OF sees f*
¥ A : { ' a
Jul fh a5

shake od ys AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D.

Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man, and Com.; and
For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. ,
Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris;
‘Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng.;
Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America.

VOL. XXIV.—JULY, 1833. _

NEW HAVEN:

Published ~ Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co. and A. H. MALTBY.

Baltimore, E. J. COALE & Co.—Philadeiphia, J. 8, LITTELL and CAREY &

HART. Laie York, G. & C.& H. CARVILL.— Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY,
LITTLE & WILKINS. ‘

PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. —

<

XIll.

104606

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.
+o
NUMBER I.

. Essay on the Shien Gold Mines ;_ as Witiiam hy igi
Engineer.

. Method of Conduéting the Canal sinew. in the State of

New York; by E. F. Jonnson, Civil Engineer.

. An Estimate of the Philosophical Character of Dr. Priest-

ley; by Wittiam Henry, M.D. F.R.S., &c. &e.

. Motions of a a of iid os Prof. THEopone

STRon

: Beceirations on the ‘Galiteonen Bock omtsa: in ih

Valley of Ohio; by Dr. 8. P. Hitpreru, of Marietta,

. On the Exptesiion of the sides of Right-angled Trian-

gles, is Rational and ee numbers ; e Rev. Danien

WILK e:
Plan f: he 1th of Cincinnati, Ohio; by Danws Las
HAM, Assistant Engineer, = -

. On the methods of describing various curves for Arches?

by J. Tuomson, Civil Engineer, Nashville, Tenn.

. Anew mode of developing Magnetic Galvanism; by Jonn

es ee Prof. of ey in the Logg oe at of
Virgini

. On the Gethioweadhy of Hebrew ae in the Réiiah

character; by Prof. J. W. Gisss, Yale College, -

. On the Transition Rocks of the ee ; by R. H. Bor-

nycasTLe, Capt. R. En., -

. An analytical examination of Prof. Babbage’s . Beonomy

of Machinery and Manufactures.” = -

. Supplement to the * Synopsis of the Oc emiitet”

of the Ferruginous Sand Formation ie the United
States ;”’ by 8. G. Morton

D:
. Abstract of Meteorological Peering sikée at Ma-

rietta, Ohio, with notices of Floods, Fruits, and flights
of pigeons; by S. P. Hitprers, in the year 1832. la t.

Page.

28

40

46

70

39° 25’ North, Long. 4° 28’ West of Washington City, 132

M. Hacuerte on the Chemical Action and Decomposi-
tion of Water, produced by Electrical Induction. From
the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Sept., 1832; translated

by O. P. Hvussann, Ass’t in the Chem. Depart. in Y. C., 142

iv CONTENTS.

XIV. Current produced by the Rotation of a Magnet, Oct. 29,
From the Ann de Chim. et de Phys., Sept.,
1832; translated by O. P. megs Ass’t in the Chem.
Depart mY. Cg S22 - -
XV. Analysis of the water of Rio Visiigre: ae the Ann.
de Chim. et de Phys., Sept., 1832; translated by O. P.
Houssarp, Ass’t in the Chem. Pepart iit. w
XVI. Notice of the Dispensatory of the United States; by
Georce B. Woon, M.D., &c. and Franx.in ee
M. D., &c. -
XVII. N. ative of Prof. Dunglison’ 8 a Prjstatogy, -
XVIII. Analysis of American Spathic Iron and Bronzite,

MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.

1. Vegetable origin of Anthracite, = - - - -
2. Lehigh Coal and Navigation Compan
3, 4. et Peete glss forsee re es

g hay.
5, 6, Ne ew Englan Asylum for the Blind Philosophical appa
1

ratus,
7. Notice of the Ceitalin ikea (L. ») as fiend in Carroll
county, Geo.; where it is called the Diamond Rattlesnake,
8; 9, Delaware tans of Natural Sciences, and the Address
of Dr. Henry Gibbons, at Wilmington—Proposal for es-
tablishing a seminary for education in Liberia, . -
10, 11. The New Universal Gazetteer, by Edwin Wiiliams—
Flint’s History and Sibaeaiie of the pavers of Missis-
sippi, &c.
12. Indiana Historical Societ ty, Sess
13. Explosion of bellows by eievaabie gas,
it. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, sass in the town of
New Bedford, for the year 1832,
15. Notice of a Rocking Stone,
16. Notices of Wheeling, Virginia; by Hane W. Cctuns

17. Geological notices respecting a part of Green ies Ala.,
4

18. Sulphurets of Bismuth; by Lt. W. W. Marier,

19. Address of Mr. H. R. Saheolinitic detines on Bia ie: by
Prof. Elizur Wright—Address before the SP etienice
Society of the Medical Class, in Dartmouth College, Oct.
1832, by Prof. Clear Ee Recorder of Albany,

20. The Family Cabinet Atlas, -

1

tO *

Page.

191

CONTENTS. : v

FOREIGN. :
S Page
21. Polytechnic Society of Paris, - - - - 191
22. Geological Society of France, - - - - 192
23. Baron Ferussac’s new work on — - oes Ne 193
24. Epistilbite from Elba, - - me he 194
NECROLOGY. :
Baron de Zach, a a ee 194
: CHEMISTRY AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1. Electro-Magneti - 196
2. On the shat action, ‘of magneto-electic currents; by G.
. Botto, iat £487
3. Water Barometer, 198
4, 5, 6. Vegetable matter in ee aay for sealptors—De-
_— of all sorts of oil and of butter, - 200
NATURAL HISTORY.
1. Thermal —: in the bed of the ees . - - 201
2. Geology, - - - 203

ASTRONOMY.

1, 2. First chservation of ee on the san—Retaton of the oa
et 2

DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURE.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Destruction of rats—Lute for bottling wine, &c.—
Artificial granite—Method of cleansing wool from its
grease, and economizing the residue—T'o prevent vines
from bleeding when trimmed or a ee - 205.
6. Valuable material for walks and alle :
7, 8. Stucco for walls—Method of cating eee vianala wniformly
without cracking,

9. Rice paper, . - - - - - . : 207
SE :

Notes relative to Garden Dahlias, - - - - 208
MEDICINE.

Use of milk in dropsy, See es . eg es 209
: STATISTICS.

. The Savings Bank of Geneva, (LE SS Eee

2. Scientific premiums, : ee a eae 210

5. Population of England and Scotland, A eee et)

New works in England, - + - - “ re

vi CONTENTS.

NUMBER II.

Page
Arr. I. On the Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores, with the prin-

cipal Silver Mines of Mexico and S. A.; by Lt. W. W.
Marner, of the U. S. Mil. Acad., West Point,

. Miscellaneous Notices, in a letter fens an American Na-
tional Ship, e485 +i

. Miscellaneous Céainatinieationt iaey De —— -

. Apparatus and processes; by Dr. H

. Remarks on the error of supposing ar a nptiibelieatiale

—
.

— pee
<<

213

237
246
247

with the Earth, is necessary to the efficacy of Electri-
253

cal Machines; by Dr. Hare, - — - -
VI. On Architecture; by Dantex Wanswortx, Esq.

VII. On the relation between a Machine and ‘its ‘Model pby
Epwarp Sane, Edin, = -

VIII. Consideration on the Bitterness of Vegetables, etc.; iy
Dr. J. B. A. Guittemin, Paris, 1832.

{X. On the Eupatorium Huaco; by Prof. W. R. Joan
X. Memoir on the elastic force of the vapor of a
at different temperatures; by M. Avocapro

’ XI. On the application of the Fluxional Ratio to Sasa
cases; and the coincidence of the several orders of
Fluxions, with the binomial theorem; by Exizur
Wricnt, Esq. - - - ioe - -

XII. On some improvements on Brunner’s process for Po-
tassium, and in. the means of panes that metal; by
Dr. Hare, - ; - 2

XIll. Improved Syphons; by Dr. R. sia.

XIV. Stereotype Printing. —An original paper om the Tate
Lieut. Gov. Colden, with some account of stereotyping,
as now practised in Europe, &c.; by the Editors of the
Am. Med. and Philos. Register,

XV. Notice of the most simple means of employing ik ani-
mals; by Prof. M. Paven,

257

273

979

317

319

326
XVI. An Essay on Gypsies ; abridged Roi the eves Encyclo
34

pedique, Nov. 1832; by J. Griscom,
XVII. ~ a Collision of two Comets ;—Comet of J ayy 1832;
J. J. Lirrrow,
XVIII. Detrtin of the Bare Hills near > Beliaiee: by HOA.

Hayven, M.D.,
XIX. Meteorological Table; by Gen. Mani fics, -

361

CONTENTS. vil

Page.

XX. On Hybernation and other topics of Natural re inade ; by
Judge Samver Woopnvurr, 363
XXI. Mode of scious Ellipses; by S. DeWirt, = cig Oe

% MISCELLANIES,——FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC,
CHEMISTRY,

1, 2. Preparation of pure nitrate of "ng cee, eg of
the chloride of silver in the moist way, 3
3, 4. Action of ether on sulphate of indigo—Memoir on stich, 371
5, 6. Action of potash on organic matters—To test the —
of chromate of potash, -
7, 8, 9, 10. Use of mica in chemical aside on a ‘cnet scale
Changes of volume in a mixture of alcohol and water—
roel spits Tier bi ultramarine at a moderate

pric - - - . 373

Ii; ¥2: Opinm—Combinations of wate, - yp ae at om 374

13. New Febrifuge, - - - + 375
MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. eee

1. Analyses of Fer Titané of Baltimore, ——o - 376

2. Mines of Freyberg in Saxony, - Be SAO

3. Water spout on the Lake of Geneya, teem Oe 377

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
1. Description of a Photometer, _—— for i tts: the
splendor of the stars -
2, 3. Optical properties of saccharine peicee- New ait ene 379
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS.
1%, os aaa on coloring matter for the pe re of ens
rinting—Blowing of glass
3, 4. Paateboard roofs—On saponsceous ragutalion eee |
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Montyon premiums for discoveries in physiology, oe 382

DOMESTIC.

1. Extract from the MS. of an unpublished narrative of travels
and observations in South America,

2. Details of an amis * of cngsmese a new ore of tees id.
cobalt, - 386

vill - CONTENTS.

Page.

3. Note to remarks on the ee - - - 388
4. mee -

. Note on certain eriestasnts on the laMieeiatit of phospho.

rus in a rarefied medium, ~
6. On the growth of ene by A. C. Twining,
7. Barometer. - ~
8. Propositions, stated by es Orr, - - 395
9. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Gattens of se ceaiiocastie 396
10. Manual of arte | and Geology, of: Ebenezer ee
D.

- - 391

M. 397
11. Manual of Rola ‘for N orth Atakritas i Prof. ‘sie Eaton, 398
12. Botany of the Northern and Middle States, by Lewis C. Beck, 398
13. Notice of text-books of Rensselaer School, 9

ERRATA.
Page 26, |. 14 fr. bot. for survey, or, read surveyor 1. 3 fr. bot. omit preg Pe
roe ae

237, 1. 2 fr. top, erase a Sand i insert a , afer sandone:; p- 246, 1
for 1831, read 1832; p. 258, 1.8 from top, for ornamen

The Nos. of the Arts. X and XI, in the first No., are terest both in the con-
tents and text, and all the Nos. that follow are, therefore, wron:

Vol. xxiii, p. 404, 1. 7 fr. bot. for Morriss river, read Moosup river.

AMERICAN |
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Art. I.—Essay on the Georgia Gold Mines ;
by Witu1am Puituirs, Engineer.
INTRODUCTION.

Is dabeapcial an essay on this subject, in which it is intended to
convey an accurate idea of the gold mines, the author is fully aware
of the difficulties he has to encounter, and approaches the subject
with great diffidence, under a conviction of his inability to do it the
justice it merits. If apology, under such circumstances, be necessary,
it will be found in the necessity of inviting the attention of the scien-
tific and experienced, to the development of this important branch
of our domestic industry. The simple fact that all the mines of the
state, have their business conducted without the aid of the expe-
rience of older mining countries, would induce a belief that an asso-
ciation which would promote an interchange of ideas, and a diffusion
of such useful knowledge as could be obtained by sending a compe-
tent person to examine the mining business of other countries, would
have a most salutary effect. Should the following remarks result in
the desired improvement or induce more competent persons to take
up the enquiry and aid in improving the mining industry of Georgia,
the author will be amply rewarded, for the time devoted to this essay.

In accordance with recent approved geological arrangements, the
deposit or branch mines will be first considered, and then the vein or
ridge mines. The process of separating the gold from the ore, will
also be attended to. A description of the Shelton mine is added with
a drawing of the lot.

Deposit or Branch Mines. 4

That the deposits of which we are to write, owe their origin to the
mechanical agency of water, there can be no doubt; but there are
persons who believe that the agent producing them, has acted sudden-
ly and that these immense neteee have been collected togeth-

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1.

2 Gold Mines of Georgia.

er atone and the same time. If they reflect, however, they will
discover reasons to modify their opinions, and adopt a more plausi-
ble and perhaps correct theory. The geological character of this
part of the country, is denominated primitive according to Eaton, pri-
mary by Bakewell, and inferior stratified or non-fosilliferous by De
la Beche. I have generally applied the word original, to distinguish
these rocks from the others. They are gneiss, mica and talcose
slate, hornblende and granite ; the predominating rock being the first
named and alternating, in strata of various thickness, from three inch-
es to thirty feet. The gneiss occurs, indurated, more frequently,
however, in a state of decomposition, but still accupying its original
position. When —— it formes the skeletons or bases of the
ridges, while the decomposed portion, yielding readily to the action
of water, is oe away leaving vallies. On this irregular surface,
rest the deposits, consisting of rounded or “ rolled” and angular frag-
ments of quartz, gneiss, hornblende, &c. with smaller fragments of cy-
_anite, garnets, catseye, jasper, pyrites, and brown oxide of iron, which
often cements them all together, and causes them to appear as if
burned without heat. Owing chiefly to the extensive range of the
garnets, it is only in the river deposit, that they occur in abundance.
The gravel of the branches, had evidently resulted from the disinte-
gration of the rock in their neighborhood. . Jn this gravel, as it is call-
ed, which varies from one foot to four feet in depth, the gold is found,
and generally at the bottom of the bed. Above the gravel there is
a bed of sand, with scales of mica, varying from three to twenty feet
deep, on a bed of clay with angular fragments of quartz, from 0 to five
feet deep. The fragments of rock forming this gravel, have the
“rolled” appearance, according generally, with the size of the stream
of water adjacent to the deposit. This shews, at once, that the agent
producing these deposits, has acted slowly, and when we remember
that caloric, electricity, air, water, &c. have been at work chemical-
ly and mechanically, for at least six thousand years, we cannot be
surprised that the hardest of the rocks, have in the course of ages,
yielded to the incessant action to which they have been subjected.
Over this irregular surface the rivers, when urged by a freshet, rush
with inconceivable fury, and they then have a transporting power;
sufficient to carry large blocks over rocky shoals, and to deposit them
(where an eddy is caused by a sudden bend in the river) in places
far below their former location. These eddies, having but a small
transporting power, soon permit an accumulation of rocks, sand, &¢-

s

Gold Mines of Georgia. 3

and by protecting the strata beneath, they frequently produce other
phenomena in the directions and levels of the stream.

Fig. 1, represents a portion of a river, or (on a horizontal plane)
a, b, c,d and e are deposits, resulting from the transporting power of
the currents, caused by eddies which arrest the gravel in its descent.
It is observed that all water courses, have a disposition to make their
channel straight by cutting off points and filling up the bends or
“bights,” which latter is an indisputable consequence to the former,
for if the points f and g are ever worn off to hi, the deposits a b, will
be formed and soon become covered by sand, &c. deposited, when
the waters were subsiding from a freshet. Vegetation will e
as the water will require only a certain width of channel, for its ordi-
pay descent.

es Gold Mines of Georgia.

In Fig. 2, the manner in which shoal deposits are formed is ex-
hibited ; a is a stratum of indurated gneiss, and 6, 6, are decomposed
strata. ‘The former is the base of the ridge, terminating abruptly on
the side of the stream; cis its ragged projections, which have inter-
cepted the gravel and gold. Beyond the more powerful agency of
rivers, we find the creeks, branches, &c. abrading the original strata
and forming their deposits, and it is remarkable that the smaller the
stream, the more angular the fragments of rock, and the gold is more
ragged. As the transverse and longitudinal sections of these branches
are more various than those of the rivers, it is to be expected that
the deposits will occur under different circumstances, and we ac-
cordingly find that in séme places they are lodged on the edges of
strata, in others they fill up hollows, above and below which, the strata
run out to the day as in Ggures: 3 and 4.

Gold Mines of Georgia. 5

It is easy to conceive that such substances as may be moved by any
of the disintegrating agents at a and b, would descend towards ¢, and
that de and f would intercept a part of them. The greatest accu-
mulation, however, would be at c, as the side 6 may have no recep-
tacles as that of a has, owing to the face of the strata resisting the
agent better than that of the latter, which also may be more decom-
posed and easily so abraded as to form receptacles and undermine
veins at a.

- The gravel in these branch deposits, i is composed of fragments
of quartz and such other rocks as occur in the immediate vicinity and
over it there is generally a bed of clay from one to five feet deep,
in which there are fragments of quartz with sharp angles. Besides
the deposits on rivers and branches, which have unequivocally resulted
from their mechanical agency, there are others, at present above the
levels of the streams in the neighborhood. Their extent and the
fact that the gravel is frequently very much rounded, seem clearly to
indicate a force at least equal to that producing similar effects on the
Chestalee, but being covered with red clay like that over the branch
deposits, we are thus prevented from attributing the effect to its agen-
cy. If it were necessary to account for their formation by the river,
then we may — that the nerds process was pursued.

Any stream having a bend asin Fig. 5, may abrade its banks a ‘a,
until it becomes nearly straight, making deposits similar to a Fig. 6;
and when it has attained the direction a d c, the greatest abrading ac-
tion of the water, will be on the bottom near the middle of the river,
and thus it will be cut deeper, leaving the deposits ee high and dry.
The very reverse of this may happen, for the nature of the strata in the

6 Gold Mines of Georgia.

direction of a dc, may admit of abrasion towards 6 and not in any oth-
er, and consequently the river encroaches on 8, with the same result
as before, leaving ée high and dry, to receive a growth of vegetation.
1 am of opinion however, that these deposits and many on the branch-
es, are of a date anterior to those previously noticed, on which the
stratum of sand occurs. I rely chiefly on the evidence of the fol-
lowing facts already stated, that the sand contains scales of mica, and
varies in depth from three to twenty feet; that it contains also,
vegetable remains in a layer of black or bluish mud or clay, of a yel-
lowish color, resting on the gravel and running into the sand above.
The remains are in a state of decomposition, but sufficiently pré-
served to indicate the same botanical pases exhibited on the
vegetation | of sai pees banks.

Fig. 7, exhibits a section of a pit, excavated on <= bank of the
Chestalee, fifty five feet from the river; a is a stratum of sand, 6 the
mud or clay containing vegetables, ind c the gravel resting on the
original strata d. Now nothing can be more evident, than that this
formation is of a more recent date than those in which no such re-
mains occur. In fact it would seem that on this evidence, we must
place the date of the latter, anterior to all vegetation. The clay and
sand are now supporting a luxuriant growth "of forest timber, of the
same age as that on the mountains, and in excavating it is found that
their roots penetrate only to the gravel and then spread ; very rarely,
however, passing through it, except in situations where the |
runs out to the day. If vegetation existed anterior to these deposits,

Gold Mines of Georgia. 7

it would be reasonably expected, that we should discover its remains,
unless we admit the very sudden action of the agent, such as the rush
of a great deluge, sweeping away the forests to some basin in which
they will be converted into coal.

Figs. 8 and 9, represent, what under ordinary circumstances, would
be the present and past position of the roots of forest trees. In the
first instance, the growth is maintained by the sand or clay, but in the
latter, by the original strata and gravel. From this description of
deposits, it will be easy to recognise them wherever they occur. In
testing lots, however, there are indications to be observed externally,
by which we endeavor to form a correct outline of the original strata,
independently of what appears at the surface. Experience is the
only instructor on this point, and of course, the inexperienced must
resort to the more certain criteria, furnished by the pickaxe and

de.

Fig. 10, shows how this is to be effected ; a and 6 would be very
discouraging excavations, but if we observe the directions in which
the inclination of the bottoms of the pits run, we should be led to
make excavations at ¢ and d, which as they are in hollows of the out-
line, are receptacles to sustain whatever gold may occur in the deposit;
e and f, are the extremities of the original outline before alluded to.
The indications by the outline and bottom of the pits, are the best
we are acquainted with, and ought to be closely examined. It may,
sometimes occur, that deposits, similar to that described by Fig. 3,
have been overlooked or abandoned, while that at ais worked out ;
but, before the works are entirely forsaken, they ought to be examin-

8 Gold Mines of Georgia.

ed, particularly to ascertain that no such deposits as d e f exist on the
sides of the ridges. The working of the rich Shelton Mine, in Haber-
sham, was suspended during the inclement winter of 1831, while on
a second deposit as ¢ which yielded large particle of gold weighing
20 dwts. or more.

The surface mines are considered to be disintegrated veins, scarcely
removed from their original position, and are not included in the list of
deposits. They may be known by the quartz | very sharp angles.

The vein or ridge mines, now claim our attention. The veins
traverse the original strata in various directions, and the phenomena
attending them, do not clearly indicate the origin of their formation.
it is remarked, that the general direction of the strata, is a little to
the east and west of north and south, say NNE.N. and ssw. $3; and as
these strata are confusedly or rather imperfectly crystalline, it follows,
that besides the direction already given, the veins may take another
depending on the angle peculiar to the crystalline structure of the
rock. The crystals appear to be rhomboids, but are only distinctly so
in the neighborhood of veins.

Fig. 11, is the plan of a vein traversing the strata, as b 6, and a vein
in the direction of the strata, as dd; ecare called leaders. These
veins are formed of quartz of different characters, varying generally
with the original rock in which it is found; it is sometimes crystallized
in beautiful transparent six sided prisms, terminated by a pyramid at
one end and attached at the other to other crystals, or more frequently
to a nucleus of felspar, &c. In some of the veins, the quartz is com>
pact, with a slightly conchoidal fracture, and an Sppomsace which at

Gold Mines of Georgia. 9

the mines in this variety, acquires for it the name of horn flint... The
_ Structure is frequently granular and slaty in the same specimen; there

-are plates of talc interposed between the layers, and the gold occupies
the same situation. The crystals of quartz are sometimes radiated
from a nucleus. These various kinds of quartz are the gangues or
matrices in which the gold is found, and besides gold, they. contain
iron pyrites in cubic and pseudomorphous crystals, filling irregular
cavities, purple oxide of iron, (‘Indian paint,”) brown oxide of iron,

sulphur, &c.

Fig. 12, is a vertical section of a vein, traversing strata aa a @ which
have obviously been disturbed, as they do not correspond =

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 2

10 Gold Mines of Georgia.

- Fig. 13, is another vertical section crossing the strata and exhibiting
the vein d dd of Fig. 11; a aa are the strata and 6 6 the veins.»
~ If it is admitted that volcanic agency, has prod uced the fissures and
filled them with the substances constituting veins. It would then ap-
pear probable that the quartz and elements of the metals, have been
projected from below into the fissures, and that while the caloric was
radiating, these elements were set free to combine and form the met-
als and their gangues. This idea appears well.supported by various
phenomena, concurring to produce such an effect. The interposition
of gold in thin leaves between the plates and crystals of quartz, and
its filling up irregular cavities, show that it was once in such a state
as to be capable of i insinuating itself into such places. It appears
possible that it was disseminated in the quartz by heat, as it is well
known that when gold is subjected to intense heat, it flies off in minute
particles, and such heat as was sufficient to fuse quartz, may have
evolved the gold, or if contrary to present opinions, it be a compound,
may have formed it from its elements. “If we could detect nature
in the act” of making gold, “it would be easy to imitate her,” but as
we do not find it in any other state than pure, or alloyed with some
other metal and never half formed, we despair of ever discovering
the “* philosopher’ s stone.” ‘There may be something i in the discov-
ery, that quartz is an ore of silicium, and that quartz is, in this coun-
try, invariably the gangue or matrix of gold, but in the present state
of chemical knowledge, we cannot satisfactorily account for the fact
of their being found i in such ae alliance.

_Asix

| Fig. 14, is intended to represent the earth a aa a, the strata b, 4
subterranean cavity in which (according to the original suggestion of

Gold Mines of Georgia. Al

Sir H. Davy, since extended and modified by others,) some very com-
bustible substance, as potassium, sodium, or calcium, or some substance
powerfully attracting water, as quick lime, may predominate and to
which water may have percolated, or more probably have penetrated,
in consequence of the hydrostatic pressure of the ocean; in either
case it would happen, that a violent eruption must take place, atten-
ded with all the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes; should
the exploding gas have sufficient force and meet with quartz in fu-
sion near the fissures, it would of course, force it into them, filling
them more or less, according to the supply of quartz, and the project-
ing force of the gas. The location of these supposed fires, seems to
be in a subterranean region, abounding with quartz and the materials
of granite, as they are the most frequeut of the substances filling veins.
The granite contains the following metals, or substances having me-
tallic bases, sulphuret of molybdenum, lead, zinc, and copper ; sul-
phate of lead and of barytes; magnetic iron and plumbago. I am
not aware, however, that the granites of Georgia, ‘contain any of
these metals. It is a question of importance to the miner, how far
when working a vein, he should go with his excavations. 1 know of
no rule that would apply generally, for although mines have been
wrought in Chili and Peru, to the depth of nine hundred feet, yet as
we have no such description of the geological formations of those
countries as would answer the purpose of the miners, we are com-
pelled to suspend the exercise of our judgment, until we know that
analogous or equivalent circumstances, exist in the geological char-
acter of those countries, and of this. Gold is said to occur in “ vast
quantities,” at the depths, mentioned above. I think it advisable,
in experimental excavations, to follow the vein as long as we can per-
ceive a trace, or until we arrive at such depth, that it could not, though
tolerably rich be profitably worked. It is usual with us, to sink a
shaft on the vein and assay the quartz as we descend, and as soon as
we arrive ata rich place, to commence tunneling* and separating the
gold. It would, however, more surely lead to the attainment of the
knowledge so much needed, if the former course were pursued, and
the tunnel delayed until we were satisfied, that we had gone as deep
asis required. It is probable that rich mines are, every day, aban-
— in consequence of disappointments in shafts of twenty, thirty,

"T use the word tunnel, although the miner would probably express the same
idea by the term « ee asin Jacob's Inquiry.

12 Gold Mines of Georgia.

or forty feet. . In working a shaft, in the decomposing rocks, or in
clay, it will be requisite to curb them in a substantial manner with
wood, as the work ‘is sufficiently laborious and discouraging, without
adding the risk of life. The roof of a tunnel should be stanchioned
as the workmen proceed, and the number of stanchions, will depend
on the consistency of the rock in which the excavation is made, and
are never to be omitted, although it be in granite, for there are so
many fissures in these rocks, that there is always danger to be avoid-
ed, by using the precautionary measures, adopted for those of a worse
appearance.

Fig. 15, exhibits a method of stanchioning a tunnel, recommended

Gold Mines of Georgia. 13

by its simplicity and economy of timber. Seven feet square isa
good size for a shaft, in which it is intended to work two buckets by
hand, although five feet will admit the free use of the tools, &c. with-
out the buckets. Two of the sides of a shaft, should be in the same
direction with the vein, and the other two crossing it, as exhibited in
Fig. 16. It is not always requisite to commence a shaft on the vein
at the surface, for if it dips much, it will soon run out as in Fig. 13.
In such a case, it may be advisable, to begin so near to one side of
the vein, that it may come into the shaft at any given depth. A vein
may occur so near the side of a ridge, that it would be an ann
to ong a tunnel: into the side as at Fig. 17.

17

SS
oe Se “ = 4
ee Ss

By this method, the chippings may be carried off in wheelbarrows,
or evén in carts, more conveniently, than when hoisted vertically
the same distance. It should be remembered to give the floor suffi-
cient inclination, to carry off whatever may come into the workings.
A tunnel of this kind is often necessary for the purpose above, but
by commencing operations in this way, so much may ultimately be
saved. An improved excavator waggon, working on railways, could
be used to gies when a situation: cceary ot the kind spt men-
tioned. a

Separating Puen yes

‘There are two properties of gold of which we may take advasenge,
in separating it from the ore in which it is found. These are its su-
perior gravity and facility of amalgamation with mercury, and its re-
sistance to es atria heat ; and the acids cannot aid,

14 Gold Mines of Georgia.

except in. ogee it from alloy with other metals, by a process called
“ parting.” All machines for separating, must be adapted to one or
the other of the former properties; they are therefore denomina-
ted gravitating and amalgamating machines. The most simple pro-
cess is called “ panning out,” and is performed on the gravitating
principle. _ A tin or other pan, entirely free from grease, about four-
teen inches diameter, and two inches and a half deep, is filled with
the auriferous gravel and taken to a branch or other stream, and the
same is washed by stirring it and by inclining the pan, until the light-
er substances are carried off, leaving the gold and a fine black ferru-
ginous sand at the bottom. ‘This is avery tedious process, but a per-
son expert in the practice can secure every particle of gold, however
minute. The “hollow gum” is, apparently, the first improvement
in the pan; it is a hollow semi-cylinder, about eight feet long and of
a diameter depending on the size of the tree of which it is made, say
of from twelve to twenty inches., On the inside there are cleats or
riffles fitted close, to prevent the gold they intercept, from passing ;
they project about an inch. The gravel is thrown in at the upper
end, and there stirred about with a rake, until the water from the
conductor a, Fig. 18, washes off the dirt. The ¢ravel is thus cauitey

off, snl a new supply put in to be acted on as before. When the
work for the time is done, the contents of the gum are put into the
pan, and the garnets, ferruginous sand; &c. washed off, thus complet-
ing the process. Ishould have mentioned that the gum was kept
rocking by a man at the lever, as represented in the figure. Compat-
ed with the pan, there can be no doubt that the gum saves labor, but ie
as certainly, in careless hands, increases the risk of not saving the

Gold Mines of Georgia. 15

At Fig. 19, we have represented another machine. It consist of
an inclined plane and box c, with bars across. Half of the plane at
the upper end is solid and lined with stout sheet iron ; auriferous gravel
is there manipulated by a man and rake, and when sufficiently done,
it is allowed to descend to the lower end of the plane, which is per-
forated and the gold, &c. thus passes into the.box ¢, while the gravel.
is thrown out at d. If this machine is cleared, two or three times a
day, it answers very well, but when neglected and the bars get filled
up and clogged, it loses the light particles ; the process is closed with
the pans in this andolser; like the former.

Fig. 20, appears to be an attempt to improve the gum by adding
the inclined plane ; @ is a rectangular drawer instead of the gum or

16 Gold Mines of Georgia.

box c in the preceitinn figure, which is furnished with cleats, &c. ;
the water is distributed over the whole plane and the working is aided
by the spring laths don each side. ‘This cannot be called. an improve-
ment asit is liable to all the objections which apply to the pan-gum
or inclined plane, but especially to another which is the shape of the
drawer, causing the water to act very forcibly in passing from one
side to the other, and thus increasing the probability of the fine par-
ticles being carried off with it. ‘The other machines in commen use,
are mere modifications of those already described. For those pat-
ented, the “ Journal of the Franklin Institute” may be consulted. An
arrangement tried by the author, is intended to unite the amalga-
mating to the gravitating process ; it is used-when the assay has shewn
that mercury will be required to collect the minute particles. It is
applied in the following manner. The preparatory washing of the
gravel is to be effected in a revolving i iron cylinder, similar to a bolter,
which will also cause a separation of the large gravel to be discharged
at the lower end. _ The gold and finer fragments of rock, garnets, 8c.
that have passed through the perforations of the cylinder, are to be
swept over a perforated plane, the perforations being of such size as
as to allow the largest particles of gold to pass through into rockers,
on the principal of the “gum” but hinged by the edge instead of .
being hung on gudgeons at the centre. The machine, thus far, is
capable of securing every particle having any appreciable gravity, but
if there are as many minute particles as will pay the expense of saving,
1 then add the amalgamator, which receives the washings from the
rockers and triturates them with the mercury.* There are not many
deposit mines requiring the aid of mercury, and when used with the
pulverized gangue of the veins or ridge mines, the process is some
what different; heat, salt, or acid is then introduced with the ore,
and a limited measure of water. The Mexican method is given in
the Journal before alluded to. A mill for pulverizing, and a furnace
for heating the quartz, are necessary to the vein mines.

* The drawings are in the patent _— ers the ae is not patented, but
will be as soon as uty « offers

Gold Mines of Georgia.. 17

Fig. 21, is a representation of the process by which gravel is
obtained by boats from the beds of the rivers. A man forces. his
shovel into the gravel near one end of the boat, and when he thinks
he has it deep enough walks to the other end, bearing down the han-
dle, and thus loosening the gravel so that it may be hoisted into the
boat by an assistant, who also works a shovel on the other side. In
this way a boat and two men make five loads per diem. I have
known a load to yield 6 dwts. although the average is much less.

Shelton’s Gold Mine.—This mine is on the waters of the Soquee
a branch of the Chattahoochie river, and with ranges of lots in the
fifteenth district, forms the dividing ridge between the Soquee and
Tallulah, a branch of the Savannah river. The Oaky mountain is
to the north of 35 about a mile, and from the top of it Clarksville
can be distinctly seen; it is probably the highest peak in this ridge, as
there are no others’ intercepting a view of the Apalachian termina-
ting ridges. The large branch running through 35, terminates at the
base of the Oaky mountains, and is supplied by the springs that issue
from it and the neighboring elevations. The surface of the lot is ve-
ry uneven, as may be seen on inspecting the sections attached to the
plan. One corner of the lot appeared to be eight hundred feet above .
the level of the branch. The geological arrangement of the rocks
is not ascertained. Gneiss predominates; there are strata of mica
and talcose rocks,- and fragments of quartz are abundantly scattered
over the surface, indicating veins. ‘The bottom described by the dot-
ted lines, is alluvial and fit for cultivation; on the smaller branches,

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1

. Gold Mines of Georgia.

tolerable patches could be obtained, especially on No. 2. The
branches 1, 2, and 3, are always wet and afford: sufficient water to
wash outithe gold; the main branch could easily be made to work
machinery for that purpose; all the other branches are dry, except
in rainy weather, or after a wet season. .

The great deposit of gold, was found on No. 1 and is supposed to
have been disintegrated from veins on the adjacent ridge. No. 2 af-
fords some beautiful and rich specimens, and I am told is considered
fully as valuable as No. 1 although it has not been worked, except in
some experimental pits.

Plan and sections of lot 35 in the eleventh district of Habersham, Geo.
on which is the celebrated mine, known as .Shelton’s Gold Mine.

ry
’
’
,
;
'

t
‘
ri

4

aan a nm an,

-
pital Y

Bz, Stone pis road to Clarkesville —B, John Fruc.—C, se rage ieee
This space between the dotted lines, fit for cultivation.

Sr ee del. oe "
-BOOK. Fig. 1.
Lied lines thus....... Red detted lines Piso

Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 19

Arr. Il.—Method of Conducting the Canal Surveys in the State
of New York; by E. F. Jounson, Civil Engineer.

Ar the time shin the two great Canals of ie state of New York
were constructed, the outlines or boundaries of the ground which
they occupied were not established by any accurate or systematic

surveys, and hence no means were afforded for ascertaining the pre-

cise extent of ground intended to be appropriated by the state for
their use.

At the period of shetr completion, the damages to the different pro-
prietors whose lands were intersected and injured by them, were as-
sessed by commissioners duly appointed-and authorized for the pur-
pose. ‘These commissioners in making their estimates directed
measurements to be made, in very many instances, for determining
as nearly as practicable, without too much delay and expense, the
average length and breadth of the several portions of ground tak-
en from the different aaa through whose Jands the -epem
passed.

From these measurements ss approximate quantity of ground con-
tained in each portion was deduced, which compared with its value
per acre, enabled the commissioners to determine, with greater cer-
tainty than could otherwise have been attained, the actual damage to

_ individuals occasioned as above stated.

Although the measurements thus made, may have sciversd suffi-
ciently well perhaps for the purpose for which they were instituted,
yet the want of more perfect and systematic surveys in accurately
defining the outlines of the Canals was soon felt. ‘The proprietors
of the adjoining grounds, being ignorant of the precise extent of the
claims of the state, could only refer, in their instruments of convey-
ance, in a general manner, to the Canal as a boundary, and were
equally at loss in the erection of buildings in those cases where as
near an approach to the Canals as possible was desirable without in-
fringing upon the rights of the state.

The inconvenience resulting from this state of things was not con-—
fined altogether to individuals. ‘The rapid increase in the value of
lands bordering the Canals, which followed their completion, and the
numerous encroachments which were in consequence made upon the -
ground required for their efficient and successful operation, render-
ed it necessary for the state to devise some means of preventing any

ee

20 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys.

future inconvenience from the same source. This it was apparent:
could be done only through the medium of surveys properly execu-
ted, the maps, field-books, &c. of which, should be deposited in some
place convenient for reference.

The result of the legislative action upon the subject i is to be found
in Part. 1. Chap. IX, Title IX. of the Revised Statutes of the state of
New York, in nearly the following words:

A complete manuscript map and field notes of every Canal that
now is or hereafter shall be completed, and of all the lands belonging
to the state adjacent thereto or connected therewith shall be made,
on which the boundaries of every parcel of such lands to which the
state shall have a separate title, shall be designated, and the names
of the former owners and the date of each title be entered. The
expense to be defrayed out of the Canal fund. The surveys to be
executed under the direction of the Canal commissioners, and appro-
ved by the Canal board, and when completed to be filed in the of-
fice of the comptroller. Copies of the maps and field notes so filed
are to be made under the direction of the Canal board, and trans-
mitted by the comptroller to every county intersected by the Canals
to which the maps shall relate, and filed in the Clerk’s office of such
county.

The portion of the raviend a statutes from which the preceding is ta-
ken received the legislative sanction in 1827, and in 1828 and ’9 the
attention of the Canal commissioners was directed to the subject with
the view of making the necessary arrangements for the execution of
the surveys.

The Canals which were at this time pomeleced and considered
as the property of the state, were the Erie, Champlain, Seneca and
Cayuga, and Oswego, which, including the Chemung and Crooked
Lake Canals, upon which operations had already been scrneneneats
constituted an extent of nearly six hundred miles.

In accomplishing the survey of these works the importance was at
once seen of a rigid adherence to the same uniform system through-
out; and it was likewise obvious that the greatest caution and judg-
ment should be exercised in selecting from the different modes which
might be devised, the one which should afford the means of deter-
mining at any future day, with the greatest practicable degree of pre-
cision, the outlines of the land set apart ~_ the state for the use of the
Canals. .

Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 21

In the investigation of the subject, it became apparent that one of
two modes differing materially from each other in their general prin-
ciples, must be adopted.

The first method contemplated the measurement, in the usual man-
ner with the circumferentor and chain, of the outlines of the ground
occupied by the Canals, with such references to permanent objects
and cross measurements as were puegond for verifying the 2 Si
of the survey.

In the other method the inches of the outlines or boundaries was
to be determined by offsets, made in a specified manner, from a base
line situated vpon and coinciding with the inner edge of thé towing-
path, the best defined, and, (as an object for general reference) the
most permanent part of the Canal. References were likewise to
be made as contemplated in the preceding method to all accessible
objects of a penne character for verifying the accuracy of the
surve

This latter method being the one which received the sanction of
the commissioners and Canal board, its details will be more fully de-
scribed as follows.

1. The measurements in the dinnetian of the length of the Canal
were made upon the base line above mentioned, situated upon or co-
inciding with the inner edge of the towing-path. ‘The height of the
surface of the towing-path, and the inclination of its inner slope being
supposed the same as specified in the transverse profile adopted in
the construction of the Canals. -

2. The several changes in the direction of ae base line were re-
fered to the magnetic meridian. The whole line being thus resolved
into as many separate alignments, as it contained portions having dif-
ferent courses or beari

3. The several alignments were accurately measured in chains and
tenths ; (fractions other than tenths being avoided by a very little care
in arranging the stations) and the distances upon each to the several
points where the lines of roads, counties, towns, patents, lots, &c. in-
tersected the same, together with their courses or bearings, were care-
fully observed.

4. The distances likewise to all waste-weirs and culverts, oie to
all streams that discharged themselves into or otherwise intersected
the Canals were taken, and the same was done with respect to the
road and farm bridges, locks, aqueducts, &c. ‘The distances to the
bridges were taken to the lines joining the two nearest angles or cor-

22 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys.

ner-posts of their abutments—those to the locks to the lines passing
through the centers of the two nearest quoin-posts, and those to the
aqueducts to the faces of their abutments.

5. Offsets for determining the breadth of ground occupied by the
Casal were made from the base line at each angle or station and like-
wise at every other point where a variation in the breadth of the Ca-
nals required. he directions of the offsets were such as to bisect
the angles formed by the two portions of the base line situated con-
- tiguous to them on each side, or in other words, the directions of the
offsets at the several stations were such as to bisect the angles form-
ed by the alignments, on the towing-path, the intermediate offsets be-
ing described perpendicular to, and the distances upon both reckoned
from the same alignments in links. -

6. The offsets on one side, across the towing-path, were made
to extend at least twenty links (that being the minimum fixed by the
commissioners) and in every case to reach to the base of the out-
er slope of the embankment. The offsets in the opposite direction,
across the Canal, were made to extend at least fifteen links from the
margin of the water, that being the minimum allowance for the breadth
of the berm, and in every case to reach to the base of the exterior
slope of the embankment, if any, upon that side.

7. Wherever an enlargement in the breadth of the Canal render-
ed the method of offsets inconvenient or impracticable, the portion
included in said enlargement was surveyed in the usual manner by
measuring the courses and distances of the several lines that enclosed
it on the side opposite to the towing-path.

8. The survey embraced within its limits all grounds pertaining to
the Canal including all tracts or lots of land, set apart or appropriated
for the purposes of lock-houses, weigh-locks, collector’s offices, &c.
with the names of the former owners and the date of each mee title
inserted as far as the same could be ascertained.

9. The results of the measurements made as above desatibed were
inserted in a field-book prepared as represented in the annexed draw-
ing, Fig. 1. Each page of the book was ruled into parallel lines as
aa’, bb’, &c. one fourth of an inch distant from each other. Near the
center of each page and at right angles with those lines a red line as
AB was drawn extending across all the pages of the book.

10. The red line thus drawn represented the base line of the sur-
vey. The portion of this'line as KD or DH corresponding to any
given alignment, was made to embrace in its length as many of the

Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 23

spaces included by the parallel lines as there were chains in the align-
ments, or, if the smallness and number of the objects to be noted ren-
dered it necessary to enlarge the scale, double the said number of
spaces were taken for the purpose mentioned.

_ 11. The offsets as Ko, Kn, Dr, and DS, &c. for the heoeiith of
the survey, were in every case represented upon the larger or doub-
’ Je scale, that is, two spaces or one half of an inch was assumed as
equal to one chain. The offsets at the several stations or angles
K. D. H. &c. in the base line,. were represented by continued red
lines. The intervening offsets as L w were indicated by the red dot-
ted lines.

12, The distences between the several stations, or the lengths of
each separate alignment, were inserted at the ends of the same, with-
in the space occupied by the Canal. The. same was likewise done
with respect to the intervening offsets and all other measurements up-
on the base line, the distances being in each case reckoned from the
last preceding station. The lengths of the offsets were inserted on the
right and left of the Canal, according as they were made on one side or
upon the other

13. In the field-book shod arranged all lines appertaining to the
survey were described as nearly as possible in their true positions ;
likewise all such objects of interest of every description, including
roads, streams, buildings, changes in thé inclination of the ground,
geological characteristics, localities of minerals, &c. &c. as came
within the limits of the field-book, were carefully sketched. . The
sketches being executed with greater accuracy through the aid of
the parallel lines as above described.

14. The results of the measurements for the several hinieas and
distances were distinctly put down upon the lines to which they res-
pectively belonged, and the whole accompanied by such remarks as
were necessary ee to elucidate every _— of i importance re-
lating to the survey.*

*It is perhaps proper to remark that occasional observations for determining the
variation e magnetic needle were contemplated, but for the want of the neces-
instruments, were omitted. The importance of such observations was

er duly considered, and the precaution was frequently taken to note with

the m oat bearings of distant and permanent objects, so that, ren hrs me ult ob-
servations be hereafter instituted, the exact variation of the magnetic meridian as it
existed at the time of making the survey can be easily ascertained

24 Method of conducting the Canal Surveys.

. Fig. 2. exhibits a portion of the map as constructed from the field
minutes. It differs from the field-book principally in the circum-
stance of its several lines.and angles being reduced to their proper
relative positions and dimensions. The explanations therefore which
have been given for the one will it is believed, be sufficient for a prop-
er understanding of the other.

The maps were formed on separate sheets of super royal paper,
bound in the Atlas style, each volume containing fifty sheets and
comprehending about thirty or thirty-five miles of Canal. They were
projected upon the same uniform scale of two chains to the inch and
the border lines, on each separate sheet, were so drawn relatively as
to coincide in direction with the magnetic cardinal points of the hori-
zon. ‘The shading and lettering were executed in a superior man-
ner and the whole exhibited a style and perfection of finish corres-
ponding with the importance of the survey.

Of the two modes of survey whose merits were canvassed by the
commissioners, the one above described, was the one to which, as al-
ready stated, the preference was awarded.

In this method the principal measures in the direction of the length
of the Canals, were made upon the base line, situated upon the level
and even surface of the towing path, under circumstances, it will be
conceded, in the highest degree favorable for accuracy ; while in the
other mode the measures would have been subject to all the errors
arising from inequalities of ground, and the various obstacles to be
met with upon the outlines, such as trees, fences, streams of water,
ravines, swamps, rocks, &c. which occur more or less frequently upon
all portions of the Canals; add to this, the absolute impracticabili-
ty of making such a survey in the many places where the Canal is
bounded on both sides by impassable swamps, as is the case at the.
Cayuga marshes, or is separated as it frequently is, from an adjoining
river, by a high terrace wall or embankment, or is bounded upon the
berm side by a steep and thickly wooded side-hill, or by lofty and
precipitous rocks, similar to what is seen at the Little Falls, at Flint
Hill, at the Big Nose, or at the Cohoes upon the Mohawk and at va-
rious other places.

In the method, as pursued, the base or governing line, is located
upon the inner edge of the towing path, the best defined, and for the
purpose of general reference, unquestionably the most permanent
part of the Canal. ‘The importance of maintaining a hard and even
surface for the horse track, renders it necessary to construct it of ma-

Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 25

terials of a solid and durable character. Its inner edge likewise is
usually protected by a slope wall of stone or docking of timber to re-
sist the-action of the water, the abrasive effects of which if they oc-
cur at all, are confined to short distances and to particular: places,
and under circumstances, which render it an easy matter to deter-
mine the precise extent of the encroachment. Upon the New York
Canals, and indeed upon most other works of the kind in the coun-
try, there are distances of miles together where substantial buildings
or bridges or objects of an equally permanent character cannot be
found, in consequence of which, and from the little reliance to
be placed upon the directive property of the magnetic needle, in
tracing long and irregular lines, in cases where an error of even
one or two feet in the distance of a mile would be attended with se-
rious inconvenience, and considering moreover, the imperfection and
disagreement of different instruments, and the want of the requisite
skill not uncommon with many surveyors, a constant reference to
some part of the Canal, as a standard for preserving the location of
the outlines becomes absolutely essential.

In selecting the part of the Canal for this purpose, the choice, it
will be obvious, would necessarily fall, either upon the inner edges of
the berm or towing path, or upon one or both margins of the water.
Of these the towing path was considered as entitled to the preference,
since the berm side is not only constructed of less durable materials,
more liable to abrasion and seldom kept in proper repair, but for
much of the distance where the Canal runs along sidelong’ ground no
regular or artificial berm is formed, the water being allowed to. flow
back and conform to the natural irregularities of the surface. In
some places likewise the berm, is subject to alteration from the grad-
ual sliding or giving of the earth producing a contraction of the chan-
nel, while the embankment on the side of the towing path remains
comparatively firm and undisturbed. Similar objections will like-
wise apply to either margin of the water, particularly on the berm
side, while on both sides the marginal line is subject to constant va-
riation from the fluctuations of droughts and floods, and the irregu-
lar demand for the supply of inferior levels and for the purposes of
lockage. ,

From the preceding it will appear, that even in the mode of sur-
veying the outlines, as rejected by the commissioners, a general reli-
ance must necessarily have been placed, as in the other method, up-
on offsets to the inner edge of io Wie ccc with this difference,

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1.

