles above the a me Art. 1X.—Observations on deere | Woaer of their Anthers, ‘to | produce Double Flowers; by E. T. TS, Some years ago, Dri Messer, of Cabo, (kingdom of Wewricndaads published a small book, entitled * Art of raising double Gillyflowers, Neustadt at the Orla, 1828;” in which he shows how to deprive un- folded flowers of their wpiers to prevent fructification, and that seeds we cannot, in any better manner, introduce a respectable young stran- ger to the Rineiioe , than publicity to the following letter of Dr. Leitner to the Editor: its franks ness and Tategrity are not less observable than the intelligence and zeal which it indicates.— : Cu HARLESTON, July uy, , 1832. Dear Sir—Since your Journal has fallen into my hands, I have felt a great desire letter to you.. I hope you will excuse my inaccuracies in writing; particularly, as I have been but a short time in this country. From early youth, I have felt a great inclination for natural history, and when, having arrived at riper age, I saw my sphere in my native land (Germany) too narrow, then a thought arose in my mind to visit and explore this interesting country, in hope that I might, perhaps, contri- bute, by and by, something to the knowledge and science of natural history. After visi i i home, to bid it perhaps the last farewell, and‘embarking from Havre de Grace, I 46 Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers. from such mutilated flowers produce double flowers. Dr. Messer gave notice of it to the Horticultural Society of Berlin, (Prussia,) -but with the remark, that he was less fortunate in experiments made on flowers in his garden than on those which he had in pots, perhaps because they were less distant from other flowers. The Horticul- tural Society encouraged him to continue his experiments, which he performed with great success. At the same time Prof. Bauer, Prof. Schuebler, Mr. C. Orthman, (inspector of the College garden,) and myself, made experiments, in Tubingen, on the same subject; and the results are now concentrated as follows. We could not find much difference between flowers in pots and the same flowers in gar- dens. Seeds produced by prevented fructification, always showed | in one hundred plants sixty or seventy with double flowers, while one hundred plants, when in the same ground, in a natural way, pro- duce no more than twenty or thirty. . Even the seeds of the former produced: flowers larger.and more full, tlian in the natural way. In. some of the flowers, the number of the petals was multiplied from - fifty to fifty five, when in single flowers there were no more than arrived in New York, last year. Having little knowledge of the language, I at first e the learned and scientific. I came to outh ee after I had wandered through - é : nd nevolence, and they do every thing in their power to extend my views. I shall finish, h, in Cintas: my studies of medicine, being with Dr. J. Edwards Holbrowns Anatomy in lectures erictianis in that institution. I was indeed enepvieed and delighted, to find more spirit here for natural history, than in any part of the United States which I ve visited. About seventeen ladies and fifteen gentlemen attend my jocturess a Sea number in the summer season. ve in view an expedition to Florida next March, the time at which the lectures ter ialiais. I shall visit first the Fiorida Reefs, (perhaps accompanied by Mr. Audu- and penetrate from thence into the heart of the territo ory, ‘to explore its ree eat teaures, ee to lift the veil which-now covers that “the United Sta y there until the sickly season begins, and then return to Charleston, if God steel my undertaking, to distribute the collections among the subscribers. The subscription i is only $10 for each member, and the money is returned in =—_ , plants, insects, reptiles, and some stuffed birds, and seeds. I hope to pro- cure. ‘about thirty subscribers in this city. If I succeed next year in my expedition to » and finish my studies in medicine, I shall very probably undertake an aipedidian ona larger sca scale, to the western states. I hope the gentlemen at the North will not overlook such a an occasion to enlarge their museums and herbarium, I now take the liberty, Sir, to offer a few observations only, for the pages of your Journal. - Very respectfully yours, E. ssienatiate on depriving Flowers of their Anthers. 47 four. No stamen, or rudiment of the germ, was discovered in the lai of the flower, The Sie are the most nierenieg re- marks on the subject. 1. To succeed in these experiments, you must cut out the cated from the closed flower, when they are almost formed, but have not yet spread out the pollen. The Gillyflower (Cheiranthus annuus) suc- ceeded in the best manner, just when the petals were about 33-4” (linee Parisienses) long, already a little colored, but still closed and folded; the petals must rts cautiously be opened witha payontiay . and the anthers taken out. 2. If you cut off the saileage when the pollen is already spread out in some measure, then large and perfect pods are produced, but the _ single flowers are mingled with double ones. 3. If you take them before the anthers are formed, and the ied still colorless, or only whitish green, and about 1-14/” (Paris meas- ure) in length, standing out of the calyx, then no seed at all is pro- duced, and the germ after some time drops off sterile. This obser- vation proves that the fructification must be acbarding to the : method certain, though imperfect. _ 4. If you observe the further growth of as oade th sk daceed flowers, you will remark, that they grow less regular than natural ones; they thicken and swell up, sometimes on the upper more than on the under part 5 they are jpegs shorter than ae and vary very much in size on the same plant _ 5. In the state of maturity, you find less seeds in pods of mutila- ted flowers than in those not so. We find the seeds sometimes only attached to one side, the other side of the dissepiment being empty 5 sds contained. from five.to seven seeds, when natural ones “4 curved, and imperfect : ‘the weight of one thousand ordinary seeds of the Gilly flower, in a dry state, attached for ten months to the dissepiment, was in the month of aul 26 grains. One seed had a weight of about .026 gr. or near to ;'; gr- ‘The same num- ber of seeds from double flowers was 22 6 24 a ; single seed, . We observed sometimes, in natural pods of the Cheiranthus he curved and imperfect seeds, which produced double flow- ers also. i 48 Observations on depriving Flowers of their Anthers. 8. Simple Gillyflowers, from seeds of iniilictel; deprived flowers, isplayed sometimes an irregular shaped corolla; instead of four, osly a ome ; and instead of six stamens, only three on one wae of the c 9. The ¢ son remained, as well in single as in double ones. 10. The odor seems to be augmented in double flowers. 11. Manure has some effect on the multiplying of flowers ; how- ever, not so many flowers are then produced, in the Cheiranthus an- — nuus; the whole plant rather becomes more strong and luxuriant. Often the manure of pigeons, and powdered bones, has the effect of imparting white spots to colored flowers. 12. On Cheiranthus incanus, (Stockflower,) it has the same effect, and in that plant the seeds seem to differ too in proportion, so that the weight of one thousand otdiatey: seeds amounted to 33 grains, and one seed about .033, or near ;'; gr. ; the same number of seeds of double flowers 30 to 33 grains, or sinple seeds ;); to 5/5 gr. - “These experiments show, that this formation of double flowers, produced by depriving the flowers of their anthers, agrees well — with the theory of sexuality. The usual fructification is only dis- turbed, but not immediately destroyed; the imperfect seed is still formed ; the plants raised from them display, instead of the organs of sexuality, a multitude of petals, where the ability of sions a2: is manifested. The experiment I made with Nicotiana Langsdorfii and N. pani- culata, can be connected with it. I deprived the former of the sta- mens, and fixed the pollen with a quill on the stigma of the latter, which produced, by sowing the seed the next year, quite a different ——a medium between both. Dr. Gaertner made an experiment of this kind with Nicotiana glutinosa and N. suaveolens, which pro- duced a variety with a multitude of beautiful red blossoms. It is to be wished, that similar experiments may be made in : the Ril with different plants and in different pet: . Miscellaneous ied Topics, &c. 49 iw: X.—Miscellaneous: Gooteirieil Topics relating to the dete part of the vale of the Mississippi; alluvion by rain; up — and extension of valleys; subsidence of the sea; original vale of the river with its wings and present channel.—From u: ishet MSS. on the Theory of the Earth; by Dr. Rusu Nort, of Rodney, Mississippi. _Tuar the ocean once rolled its waves over the present Delta of the Mississippi does not admit of a doubt. We will first consider the tract of country, from Vicksburgh to Baton Rouge, whose width is between ten and fifteen miles from the present boundary of the bluff. SKETCH OF THE COUNTRY. The unevenness of the face of this district will at once strike the traveller with surprise. It is a country cut to pieces by broad ravines; and notwithstanding the narrowness of the ridges, they are much dis- figured by excavations, running into their sides. The general eS tion of the principal ridges is westerly, intersecting the Mis right angles, and they are gradually depressed, as they run from o limits of the district now under consideration, until they are cut off | by the vale. | Most of the bluffs are from one to two hundred feet in height. By observing their descent, which is often gradual, when receding from the bluff to the limit of the territory we are now describing, it would appear that, did the ridges run upon a declivity similar to that which they formerly had, they would extend at least ten or fifteen miles farther than they now do, in a similar course. We shall then sup- pose, that prior to the existence of the present river, these blufis were i and terminated by a gentle declivity ; being met by a slight subsidence on the other side, which was an extensive ravine, that was afterwards to become the present vale; thus they gradually en- roached upon the basin, and finally succeeded in driving out the waters of the gulf, which we shall consider as the Natches basin. COMPOSITION OF THE STRATA. In proof of the correctness of our position, we shall appeal to the fact, of the presence of molluscous testacea, which are found to be very regularly and generally dispersed from within five feet of the present surface down to the sand, which formed the downs and beach of the ocean itself. The first foot of soil we shall - vegetable Vou. XXUI.—No. 1. 7 lhe BUT, GARDE). 1911 50 Miscellaneous Geological Topics mould ; beneath that we find a stratum of deep red clay, very hard and tenaceous, of about four feet in depth, and abounding in alumina, iron and lime. The next, or substratum is that which extends to the sand ; it is of a pale yellow color, contains-less alumina and a_ very little iron, and abounds in comminuted.arenaceous quartz. By attrition in water it has been rendered as fine as the sand of Arabia, which is now extending the limits of Cobi, in Asia, and similar causes are enlarging the desert of Sahara, in Africa; where floods of sand . are carried upon the wings of the wind, until-countries and cities are overwhelmed and lost beneath its accumulating mountains. — - Jn this stratum, the snail shells are regularly distributed throughout this-region, and are found in every foot untill you reach the sand. Upon examination of the bluffs made by the inroads of the Missis-- sippi, we uniformly find the shells thus deposited. Now as these snails must have been buried by the gentle alluvion of the higher land and as the present bluffs formerly receded by a gentle declivity for ten miles into the rear, until they ended in a plain,—where would they find a limit? Is it not evident that they did once extend by a gradual depression, until they were lost or gently died away? ‘There is but one species of snail found buried here, and they exist at this time very extensively ; and can be found under the bark and in the cavities of rotten wood. ‘There is another species of snail, whose shell we have never been able to detect beneath the surface of the earth; they are rarely to be found, for they delight in perpetual shade. They must have appeared in this country at a late period: they are already extinct, unless where the forest has continued in an uninterrupted state. 2 2 ~ We have already remarked, that neither species of the snail is to be found in the first stratum of clay, nor are they to be seen in the _vegetable mould. It is in the range of these strata, the mould and ’ first clay stratum, making a depth generally of five feet, that the air has exerted its influence in decomposing the shells, converting them into lime, and the vegetable roots which oceupy this region have con- tributed to their farther and more speedy destruction. 2 INFLUENCE OF CANE BRAKES, cc. - If we are asked why the shells are decomposed in this and not in the substratum, we answer that we are about to enter upon another epoch in our local history :—The visitation of cane (Arundo Missis- sippi.) As soon as this vegetable got possession and became matted wes relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 2 51 over the face of the country, the washing down of the land ceased at the surface, and the helpless snail escaped a premature interment. — It was then that the abrasions and excavations took place beneath the surface. .It was then that the rains bore off the earth and deposited it in the great north and south ravines, and these were destined to become, at a future day, the bed of a mighty river, which was to be employed in transporting the earth to assist in expelling the sea, and forming what we shall call the Orleans’ basin. It was then that the present dark and deep vegetable mould began to be deposited. The cane roots formed a perfect mat and net-work over the face of the earth, while their stalks held the leaves and decayed wood so firmly that all remained and nothing was removed by rain. From century to century the leaves, limbs and trunks of trees were tied down to the very spot which they first occupied, and the rains could only sink the decomposed mineral vegetable and animal matter, imparting by an increase of iron, lime and alumina, firmness of texture to the stratum below. ~ From the depth of the stratum of vegetable earth, we may esti- mate the time the cane has been on the surface. We have taken the deposit of one year in leaves and dead wood on a given piece of , and reduced it to ashes; calculations on the result, allowing for the destruction by fire, and the action of rain and air on this stra- _ tum, will bring us to the probable conclusion, that the cane was set, and the formation of this black mould actually began, twelve hundred years previous to the time when it began to be disturbed by man. As doubtful as this calculation may be,.it affords us more information than that derived from the trees. ‘The forest, which witnessed the amival: - the ean has perished 3 in days that have long gone by, and ly several generation: ftrees besides. We find no trees of this ry, whose life exceeds the term of three hundred years. The present forest, like the aged hemlock, is dead at the top, and we might add, in the center too; as the trees are of the kind, which first deeay in the heart of the trunk. In short, we can safely assert, that had not the white man appeared to molest this full grown garden of na- ture, the present race of trees would have disappeared in forty years more, and the country have been a prairie. . PECULIARITY OF STRUCTURE. _ Aremarkable circumstance in this district is the absence of the superincumbent stratum of clay. In the neighborhood of Natchez ~ 52 Miscellaneous Geological Topics the vegetable soil rests upon the stratum which abounds in arenace- ous quartz; and that which is rendered tenaceous by alumina and iron is wanting. The trees which cover this land, do not exceed fifty or sixty years of age. This land has, in most places, a deep vegetable mould, but why it should be without the iron and alumina can be accounted for only upon the supposition, that for the greater part of the period of its present position, it remained a prairie. From this it would appear, that grass does not much contribute to the generation of a sub-stratum, so desirable to the farmer,—without which -he is but poorly compensated for his toil in collecting and spreading his manure upon a soil which is unable to retai, and-ap- propriate it to use. We therefore conclude, that this section of our district was a prairie for, at least, six hundred years before the cane got possession of it. It may be supposed, that the expecgbambent stratum of alee was the last washed down, and brought with it the properties it now ex- hibits. To show that such a conjecture was unfounded, we state, that all the sides of hills, as well as the tops of the ridges and the plains, are furnished with this stratum ; but whenever we approach a grove of aged magnolia trees, which wee usually occupies the point of a ridge, whether the grove is on the summit or on the side of the ridge, if the rain can remove the leaves, this stratum will be wanting. It must be remarked, that the magnolia groves so completely obscure the rays of the sun, as to prevent entirely the growth of the cane, or permit, at most, only a scattered and small growth. It has been alé ready stated, that this clay is. found on the sides of the hills, where the cane enjoyed freedom of light, and occasional access to the rays of the sun. ‘This fact, with the actual appearance of the furrowed ridges, scooped out on both sides every ten or twenty steps, will suffice to show that the clay was not brought froma distance and deposited there ; but that it was deposited fia the operation of an earlier cause, and that it remained notwithstanding the disadvanta such a situation would be attended with in — of equa waste from rain. - While upon the subject of this sub-stratum, we shall mention the invariable occurrence of a blue stratum of tough clay, generally found immediately above the sand, or within a few feet of it. When wells are sunk and water obtained in this clay, like that in the Lon- don clay, it is never fit for use; its smell and taste are very offensive being not unlike that of the mud of a salt marsh. In this stratum relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 53 the snail shells are very abundant. Should we not attribute this stra- tum to the washing down of the land, the pushing out the sea, and the forming, i in this manner, of marshes and pools of stagnant water, _which series of events was followed by a luxuriant vegetable growth; It is evidently the vegetable and animal matter of this marginals stra- tum which gives to it so unpleasant a smell. If we are correct in the conclusion, that this is the marginal svar tum, which girded the sea in this quarter, the question may be asked, has the sea subsided ?>—We have made no calculations of the height of this stratum-above the sea, but incline to the opinion that it is more than one hundred feet above the gulf stream. Much attention has-been given by the writer to the appearance of bluffs, and many inquiries have been made of persons employed in the sinking of wells for water, to ascertain if there were any reasons to admit a heaving of the land. But it appeared, upon inquiry, that nothing of the kind has occurred, and that the land of the above named district has been gradually formed by the slow and uniform action of the rains, in bringing down: the earth from higher pe! and thus eens and ae. the Bae terres sce SOURCES OF FRESH WATER. It is worthy of remark, that, in some instances, wells have been sunk and the sand reached without observing the blue clay; but water was not obtained until they descended to the sand containing pebbles, whose depth is sometimes ten or twelve feet. This sand must be composed of such beds as are usually observed to be of un- equal height, such as form the downs of the sea shore, being thrown up by the wind, and consequently they lie higher than the water level. In proof, it maybe stated that no water can be obtained in these beds; they-are also without the pebbles which peared occur on the face of sand as the water runs over it, whether from the base of the bluffs, or across the bottom of wells. It should be re: that the appearance of sand, near the surface, on hills, or - other situ- ations, should not be-confounded with the downs above alluded to. This occasional and rare occurrence of sand, would seem to have been caused by earthquakes. Such deposits of sand are generally narrow and short. It is also worthy of remark, that the blue clay, or marginal stratum referred to above, should not be confounded with occasional appearance of blue clay, from five to thirty feet in : — and formed by the gradual iomcoclage of land upon ponds, _ 54 Miscellaneous Geological Topics which have existed at various depths between the surface of the outs and the sand below. FERTILITY OF THE CANE DISTRICT; INFLUENCE ON WATER. — Notwithstanding the unevenness of this district of country, as be- fore observed, it is the most fertile of all the regions of the South, and for this it is indebted chiefly -to the cane. Previous to the ap- ' pearance of this vegetable, the soil which was very fine and: easily “acted upon by rain, continued to descend, carrying leaves, wood and: the molluscous testacea in its course, which, in process of time, pro- duced this stratum of clay, so remarkable for its fineness and loose- ness. ‘Thus it was that every facility was afforded to the solution of this stratum in water, so as to afford on its arrival a speedy and luxu- riant growth to the cane. It was then that the surface of the earth was for the first time, in this region, enabled to enjoy repose. It was then, that the deposit of wood and leaves, was confined to the very 228 first received them. And it was then, on account of. the fallen leaves and timber, that the rain water was caused to experience insurmountable difficulties in obtaining a passage on the surface of the earth. It was, therefore, driven below; here it met with less difficulty, readily pursuing the course of the cane roots, which had already penetrated the earth in every possible direction. It -was here that. the water, assisted by the roots of trees, which enabled it to descend lower, found a ready outlet. Thus a way of escape was provided: but it was done at the expense of the stratum of clay; as the water passed on, it carried with it much of the earth, which lay immediately beneath and about the roots of the cane and trees. This removal of the earth produced a corresponding subsidence of the superincumbent trees and cane, and of the earth, which filled up the interstices of the net work. When the roots again seized upon the earth below, they obtained a temporary and uncertain hold; but the water, again accumulating on a declivity, has, in some instances, burst forth, carrying downwards, for a considerable extent, both the cane and the soil; the breach is, however, soon repaired ; the sur- cane roots run in and quickly penetrate the earth in every 2 manner, and render the fortification doubly strong. ‘Thus the land was imperceptibly sinking and forming frightful hollows and mangled ridges, with their sides fluted and grooved to such a degree that the cultivation, in many places, is rendered almost impracticable. Yes, this secret and unsuspected removal of the earth was going on Ree relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 55 for, perhaps, twelve hundred years; carrying ‘the earth by secret paths to a great distance, where it was either appropriated in forming what is now called second bottoms or bluff-flats ; or deposited at a point where it was; at some distant day, to be again removed - by a river that did not then exist, and it was destined to assist in laying the foundation of. the Mississippi Delta, or what we have called the Orleans basin, with its upper or northern boundary beginning at Ba- ton Rouge and not at Natchez, as supposed by Mr. Dunbar. SUBTERRANEAN CAVITIES AND CHANNELS. Our first stratum of clay, beneath the vegetable soil, contains a multitude of irregular cavities, tratersed by the same clay, and dis- posed like the reticular texture of bones. These cavities are pro- duced and perpetuated by rain water, which, as fast as it is com- pressed by superincumbent weight, passes readily through the soil and vegetable matter, and through this clay, into the next stratum, or it forms «small channels between the two. These cavities are lined with a very thin coat of lime or chalk, derived from the water, bringing from the surface the spoils of the snail shells which time creates, destroys and decomposes. In very dry lime, iron and alumina, give to this stratum of clay, a og ee and almost equal to that of lead. It dries so hastily in the sun, that it cannot be used by the brick-maker. The second stra- tum, which contains a superabundance of sand, requires more alumi- na and iron, to produce the weight and tenacity which are so very important in bricks. It may be doubted whether the levigated marl, mentioned by Mr. Dunbar, which “ assumes a compactness and so- lidity resembling pitch,” is very well ‘adapted to the use of the potter.” This earth of the Mississippi bottom is alumina, with a siderable quantity of vegetable and animal matter. We have noticed the effects of heat upon this earth, when united with sand and made into brick. While burning, it is extremely difficult to raise and continue the white heat, without producing fusion; the bricks are very light, friable, and remarkably brittle. To show the readiness with which land covered by cane received absorbed the rain water, we will cite as instances two tracts thickly set with a natural growth of cane; both of these tracts received the heaviest falls of rain, without showing the least sign of draining on the surface. The first field contains about eighty acres, and was well known to the writer before the cane was remo 56 Miscellaneous Geological Topics - the land much trodden by cattle. The whole of this piece of land was so situated, as to be drained by one outlet or valley. We fre- quently observed, that the heaviest falls of rain upon this land, pre- vious to clearing and cultivation, did not exhibit the least sign of wa- ter on the surface of the vale. But after a part was put into culti- vation, it was seen that a canal would be necessary to secure the crop from occasional inundation. So soon as all the land was turn- ed to use, the canal was enlarged from year to year,-until it was ten feet wide and six feet deep, before it was of sufficient dimensions to retam the water on its passage, and prevent an overflow, during a heavy fall of rain. . By INSTANCES OF THE INCREASE OF SURFACE WATER; The next case is not a part of a plantation, but of a tract lying’6n each side of a well known water course of this country, called Colés’ Creek ;—we shall suppose this tract to extend fifteen miles in one direction ; but as the creek has branches, we will confine our re- marks to its northern stream, in which it may be supposed to con- tain eight or ten square miles. Sixty years ago, this tract, as well as that in the vicinity, was a gloomy region of perpetual shade. Our informant, Mr. Daniels, reports his frequent visits about this time, for the purpose of hunting here the bear and the deer: for many years im succession, and often, several times in the same year, he crossed this then dry ravine, without either a channel of water. After a term of years, when settlements were made round about, and the cattle of the plantations extended their range, treading the land and breaking the texture of the roots of the cane brake, holes appeared in the ravine where now is Cole’s Creek: they were occasioned by the land and cane sinking into the subterranean passages, which had been made by the water. In wet seasons water was found in these openings; but in dry weather -there was. none. At length a ditch of five or six feet wide, and eight or ten feet deep, was forme: the rains. For some years after, Mr. D. could step across it in some places, and in others he could jump over it. Twenty six years since, when we first observed this creek, the usual crossing Places did not exceed ten or twelve steps in width and eight or ten in depth. But as the country was cleared, the creek continued to enlarge its dimensions until the present time, when it is between two and four hundred feet wide, and at least twenty five ar thirty feet deep. The inundations aré more frequent now than twenty ‘five relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 57 years ago, and the creek must of course discharge, in a given time, — an infinitely greater quantity of water. _ . What more need we say, in support of our position of subterra- neous water courses, by the infiltration of water through the earth. A new or uncultivated country, whether clothed with grass alone, or with trees and cane, will imbibe all the water that falls upon it, unless where the country is based upon strata of rock, or the soil is very sterile; and indeed many of the rocky districts, particularly those of limestone, are apt to contain more subterranean than superficial ‘streams. It is worthy of remark, that in settling all the country west of the Alleghany mountains, there was a very general want of water; whether it was in the limestone regions of Tennessee, Ken- tucky and Ohio, or in the extensive prairies of Indiana, Illinois and Missouri, or in the great cane-brakes of our district; the scarcity of water was every where observed, and water was truly a desideratum. But as the settlements extended, with the introduction of cattle, the _ earth became more compact, and spontaneous vegetation less flour- ishing, which, by the increased firmness of the ground, caused the water to remain upon or rise to the surface ;—hence it was foun that streams of water multiplied with the increase ot nat The water of our district is strongly impregnated with lime, which jt receives from the snail shells, in passing through the upper and lower strata of clay and vegetable earth. Deposition of lime from the water takes place in all the cavities, whether occasioned by the decay of former deposits of wood, or of the roots of trees: this deposition of lime crystallizes, and is found, also, amorphous in the earth. pela 8 THE MISSISSIPPI. ~ We are again brought to the spot where the magnificent’ Missis- sippi_now rolls. When did this river appear, and what is its age? Owing to causes unknown to us, this singular river was not, confined, but driven out from the land, by the operation of the numerous lakes and grand reservoirs of water, and by the extensive regions of cane, which alernated. with prairies, and began to show themselves and spread very generally over the continent. When the Indians arrived, (an unknown period,). they must have found no small difficulty in penetrating the cane-brakes. To make their journeys the more readily, they doubtless adopted the plan of burning the cane every ou. XXIIL.—No. 1. 8 58 Miscellaneous Geological Toes autumn, which, under favorable circumstances of dry weather, would sometimes destroy, for the moment, the vegetation of immense re- gions, burning every tree to the top and leaving none alive. This mode of removing the cane must have been continued and extended with the increase of Indian population, by which means the water, under the given circumstances, escaped more readily. No matter how extensive a country of cane and wood was destroyed by fire; the cane during the following year would spring forth again, and in two or three months, stand as thick and as luxuriant as before. Hav- ing the exclusive possession of the land, it precluded the possibility of the coming forth of trees, but being unable long to withstand the ac- tion of the sun’s rays, it would ere long die, and leave the land free for grass and trees to take possession and contend for the mastery. It was now that the waters of the lakes found the fractured points whe i began to press hard upon them ; es, assisted by fire began to form the prairies, and continued to extend their bounds. And now during the spring season, on the — surface of the ravines, the water began to show itself, and make its way slowly, through the thick cane-brake, until taking advantage of the paths, made along the ravine by the beasts of the’ forest, it at length excavated a distinct channel. This channel probably existed in a very inconsiderable degree, at the time when the white man ap- peared. Under his subduing hand, forests and cane-brakes disap- peared, and even prairies lost their names and became forests and fields. ores, ABORIGINAL BURNING. I suppose that during the second century, of the Christian Era, the Indians passed out of Asia into America, and that about the fifth and sixth century, they had considerably increased and spread over North and South America, where they continued to kindle their autumnal fires. About this time, the waters of the lakes had probably. made a considerable breach through the ridges and moun- tains, which formed natural dams, running across the ravines, and then the water began to show itself on the surface of the vale; when inroads were soon made upon the cane and trees, and thus a channel was formed. In 1750, the French settlements began on the banks of the river, above New Orleans ; ; for the term of twenty years they cultivated the land and * rarély” says Mr. Dunbar, “ had they ever seen the ee surmount the level of its banks, and the cages ae relating to the Vale of the Mississippr. 59 ment, called by the French name of levee, was rarely. required and only in very low places. Since that period, from year to year, the river has continued to rise higher and higher, which has obliged the inhabitants of Lower Louisiana to prolong and reinforce their levees,” &c.... The: :Minsiontens now is adams enlarging, as progress is alle in clearing and cultivating the lands, whose waters run into this river. Within the last twenty-five years, its general width has sensibly increased, and its overflows are more frequent. ‘There is no a reasons for the belief that it is becoming more shallow ; but that the contrary is true, is we think demonstrated by the ri that there is an evident diminution in the number of what are denominated snags, and sawyers or planted trees.* It may be observed also, that the current is less furious at particular points, as near the — of a bend, where the water always presses hardest. We thin these changes indicative of an increased depth of water in the river, rather than of a tendency to become more shallow as many have supposed. The natural outlets through the Delta, that forms the mouths of the river cannot increase, but must _ : in number as the depositions from the water accumulate ; consequently a ug the impediments at the mouth may not damsieiahs they cannot increase, before the Delta is pushed upon Cuba. We should also recollect, the weight of this stream, which surpasses, perhaps, any other in the world, and when assisted by the Gulf stream, it will always a its mouths and bar of at least the same depth as at present. PROSPECTIVE VIEW. When the surface of the great country, whose waters pour into the Mississippi, shall be compacted by time, with the aid of a more scant spontaneous ve and of a more extended cultivation, the quantity of water which will then be borne through the channel of the river, will be incomparably greater than at present. Heavy and repeated rains, which might now bring the water, only within five feet of the level of the banks, will then produce such an overflow, as will inundate the vales and destroy the crops. ‘In the year 1805, the writer stood upon the banks of the Missou- ri, and with astonishment beheld its diminutive stream. And even inconsiderable as it was, it appeared to be half filled with sand bars. - * Local names given to trees that ase _ into the river, and become so fixed that the currents do not remove them The current of this river is very rapid, and the sand bars are (like the billows of the ovean) forever rolling in the current, and shifting from place to place, and when with the progress of the current they leave the river, others will follow close behind. This river drains a country whose extent is more than three times greater than that watered by any other river of the United States, including the Mississippi, above its junction with the Missouri. It is not as large as the Ohio or Tennessee rivers, and its freshets make very little im- pression on the Mississippi, as far down as the Natchez basin. It is the Ohio, that compels the Mississippi to call to her assistance, her thousand reservoirs, and her extensive vale, to retain the waters un- bosomed by this most beautiful river, her magnificent tributary. When the prairies of that immense region lying on both sides of the Missouri, and extending quite to the Rocky Mountains, shall ished, what will be the appearance, and size of this river? The same question will apply to the Arkansas and Red River It should be remarked, that the country bordering on these rivers, is more level, than that on the Ohio. Hence their waters will not be extricated so readily ; but nevertheless their bounds must be ex= tended to an incredible degree. When all the water that falls on this great country, and which now serves to replenish those mighty rivers, that roll through dark and gloomy forests, and through inter- minable deserts, shall be turned in their courses, and eaused tokeep as much above ground as the waters of the Ohio; the Missouri will then indeed become vast, and her freshets will be truly terrific. Judging from the observations ef more than twenty five years, we will venture to say, that the Missouri must, by and by, discharge in a given period, twenty times as much water as now. OPINIONS OF MR. DUNBAR, In the 6th vol. of the American Philosophical Transactions of Philad. may be seen “ A description of the Mississippi and its delta,” by. Mr. Dunbar, in which, when speaking of the formation of the delta, he remarks. “When we survey this immense work, formed by the hand of nature, we cannot. accord with the opinions of cer- tain visionary philosophers, who have been pleased to amuse them- selves with the pretended infantile state of our continent, compared to their trans-atlantic world; but on the contrary, we must grant fo it an incalculable antiquity.” If Mr. Dunbar had been apprised of the existence and extent of the. Natchez basin, that he sat and relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 61 wrote within its bounds, and that it was formed by a process, incal- culably slower than that which formed the Delta, what would he have said? After a fire-side geological survey of the globe, Dr. Hutton concluded : “ We find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.” It is due to the memory of Mr. Dunbar, thus publicly to assert, that his remarks upon the Mississippi and its delta, are of ees highest excellence and authority. Respecting the delta, Mr. Dunbar farther remarks that “ upon all lands long subject to culture, and defended from the inundation though near the margin, the appearance is almost lost.” This is a mistake, as there can be no sensible diminution of sand; the in- firmness and adhesiveness of all soils upon long culture, isin consequence of the farther decomposition and consequent loss ‘of vegetable matter. The second clay stratum of Natchez basin, has long since lost all © appearances of vegetable matter ; it has been resolved, and all the volatile and Sistilining properties carried off by the passage of water through it, leaving nothing behind, but a part of eds iron Moped ain yielded by decomposition. A Ra, Not to mention ‘absurdities of a bidloet oat it vies an widbeblicy to talk of the effects of the water ~_ = Mississippi “ banishing disor= ders common to » cilier countries.” This delusion is found in all civilized countries. “Mineral waters have often been supposed to effect that which is due to change of situations producing a new train of ‘associations, by the novelty.of the scene, and the change of air, and thus often a very powerful influence is exerted upon chronie diseases. More benefit is derived from these causes than from the waters, as it rarely occurs that their qualities are suited to the par- ps nature and state at the ee a river almost without barriers ; it Elinor be controlled by its own banks or by the feeble ramparts erected by man; occasionally, it rolls through a breadth of thirty miles; roves with restless activity from side to side; subverts en- tire forests, and at its pleasure obliterates the soils which it had de- —— in former ages. LAKES ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI. - This river has no lakes at its mouth, but it is abundantly supplied with them on each side, throughout i its whole extent. ‘These numer= ous lakes are formed by bends of the river, presenting not unfreques® 62 Miscellaneous Geological Topics - the figure of a half moon, or of ahorse-shoe. Each cut off, before the mouths are closed, serves as grand reservoirs for floating wood, which accumulates in the bogs to an enormous extent. When the — ~ two ends of the bend are filled with wood and mud, leaving a canal to accumulate with the Jake, the river rolls off to the east or west, when, ere long, another great bend is scooped out, and another cut off takes place, which are scattered throughout the whole of the vale, of this most astonishing river. _ The mud which causes the turbidness of the water of this river, is brought principally from the Missouri. Most of the floating tim- ber, in the time taken to make the journey of five or six hundred miles, sinks by the accumulation of mud. This journey is accom- panied by frequent delays, as the planted timber often arrests that which is floating, and detains one and another tree, until many hun- ' dreds are locked and interwoven together, when a considerable mass of logs will be formed and perhaps detained ; both very high and low water occasionally extricates the mass, wht the trees again separate and take the direction of the current. Few or none of the logs from the Missouri, unless perhaps the cotton-wood, reach Natch- ez... We have never heard of pines arriving at that place, although cedar has been occasionally seen and supposed to have left the Ten- nessee river. we 3 SUBMERGED AND INHUMED “WooD. That an immense forest of timber lies concealed Semnesh the depths of this river, in all its roads across the vale, was evinced by the earthquakes which occurred in 1812, and which were so severely felt at New Madrid. These convulsions brought to the surface of the riv- er an incredible quantity of timber. The first shock was at nights the boat-men imagined it to be the approach of a storm: hearing a mighty noise like wind, and feeling considerable agitation — of the boats, they went above to see whether all their fastenings to the shore were sufficient ; and to their astonishment no shore could be seen ; the distant lights of the town were sometimes séen to the right and. Sometimes to the left. They imagined themselves to be neither in the river, nor on the land ; but fying with rapidity through the air, accompanied by a moving sfurest. It appeared, that for five or six minutes, the boats were impelled up the stream with great rapidity, and in the same space of = oe were returned, which accounts for the shifting app | lights and the rising of the wood gave relating to the Vale of the Mississippi. 63 the appearance of a moving forest. . This extraordinnry motion of the water, so wedged together the logs, that a complete bridge was formed across, and along the river as far as the eye could reach. In the above case, the backward current, alternating with the dewnveard stream, produced by the repetition of the Heavings, which took place in the river, each Throw brought upon its back, from a vast depth, sand, fossil coal, and the river, and carried all to a con- siderable height before the confined air escaped, and the convul- _. Sion ceased. While this mountain of sand, coal and water was going up, and during its stay, the river was running down the sides, alike, to the north, and to the south; the boats and the timbers, on the ‘south side experienced ecensicnel vollies which continued to drive them with irregular velocity in the same direction; but it was otherwise on the northern or upper side; here the current, when it had descended, united with the accumulated waters above, and with inconceivable violence returned back, upon the yielding of the heave. These billows of convulsive nature, repeatedly oc= occurred in the course of bins. or forty minutes 5 when: the boats, trees, coal, and sand that wer wave, retreated and pitched headlong 4 into the yawning abyss be- neath, where they now sleép in silence and darkness. Had a thick stratum of rock above the confined air formed the bed of this river, a mountain would have been made ; and a rampart formed which would have driven the Mississippi out of its bed, and caused it to have sought a channel beyond the limits of this mighty bulwark. ~~ Will this river ever lose its primitive character? Should the vale and adjacent country, be raised by future upheavings of earthquakes, so as to give the Mississippi its second and final heave, and should it thus become, like the other rivers of America, fixed within impassible , the principal mountain may be formed in the fork of the Ohio, and Mississippi, throwing these rivers out of their present channels, extending the throw along the vale, obliterating the Mexican Gulf, and Carribean sea, and receiving into her bosett the great Antilles. The coal beds then exhibited here, would probably equal those of Pittsburg in quality ; and for quantity would more than equal all the beds of the United States. But waving hypothetical considerations as to what may be 3 and considering what now exists, or soon will be; we shall suppose the day not distant, when this river will be perfectly subdued, and its vale brought within the control of man ; that parallel and’ cross ©& 64 Miscellaneous Geological Topics, &c. nals will be run, intersecting each other at right angles, for every two or four miles ; that all the lakes will be filled up, with the accu- — mulation of earthy matter, by conducting the water upon them in canals, and that all.the immense region of cypress forest, the most valuable timber in the world, will be reclaimed and brought within the reach of commerce and the arts of life. 3 PECULIARITIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The Mississippi, like the Caspian Sea, has its bluffs on the eastern side, with its principal vale and lakes to the west. When the river is full to the top, all the land and the trees seem to float upon the surface. _The water of the river penetrates the soil with astonishing facility. This will be seen by observing its level, which is preserved throughout the vale... A hasty rise in the Mississippi, i in consequence ~ of the want of time, often leaves the water lower in the swamps than in the river, by which means, the level is lost; but when the flood emains stationary for a short period, the level is, under favorable circumstances, recovered. ‘To illustrate the facility with which water passes through the earth; we might produce the instance of a sand bar across the Prag mentioned by Major Pike: When the river is low, all the water escapes by infiltration through the sand. . What is improperly called the raft in Red river is another example, in which nearly all the water which descends that river, when low, escapes through the mud and sand, and along the roots of trees. ‘There is.a sand-bar across the Mississippi, below the Ohio river, which, in low — water, contains not more than three feet. When we consider that | there are a thousand rivers discharging themselves into the Missis- . sippi, and that some of them are at least as wide as it,;—shall we say that the Mississippi is deep and carries off all the water that pours into it; or shall we conclude that, like the Caspian Sea, it is lost by evapo- ration? this solution of the difficulty appears to us very absurd. The size of the Caspian Sea, presenting such an immense sheet. of water to the sun, would of course cause an escape of considerable water by such a process ;—but will it account for the waste of the waters of all the rivers which run into it?—We shall not believe that either the bed of the Caspian Sed, or that of the Mississippi is sheet- ed over with a flooring, i impervious as a solid plate of iron. __ ‘Subterranean passages, made by incessant infiltration, producing small holes or excavations which communicate with the interior of the earth, where they meet with subterranean rivers unquestionably - Ancient American Utensil. 65 exist. As a proof of this fact, we find occasionally that their inhab- itants leave those dreary regions, and by pursuing the streams, find their way to the surface of the earth. In what other way can we account for the appearance of fish in ponds, whose waters are clear, and whose depth is sufficient.to keep cool through summer, and of a regular temperature during winter. Fish find their way into ponds in the course of one or two years; where they continue to improve in size. We witnessed a very remarkable fact of this kind, in the case of a fish which visited the surface, a few years ago. ‘The passage which enabled him to reach the light of the sun, was connected with a hole at the bottom of a ditch, of about three feet in diameter, and two feet deep. This canal was made to drain a small valley,’ of rain water; during the winter and spring seasons, the water rose quite as high as the bottom of the canal; but did. not during summer ap- proach nearer the surface than twelve or fifteen feet. ‘This fish was about eight inches in length, and perhaps of equal circumference. The hole occupied was filled with water, and there was not a suffi- cient quantity in the canal to enable him to pass up or down the val- ley. He was remarkably shy: many attempts were made to ap- proach the spot so near as to enable one to thrust a pole into the crevice; into this he would retreat, when alarmed; but all efforts to approach him proved unsuccessful. He would sometimes be absent for two or three days in succeession. After a stay of about three weeks, and not being able to find a large stream, or a fit habitation on the earth,—he disappeared. i fotice of an Ancient American Utensil ; by Prof. - ‘Watrer R. Jounson. Philadelphia, August 9, 1832... : oy TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—The early state of the arts among the aborigines of this country, is a subject of much interest to the American antiquary. Under this impression, I take the liberty of forwarding to you the following description, and the accompanying sketch, of an article of American manufacture, of a date probably anterior to the time of any European discoveries on the North American continent—per-. Vor. XXII—No. 1. even to the age of mounds and mummies. For 9 7 66 Ancient American Utensil. donation of this interesting relic of antiquity, Tam indebted to the kindness of Mr. Isaac Rawlings, of Memphis, in Tennessee. He informs me that it was found near his residence, some eight or tea years ago, after one of those extensive falls of the river bank, which are known to be frequent along the line of the Mississippi. It had been buried several feet beneath the surface, and was brought to light by the avalanche. The materials of this piece of Indian pot~ - tery are blue clay and white particles of a soft, friable substance, resembling calcined and pulverized shells. The exterior has neither glazing nor coating of any kind, but only such a degree of smooth- ness as would be likely to result from long use and much handling. Tt does not appear to have been formed upon a potter’s wheel, nor indeed to have received the effects of any machinery in its manu- facture, but the hand which moulded it, must have been not a little ed in the production of such articles, as the figure will sufficient- ly indicate. ‘Time appears to have produced bat little effect upon the materials. The figure will show two slight fractures of the tim, and the scaling off of the whole exterior part of the base, except on one side. ode At four points, on the upper portion of the body, and equi- distant respectively from each other, are four flattened spots, each about 1.5 inch in diame- ter, and, with one exception, marked by a darker color than the rest of the vessel. ‘T'wo of these spots are seen in the figure. ‘The depressions were obviously made in the moist state, and, together with the color, may have resulted from the arrangement used in burn- ing. or baking the ware; by which means these four points were more pressed than others, while. soft, and less exposed to the fire, when hot, than other parts of the vessel. Hence the carbonaceous or other coloring matter, may not have been so completely €xpelled from these parts of the surface. _ Articles of this description ‘must, ata very remote period, have been common in that part of the country whence this was taken. BBS Ancient Duala Utensil. 67 In the Philadelphia Museum are two jugs or bottles, composed of similar materials, found in Tennessee, at the depth of fifteen or twenty feet below the surface of the ground. Several specimens of the same ware, are also contained in the collection of the Philo- sophical Society, in this city. ‘Some of the latter, and one of those in the Museum, bear a near resemblance in form to an egg, with one end opened and extended a little, to constitute a neck and mouth. ‘The most rude and apparently the most ancient specimens have generally this form; which may possibly have been suggested _ to the mind of the savage, together with the very idea of earthen ware itself, by the previous use of egg shells for some domestic pur- poses. None of the specimens of pottery above referred to, appear to have received any glazing—a remark which, as far as my obser- vation has extended, is likewise applicable to the Mexican and South American pottery. ‘The latter occasionally exhibit a species of-var- nish very durable in its nature, but entirely distinct from a true gla- zing. ‘This observation is in conformity with the opinion of Mr. Abraham Miller of this city, whose practical acquaintance with this edie. branch of art has led him toa careful exaniination of saany. spect mens of the ancient. manufacture. Se ae The dotted lines and figures in the cut indicate the cavers dimen- ite That the vessel was not formed by revolving machinery is shown by the difference in the depth of the body on two opposite sides. ‘The contents of the vase are three anda half pints. From its peculiar composition and manufacture, it sends forth when moist- ened a fresh earthy odor, exactly like that which is perceived at the commencement of a sudden shower, at the close of a hot summer’s day. As a drinking vessel, this circumstance may have enhanced its vi the eyes of the Indian, who thus regaled his sense of smell exactly as when he quaffed from the pure native spring. I have been thus particular i in the above description, from a belief, that when collected, figured and described, objects of this kind may aid in forming an estimate of the state of the arts and civilization among the nations which possessed this continent at periods of very remote antiquity, and may perbaps furnish an index to mark the re- lationship of the American Indians, either with each other, or with distant nations of the globe. 68 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. Art. XII.—Remarks on the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilerss z by Watrer R. Jounson, Professor of Mechanics and Navanel “Philosophy in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.* [Read before the Institute, at the stated monthly meeting, July 26, 1832.] Ir has been generally supposed that the rolling of botler-plate iron, gives to the sheets a greater tenacity in the direction of the length, than in that of the breadth. Supposing this to be correct, it has fre- quently been asked, how the sheets ought to be disposed in a cylin- drical boiler of the common form, in order to oppose the greatest — Strength to the greatest strain. It has also been asked, whether the same arrangement will be required for all diameters, or whether a magnitude will not be eventualby attained, — ay —— the di- rection of the sheets to be reversed ? % ~ "To determine these questions in a —— fansner, rout irse must be had to patiathematical formulas, assuming such symbols et each of the elements as may apply to any given case of which the separate data are determined either by experiment or by the conditions of the case. The principles of the calculation require our first notice. 1. ‘To know the force which tends to burst a cylindrical vessel in the longitudinal direction,—or, in other words, to separate the head from the curved sides, we have only to consider the actual area of the head, and to multiply the number of units of surface by the num- ber of units of force applied to each superficial unit. This will ee the total divellent force in that direction. To counteract this, we have, or may be eounacel - — the te- nacity of as many longitudinal bars as there are linear units in the cir- cumference of the cylinder. The united strength of these bars con- stitutes the total retaining or quiescent force, and at the moment when rupture is about to take place, the valle and = = eset ie@eeforces must obviously be equal. sili 2. To ascertain the amount of force which tends to rupture the — along the curved side, or rather along two opposite sides, We may regard the pressure as applied through the whole breadth of the cylinder upon each linear unit of the diameter. Hence the total amount of force which would tend to divide the cylinder in halves by * From the Journal of the Franklin Institute. On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 69 separating it along two lines, on opposite sides, would be represented by multiplying the diameter by the force exerted on each unit of sur- face, and this product by the length of the cylinder. But even with- out regarding the length, we may consider the force requisite to rup- ture a single band, in the direction now supposed, and of one linear unit in breadth; since it obviously makes no difference whether the cylinder be long or short in respect to the ease or difficulty of sepa- rating the sides. The divellent force, in this direction, is therefore truly represented by the diameter multiplied by the pressure per unit of surface. ‘The retaining or quiescent force. in the same direction, is se the strength or tenacity of the two opposite sides of the sup- and. Here also, at the moment when a rupture is about to occur, ‘the divellent must exactly equal the quzescent force. 3. In order to estimate the augmentation of divellent force, conse- quent upon an ‘increase of diameter, we have only to consider that as the diameter is increased, the product of the diameter and the force per unit of surface, is increased in the same ratio. But unless the thickness of the metal be increased, the quiescent force must remain unaltered. The quiescent forces, therefore, | ee the divellent increase with the diameter. . Again, as the diameter of the cylinder is cncresnadl the area of its ig is increased in the ratio of the square of the diameter. divellent force is therefore augmented in this ratio. But the retain- ing force does not, as in the other direction, remain the same, since the circumference of a circle increases in the same ratio as the diam- eter. The quiescent force will consequently be augmented im the simple ratio of the diameter, without any additional thickness of metal, so that on the whole the total tendency to rupture in this di- rection will increase only in the simple ratio of the diameter. -§. Since we have seen that the. tendency to rupture, in both di- rections, increases in the simple direct ratio of the increase of diam- eter, it is obvious that any position of the sheets which is right for one diameter, must be right for all. Hence, there can never bea condition, in regard to mere magnitude, which will require the sheets to be reversed. 6. The foregoing considerations being once admitted, we may proceed to ascertain what is the true direction of the greatest tena+ City in the sheet, if any difference exist, and to what that difference might amount, consistently with equal safety of the boiler im both 70 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 7. Let «=the diameter of the cylinder; f= the force or pressure per unit of surface, (pounds per square inch, for example;) T= the. tenacity of metal, which with the diameter x and the force f will be required in the linear unit of the circumference, in order to hold on the head. Then, the whole quiescent force will be 3.14162T, while the divellent will be .7854x2f; consequently .785422f=3.14162T, as above stated. Dividing by .78542, we have af=4T; and we de- aabny : 4T 4T af rive immediately se? 2. Je ne the longitudinal bar of the assumed unit in width, will be one fourth of the product of the diameter into the pressure, measuring the tena- city by the same standard as the pressure, whether in pounds or kilogrammes. e 8. Now assuming the tenacity required in the circular band of the same width to be t, we shall, agreeably to what has already been said, have the divellent force expressed by af and the quiescent by 2t, so oe di x ian Ee re that 2f=2¢ and t=9 ; also f=—> and «= ry Having thus obtain- That is, the tenacity of ed two expressions for each of the quantities « and f, we may by comparing them, readily discover the relative values of T and ¢; 4T t 4T 2 thus, «=— and a= 7 hence te and 4T=2¢ or ¢=2T. From which it follows, that, under a known diameter, and witha — given force or pressure, the tenacity of metal in a cylindrical boiler — of uniform thickness, ought to be twice as great in the direction of the curve as in that of the length of the cylinder, and that of this could be the case the boiler would still have equal safety in both di- rections. In whichever direction, therefore, the rolling of the metal ‘gives the greatest tenacity, in the same direction must the sheet al- ways be bent in forming the convexity of the cylinder. — It follows that if we suppose the tenacity precisely equal in both directions, the liability to rupture, by a mere internal pressure, ought to be twice as great along the longitudinal direction as at the juncture of the head. This supposes the strain regular and the riveting not to weaken the sheet. ” 9. To know how large we may safely make a cylindrical boiler, having the absolute tenacity of the metal, in the strongest direction, and with a known thickness, we have only to revert to the formula w=. That is, the diameter will be found by dividing twice the On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 71 tenacity by the greatest force per unit of surface, which the boiler + as ever to sustain. 10. When, knowing the absolute tenacity of a metal or other ma- terial reckoned in weight, to the bar of a given area, in its cross sec- tion, we would determine the thickness of that metal which ought to be employed in a boiler of given diameter and to sustain a certain Br i ” force, we may use the formula ion and, dividing the latter mem- ber of this equation by the strength of the square bar, which we may _ Calls, we obtain the thickness demanded z the direction of the curve, which we may denominate p, so that p= Ee ; this will give the thick- ness of the boiler plate, either in whole numbers or decimals, Thus, suppose the diameter of a cylindrical boiler is to be 36 inches,—that it is to be formed of iron which will bear 55000 lbs. to the square inch, and is to sustain 750 lbs. to the square inch ;—what ought to be the thickness of the metal? Here «=36, f=750, 2s=110,000; 36 X 750 consequently, p=F T0000 = 72454 or a little less. ae 908. SE of an inch. 11. It must, however, be evident that the minimum cannéity; of any particular description of metal, is that-on which all the calcula- tions ought to be made, when there is any probability that the actual pressure will, in practice, ever reach the limit assigned as the value of f in the calculation. If we had plates of different metals, or of different known degrees of tenacity in the same kind of metal, and were desirous of ascer- taining how strong a kind we must employ under a limited thickness, diameter and pressure, we should decide the point by transforming the formula p= into pene and then into s=5>- In other terms, in order to know the strength of the metal required, or the direct strain which an inch square bar of the same ought to be capable of sustaining, we must multiply the diameter of the boiler in inches by the pressure per square inch in pounds, and divide the product by twice the intended thickness in parts of an inch. Thus, how strong a metal ought to be employed to sustain a pressure of 1000 Ibs. to the square inch, in a boiler 30 inches in diameter agd one quarter of 72 On the Strength of Cylindrical Sieam Boilers. 2 30 X 1000 an inch thick? Here s= 35 =60,000. Hence we see that the metal must be capable of sustaining sixty thousand pounds to the inch bar, or in that proportion, for any other size. This formula en- ables us to determine whether among the metals of known tenacity any one can be found to fulfil the conditions under the thickness as- signed. ts 12. On the basis of the foregoing formulas, the following table of diameters, thicknesses of iron, and strains to the inch of metal, in both directions, has been formed. It is obvious that the actual tenacity of the metal employed in a given case must be of the greatest impor- tance to the result. The extensive series of experiments recently undertaken by the Institute to determine this question, in reference to different kinds and varieties of boiler plate, and with regard to the various circumstances of its manufacture and application, will here- after furnish us with important data to aid in applying the formulas to each separate case. I shall for the present assume the tenacity of an inch square bar of rolled iron at 55000 Ibs. in the direction of the length of the sheet. Supposing the pressure generally employed in cylindrical high pressure boilers to be 150 Ibs. to the square inch, agreeably to the practice in this city, the table is calculated upon the principle that the boiler ought to have five times as great a strength as it is ordinarily required to exert. The calculation is upon a con- tinuous sheet of metal, without seams in any direction. The thick- nesses are given in ¢en-thousandths of an inch; but in practice the last figure may be omitted without material error. On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. 73 : ickness of plate iro which will bear 55, 000 Correuaang tenaci-|Tenacity required the square inch ty of each inch wide paren rangi a bat veagland to re! ring i nd requir- inch wide, strain in the direction! ed to support a press- Sasaie the (itn Diameter of] of the curve = ure of 750 Ibs. to the} tending to burst out | the boiler | pressure of 750 square inch, calcu-| the head, in inches. | the square inch, Peal lated on the formula} on the formula T= : : culat y the formu- el af laps 25° 2° 4 inches. Inch. Pounds, Pounds meres -0068 375 187.5 2 -0136 750 375 3 - 0204 1125 562.5 4 0272 1500 750 ae .0341 1875 937.5 6 -0409 2250 1125 7 .0476 2625 1312.5 8 0545 3000 1500 9 -0613 3375 1687.5 10 .0681 ee ~_ 3750 1875 11 0745 —_ 4125 2062.5 12 0818 4500 2250 14 + 0954 5250 2625 16. 1090 6000 3000 18-4 1227 6750 3375 a SS 1363 7500 3750 =. .1490 8250 4125 24. 1636 9000 4500 26 1773 9750 4875 28 1909 10500 5250 30 .2045 11250 5625 32 2182 12000 6000 34 .2318 12750 6375 36 245 13500 6750 38 2591 14250 7125 40° 2727 15000 7500 42 .2860 15750 7875 44 .2980 16500 8250 46 3116 17250 8625 48 3252 18000 9000 50 .3388 18750 9375 13. I am not aware that this subject has been previously treated in a general manner, at least as it regards several of the points above presented. Mr. Oliver Evans made some particular calculations of the strength requisite to sustain the pressure in a boiler of known di- mensions, under a tension of wae pe to the square inch. In the Vou. XXIII.—No. 1 74 On the Strength of Cylindrical Steam Boilers. table at p. 27 of his “Young Steam Engineer’ s Guide,” he has given calculations for seventeen different diameters of boilers, with the power which, at each diameter, the steam would exert ‘to break every ring of one inch wide in any one place,” and “ the thickness _ of the sheets of good iron necessary to hold the power.” His table is formed on the supposition that sheet iron will bear 64,000 Ibs. to the square inch, and would consequently lead to considerable excesses ‘if strictly applied in practice. To six of the diameters he has an- nexed the “ power exerted on the heads to burst them out, in pounds weight.”? These he has calculated in the usual manner, by multi- plying the area by the pressure per inch. Opposite to three of the numbers just mentioned, he has added “ the strength of the boiler to hold the head on; in pounds weight.” These he has calculated on the supposition that the metal had equal tenacity in all directions. On this supposition, and on the principles above developed, each of those three numbers shouid have been exactly double of that against which it stands in the preceding column. Neither of the three is so, precisely; but the first and third come as near it as could be expect- ed, considering that the thickness is expressed only in hundredths of an inch, a the second is too small by more than a million of pounds. These errors would not, I apprehend, have occurred had the author adverted to the general principle above developed, in re- gard to strength required of the metal in the two directions. The following extract-from the table just alluded to, will illustrate _ the precatise remarks: a column of corrected results has been added. Thickness of} - : F er to break the plate of \be fa to be ss Diameter « . wets ring of [iron sustain-| Power ex- | Strength to |tuted for those} : ra boiler | 1 inch, press- | ing 64,000 lerted on the ; hole on the jof col. 5, “agree- inches. |. ure being | Ibs. to the heads. heads eer to the fore: 1500 Ibs. {square inc | oin 42 31,000 48 2, 077,500 4,052,400 4, 155,000 “36 |. 27,000 42 _|1,525,500 2,087,440] 3,051,000 |. 20 15,000 23 | 471,000 918,777] 942,000 * The very eel use, in this country, of strong cast iron heads, fastened to the wrought iron cylinders by broad flanches extending some inches within the latter, there riveted and subsequently further secured by a strong wrought iron hoop, driven on when hot and shrunk by cooling,—appears to obviate the necessity of examining the question in regard to the best form and monty thickness of Reflective Goniometer. 15 wrought iron heads. I have lately seen, at the Philadelphia Water Works, the range of boilers, constructed several years ago, on the above principle, by Oliver Evans himself, removed, on account of their use having been superseded by water power. Although these boilers had been for several years employed-under a pressure of 100 and 150 lbs. per square inch, yet the ‘heads did not appear to have. suffered in the least degree from exposure to this force. Hence the French instructions, forbidding the use of plain cast iron heads for pressures e 14 atmospheres, do not seem to be founded on sufli- cient experience of their actual value. , Art. XIII.—A simplification of- Dr. Wollaston’s Reflective Goni- — ometer ; by R. Graves, Jr., Civil Engineer. . Havre found much difficulty attendant upon the use of Dr. Wollaston’s goniometer, I was led to the construction of the one, a description of which follows. : I am aware that it has been said, “that the value of a reflected angle cannot be found by mere inspection,” yet it will readily be granted that, let a person assume any degree of intenseness of re- ction upon one plane of the angle sought, and let him detect the same degree of vividness upon the remaining plane, he will have ‘inspected the angle formed by the meeting of these two planes, the which, if done upon any graduated surface whose revolving can be determined, will give the value of the angle sought. Now the only difficulty lies in detecting equal degrees of intenseness. This have tested both by the amount of a double right angle, and by affixing an angled plate upon the revolving plane. It can be done y simply catching the darkenings on the edges, as they approach the axis of the planes the value of whose angles is sought. ‘There are two kinds that have been used. One made of brass with bands and braces instead of being solid, is an expensive though light and pretty instrument. ‘The other is made of well seasoned wood ; it is less neat in appearance, but is simple, cheap and can be made by al- _most any person, (I made the one [use myself.) It is the latter instrument that I shall describe. ; Elevation view —The dark concentric ring AA, bounding II, is made of mahogany one half or three fourths of an inch in breadth upon the anterior surface, two inches deep till it meets II, it is then Reflective Goniometer. REFLECTIVE GONIOMETER. Pee ees 42 Scale of one foot, continued bended Il, Posteriorly one inch deep to the center sins bolt N. A vernier or AA, half way up eto: nonius DD, of silvered brass is attached to ! in minutes corresponding to Reflective Goniometer. - ; 77 the degrees upon BB; and for the better concentration of the visual rays a small knee K, is made to fit upon thie line of O on the ver- nier at the angle of vision K. The plane II (oft maple or any light cakiwed wood) i is made to fit the inner part of A; both surfaces I and A being in the same plane anteriorly, one inch in depth and seventeen inches in diameter. It revolves upon the iron axis Z, and has a small brass head piece E, attached to it (and-revolving with it) from the center, p, of which is a pin projecting three fourths of inch from its surface, upon which the crystalline form that we wish to inspect is adjusted and fastened. A semi-circular band of brass BB, three fourths of an inch wide is fastened to the upper edge of II, graduated in degrees correspond- ing to the minutes upon the vernier D. ‘The small rollers a, a, are of iron one fourth of an inch in diameter, secured in the inner plane s,s, of A, for the more easy and true moving of IJ. And to hold _the revolving plane II, immovably upon its arbor Z; and thereby to prevent BB, from slipping from its place, (after adjusting it by ob- servation,) before we read the angle off; we have a brass clamp C, screwed fast upon the edge of I, and pressing upon a groove in the plane II of A posteriorly by a screw d. (This on the brass in- strument works by a meee screw.) The semi-circular groovings fyf, are to fit the end of one’s fingers in moving the rotary plane I. The whole stands upon a firm support F,M,Q. The legs F, F, (of mahogany two inches square by twelve inches in elevation, i. e. from the top of the stand Q, to the horizontal diameter of AA,) are immovably secured in the mahogany stand or footing Q, which for the better steadying of the instrument has a leaden bottom H, one half of an inch in thickness by twelve inches square, attached to the stand Q, inferiorly, and still further to attain firmness, an iron brace M, one inch by one fourth of an inch, may be fastened to G, with, its bent end screwed in the surface of Q. To secure the different parts against shrinking, I would: not eit the given proportions (however clumsy they may appear) lessened. _ ‘Example.—We first place the instrument upon the table, so that its anterior plane receives the rays as vertically and strongly as may be (reflected through any uninterrupted space, for instance a window) 5 then adjust it so that O upon the vernier and O upon the graduated semi-circle may stand immediately opposite to each other, i. e. K, p; A being in the same horizontal line. Screw the clamp G, fast. And with a bit of wax secure your crystal upon the projection p, 78 = List of the Plants of Chile. turning it till you see (through the point of view K) the - brightest light fall upon the center of the chosen side, as shown on Y. It be- ing now adjusted, unscrew the clamp, and revolve II gently from you, (inferiorly) till you catch the same intenseness of light as you started with, resting upon its remaining side (the faint shadowing playing upon either edge of the side viewed, leaving a line of strong light passing through its center). Screw the clamp fast again and read the angle off,—the degrees upon“BB, and the minutes upon DD. By this simple and expeditious process, the angles of any crystal (reflecting light from its sides and above the size of a pin’s head, till so large that we can measure it by the simple goniometer) may ° found with the surest accuracy. Arr. XIV.—List of the Plants of Chile ; translated from the «< Mer- curio Chileno,” by W.S.W. Ruscuensercer, M.D. U. af. re — (Continued from Vol. XX. p. 260.) noe Faba vulgaris. Moench. Haba. » 82 List of the Plants of Chile. st hygrometricum. Pers. It is found: in winter on walls near drains. It resembles the @. rufescens, Pers., but I think it differs from both. : Geranium Pusillum. L. - Very frequently in pastures, aslougoes and in cultivated lands. It is called core-core, and is employed asa . remedy in various complaints, particularly in pains of the teeth, gums and throat. It is also used in decoction as a wash for old ulcers. The G@. Robertianum, L., is common in woods, and among the rocks on the’ highlands. A third species is found in elevated pastures, at the entrance of woods and thickets; this resembles the G@. tuberosum, L., from which however it differs in its napiform root. Its flowers vary in size and in the intensity of their color; its stalk is soniciaaey recumbent and sometimes upright. Geum coccineum. Sibth. and Smith. Vulgarly, flor del clave Modern: authors, as Sprengel and De Candolle, give this plant as ) Asia Minor, and particularly from Mount Olympus, in | Bithynia, no doubt from the description and plate of it, published: by » Sibthorp and Smith in the Flora Graca. Nevertheless De Can- dolle in his Prodromus says that he had received a specimen of this species from Balbis, under the name of G. Chiloense. This obser- vation Jeads me to think that it is cultivated in the island of Chiloe, but I have learned with much satisfaction that the flor del clavois — very common in humid pastures at the foot of the mountains oppo- — site to Cachapual, at a short distance from Rio-claro. Consequent- ly, we must say that Chile is also its native country, and compare the: Asiatic species with that of America, and decide upon their iden- tity. Amateurs should in the mean time propagate this plant in their gardens. ‘The inhabitants use its roots in certain Somiplanitay it - the odor of the pink, like those of the G. Urbanum, L. : Gilia laciniata. Ruiz and Pavon. Common in sterile and stony places, along rivers and torrents, and is not wanting on the highlands. There is another plant of the family of the Polemoniacee, ; in the humid pastures on the plain, and near torrents. In its leaves | it resembles the G. coronopifolia, Pers.; but the generic characters are a t different. I think it will form a genus which I will - Se Eixoeti en. phalium Viravira. Molina. Vulgarly Keres ; common in sterile and stony situations on the plain and highlands. I only find it mentioned by Steudel, and I do not see that it is considered as @ synonym. ‘This plant occupies a middle place between the G. lu- Lite of the: Plantsiof Abide. "(9g teoalbum, L., and the G. candicans, Kunth. | Perhaps it belongs to the last, which Gaudichaud has also collected in the Falkland islands and which he has called G. consanguineum. The comparative ex- amination of the specimens will decide the question. This plant is much used and has vulnerary as well as febrifuge and sudorific prop- erties attributed- to it. -The G. Chilense, Spr., is a very beautiful plant which prefers the mountain rocks; it is sometimes as white as snow; its stalk is woody and is known by the same vulgar name. I have also met with the G. Cheiranthifolium, Lamk., in stony situa- tions, on the hills around Valparaiso and Santiago. It is a beauti- ful species resembling the G. Montevidense, Spr. Many others have been collected in dry pastures, along drains, and in the sand near torrents, both in high and low situations. Two of them appear to me new ; the first approaches the G. Pennsylvanicum, W.; the other, which. is viscous in all its parts, grows in Leona; finally four approx- mate the G. Germanicum, minimum, Smith, pyramidatum and ar- --wense, W. . Gonolobus. Michx. A plant is cultivated in gardens which ap- pears to belong to this species. Its fruit or rather follicles, open when ripe and give exit to numberless._ grains armed with very lon; villi, similar to cotton, hence the name of vicuza by which some dis- inguish it; but this shrub is more generally known by the name of - jazmin del Tucuman. Not having seen the flower, I can say nothing at present. , Nevertheless the peculiar form of its smooth leaves with small glands in their insertion with the petiole, the pomt of which is oblique, are particulars with which I have not met united in any pub- lished species. Two other plants of this family are indigenous. The first is called vogni, a name common to other vegetables. It is found on the arid hills near the Cachapual on the road to Cauquenes. Its flowers were not open. The second, called voquicillo, frequent on the hills, in the highlands and even in enclosures on the plains, appears to be related to the Cynanchum lanceolatum, Kunth, al- though it differs essentially from it. Gossypium herbaceum and arboreum. L. Algodon, cotton. They are sown almost every year in some gardens, but rarely ripen in consequence of the frost, which begins early. If it were desirable to try the cultivation of the first of these plants on a large scale, it would be necessary to select the warmest position, and perhaps if sown early something might be obtained though never very consid- erable. Would it not be more profitable to give preference to the 84 _ List of the Plants of Chile. catiamo? (Cannabis sativa. L.) I have been assured that it is successfully cultivated in Conception; a good reason for introducing it into the province of Santiago, and though not with a commercial view, every proprietor should sow a small quantity on his lands as _ is the practice in Europe. "The small quantity collected would serve for making cords, which are so necessary, and by which a great num- ber of hides would be saved, and employed for other purposes. ‘The stripped and dried stalks, witha small quantity of sulphur on the two ends, form matches which would cost nothing, the use of which is unknown in this country, though so useful in domestic life. The great inconvenience of obtaining a light in urgent cases, and particu- larly in the country, at the expense of the lungs and of patience, when a single moment lost might be poe tes is continually experi- enced. Pardon this digression to objects which may appear too — humble—to those who think so I will say, weiemomeiehiect i: ] »- general good of society is linked with it, = = 27 " Gratiola Peruviana. L. A small plant which grows ing and cultivated places; it delights in the shade and in buridity. It is rare 388 Grindelia glutinosa. Dun. A pretty species with large flowers, which grows in the fissures of rocks, and on the hills of Valparaisoy Leona and Taguatagua. Although the description may answer tot, Tam inclined to believe that the Chilian plant differs essentially. from that of Mexico. In the stony and arid pastures, in the viemity of the Cachapual, is found the G. Pulchella, Dun.; which merits culti- vation. _I have found two varieties; the first. in dry places on the banks of the Maypu; it is smaller, its leaves are entire very sharp: pointed,and even acerate and prickly; the other, at the foot of Mount San Cristoval, near the Capital, with tomentose and whitish’ leaves.. ‘They may possibly be distinct species.. In this case I will call them G. acerosa and G. canescens. This -appeomsheg to the se angustifolia, Kunth, but the stalk is fructicoses 2 — =) = a Gunnera scabra. W. Vulgarly pangue; a very useful alas which is met with in marshy places, near water courses and tor-— rents in the mountains. Its virtues and uses are so generally known ‘that itis to enumerate them. Molina speaks of it in detail, and I willsefei ES work. — I will only add that it should be largely’ cultivated for tanning, and yielding an excellent black dye. The decoction of its root is administered in certain abdominal affections« The juice of the petiole and stalk (scapus) is acidulous but styptie > ices are made with it and are generally liked. List of the Plants of Chile. - 85 - Gymnostyles Chilensis. Spr. A small plant very common, in the spring, in pastures, on the highlands, and along roads on the plain. Hedyotis Virginica. Spr. In the sandy pastures along the edges of torrents in Taguatagua. A pretty plant with dull blue antes. They are very small and do not‘claim attention. Zar Helianthus annuus. L. A plant from Peru and Mexico, uli vated in gardens and which many call flor del sol. Various authors state that the whole plant offers important advantages, particularly the seed; they yield oil in abundance. On this account it ought to be cultivated largely. It would also be well to introduce into the coun- try the H. tuberosus, L., native of Brazil; its tubercles, known in France under the names of alcachofes de Jerusalem or topinambours, are alimentary. Hogs are fond of them and fatten on their use. Heliotropium Chilense. Bertero. I have seen this beautiful plant on the sides of the roads, in sandy places surrounding the lake of Aculéo. It approaches the H. filiforme, Humb., though it differs from it considerably. It. is strange that the H. Peruvianum, L., is almost unknown in this country. The sweet smell of its flowers which is so much like that of the Vainilla, secures for it a ¢ ous place in gardens, where it might be easily cultivated in beds, without any necessity for flower pots. “Hemimeris Urticifolia. W. Found in woods, and princigitiy’ on heights and in exposed situations. I do not know whether it any vulgar name. It should be cultivated—its flesh-colored os numerous flowers recommend it. -Heracleum tuberosum. Molina. The species described by this author is in my opinion doubtful ; at least, it does not in any particu- lar resemble that which I have met and which is very common in the pastures of Leona and the Punta de Cortes... The plant of Mo- lina is similar (according to Willdenow) to the H. Sphondylium, L., while mine closely resembles the Sium Bulbocastanum, Spr., with the difference that the fruit is alate, the tubercles almost round, of the size of a nut, blackish outside and white in the interior, and of an agreeable taste. They are much sought by the guanque or cururu, a stnall animal similar to the JMus cyaneus, Molina, which fills the subterrdneous cavities which it makes, with these tubercles and lives on them during the winter. Himantia. Pers. A small moss which grows on rotten bee It resembles the H. plumosa, Schumacher. S ee List of’ the Plants of Chile. _ Hoffmanseggia Falcaria. Cav. Frequent in cultivated places near Chimba and the Magazin. It appears a little different, and — perhaps is that which Miers has called H. Chilensis. ‘ Hoitzia linearis. Spr. This plant is common in the pastures of the highlands and at the entrance of woods near the Cachapual. It differs in its leaves being smooth, and its flowers not viscous. Ileus. L. It is met with in the inundated meadows near the lake of Taguatagua, and resembles the H. Halepensis, L. but dif- fers from it considerably, and even appears to be another genus. © ~~ Hordeum vulgare. L. Cebada;—barley, cultivated in fields. Its grain, mixed with straw, forms excellent food for horses, and par- ticularly in winter ; it is also used for refreshing ptysans. ‘The beer which is made in the country, and the use of which is daily aug- menting, consumes a large quantity of this grain; therefore, its cul- tivation should be extended. Brewers ought also to endeavor to in- troduce the hop, (Humulus Lupulus, L.) which would be very ad- vantageous for them. The H. murinum, L. (cola de raton,) isfre- quently met with on the sides of roads and at the foot of walls, near inhabited places. I have found a variety of this last species in bar- r€n situations, on the banks of the Cachapual. It is very small and _has the sheath of the leaves swollen. I think it might be separated and called H. utriculatum, as its character is the same as eat wes Alopecurus, to which that name is given. . Hyacinthus Orientalis. L. Jacinto ;—hyacinth, cultivated i in gare dean: Its varieties are numerous, but the most beautiful are not sufficiently propagated in the country, and some are unknown. They should be taken care of, that they may not degenerate. — Its bulbs, placed in water, in vessels adapted to the purpose, and placed in a moderate temperature, flourish in winter and form a pretty orna- ment for saloons. The same may be done with the Pleats and other plants of the same family. Hydrocotyle Asiatica, and Ranunculoides. Li. Salgesyy tabla: derilla. ‘These two species are common in drains, in stagnant wa- Maes in villages and neighboring cultivated grounds. Some attribute — 1 l virtues to them. The acrid principle common to many aquatic plants, and to some species of this genus, makes its ‘quality suspicious. Hymenopappus glaucus. Spr. Manzanilla del campo. Very common in weal and sandy places, both on the plains and_ high- lands. Its aromatic and penetrating odor, resembling the c Last of the Plants of Chile. 87 has given it this vulgar name. Its infusion is administered in the ‘same complaints as the Spanish chamomile; but the principal use of the plant is for making brooms, which are of an inferior quality. It forms also a dye, which is now but little used. The Santolina tine- torta, Molina, adopted by Persoon and Steudel, is a 7 spay; as has been observed by Sprengel. typnum. Li. Many species are met with on the barks of nes, on rocks, in the woods, and on the margins of drains. These plants, like others of the family of mosses which grow in this country, are not of sufficient interest to merit enumeration; besides, this labor re- quires much time, and the means of comparison, which are not al- ways possessed by a travelling naturalist. Hypocheris. L. The name of escorzonera is given indifferently to two plants, which, at first sight, appear to belong to two different species, since one has a simple stalk, a single flower, and grows among the rocks of the highlands, and the other is ramose, with smaller flowers, and prefers sandy spots, near rivers, in the plain. Notwithstanding this, the intermediate characteristics which I have observed do not allow me to separate them: I will only say that the first should be referred to the H. Sonchoides, Kunth. The root of the escorzonera is much used in the country ; its decoction, con- sidered as refreshing, is employed in a multitude of cases, as in ca~ tarrhal affections, &c. Those who are recently delivered eee make use of it. : Jasminum officinale. 1. Jasmine; cultivated for the vehacuille and. sweetness of its flowers. The dasa; (J. Sambac, L.) is also met with in many gardens; the variety with double flowers is much esteemed, but the cultivation is more difficult. denier. Ralttont <: L.. Vulgarly, erenelindes- common in ardens i purely ornamental and ii us, varies much in its ee The double variety is little known. . } Tris Germanica, L. and pallida, Lamk. Liris. They with in gardens. The foliage and form of their flowers are sts singular: there is a variety with white flowers. The chatre capu- chino, (I. Sisyrinchium, L.) is less frequent. These plants are not much esteemed, on account of their short duration and the rapidity with which their corollas wither. Isaria crassa, and mucida. Pers. Two small mosses; the fst grows in the dead chrysalides of insects, and the second on rotten wood, in winter. Peay ss List of thé Plants of Chile. » Isatis tinctoria. L. Common in drains, near Rancagua, and in cultivated situations. It is probable that some persons may have _ been desirous of trying its cultivation, to extract the blue which — might be used as a substitute for the indigo of commerce. This is what is called in French Indigo-pastel. It Pati be well to culti- vate it extensively. Juglans regia. L. An European tree, , a= — 2s ; Oe 2 Pro A; we have also the proportion g + @:.a: Piers and by 2as substitution fH, 8 le B. The friction f in this equation includes both the friction of attrition and of rolling, and also the resistance occasioned by the inertia of the wheels in rolling. Mr. Wood, in his “Treatise on Rail roads,” makes allowance for this latter resistance, so as to obtain the resis- 108 Observations on Inclined Planes. tance of attrition and rolling unaffected by inertia. To do this, he ‘introduces into his equations the weight of the wheels separately from the weight of the load, the wheels being increased in the ratio of SG to SO, SG being the radius of the wheel, or the distance of the center of gravity of the wheel from the circumference, and SO - being the distance of the center of oscillation from the same. ‘This latter point was found by causing the wheel to vibrate from a point in the circumference, and calculating from the times of vibration. Although this was necessary in Mr. Wood’s experiments, in order to obtain separately the amount of rubbing and rolling friction, yet it will readily be seen that many cases will occur in practice, where it will be inconvenient and sometimes impossible to ascertain the value of SG In the equations here given, the inertia is included in the general estimate of friction, for the sake of convenient application. ‘xamples will be given hereafter. Let V=velocity, and F=accelerating force, we always have, by 2 the laws of descent, ¢? =f hence the equation above, t?= aay b < a ree fates ee Gat ge from which 2=g’— 95, and substituting for g” its value, a=——2— This equation may be used when the height of a plane of a given length is required, such that a car, descending by its own gravity, may acquire a given velocity at the foot of the plane; or when the - height is given, the length s may be found. The value of « is found from equation A by experiment. According to the experiments of Mr. Wood, x=.15, where the friction is equal to about the 220th part of the weight. When the friction is taken as the 300th part of the weight, as is sometimes done, e=.107. In general, if the fric- tion is equal to the mth part of the weight, we always have a=8 wit : The friction f of the wheels being found, it is to be used asa __ given quantity in the case where a train of cars, descending an in- clined plane, draws up another train at the same time, the trains be- ing connected by a rope passing over a wheel at the top of the plane, — a te by small wheels or sheaves along the rail track. In s case it is nec 40 Gled Ai fn ae wtiedl a se ee wes fe feo friction of the rope, sheaves, and’ Observations on Inclined Planes. 109 Put w and w’=the absolute weights of the descending and ascend- ing trains respectively, v and v’=their weights in the direction of the plane, g’’=the accelerating force by which the united trains move, x=the friction of all the moving parts, compared with g, F=a ex- pressed in pounds, — friction of rope, sheaves, and rope-roll in - w/ “ pounds. Then v==>, v= 7, 8’ =*, we have also the proportion Py ‘ea ere / 77 g’'(v— wv) g(w— w’) . oho bu no ite te and hence g’/= "wre baad Again, when friction is removed, we always have ¢?= as but since g”’ is dimintebed by friction, we have t?= , and hence z= 2 Z ‘ s w 9 Ba and by substitution cee =e = x being found, we a(w+w’ have gt wi :w--w + FY re) =the whole resistance in pounds, and siricd PnP’ ff Fuck 2 flaw ply wie sum and difference of the weights, and substituting for « its value, 2as we cers F="— ett Fee D. In this value of F, the resistance arising from the inertia of the sheaves and rope-roll, is included ; and in the application of the for- mula, half the weight of the rope is to be considered as constituting a part of the weight of each train; or a, the sum of the weights, is equal to the whole weight of the rope added to the weights of the ng and descending trains. Mr. Wood obtains the friction without the inertia, by introducing into his equations the inertia as equal to one half the weight of the sheaves and rope-roll. The ac- curacy is doubtful, as the inertia depends much on the form of the _ wheels. Where it is proposed to ascertain the exact amount of rub- bing friction, it would certainly be necessary to obtain as nearly as possible the true amount of inertia. But in ordinary practice, the error would not, perhaps, be important, if the resistance of inertia and friction were estimated together. Resuming equation D, it will be seen that if the ascending weight on the plane becomes indefinitely small, d becomes equal to a, 2 the equation becomes a 110 Odservations on Inclined Planes. This formula may be applied where cars are used to draw onsale rope from a fixed engine by the force of gravity alone. In estimating the value of @ in this equation, half- the weight of the rope is to be considered a part of the weight of the descending train. The values of F in equations D and E being found from the data given in the experiments of Mr. Wood, we find an approximate value of F, that may be used in any case in practice. Let k=weight of the rope, m=weight of the sheaves, p= weight of the aaa = r=weight of the ascending train; we have ke F=,(ktm+p+—--) Be kK. This value of F may be used, when a fixed engine draws up a train of cars, while another train descending, draws out the rope from the engine. When the engine is not assisted by a descenaame adh we find from the- a mentioned above, F=,,(A+m+p)..... L. The values of F aa Jf being known, we may ascertain the amount of resistance overeome by a aad engine, in drawing a train of cars up an inclined plane. Putting a= weight of the train, it is evident that the ‘resistance to motion will be “+F4f since F' and J include the resistance of friction and inertia of all the moving parts. “Hence, making t= time in minutes,. we have for the resistance R, moved one foot in one minute, : it 3 r=i(24F4y) ss M. And the horse power necessary to overcome this resistance a vit beh supposing p= number of pounds expressing the power of « one horse, , exits +F+y) bas Wow: If the engine be assisted by a descending train, we have, making d= difference of the weights of the ascending and Cesconeam trains, d ‘ oor=t (4a ry) we OZ — atl +F4+) weed Ss: In order to give examples of the application of the shove formu- le, we may — some of the experiments given by Mr. Wood. Observations on Inclined Planes. 11t * Experiment 2d, on friction.—Length of plane 1164 feet; per- fectly straight, with a uniform and regular descent of 1 yard in 104.24; edge rail of Losh and Stevenson’s patent, 24 inches broad. at top. The carriages were allowed to descend freely. by their gravitating force, and the space they passed over ascertained by a stop watch, _ Four loaded carriages, each weighing 9408 lbs. descended ts the plane in 120 seconds,” The value of x in equation A, from these data, is .15, and f=42.79 lbs. for the resistance of friction of each car- riage, being nearly the 220th part of the weight. By Mr. Wood’s formula, we have, in this case, f=39.35 lbs. The difference in re- sults may be caused by the resistance of inertia not being included’ in the latter value of f. “* Experiment 19th.—Upon the Killingworth rail road: self-acting plane, with a rope-roll, round which the rope winds, one end of which is attached to the descending, the other to the ascending car- riages; length of plane 715 yards, descent 574 feet. Six loaded- carriages, each weighing 8764 lbs. descended by their gravitating force, and drew up seven empty carriages, each weighing 2800 Ibs. — on a mean of several times, in 180 seconds; weight of the r Ibs.; weight of the sheaves 3297 Ibs.; weight of the rope-roll 4686 lbs. ‘The descent of this plane is not regular, being greater at the top than at the bottom, the line of the road perfectly straight.” Ta- king, in this case, f= the 200th part of the weight, we find F’, from equation D, equal to 212 Ibs. Mr. Wood gives, in this instance, F=204 lbs. ““ Example.—Suppose a descending plane, the length of while is 1800 yards, down whieh it is intended to pass 9 loaded carriages at a each weighing 4 tons, which drag up 9 empty carriages, each 24 cwt.; ired the height of the plane, or inclination, - shal will cause the descent in 400 seconds. Weight of rope 5562. lbs.; weight of the sheaves 5400 Ibs.; rope-roll 454 Ibs.” In this case, taking f= the 200th part of the weight of the carriages, and 1099 F=,,(¢+m+p+~—-) = 228-4 1099 d swe in equation D, $28} aT Beye is, the plane rises 1 in 513. The ines of Mr. Wood gives 1 in 50; for the elevation of the plane. It should be observed, that ¢ has ‘been taken equal to % of 400, a correction adopted by Mr. Wood, in order to manee: the descent within the required ere in alt states of the weather. 2 we oP by substitution erat ds which gives n= 51%; that 112 Observations on Inclined Planes. ' Experiment 27th.—Boulton and Watt’s low pressure condensing engine, with two thirty inch cylinders, steam 44 lbs. per square inch — above the pressure of the atmosphere, weight of rope 6967 lbs., sheaves 10278 lbs., rope-roll 8960 Ibs., length of plane 2646 feet, height 1544 feet. Fue of drawing up seven loaded carriages, each weighing 9408 Ibs., six hundred and twenty seconds, the engine making three hundred and seventy four single strokes, five feet each.” Here we have f=294, and F=,';(k-+-m+p)=655, or more accu- rately, by a previous experiment on a plane precisely similar, we have F=686 lbs. Hence by (M) the resistance overcome by the engine is R=1288960 lbs., the power of the engine is 4988738 lbs. whence we have the ects power of the engine upon the load, compared with the pressure of the steam upon the — equal to Ab 8 per cent., nie the same as obtained by the a 1 uppose an inclined plane, one —. yards in =~ height sixty feet, up which a train of eight loaded carriages, each weighing 9408 Ibs., is required to be drawn by an engine on the summit, in three hundred seconds, with a rope weighing 4065 Ibs., sheaves 6000 lbs., rope-roll 4500 Ibs., while at the same time the same number of empty carriages, each weighing 3472 Ibs, are descending ; required the power of the engine.” Here we have f=515, and by (K) F=315 lbs., hence by (S) we have P=324 horses’ power. Mr. Wood gives in this case P=334 for the power of the engine, the two results differing by £ of a horse power. It will be seen from the above examples, that the results of the equations given, do not differ greatly from those derived from the equations of Mr. Wood ; and the facility of using them is much great- er. Strict accuracy is ‘unadiainable 3 in questions of the above kind. - The friction of the moveable parts of the apparatus on an inclined plane, and other circumstances may so vary, that it would be impos sible to give equations that would meet with accuracy every ease that may be presented in practice. The reduction of friction is of the greatest importance in rail read improvements. We have had no accurate experiments for ascertaill- ing the amount of friction on curved rail ways. In order to reduce this kind of friction, various plans have been proposed and tried. The exterior wheel has been enlarged by causing it to run on ils flange while passing a curve ; sometimes the conical wheel has bee? adopted to answer the same purpose ; and it has been sed, in order to avoid the inconvenience of the conical wheel, to suffer 00° of a pair of wheels to turn freely on its axle. That the first method Observations on Inclined Planes. 113 cannot be used to advantage, will be seen, if we ascertain the depth of flange necessary on a curved rail way. Put r = radius of the in- terior wheel, r--2= radius of the exterior wheel including the flange, R = radius of interior rail, R--d= radius of the exterior, d = dis- tance between the rails, then R: R+d::r: r+a, hence on t= depth of the flange. Let R=500 feet, d=4.5, r=1.5, then a= of an inchnearly. If R=1000 feet, e=,', of an inch for the depth of the flange. From these examples it will be seen that the flange must be too small for the ordinary purpose of keeping the car on the rails on a straight road. There is also a disadvantage in the use of the conical wheel. On a straight road there must necessarily be a small allowance of breadth between the rails, in order to give play to the wheels; hence a car will constantly change its position in the small space allowed it, in passing from-one side to the other, and thus alternately raise and depress the sides of the car. This will perhaps produce more friction on a straight road, than. the wheels will obviate on a curve. When the conical wheel is used, the play given to = ss a curve should strictly correspond to the slope of the rim in such a manner as to produce the intended effect. Let R = radius of the exterior rail. r = inner or greater radius of the wheel. 7 = outer or less radius of the wheel. d = distance between the flanges inclusive. b = breadth of rim of the wheel. p = play allowed the wheels while passing a curve. Then to find p when the other quantities are given, we have See z bdr : PS R(r—r)—or And to know the form of the wheels when the necessary pia is al- lowed, we have from the last equation taudek (d+-p)br per. pR _ In this equation, the inner radius r of the wheel, and the breadth 3; are supposed to be known, whence 7” is found, and hence the proper conical shape may be given to the wheels. But after all, the conical | wheel does not remove altogether the friction, unless the axles are made to take a position perpendicular to the rails. The method of this to advantage is yet a desideratum. pa ieee Vou. XXIII.—No. 1. 5 114 Inproved Instrument for Venous Injection. Apr. XVIII.—NVotice of an improved instrument for Venous Injec- tion, with a figure—communicated for this Journal by Dr. J. Maunray, ina letter to the editor, dated Providence, Sept. 14, 1832. Remark by the Editor.—The annexed notice was’ accompanied by an interesting printed report on the Cholera, as it appeared in’ New York, up to the middle of July, signed by J. Mauran, Thomas H. Webb and Samuel Boyd Tobey. € present communication, grew out of the observations of these medical gentlemen, during a visit which they made to New York, se the parpose of observing the malignant Cholera. A. Forcing pump. B. Glass air chamber. C. Flexible tube. D. Ivory connector. E. Silver inserting tube with stop cock. Drawn one fourth the size of the instrument. TO THE EDITOR. Sir—We were early persuaded that a part of the failure from the “ Venous Injections,” which have been resorted to for the promotion of reaction in aggravated cases of asphyxiated cholera, has arisen (under the circumstances) not so much from the nature of the ope- ration, as from the manner of its performance, through the imperfec- tions of the apparatus employed. ‘This opinion has been subse- quently fortified by the observations of Dr. Francis, of New York, in a very interesting communication to Dr. Read, of Savannah, op the absorbing topic, wherein hé states that “in the few autopsic €X- aminations of subjects after venous injections had been employed, great cerebral cs has bean found, and: aur within ube ts ~ Improved Instrument for Venous Injection. . 115 mesentery, and large bloodvessels,” and also by his further allusion to the horrors of a death after the injections, which he remarks, are too terrific for delineation even by a Fuseli.” Are not the results above quoted mainly the consequence of the presénce of air in the bloodvessels? From a perusal of the interesting communication of Dr. J. C. Warren, illustrative of the appalling effects of such an ac- cident on the system, as fully reported in the August number of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, and the Boston Medical Magazine for 1832, we are still more of the opinion that our first im- pressions were correct. _ Air in the heart and bloodvessels, and sufficient in quantity to be perceived and noted in post obit examinations !—4t certainly did not exist in a free state in the blood, nor could it have been absorbed by the liquor and afterwards disengaged and thus rendered free; the temperature 113° of Fahrenheit, at which it was ejected, precludes the possibility of such a phenomenon. Whence came it then but through the imperfections of the instruments employed? I allude not to the more recent very ingenious arrangement (the barometer tube, &c.) of Dr. Depeyre, of New York, and adopted by him to ~ avoid the very terrific effects above described,—an instrument admi- rably calculated to avoid the introduction of air, and not otherwise objectionable than from the manifest inconvenience of its use, the want of portableness. Air being inadmissible to the bloodvessels (though i in ever so small quantities) without imminent danger to life in a healthy state of the functions, how necessary must it be to ex- clude it altogether in an operation intended for the relief of that state where the vital and physical powers (extremely prostrated and re- acting tardily) are but feebly calculated to resist even present disease, that superinduced gesioially by the very means put in re- quisition for effecting relief. — . My object in addressing you is to communicate, for insertion in your useful and widely extended Journal, the plan of an instrument for venous injections which is deemed to be eminently arranged for general use, being safe, convenient, and portable ; and if its publica- tion should in any degree subserve the purposes for which it was in- tended, the ends of the writer will have been fully attained. From the experiments which have been instituted by Latta, Crai- gie and Mackintosh abroad, and those more recently performed in this country, we cannot longer doubt the recuperative effects of prop- ér and judicious venous — in aggravated cases of asphyxiated 116 Inproved Instrument for Venous Injection. cholera ; nor will this application be limited, it is conceived, .exclu- sively to this disease, but may become eventually a beneficial adju- vant in other diseases, which (resisting the ordinary methods of treat- ment) would otherwise be abandoned to the powers of the fell de- stroyer. Annexed is a plan of the apparatus proposed, which consists simply in the addition of a silver inserting tube and a glass air chamber to the “Improved domestic instrument of Maw,” (with which every | practitioner and private family is or ought to be supplied) or to the more complicated stomach and injecting pumps of Read and others. Method of use.—Adapt the whole as illustrated on the plate, then {the pump being placed in the liquor to be employed, the stopcock freely opened, and the tube inclined upwards) by a few strokes of the piston, the expulsion of all the air is thoroughly effected, as will be evinced to the operator by the uninterrupted, silent jet. Having, now the air-chamber nearly, and the remainder of the apparatus com- pletely filled with the liquid, close the stopcock so as to allow but a : guttatim’ emission, and insert with care the extremity of the tube into _ the vein previously prepared for its reception. The contained fluid being under compression and constantly flow- ing from the point of the instrument during its introduction, all admis- sion of air into the vessels is thereby effectually excluded. Another advantage arising from the stopcock, which should be noticed, is the perfect regulation of the current during the process of injecting. —~ TO THE EDITOR. PosTscRIPT. Providence, September 17, 1832. Sir—tIn a communication made to you for insertion in your Jour- nal on the 14th inst., I forgot to state, that I have occasionally tip- ped the points of the i inserting tube with a bulb (say half a line in diameter) which, from its exciting less irritation in the vein, I prefer to the oblique point as presented on the plate. 1 would also state that I have purposely omitted the metallic slide or guard to prevent the reflux of the liquor and flow of blood from the orifice, preferring rather the application of the finger of the operator for that purpose. Life and Writings of Francis Huber. 117 Art. XIX.—Frangois Huber.—Notice of his Life and Hing: . by A. P. De Canpo.ie Translated for this Journal by Pror. Griscom, Every thing which brings into view the surmounting of a great difficulty, is gratifying to the human mind. Those who are the least adventurous or inventive, are pleased with the exhibition of examples by which the bodily or mental strength of their fellow creatures has been enabled to conquer obstacles which appeared to be insuperable ; and it isin a feeling of this nature, that all the wonderful tales of an- cient times have had their origin. ‘Those who are more accustomed to reflection, love to follow such examples into their details, and to study the process by which men of genius have succeeded in over- coming trials, or turning them to a good account. If such efforts are of short duration, they are admired as facts of fleeting occur- rence ; but if the obstacle is permanent, and the efforts continue un- eeltixied; the admiration which is excited by a momentary burst of genius or energy is increased by the more profound si results from the contemplation of that sustained force, that and immovable patience which is the gift of so small a portion of our race. Such examples ought to be preserved for the honor of hu- manity, and for the encouragement of those who are inclined to turn aside at the prospect of difficulty. It is right to demonstrate, from time to time, to young people, that, if patience and resolution, are Not, as some have asserted, the only elements of genius, they are at least its firmest auxiliaries, its most powerful instruments, and that they are faculties so important as to lead, not unfrequently, in the search of truth, to the same results as genius itself. ‘These reflec- tions, though they may perhaps appear at the first glance, to be some- what pretending, will receive support from the history of the meee ual to whose memory this notice is devoted. Francis Huser was born at Geneva, on the 2d of July, 1750, of an honorable family, in which vivacity of mind and imagination seemed hereditary. His father, John Huber, had the reputation of being one of the most witty men of his day, a trait which was fre- quently noticed by Voltaire who valued him for the originality of his conversation. He was an agreeable musician, and made verses which. were boasted of even in the saloon at Ferney. He was distinguish- ed for lively and piquant repartee ; he painted with much facility and eat aees 118 Life and Writings of Francis Huber. talent ;* he excelled so much in the cutting out of landscapes, that he seemed to have been the creator of this art; his sculpture was — better than that which those who are simply amateurs are able to ex- ecute,} and to this diversity of talent he joined the taste and the art of observing the manners of the animal creation. His work on the flight of birds of prey{ is still consulted with interest by naturalists. John Huber transmitted almost all his tastes to his son. The latter attended from his childhood the public lectures at the college, and under the guidance of good masters he acquired a predilection for literature which the conversation of his father served to develope. He owed to the same paternal inspiration his taste for natural histo- ry, and he derived his fondness for science from the lessons of De Saussure, and from manipulations in the laboratory of one of his relatives who ruined himself in searching for the philosopher’s stone. _ His presecity of talent was manifest in his attention to nature at an age.w are scarcely aware of its existence, and in the evi- dence of deep: feeling at an age when others hardly betray emotions. It seemed that, destined to a Soa to the most cruel of priva- tions, he made, as it were instinctively, a provision of recollections and feelings, for the remainder of his days. At the age of fifteen, his general health and his sight began to be impaired. The ardor with which he pursued his Sebers: and his pleasures, the earnestness — with which he devoted his days to study, and his nights to the read- ing of romances by the feeble light of a lamp, and for which, when deprived of its use, he sometimes substituted the’light of the moon, were, it is said, the causes which threatened at once, the loss. of health and of sight. His father took him to Paris to consult Trou- chin on account of his health, and Venzel on the condita af: his eyes. With a view to his general health, Tronchin sent him to 2 villags (Stain) in the neighborhood of Paris, in order that he might be free from all Sains occupations. ‘There he practised the life of simple peasant, followed the plough and diverted himself with all pe “* Several pictures of game, a kind in which he ee and his own portrait, are in the Museum of fine arts, given by his fam TA trait of his talent is preserved, which is pa TD = his character. He is senting a piece of bread to his dog, in such a way as to make him bite it off 0 on a sides, and there issues from it a very striking bust of Voltaire. PP Secs ar sur le vol des ciseaux de proie; par M. Jean Huber. Geneve, in Life and Writings of Francis Huber. 119 rural concerns. This regimen was completely successful, and Hu- ber retained, from this country residence, not only confirmed health, but a tender recollection and a decided taste for a rural life, He loved to narrate the hospitality of these good peasants, their mother wit, their kindness towards him, and the tears which flowed on hig taking leave of them, not only from his own eyes, but from those of his male, and also, as it is said, his female acquaintance among she villagers. The oculist Venzel considered the state of his eyes as incurable, and he did not think it justifiable to hazard an operation for cataract, then less understood than at present, and announced to young Huber the probability of an approaching and entire blindness. . His eyes, however, notwithstanding their weakness, had, before _ his departure and after his return, met those of Maria-Aimée Lullin, - a daughter of one of the syndics of the Swiss Republic. They had been companions at the lessons of the dancing master, and such a mutual love was cherished as the age of seventeen is apt to It had become almost a part of their existence, and neither of ened 2 thought it possible that any thing could separate them. The con- stantly increasing probability, however, of the blindness of Huber, decided M. Lullin to refuse his consent to the union; bui as the misfortune of her friend and chosen companion became more cer- tain, ihe more did Maria regard herself as pledged never to abandon him. She had become attached to him at first through love, then through generosity and a sort of heroism, and she resolved to wait until she had attained the lawful age to decide for herself, (the age of twenty five,) and then to unite herself with Huber. The latter perceiving the risk which his infirmity would probably occasion to his hopes, endeavored to dissimulate. As long as he could discern ; some light, he acted and spoke as if he could see, and often beguil- ed his own misfortune by such a confidence. ‘The seven years thus spent made such an impression on bim that during the rest of his life, even when his blindness had been overcome with such surprising ability as to furnish one of his claims to celebrity, be was still fond of dissembling ; he would boast of the beauty of a landscape, which he knew of only by hearsay, or by simple recollection—the elegance of a dress—or the fair complexion of a female whose voice slécesdh him; and in his conversation, in his letters, and even in his books, he would say, Ihave scen, I have seen with my own eyes. These” expressions, which deceived ucither himself nor any one else, were 120 Life dnd Writings of Francis Huber. like so many recollections of that fatal period of his life when he was daily sensible of the thickening of the veil which was constantly spread between him and the material world, and increased his fear not only of becoming entirely blind, but of being deserted by the object of his love! But it was not so: Miss Lullin resisted every persuasion, every persecution even, by which her father endeavored to divert her from her resolution, and as soon as she had attained her majority, she presented herself at the altar, conducted by her maternal uncle, M. Rilliet-Fatio, and leading, if we may so term it, herself, the spouse who in his happy and brilliant days had been her choice, and to whose saddened fate she was now determined to de- vote her life! A friend, a relation, an intimate confidant, was at her side ;—that friend was my mother, and the story of this wedding of love and devotion, often related to me by her in my youth, is con- nected in my heart with the sweetest of my recollections. — Madame Huber proved, by her constancy, that she was worthy of - the energy which she had manifested: during the forty years of their union, she never ceased to bestow upon her blind husband, the kind- est attention; she was his reader, his secretary, his observer, and she removed, as far as possible, all those embarrassments which would naturally arise from his infirmity. Her husband, in alluding to her small stature, would say of her, mens magna in corpore parvo. As long as she lived, said he also, in his old age, I was not sensible of the misfortune of being blind. : is affecting union has been alluded to by celebrated pens. Vol- taire alli noticed it in his correspondence, and the episode of the Belmont family, in Delphine,* is a true description, though some- what glossed, of Mons. and Madame Huber. What can I add to a picture traced by such masters! Let me hasten then to the works which have placed Huber in the rank of savans. We have seen the blind shine as poets, and distinguish themselves as philosophers and calculators; but it was reserved for Huber give a lustre to his class in the sciences of observation, and on ob- jects so minute that the most clear sighted observer can scarcely dis- tinguish them. The reading of the works of Reaumur and Bonnet, and the conversation of the latter, directed his curiosity to the his- tory of bees. His habitual residence in the country, inspired him with the desire, first of verifying some facts, then of filling some ie r ‘Sica a par Madame de Staél, ILI partie, lettre XIX. Life and Writings of Francis Huber. ‘121 blanks in their history; but this kind of observation, required not only the use of such an instrument as the optician must — but an intelligent assistant, who alone could adjust it'to its use. He had then a servant named Francis Burnens, remarkable for his Sagacity and for the devotion which he bore for his master. - Huber him in the art of observation, directed him in his researches by ques- tions adroitly combined, and aided by the recollections of his youth and by the testimonials of his wife and friends, he rectified the as- sertions of his assistant, and became enabled to form in his own mind a true and perfect image of the minutest facts. Iam much more cer- tain, said he one day to me, smiling, of what I state, than you are, for you publish what your own eyes only have seen, while I take the mean among many witnesses. ‘This is doubtless very plausible rea- soning, but it will hardly render any one mistrustful of his own eyes! He discovered that the nuptials, so mysterious and so remarkably fruitful of the queen bee, the only mother of the tribe, never take place in the hive, but always in the open-air, and at such an eleva- tion as to escape ordinary observation, —but not the intelligence of a blind man, aided by a peasant. He gives a detailed a it the consequences of the early and the late periods of this aerial hyme He confirmed, by multiplied observations, the discovery of Schirieh, until then disputed, that bees can transform, at pleasure, the eggs of working bees into queens, by appropriate food ; or, to speak more precisely, neuters into females ; he showed also how Sértaicr Work- ing bees are able to lay fertile eggs. He described with much care _ the combats of queen bees with each other, the massacre of drones and all the singular occurrences which take place in a hive when a strange pees is introduced as a substitute for the natural queen. He showed the » influence which the dimensions of the cells exert ‘upon the shape of the insects which proceed from them,—he related the manner by which the larve spin the silk of their cocoons; he proved demonstratively that the queen is oviparous ; he studied the origin of swarms, and was the first who gave a rational and accurate history of those flying colonies. He proved that the use of the an- tennz is to allow the bees to distinguish each other, and from the in- timate knowledge he had acquired of their policy, he prescribed ex- cellent rules for their economical administration. ‘The greater num- ber of these delicate observations, and which had escaped his pre- decessors, were due to his invention of various forms of glass hives. One of these, which he called the oe or leaf hive, and another Vou. XXIN.—No. 1 122 Life and Writings of Francis Huber. which he denominated the flat hive, permitted him to observe the labors of the community in their minutest details, and to follow each bee in its operations. They were greatly facilitated by the skill of Burnens and by his zeal in the search of truth; he braved, without hesitation, the anger of a whole = in order to discover the least ~ fact, and he would seize an eno s wasp’s nest, in spite of the painful attacks of the whole oni. which defended it. We may ge from this of the enthusiasm which his master, (and I here employ the term in the sense, not of the relation of a master to his domestic, but of that of an instructor to his pupil,) we may judge; I say, of the enthusiasm in favor of truth or fact, with which Huber was able to inspire his agents. The publication of these works took place in 1792 i in the form of letters to Ch. Bonnet, and under the title of ‘* Nouvelles Observa- tions sur les Aber es.”* 'This work made a strong impression on not only from the novelty of the facts, but from heir? rigorous exactness, and the singular difficulty against which.the author had struggled with so much abiliege Most of the Academies of Europe, (and especially the Academy of Sciences of Paris) ad- mitted Huber, from time to time, among their associates ;—the post Delillet celebrated his blindness and his discoveries, and from this ‘time he was placed in the first rank among the most skilful, I was going to say, the most clear sighted observers. The activity of his researches was relaxed sila by this ously success which might have satisfied his self-love, nor by the embar- rassments which he suffered in consequence of the revolution, nor even by a separation from his faithful Burnens. Another assistant course became necessary. His first substitute was his wife, then his son, Pierre Huber, who began from that time to acquire a just celebrity i in the history of the economy of antsy and various other insects, commenced his apprenticeship as an observer, in assisting his father. It was principally by his assistance that he made new dporious researches relative to his favorite insects. ‘They form the pee . " See the © seventh chant in the poem des Trois Régnes, which begins with Enfin de leur hymen savant dépositaire, Z ae oe Huber V’a vu par les ~— wees —Et sur. probléme un nouveau joural Another edition was Sr oe in ohne in 1796 in one volume, 12mo. shoreco ractical treati of bees was nymously Bare fo ee c Huber reatise on the management Eafe and Writings of Francis Huber. 123 second volume of the second edition of his work ‘published in sett which was edited in part by his son. _ The origin of the wax, was at that time, a point in ee linc of bees much disputed by naturalists. By some it was asserted, though without sufficient proof, that it was fabricated by the bee from the honey. Huber, who had already happily cleared up the origin of © the propolis, confirmed this opinion with respect to the wax by nu- merous observations, and showed very particularly, with the aid of Burnens, how it escaped in a laminated form from between the rings of the abdomen.* He instituted laborious researches to discover how the bees prepare it for their edifices; he followed step by step the whole construction of those wonderful hives, which seem, by their perfection, to resolve the most delicate problem of geometry ; he assigned to each class of bees the part it takes in this-construc- tion, and traced their labors from the rudiments of the first cell to the completed perfection of the comb. He made known the rava- ges which the Sphinx atropos produces in the hives into which it in- sinuates itself;+ he even endeavored to unravel the history of the senses of bees, and especially to examine the seat of the sense of smell, the existence of which is proved by the whole history of these insects, while the situation of the organ had never been determined with any certainty. Finally, he prosecuted a curious research into .the respiration of bees. He proved by very many experiments that bees consume oxygen gas like other animals. But how can the air become renewed, and preserve its purity, in a hive plastered with ce- ment, and. closed on all sides except at the narrow orifice which» serves fora door? This problem demanded all the sagacity of our observer, and he at length ascertained that the bees, by a particular movement of their wings, agitated the air in such a way as to effect its renovation ;—and having assured himself of this by direct obser- : vation, he further proved its correctness by means of artificial ven- * tiation. These experiments on respiration required some analysis o of the air of hives, and this circumstance brought Huber into connection with Sennebier, who was much engaged in analogous researches with respect to vegetables. Among the means which Huber had con- * The works of Huber on this subject appeared in the Bib. Britannique, under the title of Premiere memoire sur Vorigine de la Cire, T. XXV, p. 59; but they have been resumed and extended in the second edition of his researches. = ___ + This part of his researches had already appeared in the pir emo 8 Briten- nique, in 1804, t. XX VII, pp. 275 and 358, under the title of letter to M. Pictet 124. Life-and Writings of Francis Huber. ceived for ascertaining the nature of the air of hives, was that of causing certain seeds to germinate in it, founded on a vague opinion that seeds will not sprout in air much deprived of oxygen. This experiment, imperfect as it respects the direct object in view, united the two friends in the engagement of pursuing their researches into” the nature of germination, and a curious fact with respect to this association between a blind man and one of clear vision is that more’ frequently it was Sennebier who suggested the experiments and Hu-- ber that performed them. Their works have been published in their» joint names, under the title of ‘* Memoirs on the influence of Air in the. Germination of Seeds.” They fully demonstrated the necessity of oxygen gas in germination, the impossibility of success in a medium deprived of free oxygen, and the formation of carbonic acid, by the- combination of this oxygen with the carbon of the grain. This OPK sonesited principally by Sennebier and edited by him, has of the impress of Huber, and it is evident that in separating himself fom his loved bees, he took less interest in other researches, This perseverance of a whole life in a given object is one of the characteristic traits of Huber, and probably one of the causes of — his success. Naturalists are divided from taste, and often from po- sition, into two series,—the one love to embrace the tout ensemble of beings, to compare them with each other, to sieze the relations” of their organization, and to deduce from tkem their classification. and the general laws of nature. It is this class who have necessa- rily at their disposal, vast collections, and they mogtly dwell in large cities: the others take pleasure in the profound study of a given sub- ject, considering it under all its aspects, scrutinizing into its minute de- tails, and patiently following it in all its peculiarities :—the latter are generally sedentary and isolated observers, living remote from col- © lections, and far from great cities. The former may be charged with - the neglect of details in consequence of their attention to extensive generalities. The second, from being circumscribed in a limited circle, may be disposed to exaggerate its importance, and hence to judge incorrectly of the connection of parts in the entire series such mutual accusations are in reality idle. _ Natural history re+ quires both these classes, in the same manner as the architect in need of the stone cutter for the preparation of his materials, aad the stone cutter requires the science of the architect i in the construe: tion of the well planned edifice. Huber is evidently to be placed in the school of special observers $ his situation and infirmity retained him in it, and he acquired therein Life and Writings of Francis Huber. 125 an honorable rank by the sagacity and precision of his researches ; but it is plainly perceptible, in reading his works, that his brilliant im- agination urged him toward the region of general ideas. Unprovided with terms of comparison, he acne them in that theory of final causes which is gratifying to every expanded and religious mind, be- cause it appears to furnish a reason for a multitude of facts, the em- ployment of which, however, as is well known, is prone to lead the mind into error ; but we must do him the justice to acknowledge that the use he makes of them is always confined within the limits of phil- osophical doubt and observation. He had, in early life, derived ideas of this general nature from the Natural Theology of Derham, and from the writings of his friend Ch. Bonnet; they found a ready re- ception in his sensitive and elevated soul, which loved to admire the author of nature in the harmony of his works. His style i is, in gen- eral, clear and elegant ; always retaining the precision requisite to the didactic, it possesses the attraction which a poetic imagination can readily confer upon all subjects ; but one thing which particular- ly distinguishes it, and which we should least expect, is, that he de- scribes facts in a manner so picturesque, that in him, we fan- cy that we can see the very objects which the author, alas, was never able to see! In reflecting on this singular quality in the style of a blind man, the difficulty appeared to Re aelpedd ac thinking of the ef- forts which he must have made in arranging and connecting the state- ments of his assistants, so as to form in his own mind a complete im= ~ age of the facts. We who enjoy, often with so much indifference, those invaluable senses by which we are enabled to embrace’ at once such a diversity of objects, and so many parts of the same object, of- ten neglect to study those parts upon which others are dependent, and which ought to claim the first place in the Sa onan our de- scriptions are often confused, precisely because our impressions of objects are made simultaneously and without effort. But Huber was obliged to listen with attention to the recitals of others, to class them methodically to reproduce an image of the object by his own conceptions ; and his written narration, after this laborious operation, presents the subject to our view, under all the aspects which have en- lightened his own. I venture also to add that we find in his descrip- tions so many masterly touches, as to justify the conclusion, that if he had retained his sight he would have been like his father, his broth- er* and his son, a skillful painter. 4, oe or * Jean Daniel Huber, a skillful painter of animals. 126. Life and Writings of Francis Huber. His taste for the fine arts, unable to derive pleasure from forms; extended to sounds; he loved poetry, but he was more especially endowed with a strong inclination for music. His taste for it might be called innate, and it furnished him with a great source of recrea- tion throughout his life. He had an agreeable voice, and was initia- ted in his childhood in the charms of Italian music. ‘The method by which he studied tunes deserves to be related, as it may be useful to others. ‘It was not by simple recollection,” his son writes me, “ that he retained airs ; he had learned from Grétry the counterpoint ina dozen lessons, aia in studying by himself, he had become an able harmonist. In teaching him an air, we first dictated to him the base of a musical phrase ; he arranged it according to the succession of tones; then came the song which he executed with his voice}; a phrase thus disposed he understood perfectly, and a single repetition t: we proceeded to the second, and so on to the end of the piece, which -he would then repeat ‘from one end to the other without tiring the patience of any one who dictated to an he owed much in this: respect to the complaisance of his sister.’ His musical talents rendered him in his youth extremely popular, and after his infirmity, it afforded him many agreeable relations, among whom may be mentioned those which he held, at an advanced age, with a female noted for her wit, and between whom there was the double sympathy of being passionately fond of music and peed blind. The desire of maintaining his connection with absent friends, with ; out having recourse to a secretary, suggested the idea of a sort printing press for his own use ; he had it executed by his domestic, Claude Léchet, whose shedininiedl talents he had cultivated, as he had before done those of Francis Burnens for natural history. In cases properly numbered, were placed small prominent types which he arranged in his hand. Over the lines thus composed he placed a sheet blackened with a peculiar ink, then a sheet of white pape? and with a press which he moved with his feet, he was enabled to print a letter which he folded and sealed himself, happy in the kind of independence which he hoped by this means to acquire.* But the difficulty of putting this press into action, prevented the habitual . use ne it. These letters and some algebraic characters formed * I am indebted for these details, as well as others, here and there stated, to his nephew M. J. Huber, who is distinguishing himself by his literary talents. Life and Writings of Francis Huber. 127 baked clay, which his ingenious son, always anxious to serve him, had made for his use, were, during more than fifteen years, a source of relaxation and amusement to him. He enjoyed. walking; and even a solitary promenade by means of threads which he had caused _ to be stretched through all the rural walks about his dwelling. In following them by his hand, he knew his way, and by small knots in : the thread he was warned of the direction he was taking, and of his exact position. The activity of his mind rendered these diversions necessary. It shake have rendered him the most unhappy of men, if he had been less favorably connected: but all who lived with him, had no other thought than that of pleasing him and contributing to relieve his in- firmity. Naturally endowed with a benevolent heart, how were those happy dispositions too often destroyed by the collisions of the world, preserved inhim? He received from all that surrounded him noth- ing but kindness and respect. ‘The busy world, the scene of so ma- ny little vexations, had disappeared from his view. His house and his fortune were taken care of without any embarrassment to him. A stranger to public duties, he was in a great measure ignorant of the politics, the cunning, and the fraud of men. Having rarely had it in his power, (without any fault of his own,) of being useful to otl never experienced the bitterness of ingratitude. Jealousy, even 1 bonieeianilion his success, was silenced by his infirmity. To be happy and prosperous in a situation in which so many others-are given up to continual regrets, was accounted to him asa virtue. The female sex, provided their voices were agreeable, all appeared to him. as he had seen them at the age of eighteen. His mind preserved the. freshness and candor which constitute the charm and happiness of ; 3 he loved young people, for with their sentiments his own were more in accordance than with those of the aged and expe- rienced. He took pleasure, to the very last, in directing the studies of the young,. and possessed in the highest degree, the art of pleas= ing and interesting them. ‘Though fond of new acquaintance, he never abandoned his old friends. ‘ One thing I have never been able to learn,” said he in his extreme old age, “ and that is, to forget how tolove.” Thus had he the good sense justly to appreciate and enjoy the balance of advantages which were furnished him by the very condition in which he was placed. He appeared to be afraid, either of the loss of many of his illusions, or of the excitement of hopes in which he might be deceived, for he always repelled the — 128 ~ Life and Writings of Francis Huber. tion of having a portion of his sight restored by an operation on one of his eyes which appeared to be affected only by simple cataract; the other was blinded from gutta serena, which rendered it incu-— rable. Far be it from me, nevertheless, to attach too high a value pete compensations which he himself found in his infirmity, and for not having put into requisition the nobility and courage of his philosophy. He never was the first to speak of his misfortune, and was disposed to avoid the idea of it. He never complained, and his strong and enlightened mind ranked courage and resignation, and m_ among his primary duties. His conversation was generally amiable and gracious ; he was ea- sily led into the humorous; he was a stranger to no kind of knowl- edge ; he loved to elevate his thoughts to the gravest and most im- portant subjects, as well as to descend to the most familiar sportive- ness. He was not learned in the ordinary sense of the word, but like a skilful diver, he went to the bottom of each question by a kind of tact and a sagacity of perception, which supplied the placeof knowledge. When any one spoke to him on subjects which inter- ested his head or heart, his noble figure became strikingly animated, and the vivacity of his countenance seemed, by a mysterious magic, to animate even his eyes which had so long’ been condensed to dark- ness. ‘The sound of his voice had always something of the solemn. I now understand, said a man of wit to me one day, who had just seen him for the first time, I understand how young people willingly grant to the blind, the reputation of supernatural inspiration. Huber spent the last years of his life at Lausanne, under the care of his daughter, Madame de Molin. He continued to make addi- tions, at intervals, to his former labors. The discovery of bees with- out stings, made in the environs of Tampico, by Capt. Hall, excited his curiosity, and it was a high satisfaction to him when his friend Prof. Prevost procured for him, at first a few individuals, and then a hive of these insects. It was the last homage which he rendered to his old friends, to whom he had devoted so many laborious Te searches, to whom he owed his celebrity, and what is more, his hap- piness. Nothing of any importance has been added to their history; since his time. Naturalists of unimpaired vision have found nothing of consequence to subjoin to the observations of a brother _— was deprived of sight. Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine. 129 - Huber retained his faculties to the last. He was loving and be- loved to the end of his days. At the age of eighty one, he wrote to one of his friends ;_ there ts a time when it is impossible to remain neg- lectful ; it is, when separating gradually from each other, we may re- veal to those we love, all that esteem, tenderness, and- gratitude have inspired us with towards them. * * * Isay to you alone, adds he farther on, that resignation and serenity are blessings which have not been refused me. He wrote these lines on the 20th of December last ; on the 22d he was no more; his life became extinct without pain or agony while in the arms é his daughter. I have always admired the sagacity of his researches, his natn perseverance, his love of truth, and his resignation at once mild and stoical. 1 loved his amiable conversation, and his benevolent disposi- tion. While living, I consecrated his name to the gratitude of naturalists by giving it to a genus of beautiful trees from Brazil.* I have now endeavored to render the last homage to his memory ; happy shall I be if those who have known and loved him, find the portrait correct, —if young people learn from his example the value of resolute de- termination in the direction and concentration of labor; and espe- cially if those who are subject to the same misfortune, should learn, by the example of Huber, not to yield to discouragements on ac- count of their condition, but to imitate es admirable philosophy. - ib. Univ. oes 1832. Art. XX.—On the Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine ; “% ie CHEVALLIER. _ Translated for this Journal by Pror. Griscom. re Eeioioyrient of chlorine and chlorides in the arts of salubri- ty, in therapeutics, &c. has been so multiplied of latter time, it is conceived that benefit will arise from a statement of their uses at the resent period. s ¥; The us use of chloride of lime in destroying the odor of fresh paint. For this purpose the chloride is found to be effectual. ‘Method. Provide shelves or boards about three feet long and two wide. Over them spread some hay slightly moistened. Powder this hay with the chloride, and leave it a few days in the apartment * Huberia laurina. “ag on the Melastomacez, p. 61, pl. 10. Prodr. 3. pili. Vou. XXIL— 17 130 §—S—«SUU ses of Chlorides and Chlorine. newly painted, and carefully closed. ‘The chlorine emanating from the chloride from the decomposing action of the carbonic acid ‘of the atmosphere will spread through the apartments and neutralize the odor of the paint. - If it be desirable also to remove the dampness of the apartment, @ few pieces of chloride of calcium, (or muriate of lime, ) pest in earthen dishes in the room, will answer the purpose. It is wrong; in such a case, to use fresh lime, along with the chlo- ride, because the latter is effectual only in proportion as the chlorine is disengaged by the action of the carbonic acid and moisture of the air, and the presence of quick lime only serves to attract the same things, and therefore to retard the decomposition of the chloride. The same purpose, as it regards odor, may be effected by the separation of chlorine gas, by placing an earthen cup, contaiming aa — of oxide of manganese and three ounces of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, on a hot brick, or over a furnace with a few live or in a vessel of hot water, stirring the materials, and — the apartment for twenty four hours. By heating in the same manner chloride of lime, dissolved in or mixed with water sharpened with sulphuric acid, the same purpose is effected. 2. The use of chloride in correcting the unhealthiness of manufac- tories of cat-gut, or other fabrics from animal materials. Manufactories of this nature are apt to emit a highly disagreeable odor. The free use of chlorine, liberated in the way aboye indica ted, will effectually correct the unhealthy emanations. 3. In disinfecting the mud and filth of sewers. _Agreeably to the experimental investigations of a committee cho- sen by the police, it appears that it would require 576 grammes of dry chloride of lime to disinfect one cubic foot of semi-fluid muds weighing 10 kilogrammes, or 620 grammes of chloride, one foot more solid filth weighing 10 kilogrammes 50 dec The expense, therefore, deduced from these dais. of disinfecting sewers which have become very foul, is considered to be too great, even at the reduced price of chloride of lime, and they therefore prefer the purification by ventilation through the agency of fire. 4. In disinfecting the air of rooms in which silk worms are kept. The experiments of M. Bonafous, very carefully conducted, have proved that silk worms, exposed to the putrid exhalations of their litter and excrements, to the odor of dead worms, &c. will-te injure Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine. 131 ed or destroyed by these and other unwholesome efflavia, much sooner than if their apartments are seasoned by the corrective influ- ence of chlorine. The gas, however, must be very gently and slow- ly liberated, or its effects will be too powerful. The method recom- mended is to place in a dish or vessel one part of chloride of lime and about thirty parts of water, or an ounce of chloride with a quart of water, with such a quantity of worms as will issue from an ounce of grains, (eggs.) Stir the materials, and when precipitated, renew the water, and repeat the operation two or three times in twenty four hours, as necessity requires. Thc chloride is to be changed only as it ceases to yield an odor. In this operation it appears that the carbonic acid arising from the fermenting materials, unites with the lime, and sets the chlorine free, which by its avidity for hydrogen, decomposes the miasms which it meets with. This mode of fumigation does not remove the necessity of fre- quently renewing the air of the chambers, and of promoting its cur- rents by fires. 5. In removing from urine and the vessels employed to receive *, the disagreeable odor emitted from them. It is well known that the odor of urine, (which is at first sida and often partakes of the smell of the food, especially after eating as- paragus, cauliflowers, peas, &c.) becomes exceedingly repulsive and communicates its effects to the vessels employed with it. These odors are completely removed by a small portion of chlo- rine, Thus, half a gallon of urine which would not.lose all its odor by being treated with four ounces of acetic acid, would yield it by the addgion of as eight, or at most ten drops of chlorine or chloride of lime. -If night tables and other utensils of a room which may sei ab- sorbed the odor of urine contained in chamber vessels be washed with a sponge dipped in a solution, prepared by adding an ounce of chloride of lime to a gallon of water, they will be preserved from taint. 6. In destroying the gases which blacken silver and bronze vessels, and varnish containing metallic oxides. It has happened that in emptying privies and in other analogous operations, the effluvium has produced disagreeable effects on furniture and metallic surfaces. This may. be completely prevented by suspending cloths soaked in a solution of chloride in the aporenent, or placing them in the apertures: through which the gas issues. 132 Uses of Chlorides and Chlorine. »-It has. happened that in our two manufactories of porcelain ware, the white enamel of the vessels, by being incidentally exposed to a rupture of foul emanations of this nature before it was perfectly dry, has become very much discolored. A remedy has been found in opposing solutions of chlorine to the current of sulphuretted hy- awe although the emanations have continued for weeks together. 7. In destroying emanations that may occasion a plague. _M. Felix D’Arcet, a member of the committee sent to Egypt in order to make experiments relative to the plague, furnished M. de Lasteyrie with the following details extracted from a letter from Tripoli of June 14, 1829. “The most important point to be determined was whether ie pestilential virus could resist the action of the chlorides. _ © The Vice Consul of France obtained for us six garments of per sons who had died of the see all within the last two days. ‘These 3 were soiled with blood, sanies, and sweat. After the Con- . a had taken an account of their condition, | immersed them during sixteen hours, in a solution of chloride of sodium, and after drying them, each of us put on a shirt next to our skin, and then the re- mains of the dress. The spots still existed on them but much faded. _ We slept in these garments, and afier wearing them eighteen hours, replaced them. It is a week since the experiment, and neither of us have experienced the least change. Our natural constitutions are also, it may be remarked, very different.” It was proposed by M. Pariset that the effect of chlorine should be tried on other contagious diseases, and accordingly three exper= iments were made with it, in relation to the measles. The chamber of a child, exposed to the measles, was disinfected, and his shirt was dipped in a solution of one ounce of liquid and conemnizated chlo~ ride of lime, and three ¢ gallons of water. When dried it exhaled, very slightly, the odor of chlorine-—He escaped the infection. n the cure of epidemic diseases among dumb creatures. ak: In 1829 an epidemic malady broke out among fowls in the vicinity” of Paris. The disease spread rapidly, manifesting itself by an iu=— flammation of the head, tears in the eyes, blueness of the skin, and the issue of blood from the beak. The animals soon sunk under it Bleeding and other means of restoration were employed without ef- fect. The author being consulted, directed the chickens which were sull unaffected, to be placed in an enclosure by themselves, and those on which the disease had made some Progress: in another enclosure. 3 Use of Chlorides and Chlorine. These places being then sprinkled with chloride of lime, the healthy fowls remained healthy, and the others were successively enmves to health. ; - The same remedy was applied by M. Capliu, at Seiiiaed. The healthy fowls were preserved from the epidemic, and the sented soon restored. The solution employed on these occasions was prepared by add- ing two ounces of chloride of lime to half a gallon of water, care- fully mixing, filtering the solution, preserving it in well closed bottles, and using it as occasion required. ‘The cause of this Epizootic was not ascertained, but it was perceived that the fowls which were d in roosts exposed to the north were not attacked by it. In a letter from M. Recluz, pharmacien at Vaugirard, it is stated that during an epidemic among the fowls at that place, it was found that those feeders who were careful to keep their fowl-yards clean, and who put clean straw in their roosts and stables, preserved their stock from the attack, whence it was inferred that the disease arose from the effluvia of putrefaction from the dung which was. d to accumulate on the floors. In one instance fifteen fowls out of twenty three had died of the infection and three more were sick. The yard or roost was then well cleaned, washed with common water, and then sprinkled twiée a day with a solution of one ounce of chloride in a pint of water. From that time not a fowl died. Similar results were obtained by other persons, one of whom stated that when he — commenced the use of the chlorides, all his fowls were sick, and from the time of the first sprinkling with it they all recovered. M. Recluz regrets very much that he had not had recourse to the same remedy in a disease among cows at Vaugirard. A single dairy man lost nine of his cows in two months, without perceiving whence the sickness proceeded. The chloride has also been successively used in disinfecting she pens or casks in which rabbits are kept. The solution is applied with a brush, and the casks are drained before the rabbits are re- turned. Some which were very sick and _— to eat, were re- = promptly by this disinfection. 9. In the treatment of tainted fish. When tainted fish are treated with chlorine, they are said to exhale an odor of bromine ; but the author states than on applying chloride of lime to a spoiled turbot, the odor was different both from that of chlorine and of bromine. ‘The fish was washed, and on being cook- 134 Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. ed the smell disappeared, and it was eaten. Whence he infers that the odor from fish disinfected by chloride is not injurious to the health like that from putrid fish. The baskets and other utensils used by fishermen may be sein ed of the unpleasant odor which they contract, by the use of the chlorides. ‘10. In the exhumation and removal of bodies which have been for some time buried. It is proposed that on occasions of this nature, when potnelacdia has doubtless occurred, after opening the grave, to water the exca- vation and ground adjacent with a strong solution of chloride, to lay a cloth wet with the solution over the coffin, to place the coffin in a box on the bottom of which is a layer six inches thick, of a mixture of fifteen parts of charcoal in coarse powder, and one part of dry chloride of lime, and to surround the sides and top with the same mixture. With such a precaution the exhumation and removal to a - great distance of a corpse long buried wer be safely effected sang: de Connaissances Usuelles, tome 12, p. auf sige oi cns al Arr. XXI.—Aetion of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol ; by M. Be! SouBEIRAN. Translated for this Journal, by Prof. Griscom. Tue interesting substance formed by the action of chloride of lime on alcohol, first manufactured, in considerable quantity, by Samuel Guthrie, at his laboratory on Lake Ontario, and made known to the chemists and physicians of this country through the medium of this Journal, possesses properties which will render the following investi- — gation acceptable to our readers. “When chlorine is passed through alcohol, the products are by- drochloric acid, a little carbonic acid, a small quantity of a material rich in carbon, and a peculiar ethereal fluid, constituted, agreeably fo the analysis of Despretz, of 1 atom of chlorine and 2 atoms of we carburetted hydrogen. In the supposition that the compounds called chlorures Powides are really combinations of chlorine with oxygenated bases, the same products ought to be obtained by bringing chem into contact with ak cohol, the acids -_ saturated as fast as shoo are formed. = Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. 135 To be certain of this, I mixed a solution of chloride of lime, very concentrated, with alcohol ; the mixture grew warm and an odor of chlorine was manifest; in raising it to ebullition, an abundant white precipitate was formed and a liquid passed over, = a very sweet odor and a sugary tas The matter endtrares in the retort was alkaline, and the precipi- tate effervesced with acids. It was carbonate of lime, mixed with a little caustic lime. Not the least portion of carbonic acid was dis- engaged during the action. The distilled product being redistilled or rectified, a weak alcohol remained in the retort, and the distilled fluid had a more penetrating ethereal odor. The following process will ensure a notable quantity in a state of purity. Into a retort of the capacity of about a gallon, introduce a mixture of 1 part alcohol at 33°, and from 30 to 32 parts of very concen-— trated liquid chloride of lime, (1 part, by weight, of chloride and 5 - of water ;) attach a receiver, which must be kept cool, apply heat to the retort and as soon as ebullition commences, withdraw the f ; as the distillation will then proceed without it. ‘The process must be stopped when no more ethereal fluid passes over. - In the receiver are two distinct strata; the heavier is the new ether,—the lighter is a solution of that substance in weak alcohol. The whole is to be shaken with a little mercury, to absorb a small quantity of free chlorine ; it is then placed in a retort, to which are added the rinsings of the receiver, with a little water, and distilled afresh from the heat of a water bath. The ether is thus obtained, with a supernatant fluid of weak etherized alcohol, which may be re- served for a new rectification. The new ether is not pure. The alcohol which it contains may be removed, by agitating it several times with water, and finally al- lowing the water to remain in contact, several hours, with plenty of dry muriate of lime, and then distilling at a temperature not exceed- i 0° F’. - It is proper to observe, that the chloride of lime which is used in the making of this ether, must be limpid, or at least must contain but very little lime in suspension, otherwise the mass will swell very much. J have endeavored to avoid such a mass of fluid, by using acream of the chloride of lime, but it was almost impossible to conduct the distillation. : 136 Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. This new etherized liquor is a compound different from all those hitherto observed by chemists. Its elements are chlorine, hydrogen and carbon. Various experiments which have been made upon * prove that it contains no oxygen. The decomposition of it, by means of oxide of copper, has rested to me the relation of its component parts. It is extremely difficult to effect the combustion of its hydrogen and carbon, doubtless on account of the great quantity of chlorine that it contains. After a careful analysis, the author determines that this ohh’ is composed of 1 atom of carbon, = - - 14.39 2 “ ~ hydrogen, - - - = 2.35 2 * fo = - - - 83.26 100,00 < may rte considered as a compound of chlorine and per-carburetted - hydrogen, and may be provisionally called bi-chloric ether. The bi-chloric ether is an ethereal liquid, very limpid, and colorless, with a penetrating and very sweet odor. When breathed, the va- pors which penetrate to the palate develope a taste decidedly sac- charine. It may almost bé~said to have a saccharine odor. Its density is greater than water, and its boiling point is 158° F. _ It cannot be burned alone in contact with air. If used in a lamp, the cotton wick does not kindle until all the ether is evaporated. In directing a jet of its vapor on the flame of a spirit lamp, it burns diffuses much smoke. It may easily be kindled when mixed with an equal volume of alcohol. It then gives out a black and thick smoke, of a penetrating odor, and the soot which it deposits, washed with water, is acid, and forms an abundant precipitate with nitrate ¢ silver. Paper of tournesol, moistened with this etherized alcohol, i reddened on the spots which have been burned, Water dissolves very little of it, and acquires a BoB one taste. Alcohol mixes with it in every proportion ; and if the alcohol is not very concentrated, and the ether be mixed with it in suitable propor tions, a saccharine liquor is obtained of a very agreeable aromati¢ flavor. Todine dissolves in the new ether, and does not appear to alter ite Potassium decomposes it at common temperatures ; the action very slow ; and hydrogen, containing some carbon, is disengaged. Action of Chloride of Lime on Alcohol. 137 Barytes and lime decompose it with heat. At the moment of re- action, they become incandescent. A metallic chloride is formed, carbon is deposited, and an inflammable gas, with aqueoge vapor, is disengaged. A concentrated solution of caustic potash produces a slow decom- position of the chloric ether. Mixed with an equal volume of alco- hol, the addition of the caustic potash produces instantaneous decom- position when slightly heated. ‘The action is strong, and there is formed along with chloride of potassium, an oily matter, which sep- arates on the addition of water. It is of a yellow color, and its odor aromatic, and somewhat like that of cummin. _It is volatile. Sulphuric acid appears to exert no action on bi-chloric ether. In heating the latter with nitric acid, vapors of nitrous acid are very slightly exhaled. Hydrochloric acid does not change it even with heat. Nitrate of silver appears not to decompose it ; at least a mix- ture of alcohol and ether with nitrate of silver produced no deposit in the course of a month, of chloride of silver. The memoir of M. Soubeiran is extended. to the investigation of various other compounds of chlorine, of which our limits ——. mit the detail. The summary of his results is as follows :-— we 1.. That the gas called protoxide of chlorine, is a mixture of chloe rine with the deutoxide of chlorine. ~ 2. That the compounds known under the name of dhlarides of oxides, (chlorures d’oxides,) are mixtures of a metallic chloride, — metallique,) with a chlorite. - That chlorous acid, (acide chloreux,) is without doubt formed = two volumes of chlorine and three volumes of oxygen. 4. That mineral or organic substances brought into contact with chlorites, become oxidized by the oxygen of the chlorous acid, and sometimes by that of its base. 5. That the bleaching by chlorites results from an oxygenation of the elements of the coloring matter by the oxygen of the chlorous 6. That chlorine has a power of decoloration, greater than that of the chlorites. %.. That chloride of lime, in decomposing alcohol, gives rise to a new ether, represented by two atoms of chlorine and one atom of per-carburetted hydrogen. Vou. XXI.—No. 1. 18 138 Vegetable Physiology. ee 8. That chlorous acid and ammonia can unite sdb — tion, but that the compound which they form, is changed by water into chlorine and azote. 9. That the oxide of chlorine, obtained by the method of Stadion, is composed of one volume of chlorine and two volumes of OxyEeM and is the same as that obtained by Davy. 10. That the chlorous acid may become a constituent part of an ether which is singularly disposed to a on into acetic ether.— Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Oct. 18 Arr. asa tae egetable Physiology in relation to Least g : Crops; by M. Macarre. i Translated for this Journal by Pror. Siasacom. sindionte sabinindoned in the transactions of the Soeséeé: de Ee et Phistoire naturelle of Geneva, this gentleman has devek physiological facts, interesting to science and to practical voricule A judicious rotation of crops is known to be a matter of great im- portance. One kind of vegetable (A) will grow and flourish well in a soil from which another kind of vegetable (B) has just been gath- ered, while an attempt to raise another crop of the first vegetable (A); or a crop of a third vegetable (C) immediately after the first i 2 m the same soil will be attended with little or no success. The d ery of this fact which is almost as ancient as agriculture itself, aie posed to have led to the practice of fallowing. A piece of fallow ground will, almost toa certainty, be covered with a crop of These being plants of a different nature, do not unfit the soil, but prepare it for a succession of the same crop as that which preceded them. But science or experience has taught the enlightened farmer to substitute useful plants in the room of estore and thus kien grounds in profitable activity. Various reasonings have been employed to account fe the neces sity of this rotation. 1st. That different plants absorb different jaices from the same soil, and that a piece of ground exhausted by culture; may still be rich for. another ‘class of vegetables. But it is known to physiologists, that plants absorb all the soluble substances uae the soil contains, whether j injurious to their growth or not. 2d. the - roots of different plants being of different lengths, extend into differ ént layers of the soil, and thus derive from it appropriate nourishment. Vegetable Physiology. 139 But the roots of all plants, at the period of germination, must be in the same stratum, and of course be equally dependent upon it; and. besides, the culture of the farmer turns up and mixes the various. layers of the soil together, so as to render them, in all probability, ho- mogeneous. It is known also that plants of the same family, such as clover (tréfle) and lucerne do‘not prosper in succession, although their roots are of very different lengths. The true explanation of the necessity of rotation, appears to lia founded on the fact stated by Brugmans, and more fully exposed by De Candolle, that a certain portion of the juices which are absorbed by the roots of plants, are, after the salutiferous portions have been extracted by the vessels of the plant, again thrown out, by exudation, from the roots and deposited in the soil. It is probably the exist- ~ ence of this exuded matter, which may be regarded, in some meas- ure, as the excrement of the preceding crop of vegetables, - that proves injurious to a succeeding vegetation. It has been compared to an attempt to feed animals upon their own excrements. The parti- cles which have been deleterious to one tribe of plants cannot but prove injurious to plants of the same kind, and probably to those of some other kinds, while they may furnish nutriment to miei of vegetables.* ‘The author endeavored to subject these theoretic views to the teif of expetiment. After various attempts to raise plants in pure sili- ceous sand, pounded glass, washed sponge, white linen, &c. he de- cided upon pure rain water. After cleansing and washing the roots thoroughly, he placed them in vials with a certain quantity of pure water. After they had put forth leaves, expanded their flowers and flourished for some time, he ascertained, by the evaporation of the water, and the use of chemical reagents, that the water contained - which had exuded from the roots. He satisfied himself that this is the fact with respect to nearly all the p! Several plants of Chondrilla muralis, perfectly clean, were speed with their roots in pure water. At the end of a week, the water was yellowish and emitted an odor like opium, and had a bitter taste. Sub-acetate and acetate of lead produced a brownish flocculent pre- Cipitate, and a solution of gelatine disturbed its transparency. As a * [have been assured, by farmers, of a fact somewhat analogous in relation to an- Hay, which has been left in the manger of a horse, or which has otherwise ss the impregnations of his breath, will not be touched by ee — but be freely eaten by cows or sheep. dead 140 Vegetable Physiology. ____ proof that this matter was the result of excretion from the roots, it was found that neither pieces of the root nor of the stem, when ma- cerated in the water during the same time, occasioned either — smell, or precipitate. To determine at what period, whether night or day, this cadagee from the roots takes place, a plant of common bean (Phaseolus vul- garis) was carefully cleaned, placed in rain water and kept a week during the day time in. one vessel, and during the night in another, being well wiped at each transfer. In both the fluids there were ev- ident marks of excretion from the roots, but that in which the roots were immersed during the night contained a very notable excess of the transpired matter. Numerous other experiments gave the same result. As it is well known that the light of day causes the roots to absorb their juices, it is natural to suppose that during aie a. takes plates so 283 2 , (if we may so speak,) the excreto- r of their roots in order to get rid of hurtful substances which hey may have imbibed, the following experiments were made. Some plants of Mercurialis annua, were well washed in distilled water, and placed so that one portion of their roots dipped into a weak solution of acetate of lead, and another branch of the same root into pure wa- ter. Having vegetated in this manner very well for several days, the water was tested by hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, whieh pre by the black precipitate which it formed, that a notable powtidir of the lead had been absorbed and deposited by the branch which dip- ped in the pure water. Groundsel, cabbage, and other plants gave the same result. Some plants grew very well for two days in ace- tate of lead. ‘They were then withdrawn, their roots well washed with distilled water, carefully wiped, again washed in distilled water, (which being afterwards tested, was found to contain no lead,) and then placed to vegetate in a seni of rain water. In the course of two days, this water was found to contain a small ary of —— of lead. - The same experiments were made with lime water, which, being less injurious to plants, is preferable to lead. The roots being partly placed in lime water and parily in pure water, the plants lived well and the pure water soon shewed the presence of lime by ox@ late of ammonia,—and plants which had grown in lime and then transferred with every precaution to pure water, soon disgorged§ = it a portion of lime. Vegetable Physiology. 141 Similar trials were made with a weak solution of marine salt, and with a like result. Learning from M. De Candolle that marine plants when transported ina healthy situation, frequently. grow well ata distance from the sea, and that in such cases the soil in which they grow contains more salt than the surrounding soil, the author endeav- ored to imitate nature by taking a few common plants, placing their roots in rain water, and wetting their leaves with a solution of ma- rine salt. None of the salt was discoverable in the water, and it may therefore be inferred either that solutions of salt cannot imitate the delicate process of nature, or perhaps more probably that soda plants alone have the power of absorbing by their leaves, marine salt and rejecting a portion of it by their roots. There can be no doubt then that plants have the power of reject- ing by their roots, soluble salts which are injurious to vegetation. The author gives a few interesting details of experiments on some partic- ular families of plants. Leguminous Plants.—The only plants which he tried of this fam- ily were peas and beans. They live and grow well in pure water. After sometime, the liquid, being examined, has no sensible taste, its smell is faintly herbaceous. It is quite clear and almost colorless in the case of kidney beans, (haricots,) more yellow in peas and com- mon beans, (feves. ) The fluid when examined by chemical tests, , &e. is found to contain a matter eee Ranlegees to gum and a little caafiediitie of lime. It was found that when the water in which — plants had ved was pretty well charged with this excrementitious matter, fresh plants of the same species soon withered in it and did not live well. To ascertain whether this was for want of carbonic acid in the quid, (which plants derive from the earth as well as from the air,) or from the | presence of the excreted matter, which they repudiated, the au- thor put into the fluid, some plants of another family, and especially ‘wheat. ‘This lived well, the yellow color of the fluid became less intense, the residuum less considerable, and it was evident that the new plant absorbed a portion of the matter discharged by the first. It was a kind of rotation experiment performed in a bottle, and the result tends to confirm the theory of De Candolle. It is not impos- - sible that by experiments of this kind, results may be obtained of prac- tical importance to agriculture. The author would infer that be may follow with great advantage a crop of beans. 142 Vegetable Physiology. _Gramineous Plants—Wheat rye and barley were examined.’ They do not grow well in rain water, probably from the notable quan- tity of mineral substances, especially silex, which they contain, and. which they cannot derive from pure water. The water in which they have vegetated is clear, transparent, without color, smell, or taste. It contains some salts, alkaline and earthy muriates and carbonates, and only a very small portion of gummy matter. He thinks these plants reject scarcely any thing but the saline matters foreign to vegetation. Chicoraceous Plants.