26 . Method of conducting the Canal Surveys.

that as no survey is made along the inner edge of the towing path,

any changes or variations in it cannot be so easily detected and rec-

tified.. These offsets likewise, owing to the great difference in level

of the surface of the towing path, and the ground on which the out-

lines are situated, particularly in places where there are high em-
bankments or deep excavations, would be subject to very great in- |
accuracy, which combined with the difficulty of reducing them to

any regular system, would occasion many irreconcilable discrepan-

cies between the measures upon the offsets and those upon the out-

lines, and render the precise location of the boundaries a matter of
corresponding uncertainty. Inthe mode as pursued, the accuracy

or inaccuracy of the offsets does not in the least ‘affect the location of
the base line, and by means of the measures upon it, and the uniform

mode of describing the offsets, the bearings and distances of the out-

lines can be calculated, if required, with much greater precision than

they could possibly be measured, and when so calculated, the differ-

ent parts of the survey, will have the additional merit of a perfect

agreement with each other, a desideratum which in the other method

must be pronounced to be practically unattainable.

Another consideration of much importance in favor of this a
is found in the facilities afforded for recording the field notes and
representing the whole by means of sketches end diagrams in such a
manner as to avoid all liability to mistake or confusion and present-
ing at the same time a very tolerable map of the survey. The check
likewise which the mode of sketching exercises over the measures
with the chain—the one keeping pace in all cases with the other, and
both under the immediate and constant supervision of the survey, or
(each chain-distance on the base line being represented by its cor-
responding space in the field-book,) combined with the practice of
requiring a separate account from each of the Senet rendered an
error in the reckoning almost impossible.

In the other mode the frequent obstructions to be anceusioend up-
on the outlines and the constant necessity of deviating by offsets from
a direct course, would add very much to the liabilities to error, and.
although the measures, upon the two outlines if the cross measures
were repeated often enough, would serve to detect any errors or
omissions of integer chains upon each, yet no evidence would be af-
forded, upon which of the lines it occurred, and an attempt to cor-
rect without an actual re-survey would be as likely to increase as to
remedy the evil ; add to this, the discrepancy that would unavoidably

Method of conducting the Canal Surveys. 27

result from the circumstance of the two outlines being surveyed at
perhaps different times by different surveyors with different instru-
ments and different assistants, and the great inconvenience of refer-
ring, at any future time, for the results of the measures of a given por-
tion of the Canal, to different field-books or to different parts of the
same field-book, a necessity which from the nature “ the case could
not be.avoided.

The disadvantage of this mode, is likewise evident in another re-
spect. The law of the Legislature authorizing the survey, requires
that the maps and field-books, with all that they contain, shall be
sanctioned and certified by the commissioners, and for this purpose
before the survey can be said to be completed, the whole ground
must be examined by the commissioners in company with the sur-
veyor, and in the many instances where the opinion of the former
would probably differ from the latter, as to the. precise extent of
ground proper to be embraced in the survey, alterations in the
measures and the field-books must necessarily be made. These
cannot be effected without completely deranging the previous sur-
veys, and requiring an entire re-survey of the objectionable portions,
while in the method as adopted, the necessary alterations are spee-
dily and easily effected by simply enlarging or diminishing the offsets
to the extent required. In tracing the outlines, moreover, by the
former mode, the surveyor from a natural desire to expedite his work,
by reducing the number of separate courses or bearings, might per-
haps extend his lines to an undue length, the consequence of which
would be, that the outlines would, in many places approach nearer
to, and in others recede farther from the Canal than would be
proper, and too much or too little ground would be embraced within
the.survey. This would be particularly the case, upon the concave
and convex sides of those portions of the Canal which were the most

curved. In the method as pursued, this difficulty is entirely avoided,
The variations in the breadth of the ground embraced in the survey
are gradual, conforming as nearly as possible to the natural changes
in the surface of the ground and the requisitions of the canal. It
moreover completely secures to the State the possession of the spe-
cified breadth of ground, appropriated to the Canal, and in this res-
pect it accords in its practical operation with the established principle
that the interest of the public should always take precedence of that
of individuals, in all cases where the means necessary for the per-
fect protection of the former, are so limited, that the extreme of

28 ‘Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley.

abuse or encroachment which can possibly result, will not expose the
rights of the latter to material or important injury.

There is still another consideration of great importance in favor
of this method which does not exist in the other. In all ordinary
cases the location of the boundaries may be determined without the
aid of the circumferentor, by means of the chain only. The great-
est error which can thereby result in the position of either boun-
dary, will not, exceed ten or twelve inches, supposing the offsets
to be made twelve degrees out of their proper direction, and in the
majority of cases will not probably exceed one-third or one fourth of
that amount. ;

The expense likewise, of this mode: is at least lant per cent. less
than by the other, and when it is considered that the object to be at-
tained is effected in a much more perfect and scientific manner, it
must be conceded that it possesses.a decided superiority.

The mode of survey above described is alike applicable to rail-
ways as to Canals, and the description of it is thus publicly made, that
those who are engaged in the construction of works of inter-commu-
nication may avail themselves of the advantages which it possesses
over the less pian mention ordinarily pursued in such cases. ;

‘Middletown, Conn. Nov

Art. III.—An Estimate of the Philostphcal Character of Dr.
Priestley; by Witt1am Henry, M. D,, F.R.S., &c. &e.

Read to the first epecee of the British Association, _ the promotion of science, ee
York, —— 28th, 1

Tue principal source of the materials of the following pages, is
the work, in which the discoveries of Dr, Priestley were originally.
announced to the public. It consists of six volumes in octavo, which ’
were published by him, at.intervals between the years 1774 and.
1786; the first three under the title of “ Experiments and Obser-
vations on different kinds of Air ;”. and the last three under that of
« Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Nat-
ural Philosophy, with a continuation of the Observations on Air.”
These volumes were afterwards methodised by himself, and com-
pressed into three octavos, which were printed in 1790. As a rec-
ord of facts, and as a book of reference, the systematized work is
to be preferred. But as affording materials -for the history of that

Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 29

department of science, which Dr. Priestly cultivated with such ex-
traordinary success; and, still more, for estimating the value of his
discoveries, and adjusting his station as an experimental philosopher,
the simple narrative, which he originally gave in the order of time,
supplies the amplest and the firmest ground-work.

In every thing that respects the history of this branch of experi-
mental philosophy, the writings and researches of Dr. Priestley, to
which I have alluded, are peculiarly instructive. They are distin+
guished by great merits, and by great defects; the latter of which
are wholly undisguised by their author. He unveils, with perfect
frankness,’ the whole process of reasoning, which led to his discov-
eries; he pretends to no more sagacity than belonged to him, ‘and
sometimes disclaims even that to which he was fairly entitled; he
freely acknowledges his mistakes, and candidly confesses when his
success was the result of accident, rather than of judicious anticipa-
tion; and by writing historically, and analytically, he exhibits the
progressive improvement of his views, from their first dawnings, to
their final and distinct development. Now, withwhatever delight we
may contemplate a systematic arrangement, the materials of which
have been judiciously selgcted, and from which every thing has been
excluded, that is not esserftial to the harmony of the general design, yet
there can be no question that as elucidating the operations of the hu-
man mind, and enabling us to trace and appreciate its powers of in-
vention ‘and discovery, the analytic method of writing has decided
advantages.

To estimate, justly, the extent of Dr. Priestley’s claim to philoso-
phical reputation, it is necessary to take into account the state of our
knowlege of gaseous chemistry, at the time when he began his inqui-
ries. Without underrating what had been already done by Van Hel-
mont, Ray, Hooke, Mayow, Boyle, Hales, Macbride, Black, Cav-
endish, and some others, Priestley may be safely affirmed to have
entered upon a field, which, though not altogether untilled, had yet
been very imperfectly prepared to yield the rich harvest, which he
afterwards gathered from it. The very implements, with which he
was to work, were for the most part to be invented ; and of the mer-
its of those, which he did invent, it is a sufficient stool that they con-
tinue in use to this day, with no very important modifications. Al!
his contrivances for collecting, transferring, and preserving different
kinds of air, and for subraitting those airs to the action of solid and
liquid substances, were exceedingly simple, beautiful, and effectual.

30 Philosophical. Character of Dr. Priestley.

They were chiefly, too, the work of his own hands, or were con-

ed under his direction by unskilled persons; for the class of in-
genious artists, from whom the chemical philosophers now derives
- such valuable aid, had not then been called into existence by the de-
mands of the science. With a very limited knowledge of the general
principles of chemistry, and almost without practice in its most com-~
mon manipulations ;—restricted by a narrow income, and at first with
little pecuniary assistance from others ;—compelled, too, to devote a
large portion of his time to other pressing occupations, he neverthe-
less surmounted all obstacles; and in the career of discovery, out-
stripped many, who had. long been exclusively devoted to science,
and were richly peudies with all sepiancee and means for i its ad=
vancement.

It is well known that the accident of living near a public Seeing
at Leeds, first directed the attention of Dr. Priestley to pneumatic
chemistry, by casually presenting to his observation the appearances
attending the extinction of lighted chips of wood, in the gas which
floats over fermenting liquors. He remarked, that the smoke form-
ed distinct clouds’ floating on the surface of the atmosphere of the.
vessel, and that this mixture of air and smoke, when thrown over the
sides of the vat, fell to the ground; from Whence he deduced the
greater weight of this sort of air than of atmospheric air. He next
found that water imbibes the new air, and again abandons it when
boiled or frozen. *These more obvious properties of fixed air hav-.
ing been ascertained, he extended his inquiries to its other qualities
and relations ; and was afterwards led by analogy to the discovery of
various ethers gases, and to the investigation of their characteristic
properties.

It would be inconsistent with the scope of this Essay to give a fall
catalogue of Dr. Priestley’s discoveries, or to enumerate more of
them, than are necessary to a just estimate. of his philosophical habits
and character. He was the unquestionable author of our first knowl-
edge of oxygen gas, of nitrous oxide, of muriatic, sulphurous, and
fluor acid gases, of ammoniacal gas, and of its condensation into a
solid form: by the acid gases. Hydrogen gas was known before his
time ; but he greatly extended our acquaintancé with its properties.
Nitrous gas, barely discovered by Dr. Hales, was first investigated
by Priestley, and applied by him to eudiometry. To the chemical
history of the acids derived from nitre, he contributed a vast acces-
sion of original and most valuable facts. He seems to have been

Philosophical Character af Dr. Priestley. 31

quite aware that those acids are essentially gaseous substances, and
that they might be exhibited as such, provided a fluid could be found:
that is incapable of absorbing or acting upon them.* He obtained,
and distinctly described,+ the curious crystalline compound of sul-
phuric acid with the vapor of nitrous acid, or, more correctly, of sul-
phuric and hyponitrous acids, which, being of rare occurrence, was
forgotten, and, has since been rediscovered, like many other neg-
lected anticipations of the same author. He greatly enlarged our
knowledge of the important class of metals, and traced out of their
most interesting relations to oxygen and to acids. He unfolded, and
illustrated by simple and beautiful experiments, distinct views of com-
bustion 5 of the respiration of animals, both of the inferior and higher
classes ; of the changes produced in organized bodies by putrefac-
tion, and of the causes, that accelerate or retard that process; of the
importance of azote as the characteristic ingredient of animal substan-
ces, obtainable by the action of dilute nitric acid on muscle and ten-
don ; of the functions and economy of living vegetables; and of the
relations and subserviency, which exist between the animal and veg-
etable kingdoms. After trying, without effect, a variety of methods,
by which he expected to purify air vitiated by the breathing of ani-
mals, he discovered that its purity was restored by the growth of liv-
ing and healthy vegetables, freely exposed to the solar light.

It is impossible to account for these, and a variety of other discov-
eries, of less importance singly, but forming altogether a tribute to
science, greatly exceeding, in richness and extent, that of any.con-
temporary, without pronouncing that their author must have been fur-
nished by nature with intellectual powers, far surpassing the common
average of ‘human endowments. If we examine, with which of its
various faculties the mind of Dr. Priestley was most eminently gifted,
it will, I believe, be found that it was most remarkable for clearness
and quickness of apprehension, and for rapidity and extent of asso-
ciation. Gn these qualities weré founded that apparently intuitive
perception of analogies, and that happy facility of tracing and pursu-
ing them through all their consequences, which led to several of his
most brilliant discoveries. Of these analogies many were just and
legitimate, and have stood the test of examination by the clearer
light, since reflected upon them from the improved condition of sci-

*Series I. Vol. ii.p.175. | ~—=—=—=t Series II, Vol. i. p. 26.

32 Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley.

ence. But, in other cases, his analogies were fanciful and unfound-
ed, and Jed him far astray from the path, which might have conduct-
ed him directly to truth. It is curious, however, as he himself ob-
serves, ‘that in missing one thing, of which he was in search, he often
found another‘of greater value. In such cases, his vigilance seldom
failed to put him in full possession of the treasure upon which he had
stumbled. Finding by experience, how much chance had to do with
the success of his investigations, he resolved to multiply experiments,
with the view-of increasing the numerical probabilites of discovery.
We find him confessing, on one occasion, that he ‘was led on, by
a random expectation of some change or other taking place.” In
other instances, he was influenced by theoretical views of so flimsy
a texture, that they were dispersed by the first appeal to experiment.
These mistakes,” he observes, “it was in my power to have con-
cealed; but I was determined to show how little mystery there is in
the business of experimental philosophy ; and with how little saga-
city, discoveries, which some persons are pleased to consider great
and wonderful, have been made.” Candid acknowledgments of this
kind were, however, turned against him by persons envious of his
growing fame ; and it was asserted that all his discoveries, when not
the fruits of plagiarism, were “lucky guesses,” or owing to mere
chance.* Such detractors, however, could not have been aware of
the great amount of credit, that is due to the philosopher, who at
once perceives the value of a casual observation, or of an unexpect-
ed result; who discriminates what facts are trivial, and what are im-
portant; and selects the latter, to guide him through difficult and
perplexed mazes of investigation. In the words of D’Alembert,
“Ces hazards ne sont que pour ceux qui jouent bien.”

The talents and qualifications, which are here represented as hav-
ing characterized the mind of Dr. Priestley, though not of the rarest
kind, or of the highest dignity, were yet such, as admirably adapt-
ed him for improving chemical science, at the time when he lived.
What was then wanted, was a wider field of observation ;—an en-
larged sphere of chemical phenomena ;—an acquaintance with a far
greater number of individual bodies, than were then known; from
the properties of which, and from those of their ‘combinations, tenta-

* These charges, ge that of plagiarism, which had been unjustly advanced
by some friends of Dr. Higgins, were triumphantly repelled by Dr. hioess in a
pamphlet entitled, ‘‘ Philosophical Empiricism,’’ published in 1775.

Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. . 38

tive approximations to general principles might at first be deduced’;
to be confirmed or corrected, enlarged or circumscribed, by future
experience. It would have retarded the: progress of science, and
_ put off, to a far distant day, that affluence of new facts, which Priest-
ley so rapidly accumulated, if he had stopped. to investigate, with
painful and rigid precision, all the minute circumstances of temper-
ature, of specific gravity, of absolute and relative weights, and of
crystalline structure, on which the more exact science of our own times
is firmly based, and from which its evidences must henceforward be
derived. Nor could such refined investigations have then been car-
ried on with any success, on account of the imperfection of philo- —
sophical instruments. It would have been fruitless, also, at that time,
_ to have indulged in speculations respecting the ultimate constitution »
of bodies ;—speculations that have no solid ground-work, except in.
a class of facts developed within the last thirty-five years, all tending
to establish the laws of combination in definite and in multiple pro-
portions, and to support the still more extensive generalization, which
has been reared by the genius of Dalton.

It was, indeed, by the activity of -his intellectual felted; rdther
than by their reach or vigor, that Dr. Prigstley was enabled to ren-
der such important services to natural science. | We'should look, in
vain, in any thing that he has achieved, for demonstrations of that
powerful and sustained attention, which enables the mind to institute
close and accurate comparisons ;—to trace resemblances that are far
from obvious ;—and to discriminate differences that are recondite
and obscure. The analogies, which caught his observation, lay
near the surface, and were eagerly and hastily pursued ; often, in-
deed, beyond the boundaries, within which they ought to have been
circumscribed. Quick as his mind was in the perception of resem-
blances, it appears (probably for that reason) to have been little adapt-
ed for those profound and cautious abstractions, which supply the
only solid foundations of general laws. In sober, patient, and suc-
cessful induction, Priestley must yield the palm to many others, who,
though far less fertile than himself in new and happy combinations of
thought, surpassed him in the use of a searching and rigorous logie ;
in the art of advancing, by secure steps, from phenomena to general
conclusions ;—and again in the employment of general axioms as the
instruments of farther discoveries.

Among the defects of his philosophical habits, may be remarked,
that he frequently pursued an object of inquiry too exclusively, neg-

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 5 - .

34. Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley.

lecting others, which were necessarily connected with it, and which,
if investigated, would have thrown great light on the main research.
As an instance, may be mentioned his omitting to examine the re-
lation of gases to water. ‘This relation, of which he had indistinet
glimpses, was a source of perpetual embarrassment to him, and led
him to imagine changes in the intimate constitution of ‘gases, which
were in fact due to nothing more than an interchange of place be-
tween the gas in the water and that above the water, or betwéen the -
former and the external atmosphere. Thus he erroneously supposed
that hydrogen gas was transposed into azotic gas, by remaining long
confined by the water of a pneumatic cistern. ‘The same eager di-
rection of his mind to a single object, caused him, also, to overlook
several. new substances, which he must necessarily have obtained,
which, by a more watchful eare, he might have secured and
identified: At a very early period’of his. inquiries, (viz. before No-
vember, 1771), he was in possession of oxygen gas from saltpetre,
* and had remarked its striking effect on the flame of a candle; but
he pursued the subject no farther untill August, 1774, when he again
proctred the same kind of gas from the red oxide of mercury, and,
in a less pure staté, from red lead. Placed thus a second time,with=.
in his grasp, he did not omit to make prize of this, his greatest, dis-
covery. He must, also, have obtained chlorine by the solution of-
manganese in spirit of salt; but it escaped his notice, because, being
received over mercury, the gas was instantly absorbed.* If he had
employed a bladder, as Scheele afterwards did, to collect the pro-
duct of the same.materials, he could not have failed to anticipate the
Swedish philosopher, in a discovery not less important than that of
oxygen gas. Carbonic oxide early and repeatedly presented itself
to his observation, without his beiag aware of its true distinetions from
other kinds of inflammable air ; ee it was reserved for Mr. Cruick-
shank of Woolwich to unfold its real nature-and characters. It is re-
markable, also, that in various parts of his works, Dr. Priestley has
stated facts, that might have given him a hint of the law, since unfold-
ed by the sagacity of M. Gay Lussac, ‘that gaseous substances com-
bine in definite volumes.’ . He shows that
1 measure of fixed air unites with 14 measure of alkaline air,
1 measure of sulphurous acid with 2 measures of do.

* Series If. p. 253,
.

Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 35

1 measure of fluor acid with 2 measures ‘of do.

1 measure of oxygen gas with 2 measures nitrous, very nearly ;
and that by the decomposition of 1 vol. of ammonia, 3 vols. of hy-
drogen are evolved.

Let not, however, failures such as isbn) to reap all that was with-
in his compass, derogate more than their due share from the merits
of Dr. Priestley: for they may be traced to that very ardor of, tem-
perament, which, though to a certain degree a disqualification for close
and correct observation, was the vital and sustaining principle of his
zealous devotion to the pursuit of scientific truth: Let it be re-
membered, that philosophers of the loftiest pretensions are charge-
able with similar oversights ;—that even ‘Kepler and Newton over-
“looked discoveries, upon the very confines of which they trod, but
which they left to confer glory on the names of less ——— fol-
lowers.

Of the general correctness of Dr. Priestley’s s experiments, it is but
justice to’ him to speak with decided approbation. In some instan-
ces, it must be acknowledged, that his results have been rectified, by
subsequent inquirers, chiefly as respects quantities and proportions.
But of the immense number of new facts originating. with him, it is
; wees how very few are at variance with recent and correct ob-

ervations. Even in these few examples, his errors may be traced
ra causes connected with the actual condition of science at the time ;
sometimes to the use of impure substances, or to the imperfection
of his instruments of research; but never to carelessness of inquiry
‘ of negligence of truth. Nor was* he more remarkable for the zeal,
with which he sought satisfactory evidence, than for the fidelity, with
which he reported it. “In no one instance is he chargeable with mis-
Stating, or even with straining or coloring, .a fact, to suit an hypothe-
‘sis. And though this praise may, doubtless, be, conceded. to the
great majority of experimental philosophers, yet Dr. Priestley was
singularly exempt from that disposition to view phenomena through
a colored medium, which sometimes steals imperceptibly over minds
of thé greatest general probity. This security he owed to his free~
dom from all undue attachment to hypotheses, and to the facility,,
with which he was accustomed to frame and abandon them ;—a fa-
cility resulting not from habit only, but from principle. =
ses” he pronounces, in one place, “to be a cheap commodity ;” in
another to be ‘of no value except as the parents of facts ;” and so
far as he was s himself concerned, he exhorts his readers “ to consid. f

36 _.__ Philosophical. Character of Dr: Priestley.

_er new facts only as discoveries, and to draw conclusions for them-
selves.” The only exception to this general praise is to be found
in the pertinacity with which he adhered, to the last, to the Stahlian
hypothesis of phlogiston ; and in, the anxiety, which he evinced, to
reconcile to it new phenomeha, which were considered by almost all
other philosophers, as proofs of its utter unsoundness. But this anx-
iety, it must be remembered, was chiefly apparent at a period of life,
when most men feel a reluctance to change the principle of arrange-
ment, by which they have been long. accustomed to class the multifa-

rious particulars of their knowledge..

In all those feelings and habits that connect the purest morals with
the highest pbibeapless (and that there is such a connection no one
can doubt), Dr. Priestley is entitled to unqualified esteem and admi- ©
ration. Attached.to science by the most generous motives, he pur-
sued it with an entire disregard to his own peculiar interests. He
neither sought, nor accepted when offered, any pecuniary aid in his
philosophical pursuits, that did not leave him in possession of the most
complete independence of thought and of action. Free from all lit-
tle jealousies of contemporaries or rivals, he earnestly invited other
laborers into the field, which he was cultivating ; gave publicity, in
his own volumes, to their experiments; and, with true candor, was —
as ready to record the evidence which contradicted, as that which
confirmed, his own. views and results. Every hint, which he had
derived from the writings or conversation of others, was unreserved-
ly acknowledged. As the best way of accelerating the progress of
science, he recommended and practised the early publication of all
discoveries ; though quite aware that, in his own case, more durable
fame weil often: have resulted from a delayed and more finished
performance. “Those persons,” he remarks, “ are’ very properly
disappointed, who, for the sake of a little more reputation, delay pub-
lishing their discoveries, till they are anticipated by others.”

In perfect’ consistency with that liberality of temper, which has
been ascribed to Dr. Priestley, it may be remarked also, that he
took the most enlarged views of the scope and objects of Natural
Science. In various passages of his works he has enforced, with
warm and impressive eloquence, the considerations, that flow from
the contemplation of those arrangements in the natural world, which
are not only perfect in themselves, but are essential parts of one grand
and harmonious design. He strenuously recommends experimental
philosophy’as an agreeable relief from employments, that excite the

*

Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 87

feelings or overstrain the attention ;' and he proposes it to the young,
the high-born, and the affluent, as a source of pleasure unalloyed
with the anxieties and’ agitations of public life. He regarded the
benefits of its investigations, not merely as issuing in the acquire-
ment of new facts, however striking and valuable; nor yet in the de-
duction of general principles, however sound and important; but as
having a necessary tendency to increase the intellectual power and
energy of man, and to exalt human nature to the highest dignity, of
which it is susceptible. The springs of such inquiries he represents
as inexhaustible ; and the prospects, that may be gained by successive
advances in knowledge, asin themselves “truly sublime and glorious.”

- Into our estimate of the intellectual character of an individual, the
extent and the comprehensiveness of his ‘studies must always enter
as an essential element. Of Dr. Priestley it may be justly affirmed,
that few men have taken a wider range over the vast and diversified
field of human knowledge. In devoting, through the greater part.of
his life, a large portion of his attention to theological pursuits, he ful-
filled, what he strongly felt to be his primary duty as a minister
religion. This is not the fit occasion to pronounce an opinion of the —
fruits of those inquiries, related, as they are to topics, which still con-
tinue to be: agitated as matters of earnest controversy. In Ethics,
in Metaphysics, in the philosophy of Language, and in that of Geni-
eral History, he expatiated largely. He has given particular histo-
ries of the Sciences of Electricity and of Optics, characterized by
strict impartiality, and by great perspicuity of language and arrange-
ment. Of the mathematics, he appears to have had only a general
or elementary knowledge; nor, perhaps, did the original qualities,
or acquired habits, of his mind, fit him to excel in the exact scien-
ces. .Qn the whole, though Dr. Priestley may have been surpass-
ed by many, in vigor of understanding and capacity for profound
research, ‘yet it would be difficult to produce an instance of a wri-
ter more eminent for the variety and versatility of his talents, or
mote meritorious for their zealous, unwearigd, en peennnn: em-
ployment.

AspendincSinée the foregoing pages were written, I haye added
a few remarks on a passage contained in a recent work of Victor Cou-
sin, in which that writer has committed.a material error as to the or-
igin of Dr. Priestley’s philosophical discoveries. . “ La.chimie,” he
observes, “est. unescréation du dixhuitiéme siécle, ‘une création de
la France; c’est ’Europe entiére qui a alee chimie Francaise le

38. Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley.

mouvement qui a imprimé 4 cette belle science ‘une impulsion si forte
et une direction si sage; c’est a l’exemple et sur les traces de La-
voisier, de Guyton, de Fourcroy, de Berthollet, de Vauquelin, que
se sont formés et que marchent encore les grands chimistes étrangers,
ici Priestley et Davy; la Klaproth et Berzelius.” (Cours as lHis-
toire de la Philosophie, tom. i. p. 25.)

_ It is to be lamented that so.enlightened a writer as Victor Cousin,
yielding, in this*instance, to the seduction of national vanity, should
have advanced pretensions in behalf of his countrymen, which have
no foundation in truth or justice. Nothing can be more absurd or
unprofitable than to claim honors in science, either for individuals or
for nations, the title to which may be at once set aside by an appeal
to public and authentic records. ,

It was in England, not in France; that the first decided advances
were made in our knowledge of elastic fluids. To say nothing -of
anterior writers, Dr. Black had traced the causticity acquired by al-
kalies, and by certain earths, to their being freed from combination
with fixed air; and Mr. Cavendish, in 1766, had enlarged our knowl-
edge of that gas and of inflammable air. In England, the value of
these discoveries was fully appreciated; in France, little or no at-
tention was paid to them, till the philosophers of that country were
roused by the striking phenomena exhibited by the experiments of
Priestley. Lavoisier, it is true had been led, by an examination of —
evidence derived from previous writers, to discard the hypothesis of —
phlogiston. The discovery of oxygen gas by Dr. Priestley not only
completed the demonstration of its fallacy, but served as the corner-
stone of a more sound and consistent theory.. By a series of re-

searches executed at great expense, and with consummate skill, the
French philosopher verified in some cases, and corrected in others,
the results of his predecessors, and added new and important obser-
vations of his own. Upén these, united, he founded that beautiful
system of general laws, chiefly relating to the absorption of oxygen
by combustible bodies, yand to the constitution of acids, to whith,
alone, the epithet of the Antiphlogistic or French theory of chemistry
is properly applied.” Of the genius manifested in the construction of
that system, and the taste apparent in its exposition, it is scarcely
possible to speak with too much praise. Butit is inverting the order
of time to assert, that it had any share in giving origin to the research-
‘es. of Priestley, which were not only anterior to the French theory,
but were carried on under the influence of precisely opposite views.
This, too, may be. asserted of the discoveries of Scheele, who, at the

Philosophical Character of Dr. Priestley. 39

same period with Dr. Priestley, was following, in a = a of Eu-
rope, a scarcely less illustrious career.

It is the natural progress of most: generalizations in science, that
at first too hasty and comprehensive, they require to be narrowed as
new facts arise. This has happened to the theory of Lavoisier, in
consequence of its having been discovered,, that combustion is not ne-
cessarily accompanied with an absorption of oxygen, and that acids
exist independently of oxygen, regarded by him as the general acidi-
fying principle. But after all the deductions, that can justly be made
on that account from the merits of Lavoisier, he must still hold one of
the highest places among those illustrious men, who have advanced
chemistry to its present rank among the physical sciences. Tt is
deeply to be lamented that his fame, otherwise unsullied, should
have been stained by his want of candor and justice to Dr. Priest-
ley, in appropriating to himself the discovery of oxygen gas. This
charge, often preferred and never answered, would not have been
revived in this place, but for the claim so recently and indiscreetly
advanced by M. Victor*Cousin. To the credit of Dr. Priestley it
may be observed, that in asserting his own right, he exercised more
forbearance, than could reasonably have’ been expected under such —
circumstances. In an unpublished letter to a friend, he thus alludes
to the subject of M. Lavoisier’s plagiarism. “ He,” (M. Lavoisier)
“is an Intendant of the Finances, and has much public business,.
but finds leisure for various philosophical pursuits, for which he is
exceedingly well qualified. He ought to have acknowleged that my
giving him an account of the air I had got from Mercurius Calcin-
atus, and buying a quantity of M. Cadet while I was at Paris, led
him to try what air it yielded, which he did presently after I left. I
have however, barely hinted at this in my second volume.”*. The
communication alluded to was made by Dr. Priestley to M. Lavois- °
ier in October, 1774; and the Memoir, in which the latter assumes
to himself the «discovery that, mercurius calcinatus (red oxide of
mercury) affords oxygen gas-when distilled per se, was not redd to
the Academy of Scienées before April, 1775.f In evincing so little
irritability about his own claim, and leaving its vindication with calm
and just confidence to posterity, the English philosopher has lost
nothing of the honor of that discovery, which is now awarded to
be by men of science of every patents as ale and — |

is own. i 38

PNA We

* Letter to the late Mr. Henry, dated Calne, De Dee. 1775.
t See an Abstract of this Memoir i in the Journal - Rozier, Mai, 1775.

40 Motions of a System of Bodies.

Arti IV.—Motions of a System of Bodies; -
by Prof. Tuzopore Strone. «|

Continued from p. 345, Vol. xx11.

Let m, me’, m’, &c. denote the quantities of matter in the moving
ne or the number of times which they severally contain the as-
sumed unit of masses: supposing them so small that every unit of
each may be considered as acted on by the forces (which are il
~ posed to affect their motions,) with the same intensity. »

1. Motions of the system when estimated in the directions of ‘a0
fixed rectangular axes drawn (at pleasure,) through wd. assumed
point for their origin.

Let the codrdinates, be designated by the axes of a, y, z, sev-
erally: puta, y,2, 2’, y, 2’, &c. for the codrdinates (reckoned
from their origin,) which define the places of m, m’, &c. at any time f.

Let P,Q; R, P’, Q’, R’, &c. be the resultants of all the forces
which affect a unit of m, m’, &c. when reduced to the directions of
the axes of x, y, 2} severally ; then ~ known formule, supposing
' Fie const. ((a) p- 284, vol. xvi. ie = ee 7 =P’, &c. (1)5

ant. Ge=% &e., (2); sth = sats 3 &e. (3); which
_are pri equations of motion required. It is supposed that P, Q, R
&c. are the resultants of all the accelerations or retardations which
m, m’, &c. receive, whether from their mutual: attractions or repul-
sions, or from bodies foreign to the system, also that the reactions
of the surfaces of curves on which any of the bodies may be suppo- -
sed to move are included $ it is also supposed that P, Q, R, &c. tend
to increase x, y, 2, &c.; but should any of them tend the contrary
way their signs must ie changed. The forces which arise from the
actions of the bodies on each other pay be made anesioages each
other by the following method.

Let p ‘denote any force which a unit of m exerts on a unit of: m’,
then it is evident that a unit of m’ will react on a anit of ‘m with the
force — p which is directly opposite to p, agreeably to the well known
law of action and reaction ; oasiee m pale whole force of m on a
unit of m’, and — m’ p is the sibel ]
on a unit of m; if m p’ equals she: alia of m p when reduced to the
axis of x, then evidently —m’ p’ equals the value of — m’ p when re-

Motions of a System of Bodies. 7 41

duced to the same axis. Hence—m’ p’ is one of the forces which
compose P in the first of (1), and m p’ is one of the components of
P’ in the second of (1); but these forces may be made to disappear
by multiplying the first of (1) by m, the second by m’, and then
adding the products. It is hence evident that if the. first of (1) is
multiplied by m, the second by m’, and so on, and the products add-

d?x dx’
ed, dicte will result m > a Sw +&c.=mP+m’P’ + &c. which is

independent of any actions of the bodies on each other; for the
terms arising from the reciprocal actions of every two of them
be ae each other as above: in the same way { @) and (3) give
d*z
ms Fi 3 =mQ+m’Q’+&c., Mas Eg ips an “+ &c. =mR
+m’R’+&c. ; put m+m’+&c.=M, me+m’c'+&c.=MX, my+
m’y’ + &c.=MY, mz+m/’2z/+&c.=MZ, and let mP+m/P’+ &c.
be denoted by SmP, mQ-+-m’Q’ +&e. by SmQ, mR+m/R’+ &c. by
SmR ; then by substitution and reduction the above equations become
d?X SmP d?¥Y SmQ d°?Z SmR
a OP as = stn de =p (4); ; which are indepen-
dent of any terms arising from the actions of the bodies on each oth-
er. X, Y, Z, are evidently the codrdinates of the center of gravity
of the system ; and it is manifest. by (4) that the center of gravity
moves in the same manner that the unit of masses would doif it was °
P.SmQ SmR

Ss
collected at the center, and acted on by the forces OM? i,

in the directions of the axes of 2,y,z, respectively.
If the bodies are subjected to.no forces but their mutual actions,

d?
then as shown above se sda SmQ=0, SmR=0; *. a =O,

2

oie £20; whose integrals give SB acy an’ a

(5); V; Vv, Vv’, being the arbitrary constants, they also express
the velocities of the center of gravity in the directions of the axes of
x, y, Z, severally, which are hence constant; and it is easy to see that
the motion of the center is rectilineal and uniform, unless V, V’, ye
are each =0, in which case the center is at rest. The « equations
_ (A) are easily adapted to the motion of a solid by putting M= to its
mass, and denoting any indefinite element of it by dM; and repre-
bacon indefinitely by P, Q, R, whe f forces which act on dM in the

No. 1.

‘

42 Motions of a System of Bodies.

directions of the axes of «, y, z, respectively, and by considering S
as the sign of integration. It may be remarked, that if the bodies
m, m', &c. receive finite changes in their motions in the indefinitely
small portion of time dt, by the actions of the pa in Q, R, &c.,

dx /
that (1), ee (3) will be changed to D. “7 = Pat, D. 2p dt, &c.

| dz
(1); D. Yau, D p.t= quar, &e., (2’); D7 =Rdt, p= =
R’dt, &c. (3’); D being the characteristic of finite differences. Hence

dtSmP

we may find by the same reasoning as before used, D. a= .
dY dtS dZ a R

a= ae ai , (4’); which are independent of any

finite changes which the oie receive from their reciprocal actions
in the instant dt; also if the bodies are or only to their mu-

; dX
tual actions, SnP=0, SnQ=0; SmR=0; .*. as before D. a”

dY dZ dX ar
D.7, =9 D.q =9, whose finite integrals give 7-=V, 7, =Vi,

dZ,
Gi =V5 hence the same remarks concerning the motion of the cen-

ter of gravity apply as in the former case, when the bodies were only
subjected to their mutual actions. From what has been proved, it is
manifest that (4) are independent of any changes in the motions of
the bodies, and that whether they are gradual, or finite in an instant;
provided they arise from the mutual actions of the bodies on each
other. See Prin. cor. 4 to the laws of motion ; Mee: Anal. vol. i,
p- 259, Méc. Cél. vol. i, pp. 54, 70.

II. When the bodies which compose the system are supposed to
revolve around a center of force situated at the origin of the co-
drdinates, and acted on by any other forces,

I shall consider all the forces except that which is dirabeod towards
the origin of the codrdinates as disturbing forces. Let each. body,
(regarded as collected at its center of gravity,) and the forces which
affect it be reduced orthographically to the plane x, y, (or fixed
plane,) as at p. 134, vol. xxii; put r=the distance of m thus pro-
jected from the origin of the —_—— v=the angle made by r and

r?dv
the axis of x at the time ee o> Dat =the area described by r around

the center of force in a unit of time, T=the intensity of the result-

Motions of a System of Bodies. 43

ant of all the disturbing forces which affect a unit of m, when re- —
duced to the plane x, y, oe cae resolved i in a direction at right an-

cl
gles to.r; let r’, v’, ted T, denote the ceaiiacailint quan
tities for m’, and so on for m”, &c. ‘Then as at p: 134, cde=Tr*dv,

r2dv
or, (since ——=dt,) de=Trdt, in the same way de’= =Trdt, and

so on; hence the equations of motion are de=Trdt, de’='T’r'dt,
&c. (6). If the first of (6) is multiplied by m, the second by m’,
and so on for all the bodies, and the products be added, the result-
ing equation will, (as before,) be independent of any terms arising
from the actions of the bodies on each other.
For let a unit of m act on a unit of m‘ with the force p, then, as
before shown, mp=the whole force with which m acts on a unit of
m’, and —m‘p=the whole force with which m’ reacts on a unit of
m; and if mp/=the projection of mp on the plane a, y, then evi-
dently —m/’p’=the projection of —m‘p on the same plane. Let
the extremities of r and r’ be joined by the straight line qg, put 91°95
for the angles of the triangle, (thus formed,) opposite r, 7’, respec-
tively; then mp’ sin. o, — m’p’ sin. 9’ are the forces mp’, ch when -
resolved at right angles to r’, r, severally; . "mip! sin. 9’ is a com-
ponent of 'T’ in the first of (6), and mp’ sin.9 is a component. of
T’ in the second; hence multiplying the first of (6) by m, and
the second by m’, then adding the products, there results the term
dtmm'p’(—r sin. o’ +r’ sin. ¢) from the action of m and the consequent
reaction of m’; but the triangle, (sides r, 7’, q,) gives r 2 r’:isin.g $
sin. g’, .°. —rsin. o’-++r’ sin.o=0; which reduces the above term to
zero: hence mde+-m'de’ + &c.=dt X (mT r+m’T’r’ + &c.) is mani-
festly independent of any terms which arise from the actions of the
bodies on each other. In a similar way, two other equations which
are analogous to the above, may be obtained; by projecting the
bodies and the forces on the planes x, z and y, z; and by represent-
ing the quantities corresponding to c, T, r, v, &c. by_,c, ;T, ,7, ,v for
the plane x, z; and by ,,c, ,/T, ,,r, ,,v, for the plane y, z; they
will be md,c-+-m/dc’ + &c. =dt x (m,T r+-m’/T’ r’ +&c.) and md, e+
m' dc! +-&c. =dt x(m,,T ,r+-m Tr’ +&e. ) Let me-+ me! +&e.
be denoted by Smme, mT r+-m’T’r’ + &c. by SmTr, and so on: for the
other equations; then the above equations become dSme=dt.SmTr,
dSme=dt.Sm,T,r, dSm,c=dt.Sm,/T,,r, (7); which are independent
of any terms arising from the actions of the bodies,on each other,

44 Motions of a System of Bodies.

they are also independent of any force which acts towards the ori-
gin of the codrdinates, as was remarked of the motion of a particle
of, matter at p. 133, vol. xxii. If the forces cause finite changes in
the motions of the bodies in the indefinitely small time dt, (7) will
be changed to D.Sme=dt.SmTr, D.Sm,c=dt.Sm,T,r, D.Sm,c=
dt.Sm,,T,,r, (8); which are also independent of any changes which
the bodies receive in their motions from their finite actions in the’ in-
stant dt, they are also independent of any finite changes caused by
forces, which are directed towards the origin of the coGrdinates.

(7) and (8) are easily adapted to the motion of a solid by putting
M=to its mass, and changing m into dM=any indefinite element of
the solid, and representing indefinitely by c, the values of ¢, c’, &c. in
the first of those equations ; and by ,¢, ,,c the corresponding quanti-
ties inthe second and third ; and using S as the sign of integration.
If the solid revolves around the axis of z as a fixed axis, the second and.
third equations in the case of (7) will evidently not exist ; alsodv=dv' =
&c.=the ‘angle described by the solid around the fixed axis in the
time dt ; and r, 7’, &c. will each be invariable; .*. since c=r?dv,
¢e’=r'" dv, &c. it is easy to find, (by the first of (7),) - pele ;
put SdMr?=Mk? =the moment of inertia of the solid around the
axis of 2, and there resul was tide h formul

» anc ults Fe = Type? (9)3 which formula is
well known: in the same way by (8) when the forces are impulsive,
or cause finite changes in the time dt; by putting D.5,-+dt=w=

the angular velocity of the solid, (caused by the forces,) we have

SdMTr . pete
w= Ee (10). Again, since r=rcos.v, y=rsin.v, &c., by
* : 2 mee
putting P= —T sin. », Q=T cos. v, &c. then Pee = —_ oe oa
&e., also Tr=2Q— Py, &c.;: .*. the first of (7) becomes
rd*y—yd? x
Sm di?

=$m(r2Q—Py), which agrees with the equation
found at p. 66, Vol. i, of the Mécanique Céleste, and by making
similar changes in the second and third of (7), the two other equations
given at the place cited, are easily found: I would also observe that
the same equations may easily be found by (1), (2) and (3), but I
have preferred the method which I have used because it has some
advantages over the other.

y, Motions of a System of Bodies. 45

*

If the bodies are affected by no forces but their mutual actions; ,
and forces directed towards the origin of the codrdinates; then in
the use of (7), their right hand-members are each=0; .*.dSme=0,
dSmc=0, dSm,e=0, whose integrals are Smc=A, Sm,c=,A,
Sm,e=,,A, (11); A, ,A, ,,A, being the arbitrary constants, also the
same results are true in the use of (8). (11) are evidently the same
that they would be if the bodies did not act upon each other; but in
this case each of them would manifestly describe a plane curve
around the center of force situated at the origin of the codrdinates;

put 5 =the area described by the radius vector of m ina a0 of

b’
time, > Sthe area described by the radius vector of m’ in the same

time a so on; leta, b,c, a’, b’, c’, &c. denote the angles which
the first, second, &c. of these planes make with the planes z, y, 2,
2, y, 2, severally; then evidently mD cos. a+-m'D’ cos. a’+ &c. =A,
mD cos. b++-m’D’ cos. 6’+ &c. =,A, mD cos. c+m'D’ cos. c’+ &e.
==,,A, ( 12); it is also evident that equations analogous to (12) will
exist for any other rectangular codrdinates, ,2, ,y, ,2, whose origin is
the'same as that of x, y,z; for the position of the codrdinates is ar-
bitrary, although they are to be considered as fixed during the mo-
tion of the system: hence mD cos. ,a+m’D’ cos. ,a’+ &c. =B,
mD cos. ,b+-m’D’ cos. b/+ &c. =,B, mD cos. ,+m’D’ cos. ¢'+

&c. =,,B, (13); where B, ,B, ,,B, are what A, ,A, ,,A, become
when the planes, x,y, 2,2, ¥y, z,"are changed to the planes ,2,.
‘> Bs 2% Ys % severally, and ,a, ,b, ,c, &e. are what a, b, ¢, &e.

become respectively. Let /, m,n denote the angles made by the
plane ,x, y, with the planes x, y, 9,2, y,2; andl, m’, n’ the cor-
responding angles for the plane x, ,2; also l,m”, n’ those for the
plane jy, ,z, -’. cos. a= cos. a cos. 1+ cos. bcos. m+ cos. ¢ cos.
n, cos. a’=cos. a’ cos. 1+ cos. & cos. m+ cose’ cos. n, &e.; hence
by (12) and (13) Acos./+,Acos.m+,,A cos. n=B, also A cos.

V'+,A cos. m/+-,,A cos. n’=,B, <A cos. l’+,A cos. m+,,A cos.

n= ,,B, (14). By adding the squares of (14) there results A? +,A?
+,A?=B?+,B?+,,B?, (15); since cos. 27+ cos. *l/-++ cos. *1”=
1, cos. ?m-+ cos. ?m/+ cos. ?2m“=1, cos. 2n-+ cos. *n/+ cos. *n”
=1, cos. Lcos. m+ cos. I’ cos. m’+ cos. 1” cos.m/=0, &c.; now

since the position of the plane ,2, ,y is arbitrary let it be so assumed

46 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.
AJ .

* 64 } So
that COS. EN, AP +, A? eid VAP Att, A?’

COS.

Sy rar ae rey , (16); then by substituting these values in -
the first of (14) it gives “A? + A? ae =B, (17); also the sec-
ond and third of (14) by substituting the values of A, ,A, ,,A from (16),
give B (cos. I cos. I’ + cos. m cos. m’ + cos. n cos. n’)=,B =0, B
(cos. 7 cos. 1” + cos. m cos. m” + cos. n cos. n’) =,B=0, since
cos. J cos. I’ +-cos. m cos. m/+cos. n cos. n’= 0, cos. per l’+-cos. m
cos. m’’-+-cos. ncos. n’“=0. The plane ,2, ,y, determined by (16)
is the invariable plane; on which the sum of the products of each
body by the area which its radius vector describes in a unit of time —
Sat in any given time,) i is the greatest possible ; and it is evident by

bas been proved that the sum of the products of each body
hie the area which its radius vector describes on any plane 1 which is
perpendicular to ,x, y, in any.given time is always =0. See Méc.
Cél. Vol. I. p. 60, also Méc. Anal. Vol. I. p. 269. ;

Note. —By unit of masses, as used in this paper, is to be understood a = of
matter, so small that it may be considered as a particle.

Awe. Vi Observations‘on. the Saliferous Rock Formation, in the
Valley of the Ohio; by Dr. S. P. Hizprern, of Marietta.

For many years after settlements had been commenced west of
the Alleghany Mountains, the inhabitants were entirely dependent on
their brethren, east of the Appalachian ridge, for salt; an article so
necessary to the existence and the comfort of civilized man. It was
transported, with immense labor, through narrow defiles, and almost
impassable roads across the mountain ranges, on the backs of horses.
Long trains of these useful animals, might be seen toiling up the steep
sides of the mountains, their uncouth pack-saddles laden with kegs
of salt, iron ware, and other merchandise, destined for the use of the
early settlers. ‘This, for a long.time, was the only mode of transpor-
tation. At length rude roads were constructed which could be trav-
ersed with wagons, and they caused some reduction in the cost of
transportation, but it was not until the completion of the ‘ National, or
Cumberland road,” that travelling in carriages could be effected with
either ‘ease or safety. From the year 1788 to the year 1800, the

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 47

price of salt varied from four to eight dollars per bushel; and it was
supposed by the inhabitants, that its cost would always prove a serious
drawback on the prosperity of the country. The upward naviga-
tion of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers was so long and tedious, re+
quiring from four to six months to accomplish the voyage from New
Orleans, and the outlet being owned by a foreign nation, forbade the
expectation of relief from that quarter. Iron, so indispensable in ag-
ricultural pursuits, was another heavy item of expense, and was, for
many years, transported in the same tedious way, until iron ore was
discovered in the Laurel Mountains and furnaces were erected.
From that period, they have been gradually extending down the
rivet, until no portion of the United States is more cheaply or more
abundantly supplied with iron than the valley of the Ohio. Salt, so
valuable and so scarce in these early days, as to be looked upon
almost as a luxury, has now become so abundant as to sell for half
acent per pound. The all wise and beneficent Creator, who form-
ed this earth for the habitation of man, has stored it with all things
necessary for his comfort and happiness. In every region remote
from the ocean, he has deposited in the bowels of the earth, vast
magazines of salt. , The interior of Africa, Asia, and America, con-
tains, in the form of rock or native salt, or of springs, fountains or lakes,
or of efflorescences, a sufficient supply for the wants of all the inhab-
itants. ‘The valley of the Ohio, from its head water to Shawnee-
town, in Illinois, may be said to be based on a saliferous rock, afford-
ing an abundance of water, -highly charged with muriate of soda,
and affording it in abundance, wherever perforations have been made,
of a sufficient depth to reach the precious deposit. ‘There are many
evidences of its extending, along the course of the Alleghany range,
for more than one hundred miles in breadth, and for several hundred
in length. The salt rock commences near its western and northern
base, in the coal and sandstone region, and extends as far north and
west, as these two interesting formations are found. In Ohio, sand-
stone and coal are abundant, from the mouth of Big Beaver, to some
miles below the mouth of the Scioto, and they cover a tract of coun-
try, between these two points, from forty to eighty miles in width
on the northern bank of the Ohio. If the salt deposit extends as
far north as Lake Erie, it is probably very thin; or else it descends
deep into the earth; as few or no indications of salt are found north
of these boundaries. A few miles below the mouth of seit maridy,
the Ohio takes a. more westerly course and: the sandstone is left on

48 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

its southern shore. At the western and northern termination of the
sand rock, the lime rock commences and continues with little inter-
ruption to the Mississippi river, and the great northern lakes. Salt
water can doubtless be found in all that region, where sandstone pre-
vails, as the two formations are known to accompany each other.