—The Chondrilla muralis and the Sonchus oleraceus live very well in rain water. The latter acquires a clear yellow color, a strong smell, and a bitter taste. Treated with tests, and _ concentrated by evaporation it is found to contain tannin, a brown gummo-extractive substance, and some salts. Papaveraceous Plants.—Plants of field poppy (Papaver Rheas,) will not live in rain water; they speedily fade. The white poppy (papaver somniferum) lives very well. The roots produce a yellow color, a vinous odor, a bitter taste, and the brownish residuum might.~ be taken for opium. This plant is one of those which neither t roots nor the stems cut into pieces and steeped in water, produce in it, any of the changes which the growing plants communicate. Euphorbiaceous Plants—The Euphorbia eyparisias and E. pep- lus, are the plants from whose roots Brugmans observed the exuda- tion of drops during the night. ‘The author has not been able to ver= ify this fact by direct observation. The plants vegetate well in rain water, giving a very strong and persisting odor. Baes alcohol dis- solves the residuum and deposits by evaporation, a granular, gummo- os yellowish white, very acrid substance, leaving a strong after pa loa Plants.—The only plant of this family which I Tava tried in water is the potato. It lives well in rain water and puts forth its leaves. _The water is scarcely colored, leaves little residuum, gives but little taste, which induces the belief this is one plants whose roots secrete little or nothing of a. decided char- acter. This however is the result of only a angie hasty experiment made upon a plant at an early stage of its development. "The inferences which the author deduces from _his experiments (acknowledging however that more extended trials on a greater num- ber of families and individuals are desirable,) are, 1st, that the greater number of vegetables exude by their roots substances unfit for theit vegetation. 2d, That the nature of those substances varies accord- Zz Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 143 ing to the families of ‘the-plants which produce them. * $d, That some being acrid and resinous may be injurious, and others being mild and gummy may assist in the nourishment of other plants. 4th, That these facts tend to confirm the theory of rotation due to $i De Candolle.—Bib. Univ. ~ 1832. i PD Art. XXII1.—Facts in relation to several Remarkable Deaths at- tributed to Hydrophobia. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. oT ee death of a friend,* in the parish of Chester, in Connecticut, having called me to that place in July, 1830; the occasion of his fu- neral brought me into contact with some of the surviving friends of four persons who, not many years before, had died there under very remarkable circumstances. From the father of one of them, I receiv- ed a very painful statement of facts, of which I had heard, somewhat vaguely before, and which had excited, in my mind, no little interest and curiosity. This bereaved father, a sensible and judicious, elder- ly man, expressed to me, in the most decided terms, his belief, that his son died of the hydrophobia. As the circumstances of my visit did mot permit me, to make a full investigation, a letter was some- time after, addressed to the Rev. William Case, the clergyman of the village, (a gentleman upon whose zeal, intelligence, and candor, the fullest reliance could be placed,), requesting him to transmit to me a statement of the facts. There is no wish on his part or on mine, to agitate medical theories ; and ev one will, of course, form his own opinion as to the possibility of the communication of the hydrophobic virus, from one human being to another. On physical principles, no satis- factory reason can be assigned, why the human subject of this mal- ady should be unable to transmit the poison of the infected saliva to the fluids of a wounded person, although it is confidently asserted, The late Dr. Burr Noyes. Chester is thirty miles north east of New Haven, in the town of Saybrook, near the mouth of Connecticut river. Dr. Noyes was much esteemed as a physician, and was in attendance in the case of C. C., desrshen s in the succeeding pages. 144 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. that no such case has ever occurred.* As to the time during which the virus may lie dormant, popular opinion is perhaps in one extreme, and philosophical caution in the other. It is stated that ‘‘ the devel- opment of the morbid symptoms rarely takes place before the fortieth — or after the sixtieth day. = There are, however, very many well at- tested cases in which the virus has lain much longer in the system, oad the limit seems not to be, as yet, definitely established. Proof sheets of the annexed statement, having been communicated to a nuinber of medical gentlemen of high standing, most of thent were of the opinion, that although the facts stated in the Chester cases are not, diagnostically, conclusive, they are interesting, and also important, in as much as they may induce caution in those who attend upon hydrophobic patients. So rare: is hydrophobia in this part of the United States, that although the gentlemen consulted had practised medicine extensively, most of them for many years, in five nt geographical locations, remote from each other, only two ad ever seen a case of undoubted hydrophobia. Qne of theset had attended on two unequivocal cases, both of which termi- nated fatally ;. and this physician considers the facts that occurred at Chester to be such as belong to hydrophobia, and that there is noth- ing in the cases inconsistent with this supposition. The narrative is given, however, not as a medical, but as a popular statement, believ- ed to. be true by judicious ‘people, personally acquainted with the eases. ‘I'he facts in Part II. are added for illustration and sear ison.— Editor of the Am. Jour. of Science and Arts. - Statement of facts by the Rev. William Case. PART I. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Chester, October 14, 1831. Dear Sir,—In compliance with your request, I have cnioweala collect the facts, respecting the supposed cases of hydrophobia in ” » Vol. VI >P. ty rg Soe ia Americana i a Eli Ives, Professor of of Theory and Practice in the Medical Institution of Yale Cy) a Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 145 place, and the transmission of the poison from one human being to another. I ought, perhaps, to state that most of the physicians, con- sulted in the three cases of supposed transmission from one human being to another, attributed their death to some other disease, such as might be supposed to be attended by symptoms:similar to those which characterize this malady. It is believed, however, that the material facts, in these cases, were never fully made known to these gentlemen. Neighbors and attendants, in whose possession they were, feared, perhaps, to disclose them. Allow me to say that I was in some measure prepared to feel the dangers of this disease, from having, in my early years, assisted in destroying several rabid animals. The first was a dog nearly spent with the disease. He was killed by a gun, in my father’s barn-yard. The utmost care, I well remember, was taken to avoid touching the animal, and to remove, and bury with him, the straw and locse ma- terials on which his saliva had fallen. At a subsequent time, while the family were at breakfast, a fox appeared in the same yard, in ‘pursuit of the fowls. He ran after them, and when they flew, jump- ed high to seize them. He was not.intimidated at the sight of men, . or by the throwing of clubs and stones. Fears were entertained of his being rabid, and the life of a noble dog was risked in preference to suffering the animal to escape in this state. He was too feeble to run with great speed, and the dog overtook, and seized him at the distance of a hundred rods. I followed in the pursuit, and with the aid of the trusty dog, a billet of wood, and a stone, killed the fox. — The poor dog, which every member of the family regretted to lose, was shut up in a small stable, and fed and watered, daily, with care. In about fourteen days he began to refuse food, and to be averse to water. He soon began to loll, to discharge saliva, jump towards the scaffold floor, bite sticks that were thrust through the sides of his pri- son, and, when excited, to fly at its sides with such force that he broke off his long teeth. It became evident that he was rabid, and he was killed to shorten his sufferings. In 1807, W. C.* was bitten and wounded by a mad dog, when at the age of eleven years, and on his way home from school. After . *” The rabid dog, which bit W.C., was seen, when he was bitten by another supposed tobe rabid. {I had the facts from a gentleman now residing in Ohio, and as nearly as - I can recollect, they are as follow :—A strange dog crossed the orchard adj his ; and was seen, without provocation, to seize and bite the dog which bit W. C. The gentleman’s daughter, then a small girl, now the widow of C.C., was in the Vou, XAlL—-No. 1. 19 146 Facts relating to Hydropholia. biting this youth, the dog was confined in a small apartment. in lis owuer’s house, where he was seen by many persons, and where he - exhibited all the symptoms of hydrophobia. A person, in company with others, with a gun in hand, ascended the chamber stairs, dis- placed a part of. the floor, and through the aperture, shot and killed the dog. These facts are attested by a man who was an eye — and they are corroborated by many others. At the time of the bite, in 1807, W. C. is said to have hada fee- ble constitution, but it is testified on all hands that he grew up without sickness. It is said, he conducted strangely, by turns, sometime before his last sickness. ‘The disease appeared in him fifteen years after the bite, and was preceded by mental irregularity. He had a short season of strange excitement, during public worship on the Sabbath. At a neighbor’s house, the next day, he y jumped, screamed, broke windows, and ran out. at the door, — wid prea: nimbleness of foot. He soon became quiet and return- ed; and when his friends remonstrated with him for such comduct; he oad he could not avoid doing thus, for he had been ®bitten by # mad dog. During the progress of the disease, he gnashed his teeth ;* discharged large quantities of saliva, had distressing spasms, and was set on biting every body and every thing. The pillow ca-_ ses, through which he made holes, by taking them in his teeth and shaking them, are now to be seen. He spit on persons who came . in, and on all parts of the room. He was averse to swallowing @ny thing. He watched for opportunities to bite persons, and if be: bite any one,it seemed to afford him pleasure, and was followed by laughing.. He lived after his attack, fourteen or fifteen days. It re- quired four or five able men to attend upon him. He died Sept. Ist. 1822, aged twenty six years. L. T. C., S. W. H. and C. C. a brother of W. C., were all tener by W. C. while attending on him ‘in_ his dest sickness. The sig he orchard at the time, and her ote seeing the dog in the act of biting the other, and alarmed, called her in. The circumstance she well remembérs, and says the bitten dog fled into her nae ia: pit of his owner’s, not more than four rods distant, and ran under the bed. The e stray dog afterwards appeared in front of the house and sat down. The gentleman pointed out the spot, described his ps 22 ance, and said he had not a doubt of his being mad. If I do not misremember, he was destroyed. The bitten dog b it W. C. between two and three weeks after_he Berrian, his own bite. is stated also that he howled and pon but it is easy to suppose tat he innatoaien may convert groans and shrieks of distress, into imitative sounds. Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 147 bite in these three cases, drew fresh blood from the hand or wrist, and this fact is attested by many witnesses. . These three cases were preceded by mental anxiety, and followed by spasms, ——— lucid intervals. The first spasms were of short-duration, . ed by jumping, hopping, and screaming. Successive spasms con- tinued longer and became more severe. The eyes of all assumed a-glassy and watery appearance. What I have termed, discharge of saliva, was, in all these cases, called frothing at the mouth. L. T. C. was a strong athletic man, he was bitten in 1822, ‘ W. C. and after a sickness of two weeks, died March 13, 1826, . aged: thirty two years. Some weeks before his confinement, he exhibited symptoms of mental aberration.* He would hop back- ward and forwards, and talk incoherently, for a few minutes, and ‘ then say he was sorry he conducted so, but he could not avoid it. His attendants say, the taking of water or drinks made him rave. A spectator observes, that he sometimes called for drinks, when it seemed as if he thought they would be refreshing, and do him good ; but no sooner had he filled his mouth with the fluid, than he would spirt it in the face of him who offered. it, and declin to swallow the drink. So strong was his aversion to swallowing, that a near relative questions whether-he could swallow. Another say: that drinks were sometimes forced down ;. but he shuddered at swal- * lowe ‘With his mouth he seized by the arm, a person attending upon him, and through thick clothing, left upon his flesh the print‘of his teeth. He immediately said, “* Now I have hurt you, and Pam sorry; but I could not avoid it; I must either die myself or bite you.” If he had not been confined, says one, I have no doubt, he — have bitten every person inthe room. A part of the time, it seven able men to keep him to his bed and ‘in his chamber. is said that he was not known to walk to, or from the bed ; but al- ways leaped off and upon the floor ; he would rhs] suideniy; around, and shift his position on the bed, and sit on his feet, and the by-stand- ers imagined that he imitated the motions and the barking of a dog. He frothed at his mouth and ran out his tongue. He spirted drinks * It is not supposed that there was any proper delirium, but merely that — of aberration which might be supposed to arise from the te paroxysms disease in a very strong muscular subject. L.T.C.a c pater were very powerful men, and C. C. was unrivalled as a es 148 Facis relating to Hydrophobia. into the face of his attendants, spit on them, on every body and eve- ry thing, and ail over the room.* His efforts in spasms exhibited such strength as literally to frighten his attendants. WE Ss. W. H. sickened and died Aug. 10, 1827, aged _ thirty years. He was sick five days. Although he had been for years subject to epilepsy, yet there was no appearance of this disease in his, last . He was bitten by W. C. in 1822, and carried the scar of the bite to his grave. At the time, there was no general ipprehen- sion of hydrophobia, nor any excitement on the subject. It is not known, that the fact of his bite. was mentioned to his physician His disease was pronounced to be something else. Whatever it might have been, it was preceded by mental anxiety, and attended by the following symptoms. He at first inclined to wander from his house; and pes indications of mental aberration, and of a great dread of water. He: resided. near a Leona lake, and before being confined to his roo! panion to keep him from the water, and be sure and not let him get into that lake ; 3 if he did it would» kilk him. He is represented as having had, in the first stages of his dis+ ease, a constant dread of water, but six hours before he died, he call- ed for some, and drank of it. Before his spasms commenced, he entreated his wife, that if he should be as W. C. was, she would pro+ cure’ some strong man to take care of him, and be careful to get some one who would make him mind, lest he should hurt others+ ao one of his spasms, he bit his tongue and loosened a piece of ‘He requested his wife to take the scissors and cut it out, but‘to am care and not get any of the blood on her. He would take drinks to oblige his friends and attendants, but they say, he aleetyienlioe’ ed with a convulsive effort, such as they cannot describe. The dis- position to wander continued to the last. He tried various expedis ents to be released, and to escape from the house. He — grin and fix his glaring eyes on his attendants, when near him, i such a manner as to make them guard against being bitten. Ms would take a handkerchief and bed clothes in his teeth, and bite shake them. He is represented as of a peaceable disposition, and some of his friends think that he made great efforts to curb the dis- asec to bite. - The prevailing popular impressions on “this subject are well known; se it e distressing and various appearances in hydrop sat patients should be attributed, by the terrified beholders, to a specific canine ence. Medical men do not admit the genuineness of these appearances. : Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 149 _ The death of L. T.-C. and S. W. H. left on the minds of the community an impression-of mystery. There was a general feeling that the cases were very singular. Individuals, who witnessed their sickness, and were acquainted with the facts above mentioned, firmly believed, that they died of hydrophobia, but no professional man had encouraged that belief or laid stress on the facts which supported it, and the friends, for obvious reasons, were not forward to express it. Things remained thus, till C. C. a brother of W. C. sickened and died, March 24, 1828, aged thirty seven years. He was sick but eleven days. He was a strong laboring man, and had never before been the subject of sickness. After attending a meeting in the evening, he retired to rest, and slept as usual. About mid- night, he suddenly sprang from bed, and ran undressed, into the street, screaming so loudly as to alarm his neighbors. From this first decisive appearance of his disease, remedies seemed not even to abate his distressing symptoms. Nor was his malady suspected by his attending physician, till the third or fourth day. On my making i inquiries of a parishioner, in regard to the sick man, he said to me, “ He is no better. Do you know what people say about C.? They say he was bitten by his brother W. who died with i bia, and they can prove it, and they know he is mad.” I immedi- ately made: inquiries, and became satisfied that this was not mere talk. I saw, the next day, his attending physician, and having men- tioned the facts to him, I asked if he had suspected the nature of this disease. He replied no. I then inquired if he would not examine his authorities and look for the symptoms of the disease, with sole reference to them. © His next visit to the sick man resulted in his conviction that his disease was hydrophobia. The physician had told the attendants, that if they would preserve some of the saliva, and - jnoculate a dog with it, he would become rabid in a certain number of days. They had carefully taken up on a woollen string and drop- ped into a phial, a quantity of this and corked the oid They had . selected the victim and the place of his confinement, and were hold- - ing the corked phial in the-hand, when the man was seized with his last spas. ‘The phial was suddenly dropped, and all search for it in future proved ineffectual—a circumstance deeply to be regretted, for had the experiment been made, the result would probably have removed from every mind, capable of appreciating it, all doubt re- specting the siek man’s disease. igi: ig sas A 150 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. "The following are some of the facts as stated to me by his physi- cian,* and corroborated by his widow, and those who attended him: The sight of water produced a recurrence of distressing spasms, oF in the language of attendants, made him rave. In the intervals of s, he was rational. In one, he requested his father-in-law to remove and hide his razors, for he did not know what he might be left to do in his turns. In another, he gave this caution to his wife. 1 wish you to keep away from me when I have these turns ; — not why it is, but I want to bite, and I fear I shall bite you.” His attendants think he strove to curb the disposition to bite. It was how- ever very evident. A neighbor one evening entered the room. On seeing him, he immediately said in a pleasant way, ‘¢ How do you do, Mr. B————? I am glad-to see you. Come here; I want to shake hands with you.” The neighbor approached, and extended _ hbishand. The sick man seized it instantly, and with a convulsive _ spring, rose from the lying posture, and drew it to his mouth. The attendants who stood near, and expected this result of shaking hands, instantly seized Mr. B , and forced him from the sick man’s grasp before he was bitten. He talked much about biting, and the attendants, as usual in such cases, imagined that he growled, snapped and barked, like a dog. The shaking of pillows and bed clothes in his teeth, was a frequent exercise. His eyes were glassy and wa- tery. He spit much, the night after he left the bed, and during»his sickness. He spit to all parts of the room, and watched the oppor- tunity to spit on persons who came iato it. During his sickness, and peed the night before his death, he screamed and belies dread= Sip. On oe supposition that shies are to be regarded as cases s of real hydrophobia, the facts will stand thus : 1. W.C., first victim, bitten by a rabid dog in 1807. Sick Shae —_ Died fifteen years after the bite, in 1822, AE. 26 years. % . L. T. C., second victim, bitten by W. C. in 1822. Sick four- teen days. Died short of four years after the bite, in 1826, #. (32 et * Dr alin attending physician in the last case, intended to the facts and draw up the statement e had conversed on the rhea and agreed in our views of its importance, and he had consented to undertake it moval prevented. I shall always regret that the task pater sibel oo sone member of the medical profession. Facts relating to-Hydrophobia: 151 _ 3. 5. W. H., third victim, bitten by W. C.. in 1822. - Sick five days. Died five years after the bite, in 1827, J. 30 FO: & use . C. C., fourth victim, bitten by W.C. in 1822. Sick oe Sei sae Died short of six years after the bite; in 1828, AL.-37 | years. _ These facts are well established, and they preclude the if not the propriety, of referring the symptoms of their disease to what is.sometimes termed spontaneous hydrophobia. Nor did the previ- ous habits of life, in a majority of the patients, at all favor such a reference of their symptoms. C. C. was a constant spectator of his brother W. C. in bis, last sickness. They died in the same house. C. C. also watched with L. T. C. and S. W.H., and repeatedly told his wife, as she now affirms, that they were sick just as his brother was. A sensible man who witnessed three of the cases, says the persons were sick alike as nearly as the difference of natural dispositions, and habits of life would permit. Different individuals, who observed attentively two or three of the cases, bear the same testimony, in such oe as to include init all the four. With persons at all ac facts and the cases, it is now the general opinion ht tive “hydrophobia. ~ All four dreaded confinement, and exhibited great widuneeahi ap- erehagiities in regard to persons, and circumstances which surrounded them. ‘There was uncommon agility and sprightliness i in their mo- . : tions, and an evident display of cunning, especially in their efforts to escape and to bite persons. Till within about two days of the termi- nation of the disease, the patients were not only inclined to escape, but a poeey object of the intended escape was to have opportunity to run. It is the opinion of the attendants, that if they could have escaped, they would have run till they dropped down dead. One, other things, pretended to have business at a place sixteen miles distant. He plead with his attendants to let him place his feet on the door steps, and assured them that if he might do it, he would run so that no man could overtake him till he had reached the place. The fears of all were that they should injure others. One was, at -times, afraid of receiving injury from others ; but this fact, it is be- lieved, may be explained, by a reference to circumstances peculiar to himself. All that is claimed, however, is that there was a general concurrence in the class of symptoms to which allusion has been made. From momentary agitations, connected with slight mental aberration, the spasms gradually increased, in duration and force, to the last. One attendant says the strength of the patient seemed to eT Facts relating to Hydrophobia. increase during the spasms, till he finally sunk under them. This man’s services have always been sought, and freely rendered in ex- treme sickness. He affirms that he never witnessed cases at all re+ sembling these. In attending on the last individual, he covered with rags spots of fractured skin on his hands, lest the saliva of the patient should reach them. Another procured and constantly wore, a pair of stout gloves. An attendant in one of the cases, says, that twelve hours’ service at a time, was a8 much as he could endure, and that others were obliged frequently to change,.and retire from the wee; and suspend the efforts required of them when present. Many testify that there was in all the cases, during the spasms or spells as termed, an uncommon scent from the patient’s breath. This was observed in every case by numbers. Some designate it by the epithet strong; others say they never experienced the like before, nor since, and they cannot describe it. All seem to remember it as _ distinct in its character. One person in endeavoring to con= vey an idea of it, said it resembled that of cats and dogs when fight ing. This smell was not perceived, except at the times when the patient raved, or had spells, and frothed at the mouth. ie It is the opinion of attendants, that the patients were literally stiff ened during the spasms, and that in the latter stages of the disease, they might have been raised up erect, by the application of force to the head, without any bending of the body. The corpses were stiff immediately after dissolution, and the jaws set so as to require no nuffier. On them, and near the surface of the skin, blue spots ap- peared, which some mistook for indications of mortification. One was kept four days, and on this body the spots wholly disappeared, and it underwent no other visible change. It is stated, that the spots appeared as soon as the patient was supposed to be struck with death, and that when they disappeared, they left the skin slightly affected, and of a greenish hue. It is said the corpses had a strange appear- ance, the countenance resembling that of a living person in health when cold. Some oncnens this appearance by the epithet blue. vePeS. An ae medical man, who has heard the above state ment, and conversed largely with witnesses, believes these eases 10 have been hydrophobia. ‘Two of them have been attributed by oth- ers to delirium tremens, but the previous habits of the patients di not favor that idea ; none of the four were ‘addicted to the use oe dent spirits, and one of them had a constitutional aversion to liquors. Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 153 PART II. Hyxprornosra :—Extent, ease of transmission, dangers of exposure time during which the virus lurks in the system, fe. — If hydrophobia should ever become as frequent in the United States, as it has been in some countries, it would be a subject of re- gret that we have no regular statistics of the disease. We have sta- tistics of other diseases, as well as of vice and crime. The labor of collecting them, is more than compensated by the diminution of suf- fering, which their publicity occasions. The present is deemed a favorable time for inviting attention to hydrophobia, as it is believed that the disease is more prevalent in the country than at any former period of its history. During the last year especially, the cases have been frequent ; and there is reason to believe, that with more knowl- edge of the disease, and of the dangers of exposure, some at least, of the many fatal terminations which have occurred, might have been. avoided. ‘ A table, containing a statement of the number of deaths 6 ot phobia, in the different parts of the Prussian monarchy, was publish- ed in Hufeland’s Journal for March, 1824. From this table, it we pears that the deaths in ten years amounted to one hundred and sixty-six. i Years. Deaths. Years: Deaths. 1810 104 - 1815 79 1811 117 - 1816 201 1812 101 - 1817 228 1813 85 - 1818 268 1814 127 - 1819 356 ‘The deaths occurred more frequently i in some provinces than in The greatest number mentioned in one province is two hun- dred and twenty-eight. In several provinces, the cases were very ~ wipe or totally absent. Dr. Hufeland accounts for this great diver- sity, by remarking that the provinces in which it is frequent are con- tiguous to the —— containing wolves, as those of Poland, Prussia, and the Ardennes we gs States Literary Gazette. 154 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. This table is cited, not only as a specimen of useful research, but as furnishing palpable evidence of the gradual increase of the dis- ease, in a single country, in a period of ten years; the deaths by it being two hundred and fifty-two more in the tenth year, than in the first of the series. It also suggests that the disease continually finds victims to prey upon, among animals which roam in the forests. In this country, farmers have frequently destroyed foxes which fearlessly approached them in open day, without, perhaps, suspecting that they were rabid. From this species of animals, many dogs unquestiona- bly derive the disease, and transmit it to others, and they to other do- mestic animals, and to human beings. From the fact that the poison ~ is transmissible from one species of animals to another, and from an- imals to human beings, it appears highly probable that it may be transmitted from one human being to another. Man then, of all the animal creation, is most exposed to this fearful malady. He alone is endowed with reason to ascertain its nature, and use the means of self-preservation. ‘To contribute, in some degree, to this object, is all that this article attempts. rae The following cases, it is believed, are well authenticated. ‘They are quoted with names, dates and references, so that if any error exists, it may be easily discovered. “aad 1. Hydrophobia from the hair of a rabid animal. ‘Time of the virus lurking, eight or ten weeks. “se A young man, named Morehead, suddenly expired at Cincinnati, on the 3d of May, 1831. It is stated that all the usual characteris- tics of the disease were manifested during his short illness, and that a subsequent examination of the body, satisfied the four physic who attended him, that the case was precisely such an one as is pro- duced by. the bite of a mad dog; although it was ascertained that he had never been bitten by one. He was a tanner by trade. As Se¥- eral domestic animals had died of hydrophobia during the winter, is supposed that one of them, which had besmeared its own hair with saliva, had been skinned, and its hide sent to the tan yard, where the poison might have been imparted to those who handled, it. . The opinion of professional gentlemen is, that the poison, applied to the sound skin, cannot excite the disease, but the victim, in this instances had a burn on one of his fingers, and the sore had a scab on it at the time of his death.* Ss * New York Observer, June 18, 1831. _ Pa 5 Facts relating to Hydropholia. 155 2. Hydrophobia, from giving medicine to a rabid animal. ‘Time of the virus lurking, eight or ten months. me Mr. David Rock, of Bedford, Pa., died of hydrophobia, January. 1, 1832, Eight or ten months previous to his death, he attempted to administer medicine to a sick heifer, which subsequently proved to have been mad. In the act of giving the medicine, he wounded one of his fingers, and thereby is supposed to have caught the infec- tion which resulted in his death.* _ 8. Hydrophobia, from the bite of a mad dog. Time of the virus lurking, about five weeks. The subject was Mr. Street, who resided near Sharon, Hamilton - County, Ohio. Near the first of June, 1831, he observed a dog in the stye, biting his swine. In attempting to drive him out, the dog flew at Mr. S., and bit him severely. Nine days after, one of the swine died in a rabid state. Nearly thirty-five days after, on retir- ing to bed, Mr. S. complained of being unwell. The succeeding morning, on putting his hands into water, for the purpose of washing, he was seized with violent spasms, and forced to recoil several pa- ces. After repeated trials, he succeeded in washing himself He is represented as having been, from this moment, fully con- ious of his danger; he was a pious man, and was supported by eligion in his extremest suffering, and in the hour of dissolution. “The strange spectacle was here presented to the living, of a man in his full strength, who, while walking about the room, conversing with his friends, and exhorting them to prepare for death, and yet perfectly conscious that he must die in a few hours, was foaming at the mouth, and exhibiting, by the convulsions of his whole frame, and the horrible distortion of his countenance, and the unnatural ex- pression of his eyes, which seemed ready to burst from their sockets, that a terrible poison was drinking up his spirits, the progress of whose destructive energy, no power on earth was able to Ce hg eee ee 4, Hydrophobia, from the bite of a mad dog. Time of the virus lurking, fifty-four days. The subject was a little girl, named Johnson, two and a half years old. On the 20th of April, a small dog entered the yard, No. 138 Christie Street, New York, where she was at play, and lacera- ted her nose severely. ‘The child soon recovered of her wound, and ane FR * Philadelphia Saturday Evening Post, Jan. 7, 1832. + New York Observer, July 30, 1831. 156 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. continued well to the 13th of June, when she became fretful, and complained of pain in the head and stomach. The mother prepar= ed an infusion of senna, and when she attempted to administer it, the child wonld shudder and become convulsed. The first circumstance that attracted the attention of the mother, was the peculiar actions of the child when she drank, for she was thirsty, and asked for water, but when she swallowed the water, she would choke and spit it out. On the succeeding day, Dr. Mead, of Cliff Street, from whom the particulars were derived, was called to attend the child: ** He found her lying quietly on her bed, cheerful and intelligent, for the child -was remarkably sprightly for her age, and seemed pleased with the idea of being made well. She said she had no pain, except a little in her stomach ; she allowed her person to be examined freely, but when the nose was touched, she would recoil with shuddering, and when it was pressed she would thrust out her tongue with a shriek, and catch her breath as if suffocated. This was not incidental, for it was tried several times with the same result. The cicatrix of the . wound appeared perfectly well, and there was no appearance of dis- ease, or discoloration of the part. She was asked to drink some water. She seemed thirsty, and readily assented. A cup was brought, and she rose in bed, grasped it with both hands, and filled her mouth, but in an instant she dashed the cup from her, and seemed. to spit or blow the water from her mouth, with a force and sound, as — if it were ejected from a heated crucible, and fell upon the bed in horrible convulsions. In a few moments she was quiet and compo- sed again. These experiments were forbidden, as they added greatly to the sufferings of the child. Several attempts w to administer medicine, but unsuccessfully ; for every effort to ‘wel low even the smallest quantity, would bring on a spasm and a dis* tressing constriction of the throat, which would eject it from her mouth. The dread of water continued to increase, to such a de- gree, that if a person approached her with a tumbler of water, it would bring on a recurrence of the paroxysms. The spasms occur red spontaneously with increased power and frequency, until she exhibited ed all the horrors of this fearful malady. The eyes were wi r d, there was gnashing of the teeth, until the tongue be- canis seria, with frequent spitting and foaming at the mouth; and retching which was peculiar. It returned at regular intervals of a few moments, attended with but one effort, as if the stomach were suddenly affected by a —_ and forcibly expelled through _ Facets relating to Hydrophobia. 157 constricted pharynx, a little frothy mucus. Then again returned the rrible convulsions and shrieks not to be deserilied; and dreadful to behold, until she became gradually exhausted, and expired forty hours after the invasion of the disease, and fifty-seven days after the infliction of the wound. Several physicians saw the child, and no doubt was left on their minds as to the nature of the disease.” Such are some of the details in relation to this fearful disease. The list might be greatly extended, but these are deemed sufficient, to render highly probable the following conclusions respecting it. Animals known to have been exposed, or slightly suspected of the disease, ought to be immediately confined. On the decisive appear- ance of the disease, they ought to be immediately destroyed. Ther is an instinctive dread of animals infected with the disease, as there is of certain poisonous reptiles. Numbers, however, delight in ex- hibiting a useless bravery, in approaching them without sure means of defence at hand. It can never be safe, in any way to trifle with a poison, so deadly in its effects, and at the same time so easily con- veyed into the system. One moment the rabid animal may be qui- escent, and apparently harmless, and the next moved by convulsions, and a strong propensity to bite; to inflict a death wound on the un- suspecting being who shall be within its reach.t It appears evident that the transmissible poison is contained in the mucus or saliva of the diseased animal, and that the disease may be produced by almost any minute portion of this mucus or saliva, if it only come in contact with the-fluids of the system. ‘The poison also appears to be permanent, and active, at least, for a considerable time after the death of the diseased animal.{ No doubt therefore need remain, as to the active nature of the poison, or the ease with which it is transmitted. In the case of animals diseased or dead, it . Journal of Commerce, June 18, 1831. 2d page, Ist col. top. + A dog which had imparted the disease to several domestic animals, sierwards approached his master, licked his hand, and su eal himself to be caressed, without offering to injure him. He suddenly turned from his master, to a little child stand- ing near, and in the act . biting her, was prevented, by a severe blow on the neck, from the child’s father, who was anxiously watching the motions of the dog. the case of tbe this fact is of general notoricty, as persons whe settee them, always sink the head toa great depth in the earth. The tile, applied to the outer bark of a green stick filled with sap, will produce no action. Ifa hole be made through the bark, and the poison be placed in contact with the sap, its rapid diffusion may be detected by the eye, since it will raise the bark as ; Proceeds, and render visible its actual progress, for some distance from the pls 158 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. is not safe for persons having fractured skin, or open wounds to ap- proach, or handle them, either for the purpose of administering med- icine, or for the operation of skinning. It is better in all cases to sacrifice the small value of the skin, than to endanger life in attempt-. ing to save it. Nor can the hides of such animals, be safely handled for the purpose of dressing. It is unsafe for persons free from wounds, to approach such animals, just in proportion as they are in danger of being wounded, or in any way liable to take the poison. If substantially the same poison rages in beasts of the forest, in domestic animals, and in human beings: as is evident from the same- ness of its effects—if it is transmissible from one species of animals to another, and from them to human beings, as facts clearly prove 5 then it is reasonable to conclude, that it may be transmitted from one human being to another. On this ground, the greatest caution is required ho have the care of the victims of this disease. It is impr for persons having uncovered wounds of any descrip- tion, to attend on the human victim afflicted with this disease. ~ The poisonous mucus or saliva may be, and often, if not always, is thrown to every part of the room in which he is confined. It may strike @ small uncovered wound, and be as effectually transmitted, as from the tooth of a fox, a wolf, or a dog. The utmost care is requisite on the part of attendants, not only to avoid bites, but to prevent the ingress of the virus, in any quantity through an aperture of the skins The time during which the virus lurks in the human system, has been stated, not to be short of ten days, nor to exceed nineteet months. ‘This statement was the result of an observation of sd given number of cases. Facts, however, are not wanting, | that it acts short of the least term, and lurks beyond the greatest. The time of lurking may depend on the stage of the disease in the animal, or fiiiad being from whom the poison is transmitted 5 it being reasonable to conclude, that if taken in the earlier stages the disease, it will be less likely to operate soon, than if taken, when the disease has reached its maximum, or in the later stages qt may % also depend on the quantity as well as on the power of the virus itted.* Both these circumstances may, in different individuals, * In reference to the four cases of supposed. hydrophobia, stated in part I, of this count, it is an gee fact, that the person bitten by the dog, was bitten on the frst day of the appearance of the disease in the dog; and pe the three W bitten by this person, Were all bitten in the eee stages of his disease, and di - : manifestation of his Se bite; and that beghomege 7% the one who died first, was more se ere than on tk ither of the others, and the on the one who died last the slightest of the three. Facis relating to Hydrophobit 159 ‘vary the symptoms of the disease as well as the time of its appear- ance. Difference in age, constitution, habits of life, and state of health, at the time of exposure, may cause a difference in the symp- toms of the disease, and in the time intervening, between exposure and its development, and between its development and fatal termination. Facts indicate this difference, some falling under its power in a very short period, and others enduring it longer. In some the disease ap- pears soon, and in others, years elapse before its development. As a practical rule, in relation to this strange and hitherto uncon- trollable poison, it is deemed strictly philosophical, to fix the time of its lurking, in every instance, by the known facts which mark its de- velopment, and altogether unphilosophical, when it appears with mark- ed symptoms, to deny its existence, because it appears long after ex- posure. To deny the possibility of its lurking beyond a short period, has an evident tendency to multiply the dangers of exposure, pre- clude the explanation of facts which occur, and increase the chances of malpractice. It may appear very.improbable, that so active a poi- son should lurk in the system for years; but since its development is ' affected by so many circumstances, facts may render it morally cer- tain, that it does remain inactive, in the system, for a period of years. Facts constitute a firmer basis of belief, than any theory, however nicely contructed, and however fully supported, by that kind of evi- dence, on which all theories depend. _Is it the greater improbability, that the poison should remain long inactive in the system ; or that the disease should appear with marked symptoms, and be wholly separ- ate from the only known exciting cause? It invites consideration, whether a preconceived opinion, that the poison does never remain long inactive in the” system, has not caused many genuine cases of this disease, to be passed over in silence ; inquiries respecting the cause of others, which might have proved successful, to be suppress- ed ; and others still to be designated spontaneous hydrophobia. Causa latet, is a rule of safe application to effects witnessed in one connex- ion, without a circumstantial knowledge of the cause, with which, in other connexions, they have been invariably associated. _ It may not be'difficult to trace the close analogy between these views of hydrophobia, and that scornful defiance of rules and limits, which characterizes almost all other inveterate diseases; and from that analogy to infer their probable correctness. If they err, it is on the safe side. A disease of such power and terror, which has rarely if ever been cured, should, if possible, be avoided. ‘The more se- 160 Facts relating to Hydrophobia. eret and undefined the modes of transmitting the poison, the more unceasing and vigilant should be our endeavors, to hedge up every possible way of access to it. In thus adverting to the secondary causes of this disease, in clans cing at the wide field on which they may act, and in attempting to set up beacons, to warn the unwary to stop short of the point at which danger commences, we do not forget that unseen Power, on whose will the action of all secondary causes depends, and by whom their every action is hastened or suspended at pleasure; nor our obliga- tions of gratitude, that in limits so circumscribed, as those which con- stitute the boundaries of human knowledge, we may arrive at fixed truths, which, by disclosing hidden dangers, pointing out the means of avoiding them, and inspiring us with salutary caution, shall ward off the fatal dart, that was covertly aimed at our life, prevent, in many instances, the exquisite sufferings of our fellow beings, and impose, at least, partial restraints on the progress of one of the direst mala- dies, before whose energy man is ever forced to bow in death... > APPENDIX. we * COMMON SALT A REMEDY FOR ANIMAL POISON.” “ The Rev. S. G. Fisher, a missionary in South America, says he actually and effectually cured all kinds of painful and dangerous ser- pents’ bites, after they had been inflicted for many hours, by the ap- plication of common salt, moistened with water, and bound upon the wound, without any bad effect ever occurring afterwards. I, for my part, says he, never had an opportunity to meet. with a mad dog, oF any person who was bitten by a mad dog. _ I cannot, therefore, speak with experience as to hydrophobia, feck that I have cured serpents” bites, always without fail, 1 can declare in truth. He then cites 4 case from a newspaper, in which, a person was bitten by a dog, which, in a few hours, died raving mad. Salt was immediately rubbed, for “some time, into the wound, and the person never experienced ih inconvenience from the bite. Mr. Fisher was induced to try above remedy from a statement made by the late Bishop Loskiel, in his history of the missions of the Moravian Church, in North Amer- ica, purporting that certain tribes of Indians, had not the least fear. of the bite of serpents, relying upon the application of salt as so certaif Facts relating to Hydrophobia. 161 a remedy, -_ some of them would suffer the bite for the sake of a glass of rum.”—Ann. de Chimie.* Salt is generally known as the most efficacious remedy, for the stings of insects, which to some persons are extremely poisonous. It is also extensively used, asa certain remedy by fishermen, and per- sons obliged to stand in water, to whom the bite of blood-suckers is poisonous. The following fact may be relied upon as well authenticated. In 1807, a boy, at the age of four years, was severely bitten by a mad dog, and wounded in the arm. A lad several years older was bitten by the same dog, on the same day, and has since died of the disease. No remedy was applied to his wound. The arm of the lad bitten at the age of four years, was immediately done up in common salt. The wound swelled badly, suppurated freely, and finally healed. He has since experienced no inconvenience from the bite, and is now a healthy, active man. A respectable physician, to whom the particu- lars were subsequently related, approved of the course pursued, and assured the anxious mother that she had done the best thing which it was in her power to do. There is reason to hope, that this may prove a cure, and if so, the cure was effected by so simple an agent as common salt. Query.—If salt has any power to counteract animal poison, might it not afford relief, by being administered to persons afflicted with hydrophobia ? The above statement and the annexed fact, are made public, not so much from a conviction that sali is a remedy, as from the hope that they will lead to experiments, which shall decide the point, whether salt has the power to neutralize or destroy animal poison. If such is not the fact, a prevalent tradition should be forthwith cor- rected. If it has such a power, immense good would result from having the fact scientifically established, and universally promulgated. Chlorine is known to destroy instantly every species of virus to which it has been hitherto applied. Ts it possible that the chlorine in common salt may become so far active, as to destroy the poison ? We have no fact as yet ascertained that can sustain this conclusion, but it may perhaps be worthy of some attention.—Ep. Siegen ee * New York Observer. 162 Miscellanies. MISCELLANIES. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 1. Museum of Grveon Manrett, Esq. of Lewes, in Sussex, Eng- land.—We have for some time intended to publish a notice of this museum, which, in the sciences to which it relates, is one of the most remarkable and instructive in the world, especially when it is consid- ered that it is the result of individual effort. We are happy to man- ifest, in this manner, our respect for the character of the distinguished and excellent proprietor, and to exhibit this museum, as a model wor- thy of imitation in this country, especially in the vast secondary, ter- tiary and diluvial region of our middle and southern Atlantic coast. We shall adopt Mr. Mantell’s own account in his published cata- logue of 1829, which is introduced by the following eloquent and beautiful | e from Sir H. Davy. “If we bok with wonder upon the great remains of hunt works, such as the columns of Palmyra, broken in the midst of the desert; the temples of Pzstum, beautiful in the decay of twenty centuries; or the mutilated fragments of Greek sculpture in the Acropolis of Athens, or in our own museums, as proofs of the genius of artists, and power and riches of nations now past away; with how much deeper’ feeling of admiration must we consider those grand monuments of na- ture which mark the revolutions of the globe ; continents broken into islands ; one land produced, another destroyed ; the bottom of the ocean become a fertile soil ; whole races of animals extinct, and the bones and exuvie of one elas covered with the remains of another 5 and upon the graves of past generations—the marble or rocky tomb, as it were, of a former animated world—new generations rising, and order and harmony established, and a system of life and beauty pr duced out of chaos and death ; proving the infinite power, wisdom, and goodness of the Great Cruse of all things !” Sussex, and the adjacent parts of Hampshire, Surrey, and Kent, are composed of beds of gravel, chalk, clay, limestone, sand, and sandstone, lying upon one another in a certain order, and having @ al ‘towards the south-east in Sussex, and north-east in Surrey and Kent. In these beds are found, more or less abund- antly, the remains of animals and vegetables ; but the organic bodies discovered in some of the strata, are not to be met with in others; for instance, in certain beds the fossils are entirely of terrestrial oF Miscellanies. 163 fresh water origin ; while in others they are marine. Now it is ob» vious’that the strata which contain marine bodies only, must have _ been deposited under very different circumstances to those which contain fresh water fossils ; hence we have two natural divisions— namely, the marine, and the fresh water formations. The chall, and the sands and marls associated with it, belong to the former ; the weald clay, and the sand and sandstones of the interior of the country, to the latter. The subordinate divisions of the strata refer principally to their mineralogical characters. ‘There are also beds of gravel, sand, and clay, containing boulders, &c. the debris of the regular deposits, and which, although of vast antiquity, are of far more recent origin than those on which they repose ; these contain bones and teeth of large terrestrial quadrupeds. The strata are grouped, and named as follows, beginning with the uppermost or newest bed. Alluvium.—The silt, clay, sand, gravel, &c. formed by the rivers now in action. Lewes Levels afford a familiar example. Diluvium.—Sand, gravel, &c. containing the debris of older for- mations, bones of the horse, elephant, deer, whale, &c. The cliffs between Brighton and-Rottingdean are diluvial. Z Tertiary Strata.—These consist of regular beds of sand, clay, &c. resting on the chalk, and are characterised by their organic remains. Castle Hill, at Newhaven, Bognor Rocks, Clay at Bracklesham, are examples of these strata. Chalk Formation.—This comprises, 1. The chalk, with and without flints ; it forms the Sussex, Hamp- shire, Surrey, and Kent Downs. 2. Grey marl, forming the base of the Downs, and generally ap- pearing on the weald escarpment of the chalk ; at Hamsey, Stone- ham, and Southerham there are marl pits, where the usual fossils occur. : = ae 3. Galt,* or blue chalk marl, a stiff blue clay; its fossils have their shells beautifully preserved. It is seen at Ringmer, near Lewes; and on the road-side from Wannock stream to Eastbourn ; at Newtimber it appears under the grey marl. 4. Shanklin Sand, so called from Shanklin Chine, in the Isle of Wight, where it is beautifully exhibited. This sand forms hills, that rival the Downs in altitude in the west of Sussex ; near Lewes it oc- * A provincial term, used in Cambridgeshire. © i 164 Miscellanies. curs but obscurely. Ditchling stands on a hillock of it; Noxiauee Green, near Ringmer, i is another locality. The organic remains found in the above strata are entirely marine. Hastings Sands and Clays.—These strata, with but very few ex-_ ceptions, contain fresh water fossils only ; hence they are naturally separated from the above, and constitute a well marked, distinct for- mation. They are subdivided into, 1. Weald Clay, in whcih the Sussex limestone or marble is fetus This occurs at Laughton. 2. Strata of Tilgate Forest, well displayed in the cliffs near Hast- Ings. 3. Clays and: limestones of Ashburnham. PLAN OF THE MUSEUM. Case I.—Contains minerals, recent shells and corals, from various. parts of England, and other countries. Some fine specimens of Sul- phate of Barytes from Nutfield, in Surrey ; Tourmalines ; Native Gold and Silver; polished Sections of Ammonites; 3 Cry. Sandstone of Fostiaklnn &e. | Case II.—The fossils of the strata of Tilgate Forest, and the other subdivisions of the Hastings formation. Thése consist of many hundred specimens of the bones, &e. of reptiles, turtles, fishes, and birds ; of the stems of enormous vegeta bles, allied to the to the Dragon-blood sleet and Euphorbia ; Ferns of ex- tinct species and genera, &c.; the whole presenting the characters of a Faune and Bina aha ir tinhitinenpiaaiindion The intelli- Miscellanies. 165 gent observer will at once perceive, that such an assemblage can be explained only by supposing the strata to have been formed in the bed of a river or estuary. Imagine a river flowing through a country in- habited by lizards, turtles, &c., and clothed with forests of plants, al- lied to the palms and arborescent ferns. If the country were com- posed of primitive rocks, as granite, &c. we might expect deposi- tions of clay, and siliceous sand and sandstone, with particles of mica, quartz, pebbles of various sizes, derived from the veins in the gran- ite ; bones, more or less rolled, of the lizards and turtles; associated with the remains of the fishes and shells that lived and died in the river, and the stems and leaves of the vegetables that grew upon its banks; in short, such a collection of organic remains, imbedded in clay and sand, as the one in the case before us. In the strata of Tilgate Forest, the remains of four enormous rep- tiles have been identified, and there are also bones and teeth which belong to others not yet determined. The following are the most remarkable. 3 ‘Iguanodon.*—An herbivorous reptile, related to the Iguana. This monster of the ancient world must have equalled the elephant in bulk, as the enormous bones in this collection indisputably prove. Its remains have been found in Sussex only, and were first describ- ed by the author in a memoir, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1825. Of this gigantic reptile, the collection con- tains bones of the head, teeth, vertebra, clavicles, coracoid bone, ribs, chevron bone, femur, leg bones, (tibia and fibula,) metatarsal bones, phalanges, ungueal bone, and horn. The femur, tibia, and fibula ly- ing together in the lower division of this case, were found near each other, and belonged to the same limb ; from their immense size some idea may be formed of the gigantic proportion of the leg and thigh of the original animal. 2 aes Megalosaurus.—A reptile allied to the Monitor,} but almost of as enormous a magnitude as the Iguanodon. Its remains occur also in the slate at Stonesfield, near Oxford, and were first described by Dr. Buckland. In this case there are teeth, vertebra, femur, and other bones. nunca - * So called from its teeth resembling those of the Iguana. : t There are stuffed specimens of the Iguana and Monitor in the Collection, for. comp iss tos. ene LHS 166 Miscellanies. Crocodile-—Two, or more, enormous species of this genus of © Saurian reptiles, were contemporaries of the Iguanodon. There are teeth, vertebre, humeri, chevron bone, ribs, &c. One of the spe- cies resembles a fossil crocodile found at Soleure, and described by Baron Cuvier. Plesiosaurus.—Of this extinct genus, first described by Mr. Cony- beare, vertebra, teeth, humeri, and other bones, occur in the strata of Tilgate Forest. Chelonian Reptiles.*—The bones anil scales of these animals are of frequent occurrence in the Hastings beds. They are referable to the following :-— 1. A fresh water species, allied to the Trionyz. 2. An unknown species of Emys, resembling a fossil fresh water turtle found in the Jura limestone. _ 3. A marine species, belonging to the subgenus Chelonia, and re- lated to the fossil turtle of Maestricht. Fishes——Their remains consist of dorsal fins, of great strength, and armed with spines, resembling those of the Silurus ;+ teeth of various forms, some tricuspid and striated ; others hemispherical, the bufonites of the older geologists; and palates of various kinds. "| the collection there are two splendid specimens of a fish with lozenge- shaped scales ; one showing a pectoral fin ; the other, portion of ” opercula of the gills. Ve egetable Remon —These are numerous, although belonging to but few species. The most remarkable is t Clathrariat Lyeilii,§ of which there are specimens of the imter- nal and external parts of the stem, in a beautiful state of preserva- tion. The original probably attained a considerable height ; it is re lated to the Dracena draco, (Dragon-blood plant). Some exam ples show traces of the base of the flowers; and the fossil seed-ves- sels found in the same strata, are supposed to belong to this plant: The other large vegetable of this period is the Endogenttes erosa, of which there are many enormous stems: the original was evidently 2 monocotyledonous plant, bearing an analogy to the Cacti and —_— bia. Almost all the specimens are flattened by the compressed the strata, when in a softened state. ortoises.and turtles, t The Silurus is a fish that inhabits the rivers of Europe 5 des aa iene largest of fresh water fishes. S. t From the chinks on its surface. § Newel in honor of C. Lyell, Esq- F- R. Miscellanies. - 167 There are also the remains of several kinds of ferns in the Tilgate strata: one of the most elegant is the species named by M. Brong- niart, Sphenopteris Mantelli. Another is the Lonchoteris Mantelli, distinguished by the beautiful reticulated structure of the leaves, Besides the fossil vegetables above noticed, there are stems of other plants ; and vegetable matter in the state of lignite, (an impure coal,) is abundantly dispersed throughout the strata. Birds.—Long slender bones occur which were supposed to have belonged to birds; but from the discovery of the bones of the Pter- odactylus, (a flying reptile,) in the lias at Lyme Regis, it is now be- lieved that the specimens in question belonged to that extraordinary ee .—These consist of univalves and bivalves, allied to recent frat water genera. In some instances they constitute entire beds of limestone, of which the Sussex marble is a familiar example, The specimens above described are distributed in the cabinet as follows :— Shelf No. 1. Stems of vegetables, bones of Saurians, &c.* 2. Vertebre, ribs, humeri, and other bones of the Iguanodon, ~~ galosaurus, Crocodile, Plesiosaurus, &c. 3. A series of specimens, illustrative of the Geology of ee be ¢ with the rocks of Bognor, and ending with the strata at Hastings. 4. Bones of Turtles ; feeth of Iguanodon, &c.; horn and claw of ditto ; remains of Fishes, Birds, &c. ; vertebre or Crocodile and Plesiosaurus. _.5. Vegetable remains: Clathraria Lyellu, Encoeewies erosa, Ferns, Lignite, &c. 6. Bones of the extremities and pelvis of the Iguanodon, Ne. In the drawers of the Cabinet, No. 6, there are also many fossils * from the Tilgate strata. From the examination of these organic remains, the iingee in- ferences arise :—~ Ist. The reptiles and vegetables must have been inhabitants of a country, enjoying a much higher temperature than any part of Eu- rope ; and the former, from their enormous magnitude and osteolo- gical characters, clearly belong to an order of things, of which the present state of the earth affords no example ; the epoch of their ex- istence may, indeed, be termed the age of reptiles. * On this Shelf there is also part of the fossil rib of a whale, from Brighton Cliffs. 168 Miscellanies. 2dly, The broken and rolled state of the greater part of the bones, the pebbles, and the conglomeritic character of many of the deposits, prove that the strata were formed in the bed of a ica an estuary. 3dly, It is equally obvious, aa the Hastings, or Tilgate strata, must have been formed and consolidated before the chalk, which rests upon and once covered them, was deposited. It follows, that after the Hastings’ beds were formed, they must have been sub- merged beneath the ocean which deposited the chalk formation ; for the latter, as we shall presently shew, contains nothing but marine re- mains, and not one fossil of the Hastings’ beds. 4thly, The ocean of the chalk, in its turn, must have passed away, and the consolidated chalk have been covered by the waters which deposited the tertiary strata, for the latter contain fossils entirely ~ tinet from those of the chalk. , The tertiary, in common with the chalk and Hastings’ bd must have been subsequently broken up, probably by volcanic agen- cy, and the wealds of Kent and Sussex formed, and the chalk dislo- cated and separated, by the upheaving of the central strata of the Hastings’ formation : the lateral fissures in the chalk now constituting the vallies, through which the existing rivers flow, and effect the drainage of the country. ‘To this epoch may probably also be ain red the formation of the beds of diluvium. ai Case III.—With but few exceptions, the fossils in this Case aA not from Sussex. - Shelf 1. Teeth of Elephants, from the diiuvial beds forming te cliffs at Brighton and Rottingdean: horns of Aurochs, fragments of the antlers of the fossil Elk of Ireland, &c. 2. Tusks of elephants, horns of buffaloes and aurochs, &c. from Walton, in Essex, presented by G. B. Greenough, Esq. seara bone, (scapula,) of a Mammoth, from North America. 3. and 4. Teeth and bones of mammoths, rhinoceroses, croco- diles, plates of turtles, fossil vegetables, &e. from the diluvial plains forming the banks of the Irawadi river, two hundred miles below AV4% in the Burmese Empire. Collected and presented by J. Craufurd, Esq. F.R.S. 5. Remains of Iehthyosauri, from Lyme Regis; skull of the ex- tinct fossil bear, (Ursus speleus,) from the caverns of Kaphearaes bones in limestone, from Gibraltar - ; tooth of a mammoth, Sibe- ie &c Miscellanies. 169 6. Fishes from Dorsetshire, Monte Bolea, Purbeck. A magnifi- cent suite of fishes and insects, from Aix, in Provence. Collected by Charles Lyell and R. Murchison, Esqrs. in 1828. A beautiful fos- sil palm leaf, from Aix, by C. Lyell, Esq. 7. A series of models, accurately colored from comma of nearly seventy of the most interesting fossils in the Museum at Paris. Pre- sented by M. le Baron Cuvier. Among them are teeth of the Mastodon ; jaws and teeth of the extinct animals found in the quar- ries near Paris ; paddles and skull of the Ichthyosaurus, &c. The drawers of this case contain fossils, from the diluvial deposits near Lewes, Bognor rocks, Bracklesham Bay, Castle Hill, near Newhaven ; chalk fossils, from the South Downs, near Lewes ; Galt, Shanklin sand, &c. Cast IV.—The principal contents are from the chalk strata near Lewes. Compartment A. Ammonites, Nautili, &c. from the chalk and I. Remains of fishes and shells of great beauty and interest. B. Fossil Zoophytes, allied to the Sponges and Alcyonia. A fine series of the Ventriculites, first figured and described by the author in the Linnean Transactions, Vol. XI. C. Mass of Pectunculi, from the rocks at Bognor ; Nautilus im- perialis and Pinna affinis, from ditto ; Plagiostoma gigantea, ostrez, &c.; Zoophytes, from Warminster Common; presented by Miss Benett, of Norton House : from near Bristol, Dudley, Malta, &e. _ Several magnificent specimens of fossil fish, from Lewes. In some, the air bladder, dorsal fin, gills, teeth, and even the tongue are preserved. D. Remains of fishes allied to the Murena; groups of palates of an unknown fish ; Teredines; Zoophytes. / hless collection of Turrilites, front Hamsay ae Middleham ; an Ammonite, with the Siphunculus beautifully exposed ; Nautilus eleesi's ; Ammonites ca- tinus ; Ammonites Lewesiensis. E. Crystallized carbonate of lime ; wood in chalk ; breccia, from Castle Hill. Subsulphate of alumine, from Castle Hill, near Newhaven; chal- cedony ; crystallized quartz, &c. from near Lewes. A beautiful series of Fishes, allied to the Zeus, from the chalk-pits near Lewes ; | one of these is a matchless specimen, the mouth a open and entire e . Vor. XXII.—No. 1. 22 170 Miscellanies. F. Pecten beaveri and other shells. A fine suite of specimens of the — fibrous bivalves of the eae —the Inocerami. Case V.—A mahogany cabinet. The drawers contain, a beautiful suite of the vegetables of dhs coal formation ; fossil ferns ; insects in amber ; Zoophytes from Dudley, | Faringdon; &e. : Encrinites and Penticrinités: ; Pear Encrinite of Bradford, &e. Pentacrinite, Echinites, &c. from the oolite of Gloucestershire. Terebratule, and other shells, from Derbyshire, Shropshire, &c. Shells, converted into chalcedony, from the Whetstone Pits, De- vonshire. Shells, from the Firestone, or Upper Green Sand of Wilts; ae sented by Miss Benett. Chalk Zoophytes of Wilts, by Miss. Benett. ; : ‘Case VI.—The Glass Case contains an interesting collection of the remains of Crustacea, from the chalk near Lewes, and several splendid fossil fishes, of great beauty. Vertebre of the Mososaurus, the celebrated fossil reptile of Maestricht : jaws aud palates, = ver" tebre of fishes. In the drawers are, Specimens from the Strata of Tilgate Forest ; among tisedl is an interesting collection of the teeth of the Iguamodon, Ca Me- galosaurus, &c. Specimens illustrative of ns strata near ‘Horsham, Hastings Bur- wash, Tunbridge Wells, & Fossil bones, shells, &c. ees oo near Oxforde "Present ed by Charles Lyell, Esq. F.R.S Shells from the Craig of Suffolk. scene by the late Mis. Cobbold of Holywell’s Park, near Ipswich. Shells from Hordwell Cliffs Presented by Miss Benett of Nor ton House. Shells from the London clay, Highgate Tunnell, Isle of Sheppytie Specimens illustrative of a recent formation of rock marl m Ba- kie Loch, Forfarshire, Scotland, by C. Lyell, Esq. F. R.S8. Specimens, illustrative of the geology of the Isle of Wight, “2 C. Lyell, — FIRS. Teeth and bones of Iehthyosauri, panties fishes, &c. fom the Lias, by C. M. Hutehi Esq. a crustaea, shells, &c. from St. Peter’s Mount, Mae tticht. Miscellanies. 171 Specimens of the tertiary formations of France, &c. Presented by M. le Baron Cuvier. E Fossil shells from Grignon. Presented.by M. le Baron Cuvier. » Ammonites, Scaphites, Turrilites, &c. from Rouen in ee: Presented by M. Brongniart. - Shells from the tertiary formations of France and Italy. Present- ed by M. Brongniart. Teeth and bones of hyenas, bears, deer, foxes, &c. from the cel- ebrated Cavern of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. Bones and teeth of the Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros, inom the Vale of Arno, &c. A glass case in the center of the room contains numerous speci- mens of fossil teeth of sharks and other fishes from the chalk near Lewes. A thigh bone (femur) of | a Mammoth from Cheshire. A most elegant and perfect specimen of the antlers of the celebra- ted extinct Fossil Elk of Ireland, measuring nearly eleven feet from one extremity to the other. nee Resutrs.—There have been discovered in the strata of Sinaed. exclusively of the organic contents of the modern alluvial deposits, the remains of nearly four hundred species of animals and vegetables, of Which the following arrangement exhibits a condensed view. Vertebrated Animals. Pachydermata: four species belonging to as Mammauia, many genera. Cetacea . one species . one genus. : Birps, One or more. Chelonia . three species . three genera. . Repties, 3 uria nine species . four genera. Pterodactylus ? Fisues, Twenty-four or more species. 18 genera. Invertebrated Animals. garg fifty species belonging to era. Uoioatve 9 hadi w Spb mg 77s ( es blog to 34 genera. Bee geen Bivalve, (12 — ter) 130 spec . « 42 genera. Multivalve, 3 all . . S genera. 172 Miscellanies. ANNULOSA, Eleven or more. . . . 10 genera. —— Echinida, 24 species . . 5 genera. © E Pan Riwiri Asteriade,twoormore . _1 genus. . Crinoide, . three . . 3 genera. ZOoPpHYTA, . . . Twenty-seven, 10 or more genera. Vegetables. “ Acotyledonous, ten or more species . . . 6 or more genera. Monocotyledonous, four . . . + - + . + 3S genera Dicotyledonous,one . ... +--+ +» + « I genus. Total——Mammalia, 5. Birds, one or more. Reptiles, 12. Fishes, 24. Testaceous Mollusca, 260, of which 21 are fresh wa- ter. Annulose Animals, 11. Radiated Animals, 29. | Zoophytes, 27. Vegetables, 15.* : si The following 1 notice is from the English Magazine of Natural History, and was drawn up by Mr. Robert Bakewell, the well known author of an excellent elementary work on Geology : “ The collection consists principally of Fossil Organic Remains, illustrative of the Geology of Sussex. They are in admirable pres- ervation, and are very tastefully and judiciously arranged. Many of € specimens in this collection are unrivalled and unique ; indeed, we are entirely indebted to the scientific investigation of Mr, M. fer the knowledge of their existence ; for when he. first commenced his researches in the vicinity of Lewes, no fossil organic remains been collected there, nor had the quarry-men noticed them in the beds in which they were working. Yet in the course of a few years Mr. M. succeeded in obtaining the finest collection of Chalk Fossils in the kingdom; many of them are described in a splendid work which he published in 1822, with forty-two plates, by his lady, Mrs. M. The most important discoveries were made in the beds of Weald clay, &c. below the chalk and green sand formation. He observed that though the latter strata, as is well known, contain exclusively the re- mains of marine animals, the strata of the former contain almost ex- clusively the remains of terrestrial plants, and shells analogous t0 fresh-water shells, or the bones of vertebrated animals, some of which were oi enormous magnitude, and were evidently formed for walk- ing on ‘solid pround. The strata in which these are found must have Se ee * As the imperfect rs undatelgieed! ‘species are not enumerated, the number is actually much greate Miscellanies. 173 been deposited in a fresh water lake or estuary, or in the bed of a mighty river, on the sides of which lived and flourished plants and animals analogous to those of tropical climates ; these strata compose - a great fresh water formation below the chalk. . “ It was fortunate that the ardent and intelligent mind of Mr. M., enlightened by anatomical and physiological science, connected with his professional pursuits, perceived the true value of his discoveries, but to make them properly appreciated by his own countrymen, the testimony of Baron Cuvier was wanting. ‘This illustrious anatomist pronounced the Iguanodon, discovered by Mr. M., to be a reptile more extraordinary than all those previously known. It is indeed most extraordinary, not only from being the largest amphibious or terrestrial animal known, but from its peculiar structure, as an her- bivorous masticating reptile. These observations are made chiefly to prove to country readers, how much may be done for the promo- tion of science, even in situations not favorable to its pursuit, at a dis- tance from public museums, and removed from the excitement pro- duced by associating with others engaged in kindred studies. *'The room in which the objects are placed, has been recently erected by Mr. M. for the purpose, and is well lighted from above ; the larger specimens are arranged in glass cases, and the smaller ones in drawers below. It has already been stated that the collec- tion of Chalk Fossils is the finest in the kingdom ; it will not be ne- cessary to particularize them, but it may be observed that the stone in which the most delicate animal remains are imbedded, has been partly removed with a degree of science and care, that I have noti- ced in no other museum, and they are displayed to the greatest ad- vantage. The beautiful fossil fishes allied to the Zeus or Doree, from the chalk near Lewes, are particularly interesting ; one. of them is an unrivalled specimen, the mouth being open and entire.— But the most remarkable circumstance in some of Mr. M.’s speci- mens, is the uncompressed and perfect form of the bodies, which was doubtless chiefly owing to the preservation of the air-bladder, for it appears unbroken in many of the specimens. This is an important fact, as it proves that the bodies were completely incased in the chalk before the putrefactive process had commenced. In some of the fossil fishes, the fins, gills and teeth, are preserved, as well as the air bladder and tongue ; the scales are also very distinct. Vegetable remains in chalk are extremely rare; there are, however, in this tollection fine specimens of wood in chalk, and in the centre of flints, 174 Miscellanies. and also various remains of marine plants in chalk. Among the most interesting objects in this museum, are the fossils from the Sus- sex beds beneath the chalk formation. Many of the vegetables ap- pear allied to the ferns and palms, &c. of tropical climates, and - prove the existence of dry land, at or before the ‘period when the strata that contain them were deposited. Of these vegetable remains there are numerous fine specimens in this collection, comprising all the fossil species discovered in Sussex. But it is the remains of large animals evidently formed for walking on land, that renders the museum of Mr. Mantell so unique. In the strata of Tilgate Forest, Mr. M. has identified no less than four gigantic reptiles. The Igua- nodon, so named from its resemblance in many respects to the living Iguana, is justly regarded by Mr. M. as the most gratifying result of his labors. To form some notion of the immense magnitude of this animal, it may be useful to mention, that I measured the circumfer- - ence of the condyle, or joint of a thigh-bone, in the museum, and found it to be thirty-five inches! and the thigh-bone of a larger ani- mal at a distance from the condyle, measured twenty-five inches im circumference ; were this thigh clothed with muscles and integu- ments of suitable proportions, where is the living animal with a limb that could rival this extremity of a lizard of the primitive ages of the world ? ~ Among the other bones in this museum, from Tilgate Foret : there are some of one or more species of birds. It ought, however, to be remarked, that as the supposed bird’s bones found in the Lias, have been discovered to belong to a flying lizard, it may be doubtful whether these bones do not belong to a similar species of reptile 5 Mr. M., whose authority as a comparative anatomist ought to have great cp is, however, inclined to refer these bones to birds.— There are also the remains of three species of Turtles from the Sus- sex beds, two of which are supposed to be fresh-water ; the remains of fishes are also numerous: they consist chiefly of detached bones, teeth, and scales; no entire skeleton has been found. ** A very satisfactory description of the Fossils and Strata of Tit gate Forest, is given in the second volume of Mr. Mantell’s Ilustra- tions of the Geology of Sussex, a work which ought to be in every library where natural history is cultivated : the forty-two plates of the first volume, it has already been mentioned, were engraved by Mrs. Mantell, without whose able co-operation it would have been impo: sible for Mr. M., occupied as he is in the arduous labors of an ext Miscellanies. 175 sive medical practice, to have effected so much for the advancement of science. ‘** Besides the collection of Sussex Fossils, this museum contains : — interesting organic remains from various parts of the world: ” “* Mr. M., with much liberality, allows the museum to be seén on the first asi third Tuesdays of every month, from one till three, an ape: — eae been made by letter. Hampstead, S 1829.” We learn ‘ai Me. Mantell, that his principal additions since the above notices were written, are splendid fishes from the chalk, and many gigantic bones of reptiles from Tilgate forest. A fine suite of geological specimens of rocks and organic remains, illustrative of all the British formations, from the granite to the tertiary inclusive. Most beautiful tertiary shells from Palermo, collected and presented by the Marquis of Northampton. Many objects of comparative anat- omy. Skeletons of Iguana, Monitor, Alligator, &c. Mr. Mantell has also received from Dr. Morton and others, many specimens of American fossils and minerals, and their identity with those of England has been particularly remarked. The mososau- rus was an ehabitent both of the old and the new world. Mr. Mantell, at the great scientific meeting held at Oxford Uni- versity in June, 1832, exhibited the first hippurites that have been found in England; they were from the chalk beds near Lewes. He shewed also drawings and specimens of the horn, claw, clavicle, os ean, femur, bin and fibula of the Iguanodon. Tn a mass of grit stone, blown into fifty pieces by the quarrymen, in Tilgate forest, Mr. Mantell has recently found many bones, which, with great difficulty and labor, he replaced, so as to form a slab four and a half by two and a half feet, exhibiting twelve vertebra, eight in Place, with many ribs, coracoid bones, omoplates, chevron plates, ., and several of those curious dermal bones which support the scales. In another slab were found some beautiful metacarpal bones. In the mass of vegetable matter which enclosed the animal, Were found six cropolithes, and many paludine and limones. Through the kindness of Mr. Mantell, we have received an inter- esting and instructive suite of specimens, illustrative of his museum and catalogue. Among them are bones of his Iguanodon, of the Megalosaurus of Prof. Buckland, &c. It appears that the vegeta- ble remains of the ancient geological periods were exuberant, and 176 Miscellanies. some of them gigantic, indicating a warmer climate than any now found in Europe. Several kinds of ferns appear to have consti- tuted the immediate vegetable clothing of the soil: the elegant _Hymenopteris psilotoides, which probably never attained a greater height than three or four feet, and the beautiful Pecopteris reticu- lata, of still lesser growth, being abundant every where. But the loftier vegetables were so entirely distinct from any that are now known to exist in European countries, that we seek in vain for any thing, at all analogous, without the tropics. The forests of Clathra- rié and Exdogenita, (the plants of which, like some of the recent arborescent ferns, probably attained a height of thirty or forty feet,) must have borne a much greater resemblance to those of tropical re- gions, than to any that now occur in temperate climates. If we attempt, says Mr. Mantell, to pourtray the animals of this ancient country, our description will possess more of the character of a romance, than of a legitimate deduction from established faets. Turtles of various kinds, must have been seen on the banks of its rivers or lakes, and groups of enormous crocodiles basking in the fens and shallows. The gigantic Megalosaurus, and yet more gigantic Jeuanodon, to whom the groves of palms and arborescent ferns would be mere beds of reeds, must have been of such prodigious magnitude, that the ex- isting animal creation presents us with no fit object of comparison. Imagine an animal of the lizard tribe, three or four times as large 25 — the largest crocodile ; having jaws, with teeth equal in size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns ; such a ereature must have been the Iguanodon! Nor were the inhabitants of the waters much less wonderful; witness the Plesiosaurus, which only required wings to be a flying dragon ; the fishes resembling ur Balista, &c.* : po Mr. Mantell’s principal work is the Geology of Sussex, in two quarto volumes, the first of which appeared in 1822, consisting of 320 pages, with forty-two plates, executed by Mrs. Mantell, who has most nobly and skilfully aided her husband in his important researeb- es and publications. The second volume appeared in 1827; ™ consists of ninety-two pages, with twenty plates, and is particular remarkable for containing the drawings and-description of the bones * Mantell’s Geology of Sussex, and Fossils of Tilgate F orest. Miscellanies. 177 of the gigantic extinct fossil animal, the Iguanodon; both volumes _ now lie before us. Mr. Mantell’s other philosophical works are, 1. Letters on the Geology of the Environs of Lewes. Published in the Sussex Advertiser, 1813. 2. Description of a Fossil Alcyonium (Ventriculites.) Published in the 11th Vol. of the Linnean Transactions. : _. 3. The Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations of the Geol- — ogy of Sussex, 1 vol. royal 4to, with 42 plates, engraved by Mrs. Mantell ; London, 1822. 4. Notice on the Hastings Strata in the Geological ‘Transactions, 5. Memoir of the Geology of the Environs of Lewes, in the Ist Vol. of the History of Lewes, 1824. ' 6. Notice of the Iguanodon, a newly discovered Fossil herbivor- ous Reptile, from the Strata of Tilgate Forest. Philosophical Trans- actions for 1825. 7. A Folio Plate of remarkable Fossil Fishes, from the Chalk near Lewes, 1826. ve : eer 8. Notice on the Geological Position of the Strata of Tilgate For- est. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1826. a 9. Sketch of the Geology of the Rape of Bramber, with Map and Plate, 3rd Vol. of the County History of Sussex. ~ 10. Systematical Catalogue of the Organic Remains of Sussex, in Illustration of a Paper on the Strata of the South-eastern Part of England, by Dr. Fitton. Geological Transactions. Mr. Mantell has other philosophical labors in hand, the result of which we may hope to hear of in due time. _ We must not omit to mention the History of the Antiquities of Lew- es and its Vicinity, by the Rev. T. W. Horsfield, F. S. A., of which the part relating to Natural History is by Mr. Mantell. This work is in two splendid quarto volumes, rich in plates, illustrating buildings ancient and modern, scenery, ancient tombs, coins, weapons, uten- sils, &c. &c. It is a most curious and instructive work, and possess- es a familiar interest even to a transatlantic reader. Sussex and the vicinal counties were, for centuries, the principal seat of the Roman Empire in Britain; and in this part of the island happened many memorable battles, and other great events in Danish, Saxon and Norman warfare, and political sway. Hastings, where Harold lost, and William the Norman gained a crown, is but a few miles from Lewes. We, in this country; have almost an equal interest with Vou. XNII.—No. 1. 23 178 Miscellanies. the English in tracing our descent from those warring and discor- dant nations ; and their antiquities must ever be objects of gratifying tesearch to Anglo-Americans. England is rich in splendid local _ histories, and that of Sussex is peobiphly one of the most remark- able. Mr. Mantell has published also an interesting account of the visit " of their present majesties to Lewes in October, 1830. ‘The quarto is adorned by beautiful engravings of the royal personages. We discover, here and there, that Mr. Mantell is not unacquainted - with the muses; he like Sir Humphry Davy, exhibits the philos- opher and the elegant scholar united, and proves that he is capable alike of exploring the most obscure and minute facts in science, and of rising into flights of euphonious and elevated verse. This ap- pears in the concluding ode of the work just mentioned, contrasting the peaceful visit of William IV. in 1830, with the bloody visitation of Henry IIL. in 1264, when, after a destructive battle near Lewes, finished in its very streets,* this king granted to force, what Wil- liam IV. has peacefully conceded—a reform in the national nie ieids sentation. Mr. Mantell, actively engaged in the very responsible aie of a laborious profession, and notwithstanding the interruptions to which he is liable from the numerous visits, not only of scientific men, but of the gentry, passing to and from Brighton, the modern Baiz, which is but seven miles from Lewes, still redeems time from repose, to write instructive and interesting works, and to sustain an extensive correspondence with scientific men both at home and abroad. The fine old town of Lewes, presents many ruins, among the most inter- esting of which are those of its Abbey, of the Priory of St. Pancras, and of its Castle, all of which were in full glory at the time of the visit of Henry II. and afforded protection to that monarch and his fugitive followers. The Castle, judging from the views of it in the ‘History of Lewes, is still an imposing ruin; and Mr. Mantell’s house is at the foot of a bank, which is joined by a small garden to another tani, on which the castle stands. Its venerable ivied towers hang y over, and form the best substitute for an extensive and more Slain prospect ; a fit residence for a philosopher and a philan- thropist ; for ~— fend of man must rejoice in es * - Miscellanies. 179 fortresses of an iron age, of arbitrary power, and although i it is not appropriate to this work, we shall still be pardoned i in indulging, the wish that this favored abode may long remain sacred to science and domestic happiness. 