The superincumbent strata, composed of sandstone, argillite, marl-
slate, &c., as will be more fully shown in another place, varies in
thickness fies five hundred to twelve hundred feet; and. it appears
to sink deeper into the earth, on or near the Ohio, as the salt rock is
reached at less and less depths, as we ascend the streams discharging
their waters into.this river. This is especially the fact with the salt
wells inthe Muskingum and Big Kenhawa rivers. A few miles above
the falls at Zanesville the salt rock is found short of two hundred and
fifiy feet, while thirty miles below it is eight hundred and fifty feet to
the lower salt stratum. From several circumstances, it would seem
to be a fact that the ancient inhabitants of this valley were not unac-
quainted with the use and the manufacture of salt. In excavating wells
at the Scioto Salines, and at the Blue Licks in Kentucky, the beds of
furnaces, and large fragments of broken pots, made of coarse earthen
ware, were repeatedly found, at considerable depths below the pres-
ent surface; affording strong presumptive evidence, that the quality of
the water was known and that it had been applied to the wants of man
in ages long since passed away. ‘'Tusks and grinders of the Elephant
and Mastodon, were also found in digging the salt wells at both these
places. The attraction of wild beasts to these salines, probably
first brought them to the notice of man. At the licks on the Ken-
hawa, several indications were discovered of their having been i in use,
long before they were known to any white man.

The first attempt at manufacturing salt in Ohio, was tinal about
the year 1798, at what is now called the ‘ Old Scioto salt works.”
This spot isin Jackson County, on the banks of a small creek, called
Salt Creek, a tributary of the river Scioto. The wells were dug near
the creek to the depth of twenty or thirty feet, and the salt water
rose into the excavations from crevices in the rock below. The.
present mode of piercing the rocks was not known until many years
after. The water thus procured was but weakly impregnated with
salt, and required froni six to eight hundred gallons to make a bush-
elof fifty pounds weight. It was also very dark colored, and filled
with the bittern, composed chiefly of muriates of lime and magnesia 5
the manufacturers not giving it time to drain, but transferring it im-

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 49

mediately from the kettles to the pack horses of the purchasers, who,
transporting it into the various settlements, sold it to the inhabitants
for three and four dollars per bushel, as late as the year 1808. This
saline was thought to be so important to the country, that when this
territory was erected into a state in the year 1802, a tract of six
miles square, was set apart by Congress for the use of the state, em-
bracing this saline. , Two other tracts of six hundred and forty
acres each, were also reserved for the same purpose, one on Salt
Creek in Muskingum County, and one in Delaware County, as too
valuable to fall into the hands of individuals, lest they should create
a monopoly of the article; these being the only places then known
in Ohio, where salt could be made. A special act was passed by the
Legislature, in the year 1804, regulating the management of these
salines, and an agent appointed to rent out the small lots to manufac-
-turers, laid out on the borders of the creeks, where salt water was
found most abundant. ‘The rent demanded was sixteen cents per
year on each gallon of capacity in the kettles, and no one person was
allowed to use more than four thousand, nor less than six hundred
gallons in each furnace, guarding here also, carefully, against monop-
oly. The agent was authorized to inspect the salt before it was of-
fered for sale, and to lay off suitable wood lots for the use of the
furnace holders, free of expense. The amount manufactured in any
one year, never produced a revenue to exceed five hundred dollars.
As other.and much better saline springs were discovered on the navi-
gable streams, the works at the agencies went gradually to decay ;
and finally in the year 1826, the ‘salt reservations” were sold and
the proceeds placed in the treasury of the state. In the year 1808,
a new era commenced in the manufacture of salt. Previously to
this time, the water had been obtained from wells, sunk no deeper
than to perforate the superincumbent earth to the rocks below,
through some crevice in which it had made its way to the surface.
But now, attempts were made to come at the sources of the fountain,
by boring, or drilling through the rock formations, to the saline de-
posit itself. The first trial of this kind was made on the Big Ken-
hawa, six miles above Charleston, and only to the depth of seventy
or eighty feet; on further trials, it was discovered, that the water be--
came stronger as they descended, and the first wells were gradually
deepened to three hundred and fifty feet, with the most satisfactory
results. Water was obtained of ‘such strength that seventy five gal-
lons would make a bushel of salt of fifty pounds weight, or as much
Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 7

50 = Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

as four hundred gallons from the old surface wells; producing an im-
mense saving of time and labor to the manufacturer, and a much
better article to the consumer. The space, now occupied by the salt
wells, extends to the distance of twelve or fourteen miles along the
shores of the Kenhawa, and is about seventy miles from the mouth
of the river. The upper wells reach the salt rock at two hundred
and fifty feet. The lower wells strike it at a number of feet deeper,
the rock dipping to the north as it recedes from the mountains, or ”
scends the river.

Salt Region on the Muskingum River.

- The first attempt at procuring salt on this river, was made by Mr.
Ayers, in the year 1817, a few miles below, and at the foot of the
rapids at Zanesville, in the year 1819, by S. Fairlamb. He being a

man of considerable mechanical ingenuity, constructed some simple
machinery, connected with a water mill, which performed the opera-
tion of boring without much expense. Salt had been made for many
years at the works on Salt Creek, nine miles S. E. of Zanesville,
and some slight indications of salt on the rocks at low water, led to
this trial. Water was found, impregnated with muriate of soda, at
about three hundred and fifty feet. It afforded salt of a good quality,
but was not abundant, nor sufficiently saturated to make its manufae-
ture profitable. Within the period of a few years after, several other
wells were bored in this vicinity, but generally lower down the river.
It was soon discovered, that the water was stronger as they de-
scended, and that the salt deposit was at a greater depth. At Dun-
can’s falls, nine miles below and at the mouth of Salt Creek, the rock
had descended to four. hundred and fifty feet, and with a proportion-
ate increase in the strength of the water. At the latter place, the
owner of a well not finding a sufficient supply of water for his furnace,
although it was of the desired strength, pushed his well to the depth
of four hundred feet below the salt rock. His praise-worthy per-
severance, however, met not with its proper reward. No additional
salt water was found, although it is highly probable that other salt
strata are deposited below those already discovered, but at such a
depth as to render it very difficult to reach them, by the present
mode of boring. As we descend the river, wells are found, at short
distances, for thirty miles below Zanesville, gradually deepening, un-
til the salt rock is reached, at eight hundred and fifty feet below the.
surface. The water is also so much augmented in strength, as to

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 51

afford fifty pounds of salt to every fifty gallons. ‘Twenty two miles
below the rapids; a stratum of flint rock from nine to twelve feet in
thickness, comes to the surface and crosses the river, making a slight
ripple at lew water. This rock has a regular dip to the south, and
at McConnelsville, five miles below, it is found at one hundred and
fourteen feet; and two and a half miles further down, it is struck, at
one hundred and sixty feet. Where wells have been sunk through
this rock, it affords a sure guide to the saliferous deposit, as the in-
termediate strata are very uniform in quality and thickness, and the
practical operator can tell, within a foot or two, the actual distance
to be passed between the two rocks, although the interval is six hun-
éred and fifty feet. Above the point where the flint rock crops out, the
reck strata appear to have been worn away, so that as you ascend
the river, the salt rock comes nearer to the surface, until at the forks
ef the Muskingum, it is only two hundred feet below. This flint rock
is so very hard and sharp grained, that it cuts away the best cast
steel from the augers, nearly or quite as rapidly as the steel cuts away
the rock, and requires three weeks of steady labor, night and day, to
penetrate ten feet. With a few exceptions, the other strata are readi-
ly passed.

- The lower salt roth often occasions much difficulty to the work-
men, from the auger’s becoming fixed inthe hole. The sand of this
rock, when beaten fine and allowed to settle compactly about the
augur in the bottom of the well, becomes so hard and firm, as to re-
quire the greatest exertions to break it loose, frequently fracturing
the stout ash poles in the attempt. From the sand and small parti-
cles of the rock brought up by the pump, the salt stratum appears to
be of a pure pearly whiteness; and the more porous and cellular its
structure, the greater is the quantity of water afforded; as more free-
dom is given to the discharge of gas, which appears to be a very ac-
tive agent in the rise of the water, forcing it, in nearly all the wells,
above the bed of the river, and in some to twenty five or thirty feet
above the top of the well.

Salt region on the Big Kenhawa.

As before stated, salt was first made there in 1808; the indicaddill
of salt being discovered at an old buffalo lick, near the margin of t
river, six miles above Charleston. Numerous wells are now dug for
six miles above and five miles below the lick. The “gum” or coffer-
dam, is usually sunk into the rock about eighteen feet below the bed

52 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

of the river, and rises six feet above, being in all about twenty four
feet. Within this the boring of the rock-strata commences.. The
depth of a well is on an average about three hundred and eighty feet.
The salt rock is reached at two hundred and fifty feet, and penetra-
ted until a supply of water is obtained, sufficient for the demands of
the furnace, evidently shewing the salt deposit to be much thicker
here than on the Muskingum river, where it probably approaches its
northern termination. When the supply of water grows scanty, as,
at low stages of the river, in the autumnal months, is frequently the
case, the auger is again introduced, and the depth increased fifteen
or twenty feet, when a-more abundant quantity is caused to flow.
The rock in which the salt water is found is apparently the same with
_ that on the Muskingum, being a white calcareous sand rock, full of
fissures and cavities of some inches in diameter, and affording more
or less water, as these are more or less abundant. The superincum-
bent strata are, different qualities of sandstone, slate, ironstone, and
stone coal, but in much less variety than on the latter river. The
formation in the adjoining hills, through which the Kenhawa passes,
is principally of sandstone, to the height of five or six hundred feet,
with thick beds of stone coal at their bases, affording an inexhausti-
ble supply of fuel to the manufacturers of salt. Fossil organic re-
mains of plants and trees, are also found in the lower sand rocks.
In boring the wells, one bed of coal is usually passed in the first one
hundred and fifly feet, varying in its thickness from two to six feet.
The salt water rises in the heads or “gums” to-near the surface of
the river at low water, but not so uniformly, nor so certainly, as it
did ten or twelve years past, serving to imply that the gas, finding
so many outlets, had diminished in its upward pressure. Since that
period, recourse has therefore been had to “suck or force pumps,”
to aid the rising of the water into the heads or cisterns. — Little, if
any, difference is found in the strength of the water, whether a well
has lain idle for a few weeks, or whether it has been kept in constant
use. Neither has there been any perceptible change in that respect,
in the course of twenty four years, the period of time since the manu-
facture commenced, proving the sources of supply to be vast, if not
inexhaustible ; m as much as the quantity made has, for several years,
been more than one million of bushels per year. The process of
manufacturing salt is the same with that pursued on the Muskingum,
which is fully described in this paper. In the course of the last sea-
son, the manufacture of alum or coarse salt has been commenced

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 53

upon new principles and with flattering success. It is thus described
in the Kenhawa Banner.

“The manufactory now in operation consists of a large pan, about
thirty five feet long, set in a furnace, and is closely sided up and cov-
ered over, so as to prevent the escape of any portion of the steam
evolved. Connected with this furnace, is a vat, made of plank, one
hundred and thirty five feet long and sixteen feet wide, underneath
and along the bottom of which is a trunk, sixteen inches square, of
strong plank, which is connected with the pan at the furnace and
conducts the steam the whole length of the vat. The upper surface
of this trunk or conduit is upon a level with the floor of the vat, and
is composed of lead. The pan is used to convert the water into
brine, which is then drawn off into vats and settled, when it is again
conducted into the large vat, where it is evaporated and converted
into alum salt of the finest quality. The heat applied in the furnace
to the pan, rapidly reduces the water into brine; and the steam,
generated by this process, and conducted under the vat, as before
described, raises the temperature of the brine therein contained to
upwards of a-hundred and fifty degrees, and renders the progress of
crystallization very rapid. With these very simple fixtures, the pro-
prietors are now making not less than two hundred bushels of salt per
day, with much less labor and a consumption of a smaller quantity of
coal than is required by an ordinary furnace, which produces much
less salt. In the process, all the foreign matter is excluded, and the
salt produced is, both in appearance and quality, equal to any in the
world. With the means of production almost unlimited, the salt
from this‘region would have supplied nearly the whole territory on
the Mississippi and its tributaries, had not alum salt been deemed in-
dispensable in putting up provisions for commercial purposes, distant
shipments and the like. This led to the introduction of alum salt
from the West Indies, which, to the extent used, excluded the do-
mestic salt from market. The alum salt* now manufactured here,
being i in no respect inferior to the imported, and furnished at a lower
price, will, ere long, entirely exclude or supersede the use of the
foreign article, on all of the western swaters.”

Messrs. Donally and Patrick, two of the company onsiieds in this
new mode of manufacturing coarse _— were aomnete the earliest

* An n injudicious n name: the salt in question pa no resomblance to
alum, except in forming larger and more distinct erystals.—. -Ed.

54 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Oh.

engaged in the salt business on the Kenhawa. The principles of the
process are probably the same with those now in operation in the
manufacture and crystallization of sugar, and found to be far superior
to the mode formerly, and still generally, in use.

Process pursued in sinking a salt well. —

The operator having fixed on a spot suitable for the purpose, al-
ways near some water course, and where the adjacent hills are high,
proceeds to excavate the earth down to the rock, and then the rock
itself to the depth of twenty or thirty feet, and from four to six feet
in diameter. In this cavity, called “the head,” is usually placed a
hollow sycamore trunk, called “a gum,” which is imbedded firmly
in the rock, in such a way as to exclude the springs of fresh water;

others make use of planks to form the head. When this part of the
work is accomplished, the process of boring, or drilling, commences.
This was formerly done by hand, with the assistance of a spring pole,
and was a tedious and laborious operation. It is now performed by
a horse or horses, placed on an inclined tread wheel, and machinery
very simply, but ingeniously arranged, so as to act, by means of a
lever, on the poles attached to the auger, raising it from two to three.
feet, at each rise of the lever, and Jetting it drop again very regu-
larly. A grass rope, with which the poles are suspended to a high
frame, by its spiral convolutions, at each rise and fall gives them a_
slight rotary motion, so necessary to the progress of the work. Two
men are employed in this business, who stand regular tours, of six
hours each, night and day. When so much of the rock is chiseled
up, and comminuted so finely as to make, with the water, which al-
ways fills the hole, a soft muddy mass, and impedes the motion of
the auger, the poles are withdrawn, and a tube, made of copper, five
or six feet in length and three inches in diameter, called “the pump,”
is screwed to the pole and let down. A valve, at the lower end, pre-
vents the escape of the contents, which are discharged through a hole
made for that purpose, near the top. A cord or rope is sometimes
made use of in this process, in place of the poles. The poles are
made of tough, white ash wood, twenty five feet in length and two.
inches in diameter. ‘They are attached to each other by strong iron
sockets and screws, so as that a screw at the lower end enters into a
socket at the upper end of each pole. By the addition of fresh poles,
as the well descends, they are lengthened to any desirable depth.
The auger is pointed with the best cast steel, and is from twelve to

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 55

fourteen inches in length, and from three to four inches wide, as the
operator may think best, it being very useful to have the well of a
greater diameter at the top, as it necessarily and unavoidably grows
narrower as it descends, and would not afford sufficient water, unless
an allowance of this kind were made. The operation gradually cuts
away the sides of the auger, and as it is repaired or a new one ap-
plied, unless this adaptation is carefully attended to, it becomes fast
in the bottom of the well, and is with great difficulty removed. The
progress made, each day, varies, with the density of the rock, from
one inch to five or six feet, but is necessarily slower as the well deep-
ens ; for much time is necessarily consumed in taking up and letting
down the poles, for the purpose of pumping or clearing out the detri-
tus, which is composed of sand or mud, according to the nature of the
rock. It is often necessary to line the upper portion of the well, for
one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet, with: a copper tube, to
prevent the process of caving, occasioned by the disintegration of the
soapstone or argillite, which principally composes the. upper strata
to this depth. It is also sometimes needéd to keep out the springs
of fresh water, which, mingling with the salt, would occasion addi-
tional labor in the evaporation.

Process of making the salt. |

When a sufficient supply of water is obtained, the next operation is
the erection of the furnace, with the cisterns, salt house, shed over
the furnace, &c. The evaporation of the water is conducted in
large cast iron kettles, of the capacity of sixty or ninety gallons, set
over a flue made of stone, sunk so much in the earth as to bring-the
tops of the kettles nearly on a level with the surface of the soil.
The bottom of the flue gradually rises, as it goes forward under the
kettles, and ends ina chimney.

The wood required is from five to six cords per day, fora furnace
of thirty or forty kettles. Gne half the kettles are used for boilers,
and the other half for graining the salt. This, however, varies ac-
cording to the strength of the water, the strongest requiring more
grainers than boilers. In some furnaces, the boilers, or evaporators,
are made of large sheets of cast iron, with their sides turned up an
inch or two, and connected to each other with rivets in their bottoms.
As the water flows or is pumped from the well, it falls into a large
cistern, made of planks. This being higher than the kettles in the
furnace, the water is conducted by means of a bored log, ot logs, as

56 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

the distance may be from the furnace, some carrying the water a
long’ way to the fuel, and others bringing the fuel to the water.
When the water reaches the furnace, it is let into the kettles by
wooden stop-cocks, placed at different points in a log, which lies

lengthwise of the furnace, for the purpose of preserving the temper-
ature nearly the same in all the kettles. When it is evaporated toa
certain strength, the brine is dipped out of the kettles into a large
trough or cistern, where it cools, and deposits a fine, red, earthy
sediment, colored by oxide of iron, and held in solution by carbonic
acid gas, which is set free when the water first commences boiling,
giving it quite a turbid appearance, although it is as clear as rock
crystal when running from the well. When sufficiently settled, the
brine is led by a conductor to the graining kettles. Into each kettle
is now thrown a small quantity of beef’s blood, and the contents
brought to the boiling temperature, when the impurities all rise to the
top and are skimmed off, leaving the brine of extreme purity and
transparency. When salt was first manufactured in the west, this
depuration was effected by means of aluminous earth, found in
caves and clay banks. As the boiling proceeds, the crystallizing
process commences on the surface of the water, in small hollow
cubes, gradually enlarging, until their specific gravity forces them to
the bottom. When the kettles stand some time without heat, as is
the case at these works, on the Sabbath, the water becomes cold,
and on the surface are found most beautiful specimens of salt crys-
tallization, resembling an inverted hollow pyramid, nearly an inch in
diameter at the base. These are generally found one within another.

While the water is evaporating, the salt, as it forms, is piled up in
the middle of the kettle, and when the kettles are dry, it is shoveled
into a large trough, whose inclination suffers the bittern, or “mother
water,” to drain off. When tolerably dry, it is transferred to the
“salt house,” where it again drains still more, and is then packed in
barrels, ready for market. Each barrel contains from five to six
bushels, of fifty pounds weight. A furnace of the above size, when
well managed, will make three hundred bushels of salt per week,
the average price of which, for some time past, has been about
twenty five cents per bushel. At some of the furnaces, a beautifully
white and delicate salt is made, for table use, fully equal to any of
the best Liverpool “blown salt.” Alum, or coarse salt, has not yet
been made at any of the Muskingum works.

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 57

A plan and description of the rock formation, in the salt region on
the Muskingum river, near McConnelsville, Ohio, eight hundred
and twenty feet of which are taken from the original minutes of L. G.
Barker, kept while boring his salt well in 1831.

N. B. As it would occupy too much space to give a regular scale, in
proportion to each formation, therefore the table will be so construct-
ed as to take up no more room than will be needed to describe each
deposit, with its thickness and color. The first column contains the
number of the series, with their order; the second, the stratum; the
ier its thickness in feet and inches. ‘The description commences

‘the most recent deposit, ¢ one hundred and eighty two sleet above
pe top of the salt well,

7 Sscark of the Editor.—Dr. Hildreth has given the local terms
of the country to the strata; this accords with the general practice in
Europe, where, local matters of fact, relating to mining operations, are
frequently stated in the language of the workmen; for, the miners and
borers for salt water and coal are rarely familiar with the terms of geo-
logical science. By applying the scientific language, now adopted in
England and elsewhere, for the members of the salt formation, the list
of strata, in the subsequent table, would doubtless be greatly reduced
in the number of its members, and the names of some of them would,
undoubtedly, be altered ; but we will not venture on the task; cer-
tainly not without access to arranged specimens, from the places de-
scribed, or better sill to the strata themselves.

Description of str Thi ckness—feet. inch.
fa Superincuimbent soil, sciniyiozed of alluvion, diluvion,
plastic clay, marl, and earths of different colors, em-
bracing red,* orange, pale dun, and ash colored, :
with vegetable mould, by estimation, a OS 50
2. Sand rock.—This rock embraces many different vari-
eties, from very coarse grained to very fine, and

* Beds of fine nodular oxide of iron, are found in many places, formed in the red
or brown mar! of the pera formation. This marl, before exposure to the at-
mosphere is in a stony state, and of a slaty structure, often containing impressions of

These impressions are also found on the ore itself. As the side hills ere
— away by rain, the nodules of ore tumble out and are found lying on the sur-
face along the face of the slope, in large quanties. This red, marly deposit seems
to be peculiar to the salt region, and increases in frequency and in thickness as we
approach the Alleghany range of mountains. The soil formed from its decomposition
is stiff, but very productive. It contains a large share of calcareous matter.
Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 8

58 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

No. ""-‘Deseription of strata. Thickness—feet. inch.
often contains mica between the Wye or beds.
Near the top of this formation the beds are thin,
varying from two to twelve inches, and increasing to
many feet in thickness near its bottom; the lower
strata often contain fossil vegetable remains. Beds
of coal are also found at various depths, but gener-

ally thin, the thickest being near the base of the hills.

3. 4 grey colored, fine, argillaceous stone, generally free
from mica; very compact and heavy, containing
geodes of argillaceousiron. ‘This rock is sometimes
of a laminated structure, containing many fossil vege-
table remains of fern, palm leaves, &c. - = 2D:

4. Bituminous coal.*—This deposit, with the superin-
cumbent slate, varies in thickness from three to nine
or more feet. Vegetable impressions are common
in the slate stone above the coal. ‘The €oal is easily
fractured in the course of its horizontal direction,
every lamina being divided by a thin layer of pure
charcoal, exhibiting the grain and fibre of a woody
structure. Its vertical fracture is glistening. Large

- quantities of iron pyrites are found amongst the slate
and sometimes in the coal itself. It contains much
bitumen, and burns with great freedom, - 8]

5. Sparry lime rock; eight or ten feet in thickness, with
a bed of fine white clay over it, between the coal
and limestone ;_ color light grey, and often containing

iron pyrites, in rhombic and many sided crystals,

but generally free of fossil shells, from this place. to
the mouth of the Muskingum. Higher up, in the
vicinity of Zanesville the lime rock nlm in
ossils. 10

6. Argillaceous pind AE SS bluish. The ee in
which the boring for salt water commences, when
exposed to rain and atmospheric influence, it is read-
ily decomposed, into a light pulverulent earth, - 53°

0

ae.)

* In some places two or three beds of coal are found, between the Ree as ae
of the sandstone hills, but generally thin, or only one or two feet thick.

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 59

No. ‘ Description of strata. Thickness—feet. inch.
7. A rock called here red argillite, or soapstone, being a
species of marl, and boring very easily, from ten to
‘twelve feet in twenty four hours. - - 226
Lime rock, hard and compact, boring about ow
inches in twenty four hours. ‘This stratum in some
wells contains iron inci of sete brilliant asad
ance, - :
9. Blue condita 4 more segue than ae upper stratum. 21
0. Slate rock.—At this depth, fossil shells were found -
in bituminous pene on Salt Creek, a few miles north
east of this. F - - 106
- Grey flint rock in some portions of it mind with a
little sand. This rock is extremely hard, the work-
men, with the greatest exertions, being unable to
penetrate more than two or three inches per day, of
twenty four hours. Five miles above McConnels- _
ville, this rock comes to the surface in the bed of
the river, making a small ripple; and showing a cor-
responding dip to the south, in all the rock strata, of
a little more than one hundred feet in that distance.
The dip still continues for several miles men, as

ag

faen

ue
fat

far as any wells have been bored. “2
12. Very hard slaty rock, pen calxpil with iron. ath
13. Black soapstone. - - ‘4
14. Yellow soapstone,* with sand pve - - 15
15. Blue soapstone,* without sand. —- - 8
16. Sandstone, very compact, and the lower part of “he

stratum nearly white, or very light colored. - 1

17. Red soapstone, highly colored with oxide of i iron,
soft in mail and pening ai four to five feet Bee

day.

18. Stratum of ra pee i a satin highly in impreg- ne
nated with isceies and iinet powdenst £8
charcoal. 10—

19. Blue slate mixed with it some parts of. which af. Aa
dense, boring from three to four feet ier i

a a

20. Slate. stone, soft me fine, light blue ci

* Called also argillite, in the MS.

60 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

No. Description of strata. "phidianee— tent: inch.
‘ Seneeianil in which appears some salt water from the
stratum 6f sandstone sei ane from five to seven
feet per day. = 12
22. Hard white sand rock, sii the upper a ie
in this appeared some salt water, with a diseharge

~
—

of carburetted scopes gas. 20% SEs S24
23. Slate stone. - on RRS
24, White or light grey sain ie oie ane ®
25. Slate stone with yellow ochre enined - - = 14
26. Bituminous coal. - - - :e2
27. White sandstone. . - - in PL. [BPA
28. Bituminouscoal. = = See 3
29. Slate and soapstone. = - ee. le RO
30. Slate intermixed with sand of bluish cc 19
31. Soapstone.* - - - 233
32. White or light grey sanstone. - - 5
33. Slate rock. - - 7
34. Very hard, dark colored dials sxcbaday mixed with iron. 2

35. Light-colored slate mixed with sand. .
36. Blue slate stone, the ted _— of stratum vel

~ black. - 34
87. White sandstone, ~ hard. - oe ree Me tei
38. Blue slate rock. ocKL sce gg .81
39. Ve ery hard rock, iron mE boring =e one inch we ,

aye - - ~ oo 6 4s

40. Light colored slate, auced wil vain - ‘St -«
41. Very hard rock, iron stone ne one inch per raay. 1
42. Black slate rock. - 6
43. Hard blue sandstone. - - Sacha OEY.
44. Bituminous coal. » - - neo 3
45. Hard sandstone, part brown aa part ig colored. 24
46. Bituminous coal. —- - oy SEES.
47. White slate. - - af583
48. Very light sedated: eiddeie HELES

49.. White sulearetind sandstone, with pavbiles of pure oh
intermixed, very dense in its texture, and —
but a small quantity of water. = - -

* Called also argillite, in the MS.

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 61

No. Description of strata. Thickness—feet, inch,
50. Grey or dirty sand rock, tolerably hard and very uni-
form in its texture or density. - -
51. Blue sandstone, hard and uniform in density, lag
from eight to twelve inches in twenty four hours. 71
52. Pure white calcareous sand rock, full of cells and va-
cant places,,as if dissolved by water, the auger
sometimes dropping several inches at once. This
stratum is only about forty feet in thickness, and is
the lower salt rock, affording much. stronger Water 6 iy
_ than the sn se and a more _ and pei te

supply’

53. Light blue sand rach, ying under the salt voll this

_ was penetrated only ten or fifteen feet, but afforded *

no additional water, and here the boring ceased ; no
salt water has ever been found below the white cal-
careous. sand rock, although at the mouth of Salt
Creek, eighteen miles above, where the lower salt
rock is only four hundred and fifty feet from the sur-
face they have penetrated four hundred feet, below
“it. - aBOOE MS Tig Oe we Gl ND

Total, feet, 1001 7.

The first one hundred and eighty two feet in the foregoing esti-
mate are occupied by the uplands and rock strata above the well.
The last eight hundred and nineteen feet and seven inches are oc-
cupied by the strata through which the well passes.

Carburetted Hydrogen Gas.

All salt wells afford more or less of this interesting gas; an n agent
intimately concerned in the free rise of the water, and universally
present where salt water is found. Indeed so strong is the evidence
afforded by the rising of this gas to the surface, of the existence of
the salt rock below, that many wells are sunk on this evidence alone.
It is, without doubt, a product of the saliferous formation, as it rises
in many wells without any appearance of petroleum, which latter pro-
duct is probably generated, by bituminous coal, and in all wells
from a depth far below where coal has been discovered in sufficient
quantity to furnish such an immense and constant supply as is con-
tinually rushing from the earth in these saliferous regions. In many

62 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

wells, salt water and inflammable gas rise in company with a steady
uniform flow. In others, the gas rises at intervals of ten or twelve
hours, or perhaps as many days, in vast quantity and with over-
whelming force, throwing the water from the well to the height of
fifty, or a hundred feet in the air, and again retiring within the bowels
of the earth to acquire fresh power for a new effort. This phenom-
enon is called “ blowing,” and is very troublesome and vexatious to
the manufacturer. The explosion is sometimes so powerful as to
cause the copper tube which lines the upper part of the well to col-
lapse, and to entirely misplace and derange the fixtures aboat it. By
constant use this difficulty is sometimes overcome, by the exhaustion
of the gas, and in others the well has been abandoned as hopeless of
amendment. A well on the Muskingum, ten miles above McCon-
nelsville, at six hundred feet in depth, afforded such an immense
quantity of gas, and in such a constant stream, that while they were
digging, it several times took fire, from the friction of the iron on the
poles against the sides of the well, or from scintillations from the au-
ger; driving the workmen away, and communicating the flame to the
shed which covered the works.

It spread itself along the surface of the earth, and ignited other com-
bustible bodies at the distance of several rods. It became so trouble-
some and difficult to extinguish, when once ignited, being in this res-
pect a little like the “Greek fire,” so celebrated by Gibbon, that,
from this cause only, the well has been. entirely abandoned. In the
days of superstition and ignorance, this would doubtless have been at-
tributed to the anger of the Genius, who presided over the Spot, and
thus protected it from the unhallowed approaches of man.

At R. P. Stone’s well, on the opposite side of the river a little be-
low McConnelsville, the gas rises in small regular puffs, or dis-
charges, averaging one to every minute or two; causing the water
to flow in jets from the spout, as it falls into a hates cistern below.
The water rises in the head through a bored log to the height of twen-
ty five feet above the surface of the earth. Through a hole in the
top of a small receiver, or cap, the gas issues in a constant stream,
and when a candle or torch is applied, kindles into a beautiful flame,
burning steadily, until extinguished by closing the hole, affording
in the stillness and darkness of midnight, a striking and interesting
phenomenon. It is supposed, that this well alone furnishes sufficient
gas, if properly applied, to Jight the town very handsomely. No
petroleum rises with it, and very little in any of the other wells at this

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 68

locality. ‘The quantity of gas in different wells varies very consid-
erably ; all however afford sufficient to keep the water in constant
agitation over the mouth of the well. The supply of water ys
very much on the quantity of gas discharged.

A few miles above Charleston, on the Big Kenhawa, great quanti-
ties of the carburetted hydrogen are slowly emitted, through the earth
A tract of several rods in extent near the river bank is so charged
with it, that on making shallow cavities in the sand, and applying a
fire brand, it immediately becomes ignited and burns with a steady
flame for an indefinite period, or until extinguished by covering it
with sand. The boatmen, a rude but jolly race, often amuse them-

selves by tracing a circle in the sand around some one of the com-
pany unacquainted with the mystery, and applying fire, a flame im-
mediately springs up, as if by magic, around the astonished wight,
which being entirely confined to the circle traced, adds much to his
terror, and increases the «delight of the boisterous spectators. Ina
short time the sand beneath the burning gas becomes red hot. The
neighboring women sometimes make use of it to boil their water, when
washing clothes on the bank of the river; and boatmen occasionally
cook their food in the same easy and cheap manner. ‘This spot
would afford a fine site for the temple of the fire worshippers of an-
cient Persia. In low stages of the water, gas and oil are seen oozing
from the bed of the river at various points. On the little Muskingum
river, a few miles from Marietta, this gas is discharged in many pla-
ces; often through a pool, or sink hole filled with water, in which
case it is called “a burning spring.” Petroleum is often found ri-
sing from the earth near the spring. Throughout the whole salifer-
ous region, so far as I have any knowledge, on penetrating the salt
rock, a greater or less quantity of carburetted hydrogen gas is dis-
charged through the’ opening—in some places accompaned by —_—
leum, and in others without this coéxistent production. ee

Petroleum or Fossil Oil.

Since the first settlement of the regions west of the Apallachian
range, the hunters and early pioneers have been acquainted with this
oil. _ Rising ina hidden and mysterious manner from the bowels
the earth, it soon arrested their attention, and acquired great value
in the eyes of these simple sons of the forest. Like some miracu-
lous gift from heaven, it was thought to be a sovereign remedy for
nearly all the diseases common to those primeval days, and from its

64 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio.

success in rheumatism, burns, coughs, sprains, &c. was justly enti-
tled to all its celebrity. It acquired its name of Seneca oil, that by
which it is generally known, from having first been found in the vicin-
ity of Seneca Lake, N, York. From its being found in limited quan-
tities, and its great and extensive demand, a small vial of it would
sell for forty or fifty’cents. It is, at this time, in general use among
the inhabitants of the country, for saddle bruises, and that complaint
called the scratches, in horses. It seems to be ‘pecalierly adapiod to ote
flesh of horses, and cures many of their ail

ty and celerity. Flies and other insects have a natural antipathy to its
effluvia, and it is used with much effect in preventing the deposit of
eggs by the “ blowing fly,” in the wounds of domestic animals during
the summer months. In neighborhoods where it is abundant, it is
burned in lamps in place of spermaceti oil, affording a brilliant light
but filling the room with its.own peculiar odor. By filtering it
through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell is destroyed and
the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance. It is also well
adapted to prevent friction in machinery, for being free of gluten, so
common to animal and vegetable oils, it preserves the parts to which
it is applied, for a long time, in free motion—where a heavy vertical
shaft runs in a socket, it is preferable to all or any other articles.
This oil rises in greater or less abundance in most of the salt wells
on the Kenhawa, and collecting as it rises, in the head on the top of
the water, is removed, from time to time, with a ladle, and put by
for sale or use. The greater abundance of stone coal in this locality,
than that of the Muskingum, gives it a decided advantage in the elabo-
ration of petroleum. On the latter river, the wells afford but little oil,
and that only during the time the process of boring is going on ; it ceas-
es soon after the wells are completed; and yet all of them abound
more or less in gas. A well on Duck Creek, about thirty miles north
of Marietta, owned by Mr. McKee, furnishes the greatest quantity of
any in this region. It was dug in the year 1814, and is four hundred
and seventy five feet in depth. Salt water was reached at one hun-
dred and eighty five feet, but not in sufficient quantity ; however, no
more water was found below this depth. The rocks passed, were
similar to those on the Muskingum river above the flint stratum, or
like those between the flint and salt deposit, at McConnelsville. A
bed of coal two yards in thickness, was found at the depth of one hun-
dred feet, and gas, at one hundred and forty four feet, or forty one
feet above the salt rock.

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 65

The hills are sandstone; based on lime, one hundred and fifty or
two hundred feet in height, with abundant beds of stone coal near
their feet. The oil from this well is discharged periodically, at in-
tervals of from two to four days, and from three to six hours duration
at each period. Great quantities of gas,accompany the discharges of
oil, which for the first few years, amounted to from thirty to sixty gal-
lons at each eruption. ‘The discharges at this time are less frequent,
and diminished in amount, affording only about a barrel per week,
which is worth at the well from fifty to seventy five cents a gallon.
A few years.ago, when the oil was most abundant, a large quantity
had been collected in a cistern holding thirty or forty barrels. At
night, some one engaged about the works approached the well-head
with a lighted candle. The gas instantly became ignited, and com-
municated the flame to the contents of the cistern, which giving way,
suffered the oil to be discharged down a short declivity into the creek,
whose waters pass with a rapid current close to the well. The oil
still continued to burn most furiously ; and -spreading itself along the
surface of the stream for half a mile in extent, shot its flames to the
tops of the highest trees, exhibiting the novel, and — never be-
fore witnessed spectacle of a river actually on fire.

Strength of the salt water.

The greater or less degreé of saturation in the water of the differ-
ent salines must depend on circumstances, and is influenced by sev-
eral causes. It may meet with springs of fresh water as it rises near
the surface, which, often times, greatly diminishes its strength. A well
may perhaps only reach the upper stratum, which generally affords a
weaker water than the lower, or if it descends to the lower saliferous
rock, it may be at a spot not so fully impregnated with salirfe matter,
and thus it will afford a much weaker water. The strength of a water
is usually ascertained by its weight ; whatever it may weigh ¢ over and
above the weight of an equal amount of rain water, is put down for
its salt producing quality. This quality when put to the test by the
manufacturer, it will, however, more than sustain,* although the
strict chemical analysis would produce a result coinciding with its
actual weight. On comparing the two modes, they stand as follows.
One pint of water from the Muskingum saline, weighs one pound, two
ounces and one hundred and sixty grains, and realness geet five

e bet

* #
ee gos 4a, 692 ae ee ee

Vat. avo ee

66 Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Oho.

gallons by weight to produce fifty pounds of salt, allowing it to contain
no other ingredient than muriate of soda. One pint of rain water by
the same measure weighs one pound and one ounce. On evaporating
the same water, it produced within fifty grains of two ounces of salt,
equally dry with that put up for sale at the furnaces. On lying a few
months, the weight is diminished ten or fifteen per cent, by the drain-
age of bittern, composed principally of the muriate of lime, and the
muriate of magnesia. By this experiment, one gallon of the water .
affords fifteen ounces of salt, and it would require less than fifty four
gallons to make fifty pounds. The general estimate of the manufac-
turers, is however, from fifty five to sixty gallons for every bushel of
salt. Some of the wells afford a stronger water, than this, making a
bushel from fifty gallons.

One pint of the Kenhawa water, weighs one pound, two ounces
and forty four grains, giving of saline water, one ounce and forty four
grains; the water from the river weighing one pound and one ounce
by the same measure. By this estimate, it will require ninety one
gallons to make a bushel of fifty pounds weight of salt. . But, as man-
ufactured at the furnaces seventy five gallons will produce. that
amount, when by the weight of the water that number of gallons
should afford only forty one pounds of salt. This difference can be
readily accounted for, by the aqueous particles contained in the salt,
it seldom or never being perfectly dry. When carefully manufac-
tured, the western salt is as pure and as white as the Liverpool;
but, for preserving meat in a hot climate is not considered by the
packers and inspectors to be quite equal to the alum or rock salt,
the crystallization of which being conducted by slow evaporation,
is freer from earthy muriates, than the salt made by fire. The re-
cent discovery of making coarse or alum salt by the aid of steam and
now in operation at the Kenhawa salines, (as described i in this pa-
per,) will obviate or remove this difficulty ; and be of immense ad-
vantage to the farming and commercial interests of the country.

Temperature and analysis of th the water.

From the theory espoused by late writers on the subject of the in-
creased heat of the earth, as we descend towards the centre, I was
led to expect that the water rising from the deepest wells would show
a temperature above that of the adjacent springs, wells of fresh wa-
ter, or the mean annual temperature of the place where the wells are

Saliferous Rock Formation in the Valley of the Ohio. 67

situated. On conversing with the manufacturers on the subject, they
were generally of the opinion that the water was not any warmer and
some thought it to be evidently colder. On application of the ther-
mometer to one of the deepest wells at McConnelsville, being eight
hundred and nineteen feet, the water, as it rushed up from the bot-
tom of the well in a constant stream, was found to be only fifty two
degres of Fahrenheit, which is very near the actual mean temperature
of that spot. In a well four hundred feet deep, three miles below
Zanesville, the water as it rises is 50°, and in a fresh water well, for-
ty feet deep, the thermometer stands at 53°, near by the salt well.
Whether the salt can have any operation in reducing the tempera-
ture I do not know. Salts, while in the act of dissolving, produce
cold, but, unless the solution is constantly going on, we can see no
reason why the saline waters should remain permanently cold; what-
ever may be the reason, I was disappointed in the result. ‘The water
of the Muskingum salines has not been accurately analyzed, but the
following is the analysis of the Kenhawa water, conducted by a gen-
tleman fully competent to the task.

Muriate of soda, . : ‘ ‘ 4 56.
Muriate of lime, . . Ses ‘ +. ote
Carbonate ofiron, . = ; ‘ ‘ 2 si

ronres Carbone G6 eh
Weer, oo. oo ee a Sp Rae .. Os

; 1000
The .analysis of the bittern shows some additional ingredients.
- $835.

Muriate of lime, . ‘. ; ‘ ;

Buriate of Mepnebiny 62 6s. 60. eee ee

Muriate of potash, . .. : 3 wae 22.

Muriate of soda, -. cee art. ee

Bromide of calcium, a trace, é ‘ aa é

Waites ek cs Seaies vee oot an eee
1000.

From these analyses it would appear that no scigheies are contain-
ed in the waters, and that neither Epsom or Glauber’s salts could be
made, as they are at the works on the sea board. They. would af-
ford some magnesia “but not in sufficient quantity to make its manu-
facture profitable. ‘The amount of muriate of soda that might be pro-
duced is without limit. At present, the quantity manufactured at the
several works established along the valley of the Ohio, from Kiski-

68 Expression of the sides of Right-angled Triangles, &c.

minitas above Pittsburgh to Shawaneetown in Illinois amounts to be-
tween two and three millions of bushels annually. The works at —
Kenhawa alone furnish twelve hundred thousand bushels, and those
on the Muskingum between three and four hundred thousand. Large
quantities are made at Kiskiminitas or Konemaugh, Pa. and at Yel-
low Creek in Columbiana County, Ohio. Salt is also made in con-
siderable quantities on the Big Hockhocking and on Leading Creek.
When that beautiful, but simple process of manufacturing by atmos-
pheric evaporation, and that still more interesting one by steam, are
carried more extensively into use, the people of the west will bave
nothing farther to desire, either in the abundance, or in the excel-
lency of that great and indispensable article, marine or culinary salt.

Ee

Art. VI.—On the Expression of the sides of Right-angled Trian-
gles, by Rational and Integral numbers; by Rev. Danie, Witxie.

Iw a late number of your excellent Journal,* there appear two in-
genious methods of finding the sides of right-angled triangles in in-
tegral numbers.

The first of these methods is ie following—Rule.—* Take any two
numbers whose difference is 2. Their sum will be the root of one
square ; their product that of the other. Add 2 to the product just
found, and you obtain the root of the sum of the squares, or the hy-
pothenuse.”.

This method affords a umeher of curious results, J faxiiahes a
great number of answers,} yet it is evidently limited to those cases in
which the hypothenuse exceeds the next greater side by 2, or to.
multiples of these.

The second method is simpler and more general. It isas follows.

“ Assume m, n, p, any rational numbers, so that n be greater than
p, then, m(n*+p?), m(n?—p?) and 2 mnp, will be the sides of
the required triangle.”

As the quantity m is a multiplier of all the terms, and does not
otherwise enter into the formation of the rule, it may be omitted.
The limitation that n be greater than p, is also unnecessary.

The following method is proposed, as somewhat simpler, and
more general than those above stated.

* Vol. xx, No. 2. t And is accompanied by a demonstration.

Expression of the sides of Right-angled Triangles, &c. 69

Let m, and n, be any rational numbers whatever ; then m?-+-n?,
m* —n*, and 2mn,. will be sides of a right-angled triangle. For,
(m?-+n*) ?= (m? —n?)*+ (2mn)?.

_ If m remains constant for any set of examples, and n be succes-
sively increased by unity ; the hypothenuse will increase by-the fol-
lowing series, 3, 5, 7, &c. the base will decrease by the same series,
and the perpendicular will increase constantly by 2m. -

In the following examples m remains constantly equal to 10, and n
increases by successive uvits. ‘The required triangular sides may
be extended ad infinitum by the process above explained, without
changing the value of m. If m be changed, other series equally un-
inne will arise.

n roa base. perp.
10 1 ~ : - 99 ~ 20
2 - 104 - 96 - 40
3 ~ 109 - 91 - 60
4 - 116 - 84 ~ 80
5 - 125 - 76 - 100
6 - 136 - 64 - 120
Ss $40 <> $f 2: = cs 00
ae - 164 = 36 - 160
9 - 181 - 19 = « 180
10 - 200 - Q+ - 200
11 - 221 - 21 - 220
12 . 244 - 44 - 240
13 - 269 - 69 - 260
14 - 296 - 96 - 280
¥ 15 - 325 - 125 - 300
ian ake 156. aa
: |) ee es 189: » 340
18 - 424 - 224 - 360
19 - 461 - 261 ~ 380
20 - 500 - 300 - 400 &c
30 9008 a 600. «
40... 1900" =. «1800 +. - BOO
50 2600 2400 -. 1000&. -
Son this set of examples, it will be seen, ties dl

- 1. That when-m=2, then the hypothenuse and perpé idicu
equal, and the base vanishes. |

2. That as n increases above m, the bases are mare, that is,
they lie on the ary side of the perpendicular.

70 Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio.

3. That they now increase. :

4, That from this point, the bases and ouentes have all a
common difference, in this case

5. As n increases from 1 to m, the ratio of the perpendicular to
the hypothenuse ,increases, till it teadh its maximum, namely a
ratio of equality, when m=n.

6. This ratio afterwards decreases from équality:

7. The legs of the isosceles right-angled triangle, cannot be ex-
pressed in this manner, not being rational numbers.

8. Nor for the same reason can the triangle of 30°, at the base,
be thus expressed, since, though the base is half tiie hypothenuse,
the perpendicular i is not rational.

9. While n is less than m, the sum of the base.and hypothenuse
remains constant, and is equal to - co-versed sine of the angle con-
tained by these two sides.

10. When » exceeds m, ihe sum of the base and hypothenuse,
(the former being negative,) is still equal to the same constant quan-
tity, but is ther, the versed sine of the same angle.

Quebec, December 28, 1832.

x. VII_—Plan of the ious at Cincinnati, Ohio; by Danrus
Laruam, Assistant Engineer.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir —As there have, within a few years, been many im-
provements in the construction of locks on canals, which have not
been noticed in any treatise on that subject, within the knowledge of |
the writer, it has been thought that a concise description of the locks
which are now in an advanced stage of construction in the city of
Cincinnati, Ohio, accompanied with a drawing, would be acceptable
to the numerous readers of your valuable Journal. - Should you think
that the following description and plan of those locks, have sufficient
merit to justify their insertion in the American Journal of Science and
Arts, they are entirely at your disposal.

From the intersection of the Miami canal with Main street, in the
city of Cincinnati, to the lowest water in the Ohio river, there is a
fall of one hundred and twelve feet, which is overcome by ten locks;
nine of eleven feet, and the lower one, of thirteen feet lift. They’
are placed in a right line, and at such distance apart as will admit
of two boats passing each other between them. For the purpose of

Plan of the Locks at Cincinnati, Ohio: 71

admitting keel boats, coal arks; sections of lumber rafts, &c. to pass
to the upper part of the city, the locks are increased in width to eight-
een feet. The stones for the face of the walls, are obtained one hun-
dred miles up the Ohio river, at a place which the proprietor has na-
med Rockville ; and brought down on scows by the aid of a steam
boat. The whole work is taken ‘by contract by Mr. Jonn Loven-
RY; and it is under the direction and superintendance of Mr. Samv-
EL. Saati whose reputation as an Engineer is no unenviable dis-

tinction.

In the drawing are represented, the ground pes, and an elevation,
of one of those locks, by a scale of twelve feet to an in

The foundation is composed of timber one foot think, and laid
transversely, from four to six inches asunder ; the interstices are fil-
led with puddle of clay and gravel slightly wetted and compressed
with wooden rammers. Sheet piling are placed at each gate entire-
ly across the foundation, four feet deep, consisting of two inch plank,
jointed, and placed on end, resting against a stick of timber in the
bottom, and against one of the dogs at the top. On these timbers is
laid a floor of three inch plank, which is jointed except under the
walls. Both mitre sills are’ placed on this floor. The lower one is
nine inches high; the top of which coincides with the bottom of the
canal; the upper one is made eighteen inches high, so that the gates
will be less liable to obstruction from gravel. They are made at an
angle of twenty eight degrees; and fastened down near the vertex
with bolts. Over the three inch floor, within the walls, a lining of
two inch plank is Jaid, and the whole secured to the timbers with ten
inch spikes.

The face stone of the masonry is laid in mortar, and the rubble
wall is grouted. It is required by the contract that there shall be a
header in every ten feet in length; the stones are obtained of such
size, that it is very seldom, that there is not a header at each end

_of every stretcher. The edges of the face stones are rusticated or
chamfered, which gives to the walls a bold and beautiful appear-
ance. Particular attention is paid, in placing the headers at the hol-
low coins, so that each stone which has a hollow coin cut in it, shall
have a header resting upon it. This is effected by placing them
alternately, in each course, above and below the hollow coin. The
walls are covered with coping three feet wide, and not less than one
ee tie Pckaee ; at-the head of the lock the id is two feet

12 - Plan of ihe Locks at Cincinnitt,

Around each Jock, the water for thie supply of the carial, is carri-
ed in a canal for that purpose; and near the foot, it tumbles over a
breast of masonry, into the basin below. This tumble is connected

with the lock walls, and from below, exhibits the appearance of a
* double lock. ‘Recesses are made in the sides of the tumble for the
insertion of plank to regulate the supply of water.