2. British Association for the Advancement of Science.—The sec~ ond meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Sci- ence, was held at Oxford, on Monday, the 18th June, and continued on the subsequent days of that week. It may be proper to recal to the minds of our readers, that the first meéting of this great associa- tion took place at York, last year, under the most distinguished pat- ronage. ‘The present meeting, held within the venerable walls of the University of Oxford, and under the patronage of some of its most distinguished ornaments, has been attended with the most bril- liant success. Monday was occupied with preliminary arrangements, and espe- cially the formation of sections and committees, in which the nume- rous papers on different branches of science submitted to the associ- ation on this occasion, were to be read, and where the votaries of - science were collected together to enjoy the advantages of a mu- tual interchange of ideas. On the evening of that day, the mem- bers of the Association were invited to attend at the Clarendon building, for the purpose of scientific conversation. At ten o’clock on Tuesday morning, the following committees met ~ in different apartments of the Clarendon building : 1. The Committee of Mathematical and Physico-Mathematical Sciences. 2. Of Chemistry, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, and Mine- “3. Of Geology and Geography. 4. Of Natural History ‘including 2 Medicine. “ These committees appointed each its own chairman and iscrmtay and were employed, between the hours of ten and one, in their res- pective departments of science. At one o’clock the various commit- tees met in the great theatre. Lord Milton, the president of the preceding year, delivered an eloquent address, on resigning his du- ties to Dr. Buckland, who, on taking the chair, opened the business of the meeting by an appropriate speech. Professor Airey, of Cam- bridge, then read his promised report “ on the state and eed of astronomical science, in reference particularly to physical -amnogy’ . 186 Miscellanies. my.” He was followed by the Rev. Professor Whewell, of Cam- bridge, who read a report furnished by J. W. Lubbock, Esq. Vice- President of the Royal Society, ‘on the means of calculating the time and height of high water.” These valuable reports were. lis: tened to with the utmost attention, by a crowded andience, which in- cluded the beauty-and fashion of Oxford. - A The members of the Association resident in Oxford, afterwards gave a sumptuous entertainment to their fellow members in the great Hall of New College. Two hundred and fifty-three noblemen and gentlemen sat down to dinner on this occasion. Dr. Buckland was in the chair, supported on his right hand by Lord Milton, and on his left by the Vice-Chancellor of the University. Among the company present, we noticed the Marquis of Northampton, Lord Selkirk, Lord Morpeth, Lord Sandon, Viscount Cole, Sir Thomas Acland, Sir Thomas Brisbane, Sir David Brewster, Mr. Davies Gilbert, Pro- fessor Hamilton of Dublin, the Rev. A. Sedgwick of Cambridge, &e. &c. siti A variety of appropriate toasts and speeches enlivened ‘this social meeting. On the following morning the whole Association break- fasted, by invitation, with the Vice-Chancellor, the head of Exeter College. The hall of this College being insufficient to accommo- date the numerous party assembled, tables were laid in the gardens. At ten o’clock the Association adjourned to the Clarendon, where; separating into their respective sections, scientific business was resum- ed, as on the preceding day. om Many interesting papers upon different branches of science were read at the sectional meetings on this and the subsequent days; — which want of space prevents us from enumerating, . We must make — an exception, however, in favor of one paper, bearing more directly than others upon medical science,—namely, Dr. Prout’s important ** Observations on Atmospheric Air ;” in the course of which, this distinguished philosopher pointed out, that, in London, the air under- - Went a remarkable and sudden increase in its specific gravity, at the precise period when cholera first appeared there. Sica: ~The reports read at the General Meeting, on Wednesday, were— ‘ On Thermo-Electricity, and on the allied subjects in reference 10 _the discoveries recently made in them,” by the Rev. Professor Cum ii of Cambridge. - On the present state of Meteorological Sei- ence,” by James David Forbes, Esq. F. R. S. L. & E. ; and “On ti oe of Sound,” by the Rev. Robert Willis, of Cam- Miscellanies. 181 On the evening of Wednesday, Mr. Ritchie, of the Royal Institu- tion, delivered a popular lecture on the recent discoveries in electro- magnetism. Dr. Turner gratified a numerous audience by a display of experiments illustrating the phenomena of chemical action. The morning of Thursday was set apart for the ceremony of con- ferring, in full convocation, honorary degrees on four of the most dis- tinguished cultivators of science, members of the association, uncon- nected with the university of Oxford—namely, Sir David Brewster, Mr. Brown, the well-known botanist, Mr. Faraday, and the venera- ble John Dalton, At the conclusion of this ceremony, honorable alike to the university and the association, Dr. Buckland proceeded, with a numerous equestrian party, to survey the geology of the neigh- borhood; while Professor Henslon, with a party of pedestrians, en- joyed a botanical excursion. Sectional meetings were held in the evening, in which important discussions took place. __ The reports read at the general meetings of Friday and Saturday, were, ‘on the progress of optical science,” by Sir David Brewster ; ‘on the state and progress of mineralogical science,” by the Rev. Professor Whewell, of Cambridge ; ‘‘ on the phenomena of heat,” — by the Rev. Professor Powel, of Oxford ; and ‘on the recent pro- gress of chemical science,” by James F. W. Johnston, Esquire, F.R.S.E. The business of the meeting concluded on Saturday - with an interesting lecture “on fossil remains,” by Professor Buck- land. . It was agreed that the next annual meeting should be held at Cambridge, and the association separated with the most lively feel- ings of gratitude towards the university of Oxford for the uniform attentions and hospitality bestowed upon them during this week, so memorable in the annals of British science. We doubt whether upon any former occasion so many. distinguished ornaments of sci- ence from all parts of the British dominions were ever assembled to- ether. Fy In consequence of the unanticipated extent of this Association, and the great accumulation of matter, the meeting not being previously prepared with a suitable plan of organization to meet the emergen- cies, the sister sciences of medicine do not appear, at the late meet- ing, to hold that place in the programme to which their importance and interest entitle them. Several scientific members of the profes- sion appeared at different periods of the week, and enrolled their names; but the display of animal and vegetable physiology was 182 Miscellanies. somewhat meagre. ‘The arrangements for sectional papers and oral communications were, we understand, thrown into some confusion latterly ; and a forthcoming report by Mr. Broughton, on some re- cent phy siological investigations, could not obtain a hearing before the morning of the last day, when the greater proportion of the members devoted to such subjects had left Oxford. ‘The popular exhibitions of the two great leaders in covloiegsaiiyel fessors Buckland and Sedgewick—absorbed the almost undivided attention of the meeting, whenever these two talented geologists lec- tured ; so that other sectional communications were necessarily post- potted. _ such occasions.— London Medical Gazette, en ee 3. Leipsic Fair, Dinesh; 1831.—The Leipsie catalogue of vate for the Michaelmas or autumnal fair, in 1831, announces two thou- sand seven hundred and thirty eight iew works. At the Easter or spring fair for the same year, the German press had put into circu- lation two thousand nine hundred and twenty works. The number; therefore, of new publications in Germany for the year 1831, is five thousand six hundred and fifty eight, which is two hundred and six: ty eight less than for the year 1830. Among the two thousand seven hundred and thirty eight wena the last fair, we find ninety written in foreign modern languages, seventy nine romances, twenty seven theatrical pieces, one hundred and twenty five on the cholera morbus, and very nearly as many _upon the politics of the day. The affairs of the several states of the German confederation have given rise to some pamphlets, but the greater part of these are devoted to the cause of Poland. ‘The live- ly interest felt in Germany for this unfortunate people is not less man- ifested in their romances, many of ‘which have their ——— and _— ines taken from among the defenders of Poland. In general, we remark in this catalogue the absence of erential and of important works for the advancement of the sciences. Yet the department of history has not furnished fewer valuable publica- tions than in former years ; and in this branch Germany has pee ed its usual preeminence. In proof of this, we mention the siete : the sixth and last volume of the History of bios w during the middle ages, by Savigny ; the History of t donians, by Flathe ; “dditions 4 the “History of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, by Schubei's “an Essay upon the Commerce of the - dle Ages, by Wilda ; the Cities of Suabia during the Middle Ages: Miscellanies. 183 by Jager ; the History of the City of Vienna, by Mailath; the His- tory of the City of Augsburg, by Seida; the History of Tyrol, by Mersi ; the sixth volume of the History of Germany, by Luden ; the fourth volume of the Modern History of the Germans, by K. A. Menzel; the History of Ferdinand I., by Buchholz; the Conspira- cy against Venice in 1618, by Ranke; the fourth part of the trans- lation of the History of the Crusades, by Michaud ; Monumenta Boi- ca, published by the firm of Cotta ; a new, edition of the History of Modern Times, by Hormayer; Letters written from Paris on the History of the sixteenth and seventeenth Centuries, by Raumer ; the Almanac of Modern History, by W. Menzel ; a work upon the Prus- sian Campaigns in 1793, from posthumous papers, by Wagner ; the * Military History of+the years 1813—1815, by Suhr ; the History of the War between Russia and Turkey, by Ehrenkrenz ; the His- tory of France under Louis XVII., and under Charles X., by P. Kobbe; the History of secret Associations in Germany, Poland, and Russia ; the Memoirs of Baron Julius Soden; a Historical Almanac, by Raumer; an Abridgement of Universal History, in four volumes, by Rotteck ; the History of Painting, by Lanzi ; the third part of the second volume of the History of the Church, by Neander ; the Crit- ical History of primitive Christianity, by Gfrérer. Grimm has pub- lished the third part of his celebrated German Grammar. A collec~ tion of the works of J. Muller and Westerreider has been published. Among biographies, we notice the Life of Durer, by Neller; the Life of Keppler, by Breitschwert; Letters of J. H. Voss, those of Bagesen, and the sixth number of the Life of John Paul. The natural sciences are enriched with numerous medical works, and some interesting accounts of travels, such as the Description of the Black Forest, by Buhrlen ; Burkbardt’s work on the Bedooins; China and Manchooria, by Plaths ; the Travels of Heber in India ; Geognostic Observations in the Uralian Mountains, by Hoffmann; a _ work on Japan, published at Berlin, by Hasselberg ; Travels in Egypt and in the Holy Land, by Prokesch ; the second part of Travels in Colombia, by Gosselmann ; Travels of Wenchs and of Martius in Brazil ; the third part of Russia as it is, by Sainte-Maure ; Travels of Lessing in Norway ; Travels of Horn in Germany, considered in respect to medicine, &c. i _ For theology, besides the works upon ecclesiastical history which we have already mentioned, we notice three works on Saint Simon- ism, of which one is by Carové ; a new edition of False Theology, 184 Miscellanies. = — ; and the Apotheosis of Lutheranism, by the same au- Pidenphy is at this time rather poor in important sroektn; We find in the catalogue but one new Encyclopedia, by Herbart; the third part of the History of Philosophy, by Ritter ; the Asithropala of Heinroth ; and anew edition of the Critique of Reason, by Fries. We mention also a new work of this last author on the organization and administration of the German States. Schelling, the veteran of German philosophy, who obliges us still to wait for his great work announced so long ago, has publixiadl a ale treatise on Method in philosophical studies. The letters of Bérne are not found in the catalogue. As to reli tical pamphlets, published anonymously, the most remarkable are, - that of Murhardt upon the sovereignty of the people, and another y Troxler. ‘Literature, properly so called, is, as usual, rich in new seablicnonat There are sahaplets editions of the works of Spindler, Van Der Velde, Eberhard, of Madam Schopenhauer, collections of the works of W. Alexis, L. Schefer, and of Madam Th. Huber. Of the lyric kind, we notice the fifth edition of the poems of Uhland; a Latin transla- tion of all Schiller’s poems, by Feuerlein ; a Gietoa translation of the songs of Béranger. The sixth volume of Shakspeare, by Tieck and Schlegel, has just appeared ; also some novels by Tieck, and the fifth edition of Don Quixote. The firm of Weidmann announce the approaching publication of Russian Legends. Wee shall not pass over in silence the work of the unfortunate Lessman, the Travels of a melancholy man and his preparation for death. ng who has recently published Memoirs of Poland, announces additions to his work. Among romances, the most worthy of notice, are those of Beckstein, Bronikowski, Chézy, Agnés Franz, Gersdorf, — Herloszsohn, Lewald, Pichler, Storch, Wolf, &c. In communicating to our readers this recent information upon ihe : state of the German press, we would draw their attention to the new character which it has begun to assume, especially since the French revolution of July, to wit, the political bearing of their publications. We all have felt the most lively. joy in learning the happy issue the persevering efforts of Welker, of Rotteck, of Mebold, of Jordan, who have sustained with so much devotion a courageous contest ’ freedom ——— country.—Revue Ener te 1831. Miscellanies. | 185 CHEMISTRY. 1, New Experiments in Caloric, by MM. Nox and Met- Loni, performed by means of the Thermo-multiplier. (Translated and abridged from the Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Oct, 1831, by C. U. Shepard.)—The Thermo-multiplier is a species of moscope, which is so delicate an indicator of temperature, as to be sensibly affected by the natural heat of a person, placed at the dis- tance of twenty-five or thirty feet.. The principal parts of the in- strument are: Ist, a thermo-electric pile; 2ndly, a galvanometer with two needles, which are specially designed for the thermo-electric currents. It is the first part of this apparatus which constitutes it a— thermoscopic instrument; the second serves simply as an index. The heat excites the electric currents in the pile; these currents pass through two metallic wires which connect the two kinds of ap- paratus together, are transmitted to the galvanometer, and act through their influence upon the steel needle, by causing it to turn round from its natural position of equilibrium with a force more or signe stri- king, according to the intensity of the calorific emanation. 3 Heat radiates freely through the atmosphere ; it traverses Pee der the radiant form, glass and rock crystal. This would induce us to imagine, that the instantaneous passage of the rays of heat through bodies, depends upon the same circumstances which allow of their permeability by the rays of light ; or, in other words, that the instan- taneous passage of radiant heat through bodies, depends upon the degree of their transparency. ‘This in fact, is what generally hap- pens; for the heating rays traverse with more or less facility, selenite, mica, oil, alcohol, and nitric acid. Of this we assured ourselves by the following experiment. Lamina, or strata of these different sub- Stances, were placed successively at the extremity of the cylindrical appendix, whose axis was vertical and superior to the reflector. At @ certain distance above it, a ball of iron, heated either in live coals or boiling water, was rapidly passed ; and at the same instant, the steel needle was seen to deviate more or less from its position in equilibrio. But if the general law of the rapid movement of the caloric through the transparent substances above mentioned, is thus established, it is altogether the reverse as respects the most useful and the most wide-— ly diffused liquid in nature, Water intercepts the — “Passage of the calorific rays: it intercepts . them entirely 5 obstacle which it opposes to them is so-insurmountable; fhe Vou. XXII1.—No. 1. 24 if 186 Miscellanies. vain for us to reduce the thickness of the stratum to the least possi- — ble film, or even to heat the iron ball to redness, and to pass it slowly over the thermo-multiplier ; the index always preserves the most 8 fect immobility. After the foregoing experiments, it could not be cnidiehiasl that this singular property of water should be owing to its fluidity ; since the alcohol, the oil, and the nitric acid, all partake of the same physical constitution, while they conduct’ in a manner totally different. We had a right therefore, to attribute the effect to the chemical constitu- tion of water. Nevertheless, we were disposed to resolve the ques- tion directly, by performing the experiment upon solid water. With _ this intent, we took two thin layers of very transparent ice ; we ap- plied them to the appendices of the thermo-multiplier, which, in the present instance, were two equal cylinders. By this means, the ra- diation towards the ice being the same on both sides, the needle as- sumed the place of zero.on the scale. We then presented the h ball at a little distance from the upper layer of ice; the needle expe- rienced no alteration in its position. These experiments, which we have repeatedly made, show, in- the most satisfactory manner, that water owes to a peculiar property, de- pendant. upon the nature of its molecules, the remarkable exception which it presents among transparent bodies of assisting the inte neous passage of radiant caloric. It has been very generally admitted until recently, that inseets do Not possess a temperature independent of the medium in whieh | are situated. Notwithstanding, the carbonic acid whieh 1 is formed § io the atmosphere from the action of these little animals, f re a doubt the existence of a slow combustion jn the interior of their bodies,—a combustion which must of necessity give rise to the extri- cation of heat. This has in fact been demonstrated of late through | the experiments of John Davy, who measured the temperature | of several insects by making incisions into their bodies, and m the bulb of a thermometer. He perceived that their temperature: was in general a Jittle superior to that of the atmosphere. Among twelve insects taken from different classes, he found two, the er pion and the julus, whose temperature, instead of being higher, ws 2° below that of the surrounding air. The method of Davy was unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it was inapplicable to all insects, except such as possess extraordinary dimesisions ;_ besides, it did not che temperature of the animal in the natural state, but ina and _Miscellanies. 187 suffering condition ; and the thermometer must have been affected by the evaporation of the fluids of the insect. The thermo-multiplier, slightly modified, offers the means of repeating these experiments without incurring any of the inconveniences above alluded to. As the result of our experiments, it must be admitted that insects of Sess a temperature of their own, however slightly superior it may be in some cases to that of the surrounding medium. Without enlarg- ing upon the names of the different insects submitted to our instru- ment, or stopping to particularize the effects produced on each indi- vidual, it will suffice to say—that we have experimented upon more than four hundred indigenous insects, selected from all the different classes, and in all the states of metamorphosis in which these animals are ever found. The differences of temperature amount in some eases to 30°; but all the divisions of the needle were positive ; that is to say, in the calorific sense of the insect. In comparing the different results obtained in the order of the Lepidoptera, we observed a law, which seems worthy of remark ; viz. “'The caterpillars always possess a more eles ased temperature than the butterflies or the chrysalides.” _ Now the respiratory system of insects in oe caterpillar state, is auth more developed than that of the same animals metamorphosed — _into.chrysalides, or into butterflies ; and we should say from these signs, that the insect, in the first period of its life, where its nourish- ment is abundant and its growth rapid, converts into carbonic acid a much greater quantity of oxygen, than at subsequent periods. It follows from admitting these considerations and the law announced, ‘that the heat of the animal will vary, so to speak, proportionally to the quantity of oxygen employed in the act of respiration. The theory which attributes animal heat to a slow combustion of the blood, appears then to be supported not only by the comparison of birds and mammifera, of mammifera and reptiles, which pos- Sess a temperature as much more elevated as their respiratory sys- tem is more active ; but also by the relation which subsists between _ the vivacity of the respiration of certain inseets and their tempera- ture. There are many bodies which, like insects, give us reason to be- cere that they possess a temperature independent of the surrounding may be submitted to the trial of the thermo-multiplier. Tt Is 3 thus, for example, that we have obtained a deviation of 50° in i - into the interior of our apparatus a very small Pinot: of 188 Miscellanies. phosphorus—a substance which, in contact with the most delicate thermometer, affords no indication of heat. Phosphorus has been cited as an example of the disengagement of light unattended by caloric : we see, therefore, that the supposed separation of these two agents is not real. With respect to the temperature of the luminous rays of the moon, the different means we have adopted in order to decide upon this subject have not completely succeeded ; but we think that we are able to assert, that, if the rays of the moon really possess a peculiar temperature, it cannot happen except to a Santee of a degree excessively small. The thermo-multiplier, possesses many advantages in detoniiaeds the reflecting powers of different surfaces. Our experiments prove that Mercury i is the best reflector of caloric: after which, come cop- — per and the other metals, in the order indicated by Leslie. Polishing increases the power xf Bi sesies oes toa ensich less a than is ordinarily supposed. Non. y pow- er of reflecting heat, whatever may be the nature of their silabeaal The method which we employed for ascertaining the absorbing powers of different bodies, is very simple. The whatenbeal upon which we wish to experiment, are attached to equal disks of sheet-tin, — to the opposite side of which is attached a stem, perpendicularly from its centre. The substances are exposed for several minutes to: rays of the sun, and are then presented to the instrument. By ope- rating thus, we do not obtain results absolutely free from error ;~but- we learn with a high degree of precision, whether one surface has a higher absorbing power than anetine lows the experiments =- mo In the first place, we kata to assure es oes So r, what s So long been admitted, the state and the color of surfaces have _ any influence upon the absorbing power. In order to resolye the first of these questions, we manigiccd two metallic disks, one in its natural state, the other was covered with furrows or scratches: the motion of the needle took place constantly from the side of the furrowed disk. As to the second question, we could not resolve it directly, since in altering the color of a surface, we necessarily alter the chemical na- ture of the surface which composes it. It was necessary therefore to resort to an indirect solution. With this view, we colored many pair of disks black, or white, with all sorts of vegetable and min- ae eral pigments; we covered others with layers of marble or of wool with fabrics of silk, wool wool and cotton. The absorption was always — t Miscellanies. | 189 the strongest by the black surfaces. Now, since the effect was the same, whatever the chemical composition of the coloring matter, it is proper to infer that it is wholly independent of the coloring. — and that is derived simply from the action of the color. But are these two circumstances of color and surface, the only ones which communicate to bodies the faculty of absorbing calorific rays? In order to ascertain this point, it was necessary in the first place to proceed independently of the said circumstances of surface and color. For this purpose, we took white fabrics of silk, of cotton, of wool, of hemp and of flax; all exactly equal in the size of the thread, in the tissue and in the shade. The five tissues were applied with gum to the disks, exposed to the sun, and presented to the instrument, We obtained the following order for the absorbing power: silk, wool, cotton, flaw and hemp. This is just the inverse order of their con- ductibilities. There are no very great differences in the tone or the tints which the common metals present; and if we except lead and ae we can communicate to them all nearly the same degree of polish. We coy- ered, therefore, several disks with equal sized metallic layers, and in submitting them to the instrument, we obtained the same result, The scale of the conductibility of the metals is, as is known, copper, silver, gold, steel, iron, tin and lead. Our experiments upon the ab- sorbing powers of different substances show, therefore, that it is arse Cisely the reverse of their powers of conduction. Many mineral substances are found which affect the yellowish ot : or of wood: we selected therefore, plates of wood and of stone, equal as nearly as possible as to the state and color of their surfaces} and we repeated upon them the same experiments as upon the met- als and the tissues. The woods, which were worse conductors than the minerals, were nevertheless, those which showed the greatest ab- Sorbing power. Finally, we compared lead with a stone of similar color. The substance possessed of least conductibility, proved the Most absorbant ; that is to say, the stone gave an absorbing force su- Perior to that of the lead. t first, we were tempted to believe that this inverse relation be- ” tween the absorbing and conducting powers, exists only in appear- ance ; and is derived from the resistance, more or less considerable, which the motion of the caloric experiences from the action of the bodies : : so that the caloric, not being able to pass freely through the internal strata of the non-conducting substances, accumulates at its 190 Miscellanies. surface in greater quantity than in substances of higher powers of conduction. But then the under surface, in the disk composed of non-conducting matter, evidently ought to acquire a less elevated temperature than in the disk formed of the body whose conducting power is better: and in turning from the side of the pile the face of each disk which has not received the direct impression of the solar rays, we ought to perceive an opposite effect. But this does not take place; for whichever of the surfaces of the disks we present to the instrument, we always obtain the same result. We conclude therefore, that “the color and state of the surface of bodies being the same, one body is possessed of aes absorbing, power, in pro- portion as its power of conduction is less.” This law, new and un- expected, seems destined to play an important part in the theory of radiant caloric. am _ Extracted and Translated by Prof. Griscom. = Nes process for obtaining Morphine.—Ant. Galvani, (An delle Scienze, etc. Maggio et Giguno, 1831,) describes a metho of obtaining, directly from opium, morphine free from narcotine. He admits that his process is a modification of that contrived by M- Guillermond, apothecary at Lyons. It consists essentially of redu- cing, by evaporation, the alcoholic solution of opium, to the density of an extract, then by successive solutions and filtrations, to separate from all the resinous matter of the extract, which causes the narco- tine to be separated from the morphine sa prolonged eb ene : calcined magnesia, a succession of filtrations, i tions, produces at length very pure morphine, completely a i all narcotine. With respect to the resinous matter, by dissolving it in dilute. suk phuric acid, and decomposing the solution by potash, the narcotine is precipitated, and must be purified by treating it again with sulphuric acid and ammonia, filtering, resolution in alcohol at 24°, and crys tallization. In making, with one pound of opium, five tinctures in - alcohol of different degrees of strength, the author was enabled, the for going process, to obtain from it eight drachms of very ” 3. Action of Oils upon Oxygen gas, at the temperature of the eat mosphere ; by Treen B De Saussure.—The experiments upon this Miscellanies. — 191 subject were made over mercury in cylindrical vessels which con- tained 180 or 200 cubic centimetres of oxygen, extracted from chlo- rate of potash. ‘The oil formed at the surface of the metallic fluid, a stratum:of 33 millimetres in diameter, and about three millimetres thick, (about ,', of an inch). The receivers were replenished, as it became necessary, by fresh gas. ‘They were exposed to a diffused light, and to a temperature not exceeding 75° F. in summer, and ap- _ proaching to zero in winter. ‘The volumes were reduced to 60° F., and to a pressure of 29.2 inches. 1. Olive Oil.—This was exposed during five months without any sensible action on the gas, and without absorbing more than its vol- ume of oxygen. The most rapid absorption was in the sixteenth month. In the course of four years, it had observed 380 cubic cen- timetres of gas. The oil was then a little thicker, and had entirely lost its color. It was very rancid. The residue of the gas, 124 €. c. consisted of Carbonic acid, - - . - . 81.7 ~~~ Azote, - aa 14.9 Hydiogan, 2 a ee ae Oxygen, - - - a a - 4.2 124, Qe Oil of Sweet Almonds.—In the first week it absorbed 3c.c.,- in one year 140 c.c., and in four years 427.c.c. In the last year the absorption was 30 c.c. The remaining 142 c.c. of gas con- tained Carbonic acid, ~ ~ = O64... _ Hydrogen, - - - - a 20.4 Azote, = - - - - - 18.7 Oxygen, - - - - - - 6.9 , 142 3. Hemp Seed Oil.—This oil is siccative. The two former are not drying oils. It was of a deep greenish yellow. The absorption during three months was slow, then increased in rapidity, and the color gradually disappeared ; the oil thickened, and a gelatinous pel- licle appeared on the surface. In the course of a year, the oil had absorbed 577 c. c., in. the second year 29 c.c., and in the third 14 c.c. The whole gas disappeared, amounted to 620c.c. The oil was semi-fluid. 192 Miscellanies. The residuary gas contained, . Carbonic acid, - - - - - 90.7 Hydrogen, Io <:9'= oG4cicest = -%. 426mm Azote, - ss ae se ae BE oe 17.6°4 Oxygen, * ws me ee gs — 36 4 rae = si 4. Nut Oil.—In seven months it absorbed but 3c. c.: in six weeks following, it increased to 7 c. c.; in the next week it sudden- ly absorbed 27 c. c. per day, under a temperature of 73° F, _ It ab- sorbed in the whole 578 c.c. of oxygen, and was almost « entirely discolored by the operation, and was reduced to so gelatinous a con- dition as not to stain paper. It thus appears that the drying oils form less carbonic acid ‘than the. non-siccative oils ;—olive and almond produce one volume of acid gas, for the fourth or fifth of the oxygen absorbed,—and the nut and hemp, one volume for the seventh of the oxygen. Voratite O1s: 1, Lavender—The same quantity of these as of the former were similarly exposed. The total absorption of la- vender oil 443.5 c.c. The remaining gas was, Carbonic acid, - - - — 82.6 Oxygen, - - - - - - 51.0 _ Azote, - - . - - . 244 gr ’ Hydrogen, - - . - - - 6.Dmee. 165 The-oil turned yellow and preserved its fluidity nearly ea Citron Oil. Quantity of gas absorbed, 528 e. ec. in of about one year. It was Colored brownish a = Residue of air, Carbonic acid, - - 61.9 Azote, - - - - 262 Oxygen, - - ~ - 16.8 _ Hydrogen, - - - - 10.527. 114.6 © Ss Turpentine.—Quantity absorbed in a year, 440 c. c., andi in three months, 475; color on brownish sarees Residual air, Sechouic acid, - 66. ae Hydrogen, - - - sia GOS 277 i = = ~ = 13.8 OMS. - 3 100.6 Miscellanies. 193 It is remarkable that oxygen deprives fixed oils of their eles and colors volatile oils. __ Experiments of this nature will give rise to the discovery of other products. The oxygenation of the essence of lavender, for exam- ple, affords a compound which, treated with potash, yields an abund- ant salt, unchangeable in the air, and remarkable for its beautiful and easy crystallization. - 4. Naphtha.—The naphtha of Amiano, when rectified, has a much weaker action on the air than any of the preceding oils. 2.145 c. c. of this naphtha, kept over mercury in a-cubic decimetre of air, for one year, did not change its volume. In six years, it had absorbed 9.4 centim. cub. of oxygen, and formed 1.3 c. c. of carbonic acid. The naphtha preserved all its transparency and whiteness ; but it had de- posited on the sides of the receiver, a thin coating of a yellow color, and the mercury was covered with a small quantity of black powder, which had all the character of a sulphuret of mercury. The author found that a kilogramme of natural and impure naph- tha, furnished by careful rectification, about 20 grammes of white naphtha, density .755. It has then an elastic force equal to 2,8 inch- es of mercury at 68° F.. It begins to boil at 158° F. in a platina crucible, but it acquires by ebullition a constant temperature of 192° . It dissolves in the cold, in all proportions, in absolute alcohol. One hundred parts of spirit of wine, (density .835,) dissolve: only 14. Its analysis, by distilling it slowly through incandescent iron ene: in a porcelain tube show it to Consist of -. Carbon, - - sie - 84.65 si: (Hydrogen, - . - - - “ 13.31 Oxygen, - - - - - 1.04 Sulphur, . - - - - a trace. Bib. Univ. Fév. 1832. . the ‘On the injurious action of gases on Vegetation ; by M. Ma- carre.—At the suggestion of M. De Candolle, the author performed several experiments to ascertain whether certain gases were equally injurious to plants by day as by night. Agriculturists have sometimes complained that certain manufactures injured the vegetation around them, whereas chemists who have been appealed to, have found from their experiments that the plants were not seamed by the action of those gases. From the suspicion that their experiments were alwayt Vor. XXUI.—No. 1. 25 194 Miscellanies. made in the day tite, and that the result might be different in ie night, the following trials were made. Plants of Euphorbia, Mercurialis, Senecio, Séhicknsy and Cabten were placed, in the morning, in a large vase into which chloride of lime was introduced. The roots of the plants were immersed out- side the vase. The quantity of chlorine disengaged was far from be- ing sufficient to affect the vegetable tissue. In the evening the plants had not suffered, and the odor of the chlorine was natural. » The same plants, without any addition whatever to the chlorine, were call faded the next morning, after having passed the night in.the chlo- rine, except the cabbage, which had resisted its action. The odor of the chlorine had disappeared, and in the room of it, a disagreeable acid odor was manifest. The experiment was several times repeat- ed, with an increased quantity of chlorine, and with the same result ; and the plants which during the day supported a strong atmosphere of chlorine, were always withered in the night by a smaller dose. * Nrrric Actp.—With the vapor of nitric acid, introduced in the evening, the plants were found witliered in the morning, some of the leaves being browned by the action of the acid. When the experi- ment was commenced in the morning, although some of the —_— were browned, the others were not withere Nitrous acid gas.—Appeared to be a vielent poison to pial and killed them in the night by very small doses. Nevertheless, by day they were not “sensibly altered, though the disengagement of gas was abundant. Sulphuretted hydrogen.—The same result precisely.» Plants left in it daring: the night were all withered in the morning, although t they were not in the least altered im the light. Muriatie acid gas.—The same results. The plants do not perish by day, even when there is gas enough to brown one or two of the leaves. ‘They are entirely dead in the morning, leaving the peo odor before mentioned. Cabbage is still an exception. ~ It appears then, that several gases are injurious to vegetation, bot that their action is exerted only in the absence of light; as M. ee _ foreseen —Idem. : 5. "Oe the Distillation of Bread.—F nding it announced in the English Journals, that alcohol is distilled from bread during the bak- ing, and may be collected by condensing the vapor, M. Lees and B. Moyeuse were induced to repeat the experiment. Having Miscellanies. 195 adjusted tubes of large and small diameter to the oven, connected them with a worm, and luted the mouth of the oven, they procured, from the baking of two hundred loaves, by means of the large tubes, about 50 litres (=13} gallons) of a limpid fluid, of a yellow color, a sweetish taste, and emitting the odor of rye bread. Reagents indica- ted the presence of acetate of lead resulting from the tubes of that metal, acetic acid, but not a trace of alcohol. When the distillation was performed through small tubes, the quantity of liquor obtained was but three or four litres. Surprised at finding no alcohol in the product, according to. the statements of the English Journals, the process was varied, but with the same result, and as a counter proof, a quantity of alcohol was placed in a-vessel in the middle of the oven, but instead of a simple distillation, it was decomposed or absorbed by the materials, and the quantity of acetic acid was sensibly augment- ed. From this it may be inferred, “a 1.- That the materials of an oven are too permeable to prevent the alcohol from passing through them. ~2. That at the temperature of 300° cent. the alcohol, if it exist, is immediately transformed into acetic acid by the air contained in the oven, or that which percolates through the materials. Whether an oven constructed of iron plates would furnish alcohol bas not been determined, at least in France, and to prevent the disappointment into which speculators may be led, the writers were induced to make known the result of their experiment.—Idem, tome 15, p. 190. 6. Imitation Silver.—Cutlers, and all those who have occasion to imitate silver, often purchase, very dear, an alloy called mailchior for escutcheons and other ornaments. It possesses considerable tenacity, and may serve as a substitute for silver in certain instruments of sur- gery. 'The two following prescriptions are both practised according to the uses of the metal. Their preparation requires the same pre- Melt in a Hessian crucible of the capacity of a quart, twenty ounces of nickel, six oz. of red copper, two oz. of salt of tartar, and three 0z. of good clear glass. When the mixture is liquefied, withdraw it from the fire, and when the crucible begins to lose its redness, pro- ject into it 4 oz. of pure granulated zinc, and stir it carefully, that the zinc may be well diffused; place it for a very short time over the fire, and then pour it out on an earthen slab, removing carefully the sco- riz; This mixture is somewhat brittle ; the following is more solid. 196 Miscellanies. 22 oz. of nickel, 18 oz. of copper, 5 oz. of zine, and the same quan= tity as before mentioned. If the zinc contains the least quantity of arsenic, the alloy will be a —Jour. de Connois. Usuelles, = 12, p. 89. GEOLOGY. _ Cuvier anp Bronenrart’s report on M. Desuayes’ “ Tableau comparatif des coquilles vivantes avec les fossiles des terrains ter- tiaires de 1 Europe.” —Among the organized bodies preserved inthe strata of the earth, none are more abundant, more diffused, or more interesting to science, than shells. ‘Their rapid multiplication and their stony nature have contributed, at once, to their preservation in great numbers ; so that they furnish the most positive proofs of the céndition os the ambient fluid at the period when each bed was de- M. Sodayes has indertaken to examine the shells of each stra- tum, and to compare them with those of the superior and inferior layers, as well as with those now living in the ocean in different lati- tudes, with a view thereby, to ascertain whether there have been @ succession and extinction of races, and to discover how those of the races which have escaped the changes of the surface of the earth have been distributed throughout the various regions of the sea. He was well convinced that he could not arrive at any conclusions on this point that would be free from objections, until he had observed and compared the greatest possible number chen, — it was not genera but species which must be taken into at gen nera, which are only creations of the mind, Routt s supply 1 no © import> ant information, when they passed from one series of layers to anoth- er, while they did not pass in the same identical species. He has thus been able, by: unexampled assiduity, to bring togeth- er more than three thousand species of shells, of certain origin, and to arrange them in a tabular form, compared with the known order of the superposition of the beds; to show at what epoch each spe-. cies commenced and finished ; while, from the comparison of them with more than four thousand Sued species, he shows which of them have been preserved to the present time, and what kind of beds have deposited upon them since their appearance. ad M. Deshayes has thus become convinced that the shell matid may be vary distinctly divided into two grand series which corres- Miscellanies. 197 pond with the two series already determined, although with less pre+ cision, by their mineralogical relations. The first, which is the most. considerable and the most ancient, and which is known under the name of secondary formation, contains not a single fossil species, which has an analogous fossil in the second series; so that every race of this. epoch is not only now extinct, but most have been so when the formation of the second series began. ‘This assertion does not seem to accord with some of the results announced by M. Du-— fresnoy ; but this was not the principal object of the memoir ; and __ M. Deshayes directs his attention almost exclusively to the second series, which comprehends the tertiary formations properly so called. With this series, says the author, begins a new Zoology, which, in its ensemble has intimate relations to that which actually exists, and is connected with the present epoch, because it shows us, in propor- tions varying in each stratum, fossil species identically the same as those which now exist. In tertiary formations, M. Deshayes discovers three distinct groups, corresponding to three different periods of formation. | In the first group, which is the oldest, the number of species thus far determined is about three hundred, of which forty two are found in a fossil state in the following groups, and thirty eight are analo- gous to living species. : : ~ In the second, there are more than nine hundred species, of which seventy three are found in the superior formation, and one hundred and sixty one are analogous to living species. ~ For the third epoch, the proportion between the number of species still living, and those which are lost, is much increased. It is in the first group, three per cent. ; in the second, nineteen per cent.; in the last, more than fifty per cent. ; that is, of seven hundred ‘fossil species belonging to this group, about three hundred and ‘sixty have their analogies among the shells which people our waters. This third epoch forms, of course, in some sort, the commencement of the actual state of things. : ore i Another enquiry still remained, namely, to compare the actual dis- tribution of shells which have their analogous fossils with the ancient distribution over the globe. ‘The author has ascertained that of the thirty eight living species of the first group, some are found in almost all latitudes, the greater number, however, in the intertropical regions. © same thing holds good in sixteen species of the second epoch ; the greater number of which are found in Senegal, Madagascar and 198 Miscellanite. the Indian Archipelago. A smaller number inhabits the south of the Mediterranean, and some only the European seas. A peculiarity with respect to the analogous species of the third epoch is, that they still inhabit the seas which wash in part the deposits from which they are receding. ‘This is observable at Nice, Rochelle, and in many other — in which shell formations of this order are in the vicini- ty of the se The sey of M. Deshayes, say the committee, appears to us to be in all respects‘a model. Founded on the observation of more than forty thousand specimens, every thing is proved by facts, every _ thing is reduced to figures.— Heo. Encye. Oct. 1831. NECROLOGY. Batavia —Count Cuaries Vipua te Gonzano, after travelling through the greater part of Europe, through America, and particular- ly on its rcnare coast, and through the greater part of Asia, died ‘on the 25th of December, 1830, just as he was returning from the Island of Celebes, and was entering the gulf of Amboyna. He spent several months in the Isle of Java in 1829, traversing the greater por: tion of it, and displaying often Hi 8 corporeal strength in surmounting the obstacles which were presented to his progress. He had proposed to fix, by barometrieal observations on the summits s of the mountains, a line extending from Samarany to the; of the island. “He visited the Indian Archipelago; and the Mollucca Islands, whence he made an excursion to ihe, coast of New Guinea. —Rev. Encyc. Oct. 1831. ee Count Vidua has not published any Fefaton ‘of a ravell except a collection of Greek inscriptions, which he had collected in the Turk- — ish empire. It is known that his notes were continually forwarded to one of his friends in Europe. The occurrence of his visit at New York about 1825 or 26, his amiable deportment, and the interest he took in the benevolent and literary institutions of our romps are well remembered. G. es : OTHER NOTICES. taal 1, Case of treatment og carded cotton.—The authors of the Bib. Univ. say that they guarantee the authenticity of the following. case + A girl twelve years of age, who had enjoyed good health, was t- Miscellanies. 199 ken with measles, which did not acquire a full development. In a few months afte, she was seized with pain in her limbs, and espe- cially in the right knee. This was at first treated by leeches, &c., as ~ a rheumatic affection, but without success. ‘The inflammation of the limb and knee became terribly severe ; abscesses were succes- sively formed, and although their suppuration and laneing dimin' the pain, the inflammation was renewed with increased intensity. Fomentations, and.a deep incision in the knee were resorted to with- out any advantage. This painful condition had continued five months, when it was resolved, in consequence of the success of Dr. Peschier with carded cotton, to make an application of it. The - whole leg was enveloped with it. In a few days the suppuration be- - came more free and abundant, the inflammation was sensibly dimin- ished, the pains abated, and her sleep was more tranquil, In a few weeks the change was decided, and in three months, viz. eight months after the first attack, the girl was cured, except that the leg remained weak and stiff, which it was expected that the use of min- eral'waters would remove. It may be remarked, that before the ap- plication of the cotton, there had been some periods of amendment, but always followed by a relapse; whereas, after the first trial of the cotton, the healing went on with perfect regularity.—Bib. Univ. Jan. 1832. ; 2. Preservation against rust, dampness, &c.—A piece of linen or cotton cloth, steeped in a saturated solution of lime or sulphate of soda, and carefully dried, preserves from humidity and oxidation, delicate steel instruments,.and also preserves parchment and paper. Steel instruments may also be preserved in quick lime. A magnetic needle, suspended by a silk thread in lime water, un- dergoes no deterioration.—Jour. de Connois. Usuelle’s tome 12, p. 89. 3. Coating for the preservation of Cordage, Leather and Wood, from the effects of moisture.—The material which has been princi- pally relied on for the preservation of cordage, &c. is tar, in the use of which there are several disadvantages. The following is confi- dently proposed as a substitute. Take ten Ibs. of common resin, pulverize it coarsely, and expose it to a dry atmosphere, so that all the moisture it contains may leave it; place it in a kettle over a fire, melt it, and continue the heat Sently till the swelling ceases, and it becomes transparent ; then add 200 Miscellanies. by degrees, stirring the mass carefully, 18 lbs. 6 oz. of pure olive oil, (no matter what its age or taste.) The mixture-becomes trans- parent, and acquires, while warm, a syrupy consistence, and when cold it is tenacious, viscous, and looks like turpentine. This mixture, - furnishes an excellent varnish for leather, properly prepared, leaving ~ - it in a flexible state, and admitting a good polish. . Ten Ibs. of resin and fifteen Ibs. of fish oil, or oil of rape atm colza, afford a proper coating for cordage or oakum, or sail cloth. The cloth must be perfectly dry, and the mixture applied boiling hot. It should then, after the superfluous portions have drained. off, be carefully dried in the air, before it is exposed to water. A month’s drying is generally sufficient. Oil of linseed, olivette, or beach, can by no means be substituted for that prescribed. Ten pounds of resin and thirteen and a half pounds of fish oil, make a proper varnish for wood; applied boiling hot. When the wood is duly impregnated, a little wick lime should be sprinkled over it, moistened with water, and then the whole surface well rubbed with a wisp of straw, by which the pores of the wood become com- pletely closed. As a hydrofuge for walls, the following is recommended: 10 Ibs. of resin déprived of its moisture, and 10 Ibs. of rape seed oil, melted together and applied to the wall with a tow brush. The wall must be previously made very dry and well warmed. This coating had better be applied twice, or subsequently a mix- ture of 10 Ibs. of drying linseed oil, 10 Ibs. of resin, and 6 lbs. of Bougival white, may be applied as a thin coating. — ‘The wall sti be rubbed with a very coarse cloth, an d_ allowed to thus prepared may be painted on, or paper ed, without risk iim tome 15, p. 186. 2 4. Economy of Sealing Wax.—In public offices, and other situa- tions, in which letters sealed with wax accumulate to a great extent, it may be well to know that the wax may be preserved and used on - other occasions. ‘Two methods have been tried in France, (both effectnal,) of separating the wax from the paper. The first is 1 pulverize the whole in an iron mortar, and then effect the separation by sieves of a proper degree of coarseness. The second is to place the mixture ina wire basket with open meshes, and expose it to the action of steam. The wax melts, runs through, and is thus separ ted from the paper. It may then, in either case, be cast into sticks or rolls, for use. —Idem. : o Miscellanies. 201 5. Composition for mending crystals, glass, porcelain and crock- ery.—Take half a pound of the curd of skimmed milk, wash it until the water comes from it limpid ; press out all the water, mix with this washed curd the whites of six eggs, and to this mixture add the expressed j juice of 15 cloves of garlic; triturate the whole together thoroughly in a mortar, then add, gradually, powdered and sifted quick lime, in sufficient quantity to make a dry paste, and stir the whole until it is perfectly mixed. To use this mastic, rub a small portion of it with a little water, on a piece of glass with a muller ; when well rubbed, put it on the frag- ment to be mended, or in the crack to be filled, and fasten the parts well together, and let it dry inthe shade. This cement, if well dried, resists fire and boiling water. Vases and other valuable articles can be perfectly mended by it. The mixture of curd, whites of eggs, and garlic juice, may be pul- verized, mixed with an equal part of quick lime, and kept for use in a well-stopped vial. Such a mixture as this is kept for sale as an Eng- lish ie in a shop in the Palais-Royal and is in demand. —Idem. - 6. Indelible Ink for marking linen.—The following composition may be used with facility and success: Take nitrate of silver 1 dram, printer’s ink 1 ounce ; rub the salt with the ink very thoroughly on a glass plate with a pinis muller, so as to incorporate them well. A small portion of the ink, put, by means of a ball, on types or letters in relief, and thus impressed on linen or muslin, will remain very dis- tinct through many washings with soap or ley.—JIdem. 7. How to boil Potatoes.—Few persons are aware of the neces- sity of skill or attention in this common operation. Potatoes should be cooked by steam, either by putting a small quantity of water in the pot, just enough to preserve an atmosphere of steam around the potatoes, or by introducing steam among them through a pipe a boiler. Strict attention must be paid, that they be not ieedone: In general from ten to twenty minutes of steaming are sufficient. Where the right point is attained, they are dry and friable and easily reduced into meal. If the action of the steam is continued even a few moments too long, they become greasy, compact, and acrid, and are not easily mashed, which proves that a change of composition is commencing which alters their quali- ties. It has been ascertained that ‘geo which have thus been in- Vou. XXIIL—No. 1 > 202 Miscellanies. jured, or which are naturally acrid, may lose these qualities by es moderate and suitable operation of heat.—Jdem. 8. How to boil Rice.—The grains of rice when api bole remain dry and loose, and are then much more sweet and wholesome than when agglutinated or partially converted into starch. To boil rice properly, add salt to the water, and when boiling hot, stir in the rice. Keep it boiling for twelve minutes by the watch, then pour off the water and set the pot on live coals during ten minutes. - one rice is —_ fit for the table. oe 9. Potatoe Cheese.—In Thuringia and Saxony, potatoe isediell is made, which is an object of considerable research, as it has the ad- vantage of Sneha its freshness during several Sea provided itis kept in ¢ Tt is dandianiih select potatoes of good peilians especially large white ones; boil them in a kettle, skin them and when cold re+ duce them to a homogeneous pulp; add a pint of sour milk to five pounds of this pulp, knead the mass well and keep it covered three or four days, then knead it again, and place it in small baskets to drain; lastly dry it in the shade and pack i it in layers in pots or casks and leave’ it thus for a fortnight before using it. ‘The older it is the better, as its quality improves by age. The above proportions are most commonly used ; but four parts of potatoes may be added to two parts of curdled mile, or Beye er proportions according to the taste of the ¢ manufacturer —Id tome 12, p. 89. ) “10. Collecting swarms of Bees.—In Corsica the following method is employed for collecting swarms of bees. When the swarm comes out, a man follows them with an empty hive swung over his shoul ders, the bottom and sides of which are rubbed over with lemon bark. He approaches the swarm and sprinkles it with lemon juiee, with which he fills his mouth. ‘The odor attracts the bees, =o bed as Se soon asa eee one enters the hive the rest follow.—Jdem. ae 2 3 Se g ¢ ~ Miscellanies. 203 11. Trilobite. Letter to the Editor, from Mr. Fred. Jukes, dated July 4th, 1832, 17 Paradise teed Birmingham, (Eng.) Sir—My friend Mr. Holmes, on his return to America, having kindly offered to convey to you a parcel, and knowing the inter- est you take in all branches of natural history, I avail myself of the opportunity, by sending you some casts and a drawing of an extraordinary fossil of the Trilo- bite kind, which I have in my possession. You may probably lave seen some account of it in Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, with remarks upon it by Mr. I. D. Sowerby, in which he refers to some similar specimens discovered in your country at Tren- ton Falls. The singularity of this tribe of fossils, and the circum- stance of their being associated only with the most ancient strata, render them so peculiarly interesting, that no opportunity should be lost in making known the various species which are from time to time discover This fossil was Pica in a low stratum of transition limestone, at Great Barr in Staffordshire, and though it is more than ten miles from Dudley, where the limestone is so celebrated for its beautiful specimens of the ‘¢Calyméne Blumenbachii,” there is no doubt but it is a continuation of the same formation, and in all probability this fossil will some day be met with there. The other species which are found at Dudley aré, the “A’saphus caudatus,” “Calymeéne variolaris,” and the lower portion, of an unknown one, —_— 53 in the 4th Vol. of Loudon’s Magazine. Remarks.—The No. of Loudon’s Magazine alluded to by Mr. Jukes, is missing from our collection. Supposing however that it may be interesting to American readers to see a figure of this trilo- bite, we republish the figure, with the letter of Mr. Jukes. The casts alluded to arrived in perfect order, and are of course still more striking than the drawing. We learn from Prof. Jacob Green, that the genus of trilobites, to which the specimen of- Mr. J has not yet been found in this country—Ed. 204 Miscellanies. DOMESTIC. 1. Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America, illustrated by figures drawn on stone, from nature; by T. A. Con- RAD, Philad. 1832.—A work of this kind has long been a desidera- tum to geologists, and we have-now the pleasure to announce the publication* of the first number, with six plates illustrative of twenty . three species of American tertiary fossils. The style and spirit in which this work is commenced give great promise of future useful- ness : the plates are lithographed by the best artists, and the figures are drawn with such clearness and elegance, as will enable even the learner to detect their character with facility. “The beauty, variety, and peculiar character of our Tertiary Fos- sils,” says the author, “ are such as to recommend them to the mere Conehologist 5 ; but when viewed in connexion with Geological phe- nomena, they will prove, in consequence of their vast extent and continuous beds, even more se siphin than the most celebrated cou- temporaneous deposits in Europe.” The three great divisions of the Tertiary class, viz. the upper ma- rine, London clay and plastic clay formations are all now positiv identified in this country by their organic remains, of which Mr. Conrad is already in possession of about two hundred and fifty na cies. Of these, the upper marine beds furnish a large pro) the London clay, (or, as Mr. Conrad terms it, the middle sans also affords a’ profusion of fossils, although hitherto but very partially explored on this continent. The plastic clay, on the comtary, is as = characterized by few and imperfect species. ’ Mr. Conrad’s Introduction gives us a brief but clear view de al these formations,—their mineralogical and organic characters, and geographical distribution, accompanied by various novel details which cannot fail to attract attention wherever geology is appreciated. It is designed to figure all the species of Tertiary shells ; and the pres- ent number contains six species of Arca, two of Pectunculus, eight of Fusus, three of Buccinum, a Murex, a Cypricardia, a Cardita, and an Artemis. The value of Mr. Conrad’s work is much enhanced by the fact, that it is the result of personal observations made during ae tours through the formations he describes ; and he has announ * By Mr. J. Seton, Chesnut Street, pritedetpniee his intention of visiting, during the present year, the whole Tertiary frontier of our country from New Jersey to Alabama. It is our intention to resume this subject more in detail on ties occasion, and for the present shall close our remarks with a beautiful passage from the preface of our author. - “'The recent shells have been sought with avidity on the shores of every sea, to adorn the cabinets of the curious with the symmetry and beauty of their forms, or the brilliancy of their colors ; but the science of Geology has given to the more homely fossils, a charm which amply compensates for the loss of a portion of exterior orna- ment, inasmuch as they are mute interpreters of those strange revo- lutions, of which the memory of man has not preserved a solitary trace. They chronicle the various eras of an unknown world, where one ocean has retired to give place to another with its peculiar tribes of animated beings, whose silent eloquence reveals the mysterious operations of nature, when the sudden elevation of mountains, irrup- tion of seas, and destruction of various races of animals and plants, were forming in the crust of our globe those numerous strata, the study of which must ever be an inexhaustible source of pleasure and instruction. ‘Thus have long periods of violence and revolution been necessary to create the beautiful variety of the present surface of the earth, and perhaps to prepare it for the support of man, as all these changes epee to have been effected anterior to the existence of the human race.” It will be agreed by all that this important division of our geology Could not have fallen into better hands, and if it were needed, the ablest assistance is easily obtained from Dr. Morton and other gentle- men in Philadelphia, who have already distinguished themselves in this branch of research. Sept. 23d, 1832. 2. Declination of the Magnetic Needle ; by Mr. Geonce Gitter, in a letter to the editor, dated Hebron, Cons: May 1st, 1832. Sir—In your Journal of Arts and Sciences, the observations of Mr. De Witt and of Dr. Bowditch, for the declination of the mag- netic needle, are recorded in direct opposition to each other—one giving an increase and the other a decrease of west declination. In’ _ the year 1813, an article appeared ina Philadelphia paper — which the following was extracted. ‘At that city, “1701, W. declination 8° 30’, by Mr. Scull Scull: 1798) W. 1° 30’, by R. Brooks. 1794, the needle was observed to Te 206 Miscellanies. cede westward, by H. Brooks of Philadelphia, M. Humphrys of Md. and others in Virginia. . 1802, more than 1° 30’ W., by R. Howel. 1804, 2° W., by several men of science. 1813, 2° 27’ W., by Thomas Whitney.” About the year 1810, the late Mr. Spencer of Litchfield county published in the Connecticut Courant, that for @ number of years then past, the needle had declined to the west. Mr. Nathaniel Goodwin of Hartford, than whom there is not a more cor- rect man in that city, has, for many years past, attended to the de= clination of the needle, and, according to his observations, it Has steadily tended to the west. In 1805, I commenced observa~ tions, and since that period, the needle has declined tothe west more. than a degree. The distance between this town and Salem does — not exceed one hundred miles. If it is sufficiently proved that while the west declination at Salem has decreased, at other places to the west it has increased, who can account for the anomaly ? - 3. Bowe for Water—In & former volume of this “Touroah, we gave some account of Mr. Disbrow’s operations for obtaining walter. by boring. We observe with pleasure that the subject is acquiring @ — fresh interest, in consequence of new and successful experiments, a% stated in a pamphlet which appeared in July in the city of New. York, with the signatures of John L. Sullivan and Levi Disbrow- We are not, on this occasion, about to discuss the causes of the ris, of water from deep perforations, nor, even to agitate the question whether it may always be expected at a certain depth. It is sufli- cient that it is often obtained. The excavation in New York, of the, great well for the city tank to the depth of one hundred feet,.cixteen, feet diameter, with two horizontal shafts of four feet square, yields eight thousand gallons per diem, or three hundred and thirty-three per hour, or between five and six gallons per minute. The Bleecker-street perforation of four hundred and forty-two feet, yields forty-four thousand gallons per day, or one thousand eigh hundred and thirty-three gallons per hour, or about thirty gallons, nearly a barrel, a minute. It would seem, therefore, that if such @ treasure is-attainable in these places, it may be in others within the city, and therefore that there should be no_ hesitation in proceeding vigorously and promptly with the effort. ‘The probability of success justifies a decisive experiment at the expense of even one. thousand dollars ; and complete success in obtaining abundance. ol fresh water from the strata below New York, is worth, we wiles say millions; it is beyond all price.—Ed. Miscellanies. : 207 4, Alluvial Deposits of the Mohawk. Extract of a letter from Mr. C. H. Tomutnson to the Editor, dated “ ScHENECTADY, April, 1832. . * Dear Sir—I herewith send you specimens of a deposit of leaves which are found ten or twelve feet below the surface of the flats or alluvial banks of the Mohawk River at this place. These, with ma- ny other specimens, some of them one and a half feet square and six or eight inches thick, were washed out of a deep hole made in the Erie Canal during the great freshet in March last; when the river broke over the canal banks, three miles above this city, and came down till it was stopped by the high ground on which the city is built. It then rose high enough to break over the canal banks and return to the river. The hole spoken of above was about twenty feet below the surface of the flats across which the canal runs. Judge De Graff of this place, tells me, that in digging a well some years ago, about a quarter of a mile from this spot, he dug through the same deposit of leaves. It was more than six inches thick. I am informed by another person who is familiar with the river, that at low water the same deposit may be seen in the bank of the river, a few hundred yards from the place out of which these specimens were hed.” s Lies nae ~ Remarks.—Every such deposit is interesting, as giving us the means of comparing things that were with those that are. ‘These masses of leaves are perfectly combustible, burning with bright flame and°much smoke, smelling like that of recent dry leaves. ‘They are enveloped by a fine black river mud, exactly like that which forms the sediment of the Mohawk at the present time. ~ Since receiving Mr. Tomlinson’s letter, we have visited the spot from which the leaves were taken, and no one who sees the place, can doubt that it was once the upper surface, although it is now lower than the bed of the river.—Ed. ee ~ P. S. October 11, 1832.—Observing, recently, some excavations going on upon the Genesee River, at Angelica, Allegany county, (N. Y.) for the purpose of forming a mill race, we saw parts of trees brought up from beneath tough and firm clay, some yards below the surface, evincing the shifting of the banks in ancient time. . 5. Detection of corrosive sublimate.—This is not a difficult task, and the following facts ave mentioned, not as being novel, but as af fording an example of an easy method of operating with means usu~ ally found in the family without resorting to a laboratory. 208 Miscellanies. - The- bina facts, were as follows:—A cider barrel vig brought empty to the mill, stood over night and was filled in the mor- ning with fresh made cider. As one head proved leaky, the cider’ was removed, and some pounds of a substance resembling flour were = found in the barrel with several lumps of a heavy white firm matter, doubtless introduced as a poison. ‘The latter was conjectured to be corrosive sublimate, and the opinion was proved to be correct by the — following observations and experiments. “a” 1. The substance yielded to a knife blade and a slight blow—ties apart with some elasticity, had a glistening diamond like (adaman- tine) lustre, was rather acrid to the taste, leaving a lasting metallie impression, and was readily soluble in rain water, to the bottom of which the larger fragments fell, although the fine powder fon for a time. bes 2. From charcoal, when by the blowpipe, a candle flame wis ie cal, upon it, it rose rapidly in white acrid. clouds, without any other odor. ti 3. Placed in a small vial loosely stopped with a cork, the vial be- ing moved rapidly and horizontally over the clear blaze of a candle, — the substance readily sublimed and concreted on the cooler side ¢ ‘the vial, partly in a white coating, and partly in crystalline spicula. The crystallization was very conspicuous when the substance Was” sublimed from the bottom of a glass tube bent into the form. of : letter U. “4 4. The solution gave a brick red precipitate with.a solution of ub: carbonate of soda, and a white one with sub-carbonate of a ! 5. A silver quarter of a dollar and a bright copper cent being lait in contact with the cent uppermost, a drop of the solution was place on the bright part of the cent, and a connexion formed an and the silver by an iron staple brightened at the points 5 ; instantly the mercury began to precipitate upon the copper, and in half aa hour there was a distinct silver white coating with minute points OF globules of mercury. It is not necessary to say that this was a gal vanic circle, and that the mercury was.evolyed at the copper or Ne gative pole, according to a general law, propounded by Sir H. DavYs in 1806. These metals were used for the circle, because they were at hand. A piece of bright zine was partly covered with gold leal, and a drop of the solution being placed on the gold, it became ily white, even before a metallic communication was* wire placed so as to touch both the fluid and the zinc. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &o.. Arr. I.—Experiments upon the Solidification of raw Gypsum 3 by Joun-P. Emmet, Prof. of Chemistry in the Univ. of Virginia. Tue facility with which burnt gypsum sets, when made into a paste with water, has rendered it not only conspicuous among min- erals but highly useful in the arts; hitherto, however, as far as 1 am aware, it has not been supposed that the raw or natural production is capable of exhibiting the same property. The following experi- ments, although resulting from an enquiry not professedly ! with the subject of the present communication, and therefore not, perhaps, carried as far as they might have been with advantage, are of sufficient importance to receive a distinct notice. They” satisfactorily show that native gypsum may be rendered ca- pable of perfect solidification without having undergone the opera- tion of burning, and may perhaps contribute to illustrate or render more available the setting property of this valuable natural pro- duction. Raw gypsum, finely pulverized, is capable of undergoing imme- diate and perfect solidification, when mixed with certain solutions of the alkali potassa. Among those that answer best, may be enumer- ated caustic potassa, carbonate and bi-carbonate, sulphate and super- sulphate, silicate and double tartrate or Rochelle salt. In all these cases, the process may be easily rendered more expe- ditious than when burnt plaster alone is employed, and the resulting Solid, after having been properly dried, does not seem to differ es- sentially from that usually obtained, except in composition. ‘There does not ‘appear to be any exact point of saturation; for the solid masses, when broken up and worked with fresh portions of the solu- tions, constantly ge their tendency to set, even when the saline Vou. XXIL.—No. 27 210 Solidification of Gypsum. matter is in very great excess; yet, no doubt, each case requires a specific amount, in order to produce the maximum of solidity. When water alone is employed, after the first mixture, the paste rarely exhibits any remarkable tendency to become hard; but a fresh application of one of the foregoing solutions never failed to de- velop it promptly. There is also a marked difference as to the time required for the Operation ; solutions of carbonate and sulphate of potassa, if sufli- ciently dilute, produce their effects so slowly as to admit of com- te incorporation, whereas Rochelle salt acts as soon as the pow- der touches the fluid and all subsequent motion necessarily weakens the cohesion. If crystals of Rochelle salt be triturated with-raw gyp- sum and water, and then brought in contact with the mixture, there will beiho Apparent interval of time between. contact and solidifica- is extreme rapidity effectually prevents incorporation by the ordinary mode, and would induce one to imagine that Rochelle salt does not possess the power; for when the gypsum and solution are worked together with a spatula, although the particles feel bard and harsh, they readily crumble, and by continuing the operate actually assume a semi-fluid condition. i No other salts, but those holding potassa, were found to render raw gypsum capable of solidification. Those of soda, as far as they were examined, invariably produced a contrary effect, if we except Rochelle salt, which, however, seems to operate by its potassa. ‘Yet it is remarkable that several neutral salts of the latter alkali, as the nitrate and chlorate, did not occasion the slightest alteration. The bi-carbonate of | potassa invariably produced a brisk effervescence, which considerably impaired, although it did not prevent, tion. ‘The same disadvantage characterizes the action of super sulphate of potassa, whenever the mineral contains an admixture of carbonate of lime, as was found to be the case with the specimen of gypsum under examination. As the idea has been advanced that the setting property of ordinary burnt plaster, depends upon the presence of carbonate of lime, most of these experiments were re- peated, with equal Success, upon pure sulphate of lime obrained by. precipitation. : The opinion that carbonate of lime facilitates or causes “slidifica- tion in the ordinary case, seems but little entitled to belief, when it is considered that the heat, necessary for the Scie os kopet ae Solidification of Gypsum. 211 far short of that required for bringing limestone to its caustic state, or even to that half-calcined condition which renders it capable of hardening under water; but, whatever may be its agency, subse- quent to the application of heat, the operation must be totally differ- ent in the present case, since the super-sulphate of potassa com- pletely decomposes all the carbonate of lime in the gypsum. It is probable, as Gay-Lussac has observed, in his examination of this singular property of burnt plaster,* that we should refer the fact to an inherent property of the mineral; yet I cannot but think the foregoing experiment abundantly proves that it does not always de- pend upon the simple union with water, and subsequent aggregation of the saturated particles, as seems to be the fact with burnt plaster. These cases may not, indeed, be parallel, as some of the saline solu- tions, added, partially affect the composition of the gypsum; yet I have satisfied myself that the alteration is neither uniform nor essen- tial to the result, although it is extremely difficult to ascribe the so- lidification, in the foregoing instances, to the proper cause. Both potassa and its carbonate are extremely deliquescent, and do not, therefore, act by rapidity of crystallization ; sulphate of potassa can- not affect the composition of sulphate of lime, and, although the former salt may possibly be formed in all the cases of mixture enu- ee on it does not seem to form any permanent combination with {hégypsum, since the latter, in two experiments, was found to lose one twelfth of its weight by the mixture of the substances and sub- sequent washing with warm water. The only uniformity observable, in all the saline solutions capable of producing solidification, is the “hecessity of the presence of potassa, and the ed with which the takes place seems greatly opposed to the supposition that the wedi depends upon double decomposition. If we take the pul- verized gypsum and saturate it by the solution of carbonate of po- tassa, all subsequent chemical action, from the same substances, should be prevented, and yet, when the solidified mass, thus formed, is worked up again with a fresh portion of the same saline solution, it sets with equal facility. This property appears but little dimin- ished by three or four career As plain water does not answer, until after the evaporation of the fluid, it seems more probable that a saline solutions exert a kind of repulsion towards the heres: of eicediligpapnonss tnattbacnbietelliedsas * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xl. p. 436. 212 Solidification of Gypsum. characteristic of it in the burnt state. 38 The experiment which first exhibited the solidifying property raw gypsum, was well calculated to give the impression that chem- ical decomposition was necessary for the result. I wished to deter- mine how far fresh precipitated carbonate of lime was capable of improving gypsum, (intending subsequently to burn the mixture ;) with this view, pulverized, raw gypsum was placed on a filter, and a cold solution of carbonate of potassa poured over it. The result -was:the rapid. solidification of the crude mineral and an evident di- minution of the alkali. Upon repeatedly returning the same solu- tion through the filter, turmeric paper ceased to indicate the pres- ence of potassa, and reagents showed that sulphate of potassa had taken its place. In this manner, a saturated solution of the latter salt may soon be obtained. Yet, as has been already stated, a fur- ther examination proved that the sulphate of potassa is not capable of contracting a permanent union with the gypsum. m Further enquiry will, no doubt, lead to the detection of salts better adapted to the developement of this property than those here noti+ ced, but the cheapness of carbonate of potassa seems more likely to recommend its use for practical purposes, provided it shall be found that the solidification of raw or effete plaster, by the process here indicated, equals, in durability, that which has been recently burnt: Gypsum, it is well known, requires judicious treatment, in order to fit it for taking casts, and unless carefully defended from moisture; will soon lose its valuable property. The process of burning may, moreover, not always be convenient, and in this case, a solution of carbonate of potassa, or, for common purposes, the ley from wood ashes, will always enable the operator to effect rapid solidification, and, as far as I have observed, it is perfect. Peal gypsum, and thus tend to promote that solidification which is so very chi d Review of the Practical Tourist. 213 Aur. IL—The Practical Tourist, or sketches of the usefil art, and of Society, Scenery, 8c. &c. in Great Britain, France and Holland. In two volumes; by Z. Auten, Providence, R. I. 1832. COMMUNICATED, Tue author of this work is already favorably known to the public by his valuable book on practical. mechanics. He made the tour, here noticed, chiefly for the purpose of minutely inspecting manufac- turing establishments, and collecting such information respecting their internal operations and general economy, and their influence-upon individual character and_ national prosperity, as would be practically useful to his own countrymen,—a kind of knowledge which, as he justly remarks, could be obtained only “ by entering apartments filled with the smoke of furnaces and resounding with the deafening noise of machinery, or by conversing with men devoted to the common handicraft labors of life.” For this, if in no other respect, his book is peculiarly valuable: Such information was much wanted, and he has proved himself a very suitable person to furnish it. Besides his individual interest in factures, his previous acquaintance, with . their condition in this country, and his lucid and pleasing manner of describing what he saw, the author exhibits throughout 'thése vol» ‘umes, ample proof that he is a candid and faithful observer. With the facts pertaining to the useful arts, there is judiciously blended Such matter of general interest, as will render. this an entertaining work to all persons who would, at their own fire side, ramble over the Same countries with an agreeable fellow traveler, and will also serve as.a useful guide to those who may incline to visit the same. places personally. The work, as well for the rich entertainment it will fur- nish to the general reader, as for the important information it con+ tains for several kinds of manufacturers, cannot fail of meeting a favorable reception from the public. Hr ‘a _ ‘Phe plan of this journal makes it necessary to notice such facts and observations only, as will interest the scientific manufacturer, and of these even, our limits allow us to admit only a few notices, which will be given, mainly, in the writer’s own words. rie _ After describing the gradual improvements made in the carding, Spinning and weaving of cotton, from the state such operations were in for ages. prior to the middle of last century, and in this country till within the. last. fifty years, and exhibiting their present advanced 214 Review of the Practical Tourist. state in Great Britain and the United States, he estimates the num- ber of power looms for cotton in the former country in 1832, at ‘about sixty thousand.—He adds concerning steam power that, ~ “Tt requires about a one horse power of the steam engine stand- ard, to work twelve looms, with the machinery for dressing the webs. To keep in motion the above number of sixty thousand power looms, would therefore require a steam power rated equal to that of five d horses employed during twelve hours each day ; but, in reality, equal to the actual force of about ten «thousand ordinary horses, which animal is found capable of performing effective labor during only about eight hours of each day. ‘Thus is exhibited at a glance the surprising g economy of human strength brought — we! the single labor saving contrivance of the power loom.” The amount saved in the expense of weaving in a year, com- paring it with the cost of manual labor as formerly practised, our author estimates at ten million of dollars. “It can hardly be believed, indeed, at this late day, how great were the profits which resulted from the employment of Arkwright’s ma- chinery, when first invented. * * An English child employed at a machine was able to produce fabrics of greater exchangeable v ‘than one or two score of able bodied men on the adjacent continent, or in the United States. One of the oldest cotton manufacturers in ; a country, who commenced his business at a period whem the richest portion of the harvest of wealth had been gathered in Eng- Jand, has declared, that he would prefer to receive merely the profits . of one of -his old original cotton mills, after deducting all the cost of stock, labor and other charges, rather than the unconditional gift of the whole product of cloths from a mill of the same number of spit- dles at the present day. Cotton yarn of No. 100, was sold in Eng- land in 1788 at about eight dollars and three quarters per pound, and the same kind of article can now be bought in the same country for about seventy-five to one hundred cents.” ” - Inconnexion with cotton manufactures the author gives a cursory view of the equally rapid and wonderful extension of the culture of cotton, which now furnishes nearly half of the clothing to the inbabl- tants of the civilized world. “The cotton plant itself is a native of the three continents of Asia, Africa, and America, and flourishes in a broad zone of climates. In Hindoostan and South America, it shoots up into a tree with branches, and annually produces its bursting pods as a spontaneous : Review of the Practical Tourist. 215 crop for the inhabitants, who gather the locks of cotton with no other labor than that of the harvest. In more northerly latitudes, it be- comes dwindled into an annual plant, requiring careful tillage, and the vigilant attention of the cultivator during the seed time, as well as the harvest. The product of the cotton plant seems to vary in quality from local peculiarities of heat and moisture ; as that with the black seed, which is raised in the vicinity of the ocean on the sez islands of Georgia, loses its superior excellence of staple when trans- planted to the interior country. “In the early stages of the cotton manufacture in England, the supply of the raw material was derived from the countries of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean, and from the West Indies. In 1705, it appears that only one million one hundred and seventy thousand pounds of cotton were imported into England; and in 1775, at the period of the commencement of the ieeeetiorte to which we have been alluding, only four million seven hundred and sixty four thou- sand pounds were imported. Fifty years after this, eight hundred _ and twenty thousand bags were landed in Great Britain in. one year. About seventy two thousand of these Pane been re-exported, there remained seven hundred and forty eight thousand bags of cotton to supply the annual consumption of this single island. Of this vast quantity, the greater part was brought from a remote country (the United States) oni in 1784 not a single bag of cotton was Eipas nf ced as an article of export. “In 1785 it was ascertained by the English custom house officers at, Liverpool, that an American ship had discharged upon the quay eight bales of cotton, which being then an article of import never be- fore brought from any part of the Uunited States, were seized, upon the supposition that they had been brought circuitously from some of the English West India Islands, contrary to the rigid navigation laws, to encourage British shipping. For several years subse- quent to this period, the culture of cotton was neglected in the Uni- ted States, on account of the great labor required to free it of its seeds and motes by manual labor; but the invention (by the late Eli Whitney,) of the cotton gin, roe cleaning the raw cotton, gave in 1793 a new impulse to the culture in the United States, quite as great as that given to the manufacture of the same staple material nd the inventions of Arkwright. following table of the comparative rates of wages in Eaghad France and the United States furnishes the best information n subject that we have sen. 216. Review of the Practical Tourist. rear England | France. Wages of a common day laborer,| Cents. | Cents. _.perday,about - - - 73 | 37 to 40 Do. with steady employment, 60 | 35 Carpenter, So SS Mason GSR Gg ERPS Be Mule spinners in cotton mills, - | 103 | 75 0. in woollen mills, do, in woollen mills, - - 92 Maid servants in private families, per week, peed sia: Gealosgg 100 . 