The lock gates are constructed of timber in the usual manner, con-
sisting of a coin and mitre post, connected together by ties or arms.
On the top of these posts, rests a large lever or balance beam, which
serves to keep the gate balanced, and by means of which the gate is
opened and shut. The gates lap two inches and a half below the
top of the mitre sill, but the coin post extends to within an inch of
the Moor. In the lower end of this post is mserted the cast iron sock-
et, a, Fig. 1, and secured by a band of iron; the step ), Fig. 1, is
let into the floor, in the centre of the hollow coin, and fastened with
spikes, on which the gate turns. The arms are more firmly secured
to the coin post by Ts and Ls, connected by bolts with screws.
To the mitre post, the arms (except the lower one) are connected
by a dove-tail tenon and key, reaching through the post. The up-
per and lower arms only, are secured to the mitre post with Ts and
Ls. . Theend of the balance beam is secured to the mitre post by
a strap of iron passing over it, and extending down on each side of
the post, and connected by bolts and screws. This end of the beam
is also banded, to prevent it from being split by the concussion of
boats. ‘The beam is fastened to the coin post ‘to prevent it from ri-
sing by the high water. © That part of the beam which lies over the
gate is left square on the top, so that when the gates are shut, they
forma foot’ bridge, which aids the lock ‘tender in his duties. The
gate'is retained in its place by a collar around the coin post at the
top ; this is attached by ney to circular iron = which: are bolted
to the coping.

Daring the time of a high flood i in sto Ohio river, five of these locks
will be covered with water, so that it will be necessary to secure the
gates from floating. In order to do this, it is proposed to put a per-
manent band around the top of the coin post, with the under side lev-
el with the coping, as seen in Fig. 2, at a. In the middle of the pe-
riphery of the hollow coin, a groove is cut to receive an iron bar },
four feet long ; the lower end of this bar is inserted in the'wall ; at the
top is a head or projection, which covers the’ band and prevetite
gates from rising.

‘yee wmvydvy iT

"TIN MATONDD Ye SMOOT sy JO Nd

iE

6 ene BI

|

an

i ea 2 22

Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. 73

King’s patent cast iron paddle gates are wid for filling and dis-
charging the lock. They are inserted in the lock gates adjoining the
coin post, between the two lower arms. The form of this gate is
represented in Fig. 3;—a, is the blade of the gate; 6 and c, are the
fixtures which are attached to the arms of the lock gate, and in which
the paddle gate turns. A short post is placed between the lower
arms at the breadth of the paddle gate from the coin post. The
paddle gate is hung on the upper side of the lock gate, so that when
open, the blade will not project on the lower side. Into the socket
in the top of the paddle gate, a large rod is inserted, which extends
above the balance beam, and on the top is placed a wrench by which
the gates are turned. At d, a portion of figure 6 is represented sepa-
rate, which can be detached, and the paddle gate inserted, or remo-

ved as occasion may require.
‘ Cincinnati, January 21, 1833.

Art. VIII.—On the methods of describing various curves for Arches ;
by J. Tomson, Civil Engineer, Nashville, Tenn.

TO THE EDITOR.

Sir.—The following observations on the methods of tracing vari-
ous curves for arches, are submitted for publication i in the American
Journal, with the hope that they may be found useful to mechanics,
by saving the time and labor of tedious calculation.

_ In regard to the method of describing oval arches, the eommuni-
cation of Mr. Miller, in Vol. XXII, No. 2, of this Journal, contains
much useful information; yet the iecely practical mechanic, unac-
quainted with algebraical calculations, is still uninformed in regard to
the method of finding the point D, (fig. 1) or the distance CD, the
determination of which is the only difficulty he will.encounter. The
distance CD, in that communication, is only expressed in indefinite
parts, and not by means of a quantity derived from the ratio of AC
to CB.

In order to find CD, divide the difference of the rise and half span
of the arch by the following decimal numbers.

Vou. XMV—-Ne 1. 10

74 Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches.

For five centers, divide by 0.794.
For seven centers, “ “ 0,771..
For nine centers, ‘ ‘ 0.758.
‘For eleven centers, ‘ 0.749.

The method of finding these divisors will be given hereafter. It”
may be observed that the last divisor is nearly =0.75, hence when
eleven centers are used, multiply the above difference of rise and half
span by 4, and divide by 3, the result will be the distance CD,
Having found CD, make CH=3CD. Take one from the number _
of centers to be used, and half the remainder will be the number of
parts into which CH and CD are to be divided ; CH into equal
parts, and CD into unequal parts, increasing from Das 1, 2, 3, &c.
Join these points of division, as in the figure, by straight lines, whose
intersections will give. the centers H, G, F, &c. Thus, when nine
centers are used, as in the figure, CH is divided into four equal parts,
and CD into the same number of unequal parts, increasing as 1, 2,
3, 4, from the point D. :

To find the above divisors, put CD=y, AD=z and the given
quantities AC =a, and BC=d. Now when the number of centers
is given, the broken line HD is equal to CD multiplied by.a constant
quantity ; put this constant quantity =c, then HD=cy, and since
the broken line AH must be equal to BH, we have

r+cy=d+3y, whence
r=d+y(3—c), and since’
AC=AD+CD,
a=y+d+y(3—c), hence *
ena cD.
In order to apply this general equation, ¢ must be calculated for

the required number of centers. For five centers, take CD =any
assumed quantity, say three ; then by trigonometry we find the sum of
the lines that constitute HD=9. 619, hence c= Ep=8.206. Inthe
same way we find for seven centers, c=3.229, and for nine centers
c= 3,242, and for eleven centers c=3.251. Hence we have for
or )

0. 794.

—d
0.771.

Five centers, Cia

Seven centers, enass?

Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches. 76

rear, | ‘ +
Nine centers, (P= a788
—d
Eleven centers, CD = =5ai0"

Since it is thus almost as easy to trace an oval arch wit fine or
eleven centers as with three, the description of this arch by means of
three centers ought always to be avoided, as it is not only disagreea-
ble to the eye, but itis deficient in strength, in consequence of the
sudden change of curvature resulting ffom this mode of description.

Perhaps 1 no curve unites beauty and strength in a greater degree
than the cycloid. The arch, equilibrated by a horizontal road-way,
is remarkable for strerigth, but it is deficient in beauty. The elliptic
arch is perhaps the most graceful, but when the rise is small, compar-
ed with the span, it will not admit of great pressure with safety at the
crown. ‘The cycloidal arch, with the same rise and span with an
elliptic arch, is more curved at the crown than the latter, and hence
it will sustain a greater weight at that point, such as a heavy load pas-
sing over it. We are not at liberty, however, to choose the ratio
between the rise and span of this arch, these being always to each
other as the diameter of a circle to the circumference. ~

The mechanical construction of the cycloid is very easy. The’
following method I have not seen noticed in any work on Mechanics.
Having fixed upon the dimension of the half span AC, (fig. 2.) take
the rise BC such, that AC will be to BC as half the circumference
of a circle to the diameter, the lines FH and AE being parallel to
each other and perpendicular to AC, and make CH=CB. Let the
describing line taken equal to BH or twice BC, be extended from
H to A, and brought to a proper tension by means of the point or
pin D. The curve AB is then described with the centers D and H.
This curve will be an approximation to the cycloid. Fix a number
of centers (the more the better) along the curve AB, and with these
centers describe the curve BE, which will be a cycloid as near as can
be obtained by any mechanical means. If, instead of a single point,
D, three or four points be taken as centers between H and A, so
arranged as to be nearly in a cycloidal curve, and keeping at the
same’ time'the’ line ADH at its proper tension, the resulting curve
AB will itself be a very near approximation to the cycloid; butnot
much greater sensible accuracy can be attained in the second’ curve’
BE, than when a single point Dis first assumed.

76 Methods of describing Various Curves for Arches.

The above method of tracing this kind of arch is derived from the
principle, that when any curve or broken line ADH is assumed be-
tween the parallel lines AE and FH, the successive developments
or involutes AB, BE, &c. between the same parallels, constantly ap-
proach to, and finally terminate in a cycloid. ‘These involutes con-
verge so rapidly to the form of this curve, that when the above
method is adopted, the second involute BE may always be assumed
in practice as the required curve.

One advantage that might be mentioned, in tracing curves for
arches with a variable radius, is ‘that we may always obtain the
height of the road-way above any point in the arch, such that it
may be equilibrated by the superincumbent weight. ‘Thus, let DE
(fig. 3,) represent a road-way passing over the arch AB, let BC=
radius of curvature at the vertex, AF’ =radius of curvature at the
point A, DB=height of ee at the crown, then we_ have
oo J OD XBO:

“an= AF x (cos AHB)*

An arch that will require a “gentle elevation of road-way at the
crown, in order to, produce equilibration, may be described -by the
following method. Let AD, (fig. 4,) represent the span of the

-arch, BC the rise; describe an arc CG of acircle on DC asa
diameter ; extend the describing line from A to G where it is a tan-
gent to the circle; the line being fixed at G, describe the half arch
AB with centers arranged along the curve CG, and in the same man-
ner describe the half arch BD with centers on CE. If the span
AD be =100, AG will be =70.7,- and hence the rise BC will be
40. It will be found from the above equation that this arch will be
nearly equilibrated by a road-way of the form of LHK, gradually
rising at the crown of the arch, when HB is kes equal to about
one fourth of the rise.

A very graceful arch may be described (fig. 5,) by centers ar-
ranged along circles tangent to the span and axis of the arch, at the
points D, E,and A, E. This arch will also admit with safety a hor-
izontal road-way. ‘The span of this arch will be to the rise as 2r to
4e—r, r being the radius of a circle, and ¢ the circumference, or the
ratio will be as 1 to 0.2854. The use however, of arches of this
description is limited to cases where we are at liberty to adopt the
constant ratio that necessarily exists between their rise and span.

Method of deseribing Various Curves for Arches. . 77

/

78 Magnetic Galvanism.

Axr. IX.—4 new mode of developing Magnetic Galvanism, by
which may be obtained, shocks, vivid sparks and galvanic cur-
_rents from the Horse-shoe Magnet ; by Joun P. Emmet, Prof.
of Chemistry in the University of Virginia.

“Tue magnetic apparatus contrived by Nobili and Antinori, and
by which they were enabled to obtain sparks from the horse-shoe
magnet, has become so familiar to the scientific reader, in conse-
quence of the experiments of Saxton, Faraday and Ritchie, that it is
deemed unnecessary to describe it more particularly, upon the pres-
ent occasion, than is required in order to understand the difference
between its construction and that which I have found to be far supe-
rior for the exhibition of galvanic phenomena.

Nobili’s instrument as described i in the Annales de Chimie, &c.*
consists of a coil of silk-bound copper wire, around the middle part of
the keeper and so confined by a spool or brass plates, as to pass readi-
ly between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet. ‘The ends of this coil
are turned outwards in opposite directions, and so arranged as to press
with elasticity, upon the contiguous poles of the magnet, when the
keeper is on, without touching, at any time, the latter part of the ap-
paratus. Fig. 1 will convey a sufficiently precise idea of this ar-
rangement. ‘The sparks are observed to pass between the ends of

the coil, and the contiguous magnetic poles, whenever the keeper is
suddenly pulled off, or restored to its place, but if 1 mistake not,
have never been noticed to occur between the keeper and magnet.

It is easy to perceive that this mode of developing the galvanic flu-
id, is not calculated to go much beyond the immediate object which
it accomplished, namely the production of sparks, because both ends
of the copper coil being nearly-at the same time in contact with the
magnet, the galvanic current becomes instantaneously neutralized by
circulating through the magnet, as a conductor, Nor is it a very ad-
vantageous form for the exhibition of sparks, since a complete fail-
ure, in this respect, invariably occurs, whenever both the ends of the
coil leave the poles of. the magnet, or touch them, simultaneously ; 3 or
when, from the constant and violent pulling at the keene; one wire
becomes too short to réach the magnet.

With a view of obviating these disadvantages and increasing the
rapidity of magnetic induction in the keeper, I made the following
arrangement.

rete iin

* December, 1831.

Magnetic Galvanism.

Fig. 1.

2.

Fig

ae

j

\\
\\

a

\

NN

(

between one end

2. a) of the copper coil and the keeper and between the other

\
)

by means of wires,

Ist. A permanent connection,

(Fig.

end, 6, andthe magnet. The silk-bound wire was wound round the

the inside with silk (in order to

the keeper s, n; covered with silk, and confined between
faced on

circular plates,

ddle of

two brass
prevent any communication between the centre and outer portion of

mi

80 Magnetic Galvanism.

the coil)... These plates were perforated at the centres, so as to al-
low the keeper to pass through, and then fastened by pins on the out-
side. The end of the coil (66), connected with the magnet, must,
in no case, touch the keeper or the brass plates fastened to it, and,
in the figure, it is represented as preserving this intermediate position
by means of a string. It is equally necessary that no metallic com-
munication should exist permanently between the magnet and the
keeper, except through the coil.
2nd. Wires, c and e, are firmly fastened to > the keeper and magnet,
respectively. They serve as conductors of the galvanic fluid, for the
purpose of giving shocks, affecting the galvanometer, &c.
8rd. The keeper to touch the magnetic poles as usual, but instead
of being pulled, which is at all times an inconvenient process, is to
be pushed smoothly but quickly downwards off the magnet. This
movement is very easy, and, when well performed, increases aston-
ishingly the induced magnetism of the keeper, and, consequently,
the galvanic impulse, as is shown by the brilliant scintillations, and
_ the vivid flashes of light, shock, &c. when the uty wires ¢
and e are taken into the mouth.

The magnet, made use of, consisted of seven plates and could not
easily sustain more than fifteen pounds. The poles were not much
over an inch apart, which is a great disadvantage, by preventing the
use of a sufficiently large coil. The poles, it may be observed, should
be ground.down until they become very smooth and lie, accurately,
in the same plane. Ass to the keeper, the best form seems to be that
which enables it to adhere most firmly to the magnet (a result pro-
moted by the smoothness of surface), for all the galvanic phenomena
seems to be in direct proportion to the degree of adhesion. A flat
bar of soft iron, about one quarter of an inch thick, and applied at its
edge, was found to answer remarkably well and seemed to receive
most rapidly, the induced magnetism, as it passed over the magnet.
Contrary to expectation a keeper of the highest tempered steel was
found to answer very well, even after it had obtained permanent and
powerful polarity. With a coil of about thirty yards, the instrument,
here described, gave sparks, shocks, flashes, in the eyes, the galva-
nic taste to the conducting wires, and some other results, but the ob-
servations, which follow, were made with, about one hundred and
ten yards of fine copper coil. Five times the quantity could, it is ob-
vious, be as easily managed and, by friction over a magnetic wate?
of twenty plates, would produce very powerful effects.

Magnetic Galvanism. 81

Sparks.—These always occur between the keeper and magnet or
between the wires ¢ and e when they are broaght close enough to
each other, but if the latter touch, no sparks can be produced be-
tween the keeper and magnet as in this case, a continuous metallic
circuit exists by means of the coil and the wires.’ Gold and silver
foils, placed between the keeper and magnet or hung loosely be- |
tween the wires ¢ and e, exhibit their characteristically colored light,
and tinder may be ignited by holding it beneath the magnet when the
keeper is passing off. The color of the sparks, is variable, sometimes
brilliant white and. at others copper red. ‘The number, magnitude
and brilliancy of the sparks, are exceedingly increased by this. ar-
rangement of the instrument. Upon several occasions, owing, ap-
parently, to the combustion of shreds from the keeper, I have produ-
ced sparks nearly an inch long. No loud snap or noise accompa-
nies them and it seems probable therefore, that they are purely gal-
vanic, yet when the metallic foils are placed between the magnet and
keeper and the latter pulled off, an indistinct crackling noise may, al-
most always, be heard.

The brilliancy of the light between the magnet and keeper, wil
be always greater, by preventing these parts from communicating at
any other surfaces than those of the poles. The brass plates, in par-
ticular, should be varnished, or covered with silk on the outside,
whenever, from the narrowness of the magnet and the quantity of
included coil, the chances of contact become frequent. The follow-
ing simple expedient, will enable the galvanic light to become appa-
rent to aclass. Place a piece of very fine wire, (such, for example,
as the wire upon the finest guitar string,) so as to lie upon the upper
part of the keeper and at the same time, press against the face of
the magnet, secure its contact by the thumb and draw down the
keeper swiftly. The end of the wire, being the last part in contaet
with the magnet, will give out a brush of brilliant sparks, closely re-
sembling those obtained by rubbing together the conducting wires of
an active battery. If for the elastic wire, we substitute metallic foils,
and arrange them similarly, the sparks will be very brilliant and ex-
hibit the characteristic colors.

Shock.—This may be felt in the fingers, by touching the magnet
with the left hand and sliding the keeper off with the other ; it is al-
most always perceived in the fingers resting on the magnet. The
wires c and e must, of course, be kept apart. The most disagreea-
ble and sudden shocks, are en by putting these wires into

Voit. XXIV.—No. 1.

82 Magnetic Galvanism.

the mouth, and they are invariably accompanied by strong flashes of
light and an acid tasie. The increase of effect, owing to the rapid
sliding off of the keeper, may, in this way, be rendered very appar-
ent, for the shock, at times, equals that produced by a powerful gal-
vanic battery. A sheet of paper interposed between the keeper and
magnet, diminishes the effect, much more than a metallic plate of
greater thickness.

The magnet, by its connection with the coil, acts a far more im-
portant part than as a conductor for the fluid. For the purpose of
giving slight shocks and the galvanic taste, this connection, it is true,
may be destroyed by separating the wire 4 from the magnet—all
that is necessary is to put the ends, 6 and a, of the coil, into the
mouth and to slide off the keeper. These wires will even impart
the acid taste by simply rocking the keeper upon the poles of the
magnet, yet no sparks appear between these parts until the connec-
tion between 4 and the magnet is restored, and, at the same time,
the most obvious increase of shock, flashes of light, &c. will be ex-
perienced. It is not a little remarkable, however, that this connec-
tion between the coil and magnet, wholly destroys the strong galvanic
taste of the connecting wires, occasioned by rocking the horns upon
the magnet.

Direction and force of the galvanic current, as indicated by the

! ter—One can scarcely refrain, after having experienced
on effects described in this communication, from entertaining the
conviction, that the magnet, thus remarkable for its development of
galvanism without the intervention or aid of chemical action, will ere
long furnish the philosopher with a powerful and novel instrument of
analysis; yet, it must be confessed, that its action upon the galvano-
meter is quite insignificant, when compared with the smallest sized
elementary battery, exposed to weak acids. The galvanometer em-
ployed, was an inferior one, consisting of a single needle and only
seven coils of stout copper wire, yet it obeyed readily the impulse
given by plates of zinc and copper, not larger than.an inch in diam-
eter. My first experiments were made with a coil of about thirty
yards on the keeper, and, although I distinetly felt the shock, at dif-
ferent times, through the galvanometer, 1 never could perceive more
than a tremulous motion of the needle. By substituting, for this
latter instrument, a large spool, (fig. 3,) filled with silk-bound copper
wire, (about one hundred yards,) the two ends.turning out and con-
nected with the coil on the keeper, by means of the wires a,b, Iwas

Magnetic Galvanism, 83

enabled to.trace, distinctly, the galvanic current developed by the
magnetic power.

This simple arrangement furnished a very delicate siete
by placing the spool so as to range; in length, east and west, and a
pocket needle upon the upper part of the coil. Upon connecting it
with a small galvanic battery, the ends m and n of the spool became
north or south, according to the direction of the current, and the
temporary polarity, thus developed, was uniformly so powerful, that
the needle, in this form, and in that of the common galvanometer,
must be regarded as actually under the influence of a magnet whose
poles, being at right angles, occasion the deviation. The current
from the magnet is not interrupted by passing through red hot wires.
Under these circumstances, both sparks and shocks may be readily
obtained.

When the coil on the keeper amounted to one hundred yards in
length, the common galvanometer was sufficiently affected by the
magnetic apparatus, to furnish definite results, but never indicated a
greater declination than ten degrees. The galvanic current is appa-
rently directed by that of the enduced magnetism of the keeper, the
positive one always moving in opposition to the north magnetism.
This will account for the following fact.

When the magnet is stationary, the pulling or sliding off, produces
a current opposite to that resulting from the replacement of the keep-
er. Hence arises the difficulty of effecting an accumulation of gal-
vanic power. Indeed, the difference between galvanism, as gener-
ated by the battery, and that developed by the magnet, seems to de-
pend less upon intensity, at the commencement, than upon the con-
tinuity of impulse and subsequent accumulation. ‘The magnet only
produces a momentary effect, and this is succeeded by a counter
current, when the keeper is restored.

The galvanic battery, on the contrary, generates these naiiee
so rapidly as to create and sustain, in the coil of the galvanometer,
a strong magnetic polarity, which occasions the prompt declination
of the needle. The battery, moreover, has an-equivalent, for want
of magnitude, in the increase of chemical action. Hence, the merest
metallic points may be made sufficient to cause the needle to fly from
its meridian. The action of fused nitrate of ammonia upon zine is
equal to that of the strongest acids, as. I particularly noticed. ina
former communication, and by melting this salt in a platinum cruci-
ble, connected with one wire of the galvanometer, I found, that when

84 Magnetic Galvanism.

slightly touched by the smallest fragment of “zinc, also connected with
the galvanometer, the most powerful influence was exerted upon the
needle: indeed, this seemed to be a more energetic galvanic battery,
for the surface, than any of the usual ones for which acid baths are
employed.

Any arrangement which would prevent the inversion of the gal-
vanic current, when the keeper is restored to the magnet, as well as
the loss of force, arising from the communication between these parts,
would, no doubt, lead promptly to the decomposition of water, and of
saline substances, and to a more conspicuous effect upon the galvanom-
eter. So unsatisfactory were the results obtained, as to the decompo-
sition of saline fluids, that I do not deem it important to mention the
evidence in favor of my success, and I shall, therefore, conclude
the subject by offering a few observations upon the galvanic currents.

The relation existing between magnetism and galvanism must be
of the most intimate character, since it can now be shown, that one
may appear either as the .cause or effect of the other. Thus, the
common galvanic arrangement gives rise to magnetism throughout
the circuit, in the battery as well as connecting wires, and the mag-
netic apparatus, described in this communication, as unequivocally
proves that the galvanic power may proceed from a simple magnetic

current. The observation of Faraday, that one of these forces, while
circulating, occasions another, of a different kind, to move in the op-
= direction, seems to be ee by these magnetic experi- —

Thos, (fig. 2,) when the. susie $n, is aie suddenly to approach
the poles of the magnet, its induced northern polarity is repelled to
the southern pole, S, of the magnet, and the galvanometer, at the
same lime, indicates a current of positive galvanism, flowing in the
direction of ns, or opposite to that which the induced magnetism
had taken. As soon, however, as the keeper touches the magnet,
although its polarity is not disturbed, there is no further circulation,
and, almost at the same moment, the galvanic fluid ceases to move.
If we suppose the existence of two magnetic and two galvanic forces,
the same explanation will apply; the negative fluid then being re-
garded as moving in opposition to the direction which the south mag-
netism takes; the middle portion of the spool being, perhaps, neutral.

Rocking the keeper upon the magnet, as already described, pro-
duces a constant, though small, deviation of the needle, and, with a
' sufficiently powerful apparatus, would, perhaps, effect chemical de-
composition.

Magnetic Galvanism. 85

The remarkable want of action of magnetic galvanism upon this
instrument depends, I think, upon the following circumstance, which
I do not remember to have seen noticed by any writer upon galvanism.
Whenever a co7l is made part of the galvanic circuit, there will be a
loss of power upon the galvanometer needle. I have not had time
to investigate whether the galvanic force is actually diminished, or
whether the interposition of coil, in sufficient quantity, could be made
to arrest the progress of chemical decomposition, but the effect upon
the needle is obvious, and it seems, therefore, highly probable that
the coil around the keeper, so necessary for the development of gal-
vanism, is yet the true cause of the want of power of the fluid over
the magnetic needle. It is obvious, from the common electro-mag-
netic experiments, however, that a coil has great influence in impart-
ing magnetism to iron, inclosed within it, and the idea occurred to
me that the latter could be made to represent the Jost or diminished
galvanism of the magnet, by placing the iron close enough to the
needle. ‘Trial amply confirmed my conjecture and enabled me to -
construct a peculiarly delicate galvanometer for this variety of gal-
vanic fluid. The arrangement is simple. A fine wire of soft iron,
and equal, in length, to the magnetic needle, is to be closely bound
with a coil of covered copper wire, from end to end, and the extrem-
ities of the coil made to unite with the circuit wires from the magnet
and keeper. This coil of bound iron wire is to be placed at right
angles to the needle, and as close to it as the coils of the common
galvanometer. Gently sliding off the keeper always occasions a de-
viation, but where the motion is performed briskly, an instantaneous
declination of 90° and a permanent one of 80° will always follow.
It is obvious that the iron wire becomes polar by the passage of the
galvanic fluid through the investing coil, and so prompt is the effect,
that it is difficult to prevent the needle from describing a quarter circle.
Its indications are, of course, contrary to those of the common gal-
vanometer since the iron wire takes the opposite polarity from that
portion of the coil nearest to it. ‘The wire may be made to receive
a change of poles by simply reversing the keeper or magnet, or by put- -
ting the keeper, without any other change of position, forcibly upon
the magnet. The latter is almost always the least effectual mode.
i may be regarded as objectionable to this galvanometer, that the
iron wire retains its polarity so long. I have observed it to hold for
a day, and I suspect it has a power but little short of steel, which, per-
haps, it derives from the close approximation of its coil. But its

86 Magnetic Galvanism.

power of holding magnetism depends upon its being undisturbed, and
we may, at any time, remove it all, by simply pressing the wire so as
to bend it gently backwards and forwards at its center. Upon test-
ing this instrument with a galvanic battery, I found that it was not so
delicate as the common one when the bath consists of pump water
or weak saline solutions, but its value in pointing out the galvanic
currents, generated by the magnet, is not diminished by this cireum-
stance, since the common galvanometer is scarcely affected, and, if
the coil upon the keeper be the cause of this defect, it is highly prob-
able that extending it will not add to its. power over the needle.

The magnetic apparatus occasions prompt declination of ‘the nee-
dle, by the assistance of this wire, where the ends of the conductors
are separated from each other eighteen inches, and plunged into acid-
ulated water. If such strong magnetism can be impressed upon soft
iron by this arrangement, it is obvious that a galvanometer of infinite
delicacy might be constructed by bending fine iron wire, closely
bound by a etcillataions coil, into the form of the coils in the common
galvanometer, and increasing their number. ‘This mode would also,
I think, furnish the most powerful temporary magnetism by giving
the horse shoe form to the wires, and after having united their re-
spective coils, so.as to make the whole continuous, and bound the
wires firmly together to grind down their, ends until they formed
smooth polar surfaces.

On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 87

Art. X.—On the Orthography of Hebrew words in the Roman cha-
racter; by Prof. J. W. Gisps, Yale College.

Every person conversant with Hebrew literature, must have ob-
served the inadequate and fluctuating mode of representing Hebrew
words in the Roman character generally adopted; and every one
who has occasion to write on that language, must have felt the want
of a more perfect and uniform system of notation.* The object of
the present essay is to offer some hints towards the attainment of such
a system.

The problem, here proposed for solution, may be rendered more
definite by stating,

1. That it respects the pointed Hebrew text, as it is left us by the
Masorites, and as it is exhibited to the eye, modified only by such
principles as may be clearly deduced from the Masoretic system
itself ;

2. "That j it aims to exhibit all the leading features of the Masoretic
punctuation, and to give to each character of importance a distinct
and uniform representation ; an

3. That the Roman letters chosen to represent the Hebrew, are
to give the true sound, with as little ambiguity as possible to those of
any nation who use the Roman alphabet.

General principles of the proposed system.

I. In Hebrew the consonants only are written on the line, the vow-
els being written under, over, or in the consonants. This striking pe-
culiarity which extends to all the Shemitish languages, may be ‘exhi-
bi using Roman —_ for the Hebrew consonants and Italic let-
ters for the Hebrew vo

Il. The six Jatiiias 2, 3,3, 5,5, m, sometime have a Daghesh
inserted in them, in which case they lose their aspiration. Other-
wise they are aspirated. This prominent trait in the Masoretic punc-
tuation may be uniformly represented, by appending an h to these

“The evils and embarrassments arising from a varying and pe 58 orthography
have been ably described by Sir William Jones in his Dissertat:

graphy of Asiatick Words. Compare J. ap it Essay on a uniform Orthogra ~
phy for the Indian Languages in North Amer

88 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words.

letters severally when aspirated, and omitting it when they are unas-
pirated.

The sounds represented by bh, gh, dh, kh, ph, and th, are neil
simple with those represented by b, g,d,k, p, and t. Of course,
these combinations of letters do not express the composition of the
sounds. Indeed the French, in expressing several of them, make
use, with equal propriety, of an s or z, instead of an h; yet in favor of
our mode of representation it may be said, (1.) that these letters, by
the common consent of grammarians, are called aspirates ; (2.) that
the Greek 3, 9, and x, actually arise from combining +, +, and x, se-
verally, with the spiritus asper, and are expressed in Latin by th, ph,
and ch (=kh); (3.) that gh is also used by the Irish for this pur-
pose, and that the others bh and dh are formed analogically ; and
(4.) that this mode of representation has been adopted in part by
many grammarians and in full by Professor Stuart.

Ill. The letters, x, 4, 1, and +, frequently quiesce, i, e, lose their
sound in that of the preceding vowel point. In order to exhibit this
peculiarity, it is proposed to omit the quiescent letter, and to place
a circumflex mark, asa sign-of prolongation, over the preceding
vowel.

This course has been adopted by De Sacy in reference to the qui-.
escent letters in Arabic, which he terms letters of prolongation. See
his Gram. Arabe, tome i. p. 27, 33, 63. .

IV.. Letters which are otiant, i. e. acaed mute, may be entire-
ly omitted.

V. ® moveable and » have sounds which cannot be represented
by Roman letters. Yet they differ so essentially from quiescent and
otiant letters, that it is necessary to represent them in some way. The
Roman a and Roman o have been selected as the most si ee
signs, for reasons which will appear hereafter.

VI. To distinguish letters which have nearly the same sound, >
may be represented by k and p by k, bys and 0 by s, n by t and
D by t. , ;

By this dot we indicate that another character is used in the ori-
ginal Hebrew, but not at all the difference of sound. This plan has
been adopted, in analogous basics by Richardson in his Persian and
Arabic Dictionary.

VII. The long vowels, except when followed by a quiescent, may
be marked with (-); when followed by a quiescent, with a pom
circumflex (°).

On the Orthography of Hebrew Words, 89

VIL. The short vowels, except when followed by a quiescent, may
be marked with ((); when followed by a quiernent, with a curved
circumflex (~).

IX. The half vowels may be written in a smaller character and
above the line. ‘This method has been adopted by Gesenius and
Stuart.

'X. The tonic accent, ida on the shanete syllable, may besomit-.
ted; when on the penult, it may be expressed by (’) written immedi-
ately after the accented syllable. :

XI. The euphonic accent may be exsiressedl by (’).

’ XI. Makképh may be expressed by two parallel lines (= ).

- MIL. Silkk may be expressed by a period (.); the other pause
accents by a colon (:); disjunctives of the second class by a semico-
lon (;); and disjunctives of the third class by a comma (,). Con-
junctives need not be expressed.* -

. Remarks on the several letters and vowel points.

Aaleph.

AN, according to the Masoretic punctuation, is either moveable, qui-
escent, or otiant.

The force of 8 moveable, consisted, like the spiritus lenis (’) of the
Greeks, in a gentle emission of the breath from the throat, or rather
lungs, and differed from , or the spiritus asper (‘), in being more
feeble. It was like the impulse given to the voice when we attempt
to pronounce deed in two syllables de-ed, or corner, as if divided thus,
corn-er, and may be compared with h in the French word homme,
or the Eng. hour. In this way it served to divide syllables, as byw
yish-aal, not y?-shal. This is the consonant power of ®; and was
probably its original or primary power.

The force of & quiescent, depended on the vowel point which pre-
ceded. This was generally a, but sometimes other vowels. This
is the vowel power of &, and was probably a secondary use of this
letter.

When y had neither the force of a consonant, nor of a vowel, it was
said to be in otio, and was then machanty destitute of sound.

* For this otinsion st the accents, see Prof. Stuart’s ee *
and 4th edi

Von. XXIV.—No. A 12

90 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words.

The Shemitish Adléph, then, if we may judge from the Masoretic
punctuation, was both a consonant and a vowel. The corresponding
Alpha of the ancient Greeks, and a of the modern European langua-
ges, have retained only the vowel sound.

To represent the sound of moveable, we will adopt the Roman
a, (1.) because &, when quiescent, usually quiesces in a; and (2.)

- becatise the Roman a is ultimately derived from the Hebrew Aaleph.
Hence i merely: restore to the Roman a its aon consonant
power.*

Béth.

> appears to have had two sounds, according as it was written with
or without a Daghésh. 2 (without a Daghésh) was aspirated and
sounded like the Eng.v. 3 (witha Daghesh) was unaspirated | and
sounded like b. The Greek Beta is pronounced by the modern
Greeks as the Eng. v. So b in Spanish between two vowels. The
Roman b, in the other European languages, has only i its usual sound.
The Russians retain both sounds. ‘

The character-v, however, as the representation of 3 aspirated, is
liable to some ambiguity, being pronounced by the Germans like f.
We will represent it by bh, (1.) because bh or v has the same relation
to b, that ph or f has to p; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an
uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates.

Gimel.

4 had two sounds, according as it was written with or withodt a
Daghésh. 3 (without a Daghésh) was aspirated and pronounced pro-
bably like the Irish gh. ne a igh) was unaspirated and ;
sounded like g hard.

The fate of this letter among the different nations has’ been some-
what singular. In Syriac, it seems, as in Hebrew, to have heen
"sometimes aspirated and sometimes not. In Arabic and Persian it
is usually pronounced like dzh (Eng. j); but in Egypt and some
other provinces it is pronounced like g hard. In modern Greek it
is sounded before a, o, u, like g hard; but before ¢, 1, and the. diph-
thongs having their sound, like the Ene; y- In ustisns it partakes of
a guttural sound: In French and Portuguese, it is sounded before a,

* The necessity of representing % moveable in some way has led Professor Stuart
to make use of the Hebrew character itself, which ill comports with the other letters.
See his Heb. Gram, 2d, 3d, and 4th editions.

On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. OL.

0, u, like g hard; but before e, i, y, like zh. In Italian and English
it is sounded before a, 0, u, like g hard; but before e, i, like. dzh,
(Eng. j). In Spanish before a, o, u, like g hard ; but before e, i, with
a peculiar guttural sound. In German, Swedish, and Danish, usu-.
ally like g hard, but sometimes nearly like y, and g final with a pecu-
liar guttural sound. In Dutch, usually with a guttural sound. The
soft sound of g has fluctuated, then, between dzh, zh, y, and a pecu-
liar guttural sound.

Amid this variety in ‘the sound of g, it is most probable that the
- Gimél aspirated in Hebrew had a flat guttural sound, bearing the
same relation to g hard, that the sharp guttural -sound kh does to k.
This sound the Irish are said to express by gh before a, 0, u; and
probably the Germans, Dutch, and Spanish, express nearly the same
by their guttural sound of g.

We will represent 3 aspirated by gh, (1.) because this combination
of letters is so used by the Irish ; (2.) because this flat guttural sound
has the same relation to g hard, that the sharp guttural sound repre-
sented by kh has to k; and (3.) because in this way we adopt an uni-
form mode - representation for all the aspirates.

Dalath.

4 aed t two sounds, eccordinip as it was written with or without a
Daghésh. ‘% (without a Daghésh). was aspirated and sounded like
Eng. thin thine. 3 (with a Daghésh) was unaspirated and sounded
like d. ‘The modern Greeks give to this letter invariably the form-
er sound, and the nations using the Roman character, invariably the
latter.

We will represent 5 aspirated by dh, (1.) because the sound of th
in thine has the same relation to the sound of d that the sound of th
in thin has to t; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an uniform
mode of cow. lecpamean for all the aspirates.

: Hé.

= moveable is naturally represented by h.

™ quiescent usually quiesces in a, but sometimes in other vowels.
It is treated like the other quiescents.

71 otiant is entirely suppressed.

‘Waw.

7 moveable had the sound of the French ou in oui, or of the Eng.
w in we, and is best represented by w. This is much nearer; than
the sound of the Eng. v, to the vowel power of ».

92 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words.

7 quiescent, quiesced i in o and u, and i is treated like the adie qui-
escents.
‘The consonant power of 1 (w) was — more ancient, as in the
case of 8, than its vowel power (u).
Zayin.
+ had. the area of the Eng. z, and is best ripneseniod by vias
character.
Hhéth.
nis admitted by all to have been a strongly cea h, and is wooed
represented by hh.
ze
n is represented by t (with a dot under it) to distinguish it from
Taw which is represented byt. The difference of sound cannot be
determined. : — bo re
Y6dh. )

+ moveable was sounded like the Eng. y, and is best represented
by that character.

s quiescent usually quiesced i ine or i, and is treated like the other
quiescents.

» otiant is entirely suppressed.

e€ Consonant power of * (y) was probably 1 more ancient, as in
the case of 8, than the vowel power (i).
Kaph.

2 had two sounds, according as it was written aa or without a
Daghésh. > (without a Daghésh) was aspirated and had a guttural
sound like the Greek x or the German ch. 5 (with a Daghésh) was
unaspirated and sounded like k.

> aspirated we will represent by kh, (1.) because in this way we
adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the aspirates; and
(2.), because this mode has already been adopted by De Sacy as
Stuart.

Lamédh, Mém, Nan.
5, 2, 3, present no difficulty as to their sound or the mode of in
‘ senting them.
Samekh.

o is represented by s (with a dot under it) to distinguish it from

Sin which is represented by s. How these letters differed in sound

.

On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 93

is notagreed. According to Gesenius, Sin may have been an inter-
mediate sound between Sa@mekh and Shin. In Syriac and Arabic
for the two characters only one exists, and the ancient Greeks and
Romans adopted only one character.

Oayin.

The sound of » is peculiar to the Shemitish languages. The an-
cient Greeks had no occasion for the sound, and adopted the cha-
racter to represent the vowel 0. We will represent the Hebrew > by
_ the Roman o, because this character is ultimately derived from the
Shemitish », and by so doing we merely restore to 0 its original con-
sonant Cae

Képh.

o is represented by k (with a dot ‘under it) to distinguish it from
Kaph which is represented by k. How these letters differed in sound
is not agreed. Some suppose Kaph to have been sounded as if fol-
lowed by y, asin Eng. kind, when pronounced kyind. One of these
letters was rejected by the Greeks, but both were received into’ the
Roman alphabet as k and q. We express the difference by a dot, as
in the case of Sin and Samékh. The use of c and k, or of k and q,
would lead to ambiguity, or to the supposition that we mean to de-
signate the difference between these sounds, which we do not.

» had two sounds, according as it was written with or without a
Daghésh. » (without a Daghésh) was aspirated and sounded like ph
orf. » (with a Daghésh) was unaspirated and sounded like p.

We will represent > unaspirated by ph rather than f, (1.) be-
cause this combination of letters is already extensively used. for this
purpose ; and (2.) because in this way we adopt an uniform ence nh
representation for all the aspirates. —

Tsadé, Résh.
x is naturally represented by ts, and — by r. »
3 Sin, Shin.
ip is naturally represented by s, and w by s.

*The nec essity of reese y in some way, has led Antonius ab in atile, to
employ a, De Bey te e eases (’), and Professor Stuart to use the Hebrew cha-
racter itself. her bs acs, Gram. Arabe, tome i. pp. 34, 62. Stuart’s Heb. Gram.
2d, 3d, and 4th editions

94 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words.
~— Taw.

nhad two sounds, according as it was written with or without a
Daghésh. n (without a Daghésh) was unaspirated and sounded like
Eng. th in thin. m (with a Daghésh) was aspirated and sounded
like t.

n aspirated we will represent by th, (1.) because this combination
of letters is already extensively used for this sound ; and (2.) because
in this way we adopt an uniform mode of representation for all the as-
pirates.

Kaméts.

‘The sound of (_) was like the open or Italian a, or the English a
in father. This is the pronunciation of the Spanish Jews. The
Jews of Tiberias, however, in ancient times, gave it a sound nearly
approaching that of 0. So the German and Polish Jews of the
present day. But this pronunciation is thought by the learned to be
incorrect, although both the figure and name of the vowel originated
from it.

Kaméts being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when
pure, by a, as 137 ee when impure, by 4, as 8x72 matsd, >a
-

+ Tséri.

The ‘sound of (_) was like the continental e, or ‘the English e in
vein, they, which is the same as the English a in fate.

Tséri being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when pure,
by €, as 239, lébhabh ; when impure, by é, as 7°a, bén, Nand, lémér,
mba, gilé.

: Hhirék gadhdl.

The sound of () was like the French i, or the Bogish i in
machine.

Hhirék gadbél being a long vowel, we shall represent its ssi
when pure, by 7, as Dy3x, adddirim; when impure, by i, as 73 din,
TON, rishén.

Hhélem.

The sound of (") was that of o in rover.

* It will be seen that our mode of representation does not ietratie, in all cases,
the ee, which is suppressed. This I er in most cases, as an ears
ircums

On the Orthography of Hebrew Words. 95

Hhélem being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when
pure, by 6, as >op?, yrktol ; when impure, by 6, as >ip, kél, ND,
bér, mba, seg

_ Shirk.

The sound of Shirek was ile the Eng. u in rule.

Shirek being a long vowel, we shall represent its sound, when
pure, by i i, as Sup, katél ;* when impure, by U, as AUP, » katil.

: Pattahh.

The md of (_) was like the Pas. a in bat.

Paittzbh being usually short, we shall represent its sound, when
pure, by 4, as nz, bayith; when impure and long, by 4, as nN Ip,
hkrath.

Sghél.

The sound of (_) was like the Eng. e in men.

S‘ghol being usually short, we shall represent its sound, when |
pure, by e, as 7272 melek ; when impure and long, by. é,t as 4 +846
minx, timtsénd, ma, gélé.

' Hhirek katén.

() is pronounced like the Eng. i in pie, We shall represent it by
1, as 2p mikné.

Kaméts Hhatéph.

(_) is always short and pronounced like the Eng. 0 in son. We
represent it by 6, as F722, hhokhma.

Kabbits.

The sound of (_) was like the Eng. u in gull.

Kzbbits being usually short, we shall represent its sound, “when
pure, by u, as 132, killé; when impure and long, by a,} as s-we,
pird.

. men pure, it will be seen, is the same as what Prof. Stuart ealls Ktbbits

t The etnies are necessitated, in these cases, to use the pointed instead of the
curved circumflex. The latter i is to be ‘pre eferred.

96 On the Orthography of Hebrew Words.
shes ghee Shwa. |
~ () was a very short e, like the French e mute. We represent it
by « written above the line, as >4DP, kdl.
Hhateph Pattabh.
(_) was a very short Pattahh. We represent it wae written above
the line, as 3, % z habh.
Hhatéph Sichdl
os ) was a very ateoet S:ghél. We represent it by ° written above
the line, as —

* *

Hhateph Kaméts. _
mar was a very short Kaméts. We shall feprepent it by ° written
above the line, as sbn, hh’li.

Pattabh Furtive.

(_) under a final'guttural, was pronounced like a very short Pattabh
before the guttural. We represent it by “ written above the line and
before the final guttural, as 95, riéi“hh.

Tabular view of the Wssciats

-Ad@Wph sok os a | La'médh mS > |
Baio en 48 bh Mém . bom
ee a Nén (2c ae
Cima dey {2.82 | Semah go 12s
3 . by ae ere Pe, 2
Daah ny § . h

ae 37 a Pé ND i mite

Hé me aT ee
Waw ” sow ‘Tsadhé 3, =. *
Za’yin mai ye Képh a k
Hhéth mn on hh Résh_ wy oo sf
Tét D7" bn t Sin po { ov Ss
Yédh 7 ee Shin pe w :

‘ > kh Taw Ts) ; ee
Kaph 2 . k * on | t

Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 97

_ Art. XI.—On the Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui; by Capt.
R. AH. Bonnycastue, R. En.

(Continued from Vol. XX, p.74.) -

Tus is the second instance wherein a new mineral has been dis-
covered on our interesting tour over so limited a locality, and we
therefore pursue our journey onward with redoubled zeal.

Coasting the border of the lake, which is now entering upon a
new character and rapidly changing its great expanse of water into
the thousand intricate channels of the mighty St. Lawrence, we walk,
for about a quarter of a mile, or perhaps somewhat less, to the east-
ward, over a shore heaped with large boulders, and protected by
these from the further destruction of the limestone layers, which
basset out in wall-like ledges overhead, from ten to twenty feet in
height, occasionally covered and hid by debris and vegetable soil, in
which the juniper, the silver birch, and other stunted plants, have a
precarious existence, yielding their tender limbs to the rough spra
and lashings of the stormy lake.

The boulders are so thickly strown over this shore, that it is diffi-
cult to creep along it, even in calm seasons, and when the lake is
high, or much vexed, almost impracticable. Suddenly, however, the
bank shelves off in green sward, and a ravine or dell opens, through
which meanders a streamlet, whose source is at a short distance, in
the limestone rocks above ; its clear and cold waters trickling from
a mere cleft, and then bounding away to the lake below. This is
one of the many remarkable springs, peculiar to the limestone of the
Cataraqui, yielding, in the hottest weather, a chilly cold water, which
tastes as though it had been iced. After quitting the soft stone quar-
ry, I passed by another, immediately under the great well, which
actually flows out of a mere chink, not an inch above the ordinary
level of the lake, to receive whose wholesome beverage, so different
from that of the sapid Ontario, I have hollowed out a little votive
basin. Clear it of the weedy slime which so rapidly covers it, ye
future travellers, and consecrate its virtues to geology!

But to return to the valley. This valley is worthy of a prolonged
visit. It is small, and scarcely deserves the name given to it; but it
is highly interesting, as forming a demarcation between the transition
limestone and the first great visible elevation of the sienite of the
Cataraqui. The stream issues forth from the caleareous beds, and

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 13

98 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui.

coursing down the dell, over limestone, suddenly meets a low ram-
part of the sienite, which forms the shore of the lake. It then winds,
nearly at right angles to its original course, and fairly cuts its way
through the sienite, the severe frosts of winter and its own action
having evidently worn it out a passage by the large fissures, most of
which, in this rock, trend from north east to south west.

On the Kingston side of the valley, the limestone crops out, every
where, through the soil, to an elevation of above one hundred feet,
whilst, on the opposite bank, the sienite, at a short distance, throws
up its wave-like rounded masses to an equal elevation, but is cut off
in a precipitous wall and bank, by another sharp and deeper valley,
forming the upper end of the cove.

_ Just before we arrive at the valley of the spring, and just before
i banks begin to descend, another alternation of the hard and soft

e occurs; a small quarry, or perhaps only a slide, showing, about
pre feet above the lake, a very thick bed of the hard stone, cov-
ering a moderate layer of the softer kind.

At the termination of the gently shelving bank of. tics a
new beach suddenly succeeds to the boulder-strewn shore ;_ this
beach is composed principally of flat limestone shingles, mixed with
a few that are siliceous. We now come to the tongue of land, forming
one side of the banks of the stream; here, on the point, we first see the
sienite assuming its usual form and standing out in barren majesty,
covered only by the lichens of ages, and shelving gently down into
the lake, under whose waters it is lost. It is worthy of note, that
here the beach is composed of calcareous shingle, and the rock itself,
under water, is almost hidden by a great deposit of the same materials,
which become finer and finer, and are mixed with siliceous gravel.

Adjoining the lakes, the sienite is broken by the frost, into cuboidal
masses or boulders, and here we see very plainly; the usual fissured
surface, having its lines of opening, from north east to south west,
crossed irregularly by vast rents. Wherever the boulders or fissured
fragments have been recently made, the bright aisep vivid flesh color
of the sienite is beautifully displayed.

The top of this tongue is fissured also, and heaved up into a man-
tle-shaped mass, on which the north east and south west grooves so
common to this rock are very apparent, and very deep and smooth.
Ascending farther up the hill, the limestone is evidently superimposed
upon the sienite ; but this is not very visible, as the rocks are cover-
ed with soil and turf.

Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut. 99

We now pass over the streamlet, whose ceaseless currents appear
to have deeply grooved the rock along the line of fissures by which
they find a vent, and every winter disrupts the solid sienite, more
and more, until at last its walls will yield the stream a straiter course ;
and, it is on this spot that we arrive at an interesting place, which
merits a little scenic description.

After travelling over sienite in the first instance, sandstone in the
second, and limestone in the third, we were struck with the singu-
lar freaks of nature which they presented ; but it remained for us to
cross a mere runnel, to enter upon a scene still more singular than
any we have hitherto met with, either as regards its geological or its
picturesque associations.