133 and f best, eo MENS cca ces ac 1 AAG 150 167 + So, 6 ia aia mains aa 100 117 Children, piecers in mills, for mules and billeys, eegs a S 14 20 ~=30 Overlooker of carding rooms, - | 135 108 150 Slubbers of woollen roving, 97 80 100 Experienced workmen to attend | shearing machines and gig mills : age ... for woolens, t . - 82 80. 117) Firemen for steam engines, 91. 100 125, Price of coals for steam engines, per ton, (1827) ~ - “= | 220* j7o0¢ ~— |700t 106 Wheat (per bushel of 60 Ibs.) 179 {117 96 49 ~The cupidity of English manufacturers requiring more hours of Jabor from their workmen and especially from children than humanity could sanction, attracted the attention of Parliament, and induced it, in 1831, to establish the following hours of labor in mills for manu- facturing silk, cotton, wool, flax, &c. a - “No person under twenty one years of age, shall be allowed to work in the night—that is, between half past eight o’clock in the evening, and half past five A.M. ti sisi ~ “No person; under the age of eighteen years, shall be employed more than twelve hours per day, and nine hours on Saturday, {= cepting in fulling mills and in finishing woolen cloths,) equal to sixty nine hours per week, j Bale? ..* Manchester. t Ieee t New York. §_ Pittsburgh. ; Review of the Practical Tourist. 217 “In case of loss of time by drought, or damage to steam engin the proprietors of mills shall be allowed twelve hours on Saturday, and one hour per day as additional labor. “No child shall be employed in any description of work in any mill until nine years old, except in silk mills, where they may be employed at seven years of age.” A description is given of the finishing processes by which cotton cloths, after they are taken from the looms, are prepared for va- rious uses. One of these is the singeing of the cloth to impart to it the appearance of linen, which was formerly effected by passing it over red hot cylinders. A blaze of gas is now substituted, “ which is made to issue from a tube perforated with a long row of nearly contiguous small holes, like those of the burners of a gas lamp. By kindling the gas issuing from one of the apertures, the blaze in- stantly flashes along the whole extent of the tube, forming a contin- ued sheet of dazzling flame, shooting upwards. Directly above this is fixed another tube of equal length, and perforated with a long slit exactly adapted to receive into its bottom cavity the jet of flame. The upper tube is connected with large nee worked by steam power, whereby a rush of air is created into the aperture of the slit. When the cloth is passed between the tubes, peg cnet from the lower one, is actually pte or sucked the texture between the threads, by means of the slit in the upper tube. The most delicate muslins may be thus passed through a Vivid sheet of flame, and become, during the fiery ordeal, not only divested of the rough fibres on the face of the texture, as has been previously accomplished by passing it over the red hot cylinder, but even the rough fibres between the threads are singed off by the pen- etrating flame, and the exact appearance of the smooth linen thread is produced. ee ees _ A particular description is given of the above mnanieomdanenaee and their mode of operation. This is followed by a sketch of the Processes of bleaching, printing, and calendering which differ very little from those employed in the United States. Nor is there much difference in the method which he describes of manufacturing woollen cloth by the English, excepting that they still weave woollen chiefly by hand instead of the power loom. The author concludes ‘this wir by the pees | interesting comparison. Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 28 218 Review of the Practical Tourist. “Taking the general average of the cost of making a yard of broadcloth in England, and in the United States, including that of the steam and water power, it appears that the American manufac- turer produces fabrics of equal quality, as cheaply as they are made in England. But widely different are their respective advantages of obtaining a supply of wool. The raw material is from seventy to an hundred per cent. dearer in New England than in Old England. ~ In the manufacture of stuff goods the wool is prepared by first combing the long fibres or hairs by means of a sort of hatchel, precisely as flax is prepared. The operation, however, is perform- ed upon the wool, whilst it is-exposed to heat, which renders the fibres permanently elongated. The combed wool is passed suc- cessively between sets of rollers, to extend the fibres, and to reduce them to the rudiments of a fine thread, for which purpose machine- ry is employed similar to that used for manufacturing cotton. After this it is spun into worsted yarn.” It is gratifying to learn from Mr. Allen’s book, that small beaiies are formed by the proprietors at many of the large manufacturing es tablishments in England, for the, use of the workmen, which are supported by a small periodical payment from those who receive the books. If the comparatively small size of our own manufactoriés renders such an appendage less worthy of the attention of owners, they might at least unite in large manufacturing villages in forming dusile: means of mental improvement. . elle The for extracts are interesting to a comparatively small class of readers only, and present but indifferent specimens of the authors style. They are offered as samples of the more substantial sort of goods which the inquirer may find in this ware-house of im- formation. It would have suited the manufacturer, if this description of goods had been packed separately at the farther end of the building, in the form of an appendix, instead of being thrown about, prodiiscuously, among castles and abbeys, theatres and gaming houses, Cottages and palaces, foundling hospitals and cathedrals, baptisms and funerals. The general sonideli however, whose taste the author 00 doubt consulted, would prefer the book as it is. Although — his-a tention was particularly directed to mills for making cotton, silk “and linen cloths, yet he has not omitted the aaliaane workshops for cutlery and other hardware, both useful and ornamental, as well as founderies, coal mines, porcelain works, canals, rail roads, 8c. &c.5 thus incorporating a mass of useful facts and observations that ee Review of the Practical Tourist. 219 coming of daily increasing imporiance in our own country, and which tourists are rarely at pains to furnish with such faithful accuracy.* ~The following graphic description of a salt mine in Cheshire, is the only extract we shall make that does not bear upon the interests of an American manufacturer. After describing the manner of de- scending the shaft of the mine, and the appearance of the various strata of earth, the author says, “ alighting from our tub upon the firm dry floor of rock salt, the guide observed, that we had descended three hundred and thirty six feet from the surface of the ground. Wher our eyes had become sufficiently accustomed to the twilight gloom of the vast cavern, we stood motionless with surprise at the sight before us, gazing with wonder at the magnificent aisles extend- ed horizontally to great distances, between huge pillars of salt, and lighted by rows of lamps arranged at regular distances asunder, like those in the streets of a city, some appearing brilliant near at hand, and others faintly twinkling from remote extremities of the mine. The resemblance to a night scene in the street of a city was render- ed more striking from the rattling of the wheels soveming the et oa and the tramp of the horses’ feet. “Our conductor now began to point out aneieaniaountia and to describe the subterraneous works. The excavations, he sia- ted, are made horizontally, as level as a plain, to the extent of about twenty six acres, the height of the roof being eighteen feet. Ob- serve, he said, how perfectly smooth the roof and floor are formed, resembling those of an immense room. ‘Those pillars of salt are left at the regular distance of seventy five feet asunder, to sustain the great — of opener ently more than three hundred feet thick. There being no seams or fissures throughout the solid mass, no, water can penetrate into the salt mine. To convince usof the tight- ness of the roof of salt, the guide conducted us to the part of the mine directly beneath the canal upon which we had previously seen loaded canal boats floating, more than three hundred feet above our heads ear with all the load of waters by the pillars of salt nae distant parts of the mine, numerous workmen appeared by candlesgh engaged in icing holes in the salt, which is peat as -” As a very slight seanpone however, to the general accuracy fiat pervades the book, we may notice, that in describing the process for maine ee cotla Page 361, the author een to = an alkali as an ingredient. : 220 Review of the Practical Tourist. hard as marble; for the purpose of detaching fragments by explo- sions of gunpowder. ‘They commence working next the roof, and carry rd the excavations in the form of broad steps, breaking up successively the several tiers or layers, The stunning reverbera- tions of the explosions, following one after another in quick succes sion, cause the startled visitant to shrink back with a momentary feeling of alarm, whilst the very roof seems to be upheaved, and the — pillars to tremble under their load. “In order to show us the extent of the mine, our conductor fred a preparation of gunpowder, termed blue-lights, which he had provi- ded for the purpose of affording a brilliant illumination. On firing the combustible preparation, instantly, countless remote square pil- lars seemed to start up from a large plain, distinctly visible, as if the r meridian sun had burst in upon the gloomy cavern. After the flashes have thus suddenly illuminated with a dazzling, fearful light, the vast aisles, and pillars of salt, they as suddenly ex- pire, and all the scene, as if conjured up into momentary existence by some magic spell, again becomes shrouded in darkness.” Among the most important manufacturing operations carried on in Manchester, are those connected with the priating of cotton cloths or calico. The mere designing or inventing of new patterns of figures for the printers is of itself a considerable business, furnishing regular employment to many persons, who gain a good living by their ingenuity in this branch of business. The process of engraving the cape cylinders and blocks for printing, is another considerable siness. Inone apartment, I saw nearly thirty men at work. The wal Siar and sprigs are engraved, or rather sunk into the surface of the copper cylinders by steel dies, instead of being eut by the — graver. The pattern of a flower, or other figure, is thus pany impressed in the twinkling of an eye. “* After the process of engraving is completed, the copper cylinder is —, ina strong Seana where it is made to revolve ee steam pinot Review of the Practical Tourist. 221 calender rollers. The spongy texture of the cloth sinks into all the engraved cavities and imbibes the coloring matter lodged in them; whilst from the smooth surface of the copper, cleaned by the doctor, it receives no dye to stain it. ‘The cotton cloth is seen to enter be- tween the rollers as white and spotless as pure snow; and as if bya magical transformation to issue from between them on the other side, covered with gay flowers, or with pictured landscapes, spread over the surface in all the fair proportions of hills and dales and winding rivers. Three or more distinct colors may be printed and duly blend- ed together to produce an harmonious effect, at one operation, by arranging an equal number of the printing cylinders, each engraved and supplied with its own peculiar color, to bear or press against the surface of the large smooth central cylinder, around which the cloth to be printed is made to pass. Beautiful chintzes of several bright dyes, thus perfected at one operation, pass off over machinery to be dried nearly as fast as one can walk. This is followed by a description of block printing which is much used in this country, and is performed with pieces of wood twelve or fifteen inches long, and six or eight inches wide, varying so as to suit the required patterns. They are used on the principle of com- mon type printing, and when several colors are to be printed on one piece, several blocks are passed over it so as to produce the vacieny of éolors required. “The prints are finally completed by being glazed or polished. This is accomplished by first impregnating the calico or chintz with gum, starch or beeswax as may be best adapted to the purpose for which it may be intended. .Thus prepared, the cloth is passed between two cylinders, one of which is hollow, and is heated by red hot pieces of iron inserted in the cavity, or by steam. ‘To one of the rollers is given by the machinery a quicker rotation than to the other. The two calender cylinders are thus not only caused to roll in-contact, but also a rubbing effect is produced, owing to the differ- ent relative velocities with which the surface of each is caused to move. By this means, the hot surface of the polished cylinder is ‘Made to partially slide over the surface of the cloth to be glazed, as the polished surface of a flat iron or sad iron is passed over cloths by the laundress in the familiar domestic operation of ironing. | “ Some of the machine shops of Manchester are constructed on @ most extensive scale. The proprietor of one of these establish-— ments informed me that he employed three hundred and eighty 222 Review of the Practical Tourist. workmen. The bars of iron are heaped up in his yards like piles of cord wood. A branch of a canal has been formed through the center of his premises, over which there is a bridge that is capa- ble, as it was stated to me, of being raised, for cant boats to pass beneath it, upon the principle of the hydrostatic paradox. The pressure is conveyed through tubes filled with water, and laid beneath the surface of the ground, to act on the movable pistons upon which the bridge rest; and when the forcing ae is put in motion, the bridge rises from the abutments as if by magic. In Sheffield the author confined his attention chiefly to the manu- facture of hard ware, in which, this place, with a population of sixty ie ‘thoupee persons, has become the rival of Birmingham. less interesting for any new practical information, nd ee the idea they give us of the’ seal of business carried on in Sheftie wi tet much gratification to a stranger to view the various pro- cesses in the manufacture of cutlery, whereby in some cases, a bar of rough iron, brought here from Sweden, is wrought, by the skilful labor of the artists, into articles more valuable than a bar of silver of the same weight. My first visit was to the extensive works for con- verting iron into cast steel, belonging to the Messr. Naylor & Sand- erson. Their brands are well known to the machinists of the Uni- ted States, as indicating the best qualities of cast steel sent from Eng- bout seven thousand pounds have been made here in one day. ‘The coal used for the works is of aselected quality; in some of the lumps of which the charred particles of the fibres of wood appeared distinctly visible, exactly resembling those perceptible in common charcoal. “ The first process in making the cast steel is to arrange bars of Swedish iron in a long narrow brick box or oven, about two and a half feet wide and three feet deep, and of a length sufficient to receive the longest bars. Between each layer of iron bars, pow- dered charcoal is sified and the top of this box is covered with a " Tayer of clay neatly five inches thick, to exclude the air and prevent the: powdered charcoal from being consumed by the heat, which is communicated to it through the lining of the brick work. ‘This brick box is enclosed ina regular furnace, in such a manner that the intense heat of the flames may circulate around it and gradually oe the bars of iron, covered up by the charcoal, to an intense glow, for about the period of a week ; after which the whole is cooled. If the Review of the Practical Tourist. 223 heat be not properly regulated during the process, the pile of iron bars, as I was told by one of the proprietors, becomes fuséd into a solid mass. The surface of the bars, after being withdrawn, is found to be covered with blisters, resembling air bubbles half bursting from the swollen surface of the metal, which becomes converted by the operation into steel. From the peculiar appearance of the blisters upon the bars, it is called ** blistered steel,” and sometimes “ steel of cementation,” from the process performed; and also “shear steel,” from the general use formerly made of it in the manufacture of blades of shears. No iron made in England is equal to that impor- ted from Sweden for the purpose of being converted into steel. **To make cast steel, the bars of blistered steel are broken into small pieces, from which the imperfect portions are carefully exclu- ded, and the remainder are put into crucibles about eighteen inches deep. Each crucible is set into a small furnace, about twelve or fourteen inches square, and two feet in depth. Many of these fur- naces, each containing its crucible, are arranged side by side. About forty pounds of the fragments of the bars of steel are put into each ove, and immediately covered up closely by a luting to exclude the air, until the metal becomes melted ; after which, it is poured out in a fluid state into moulds to form ingots. Hence the name of cast steel is given to this new product. The ingots are subjected. to theaction of hammers and rollers, to rediice a into bars like ah iron, in which state it is prepared for use.’ The author visited Birmingham, and after describing the various manufactories and workshops of the place, he adds, ~“One of the wonders of Birmingham is the manufacture of a pin, which has been often mentioned by writers on political economy, to demonstrate the benefits resulting from the subdivision of labor. This simple, little article, which occupies so important a station on the toilet of a lady, in the course of its manufacture, passes, in de- tail, through nearly as many hands as the complicated mechanism of @watch, One person is employed to polish the wire; a second, to cut it into suitable pieces, each of the length of two pins, and a third Person takes several of these pieces between the thumb and fore- finger, and applies them toa circular steel grinding-wheel or rasp. pieces of wire, for a dozen or more pins, are thus sharpened at once by the operator, who dexterously causes all of them to turn simultaneously between his thumb and finger; whereby the 604 are rendered perfectly round and acute. A fourth person divide: - €ach of these pieces in the middle to form two pins, and slips on the 224 Review of the Practical Tourist. heads (which are formed by a fifth person) over the shank of the wire. A sixth person now takes the rudely formed pins, rivets the heads and passes them to a seventh workman, who whitens them by means of a composition of melted tin. The scouring and brighten- ing or polishing occupies another hand, and the ninth in the series is busily engaged in sticking the pins into papers for packing. This completes the operation of manufacturing the little article, which for its apparent insignificance, is made the subject of every diminishing comparison ; but which, however, in the aggregate amount, forms an important staple article of business, affording employment and the means of subsistence to many hundred persons.” He adds in a note that-the quantity of pins annually made in Eng- land, as appears from a published statement, has been valued at four millions of dollars. He describes, also, a machine for making them constructed, by an ingenious American, in London, which accom- plishes all the above processes except tinning and packing; and sev- eral of the machines may be attended by one boy. The pins made by this machinery differ from those made by hand in being headed like cut nails from the shaft of the metal, and therefore the heads are not liable to be slipped over the body of the pin. The origin of the term pig-iron is not generally known, and ap- pears from our author to be this. The metal, in English founderies, flows from the furnace like melted lava, first into a broad deep chan- nel moulded in the sand to receive it; and from thence it diverges and flows into numerous smaller channels, arranged regularly at right angles on each side of the main one. When the iron was originally cast in this form, the workmen regarded the great central channel of molten metal as bearing a resemblance to a sow extended at length ; and the smaller channels filled with metal on each side of the large one, they fancied to bear also some similitude to a litter of sucking pigs. Hence they termed these ingots “ pig-iron.”* _ “Instead of bellows of the ordinary form, cast iron cylinders, larger than those of steam engines, and similarly furnished. with a yorking piston, are used in Birmingham furnaces to create the blast of air which is propelled into the glowing furnace through pipes, with @ roaring sound, audible at a considerable distance, and truly resem- bling those of a‘ mighty rushing wind.’”+ 3 Perera SW OS * This explanation Was current in this country many years since.—Ep. t This kind of bellows is now used in some of our founderies: ¢, g. at Canaam Falls, Ct.—Ep. Re oe . fre On Polarization of Light by Refraction: 995 “Tn all comparisons drawn between the institutions, customs, man- ners, &c. of the countries he visited, and those of the United Statés, the author of the Tourist sustains the character of a candid unsophisti- cated republican gentleman, duly attached to his own country, yet free from those narrow prejudices that obscured the vision of Faux, Fearon, Captain Basil Hall and others in their tour through the Uni- ted States. Every American reader must fell an honorable pride in contrasting the candid and ingenuous spirit manifested throughout this book, with she: PPR AE censure lavished upon us by those authors. Ann. Iil.—On the laws of the polarization of light ty parr? ; S: by Davin Brewster, LL. D. F.R.S. L.& Read before the Royal Society, February 25, 1830. In the autumn of 1813 I announced to the Royal Society the dis- covery which I had then made of the polarization of light by refrac- tion ;* and in the November following I communicated an extensive series of experiments which established the general law of the phe- nomena. During the sixteen years which have since elapsed, the subject does not seem to have made any progress. From experi- ments indeed stated to have been performed at all angles of indidente with plates of glass, M. Araco announced that the quantity of light which the plate polarized by reflexion at any given angle was equal to the quantity polarized by transmission; but this result, founded upon i incorrect observation, led to false views, and thus contributed to stop the progress of this branch of optics. Thad shown in 1813, from incontrovertible experiments, that the action of each refracting surface in polarizing light, produced a phy- sical change on the refracted pencil, and brought it into a State ap- proaching more and more to that of complete polarization. But this result, which will be presently demonstrated, was opposed as hypo- thetical by Dr. Youne and the French philosophers ; and Mr. Hers- cuex has more recently given it as his decision, that of the two con- tending opinions, that which was first asserted by Maus, and subse- quently maintained by Biot, ag ERS and Fresne., is the nee: pean, ae = _ * In this discovery I was anticipated by Maxvs. Vor. XXIiI.—No. 2. 29 226 On Polarization of Light by Refraction. able,—namely, that the unpolarized part of the pencil, in placeiof having suffered oy physical change, retains the condition of —_— ee, now signed to apply to this subject the same principles, which I have already applied to the polarization of light by reflexion, and to establish on the bedis.of actual experiment the true laws. of the ena, me be The first step in this inquiry is to ascertain the law contiiaatii which the polarizing force of the refracting surface changes the posi- tion of the planes of polarized Jight,—a subject which, in as far as L know, has not occupied the attention of any other person. If we take a plate of glass _ so slightly from parallelism as to. throw off from the principal image the images formed by reflexion from its inner surfaces, we shall be be sae to see, even at great obli- quities, the transmitted light free from all admixture of reflected light. Let this plate be placed upon a divided circle, so that we can ob- serve through it two luminous discs of polarized light A, B,. — formed by double refraction, and ha- Fig. 205 eee ving their planes of polarization caoies ae ned +-45° and — 45° to the plane of refraction, At an angle of incidence of 0°, when the light passes perpen- —" the inclination of the planes of polarization will suffer no change ; but at an: incidence of 30° they will be turned round: 40’; so that their in- elination to MN or the angle aec will be 45° 40’. At 45° their inclination will be 46° 47%. At 60° it will be 50° 7’; and it will increase gradual- ly to. 90°, where it becomes 66° 197, Hence the maximum change produ- ont oh! a single plate of glass upon the * se —— is 66° = On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 227 angles to that of reflexion. This difference is exactly’ what might have been expected from the opposite character of the result ing polarization, the poles of the particles of light which were form- erly repelled by the force of reflexion, beipg now attracted by the re- fracting force. In this experiment the action of the two surfaces is davidupatkie succession, so that we cannot deduce from the maximum rotation of 21° 19’, the real action of the first, or-of a single surface, which must be obviously more than half of the action of the two surfaces, because the planes of polarization have been widened before they Polina the action of the second surface. In order to obtain the rotation ee pale ie due to a single surface, I took a prism of glass ABC (Fig. 2.) hav- ing such an angle BAC, that a ray RR, incident as obliquely as pos- sible, should emerge in a direction Rr perpendicular to the surface AC. I took care thatthis prism was well annealed, ded T caused the refraction to be performed as near as possible to the vertex A, where the glass was thi most free from the in- fluence of any polarizing structure. ‘Tn this way I obtained ™ ~ R acs GLASS. = kn les of Inclination of Planes ab, ed, (Vig. 1.) 3 “oc to the Plane of Reflexion. Rotation. EE: her): a a er B4o 10... sc dticieds oe ee, af yt 54 50. * . . . * 47 ns Ba . . * . fe 9 ie . - 0 eT next made the following experiments with two ods. of hs the one a piece of parallel plate glass, and the oi other a piece of very thin crowa._The latter had the advantage of separating the refi ete z from the transmitted light. a PLATE GLASS. : - CROWN GLASS. Incidence. Inclination. Rotation. Inclination. Rotation. | . 45° 0 oY. 6°. 0. at yt te ae ST See 8 ere ee ee ee. fet es , ORL, PF. ae eee eee ea D a 4 wees nee fs = i s Me. ole. . 1616. . CDs ee. 228 On Polarization of Light by Refraction. _ Twas now desirous of ining the influence of refractive pow- mnidbciea I had already determined in 1813, that a greater quan- tity of light was polarized, at the same angle of incidence, by plates of a high than by plates of a low refractive power. I experienced great difficulty in this part of the inquiry, from the necessity of having plates. without any crystalline structure. I tried gold leaf in a varie- ty of ways ; but I found it almost impossible to obtain correct results, on account of the light which was transmitted unchanged through its By stretching a film of soapy water across a rectangular frame. at copper wire I obtained the following measure. WATER. Incidence. Inclination. Rotation. it OPewesr eo, BAG PY ge 9° fF I next tried a thin plate of metalline glass of a ae high refractive power. METALLINE GLASS. Incidence. Inclination. Rotation. eS Saag 2 RS her ee eee er ee SOR ees CS eS eS ee a —- 80 - = ee From a Gueerect of. these results it is oS os the rotation SReECEOe a the. releacsire paren. In examining the effects produced at different angles ¢ Ps incidence, it becomes obvious that the rotation varies with the deviation of the refracted ray; that is, with i—7, the difference of the angles of inci- dence and refraction. Hence from a consideration of the circum- stances of the phenomena I have been led to express the inclination g of the planes of polarization to the plane of refraction by ~~ bic mula, Cot o=cos (i—7), the rotation being =» — 459, ‘This formula obviously gives a minimum at 0°, and a maximum at 90°; and at intermediate points it represents the experiments 50 accurately, that when the rhomb of calcareous spar is set to the cal- culated angle of inclination, the gate MnpEe is completely i “ot visible,—a striking test of the correctness of principle on which i 3 is founded. . On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 229 _ The above expression is of course suited only to the case where the inclination x of the planes of polarization ab, ed, (Fig. 1,) is 45° ; al when this is not the case, the general expression is Cot p=cot x cos (i—7). "When the light passes through a second surface, as in a singte ate of glass, the value of « for the secondssurface is evidently the value of 9 after the Ist refraction, or in general, calling 4 the inclina- tion after any number 7 of refractions, and ¢ the inclination after one relagetiods. Cot é=(cot ¢)" When éis given by observation we have Cot op=Vcot 4. “The general formula for any inclination x and any number n of re- fractions sis Cot 6==(cot x cos (i—7’))", and Cot p=V cot rcos (t—7’). And when «=45 and cot <=1 as in common light, Cot 6=(cos (i —2’))*- Cot p=V cos (t—7’). so we As the term (cos (i@-#))* can never become equal to 0, the planes of p ‘can never be brought into a state of coincidence in a plane. perpendicular to that of reflexion, either at the polarizing an- ‘gle, or at any other angle. In order to compare the formula with experiment, I took a plate 6 well annealed glass, which at all incidences separates the reflect- ‘ed from the transmitted rays, and in which‘ m was ay boc tied = : obtained the following results. whe BS sf cesihen &, : is Sp pps ities Miistae bee ate Cee in lj at . i S Mecgaren” rey ¢ Sy ee ee rs 230 . On Polarization of Light by Refraction. : in- ’ nf 64; Batuttan ah i = ’ pore a dae | served. poms ele = | OF 0° 0 | 45° OF 10 6 363} 0 13 | 45 13 | 45 6 20 |13 5 | O 27145 27°) 45 25 -25. {16.15 | 04-82 | 4532-145 40 30. | 19 20 | 0.40 | 45 40} 46 0 35, | 22 19 | 1 12 | 46 12 | 46 25 40 |25 10 | 1 30 | 46 30 | 46 56 45 (27 55 | 1 42 | 46 47 | 47 34 50 | 30 29 | 2 48 | 47 42 | 48 24 55 52 | 3 54 | 48. 54 | 48 59 60- | 85 -01 5.2 9 1.60.,.7.|. 50...36 65 | 36 63 | 6.48 (|-61 48 152 7 70 | 38 29] 8. 53-7 | 53 59 75.| 39 45 | -9. 55 | 54 55. | 56 18 80. | 40 42 | 12 10| 57 10|59 5 85 | 41 .17 | 15 45 | 60 45 | 62 24 86 | 41 21116 391/61 39/63 9 90 | 41 28 66 19 The last column but one of the Table was calculated by the bee mula, Cot 4=(cos (i — i‘)? n-being in this case 2.. The conformity of the observed wie calculated results is sufficiently great, the average difference’ being only 41’. The errors however being almost all negative, I suspect- ed that there was an error of adjustment in the apparatus; and upon repeating the experiment at 80°, the point of maximum error, tantae. the inclination was fully 58° 40’, giving a difference only of 25’ in place of 1° 55’, I did not think it necessary to repeatall the observations ; but I found, by placing the analysing rhomb at the calculated tntlioetions, that the extraordinary image invariably =— peared, the best of all proofs of the correctness of the formula. In these experiments r=45° and cot =1; but in order to try the formula when z varied from 0° to 90°, I wk the case where the angle of incidence was 80° and »=58° 40’ when «=45°. The following were the results, oe: = ae eee ee: ot ing i quantity of snite light i in the 2 Ie aoe _ we must follow the method already explained for the reflected Tay, mutatis mutandis. The principal section of the analysing rhomb being now supposed to be placed in a plane perpendicular to the plane of —— = ere light Q’ recede in 1 that plane, sail be:. QMis 2 cos *o, - bbe: Bi ph paiees the pei iS ened light being unity. But,” Cot g=cot x spied ae eee: es =, and sin? ¢+cos? 9=1, we hae he gunn seed We bed of sin? i salicee 58a ihe Hence (cot x cos (t—7’))? Kael P™ 1+ (cot x cos (1-1)? swa'up substituting this for cog? g in the former equation, it (cot « cos (i—1’))? i ho Rear Te (t—7))? 232 On Polarization of Light by Refraction. Serene by Fgattnaie fertile tee-quantny at reflected light is. nigh gee ez 3 sin? (i—v) tan? (i—7) it | na Sey Re =i (i+? ie) + tan? Aaa hg eae the gua of transmitted light T willbe | ee nod aR , (sin? (i@-v) tan? (c—7’) iodine sie aie _T=1- Asin (¥) "tan? (i+) i oe se (4 (sin? @—W) , tan? i=0))) (cos (i=#))? ) ges ace \aB? (4a) + tan? (i+2/) wie: 27+ (cos(i#))2 1 This Sepuaila:i is applicable to common light in which cot #=1 dis-_ appears from the equation; but on the same principles which we es RPS ina rege a — it becomes for perieaaenee ft (i ry tan? (4— =v) ee | w= (1-: sem (+7) oa as +o aa sin’ 1): < te ~~» (cot a cos (t= 7’))? a fet (1-2 st 1-4 (cot 2 cos (i= 7)" In all these cases the formula expresses the sarees of light ral ly or apparently seats in the plane of refractio ~ As the planes of polarization of a pencil pln a zation of light by refraction, which we deduced in a preceding p@- per respecting the partial polarization of light. by reflexion. Each refracting surface produces a change in the position of the planes of , and consequently a physical change upon the transmit- sokpean by which it has approached to the state of complete po- "This positon I shall illustrate beara eink = Se riments shiek Se published in al Trai for 1814. According to the | fet a acta light of a wax candle at the distance of ten or twelve feet is ‘wholly polarized by ~ On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 233 eight plates, or sixteen surfaces of parallel plate glass at an angle of 78° 52’. Now I have ascertained that a pencil of light of this in- tensity, will disappear from the extraordinary image, or appear to be completely polarized, provided its planes of polarization do not form an angle of less than 882° with the plane of refraction for a mode- rate number of plates, or 884° for a considerable number of plates, the difference arising from the great diminution of the light in pass- ing through the substance of the glass. In the present case the for- wala gives Cot é=(cos(t—7’))'* and 6=88° 50’; so that the light should appear to be completely olesheed, as it was found to be Atan Gale of 61° 0’ the pencil was polarized by twenty four plates or forty eight surfaces. Here : Cot = (cos (i—i/))*® =89° 36’. At an angle of 43° 34’ the light was polarized by iar seven plates or ninety four surfaces. Here *Cot é=(cos (i —2’))°* and 6=88° 27’. ; It is needless to carry this comparison any furtber ;. but it. may be interesting to ascertain by the formula the smallest number of refrac- _tions which will produce complete polarization. An this case pate gle of incidence must be 90°. iene gt Hence 9=56° 29’ and (cos (i—7’))° gives 8° 36/, and ons (i—7’))'° 89° 4’; that is, the polarization will be nearly complete by the most oblique transmission through four and half plates or nine surfaces, and will be perfectly complete through five plates or ten surfaces. _ Having thus obtained formule for the quantity of light polarized by refraction and reflexion, it becomes a point of great importance to compare the results which they furnish. Calling R the reflected light, these formula become (= —, cos (7 — 2’) ) a (t+i 4 cos (i—7’) war BG Gy) Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 30 Q=R{1-2 234 On Polarization of Light by Refraction. But these two quantities are exactly equal, and hence we obtain the important general law, that,—At the first surface of all bodies, and at all angles of incidence, the quantity of light polarized by re- fraction is equal to the quantity polarized by reflection. I have said ‘of all bodies,’ because the law is equally applicable to the surfaces of crystallized and metallic bodies, though the action of their first surface is masked or modified by other causes. ait -Ttis obvious front the formula that there must be some angle of in- cidence where R=1—R, that is, where the reflected is equal to the » transmitted light. When this takes place, we have sin? g=cos® ¢/, The reflected is equal to the transmitted light, when the inclination of the planes of polarization of the reflected pencil to the plane of reflection, is the complement of the inclination of the planes of po- larization of the refracted ‘pencil to the same plane ;—or if we refer the inclination of the planes to the two rectangular planes into which the planes of polarization are brought,—The reflected will be equal to the transmitted light when the inclination of the planes of polari- zation of the reflected pencil to the plane of reflection, is equal 10 the inclination of the plane of polarization of the refracted pencil to a plane perpendicular to the plane of reflection. : a In order to show the connection between the phenomena of the reflected and those of the transmitted light, I have given the follow- ing Table, which shows the inclination of the planes of polarization of the reflected and the refracted pencil, and the quantities of light Teflected, transmitted, and polarized, at all angles of incidence upon glass, m being equal to 1.525, and the incident light=1000. os On Polarization of Light by Refraction. 235 . oe in tnclina ed Angles /Angl Sas 5 Seg of| Plane ot Pole Plane of Polari- a Quantity | cidence, tion, Reflected Refracte ected, — a. ight, ight, R. oO i ° f ° i i » 010, 9 45 0 45 0 43.23 2 0} 1 188) 44 57 45 0.7 43.26 10° 0 | 6 32] 43 51 45 3 43.39 20 0 {12 58 40 13 45 13 43.41 25 0/16. 5 37 21 45 21 43.64 30. 0/19 84 33 40 45 3l 44.78 35 0 |22 29.8 45 44 46.33 40 O (24 56/ 23 41 46 0 49.10 45° 0 (27 373, 17 224 46 20 53.66 50 0 |30 9 10 18 46 45 61.36 196 45 33 15 U6 47 29 79.5 160 O 34 36 5 4 47 544 93.31 65 0 |36 28 12 45 48 42 124.86 70 0/388 2/ 18 32 | 49 28 | 162.67 75 O |39 18 26 52 50 55 257.56 78 0 39 54/ 3044 | 51 48 | 329.95 |78 7 139 55 | 30 53 51 50 20 79 0/40 4/| 31 59 52 7 359.27 80 40 |40 13 | 33 13 52 27% | 391.7 82. 4/40 35 | 36 22 53. 264 | 499.44 84 0 40 42} 38 53 57 560,32 185 0 |40 47| 39 12 54 22 | 616.28 85 50340 50%) 40 12 54 44 666.44 86 0 40 51 40 22,7,, 54 48 676.26 87 0 40 54 41 55 16 744.11 88 0 |40 573| 41 23 55 43 819.9 189 0 |40 58 43 51 56 14 904.81 90 0 40 58 45 0 56 29 '1000. _ It is obvious from a consideration of the principle of the formula for reflected light, that the quantity of polarized light jesotiing at 0° because the force which polarizes it is there a minimum. At the ‘Maximum polarizing angle, Q is ouly 79° because the glass is inca- pable of reflecting more light at that angle, otherwise more would have been polarized. The value of Q then rises to its maximum at 78° 7’, and descends to its minimum at 90°; but the polarizing force has not increased from 56° 45’ to 78° 7 as the value of 9’ shows. It is only the quantity of reflected light that has increased, Which occasions a greater quantity of light to disappear from the _ ©xtraordinary image of the analysing rhomb. ae 236 On Polarization of Light by Refraction. The case, however, is different with the refracted light. The value of Q’ has one minimum at 0° and another at 90°, while its maximum is at 78° 7’, while the force has its minimum at 0° and — its maximum at 90°, where its effect is a minimum only because there is no light to polarize. At the incidence of 78° 7’, where the quantities Q, Q’, reach their maxima, the reflected light is exactly one half of the transmitted light; sin?g=cos?p and tan o/= cos p. - At 85° 50’ 40”,ewhere the transmitted light is one half of the reflected light, the deviation (:—i)=45°, and the quantity of po- larized light is one third of the transmitted light, one sixth of there- flected light, and one ninth of the incident light. Sin?’ : cos?o= reflected light : transmitted light, and cot¢’=sin(i—/). At 45° we have (i+7)+(i—7)=90° and o=(i-7), dep. oan c08 (6-+1/) » yg (sin (t¢—#))? _ Tan kd ere (vy and tan (s—7 eS ii At 56° 45’, the polarizing angle, the formula for reflected light becomes R=4(sin?(i—7/))? ; but at this angle we have 7/=90° —1, Hence we obtain the following simple expression in terms of the an- gle of incidence, for the quantity of light reflected by all bodies at the polarizing angle. oe _ R=4(cos 22)?. Be T have already mentioned the experiment of M. Arago with plates of glass, in which he found that “ at every possible inclination” the quantity of light polarized by transmission was equal to the quantity larized by reflexion. This conclusion he extends to single surfa- ces; but it is remarkable that the law is true of single surfaces in which he did not ascertain it to be true, while it is incorrect with re- gard to plates in which he believes that he has ascertained it to be true. As the consideration of this point does not strictly belong to the present branch of the inquiry, I shall reserve it for a separate communication, “on the action of the second surfaces of transpa- rent plates. upon light.”* . Beiet cs Allerly, December 29, 1929. _ * Inserted in the last number of this Journal. Aue. IV.—The Micon f peteng invented by Joun Locke, tio M. D., Principal of Cincinnati Female Academy. igi TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir—For several years I have been procuring a variety of miniature or pocket instruments for mathematical and philosophical purposes. To the pocket sextant, telescope, level, &c. I have been desirous to add a compass, which should have nearly the accuracy of a surveyor’s large compass of the best construction. Abe several fruitless attempts to procure one already made, I at- to invent one and have succeeded so much to my satisfaction att it has seemed to me that an account of my invention would not be useless or uninteresting to the public.* My compass has the grad- uated rim attached to the needle and revolving with it in the man- ner of the card of the mariner’s compass Fig. 1. This rim i et ee y experiments on this instrument in Feb. 1832. I ieee | Wells, peers for ate by avery ingenious young artisan of this city Bon T. iaeys iny direction by ry Cox, for Mr. boca. =] 238 The Microscopic Compass. of brass, three inches in diameter and very light, weighing fifty grains. Although the word “card” is inappropriate, yet as it has been “coin- ed” by use for that part of a compass when it moves with the needle, I shall use it in the subsequent part of this paper. Se ask nh i ; ‘ ¢ ‘ eee e etm ew ed aneneanenewemsnaewennne K ? I \ This card is suspended in a brass box three and a quarter inches in the inside diameter and half an inch deep, (TV Fig. 2.) ‘The Z sights (KS and V J Fig. 2.) arise from opposite sides of the box as io the surveyor’s compass, but are not carried out on arms, the distance — between them being the exact diameter of the box. Indeed these sights may be considered as a part of the cylinder of which the box ismade. The sight K S which is to be used next to the eye, is made precisely as in the common compass, having several holes placed ver- tically, and these connected by a slit ounitahiaiealh of an inch wide. (Fig. 3.) The opposite sight V J is slitted and perforated i in a simi- lar manner from V to Q chiefly for the purpose of reversing for ad- justment. . Its main use however is independent of theseelits, it is in- tended to support at its top an inclinable reflector (M), the inclina- tion being directly towards the first sight KS; and immediately be- low the reflector, a single lens or microscope (L), placed horizontal- ly one inch above the card and having an inch focus. In these two parts, the Jens and the reflector, lies the peculiarity of the instru- ment. Every philosophical reader is now enabled to understand the use of the instrument. The rays of light passing ree, upward from any point of the card to the lens, pass through it and emerge parallel above it, where meeting with the reflector (M) inclined to an angle of forty-five degrees, they are reflected horizontally through the Opposite sight at(O). The eye atthe sight (O) would of course see the card in the direction in which the rays were last received ; that is, in a horizontal direction. As the rays would be rendered spe ard would appear at a great distance and magnified. The card thus reflected would appear in a vertical position, in the position of a full moon just risen, with that point which is really farthest from the eye as the lowest point in the reflected image. It should be remarked that the whole of the card is not seen at once in the ‘Yeflector, but only about ten degrees of the lowest part of it. (Fig. 4.) The silvering of the reflector being removed from the lower half, (from M towards J) any distant lect can be seen through the opening while the card is reflected from the upper part, and by inclining the reflector on the hinge (J) the graduated edge of the reflected card fan always be brought to visual contact with the object whose bear- ing is at once read, as it were, on itself. The rays of light coming from a distant point are nearly parallel, and those coming from the oe: re made so by passing through the convex lens; the eonse- ce is that both the degrees on the card, and the ages are seen clear as if equally distant. This would not be the case if : the card were reflected without the interposition of the lens, — The s on the card and the object would then be:k in the ‘one object within three inches of the eye and wi — * 240 The Microscopic Compass. Bye ly great distance. On account of the focal adjustment of the eye both cannot be clearly seen at once. > Sees ~ Any person may be satisfied of this by making several mat e twentieth of an inch apart on the edge of a piece of paper, holding it up at the distance of three inches, and looking over the graduated edge at a distant object; the lines will appear entirely blended ; if the-at- tention be then directed to the lens the object disappears or is seen very indistinctly. I mention this principle more especially, because I once saw a French compass of this defective construction, in which the sight and the reflector were close to the card. It could not of course be used for objects either above or below the horizon and even for horizontal objects it could not, for the above defect, be read with . accuracy. It was the inspection of this however which led me to at- tempt the present improved invention. a ‘The degrees in my compass are magnified so much that each de- gree becomes a true measure of a degree of the horizon, as the de- grees of a horizontal circle would be if they were seen from the cen- tre. When a degree of a circle is viewed from the circumference, it measures one-half a degree; Euc. m1. 20. If under these cireum- stances the degrees were magnified twice, then a degree of the circle seen at the distance of the diameter, would be the true measure of @ degree. If the degrees are seen at a greater distance than a diame-_ ter, they become proper measures of degrees by being proportionally magnified. ‘This is true only of a few degrees on each side of the diameter; so far only as the arc, chord, sine and tangent have no sem- sible difference. ‘The degrees of the card in my compass aré mag- ‘nified very nearly to that proportion, so that the bearing of all the of “f jects in the field of view, which takes in ten degrees, can be read at once without moving the instrument : Fig. 4 exhibits the appearance of the field of view as seen in the reflector. The space DG includes ten degrees of the card seen in the silvered part; D H is the part of the horizon seen through the unsilvered part. ‘The bearings of the objects A, B, C, would be read as follows, A 177°, B179° 25 C€ 184°. It will be seen from this reading that the circle is number- ve ed quite round from 0 to 360. Zero or 0 is placed North and the reading continued eastward. East is 90°, South 180° and West ‘270°. Reading at several points in the field of view above is lia- gi ble to error from the vibrations of the card up and down and from * aberration” of the lens, the degrees being seen out of its axis- principal reading point or sight is therefore made by a scratch oF Bare : on the glass. cover directly underneath the lens. This mark (BK! 4) appears in the field of view crossing the card vertically. It has nearly the distinctness of the degrees because it is so near the card that the rays from it pass through the lens and are rendered nearly parallel. _ Manner of using the Microscopic compass.—As it is contained in a aie three and a half inches in diameter and one inch and ae ews it may be carried in the waistcoat pocket.. When the bearing of an object is to be taken, remove the ion! raise the sights, and holding the compass horizontally, by grasping the milled edge of the bottom by the thumb and fingers of one hand, move the eye up or down along the slitted sight till the object appears in the unsilvered part of the reflector. With the other hand incline the reflector backwards or forwards on its hinge till the graduated edge of the card is brought to the lower edge of the silvered part of the reflector and in apparent contact with the object. Turn the com- pass round till the vertical sight line crosses the object. The degree or degree and part which appears behind this line is the bearing, Some advantages might be obtained by using the instrument on a stand, but by a little practice the bearings may be taken very accu- rately by hand. I do not propose this as a substitute for the survey- or’s compass; but merely as an instrument exactly suited to ama- teurs and scientific travellers, to whom it is inconvenient or unpleas- ant to carry a back Joad of machinery, to take the bearing of an ob- ject. Ihave, for several years, been carrying on a trigonometrical survey of the beautiful valley of Cincinnati in which Lreside. This Ihave done for the recreation both physical and intellectual which -itaffords. It invites me to exercise in the open air and is the best antidyspeptic I have tried. J have managed the several points of the valley very much to my satisfaction with the sextant; but nothing rer so rel for va ieee seat the ravines, rivulets, and ridges of ass. I can take the angles with equal accuracy as with the il ’s and with ten times the convenience. Ttremains to explain the figures, and make some remarks on the construction. Fig. 1. represents the needle and graduated rim, a Vertical section of which is shown in Fig. 2. _N is the needle, which is one. twenty fifth of an inch thick, one eighth of an inch wide, and three inches long. AA are two pieces of brass, by means of which, the rim is fastened to the needle by screws at BB. The pieces : AA have holes at BB a little larger than the screws which pass _ through them, to allow the rim . = adjusted both to the’ center Vou. XXII.—No. 2 - . 242 The Microscopic Compass. and to the magnetic axis of the needle. The pieces AA are bent — as in Fig. 2. so as to raise the rim even with the point of suspen- _ sion in the cap. C is the brass cap riveted through the needle, and D an agate cap fastened into its socket, by burnishing the brass over its edge in the lathe. The rim is on fiftieth of an inch thick, and divided very accurately into degrees. The figures num- bering the degrees, must be reversed in the manner of types, because they are to be read in the reflector which will rectify them. Fig. 2. This is in general a vertical section of the whole instrument _ in the plane of the sights. VVV is the box turned out of cast brass — or soldered out of thick sheet brass. G is the glass resting ona pro- jection below and held in by aring above. The sight KS has a joint at K by which it can be turned down on the glass G. M is the re- flector previously described. I is a screw passing through the brass back which protects the silvered part, and screws against a thin plate interposed between it and the glass, to keep the latter firmly in its place. Lis the lens set in brass and fastened to the sight by two screws below, each near the outer edge of the sight. The brass is slitted on the screws soas to allow of an adjustment of the micro- scope. The lens should be seven tenths of an inch in diameter, and if necessary should be ground off on the side next the sight so as to bring the axis over the rim R, or the axis may be a little inclined so- that the ray RM shall not be perpendicular, but shall strike the reflector, — say, at the screen I. H isa steel pivot screwed into the bottom of the box with a ‘flange’ at X squared for unscrewing. PHP isa Spring to raise the needle against the glass from the point. W is the serew by which it is raised. The dotted line TTTT represents a brass cover which closes the whole instrument, the sight KS and the reflector M being shut down by means of their joints KJ. The . Compass thus closed has the appearance of a pocket sextant. ~ the top and bottom of this box is the milled projection, which is of use in opening and holding it. Fig. 4. has already been described. An making the instrument the artisan should be careful soto construct = Mt, that the plane of the sights may pass through the point of the pi- ee vot and that the hinge of the reflector may have its axis exactly per- Pendicular to that plane. The ends of the needle should not eome within the eighth of an inch of the box, as it may otherwise be influen-_ = pees the magnetism of the brass. I have not found a specimen _ hammered brass which was not magnetic when tried by a delic test needle. Its magnetism is however destroyed by heating it * Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 243 bright red. So great was the magnetism of some of the brass of my compass, that it would attract the test needle more than one eighth of an inch, and by contact would carry it 70° out of the meridian. I was obliged to anneal the whole box. I did not find it to ome as but it acted like soft iron. - That the brass was not magnetic by inne containing iron, was tides by its magnetism being destroyed by annealing. It might be well to make the spring of silver. It is possible that this application of the lens and reflector to the compass is not new; but so far, I have not been able to find an account of any thing similar. Notice of the invention has been communicated to the Patent Office of the United States. A patent will be applied for as soon as the best modi- ation of the instrument shall be obtained. Cincinnati Female Academy, Oct. 20th. 1832. Arr. V.—Facts relating to Divan Action; by the Hon. Wx. A. THompson. FO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. es Sir-—When’ I had the pleasure of seeing yee: at New ivan last autumn, I intimated my intention of sending you my views of the geological features of Sullivan County, New York, . -and likewise the traces of diluvial action on the solid strata, with Some of the proofs that present themselves, in every part of the country where the earth has been removed, so deep as to come to firm rock, below the effects of frost and other decomposing agents; but, the snow came on so early in the fall and my health _ has been so indifferent, this spring, that I have been obliged to de- fer it until the present time. Perhaps I shall not even now be able to Write any thing new or interesting on this subject, especially asI find that Sir James Hall, many years since, described traces of diluvial action in Scotland, and Mr. David Thomas of Cayuga has made similar observations in the western part of this State as appears in Vol. xvi, p. 408 of your Journal. I have examined this part of the State with considerable care, and have found that in more than ity different places where I have seen the solid strata, the grooves ind furrows appear from an inch to one fourth of an inch deep, and fom one fourth of an inch, to three and four inches wide; and in ome cases they run due north, and in every direction pa north © twenty five degrees south of east. I have found them also i 6s J @ fh ot 244 Facts relating to Diluvial Action, bottoms of cellars, of excavations made in digging wells, and where the earth has been removed by making roads, and in many instances where I have uncovered the solid rock for the purpose of observing the effects of the diluvial action. I have paid some attention to this subject while travelling in the Eastern States, and I could find none of the furrows ;* but the solid strata appears to be worn very smooth by attrition, by the motion of some bodies smaller and less solid than those which have produced the distinct traces, in this part of the State of New York. . ‘ i es ~ It may be proper to remark first, that Sullivan County is bound- ed south and west by the Delaware river; north’ by Delaware and Ulster Counties, and east by Orange: that the county lies on the easterly part of the Alleghany range of mountains, and that the mean altitude of the county, is on a level with the highlands be- low Newburgh,—about one thousand five hundred feet above the tide water; that this level is continued westerly through Sullivan County and the siate of Pennsylvania, from the Shongham moun- tain to the Susquehannah River; that a space of above fifty miles wide of this level lies continuously, in the Alleghany range, until you ~ come to mountains of a greater height, on the west side of the Sus- quehannah ; that the depth of the earth above the solid rock, gradu- ally and regularly increases from Shongham mountain to the Susque- hannah ; that the average depth of earth in Sullivan County is not more than twenty five feet, nor more than thirty five through the state of Pennsylvania: that the range of the Kattskill mountain, bounds the north part of Sullivan; that south of this space of fift i miles, the altitude of the mountains considerably increases; in this intermediate sp2ce it appears that tops of the ridges had been dilapi-_ dated by mighty force, and that the current had pressed easterlys, and often times carried large pieces of rock to a considerable dis- tance, say from fifty to two hundred rods, and if the fragments are of very considerable size they always rest on the solid strata. - In ny instances, sections of the strata were broken out and raised violence of the current and left. on the tops of the highest MH 3 [have seen an instance where a rock twenty feet square has been carried half = mile on the level surface of the strata that are covered about three feet with earth, and there left in that positions * The author will find notices of such appearances in’ Massachusetts by Mr. pleton, Vol. XL. p. 100 of this Journal. ~ {a ee as Sea se Port town of Lima, or the surge that overwhelmed the Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 245 the violence of the current having ceased to- ascannaninapsscste4 moval from its original position. 0 eta - The upper strata of the whole section of nts country foes the deluge, appear to have been composed of a common grey sandstone covering the surface of the rock from twelve to twenty four inches | thick. This seems to have been the last marine formation; itis full of fissures and cracks, being broken into small angular pieces by the * first violent surges of the deluge, and now scattered on the surface of the ground. The next lower strata are paddle toot; filled with cum and Gilden and other primitive minerals ; its parts are generally water worn and are from the size of a robin’s to that of a hen’s egg. ‘The next rock underneath is the old red sandstone, which is universally found in the bottoms of the vallies; on the tops however of the highest hills the red clay slate is universally found, and for eighty or ninety miles west, gives a reddish color to all the soils of the country, and passes southerly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania. 3 The vallies in this section of country uniformly run from north to south, are in many instances from ten to twelve hundred feet deep, and are the beds of the large streams. The lesser vallies are cov- ered with pieces of red and grey sandstone of a convenient size for making fences. The most free and feasible land is always found on the | on the eastern sides of the hills, the western sides being adltormly steep and broken. ‘The whole of the earth or soil appears to have been removed from the solid strata at the deluge, and most, if not all the upper strata of sandstone, were then broken up. A smal] portion of the puddingstoné was also broken up in large Square blocks and occasionally pieces of the old red sandstone were detached from the bottom of the vallies. It is probable that pre- vious to the deluge there was little or no soil on this section of the eo that the hills, vallies and streams were the same previous to the deluge that they are at this time, excepting that the bills were dilapidated and lowered, and the deep vallies were made still deep- er by the tremendous cataracts and surges, the water being carried violently over the high ledges and hills and then, in crossing the ridges from west to east, falling ten or twelve hundred feet into the vallies. While contemplating such a scene, our imaginations must fall infinite- ly short of the reality. The single wave that totally er se fleet in Candia comes nearer to the terrific scene - y's mi- lar events that are recorded. es seit 246 Facets relating to Diluvial Action. _ That these large masses of rocks should be broken up and thrown upon the the tops of high hills will appear in no way surprizing when we consider what must be the effect of the precipitation of the cata- racts into deep vallies and of their subsequent violent reflux over the high hills; a power more than sufficient to raise the large wd Pte OFditiadry COUP sec USS) ere ry 1 ey ee en a aR aA pene, Sat 5 + 4 — : oO? a et : a SS ae one i << .. sof poe = ’ mA c Mo ae Fo eee © a the tre Jous cataracts, ssiiiaiahsiirhions ci onan ncotnaiie: the high mountains and ridges, and fell into the deep vallies between Shongham - mountain, and the level countries. at the west; that those carcases that came whole to the place where they finally rest- ed, arriv afier the waters bad. iy ee oe ape tage meee sa ) ara PERE OO LOE PES: “ = ies na thieginaee a eee hk : lati : itn. bpgae PS at the. deluge, sna th .eir afl oee ‘on the face of the Qu y :: Le tt ey hou rt 1A acne appear t 2a th oe new, v, they may still be - ce . a \ -y_ c Dnt lile ‘a sak : ffe t in different parts. of our Merisma. Pers. 1 have found only one species of this pe pieces of wood and branches of trees which have been buried and are half rotten. This moss is blackish, its branches are caked, coria- ceous, and figured at the extremity. i aPeis. _. Merulius M. Morchellicephalus. Bertero. A small pretty moss — Ihave only seen once in a heap of rotten branches in a garden. The superior part of the Pileus shows some cuts analogous to those of the , Pers. and on the inferior ian the generic character was very decided. : ee setlieeTisitalen: Sgt ege-dienek Fax common on farms: This plant is much used as a condiment and asa remedy. The seeds are used to flavor spirits (aguardiente). Sown in good fennel yields very tender sprouts of good flavor which may be seived at table as is the custom in Italy. 3 Ste AE - Micropus. L. Two species; the first resembles the M. supinus, Eni it grows in the pastures on the highlands and plains. The other is found in barren situations and in the fields of Rancagua and Quinta. The particular form of its flowers almost sticking to the earth, has ob- tained for-it the name of M. globiferus which I have given it. = ia Chilensis. Lindl. A precious little plant which grows ia diiletihng thdesatigiathdetatidttaaitictonsite seacbaweanit : Punta de Cortés. Its flowers incline to a greenish yellow. ‘Anoth- er species is met with in the same situations which, although similar in appearance to the first, differs from it in the following part Its leaves are narrower, its flowers less numerous and only of half the size, the exterior bracts are linear, lanceolate, greenish with violet rays, and the two inferior declinate. - 1 have called it M. Myodes, from its figure’s being analogous to the Ophrys of this name. ©) Mimulus luteus. L. In drains and inundated places both on the highlands and ‘plains. A variety: or species with. large 38 eps: i leaves and particularly of the last are’succulent and oe taste. They are eaten in salad. if ~~ Mirabilis Jalapa. Ls. Dengue; a plant eulivenndia Picci * oe oe vary in —_ and succeed each other for a oe —_ of bit ga) « Mollugo radiata. Ruiz and Pavon. Common in sand slong tor rents in Tusdutesit: It possesses no interest whatever. ~ Moluccella levis. L. Cultivated in small gardens. It woeuindlibie ‘itety on account t of the large’ sine,” and extraordinary form of i its nad which: os that attempts were foresee’) made to iitrodecer lew silk ~T am ignorant why the undertaking has been abandoned. The d difficulies which oppose it do not appear to me serious, and at any rate they cannot be greater than in other countries where this branch of industry is the only resource of the inhabitants. Pied- mont, near the Alps, with a less favorable climate, with more oo ‘ous winters and more stormy and variable springs, is mulberry trees, and the money which the exportation of silk produce tet st of the ss obe iepc bt igre sachet seer found hestields; planted in rows, are grateful to the sight, tem : ‘heat of the sun in summer, offer a shade to cattle, and poss many other uses an enumeration of which is not necessary at present. The wood is durable ; it is used in carpentry and for domestic pur- poses. The fruit is Swed and agreeable; poultry eat it and it nalts @ good syrup. ~~ Mucor aquosus. Mart. Mucedo violaceus. Spr. and Stilbos pora. Bertero. A species of mould which covers various han 8 ‘in the state of putrefaction, during the autumn and ‘ahead - Musa Paradisiaca. L. The banana and plantain, originally from Tadia, are extensively cultivated in the Antilles and the equa regions of South America. It may be said that it forms the princi- pal food of the poorer classes in those regions. There are some trees of this interesting plant in the gardens in Santiago, and ama- teurs are desirous of propagating them. I will only observe here Soe ne nsete Wilt waver: pernatestis branch of agriculture to flour- ish to- any extent. Its cultivatio always be an object of luxu- Ty, and cannot be of any public dillty: We are ace ‘to Te- ceive plantains from Lima, but they suffer on the voyage; sec hot preserve that exquisite taste which is proper to them. ) ue 256 List of the Plants of Chile. . Mutisia. L. The species which I have seen are not well deter- mined. Two of them approach the M. inflexa, Cav., and M. sagit- , W... They grow in the woods. The third grows on the rocks in the highlands, and appears to me new. It is called yerba negra, though this appellation is more commonly given to another, Synan- thera, which I have not seen in. seit and which is common inthe ae: a il cogone rosca. Link. It grows on rotten mosses, and paniew ularly onthe Boletus cervinus, Schwein. corymbosa. Ruiz and Pavon. In the fields ont big leaden I have in my possession three other species, one of which resembles the M. humilis, Ruiz and Pavon, and the others are wor- thy of being again studied. These plants delight in the stony situ- ations of | tba netirets and near torrents. They Babee — Siellppephylien: inaeidlicen: bi Kuché del pato: eae drains and marshes. It does not differ from the European plant. ~ » Myrtus. L. The common name, arrayan—myrtle, is given to many species. The most common, which is thus called, is @ very tree. It usually grows seven or eight yards high and I have seen it higher and of an extraordinary size, at a country seat m Corcolen. It has a fine effect in gardens from the thickness of its foliage and the whiteness of its flowers. Although its wood is hard, itis not worked, from the difficulty in meeting with large pieces of it. The leaves are employed as a medicine. Its blackish berries: ule with white pulp, although but slightly juicy, are much sought afte by some species of birds. The country people make an agreeable drink of them. The M. Arayan, H. B. and Kunth, approxil sisted to the preceding, but differs from it in the red and binocular berries- Is our species the true Mugni, Molina? The M. triflora, fee pitra is frequent in the woods near Santiago, Donigue and Taguaté are Lg — varies from —_ to ten ines The hpi Na _ The names junca, tulipan and fei we a ; Fi nk, erg Tazetta, NV. odorus, L., N.4 ites Curt., and JV. Jonquilla, L. These plants, originally from Hu are Cultivated in gardens, and are esteemed for the beaut thet flowers. The double. varieties are most appreciated. 2 List of the Plants of Chile. — 257 _ WNardus. L. ‘Two grasses approach this genus, but I believe’ they do not belong to it. One is found in the dry pastures on the moun- tains which are made very slippery by its remains; the other grows much higher in the woods on the highland near Cachapual. » Nasturtium officinale, var. Chilense, DC., berro—water-cress. Common in the brooks on the mountains, ands inthe plains. It is eaten as a salad, and is both wholesome and agreeable. - ‘There are persons who believe that the water-cress possesses eminent virtues for the cure of pulmonary phthisis.* | Wonderful stories are related of it. I have been told that a victim of this disease, who was given over by the most skillful physicians of the capital, retired to the country to die in tranquillity, and, when there, lived exclusively on this plant, in pursuance of advice which had been given him, and that in two months he was restored to perfect health. He died, however, as was thought, of another disease, and on examination of the body a large quantity of cresses was found in a sack which they had formed for themselves. With this tale in view, we may form some idea of the haste of credulity of the very many unhappy creatures, who are to ignorance and charlatanism. __ Nesea. Kunth. This genus has been hetend die eal in his Prodromus. The three species with which I have met in the sandy pastures and among the rocks, near Cachapual, do not belong to it and perhaps will form a part of the Cuphea, L., or of the other intermediate genus. However, I have not seen them described. Their flowers, nhhdvgs small, are pretty, and particularly in the spring. Nicotiana angustifolia. Ruiz and Pavon. Tabaco del Diablo. In inclosures near roads and torrents. This plant is of but little im- portance. The JV. minima, Molina, which some botanists have re- tained, does not differ from the first, and ought to be considered as a synonym. I have seen in some gardens the JV. fruticosa, L. Its leaves are large and do not possess the fragrance of the JV. Tabacum ; so that no use is made of them. The leaves of all the. species of tobacco are employed in certain diseases, sometimes sometimes externally, some- times in decoction, and are the vehicle of an immensity of drugs which ignorance alone can tolerate. - Ocimum basilicum, minimum and monachorum. L. Albahaca— Sweet basil. Plants very common in gardens. It is highly appre- * It is also used in hepatic affections. —* XXIHI.—No. 2 33 258 List of the Plants of Chile. ciated for its odor. It is quite necessary amongst the constituents of a nosegay, and sometimes required for the table. di deseanihs eR ~ Enothera mollissima. L. Metron, flor dela noche. It growsim sandy situations near rivers. It is cultivated in gardens, and is con~ sidered valuable as a vulnerary. A decoction of its leaves is em- ployed to wash ulcers, and particularly those of the legs. Thera~ dalau—C€.. acaulis, Cav., is frequent in the humid pastures of the plain, near Taguatagua. Its variety 8. Ser. in DC. prodr., is found: in Valparaiso, in shaded spots. This plant and its roots are consid= ered efficacious remedies in boils. "The (. tenuifolia, Cav., grows in sandy situations, and among stones, along torrents and rivers. » A variety with flowers, three times as large, i is found in the same situa~ tions, and on mountains; perhaps it is a different species. ‘The San- gre de toro, the CE. tenella, Cav., is very common in pastures. Its Pao are either _— or purple. I have gathered another species e dry | near San Fernando. It spproachesaiiieien ‘esos Ait., but appears to be different. ca Ogiera triplinervia. Cassin. A shrub very frequent in sheesticile on the highlands, known by the name of mitriu. Its flowers are of the size of a Spilanthus. Like the leaves, they are somewhat aro- matic. The wood is fragile and only useful as a combustible. © Olea Europea. L. Aceiturro—Olive. Cultivated’ near habita- tions. Its wood is employed in white work. Its prepared fruit is ex+ cellent. “The oil made in this country is far from being good.» Con~ sidering the facility with which the tree yields its fruit, and the great quantities which might be obtained, we wonder at the negligence with which it is cultivated, and the small extent of its plantations. -Itis said. that to sow and to reap is not the work of a day—a selfish maxim which is gainsaid by the father who is not indifferent: to the, pro pects of his children. The introduction of foreign’ oils’ which is daily becoming more necessary, is no eulogy upon native industey-” _ Onoseris. W. There are many species, some of ee oo Chetanthera. 'The most common is called ye uilla.. It grows in dry pastures on the plain, near rivers, and-on" ins, and differs very little from the O. Hieraciotdes,” Kunth. ,.whiéh covers the plant when it is in flower, pee country people for spunk. Another grows arfiong. ‘the stones one the Cachapual. i have called it O. linifolia from Bnei form ofitsleaves. = List of the Plants of Chile. 259 ~ Ophioglossum. L. — The- plant which I have seen in the: hamid plains at the foot of mountains. is. pashape the. a. lager Tt is of no use. | » Orbignya puibalien Sateaee A sik okabil fara of the lngints biacez (tricocee), notable for its compound leaves, a rare example inthis group. » It is met with on the heights near the Punta.de Cor- ‘tes. Professor Gay has also seen it on the summit of Mount San Cristoval... It is not-lactescent, nor does it resemble, in-any. particu- darth: Calliguaye,:hieh-jahahits the.samne places... The fruit is of ing ligneous. Its seeds are used for rosary beads. It appears that Molina. i in charac- 4erising his genus, Colliguaya, has described the staminate flower of this, since he-attributes to it eight stamina. I have. dedicated this beautiful genus to M. D’ Orbigny, a learned and zealous naturalist, @who-is at present exploring the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and who will soon visit Patagonia with the view of enriching those scien- = which he professes. «» Origanum Maru. L. Oregano—Wild Marjoram. Cultivated in gardens; an aromatis plant used as a condiment. Fas might serve to ) A Pee Sed : Seat Ishore employed fon ons: purpose. Many idnaitiieeieatEeinile ae: Ww. P. elatior, Jacq. © 3 _Ornithogalum. L. There are many species in almost every gar- den. The Flor de la cuenta of gardens appears to be the O. Arab- toum,L.. The Lagrima de la Virjen, also cultivated, does not agree entirely with the O. corymbosum, Ruiz and Pavon, according to the phrase of Sprengel, in his Species Plantarum, (vol. 4, part. 2, p. 432.) The cebolleta, O. equipetalum, Bertero, in the dry pastures mie pense land, and the O. eRe a seit ee ie as o sin Linley has called it lium striatellume a pogon Crus-Galli. Spr. A grass frequent in drains and hu- rat Some call it carrizo, a name by which a species of ane is designated, which frequently grows in wet situations, near Santiago and other places. This last is of the size of the 4rundo Phragmites, L. although in my opinion it is different. It is used for Various domestic purposes, and large quantities of it are consumed. 260 List of the Plants of Chile. _ Orthotrichum affine, Schrad., O. anomalum, Hedw., and O. dia- pin, Schrad. Small mosses which grow upon stones and. ‘the barks of trees. They are not interesting except in a botanical: of view. They are all confounded under the name of pastito. . - Oseillatoria nigra. Vauch. and O. muralis, Ag. Syn. Boedoalis very frequent in winter. The first on the surface of stagnant waters, and the second on walls which are damp and in the shade. There are other species which grow in similar situations, but whose charac= ters, being for the most part microscopic, require time, instruments, cs which are not always within reach of the traveller to de= termine them. They are*only interesting in a scientific point of views. _ Ovalis. L. This genus offers many species proper to this coun= try ; 3 some are not well known, and others are new. The-name nnagrilo is generally applied to those with yellow flowers, and vin- ull colorado to the species with a reddish flower. ‘The most re-. = ehuch ; is + called flor de las perdices. It begins to appear in April, and continues flowering till the close of May. It covers: the-fields, and lawns of the plain. I am told that the Indians call this plant rimu, and make use of its tincture. The word rimu, according to Father Andres Hebres, signifies partridge. Keeping in sight what we have just said, and what Molina says, there is room for-suppos~ ing that the Sassia perdicaria of this author, is the plant mentioneds ave the leaves, the disposition of which he may not have had occa~ on to observe, and particularly examining the plant from imperfect pecimens, which most probably has been the case. We have called _O. perdicaria, not being able to refer it to any known species bout the same time, and in the spring, another. Oxalis is founds. with 1 purple and sometimes violet flowers, in the sandy. plains, near rivers, and on the highlands. This, with the same exception, Te- sembles the Sassia tenctoria, Molina. I therefore think that this. genus should be expunged from the books, and J invite. all. botanists who possess specimens of these two plants, to islet henna fol examination, in order to decide the meets I ha st O. arenaria. It closely resembles the O. “Letraphyllty, Cate an are Sen by another species which is of the. size of the O. corr _ The O. rosea, Jacq. is met with in abundance in shady oid, ba on the highland and on the plain. The megalorhiza, J; acq. grows - bales adie lt of rock It does not differ from the O. tuberosa, Molina, - ir Oe w @ H. B. and Kunth. ie: fresjuden'tn dlivoriéa; cnt-mead dlls? in cool and shady situations. In fine, I have found two other species which I believe to be new. One on the edges of roads and level plains ; the other in the woods of Punta de Cortés. I have called the first O. gyrorliza, from the direction of its root; and the second O. mi- erantha, from its very small and frequently apetalous flowers. There are many others which I have not had time to examine wrens All the vinagrillos possess more or less the same acid property. — ~ Oxybaphus viscosus. Herit. Among the stones on the cheunet — on the plain in the neighborhood of Quinta. ‘Though close- it, I think this plant should be separated from — sine if Herider, which is originally from Peru. ils Papaver somniferum. L. Vulgarly dmapola—Adormidera. Cul tivated in gardens. The flowers are commonly double, large, vari- ously colored and have a rich appearance. ‘The capsule is very use- in medicine ; its decoction is employed either as a fomentation or enema in colics and in nervous diseases. Opium, a heroic remedy so much used throughout Asia, is obtained from the juice of this onan: and exudation: oem ‘The P. Rheas, ileal Ach. There are a great many specie Whey grow upon stones and on the bark of ‘trees. All are known under the name of calchacura. Some possess a gelatinous principlé in _ abundance, similar in properties to that of the Lichen Islandicus.. The Most common are the following: P. aquila, atra, caperata, ehrys- ophthalma, ¢ is, murorum, parietina, saturnina. , saxicola, stella- ne: ate; weed Ach. favre — others two of — “= arid. pastures of thé highlands and mountains. It is known by the name of dicha. It is a troublesome plant, when dry, from ——! ohana It resembles the Polyenemum arvense, LL.» + spalum. Li. The plant called chepica is of this genus. Teap- proaches; though it differs from the P. conjugatum, Bery. A ptisan made-of its roots is daily prescribed as a cooling specific in 262 List of the Plants of Chile. ‘complaints. ‘The chepica — is preferred to the colorada. We regret that it is not in our power to decide this question, as well as many others of a similar nature, and whieh are so feel — SPasiflors es L. Flor de Pasion. An ornamental ond ‘much cultivated in gardens. : shidideatil - Pastinaca sativa. L. tt grows in CoNivosdd situations. It is called vulgarly chirivia. Formerly it was attended to, and its root eaten, but at Agee other plants more nutritive and apse shes _ Patellaria inosa. Spr. A Lichen which ciealpilile upon old mud walls. ‘1 have met ‘with caer species eee ae Irgonium. Berit. “The Malea de olor and the Mabie the only species of this genus which I have seen in the gardens ftuiex "The first is the P. odoratissimum, and the second the P. Radula, Ait. var. roseum, W. The fragrance of their leaves, as well as the facility of preserving them in the open air, makes them valued. It is strange that other Geraniacee have not been introdu- ced, their flowers being so much sought by lovers of the garden. Many species would flourish in Chile, and would decorate gardens ‘flowers of an infinite variety, in form, color, and size-"~ Peltigera canina. Hoffm. In woods, at the foot of trees, and among the stones on the ‘ Montaiia cree a cura of which no use is made. £otts ARS | Peumus fragrans. Pers. Vulgarly boldu, a tree ere | plains, on the declivities of mountains, and in vallies. ‘The trunk ae- quires a height of six or eight yards. Its wood is applied to no use; and even as fuel, it isnot valued. ‘The charcoal made from it is €a- sily extinguished. The leaves, par-boiled and moistened: with wine, are employed as a remedy in colds and defluxions from the head. Baths of its decoction are said to be antisyphilitic, and are used io rheumatic diseases and dropsies. — It is also said that the juice is eff eaciousiin the ear-ach. The fruit, when ripe, is of the size of a small apricot. It is sweet, but has very little meat. ——— me for rosary beads. Peziza. L2 lictrcocenct it: eiadreneaseeaiae rotten branches ; some of them are scarcely visible. ‘To the spe- cies, the names of which I have already published, I will add'the following. P. ascoboloides, Bertero, in a large quantity on the:skins List of the Plants of Chiles 263. of half decayed grapes, P. badia, Pers. on the banks of drains. P. » Bull. on mud-walls in winter after rains. P. caulicola,: Fries. upon the dry stalks of plants. P. cinnabarina, Bertero, om old posts and forks in vineyards. P. Valenzueliana, Bertero, on the damp walls of the orchards of Rancagua. In testimony of gratitude to Don Manuel Valenzuela, for the assistance he has afforded’ me in my botanical pursuits, Ihave given his name to this last plant. ~ » Phacelia circinata. Jacq. Common on heights, i ine ernagraree’ andLéonas»L have called it P. me from its. sent blance:to a Clinopodium. Its flowers are reddish. ~ Phalaris. L. I have met with two plants which I think adie this genus. One is rare on the plain of Leona: the other in Cacha- pual... The glumes of the first are almost violet. - © Phaseum. L.A small moss common in the pastures of the manne: tains, a andin humid places. I believe it is not de= pee Sa Ge £2 wal rare vulgaris. Le pemeiaotiomars An extensively cl people. There are many va eral ——— 2 by an bj 4 aInere a SR Sg gy SPO cal r are delightful. ‘Larger crops sae be -aBtuihied if cultivators would leaviiheir blind: routine and adopt the plans pointed out by agrieul- turists and experience. In some gardens, is cultivated the P. mul= tiflorus, W. poroto de Espana: its flowers are of a cochineal color, and-are very pretty. The P. Caracalla, caracol, universally culti- vated, is not however indigenous to Chile. . The size, peculiar form, and:sweetness of its flowers have acquired for it some distinction. Aesweetmeat is made of its petals, which is said to be excellent. “Phlox unidentata. Bertero. A precious species which grows in the:skirts of woods on epee» plain near Cachapual. | The flow- ‘in clusters and of a magnificent orange color, make it | na ard ems The specific name which I have giv- Smit, is not strictly correct, since the number of its teeth Tarienta one to three, and sometimes the leaves are entire. eset Phenia Dactylifera. L. Palma datil. -We see some stalks ‘eal tivated;-but they do not flourish nor yield fruit. In Coqui , this —o he: ——~ its fruit games from no Been 264 List of the Plants of Chile. ~ Physalis piabeacens L. A plant cultivated for its yellow, aroma- tic, pleasantly acid fruit. The stalk is fructicose, and lives — winter in the open air. me » Physarum “Muscicola, PR: Seika, Pers., pe ale latum, Bertero, on rotten plants. and wood at the close of — and in winter after rain. Phytolacea Chilensis: Miers. A cultivated plant which: L reruns think indigenous. It resembles the P. dioica, L., but its flowers are hermaphrodite; the styles vary from fourteen to eighteen. » tas called carmin. Its ripe berries are used to dye yarn. sid - Pilobolus roridus. Pers. Upon compost and nabieainds tale Pinus. L.A tree resembling the P. Laricio, Poir., is seen m some places. It is from Europe, and is commonly called — pine. This tree should be propagated. cea Piper inequalifolium. Vahl. The congona is mubidgsoll in some gardens, but its young shoots do not resist the winter. Its aromatic leaves, of a slightly pungent taste, are said to be useful in some diseases.’ It is administered in infusion, in atonic affections of the stomach. ~~ ~ Pireunia drastica. Bertero. A small under-shrub, common on the declivities of mountains, among stones in Cauquenes, Taguatagua, and other places. Its root, resembling a large wooden pin, (fusi> form ?) almost always divided at the extremity, possesses emetic and. purgative virtues in a very high degree. The country people” ‘fre- qoentiy: oe it, and even in small doses its exhibition is sometimes attended with unhappy results. It should only be given by the pre- scription of ‘a physician. A careful chemical analysis and experi- ments made with it, would no doubt afford us an exact knowledge of this medicine, which, in my opinion, is highly useful in certain cases+ I have thought proper to preserve the vulgar name pireun, and would propose it to botanists as a new genus. ane Vicente Bustillos-bes given me some specimens in seed. incs Pisum sativum. L. Aberja. Generally ana and 1s: a grand resource in domestic economy. The tender seeds may be by = hout the winter in brine, and thus afford : aienge ‘The va- ‘oct . Ser. in the prodr., DC., is not sufficiently pro- pres The tender thick pods are excellent, and eel by the French, pois gaulu, pois mangetout - Plantago. L. | The Llanten (P. sas. L.) is une most commo species. Its leaves are employed for the cure of vesi , their decoction passes for a vulnerary.. I have met with other spe- List of the Plants of Chile. 265 cies which are not determined. The P.