Standing on the summit of the Baok, which hems in the Either
side of the stream, we see, to the right, the ieee boundless
expanse of water, forming the first of the inland seas of Canada;
before us, a rugged islet, wherein the rocks are strangely intermin-
gled; beyond that, a river four miles broad, forming the beginning
of the real St. Lawrence, and bounded only by a long and fertile
island, whose lands, rising to a moderate height, seven miles in

readth, conceal another broad channel of the same mighty river.
To our left, ravines cut through the solid sienite, and over a low
cape, a long glittering line of waters shows us the forms of several
beautiful islets, which are the commencement of the Thousand Isl-
ands of that river, whose name here was Iroquois,—a name, now
as much forgotten, as are the warlike dead who slumber on its banks.
The strange sight of enormous steam vessels, and of still greater
ships of war, at nearly a thousand miles from the main ocean,
framed to navigate a Mediterranean of fresh water, adds to the
grandeur and interest of the prospect; but the geologist turns with
no less delight to the stranger prospect of the scene, which meets
his eyes in winding round this little bank, and which we 2! en-
deavor feebly to portray and to explain.

This first view of the sienite in the limestone, in epee & fro
Point Henry towards Haldimand Cove, shows the entrance of the
valley where the banks gradually decline; the deep flesh colored and
almost brick red spots* being those portions of the sienite which are
bared, some of them jutting out a little, others being quite even with

_* Designated on the two cuts by the letters.

100 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui.

the limestone, with which they were.once conjoined ; on the left, is part
of the beach of calcareous and siliceous shingle, and on the right isa
peculiarly large rounded mass of sienite, on which the observer may
sit, resting one hand behind him on the limestone, whilst his feet are
on the same rock.

The variolous aspect of this conjoined rock is fully as distinct and
vivid as that of the otherwise imperfect sketch we have given above,
and immediately strikes the most listless observer.

The transition limestone here alters its nat hey ritic rock,
as the tables are composed of the usual dark calcareous matter, thiek-
ly studded, throughout their masses, with nodules and strings of quartz,
which, on a polished surface, have a bluish lustre and are very beauti-
ful. I have had some of the rock blasted on the beach, near this places
where there is a most interesting mingling of the rocks in every
variety of form, which we could suppose a state of jelly or of fusion
could create, and I have found the quartz penetrating the calcareous
matter, in every direction, as if shot into it ; amidst this mass, a few
crystals of pale feldspar appear, but not numerous enough to give @
decided character to the mixture. The feldspar indeed, as before
noticed, appears to have a decided antipathy to the lime, as the sienite
nodules which are interspersed, have, generally, a protecting coat of
quartz around them, whilst the feldspar, of a bright red, remains un-
disturbed,

Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut. 101

The sienite now mounts upwards into a series of undulating sum-
mits, until it attains to its greatest elevation, where its bold top, of a
bright red color, bares an extensive bosom of smoothed rocks to
the sun. Towards the land side, this surface is easy of access, and
from the quartzose particles of the rock having resisted the storms
of ages to a greater degree than the feldspar, it is at all times safe to
walk over, as it is very smooth only in the long parallel channels run-
ning N. w. and s. £. by which it is so peculiarly marked. On this sur-
face,, the eye soon distinguishes a number of holes. or indentations
which appear as though they had been at one time the receptacles of
crystals of some size, and seem not unlike those cells in which, in the
sandstone, organic remains formerly reposed. The sienite is, more-
over, split by the sun and frosts into extensive fissures, and where
the rocks occur next to the lake, many of them have toppled down,
leaving below them bold walls and a steep slope of debris and
soil. These mixed with trees of the fir tribe, and of the ordi-
nary deciduous indigene, form the side, a gloomy dell which run-
ning to the north east, bounds the sienite sek in this arte and
also terminates the cove.

rom the first rivulet, as above mentioned, it is somewhat difficult,
excepting where there is ice, to proceed along the shore, towards
this spot, as the bank is in general steep, and the beach is overspread
with huge fragments of the sienite and with boulders; the occa-
sional jutting out of the limestone may, however, be observed and for
a quarter of a mile, we obtain, very frequently, the.most conclusive
evidence that the two rocks are in contact and form a junction.

Looking up the dell which opens from the cove, a curious scene
again presents itself; to the left hand the sienite towers upward, its
steep slope being covered, occasionally, by soil thickly overgrown with
trees, and presents vast blocks and ranges of the disrupted rock, with
occasional glimpses of the limestone.

On the right is a quarry, opened in some very ‘thick and fine beds
of the limestone, the two rocks forming. the two sides of a narrow
dell, and here the limestone, having-been well denuded by the miners,
its ancient bassets show themselves completely, their fissured and
aged walls being thickly covered with a complete rough casting of
minute siliceous fragments which appear, in many instances, scarcely
to have penetrated the stone, here of a lighter color than usual, and
extremely hard and splintery, and to which, wherever they only in-
crust it, they so inflexibly adhere, as not to be easily separated.

102 _ Transition Rocks of the Cataraqut.

The drawing annexed is a slight sketch of this scene, which is ren-
dered still more memorable, from the curious discovery made in con-
sequence of the operations carried on, in an extensive quarry.

A remarkable regularity in the shape and appearance of some of
the thick beds of the Cataraqui formation, which are near the water
mark of Lake Ontario, had been observed for some time}; but it
remained for Mr. John Finch to discover and point out the singular
fact that several of these beds were regularly divided into prismatic
forms, by a species of huge crystallization, resembling that exhibited
by basalt, but always in a horizontal position.

That gentleman, being at Kingston, and employed on a course of
mineralogical lectures, naturally employed his leisure time in exam-
ining the country, and during his walks in the immediate vicinity of
the town, was much’ surprised to find, in two or three places on the
banks of the lake, that the calcareous beds near the water mark,
were, to a great extent, regularly formed into almost interminable
horizontal columns of an hexangular or octagonal shape, not jointed
or connected by a cup and socket, as those of basalt often are, but
irregularly, disunited only by occasional rents, evidently the result of
the action of time, or of unequal coherency.

It would take up too large a space to describe alk the appearances
and localities of this new freak of nature at’ Kingston, the evidences

Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui. 103

of which, although highly clear and satisfactory, are so uncommon
that some geologists who have seen them, are unwilling to attribute
them to any other cause than weathering. Having had the op-
portunity of seeing them almost daily, and in many points of view
not contemplated by those who entertain doubts concerning them, I
am, perhaps, better acquainted than they,’ with their form and press-
ure, ang as, in the great improvements and additions now making to
Kingston, they will shortly be swallowed up or lost from our view,
I shall, in my next communication,. give three drawings, made with
requisite care, showing them in elevation, sideways, and in their bed
or floor ; and, leaving to better informed geologists the task of in-
venting a theory from them, I shall content myself with merely stating
that the beds in which they are found are those which, at Haldimand
Cove, are nearly or quite in conjunction with the sienite, and on the
borders of the lake are uniformly bassets, jutting out over the great
gulf which contains its waters, their thickness being usually not
above two or at most three feet; and in the octagons, which are the
most usual forms, as at Murney’s Point, the upper and lower, as well
as the vertical sides are straight and almost or quite equal, whilst
the angular faces are slightly concave and much less in size. The
drawings, however, will give a much more correct idea of the for-
mation than language can afford. It is probable that it is much more
extensive than what has been already noticed, for, in several instances,
in consequence of the very extensive series of cracks and fissures
running in an opposite direction to the regular partings of the prisms
which the weather and the waters have created, it can scarcely be
discovered, when the observer is walking over the large flat tables
of limestone on the borders of the lake, whilst frequently even an
attentive observer finds it necessary to look for some time ata basset
before he can discover the regular forms, either in elevation or profile,
owing to the rounding away of the angles from exposure; and, in other
cases, as at Haldimand Cove, the crystallization is less perfect, and
to detect it, requires much examination, even in newly exposed por-
tions from the quarry. In other cases, again, it is as plain as could
be wished, as, for instance, at Murney’s Point and just beyond Stu-
art’s Point, where stands the celebrated lover’s tree, which bears the
poet Moore’s name, and where it is said that he compen: two of
the most beautiful of his songs.

I had drawn these sketches purposely for Mr. Finch, and i. as
he examined very minutely into the nature of this new variety of

104 Transition Rocks of the Cataraqui.

limestone, he will still describe it, particularly, as I was unable to send
the drawings to him, owing to my having been absent from Kingston
ona tour to Gaspé, Anticosti, and the Labrador coast, which I trust
will, when this meets his eye, excuse me from any apparent negli-
gence in complying with his wish.

This basaltiform limestone has, however, a quality which neither
that gentleman nor other attentive mineralogists had anticipated, and
which renders it the third new mineral, (if I may use that term,) dis-
covered in the transition rocks of the Cataraqui. It is an excellent
lithographic stone for all the common processes ofthat admirable art,
and is now extensively employed in the surveyor general’s office at
York, under the management of Mr. S. O. Tazewell, who first
adapted it to this use and invented the peculiar manner of applying
it, which is somewhat different from that employed on the Manheim
or Bath:stone. This lithographic limestone is darker than the usual
beds of the Cataraqui formation, and I have not seen any fossils in
it; it is very compact and hard, and, if kept at a good mine i
hems the press better than the German stone.

Canada seems to abound with limestones suitable for all the pro-
cesses of lithography; a white and very pure kind has been found

on Anticosti. Mr. ’'Tazewell discovered a cream colored and very
beautiful variety in the rear of Belleville, a new and rapidly increas-
ing town on the shores of Lake Ontario, between York and Kings-
ton, and I have every reason to believe that the.true lithographic
stone exists near Lake St. Clair, of which, however, I trust I shall —
be able shortly to speak, with more decision than hand specimens
can authorize me to do.

Want of time, at present, obliges me to close this paper, which
will be continued with the description of the curious amalgamation,
or rather intermixture, of the limestone and sienite, and of the sin-
gular discovery of fossil organic remains in the very parts of the
rock which seem, a8 it were, to have melted into each other.

York, Upper Canada, Jan. 1, 1833.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 105

Art. X. —An analytical examination of Prof. Babbage’s sateen
of Machinery and Manufactures.”*

AN octavo volume of 320 pages on the Economy of Machinery
and Manufactures has recently appeared in England, which elucidates
many valuable principles, and comprehends much instruction both for
manufacturers and for mén of science. This work is executed with
the precision of a mind habituated to scientific research, under the
severe guidance of the inductive philosophy, and is such a produc-
tion as we might expect from Prof. Babbage, whose name is con-
spicuous on the list of modern English philosophers.

The intellectual light, which within the last half century, has beam-
ed upon Europe with such unprecedented splendor, has developed
the mysterious powers of nature to the penetrating eye of the sci-
entific inquirer ; the diffusion of knowledge has enabled the ingen-
ious mechanic to apply these newly discovered powers to his own
use; and although “in the history of each article of manufac-
fate a series of failures haye occurred, they disclose an incredible
amount of patient thought, of repeated experiment, and of happy
exertion of genius, which have, gradually, led the way to excel-
We now look with admiration and astonishment, at the
results of the application of scientific principles to matter; where
the great powers of nature are brought under the control of man,
which in their turn, compel inanimate and unwieldy things to work
with the dexterity of thinking beings—with a rapidity far sur-
passing human efforts—and with a degree of skill, which, at no
remote period, would have been attributed to preternatural agency.
Nor, are these surprising results beneficial only to the country where
they have originated. ‘The luxurious natives of the east, and the
rude inhabitants of Africa are indebted to the looms of England,”

and every country in Europe and America, participates in the pro-
ducts of the mechanic arts, as at present conducted in the United
Kingdom. “The cottont of India is conveyed by British ships

* Since this notice has been put into type we have learned that cp interesting
work of Prof. Babbage has been reprinted in Philadelphia by Care

anna handkerchiefs, made in Glasgow, have long metho the gen-

uine ones in China and India, where they originated—dishes and utensils of the

tamp were seen by Clapperton at the court of the Sultan Bello; and at

Calicut, where calicoes originated, and whence they derived their name, the mar-
ket is supplied with the article from England.
Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 14

106 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

round half our planet to be woven by British skill, in the manufac-
tories of Lancashire. [tis again set in motion by British capital and
transported to the very plains whereon it grew and is repurchased by
the lords of the soil, which gave it birth, at a cheaper price than, with
their coarser machinery, they can manufacture it for themselves.”*

The explanation of principles, and the detail of processes contain-
ed in this work must be extremely interesting to the American man-
ufacturer. He will discern the differences, which exist between his
own circumstances and those, “whose operations he would imitate,
and whether all the materials, and modes of economy, and powers
and facilities, which have insured success to the foreign manufacturer
are within his own compass. He will be able to decide, whether
many fair and alluring appearances, may not prove fallacious, from
ignorance of the minute aids, and savings, essential to secure profit ; ;
and he will see how far deviations may be practicable, and how far the
resources of our own country may yield him a peculiar advantage.

In every, civilized country a considerable proportion of its popula-
tion will be employed in agriculture. If it be a wide country with a
fine soil, a favoring climate, and ready means for transportation and
export, a majority will be agriculturists; if crowded with inhabi-
tants, and possessing but a limited territory, every inducement will
urge them to procure, by other modes of industry, that which they
cannot obtain from their soil. In Great Britain, all the causes which
lead to excellence in manufactures, are in no common degree, com-
bined ; for, although agriculture is stil] the foundation of her wealth,
- the aes: of its perpetuity, the pillar of her commerce and man-
ufactures—yet with a dense, and when compared with the other coun- »
tries of Europe, an educated population, and a stable government,
their enterprise and success in manufacturing ‘industry have been
unparalleled,

The following table will show the ratio of the manufacturing to the
agricultural classes in England, Italy and France :

Agriculturists. _° #.. Non-agriculturists,
“Tn Italy, - - 100 s 31°
France, - 100 - a 50

England, —- mo AOG : 200
and the proportion of non-agricultural to ea persons in Great
Britain is, continually, increasing. In three different periods of ten
years, during each of which the general population of the country has

* See p. 4, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 107

increased thirteen per cent., the increase in the five large manufac-
turing towns of Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool, Nottingham, and
Birmingham, in the whole period of thirty years, has been one hundred
and twenty three per cent.” How far the disproportion between the
agricultural and manufacturing classes can be carried, with safety,
either to individuals or to the state, is a problem, which must soon
be solved by the future progress of their history in Great Britain.

It is remarked by M. Say, that “the complete inviolability 0
erty, whether by public or private attack, and: the habitual exercise of
attention and judgment to which her people are trained from the
earliest years, are the peaninsing causes of the manufacturing
prosperity of England.” .

To return to the work which is named at the head of this article ;
Mr. Babbage says, “the fact, that England can undersell other na-
tions seems to be well established: and it appears to depend on the
superior goodness and cheapness of those raw materials of machin-
ery, the metals—on the excellence of the tools—and on the admi-
rable arrangements of the domestic economy of tle manufactories.”

The object of the author is “to point out the effects and the ad-
vantages, which arise from the use of tools and machines; to classify

their modes of action; and to trace both the causes and consequences
of applying machinery to i beg the skill and power of the hu-
man arm.”

The work is divided into two sections—the first treats of tools and
machinery, illustrating, by examples, the principles which direct their
use ; the second, considers some questions of political economy re-
lating to the subject of manufactures.

It is believed, that a brief analysis of so meritorious a work, will
be eminently useful to the American artisan, and hardly less accept
able to the man of science.

In tracing the advantages derived from machinery, Mr. Babbage
says, that they seem to arise, principally, from three sources.

us oe Addition to humen power.

d. The economy they produce of human tim
- vies: The ec pet of substances eee vei into valuable i
Ist. Of addition to human power.
5. Acaiad the forces coe from wind, water and steam, hale are other sourees
rease, by which the animal nab of the individual is “ere made 0. ae with
far greater thes its unassisted pow

“At = increase of knowledge, as well as on the contrivance of a new aay

human labo dged; the man’who contrived rollers, invented a tool, b

?

which his ‘ee was quintupled. The workman, who first su re the seaplcy-

108 Sos of Machinery and Manufactures.

bled t , without exerting a greater
i more. than three times the st he could before.”

The advantage of mechanical assistance will appear from the
following experiment related by M. Redelet, sur [Art de Batir.

“Ist. A block of squared stone, weight - 1080 Ibs.
* 2nd. In order to drag this stone 984 the fiat of thie — roughly
chiseled, it required a force equal to 758
*«3rd. The same stone dragged over a tae of planks required 652
**4th. The same stone-placed on a jaeraet 5 of wood and eee? over
a a of planks, required 606
5th. After — the two erfiole of bands which slid over sh
ober, it required 182
6th. The same stone was now ay, upon s palless of. three foches
diameter, when it ei to put it in poten, oe Se the floor of the
quarry, 34
“ith. To drag it by oie rier over a wooden fon 28
Sih. e stone was mounted on a wooden Platform, ~~ the
d between that Be a oak floor, it require:

~ Se pom this experiment it results, that the force necessary to move a stone along

surfaces are soaped, one sixth; if rollers are used on the floor of the quarry, it re-
brags one thirty second part of its weight; sd rolled over wood, one fortieth ; and.
if between wood, one fiftieth of its weight.”

The erection of palaces and temples,* monuments and tombs,
seems to have engaged the early attention of nations ; and the mode of
removing, from their native repositories, those immense blocks of stone
which minister to the grandeur or piety of the builders, has, through
ages, and to the present day, remained a subject of astonishment.
The manner of applying the peri ta Sicprecs of = on tik to
move those ponderous masses, fthe
pyramids, or of the temple of Sete is ‘beyond the fiaitt of conjecture ; :
their artificers must have possessed — knowledge, of which
their history contains no record.

An interesting discovery, which was made by Champollion, a few
years since, in Egypt, of an ancient Egyptian drawing, may throw
some light upon this subject. “A multitude of men appeared har-
nessed to a huge block of stone, on the top of which stood a single
individual with his hands raised above his head, apparently in the act
of clapping them, for the purpose of insuring the exertion of their
combined force at the same moment of time.”

* See page 6, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 109

In later times, also, sound has been employed to enable men to unite’
their efforts at a given point. ‘In removing the vast mass of granite,
weighing above twenty eight thousand pounds, on which the eques-
trian staute of Peter the Great is placed, at St. Petersburgh, a
drummer was stationed on its summit, to give the signal for the united
efforts of the workmen.”

“ The economy of human time” is an advantage, second only to “the
addition to human power,” which machinery gives to manufacturers.

The use of gunpowder in blasting rocks, and of the diamond in
cutting glass, offers familiar examples of the economy of time. In
the former, effects are produced in a short space of time, which could
not be accomplished, even with the best tools, in many months.

An important improvement has been made in the art of using the di-
amond, which twenty years since, even after seven years’ apprentice-
ship, many glaziers were but indifferently skilled in. ‘This arose
from the difficulty of finding the precise angle at which the diamond
cuts, and of guiding it at the proper angle, when found.” In the im-,
proved tool, the gem is set in a small piece of squared brass, with its _
edge nearly parallel to one side of the square. A person, skilled in
its use, files away one side of the brass until, by trial, he finds that
the diamond will make a clean cut, when guided by keeping this
edge against the ruler. Thus. the merest tyro, at once anes the
cutting edge at the proper angle.*

a

“The relative hardness of the diamond in different directions is a singular fact.
An experienced workman ground one on a cast iron mail 0g diamond powder for
three hours, without its being at all worn, but on tion with refer-
ence to the grinding surface, the same edge was qulekly ground down.”

3rd. The. advantage of machinery and manufacturing is, most
strikingly, obvious, in the saving of materials, apparently worthless.
othing can seem of less value than the worn out remnants of tin
ware, the offals of animals and the sweepings of workshops, and -
such is the result of economy and science, that nothing is lost, but
the products of little intrinsic veles are ‘made valuable by the skill of
the manufacturer. ©
« Gold-beater’s skins are made of animal offal. The hoofs and horny refuse of cattle are
pro oan the production of prussiate of potash, that beautiful yellow crystallized
emists.. The worn out sauce pans, tin ¥
and’ coal seut scuttles, when beyond the reach of the tinker’s art, have not completed
their useful co course. Their less corroded parts a are cut into strips, pam, with

* See page 9, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

110 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

small holes, and varnished with a coarse black varnish, for the use of the trunk ma-
ker, who protects the edges and angles of his boxes with them; the remainder are
consigned to the manufacturing chemists, oo oe _— in leer aaa with
pyroligneous acid, in making a black dye for prin

Of tools.—A tool is a ready assistance to the bal hand, by
which it is chiefly used. There are multitudes of things which it
would be impossible to make, by the unaided efforts of the hands,
but add to them the rudest instruments, and their power is enlarged;
with improved machinery their power becomes still farther extended,
and in their applications, various almost beyond the limits of calcu-
lation. By placing a tool in a frame, it becomes a machine, and the
combination of many tools in a machine requires an accumulation of
power proportioned to its weight, and the forces it is designed to
communicate. The powers of wind and water have long been ap-
plied to mechanical purposes, generally in aid of animal exertion, al-
though in some instances, they nearly supersede it. Steam, another
fertile source of moving power, when regulated and directed to ma-
chinery, possesses singular advantages, and produces effects unattain-
able by other methods.

But it is not alone in the moving of tools and machinery in the
work shop, that economy of power should be practised in order to
secure profit. Every one who examines this subject must be sur-
prised to find how much success, in every department of the arts, de-
pends upon ‘a due application of this principle. Mr. Babbage i
an example i in point, relating to the expense of transport.

“ When a mass of matter is to be removed, a certain amount of force must be ex-
pended, and upon the economy of this force, the price of transport will depend. For
instance, the cotton of Java is conveyed in junks to the cvast of China; but from the
seed separated, three quarters of the weight thus carried is not

This might, perhaps, be justified in Java by the want of machinery to sepa-
rate the seed, or by the relative cost of the operation in the two countries. But the
cotton, as packed by the Chinese, occupies three times the bulk of an ee quan-
tity shipped by Europeans for their own markets. Thus the freight of a given
quantity of cotton costs the Chinese nearly twelve times the price, to which, by a

proper attention to mechanical methods, it might be reduced.”

_ This statement suggests the immense value of the cotton gin, in-
vented by the late Mr. Whitney, of New Haven, which may, in
some degree, be compared with the steam engine,. in the extent of
its usefulness. Cotton is now so universally used for clothing, that
whatever reduces its cost, is a benefit to the whole family of mankind.
When it is estimated, that the seed, before it is separated from the
cotton, makes three quarters of the weight of the article ; and that it
requires the hand labor of one person for an entire day to clean one

-

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. = ‘111

pound fit for the manufacturer,* while the same individual, by the aid
of the cotton gin, can clean one thousand pounds in the same space
of time—language is scarcely adequate to convey a full idea of its
value. Mr. Whitney says in his application to Congress in 1812,
that his cotton gin “ as a labor saving machine would enable one man
to perform the work of a thousand men.”

: Accumulating power.”—Under this head, the author on
the fly wheel and the sledge hammer. he fly wheel, constructed
with a heavy rim, has the weight near the circumference ; and when
moving with considerable velocity, produces powerful effects... It is”
usefully employed in SERENE the force for rolling iron, perforating
iron plates, &c. &c.

The power of the hammer consists in raising a weight and letting
it fall, and increases in the ratio of its weight and the distance, through
which it falls.

Regulating power.—* Uniformity dod steadiness, in the rate at

whieh machinery works, are essential to its effect and. duration.”
The contrivance which governs the steam engine, controlling its fearful
rapidity, producing uniformity and steadiness in its movements, is a
beautiful example of the regulating power.

_ It is on the same principle, that the water power is regulated,
which drives the spinning-jenny, raises timber at the dock-yard, and
supplies fuel in particular furnaces.

“ Advantage of velocity.”— Whenever work is light, it becomes
necessary, in order to save time, to increase velocity. The propor-.
tion between the velocity, with which men and animals move, is of
considerable importance. It is also of great importance for the econ-
omy of labor, to adjust the weight of that part of the animal’s body,
which is moved, to the weight of the tool it urges, and the frequency:
of repetition of these efforts so as to produce the greatest effect.” —

Twisting the fibres of wool by the fingers would be a most tedious
operation. In the common spinning wheel, velocity is increased by
a simple contrivance, which is common to a multitude of machines,
a for example, as the machine for winding cotton balls, ribbons,

&e. &e. But the economy resulting from the increase of velocity,
is more striking in the larger and more important machines. t

Vide Memoir of se Rae by Prof. D, Olmsted, p. 208, vol. xxi of this Journal.
{ ies &e.

112 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

In converting cast into wrought iron, it is of importance, that the
mass of softened metal should receive the greatest possible number
of strokes before it cools; but as the momentum of the hammer, de-
rived merely from the space through which it falls, would. consume
much time, the velocity is increased by throwing the hammer up
with a jerk, against a large beam, which acts as a powerful spring,
and drives it down with such force and rapidity as to make double
the number of blows in a given time. “The smaller tilt hammers
are made to rebound with such velocity, that from three to five hun-
dred strokes are made in a minute.

There is also, in extending the time of the action of forces, a very
great advantage, e.g. the winding up of a clock, or watch, extends
the action of the original force for hours.and days. Small machines
set in motion by springs, with a train of wheels, are employed in
magnetic and electric experiments, to produce a rotatory motion of
a metallic disk or other body, thus giving the experimenter the un-
impeded use of his hands. The domestic smoke jack is a familiar
illustration of this principle. A similar apparatus is sometimes ap-
plied to polish minerals, and in certain chemical processes, to agitate
a solution.*

Machinery is also employed to save time in. natural operations.
An accelerating process in tanning was long a desideratum. In the
old method, it required two years for the tanning principle to become
so thoroughly combined with the animal fibre, as to make firm and
durable leather.

“The improved process consists in placing the hides with a solution of tan in close
vessels, and then exhausting the air. The consequence of this is to withdraw all

The effect of the additional force, thus brought into action, can be equal only to one
atmosphere, but a further improvement has been made. The vessel containing the
hides is, after exhaustion, filled up with a solution of tan: a small additional quan-
sd is as pagans with a forcing pump. By these means, any degree of pressure
be and it has been
Sani. el ‘ae thickest hides may “thus be tanned i in six weeks or two months.”

In noticing the practical value of science to the arts, the beautiful
and improved process of bleaching with chloride of lime, although
more of a chemical than of a mechanical operation, can scarcely be
passed in silence.

* Economy of Machinery, p. 28.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 113

** Amongst the natural processes, which are perpetually altering the surface of
our globe, there are some which it would be desirable to accelerate. The wearing
down of the rocks, which impede the rapids of navigable rivers, is one of this class.

a wheel similar to the paddle wheel ofa steam-boat fixed at each end of it, is placed
across the boat, so that the two wheels and their connecting axis shall revolve rap-
idly, — driven by the force of the passing current. Let us now imagine several
beams of wood, called stampers, shod with pointed iron, ay at right angles on the
ends - strong levers, Spates. beyond the bow of the The levers being at
liberty to move up and down, the action of the stream a os wheels will keep
up a ae succession of blo ws. The sharp pointed shoe, striking upon the rock
at the bot will continually detach small pieces, which the stream will immedi-
ately carry aay. Thus, by the mere action of the river itself, a constant and most
effectual system of pounding the rock at its bottom is established. A single work-
man, by the aid of a rudder, may direct the boat to any part of the stream; and when

is substituted. The rope, which hitherto fastened the boat, is now fixed to the bar-
rel, which being attached to the axis, begins to turn, and winding the rope upon it-
self, the boat is gradually drawn up against the stream, and may be employed as a
tug-boat for vessels which ascend the rapid. When the tug-boat reaches the sum-
mit, the barrel is released from the axis, and friction being applied to moderate its
velocity, the boat is allowed to descend.”

“The economy of applying the power of steam to overcome resistances, which it
would require afar greater expense to surmount by animal power, is of frequent
occurrence in large manufactories. The twisting of the largest cables, the rolling,
hammering, and cutting of large masses of i iron, the drawing of wires, all require

‘ ‘ of ti

When the force required is great, and the space through which it is to act is well,
other means are adopted. The hydraulic press of Bramah, by the exertion of one
man, can produce a pressure of 1500 atmospheres, and with such an instrument a
hollow cylinder of wrought iron, three inches thick, has been burst. In rivetting
the iron plates to form steam-engine boilers, it is ne to produce as close a
joint as possible. This is accomplished by using the rivets red hot: while they are
in that state, the two plates of iron are we Sea eign and the contraction which
the rivet undergoes in cooling draws them together, with a force which is only east

is made..
*Ttis not scat in the greater: ini o the Poon se or the manuficturer, that
those vast pow , which re fully
developed. Wherever the individual operation, demsndin 1 little force ia: its own
performance, is to be multiplied in almost endless repetition, commensurate power
is required. It is the same “giant arm, which twists the largest coble, that spins

* This machine mould be very convenient to seen passages through the ice for
boats.

steam

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 15 ‘

114 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

from the cotton plant an almost gossamer thread.” Obedient to the hand, which
called into action its resistless powers, it contends with the ocean and the storm, and
rides triumphant through dangers and difficulties unattempted by the older modes of
navigation: It is the same engine, that in its more regulated action weaves the can-
vass, which it may one day supersede; or with en fairy ~— entwines the
meshes of the most delicate fabric, that adorns the female form

A great advantage is derived from machinery “in Registering
Operations.” To count the endless numbers of coins struck in a
press, or the turns of a wheel, is a wearisome occupation, consuming
much time and labor. An instrument for registering is used in some
establishments for calendering and embossing calicoes, where there
are many hundreds of thousands of yards delivered weekly; and as
the price paid for the process is small, the time spent in measuring
them and taking the account would absorb the profit. 'The machine
measures and registers the goods as they pass rapidly through the
hands of the operator. Erroneous counting is also thus avoided.

The ingenious instrument called a tell-tale, connected with a clock,
to ascertain the vigilance of a watchman, is a very useful piece of
mechanism. It is so arranged, that if a man does not pull a string
at a certain part of his round, his neglect is exposed by the machine.*

The advantage - serene is also great in ‘economising the
materials employed.’

“The earliest mode of cutting a tree into planks, was by the use
of the hatchet or adze.” It must first have been split into parts, and
then hewn to its proper breadth and thickness. Much of the raw
material was wasted by this process ; probably more than half. The
saw reverses the process, and in converting a tree into planks, it
wastes but a small part. In order to economise still further, a ma-
chine consisting of a system of blades has been contrived for cutting
veneer from the precious woods, in continuous shavings, thus render-
ing the whole timber available.

Another instance of the saving of materials js noticed by Me. Bab-
bage, in the improvements made within twenty years in the printing
press. In the old methods, much ink was lost by forming a harden-

apenas ieee nae an ee ORR ear act Seen SORA TA
* See p. 40, Economy of Machinery, &e. Analogous, in some degree, to this, is
a contrivance employed by the millers at the tide-mills in this country. A gate is

The jar
upon the wire te a bell, which summons the miller to his nt
when the tide se duty, at the mome

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 115

ed crust on the edges of the block. The consumption of ink by the
new system of machine printing, is to that by the balls, or old method,
as four to nine, or rather Jess than half. There is a saving, also, in
the disuse of ‘the set-off sheet,” which, in the old mode, received
every printed sheet, to guard it from being soiled, and to absorb the
superfluous ink. In the best kind of printing, in the old method, it
was necessary to change it once in twelve times, as it became too
much soiled for further use. In the new, a blanket is employed as
a substitute, and so little in amount is the superfluous ink, that it is
changed only once in two thousand, and in common printing once in
five thousand times.* .

- The accuracy with which machinery executes its work, is one of
its important advantages,” but equally important is the saving of time;
for improved tools increase the quantity of work performed in a given
time. It would require a long time for a skilful workman with files
and polishing substances to form an accurate cylinder of a piece of
steel, but by the use of the lathe and the sliding rest, it is quickly and
cheaply accomplished. The art of turning is one of the most beau-
tiful processes, and, with the exception of copying, is perhaps one
of the most accurate of mechanical operations: for example, if the
top of a circular box is to be made to fit over the lower part, it may
be done by gradually advancing the tool of the sliding rest until the
_proper degree. of tightness between the box and the lid is ascertained.
After this adjustment, if a thousand boxes are made, no additional
care is required; the same identity pervades them all. Equally
exact are all the arts of printing. ‘The impressions to the most mi-
nute traces in the same block or copper-plate, have a similarity, which
no labor could produce by hand. .

The author’s estimate of the value of copying in the arts, will be
seen from the following extracts, which, although abridged, are prin-
cipally i in his own Janguage.

A principle which pervades a large portion of all sanaselieattes,
and one upon which the cheapness of the articles produced seems
greatly to depend, is copying, taken in its most extensive sense.
Almost.unlimited pains are, in some instances, bestowed on the ori-
ginal, from which a series of copies is to be produced ; and the larger
the number of these copies, the more care and pains can the manu-
facturer afford to lavish on the original. It may thus happen, that

2 See p- 47, Economy of Machinery.

116 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

the instrument or tool actually producing the work, shall cost even
five or ten thousand times the price of each individual specimen of
its power.

Operations of copying are effected, by printing from cavities; by
printing from surface; by casting; by moulding; by stamping; by
punching ; with elongation; and with altered dimensions.

The art of printing, in all its departments, is essentially an art of
copying. Under its two great divisions, from hollow lines, as in
copper-plate, and from surface, as in block printing, are comprised
numerous arts. Printing from cavities comprises copper-plate and
steel-plate engravings, music printing, calico printing from cylinders,
and printing from perforated sheets of metal, or stencilling. ;

The second department, i. e. printing from surface, is of more fre-
quent application in the arts, and comprehends printing from wooden
blocks, from movable types, from stereotype, calico printing from
blocks, printing oil cloths, letter copying, printing on china, lithograph
and register printing.

Before proceeding to the consideration of any of the other modes
of copying, the manner of forming the pattern or block for surface
printing and lithograph, will be quoted in the words of the author.

* A block of box wood is the substance out of which the pattern is formed; the
design — sketched upon it, the workman cuts away, with sharp tools, every part

ving on copper, hi

stead of filling ns cavities cut in the wood, is spread upon the surface, and i is thence
transferred to the paper. In lithographic printing, the original is a drawing made
on a stone of a dligntiy porous nature; the ink employed for tracing it, is made of

herin; the uncov
such a nature, that the printing ink adheres to it. In this state, if a sheet of paper
be placed upon the stone, and passed under a press, the printing ink will be trans-
ferred to the paper, leaving the ink used in the drawing still adhering to the stone.
‘A few years ago, one of the Paris newspapers was reprinted at Brussels, as soon

of great premute, applied to it in a rolling press, a
sufficient quantity of the ink will be transferred to the stone. By similar means the
other side of the newspaper may be — on another stone, and these stones will
then furnish impressions in the usual wa

Of “copying by casting,” an art so 6 ettetaioehp useful, and yet so
familiarly understood, no illustration need be quoted in this place,

except one, which is so extremely new and curious, that it cannot
fail to be interesting.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 117

‘* A beautiful mode of representing small branches of the most delicate vegetable
productions in bronze, has been employed by M.Chantrey. A small sprig of the
r tree, a branch of holly, a curled leaf of broccoli, a vine leaf and tendrils, or any

fully separated ou be | the coarser particles and mixed with water, so as to have
the consistency of c is poured into the paper cylinder, by small portions at a
pam carefully shaking ‘the plant a little each time, in order that every vein and curl
n the leaf may be covered, and that no bubbles of air may be left. The plant and
saad are now left to dry, and the yielding nature of the paper allows the loamy
coating to shrink from the outside. -When this is dry, it is surrounded by a coarser
substance ; and finally, we have the twig, with all its leaves, imbedded in a perfect
mould. This mould is carefully dried, and then gradually ones toared heat. At
the ends of some of the leaves or shoots, wires have been left to apse air holes ‘by
their removal, and in this state of strong ignition, a stream of air is di ji
hole formed by the end of the branch. The consequence is, that the wood and

the fluid metal, which by its weight drives “ through the holes, any air, we h,
at that high temperature, may remain behind

Of “copying by moulding,” many conierill are cited by the au-
thor, illustrative of the methods and advantages of this branch of the
arts, from the humble brick and tile, to the costly mouldings employ-
ed by the jewellers, and the curiously embossed work upon porcelain.
Many of the splendid dwellings in our own metropolitan cities, are
indebted to this art, for the beautiful cornices, which ornament their
apartments. |

* Copying by stamping,” comprises the modes of coining and stri-
king medals, making ornaments for military accoutrements, &c. &c.

{It would exceed the limits of this paper to make further extracts
from this part of the work, but the author treats, successively, of
copying by punching, of wire drawing, of rose engine turning, of
copying dies, of the pentegraph, and finally of copying ¥ —
plates, which are themselves castings, made in moulds formed by
movable types, “those obedient messengers of the most
thoughts and conflicting theories”—all showing that the principle of
Copying is an important auxiliary to cenepaee and — in wed
mechanic arts.

Having thus glanced at the principles, which impel and vapaaane
mechanical operations, the author proceeds to consider the economy,
which governs the application of amachinery, and the polity, or in-

* The author does not inform us in what way the mould may be made available
for more than one casting.

118 . Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

terior detail of British manufactories, as being of equal, if not great-
er importance to the prosperity of commerce, and the welfare of the
‘State, than even. the perfection and extent of their manufactures.
Although they have arrived, by the excellence of their machinery
and the skill of their artisans, at a great degree of perfection, yet it
is owing to this vigilant economy, that they can afford their products
at so cheap a rate, as to command the markets of all the world, ex-
cept such as are closed against them by a restrictive policy.

The first object of a manufacturer is, or ought to be, the perfec-
tion of his products—the second, so to manage his concerns as to
afford them, at the cheapest possible price. By the first, he secures
a market, and by the second, an extensive market, i. e. if the goods
are of the best quality, they will secure purchasers, and if cheap,
more purchasers can afford to buy and more goods will be sold. If
then the seller makes a profit on capital, it will increase in the ratio
of sales. The cheaper the article is, the larger will be its list of
consumers, and the greater probability will there be of its becoming @
necessary of life, of its not falling into disuse, and, consequently, of
its affording a desirable and profitable employment.

_ Competition is another and compelling stimulus to produce goods
with the least cost; for dear goods, of equal quality, will be driven
from the market, and supplanted by the cheaper commodity.

So low is the rate of profit upon capital in the manufacturing in-
terests of Great Britain, since the introduction of machinery, that a
manufacturer has many points to ascertain, relative to the facilities of
which he may avail himself, and the various modes of economy he can
practice, before he can, prudently, invest capital in such an enterprise.
In this country it would be still more essential, that he should learn
whether the location is favorable, i. e. if he employs steam, wheth-
er fuel is near and plentiful—whether the metals for his machinery
are at hand—whether the raw materials for his work are cheap and
abundant—whether the part of the country, its temperature, its pre-
‘dominating dryness or humidity, are suited to the goods which he
intends to produce—and whether a ready market, with cheap and easy
modes of transportation, is-at hand. These questions being settled,
he has to regulate the interior details, where, if his mechanical ope-
rations are not conducted with the utmost skill, if every possible saving
is not made, and the most rigorous economy enforced, his hopes will
be disappointed, and his exertions will fail. So thoroughly bas the
system of economy been tested in every department of the arts—

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 119

so keenly has every invention and improvement, and saving been ap-
plied, that any oversight or neglect, will be followed by ruinous con-
sequences.

It is a great and obvious advantage to iron workers to be near a
colliery, and near a smelting furnace, where the iron, beginning from
the ore, is carried from one furnace to another, and from one shop
to another, until it comes out of the manufacturer’s hands in its perfect
forms, ready for the market. ‘Thus similar facilities in any depart-
ment of the arts reduce the cost to the producer. ~

Making goods in large quantities is another source of profit; as is
working night and day, which is practised in some large manufactories.

Mr. Babbage gives the following fact, illustrative of the less cost
of making large than small quantities.

The Navy Board applied to Mr. Maudsley to make iron tanks for ships, which
he was rather unwilling to do, considering it out of his line: however, he undertook
one asa trial. The holes for the rivets were punched by hand punching with
presses, and the sixteen hundred and eighty holes, which each tank required, cost
7 board, who required a large number, proposed, that he should supply forty
tanks a week, for many months. The magnitude of the order made it worth while
to-;commence manufacturer, and to make tools for the express business. He there-
fore made tools, by which the expense of punching the rivet holes, of each tank, -
was reduced from 7s. to 9d.: he supplied ninety eight tanks a week for six months,
and the price charged for each was reduced from £17 to £15.

The influence of durability, of supply and demand, and of the
quality of the article contracted for, further modifies the price of jit
to the consumer. —

Price is, usually, measured by gold and silver; but they are sub-
ject to some variations, such as differences in the cost of the metals
at different times, and the irregular distribution of specie. | They are
objected to as a standard of value, by the author, who suggests seve-
ral modes of estimate, but they are elaborate and liable also to objec-
tions. A distinct understanding of the character of specie may be
premised as a reason why it should be made the criterion of value in
preference to “an agricultural laborer’s days work,” or any other —
unit recommended by the political economists. It is but a short time
since the doctrine was current, that specie constituted individual and
national wealth; and that returns for export in other shapes of prop-
erty, was a lic loss. The reason why it was thought of so sacred
a character, was the fact of its representing the value of all other
things, and its apparent control over every thing, a the pos-
sessor to obtain by it whatever he wished for. Its durable nature,
and its scarcity led men to mistake the effect for the cause, and to

120 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

deem it the standard of safety and happiness, as it was of utility and
value. This latter is its true estimate. It is the criterion of value—
and the medium, wherewith wants may be supplied, pleasures pur-
chased, and property preserved. It represents houses, lands and
ships without defect of title, or risk; it may be laid up as a future |
provision for the real wants of life, or the unreal fancies of the im-
agination, and will neither perish nor go out of fashion. It is in uni-
versal request—it sets in motion the labor saving machine, and sus-
tains the manufactory, it procures with equal certainty, a blanket for
a peasant or a diadem for a prince. This versatility of power led
men to view it as possessing, inherently, those advantages which it
only procures.* The fact, that it will procure them, constitutes its
intrinsic value, and its utility stopping at that point where it is made
a standard, it can never rise far above or fall much below its par
value. It is this comparative immutability, which in all countries,
makes it a standard of value less subject to change than any other.

The irregular distribution of specie is the principal cause of its
variation. When it becomes scarce in any country, from the ordi-
nary transactions of commerce, a small rise upon its nominal value,
will occasion its speedy return to a market, whence it was with-
drawn, until it declines to its par value.

Nor can its scarcity and high value in time of war, invalidate the
argument. The high price, which “an agricultural laborer” might
command on the plains of depopulated Poland, would equally affect
the unit proposed asa standard by Mr. Malthus. In such cases, all
standards are set aside—right and order lose their hold upon men—
the foundations are upturned, and laws and the accepted opinions of
long ages are then of no force. But asa standard for estimating
values, allowing for the variations, none, it is believed, so convenient,
or approximating so nearly to a permanent and fixed criterion, has
yet been employed, as gold and silver coin.

Although the standard for comparing values, at distans 1 times, may
not be mathematically exact, yet it is evident, that there has been a
great diminution in the cost of manufactured products, compared
with former ages, as well as with more modern times. 'The wife of
the Emperor Aurelian besought him to purchase for her a robe of
purple silk, which he refused, because it would cost more than twice

* The precious metals have a high value from the use made of them in the arts.
either of utility or ornament; but it is believed that at no time has the demand for
them in the arts raised their value materially.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 121

its weight in gold. About the same period, the Romans received
cambrics from’ Elis, which were sold for ‘their full weight of gold.”*
But the limits of this notice forbid any further allusions to antiquity,
although the history of abe progress of manufactures would be one
of extreme interest. —.

From several tables, of the accuracy of which Mr. Babbage has
taken pains to assure himself, it appears, that the reduction in price
since 1812 has been from forty to sixty, and, in some instances,
eighty five per cent., on various articles. He remarks, that —

*‘The extent to which manufacturing can be carried, and yet a profit be realized,
is astonishing, and is proved by the following fact.. Twenty years since, a brass knob
= ~ = of doors, was made at Birmingham, for 18s. 4d. per dozen. The.same

now aegis with the same weight of metal, and an equal or supe-
rior re for 1s. 94d. per dozen. One circumstance, which has produced this
economy in the sed asian is, that the lathe, on which these knobs are finished, is
turned by a steam engine; so that the workman, gies relieved from that labor, can
Bake them Iabeder times as fast as he did former] ry.”

Several causes have contributed to diminish prices, within the last
half century. ‘The most influential have undoubtedly been the in-
vention of cheaper modes of manufacturing, arising from improved
machinery, and division of labor; and also, on a sere rate of profit
on capital, however employed.

© Division of labor has eminently contributed to this result. In
the division of labor, no time is lost in going from one process to
another, or in changing and adjusting tools; a greater degree of
dexterity is acquired by constant attention to one process, and the
muscles, exercised in it, obtain a flexibility and a capacity for fatigue,
which they could not, if continually changing their motions. A fre-
quent repetition of the same process produces, also, a degree of ex-
cellence and rapidity otherwise unattainable. As an instance of this
remarkable celerity, Mr. Babbage states, “ that a clerk of the Bank
of England signed his name, consisting of seven letters, including

the initial of his christian name, five thousand’ three hundred times,
during eleven working hours, and arranged the notes he had n—
in parcels of fifty each.”

- A further advantage arises from the ecipinyindiie of just such
persons as are adapted to the different processes. For
ten persons are occupied in manufacturing pins, and they are paid in
the j —— ratio of their skill and the time employee front six rea

-* Annals of Commerce. © = be eug anna teatliry, &e.
‘Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 16.

122 Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.

to.six pence per diem. Now it is obvious, that if a man, who is
qualified to perform a more difficult process worth six shillings per
day, spends a part of his time in a process which can be done by a
child. for six pence, he must either lose the difference of wages for
the time so occupied, or the pins must be set at a higher price for
his compensation.

From an analysis, given by Mr. Babbage, it appears, that it takes
ten persons seven hours and a half to make a pound weight of pins,
and that if one person, qualified to perform the most difficult parts;
were to do the whole work, the pins must cost three times and three
quarters as much as they do under the present system.

Division of labor has been carried to the greatest extent in watch-
making. It was stated before a committee of the House of Com-
mons, “that there are one hundred and two distinct branches of this
art, and that the watch finisher, whose business it is to put together

these scattered parts, is the only one of the one huhdred ed two
persons, who can work in any other department than his own.’

Another consequence of the economy arising from division of la-
bor, has been the establishment of large manufactories. ‘To consider —
the steps by which they become extended, may not be without inter-
est. In any of the arts, labor not economically applied, will enhance
the cost of the article, and if the material for the manufactured ar-
ticle, in the several stages of its progress, must be conveyed from
one operator to another, it can be done at the least expense, when
they are all working in one establishment. .A demand for the arti-
cle produced, causes the introduction of steam and other machinery,
which greatly increases the quantity of the product. The. proprietor
having invested considerable capital in machinery, finds that he can
increase his profits, by a small addition of floating capital, in working
it night and day. . Working the machines night-and day, renders it
necessary that a person should admit the workmen when they relieve
each other, and his rest would be no more disturbed by admitting a
large than a small number. The good performance and duration of
machines depend much on repairing every “shake,” or imperfection,

or injury, aS.soon as it appears; and a workman. accustomed to ma-
chine making, will adjust or make repairs better than any other, and
by being resident on the spot, will reduce the expense of the wear
and tear of the machinery, A single: machine could not warrant sO
great an expense; therefore, the manufactory should contain enough
of machines to employ the whole time of a machinist to keep them

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 123

and the steam engine in order. One of the first effects of these
arrangements is, that one workman can do four times as much work
as he could do before, because the power of steam drives so much
faster than human force. The manufactory, having become so much
enlarged, and there being already attached to the establishment per-
sons who are up all night and can attend to it constantly, and also
engineers to make and repair machinery, the making of an apparatus
for gas, to light the manufactory, introduces a new extension, which,
by diminishing the expense of lighting and the risk of accidents by
fire, reduces, yet farther, the cost of manufacturing. Long before a
manufactory has reached this extent, it will have been found neces-
sary to establislr an accountant’s department, with clerks and agents
to purchase the raw materials and to sell the manufactured products.
Thus, by the division of labor and the application of machinery, the
greatest economy of power and skill prevails—the quantity of work
is greatly augmented—and the result is, a great reduction in pe cost
of the article, which is brought to market.* :

“The establishment of the Times newspaper in London, is an male ot a manu-
factory on a large scale, in which the division of labor, both mental and bodily, is

rs of the globe, what a scene of organized activity the factory pre
nts, ieee the whole night, or what a quantity of talent and mechanical skill is
put in action for their amu nt and informatio’

‘*‘ Nearly a hundred persons are employed in this establishment; and during the
session of Parliament, at least twelve reporters are constantly aitonding the Houses
of Commons and Lords; each in his turn, after about an hour’s work, retiring to
translate into ordinary writing, the speech he has just heard and noted in short hand.
In the mean time, fifty igh eg constantly at work, some of _— have al-

manuscript of the continuation of a pats whose middle portion is travelling to the
office in the . of the hasty reporter, and whose slog ent conclusion i te perhaps,

oy These « pst gated types, as fast as they are composed, ar e passed in portions to
other hands; until at Jast, the scattered fragments of the debate, forming, when uni-
ted with the ordinary matter eight and forty columns, reappear in order, on the plat-
form of the printing press. The hand of man is now too slow for the demands of

* Economy, &c. pp. 174 to 179.

t The author visited this most interesting establishment after midnight, during the
progress of a very important debate. The place was illuminated with gas, and was
as light as the day. ™ ore was ravenna begerss Bee nor bustle. The visitors were re-
ceived with a calm and t a moment of greatest press-
ure. ads tranquillity, which whom so mibeh sdmired, was the result of the most in-

occupation.

‘ Bionanamy of Mach: , I MM, foant
124 Economy of «

v v
his curiosity—but the power of vane comes to his assistance. Ink is — sup-
— to the moving types by the most perfect m 1 AB four attendants inces-

santly introduce the edges of large Was of white paper to the junction of two great
* rollers, which seem to devour them with unsated appetite ;—other rollers convey

thousand movable pieces of metal, is produced for the public in six hours.’

This imperfect analysis has already transcended our prescribed
limits, but we cannot forbear from making one or two other quota-
tions. The description of the slide of Alpnach, although not new,
is very interesting, and may possibly Jead to similar arrangements in
some of our own mountain forests. We will add, also, the account
of the bobbin-net manufacture, showing how cheaply an immense.
quantity of any article can be supplied 5 the application of power,
guided by principles, such as have been enumerated and eee
in the work we have been examining.

The slide of Alpnach is a surprising instance of a conquest gain-
ed a natural obstacles, by human enterptise, aided by mechanic-

=n following description is quoted by Mr. Babbage from Dr.
Brewster’s Journal, in which it appeared in 1819, translated from
Gilbert’s Annalen.

**For many centuries the rugged flanks and the deep gorges of Mount Pilatus,
in the Alps of Switzerland, were covered with impenetrable forests. Even the
z hunters were scarcely able to reach them, and the i pam on of the valley

had never conceived the idea of disturbing them with the ax
itted to grow ‘eich being of the least
reigner, conducted into their wild recesses in the pursuit of
bsel RNS wae struck sg eee * the Sight, and directed the attention of sev-

These immense

of the timber. The most intel-
figent and skilful ee —* considered it quite impracticable to avail
themselves of su s. It was not until November, 1816, that
Rupp and three Swiss gentlemen, entertaining more sanguine hopes, drew upa
plan of a slide, founded on trigonometrical measurements. Having purchased a cer-
tain — of the forests from the commune of Spo ch, they — the construc-
slide, and completed it in the spring of 18

be =i slide of Alpnach is formed entirely of about ne hundred and fifty thousand
large pine trees, deprived of their bark, and united together in a very ingenious
manner, without the aid of iron. It occupied one hundred and sixty workmen,
during eighteen months, and cost nearly 100,00 0 haoks or £4,250. It is oe
three leagues or forty four thousand English feet long, and terminates in the
Lucerne. It has the form of a trough, about six feet broad, and from three to si

are condueted into it from various places for the purpose of diminishing the friction.

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 125

The whole slide is sustained by about two thousand supports: ‘and in many Le
it is attached, in a very ingenious manner, to the rugged precipices of grani it

“The direction of the slide is ieniaa straight, sometimes zigzag, W ake an in-
clination of from ten to eighteen ina It is often carried along the sides of hills

and the flanks of precipitous ar and sometimes over their summits. Occasion-
ally it goes under groynd, and at other times it is reanars over the deep gorges
by scaffoldings one hundred and ee feet in heig

The boldness which characterizes this work, te sal displayed i in all its ar-
pins Sago! 3 the + of the engineer, have excited the wonder ~d fit ata
who has see any step could be taken in at erection, it w
nie agrng canal pe to obtain a passage through the seeameniie sii: ;
workmen — soap men were posted at certain distances, in order to

point out he road for thei , and to discover, in the gorges, the places where
the piles of wood had ie sal M. Rupp was obliged more than
be suspended by cords, in order to descend precipices many hundred feet high.
He had toe contend with the nar of the peasantry, but nothing could diminish
his invincible perseverance. They thought he had communication with the devil.

e was charged with heresy, and every obstacle was thrown in the way of an en-
terprise, which they regarded absurd and impracticable. All these difficulties,
however, were surmounted, and he had, at last, the satisfaction of observing the
mens descend from the mountain, with the rapidity of lightning. The larg care

hich were one hundred feet in length, and ten inches thick, at their sat

cindy. ran through the space of sabi leagues, or nearly nine miles, in two mi

utes and a half. .
Set arrangements for this operation were sain cauia From he ad
end of the slide to the upper end, workmen were posted, at regular distances, and

and reached the top of the slide in three minutes. The workman at the top, then
cried out to the one below him, “i vient,” (it comes,) and the tree was pee sed

accident happened to the slide, which sometimes took place, but which was instant-
ly repaired when it did.

order to show the enormous force which the trees acquired, rites the great
velocity of their descent, M. Rupp made arrangements for causing some of the trees

by accident, struck against another, it instantiy cleft it through its whole length,
as if it had “ struck with lightning.

*« After the trees had descended the slide, they were collected into rafts upon the
lake, 7s eonducted to Lucerne. From thence they descended the Reuss, then the
Aar to near Brugg, afterwards to Waldshut by the Rhine, then to Basle, and even

when necessary. In order that none aa - small wood me be lost,
M. ve established, in the forest, large m
zines for preserving it, and had ag eaoreeel for carrying it rs market.
in ies when the slide was covered with snow, the barrels were gal
scend on a kind of sledge. The wood which was not fit to be carbonized was he
ed up and burnt, and the ashes packed up and carried away during the winter.”

“Such is a brief account of a work undertaken by a single individual, and which

has excited a very high degree of interest in every part of Europe.

126 Economy of Nitechinery and Manufactures.

“ Professor — who visited this singular slide, states, that the usual time
occupied in the descent of a tree was six minutes; but that in wet weather, it
reached the lake in oo minutes.”

The manufacture of bobbin-net is carried to an almost incredible
extent; and such have been the improvements, in the machinery,
since that article was invented, that it is difficult which most to ad-
mire, the lightness and beauty of the fabric, the rapidity with which
it is made, or the low price at which it is sold. Mr. Babbage gives
a short history of its progress, and says—

‘‘ The bobbin-net trade is, at present, both extensive and increasing; and as it
may, probably, at some future time, claim a larger portion of public attention, it will
pee — ng to describe, briefly, its cost state

A lace frame, at the present day, on savet 5 improved principle, manufactur-
ing . pisces of net, two yards wide, when ot night — _ will produce six
hund y racks per week. A rack is twoyhund nd forty holes; and
as in the machine, to weiss we refer, three racks are saat in seth to one yard, it

rds of

working only in the day time, can prepare the bobbins for this machine, and are
paid from 2s. to 4s. per week, according to their skill. The total capital <i
in the manufactories ‘aed preparing os — in _ for weaving bobbin t, and”
in estimated at abo bove £2,000,000, eae
nuinber of | persons, who receive wages, at presi two hundred thousand.

“The following condensed view of the state of this trade is quoted from a state-
ment, made by Mr. Wm. Felkin, of Nottingham, in 1831.

Amount of Sea Island cotton, annually used, is one million six hundred thou-
sand see hae £120,000; this is manufactured into yarn, weighing one million
pounds, value £500,000. There are also used twenty five thousand pounds of raw
silk, aise a eeaen, and are doubled into twenty thousand pounds thrown,
worth £40,000.

“ Of this production about half is exported in the unembroidered ders er 2 sta
cipally, in the white; yet a large quantity is sent in the
embroidered abroad; and much is figured in the white, on the continent. ‘es tat
it is probable, that as much is figured abroad, as at home; and this principally, on
account of wages being lower there than here. The foreign embroidery is chiefly
done in Belgium, Saxony, and, until recently; & in Poland. The exports are, in great
part, to Hamburgh, for sale at home, and for the Leipzic and Frankfort fairs; to Ant-
werp and the rest of Belgium; to France, by contraband; to Italy; and to North
and South America. Three eighths of the whole production are sold unembroidered
at home, and the remaining one eighth is embroidered i in this country.

«* From this it appears, that in the operations of this trade, which had no existence
twenty years ago, £120,000 of original cost of cotton becomes, when manufactured,
of the ultimate value of £3,242,700 sterling.”

Mr. Babbage has some very interesting speculations and many
facts, on the position of large manufactories; on roads, canals, and
rivers; on combinations among workmen, and combinations among

Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. 127

masters, showing their, mutually, injurious tendency ; on the expor-
tation of machinery, and the emigration of workmen ; on the appli-
cation and duration of machinery, and on the effect of taxes, boun-
ties, and monopolies upon manufactures. . Each of these compre-
hend important principles; and the whole work is illustrated by tables,
facts and reasoning, relative to the economy of machinery and man-
_ ufactures.

An irresistible inference is deduced from the work, that a knowl-
edge of principles is important to statesmen and legislators, equally
with the philosophical student. While the latter unfolds the unknown
combinations of matter, detects: their practical uses, and contrives
new associations, contributing to the perfection of the arts and the
comforts of social life; the former should beware of impeding the
progress, or of obstructing the prosperity of such important interests.

If, in the concluding pages, -the author, departing from the world
of utilities, where we have, with pleasure and instruction, accompa-
nied his progress, indulges in visions of romance, and gravely views
Iceland and Ischia, in the obscure perspective of remote ages, fur-
nishing “steam power in exchange for the luxuries of happier cli-
mates ;” and ships, under water, navigating and exploring the bottom
of unknown seas, yet the master spirit soon subdues the spell—the
balance is soon readjusted in a mind, habitually, disciplined by the
exact calculations of mechanical philosophy. Dismissing the delu-
sive enthusiasm of poetical fancies, he sees, that “ the sun of science
has but penetrated the outer fold of nature’s majestic robe.” He
contemplates the undeniable evidences of design, in all the wonders
unveiled by modern learning, from the material portions of our plan-
et—the life which animates, and the intellectual beings which adorn
it—to the members. and motions of those kindred systems, wander-
ing, but not lost, “ in the remoteness of space, where the eye glad-
dens by their forms of beauty, and the faculties expand by decy-
_ phering their laws.”

Nor has science confined its benefits to the material world. It
has enlarged the range of intellectual achievement; it has aided the
faculty of reason, that choicest gifi of life, in “ subjugating the ex-
ternal world” to the use of man. It places before him incontestible
evidence, that our own material globe—the countless host of radiant
spheres, which traverse the boundless extent of space, that himself,
the greatest mystery, the ‘ master-piece of skill,” all are the work
of an Almighty Creator, who sustains and governs the universe by —
his own immutable laws,

128 Organic Remains of the

pias Xi peleniteene to the “Synopsis of the Sisienie
of the Ferruginous ‘Sand Formation of ihe United States ;” by
_ §. G. Morron, M. D.

(Continued from Vol. XXIII, p. 294.)

Tue recent discovery of the Middle Tertiary, or London clay
formation, in Alabama, completes the Tertiary series of the United
States; and this series, as we have before seen, is based, as in Eu-
rope, on the Cretaceous* group. No member of the Oolitic series
has yet been identified by fossils; and all our known formations
above the Medial order, are embraced in the following diagram; for

-our so called New Red Sandstone and Oolitic strata can have no
other than a hypothetical existence, until their organic characters are
established.

Alluvial.
modern ; Diluvial.

wie jw r Tertiary, (Up. Marine.)
Tertiary Middle Tertiary, (London Clay. )
Lower Tertiary, (Plastic Clay.)

‘ Calcareous Strata. ? Cretaceous group, or Ferrugin-
Secondary i Ferruginous Sand. ‘ ous Saint shied 3 ai
Although no known section exhibits all these strata in conjunction,

yet more or less of them are constantly observed in proximity. It

often happens that the ferruginous sand is covered only by alluvial
deposits, or by diluvial gravels and sand: near Wilmington, N. C. it
is immediately overlaid by the upper tertiary formation ; at Borden-

town, N. J. plastic clay forms the superincumbent mass; and if I~

may judge from the organic remains I have received from Alabama,
the secondary beds are surmounted by a vast deposit of middle ter-

tiary fossils, the analogues of those found in the calcaire grossier of

urope.

With respect to the basis on which the ferruginous sand rests, We:
as yet know nothing with certainty ; for although these strata have ¢

been penetrated nearly one hundred feet at the Chesapeake and

his term is now, with great propriety and by common consent, applied to the
whole Chalk formation, and of course embraces our a Sand.

Ferruginous Sand Formation. 129

Delaware Canal, they offer no answer to this question; nor, so far
as Iam informed, have any subjacent ss es of a different age,
been any where detected on this continent.

If it should be hereafter proved that the northern part of our
Cretaceous group rests on primitive rock, it will be similarly cir-
cumstanced to the same formation in Sweden, where, according to
Mr. Nilsson, the chalk is generally incumbent on gneiss. Again,
in the Carpathian Mountains, the chalk we granite are in immediate
contact.*

Mr. Conrad, who is now on a sedlogical tour in the Southern
states, has made some interesting observations near the town of Wil-
mington, N. C., which I shall give in his own words: “ At this place
I found the upper marine formation resting immediately on secondary
limestone, precisely like that you have described as overlying the
marl of New Jersey: it is in thin layers, and reposes on a hard
rock, which is the equivalent of the marl itself, as it abounds in
Exogyra costata and othér characteristic fossils. The calcareous
strata are said by intelligent persons here, to extend sixty miles up
Cape Fear River, and from its mouth coastwise as far north as Cape
Hatteras.”

It seems, therefore, that the calcareous and arenaceous strata of
the American cretaceous group, preserve, wherever they have been
examined, the same relative position as the white chalk and ferru-
ginous sand of Europe.

Mr. Conrad has also discovered an extensive basin of the calca-
reous deposit between Charleston and the Eutaw Springs, in South
Carolina ; and it will probably be found, especially in the Southern
states, to constitute by far the largest portion of the series, which
-latter would, in consequence, be more appropriately designated as
the Cretaceous group.

ORGANIC REMAINS.
CLAVAGELLA,

C. armata. (S.G.M.) Pl. IX, fig. 11.

Disk obtusely compressed, divided by an irregular fissure, and
armed with four or five tubular spines; two or three other spines be- ,

low the disk : bivalve, concentrically striated.

_ * De La Beche, Geolog. ae pp- 256, 262.
Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 17

130 - Organic Remains of the :

Found in New Jersey, and generically mentioned in the former

part of this Synopsis.
PECTEN.
P. membranosus. (S.G.M.) Pl. X, fig. 4
Convex, thin, with nearly an hundred delice coste, the alternate
ones being smaller. Diameter three fourths of an inch.

Found by Mr. Conrad in the calcareous strata of South Carolina.

P. calvatus. (S.G.M.) Pl. X, fi

Orbicular, thin, smooth, with obsolete radiating lines. Diameter
‘three fourths of an inch.

Occurs with the preceding species.

: OSTREA,

O. torosa, (S.G.M.) PI. X, fig. 1

Elongated, with strong squamous Souidinidiiind coste. = four
and a half inches.

Occurs in the blue marls of New Jersey. This i is species No. 3
of the former part of this Synopsis.

O. radians. (Conrad.) Fossil Shells, Pl. 13, fe. 1,

Oblong, compressed, lobed and flexuous on one side; ribs numer-
ous, radiated.

From the calcareous strata of the Southern states.

O. sellaformis. (Conrad.) Fossil Shells, Pl. 13, fig. 2.

Oblong, convex, thick and ponderous, lobed; one side of the
larger valve profoundly sinuous, and the opposite side gibbous. —

This and the preceding species were described by Mr. Conrad as
tertiary fossils; but the recent investigations of that geologist prove
them to be eheradtnsiatts of the calcareous. any strata of the
Southern states.

TEREBRATULA.

T. lachryma. (S.G.M.) Pl. X, fig. 11.
Ovato-triangular; beak produced, foramen large; both valves
marked by delicate longitudinal strie. Length half an inch.
From the calcareous s strata of South Carolina.
T. Harlani. (S.G. M
Var. discoidal. PL. IX, fig. 8.
This remarkable variety occurs with the ovoidal and rectilateral
forms at Ralph’s Mills, Burlington Co. N. J.
Var. rectilateral. Pl. IX, fig. 9.
The sides of this variety are often nearly parallel.

Ferruginous Sand Formation. - 131

| : CONUS.

C. gyratus. (S.G.M.) Pl. X, fig. 1

This fossil occurs in the si strata of the Southern states
but is rare.

BALANUS.
B. peregrinus. (S. G.M.) PI. X, fig. 5.
Occurs in the calcareous strata.
SPATANGUS.

S. angelée (S. G. M.) PI. X, fig. 6.

Very compressed, with five excavated ambulacra; apex central.

A cast from the Deep cut of the Chesapeake and Delawike Canal.

Diameter one inch.

ECHINUS.

E. infulatus. (S. G. M.) Pl. X, fig. 7.

Five pairs of tubercles running from mouth to apex, as they a
«proach the latter converging and becoming smaller: intermediately
are four other rows of tubercles, commencing at the mouth and ter-
minating just above the margin. Diameter three fourths of an inch.

_ Calcareous strata of South Carolina.
CLYPEASTER,

C. geometricus. (S.G. M.) Pl. X, fig. 9.

Hemispherical ; ambulacra elevated, formed of two pairs of lines,
connected by transverse strie: mouth stelliform, with five radiating
ridges that cross the margin and meet the ambulacra. Delaware
and Chesapeake Canal.

SCUTELLA.

s. crustuloides. (S. G. M.) PI. X, fig. 8

Sub-orbicular, thick, center elevated ; ieaiiodltt five, short, ellip-
tical. Diameter three fourths of an inch. Obtained (together with
all the calcareous species of this supplement) by my friend, Mr. T.
A. Conrad, in the Southern states. :

Explanation of Plates 1X and X.
PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Baculites orga Fig. 3. Cardita decisa.
2. Teredo tibi 4, Gryphea plicatella.

132

Fig. 5. Gryphea vomer.
6. Ostrea falcata.
Var. nasuta.
1. Idem.
Var. mesenterica.

Meteorological Observations.
Fig. 8. Terebratula Harlani.

Var. discoidal.
Idem.

Var. rectilateral.
10. Pholas cithara.

11. Clavagella armata.

9.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Ostrea torosa.

. Ostrea urticosa.
Pecten calvatus,

. Pecten membranosus.
. Balanus peregrinus.
6. Spatangus ungula.

7. Echinus infulatus.

Fig. 8. Scutella crustuloides.

9. Clypeaster geometricus.
10. Cidaretes diatretum.
11. Terebratula lachryma.
12. Clypeaster florealis.
13. Conus gyratus.

Arr. XII.—Abstract of Meteorological Observations, taken at Ma-
rietta, Ohio, with notices of Floods, Fruits, and flights of Pi-

geons; by S.P. Hivpreru, tn the year 1832. Lat. 39° 25’,

North, Long. 4° 28’, West of Washington City.
Sas RAIN.
Months, — S oF fag = 5 Pe a Prevailing winds. —
: g EIS] 2icl el Slels
{3 (fle (slelg| 2] Flgle

| S \2le (ele (8 2| Sigl2 |.
Jan 29.10|55|-9/64/14/26) 12) 19) 4550, ow. & s.w
February, 37.00/65) 4:61) 11 24 5 24 10/25\n. & N.w S.W.&S.E
March, 43.25/74) 8/66} 9118! 22} 9] 1133] n.«& N.w.—s. &s.W
April, 54.33)/84/30'54) 14) 4; 20) 10} 2100) =n. & N.z.—w.
May, (60.70'85|37/48) 3) 6) 18 13) 3116 $.8.W. & S.E.
June, 68.00)88)44/44/13/20, 21] 9} 2/85 S.W. & N.
July, '70.60/92)48/44/ 8/15) 24) 7| 3/08 S.8.W. & N
August, 69.33)88)45/43) 14/25) 20} 11] 7/92) s.w.—z.es.B

ptember, Spe itia LEE | 24| 6) 2108 S.8.W. & W.
October, ib4 |24'158/20/29| 22) 9| 2175 S.W.—N. & E.
November, 3.7 69/16}53) 3/25) 15) 15) 3/75 W.&S.W.
December 7/53)31/22) 13) 18} 466) = w.es.w
Mean, year, = 52.42 2161150}48/33!

Mean temperature for the year, 52.42°, being nearly two degrees
greater than last year, ‘but still about two less than the average tem-

perature of the seasons in this climate.

MEDBrown's Lith Phit

Meteorological Observations. 133

Total amount of rain and melted snow, 48.33 inches; two hun-
dred and sixteen fair and one hundred and fifty cloudy dave; _
eleven more fair days than in the year 1831.

: _— — serge for the winter months is 34.00°
% S-ppring= -* 52.76

i ad - oe eiamer® = =: 69.00
i es iT ec. “ autumn ce . 53.58

The winter being 8° warmer than that’of 1831, and the summer
24° cooler.

The amount: of snow in the winter of 1832-33 has been very
small, not over two or three inches, and our rivers nearly free of ice.

marks.—The winter of 1831-32 was one of great severity.
The cold being very intense over-the whole of the United States.
In the parallels north of 40°, the temperature was at several times
20° below zero, all through the valley of the Mississippi, from the
banks of that river to the southern extremity of Lake Erie. At
Marietta, a little south of this line, and lying a good many feet lower
on the banks of the Ohio, the mercury sunk to 10° below zero.

Flood in the valley of the Ohio.—About the middle of February,
the whole of the bottom lands on the Ohio, from its head waters to
the mouth, were inundated by the greatest flood know since the set-
tlement of the State. ‘The earth was covered with snow more than
a foot deep in the valleys, and three or four feet deep on the moun-
tains and uplands at the heads of the river. ‘The weather suddenly
became warmer about the 10th of the month, with southerly winds
attended with thunder and discharges of rain so copious that eight
inches fell in the course of a week. The flood was at its height in
Pittsburgh, Penn., early on the 11th day of the month, and at the
falls of Ohio, on the 19th, averaging in its progress about one hun-
dred miles to each twenty four hours. As the mighty flood rolled on
its course, it received continual accessions from all the tributaries ly-
ing on its northern and southern borders. Each one of these, swelled
by the continual rains, would in some regions be viewed as majestic
rivers, rushing and foaming with impetuous haste to add their strength
to that vast ocean of waters, which now swept over the fair valley
of the Ohio, bearing on its bosom, the ruins of many a village and
the productions of a thousand farms. The damage cannot be es-
timated at less than a million of dollars. ‘The water was from five to
six feet higher than any former flood since that of 1784, which was
about the same height as this; ieticnek plasemn pene behre any

134 Fruits—Flight, &c. of Pigeons.

settlements were made north of the river. It is stated by the early
settlers about Wheeling, that, in the year 1772, there was a flood in
the spring of that year, the waters of which were five feet higher
than those of 1832. The evidences they give in proof are such as
cannot be doubted, and will go far to rank this flood with the cele-
brated one of Deucalion, as rehearsed by the ancient Grecian poets,
and which, if it should be repeated in these days, would sweep palace
and cottage from their foundations, in every town, and hamlet on the
shores of our beautiful river.

Fruits, §&c.—The spring was very cold and backward, so that half
that season was passed before the winter had fairly left us. Peach
trees, where the cold had spared them, did not blossom until the
middle of April, and apples not until the 25th, which is twenty days
later than is common to this locality. It is with us pretty well estab-
‘lished as a maxim, that “the colder the winter, the more backward
the ensuing spring,” and “the later the spring, the greater the certain-
ty of a fine crop of fruit,” as was demonstrated in the productions of
the year 1832, and of other previous years, when after an intensely
cold winter and backward spring, many kinds of fruit were very
abundant, and, indeed, all kinds, excepting such as were killed in
the bud by the severity of the cold. All the fruit-bearing forest
trees brought forth in the greatest profusion; so that the quantities
of acorns and nuts were scarcely ever equalled; the earth being —
literally covered with acorns, and the boughs of the trees bending
and breaking with their loads of fruit. Hogs were well fattened
without the aid-of corn, and the “golden age,” so much lamented
pi poets, as lost, actually returned to all the inhabitants of the

al :

Flight and bivouac of pigeons. —The Columba migratoria, L., or
wild pigeon, seems to have possessed early intelligence of this happy
state of things, for our woods, since autumn, have been literally filled
with countless multitudes of these interesting travellers.. Through the
whole winter, immense flocks are seen passing out in the morning to
their feeding grounds, amongst the hills, in quest of acorns, and return-
ing every evening to their grand camp, which, for this part of Ohio, is
established on the head waters of the Little Hockhocking, in a broken
and wilderness region, twenty five miles south westerly from Marietta.
This camp covers a tract of more than three miles square, The tim-
ber trees, over the greater part of this extent, are nearly all destroyed.
Trees of eighteen inches in diameter are broken down or turned out

Flight, &c. of Pigeons. 135

by the roots. The branches of others are broken off, leaving only
the naked stem. From dusk until an hour or more after dark, im-
mense flocks continually arrive, from every quarter of the heavens,
and it requires the greatest care, on the part of those who visit the
camp to kill or to capture the pigeons, to avoid the fall of the limbs
and branches of the trees, which are continually dropping through the
whole night. When, as the flocks arrive, a branch or a tree is filled,
the pigeons still continue to accumulate upon the backs of each other,
until the branch or the whole tree gives way, when they seek a new
spot, to repeat the same thing. In the night, a great many are taken
by hand from the low bushes, on which they alight, when forced from
the higher trees. The earth is covered with their excrements to the
depth of three or four inches, which would be, if within their reach,
a-source of wealth to the melon growers of Egypt; as they use the
dung of doves, in preparing the earth for their finest melons. The
encamping ground, being several miles from any settlement, wolves
and foxes, visiting the spot to feast on the disabled’ and wounded
pigeons, are very numerous here. I have the above facts from a
man who visited the place at night, and, in a few hours, killed and
brought away three hundred pigeons. In the morning, they leave
the. camp about sunrise—the rustling of their wings, as they depart,
roaring like thunder, and filling the auditors with awe and astonish-
ment. It is nearly three months since they began roosting in this
place, and for the last two, the spot has been visited nearly every
night, by the inhabitants for many miles around, and thousands of the
pigeons have been killed. ‘The abundance of nuts has caused them’
to be very fat, and excellent food. The situation is hilly, wild and se-
questered, full of laurel thickets, and high projecting cliffs of sandstone
rocks, under which the hunters kindle fires and spend the night, af-
fording a picturesque scene for the pen of a Cooper or a Scott.
Marietta, Feb. 1, 1833.

P.S. Strata connected with the salt of the West, named in the
table in Dr. Hildreth’s paper, p. 57.—By a letter received from
Dr. Hildreth, since the printing of his paper on the salt formation of
the West, we learn, that the strata are composed chiefly of sand-—
stone, schistus, and indurated clay of different colors ; 3 and that the
argillite is called by the workmen soapstone.

Quere.—Are not the indurated sap d similar slaty
clays, called, in the popular language—soapstone? ?>—Ed.

136 | Flight, &c. of Pigeons.

Although the eloquent account of the Passenger Pigeon, given by
Wilson in his Ornithology, is well known ; still, so much of it as re~
lates to the flight, and to the roosting and breeding places of the pi-
geon, will form a very appropriate sequel to the notice of Dr. Hil-
dreth, especially, as the two accounts are separated by an interval
of more than twenty years, and we are thus enabled to see, how far
time and the increasing population ¢ the western states have ie
enced the state of facts.—En.

The most remarkable characteristic of these birds is their associa-
ting together, both in their migrations and also during the period of
incubation, in such prodigious numbers as almost to surpass belief;
and which has no parallel among any other of the feathered tribes,
on the face of the earth, with which naturalists are acquainted.

These migrations appear to be undertaken rather in quest of food,
than merely to avoid the cold of the climate; since we find them
lingering in the northern regions around Hudson’s Bay so late as
December ; and since their appearance is so casual and irregular;
sometimes not visiting certain districts for several years in any con-

‘siderable numbers, while at other times they are innumerable. I
have witnessed these migrations in the Genessee country—often in
Pennsylvania, and also in various parts of Virginia, with amazement;
but all that I had then seen of them were mere straggling parties,
when compared with the congregated millions which I have since
beheld in our western forests, in the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and
the Indiana territory. These fertile and extensive regions abound
with the nutritious beech nut, which constitutes the chief food of the
wild pigeon. In seasons when these nuts are abundant, correspond-
ing multitudes of pigeons may be confidently expected. It some-
times happens that having consumed the whole produce of the beech
trees in an extensive district, they discover another at the distance
perhaps of sixty or eighty miles, to which they regularly repair every
morning, and return as regularly in the course of the day, or in the
evening, to their place of general rendezvous, or as it is usually call-
ed, the roosting place. These roosting places are always in the
woods, and sometimes occupy a large extent of forest. When they
have frequented one of these places for some time, the appearance
it exhibits is surprising. ‘The ground is covered to the depth of sev-
eral inches with their dung ; all the tender grass and underwood de-
stroyed ; the surface strewed with large limbs of trees broken down

Flight, &c. of Pigeons. 137

by the weight of the birds clustering one above another; and the
trees themselves, for thousands of acres, killed as completely as if
girdled with an axe. The marks of this desolation remain for many
years on the spot; and numerous places could be pointed out where
for several years after, scarce a single vegetable made its appearance.

When these roosts are first discovered, the inhabitants from con-
_ siderable distances visit them in the night, with guns, clubs, long
poles, pots of sulphur, and various other engines of destruction. In
a few hours they fill many sacks, and load their horses with them.
By the Indians a pigeon roost, or breeding place, is considered an
important source of national profit and dependence for that season ;
and all their active ingenuity is exercised on the occasion. The
breeding place differs from the former in its greater extent. In the
western countries above mentioned, these are generally in beech
woods, and often extend in nearly a straight line across the country
for a great way. Not far from Shelbyville, in the state of Ken-
tucky, about five years ago, there was one of these breeding places,
which stretched through the woods in nearly a north and south direc-
tion ; was several miles in breadth, and was said to be upwards of
forty miles in extent! In this tract almost every tree was furnished
with nests, wherever the branches could accommodate them. The
pigeons made their first appearance there about the tenth of April,
and left it altogether, with their young, before the twenty fifth of May.

' As soon as the young were fully grown, and before they left the
nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants, from all parts of the ad-
jacent country, came with waggons, axes, beds, and cooking utensils,
many of them accompanied by the greater part of their families,
and encamped for several days at this immense nursery. Several
of them informed me, that the noise in the woods was so great as
to terrify their horses, and that it was difficult for one person to hear
another speak without bawling in his ear. The ground was strewed |
with broken limbs of trees, eggs, and squab pigeons, which had
been precipitated from above, and on which herds of hogs were
fattening. Hawks, buzzards and eagles were sailing about in great |
numbers, and seizing the squabs from their nests at pleasure ; while
from twenty feet upwards to the tops of the trees, the view through
the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and fluttering
multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder; mingled
with the frequent crash of falling timber; for now the axe-men were
~~ Cutting down those trees that seemed to be most crowded

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. 18

j

138 Flight, &c. of Pigeons.

with nests, and contrived to fell them in such a manner, that in their
descent they might bring down several others; by which means the
falling of one large tree sometimes produced two hundred squabs,
little inferior in size to the old ones, and almost one mass of fat. On
some single trees upwards of one hundred nests were found, each
containing one young only, a circumstance in the history of this bird
not generally known to naturalists. It was dangerous to walk under
these flying and fluttering millions, from the frequent fall of large
branches, broken down by the weight of the multitudes above, and
which in their descent often destroyed numbers of the birds them-
selves; while the clothes of those engaged in traversing the woods
were completely covered with the excrements of the pigeons.
These circumstances were related to me by many of the most
respectable part of the community in that. quarter; and were con-
firmed in part by what I myself witnessed. I passed for several
miles through this same breeding place, where every tree was spot-
ted with nests, the remains of those above described. In many in-
stances I counted upwards of ninety nests on a single tree; but the
pigeons had abandoned this place for another, sixty or eighty miles
off towards Green river, where they were said at that time to be
equally numerous. From the great numbers that were constantly
passing over head to or from that quarter, I had no doubt of the
truth of this statement. ‘The mast had been chiefly consumed in
Kentucky, and the pigeons, every morning a little before sunrise,
set out for the Indiana territory, the nearest part of which was about
sixty miles distant. Many of these returned before ten o’clock, and
the great body generally appeared on their return a little after noon.
Thad left the public road to visit the remains of the breeding
place near Shelbyville, and was traversing the woods with my gun,
on my way to Frankfort, when about one o’clock the pigeons, which
I had observed flying the greater part of the morning northerly, be-.
gan to return in such immense numbers as I never before had wit-
nessed. Coming to an opening by the side of a creek called the
Benson, where J had a more uninterrupted view, I was astonished
at their appearance. They were flying with great steadiness and
rapidity, at a height beyond gun shot, in several strata deep, and
so close together that could shot have reached them, one discharge
could not have failed of bringing down several individuals. From
right to left far as the eye could reach, the breadth of this vast pro-
cession extended ; seeming every where equally crowded. . Curious

Flight, &c. of Pigeons. 139

to determine how long this appearance would continue, I took out
my watch to note the.time, and sat down to observe them. It was
then half past one. I sat for more than an hour, but instead of a
diminution of this prodigious procession, it seemed rather to increase
both in numbers and rapidity; and, anxious to-reach Frankfort be-
fore night, I rose and went on. About four o’clock in the afternoon
I crossed the Kentucky river, at the town of Frankfort, at which
time the living torrent above my head seemed as numerous and as
extensive as ever. Long after this I observed them, in large bodies
that continued to pass for six or eight minutes, and these again were
followed by other detached bodies, all moving in the same south east
direction till after six in the evening. The great breadth of front
which this mighty multitude preserved would seem to intimate a
corresponding breadth of their breeding place, which by several
gentlemen who had lately passed through part of it, was stated to
me at several miles. It was said to be in Green county, and that
the young began to fly about the middle of March. On the seven-
teenth of April, forty nine miles beyond Danville, and not far from
Green river, I crossed this same breeding place, where the nests for
more than three miles spotted every tree; the leaves not being yet
out, I had a fair prospect of them, and was really astonished at their
numbers. A few bodies of pigeons lingered yet in different parts
of the woods, the roaring of whose wings was heard in various
quarters around me.

All accounts agree in stating, that each nest contains only one*
squab. This is so extremely fat, that the Indians, and many of the
whites, are accustomed to melt down the fat for domestic purposes
as a substitute for butter and lard. At the time they leave the nest
they are nearly as heavy as the old ones; but become much leaner
after they are turned out to shift for dicineslieens strech

At is universally asserted in the western countries, that the sae
though they have only one young at a time, breed thrice and some-
times four times in the same season; the circumstances already
mentioned render this highly probable. It is also worthy of obser-
vation, that this takes place during that period when acorns, beech
nuts, &c. are scattered about in the greatest abundance and mellow-
ed by the frost. But they are not confined to these alone; buck-

' ™ The editor of the second edition of Wilson’s Ornithology states, tha’ bee
Rts Sonera asec sige. :

140 Flight, &c. of Pigeons.

wheat, hemp seed, Indian corn, holly berries, hack berries, whortle
berries, and many others, furnish them with abundance at almost all
seasons. ‘The acorns of the live oak are also eagerly sought after
by these birds, and rice has been frequently found in individuals
killed many hundred miles to the northward of the nearest rice
plantation. The vast quantity of mast which these multitudes con-
sume is a serious loss to the bears, pigs, squirrels and other depen-
dents on the fruits of the forest. Ihave taken from the crop of a
single wild pigeon, a good handful of the kernels of beech nuts, in-
termixed ‘with acorns and chesnuts. ‘To form a rough estimate of
the daily consumption of one of these immense flocks, let us first
attempt to calculate the numbers of that above mentioned, as seen
in passing between Frankfort and the Indiana territory. If we sup-
pose this column to have been one mile in breadth, (and I believe it
to have been much more,) and that it moved at the rate of one mile
in a minute ; four hours, the time it continued passing, would make
its whole length two hundred and forty miles. Again, supposing that
each square yard of this moving body comprehended three pigeons;
the square yards in the whole space multiplied by three, would give
two thousand two hundred and thirty millions, two hundred and sev-
enty two thousand pigeons! An almost inconceivable multitude, and
yet probably far below the actual amount. Computing each of these
to consume half a pint of mast daily, the whole quantity at this rate
would equal seventeen millions, four hundred and twenty four thou-
sand bushels per day! Heaven has wisely and graciously given to
these birds rapidity of flight and a disposition to range over vast un~
cultivated tracts of the earth; otherwise they must have perished in
the districts where they susie, or devoured - whole semen
of agriculture as well as those of the forests

A few observations on the mode of flight of these birds must not
be omitted. The appearance of large detached bodies of them in
the air, and the various evolutions they display, are strikingly pie-
turesque and interesting. In descending the Ohio by myself in the
month of February, I often rested ‘on my oars to contemplate their
aerial manceuvres. A column, eight or ten miles in length, would
appear from Kentucky, high in air, steering across to Indiana. ‘The
leaders of this great body would sometimes gradually vary their
course, until it formed a large bend of more than a mile in diame-
ter, those ‘behind tracing the exact route of their predecessors.
This would continue sometimes long after both extremities were be-

Flight, §c. of Pigeons. 141

yond the reach of sight, so that the whole, with its glittery undula~
tions, marked a space on the face of the heavens resembling the
windings of a vast and majestic river. When this bend became
very great, the birds, as if sensible of the unnecessary circuitous
course they were taking, suddenly changed their direction, so that
what was in column before became an immense front, straightening
all its indentures, until it swept the heavens in one vast and infinitely
extended line. Other lesser bodies also united with each other, as
they happened to approach, with such ease and elegance of evolu-
tion, forming new figures, and varying these as they united or sepa-
rated, that I was never tired of contemplating them. Sometimes a
hawk would make a sweep on a particular part of the column, from
a great height, when, almost as quick as lightning, that part shot
downwards out of the common track; but soon rising again, con-
tinued advancing at the same height as before; this inflection was
continued by those behind, who on arriving at this point dived down,
almost perpendicularly, to a great depth, and rising followed the ex-
‘act path of those that went before. As these vast bodies passed
over the river near me, the surface of the-water, which was before
smooth as glass, appeared marked with innumerable dimples, occa-
sioned by the dropping of their dung, resembling the -commence-
ment of a shower of large drops of rain or hail. .

Happening to go ashore one charming afternoon, to purchase
some milk at a house that stood near the river, and while talking
with the people within doors, I was suddenly struck with astonish-
ment at a loud rushing roar, succeeded by instant darkness, which,
on the first moment, I took for a tornado about to overwhelm the
house and every thing around in destruction. The people observ-
ing my surprise, coolly said, “It is only the pigeons ;” and on run-
ning out I beheld a flock, thirty or forty yards in width, sweeping
along very low, between the house and the mountain or height that
formed the second bank of the river. These continued passing for
more than a quarter of an hour, and at length varied their bearing

_S0 as to pass over the mountain, behind which they disappeared be-
fore the rear came up.

142 Chemical Action by Electrical Induction, &c.

Arr. XIIl.— Chemical Action and Decomposition of Water, produ-
ced by Electrical Induction. Communicated by M. Hacuerre to
the Academy of Sciences, Oct. 8, 1832. Translated and condens-
ed from the Annales de Chim. et de Phys., Sept., 1832 ; by Ouver
P. Hussarp, Assistant in the Chemical Dsparnedk in Yale
College.

Mr. Farapay remarks, in his memoir of Nov. 24, 1831, that he
failed to produce chemical effects by the electrical currents of induc-
tion, and expresses the belief that they may be obtained by more pow-
erful magnets than he used, and that future researches will identify
the effects of the ordinary electrical currents and those of induction.

M. Pixii has verified this opinion by the following experiment;
he mounted a horse shoe magnet upon the end of the shaft of a lathe
and, by a treadle, caused it to revolve with its faces parallel to those
of a piece of soft iron bent into the form of a horse shoe, and wound
with a copper wire, covered with silk, the two ends of which commu-
nicated with two other metallic wires that passed through the bottom
of a vessel filled with water, and each wire rose into a glass tube shaped
like an inverted bell (cloche.) ‘The water in the vase and in the
tubes formed but one mass.

When the magnet turns, it acts by induction upon the soft magne-
tized iron, upon the silk bound wire, and upon the two wires placed
in the tubes.

Water is decomposed at the extremities of the latter wires, and the
two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, rise to the top of each tube.

This experiment proves, 1. that the simultaneous action of the
positive and negative electricities is not necessary to the chemical
decomposition . of water, and 2. that a an action, the intermission © of
which is only i

These conclusions accord with previous “observitions made upon
the decomposition of water by the Voltaic pile.

This decomposition takes place, although the moist or fluid ele-
ments of the pile differ in their conducting powers.

It is conceived, therefore, that the water opposes a force of inertia
to the electrical action which tends to produce decomposition, and
that to overcome this inertia, a current of electricity, uninterrupted
to its source, must act upon the water a certain time before the fluid
is decomposed. ‘The electrical currents of induction appear to act
like the constant electrical currents of the Voltaic pile, the metallic
plates of which are separated by an imperfect fluid conductor. In

Chemical Action by Electrical Induction, ge. 143

this case, when the plates are separated by layers of starch, slightly
moistened, dry piles are produced which act a long time and vhaye
the condenser, and do not decompose water.

The electrical currents of these piles may be constant and still
their tension be too much diminished to produce chemical action like
the decomposition of water.

The magnet used by M. Pixii, for ss decomposition of water, is
formed by joining two others. Each of these supports alone twelve
and a half kilog. (27.5 lbs.) and they weigh together four slags
(8.8 lbs.

The shaft of the lathe revolves at least six times in a second. The
decomposition of the water is increased with the rapidity of the rev-
olution of the magnet.

The piece of soft iron, wound with copper wire, is circular, a
its diameter four centimetres, (1.57 inches,) height twenty centime-
tres, (7.87 inches,) bent into a horse shoe form, with parallel arms,
distant eleven centimetres, (4.33 inches,) reckoned from the center
of each circular end; the silk wire four hundred metres (437.5 yds.)
long, and weighs two kilog. (4.41 lbs

2. Of the Electro-Magnetic disc of M. Arago.

M. A. has demonstrated, (memoir of March, 1825,) 1. that a me-
tallic disc turning upon its axis, either above or below'a magnetic
needle, in the sphere of the magnetic action of the needle, causes it
to deviate from its natural position: 2. that the deviation begins and
ends with the rotary motion of the disc.

Mr. Faraday, (memoir before cited,) discovered that in this exper-
iment the movable disc is electrified.

- Lhave attempted to decompose water by electricity communicated
to the disc. In the apparatus of M. Pixii just described, I substitu-
ted for the magnet a circular disc of copper, and for the wire-wound
piece of soft iron, which is useless, a magnet. The ends of the
wire of the multiplier were made to communicate with the circular
disc, and to secure a perfect contact, each of the ends was terminated
by a small plate of copper amalgamated with mercury, and one of
the flat edges of the disc was also amalgamated.

_ The: plates of the wire of the multiplier were secured before the
poles of the fixed magnet, at the extremities of the diameter of the
disc parallel to the straight line, (a la droite,) which joins the poles.

The plane of the disk is on a level with the poles of the magnet
without touching them; the plates of copper resting against the flat

144 Current by the Rotation of a Magnet.

edge of the disc farthest from the magnet, rub upon it while the
disc turns, and the rotary motion is caused by a treadle. When the
disc revolves about six times in a second, the needle of the multiplier
deviates from its natural position at an angle of about 30°.

On joining the copper disk with sninchibe of iron of the same di-
ameter, no change was perceived in the deviation. ‘The experiment
was repeated with a more powerful magnet, weighing twenty kilog.
(44.11 lbs.) and sustaining one hundred kilog. (220.5 Ibs.) but the
tension of the electricity of the revolving disc was not increased.
The diameter of the first disc was eleven centimetres, (4.3 inches,)
that of the second seventeen centimetres, (6.7 inches.)

It appears that copper acts under the influence of a magnet, as a
steel bar tempered and magnetized, under that of an electrical cur-
rent—it is known that the current, whatever may be the power of the
Voltaic battery, does not sensibly increase the force of a magnet of
_— steel.

Arr. XIV.—M. Ampere’s communication to the Academy of Sciences
upon an experiment of M. Picxii relative to a Current produced
by the Rotation of a Magnet with an improved apparatus, Oct.
29,1832. Translated from the Annales de Chim. et de Phys.,
Sept., 1832; by Orrver P. Hussarp, Assistant in the Chemical
Department i in Yale College.

M. Hacuerre has reported the experiments made with an appara-
tus: constructed by M. Pixii, for pense an electrical current, by
ce to face, witha fixed horse shoe
of soft i iron, the latter b being ea with a silk-bound copper wire 5
after having obtained vivid sparks with an apparatus, i in which the mag-
net supported thirty livres, (33 lbs.) and the wire around it made five
hundred turns, a magnet supporting more than one hundred kilog-
(220.5 lbs.) and wound with a wire of one thousand metres, (1093.6
ydse) was used and the following effects were produced. 1. Vivid
sparks: 2. Shocks of considerable force: 3. A numbness and invol-
untary movements of the fingers, when immersed in vessels of acidu-
lated water with which the ends of the wires communicated: 4. A
great divergence of the gold leaves in the condenser of Volta: 5. A
rapid d ecomposition of water, previously mixed with a little sulphuric
acid to increase its conducting power.
In these different experiments the current took place in the con-
ducting wire in a different direction at each semi-revolution of the

Current by the Rotation of a Magnet. 145

magnet ; for instance in the decomposition of water, the oxygen was,
disengaged at first in one tube and the hydrogen in the other; at the
next semi-revolution the hydrogen was evolved in the first, and the
oxygen in the second ; of course the two gases were er in each
tube.

To obtain them separate, M. Pixii a to this apparatus the
bascule, which M. Ampere invented to change the currents in his
electro-dynamic experiments. The bascule’ in this new apparatus
supports a rod, upon which rests a semi-circle attached to the mag-
net, and which holds the bascule depressed on one side during a semi-
revolution of the magnet, and during the next semi-revolution, the
bascule becomes free, and is depressed on the other side by a spring.

On the first trial of this arrangement, the bascule plunged alter-
nately into the troughs filled with mercury, like the bascules of M.
Ampere ; but when the movement became rapid, the mercury was so
powerfully agitated as to leap: out of the troughs.

M. Pixii obviated this inconvenience by substituting, for the mer-
cury, small plates of copper, amalgamated upon the surface to render
more perfect their contact with the points of the bascules which strike
them alternately. By this ingenious arrangement, _ the electric cur-
rent, in the part of the conducting wire beyond the bascule, takes
place always i in the same direction; whence it follows that oxygen
alone is disengaged in one of the titiek and hydrogen in the" bene
and the two gases are obtained separate.

It is worthy of remark, that all the other circumstances remaining
the same, the decomposition of the water becomes more rapid in
this case than when the electric current is alternating ; which is, prob-
ably, owing to the molecules of the water being previously and prop-
erly disposed for decomposition ; whereas, when the current is alter-
nating, it is necessary that they turn themselves at each semi-revolu-
tion of the magnet.

As to the sparks and shocks, and the action upon the leaves of the
electroscope, they are alike produced by a current in the same di-
rection and the alternating current, since all these phenomena result
from an instantaneous action of electricity developed in the conduct-
ing wire, sufficient to charge the condenser as far as the tension wd

the current permits.

Prof. Emmet had not seen the articles, on electro-magnetism, contained in the
nine last Nos. of the Ann. de Chit. ae Ph Se en
proof of his paper passed through his

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. “49

146 Revolving Electric Magnet.

‘ Notice of the Revolving Electric Magnet of M. Piru, of Paris, n
a letter from Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson, to the Editor, dated
New York, Dec. 25, 1832.

As the preceding papers have no plates to illustrate the descrip-
tions, we take the liberty to insert an extract from a letter of Dr.
Jackson to the Editor, accompanied by a figure of an apparatus which
we suppose to be, substantially, the same as that by which water was
decomposed ; the principal difference appears to have consisted in
the greater strength of the magnet used to produce the chemical
effects, and in the mode in which the rotation is produced. En.

While in Paris, I examined, with Mr. Pixii, a new instrument,
lately invented by his son. It may be called a. Magnetico-electrie
machine. As Mr. Pixii deposited a description of this machine at
the Academy of Sciences, I have a right to give you some account of
it. This machine is a curious invention destined to show the identity
of electricity and magnetism, and may, perhaps, in the course of time,
supersede the use of the common electric machine and galvanic pile.
The annexed sketch will, perhaps, suffice to give you some notion
of the construction of Pixii’s machine. The one he exhibited was,
however, of a different form from that figured here, but as Mr. P.
proposed to mount one in this manner, I give it as 1 meron he will
construct one.