- Janceolata;:Ls.;0n ‘the ‘the banks of rivers; the P. hispidula, Ruiz and Pavon, in upon the plains and highland. The P. Patagonica. Feeney vo mountains of Leona. The L. truncata and tumida, Chamiss, a met with in banancos—the dry beds of mountain a Frit inthe pastures on the highland. Met ae = Poa annua, P. pratensis and P. pilosa. L. Gina Sodastive in eee iene in a fold: and near sliainassi . The last is very com- differ from the all the i connun of which it possesses, except that it is larger. They have all been introduced. © Polianthes tuberosa. L. Margarita. Cultivated in guediten: Lilkensiaty. with double flowers is less known. The odor of the flowers is pleasant, though rather strong. «Polygala Thesioides. W. A shrub met within the aouiitaing, vulgarly called Quelenguelen. ‘The root is used in decoction in > diseases which are called internal. 'The P. Gnidioides, W. does not differ from the preceding, except in its herbaceous. stalk. _ Ibis found in fields and. aes the skirts of woods inthe highland. — Polygonum aviculare carta. It is found in all. dry, mony station slong roads “The variety. wi Hh, Sree sti rows about marshes. Its decoction is prescribed erta : -complaints. The P. Persicaria and. grees al aren: frequent in drains and pools. . They are emplo - for the same purposes, and if we may believe what we hear res- them, possess great virtues. The P. orientale, L., should DS ediiiened for the beauty of its flowers; and the P. Eicorgeoms, peed its farinaceous grain which might form a substitute for wheat. Dest L. Ferns. which grow in woods, on the mountains, and amo among, stones. The doradilla, a species of this ; ‘genus ae le- termined, is considered a great remedy in certain dise; dagarto which Ltake to be the Polypodium radice rena to be a new species which I selmi ; ‘and another which is called palmilla. . resi- “niferum; Desy : 1 believe it however to ‘be different. The last two ‘were found and. communicated to me by Don Vicente Bustillos. - _ Polypogon. Desv. The name rabo de zorro, is also given to two arnt, this genus, one of. which is the P. maritimus, W.; the not agree with any yet described. It is found 10 Juni ‘Vou. XXII, —No. 2, 34 266 List of the Plants of Chile. Polytrichum commune. L. Frequent in meadows. and:shady pla> ces, onthe mountains. Another resembling the P. hyperboreum, Ra Br... grows in similar situations, and particularly in Leona... «oq Populus dilatata. Ait. Alamo. — This tree was long, since introdu- ced. but is just beginning to draw the attention of land. holders.» It ought to age planted almost without limit. It grows rapidly—forms good plank for many kinds of work, and its branches make good fuel. ~ Porliera hygrometrica, Ruiz and Pavon, The tree which is -here by the name of guayacan is called in Peru. turucasas Its wood is very bard and veined blue and yellow. It serves:forma- king combs, balls, and many utensils. Its decoction is antisyphiliticy particularly when. united with sarsaparilla.. It is met. with onthe - Mountains, _and, on the. banks. of. large rivers on. the plain... The true guaiacum (Guaiacum, L,) cannot. grow in these. inaclopaea tnindigspansun the Antilles. pains ne oleracea. 1. .de erdolaga. Itis found in pe rte ae oes in. fields and in gardens. Sown in good soil properly: irrigated, it, would, yield its leaves three times as. large, and: of a. higher flavor, which,could be used as nutriment.as is the fact. in. other countries: Its. decoction. is, said to be a-vermifuge, and it. is employed: snes the. form. of: a ptisan, ia eae _ Potamogeton striatus, Ruiz-and. Payon.. In the: seeks soho ning waters of Taguatagua. It is called: Juchi, and-is of DO use.» my coarctata. Ruiz and. Pavon, | sctale ‘high and tolerably. shiek, ee ee like juice, which is sought with avidity. by bird’ and. po by the humming bird. The stalk. when dryis : for corks and-for razor Straps. Cut into boards. it makes excellent — boxes for preserving insects, an advantage to entomologists in.acoun+ try where there is no. cork. From openings. and incisions made in the stalk exudes a gum which merits examination, and: anche haps form. a substitute for that imported. eeu Pozoa coriacea. Lag. On arid heights among aeons cage) hoes, Sprengel joins this species with the Aiteriienem Ch - . IL donot know whether he is correct.....--28 = tical iquasirum. DC. . Algorrobo. Quite.acommonitres in stony soils, near pas in the plain. Its elevation: is from: four to five yards, the thorns are pesaeaonly very. aa. lioweiaia sometimes List of the Plants of Chile. 267 short or scarcely visible. The fruit is used to feed cattle, though it is indigestible for them. The wood is incorruptible in water and is employed for sills, door posts, and mills. The Ceratonia Chilensis, Molina belongs to this species as well as the P. flexuosa. © Prunus domestica. L. The ciruelo—the plum tree, is widely spread over the country. Many varieties are enumerated; the fruit of some of them is made into sweetmeats. Dried plums (prinés) wre purgative and may be substituted for tamarinds particularly if used with cream of tartar. Plum trees planted at a short distance from each other, form an impenetrable inclosure, if care is taken to cut them at about the height of a man. I have seen some beautiful i in- —— in this style in the neighborhood of San Fernando. =—™ - Psorealea glandul osa. L. The culen is very common in woods lies rivers, and in the vallies. ‘The bark and leaves of this little tree are used as a medicine. It is said that the infusion is a specific in abdominal pains, ‘ empachos,’ (surfeits) indigestions, &c. The same virtue is attributed to the ashes. The dry leaves powdered, and the green ones wilted, are applied to wounds in the form of a cataplasm. Ulcers are washed with its decoction. Iti ‘is F made t into a ptisan with the heart of lettuce ; it has a pleasant taste and is sai to be salutary. From the bark of this tree a resin exudes which is by-shoemakers to wax their thread. The P. Inte —- a monstrosity of this species. *Preris. Li. Two species of this genus grow on ‘ashaskaee ‘th woods and on rocks. The first resembles the P. Chilensis, Desv., the other may be new. I will call it, P. triphylla. Itis different from the Adiantum Wiphyitem: Smith, which Kaulfuss places with and Passebe Puceinia. Pars. The name polvillo is given to the species of this genus, as also to the cidium, and Uredo. ‘They all grow upon the living leaves of plants, the specific name of which they ey gene ly take. I have found the P. Rose, DC., P. gramini ‘ P. Poligonorum, Schlecht. and P. Lycii, Birere: © Punica Granatum, L. Granada. A common shrub. Its leaves, Sevens: and particularly its fruit render it interesting. The bark of the fruit is an excellent astringent adapted to various abdominal dis- eases which are kept up by a want of tone in the absorbent vessels. A saturated decoction is the base of a tincture black as ink. _ Thi Paap ptt gale ated to which is ahoasiley se 268 List of the Plants of Chile. » Pyrethrum Parthenium. W. Frequent in vallies in» sandy: soily near torrents. It is so common that it appears indigenous. The artemisa is a medicinal plant. Its virtues are geese to. ‘the tages zanilla and might be substituted for it. ee Pyrus communis and Malus. L. Peral y Midis Froseipes which are so abundant in the country that the inhabitants cannot be- lieve they have been introduced. It is usual to have apples and pears: of good quality, but in general, this fruit does not attain the same per- fection as in Europe. The wood is used in carpentry. © 9 1 ~ Quillaja Saponaria. Molina. In woods at the foot of hills, and in: mountain vallies. It trunk usually attains ten yards in height, and about two in circumference. The wood soon perishes if exposed to the air ; but lasts a- long time in damp situations under ground. It is used in mines. and in mills. . The bark of the quillay is excellent for washing woollen textufes. Is decoction makes a suds the same . It is administered in certain cases in the form of an ene* wats Botanists differ as to the synonym of this species. De Can- dolle forms two of it which he names, Q. Molina, and Q@: Smegma- dermis. Sprengel places the last with the Smegmaria emarginata of Willdenow : and he confounds the Quillaja of Molina, with the — Smegmadermos, Ruiz and Pavon. Though I have not yet examin- | ed this tree in the different and remote parts of Chile,’ TL think-it forms but one species which varies considerably in the | leaves, and thatthe name given by Molina ought to be piclerseii cA _. Quinchamalium Chilense.’ Molina. Common in pastures; 6nthe highland, and in stony situations near rivers. It is sometimes woody; at others, herbaceous, though the species ‘is always the same. ‘This plant is considered a most energetic vulnerary. The — de- tg he cars Renee ee rk ee a aa 2 oe a ad ” a* am i. tenon to think that this bark may be made very eeieha not only: ‘inm cine, but for pansies purposes. A small Sanity ie it broken ‘into pieces, fused Sith mee- the, ladies of Chi i a about once in ten days, fee’ ioe say Py om z= the scalp {0 He Gnd It Certainly gives the hair a very clean, glossy ‘appearance. . _ Atmay be considered-a vegetable soap with a super-quantum of alkali. Mightit not become a useful article in the hands of dyers and scourers?- = W. S. We Re _ Coetion are: administered in what. are termed int in extrava sations of blood, boils, &c. ~ThoughI pm ‘er its astringent property, I would goes eo to more — and efficient and the memory at all the objects by which the impressions are made, is 1 evidently mere repetitions of the primary act, that is, the act of pe Ve: ception. One answer, then, to the question, what is memory ! 35s that it is a part of the very act of observation or perception. 42° only difference is, that the impression is not made on the organs The act of the mind itself, is the-very same in kind, and can differ in no respect, unless it is in the degree*of vividness. “Ttis doubtful, even, whether the mind has not the power of prod cing on the organs of sense, just such impressions as are mac external objects. This power is at least indicated by the elect light,* which appears to exist in the eye, so scarcely latent, or sligh i * May not this perception of light, (we know of nothing to prove that itis lee tric,) arise, merely, from the impulse on the optic nerve ?—Ed. On the process of Memory. - 2B confined, that it is excited to action by a stroke, a jar, or by any sud= den and vivid emotion. The ear, too, has the elements of sound so much at command, independent of any external cause, that a slight disorder or irrégularity of the parts in or about the ear, will often produce the sensation of sound as vividly, as if an impression were really made upon the ear by the action of an external object. Jt i is well known that the other organs of sense are not near so ble of seeming sensations, without the actual influence of extérnal causes. The organs of touch may be thought an exception; but the sensations caused by internal pain, are very different from those produced by external objects, on the organs of touch. May it not be owing to these facts that the senses of seeing and hearing, are more concerned in dreams, than the other sense? The action of the mind, then, in recollection or memory, is the same as in observation or perception ; and there is, perhaps, a slight probability, that the mind goes farther, in some cases, and produces on the organs of sense, the phenomena of actual sensation. It is an interesting question, why the mind acts in one way, rather than another; or why the attention of the mind seems directed toward one chises, rather than another? This question is best answered by well known facts; that the mind acts most readily in that. Way in which it has before acted the oftenest and most intensely; that those are reproduced most readily, by the mind, whiclr have been before the most frequent and the most vivid; or that the atten- tion of the mind is most easily directed to those seeming objects, toward which it has been the oftenest and most earnestly directed. Now, all this would be well and simply called mental habit. On it, too, much of association is plainly dependent. The mind goes from one thing to another, in a particular train, simply because it has done so before. Philosophical association may be thought to be Somewhat different. But when it is analyzed, it will be found to be quite or very nearly the same. In going from cause to effect, from effect to cause, from premises to conclusions, from conclusions to Premises, from like to like, and from opposite to opposite, there will ‘be usually found elements in each, which the mind has before ob- Served or contemplated together. Where it is otherwise, it is gener- ally not a case of memory, but of actual perception. Each of the very rapid motions, in the performance of instra- mental music, and in other similar exercises, has’ been ascribed toa distinet act of the memory, and an act of the will. Be it sos and ass Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 279 it goes to confirm the views which have been here taken of the subs ject. If the fingers make a series of movements, in such sure and rapid succession, it is not simply because the mind has time to de termine and will each movement, but because it has been accustom- ed so to move them. It is a matter of habit. This is the decision of the great mass of mankind: and there is nothing in the whole circle of intellectual phenomena to contravene it. 7 we have arrived at habit, we have arrived apparently at the eldinate fact. Every body knows that the mind is most apt to operate, and most readily, in the way in which it has operated be- fore. But the question why or how it is so, probably admits of the sole answer, that itis an ordinance of the Creator. It is an ordinance designed and calculated to give to idleness and vice their punishment, and its reward to diligence. If these views are correct, the proper and philosophical definition of memory is not, the recalling of ideas or images laid up in the mind, or the power of doing it ; nor is it even, the renewing of former impressions and reflections, or the power of doing it, except in those doubtful cases in which the mind itself may produce actual sensations 5 but it is, the acts of the mind in ways to which it has been or the force of habit urging, disposing or helping the mind in the performance of customary acts. Memory is either the influence or power of mental habit, or the results of that habit; and as a neces sary consequence, the improvement of the memory mainly pi the frequency and —— of mental action. res Noy. Arr. 1X.—Memoir on the Chemical Analysis of the Ainospr by M. Brunner, Prof. of Chemistry at Berne. Translated. for this Journal by Prof. Griscom. Aa examination of the chemical constitution of the atconsphesst ‘a matter of such great importance, that we are not surprised 10 find ‘so many efforts have been made to bring it to the highest aerate de- gree of perfection. The attention of philosophers has been chiefly -directed to the four substances of which the atmosphere, in its ordinary state, is always constituted,—to the determination of the proportions of these substances with as much exactness as the state.of —— and the accuracy of our instruments will permit. The azote and oxygen form the great mass of atmospheric Sid, and in proportions which appear almost entirely constant,—at least Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 281 the eudiometric methods show no greater discrepancy than the errors which may be regarded as inseparable from experiment. The chan- ges h however which we observe in the atmosphere,—the varying phe- nomena of meteorology, would naturally lead us to think that these proportions must undergo some changes ; 5 and although our experi- ments do not justify such a supposition, it is desirable to ascertain with certainty the variations, if any do occur, however small they may be. The two other substances, which are generally regarded as acci- dental constituents of the air, water and carbonic acid, have equally engaged the attention of chemists. The estimation of the water con- stitutes the special branch of Physics called hygrometry, on which subject we have a great number of very valuable researches. ‘The valuation of the carbonic acid has been less attended to. We are in- debted to Theodore de Saussure for an interesting memoir on this subject. Although the recent works on these latter points of physics _ little to be desired in relation to the exactness of the method em- ployed, I think it may be useful to possess various methods, based on different principles, and which may on that account serve as checks to each other, and ore lead to that exactness which this deli- ‘eate part ¢ pears to require. It is with this view that Thave undertaken a series of experiments for obtaining an easy and sure method of determining in a direct mamer the quantity of wa- ter and carbonic acid contained ina given volume of atmospheric air. AL Determination of the watery vapor eoulamaed : an. the atmosphere. OA (Fig.1.) is a cylindrical vessel of glass or metal,—tin for exam- eis ——having two openings a and 6, the latter furnished with a stop cock. It contains about thirty quarts of water. The upper orifice a being connected with a horizontal tube of glass, it is evident that ‘ethe water which flows through the cock 6 is replaced, in the v es by an equal volume of air passing through the tube. By filling latter with a hygrometric substance, capable of ‘retaining the watery ‘vapor which this air contains, we determine by the increased weight which the tube thus acquires, the proportion of water contained i in a ‘Volume of air equal to that of the discharged water. ~ "To use this very simple apparatus with perfect certainty; severdl “Conditions are requisite. “1. The vessel A must contain at least thirty quarts in ordet 06% ‘upon a considerable volume of air. Although in common — Vou. XXII.—No. 2: 36 282 Chemical Analysis of the Aimosphere. ments, the half of this volume might be sufficient, there are cases in which this quantity becomes necessary. _.2. The discharged water is received ita large bottle B, measur- ed very exactly and marked on its neck with a file. The bottle which — I use contains 12972.5 cubic centimetres. By filling it twice, draw off nearly the whole volume contained in _8. The hygrometric tube is eleven or eralve inches long and as three lines to three and a half in diameter, internally. It has two enlargements near the two ends, destined to receive the hygroscopic liquid, when the tube is not in a perfectly horizontal position. 4. Common sulphuric acid serves as a hygrometric substance. A quantity of amianthus, sufficient to line the sides of the tube, is ‘in- troduced, which is moistened by letting about fifty drops of acid fall into it. It is easy to moisten the fae uniformly throughout t the length of the tube, by suitable inclinations. The tube, thus prepar- ed and stopped at the two ends, is weighed in a balance which indi- cates milligrammes, (two hundredth part (nearly) of a grain.) The flowing of the water must be carefully regulated. If too rapid, a part of the vapor might escape the action of the sulphuric acid. If on the contrary it be too slow, time would be lost unneces~ sarily, and the air would be acted upon during an interval in which some change might take place in the constitution of the atmosphere. Experience has taught me that thirteen thousand grammes of water™ may be drawn from the vessel A in an interval of ten minutes, with- out the risk of any inconvenience. 6. In calculating the result furnished by the operation, the neces sary corrections must be made for barometric pressure, temperature ' of the air which enters the vessel A by taking that of the discharg- ing water, the temperature of the free air the moisture of which we are trying, and the tension of the water contained in the vessel- These reductions are too well known to philosophers to need further» explanation. Although in the use of this apparatus, there is no difficulty in fol lowing exactly the dimensions and manipulations described, it will be well for the student to adapt a second tube, containing sulphurie acid, between the hygrometric tube and the vessel A. If the weight of this latter tube is not altered by the passage of the air requisite to the operation, the arrangement may be deemed satisfactory. I have sent through the tube the required volume of air, saturated with moisture * Between three and four gallons. Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 283 (by pressing_ it first through a tube containing moist rete ete finding the second tube altered in weight. ae _ The increase of weight of the hygromettic tube, in causing the discharge of 12972.5 grammes of water, is found, under ordinary circumstances, included within the limits of sixty to one hundred milligrammes, an amount apparently considerable enough to be but little influenced by errors of observation. On the 26th of Dec. 1830, during the finest weather, at a temperature of 16° cent. estill Fah.) 1 obtained thirteen milligrammes from the same volume of air. Although this method of estimating the moisture of the atmosphere always requires an experiment, and for which common hygrometers cannot be substituted for the instrument now described, it appears to me that this is the only one which can give a direct result, and that it must on that account be useful in regulating others. I think never- theless, it may be used successfully in travelling. A tin vessel, of convenient dimensions, (from eight to ten thousand cubic centime- ters) would be easily transported, as well as tubes containing amian- thus moistened with sulphuric acid, and weighed beforehand, the ba- rometer and thermometer always making a pwd of se ae of a scientific traveller. To those who could not chadetieatly bisa a veneel: expressly adapted to this purpose, I would propose the use of a common bot- tle, thus—fill the bottle A, (Fig. 2.) with water, which may be drawn off by the syphon ab, and measured by means of a vessel of known capacity. ‘To the tube c adapt the hygrometric tube in the common manner. With this apparatus, which may be constructed wherever bottles can be found, and a small portable measuring glass, with the weighed tubes, it is easy to make experiments of sufficient exactness. Care must of course be taken to guard against the influence of hu- midity arising from the flow of the water, the decanting from the measuring glass into the bottle, &c. which will never be difficult. With a fixed apparatus, it would be advisable to perform the experi ment near a window, through an opening of which the hygrometric tube should pass into the open air. Il. Determination of Carbonic Acid. The valuation of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere has been less studied than that of the other elements, either because it pre- Sents greater obstacles or is judged to be of less interest. All that is Reey known, we owe to Theod. de Saussure, whose ee. 284 Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. in the Journals of the Société de Physique de Geneve, is the result of numerous and extensive researches. His process was an improve- ment on the method of Thenard in 1812, and consisted in causing. a large and known volume of air to act on barytic water, in a glass balloon, and to calculate the carbonic acid by the carbonate of ba- rytes thus formed. This process, although founded on a theory per- fectly established, presents many difficulties in the execution, which M. de Saussure has overcome and has described with admirable ex- actness. He found that the atmosphere, in its ordinary state, con= tains between 3.7 and 6.2 of carbonic acid in ten thousand parts of air in volume, and he studied the changes produced by the influence — of seasons, hours and various local causes.* His researches are. great importance to meteorology. Although the method pursued by. this: p. hilosopher can scarcely fail to attain the object proposed, I think - it would be well to possess a second method, if only by way of com- is » Moreover, of de Saussure requires a train of. operations which may easily lead into error in hands less careful than his own, and which, as he informs us, required nine days for each experiment. I have endeavored to employ the hygrometric apparatus above den scribed ; having first tried the method practised by Thenard and de Sues, as well as others, without obtaining results satisfactory t0 myself. ‘The method by which I at last succeeded is the following. A tube of glass three feet long (Fig. 3.)} and of the same cali- bre as the hygrometric tube, is filled in the first two thirds of its length ab, with hydrate of lime; the rest is disposed so as to serve — as a hygrometric tube by putting into.it amianthus moistened with sulphuric acid.{ By the increase of weight of this tube, after ® measured current of air has passed through, we determine the lide portion of carbonic acid it contains. The following details. ee dispensable. 1. The hydrate of lime must be carefully prepared. The imes well calcined, is reduced to a hydrate by moistening it with. a few vee of water, and after it has completely « crumbled, add a few drops : water, so that in stirring it with a spatula it will form rs or — It is important to hit the pec: degree of humidity. © ee bad Via. Mellie Satins. tesonee Vol. XX, p pt” i The tube is bent as shown in the figure, in oe sere placed more come niently i in the balance. r — from the lime, by a few fragments of glass or porcelain, actenslae the bend 6. Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 285 If the lime is too dry, it absorbs the carbonic acid very imperfectly ; if too moist, it is difficult to make it pass the bend of the tube. By a few trials the right point may be easily obtained. 2. The sulphuric acid included in the end of the tube, is phiced inthe same manner as in the determination of moisture. From fifty to sixty drops are always sufficient. ‘The effect of this acid is evi- - The lime in passing from the state of hydrate to that of ear- bonate, abandons its water, which would cause a diminution of weight, as well as the portion of water (still greater) carried along by the cur- rent of air passing through the tube. It is in order to retain this wa- ter that the hygrometric portion of the tube becomes necessary. _3. The air before it enters into the tube containing the lime, ought to pass through a common hygrometric tube, in order to deposit its water, which, without this precaution, would be confounded with the carbonic acid. 4. All the weighings ought to be done by substitution, that is to say, in taring (en tarant) a known weight,—for example, .2 of a gramme, with the tubes, and on the same plate of the balance, and in deducting from this weight, that required to be substituted for it after the oper- ation,—the difference indicating the increase of weight of the tube produced by the operation. We should never neglect to wipe the tubes. immediately before weighing, since the moisture which they — attract from the air, may, in a certain time, occasion an error of —/ milligrammes, as I have ascertained by direct experiment. 5. The volume of air operated upon ought to be large, in ouller that the increase of weight of the lime may not be too small. In drawing 12972.5 grammes of water from the vessel A, I have ob- tained, in ordinary circumstances, an increase of seven to nine milli- grammes. It is therefore preferable to operate upon a volume of twice this size, which may be done without difficulty in the connate of fifty minutes. ~ 6. To calculate the proportion of carbonic acid in the air. sstheeet We set out with the specific gravity of this gas, as determined by Ber- Zelius and Dulong, and which gives for 1.97978 grammes of carbo- nie acid its volume equal to one thousand cubic centimetres at 0° and at 0.76 of the barometric column, (=29.52 in.) The volume found. by calculation is reduced. to the volume which it would have at t the temperature of the vessel A and the prevailing height of the r, and from the sum representing the volume of analysed tr, Wwe obtain, by the rule of proportion, the volume of carbonic acid mM a given volume of air, e. g. in ten thousand parts. The reduction 286 Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. of the volume of air to that of dry air, or rather to the degree of humidity shown by the experiment, appears to me too minute to have any sensible influence on the very feeble proportion of carbonic acid existing in the air. . ry To determine the limits of the proportion of carbonic acid appre- ciable by this method, I operated upon air taken from two feet abc a small charcoal fire, and passed it through barytic water, after it had passed through the lime tube. Although the carbonic acid was to be near one per cent. in the volume of air, the barytic water was not troubled. When I repeated it with a similar air, but more highly charged, viz. two per cent. of carbonic acid, the barytic water was decidedly affected. But this proportion of carbonic acid sur- passes, by more than thirty times, the maximum found by de Saus- sure in the atmosphere. I would observe, that in the latter experi- ments, I let the water flow in a natural stream. By slackening the current, or by lengthening the lime tube, we might probably operate upon air more highly charged with carbonic acid. 2 To be certain that the current of air does not bring with it any sensible quantity of water, I placed a second hygrometric tube be- tween the lime tube and the vessel A. In several experiments this kind, I never observed the least increase of weight in this tube. In a series of experiments undertaken with a view of studying my apparatus, I constantly obtained results included within the limits of those obtained by de Saussure. . It appears therefore that the method now described furnishes an easy and certain means for ascertaining the proportion of the two ac- eidental principles of the atmosphere. I think it susceptible of being extended to those researches which are properly styled eudiomet- ric.* Perhaps a method may be derived from it, more exact than those now practised to determine the proportion of the oxygen, which has hitherto been scarcely brought within one hundreth of the point of rigorous exactness. It would also be desirable to employ some an ogous methods in researches into the other elements which the veal mosphere appears to contain. For this purpose currents of air should be passed, for some time, through different reagents, which might be _ enclosed either in tubes similar to those above described, or through Wolf's bottles, and in order to act upon large masses of air, an app? te Is it not to be regretted that the term eudiometry and eudiometer should wes plied exclusively to the art of determining the quantity of oxygen in the ind more i ts for that purpose ? Would not the terms oximetry and oximeter be more iate 2—Tr. , Chemical Analysis of the Atmosphere. 287 ~ratus might be erected of large dimensions, by using for example, a hogshead, and causing the air to flow during whole days through dif- ferent reagents. ‘To experimenters residing near the Ocean this method may be specially recommended. It is known that some tri- als, made within a few years, of the air over the Baltic Sea, have fur- nished very curious results which it would be interesting to follow up. - But in a variety of other circumstances such researches may be very useful. Ihave endeavored to subject our autumnal fog, the pe- culiar odor of which is known to all, to the action of several rea- gents. I have passed air, loaded with this fog, through nitrate of sil- ver, and chloride of silver dissolved in caustic ammonia. Nothing positive was obtained. In the last case a precipitate was produced which speedily assumed the color of chloride of silver exposed for some time to the light, and which was found to be in reality that salt, doubtless precipitated from its ammoniacal solution by the carbonic acid introduced with the atmosphere. _T advert to these incomplete trials only to suggest methods which I think may be followed in investigations of this nature.—Bib. Univ. Mars, 1832. ‘Berne, March 27th, 1832. 288 * Organic Remains of the Art. X.—Supplement to the “ Synopsis of the Organie Remains of the Ferruginous Sand Formation of the United States,” contained ~ Vols. XVI and XV IL of this Journal ;* by 8. G. Morrow, “M.D., &e. | ‘a ‘Waen my attention was first called to this subject, eight years ago, I could not trace the marl region beyond the peninsula of New Jer- sey and a small part of Delaware: subsequently, however, it has been discovered in almost all the Southern States, and I now believe it to be one of the most extensive formations on this continent. Its localities in New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland have been so often referred to, that I shall not recur to them ; but for the pur- pose of exciting the observation of tourists, and others, in the South- ern States, it may be well to notice the green sand districts. which are dy ascertained to exist there. qr Bie 3 North Carolina.—At Ashwood, near Cape Fear river, on the authority of Mr. Vanuxem. 7 dad South Carolina.—At Effingham’s Mills, on Lynch’s ereek, on the authority of Dr. Blanding, who has brought me a number of char- acteristic fossils; also at Mars’s Bluff, on Pedee river, and at Nelson’s ferry, on the Santee river, tas oe Georgia.—Near Sandersville, where it is chiefly recognized by Belemnites. : Alabama.—My friend Dr. Pitcher, U.S. A., informs me that he has traced the ferruginous sand all the way from Portland to Mont- gomery, a tract which embraces Cahawba, a locality already quoted by me, on the authority of Mr. Nuttall. Mississippi—This State has an extensive marl tract in the Chick- asaw fields, near the borders of Tennessee. The characteristic fossils have been sent to me by my friend Mr. Brewster. s Tennessee.—The south western portion of ‘Tennessee presents @ continuation of the tract just mentioned, which takes a westerly di- rection across the Mississippi river at the Chickasaw Bluffs. : 3 _Louisiana.—Dr. Pitcher, in a recent letter, describes an exten- sive deposit of ferruginous sand between Alexandria and Nachitoches- Judge Bry has also noticed it near the township of Wachita, on the Wachita river, where it is recognized by Belemnites, Ammonites and Gryphee. ; ; 3 Se * See also a letter to the Editor, Vol. X XII, p. 90. Ferruginous Sand Formation. 289 _Arkansas.—Mr. Nuttall describes this formation as occurring ex tensively on the calcareous platform of the Red river, above and be- low the junction of the Kiamesha; and Dr. Pitcher has lately ob- tained there some large Ammonites and other fossils which I have not yet received. Missouri.—Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, Mr. Nuttall and Col. Long found Baculites, Hamites?, Gryphee, and other marl fossils at the Great Bend of the Missouri river (Lat. 43° 40’ N., Long. 72° W. from Washington) intimating the existence of the ferruginous sand in that remote region of our continent, as mentioned on a former occasion. ~ Now these various deposits, though seemingly insulated, are doubt- less continuous, or nearly so, forming an irregular crescent nearly three thousand miles in extent; and what is very remarkable, there is not only a generic accordance between the fossil shells scattered through this vast tract, but in by far the greater number of compar- isons I have hitherto been able to make, the same species of fossils are found throughout: thus the Ammonites placenta, Baculites ovatus, Gryphea Vomer, Gryphea mutabilis, Ostrea falcata, &c. are found without a shadow of difference, from New Jersey to Louisiana: al- though some species have been found in the latter State, that have not been noticed in the former, and vice versa. There seems also to be superposed on the ferruginous sand of the Southern States a calcareous deposit, in mineralogical characters not very unlike that of New Jersey ; but of its organic remains I have seen but few species, consisting of Nummulites, Gryphites, and Pec- tens; all differing obviously from any others with which I am ac- quainted. The principal deposit of this kind occurs near Claiborne, Alabama. Another, noticed by Mr. Nuttall, near Wilmington, in North Carolina, appears to be a link in the same series. _ In further corroboration of the views maintained in these essays I may add, that Mr. De la Beche, in his Geological Manual, p. 294, after giving a list of the fossils contained in the former parts of this Synopsis, concludes his observations on the cretaceous group in these words; ‘It is almost impossible not to be struck, in the foregoing list, with the great zoological resemblance of this ferruginous sand deposit with the cretaceous rocks of Europe. As has been above hoticed, the genera Baculites, Scaphites and Turrilites have not been discovered out of this series in Europe.. The Pecten quinguecosta- tus is a well known and widely distributed chalk fossil. But it is Rot so much by individual parts “ ty the general character of the Vou. XXIIL—No. 2. 290 Organic Remains of the whole that Dr. Morton’s inference seems in a great measure estab- lished. How far the cretaceous group of the United States may be separated beneath and above, from other deposits more or less con- temporaneous with those of Europe, remains an interesting problem which it is hoped American geologists will endeavor to solve-—As- suming that the American ferruginous sand formation belongs to this [cretaceous] group, of which there seems great probability, it would appear that the great white carbonate of lime deposit, or chalk, did not extend there ; but that a series of sands, clays and gravels con- stituted the whole group.” ath In reference to the preceding passages, I may briefly observe, that the whole super-cretaceous group, or tertiary series, (excepting only the fresh water deposits) is now satisfactorily identified in this coun- try. Thus we have the upper, middle and lower tertiary forma- tions,* all based directly or indirectly on the ferruginous sand; and I may repeat, that so far as my observations have extended, not a solitary fossil of the latter formation has been detected in the super- posed strata. ‘% Tn resuming the subject of organic remains it may be observed, that I_have figured on the present occasion, some of the most re- markable species only, the remaining illustrations being reserved for a separate edition of this Synopsis: for the same reason the plates here given do not follow each other in numerical order. | ORGANIC REMAINS. CHAMBERED UNIVALVES. AMMONITES. . A. telifer. (S.G.M.) A remarkable species, of which I possess several fragments from the Delaware marl, almost too imperfect for description, and yet so different from the other species as to induce me to give itaname. It wilF be figured in the second edition of I take this occasion to remark that the J. hippocrepis of DeKay, inserted in the first part of this Synopsis, is merely a transverse section of Scaphites Cuvier’. This formation, therefore, possesses but four published species of Ammonites, viz. 2. placenta, A. Delawarensis, A. Vanuremi and A. telifer. seh : se ; * I take the liberty (for reasons to be given in another place) of substituting these names for those of Upper marine, London clay and Plastic clay formations. Ferruginous Sand Formation. 291 BACULITES. -B. compressa. (Say. ) Pl. IX, fig. 1. This beautiful fossil was described by Mr. Say in the American Journal of Science,* but is now figured, for the first time, from a fine specimen in the posses- sion of my friend, Jno. P. Wetherill, Esq. and brought from the Great Bend of the Missouri river. Although I have not been able to obtain any details of the geology of this remote region, I have no hesitation in placing the B. compressa in the series of ferruginous sand fossils. B. asper. (S. G.M.) Transversely suboval, with prominent lat- eral nodes between the septa. From Alabama. SCAPHITES. S. reniformis. (S.G.M.) About an inch in length, with numer- ous coste that bifurcate laterally. This species bears no resem- blance to S. Cuviert of this Synopsis, but is not very unlike S. stria- tus, of the British chalk. : NAUTILUS. WN. Dekayi. (S.G.M.) Pi. VIII, fig. 4. This is the only spe- cies hitherto found in our marls. It has been sometimes compared to V. expansus (Sowerby) but is much larger : it has also been con- founded with the British JV. imperialis, to which, however, it bears no other resemblance than all the species of this genus bear to each ’ other. Thave much pleasure in dedicating this fossil to one of the most zealous and intelligent of American naturalists. NUMMULITES. ; LN. Mantel. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 9. Flattened, thin, be- Coming sharp at the edge, and having a central pustuloid elevation. Diameter from half an inch to an inch and a half. Innumerable in the whitish, loose grained limestone near Claiborne, Alabama. I have much pleasure in dedicating this only known American species of Nummulites, to one of the most zealous and successful cultivators of. geological science. SIMPLE AND SPIRAL UNIVALVES. PATELLA. P. tentorium. (S.G.M.) Compressed, circular, with sixty or eighty delicate ribs; diameter half an inch. This fossil has some appearance of a shelly operculum, in which case it would belong to * Vol. ii, p. 41. 292 : Organic Remains of the ROSTELLARIA. R. arenarum. (S.G.M.) Pl. V, fig. 8. Noticed, but not nam or figured in the former part of this Synopsis. TORNITELLA. 1. T.? bullata. (S.G.M.) Pl. V, fig. 3. Ventricose, with very numerous striz : Jess than an inch long. 2. A minute species, of which casts only are found. BIVALVES. TEREDO. : ___ ¥. tinalis. (S.G.M.) PI. IX, fig. 2. I propose this name for th Teredo so common and so beautifully preserved in the calcareous strata of New Jersey. The same species is also common in all the varieties of marl. : PHOLAS. Mr. Cooper showed me a cast about an inch long, with concentrie and longitudinal strie, and a longitudinal _groove.—Found in Mon- mouth county, N. J. ; . PHOLADOMYA. “ P. occidentalis. (S.G.M.) Pl. VII, fig. 3. Oblong-angular, ven- tricose near the beaks; with twenty five or thirty narrow, elevated, subtortuous coste, having broad, slightly concave intervening spaces. Length two inches, breadth three inches. An extremely variable species x1 possess five specimens, (all more or less broken,) in all of which there is a difference in the number and relative position of the ribs. CYTHEREA. ? wd C. excavata. (S.G.M.) PI. V, fig. 1. Suborbicular, compressed; posterior slope deeply excavated ; posterior side with an obsolete fold, margin angular. New Jersey. - CARDITA. re C. decisa. (S.G.M.) PI. 1X, fig. 3. A solitary cast obtained by me at St. Georges, Delaware. NUCULA. A few small casts in ferruginous clay, near Bordentown, New Jersey. ae Eat PLAGIOSTOMA. aes ie P. gregalis. (S. G. M.) Pl.V, fig. 6. Shell irregular, thins back armed with concentric squamous plates ; within obsoletely stri@- Wet deiiee Si eee Aire Th ase gr ee Pi ey ee eg Ae atte Ne PRR, et ey. el pee ee ee eet Fiom Naluie ly MED tiow Plale §&. ttom Na lute ty Ya 6S Wiewn | Ferruginous Sand Formation. — ~ 293 ted. Mostly found attached, and varies from one to three inches. in length. Same as No. 1 of this Synopsis. Common in New Jersey. P. pelagica. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 2. Subovate, convex, with twenty five or thirty narrow elevated ribs. An unattached shell. Found with the preceding. Resembles P. duplicata, (Sewer an oolitic fossil. PECTEN. P. craticula. (S. G. M.) Shell suborbicular, unequal, with about ten large, elevated, convex, longitudinally sulcated ribs, and a much smaller one interposed between each pair. New Jersey. Very rare. P. anatipes. (S. G. M.). Pl. V, fig. 4. With four or five broad convex ribs, longitudinally striated; at the sides large strie replace the ribs. Rarely more than half an inch in diameter. From the overlying limestone of Claiborne, Alabama. ; P: perplanus. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 5. Depressed, with about twenty simple coste, transversely striated. Diameter less than an inch. Found with the preceding species. P. venustus. (S. G. M.) PI. V, fig. 7. Shell thin, depressed, about half an inch in diameter, with fifteen or twenty double coste ; those on the lower valve delicately beaded. From New Jersey. — vies GRYPHHA. G. plicatella. (S. G. M.) PI. IX, fig.4. Am from the overlying limestone of Alabama, I defer Pein? notice of it in the hope of obtaining larger specimens. OSTREA. “Th addition to the O. falcata, so common in New Jersey, I am ‘now able to give the characters of the three following species, all from the same beds : ~ 0. plumosa. (S. G. M.) Ovato-triangular ; lower valve convex, crenated near the hinge; dorsum marked with delicate strie, radia- ting with fasciculi from the beak to the margin. 0. panda. (S. G. M.) Same as species No. 2 of this Synopsis, where it is referred; with a question, to O. Cristagalli of Europe. (Vide Vol. xviii, pl. 3, fig. 22.) O. urticosa. (S. G. M.) Discoidal, thin, with numerous spinous cos- te; many individuals usually adhering together. From New Jersey. - ANOMIA. A. argentaria. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 10. Thin, round, with humerous concentric striz. 294 Organic Remains of the Ferruginous Sand Formation. A. tellinoides. (S. G. M.) Pl. V, fig. 11. Irregular, but most ly subovate, with concentric undulations. Both these species are common in New Jersey; the latter resembles 4. ephippium, to which it is referred in the first part of this Synopsis. veniuia.* (S. G. M.) Pa Conradi. Pi. VIII, fig. 1,2. Trigonal, ventricose, concentrical- ly sulcated ; beaks long and bapirnect diameter an inch and a half. _ This esas marine shell, so different from any of the hitherto known genera, was discovered in New Jersey by my estimable friend Mr. T. A. Conrad, under whose name I gladly introduce it to notice. ECHINIDE. SPATANGUS. “s. parastatus. Gs % ee Same as No. 1, of this Synopsis. "See vol. xviii, Pl. 3, fig. CIDARIS. C. diatretum. (S. G. M.) A compressed species, found with the preceding, in the caleareous beds of New Jersey. NUCLEOLITES. No 7 (S. G. M.) Referred in the former part of this Synopsis to the genus Ananchytes, and figured, vol. xviii, Pl. 3, ig. * CLYPEASTER. CC. t feral (S. G. M.) Noticed generically in the first part of is. ve convex ; each of the five ambulacra composed of two pairs. of finely dotted lines: base subelliptical, concave; margin abrupt. From the blue marl of Delaware. 2 To be continued. ° ——. a : * Generic description. An equivalve bivalve; hinge with three robust cardial teeth in each Mah and an elongated, thick lateral tooth on the posterior side, simi- lar to that of Unio : anterior muscular impression profound. Russian Vapor Bath. — 295 Arr. XI.—Account of the Russian Vi apor . Baths we T. Ss. Tat M. Communicated by the Author.* From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. THE existence in Hamburgh of two establishments where the _ Russian Vapor-Bath is used, brought*to my recollection the descrip- tions given by Acerbi, and other travellers, of the intense heat and sudden transition to cold, so much relished by the nations of North- ern Europe, and raised my curiosity to experience in my own per- son the effects of this singular species of bathing. I was further in- duced to take this step from finding myself suddenly oppressed with a violent feverish cold, which raised my pulse considerably above 100°, and rendered me little able to join the public dinner-table in the Apollo Saal. Accompanied by two friends who wished to make the same ex- periment, I repaired to the ALExANDERBAD, which is under the di- rection of its proprietor, a Jewish physician, who had liberally opened it gratuitously to the members of the Society of Naturforscher, then assembled at Hamburgh. We were ushered into a very neat’ saloon, provided with six Speco — each of which stood a dressing table, and a uspending the clothes of the bather. Here we undressed, “and were furnished with long flannel dressing-gowns and warm slippers, after which we were all conducted into a small hot apartment, where we were desired to lay aside our gowns and slippers, and were immediately introduced into the room called the bath, in which the dim light admitted through a single win- dow of three panes, just sufficed to shew us that there were in it two persons, like ourselves in puris naturalibus ; one of whom was an essential -personage, the operator, the other a gentleman just finish- ing the process by a copious affusion of cold water over his body. This sudden introduction into an atmosphere of hot steam was so Oppressive, that I was forced to cover my face with my hands, to moderate the painful impression on the lips and nostrils, and was com- pelled to withdraw my head, as much as possible, from the most heated part of the atmosphere, by sitting down on a low bench which tan along two sides of the bath. — 2 5 _ re i * Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. 296 Russian Vapor Bath. At first our modesty felt some alarm at our perfect nudity, and that of those around us; but I soon felt that it would be absolutely impossible to endure the contact of any sort of covering of our nakedness in a temperature so high; and consoled myself with the reflection, that it was no worse than the promiscuous bathing I had so often practised at the sea-baths of Liverpool; an exposure which, notwithstanding my passion for, bathing, was always disagreeable at the commencement of each season; but to which custom had soon rendered me indifferent. : The bath-room is about fifteen feet long by about as much in breadth. It is lined with wood, rendered quite black by constant immersion in hot steam. On two sides it has three tiers of benches, or rude couches, each of which is calculated to hold two persons, with their feet toward each other ; so that twelve persons might bathe at the same time. ‘The lowest bench projects farthest into the room; they rise two feet above each other; and each has a wooden pillow at the ends. ) - In one corner of the farther end of the apartment stands the fur- nace, which is supplied with fuel from without, and has a thin arch of fire-brick turned over the fire, against which the flame reverbe- rates, until the arch is red hot. Over this arch is built a small brick chamber, the only aperture to which is by a small door about two feet long, and fifteen inches wide, opening nearly to the Jevel of the To increase the heated surface, numerous small earthern jars, or broken pottery, are piled on the arch, and all are kept up toa low red heat. On these, a basin of water is occasionally dashed; and the clouds of steam which instantly issue from the door of the heat- ed chamber, form the source of heat employed to maintain the tem- perature of the bath. In the corner opposite to the furnace is a reservoir of cold water, tnto which, during our stay in the bath, the person who manages it, frequently plunged to cool his surface; a precaution not ua- necessary for an individual who is exposed daily eight hours, stark naked, to a temperature quite oppressive to the uninitiated. Yet this exposure and this alternation cannot be unhealthy ; for I never S47 a more athletic man than this person, who informed me that he 3 been constanly engaged in this occupation for sixteen or eighteen __ months. . The center of the ceiling of the bath-room is perforated by 9 merous holes which allow a copious shower-bath of cold water 1 descend on the head of. re r heton whena valve. a oi rare mnpenes.,< ' j a's 2e affusion of cold eater At each remove this operation is aoe, otherwise the contact of the wood would be insupportable to the skin. It is needless to say, that the perspiration very soon began to run from every pore, not merely as a moist exhalation, but ran off in co- pious streams. This greatly moderated the sensation of heat. After lying extended for some time on the second tier of benches, a bucket of cold water was dashed on the upper one, and we remov- ed there; but the heat, so near the ceiling, was fully as oppressive as on first entering; and I found it necessary to allow the air to enter my nose through my fingers. If I inhaled it with the mouth wide open, I felt an oppressive heat in my chest; but by degrees even this degree of heat became supportable ; though I never was able to sit upright on the upper bench ; so strong Was the appear s the humid atmosphere close to the ceiling. While we were groping our way from beach: Seach thcantaien tant more sage cela headlong into his cold bath, to refresh hi he commenced on us the next part of his profe occupation. ~ We were one by one requested to descend to the second tier ; “a the assistant, grasping in his hand a bundle of birch rods, oma siduously to whip his patients who lay extended on the bench at full length, from head to heel. This application differs essentially from the well remembered _ scholastic biréh discipline ; for the leaves are left on the twigs, and the sensations produced in no way resem- ble the effect of ihe instrument employed in English schools to eonyey a knowledge of Greek and Latin into the heads of our youth. In fact, this species of whipping is performed very dexter- ously, with a sort of brushing motion, from the shoulders downwards ; and the application becomes general over the body and limbs, as the bather turns on his wooden couch. _The sensations produced by this operation are agreeable, and are very far from producing that _ excessive redness of the surface described by Acerbi. The operator now anoints the whole body with a liquid said iain, ; and, after again mounting to the upper tier for some time, we See Vou. XXHL—No. 2. 38 7 298 Russian Vapor Bath. one by one to the middle of the floor, where a powerful affusion of cold water from the shower-bath in the ceiling removes every vestige of soap. This sudden affusion of cold water is remarkably grateful : itis scarcely possible to describe the effect, which is highly exhilara- ting and refreshing. data! It is usual again to undergo the steaming after the temperature of the bath is increased by the ‘affusion of water on the glowing pottery in thefurnace. For this purpose, the operator opens the door above described, and placing us out of the direction of the immediate ef- flux of the steam, he dashes, in successive jets, a small bucket of water into the furnace. The apartment is instantly filled with clouds of steam, at a high temperature ; and when the door of the aperture is closed, we resume our places on the benches, gradually proceed- ing to the highest, as we become inured to the temperature. From the upper tier we finally descend to have the cold shower-bath re- peated ; after which we leave the bathing-room, are rubbed dry by assistants in the small heated apartment, where we resume the flannel dressing-gown and slippers, and are reconducted to the saloon, where we find the couches spread with blankets ; and we recline for half an hour in a most profuse perspiration, and in a state of luxurious lan- guor, and mental tranquillity. ee On a subsequent occasion, I provided myself with the means of ascertaining the temperature of the bathing-room, and noted its ef- — fect on the pulse of myself and two other bathers. The heat is gen- erally from 45° to 50° of Reaumur ; that is, from 133°.25 to 144.5 of Fahrenheit. On the occasion referred to, it ranged in the bath, during my stay, from 32° to 46°R.,= 126°.5 and 1359.5 F. in the lower part of the bathing-room ;-but I was unable to examine the temperature near the ceiling, on account of the thick vapor, and the intensity of the temperature, which affected my eyes. ‘This tempef- ature, high as it is, is far short of what Acerbi asserts of the Finnish baths; he says that they reached from 70° to 75° of Celsius,= t0 158° to 167° of our scale: but perhaps his thermometers were $ ject to the influence of the open fire-place in the rude baths of that people; for their furnace consisted of a few loose stones piled into 4 — of rude arch, over a fire onthe floorof the hut: or perhaps he did not accurately ascertain the temperature; as he never entere the bath but momentarily, for the purpose of placing his thermometer and T am confirmed in this by observing that the Finnish operator, in his plate, appears dressed in her ordinary clothes, which I should think insupportable in so high a temperature as he assigns. | Russian Ve apor Bath. 299 The effect of the Russian vapor-bath is to accelerate the which soon regains its natural standard on leaving the bath ; and, when I took it in a highly feverish state, I was within an bots after entirely free of fever, and able fully to enjoy the philonoplie, soiree that evening. _ On bathing a second time, I was accompanied by the same two friends: our pulses were about seventy four in a minute. coming out of the bath, Dr. Traill’s pulse, - - = 116 Mr. Pa Sig do. - + ioe OS ‘Mr. Palk’s d 88 A quarter of an oot sos winks on i couch, they were as follows : Dr. Traill’s pulse, ~ . = 114 Mr. Johnston’s do. - - sz... 68 Mr. Palk’s do. = - - = 88 After being dressed, and sitting in an ae coffee-room, Pea one hour after the bath, s Dr. Traill’s pulse beat, - - = 88 Mr. Johnston’sdo.. -. > = 88 Mr. Palk’s do, sis = 80 These e: ents shew the ven diteecee 4 in he excitability of the, heart in different individuals, from exposure to the same | My pulse in my best health, is about seventy ; since [ had the gout it ranges from seventy four to eighty, but is very easily excited; andI have often found it raised to more than ninety by an interesting con- Yersation, or evena cup of strong tea. The process of the vapor-bath is completed by a plentiful supply of towels, with which we gradually dry the surface, while we are well _ rubbed down by an assistant. We then resumed our dress, and re- tired to a coffee-room, where there was a plentiful supply of news- papers, and had a cup of good coffee for twopence Sterling. As I have already stated, the baths were free to the naturforscher ; 3 but Tascertained that the whole expense of the bath and its accompani- ‘ments is not more than one marc, or sixteenpence English, and for twopence more the bather is entitled to a cup of coffee, and to read the new in a handsome apartment. ~teal ec pak the liberal owner permission to examine his sien id establishment of vapor and shower baths devoted to female: na ae i 300 Russian Vapor Bath. The vapor-bath resembles that already described, ners is much neater. rieubs The variety of shower-baths surprized me. They are of. every conceivable form, from the powerful stream to the minute drizzing of water from orifices as fine as a needle, which jet tiny streams of warm or cold water, at the option of the bather, in every possible di- rection on her person. By means of polished brass arms, curved so as to enclose the body, movable by universal joints, connected with a cistern, and perforated with innumerable minute holes, a cross- fire of jets (if I may be allowed the expression) is kept up on any part of the body. If the bather inclines to sit, a perforated seat is placed on a large flat trough, which collects and carries off the water; jets of water play from the various movable arms from each side, from above, and from below, so that every part of the surface is be- dewed. A general stop-cock commands the whole flow of water, while each brazen-reed is under the control of one appropriate to itself. These are at the disposal of the bather; and each trough or bath is surrounded by curtains to sxraee the person from the - of the assistant. Similar shower-baths are appropriated to gentlemen. The wile forms one of the most elegant and perfect establishments of the kind I have ever seen, and is a source af emolument to the epirtes proprietor. I inguired anxiously into the medical efficacy of the Russie ya- por-bath, and found that in chronic rheumatism, in the stiffaess — Serger: gout, and other long continued inflammations, it cases of palsy, in various cutaneous diseases, it is a most power- ful and valuable remedy. While in the eutablichineat T saw an inva- lid enter, who informed me, that, after severe acute rheumatism, of © several months’ duration, he was so lame that he had been carried by two persons into the bath ; but that, after five or six times undergo- ing the discipline I have dekcribed, he could walk alone as well as 1 saw him (he had walked, aided by a stick, from his house to the bath), and appeared confident that in a little time he should speacteagssp saison er the power and flexibility of his limbs. bab Raiy all that ¥ could learn in Hamburgh, I am a cont ee as a most valuable remedy in some chronic diseases, regret that we have not a similar soporte ee in _ of our medical charitab 1882, Je institutions. Notice of a Cetaceous Animal. 301 ao > 2 race Fi eta Pe eee ee + Art. XII.—WVotice of a Cetaceous Animal supposed to be new to” oo. the American coast ; by Wit11am Sampson. ae Read before the New York Lyceum of Natural History, Noy. 4, 1832. Tuts animal belongs to the eighth order of Mammalia which is grouped under the name of Cetacea. It is naturally arranged under the sub-genus Phocena of Cuvier, which comprises the Porpoise, Grampus, and a few others which are not yet sufficiently known or distinguished. ‘This genus is characterized by a single dorsal fin, and the short, abrupt and rounded head without the elongated beak. It has numerous teeth in each jaw. This had twenty teeth in the upper and eighteen in the under jaw, increasing in length towards the middle of each jaw, with a space between the teeth equal to the di- ameter of the tooth, so as to admit the teeth of the opposing jaw to shut into the interstice. The teeth were canine in their form and in- curvated somewhat suddenly towards the point. The longest teeth were about three quarters of an inch out of the jaw. "Phe individual d ee | . ty } way Sty Be which was first accurately described and delineated by Cuvier in the Annals of the Museum. This animal, although now for the first time identified here, is by no means a stranger to our shores. Ten years _ ago a shoal, which amounted to near one hundred,‘ came ashore on Welfleet near Cape Cod. In the notice which appeared in the pa- pers they were called Black Whale-fish, and were described as being from ten to twenty feet long; and it is added that they were once tommon near these shores, but had not appeared here for many years Previous. It is also stated to be a peculiarity of these animals, when they find themselves in shallow water, that from fright or other causes they run ashore and perish. ‘They are common on the coast. of. _ Scotland ; and Doctor Hibbert, in his account of the Western Isles, given an amusing description of a whale hunt in which hundreds of these animals are captured in a day. | ~ This same animal has also been described and figured in the Jour- nal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, but the ingenious author of that description has considered it sufficiently distinct to merit a Rewname. The only striking difference appears to be in the stric- lure near the tail, which may have been an error of the engraver in le endeavor to represent the peculiar carina on the upper part of the body where it approaches the tail, and which terminates at the 302 Notice of a Cetaceous Animal. extremity of that member in a point, where the two lobes are sepa- rated by a small indentation. Or this appearance may have been produced in that particular individual by some extraneous and acci- dental cause ; which idea we are more inclined to adopt, as the ac- complished toes to whom we are ia for that notice, had no opportunity of examining the animal in ; The specific description of Cuvier will ctieey distinguish our new acquaintance, or we may employ the short specific phrase Puo- C#NA cLopicers. Head very globular, carina extending to the i> tremity of the tail; pectorals long and slender. Occasional habitat. Shores of the Eastern States. 4 Synonyms. mesaeer: globiceps. Cuv.: Ann. Mus. tom. XIX, pl. 1, ie 2. Ca-ing Whale. Neill’s Tour i in the Orkneys. Delphnis —— Schreber, pl. 345, fig. 2 and 3. Delphinus melas. Traill.: Nicholson’s Jour., Vol. XXII, pe al. Delphinus deductor. Scoresby: Arctic pads I, p. 496, pl. Dauphin a téte ronde. Desmarest: Mammalogie, p. 519. Delphinus intermedius. Harlan: Jour. Acad. Nat. Se. of Phila- delphia, Vol. VI, p. 51, pl. 1. ied ait " syne The following are the dimensions of the animal as. a John Glover, Esq., Dr. Blakeman, of Greenfield Hill, and W- — son. ‘The above drawing was taken upon the pets pee oe 4 ote &: se The following notice REA: at the time, in the public papers. A whale ashore.—On Friday last, a whale of the grampus § ra de ashore on Fairfield Beach, ai three miles from Bridgeport, Conn. He ™ was first SeOnneee Sr eeeeee we -® gunning in the neighborhood, W2@" was in full vigor, and made a aah in tea shallow water that almost ett the roar of a cataract, Photinels flocked from all quarters to see the self-imp ed monster. Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 303 Gt sor ear 3 Feet. Inches. et Total length, = Rc! er 7 - 20 6 ; _ To the pectoral, — ee ee .. To the origin of the on - o- Poe ». Length of the base of the eres - 3.8 _ The greatest depth, ~ - -- 3k ... Height of dorsal, - . - ee ... Length of pectoral, Pn ie a ae Art. XIII].—Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. Translated for this Journal by Prof. Griscom. 2¥ Memoir of G. Cuvier; by A. DeCanno.ie. Evrore has sustained an immense and irreparable loss. George Cuvier died on the 13th of May last, after an illness of four days by a ‘paralysis of the throat, which rapidly reached the organs of respi- ration. He was only sixty three years of age, having been born in the month of February of that year (1769) which produced so many remarkable men,—Napoleon, Chateaubriand, Walter Scott, &c. His native town, Montbeliard, since united to France, was then a Principality in alliance with Switzerland and dependent on the Duke of ° ; His early studies were pursued at the Gymnasium of Stuttgardt, and he commenced his career by entering as a sub- lieutenant of the Swiss regiment of Chateauvieux: the dissolution of this corps restored him to liberty, and he passed the whole of the turbulent period of the revolution in the business of education on the borders of the sea in Normandy. It was there, as a first essay 6f his talent, he made his great anatomical discoveries on the mol- lusea, and overthrew the zoological classifications which had same Universally i in vogue since the period of Aristotle. This work, published in 1795, fixed upon him the attention sii the med world. Geoffroy St. Hilaire had the honor of first per- © ceiving the importance of his discoveries, and contributed to the ad- ement of their author. Guvier was called almost immediately to take a part in the class of science of the Institute, and to supply the place of the aged Mertrud as professor of comparative anatomy in the Garden of Plants. His lectures soon became remarkable for their ¢ and eloquence, and attracted crowds of students.” at this time to be threatened with phthisis, and he has 304 Documents in Commemoration of Baron. Cuvier. often since observed that the exercise of his professorship, by giving activity to his lungs, restored him to health. Being appointed pro- fessor of natural history at the central school of the Pantheon, he dignified that station by the publication of his Tableau du Régne Ani- mal, which, notwithstanding its elementary appearance, has served:as the basis of all subsequent labors in classifications of zoology. He published, a short time after, his Leeons d’anatomie comparée (five volumes in 8yo.) which were afterwards designated by the Institute as having merited the grand decennial prize for the work which had contributed most to the advancement of knowledge in relation to the natural sciences. This work, abridged from his course, was ed- ited under his inspection, at first, by his friend Dameril, and then, (the last three volumes) by his relative, M. Duvernoy. At the same period he published a series of memoirs on the anatomy of the mol- sca, and then entered upon a detailed examination of the fossil relics of mammiferous animals. He devoted his attention particularly to the numerous fossils of the environs of Paris, and was assisted in the geological part of his labor by his friend Alexander Brongni The sagacity and precision which he bestowed in the determination of fossil bones, erected his study into anew science, which has thrown a brilliant light upon geology, and given it a far: more. philo- sophical direction. A multitude of learned works and pre Memoirs published since that time by various naturalists; have” de- ‘Monstrated the prodigious influence which the labors of Cuvierhave ‘exercised over the study of geology, of the animal kingdom, and even on that of vegetable fossils. M. Cuvier refreshed himself in “the. intervals of those extended works, by special researches, which ‘Se "would have been sufficient to add lustre to any other man ;—sue! are his beautiful memoirs on the chaunt of birds, on crocodl on a great number of the diversified topics of zoology 5 mt a also, his description of the living animals of the menagerie, Suc. ~ _all subjects, even of the minutest detail, we observe that clear, lumin- ous ¢ and methodical ee and that Sree _— so oa odgehe em on these heed aud aati me : a ° wed be Rene den view of Rites Rae A dee sins, Gag Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 305 to its guidance ; a second edition whieb has since appeared, has _ proved its success. Cuvier was assisted in this labor by his ond Latreille in the class of insects, which is alone more numerous than the whole of the animal kingdom besides, and which would require the entire life of a laborious naturalist ; but he had induced this able entomologist, to deviate in some respects from his accustomed track, in order that his portion might quadrate with the other parts of the system. _ The arranging of this work enabled its author to perceive how greatly the study of fishes was in arrear with other divisions of zoo- logy. It taught him the difficulties which bad accumulated in this branch of science, both by the obscurity of the anatomy of these an- imals and the impossibility of discovering with precision the laws of the comparison of organs, by the want of large collections, and per- haps also by the too artificial methods which had till then reguiated the study of Ichthyology. He used his influence in procuring for the Museum of Paris, specimens of fishes from all parts of the world, and such was his success in this search after the materials of his sci- ence, that the number of fishin the museum, which scarcely exceed- ed a thousand species, was increased in a few years tv about six thou- sand. He anatomized a great number of them with a care before unknown. He associated himself in these details, Mr. Vallencien- nes, a meritorious young man, with whose aid he was enabled i in a _ space of time, which considering the immensity of the results, may be deemed very short, to form the elements of his great work on the history of fish, the first volumes of which have appeared, and the conclusions of which may be expected from his laborious coad- jutor. The recent embarrassment of the book trade somewhat re- _tarded its progress, and as the portion digested was in advance with the press, he was revising his lessons on comparative anatomy, pre- paratory to a second edition which has been long and greatly wanted, “Tt will be (he wrote on the 26th of April, to the author of this brief : memoir) almost a new work, so numerous are the facts derivable from our immense collections, and from the labors of other anatomists since the first edition; but I see with pleasure that the frame of it will need but little eee, and that it is still preferable, (at least in _ My opinion) to the plans which have been since adopted by other _ Savans. Nevertheless, (adds he) I shall by no means renounce (if Live) my labors on the large comparative anatomy, for which I have already thousands of bi sa This project constantly Vou. XXIII.—No. 2 306 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. cherished, and at which he had labored so many years, seemed to him to be a needful finish to all his works; but the melancholy doubt ex- ~ pressed in his letter (if I live) was but too soon verified. It would be the most appropriate honor that could be rendered to the glory of Cuvier to publish those original drawings, the perfection of which is known to all, and which, joined to the new edition of his comparative anatomy, would supply in part the great work which he had in pros- pect. Thus the man whose fruitful labors (not to mention his genius) all Europe has admired, has left, inedited, immense works, vial would seem to demand the devotion of a whole life. - We may now ask, did this laborious attention to natural hist exclude him from other literary pursuits? Certainly not. Read the eulogies which he pronounced as perpetual secretary of the Acade- my of Sciences, in which pass in review so many men and so great a variety of subjects! From the depth of acquirements which he dis- played, for example, in the account which he gave of the labors of Adanson, we are certain that none but a naturalist of the first order could have written it; but in reading his account of Bonnet, or Priestley we discover that no branch of human knowledge was foreign to him: in that of Lemonier, he betrays the man of sensibility, and the taste and graceful imagination of ascholar. Throughout these produe-— tions, are intermingled the most profound reflexions on the progress sof science, the most penetrating views of human nature and of the social condition of the period in which he lived. In all is there inter- mingled that love of virtue, that feeling of the dignity of intellec- tual power which was one of the liveliest impressions of his mind: It is to this elevated sentiment that we must attribute the impartiality of his eulogies, of his reports, and his literary and scientific decisions, the entire absence of all intrigue, the zeal which he manifested for all the establishments with which he was connected, the ardor with which he protected and encouraged young men of talents, and the noble disinterestedness which induced him to spite no vigensst a the # prosecution of his scientific inboes® 1 1 * Anence aii oe BLICEL shsle upon natural history. He may be said to have almost created, 273 graat were the changes and enlargements which he effected) the cabinet of comparative anatomy which constitutes one of the most admirable- of the Paris museum of natural history, now the admiration - of Europe. Frequently placed, by the choice of his colleagues, at the head of that ere he powerfully contributed to its prog- Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 307 ress, and introduced into the details of its administration his wonted activity and method. Called to codperate in the direction of pub- lic instruction, first as an inspector of the University, then as a mem- ber of the council of public instruction, as chancellor, as head of the several faculties, he was through all distinguished by the same quali- ties: his report on the primary instruction of Holland is a monument of his solicitude for popular education, and all those who have traced him through the higher classes of study, know how much good he has effected and how much evil he has prevented ! ! This latter bene- fit, less known than most others, always springs from an elevated mind, which disdains the applauses of the day for the reality and utility of the future. Gradually introduced into the field of civil administration, maitre des requétes, counsellor of state, president of the section of the Interior, director of protestant worship, and finally peer of France, he traversed the circle of administrative functions, except those of Censor, which he nobly refused when offered to his acceptance. He evinced, in all these appointments, that superiority for which no one contended with him in science: he became as fa- -miliar with the laws, regulations, and even the minutiz of official acts, as with the body and details of science. His colleagues, wholly de- voted to the business of administration, were every day astonished at his wonderful capacity. That head, morally as great as it was physically capacious, oes to be the depositary of all human knowledge. He had, throughout his life, read much, observed much, and forgotten nothing. The gigantic memory sustained and directed by a severe logic and a rare sagacity, was the principal basis of his immense and successful labors. That memory was remarkable, in a special manner, for all that has relation to forms, considered in the most extensive sense of the term. The figure of an animal seen in reality or in a drawing, was never forgot- ten, and served asa standard of comparison for all analogous ob- jects: the sight of a chart, of the plan of a city, was sufficient to Preserve his intuitive knowledge of places; and amidst so many fac- ulties, that memory which may be called graphic seemed the most evident. He was consequently an able draughtsman 5 he seized forms with justness and rapidity, and had the art of giving by the pencil an appearance of the tissue of organs in a manner suitable to his pur- ' pose. What the Italian sculptures call morbidezza in statues, he tei duced in a superior manner in his anatomical drawings. 308 Documents in Commemoration of Baron. Cuvier. In the midst of so busy a life, he was far from neglecting the at- tractive accomplishments of social intercourse ; his conversation, some- times grave and solemn, sometimes keen and witty, always just, cir- eumspect and original, constituted the ornament of the saloon and the charms of intimacy. He was a warm, sincere and faithful friend. He gained the hearts and affections of those who surrounded him, and the skill with which he directed the efforts of others towards their proper end, was not one of the least of the causes of his remarka- ble success. His perseverance in friendship, his gratitude towards those who contributed to his youthful advancement, his moderation in all disputes, the devotedness with which he inspired all his de- pendents, are testimonies of those qualities of the heart and explan- atory of that moral empire which can be obtained only by depth and sincerity of feeling. He was associated with hearts worthy of his own; his wife, his daughter i in law, angels of kindness, of grace and resig- nation in his misfortune, lived only to render him happy. His brother, a man of distinction, and who could have appeared still more so had he not been placed by the side of a giant, was his true and faith- ful friend. His domestic life, which might have been so happy, was greatly troubled. ‘Three sons in their minority, preceded him to the tomb, and his daughter, a model of grace and virtue, was him when on the eve of a hymeneal union which promised thé greatest happiness. Of the four children of his wife by a former marriage, and whom he had adopted in a true paternal spirit, two were Tre- moved by death at an age in which dangers appeared to be past and hopes brightening into reality. Oh! what balms to a wounded mind, what consolation in trouble is the love of labor, the love of truth and of public good! How numerous are the friends. that I could name, were I permitted to go beyond the circle of natural ties in which so many claimed his affection, who were dear to him and who loved him tenderly. The homage rendered to the moral quali- ties of Cuvier might, I am sensible, appear like exaggeration. He who draws this hasty outline was a friend of thirty four years ? stand- ing, and who held his heart in higher honor even than his celebrity, but although he writes this in tears, he has conscientiously deseribe very imperfectly indeed, but with truth, the traits of that eminent ne whose loss rolled now deplores.— Bib. Univ. Avril, —— a Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. 309 2. Subscription for a monument to the memory of G. Cuvier. - ~ At the session of the academy of sciences at Paris on the 9th of July, 1832, the following prospectus was distributed among the Acade- micians. ~The unexpected stroke which has taken from us our great natu- ralists, has spread mourning not only throughout France, but in all parts of the globe where science is held in honor. George Cuvier was one of those privileged geniuses which appear only at long in- tervals. France has been long distinguished for the love and respect which she bears for the great men whom she has produced; she knows that they constitute her highest glory, and this glory must survive all other. France knows also, that at the period in which we live, it is more than ever important to draw more closely the fraternal band which unites enlightened men of every nation; she will not be diverted by the political agitations which are working within her, from the great duty which this noble confraternity imposes upon her. ‘The king has already confided to the chisel of one of our ablest statuaries the task of reproducing for the academy of Boar the features of the immortal Cuvier . The town of Montbeliard will consecrate, bya monument, the honor of having given him birth. ae “These homages are insufficient, to honor the memory of him whose Yabors have benefited the whole human race. Public opinion calls for something further ; it is the wish that a general subscription should invite the friends of science in all nations to concur in the public hon- or which it claims for the Aristotle of modern times. “Subscribers have presented themselves from all quarters; the learned bodies literary and political, of which Cuvier was a member have been in earnest to lead the subscription. To consider of the means of collecting these stati and concerting upon the nature of the monument to be raised, it appeared suitable to form a joint committee of members of the Institute Pe the University, of the Council of State, and of the Society of natu- hist ory. “This joint committee has not hesitated with respect to the proper place for the erection of such a monument: what place indeed could. possibly be more appropriate than the garden of plants, the theatre of all the labor of Cuvier. 810 Documents in Commemoration of Baron Cuvier. With respect to the monument, the amount of subscription will determine its nature and importance. It may, however, be primari- ly understood, that an essential part of it will be the statue of him whom it honors. At a time when every country seems to be agitated with piel convulsions, it will be interesting to witness the elevation of a peace- ful monument, which will attest to future ages, that neither the rival- ship of nations, the spirit of party, nor the war of opinions has been able to divert the men of our age from the respect which in all places is held to be due to letters and to science. Ss N.B. At the invitation of the minister of public instruction, the receivers of colleges and the money agents of the university acade- mies will receive the subscriptions of the departments. The Co Consuls of France in foreign countries will be willing to perform the same service. M. Cardot, the special agent of the Institute, will hold the central purse, and will also receive the subscriptions of Paris. This programme will be addressed to all learned societies. In all cases in which the amount of the subscription is sufficient, the subscriber will receive an engraving representing the monument and the traits of M. Cuvier. (Signed) Jovy, of the French Academy; F. Araco, Perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences; Grorrroy-SainT-HILAIRE, Vice President of the Academy of Sciences; Dureav DeLAmALLE of the Academy of Inscription and Belles Lettres; DeceRaND0; Coun’ellor of State, Member of the Institute, President of the Com- mittee; Davin of the Institute; Vitnemars; Duparquet, Secreta ry of the Committee; A. Bacupwtans: Peeiciout of the Society of Natural History ; es Architect, Member of the Institute. _ 3. Perpetual Secretary in the room of G. Cuvier. The committee appointed to propose a list of candidates deemed this step to be unnecessary, as all the members of the Academy were — sufficiently acquainted with all who had any pretensions to. the sta- tion. tile the votes were being collected, it was rumored the hall that Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire renounced his candidature. ‘The number of votes given in was forty five, of which M. Dulong ! had twenty ; M. Flourens, eleven; M. Geoffroy, seven; M. Bendant, five ; M. Duneril, one ; blank, one. Their being no majority, a second balloting took place, when Mf Dulong received thirty votes, and the president proclaimed the elec- tion in his favor. _ Notices of American Steam Boats. 311 4. Chair of Compitihetbie Anatomy in the room of G. Cuvier at the Museum of Natural History. the committee presented as candidates MM. Flourens, Serres, Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, Dumeril and DeBlainville. e number of votes deposited in the urn was forty five, of which DeBlainville had twenty two; Dumeril, twenty; Flourens, one ; blank, two. DrBuarnvitie was declared elected. Session of July 23. _A letter at condolence on account of the death of Cuvier, address- ed to the Academy, was received from the secretary of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. “Cuvier,” says this letter, “by the power of his genius, and the vast extent of his knowledge, held the most eminent rank in science which it is given to man to attain. His death is not a loss to France only, but to the whole world. The Royal Institution which reckoned him in the small number of its” foreign honorary members is forcibly impressed with an event which deprives it of the lustre which his name reflected upon it, and of | the ape held forth eA his admirable works,” esa Encye. Juillet, 1832 eee a agg XIV. —WNotices of American Steam Boats; by W.C. ane cre FIELD, of New - Tue increase in the number of steam boats in the waters of the United States, within the last fifteen years, which has not failed to excite both surprise and gratulation, is hardly greater than the im- provements which have been made in their structure and efficiency. Before the commencement of the period alluded to, the steam en- gine had been brought nearly to the maximum of its efficiency, as a moving power, and the adaptation of its energies to the purposes of Ravigation, though less advanced, was supposed to have nearly reach- ed the same stage of perfection. About ten years since, the steam which navigated the river Hudson, and which were doubtless superior to any others of that period, performed the passage between New York and Albany, in from eighteen to thirty hours, according to the favor of circumstances: five years later, and from one to four laden vessels, each of more than two hundred tons burthen, $12 Notices of American Steam Boats. were towed through the same rout, by a single steam howts in an ome range of time, ‘The power and speed of the Hudson river steam boats, as au as those employed on the Mississippi and elsewhere, have continued to be annually increased, up to the present time. In the year 1827, the passage between New York and Albany, which is suppo- sed to be equal to one hundred and fifty statute miles,* had been per- formed under favorable circumstances, in about twelve hours. In 1829, this passage had been accomplished in ten hours and thirty minutes, and in 1831, in ten hours and fifteen minutes ;_all the SPP" pages on the river being included in these statements. But the giant offspring of science and the arts had not yet attained its full strength and maturity, and during the present season (1832) the passage has been performed in nine hours and eighteen minutes, including the time spent at the different landings. Claims to this rate of speed, -have also been set up by-more than one competitor. It appears highly probable, that with the means now possessed or in preparation, - the passage may yet be performed in something less than nine hours, nothwithstanding the obstacles presented by the shallowness of the river and the intricacies of the navigation, in the thirty miles nearest to Albany. It may be remarked here that the length of the route as above given, is not supposed to be overrated, as is usually the fact with inland navigable routes; nor can the assistance of the tides in ascending the river be Sinks estimated at more than one mile per hour, on an average of the whole distance ; while, in the descending passage, little or no*advantge can be deaved from this source, be- cause the ebb and flood are then made to alternate in three hours, oF even in a shorter period. Twelve landings are usually made on each passage, and at six of these places, the steam boats are brought to, and fastened to the wharves. hose who are conversant with the difficulties which anol the attainment of high velocities in navigating a medium whose resistance ~ accumulates in a ratio exceeding the squares of the velocities, bY means of an artificial power, the reaction for which, is obtained from the medium itself, will justly consider the above rates of speed e pias rns Nor will this view of me subject be weakened by ray ge ee * The distance between the two points by the river road is reputed obo equa xty two miles. The direction or course, of the channel river, though generally favorable, ranges Setiwedn west, and éast-north-east. Notices of American Steam Boats. 