- “A, a horse shoe magnet, ocean of six pieces, ieitaable of sup-
porting fifty pounds weight. B, a horse shoe multiplicator of soft
iron, wound with wire, covered with silk, at the extremities. ‘These
wires are prolonged as poles, ¢, ¢’, one of which is plunged into a cup

Revolving Electric Magnet. 147

of mercury, and the other brought close to the surface of the mer-
cury. d, d’, wheels and a band to cause the magnet to rotate on its
axis e.. F’, F’, table to support the machinery.

“The magnet should be armed with its connecting bar, which
should come close to the extremities#df the multiplicator without
touching it. When the magnet is made to revolve and the extremity
of the poles are approximated as above directed; there is a con-
stant current of electricity, which becomes visible to the eye, a spark
like a twinkling star being given off from the pole brought near the
surface of the mercury. The spark is accompanied by an audible
erackling sound, and is easily seen even by day light. J tried to
take a shock from the wires but the intensity of the spark was not
sufficiently great to produce any commotion. When one of the
wires is placed on and the other under the tongue, there is a strong
metallic taste, like.that produced by pieces of silver and zine placed
in a similar manner when brought in contact.

‘It would appear, then, that the quantity of electricity is great,
but its intensity feeble. If we were able to produce a sufficiently
strong magnet, there can be no, doubt that this steady current of
electricity, given off without any expense of acid se _ diminution
of intensity, might be of practical utility i in the arts.”

Experinents in the Laboratory of Yale College. —Sparks and
Shocks from the Magnet.

Two magnets have been made, under my direction, by Messrs. Brad-
ley & Merriman, of this place, (New Haven,) upon the plan of Prof.
Emmet, as described in the present number of this Journal, p. 78.

ese magnets consist, each, of nine plates, seven eighths of an
inch wide, a little more than one eighth of an inch thick, and thirteen
inches long, all united by a screw which perforates them. ‘They are
in the usual horse shoe form, and the space between the poles is three
inches. They are capable of supporting over twenty pounds each.

The armature or keeper, which is in the form of a flat bar, is six
inches long, seven eighths of an inch wide, and three eighths of an
inch thick. It perforates two wheels or disks of plate brass, each of
three inches and a half diameter, and covered with silk on the inside
and with shell lac varnish on the outside.

These disks, when the armature, or keeper is in them, ncaa
resemble wheels on an axletree ; they are placed at the distance of
three sixteenths of an inch from the poles of the magnet, when the
keeper rests in such a position as to divide the distance equally.

148 Revolving Electric Magnet.

Around the keeper, between the disks, are wound six hundred
and twenty feet of copper wire covered with silk in one magnet, and
four hundred and seventy five feet in the other.

The ends of the wire are connected, the one with the heonths a
the other with the inside of ane of the poles of the magnet, and also
two-other wires proceed, the one from the keeper and the other from
the outside of one pole of the magnet, in the manner of Mr. Emmet,
except that thumb screws, are added to make the metallic connection
more perfect. Thése magnets give small, but brilliant sparks when
the keeper is slid horizontally off, especially when it is done witha
sudden and rapid motion ; in the dark, the spark was very vivid, and
exhibited the party colored hues of lightning. The best sparks were
obtained between the keeper and the poles of the magnet, and were
observed at the moment when the connection was broken. The
sparks from the points of the connecting wires were much more fee-
ble. ‘The shocks from these wires were felt distinctly in the finger —
joints, and were very decided,and even painful, when the wires were
connected with-the tongue. Usually, the flash of light was not observ-
ed when the connection was made through the tongue only ; with the
stronger of these two magnets, however, this effect was observed; and
when the wires of the weaker magnet were placed, one under the
tongue and the other between the upper lip and gum, the flash was dis-
tinct ; but it never failed with either, when one wire was laid on the
tongue and the other was made to touch the eye ball. As it was not
quite convenient to move a wire around the eye, a small disk of copper
(as large asa wauteas and a a half cent piece,) was apldered to the remote
end of one of th cting wires; when, to’th ened eye ball of
the closed eye, this disk was ppl d and the other wire touched to the
tongue, at the moment when the keeper was slid off, a flash was per-
ceived as brilliant as lightning, and the whole of that side of the face
received a.convulsive twitch. All these effects, the spark, the shock
and the flashes of light, were perceived, without apparent diminution,
when the discharging wires were made to take-a circuit of one hundred
and fifty feet, and the poles for discharge were made to meet in the
middle of this distance, that is, seventy five feet from the magnet—the
shocks through the fingers were very strong. It is a battery, always
charged, and whooe energy is independent of chemical teoncy: Eb.

Electro-Galvanic Effects.

It may perhaps be worth mentioning, that in -using the great gal-
vanic magnet of Prof. Henry, which is excited by a small galvanic

°
Analysis of the water of Rio Vinagre. 149

battery, and is nothing but soft unmagnetic iron,* wound around with
insulated copper wire, a spark was perceived, this season, in the lab-
oratory, of Yale College, when the armature was forcibly drawn up
to the horse shoe, at the instant of the immersion of the battery, and
when the magnet easily took up one thousand and four hundred
pounds, and even retained it until the battery was nearly out of the
acid. It sustained, for a few minutes, from five to six hundred pounds
when, after immersion, the acid was entirely withdrawn. ‘
The deflagrator of Dr: Hare, (that with one hundred and sixty
coils,) readily and vividly ignited charcoal at the distance of one hun-
red feet from the instrument, and when the two charcoal points
formed the poles in the middle of a wire of three hundred feet cir-
cuit. At the same place, an unmagnetical needle, placed in a helix
and connected with the poles at the moment of immersion, became
instantly a peers magnet.

Arr. XV.—Analysis of the water of Rio Vinagre ; by M. Bous-
apes Translated from the Annales de Chim. et de Phys.
Sept. 1832; by Orrver P. Husparn, Assistant i in ‘the ‘Chemical
Deposit in Yale College.

_ Tue waters of the river Pasambio, near Popayan, are acid, and
it is therefore called by the natives Rio Vinagre, or river of vinegar.
It arises near the craters of the volcano of Puracé, at an elevation
of about twelve thousand nine hundred feet. The torrent runs to the
village of Puracé, in a subterranean channel, and at the Chorrera of
St. Antonio, where alone it can be conveniently approached, it makes
a beautiful cascade of three hundred feet, into a vast amphitheatre,
Cut in-trachyte, and a few miles below, after receiving the torrent of
the Anambio, it empties into the Cauca. From the village of Pu-
racé, the visitor can, without much difficulty, descend to the foot of
the Chorrera; but it is painful to remain, on account of the constant
shower of acidulous water, which occasions in the eyes an insupport-
able: prickling. Its width below the falls is seventy two feet; aver-
age depth, four inches; current, three feet per second.

The water of the Rio Vinagre is perfectly limpid;. its ee

1.0015; taste very acid and astringent, indicating an aluminous salt ;
reddens litmus speedily, even after being boiled a long time 3 with

N deseription see vol. xix of this Journal, and ie ii of the Yale Col-
age Elements of Spent.

2 °
150 Analysis of the water of Rio Vinagre.

zine filings, produces hydrogen gas. ‘The reagents indicate sulphu-
ric and hydrochloric (muriatic) acids, with lime and alumina, and
traces of iron and magnesia.

— results of an analysis at Puracé, April, 1831 422

_grammes* of the water gave, with nitrate of silver, 2.01 grs. of
chloride of silver, equivalent to 0.384 gr. hydrochloric acid. _ 422
grammes, treated by chloride of barium, gave 1.35 gr. sulphate
barytes, containing 0.464 gr. sulphuric acid.

422 grammes, concentrated by evaporation, were treated with
caustic ammonia, and gave a precipitate of alumina weighing 0.17 gr.
which contained traces of iron and magnesia; from the fluid, depri-
ved of the alumina, oxalate of ammonia precipitated lime ; the oxa-
late of lime, changed into a carbonate, weighed 0.10 gr., Containing
0.056 gr. lime ; the liquid was now evaporated and the ammoniacal
salts driven off, and there was a residuum of alkaline salts of soda
these were changed to a sulphate; the ‘sulphate of soda weighed
0.13 gr., but in dissolving in water lost 0.01 gr. of silex, _ was
thus reduced to 0.12 gr., representing 0.05 gr. of soda.

The water of the Rio Vinagre “ree according to this analysis, —

Sulphuric acid, - - -

Hydrochloric acid, - - - .00091

: ~ Alumina, - - - - ~,00040
ene wovleay : .00013 ©
‘Soda, - - - - - ,00012
ince, SS - a awered

Oxides of iron and pve: traces. .
Or, supposing the alumina and lime to be combined wal fie -
phuric acid, the composition of the water may be given thus:

‘Sulphate of alumina, = - - - 0.00131
Sulphate of lime, - ; - -— .00031
Chloride of sodium, = - - + 00022"
Silica, "= - See .00023 —
Hydrochloric acid, .00081

But it is not only possible, but even soba; lias the acidity of
the water of the Pasambio is owing more to the sulpburic than to
the hydrochloric acid, since free hydrochloric acid could not be
found in the products of the voleano of Puracé, and I have discov-
ered in the crater of the volcano of Pasto a great quantity of an
acid sulphate of alumina, which communicates to the water an acid
and astringent taste.

* The gramme is about 154 grs. Troy.

_ Dispensatory of the United States. 151

Art. XVI.—Notice of the Dtspensatory of the United States of
America ; by Georer B. Woop, M. D., Prof. of Materia Medica
and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, &c. &c.,
and Franxuin Bacue, M.D., Prof. of Chemistry in the Philad.
Coll. of Pharmacy, &c. &c. Philadelphia: Grigg & Elliot. 1833.

. 8vo. pp. 1073.

Among the benefits, as well as the evidences, of a liberal attention
to the arts and sciences in any nation, is the improvement of its ma-
teria medica. So urgent is the necessity of healing applications in
the case’of wounds, and of disordered functions of the system, that
no people, however low in the scale of civilization, are’to be found
entirely destitute of the means of aiding nature in her efforts at res-
toration. The principal resort of savage tribes is the virtues of plants,
whose peculiar qualities accident or untutored ingenuity has taught
them to investigate. The amount of knowledge thus acquired by
the inhabitants of our forests is a matter of proverbial remark. The
popular impression, that Providence has provided an appropriate rem-
edy fgr every disease, and that it depends only on the skill and indus-
try of man to find it out, is probably cherished among the rude as
well as the more refined portions-of mankind ; and that the distine-
tion which those have gained who have been most successful in the
acquisition of this knowledge, has served as a powerful stimulus to
greater attainments in the medical virtues of substances derived from
either of the three kingdoms of nature, there can be little doubt.
To what extent this knowledge has been benefited by the researches
of pure science, can be demonstrated only by a reference to the his-
tory of alchemy, and to the surprising discoveries which have reward-
ed the labors of those who have devoted themselves to an experi-
mental acquaintance with the chemical laws of matter. Medicine,
it is well known, is greatly indebted to the extravagant search after
the universal solvent, the powder of projection and the elixir of life.
And when, in the ardor of these vain dreams, any new compound
was discovered, which upon trial was found to possess active powers
upon the organs of digestion, the discoverer often broke forth, into
extravagant manifestations of joy. No one can read the cpa
of Basil Valentine, in his “ Triumphant Chariot of Antimony,” or,
as it was styled in. the ariginal German, “ Triumph: Wagen Anti-
monii,” nor the eloquent raptures of Glauber, in Packe’s folio ac-

152 Dispensatory of the United States.

count of his ‘sal mirabile,” without a smile at the lofty tone and
‘self congratulations of these enthusfasts; and yet, without a portion
of enthusiasm, who would have braved the ridicule, and endured the
toil and labor of these distinguished alchemists. When we con-
- sider, also, the immense amount of benefit which the world has de-
rived from the depletive virtues of these compounds, who would
venture to pronounce a sentence of condemnation on ithe extravagant
anticipations of their discoverers?

But the multiplicity of active and valuable medicines with mbich
‘modern chemistry has enriched the pharmacopeeia, is a proof that
health, as well as other physical comforts, is not to be left to the way-
ward influences of time and chance, but to be brought within the
domain of sound and rational science.

Pharmacy, therefore, when it advances beyond. the mere art of
arranging and preparing its simple Galenicals, and aspires to the dis-
tinction of a science, must array itself in the garb of chemistry and
conduct its operations agreeably to the genuine principles of induc-
tive philosophy. It will then steadily march forward in the track of
improvement, abandoning all empiricism, and rejoicing in the hight
and ameliorations which scientific research confers upon it.

It is but recently that the Pharmacopceia became an abject of at-
tention to those who were qualified, by their attainments in chemis-
try, to divest it of its charlatanry, and to point out the numerous in-
consistencies with which it abounded. ‘The basis of a good, reno-
vated treatise on the materia medica was laid by Lewis, who brought
to bear upon the subjects on which he wrote, all the advantages which
an accurate acquaintance with the science of his day, enabled him
to.apply.. Much was left, however, in this extensive garden, for
_ ‘modern chemistry to weed out, and abundant room for the trans-
plantation of new and valuable materials. Medical men, allied to
the different schools of Europe, in proportion to their acquaintance
with chemistry, perceive the fallacies of the books most in vogue,
and as every country affords some specific contributions to the arts,
it is by no means surprising that local peculiarities should become
obvious in medical formularies.. London, Edinburgh and Dublin
has each its Dispensatory, and, on the continent of Europe, treatises
on pharmacy, more-or less extensive, are sufficiently numerous.

The state of medical and pharmaceutical knowledge in this coun-
try seemed loudly to call for a national work, that might justly serve
as a standard amid the conflicting claims of European treatises, and

Dispensatory of the United States. 153

the knowledge and experience of our chemists and physicians. A
national medical convention accordingly met at Washington and pro-
vided for the publication of a pharmacopeia. ‘This work was pub-
lished in New York, in 1820, but it did not appear to attract general
attention, or satisfy the demands of the profession. At the decen-
nial meeting of the convention, held in Washington, in 1830, a re-
vised edition of it was ordered, which was published in Philadelphia,
in 1831.* Of the superior accuracy of this pharmacopeeia over any
other, published c or republished in this country, there cannot, we think,
be any doubt.

But a pharmacopeeia, published under the authority of a board of
physicians or licensed apothecaries, and limited as such works gen-
erally are to officinal titles, objects and preparations, is not sufficient
to satisfy the mind of the student, (and what physician ceases to be
a student with respect to the natural history, preparation, and various
qualities, chemical and physical, of the multifarious substances which
his profession calls for,) who aims at-a clear and accurate compre-
hension of the materia medica. It is justly, therefore, stated by our
authors, that the ‘national pharmacopcia requires an explanatory
commentary, in order that its precepts may be fully appreciated and
advantageously put in practice. On these accounts, (say they,) it is
desirable that there should be a Dispensatory of the United States,
which, while it embraces whatever is useful in European pharmacy,
may accurately represent the art as it exists in this country, and give
instruction adapted to our peculiar wants.” The voice of every
American physician will doubtless respond to this opinion, and no
less freely to the sentiment of the authors, that “It appears due to
our national character, that such a work should be in good faith an
American work, newly prepared in all its parts, and not a mere edi-
tion of one of the European dispensatories, with here and there ad-
ditions and alterations, which, though they may be useful in them-
selves, cannot be made to harmonize with the other materials, so as
to give to the whole an appearance of unity, and certainly would not
justify the assumption of a new and national title for the book.”

With these enlightened views of the nature of the task before
them, it is not to be presumed that they entered upon the determi-
nation to write a “United States Dispensatory,” without a becoming
sensé of the fertility of their resources, and we have thus a sort of

* Vide Am. Jour. Vol. XX1, p. 177.
Vou. XXIV No.1 20

154 Dispensatory of the United States.

a priori pledge of their ability and fitness for the task. In short, no
well grounded expectation could be formed of such a work, unless
it were undertaken by persons at once skilled in the details of chem-
istry, and conversant with medical practice in the foremost circles of
the profession. We therefore felt an assurance, when we found ‘that
this work had issued from the combined talents and industry of two
of the professors of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, one of
them known to be an accomplished chemist and the other of high
standing as a practical physician, that it would not disappoint the
hopes of the profession; and this assurance was by no means di-
minished by the acknowledgment of the authors, that they had re-
ceived assistance from the president of the College, whose attain-
ments and judgment, in all that relates to the business of a scientific
apothecary, our pages (already referred to) bear testimony.

The Pharmacopeia of the United States has been adopted as the
basis of the work before us, but in the selection and concoction of
their materials, the authors have availed themselves of all the infor-
mation obtainable, = = from the Dispensatories of the late Dr.

rew D and Dr. A. T. Thomson, each of them standard works
in their respective in but from the best pharmaceutical works
of the European continent. “The pharmacy of continental Europe,”
they observe, “is ground which has been almost untouched, and much
information in relation to the natural history, commerce and manage-
ment of our own drugs, has lain ungathered in the possession of in-
dividuals, or scattered in separate treatises and periodicals, not gen-
erally known and read.” ‘The Pharmacopceias of London, Edin-
burgh and Dublin have been incorporated in all their essential parts.
_ Their officinal titles are uniformly given, but always in subordination
to those of the United States Pharmacopeia, when they express the
same object; but in chief, when, as often happens, no corres; nding
medicine or preparation is recognised by our national standard.”
“Besides these officinal substances, some others have been descri-
bed, which, either from the lingering remains of former reputation,
or from recent reports in their favor, or from their i important relation
to medicines in general use, appear to have claims upon the attention
of the physician and apothecary.” _

«In the description of each medicine, if derived immediately from:
the animal, vegetable or mineral kingdom, the attention of the authors
has been directed to its natural history, the place of its growth or pro-
duction, the method of collecting and preparing it for market, its

Dispensatory of the United State. 155

commercial history, the state in which it reaches us, its sensible prop-
erties, its chemical composition and relations, the changes which it

_ undergoes by time and exposure, its accidental or fraudulent adultera-
tions, its medicinal properties and application, its economical uses, and
the pharmaceutical treatment to which it is subjected. If a chemical
preparation, the mode and principles of its manufacture are indicated,
in addition to the other particulars. If a poison, and likely to be ac-
cidentally taken, or purposely employed as such, its peculiar toxico-
logical effects, together with the mode of counteracting them, are in-
dicated ; and the best means of detecting its presence by reagents
are explained. ag

We have deemed it right to let the authors speak for themenlies,
in relation to the plan of their work, by extracting thus largely from
the preface. «Such a plan could not be followed out without rendér-
ing the work necessarily of greater size, than any other book of this
nature which has fallen under our notice. It is an octavo of one
thousand and seventy three pages, and these of rather unusually large
size. Dr. Duncan’s (Edinburgh) Dispensatory contains, indeed,
about fifty more pages, but the pages of the work under our review
are nearly one third larger. The American work, moreover, con-
sists entirely of a commentary on the officinal articles, except sixteen
pages on pharmaceutical operations, introductory to the second part ;
whereas the British dispensatories are encumbered with an introduc-
tion to elementary chemistry, which it is probable few persons read,
inasmuch as more ample or extended treatises on chemistry must be
studied by those who aspire to a correct or intelligent
of the theory or practice of pharmacy.

The sixteen pages to which we have alluded, will be found to
confer no small value on the work. They consist of lucid directions
to the pharmaceutical student, on the best means of conducting his
operations, and are quite a multum in parvo on the choice and man-

agement of apparatus, on collecting and drying plants, on the pre-
servation of medicines, on weights and measures, and other analo-
gous and useful matters. This addition to the book, we learn, from
a note in the preface, is from Mr. Daniel B. Smith, the president of
the College.

‘The authors have not : depntnd in the iridupenrnios of their mate-
rials, from the course usually pursued in the best pharmacopeeias and
dispensatories. Under the head of Materia Medica, they have treat-
ed, in strictly alphabetical order, of medicines ‘in the state only in

156 Dispensatory of the United States.

which they are produced by nature, or have come into the hands of
the apothecary. As a dispensatory is intended more for reference
than for regular perusal, no classification of its materials could com-
pensate for the absence of that facility which the alphabetical ar-
rangement affords. This constitutes the first part of the work, and
occupies about two thirds of the volume. The second part includes
all medicines of established value which come under the denomina-
tion of preparations. ‘These are,-in like manner, treated of alpha-
betically, and the authors have, in every instance,. preferred the
names given to each medicine which is recognised by the Pharma-
copeeia of the United States; but they have also given, in subordi-
nation to these, the officinal titles of the best English pharmacopeeias,
and they have also, as in the excellent work of Dr. A. T. Thomson,
given. botanical descriptions of the whew from which -the scala
~ treated of are derived.

In an appendix of sixteen pages, the authors have treated of the
art of prescribing medicines, and have given a list of common extem-
poraneous prescriptions, with very well tables of weights and of
measures, both of capacity and length, (comparing the French with
the English, ) with tables of specific gravity, &c. and eet: me
a comparison of thermometers. —

But the relative inerits of this new Dispensatory must arqucenions
ably depend not so much on the arrangements which the authors
_ have adopted, for in this respect they do not differ very materially

from, the best models which they had before them, but on the taste,
judgment, and science displayed. in its execution. . A work of this
kind, in order to claim a superiority over its predecessors, must take
cognizance of the advancements of knowledge, not only in .our own
country, but in all parts of the world, and avail itself of that activity
of chemical and medical research for-which the preserit ies has
been so much distinguished.

*

Tt is well. known that the ane and French schools have aaele ‘

been most conspicuous in chemical discovery, and in.its applications
to pharmacy and the arts. The Journal de Pharmacie of the French
metropolis, although impeded as most of the French journals have
been by the political disturbances of that country, has been for some
time one of the best vehicles of information extant. We have look-
ed a little into this matter, in reference to the work before us, and
have been gratified to find that the authors were duly aware of the
importance of resorting to the discoveries of continental Europe;

Dispensatory of the United States. 157 .

that their chemistry is principally derived from Berzelius and Thé-
nard, and that they are familiar with the pharmaceutical skill of such
men as Pelletier, Robiquet, Caventou, Majendie, and others whose
industry and talents combined, have not been equalled in any part of
the globe.

The following substances have been introduced into this Dispen-
satory, although not officinal in any British or American Pharmaco-
peecia. ‘They are thus admitted on account of their growing impor-
and for other reasons that might be assigned ; viz. oxalic acid, anti-
mony, baryta, bassora gum, bromine, chloride of lime, carbon, ca-
hinga, copper, bean of St. Ignatius, iron, ginseng, phosphorus, lead;
potassium, salep, iodine, chloride of soda, &c. We are rather sur-
prised in not finding in this list chloric ether, or chlorated alcohol,
salicine, (incidentally mentioned, however, under salix,) ilicine, (from
Ilex aquifolium,) gelatine, much used in the French hospitals, derived
from bones, and other articles which might be named; but we are
more disposed to credit the authors for their actual additions, than to
censure them for their omissions. Their new Dispensatory, judging
from a comparison of it with others that we have looked at, is to be
taken entirely as a new composition, and as such it bears upon the face
of it evidences of that taste which can only spring from an habitual
and extensive acquaintance with the sciences, botanical, chemical,
‘and therapeutical, on which a work of pris nature must necessarily
be based.

Did our space admit of it we should assign to this volume a more
extensive analysis; and we cannot well dismiss it without adverting
more fully to some of the articles which appear to contain the most
valuable original matter. Under the head Acidum Arsentosum to
which the authors have devoted eight pages, the reader will find a
luminous statement of the chemical and medical history of this sub-
stance, in which is cited the experience of some of the highest medi-
cal authorities in this country. We insert the following extract as
characteristic of the style and manner of the work.

“¢ Medical properties.—The preparations of arsenic have been used
both internally,and externally. Internally their action is alterative
and febrifuge ; externally, for the most part, violently irritant. Tey
have been ‘considered as peculiarly applicable to the trea
diseases of a periodical character. In commencing with their exhi-
bition, the dose should at first be small, and afterwards gradually in-
creased, its operation being carefully watched. When the specific

158 Dispensatory of the United States.

effects of the medicine are produced, it must be immediately laid
aside. These are a general disposition to cedema, especially of the
face and eyelids, a feeling of stiffness in these parts, itching of the
skin, tenderness of the mouth, loss of appetite, and uneasiness and —
sickness of the stomach. The peculiar swelling produced is called
(Edema Arsenicalis. ‘The principal preparations now in use, are
the arsenious acid, the article under consideration, and the solution
of arsenite of potassa, or Fowler’s solution. The arsenite of po-
tassa and sulphuret of arsenic are also occasionally employed. —

“It may be a question whether the different arsenical preparations
act precisely in the same way, when exhibited internally. It is the
opinion of some, that the election need. only be regulated by the
convenience for exhibition. Dr. Physick, whose opinion is entitled
to great respect, thinks otherwise; for, with regard to the arsenious
acid, and the solution of arsenite of potassa, (Fowler’s solution,) the
result of his experience is, that they act differently, and cannot be

substituted for one another.

“ Some writers have entirely proscribed the use of the arsenical
preparations in medicine. Among them, one of the most authorita-
tive is Mr. Brande. He conceives the introduction of them into the
pharmacopeeits to be a great evil; as facilitating, by legalizing the
medicinal use of the poison, its employment for self destruction and
murder. At the same time, he believes that more harm than benefit,
has resulted from its administration.* We confess, however, that
we do not share those opinions with Mr. Brande. Arsenic is con-
fessedly a virulent poison, and is often employed for criminal pur-
poses; but when it is considered how extensively it is used in the
arts, it is questionable whether its exclusion from the materia medica
would much reduce the facility of obtaining it. On the other hand,
it may be asked are poisons more dangerous as medicines than other
medicinal articles, if given in their appropriate doses? We should
think not, although we are free to acknowledge, that dangerous mis-
takes in the dose are more apt to be made. If the views of Mr.

Brande were carried out, they would lead to the discarding of the
corrosive chloride of mercury, hydrocyanic acid, strychnia; ae other
articles from the materia —, ante we believe that no sr anne
will be found 1 willing t tril the list of coer

* Man. of Pharm. p. 29.

Dispensatory of the United States. 159

‘‘ While we wish to retain arsenic as a potent remedy in the hands
of the judicious. practitioner, we should be glad to find the public
authorities in the United States subjecting the sale of this poison to
strict regulations, under heavy penalties for their infraction. Speak-
ing of the practice in Europe, Berzelius remarks, “Le ecommerce
de acide arsénieux est eenagee soumis a une surveillance sévere, et
achat n’en est permis qu’a ceux, qui ont donné des preuves légales
qu'il leur est indispensable dans l’exercise de leur état. A l’excep-
tion de ces cas, 1 aaheiene et le vendeur sont soumis a une responsi-
bilité tres sévere.”

To this tia an account of the diocanes | in which arsenic has
been exhibited with the greatest advantage,—its properties as a poi-
son, the most appropriate antidotes, and the best means of detecting
its presence. The authors avail themselves, among other authorities,
of the late work of Dr. Christison, which we regard as the most wor-
thy of confidence on this difficult point of chemical inquiry.

In their account of Oxalie acid, we have an elaborate statement of
its preparation, its properties, physical, medical and toxicological, with
the appropriate remedies. ‘From the composition of oxalic acid,
as given above, (say the authors,) it is plain that this acid corresponds
in composition to carbonic acid and oxide, taken together, and is,
therefore, intermediate in the quantity of oxygen which it contains
between. this acid and oxide. Notwithstanding it contains less oxy-
gen than carbonic acid, it is incomparably a stronger avid, which cir-
cumstance may be accounted for by supposing some peculiarity in
the mode in which its constituents are combined. ‘The composition
of the acid not only corresponds with the united constituents of car-
bonic acid and oxide, but there is reason to believe that these two
compounds are actually its proximate constituents; for, if it be treat-
ed with strong sulphuric acid, the whole of the water will be abstract-
ed, and the elements of the dry oxalic acid will be instantly resolved
into equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide. Oxalic acid
seems, therefore, to require one equivalent of water as a bond of
union between its elements, without which they arrange peeneives
in a new binary order.”

Water, one of the most important articles of the materia silt,
is altogether omitted in the British pharmacopeeias, but most properly
introduced into that of the United States. Under ~ ay - —

* Traité de Chimie, II, 431. pists 1830.

160 Dispensatory of the United States.

our authors have inserted a well written and valuable account of the

chemical and physical characters of pure water, the ingredients which

usually deteriorate its qualities, the mode of detecting them, with a

statement of the common distinct properties of spring, river, well,

lake and marsh water, and, what is very judicious in a work of this
kind, a brief account of the principal mineral waters of the United

States, and of some of the most celebrated in Europe. The article

terminates with some appropriate observations on the use of water

as a bath.

The article Hydrargyrum, with the various preparations of mer-
cury, occupies thirty three pages, and bears the marks of great care,
skill and research. .

In. the account of Alcohol, which is full and accurate, it is very
_ properly observed, that “physicians ought to be on their guard, not
to prescribe alcoholic. remedies in chronic diseases, whether alone or
in the form of tinctures, for fear of begetting habits of intemperance
in their patients. As an article of daily and dietetic use, alcoholic
liquors produce the most deplorable consequences. Besides the
moral degradation which they cause, their habitual use gives rise to
dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, visceral obstructions, dropsy, paralysis,
and not unfrequently mania.”

Under Jodinum, which takes up five pages, the physician and
apothecary will find a good account of a substance but recently in-
troduced into the materia medica, and which already holds a valuable
rank in the cure of glandular and other diseases.

The account of the Leech we deem to be so well drawn up, and
furnishing withal an article so appropriate to a scientific journal, that
we cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of inserting it entire, although
at the risk of extending our notice of the present work beyond the
limits usually assigned to the review of a new book.. «

Hirupo Mepicinauis. Dub.
The Leech.

Sangsue, Fr. ; Blutegel, Germ. ; Mignatta, Ital.; Sanguijuela, Span.
Hirvpo. Class 1, Annelides. Order 3, Abranchiate. Family 2,
Asetigere. Cuvier, —

The Leech belongs to that class of invertebrated articulated ani-
mals ‘called Annelides. ‘This class contains the worms with re
blood, having soft retractile bodies, composed of numerous segments

Dispensatory of the United States. © 161

or rings, breathing generally by means of branchie, with a nervous
system consisting in a double knotted cord, destitute of feet, and
supplying their place by the contractile power of their segments or
rings. The third order of this class, Abranchiate, comprehends
those worms which have no apparent external organ of respiration.
This order is again divided into two families, to the second of which,
the Asetigere, or those not having sete to enable them to crawl, the
Leech belongs.

It is an aquatic worm, with a flattened body, tapering tcowinds each
end, and terminating in circular flattened discs, the hinder one being
the larger of the two. It swims with a vertical undulating motion,
and moves when out of the water, by means of these dises or suck-
ers, fastening itself first by one and then by the other, and alternate-
ly stretching out and contracting its body. ‘The mouth is placed in
the centre of the anterior disc, and is furnished with three cartila-
ginous lens-shaped jaws at the entrance of the alimentary canal.
These jaws are lined at their edges with fine sharp teeth, and meet
so as to make a triangular incision in the flesh. The head is fur-
nished with small raised points, supposed by some to be eyes. Res-
piration is carried on through small apertures ranged along the infe-
rior surface. The nervous system consists of a chord extending the
whole length, furnished with numerous ganglions. ‘The intestinal
canal is straight and terminates in the anus, near the posterior disc.
Although hermaphrodite, leeches mutually impregnate each other.
They are oviparous, and the eggs, varying from six to fifteen, are
contained in a sort of spongy, slimy cocoon, from half an inch to an
inch in diameter. ‘These are deposited near the edge of the water,
and hatched by the heat of the sun. The leech is torpid during the
winter, and casts off, from time to time, a thick slimy coating from
its skin. It can live a considerable time in sphagnous moss, or in
moistened earth, and is frequently transported, in this manner, to
great distances by the dealers.

Savigny has divided the genus Hirudo of Linneus, into several
genera. The true leech is the Sanguisuga of this author, and is
characterized by its three lenticular jaws, each armed with two rows
of teeth, and by having ten ocular points.

Several species are used for medicinal’ purposes, of orbi the
most common are the gray and the green leech of Europe, both of
which are varieties of the Hirudo mediante of Linneus, and the
Hirudo decora of this country.

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1. oe

162 Dispensatory of the United States.

. Hirupo mepicinais. Linn, ed. Gmel. 1. 3095. ar ar ie
ene Savigny. Mog. Tandon, Mon. Hir. p. 112, t. 5, f. 1.
The green leech—Sanguisuga medicinalis. Savigny. Mog. Tan-
don, Mon. Hir. p. 114, t.5, f.2. The gray leech.

Many of the best zoologists regard the Sanguisuga officinalis and
S. medicinalis of Savigny, as mere varieties. They are both marked
with six longitudinal dorsal ferruginous stripes, the four lateral ones
being interrupted or tesselated with black spots. The color of the’
back varies from a blackish to a grayish-green. The belly in the
first variety is of a yellowish-green color, free from spots, and bor-
dered with longitudinal black stripes. In the second, it is of a green
color, bordered and maculated with black. This leech varies from
two to three or four inches in length. It inhabits marshes and run-
ning streams, and is found abundantly throughout Europe.

The great use made of leeches in the modern practice of medi-
cine, has occasioned them to become a considerable article of com-
merce. ‘They are collected in Spain, France, Italy and Germany,
and exported in large numbers to London and Paris... They are
also frequently brought to this country, as the practitioners in some
of our large cities use only the foreign leech, although our own waters
furnish an inexhaustible supply of this iil worm,

2. Hirudo decora. (Say. Major Long’s Second Expedition, Il.
268.) The medicinal leech of America has been described by Say,
under the name of Hirudo decora, in the appendix of the Second.
Expedition of Major Long. Its back is of a deep pistachio green
color, with three longitudinal rows of square spots. These spots are

aced on every fifth ring, and are twenty two in number. The lat-
eral rows of spots are black, and the middle range of a light brown-
ish orange color. ‘The belly is of the same color, variously and ir-
regularly spotted with black.. The American leech sometimes at-
tains the length of four or five inches, although its usual length is
_ from two to three. It does not make so large and deep an incision
as the European leech, and draws less blood.

The use of the indigenous leech is nearly restricted to the city of
Philadelphia. The practitioners of New York and Boston depend
for their supplies upon foreign countries, and leeching is seldom re-
sorted to in the southern or western states. ‘Those which are used -
in Philadelphia, are generally brought from Bucks and Berks county;
in Pennsylvania, and occasionally from other parts of the state. It
is estimated that from two hundred to two hundred and fifty thousand
are apnually consumed.

Dispensatory of the United States. 163

The proper preservation of leeches is an object of importance to
the practitioner, as they are liable to great and sudden mortality.
They are usually kept in jars, in clear water, which should be
changed twice or three times a week. The jar must be covered
with a linen cloth, and placed in a situation not liable to sudden
changes of temperature. They will live a long time, and continue
active and healthy, without any other attention than that of frequently
changing the water in which they are kept. M. Derheims has pro-
posed the following excellent method of preserving them. In the
bottom of.a large basin, or trough of marble, he places a bed, six
or seven inches deep, of a mixture of moss, turf, and fragments of
‘ wood. He strews pebbles above, so as to retain them in their place
without compressing them too much, or preventing the water from
freely penetratiug them. At one end of the trough, and about mid-
way of its height, is placed a thin slab of marble or earthern ware,
pierced with numerous holes, and covered with a bed of moss, which
is compressed by a thick layer of pebbles. The reservoir being thus
disposed, is half filled with water, so that the moss and pebbles on
the shelf shall be kept constantly moist. The basin is protected
from the light by a linen cover, stretched over it. By this arrange-
ment, the natural habits of the leech are not counteracted: One of
these habits, essential to its health, is that of drawing itself through
the moss and roots, to clean its body from the slimy coat which
forms on its skin, and is a principal cause of its disease and death.

Medical uses.—Leeches afford the least painful, and in many in-
stances the most effectual means, for the local abstraction of blood.
They are often applicable to parts which, either from their situation
or their great tenderness when inflamed, do not admit of the use of
cups; and in the cases of infants, are, under all circumstances, pre-
ferable to this instrument. They are indeed a powerful therapeutic
agent, and give to the physician, in many instances, a control over
disease which he could obtain in no other way. Their use is in a great
measure restricted to the treatment of local inflammations; and, as
a general rule, they should not be resorted to until the force of the
circulation has been diminished by bleeding from the arm, or in the
natural progress of the complaint.

In applying leeches to the skin, care should be taken to shave off
the hair, if there be any, and’to have the part well cleansed with
soap and water, and afterwards with pure water. If the leech does
not bite readily, the skin should be moistened with a little blood, or

164 Dispensatory of the United States.

milk and water. Sometimes the leech is put into a large quill, open
at both ends, and applied, with the head to the skin, until it fastens
itself, when the quill is withdrawn. Leeches continue to draw blood
until they are gorged, when they drop off. The quantity of blood
which they will draw varies, according to the part to which they are
applied, and the degree of inflammation existing in it. In the loose
and vascular textures, they will abstract more than in those which
are firm and compact, and more from an inflamed than a healthy
part. Asa general rule, our leechers apply six for every fluid ounce
of blood. A single European leech will draw from half an ounce
to an ounce. The quantity may often be much increased by bath-
ing the wound with warm water. Leeches will continue to suck, ©
after their tails are cut off, which is sometimes done, although it is a
barbarous practice.

They may be separated from the skin at any time, by sprinkling
a little salt upon them. After they drop off, the same application
will make them disgorge the blood they have swallowed. Some
leechers draw the leeches, from the tail to the head, through their
fingers, and thus squeeze out the blood; after which, all that is ne-
cessary is to put them in clean water and change it frequently.
Leeches which are gorged with blood, should be kept in a vessel by
themselves, as they are more subject to disease, and often occasion a
great mortality among the others. They should not be again used,
until they have recovered their activity.
_ In cases where the bleeding from leech-bites continues longer than
is desirable, it may be stopped by continued pressure, with the appli-
cation of lint, or by touching the wounds with lunar caustic. It may
sometimes be necessary, in the case of a deep bite, to sew the wound,
which is readily done with a single stitch of the needle, that need not
penetrate deeper than the cutis.

To this valuable account of the Leech, we would add, that it ap-
pears to be necessary to guard them against sudden changes in the
electrical state of the atmosphere. That they are very susceptible
of these changes, and are often destroyed by them, appears to be a
well established fact, and from the experiments of M. Derheims of
St. Omer, their death is occasioned by a coagulation of the blood
by electricity. By placing the jar or vessel in which they are kept
near a good conducting substance, their preservation from this source
of danger might probably be secured. cam

Dunglison’s Human Physiology. 165

The reader will find in the articles Cinchona, Rhubarb, Tartar
Emetic, Calomel, Soap, Terebinthina, Wine, Colchicum, Elaterium,
Quinia, and numerous others, similar evidences of originality, re-
search, and sound judgment. Upon the whole, we consider the
“ Dispensatory of the United States of America” as deserving the
tile which it bears, as a valuable addition to the stock of American
literature, and as worthy of a place in the library, not only of every
physician and apothecary, of every lover of natural history, but of
every one who aspires to some knowledge of the nature and char-
acter of those materials which, in skilful hands, are of so much im-
portance in alleviating the pains and diseases which cast so deep a
shade over the perspective of human existence.

Arr. XVIL—™M otice of Prof. Dunghson’s Human fal oy
2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 18

Tue author of the above named work was one of the gentlemen,
who, upon the establishment of the University of Virginia, were in-
vited from abroad, to fill the professorial chairs in that liberally en-
dowed institution. While resident in London, he was favorably
known to the profession as the co-editor, with Dr. Copeland, of a re-
spectable medical journal, the London Medical Repository ; and in
consequence of this knowledge, he was, at the suggestion of the late
Professor Smith, complimented with the honorary degree of Doctor
of Medicine, by the President and Fellows of Yale College. As
the result of his labors, he has now favored the profession with a full
and elaborate work on one of the most important and interesting
branches of medical science. A particular examination of the doc--
trines of a work of this nature, would not exactly comport with the
design of this Journal, but a few general remarks may not be unac-
ceptable to a large class of its readers.

Systems of physiology have been written upon two plans, widely
differing from each other. In one, the leading doctrines of the sci-
ence are laid down, in a regular series, in the form of distinct propo-
sitions, beginning with the more simple and gradually advancing to
those that are more abstruse. These propositions are a
by such facts or trains of reasoning as are sufficient, in the opinion of
the author, to prove and illustrate them. In this way, physiology is
made to bear the semblance of the more exact sciences; and were

166 Dunglison’s Human Physiology.

its doctrines susceptible of demonstration, this would be the only cor-
rect plan of placing it before the public. Unfortunately, however,
suchris the nature of this science, so obscure are many of the func-
tions of the animal fabric, so minute are many of its parts and so
mysteriously, in the present state of our knowledge, do they perform
their important operations ; and at the same time so prone is the: hu-
man mind, over confident in its own powers, to erect general princi-
ples upon insufficient and insecure foundations, that many of the lead-
ing doctrines of physiology instead of being supported by demon-
stration are still matters of dispute ; others maintain their credit rath-
er by the authority derived from the name of their author, than by
the strength of their supporting facts; and others still, are mere the-
oretical notions, with little either of fact or authority to uphold them.
This is essentially the plan of the justly esteemed work of Pro-
fessor Blumenbach, the latest edition of which, translated into Eng-
lish and much enlarged, and brought down to the present time, by
Dr. Elliotson, of London, contains a greater amount of truth, briefly
yet plainly stated, with a smaller admixture of error, than any other
similar treatise in the language. A reprint of this work in this coun-
try would be a valuable addition to its medical literature.
Under these circumstances many, perhaps most authors have
adopted a different plan. ‘This consists, for the most part, in a state-
ment of all the known facts, or a selection of the most important of
them, upon the several branches of the subject ; in arranging them
under heads corresponding with the systems of which the body is
composed, and in deducing from them such doctrines, as in the au-
thor’s view, they support. This plan, while it demands a minute and
sometimes tedious detail of facts, and while it carries with it little of
the air of a well arranged and established science, yet has many ad-
vantages. Especially, a more perfect opportunity is afforded to the
reader, by the full display of facts, to judge of the soundness of the
principles laid down, to correct those which are erroneous, and to
form and establish others more correspondent to the truth. Even
here, however, with all the facts before him, there is much to perplex
the student of this interesting and important science. ‘The mixture
of truth and error, which he has not sufficient knowledge to distin-
guish and separate ; the devious paths, struck out by ingenuity, lead-
ing to self display, rather than to simple truth, and sometimes the ob-
" vious sophistry employed to establish some favorite fallacy, embar-
rass and bewilder his mind. A work which should be free, in a great

Dunglison’s Human Physiology. 167

measure, from embarrassing circumstances of this kind, might be
formed, by the united labor of learning, talent.and industry, upon
something like the following plan.

Many of the leading and most important doctrines in ssiilabes
gy, are firmly established, and are. universally received as funda-
mental truths ; such as the circulation of the blood, the sensibility,
both common and peculiar, of the nerves, the power of alternate con-
traction and relaxation of the muscular fibre, and numerous others
of a similar character. ‘These should be fully and distinctly stated
as established principles, and should be accompanied by the facts by
which they are proved. ‘There are many others, such as the doc-
trine of the vitality of the blood, the contractile power of the middle
tunic of the arteries, the agency of a peculiar fluid in the stomach
in the process of digestion, &c. which, although rendered highly
probable by a multitude of supporting facts, are yet with difficulty
reconcilable to others, and are therefore not universally received.
These should be laid down, as a distinct class of principles; all the
facts bearing upon them should be fully detailed, their truth or fallacy
fairly canvassed, and whatever the opinion of the author concerning
them may be, an impression should be left upon the mind of the
reader, that, in the present state of the science, they are still unset-
tled, and therefore open for further investigation. Besides these,
there is another large class of opinions, often the result of highly in-
genious speculation, which yet are too slightly in accordance with
known facts to challenge belief, and which still ought not to be passed
over. These consist, for the greater part, of attempted explanations
of the hitherto unintelligible processes of several parts of the animal
body ; such as speculations concerning the functions of the ‘spleen,
the lymphatic glands, ganglions of the nerves, &c. Such of these
opinions as deserve notice at all, either from their ingenuity, or their
semblance to truth, should be stated both to show the train of thought
upon these subjects in which ingenious minds run, and as a connect-
ing medium of all the known facts in relation to them.

The object of this plan is to place distinctly and severally before the
mind of the inquirer into the doctrines of physiology, all that is known,
all that is believed and all, of importance, that is conjectured concerning
them, giving to each class its due weight and bearing. In this way much
labor and perplexity would be saved to those who are entering upon
the study of this important science. The great difficulty in execu-
ting a work upon this plan, in addition to the learning and talent which

168 Dunglison’s Human Physiology.

it would demand, would be, to preserve a sufficient degree of hu-
mility in the mind of one, competent by his learning and talents to
execute it, to secure him from stating favorite hypotheses as strongly
probable, and those which are only probable as established truths.
Could a man be found, in whom were united the zeal, industry, and
unconquerable love of truth of John Hunter, with a thorough edu-
cation which he had not, such a work might be accomplished.
But to return to the Human Physiology of Dr. Dunglison. Ina
brief preface, the author states, that the “ work was undertaken chiefly
for the purpose of forming a text book for his students, in the Uni-
versity of Virginia ;” and that “his object has been ‘to offer a view
of the existing state of the science, rather than to strike out into new,
and perhaps devious paths.” This object he has accomplished in a
manner highly creditable to his character for learning, industry, and
integrity. The principal favorable qualities of the work are the
following. p<
In the first place, it is characterized by marks of great extent of
research, and by variety of illustration. During the past century,
and especially the Jatter half of it, the animal kingdom has been ex-
amined by thousands of highly gifted and industrious observers.
These, in the progress of their labors, have peered into the minute
recesses of the animal fabric, and have listened to the almost inau-
dible sounds given out by its secret workings, and have thus accu- .
mulated facts, formed opinions, and indulged in speculations, almost
without number. These facts and opinions are scattered throughout
the periodical and other similar works every where issuing from the
press, or they are elaborated by their authors into distinct treatises,
or are ‘mingled with other and foreign matter in works upon other
branches of natural science. From all these sources, Dr. Dungli-
son, with praiseworthy diligence, has collected every thing fitted for
his purpose, and has arranged, in their proper order, the various ma-
terials which he found. Few facts or opinions of importance have
been omitted, and the collection may be safely pronounced complete.
At the same time, it is also, especially with regard to opinions, select ;
for he has judiciously omitted, or mentioned with becoming brevity,
many of the thousand theories with which this branch of science has
been encumbered by ignorance or incapacity. He has also examin-
ed the ancient authors with sufficient attention, and has transferred
from them to his pages, much that is useful and interesting. The
amount of labor necessary to make such a collection, can be duly

Dunglison’s Human Physiology. 169

estimated by those only who have, for many years, watched the pro-
gress of this science. In addition to the physiology, he has also given
a brief anatomical description of the most important and interesting
parts of the human body, illustrated by numerous engravings, insert-
ed by the side of the letter press, sufficient to enable a person, slight-
ly versed in anatomy, to understand the remarks which are made
concerning their functions.

Another characteristic of the work i is, the perfect fairness and iti-
tegrity which is manifest upon every page. In this respect, it de-
serves high commendation. It is perfectly obvious, that the author
intended to state every fact precisely as he found it, to place the ar-
guments and the course of reasoning of others in the same light which
they themselves would have done, and to give every fact, argument
and opinion its due weight. ‘This course, so different from that of
the mere partizan author; of the unscrupulous or perhaps merely
ardent advocate of a favorite opinion; and at the same time, so ad-
vantageous to the reader, saving, as it does, the necessity of referring
to the original, in order to verify the statements which may be made,
confers upon this work a large part of its value. The reader feels
safe in relying upon it as authority, and the inquirer after truth refers
to it with pleasure, feeling in no danger of inadvertent or intentional

on. |

The style of the work is plain, without much attempt at ornament;
perhaps somewhat diffuse, but always intelligible. The language
rarely differs from that in common use by the best English authors.
In both language and style, it is, at least, equal to the best class of
American medical works. It is especially free from that admixture
of foreign words and idiomatic expressions, which are unfortunately
_ becoming so frequent among the junior members of the medical pro-
fession. The literature of medicine and its auxiliary branches, ap-
pears to be in danger of being overwhelmed by the torrent of new
and unauthorized language let in upon it through the medium of im-
perfect translations from other languages, especially the French; of
translations which, from the number of words turned into English
only in their terminations, and of idioms not Anglicized at all, re-
quire, in order to understand them, almost as much knowledge of
the language from which they are professedly translated, as the ori-
ginals themselves. It is a subject of congratulation, that all error of
this kind has been = _by Dr. pe aie and that - which

Vou. XXIV. meV QO: j

170 ~=—- Analysas of American Spathie Iron and Bronzite.

will be for years a standard work in one branch of medical science
will remain as a barrier against this inundation from abroad. . :

‘The critical reader will occasionally notice a word or phrase em-
ployed in an unusual sense; as, “laboring under perfect health,”
vol. ii, p. 158; and frequently the word invoke, as in the following,
at p. 153, vol. ii, “‘some of which” conjectures “have been in-
voked by Sir Charles Bell ;” and several others of a similar kind.
Where there is so much that is correct, these will be easily passed
over. :

There are two omissions which many rendre will regret. The
first is, of all reference to the particular works where the facts and
opinions quoted may be found; and the second, of a more complete
and thoroughly digested index. These omissions are so common in
the modern English and French works, that they are scarcely thought
blameworthy ; still the matters omitted are of so.great convenience,
the one to him who would examine the subject more thoroughly, and
the other to the more casual inquirer, as to deserve a apes in pee
work of merit.