313 _ statements, which may eine to gain currency, of the attainment of “greater speed in more open waters, by steam vessels, possessing less _ comparative efficiency, on routes either overrated in their extent, or affording great occasional advantages, from the strength and rapidity of the tides. It sometimes happens, that, owing to the inadvertence of a compositor, or some other cause, a mistake of an hour finds its way into the published accounts of the passage malls by a favorite steam at. In addition to twelve steam botis which are employed on this river in the various lines of transportation, and on short routes, there are ten boats of the first class which have been employed in daily trips for the conveyance of passengers between New York and Albany ; viz. the North America, Albany, Novelty, Erie, Champlain, Ohio, New Philadelphia, De Witt Clinton, Constitution, and Constellation. “Of these, the five first named depart in the morning at seven o’clock, and perform the passage in nine and a quarter to thirteen hours; the latter five, depart usually at five in the evening, ,and accomplish:the passage in nearly the same time. Passengers in the former, may en- joy airy accommodations, and the interesting scenery of the Hudson, _ together with their accustomed repose at night; and by means of the latter, men of active and provident habits, are able to transact their _ daily business at will, either in our commercial metropolis, or in one mF the flourishing cities at the head of navigation; the intervening _ space of one hundred and fifty miles being passed over during the “hours of relaxation and repose, with no other discomfort, than attends _ the occupation of a good matress with clean linen, in a steam boat usu- ally loaded with passengers. ‘The price of passage is commonly fixed _ at three dollars. _ Most of these boats have undergone a material change in their size, ten, and general outfit since their first construction, in order to _ maintain a successful competition for the business of this noble river. — It will not be necessary to give an account of the various efforts of : - professional skill, by means of which these boats have attained to - their present degree of perfection and efficiency, but a general, and ee somewhat definite description of one of the number, may prove ac- : ceptable to the readers of the Journal. : ‘The De Witt Clinton, having been twice enlarged, is now of the _ following dimensions, viz. entire length on deck, two hundred and _ thirty three fect. Breadth of the hull at the water line, twenty eight feet. Projection # wat deck or. ee on each side, — Vou. XXIil.—N 314 Notices of American Steam Boats. feet. Maximum width of deck, including guards, sixty four feet, Depth of hold, ten feet. Height of the upper deck, eleven feet. Length of the great cabin, one hundred and seventy five feet. Draft of water, not exceeding four feet six inches. Diameter of the wa- ter-wheels, twenty two feet. Length of the same, measured on the buckets, each wheel, fifteen feet. Dip of the buckets or paddles, thirty seven inches. Diameter of the iron water-wheel shafts, four- teen inches. Length of the crank, five feet. Length of the stroke made by the piston, ten feet. Diameter of the piston, sixty six inches, its superficies being equal to three thousand four hundred and twenty one square inches. The gross length of the working cylinder, which is placed in a vertical position, is eleven feet, ten inches. Its lateral apertures, by which the steam is received and dis- charged, are forty two by ten and three fourth inches.’ The en- gine is worked by means of four circular receiving valves, each of seventeen inches diameter, (two at either end of the cylinder,) and four exhausting valves of the same dimensions. ‘The diameter of the main steam pipe, and side pipes, is twenty five inches. a _ The entire capacity of the cylinder, deducting the space occu- pied by the piston, and including one of the side apertures extending to the valves, is equal to two hundred and fifty two cubic feet, whic is equal to one thousand eight hundred and ninety standard wine gallons, or to sixty three barrels of thirty gallons each. Should the engine perform twenty six revolutions or double strokes per minute,* there will be exhausted 13.104 cubic feet = 3276 barrels, per min- ute, and 786.240 cubic feet of steam, or 196.560 barrels, will be exhausted every hour, during the time in which the engine is in full motion! But the steam is allowed to enter freely from the boiler, only during a part of each stroke, the throttle valve being then closed, and the steam which has previously entered the cylinder is allowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke. If the pressure of steam maintained in the boilers be equal to twenty pounds per square inch above the mean pressure of the atmosphere, (and greater pres- — sure is frequently employed in these boats,) the average effective pressure on the piston may be safely estimated, even with less pres sure, at about ten pounds for each square inch of its superficies- Notices of American Steam Boats. B15 To this must be added the net pressure of the atmosphere, obtained by the use of the condenser and air-pump, which is fully equal to ten pounds to the inch, the vacuum in the condenser ranging gener- ally from twelve and a half to thirteen and a half pounds to the inch, — by the barometrical guage. This estimate whichis obtained by near approximations, will give an average pressure on the piston, equal to twenty pounds to the square inch; but lest we should be charged with overrating, we will reduce it 60 sixteen pounds, effective pressure to the square sit: on three thousand four hundred and twenty one inches of piston, running fifty two single strokes, of ten feet each, per minute. Estimating now the full power of a horse as equal to one hundred and fifty pounds, moving at two and a half miles an hour, or to raising thirty three thousand pounds one foot per tee 3421 x 16 x 52 x 10 33.000 , showing a force exerted upon the engine which ‘minute, we have the following formula; — 28462720 _ ano ess000 is equal to the power of eight hundred and sixty two horses. From this result we are to deduct the power necessary for moving the en- gine, or that Fequired for overcoming the friction and resistance of its parts, whic ngines of this magnitude, work- ing on such an extended crank, than j in the average of smaller engines. We will estimate it, however, as equal to one third of the force ap- . plied, which gives the effective working power of the engine as equal to that of five hundred and seventy five horses! An engineer with whom I have conferred, and under whose direction several of the _ engines in these boats have been constructed, estimates the net ef- fective pressure, exclusive of all deduction for friction, &c. as equal to twelve pounds for every square inch of the piston. ‘This may be ‘hearer the truth, and gives the working power of this engine as equal to six hundred and forty six horses. Such results may at the on view appear to be of a startling character, even to teaders, but having been arrived at by gradual approximations, they seem hardly to have attracted the attention, either of men of science, or practical engineers. ~The following may be given as a summary statement of the prin- cipal dimensions of the other boats which have been named, and which, if not minutely correct in all its particulars, is sufficiently so for purposes of general information. The Champlain, a new boat, is one hundred and eighty feet in length, twenty eight feet beam on 316 Notices of American Steam Boats. the water line, and has two engines of forty two inches cylinder and ten feet stroke, which with wheels of twenty two feet, run from twenty six to twenty eight revolutions per minute. The Erie, also, anew boat; is of the same size, and somewhat greater power, her cylinder being of forty four inches diameter.* The North America is two hundred and eighteen feet in length, including a cut-water bow, — (which has also been affixed to most of the other boats,) thirty feet beam, and has also two engines with-cylinders of forty four inches — diameter, and eight feet stroke. The Albany is two hundred and seven feet inlength, twenty six feet beam, and has one engine of sixty five inches cylinder, and nine feet stroke. The Ohio is one hundred and ninety two feet in length, thirty feet beam, and has one engine with cylinder of sixty inches diameter and nine feet stroke. The New Philadelphia is one hundred and seventy feet in length, twenty é four in breadth, and carries one engine of fifty five inches cylinder and ~ ten feet stroke. ‘The Constitution is one hundred and forty five feet in length, twenty seven feet beam, and has one engine of forty two inch cylinder and nine feet stroke. The Constellation is about one hundred and forty nine feet in length, twenty seven feet beam, and carries one engine of forty four inches cylinder, and ten feet stroke. The Novelty is about two hundred and twenty feet in length, twenty five feet beam, and has two engines with cylinders of thirty inches in diameter and six feet stroke, working horizontally, using steam — of higher elasticity, and dispensing also with the use of a condenser and air pump, Most of the above steam boats carry their boilers on the wheel-guards, entirely without the body of the boat. The Erie and Champlain carry each four boilers, and the same number of chim- ney pipes. The Novelty has four sets of boilers, of about forty inches in diameter, three in each set, and earries also four chimneys Little apprehension in regard to personal safety is now entertained by persons travelling in steam boats. Ata former period, two com- modious safety barges were employed on the Hudson, which, in or- der to obviate all danger arising from this source, were devoted xclu- sively to passengers, and towed at the stern of a steam boat. These es which were run during the summer season from 1825 to 2 These two boats run to the city of Troy, a prosperous and beautiful town, sifua- : ted’ Six miles above Albany. A large lithographic drawing of these steam boats, including also a ske! " ch of the scenery in the Highlands of the Hudson near the moun - : tain called Anthony’s Nose, has been published by the company owning the boats. Notices of American Steam Boats. 317° 1829, had attained to a speed of eight to nine miles per hour; but the _ increase which, during the same period, was given to the speed and size of the steam boats, tended to discourage this mode of convey- ance, and it has since been discontinued, to the regret of those who love quiet enjoyment, and whose nerves have not been inured to com- _ posure by frequent proximity with the moving power. _ Ithas been frequently remarked that the exposure to fatal accidents on board of steam boats, is much less than attends the use of the or- dinary means of conveyance, either by Jand or water, and it has been suggested, that the average loss of life by steam boat explosions, is ven less than is annually occasioned by lightning. In order to test the accuracy of this suggestion, I have noted during the present year, such accidents by lightning, as were attended with fatal results, so far as the same have come to my knowledge. The whole number of ca- ses thus ascertained is twenty six, which were distributed as follows. In New Hampshire, 1; Massachusetts, 1; Rhode Island, 1; Connect- icut, 2; New York, 7; Pennsylvania, 5; Delaware, 3; Virginia, 1; ‘South Carolina, 2; Louisiana, 2, and Illinois, 1. It is hardly to be supposed that this statement comprises one moiety of the whole num- ~ ber of fatal casualties of this kind, which have occurred in the United States during the past year, and it comprises but a single accident, in the four great states of Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky and Ten- _ nessee. In recurring to the list of steam boat accidents, which was re- cently published in this Journal,* it will be seen that the entire mortal- ity from this cause, is estimated at three hundred in a period of twenty years, which amounts to an average of fifteen foreach year. The loss of lives by the bursting of steam boat boilers, during the present year, Thave recorded as follows:—Steam boat Post-boy, on the Mississip- pi, 1 killed; Ohio, on the Hudson, 5 ‘killed and drowned ; Adam Duncan, on the Connecticut, 1 drowned; Connecticut, in Boston harbor, 1 killed; Monticello, on the Mississippi, 2 killed —Total, 10. Of this last number, as far as I have been able to ascertain, three Were passengers, and the remainder persons who were employed about the engine, showing that the risk to passengers is extremely small. - What further improvements in safety, or speed, are yet to be elicit- ed in the art or science of locomotion, time only can shew us. The steam boat, a short time ago, appeared to our view, as the ne plus ultra of human effort, but the successful application of steam power on rail- * Vol. XX, pp. 336—338. Ge ae 318 Economy of Fuel. roads, has already rivalled, if not greatly surpassed, our achieve- ments in steam navigation. It is however, probable that the maxi- mum of useful effect, has been nearly attained in both these depart- ments, which, when practically considered, will be found auxiliaries, rather than rivals, to each other. ‘The art of obtaining the full power of steam, and of applying it to the purpose of locomotion on a fluid which sustains the load and affords sufficient reaction for the mov- ing power, is now well understood; and in regard to railroads it is doubtless true, that a level metallic surface, not only sustains the veht- ele, in the most perfect manner, but affords the least possible resistance, with the best possible reaction for the propelling power, and combines, therefore; the greatest conceivable facilities for the transit of persons property.* - Other expectations, which are often entertained, — due consideration, will doubtless end in disappointment. — is the establishment and extension of these unequalled means of con- cies that the enterprise of our growing country should be direct- ed. It has been truly said that the career of improvement in our age, _ is too impetuous to be stayed, were it wise to attempt it, and “though it be a futile attempt to oppose so mighty an impulse, it may not be unworthy our ambition, to guide its progress, ane direct its ee Aur. XV.—On the Economy of Fuel with oleate to tts sdoasiill applications; by WauteR R. Jounson, Prof. of Mechanics and Datta Philosophy, in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphies es Tue art of heating apartments in the most economical and salute- ry manner, is of truly vital importance to the interests of society: Connected with this, the art of ventilation stands preéminent, and with both the art of constructing dwellings and other buildings, is intimately related. In all our larger towns and particularly in our maritime cities, the annual expenditure for fuelis enormous. New York and Philadel phia are believed to pay each, not less than twelve hundred or fifteen hundred thousand dollars per annum, for combustibles, to be ante ed either i in domestic uses, or in cap cama In reaper * to both * It may be noticed, that the power aapenes for propelling a single steam boat of the first class, is equal to that of fifty locomotive engines of the power twelve These would probably be adequate to the conveyance of all the pas now transported upon the the H ens dred to a level rail way of equal extent. of these objects, but particularly de former, the most : regard of economy is often perceptible, as well in the arra - burning, as in the manner and extent in which the heat is ape _ So long as the original forests of our country were standing, little Saaitance was attached to this branch of economy. The burning of a huge mass of cord-wood in a broad open-mouthed chimney, supplied to a certain extent, the desired temperature, and involved as a consequence, the production of such currents of air as effec- cally prevented stagnation in the atmosphere of apartments. Hence : occupants were seldom exposed to the peculiar maladies which arise from a stifled air. _ Indeed, the rude and almost primitive method of heating apart: ments, then in use, rendered their inmates subject to a contrast of Sensations, quite as striking as that paradox, which the philosopher exhibits, when by the ebullition of one liquid, he causes the simulta- neous congelation of another. The chilling blast which assailed one part of the person, vied strangely with the scorching radiance which beset the opposite. . The present expensiveness of fuel, renders it desirable to. arrange our houses in some manner different from the ancient method ; so _as at once to limit the consumption of fuel, and to secure an ample supply o: of wholesome air. The latter requisite is too often sacrificed to the mere elevation of temperature. Not only is the composition of the air allowed to be deteriorated by frequent respiration, but its hygrometric state is sometimes such, as to operate most injuriously on the system. Nature is, in general, careful to supply our lungs with ‘air capable of receiving from them some portion of moisture ; if this portion be either too great or too small, the lungs, and eventually the whole body, will suffer either from the excess or the deficiency. To meine this quantity is one part of our own duty. » The gradual troduction of mineral fuel, especially of anthracite wil probably introduce some changes in domestic arr Which will supersede the use of those more bulky, troublesome, aad unsafe materials, heretofore employed in combustion. ‘The conse- quences of such changes, if judiciously made, will doubtless be the diminution of expense, the saving of labor, the gaining of comfort; and the economizing of space and time. Those awkward projections which now encumber and defertoms spares, under the name of chimnies, filling, in many eases, from ohe-twentieth to one-sixteenth of the whole area of the room, and 320 Economy of Fuel. ’ that too on every floor from the cellar to the garret, will be wholly excluded. This expenditure for land on which to build chimnies, is no mean item in the first expense, and is anterior to the building, as well as to the maintaining of a chimney. Even admitting that one-thirtieth only of the ground were thus uselessly encumbered by the stacks of chimney, the aggregate loss on the original investment — would still amount to no mean sum for the population of a large city. The cost or rent of ground, on which to build chimnies, is therefore, the first object to be economized. The next item in thi expenditure is the construction of chimnies and fire-places, including the materials and the various furniture, either for use or for decora- tion,—the bricks, the marble, the brass and the iron; the fenders, the hearths and hearth-rugs, the mantles and their ornaments, elegant or tawdry ; and the glasses; that have been invented in all possible variety for no other conceivable purpose but to hide the deformity in But we have not yet done with the taxation to which the inhabi- tants of large cities submit for the purpose of warming the air above their chimney tops. ‘There comes an incessant call for kindling ma- terials, for wood, for bark, “chips,” charcoal, or the rather less evané- scent, but far more fumitory cannel coal. ‘There is the labor of one or more domestics almost constantly kept in requisition to build or to renew fires, to watch for falling brands and wipe from tarnished fur- niture the clouds of ashes, dust, and smoke. There is not seldom found the noise of shovels, and tongs, the distressful, asthmatic, Tes- ‘piration of the bellows; the far spreading odor of a scorched heart! rug; the soon frayed and tattered carpet, cut though by fragments of combustible, crushed beneath the fect, and worn threadbare by the incessant application of the broom. ce But if the present mode of heating apartments is a grievous tax upon the purse, how much more upon the person? How many of the long catalogue of diseases, incident to our citizens, may be tra- ced to the unequal and ever variable temperatures to which the moc? — of heating houses now exposes them? Even admitting that @ pee form temperature has been obtained in the room chiefly occupied by the family, yet we seldom find the same heat prevalent throughout the house. The entries, staircases and other passages are in the cole weather exposed to frequent currents, of an icy chillness, even while the parlour suffers the torrid influences of a roaring fire. The cur rent up the chimney created by the latter only serves indeed to in- Economy of Fuel. 321 erease the severity of the cold in the halls and passages by requiring a - constant supply of fresh air from without. 'To pass from the parlour _ into the open air, seldom occasions much sensible inconvenience, be- cause the person is suitably prepared by supernumerary garments, hats, bonnets, and hoods, coats, cloaks and belts, gloves, mitts and Overshoes—to encounter the frosty rigor of the winter. But when we merely pass from the parlor to the “hall,” or through the stair- case to a chamber, we scarcely think of a similar precaution, and consequently encounter a fearful hazard by exposing ourselves to the Opposite extremes of summer and winter temperatures without the slightest change of apparel. Nor are these exposures always of short duration. They not unfrequently extend toa length of time, during which no prudent person would venture to remain in the open air, at the’same temperature, as the entry in which we stand, perhaps con- versing,—or giving directions—or reciprocating compliments, or pay- ing cold civilities. We retire at night to our lodging rooms which have been all day in a freezing state, and load ourselves with numer- ous and heavy coverings to keep off the cold,—or we sink into mas- ses of feathers and down for the same purpose, thus stifling and en- ervating ourselves in the most effectual manner, instead of enjoying the elastic and refreshing curled hair matress which proved so agrea- ble and healthful in summer. Or, we cause a fire to be lighted in the ng and heat up our lodging rooms for the former part of the night, only to become more sensibly dreary and comfortless in’ the morning. We descend to the breakfast parlor, and find that want of i: or want of skill, in a domestic, has allowed the fire to remain inactive till a late hour, or in removing the ‘dust and ashes” under which the family had been humbled on the preceding day, he had ‘found it convenient to’ throw up the sash and admit a copious supply of cold-air, which now begins to riot about the room, and at length takes full possession, driving from the house even that remaining ves- tige of comfort which the walls, warmed by yesterday’s 4 had hitherto afforded. The true purpose of heating apartments is not merely, to allow the occupants to derive heat from a direct exposure to fire, much less from a contact with the source of heat. _ It is to sup- ply in. winter that equable temperature to our persons which nature has provided in summer. ‘The means, too, of communicating it, ought to be similar, and that is, chiefly, through the warming influence of the air in which we move, and by the respiration of which, the due _ temperature of the vital organs is — Although these truths Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 322 Economy of Fuel. are almost too obvious to require to be seriously urged in argument, yet such is the force of habit, as to render most persons insensible to the justness of this distinction ; and to induce a supposition that actu- — al exposure to fire is the only means of maintaining a comfortable condition of body, and a cheerful state of mind. But, do we ever sigh for the spectacle of a glowing fire in the days of July, or the evenings of August? Do we, at that season, contend that the parlor is void of social attraction, because it has no brilliant grate, or the breakfast room cheerless, because no “ blazing hearth” is seen to greet our entrance? And why do we not shiver at the sight of a drawing room without its fire in summer, as well as in winter? Ob- viously, because the idea of discomfort is then in no way connected with the absence of firelight. And the same would be true of our apartments in winter, were we equally accustomed to be free from pain, and equally sure of beholding cheerful countenances around us, while removed from a sight of the process of combustion. So strong a prepossession has taken hold of many minds on this subject, that mere reasoning would probably not convince one in ten, that he would be able to endure a winter’s evening without a sight of the fire. But I have seldom seen an individual, who when present in.a room, oth-— erwise heated, did not actually soon forget his artificial w i t, and be- come not merely reconciled to the deprivation of a glowing fire, but actually delighted with the summer-like influence which prevailed around him. ‘05 eee But aside from the mere consideration of temperature and from its variableness, when governed by the action of fire within the apart- ment to be heated, there is, in the very pleasure which we faney to be found only in the sight of a fire, not unfrequently, an intermixture of pain and of peril, sufficient, one should suppose, to counterbalanee- all the good proposed by that peculiar arrangement of things. The eye is often pained and sometimes actually injured by the continued glare to which it is exposed. _ Resort is then had to screens or other defences to shield us from the blasting * excess of light” on which 1t has been our pleasure to fix our gaze. : o _ Again, the radiation of heat, at first grateful, is by degrees in — creased until not only the face but the whole person is found ina glow far beyond what the system Can safely endure. But the retreat which at length becomes necessary, is not always made until profuse perspiration has been induced, and then we remove to ® distance at which the radiation is almost unfelt and where its effects on the ait | Beonomy of Fuel 528 of the room has been wholly neutralized, by the currents from doors, - windows, and other apertures. ‘Thus is the body kept in a manner oscillating between extremes of temperature, until a confirmed “ cold” er catarrh has taken possession of the system. That pulmonary complaints should ensue, is but the natural con- sequence of this artificial variableness of climate, to which we are frequently exposed, and such a consummation has, it is believed, of- ten been brought about by the ory prudent caution of keeping near @ good fire for a single evening.* It were needless to enumerate the duosons to which the inmates of a house, and even the house itself are exposed where young chil- dren have free access to an open fire. The many appalling acci- dents which are annually recorded as resulting from this cause, are sufficient to make us desire some more secure method of keeping up an agreeable warmth among the tender objects of maternal and paren- tal solicitude. hat the nursery may be secure from danger, recourse is had to close stoves; but in attendance upon these, many of the same evils are experinced which belong to the open fire. In apaamenss 3 for the sick, and particularly when wood is the fuel, they are on account of the constant watchfulness, required for preserving a uniform temperature Hence it is not in the construction only of sand ics; or in the arrangements of receptacles for the burning fuel, that a want of economy is visible. ‘The very manner in which the combustion is carried on, and the disposal made of its _ products, are widely at variance with philosophical principles. Every mode of producing combustion, in which more cold gaseous matter is allowed to approach the ignited mass, than is actually required for the support of combustion, involves a loss of useful effects depen- dent on the quantity and capacity of the gas, and on the elevation of temperature which it acquires by passing over the fire. — But the quantity of unburnt air which passes up an open chimney where ‘wood is consumed, bears a very large proportion to the gaseous pro- ducts of the combustion. In stoves, the economy is but little better, especially where the gas-pipe passes almost immediately from the . — of the fuel into the chimney. The occupants of some an- = . "In a house heated in the manner hereafler described, Bae has for three winters be by the inmates. In the exempt from that troublesome and dangerous compla $24. as Economy of Fuel. cient dwellings are perhaps contented, that they can by closing the fire-place with a board, and conveying through this the pipe of a small stove, escape the dreariness incident to their former mode of - consuming fuel. They do not appear to imagine that as the gas is red hot at the moment of entering the chimney, it would, if conduet- ed a considerable distance within the apartments, be capable of im- parting to the air of the room, several hundred degrees of its heat. The admixture of unburnt air is the evil of open grates and fire places; the escape of hot gas without discharging its people —_ is that of close stoves as now generally arranged. The culinary operations of almost every family involve an im- mense waste of heat, and of heat too which might be turned to valnalie account, ware ome a small portion of the ingenuity bestowed rned towards that much neglected branch of domestic operations. “Philosophy i is slow in descending to the mn. Nineteen centuries of time, and twelve hundred ne oe: space, have not impaired the truth of the remark, “Coquus preter jus fervens, nihil novi potest imitari.” fudeua,~ a new process or a new fashioned utensil is often ogee by that important dignitary, as a signal for open hostility, or fora sul- len retirement from the “ place” which it has invaded. Henee from ten to twenty cords of wood are annually consumed in many a family for the sole purpose of cooking, while every other part of the estad~ lishment is supplied with anthracite. In economizing culinary heat, it seems probable that at least one half of all the fuel usually TT ed in families may be saved. The method proposed to be substituted for that which has si described, is one which has, under some modifications, been employ~ ed, toa limited extent, for heating public edifices, and on 4 still. more limited scale, for the warming of private buildings. It consists in placing in the basement story, or in the cellar, (as the case may be,) a single furnace capable of effecting the combustion of as much fuel as will be required to heat all parts: of the house. Where an- thracite: i is employed, this arrangement is perhaps more desirable than where any other fuel is used, because the labor of attendance is: se to. an amount utterly insignificant, compared with the expense of fuel and is extremely small compared with —_ would be with some other kinds of combustibles. Pad The furnace may be either of cast or rolled iron, the latter b ein j preferable on account of its lightness and pliability ; the former, “fr Beoiiomy of Fuel. 325 its resistance to corrosion and for the cheapness of the material. A stove or furnace, formed of either of these materials, may be placed in the basement, and surrounded, except in front, with any substance suitable for forming a chamber to receive air at the bottom, which, after ascending around, and over the surface of the iron, may pass up through openings in the floor. The front part of the furnace may be made to join the enclosure allowing access to the fire, but not ad- mitting a communication with the hot air chamber. _ The air to supply the combustion may be taken from the apart- ment immediately around the furnace, or, what is perhaps preferable, may be conducted to the grate through a trunk descending from the floor of one of the upper heated apartments. In the latter case, it ‘serves to carry down the colder parts of the air of the room in pro- portion as the warm air rises from the furnace to take its place. _ By the arrangement above described, the fire is left open, and at liberty to be used for culinary purposes, while the posterior part of the stove or furnace is employed to heat the air for supplying par- lors, chambers and passages. The air to be used for this aii: purpose should be derived from a source not subject to any species of contamination. It would gen- ~~ be advisable to receive it through a conducting tube from the 1d to keep it separate from that which supplies the com-— ees of conduit may be used when several stories, not opnsioeted by an ample stair case, are to be kept at uniform temperatures, but the opening or closing of doors will often be sufficient to regulate the heat. It has been found by experience, that when once admitted into the lower apartment, the wari air will soon make its way into aed open apartment in the house. _ The annexed figure exhibits the arrangement above described sich: the exception of representing the gas-pipe as passing upwards through the entry passage, where it is enclosed by a metallic col- umn ©; instead of being carried into the kitchen chimney according to the actual arrangement, of which this is a representation ~The advantage to be attained by the plan here ielicioneeid is, that @ portion of air from the first floor may be allowed to enter the me- tallic column at an opening e, seen on one side, at the bottom, and, ascending between it and the gas pipe, may be discharged into — ci — rooms where it may be required. ~ ge 326 Economy of Fuel. shel is the canvass covering (rendered incombusible) pac which air ascends, after being heated by the st K, is the kitchen in the basement. aS aid D, is the parlor above it. E, the entry or passage extending from front to rear ar of the house with a staircase leading tothe chambers. ~~ S eald _§, isthe stove lined with fire brick. ; ae O, the oven immediately above the fire. - ~ G, the grate with the ash pit below. The grate and fire are ae resented as open; but hooks on the right and left show where doors are to be panpended, which when shut convert it into # close stove. Salil H, is the enti raised six inches from the ‘sci the stove resing on a base not seen in the figure. - _U, is an urn with a spigot, and a pipe on the opposite side le: with a gradual descent obliquely into the fire through an — the plate of the stove. B, is a similar aperture to receive _ pipe from a boiler in the same manner as at that attached to the u -P, is the gas pipe six or eight sdilgeas in diameter, of Praes the various directions within the canvass are indicated by dotted lines. I, is a piece of sheet iron, six inches broad, extending across the _top and down the sides of the stove in front serving for an attachment to the cloth, and sufficiently insulating it from the hot metal. The front of the stove thus constitutes a part of the circular enclosure. F, is a pipe which may be opened or closed at pleasure for con- veying to the chimney any fumes which may chance to escape into the kitchen. _ 'T, is a wooden trunk, beneath the. floor, for conveying pure air to the exterior of the furnace. M, its aperture within the air chamber. h, h, are light iron hoops within the canvass covering to — it ex- tended, and prevent contact with the pipe, P. widhiioae of the ical so that the eye of a ees seldom de- tects the source of heat unless he happen to pass over the aperture. The canvass is rendered incombustible by any heat which can be radiated from the stove, first, by dipping it in a strong solution of alum, and afterwards by covering both surfaces with a coat of white- wash, composed of eight parts of quick lime to one of common salt. he same covering has been three years in use without the slightest ~ sign of combustion. The whole apparatus may have cost, in ad- dition to the price of the cooking stove, about five dollars. It canbe put up or taken down in an hour, and.at the approach of warm weath- er, when heat is no longer wanted for the other apartments, the aper- ture in the floor is closed, the canvass detached, the grate and base - of the stove removed to an ordinary kitchen fire-place; and with proper supports for boilers and other apparatus, a summer cooking Tange is at once constructed out of the materials which had been used in the winter, and thus no change of fuel becomes necessary at that season. With.a gas pipe of sufficient dimensions to convey away the fumes, little annoyance can arise from that quarter. To 328 : Economy of Fuel. be entirely freed from inconvenience on account of their occasional ction, it is only necessary to provide an escape in the manner indicated at F. The kitchen fire place is of course completely closed during the winter. By the adoption of this plan, every flue in the house except one, is rendered useless; and much worse than useless, because, besides occupying a great space, they carry off the hot air which is sent up from the furnace. And yet they do not perform all the purposes of ventilation, since their apertures are below the prop- er level for that object. - Seven out of eight have conenen ae closed at the top, by boards laid in mortar. Ventilation, when required, is readily effected by letting down sash from the top. From November to April, (the time this apparatus is in use) the average consumption of anthracite is one ton per month; and no - fuel whatever is required except a little charcoal, and a trifling quantity of light wood for rekindling the fire, should it ss become extinct. Canvass has been adopted to form the air shenlini because it is lighter, cheaper, more manageable than either iron or brick, and oc Cupies no space of importance, when removed for the summer. Where such removal is not desirable, or where the slightest danger is apprehended, it were probably better to form it of some ordinary building material. The whole of the above apparatus aeons - perhaps be improperly termed a tent furnace. _ As already stated, the gas pipe in the actual arrangement oe described, passes into a kitchen chimney, and the column C, is omit- ted; ——— considerable loss is sustained notwithstanding the quantity of pipe enclosed in the air chamber. In order to assure myself of the practicability of heating an apart ment on the third floor, by means of the gas thus escaping: from the kitchen, as well as to determine the relation of the temperature of the escaping gas, to that of the open air, and to the highest tempera ture required in the rooms below, experiments were made at the top of the chimney, and at several stages below. Care was taken t allow the thermometer, (which for this purpose was suspended to @ measuring line; ) time to attain the temperature of the gas at each stage, and then to withdraw it quickly, when about to be examined. Exp. 1. To this experiment the air was at 40°; the parlor D, 72°; the gas at the very top of the rE 2 134°; _— at sos? - below, 139°. _ Exp. 2. The air was now 26°; parlor, 70°; the air at top, 1189; diece feet below, 123°; six feet below, 131°; nine feet below, 1879; ten and and a half feet below, 139, showing an average diminution of 2° per aed in the height of the. cheney as the gas a — Exp. 3s This was a bold day and a brisk oui was pia The. air was at 18°; the parlor, 75°; gas at the top, 180°, and twenty one feet heleats 220°, showing a diminution of 1,9;° for each foot of the height, and anes that the gas had, at its escape, nearly thrice as much excess above the surrounding air, as any room in the house. The ieipeians at which the gas escapes, must obviously depend upon the state of the fire, as well as upon the quantity of unburnt air, which obtains admission above it. When the fire door of the stove is open, the air enters rapidly and mixing with the gas, partakes of its heat, but probably derives from the fire above which it passes, a small part only of its ultimate temperature. The same is true of the air which enters at the throat of a chimney, be- neath which a grate is in action. The air which approaches to mix cold until the moment of penis, the throat, mira ha te I If eos Lara edeeeaiee ry to receive the gas, a greater proportion of the air of the room . will there find an outlet, and the useful effect of the fuel will be neutralized by sending up the chimney that air which it was the chief purpose of the fire to warm, in order that it might be retained in the apartment and applied to its occupants. _. Exp. 4. This experiment was made upona cna, the gas from which was derived from an open grate in the basement, and of course contained much common air, mixed with the products of combustion. The open air was at 50°, the escaping mixture at 120°. . Exp. 5. A similar examination of another. chimney. fed by a large Kishen. range in full action, gave 125° for the - ar gas, that of the open air being 45°, The foregoing experiments Served to indicate, that the gas of a close stove, if not of an open grate, might be usefully employed to warm an additional apartment, since it constantly escaped at.a much higher temperature than it could be desirable to maintain in any part of a dwelling. «To effect the proposed saving, it was only necessary to arrest the gas by a partition at the Prope point, peer ate the side of the chim- Vou. XXIII.—No 2 330 Economy of Fuel. ney, and insert a pipe connected with a proper air chamber, or drum, of sheet iron through which the gas might be made to pass and again be returned to the flue above the intercepting partition. The plan actually adopted, as the most simple, was to cover the top of the flue from which the gas originally escaped, with a board laid in mortar over the top of the chimney, and when the hot air had.traversed the drum, to turn it into another flue which remained open at the top, but closed at bottom, except a single aperture for the admission of a pipe from the drum. The arrangement is seen in the accompanying fig- ure, where F is the flue coming from the basement; E is the six inch at uot ” } ee | iy TE} pipe which receives the gas; D is the drum ‘three feet wad nine inches high by two feet in diameter, from which proceeds the pipé e for the exit of the gas, into the chimney at P, through the brick wall with which the fire place has been closed. F’ is the flue through which the gas finally makes its escape into the open air; ¢ is a thermometer with its bulb descending through a hole perforated in the sheet iron, to the center of the pipe, and near where it comes out of the flue. This is intended to mark’ the temperature of the — entering gas.’ is another thermometer similarly inserted into the pipe where it leaves the drum, and ¢” is a third one, serving to note the final temperature of the gas at its exit. The drum supports 00 its top broad shallow dish containing water to be evaporated. The meter which marked the temperature of the room stood with- in one foot of the upper end of the drum. ‘The several thermome- ters Tepresented, were designed not only to show the temperature at which the gas entered and left the apartment, but also the relative portions abstracte by the main body of the drum, and by the pipe respectively » and the extent of variation eee the proportions Economy of Fuel. 331 taken off when the temperature of the entering gas was increasing, when it was diminishing, and when stationary. It was likewise im- _ portant to determine whether the proportion withdrawn when the excess of the temperature in the entering gas above that of the roont was great, were the same as when it was less; or whether, on the contrary, the difference in the velocity of movement, of the gas due to the difference of density, would sensibly increase the proportion of that excess which would be withdrawn at the lower tem ures. The area of the convex vertical sides of the drum was 3091.4 Do. of the two ends of do. 2 - - Do. of the pipe ¢ from the drum to the thermometer ¢”, 1234.6 er Total area, 5249.6 Equal to about 37.8 square feet. - Having made this arrangement, I found the temperature of the apart- ment which had, in former years, required a separate grate, or stove, to keep it in a comfortable condition, entirely freed from that neces- ity, and during the whole season, which will long be remembered as one of uncommon severity, not a single hour is known to have found it untenantable from cold. At night, the fire in the kitchen was prepared for a slow operation, by adding a fresh supply of coal covered closely by a layer of the finer kind called “ chestnut coal,” or, what is still better, the coarser parts of the sifted cinders from which the earthy and vitrified portions were always carefully rejected. In this state of the fire, the temperature of the entering gas was con- siderably reduced, but in no instance was it found lower than 100°. It is probable that the mass of brick work, constituting the chimney having become hot during the day, contributed to keep up the tem- perature inthe drum during the night,—a contribution which would - haye been utterly wasted on the “ upper air” according to the usual method of arranging both wood fires and open grates. == - In the following table are given the results of numerous observa- tions made, some at irregular intervals during the winter, others at regular periods of five or ten minutes apart, coutinued for several hours in immediate succession. They are arranged according to the temperature of the entering gas which, it will be observed, was never higher at the time of any observation, than Tic. “ie chan- ges were, in general, so gradual as to allow a perfect facility in noting 332 Economy of Fuel. the rate of variation. The remarks* on this subject are probably sufficiently numerous to enable us to judge even in those cases in which the variation was not noted, what was the actual — ta- king place, or whether the temperature were stationary. As these experiments were made for a purpose purely eaniaibe it was no part of their aim to determine the abstract laws relating to the rate of cooling. Nor is that, probably, necessary in the present state of science. The very elaborate experiments of Dulong and Petit} (as well as of many other philosophers,) have left little to be desired in regard: to the rate of costing’ in vacuo, and in a limited que tity of gas. They have separated these two things, and given the indocncenl each circumstance a distinct consideration. But in what manner will those laws which have been deduced, be modified by the cur- rents of gas traversing the trunks of chimnies or the pipes of stoves? ae or less velocities of the currents materially influence the proportion of heat which will be abstracted by a given extent of surface, when the venrny itself depends on an excess of — in the moving fluid ? ste Even allowing for these circumstances, will the quantity of heat abstracted bear any constant ratio to the excess above the tempera- iure of the room, with which the gas first enters from the chimney ? The table is intended to furnish some data for napeerering St in- , eas se oa * Tt will be understood that the remarks in the eighth column, pes to the por- ti results contained in the sixth, and not to the more general a an which may chance to fall on the same | lines in the seventh. {See Ann, de Chim. et de Phys. Vol. vii, pp. 113, 225 and 337. = g 3 = (22 ae ec é qo ls fe le |eedge [eee a Z ‘|B8 2 S 25 oe |Reinarks on the variations i the pee |e gh les | EL eEs Sekt | a * Sls folie © Se thee bas 65° 35 | 84| 16.457 | | 66 36 7 | 472 Rising rapidly. 643 373 60 45 60 47 446\* 60 \49 66 |44 594 [504 57% |574 Beginning to r 56. 61 412 eae site “ling the stove doors in the morn. 58 |61 [Falling 1° in ie. 80 58 (62 — - (Rising 43° in 10’. — (58 (62 — Falling 19in 10, leo (61 = Fire very low—covered, ae St up for the night. ‘1584 (653 .428 Rising 4° in 5’. : 68 (57 61 |67 Rising rey 61 |73 Rising 8° in 5’. 583 |753 Rising aphdly: Rising rapidly—tempe-| = ‘ me ASS : ati 8° in the ae 59 |81 Risin in 63 |79 Nearly stationary. : 58 |84 i : 62 |82 - |Falling 4° in 5% 594 |86? .392 Rising 54° in 5’. 56% |894 Rising gradually. 60 | Stationary. 624 |853 Falling 43° in 5’. 594 |91% Rising 6° in 5’. 72 |8 | 386 65 (87 64 |es freee recently ro 624 ‘90 Falling 74° in 5’. g Economy of Fuel. g & |es [& [4 [23 [seg s [ss |e {2 134 | ger ey /h-(ee [SE ]3 |ee |dsz "emperatre oft eaesag go Soe 182 188 |S | Sa) S| io teemens oe Se ccc, oe we jeg 123 [78 | 33s “s$ obesryetions Es |2 (es | 82 | #2 | s2e| P2¢ = os ahs] = ~SS] aob 2 |f2 lgta| Es [se |sss| S22 Be o 2] a =) & < 153°F|68° | 85 /122 | 31 |.364) | Falling. | 154 563 | 974/115 | 39 | .400| .372/Rising of 156 633 | 923/120 | 36 |.388, _—|Falliing. 158 594 | 983)117 | 41 |.416 Rising 7° in 5. 160 {625 | 973|124 |*36 |.368| _—|Falling 8° in 5. 160 (60 {100 |126 | 34 |.340 160 56% |1033|1203| 394| .389| 379 Rising. 162 71 91 {130 | 32 | .352) ‘ 163 (62 (|101 |126 | 37 |.366 Falling 13° in 5’. 164 (62 {102 |125 | 39 |.382 Falling 1° in x 165 (59% |1054/122 | 43 | .409/- Rising 64° in 5’. ‘ 168 (70 98 |132 | 36 |.367| .875 OFF 168 (64 {104 {122 | 46 | .442 ising rapid] Me os ag 168 (624 (1053128 | 40 |.378 Falling 4° in 5. Met 171 = (59% |1114/126 | 45 | .404 Rising 54° in 5. Falling very rapidly— 172 |64 {108 |136 | 36 |.333) fire iy with) cold fue aif 172 (624 {1093/1313} 404! .369] .385 Falling 10° in 5’. ij 172 60 128 | 44 | .393 : ag PET 173 129 | 44 |.400| _—sRising. Fi 173 {131 | 42 |.375| | Falling. 173 133 | 40 | .346} 174 130 |} 44 | .407 58 UF 174 129 } 45 |.416) .389 ; . 174 129 } 45 | .398 Rising slowly, 176 130} 46 |.410| [Rising rapidly. 176 114 |130 | 46 |.403 Rising 9° in 5’. | 176 114 /136 | 40 }.351) _—Falling 18° in 5’. 176 116/129 | 47 | .404) .393/Rising 58° i in 5’. 182 138 | 44 | .376 182 136 | 46 | .384 Falling 2° in Bf. 182 135 | 47 | .392 |Rising 4° in 5’. a 182 134 | 48 |.401 Rising. ; 182 133 | 49 |.401| .391|\Rising 5° 5’ ' 183 {140 | 43 | .364) 3 184 136 | 48 | .403) Rios moderately. __ = : s {5 {28 | [2785 Sze Goo 18 138045 Beg ee ater = o Ow v ee Sot ‘ EI BS = £S Bos . if {e je, hee gee | of ee as & 2 2 | § <3 |Remar arks 0 ee ee =: § gs #8 |3 er Pa ee of the he cnaerete Oar 0 S a - ae eae Ros 4 t mon ing 0 be 2 Ss § | © S|) S58) observations B38 13 |cyw | S= [82 | 8e3| 228 : Bo tS: 448 SE i=28 |} 788] 2S& oe we ats | Se Iss | 382] SS ee [88 | #23 | 22 [oe | cazl Bsa Es Be BSE gs es Eee gS F’.1624°) 1212 -390 Stationary. 634 (1214 |) | O78 Falling. S 380 { Falling—stove just re-" ; plenished—cold day. Rising 4° in 5’. | .377|Rising—very cold day. _ Rising. #7 Rising. 61 614 13. ie 3° in 5’. Rising ~~ es wtationa little. t ¢ Rising 1° - 5’—stove opened for an instant. Stationary. Rising. 1; Rising. Ege slowly—a very : day. 384 pend ca; i Nearly stationary—very, cold day. Nearly stationary. : Rising slowly. 336 Economy of Fuel. g 8 388 j2 (= Bs eee ES eS ae ee ee oe B. if jf2 jg is -@.. [#22 of. lg . © So ~ ie eas 23 g a2 2 > lg@e i°es Pay gas, at me) = See 4S igs |f25 | the m teers ates Gon |A@Ss chearea Boo 18 SE 182° 2. -leBe leak ss |— js® [go |[E8 [SBE leet =F lg etd (i fsa [ss2 |528 SS ESSER |e igs jgS8 (288 = aes See = s a < 213°F |67° 146 |155 |58 397) .383 214 |63! (150'/159 55 |.365| —|Falling. 215 = (612 11531|159 (56 | 364 Falling. 0 (150 |160 |60 | .400 Rising gradually. 222 (69 (153 |1611)60! | .395 Rising slowly. : 222 \72 .\150 |168 \54 | .360) .377 “4 223 {70 153 1162 61 | .399| _— (Rising. : 228 (70 (158 |165 63 |.400| _‘[Rising. 231 (68 (163 {170 [61 {.374'.g91' Mean, 62! It will be found that the least portion of temperature abstracted was thirty-three and a third per cent of the excess, with which the gas entered the drum; and this occurred when a quantity of cold anthracite had just been added to the fire, which greatly reduced the temperature of the gas. The drum in the mean time retained some portion of its previous temperature and imparted to the gas instead of taking from it, a quantity of heat. The greatest per cent was for- ty-seven and a half, which was abstracted when the temperature was rising very rapidly and when, of course, the iron of the drum, as well as the air of the room was acquiring temperature. It also occurred when the fire was covered with cinders and the fire-doors opened at night ; the slowness of motion in the gas having pimeae/ more than counterbalanced the diminution of tension in — best, * a greater portion of the excess to escape. The result of all the above observations is, that with a reiocratate in the room, varying from 56° to 72°, and in the entering gas, from 100° to 231°, the number of degrees of heat abstracted by about thir- ty-eight ‘square feet of surface, varied, (according to the tempera- ture,) from 16° to 63°, showing, when compared with the peas 2 the gas above that of the room, a portion abstracted azo to abies of that excess, or about one per cent for each foot ecg Tlic sur- face. ee os The thermometers ¢ and ¢ were so situated as to embrace be- tween them forty-five inches in the length of the pipe, exhibiting a surface of eight hundred forty eight and one fourth square inches. The following observations will show the efficacy of this part of the apparatus. When the thermometer t was 145°, t was 121°, t” 109.5°; whole quantity abstracted 35.5°; part taken off by the pipe between ¢ and ¢” 11.5°. Hence, 32,4, per cent. of the whole dt minution was due to this portion of alee although it was only 16,7, _ per cent. (less than one-sixth) of the whole surface exposed. It will be remarked that in this part, the gas was compelled to move verti- cally downwards, while in the body of the drum it ascended some- what obliquely, and that too, through a medium of gas in the centre of which it may have formed a current, which being enclosed as it were, in a pipe of gas, (a very bad conductor) could not readily dis- charge its heat through the iron. - The mean result of seven experiments made in this manner was, that 335 per cent. of the heat taken off was abstracted by this part of the pipe. This preves that the form of a drum is by no means the most favorable f for aly Sie i The Gassened pipe would LL: LL: be al- Tod fn Sosa it toa a considerable extent. — Sn west? =a a gh ‘ RT. XVI.—The Rattle Snake, (Crotalus horridus, L.) disarmed ay the leaves of the White Ash, (Fraxinus Americana, Mich. f-) Communicated by Judge Samuen Woonprvrr, in a letter dated Windsor, December 4th, 1832. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. sation Sir.—Last evening while perusing your very interesting Betceal, 1 found ia Vol. iii, p. 85, 2 communication to you by Prof. Jacob Green, giving an account of a large quantity of rattle snake skeletons, found in a cave near Princeton College ; Prof. Green clo- ses his communication with a passing notice of a popular story, among the former inhabitants of that town, that the leaves of the White ash were obnoxious to those reptiles. This brought to my recollection an occurrence connected with this abject, of which I was a witness, and now proceed torelate. the summer months of 1801, I resided in the north eastern part of the state of Ohio. Rattle Snakes were then very numerous in Vou. XXIII.—No. 2. 43 = The Rattle Snake. thatregion. I found the opinion universally prevalent among the in- habitants there, that the leaves of the white ash were highly offensive to the rattle snake. Several persons of respectability assured, me that _ ghe rattle snake was never found on land where the white ash grows, that it was the uniform practice among hunters, as well as others, whose business Jed: them to traverse the woods in the summer months, to stuff their shoes and boots, and frequently their pockets also, with whiteash Jeaves,.as a preventive of the bite of the rattlesnake, and.that they. had never known or heard of any person being sae: who had used this precaution. ee Sometime in the month of August, I went with Mr, T. Kirdand ete Dr. C. Dutton, then residing at Poland, to the Mahoning, for the purpose of shooting deer, at a place where they were in the habit « coming into the river, to feed.on the moss attached to the stones:in the shoal water. We took our watch station on an elevated part of the bank, fifteen or twenty yards from the edge of the water. About an hour after we had commenced our watch, instead of .a deer, we discovered a large rattle snake, which, as it appeared, had left his den, in the rocks beneath us, and was slowly advancing across a smooth, narrow sand beach towards the water. Upon hearing our woices, or for some other cause, he stopped and. lay eaiaehan out. head near the water. It occurred to me, thatan ‘opportunity now offered to try the virtues of the white ash leaves. Requesting the gentlemen to keep, in my absence, a watch over our subject, I went immediately in search of the leaves, and on a piece of low ground or forty rods back from the river, I.soon found, and by the aid of my hunting knife, procured a small white ash sapling eight or ten feet i in length, and with a view to make the experiment more. satis- factory, I cut another sapling of the sugar maple, and with hese wands returned tothe scene of action. In order to cut off a retreat to his den, I approached the snake in his rear, _ As soon as I eame within about seven or eight feet of him, he quickly threw - into a coil, elevated his head eight or ten inches, and brandisl tongue, “gave note of preparation” for combat. I first aeons him the white ash, placing the leaves upon his body... He instantly dropped his head to the ground, unfolded his coil, rolled over’ meen ly righted, and placed himself is in the same mei se (i ced # fore described. I now presented him the sugar maple. He Janced a moment, striking his head into a tuft of the leaves, “with all the. malice of the under fiends,” and the next moment coiled and. lanced again, darting his whole length at each effort with the swift- - ness of an arrow. After repeating this several times, I again chang- ed his fare, and presented him the white ash... He instantly doused his peak; stretched himself out on bis back, and writhed his body in the same manner as at the first application. It was then proposed to try what effect might be produced upon his temper and courage by alittle flogging witha the white ash. This was administered. But instead of arousing him to resentment, it served only to increase his troubles. As the flogging grew more severe, the snake frequently stuck his head into the sand as far as he could thrust it, seeming de- sirdus to bore his way into the earth and rid himself of his unwel- come visitors. ~ Being now convinced thatthe experiment was a satisfactory one, and fairly conducted on both sides, we deemed it ungenerous to take his life after he had contributed so much to gratify. our cariosity:s: ; a om we took our leave of the r: rattle snake, with fe at leas Arr. XVIIL—On some new Fossil and Recent Shells é the United States; by T. A. Conran. To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. _. Sir—As T have a considerable collection of tertiary fossils of the United States, many of which appear to be new to science, pies you may deem it useful to publish descriptions of some of them, although” unaccompanied with figures; which it is to be hoped the increasing interest in geological researches will s some day e enable me ‘me to furnish. I shall here describe only a “species which I believe to be nondescript, but they will "suite to convince the naturalist that interesting and perfect fossils are scattered as pro- ely in America as in any part of the world. Scarce a rivulet, or the bank of a river, in the eastern portion of the Southern States, is without some trace of organic remains; and persons residing in the - Neighborhood of such places would confer a favor on the members of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, if they wi would ‘ward specimens to that Institution. Yours, &. T.A.C. Philadelphia, December 5, 1832. ae 340 Fossil and Recent Shells. MACTRA. 1. M. clathrodonta. Shell subovate; posterior side cuneate; dorsal slope but little curved; posterior lateral tooth much elongated _ and elegantly striated ; Sanat oblique, ovate; anterior lateral rion elongated. Length, two inches. Locality.—Yorktown, Va. Upper marine formation So closely does this shell resemble Clathrodon cine Gray, that on a. superficial examination it might almost be taken for the same species; the hinge, however, is that of a true Mactra. The Clathrodon has been arranged among fresh water shells, and con- ‘sidered as nearly allied to Cyrena, but I should prefer to place it next to Mactra in a natural arrangement, as the hinge does not_ greatly differ from that genus, and the palleal impression is exactly similar. With regard to its habit of living in brackish water, it may be observed that other marine shells are frequently found in like sit- uations, and I have seen the Solecurtus Caribeus and other shells of our coast many miles above the mouth of the Potomac and in its: tributary rivers. I obtained many specimens of Clathrodon from the sea beach near Cape Henry, Va., and Mr. I. Lea outs me others from the coast of South America. aan 2. M. congesta. Shell triangular, convex, inks : en cuneate, beaks nearly central; Junule none ; fosset ‘anil circular, profound ; lateral teeth thick. Length, one inch. Locality.- , Va., where it is extremely abundant. A much smaller variety occurs at James river, generally shorter in proportion to 28 a and with central beaks. Upper marine formation. M. confraga. Shell subtriangular ; narrow, somewhat thick, : x coarse concentric lines; umbo oblique; beaks a little elevated, approximate ; posterior side Siew and less obtuse than the anterior; fosset large cordate, oblique; lateral teeth strong; muscular § im- pressions large. Length, two inches. 2 gprs Resembles MM. solidissima, Chem., but the apex is not ‘ irecte ted . forwards as in that species. It was cine by Mr. Finch in Ma ERs sep merine bots 1 aes - M. modicella. Shell subtriangular, Scchgreneds posterior side shortest and abrupt or truncated at the extremity ; fosset a little oblique, triangular ; lateral teeth strong. Length, three fourths of Locality —Yorkiown, Va. leper netinhss | aegis > nengit scunaiien M. des. Meolian, Fossil and Recent Shells. ‘S41 CORBULA. 1. C. idonea.’ Shell subtriangular, convex, thick, obscurely un- dulated ; with a fold on the posterior sub-margin and the extremity angular; basal margin acute; cardinal tooth very thick and elevated. Length, one inch. Locality.—Choptank river near Easton, Md., common; Upper 2. €. oniseus. Shell elevated; larger valve ventricose, with pro- found sulci terminating at the umbonial slope, which is carinated ; posterior extremity narrowed and truncated, from the posterior ankle of which a carina extends to the apex, nearly parallel with that of the umbonial slope ; superior valve concentrically striated. Length, one third of an inch. “Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. “This species can hardly be distinguished from the C. angustata of Sowerby, Geological Trans. 2d series, vol. iii, pl. 38, fig. 4. The’ latter was found in the valley of Gosau, Saltzburg Alps. — Re eee, ae re C. pongrenesa: "Shell dendaals vice Ee convex, with numerous erect. elevated arched scales; beaks occa- 3 apex sub-spiral ; scales on. the cae valve. broader tp more elevated; inner margin crenulated. ciplie vehi ceed Locality.—James river, near Smithfield, Va. Upper marine. x 2. C.corticosa. Shell sinistral; with strong concentric undulated laminz transversely striated ; superior valve flat; inner margin cren- sated. Found with the preceding species. a ig ee PETRICOLA. op. eentenaria. Shell oblong oval, with numerous prominent ra- diating strie, and concentric wrinkles ; lunule small, iden pro- SF apecke,; the middle one bifid. Length, two inches. _ Localities —James river near Smithfield, Va.; Choptank river near. Easton, Md. Upper marine. . PECTEN, : P. icici ‘Shell suborbicular, compressed, thin; a little oblique ; ribs about twenty two, rounded, little elevated and smooth ; inferior valve nearly flat. Length, two inches. ings Locality.—Suffolk, Va. Upper marine. 342 Fossil and Recent Shells. VENERUPIS. VW. subvexa. Shell subglobose, rather thin and fragile; beaks central, elevated and inclined a little forwards. Length, Dine then on ~ Locality.— James river, near Smithfield, Va. — Peres “ CARDITA. x C. alticostata. ” Shell Sireesrnd convex, with about neil twor ly elevated nodulous ribs, which on the anterior wpe: are laterally carinated. Length, two inches. a ae Fr —Claiborne, Alab. London clay. Extremely bone dant and very variable in outline. ASTARTE. on A. neat Shell oval, with concentric sulei 5 se or fold terminating in a slight emarg diaiet belie 3 umbo flattened; apex acute but not prominent muscular i impressions a httle clevared and very distinct. Length, half an inch ~ Locality.—Claiborne, lab.” London clay. potest “2. A. ungulina. Shell slightly elevated or obovate, aie con- vex, with fine concentric sulci becoming obsolete with age 5 5 3 inchning a little forward and the apex acute; inner = entire lunule none. Length, half an inch. - Loman oe the preceding species. 2a rz PECTUNCULUS, inne = P. cuneus. Shell cuneiform, broad, snctsitnes end! dae and forming an angle at the umbonial slope. Length, half an ineh. This is a remarkable species, very unlike any I have. Besos Locality. —Claiborne, Alab. London clay. ant , 2. P. trigonella. Shell subtriangular, ior a rac eo strie ; anterior margin nearly rectilinear and subangular att 9,855, tresaity:; ; inner margin serrate. Length, half an inch. ‘Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. 4 3. P. stamineus. Shell suborbicular, ventricose < asd distant’ ra- diating and finer =e lines, crossed by minute eee® —_ 3 inner } Length, one inch and a half. : 2 Levaliy—Foun rib the ene anelnis is ies weds 2 or oa te TER 4 ee % 7 ee F aa jee en ee a ee eon hee cae: ee eee LUCINA,” wae ae I scant hel oval, compressed, obscurely cancellated ; 3; beaks nearly central; teetl three iene valves anterior muscular enpressiod profoundly ——; lunule excavated, minute. Length, one inch and one fourth, Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. ‘This shell is allied to Lucina mutabilis, Lam. » 2. L. dolabra. Shell paneer ae distant concentric imbrica- ted and obscure radiating stri@; posterior submargin profoundly chan- neled, beaks prominent and curved forwards; lunule impressed, cor- date; inner margin crenulated. Length, half an inch. ec —Claiborne, Alab. London clay. CYTHEREA. "C. ait alapdies: Shell obtusely ovate, smooth, thick ; ere obtusely rounded posteriorly ; lunule ovate-acute and slightly impres+ sed; hinge with the anterior tooth very robust. rims . This shell is from the upper marine formation; it is about the size and niger of Venus SEED Ea A is sue abundant i the bank of in no other lager stati I ce spends. pe: Tee - i gabe ~ 3 NOC AL 2328 RO eee ee #5 oN ‘bella. Shell ovate elongated, rostrated, with numerous regular concentric striz, and two carinated lines on the anterior sub- margin diverging from the apex ; on the posterior side is a slight fur- row from the apex tothe base. Length, half an inch, : Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. 2. N. celata. Shell ovate elongated, with irregular undulated ridges ; anterior sub-margin with three minutely crenulated Piet a _ a from the apex; beaks nearly central. pet —Found with the preceding species: sas ae ‘ FULGUR. Pp ineilis. Shell fusiform, with coarse slidingaée with ie spi- ral strie; spire elevated; whorls five, rounded, flattened a little above, but crowned with a cantonal line; suture broadly and profoundly channeled; body whorl ventricose. € ~ ocah y.—Yorktown, Va. Upper ma this shell is about the size of F. ss shila; it a 344 Fossil and Recent Shells. MELONGENA. M. alveata. Shell subglobose, with revolving strie; a few of which are distinct ; body whorl with a broad channel above; spire very short, pebenalla. callous, profoundly so above; basal igpesne tion profound. Length, one and a half inches. Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. CREPIDULA. C. lirata. Shell oblique, elevated, compressed: ly ribbed; beak prominent, incurved, and turned to one side. Tsediy 2 Crciborne, Alab. London clay. ~ SOLARIUM. 1. S. elaboratum. Shell discoid, with numerous st cren- ulated striz of different sizes; beneath slightly channeled on the sub- margin, with a few strong grooves; margin of the umbilicus. pro- foundly crenulated; the crenulations extending to the “ie aper- ture nearly circular.. Length, one third of an inch. Bae Locality.—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. 2. S. cancellatum. Shell elevated, cancellated; volutions an- gular, channeled at the suture; umbilicus cancellated; come cular. Length, one fifth of an inch. Locality.—Suffolk, Va. +HBy SIGARETUS. S. bili. Shell obliquely oval, convex, with fine crowded s strie Fe at volving in pairs. Length, one third of an inch. Locality—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. TYPHIS. T. gracilis. Shell fusiform, elongated, iy pee sin eight; ribs of the body whorl 4, thickened and slightly refi with two or three arched scales on each; margin of the aperture el evated but not reflected. Length, one third of aninch. saan -—Claiborne, Alab. London clay. 2. T. acuticosta. This shell is described by me asa Murex in. Jour. era Nat. Sciences, Vol. 6. RECENT SHELLS. + | i LUCINA. L. Floridana. Shell suborbicul with regular | igh centric strie, and covered with a very thin oon alae Fossil and Recent Shells. 345 dermis; anterior and posterior sides each with an obscure fold; beaks central, not elevated; hinge edentulous; anterior muscular acs sion not greatly sbioasttis Length, one inch. » This shell resembles the fossil LZ. anodonta, of Say, but is very | distinct. It was found near Pensacola by Dr. Hutchins, who sent it to Dr. S. G. Morton. EREA. C..Sayana. Shell subovate, convex, with coarse concentric lines, and destitute of polish ; lunule large, cordate, marked by a simple im- pressed line; hinge, with the teeth compressed. Length, one inch and one fourth. — Syn. CyTHEREA CONVEXA, Boy: Jour. Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol. iv, p. 149. ‘Found on the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey; it is pale yellowish or white and appears not to differ specifically from the C. convexa, of Say, but I have changed the name because M. ioe niart had previously applied it toa very. dissimilar species. MELAMPUS. M. borealis. Shell ovate —_ elongated ; pale horn ee darker longitudinal bands; v six or seven, with a rev pressed line below the suture; spire elevated, conical ; scheme with three distant and distinct plaits, the middle one most prominent; aperture obovate-acute. Length, one fourth of an inch. This small species of Melampus has been found sparingly on the coast of Rhode Island, by Lieut. Brown of Newport. Itis similar in form to a Bulimus and is very unlike the common species with which it associates. ~—Ungulina transversa. Lam. As the sense of this rare shell is rather obscure, it may be worthy of remark, that I discovered two specimens in a piece of limestone, inhabiting cavities which appeared to have been formed by themselves. ‘The limestone was perforated -in every direction by shells of the genera Arca, Crendtula, Veneru- pis, Petricola, &c., all the species being such as are common in the West Indies, from whence no doubt, the stone thik contained them had been brought. From the circumstance of its occurring in this Situation and from the peculiar form of the shells, I have no doubt that the genus Ungulina may be properly classed among the litho- phagous Testacea. ‘Lima glacialis. Lam. It is a singular fact in the history of this shell that although it swims with or ease and rapidity, it is often Vou. XXIIL.—No. 2 346 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. found in the calcareous rocks of the West Indies, and the entrance to the cavities in which they reside is far less than the shells them- selves, a proof that they have the power of perforating limestone, for they must have entered the rocks when very young and gradual- ly enlarged their habitations as they increased in size. For this fact I am indebted to General Parker who presented me a specimen which he himself had procured by breaking the rock in which it was concealed. ~Pholas costata. Lin. The same gentleman bought in the Ha- vanna market fine living specimens of this Pholas, far larger than are generally met with on our coast. -Dead shells are common on all the coasts of the Middle and Southern States, but I believe a living specimen has never been obtained here. They must certainly how- ever, burrowin the sand at or near low water mark. “a ~Cardium-Mortoni. This shell, described and figured by mein the 6th. vol. Jour. Acad. of Natural Sciences, was at that time supposed to be peculiar to the Eastern States, and especially the shores of Long Island Sound. Specimens however have lately been sent from the extreme Southern States ; Dr. Blanding obtained it in East Florida, and Dr. Hutchins in the vicinity of Pensacola. Neem Arr. XVIII.—Report on the Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont,* by MM. Serullas, Bussy, and Derosne. Translated from the Journal de Pharmacie, by Franxurn R. Sra, of Phi- ladelphia. ‘ ie To the Sociétie de Pharmacie de Paris. ~ Gentlemen,—M. Dumont, an experienced manufacturer of beet sugar, called your attention to a filter of his invention, and to a pre~ pared charcoal, which he employs in the bleaching of syrups, and you charged MM. Serullas, Bussy, and myself, (Derosne,) to give you-an account thereof. isl gee _ The discovery of the decolorizing property of charcoal, is due to Lowitz of St. Petersburg, who however did not remark the difference in activity between vegetable and animal charcoal. ‘Therefore the former only was employed in the sugar refineries for the decolora~ tion of syrup. In 1811, M. F iguier of Montpellier ascertained that * ‘This paper would long sinee have appeared, but for. the accidental cireumstance of its having heen mislaid and forgotten. In searching for another document, we were glad to recover this. ; é tr SS ee Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. 347 animal charcoal was superior, and employed it to remove the color of wine, vinegar and the residuum of sulphuric ether. We cannot ~ ascertain from his published memoir that he applied it to syrups. It was a-year later that M. Charles Derosne introduced it into, the sugar refineries and manufactories of beet sugar, thus rendering great ser- vice to these two branches of national industry, and perhaps a greater to the manufacturers of sal ammoniac, who, until that. time, had thrown away as useless all the residuum of their distillations. Since that period the consumption of animal charcoal has been continually increasing and its manufacture has become a source of considerable revenue. Its mode of use underwent little change. After pulver- ization and mixture with the syrup to be decolorized, this was. boiled passed through a woolen cloth; by these means its full action was thought to have been attained, and we could not have imagined the possibility of the great improvements in the manner of its em- ployment which M. Dumont has recently introduced. . This manufacturer, reflecting upon the difficulties of the old pro- cess not only in the use of the charcoal, but also in. the washing of the residue and upon the foreign. taste acquiredeby the syrup,during ebullition, with that agent sought to remedy: them all, and has com- pletely succeeded. His discovery comprises the preparation of the charcoal and its employment by means of a filter of his own inven- tion. The preparation of the charcoal is very simple; it consists in reducing it to grains of equal bigness with those of sporting gun powder, and removing the dust; these grains, however, vary in size withe the density of the syrup to be bleached. _ The filter of M. Dumont is a truncated pyramid turned base up- ward, made of wood and lined throughout with tinned copper. At the lower part is a spigot for drawing off the syrup, a little above that an opening communicating with a tube external to the filter, and used for removing the air of the apparatus. The filter is furnished with two diaphragms of different sizes. When a syrup is to be fil- tered, the small diaphragm is to be placed on the bottom of the filter resting upon four feet, elevating it higher than the spigot and open- ing of the air tube. Upon this diaphragm a piece of coarse cloth is to be extended and upon it the charcoal previously moistened with one sixth of its weight of water, is to be placed in such a manner that all parts shall be equally furnished. The level surface receives another coarse cloth and the larger diaphragm upon which the syrup is to be poured. By this arrangement the effusion of the sy: up oc- 348 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. casions no derangement of charcoal and the irregular flow of the liquid is prevented. The syrup, in percolating the beds of charcoal, displaces the water with which that article was moistened and forces it out at the spigot, where it may be received until it is ascertained that its place has been supplied by syrup, which soon flows in an ‘uninterrupted stream, to be kept up by renewed additions upon the filter. If the charcoal be not wetted with water, the syrup will have more difficulty in penetrating its substance, it may pass more in ene part than another, and the filtration will not proceed regularly. Be- sides, the water acts another part when animal charcoal is employed, that is, in lixivating (in a partial manner at least) that article, whic may be recognized by the salt taste which it acquires. mn _ M. Dumont made a trial of his filter in our presence with a syrup made from raw sugar. The experiment was successful, and we pre- sent you with the product numbered in the order of their flowing ; the syrup No. 1 is almost colorless. No. 2 of a light amber color. No. 3 a shade darker. By mixing these in equal proportions, a syrup equal to that from good clayed sugar was produced. purity of taste formsean additional recommendation to these syrups, the flavor of raw sugar being entirely removed. We made a com- parative trial of charcoal in the same proportion, by the old process, and upon the same kind of raw sugar, but the product did not ap- proach the beauty of that obtained by M. Dumont’s filter, its color was darker than that of No. 3, and in the taste there was still greater difference, from the syrup having acquired a disagreeable flavor by ebullition with the charcoal. For the decoloration of sugar M- Dumont employs twenty five per cent. of charcoal. This will cer- tainly appear to be a large proportion, but we would observe; that after the first operation, the charcoal retains much of its decolorizing property. Syrup equal in quantity to the first may be poured in and will lose three fourths of its original color; in fact it will be bleached more than if we had treated the same quantity of sugar with twelve per cent. of charcoal in the ordinary way. si : When decoloration ceases M. Dumont’s process still offers ad- vantage. By the way, we would observe, that in the experiments erformed before us, M. Dumont employed only fifteen per cent. of charcoal. We have no doubt that had he employed twenty five per cent.,. = he usually: does, the product would have equalled a syrup made with fine refined sugar. After the second operation, the char- coal has lost a great part of its decolorizing action, but M. D. has discovered a property which he calls apechante, that is to say, a prop- Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. 349 erty of modifying or weakening the action of those pe em tained in the syrup which are capable of reacting upon the sugar during the boiling. He, therefore, advises the filtration of a third or fourth quantity of syrup through the same charcoal, oe that afterward they may be crystallized much more readily. Long experience only can demonstrate the value of this opinion; we can, however, cite one fact which appears to confirm it. A syrup of beets which had passed through a partially exhausted char- coal without losing any of its dark color, took the fire much better and crystallized more readily than a portion of the same syrup unfiltered. M. Dumont’s filters are of different sizes. The small contain from twelve to fifteen pounds of charcoal, and the large as much as two hundred pounds. By them, syrups of all densities from the least to the greatest, may be filtered. Syrup of 28° to 30° of the areometer filters very well cold, those of 36° to 38° require to be poured in hot, andthe charcoal coarser, as before stated, the operation lasts about the same te the product is not so well decolorized. - The syrup of swelve: —— Foams of — can ote om sag in apt. four hours. - Why are the syrups filtered by M. Durador more deiner tel those operated upon the old process? Several reasons can be assign- ed in reply. It is easy to conceive, that syrup, in passing through the different layers of the column of charcoal should deposit a por- tion of its coloring matter in each layer, thus producing greater effect than in the bi: and shallow filters used in the old process. Be- sides, it is not improbable that the ebullition of a syrup with charcoal counterbalances, in part, the decolorizing action of the agent; per- haps the caloric effects a reaction of charcoal upon the syrup whieh; in destroying one coloring principle elicits another: for the « ation is uniformly more perfectly effected without heat. — With re- gard to the superiority in point of taste, of the syrups filtered by M. Dumont, over those which have been boiled with charcoal, it is much more easily to be comprehended, it being an incontestable fact, that animal charcoal imparts to syrups with which it is heated, a dis- agreeable flavor ;—a flavor which increases with the proportion of charcoal. On the other hand, M. D. removes from the charcoal a large pro- Portion of the soluble matters by means of: the water with which he’ moistens it. He operates without heat, which is is another reason why his syrups should not acquire any bad flavor. If for per! 350 Filter and Prepared Charcoal of M. Dumont. decoloration and good taste the filter of M. Dumont affords de- cided advantages, it offers yet another in the facility of washing aan charcoal. The old process required repeated mixtures of the coaly nad with large quantities of water to separate the sugar which it retained, and those washings required expensive evaporation. This disagree- able and tedious labor is almost done away with by M. Dumont; for without deranging the apparatus, the addition of water promptly re- moved all the sugar, and, what is still more valuable at the com- mencement of its action, a considerable portion of syrup is obtained, of a density almost equal to that which flows in the first instances” ‘The simplicity and rapidity of this washing will be especially ap- preciated. in large manufactories. We need not dwell upon the im- portance of M. D.’s process in point of economy ; those to whom the lation of sugar is familiar, will readily comprehend it. M.D. estimates the results obtained by his process as four times greater than by the old, and assures us that his decolorized syrups are en- hanced thirty per cent. in value. Were it even necessary to abate somewhat of these valuations, it is not the less certain that his pro-. cess will secure great benefits to those who employ it. _ Already some: siens have adopted it and it is used by confectioners. and dis- tillers, We know that a director of one of the largest sugar re- fineries in Paris, has commenced its trial, and every thing induces. the belief ae he will have reason to congratulate himself ne nt _ The se smiplossnest of M. Dumont’s filter, and the good que ity of the syrups obtained whether for consumption in that state or for crystallization ; the simplicity and promptitude of the washing in- duce us to believe that his process will effect marked changes in the arts connected with the manufacture and refining of sugar. — We think M. Dumont has rendered great service to the arts, and we propose that the society thank him for calling their ir OT process and congratulate him on his success. NAB. The syrups must be clarified and perfectly limpid before being poured upon the charcoal. This condition is essential 2 success of the ; Operation. * in another number of the Journal de a is the Stine: “the use of the filter and animal charcoal to which he (M. Dumont,) gives a particular prepa ration, has already enabled several manufac aie to vend domestic sugar of supe rior quality to any heretofore Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy. 351 ¥ rig => ae pay “engage er ee, : in eS eS ee Oe we 7 ; agpbemenden af lined with tinned copper. B, i pote ragm pierced om es and supported upon four feet; itis movable. C, space for charcoal. D, upper Re (movable ) E, space for the colored syrup. F', wooden cover lined with G, space into which the decolorized syrup flows. H, spigot. K, opening Se hich the tube L is adapted, giving passage to the air. Anr. X1IX.—An Introduction to Natural Philosophy ; designed as as diss _ Denison Oxmsrep, A. M. ral Philosophy. _ Hezekiah Howe. _ We have long regarded the objects of a liberal education as three- fold : :—first, to develop and discipline the powers of the mind itself; secondly, to store it with useful truths; and, thirdly, to give to it the’- power of communicating its ideas to others. Or, briefly, thus: it is the §reat purpose of a collegiate education to learn us to think, to furnish Us with ideas, and to teach us how to express them.. We fully be- lieve that all the different studies that compose the system of: ‘educa- 352 Olmsted's Introduction to Natural Philosophy. tion pursued in Yale College, and in most of the colleges of our country, severally and conjointly contribute to this main purpose. Geometry and Mechanics, ivdeed, unite, in a remarkable degree, the three objects specified ; for nothing is better suited to mental disci- pline than the demonstrations of the truths they contain; the truths themselves are of great value as subsidiary to other brmehed of knowledge, particularly the knowledge of nature and of the princi- ples of art; and the practice of conducting long demonstrations on the black bard’ in the presence of a class, accustoms the student to express himself with perspicuity and correctness. All great and accurate attainments in Natural Philosophy vl As tronomy, are founded in the science of Mechanics, which is, indeed, little more than an expansion of the three great laws of motion, follow- ed out throngh all their consequences. So long as mankind supposed that motion was one thing on earth and another thing among the heavenly bodies, they made no progress in investigating the laws of the Universe. We owe to Newton the full development of the doc- trine of -the uniformity of the laws of nature. The Principia first taught the world how to ascend from simple observations and exper- iments on the motion of bodies around us, to a pants me os sublime but equally simple movements of the spheres. A philosophical education, therefore, must have its foratvdatiboos lid deep in the science of Mechanics. But it must not stop here. The student of philosophy must not only have his mind stored with these universal truths, but he must be initiated i in the daily practice of phi- losophizing, both upon the phenomena of nature and upon the opera- tions of art, which latter are, indeed, for the most part, only operations of the powers of nature as modified by the ingenuity of man. We would have our men of education commence philosophers as soon as they begin the study of philosophy, and ever afterwards cherish the habit of seeking an explanation of every phenomenon decimal art or nature that is presented to their observation. The want of a good text book for classes in Natural Philosophy, bas long, been felt in our colleges. Enfield’s Institutes, although 4 crude compilation, abounding it in errors,* and far behind the present state : of science, long maintained its ground in spite of all these diadvan- tages, > Ra, ae as it was, it was better adapted on the whole ice sae eee list : er pointed out. by Professor Fisher, in Vol. p- 125 of this Journal. Ol; sted’s Int 7 2 to Natu l Philosophy. 353 to be used as a class-book than any other similar work. Cavalla’s Elements of Natural Philosophy, and the Treatises of Wood and Vince, have been used in a few of our solleges; but the diffuse style of the former work, and the absence of practical applications in the latter, rendered them both ill adapted to the purposes of a class-book. _ The late publications at Cambridge by Professor Farrar, compri- sing an entire course of mathematical and philosophical text books, _ compiled chiefly from the French writers, ably supplied the deficien- ey alluded to, and might seem to have rendered the present work unnecessary. But, for several reasons, the Cambridge Philosophy was found not to be adapted to the course of mathematical and phi- phical instruction in Yale College; particularly, as it does not cnitiealiaias in its references, to the mathematical works of President Day, which are used in this Institution (and which there is no incli- nation to exchange for any other) and, moreover, it is so extensive as to require a greater amount of time, than can be spared for this pur- pose consistently with the other exigencies of the Philosophical de- partment, and with the claims of the other departments of instruction. The he general design of Professor Olmsted’s work, is expressed in sisi pebenninsts It is, “first, to make the student thoroughly and fa- miliarly acquainted with the / of _Philoso- ye aerate voshistspicke teins uals av eihehenagal-sepfepmations within so limited a compass.” In prosecuting the form- er design, the compiler has first confined the attention of the student to the “ Mathematical Elements,” comprising a selection of the most important principles in the science of Mechanics ;—principles which, on account of the universality of their application, are particularly worthy of standing in the fore-ground of Natural Philosophy, and of oc- - cupying for a considerable time the undivided attention of the student. ' Under the impression that the interest felt in the investigation and contemplation of abstract truths, like those of pure geometry, and theoretical mechanics, is, in its nature, different from that derived from pursuing these truths into their practical applications, and even that the two kinds of interest are in some degree incompatible with each other, the practical part of Mechanics is entirely separated from the theoretical, and made to constitute Part Il, of the first volume. Two incidental advantages, also, result from this arrangement 5 3—the first is, that the second part furnishes an excellent general review of the principles of Mechanics, in their connexion with each other; and the second is, that in the explanation of the phenomena, either of Vou. XXIIL.—No. 2. 45 — 354 Olmsted’s Introduction to Natural Philosophy. nature or art, we may avail ourselves of principles taken from every - part of the science,—a circumstance which is frequently of greatim- gee the full and complete explanation of a natural phe ~ On this point, a gentleman who has taught the work to a class, and wha is very competent to judge of its merits, has furnished us with the following observations. ‘* The arrangement adopted in Olmsted’s lotroduction to Natural Philosophy, I have found to posses peculiar wees: By separating the “ mathematical elements” from the : tical part,” and confining the student, at first, exclusively to the fauna his attention is not diverted from the fundamental principles of the science; but these he studies with the same interest as he does branches of the pure mathematics and understands them as perfectly. Those who have either taught or studied Enfield’s Phi- losophy, know that quite the reverse is true in regard to that system, in which the theoretical and practical parts are so blended that each the interest of the other. The pleasure derived from the contemplation of abstract truths depends on qualities of the mind.so different from those which delight to follow out their application: to useful and economical purposes, that the two kinds of interest can hardly exist together inthe mind, but, by a kind of incompatibility; tend to neutralize one another. Jn this-Treatise also, the funda- mental principles of Natural Philosophy, are impressed. upon the mind of the learner by a great variety of problems annexed to each chapter, which, in addition to the intellectual advantages, usually at- tendant on the solution of mathematical problems, serve to render the student exceedingly familiar with those principles. ‘Thus, the most difficult parts of the work having been first mastered, the perusal of what relates to the practical applications, is easy and delightful. In this part of the work, moreover, there is embodied an amount of uselu information rarely to be met with in works of this size. _ In short, both the plan and execution of the work are such as can hardly fail, tis believed, to commend it to all experienced instructors.” uae Part I., to which so much importance is justly ascribed, is abridged with numerous additions and alterations, from a Treatise on Me- chanics, published a few years since for the use of the students of the East India etaibe, by the Rev. B. Bridge, fellow of St. John’s College, Cam abridge. We know not where a work could have | been found better adapted to the purpose.. Bridge is an y Ju minous writer ; and his Mathematical Treatises bear the oon a mind well informed of its subject, and (whichis quite asi ge , se pees rd slg O to “AP. Ph ey 8s BO = B55 accustomed to teach. published bis. Pensées sur divers objets de de bien p that amiable philanthropy which directed. his whole life. On ‘his eturn from these several journeys, he took up his abode within our walls, whither he was drawn, as well by the recollections of his youth, as by the great number of distinguished friends whom he found there, gathered at that time around Mad. de Staél, Pictet, and many others, whom we shall always regret. It was in this retreat, embel- lished by friendship and the conversation of enlightened men, that he wrote the works above mentioned, and his two great philosophical treatises on the laws of the imagination, and on the nature of man. In rendering the justice due to the real merit of these works, we, nev- ertheless feel, in reading them, that the author does not shine in his native brilliancy. The grace and the freedom of his style disappear in this too didactic species of writing. His genuine triumph was in the epistolary style. He was intimately connected in his youth with the celebrated historian Miiller, and there remains a collection of their letters replete with judicious and striking observations. Con- nected at a later period by a tender friendship with the German poet, , , and with Mad. Frederique Braun, a woman of wit. and i correspondence with these two distinguished persons, is aso preserved, and it is in them that we discover the flexibility of his 376 Miscellanies. style, and the amiable diversity of his reflections. At a still later riod, even when we were about to lose him, at the age of 86, he wrote, under the title of Souvenirs, a small work remarkably charac- terised by the same juvenile qualities. A few days after its publica- tion, he was struck with apoplexy, which during ten days kept him, as it were, suspended between life and death ;—deprived of the power of speech, but not of sensibility, or of reason, he exhibited the most afflictive spectacle which a family and friend can be called up- on to support. His death, which happened on the 3d of February last, seemed to be, in consequence of their profound attachments, like a deliverance through the favor of heaven. 229 De Bonstetten furnishes, in his intellectual developments, remark- able contrasts. Born in a privileged class, he manifested, while young, the love of equality, and of a wise liberty. Born on the bor- ders of the two languages, and consequently in a country in which neither the one nor the other is spoken with great purity, he raised himself into the rank of good writers, both in French and German, and in the latter, particularly, he shines by the grace and rapidi of his. style. oe = The pupil of a profound metapbysician, allied in friendship to men devoted to the most serious studies, he glitters in all the charms of a poetic imagination. The greatest point which he gained by his phi- losophic studies, was the habit of watching over himself. No one better understood the art of happiness, even in the extremity of age- He preserved to the last the most engaging dispositions of yout) He watched, with animation the advancement of civilization, as if he had a long time for its enjoyment: his affectionate feelings sought with avidity new attachments, but never abandoned old ones, and provees as he himself observed, that one may be easy without being unfaith- ful. His house was ever open to strangers of distinction, and his active benevolence contributed to render their stay among us agree= | able. Nothing can ever restore to us that sustained beneHcen’ of that touching simplicity and cheerfulness of old age, that poetty an. imagination always fresh and exuberant, that urbanity of the eighteenth century, seasoned by the philosophy of the ni as - Thus, the men whom we are accustomed to love, to esteem, and se admire, are disappearing from amongst us. What can console us for so many successive privations? We who have been, also, for some time on the stage of action, we are drawing toward the conclusion kK. te. ae es See honor and Witaic Ui vue cou try i is s drawing 1 wu its on our ome eaens among whom T T dig to behold so “hopes, that this care must devolve. ~ They, evel pa must prepare to act their parts with honor to them- selves. May the youth who hear me never remain satisfied with a barren” ‘admiration’ of those who have gone before them, ‘but ose who feel within them some sparks of the sacred fire labor faith- fully to restore it tous. -May they remember that the literary and scientific lustre of Geneva has been one of the principal points in the ‘interests: of Europe, and consequently of our independence. ~ Young men, you have enjoyed in the improved state of our in- stitutions, 4immense facilities for your education. May they be fruit- your hands! your predecessors have had but one sad advantage Oe pee, that of having labored in times of trouble, which com- pelled them, perhaps, to draw upon themselves for all that their strength was able to afford them. Fatal advantage which | am far from wishing you to enjoy, and the return of which must be depre= eated by every friend of his country. But suffer not yourselves to be enervated d by: ae happy ‘condition 5 lohan s - presopes: th hess ound =) pe pce ae 3 2 os ; i oak a ee pee ee ss i = Mee wd ERY. Ned OV Eto 7 16 — Learn to resist: the sedustions with ‘hich and domestic habits fritter into rags the time of the: most active; learn that there can be no possible success without great la- bor and a most willing patience; learn to withdraw from the sedue- tive -allurements of a life of pleasure, visit foreign countries, not passing through them in a hasty manner, but by studying their civil polity, bring: back to us every thing that is really useful; bring back also hearts more truly Genevese, by a more oslichemnds sense of the liberty and happiness we enjoy. Do your best to preserve to us now and forever, that sage liberty, the friend of order, of justice, and of peace, which we now enjoy, and without which all improvements become hazardous and problematical. Young people, the country has its eyes upon you and you will not disappoint its expectations.— Bib. Univ. — 1832. — CHEMISTRY: 1. Combinati of-ca buretted h ydrogen Note by M. ioaom —I published, some. senes since, a work on Ethers conjointly with M Boullay, the principal object of which was to show that bi-carbonate Vou. XXII.—No. 2. 48 378 Miscellanies. ae may be considered as a base capable of uniting with water and acids. These results have met with some objections, not in re= lation to the facts themselves, but with respect to the general theory which serves to group them. I now furnish a new rn firmation and extension of the laws then deduced. - There exists in artificial camphor a new carbonated riptnviten iu covered by M. Oppermann. One volume of this body which Ide Signate by the name of camphogene, includes ten — of carbon, — ‘eight volumes of bydrogen. Ps RRO * One volume of camphogene and half a volume of nyuecnenetian essence of turpentine, a combination which in this peso states sulphuric meh One volume of c and one volume of ny drone produce eter pinn a cmarnennd which —_ €: - wide. pcm ~ Camphogene may pbetorebined j in various proportions widrenfieill ~ One volame of camphogene, united with half a volume of oxygen constitutes ordinary carmphor, a combination analogous to the pro- toxide of azote with respect to the mode of union a theincenenes = uh ~ Common camphor is a base. LS og Se One volume of common camphor sand one vnlanies of hy drochloi acid form a neutral hydrochlorate of camphor, :< 488 6% she _ Four volumes of common camphor and a tomate -of-nieriedily constitute the oil of — of the old chemists, the eormneins ‘The ini of eens determinations would be © somewhat the analyses of MM. Liebi Oppermann should | | ene would be di to their analyses, of pet ha inane. In this case, cholesterine would be a bydrate of that body, the capric and caproic acids would be c analogous to the deutoxide of azote and to nitrous.acid.- ‘fT amet these bodies will belong on the contrary to fe tig ‘ os ‘ ry es es = ies a » These d r “t osu iffice to show. rs Sees the Pg ae ma tant. when the greater. proportion of organic substances will be me- thodically classed conformably to the same bases as — — — de Phys et de Chisning Decem., 1831. er titan 2. Separation ~ the auieiite in the oxide of Irons. by M. “st sterrdone enntnn epolicasionsy this mode of separation becomes alaron: tr obtain important. every various effects in coloration, and. itis a” problem of Some;conr sequence to them, to know exactly, before they employ this salt of iron, the quantity of oxide it may contain, in order to ede with a a uniform tint. . ge. may easily be gained by means. sak magnesia: — ibeawo quantities exactly equal of pyrolignite of iron—oxidize one of them by adding to it water charged with chlorine, or by boil- ing it with nitric acid—precipitate by ammonia, and thus determine the entire weight of iron in the solution. Take the other equal-part and boil it with magnesia, then filter it ; the protoxide of iron is. af- terwards changed to. red oxide cement an seaeogenn aca chlorine, and precipitated by ammonia certain quan _ The relation of the weights of these two precipitates, omeioar esd d - from the first, will express, with sufficient exactness, the sblaGon of the oxide to the protoxide.-—Idem, Nov. 1831. .... eB NarceEineE, a new substance discapentchs in Opium. ews att T1ER, in endeavoring to obtain from of opium all the ssn ctor principles which it contains, was led from the mod- ification which he adopted, to. the discovery of a new immediate principle = - has called narceine. — oon » This substance is distinguished by-th the: following characters : erys- tallizes in needles which are prisms ¥ luble in alcohol and water, insoluble in ether, taste bitter and styptic, not volatile, melts at 92° cent. Its principal distinctive character consists in the beautiful blue color which it assumes in combining with acids at a certain degree of concentration ; its combinations with nee eagiels the nature of salts. ‘The base can be withdrawn unal- «The 5 proximat mate principles, separsad in succession by M. Peller from opium, are twelve in number, viz., morphine, 1 tin eC 380 Miscellanies. nine, narceine, meconic acid, brown acid, an acid fay matter, resin, caoutchouc, nl bassorine, and ligneux. The narceine — one entirely Agreeably to sig ote of the twelve substances of whichpianiiie composed, four are electro-positive, (that is act as bases,) morphine, » Meconine, and narceine; four are electro-negative, (that is act as acids,) meconic acid, brown acid, fatty acid, and resin ; and four are chemically indifferent ; caoutchouc, gum, bassorine and lig- neux. The active properties of opium appear to reside in the elee- tro-positive substances. Experiment, however, has not yet confirmed this fact, in relation to narceine.*—Rev. Encyc. Juillet, 1832. — & gt eee oni _Meconine.—The chemical history of this parent was read by M. Camunany. the aera to the French Academy, on the _Inwas. eleieelc in 1830, by M. Coverse, and shout ‘the same time perceived and imperfectly described by M. Dublanc. The process followed, and described in details; by the former, is, in sab- stance, the following. An aqueous solution of opium is filtered, evaporated, and precipitated by dilute ammonia—the mass formed in the ammoniacal fluid after a repose of fifteen or twenty days, is dis- solved in boiling alcohol, and crystallised—these crystals are purified by solution in boiling water, and by animal charcoal—the erystals, which are again formed, are treated with boiling ether, which dis- solves only the meconine, which is allowed to crystallize. » Meco- nine is white, crystallizes i in six sided prisms, two sides of which are larger than the ge Serounsiod by a Cheiees summit—witbout smell—its taste, at first le, afterwards rid—at 90° cent. it liquefies—melts completely at 90,502, and ‘remains Aid at 75°—at 155° it vaporises, and may be distilled unchanged— ing it becomes a white mass—soluble in 2653 parts of cold. water, and in 18.55 parts of hot water—more soluble in alcohol ; and crystallizes from all these solutions. - Heated with water it t opa- lises, the crystals become deformed, rise to the surface in flocculi, then assume an oily appearance, and at length disappear > dissolved in water, itis precipitated by sub-acetate, but not by neutral acetate — it dissolves i in most of the alkalies com ee ‘it is precip *s A very favorable report on Pelletier’s memoir 0 on a Opium, oe my of sciences, by Chevreul and Gay Lussac. . A fi ll sail 381 tated by carbonate of ammonia; several of the acids dissolve it without combination, for example, x Spartan monmmeN ey 4 others change its nature, especially sulphuric and nitric. = — Ss amet 8 of sete deduced from four anslyvedy is eS P80 ; Atoms. ” calculation. cheese of Atom. (larbon;:°*~ » 60.247 xg 60.234 ea 4.756 or FAD i ad s - 84,997 4 °35.023 © RDS TS io ot tae Bneye owt, 108, — iy “Ge Bfeer. ft the icheiniicandltlpliohtcnsceelbb instrument was. pe vented by M. Nosttt, (vide Am. Jour., Vol. xxu. p. 370,) and con- sists of a lectric pile, united toa galvanometer. M. Macep. Me tont has rendered it more sensible and more applicable to radi- ant heat by several improvements suggested by the inventor himself. Ina letter to Mr. P. Prevost, M. Meioni enumerates some interemtt ing effects exhibited by this instrument. - Calorific rare proceeding from iron heated to a dull or to a cherry : poly stopped by a stratum of water of two or three ness. It is the same with heat from the flame of alcoho phur. . When the heat of the iron surpasses the above, some a to pass through, and the quantity increases to white eat, conformably to the law which Larocue found for glass. The eieinitity of heat transmitted varies also when issuing from the flames of oil, tallow, wax, wood, resin. The greatest effect seems to be pened by an argand lamp, and by the solar rays. A singular result is the following, which clearly proves the exists ence of two very distinct qualities in calorific rays. A thermometer is placed on the front surface of a layer of water, and a thermo-mul- tiplicator, behind the same layer. An iron ball at a dull red heat is “brought near—the thermometer rises from 60 to 90°, and the ther- ltiplicator remains unmoved. A double’ argand lamp is then placed at the distance of a few feet : the th ir does not move while the thermo-multiplicator shows a deviation of 36°. “The rays from the former source, although endowed with great energy, a are wanting it in a that quality which those from the latter source @ 382 Miscellanies. The [bi] chloride of sulphur, for example, a very deep red-brown Guid; the fat and essential oils; and many saline solutions strongly colored are much more Jitiaieaea than acids, ether, alkalies, and water. The chloride and carbonate of sulphur offer the easiest passage ; water, of all the substances subjected to experiment, is that which re- sists the most. The order of permeability does not change with the degree of heat in the radiating focus, but the differences of permea- a are lessened in proportion to the elevation of the heat of the ‘The writer affirms, as he says with certainty, that the greater eee power of a substance, the more easily does pete — oric find a passage through it. «These experiments of Melloni are in confirmation pre extension of results obtained by P. Prevost, and published bye him in 18h h— Bie Vainio 1832. sane dxygenated Water—M. Thénard announces, ‘that | hb ‘consulted by physicians, relative to the mode of preparing it in an easy manner, the oxygenated water which is supposed to be useful in the symptoms of cholera asphyxia, he has modified the common process so as to render it very simple. It is only necessary t to add to the hydrochloric acid used in dissolving the peroxide of barium, 2 small quantity of phosphoric acid. This acid seizes the ¢ oxide of ol manganese, and other metallic oxides which may exist in the solt tion, and hinders them from decomposing the binoxide of hydrogen ibe When the liquor is saturated and prepared 1 in the ordinary wage is sufficient to add a convenient quantity of sulphate of silver, or even an excess of sulphate of protoxide of mercury, to agitate awhile a a -—Rev. Encye. Abril, 1832. * eos Teen thleridensof eviphur: mltT biel and Gay engi na a favorable report, (June 11,) on the memoir of eee sul elves. oes = ap 1 toa aw M. ein thanthe wed emeckdee abet sia peninahi tea nm oe iP ie Ss mie Mae ae eee a one atom of sulphur, and one atom of chlorine, and that the red is a bichloride, formed of one atom of sulphur and two atoms’of chlorine? swiltew. Rineytoaione,; #832..°° eA iat Density.of the vapor of sulphur and of ti tect searches of Dumas on these points, have also obtained the: — tion of the same distinguished chemists. . To determine the donsits of the manne of sulphur, sauaies had camped to the known analogy of with oxygen. Thus the vapor of water is formed of.one mart of hydrageny aod half a volume of oxygen, whence it was d hydro gen contained in like manner, half a voluine of sulphory and one vol- pe hydrogen. Now the density of bydrogen being 1.1912, that of the vapor of sulphur should be 2.24.* Such was, in fact, the num- ber generally adopted. Dumas, however, in several experiments conducted with great care, found it to be just about three times as great, which induces him to believe that there is only one sixth of the vapor of sulphur in sulphuretted hydrogen, as in sulphurous acid. Phosphorus was subjected Be eared Hahn andes density of its vapor was in roigar mink Cormis be different from a educed from the density and analysis of ie gas, agreeably to the supposed analogy bnerena lah The density, by direct n to be 4,32, 30, the double of that generally accepted.—Idem. 7 ns fs) . Preservation of substances by means of alkalies—M. Pavex ay preserved, during many months, polished instruments of iron and steel by keeping them in solutions of potash or soda,—saturated so-. diluted with one, two or three times t their weight of watery He at first thought that: the ) the dis- appearance of the air and carbonic acid in the alkaline ixtur but he afierwards concluded that alkalinity acted an essential part i in the p : h: enon. In fact a very small: quantity: of allah te wulticienrs ! us 5 | ga'sz and even z,'s5 of caustic potash in water, will preserve m. oxidation, bars of iron, &c. immersed in it. Lime water di- ted. with its own weight of water, or of course without aswer the same purpose. Alkaline carbonates and borax have the Sapte but. nates must amd be stronger.-—-Rem Dncye. hese nam bede are diferent from those heretofore used, and we cave not ae- cess to the authority.—Ed. ar si Aout x > 384 Miscellanies. 10. Crucible for fusion.—Persons who wish to melt or assay steel are not aware how easy it is to obtain, in the space of twenty min- utes, a melted mass of one or two ounces without the — difficulty by means of the following arrangement. “Make a hole in the bottom of a Hessian crucible holding two or three quarts,—put inside of this crucible the cover of a smaller cru- cible so that it may rest at about three fourths of the depth.» Make with a file several notches around this cover to admit the air freely, having the knob of the cover uppermost. On this knob place a little ‘crucible containing the metal, which must be covered,—put’ some lighted charcoal around it, and then fill up with coke (or anthracite coal ?) so as to cover entirely the interior crucible. Connect this ap- paratus with a blacksmith’s or other bellows and keep up a constant blast, supplying the waste coal as it is consumed,—in the course of the time mentioned the steel will be melted. Other minerals, even some that are reputed infusible, will yield in like manner. ‘This sim- ple and cheap apparatus abridges time and labor surprisingly, and effects what with the common and costly furnaces easen?: be ‘impossi- — de Con. Usuelles, tom. 15,p.143. 0 sie “— Researches’ rélutioe to the azote formed in animal ubstances 5 by MM: Macarre and Marcet.—These judicious chemists, remarking 1 the influence of life in the transformations of alimen- tary materials—the importance of physiological investigations into the causes of the distinctions between vegetable and animal matter, and especially of well devised efforts to trace the origin of azote, or rather the causes of its greater abundance i in the animal than i in the Ps Sad. Ist. That ifs azote of animals is cootained ‘in the ood by wih Les are nourished. ee a 2d. That it is drawn from the atmosphere i in respira ¢ he A 8d. That animals have the property of eos A it, byt ans ‘into azote o other elements subjected to etion of t se of their i inquiries they had occasion ‘ei = eae position of “ebyle. “As soon as extracted it was intr oduced mle eceiver of an air pump, placed on sand slightly 3 wart 5 fa boats vessel of strong sulphuric acid, and thus by pr ng the vacuum reduced to * penfenly dry gray powder. This was analyze means of the black oxide of copper with the following results. ef res MS 1 Chyle of a dog. _ Chyle of a horse. aise 2 AGgrbenpied sc. - eco $52 «er od KES Sore Oxygen, - -9 = = =) 26.9 20% a= 26.8. ~58 —— emcee -m ile S ee yin SAG Azote, -- - 11.0: << = shits “The horse nein been fed on siesitiihens and the dog on various anes: the result shows that the food had little or no influence on ane composition of this animalized product. found, however, that the excrements of the dog were more of an animalized character than those of the horse. a dried athe - same nies as the chyle, the results were Excrements of the dog. | Excrements of silioen. ’ 41.9 - 38.6 eee Oxygen, - - - - - 28. © eo =) 29 oe eee o 69. «we = Be 3 zote, - 42 - - - - 0.8 a aad aie siete 20... -32.2. a After stating the nature and offices of the blood, the authors remark that i in composition, they found the blood of sheep, rabbits, horses, oxen, _ so nearly alike that the differences may be regarded only as errors of experiment. They then performed with the precau- tions before stated, the analyses of arterial and of venous blood. — _ Arterial and limpid blood reduced to a fine, Black venous blood it : alear, red powder. a brown-red powder. Carbon, - - - 580.2 - - - - = = 55.7% het cas 3. oe ee ee Hydrogen,” - - 6.6 - - - -.- = 6.4 aaa gi a, =, D003. 5 m5 ge eet ONE ~ It thus appears to be proved, for the first time, by elementary anal- _yses, what had been admitted by general hypotheses, that the pro- portion of carbon is greater in venous than in arterial blood. But the authors state that the change which venous blood undergoes in color by being gently agitated in contact with air, is not owing to its con- version into arterial blood. It is always brownish, less limpid, and when dried, it has the same deep red-brown tinge as dry venous = te and furnishes by analysis the same results. ‘The conclusion, yre, is that the vital action, as well as oxygen, is cones to its transformation i into arterial blood. aa ia XXIIIL—No, 2. 49 eee 886 Miscellanies. They examined the composition of fibrin, albumine, and ¢ matter derived from mammiferous animals, both eden: and ¢ car- nivorous and found it identical in each variety. Tn reference to the third assumption—the creation of azote ay vital action—the authors, after mentioning the experiments of Vauquelin and Majendie, inform us that they endeavored to feed a sheep upon sugar and gum, substances which contain no azote. The animal, al- though vigorous at first, grew meagre under this regimen, and died under the twentieth day of the experiment having diminished in in weight from fifty two to thirty one pounds. Its death and impov- erishment were fairly attributed to the absence of azote in its food. The results of the whole investigation are thus enumerated = 1. The identity of elementary chemical composition, particularly as it — azote in the _— of herbivorous oy. a mamm 2 ifera. 2. That setociel ae contains as aunt i azote and faim weiter - venous blood. ~- 3. That the blood of herbivorous and carnivorous animals is of the same composition, as well as the various eteeet: ete are wee creted from it. 4, That in equal eben of the two fluids ie a? dep, the blood of mammifera, whatever the mode of nourishment, has a than the chyle.. 5. That the excrements of carnivorous contain more ie e than those of herbivorous animals. 6. That herbivorots animals cannot any more than carnivorous, be supported by food containing no azote. 7. That unless we admit that vital action may aS azote, we must conclude that that which the chyle contains proceeds from the food, and that in both the classes of animals examined, farnishes the complement of that which is found in the blood.—Bib- Univ. Abril, 1832. -e geoe oe “ore a : ‘A pet isha piidenAdipiniad coped so as is tated Take two parts ahi powder, precipitated from a nitric solution by a solution of common salt—one part of alum, and two parts of cream of tartar3 make them into a paste with a little water, and after cleaning the cop- ad thoroughly, rub this paste upon it with the finger covered” witht white leather or very fine muslin; when the piece’ is sufficiently whitened, polish it with a buff powdered with calcined hartshorn, of a little Spanish white ; red copper takes the finest polish. . For wae take two parts of silver (precipitated the nitric solution by copper leaves,) two parts cream of jartar, two parts marine salt well pulverized. Apply this in the same way — as above described. When the piece is perfectly whitened, put it into water: containing. a little potash. Agitate it well in clear pets hout which it will tarnish and bceome yellow.—Jour. de C ere Glass syphons ere pias corrosive fluids.—M. Con- Larpeav has designated the form of a glass sy phon, which saves the necessity of applying the mouth or even. the finger to either end of the tube. Dip: the end a of Fig. 1. into the fluid to be. transferred, and pour into the funnel or side opening 6. a quantity of the same Guide i it flows out of the end c. The fluid in the vessel F. G., then rises and continues through a dec. In this case, the branch mn remains full, while the liquid in n subsides to near the bend a. me. 3. fe Be a 5 Pte: © - sds = cSaSs ore —\ ae ee: By eee ean aes ere 2B “The same e object i is - effected by the more simple form of. Fig des rovided the opening c is closed with a finger until the long | brancl ch f the syphon is full,—or, the application of the finger is unnecessa: the fluid be poured into the funnel faster than it can be discharged rough ¢. In that case, the long branch. of the sypbon will fill and act in the usual way.—Bull. D’Encour. Fev. 1832. se ¥ elt: Carbonate of lime ‘and its compounds ; . (M. BecqueneL.)— c € carbonate is found i in. countries of the oldest formation, ; ; oe ° as ie 4 of a ee texture, sometimes saccharoidal, and sometimes more or less lamellar. It forms almost the whole of secondary countries, in which it presents a compact structure. In tertiary formations it is also very abundant, yellowish, loose, and more or less solid.~ To tu- fas, and concretions, which continue to be found on the surface of the globe, it is not less predominant; finally, it enters into amen position of a great number of ‘organized bodies. 2 ae _ The variety of forms presented by carbonate of Sebeal is immense, but they may all be arranged in two classes. The first, whose primitive form is a rhomboid—belonging to substances properly call- ed calcareous ; the second, whose primitive form is a righ ; dal prism, belonging to Arragonite. eee The circumstances which determine the crystallization are un- known. All we know is that Arragonite is found in particular beds; (aslotaies or anaes regions, ) which may influence its formation. Wh d , nothing g is more easy than to ) distinguish one from the other by cleavage, the measurement of the angles, and by the hardness ; but when they are not crystallized we must have recourse to a sintaatlaa process, which M. Becquerel points out, and by which he proves that flos-ferri, the concretions called d Tivoli _ sugar-plums and batberlee white marble, present the rhomboidal cleav- age, while fist lactites, alabaster of montmartre, &c. present that of Arragonite. M. Becquerel describes an apparatus by which, with electrical forces, he crystallizes Arragonite. He obtains the form of a quadrangular prism with two dihedral summits; it is that under which nature presents it. The same apparatus serves to form the double crystallized carbonate of lime and magnesia, (dolomite,) the protoxide of copper, and the blue and green carbonates of copper+ Analysis proves that the crystals of Arragonite which he has obtain- ed, have absolutely the same composition as those of calcareous spa" and differ from it only in crystallization.— Rev. Ency. Juillet, Juillety YOS2: GEOLOGY. ia ice a ie 1. New cave of Bones.—An account of this cave was Tr" read by l de Serres to the French Academy on the 28th of May. © . exists in the environs of Mialet near Anduze, department du The principal cave has been long known, having served as a Te- treat for the Camisards, who had made a kind of fortress of it, in cases of sudden attack. It had frequently been visited by —_ peg but ey — until dates of — enna Miscellanies! 389 = > 7 e 3.3. ” sailie lake Gardon, which washes its base. Iss épasiog oman sree metres high, which is prolonged in a vestibule netres wide. This communicates with several galleries, the two ye dnineat of which, situated one above the other, grow narrower as we advance.» ‘The lower one, at about fifteen metres from the vestibule, has a floor of stalagmite, under which is found, in the midst of a bed of mud, like tat of the bed of the lake, human bones, fragments of earthen ware, some of which are extremely coarse, and bones of ruminating ani= mals belonging to existing species. In some of the recesses are found, mixed pell mell with the same remains, fragments of bones of extinct species, but that this mud is of a recent period, is proved by the fact, that in the same spots in which the antediluvian bones are found, are also found human bones, which might also have been re- garded as antediluvian but for a little bronze statue found —e mn, evidently of Roman fabrication.—Rev. Encyc. Juin, gure _ - Pref sittelcock's a he ont the Geology - Masenchusettenis SES ns, and who censure the continental governments, for devo=" ting the public funds to such purposes, will probably be surprised to” see one of the states of New England, executing at its own expense, =“ a work as that of Prof. Hitchcock ; and that a single glance at’ this report, is sufficient to convince any one of the utility of such a work, to the state which has undertaken it; and to regret that there’ isso very small a part of the French territory, whose geological consti-: tution is as well known to the public, as is now the state of Massachu= setts. France has the greater cause to regret her being distaneed im this race by America, from her having @ corps of mining engineers, who if they had the means, would, in a very short time furnish a work of the same kind, still more complete, of each of the depa ; ~The same Journal, in remarking on the Geology of Nova Scidia &e., by T. Jackson and F. Alger, adverts to the agreeable surprise, which | experienced, on debarking at Cumana, on in the Spanish Governor of that province, a man who was capahlardl sustaining a ‘scientific conversation; and t to his observation, that the distant land, cannot give - pte thé ear of one who has boar long absent from it, did the terms oxygen and azote, spontaneously uttered on. that occa- sion. A sensation, say the reviewers, as agreeable and unexpected, was experienced by them in reading a description, printed_in another hemisphere, of a covntry which they had considered to be divided between frosts and forests, and to find the most recent and best-estab= lished principles of one of the most recent of the sciences, applied to it with precision and discernment. May we be pardoned, say they, for - such an explosion of European self love ! How limited. soever, may. have been such labors as these, on the other side of the Atlantic, our American brethren will not be long in placing themselves bineaetin tendestied us the like. heviee feet 5: es es ag eee “2. eee » ASTRONOMY AND. MECHANICAL SCIENCE. =) 66 =*) axt-eiel = tee eee sohe Bicla’s Comet.—The eatationl comet discorspedssealandttll of Feb..1826, by. Me Biela, of Josephstadt, which performs its rev olution round the sun in about six years and three — and whose retura in the present year has been made the subject of elab- orate calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, has not disappointed the expectations of astronomers. | It is already visible: in. superior telescopes, and may be expected shortly to be seen: in its. approach to the sun, if not by the naked eye, at least with instruments, of moderate power. lis place this morning before sunrise, was _ aboutone anda half degrees S. W. of @ Auriga, and its acwual course; is directed nearly towards the star of the same name in Gemini, but, its motion is rapid, and it will speedily assume a more southern di-, reesions: The reappeara nee..of this comet, the second of sbort pe~ interest by tebvonanocts, 06. s likely to -sheclibae some of the. mostcus rious points in the constitution of our system, and among the cians derful verifications of astronomical theories which observation is COD stantly affording, it is hardly possible to imagine. any. more, striking: than the appearance after the lapse of nearly seven years,” an-all-but- imperceptible cloud or wisp of vapor, true howeret 0 M. Gambey, in 1829, by the city of Geneva. | ‘They werea theroute ‘from Paris, and arrived in perfect order. © pte a well adjusted, with the assistance of the maker, in the observatory > the transit instrument, in the principal ball of the ground floor, and the equatorial in the eastern tower under a hemispherical cupola with . moveable roof. They are the admiration of all who have seen them, from the the beauty of their execution, their free and easy — a * hele pas nuns Oniv. Mai, 1832. <8isMedal for discovery of GometsintTie king of ahi to whom astronomy is under numerous obligations, offers a gold medal, of the weight of twenty ducats, to any one who shall have found the first comet whose revolution is not yet known, and which is not visible tothe naked eye. ‘The discoverer must’ give immediate informa- tion to the counsellor of state, Schumacher. The medal will be de- creed six months after the discovery, to give time for paypemrnee: a eeeeieee of 0 ehniniseiden. eg ee ssor of the A, Maximum density of Water.—M. Sent : ic Institute of Vienna, has recently published a tailed memoir on the absolute weight of water at different tempera- tures. "His results do not entirely agree with those of prior enquir~ ers: He places the maximum density at the temperature of 3°.75— - Centigrade = 389.75 Fahrenheit.—Annalen der vie pee Janes XXI. - 76: ee WF init San, =e On the iniieindnsi motions fie se pitndaliie and the surround= observed in the open air. It-had in fact been supposed till then, that the loss of weight which a pendulum sustains, when plunged in a fluid, is the same, whether the body is at rest or in motion. Ex- perience proves the contrary, and the theory of the motion of fluids” has also led M. Poisson’ to demonstrate that the Festlt onghteasiae goes on in geometrical progression, and being very slow exerts fo sensible influence on the duration of each oscillation. But the pres- -sure of the air, which does not alter the amplitude of the oscillations, influences their duration, both because it is not the same in thesev- eral horizontal sections, and because it changes in different parts of the surface, in proportion to the condensation and dilatations-which accompany the motions of the air... M. Poisson obtains also, by an- alytic theory, a result which accords in a satisfactory manner With — the direct experiments made on this subject by Captain Sabine. It results’ from this that the correction relative to the reduction toa “vacuum ought.to be increased one half, which gives rise to am aug- mentation of +;;%;53 in the length of the single pendulum which beats seconds. This length, estimated in parts of the metre, thus be- comes for Paris, according to the experiments of Borda, 0”.993856. The expression of the gravity at the surface of the earth ( b by double the it causes 2 body to pass through in a va- cuum dutiog lie first second-of its fall,) is then 9".80897 ; and-the mass of the earth, as La Place determines it, must be also increased about TossID which rises it to = ae , vis of that of the. Univ. Avril, 1832. I an antes eT Franch: ci AND ’ SoMESTIO ECONOMY.” $: SD thd eater of Beets ar lil momen sea In the year 1829—30, nearly two hundred sugar mapu- factories in France produced fromnin eto ten millions of kilogrammes c r, and it is believed: that in 1830—1831, two hundred _ This business aa ainianansbonatya farming labor,: -and| may be usefully combined with the work of a farm of moderate size, on which from eaey five to‘one bie chatncig thousand kilogrammes ‘of root: cans be ment ac a | a , aoe eer he pre graf eet nto nikita? ically den ve eet: however; in all sugars, «slight ssiraliuaidiiepeenanae darianinenaareroner= See rie acid at 25° on sugar until eee @ay taey oo F pt pitate, ait of the flask, it may Seriltivinen to be beet sugar. © oxalate of lime, which is not found in cane sugar. i _ 2d. Toa solution of sugar in distilled water, add a few areeet sub-acetate of lead: the foreign matters of the sugar will combine with the lead, and they are always more abundant in beet sugar than in that of cane. They are precipitated by a few hours rest in beet ‘suger and remain suspended in that of cane. ~ Roots which grow much out of the ground, yield less good sugar ian those which are well buried. Those which grow upon richly manured land run much to leaf, but their juice is less rich in sugar and more abundant in mucilage. A calcareous soil appears to be the best for the cultivation of sugar beets. ‘The year 1829, the au- turn of which was very wet, gave, contrary to expectation, a sugar harvest equal to common years. The molasses of beets. has been advantageously used in fodder with cut straw. ‘The pulp makes a valuable manure for clayey and close bound soils. aoe sow the seeds in beds and transplant the roots, but the ter number of cultivators prefer sowing tem i in i —Bib. Unie Mai, 1832.— HBS 2. Fidutias alues of different kinds of food for sheep ; by I M. DeDompastr.—Some experiments performed by this celebrated agriculturist, are well worthy of being recorded, as approaching nearer to an exact determination of the question of the relative nu- tritive properties of a few of the more common aliments of sheep and cattle than any which we remember to have seen. He divided forty ‘nine sheep into seven lots, of seven sheep each, in such a manner that the total weight of each lot should be, as nearly as a equal to each of the rest. Each lot was kept in a separate div stable, the food was given to each lot in rations of equal cia and by means of scales, the total weight of each lot was taken once a week, and the experiment was continued five weeks. The weight of each lot was four hundred and thirty six pounds. _ The substances subjected to examination were 1. Dry lucern. 2. Oil cake from flax seed. 3. Oatsand barley. 4. Crude potatoes. 3 ~ Cooked potatoes. 6. Beets. 7. Carrots. aoe __. The dry lucern formed the unit of the estimate. One of the seven : i. was fed exclusively on dry lucern, and each of the six others received just half the raga of _ and the remainder of the Vou. XXIII.—No. 2 ration consisted of such a portion of one of the other alimentary sub- stances before mentioned as was found sufticient by a careful weigh- during the five weeks to keep each lot in the same healthy con- dition. The following table shows the current progress of the ex- periment; the quantity of water drunk by each lot of sheep during the five weeks being also measured, by a guaged trough. The au- thor concludes that fifteen pounds of dry lucern may be considered _ &8 a proper ration for one sheep per week, or rather more than two pounds per day. The primitive weight of each lot, as before ob- served, was four hundred and thirty six pounds. Lots. Food. Ist week. 2d week. 3d week, 4th week. 5th week. ist, Dry lucern, 4371ps.433 4375 4373 443. 2d, Lucern and oil cake, 428 428 4324 4394 4444 3d, Lucern, oats and barley, 4224 4334 4294 4363 4374 4th, Lucern and crude potatoes, 441 4404 434 4323- 4393 5th, Lucernand cooked potatoes, 437 4354 4474 4445 4514 6th, Lucern and Beets, 435 424 436. 437. 444% 7th, Lucern and carrots, A417 407 4194 4263 4272 The quantity of water drunk by the seven lots during the five weeks was as follows, showing the relative degree of thirst occasion- ed by the different aliments. {st lot, 223 quarts. 5th lot, 108 quarts. — 2nd lot, 189 6th lot, 5 | 3d lot, 164 7th lot, 36 4th lot, 123 Fifteen pounds of dry lucern being considered as a proper ration for one sheep per week, or’seven and a half pounds a half ration; he finds that the following quantities of each of the other shee equivalent in nutritive value to the half ration of lucern. ia Oil cake. y. Oats. _ Crude potatoes. Cooked Seiatoes:: 43 lbs. 34 lbs. Sibs: 14lbs, - 19 lbs, 164 lbse 23 bs Thus taking the quantity of lucern as a standard thes —nutrilive: poner of the different substances will be Dry 1 ucern, a 100 Ibs. aes seed oil ke. - - — ty Baten ‘Barley, - a : 47 Crude ote, - - - 187 - 173 Best te vi) anc) aan eee alee _ in the discrimination of species and genera, as well as of their vario other relations. We should be very glad to see a complete set of "DOMESTIC. — 1. Professor Saved Green’s Monograph of the Trilobites 7 North America, with colored models of the species.—The author, in his in- troduction, after stating the general characters by which these fossils may be recognized, enumerates the genera established by previous authors, viz. five genera from Brongniart, one genus from Dr. DeKa and three genera from Prof. Dalman. ‘The essential characters of all these genera are concisely given, so that those who may wish to examine this subject, may do it without resorting to the rare and ex- pensive works of the French and Swedish naturalists. A tenth genus is here added by Prof. G. to include some curious foreign trilobites. A list of all the species heretofore described is then added and the introduction closes with some speculative remarks. In addition to the ten genera in the introduction, five other genera are proposed by the author, all supposed to be peculiar to North America; he also noticed two others suggested by Prof. Eaton. The species described as natives of North America are thirty three in number; twenty two of which are supposed to be now described for the first time. ‘The work then terminates with some brief observa- tions on the nature of the trilobites, in which there is a notice of a recent trilobite, now in the Albany Institute. It is to be regretted that that animal has remained so long undescribed. ~ ~The monograph is admirably illustrated by the colored models, done in plaster by Joseph Brano, whose success in this effort, must give full confidence that his talents can be advantageously employed on other occasions in the service of natural history. "\ We are happy to see this application of the art of modelling thus favorably introduced into this country ; it must be of great utility to = and teachers, as well as to original investigators. Mr. Bra- no’s models are beautifully done, and are nebrs2 of the monograph “to which they belong. Prof. Green appears to us to have executed his work with fidelity, ability and good taste, and it cannot fail to aid in promoting our geo- logical researches. It is worthy of being mentioned that the mon- ograph is got up in a very neat style, and forms a very convenient, volume, either for the desk or the pocket. The minute and exact _ examinations and descriptions of natural history are very important 396 Miscellanies. models of all the known trilobites, and we trust that the effort of Prof. Green will meet with the encouragement it merits, and be followed up, in Europe, until all the species shall be presented in good models. We regret that our limits do not permit us to extract the descriptions of the new species. The following section forms the conclusion of the work. : _ “ Nature of the Trilobite-—Every one familiar with the history of the trilobites, is aware that a good deal of controversy has existed among naturalists, respecting the precise link in the grand chain of organized beings, these singular fossil animals, should occupy. Pro- fessor Brongniart, Dr. DeKay, Audoiin, and several other acute ob- servers, have placed them in the vicinity of the Limuli, and other Entomostraca with numerous feet; while P. A. Latreille and others, presuming that these animals were destitute of locomotive organs, as no vestige of them has ever been discovered, fix their natural po- sition in the neighborhood of the Chitones; or rather that they con- stituted the original stock of the Articulata, being connected on the one hand with these latter Mollusca, and on the other with those first mentioned, and even with the Glomeris.* It was our original inten- tion to have closed this Monograph with a short history of these the- ories—and of the notion advanced by Latreille and others, that the Trilobites have been annihilated by some ancient revolution of our planet. All these matters, we think, are now put to rest by the late discovery of some living Trilobites in the southern seas, near the Falkland Islands. In the cabinet of -the Albany Institute, we have examined some of these recent animals, which have very neatly the size and general appearance of the Paradoxides Boltoni, as repre- sented on our frontispiece ; the species cannot, however, belong to” that genus, as the buckler is furnished with eyes very similar to those of the Calymene Bufo; its organs of locomotion are short, numerous; and concealed under the shell—but I do not feel at liberty to notice the interesting animal more minutely. It will probably be described and figured shortly, in a perfectly full and satisfactory manner, by Dr. James Eights, the enterprising discoverer, together with several other new and remarkable genera and species belonging to the Entomostraca.” We had the pleasure of seeing the specimens of Dr. Eights of what appear to be recent trilobites. If this opinion is correct, the trilobite must be regarded a being of almost all geological ages: * See Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, Vol. iii, pp. 135—6. We annex, froma Prof. G Green, a notice, just received, pee 26, 1832, of a new trilobite. _ Asaphus Myrmecoides scdieioats depresso; costis latis, convexis, tuberoaiis magnis ; cauda rotunda? The large fragment, by means of which this species has been identified, is in a fine state of preservation. Thirteen costal arches and fourteen joints of the middle lobe, with two or three faintly marked articulations near its extremity, can be very satisfactorily made out. The costal arches are, therefore, more numerous than the vertebral joints; an organization not very uncommon with the Asaphs.- The first eight ribs and vertebra, as seen in this fragment, appear to have been articulated together ; after which this irregular structure commences. ‘The costal arches are rounded on their up- per surface, without strie ; broadest near their lateral extremities, and are, most of them, images nodulous; these nodules re- semble very much the protuberances on the ribs of the Pecten no- dosus. ‘The joints of the middle lobe are also rounded and nodu- lous, but on these the nodules are disposed in the form of two very _ obtuse paralellograms. What renders this fragment peculiarly inter- esting, is that the lower portion of the upper shell, along one of the lateral edges near the tail, is so fractured as to present the structure beneath the ends of the ribs which have here scaled off. At first sight the broad smooth edging round this part of the fossil, resem- bles very much the membranaceous expansion beyond the lateral lobes which is one of Professor Brongniart’s generic characters of the Asaph. This border indeed is very like the hem so strikingly _ exhibited in the saphus micrurus; but upon comparing the ribs - on the opposite side, where they are perfect, with those terminated by the border, it will be seen that they are much longer; what there- _ fore, seems to be an expansion beyond the ends of the ribs in that place, must be occasioned by the reflection of the shell beneath the _ posterior portions of the lateral lobe. ‘The inferior structure and ~ mechanism of this part of the fossil trilobite is thus, we believe, for _ the first time developed. In a fine group of the Dudley fossils de- - posited in the cabinet of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania, a similar inferior reflected edge may be seen beneath the buckler of the Asaphus De Debuchii. It is not uncommon in many of the recent Crustacea, and is strikingly exhibited along the lower - of the : foe polyphemus. ; — - Soni See SE 398 Miscellanies. The Asaphus Myrmecoides was found in a hard ash colored carbo- nate of lime in Genesse County, N. Y., by Mr. J. C. G: Kennedy, and was presented by him to the Philadelphia Museum. ~~ The perfect animal, the fossilized fragment of which is above de- scribed, must have been at least six inches in length, which is much longer than any Asaph we have ever seen. Indeed, it is somewhat doubtful whether it be a true Asaph or not. Although there appears to have been no membranaceous development extending beyond the abdominal arches, still its depressed form, and the relative propor- tions of the middle lobe seem to place it among the Asaphs. = 2. The Herbarium of the late Zaccheus Collins of Philadelphia. —In consequence of the much regretted death of Mr. Collins, his herbarium is offered for saleby the administrator of his estate. Mr. Collins was so well known, that it is quite unnecessary to say that he was always esteemed an able botanist, and that, although he never published any thing, his Opinion was often consulted, by a majority of our botanical writers. He was an assiduous collector, and his herbarium contains a pretty complete collection of the plants from the vicinity of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, &c., made by his own hands—including cryptogamous plants, mosses, lichens, fuci, &c. He also received large contributions from his correspondents in va- rious parts of the United States, especially of southern plants, from South Carolina and Georgia, which, at the present time, it is ‘ex- tremely difficult to procure. A complete set of the plants collected in Arkansaw by Mr. Nuttall, together with many from the Missour!, and an interesting collection from Labrador, are included in the her- barium. It is probable, that no more extensive collection of the plants of the United States, if even there is a more complete one eX- isting, will, at this day, be offered for sale. , va The specimens have been neatly prepared, are enveloped in such a manner as to be secure from the attacks of insects, are arranged systematically, and carefully labelled. Mr. C. also possessed @ pretty large collection of exotic plants, which is for sale with the We are happy in showing, in this manner, our respect for the memory of Mr. Collins, by making known, the (we doubt not justly ) reputed value of this collection, to the botanical community, an¢ to public institutions. We are told that Mr. Collins died intestate, 27° that otherwise, it is not probable that his collections would have been : Te rae offered for sales ds Hisionincieal botanical correspondents, as we are remember ae all,).1 were. De, Bigelow, of Fieaies ; Mr. Nouall, Dr. Beck, of Albany ; Dr. Torrey and Mr. Eddy, of New York; Rev. H. Steinhauer, of Bethlehem; Mr. Schweinitz, Dr. Midikahes: Mr. Elliott, of Charleston; Dr. McBride, Mr. Le Conte, of Savan- nah; Dr. Boykin, of Milledgeville; Dr. Baldwin, and Mr, Rafinesque. If desired, a more minute description of the herbarium will be furnished by Mr. Charles Pickering, of Philadelphia, to whose ex- amination and judgment, this herbarium has been referred. - 3. The coal beds of Pennsylvania equivalent to the great secon- -y coal measures of Europe. To Prof. Silliman.—At ca ninety first page of the second edi- tion of my Geological Text Book, (published last June,) I adduced facts, in proof of the correctness of the heading of this article. Since its publication, Mr. James Hall, adjunct professor in this in- stitution, has made probably, the most extensive collection of veget- able fossils in Pennsylvania, that bas hitherto been made on this con- tinent. It was the intention of Mr. Hall and myself to have deter- mined the names of all which had been described by M. Brongniart, and to have given lithographic figures of the remainder. But we are prevented by other engagements. At present, I will merely give a list of the names of those which _ we determined by the aid of M, Brongniart’s figures and descrip- . _ tions, as far as his sixth number. I have now before me twenty three _ ascertained species of ferns, from the coal mines of Pennsylvania, _ which Brongniart has described, as belonging to the great secondary coal fo: rmations of pai fend in the secondary class of rocks Hence th di the Alleghany and Cats- £2CLUCOC LUI avo D : kill Bivaiiaice: Sansiion. Tf organized remains are any evidence — of the equivalent characters of rocks, these mountains are surely se- ondary. ‘They are the upper secondary of some distinguished Eu- _ fopean geologists, the upper stratum of the lower secondary of oth- = ors while others seem unwilling to admit a division of the secondary _ It appears to me, that the ‘Alleghany and Catskill Mountains may | EM ananed, confidently, as the grand starting range for settling: all oe _ questions relating to the equivalent strata of the Eastern and Western €0) tin ‘ I feel that I am fully supported in the position I have ta- 400 Miscellanies. ken in view of such equivalents, and set forth in the last edition of my Text Book, by the additional collections of organized remains, made in the months of August, September, and October, of the present year, by the students and assistant teachers of this school. At the same time I reviewed the Helderberg range, and continued my examinations throughout the southern part of the county of Al- bany. In truth, every step I take, where organized remains are found, and every specimen brought into this school, (several thou- sands have already been seen in the students’ lecture rooms,) strength- en my confidence in the opinion of Cuvier, and of the other great men of the East, that “ organized remans are true indexes to geologi- - cal strata.” : : The following species, found in connexion with Pennsylvania coal beds of Wilkesbarre, Carbondale, &c. by Mr. Hall, myself, and stu- dents, have been determined according to M. Brongniart; and he) are all open to the inspection of the amateurs of natural science, in the natural history room of this school. ag, Genus Nevropreris.—Fleaxuosa, gigantea, heterophylla, ele- gans, Loshi, Cistii, Lorettii, angustifolia, acutifolia, macrophylla, tenurfolia, auriculata, cordata. os Genus SrueNopreris.—Latifolia, furcata, trifoliata, artemisae- folia, Mantelli, Williamsonis. as _ Genus Oponropreris.— Crenulata, Sclotheimii. Genus Tarnioprerts.—Vittata. Genus Cyciorreris.—Obligua. We have several additional speciesmot determined. _Note—I hope to be able to furnish the Journal with a description of the most important remains, in the collections deposited at this school, accompanied with figures. Ihave about sixty species already lithographed. Amos Eaton. — Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y. Dee. 1, 1832. 4. Correction of anerror in Prof. Green’s Monograph of North American Trilobites ; with additional explanations.—I gave Prof. Green several proof sheets of my Geological Fext Book, while 1 was in the press; in which the genus Brongniartia was ce y printed, Brongniatia. As Mr. G. has adopted the erroneous printings — it is proper to correct the mistake ; as it is the name of a new g& R nus. The erroneous printing occurs once on p. 32, it is correct on pp- 90, 126, 128, and 129. It is the name of the author of the first valuable treatise on trilobites, (Alexander Brongniart,) with a Latin termination. A. Eaton. 6. Bouison addressed to manufacturers and senders of pn ble substances, especially if volatile ——We are told that in subliming camphor, the vessel sometimes becomes stopped by the condensed va- por, thus forming a solid plug, and that explosion, with a dangerous combustion of the volatile vapor, occasionally happens. We knew a gentleman once to set fire to his family parlor, by at- tempting to distil ether in it, and we have known, by experience, what it is to pass through a wide flame of ether kindled by a candle at a considerable distance on the table of a lectureroom. = * _ It is well known that the entire volume of the air, in a small room, sometimes becomes inflammable in consequence of the diffusion through it of etherial eee —_ from open vessels from which it was poured at the time. The obvious cautions are still more lowing notice from the National Gazette, of an accident which oc- curred in Philadelphia, and which occasioned “a severe loss to be sustained by Mr. George W, Carpenter, the eminent chemist and druggist of Market street. On the night of the 24th of September, one of the young men of his store was agitating a bottle containing two gallons of alcohol of thirty six degrees, in which were contained gums and resins, for the purpose of making a tincture. By some — chanée it Communicated with a lamp on the counter, and the bottle broke, throwing its contents over the counter and floor. In an m- stant the whole was in a flame, rising to the ceiling and spreading to- wards the side of the room. Unfortunately, a bottle containing spir- its of turpentine saturated with camphor, which was at the end of the counter, broke, from the heat, and added ‘double fury to the element, so that before water could be procured, the whole store was envel- oped in flames, the bottles on both sides bursting and throwing their inflammable contents into the fire. The loss sustained by Mr. Car- penter amounts to ten thousand dollars, of which five thousand dol- lars were insured. He has also to regret the destruction of a num- ber of accounts, several years’ letters, and other papers of value, as Oh inet a as I Ree Ms ied ge See oe fol. - well as various unpublished essays on Mineralogy and Medicine in- tended for Professor Silliman’s Journal and the American Journal of Vou. XXTIL—No. 2. 51 402 Miscellanies. the Medical Sciences, mineralogical examination of the Eastern States intended for publication, and a considerable proportion of his essays on the Materia Medica, in the loss of which the public have reason to sympathise with him. The fire had a terrific appearance, owing to the combustible nature of the contents of the store, and was seen some distance from the city. Mr. Carpenter bears strong tes- timony to the efficiency and zeal of the firemen, by which the adja- cent houses were rescued from destruction, and a portion of his own saved when its total loss seemed inevitable.” We learn from Mr. Carpenter, that a part of his books and papers was saved; that the upper stories of his buildings filled with drugs and chemical preparations were rescued, and that his collection of minerals in a back building was entirely preserved. 2 . . & Bo is ee 6. The Cabinet of Natural History and American Rural Sports, with illustrations ; monthly ; quarto ; by J. & 'T. Dovcuty, Phila- delphia.—This elegant, interesting, and instructive magazine has now gone through nearly two volumes. Occupying a middle station between Journals strictly and drily scientific, and those which are merely pop- ular, and being beautifully illustrated by colored engravings, not less remarkable for the exhibition of the appropriate scenery of landscape: than of accurate figures of birds and animals, would seem to be entitled io an extensive patronage ; a patronage commensurate not only with the heavy expences of such a work, but’ with the talents, taste, industry, and enterprize of its respectable proprietors. Nothing but the pres- mamet numerous duties has prevented us from naming it at an earlier lay,and we regret, that at almost the latest moment of our present nutt- ber, we ¢an do little more than to express our mortification that it is in danger of being discontinued for want of adequate patronage. it would be little to the credit of our boastful country, that 2 work of so attractive and respectable a character, which exhibits and fosters beautiful and useful arts, as well as science and rational entertain- ment, should die of penury, when there is bread enough and to spare. We have had too many instances already of the suspension or fail of most useful and respectable periodical works for want of pecuniary support ; a support which might be easily rendered adequate without any retrenchment v "ament from comforts, and with hardly a diminution of lux- slow to relinquish such works, (an important portion of national pro- Miscellanies. 403 perty,) got up and sustained, as they almost invariably are, with great labor and personal inconvenience, and usually with Jittle pecuniary reward ; so that, with few exceptions, only those who love knowledge will long persevere in sustaining them. ‘The Journal now before us has peculiar claims from its joint relation to science, arts, instruction and amusement. We trust, therefore, that the effort which we un- derstand is about to be made, by the editors, to save their interest- ing work, will be seconded by some hundreds of good subscribers, who will both read and pay. Passus graviora, miseris succurrere disco. Each number contains twenty four pages, quarto, with double col- ‘umns, equal to fifty common 8vo. pages, and “ two beautifully color- ed plates of birds and quadrupeds, drawn from nature, and executed in the best style, with a perfect history of each object so represented, with the addition of many interesting anecdotes.” —~Ed. Terms.—Eight dollars per annum, payable in advance, to J. & T. baseatl No. 80, Walnut street, Philadelphia. TOR fanufi acture of Telescop sy &e. —Mr. Amasa_ Holcomb, of Southwick, Massachusett fa py glasses of every descrip- tion now in use ; also, achromatic telescopes of forty eight inches — focal length, which will give a distinct view of Jupiter’s belts, and of ‘the eclipses of his satellites, as well as of the principal double stars. He makes also reflecting telescopes of from eight to twelve feet focal . These are made on Herschell’s plan only, and will perform more than those of the refracting kind, but are not as durable and, insome respects, not as convenient. Any of the above instruments will be made to order, and warranted to perform more than the im- ported instruments of the same prices. Prof. Olmsted, of Yale Col- lege, after some examination of one of Mr. Holcomb’s s telescopes, permits his name to be referred to, and has communicated to the edi- tor his favorable opinion of the work. ~ Tt gives us pleasure to aid in making known an artist, self taught, and as, we believe, worthy of patronage and encouragement. ~ Southwick is in Hampden county, upon the Connecticut line, and is one of the towns intersected by the New Haven, Farmington, and Northampton Canal. It is five miles distant from Westfield, and sie two miles from Northampton. 8: Phosphate of Lime in Edenville, N. Y.—In the month of. a gust last, I discovered a locality three fourths of a mile west of this 404 Miscellanies. village, from which I have obtained well defined six sided prismatic crystals of phosphate of lime from one half an inch to twelve inches in length, and from one eighth to one inch and five eighths in diame- ter. Their color is a bright asparagus green, of fine lustre, and they are variously terminated. Some have equal terminal faces, corres- ponding with the lateral planes of the prism; while others have one, two, and sometimes three of their terminal faces extended at the ex- pense of others, so as to give the crystal, in some instances, a one, two, three, four, and even a five sided summit of unequal faces. Their gangue is the white lime rock of this vicinity, in a partial state of decomposition, so that by the. fingers only it may be reduced into coarse rhombic fragments, and the crystals disengaged from their na-. tive bed. J. P. Youne, P. M, Edenville, Oct. 15, 1832. . 9. Geological Map —A geological map of New London and Windham counties, is about being published by Mr. Wm. Lester, Jr. from the surveys of Lieut. W. W. Mather, during the late summer. It is to be accompanied on the same sheet by a very minute map of the two counties, upona scale three fifths of an inch to a mile, hand- somely colored, varnished, and mounted, from a copper plate en- graving. ; This survey will correct the section published in this Journal last year. A mica slate stratum, crosses that section, though not seen in place on the line of that section. It runs through Franklin, ‘Scot- land, Hampton, Pomfret, Woodstock, and into Massachusetts, and appears to be a continuation of that in Massachusetts described Prof. Hitchcock, on his map of Massachusetts ; but which appears to run out before it comes to the Connecticut ae ‘Tt: terminates again abruptly in Bozrah, Conn. The granular feldspar and goers, strata of that section, are subordinate strata to gneiss, from twe to thirty miles in length. ‘They terminate abruptly on the north ba bank of Morriss river. The contorted gneiss extends from Massachu-_ setts to Long Island sound, with a breadth from three to ten miles, and underlies the best land on the east of Connecticut river, in Con- necticut, except the valley of the Connecticut. The sienite of that section forms a bed or overlying mass, sie about twenty. or twenty five square miles, with greenstone, sienitic, | and granitic veins, traversing the strata in eyery direction arou West Point, Nov. Souk, 1832, ae Miseellanies. 405 10. Fossib Shells of the Tertiary Formations of the United States, by T. A. Conrap. No. 2. J. Dobson, Philadelphia—We have /much pleasure in announcing the second number of this. valuable work, with eight lithographic plates, illustrating seventeen species of our tertiary fossils. It is really cheering to observe that this depart- ment of American geology, is now in a fair way to be fully elucida- ted; and we must confess our surprise that such interesting facts, such multiplied materials for geological reseach, should not sooner have called forth the talent and attention they so justly merit. Mr. Con- rad’s second number contains five species of Crassatella, one of Tur- binella, four of Ancillaria, four of Ostrea, a Macta, and a Pholado- mya. These fossils are taken indiscriminately from the upper and middle tertiary deposits, and from localities widely distant, New Jer- sey, Virginia, the Carolinas, Alabama, &c. Mr. Conrad is now ona tour in the southern states, collecting materials for the continuation of his work; from this cause the third number may be delayed until April or even until May. Those persons who feel interested in the geology of our country, may look forward with pleasing anticipations 16 PANG MEY Coan ejotmen =< Hstho Gates ‘11. Anthracite in Wrentham, Mass.—Specimens of this mineral have been forwarded to us by Mr. S. Day, in a letter dated Provi- dence, R. I. Oct. 11. It is stated to be newly discovered—that the boring-has been carried to eighty feet and the excavation or shaft, to sixty ; that the coal lies in strata of different depths, interspersed with slate, and that it is proposed, should the prospect continue fair, to pe- tition the legislature for a charter of incorporation, and in the spring to push their enterprise with vigor. = The coal appears like the European anthracite, and resembles that of Rhode Island more than that of Pennsylvania. The latter State possesses such vast resources in this mineral, and of such admi- rable quality and easy acquisition, that prudent men will look well to every undertaking, which must depend, in a degree, upon successful competition. * 12. Comparison of weights and measures of length and capacity, reported to the Senate of the United States by the Treasury Depart- ment in 1832, and made by Ferd. Rod. Hassler, M.A.P.S., &c. (Doc. No. 299.) Washington, 1832.—On the 29th of May, 1830, the Senate passed a resolution requiring a comparison of the weights and measures used in the several custom houses in the United States, 406 Miscellanies. to be made under the direction of the Treasury Department. The execution of this important commission was entrusted to Mr. F. R. Hassler, a gentleman who is well known to be fully qualified for the task. Several well authenticated foreign standards were employed in the operation, among which were an original metre, and an origi- nal kilogram. 'The document above cited contains two reports ‘made by Mr. H.; the first exhibits principally the results of the op- erations, and the second a detailed account of the means and meth- ods used. ‘The report made in 1821, by the Hon. John Q. Adams, showed that great discrepancies existed among the weights and meas- ures used in this country, but no steps were then taken to remedy the evil. We learn from the letters of the secretary of the Treas- ury, accompanying Mr. H’s reports, that the custom houses through- out the country, are soon to be supplied with uniform and accurate weights and measures, and authentic standards, to’be fabricated at the United States’ Arsenal in Washington, , under the personal super- intendance of Mr. Hassler. 13. Revised edition’ of Spurzheim’s Works.—Marsh, Capen & Lyon, Boston, have in press, and propose publishing, the following works by the late Dr. Spurzuerm. I. Phrenology, or the Doctrine of Mental Phe- nomena.—Vol. J, Physiological part. Vol. 2, Philosophical part,;—with plates, 2 vols. 8vo. $4 00 Ul. Elementary v paeighte: of eatcation I vol. “i2mo. - “ TIE. Natural Laws of Man, 1 vol. igmo. ‘2° 37f IV. Outlines of Phenology, 1 vol. 18mo. 374—$5 79 To be Published, provided sufficient encouragement be given. A. Phrenology in. connection with the Study of Physiognomy.—Illustration of Characters, 1 vol. royal 8vo., with 34 Lithographic plates, $4 .00 - Anatomy of the Brain, 1 vol. ead with — ix, 17 plates, - 3 50 m0. ssid on Insanity, 1 vol. os. aul plhdon, 200— 9 50 /- Phrenological Busts. ea anol ellie i dhcete ck Onn Fo ian Sets of 60 Heads, illustrating the principles of mal aneas aa - Phrenology,, Matty eneaned, ot a ba a INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII. AL Alkalies, ented qualities of, 383. Alluvial dep of the Mohawk, 207. Ase Treocital, of the atmosphere 7 Aulinibaia ie Massachuse Ash, white, Association, ps or advancemen science, nop here. sieleal omtgee ~f 380. Azote in animal substan B. Bath, — hiving ‘of, : ts, ¢ cultivation and sugar of, 392. Biela’s com er ~ cave, 38 eal mas Victor, notice of life of, Borin ng for water in New York, 206. ce distillation of, ewster, Dr., on polarization of light, > . association for advancement of| on: 179. Buckland, Prof., on n vitality of a toads en- elosed in wood and sto ~ ms Cc Cabinet of Natural History and American rural spo baie ae in, 185, Te, perinengt® on uses 405. ef ct of, on piteanken ig Chlorid Cave of bones, 388. , 301. wie Sass. 346. fro on Pitsines, ne and chlo- Chile, plant of, 78, 250. e of lime, actio n of on ere 135. Chlorides a peel uses of, sulp ie bea of Pananyinnels: Prof, Eaton mat, B s, 390, Comets, medal Tier discovery of, 391. J. 'T. A., work on foseil and recent gear = ier ee of North Americ ‘+s Soap opper oa a for silvering, 386. Corda P coating for, 199. : (Corr — ids, syphons for, 387 ———— sublimate, detectign of, 207, Cotton, cas oe treatment by, 198. rucible for fusion, 384. Foeigs aron G., memoir of, 303. uvier and Brongniart’s report on M. Des- _ i s tableau comparatif des coquilles antes, 196 ia|cylindriea steam boilers, strength of, 63. Be ad. Lie aan "IDe Candelles, neste a wre De Candolle’s, A. P. memoir of Huber, Dilavial action, Hon. Wm. A. Thompson =e filter and prepared charcoal, E. Earth, increase of temperature in the in-_ f Case, Rev. Wa, sie on bydrophobiog cr organized remains of, 399. _ 408 Economy of fuel, 318. Balto, notice of a fountain of petroleum by, sti relating to hydrophobia by, sii reminiscences of Dr. Spurzheim by, 356. Emmet, Prof., on solidification of gypsum, 209. F. Fair at ip 1831, 182. Ferrugino s sand formation, organic re- of, Field surveying, 37. Filter of a t, 346. Flowers deprived of their anthers, 45. Follen, her funeral seation on the death of Dr. G Fossil ei remo a in the thuseum of Gideon i tent remains of ‘trata of ees: itis —— shells of tertiary formation in North — —o recent shells ee 339, Fuel, ditidexy of, 318. Fusion, crucible for, 384. ‘G. a effect of various, upon vegetation, 193. Geneva obseryatory. bin a — of. se ta part of Con- necticut ion of Geor- ‘énnessee, 1. *. ae oe Ale Tae Sas ey gold region, Hon. Judge Peck e Rev. En- cotia, Dy. Messrs. Jack-|} INDEX en me Prof., on weights and’ measures, bar ium of Mr. Z. Collins, 398. Hltcheoes, Prof., report on geology of setts, notice, of, in the Rev. Eneye. reese 1832, oleom a iH, seme Be of tele- scopes H paal Francois, notice of life and wri- TG Hydrephans, facts on, 144. F Inclined planes, Prof. Thomaon on, 107. Inflammable substances, caution against accidental sera Injection, sage Dr. Mauran on, 114. Ink, indelible, Iron pers of its oxides, 379. J: Johnson, W. R., Prof., on an ancient A- merican uten sil, 65. ——— po indrical or en fue ——_——- economy of Jones, Dr, a: hail stor ‘i, L. Hae oe : eather, coating a, ng te sic, “fair of 1831 in er, n depriving flowers of gers an nthers, 45. Light, polarization of, Dr. Brewster on, 28, 225. Locke, Dr., on pic compass, 287 > M. Macaire, = on ee a eet Gillet, “Mr. Geo., - declination of the magnetic needle, 205. Gold region of Georgia, North Carolin: ennessee, Machine, W Mantell, Gideon, Bo, oon ene A R. Graves, Jr.! Graves, Jr., R. on reflective goniometer Green. h of trilobi of North Sop sehen ig Gypsum, solidification of, - Hail storms, Dr. Jones on, 85. ‘Msuran, De. jection, 114. IN D EX ° : es — organic remains of ferrugin- ||P nd formation in North America, N. Narce ine, 379 Natural Philosophy, by Prof. Olmsted, Recroiy © of sea Chas. Vidua de Gon- ee abbe, cers mtg Lod “es Meckinte sh, nie, C. de Beiastee: Ne : Cami Servis, Abbé Angelo Cesa- n Boissel de Monville, Se- Julien Carré, Louis Simond, 371 itrogen in animal substances, 384. North Carolina, Gold region o ; 409 Premed ane tourist, gost of, 218. Prairies, origin, extension and continu R. Rattle snake, =A Redfield, W. C. m. steam boats, 3 pe oo on Déchayes gee: paca tif des — illes vivantes, by Cuvier and Brongn art, 196. -||Review of. Practical Tourist, 213. off Riée, boilin Raschenbergus; Dr, on plants of Chile, Rust, preventive of, 199. Ss. _||Saltness of the ocean, 10. ampson, Wm., i notice of a cetace- ous animal, 301 Sealing mak. coos in use of, 200. Nutt, Dr. on origin extension, and con- s, 40. tinuan sep of Lcwrne Ef valley of Buississipp® _ lower part of vie | O. Obituary of Dr. Gaspar Spurzheim, 356. Sheep feedi sslisiie lls, fossil iden recent, 204, 339. 386. ce of life of, 371. oubeiran, = ‘setion of chloride of lime "Oh alco crabeatin: br. Gis Prof. Follen’s obit« uary of, 356. — of Geneva, ee 2 and saltness at different depths, Oils, action upon o erie Olmsted's Prof., 7 at. Philoao phy, 35 «imation re by D of the ae ae “ae lees memory, Sineat water, 382 Oxygen, action of oils upon, 190. ri Peck, — Jud . on gold region of Geo., N.C Pend Petroleum fountain, notice of, by the Ea-| paitiione m3 and of surrounding) works republishing in Boston, 406. Steam boats, American, W. C. Redfield Steam boilers pig of, 68. Sugar o ‘Sulphur, pre ie ean i ———— vapor of, its density, 383. ‘Surveying, improvements in, 37. Syrups, bleaching of, by M. Dumont, 846. T. Telescopes, manufacture of, 403. bayoon~ te a increase of in interior of the rth, 15. * of the ep 70. bi Tennessee, gold region Tertiary formation of North America, fos- sil shells o Phosphate of lim 204, ‘Phosphorus, de ensiy oe) ‘its vapor, 283. ahaa -multiplieator, 18 185, 381. m Physiology, vepats sie ed, Planes, inclin of. Thomson on, 107. ants hile, 78. Poison, animal, eaary i 168. Polarization of of tight, 38 225. Vou. XXUL—_No 2 s on diluvial ace ton, 2 243. , J., Prof., on inclined planes, 107. Toads enclosed in wood and stone, vitali- { i ty of, Prof. Buckland on, 52 410 INDEX. Traill, Dr, on Russian = oe bath, 295. wees affected by certain gases, Trilobites, new spec _ Count Chas., necrolo- ——— orth ‘Aavesiel ae Green ps “of, 1 on, U. WwW. Universal terms, by Mrs. Emma Willard, Water, manne done 391. Utensil, ancient American, 65. oxygenated, 382 : Willard, Mrs. ~saphaee universal terms, x. Wood, coating for, Wood's i inking aeakies Vapor bath, Russian, 295. ‘igoaralh Judge ens fe rattle coake. Vegetable physiology, 138. # é tae - : < ne rs ay. . ) “ 3 ~ ¥ Acknowledgments to Friends and Correspondents. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. Received.—Hon. Thomas S. Grimke’s Address on Peace, before the oe Society, New Haven, Be! 6th, 1832.—His Letter to Hon. J. C. Calhoun, R. Y. Hayne, G. M’Dufiie, and Js. Hamil- ton, Jr. Philadelphia, 1832. : eee: on Mineralogy, by C. U. Shepard, New Haven. 1 Vol. arge 12 inal Bess of the Americat Colonization Soclely. 1832. Mr. Dickerson on the Apportionment Bill. _ Dr. Sprague on Revivals. 1 Vol. 8vo. Albany, 1832. Prest. Lindley’s Centennial Address, on Washington’s Birth Day. - Psasd 1832. Sega. Humphrey’ s Inaugural Address at St. John’s College. An- napolis, Applicability of the aici “Of the New "Testament to the con- duct of States, on the rights of Self Defence ; by J. Dyn mond. London. — Brooklyn, Ct. repri St. reprin M. Fara aday, on a peculiar class ce acoustical figures, aio on the * Alex. Brongniart Memoire sur la Peinture sur verre. M. Alex. Brongniart. 1831. Report of the Committee on trade and manufactures, on the adul- ‘erations of potash. -Annual R eport_o tof the. Biczents of the University of the State of ‘New York, March, 1832, from Josy” 7” Fifth Report. of the Chester County C . Mr. Sullivan and Mr. Disbrow on ‘sew for @ — Address of Samuel A. Foot at Geneva, before sells societies. = discourse on Language, by A. B. Johnson. Utica of afew ; plants near ‘Troy, by Assist. Prof. H. H. Ea- ds, Trans. Univ ~ Dr. William Haky om the Philosophical character of Dr. Priestley. Report on the gold and silver coin of the United States. “Mr. Adams’s Report on the Tariff. ‘Dr. Daniel Drake on Medical a and the M edical Peele i in the United States. —— - vn re gees istory and Geography of the ississippi Valley, .and..P hy. “aa of the eae Continent, ti, fy moth Eng 2 Vols. ie Acknowledgments, &c. Prof. Robert Dunglison’s Human Physiology. 2 Vols. 8vo. bound, from the publishers, Carey & Lea. Philadelphia. Family Cabinet Atlas, from Carey & Lea. Philadelphia. Universal Gazetteer, from the pete Edwin Williams, and the. publisher, James Conner. New . Letters on the Natural Histo _ Internal Resources of the State of New York, by Hibernicus, (attributed to the late Goy. Clin- ton,) from Prof. Jos. Henr dns American — and Repository for 1832 and 1833, from Mr. Jos. E. Worcest History of the Gaited States, by Noah Webster, LL.D. from the publishers, Durrie & Peck. New Haven, 1832. : Geological Sketches and Glimpses of the Ancient Earth, by Maria Hack, London, 1832, to B. Silliman, Jr. from Walter Mantel, son of Gideon Mantell, Esq. Lewes, Sissex. Englan Traité de Chimie, par J.J. Berzelius: 5 Vols. 8v0. (three more — Economy of Manufactures, aces Charles Reb baee me! the Uni- = versity of Cambridge, Eng. ol. 8yo. from the autho . Revista Binestre Cubana, Avril de 1832.Tom. 2, No. 6. Ha- | bana, from the editor : Report on Steam Carriages, by a select committee of the house Fs greens of Great Britain, &c. from Hon. Gideon Tomlinson, a Essay sur les Orbicules Siliceux. Par = Alex. Brongniart, 1832. L’Art de fabriquer le fer. Par M. Ang. Perdonnet, 1831. | Annales de shay Royal Horrinole a Fromont, Nos. 33, 34,, and 37. Dr. Pascalis. 2 Dissertation on re Atonement, Boston, 1832. President Quincy’s Address at the dedication of Dane Law Col- — lege, 1832, from the author, also c I. M. Bunker- : A rsé before the rd County Peace Society, by Rev. Leonard Bacon, 1832, from the author dward Everett’s —— at the introduction to the Frank- jin Lanne) in Boston. Noy. 1832, from the author a Young’s Algebra, from the publishers, Carey & Lea. Philad. The Trumbull Preiure ee This splendid collection of historical and other paintings, is now open for exhibition, in a new and appropriate fire proof building, recently erected for its reception, on the grounds of Yale College. — In a future number, we will state, more particularly, the nature of the ; collection, and the object to which it is so benevolently devoted, by — the venerable and patriotic artist, after he shall cease to be p pers ‘ interested in these fine productions, of his mind and his hand.