A work like this, so abounding i in important facts, so correct in its
principles, and so free from errors arising from a prejudiced adhe-
rence to favorite opinions, will be cordially received and extensively
consulted by the profession, and by all who are desirous of a knowl-
edge of the functions of the human body; and those who are the
best qualified to judge of its merits, will penininte it, the: best ane
of the kind in the —_ =

fo hes Se a eon nol Dsante

A etter from Mr. Thomas G. Clemson, dated Paris, Nov. 28
1832, to Mr. C. U. Shepard, contains the following notices :—

“1, The carbonate of iron, from Plymouth, Neca is compo-
sed as follows:

Carbonate of protoxide of iron, - - . 17,428
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - 1.640
Carbonate of protoxide of manganese, - 0.656
Peroxide of iron, - - oa 0.030
Insoluble residue, - - =. < 10,140.

Analysis of American Spathic Tron and Bronzite. 171

“This ore ig one of great value, and nothing prevents its being
heated in the ordinary high furnace. The magnesia is rather abun-
dant, and I perceived on the specimen-small portions of sulpburet of
iron. Nothing has a more deleterious effect upon iron than sulphur,
and if it were present in considerable quantities, it would most cer-
tainly injure the qualities of the iron or steel produced, sta this might
be obviated by careful picking.

_ “2, Brown lamellar substance, labelled Bronzite, from Amity,*
N. J. Alone, it is infusible before the blowpipe ; with carbonate of
soda, a transparent white pearl; the same reaction with borax.
When reduced to an impalpable powder, it is attacked by — ni-
tric, muriatic and sulphuric acids.

* The analysis was made by means of muriatic acid and ammoni-
acal salts. 3

“The silica having been separated by evaporation, the alumina,
iron, and a small portion of magnesia, were precipitated by ammonia,
added to an acid solution of the substance. The lime was obtained
by oxalate of ammonia, and the muriate of magnesia was evapora-
ted to dryness and decomposed by sulphuric: atid.

*‘ The following are the results:

: Oxygen
Water, - - - 0.036 0.0319. 1
Silica, “sp iia Trelleot evicOekdO one, 00882 2. 5
Alumina, = - EE Riss
Magnesia, - - - 0.243 0.0939
ime, - aha. 0.107 0.0299 5 4
Protoxide of iron, - 0.050 0.0113

By uniting the silica and alumina, and the bases magnesia, lime and
oxide of iron, we have the formula 4(mg.C,f.)(S.al)?--ag, which
represents a bi-silicio aluminate of isomorphous bases.”

Mr. Clemson expresses the opinion, that the so called Bronzite i is
a new species; and proposes for it the trivial namé-of Seybertite,
after the ae American analyst, Mr. ae Seybert.

* We have received a duplicate of this ree ceet through Dr. R. Harlan of Phila-
— ina letter from that egimgea from Mr. Clemson, dated Paris, Nov. 28, 1832.

172 ' Miscellanies.

MISCELLANIES.

DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.

1. Vegetable origin of Anthracite.
TO THE EDITOR.
Cambridge, Mass. Feb. 23, 1833,

Dear Sir—Geologists are now convinced that the common bitumi-
nous coal, so abundant in the eastern continent and in some parts of
North America, owes its origin to vegetable depositions. The fre-_
quent discovery of partially mineralized wood, and of impressions.
obviously vegetable, presents, on this point, a mass of incontroverti-
ble testimony. But I believe that many eminent geologists are not,
satisfied to refer the anthracite formation to the same origin. To
this reference they have found an objection, which to them seems
insuperable, in the vast quantity of this useful mineral. But is this
objection really insuperable? Does it not proceed from a limited view
of the operations of nature, from a disinclination to allow sufficient
time for the execution of her stupendous designs? Many errors in
geological science are justly attributable to an erroneous or limited.
estimate of time; and yet the eloquent chronicles of inanimate na-
ture, tell us of cinnges’ in the constitution of the globe which we in-
habit, for the accomplishment of which ages must have been requi-
site. How many years must have rolled away, after the disruption
of the original rock, before the sandstone formation attained its pres-
ent degree of compactness. Those, therefore, who deny that the an-
thracite is of vegetable origin, must bring forward some other objec-
tion than the want of time ; and if they found their objections upon the
extent and depth of this fotsestioni we urge the analogy of the bitu-
minous coal, and thus sustain the vegetable origin of the anthracite. It
cannot be denied, that the power which could create mineral carbon,
could also create vegetable carbon, and afterwards, by some great con-
vulsion, subject i it to an irresistible consolidating force. Indeed, to me
- it seems more,in unison with the other arrangements of providence,
that the vegetables which beautified the face of the earth, for the
happiness of one race of beings, should afterwards, when those races
had passed away, be stored up for the use of other successive gen-
erations of men. But the object of my communication to you at
this time, is not to engage in the discussion of the question whether
anthracite coal is of vegetable origin, except so far as may be neces-
sary in the exhibition of the testimony which { am able to produce
in support of that opinion. Mr. Bakewell, in his Introduction to

'

Miscellanies. 173

Geology, asserts, that no vegetable impressions have ever been dis-
covered inthe anthracite, and I believe that most geologists are of
the same opinion. I have been so fortunate as to obtain from a small.
quantity of Schuylkill coal, six specimens proving that trees were at
least present when the coal was formed, if vegetable matter is not
its materiel. The best specimen presents the longitudinal section
of a piece of wood, ten inches long and two inches broad. _ Another
specimen exhibits a similar section six inches long. A third con- .
tains a bit of wood one inch square and one tenth of an inch in thick-
ness, and this piece could be easily detached. Another specimen
exhibits a section of wood, from four to five inches long, and about
three inches in width. ‘The grain of this piece resembles that of the
oak. A fifth contains a section four inches by three. ‘The sixth is
the counterpart of the fifth; the two pieces, being the parts of a
larger specimen, the cleft of the coal dividing the wood equally and
similarly, leaving a portion in each division. ‘These specimens ex-
hibit not impressions merely, but real wood, resembling charcoal, al-
though softer. In examining coal, I have often found indentations,
which, by the aid of imagination, could be magnified into vegetable
impressions ; but I never before found real wood.. About the speci-
mens which I now possess, there can be but two suppositions. Either
this wood was introduced, in some incomprehensible mode, into the
heart of the solid mass of the coal, or else it is a remnant, not wholly
consolidated, of the material from which the coal was formed. I
believe that the latter supposition is more philosophical, and conse-
quently more’ reasonable, than the former. Very respectfully, sir,
our obedient servant, James Mapison Bunker.

The specimens of Mr. Bunker fully confirm his statements, as re--
gards the existence of large masses of ligneous fibre in the anthra-
cite of Pennsylvania. The structure is very palpable, and much
resembles that of the curled maple. Under the blowpipe, it burns
more readily than the anthracite—does not, like that, decrepitate, and
it exhales, at the same time, a peculiar odor. Every one has observ-
ed the appearance, on a small scale, of fibrous charcoal in the Penn-
sylvania anthracite, and the specimens now before us have evidently
resulted from the mineralization (more or less complete) of large por-
tions of wood.—Ep. bees ag

oe Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company.—Some of the most
important interests of this company, as they stood in 1830, formed
the subject of an article in Vol. XEX of this Journal, p. 8. We are

174 Miscellanies.

happy to observe, that this great region, (Mauch Chunk and its vi-
cinity, on the Lehigh,) continues to be successfully explored, and
particularly that the vast treasures of coal at the new mines at Room
Run fully justify the statements made respecting them in the article
quoted above. — ‘ Peed :
Some serious difficulties and delays have been encountered, par-
ticularly upon the Delaware Canal; but all difficulties will ultimately
yield to the intelligent perseverance and resources of the company;
one hundred and fifty tons of coal are contracted to be delivered, from
the Lehigh Mines, on board the boats, the ensuing season: four hun-
dred thousand could be delivered in'a season, with the application of
no more force than was applied last year during a part of the time.

_ 3. Atmospheric pressure.—I caused to be made, a very strong bell
glass, nine inches in diameter, and low and flat, for the purpose of con-
gealing water, by its own evaporation, in the manner of Prof. Leslie.
It was tried upon the plate of one of M. Pixii’s glass barreled air pumps,
from Paris. Atthe moment, Mr. O. P. Hubbard, assistant in the chem-
ical department of Yale College, and myself, and also a young man who
was working the pump, were stooping and intently inspecting the ex-
periment, and our faces were almost in‘contact with the bell, when it
was instantaneously crushed by the pressure of the atmosphere, with
a loud report from the collapse. The fragments of glass were in-
numerable, and some of them impalpable; some of the larger were
driven into the glass plate of the pump, causing deep wounds, which
it was necessary to remove by a new and thorough grinding, and, even
in that way, they were not entirely obliterated. Still, neither of us
was even scratched by the glass, for the obvious reason that the
force was all exerted downward and inward. . oe

4. Siliceous glass formed from burning hay.—Extract of a letter
dated Watertown, Conn., March, 1833, from Mr. Chester Dutton,
to Mr. Samuel W. S. Dutton of the Senior Class in Yale College.

"There was a quantity of siliceous glass formed from a stack of
hay burned about a year since, within twelve rods of my father’s
house. Having never been observed before, it gave rise to various
conjectures as to its origin. In the American Journal of Science
and Arts, Vol. XIX, p. 395, I found a notice of siliceous glass
formed from hay, by lightning, copied from Dr. Brewster’s Edin-
burgh Journal. From the style of the notice, I should infer that it
is a rare occurrence, and on that account interesting. The stack of —

‘
Miscellanies. 175

which this was formed was a large one, and it burned with violence;
the hay was all herds-grass, which you know has much ane in its
epidermis.”

Mr. Dutton was so kind as to hiied to us specimens of this glass.
It is of a light grey color, porous, vesicular, and inflated like scorie
of furnaces and glass-houses, and like the upper scum of lava; its
lustre is highly vitreous; it is tasteless, and very harsh between the
teeth; it scratches window glass with great energy, and has every
appearance of having undergone a perfect fusion, doubtless by the
aid of the alkali and salts contained in the hay. The resemblance
between it and that described in this Journal, in the case cited: by
Mr. Dutton, is very striking, and, as the statement is supported by
credible testimony, there can be no reasonable doubt as to its origin.

5. New England Asylum for the Blind.—Dr. Howe, the cele-
brated historian and active friend of the Greek revolution, is at the
head of this interesting institution, and we have read with pleasure
and instruction, a discourse of his in relation to, this subject. It.is
replete with important and gratifying facts respecting similar institu-
tions in Europe, and affords the best ground of confidence, that suc-
cess will attend the New England asylum, especially in such a com-
munity as Boston, and under the able and zealous direction of Dr.
Howe. We were particularly impressed with the mechanical facili-
ties afforded to the blind, by the sense of touch, which enables them
to read by means of letters raised by stamping the paper, and even
maps and diagrams are in the same way rendered intelligible.

It would appear, from the exhibition recently made at Salem,
Mass., by pupils of this institution, that their attainments in reading,
. Writing, arithmetic, geography, music, and various mechanical arts
were of a high order, and called forth, ‘in their favor, not only be-
nevolent feeling and admiration, but very liberal pecuniary aid.

6. Philosophical apparatus.—The’ earlier cultivators of physical —
science in this country, encountered great inconvenience from the
want of apparatus, and much expense and delay resulted, from their
being obliged to send to London or Paris for almost every article.

tofessors and teachers, who are still on the stage, can answer for
the truth of this statement. nom however, the case is happily re-
versed. Ingeni and good of apparatus are found
in most of our “sew and many of our native artists are able to con-
ee struct new instruments to order, and with accuracy, neatness, and

176 Miscellanies.

dispatch. Still, it is desirable that the stock of talent, skill and ma-
tertel in this department should be increased, and we trust that the
very respectable men already established in this line, will welcome
to this country one who has long been celebrated in his own.

Mr. Jobn Millington, civil engineer and machinist, and late pro-
fessor of Mechanics in the Royal Institution, and of Natural Philoso-
phy in Guy Hospital, London, has established himself at No. 207,
Pine street, Philadelphia. The collection of apparatus and sub-
stances, specimens and various means of experiment, research and
illustration, enumerated in the printed sheet of Mr. Millington, in-
cludes almost every thing that is needed, both by those who teach
and by those who Jearn.

Mr. M. is also a practical machinist, architect and mannfictient,
and proposes to furnish models, machines, substances, instruments,
instructions, and every thing needed for a successful prosecution of
the practical arts ‘as well as of science. We trust that this country
is wide enough both for him, and his coadjutors in, the same impor-
tant pursuits, and that all of them will find encouragement to con-
_ tinue and enlarge their establishments.. We have formed a very fa-
vorable opinion of Mr. Millington aie his papers in the English
Quarterly Journal of Science.

7. Notice of the Crotalus durissus, a) ,) as found in Carroll county;
Geo., where it is called the Diamond Rattlesnake.
- TO THE EDITOR.

Dear Sire This reptile is an inhabitant of the grey or ere land
pai by the long leaf pine and an under growth of grass and

erns.

It has its popular name of aie rattlesnake from the manner
in which two stripes, crossing from the point of his nose, extend
back over his whole body, the intersections of which give the-math-
ematical figure of the diamond or rhomboid. The lines are smallest
where the diameter of the body is least, and on the largest part do
not exceed the fourth of an inch in width. The body of the snake is
of a light brown or copper color; the stripes are a light yellow, and
at each extremity the color is darkest.

This rattlesnake is the largest reptile in this part of Anieriest: It
is often eight feet long—skins of the largest size, when stripped from
the body, have held three pecks of sand. Three, of great size, were
killed during the past summer on the waters of the little Tala-
poosa; one of them had fifteen shells to his rattle. ‘The Rev. Mr 4

Miscellanies. 177

Haygood and Mr. Lyles examined the bones of the head of one,
after they became exposed, from decay of the flesh, There were five
fangs on each side of the jaw, above and below, making twenty teeth,
which were more than an inch in length and nearly of the same size.
When the jaws of the reptile are closed, the fangs, (as is the fact gen-
erally with venomous snakes, ) fold like the claws of the feline animals.
Dreadful as this rattlesnake may appear, there is no instance known
here of any human being having been bitten by one of this species.
Being usually found fat, and very large for the length, they are con-
equently sluggish and pamunsiehe to attack, although, when aroused,
their aspect is terrible.

The very broad head of this serpent, often four inches wide and
the great number of large and long teeth make him altogether the
most formidable snake in appearance, and probably he is the most
fatal in North America. Yours respectfully,

acos Peck,

a ro 1833.

This snake is dante by Linneus, nad called by him Crotalus
durissus. Descriptions of it may also be found in Rees’s Cyclopx-
dia, art. Crotalus ;—Encyc. Amer. art. Rattlesnake ;—Cuvier’s An.
King. (Am. ed.) vol. ii, p. 67, and Shaw’s Zoology, vol. iii, pt. 2,
p- 333. The last named account is accompanied by a drawing.—
Com. —

8. Delaware Academy of Natural Sciences, and the Address of
Dr. Henry Gibbons, at Wilmington.—We are happy to observe the
proofs of a high regard to mental culture, which this discourse ex-
hibits; and we learn with pleasure that the Wilmington Academy
exhibits, i in its hall, a valuable collection in natural history, and espe-
cially in mineralogy. These collections are stated to be i increasing,
and that “a growing disposition, favorable to the cultivation of sci-
ence, is manifested, more especially by the younger portion of the
citizens of Wilmington.” The disquisition of Dr. Gibbons is replete
with interesting facts, relating to science, literature and morals; it
finds its way equally to the head and the heart, leaving them both
under the happiest influences. We have rarely read a more inter-
esting discourse, pronounced on such an occasion.

9. P roposal for establishing a seminary for education in itera.
A benevolent correspondent has addressed to the Editor a letter upon
Vou. XXIV.—No. 1.

178 Miscellames.

the subject mentioned in the caption. Although it may not be strictly
within the plan of this Journal, still if viewed as a moral experiment
upon man, regarding a portion of his race, which, in the later cen-
turies, and more especially since the discovery of America, has been
oppressed and afflicted, almost beyond the examples of former ages,
this project certainly ought not to be excluded from our pages. That
the negro has a rational mind, is sufficient to entitle him to the con-
sideration of the benevolent and philanthropic in all countries, and
especially in those that claim the Christian name.

We do not think it necessary to discuss, with our correspondent,
the various questions connected with the physical peculiarities.of the
negro. We would at once throw the onus probandi upon those who
maintain, that he is a distinct and inferior variety of man: even if
that were, which never can be proved, it would be equally necessa-
ry to admit numerous other subdivisions in the human race, since
there are, even in Africa itself, many diversities almost equally stri-
king, as in the case of the negro. It is much more siinple, and we
believe not less philosophical, to believe, that God has made of one
blood all nations that dwell upon the face of the earth.

The colony in Liberia is an object of high intellectual and moral:
interest ; and we hesitate not to say, that it has now arrived at such

egree of maturity, and presents such proofs of permanency, that
it is high time to institute there, for the education of Africans, a sem-
inary of a higher order than common schools. Its mode and form
must be determined, by deliberate and wise consultation, among the
friends of Africa and Africans in this country; with the advice and
consent of the most enlightened and virtuous, and public-spirited
citizens of Liberia itself. We are persuaded, that if an effort were
extensively made, in this country, to obtain funds for the specific ob-
ject of creating a liberal seminary of education in Liberia, it would, i
prosecuted with vigor and perseverance, be successful, and we cannot
doubt, that such a seminary, wisely constituted and directed, would
prove a blessing, of incalculable value, to the infant colony of Libe-
ria, and to Africa itself. F

We do not, therefore, feel that we are departing oa the aalen
of this Journal, in proposing, in accordance with the wishes of our
correspondent, that efforts be made, as soon as a plan can be satis-
factorily devised and proper agents obtained, to raise funds for es-
tablishing in the colony of Liberia, in Africa, a liberal seminary for
the education of African youth.

Maiscellanies. 179

10. The New Universal Gazetteer, by Edwin Williams, is a small
and valuable volume. Perhaps there is not another of its size which
contains so much information, so well, and so concisely expressed.
Mr. Williams is remarkable for condensing facts and descriptions into
the smallest compass, without being abrupt, and for a terse style, ap-
propriate to works of this kind. The type is clear, although small,
and, as a book of reference, it is particularly convenient for its port-
able size.

The statistical tables, comprising thirty pages at the end of the
volume, are interesting and useful. They contain the latest censuses
of the United States, Great Britain, France and Ireland, and refer
also to the tonnage, imports and exports, the colleges, post-roads,
rail-roads and canals of the United States; also Martucci’s popula-
tion of China, comparative heights of mountains, lengths of rivers,
and sizes of lakes, the number of Indians in the different states and —
territories, with many other valuable particulars.

Mr. Williams has just published “The Book of the Constitution,”
containing. various important documents and resolutions respecting
the true character and powers of the general government.

11. Flint’s History and Geography of the Valley of the Missis-
sippt, &c. 2d edition: Cincinnati, 1832.—The author, Rev. Timo-
thy Flint, is already favorably known, by a previous edition of this
work, ie by other works relating especially to the “ “ great valley of

the west.”
_ An emigrant himself, he is identified with all the varied interests
which constitute the rapidly increasing prosperity of this noble and
interesting section of the United States; and being one of its. most
favored sons, he has contributed his best services to develop its re-
sources, to extend investigation, and to diffuse a knowledge of inter-
esting facts. .

With a.mind filled, almost to enthusiasm, with his subject, familiar
with facts, accurate in his observations, and intelligent and indepen-
dent in his deductions, he is peculiarly fitted to appreciate and re-
cord the great moral and physical transformations which are now in
progress in the west.

Having been an observer of man and nature, in every part of this
great valley, and an eye-witness of most of the scenes he describes,
they are depicted with faithfulness, and a freshness and fervor sel-
dom found in works of this kind, and. we doubt not the anticipations

180 Miscellanies.
of the author of the happy influence of his book upon . intimate
relations of the east and west will be fully realized.

An extract from the preface will show the reasons which prompted
him to the work, and his claims asa historian. ‘ He had devoted
the best portion of twelve years to exploring the western country.
He had remained, one or more seasons, in each of its great divisions.
He had been familiar with Cincinnati, St. Louis and New Orleans,
the points most central to the information and resources of their res-
pective divisions, and had resided in each of those capitals. He
had traversed this great valley in all its chief directions, in an em-
ployment which had necessarily brought him in contact with all
classes of its people and all its aspects of society. He had had
abundant communications with its scholars and distinguished men, and
as an earnest lover of nature, he had contemplated her in the West,
in her original dress and in all her phases. On foot and alone, he had
wandered beside the long and devious rivers. He had been between
two and three hundred days on the Mississippi and its tributary wa-
ters. He had published “ Recollections” of these journeyings, which
had been received by the public with great kindness. His chief ef
forts as an author had been directed to bringing the people of the west
acquainted with one another, and with the beauty and resources of
their own great country. He hopes it will not be deemed assump-
tion for him to say, that he has done something towards bringing
about an intimacy of good feelings between the elder sister, whose
fair domain is the east country, the fresh breeze and the shores of
the sea, and her younger sister, whose dotal portion is the western
woods and the fertile shores of the western streams. A kind of af-
fectionate feeling for the country where he has enjoyed and suffered
all that the human heart can be supposed capable of feeling on this
side of the grave, which contains his children, bis charities, and all
those ties which call forth aspirations for its well being, afier he shall
be in the dust, enlistéd his first purpose to commence this work.
The general amenity of the aspect of this country, of its boundless
woods and prairies, its long and devious streams, and its unparalleled
advancement in population and improvement, filled:his imagination.
He had seen the country, in some sense, grow up under his eye-
He saw the first steam-boat that descended the Mississippi. He had
seen much of that transformation, as if of magic, which has convert
ed the wilderness into fields and orchards. He has wished to trans-
fer to others some of the impressions which have been — on
his own mind, by witnessing those changes.” ‘

Miscellanies. 181

The first part of this work, (nearly two hundred pages,) contains
a general view of the valley, comprising the face of the country, its
minerals, climate and diseases, its botany and zoology, the natural
history of its birds, reptiles and fish, its rivers, an interesting account
of the aboriginal inhabitants, its population, the national and religious
character of the western people drawn to the life, their pursuits, a
succinct view of the civil history of the country, and a section on
immigration, particularly useful to those who are about to try their
fortunes in the west, and interesting to all. who would be acquainted
with the humble but incipient measures for the foundation of that
future immense empire. A particular account is given of each state
and territory, then of the Atlantic states and the remainder of the
continent, with an appendix of various useful statistical tables.

This work, replete as it is with interesting matter, forms a valua-
ble addition to our knowledge and literature, and is worthy of a place
in the library of every American.

We observe, with pleasure, that it is highly esteemed in London,
_ as appears by a Somes notice in the mene Atheneum for De-
cember, 1832. -

12; decline Historical Society—This society was founded De-
cember 11, 1830, and confirmed by act of the local legislature Jan-
uary 10, 1831.

The natural, civil, and political history of Indiana is its principal
objects of attention, and it embraces useful knowledge generally.

Among the names of its officers, we observe those which are well
known and greatly respected throughout the union. At its annual
and semi-annual meetings, it is proposed that lectures or discourses
be delivered on the following subjects :

1. The history of the Indian tribes within the State. 7

2. The civil and political history of the State from its earliest set:
tlement.

3. ‘The ancient remains and natural curiosities within the same.

4. Its Natural History, embracing its geology, mineralogy and
botany, its soil, productions and climate, its animals, birds, fishes, &c.

The society resolved to communicate its constitution, &c. to other
historical and learned societies, to the executive governments, and to
distinguished individuals in other States, and they desire
in books, manuscripts, curiosities, &c. All communications até to
be addressed to Jolin H. Farnham, Corresponding Secretary, Salem,
Windham County, Indiana.

182 Miscellanies.

Every friend of his country and of mankind will wish success to
this infant institution which affords a happy presage of the character
of the young and rising State in which it is situated. ‘The society
have published an important document signed by the Hon. Nathan
Dane, of Beverly, Mass., showing what were the true foundations of
the government of the United States, and of the free land titles of
the States north of the Ohio, and also of their exemption from the
curse of slavery. ibashal

The people of the United States formed their own government be-
fore there were any States, and Mr. Dane was chiefly instrumental
in procuring the free land titles and in excluding slavery from the
States and territory north of the Ohio.

13. Explosion of bellows by inflammable gas.
; TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Sir—An explosion happened in this place, last week, in a smith’s
shop occasioned, as I suppose, by hydrogen gas. The circumstances
of the disaster were related to me as follows:—The workmen had .
been in the practice of putting into the forge fire a small piece of hard
wood, when leaving work, to obtain fire from in the morning; the
evening before the explosion, they, as usual, put in a piece of elm,
wet from being immersed in water, (as was their usual custom,) and
covered the same with the cinders and ashes of the forge, probably
half a bushel in all, and left it after hooking up the bellows with.a harsp
to the gallows on which the lever for working the same rests. 40
the morning, they found the fire and covering undisturbed, but the
bellows, which were made of two inch plank, split to pieces, the
leathers torn from them, gallows torn. down which was fastened by two
_ four inch spikes, and the brick work cracked and started at its base.
The place for the tube of the bellows was of cast iron, six inches .
through, and the tube about twenty inches long, which remained un-
injured ; not the slightest appearance of fire, on any thing near, was
to be found. As this is the first instance in which any thing of the
kind has ever happened here, some were led to the conclusion, that
it must have been done by gunpowder, which I think could not be
the case, as there were no indications of it. Yours respectfully,

Anrnony S. Jones:
Newburyport, February 3, 1833. 3

Remarks.—The occurrence stated by Mr. Jones, although by 0°
means uncommon, was one of unusual violence; but, from the cit-
cumstances it appears to admit of a satisfactory explanation. The

Miscellanies. 183

bellows, being hooked: up to the cross beam, there was of course as
large a cavity as possible, filled, at first, with common air. ‘The wet
wood, buried in hot ashes and cinders, necessarily emitted, during the
whole time of its carbonization, a great deal of carburetted hydrogen
gas, mixed with carbonic acid, and probably also with carbonic oxide.
The pressure of the covering of ashes and cinders obstructed the
escape of these gases into the air of the room, and forced a part of
them into the bellows, and when the explosive proportion was attain-
ed, the mixed gases were kindled by the fire in the forge, just as a
musket or cannon is discharged by fire applied at the touch hole.

The most powerful explosive proportions are one seventh or one
eighth of the inflammable gas to six sevenths or seven eighths of com-
mon air, and this proportion might be, under the circumstances, read-
ily attained. ‘To chemical readers, it is not necessary to expatiate
upon circumstances which are so familiar to them; such explosions
are not uncommon 3. but.commonly they are’not destructive. Even
philosophical laboratories are usually furnished with forge bellows.
In the laboratory of Yale College, we have, in a number of instances,
witnessed explosions arising, evidently, from the suction of inflamma-
ble gas into the bellows, especially during the cessation of the blow-
ing and the gradual descent of the léwer plank of the bellows, which,
in ‘consequence of the weight usually attached to it, falls slowly
as the lever ceases to work, and thus draws the inflammable gas with
it, into the bellows. We have never seen the bellows actually torn
by the explosion, but we have seen heavy weights thrown, suddenly,
from the top, by the violent jerk, and have heard — a loud
detonation.

In the case related by Mr. Jones, it is obvious that the accident
will be effectually prevented, by hooking up the lower part of the
bellows instead of the upper, and pressing down the upper by weights
so as to exclude, as completely as possible, the common air, and also
to prevent the entrance of inflammable gas. When the working of
the bellows commences, in the morning, it would be well to begin with
short and quick movements of the lever, in order to establish a cur-
rent of common air through the bellows, before there is an opportu-
nity for inhaling inflammable gas. It is scarcely necessary to remark,
that the tube or tuyere of the bellows at Newburyport escaped with-
out injury, because it was very strong, and because the quantity of
explosive gases contained in it was, necessarily, very small; just the
opposite facts were true of the body of the bellows, eoiaevected as
it is of leather and wood.

184

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Miscellanies. °185

15. Notice of a Rocking Stone.—It is situated upon a ledge, about
a mile south from Dartmouth College, and about one fourth of a mile
north of where the road leading from Hanover to Lebanon, crosses
Sand Hill. The ledge is an extensive range of coarse granite, of
which the rocking stone is probably a fragment, detached from the
most elevated part and moved to.its present site; a depression, very
well answering to the shape of one of the lateral faces of the rocking
stone, is distinctly to be traced upon the most elevated part of the
rocky ledge. The form of the stone is nearly that of an irregular
four sided pyramid,. with the base upward. The lateral faces are
almost smooth.

Tn the annexed Kaich, figures 1, 2,3 and 4, represent the north,
south, east and west views of the stone respectively. The north

de, (fig. 1,) is nine and a half; the south, (fig. 2,) thirteen; the
east, (fig. 3,) twelve and a half’ ; the west, (fig. 4,) nine fet i in
length. The height varies from five to eight or nine feet. .
rock is movable only in one direction, and turns upon a small stone
_ of a prismoidal shape, two or three feet in gt and which oper-
ates as a kind of friction roller.

One would be led to suppose, Sci a view of either of the figures

in the sketch, that the stone might easily be moved from i its position; —

but the fact is otherwise. Although it can be moved with one finger,

and can easily be made to vibrate three or four inches with'the hand ;

yet its equipoise being destroyed, it would rest in any direction upon

the a beneath; from which it is separated only by a space of a
L. t. XXIV.—No. 1 x ie

186° Miscellanies.

few inches, and from which it could be moved only by the appli- —
cation of a very considerable force.. As thousands live within sight
of the noble Mount Washington, without attempting its ascent, and
other thousands almost within hearing of the thunders of Niagara,
who have hardly turned aside to see the prince of our mountains, or
the prince of all cataracts, it appears the less surprising that a logan
rock, almost within sight of the university of New Hampshire, soul
have remained mater unnoticed.

. Porrer, Principal of the Portstedetl

High School, Jan. 30, 1833.

To the Editor of the Am. Journal of F Seience and rts.

16. Notices of Wheeling, Virginia, by James W. Shaatiels in
a letter to the Editor, dated Wheeling, May 21, 1832.—Wheeling
is a thrifty town, situated on the eastern bank of the Ohio River, im
the county of Ohio and state of Virginia. Its population i is, at this
time, between six and seven thousand souls.

Its latitude is 40° 15’ N.; its longitude 80° 10’ W. from Green-
wich. The site on which the town stands, without doubt, once
formed the bed of the Ohio River, for evidence of this fact is con-
stantly presented, but a few feet below the present surface.

The town is divided into two parts, the high and the low: the
high part of the town, was used by the aborigines as a cemetery-

About three years ago, the workmen employed in excavating a
cellar, in this part of the town, discovered many relics of the In-
dians, such as bones nearly decayed ; and in the tombs with those
bones were found pots in a good state of preservation, and having
in them muscle shells and the bones of some small animals, as the
rabbit or squirrel. There were found, also, war axes of stone, toma-
hawks of a species of stone no where to be found in this neighbor-
hood, and also arrow heads of the very best quality of flint.*

mong numerous specimens of aboriginal relics in my possession, I find arrow
ie spear heads of quartz, flint, hornstone and jasper : they were evidently shaped
by chipping or fracture; they have a channel or hollow around the base of the ar-
row or spear head, whkahs oe to have been intended for a with or string to fast-
en the stone to the shaft. Ih moulds made of soapstone, with a regular
sprue, and holes for withs, to bind the two parts of the mofild together; pipes, made
of chlorite, pottery, or soapstone; one of these, of chlorite, is in the shape of an owl}
it is as large as a small bird of that family ; the tobacco was introduced through 4
hole .in the back, and the tube was put in at the vent; mor tars. fagate, hornstone
and jasper, with pestles of the same, thus anticipating m improvements in
paratus for analysis; ornaments of jasper, jade, hornstone, and slate af different va-

Miscellanies. 187

in May, 1832, Dr. J.C. Johnston employed workmen to remove
the earth from a lot in that part of Wheeling, which was used by |
the aborigines asa cemetery. In making this excavation, a large piece
of mica was discovered. The mass was of the breadth* of the spe-
cimen herewith forwarded to you, and one inch thick. It was dug
out of a bank of gravel and sand, at least eighty feet above the level
of the Ohio at this place. It was found about ten feet below the
present surface of the ground. This is the site of the old Wheeling
fort, in which some of the present inhabitants of Wheeling were born.t
It is not the first that his been discovered, but it is the! largest that I
have seen. .'Talc was also discovered a few years since, buried in
the ground. Mineral coal is abundant in this neighborhood: the
veins are ‘from’ four to eight feet thick, and they lie parallel to the
horizon. Pyrites is intermixed with the coal, and forms a consider-
able stratum above it; from this mineral, large quantities of copperas
are annually manufactured, simply by lixiviation and evaporation, af-
ter exposure, for a sufficient time, to the action of the air. Alumin-
ous earths are dug up in abundance, six miles east of this place, from
which large quantities of the alum of commerce are made.

it. Geological notices respecting a part of Greene County, Alla-
bama; ina letter from Rosert W. Wituers, M.D. to the Editor,
dated Erie, (Ala.) Jan. 15, 1833.—I am a cotton planter, and am
situated at the head of a beautiful prairie of six miles in length.
This singular kind of country is little known to geology. The prai-
ries, obviously, did not originate, as some have supposed, from burn-
ings by the Indians. The soil is very peculiar, and has no resem-
blance to that of the land in the vicinity. Our prairies too were
evidently once a part of the sea; the soil is composed of decom-

rieties; one of the most frequent forms is that of a prolate spheroid: I have one of
_ this form, made of beautiful hematite; axes, chisels, gouges, and other cutting in-
struments, made of hard stones; they appear to have been secured to the handles
by being coo through a split made in a branch of a tree, or by being bound by
withs ; ; tomahawks of various — generally not the hardest, for they were per-
ie the reception of a handle; containing vessels, of soap or

,&e. Considering Pa means and wants, and ee ae that they

had no iron instruments, the skill, perseverance and success

these things, were truly surprisi
* Five inches by three; probably from a portion of granite; the region on
it is well known, i is of a very different geological character; the may have
brought this mica from some primitive region, or obtained it from ‘some of the bowl-
= —s — 80 — on the si ig secondary and transition surfaces.—Ed.

188 Miscellanies.

posed shells and calcareous deposits, from marine animalcule, prob-
ably resembling those about the Florida Keys. ‘That the prairies
are of oceanic origin, or had, at least, a connexion with the sea, ap-
pears from the oyster shells, sharks’ teeth, and similar reliquie,
which are here of frequent occurrence. I have, also, in my pos-
session some of the vertebre of an animal as large as the elephant,
and some of the petrified muscles, apparently belonging to a fish.
It seems to have been worm-eaten before it was mineralized. e
animal perished too in a vertical position, as the vertebre shew, hav-
ing been first discovered, ranged one above another, in the steep
bank of a rivulet, A few feet under the top of the soil, and some-
times on its surface, is invariably found a whitish, soft limestone rock,

easily cut with a knife, and very smooth and friable. It is here call-
ed familiarly rotten limestone, to distinguish it from the hard blue
limestone rock, found about fifty miles above this place. This rotten
limestone is sometimes sawed out in blocks, with a common cross-
cut saw, and if kept out of the weather becomes hard, but if ex-
posed, immediately after taking it out of the earth, to the rains and
frosts, it falls into powder and becomes soil. In all our prairie re-
gion, water is scarce, and sometimes all efforts to obtain it fail, al-
though the rock has heen bored into, in some instances, upwards of

five hundred feet. There seem to be no natural fissures or clefts in:

the rock, through which water can approach the surface. It is, in
most instances, more or less mixed with shells, even to the extre-
mest depth to which it has been penetrated.. Sometimes small balls
of the sulphuret of iron are found in it, and, in some instances, the
shells form distinct strata. It effervesces with acids, but, when ex-
posed to heat, does not make lime fit for the ordinary purposes.
‘There is one variety of it, however, which is found on some of the
hills below this place, in detached, porous, honey-comb fragments,
which makes lime strong enough for common use.

On these hills, we have cedars vying with those of the forests of
Lebanon ; sometimes three feet in diameter, and sti ia to a great
height

This belt of prairie country extends from the eastern jane of this
state, quite across it, into Mississippi, being from thirty to forty miles
in breadth. It is generally more or less covered with timber, al-
though sometimes it is entirely destitute of trees, and then it is des-
ignated as open or bald prairie. The soil is generally black, and
very productive in.corn and grain; but where there is no timber, it
is not adapted to the growth of cotton, nor of fruit trees or the lega-

Miscellanies. 189

minous plants. When wet it is like mortar, and when dry becomes
very hard, where it is trampled. The creeks and rivers running
through it have their beds in ihe rock, as the soil is friable and easily
washed off.

Now the question is, how this kind of country came here? From.
this place to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico is two hundred miles;
but in all the intervening country, there is nothing to indicate that it
was once the bed of the sea. From this to St. Stephens, it is much
broken, the hills, in some instances, rising to several hundred feet
above the river, and there is, also, a coal formation below. From
St. Stephens to the Mobile Point, (one hundred miles,) it is almost
a perfect plain, covered with pines, and, except some shell banks,
no fossil remains. The hills about thirty miles above St. Stephens,
are composed of a sort of sandstone, and below, the soil is almost
entirely siliceous and barren, except on the river banks. Here, it
seems to be formed by decomposed shells, and other calcareous and
marine productions. It is entirely different from the blue limestone
region of the west, and from the sand hills and plains of the south’;
and the prairie region here, although once evidently covered by the
sea, is now much higher than the sandy country immediately around
it, as if the rock below had ‘first grown by accretion, and then thrown
up the prairie.

18. Sulphurets of Bismuth; by Lt. W. W. Marurr, in a letter
to the Editor, dated West Point, March 5, 1833.—There seems to
be another sulphuret of bismuth, than the two already described.
Reading your system of chemistry some time since, it mentioned that
a sulphuret of bismuth, consisting of. bismuth seventy two, and sul-
phur sixteen, may be formed> by fusing three parts bismuth and one .
sulphur. As I had never. seen the sulphuret of bismuth, I fused
seventy two grains of bismuth and twenty four grains of sulphur, in a
small closely covered crucible, which had been previously ignited
and then weighed. The fusion was continued for about half an hour.
After cooling, the crucible was again weighed, but the crucible instead
of having increased in weight 88 grains, ~72+-16, as was expected,
had increased only 80.15 grains = 72+8.15, or the one proportional
of bismuth =72, had combined with but a small fraction more me
one half proportional of sulphur, or 8.15.

Thinking there might have been some error in. oaagua the
materials, the experiment was repeated, and; for greater accuracy,
with larger proportions.

190 Miscellanies.

One thousand eight hundred grains of bismuth, finely powdered
and mixed with six hundred grains of sulphur, which had been sub-
limed, were fused with the same precautions as before, and kept in
fusion for about half an hour. The resulting sulphuret weighed
2003.6 grains =1800+203.6, or the composition is

; bismuth, 1800.0=25 x72

sulphur, 203.6=25x 8.144
of one per cent. only in excess, to form a di-sulphuret, considering
the atomic numbers 72 and 16 the true ones. The bismuth employ-
ed was the common bismuth of commerce, which contains, according
to Thomson, about one third of one per cent. of iron, so that by the
sulphur also combining with the jron, the combined sulphur in both
together should be a little in excess.

The bi-sulphuret of bismuth described by Vauquelin contains

bismuth, 68.25 or 72.00
; sulphur, 31.75 33. ‘Bh. Thomson’s Elements, vol. i, p. 411.

i The sulphur is about one sixth

_ The sulpburet described by Dr. John Davy contained
ene i or tose | The sulphuret described by La-
gerhjelm scarcely differs from the last. There are then three sul-
phurets of bismuth, composed o 3
Bismuth, - - - 72 - = 72 - = 72
Sulphur, - - - 32 - - 16 - - 8

19. Address of Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, at Detroit, on the condi-
tion of the North Anjerican Indians, May, 1832.—Lecture on To-
bacco, by Prof. Elizur Wright, of the college at Hudson, Ohio,
May; 1832.

Address before the ee Bociety of the Medical Class, im
Dartmouth College, Oct. 1832, by Prof. Oliver.— Temperance Re-
corder of Albany:

If these subjects are trite, they have lost none of their importance
by iteration. Weare glad to see that men of talents and station
are willing to come before the public, and enter their solemn protest
against strong drink and its ally, tobacco. Mr. Schoolcraft has hap-
- pily, although painfully sketched the destroying effects of alcohol
upon the aborigines; Mr. Wright has forcibly and very plainly ex-
hibited the evils and offensiveness of tobacco, and Prof. Oliver has,
with the skill of an able professional man, sustained one of. the
greatest causes that has ever been brought forward in the world.

Miscellanies. 191

20. “ The Family Cabinet Atlas,” first American edition with one
hundred maps and tables, very neatly executed, is a fair specimen of
the multum in parvo, and may form an appropriate accompaniment
_to the New Universal Gazetteer.

FOREIGN.

21. Diejalags Society of Paris.—This society has been organ-
ized by the former pupils of the polytechnic school, and all of them
are conversant with practical arts of industry and commerce.

The object of the society is to promote the progress of industry
and to supply the wants of the commercial and agricultural classes,
especially of France. Its principal means are,

1, An extensive correspondence with its members at home andl
abroad.

2. A responsibility, in consequence of an understanding with the
heads of establishments, to see all orders faithfully executed.

3. A great collection of very perfect models of machines to serve
as specimens, and to be exhibited at a particular place.

4. The Receuil Industriel, §c. of M. De Moleon, a valuable sal
‘omapia journal, is the vehicle of all the observations and discove-
ries of the society, and of the results of the communication of its
members in every part of the world.

In its organization are included "

1. Des Industriels, who attend to the interests of manufacturers,
machinists, &c.

2. Des Agronomes, who watch over rural econom

8. Des Commercans, whose vigilance is directed to commerce al
its various dependant interests.

Foreign ambassadors are invited to supply the wants of their, re-
. Spective countries through the agency of the society, whose agdress
au directeur de la posts Polytechnique rue neuve-des- Capeinws
No. 13 bis.

Such a society pint the able direction which it will deglaien
receive from its president, M. De Moleon, and his associates, cannot
fail of being highly useful both to Frenchmen and strangers. We
add, from a letter of M. De Moleon to the Editor, dated Paris, Oct.
10, 1832, “ Cette Société a pour but de satisfaire aux indus-
triels de tous les pays—de procurer aux manufacturiers, aux fab-
ricans, aux agronomes et aux artistes les
vent avoir besoin, soit sous la forme de modele, soit en. n grande; de
surveiller leur confection, et de les expedier a destination; de fournir

192 Miscellanies.

tous les renseignmens et documens gui poorest contribuer a la pros-
périté commercial, ” &e.

22. Geological Society of France.—We have received the cir- ,
cular of the society, dated Dec. 17, 1832, and a sketch of its con-
stitution, rules, and officers. ‘The society was founded Mareh 17,
1830, and was recognized by a royal ordinance of April 3, 1832.

Its object is the advancement of geology, in general, and particu-
larly in France, asap an especial reference to agriculture and the
useful arts.

It aims to combine the efforts of all ed cultivators of geology in
all countries.

The number of its members is sunlimitbd, and it enrolls already more
than two hundred, scattered over Europe; for, strangers as well as
Frenchmen are eligible; to obtain membership it is necessary to be
named by two members, and to be proclaimed by the president ; and
those members who desire it, receive a diploma, with the seal of the
society, and signed by the president, secretary, and treasurer.

The society, being instituted with an.exclusive reference to utility,
the services of all its officers and members are gratuitous, and no
personal interest is in any way fostered by the institution.

Two volumes of its Bulletin, or the proces verbal of its meetings,
have been published, and the first volume of its transactions, illustra~
ted by beautiful maps, sections, and plates’of fossils is in the press.

Its President is M. ALexanpre Broneniarrt.

Its Vice Presidents, M. Corprer, M. Araco, M. Dernanoe =
M. De Bonnarp.

Its Recording Recnetary 1 is = Desxornns. Its Foreign § sere
tary is M. Boué.

Its counsellors are M. Exre De Beaumont, M. De BuasNviLee, '
M. Brocnant De Vittters, M. Carrier, M. Desnaves, M. Do-
perry, M. De Ferussac, M. Hvor, M. Sasounaire, M, Constant
Prevost, M. Reeury and M. Watrropin.

These gentlemen are well known wherever science is cultivated.

M. Brongniart’s name is enough to insure the respectability of the
society, and not a few of his coadjutors are well worthy of being
associated with this very eminent and excellent man.

If we were to wish the society as brilliant success as has attended
the elder sister in England, we should say much. In a rivalry far
more honorable than the wars which have for so many centuries dis-

Miscellanies. 193

tressed and dishonored the two countries, the Gallic Society will
doubtless strive, by every honorable means, to eclipse its British
predecessor.

While to both institutions we cordially wish all success, we should
be happy to contribute to it by any effort however humble.

23. Baron Ferussac’s new work on Shells.—We have before us
a communication from M. le Baron de Ferussac, informing us that
he has recommenced the publication of his great work “ Histoire
Naturelle Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles.”

There are now about thirty Nos. of this magnificent and highly
scientific work issued from the press. In beauty of execution and
faithfulness to nature, it is not surpassed by any work heretofore pub-
lished in this, or perhaps in any other branch of natural science.
The figures are exact representations of the most perfect and best
characterized specimens which the splendid cabinet of the author as
well as the other cabinets of Paris affords. The increasing labor
and constant researches of the learned author guarantee to the stu-
. dent of natural history, the advancement of this branch of science
to a state of perfection at which few others have arrived.

The Baron is also occupied with various monographs consisting of
other classes and orders which he proposes to publish in succession.
The whole of these works will be published under the common title
“Histoire Naturelle generale et particulitre de Mollusques, tant vi-
vans que fossiles.

We are informed by the Baron that the subscription is reopened,
and We sincerely hope that our public libraries as well as individuals
interested in the promotion of this branch of natural science, will take
advantage of it. We observe M. de Behr, foreign bookseller, New
York, is authorized to receive subscribers; the price being thirty
francs per No. for the folio’ os colored, and fifteen francs for the
4to. plain.

The great advantage of nictiaaghi of this description must be
evident even to the mere tyro—those who study nature thoroughly
cannot do without them. ‘There are, at least, two copies of this
great work in Philadelphia, one of which, a fine colored copy of the
Jargest kind, is in the rich library of the American Philosophical So-
ciety. Should the Baron live to see the whole of this great under-
taking complete, he will have the satisfaction of handing down to pos-
terity, a greater mass of aon » the subjects of which he treats,

Vou. XXIV.—No. 1

194 _ Misceéllanies.

than any of his predecessors have been enabled to, and we wish him,
most heartily, bealth and strength as well as assistance in a pecuniary
point of view, to enable him to accomplish so desirable an object.

24. Epistilbite from Elba.—Among some specular iron ores from
_ Elba, Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger, of New York, discovered the min-
eral heretofore called epistilbite, but now by Mohs and others con-
sidered as heulandite.

Its color is white; lustre vitreous and pearly ; fracture conchoidal;
nearly transparent; structure entirely crystalline, but the crystals are
crowded and indistinct. By a strong magnifier they appeared gen-
erally hemitropic, but one was a rhombic prism. The crystals were
in a beautiful amygdaloid. *

Before the blow pipe, like the whole zeolite family, it melted into
a colorless, blebby glass.

The mineral corresponds exactly with one described a few years
ago by Rose, whose localities were Iceland and Ferroe Islands; and
as Elba is a new locality, not named in any work, Dr. F. requests
that it may be mentioned in the Am. Journal.

Characteristic of the Epistilbite according to Rose.

_ This mineral is specifically distinguished from the Stilbite and Heu-
landite ; crystals are rarely simple but generally hemitropic; the
simple crystals constitute a rhombic prism of 135° 10/ terminating
in a predominating acumunation of 109° 46/ superposed straight on
the lateral angles, the lateral plane M, is common to the hemitropes,
but the others are in the reverse position; the cleavage is very dis-
tinctly parallel to the obtuse lateral angles: the facuire; js conchoi-
dal; the lustre vitreous and pearly ; the color white ; transparent 10
wail at the corners. Hardness, =4.5; spaailis gravity is
==2.24; its chemical constituents are 58.59 silica, 17.52 alumina,
7.56 lime, 1.78 soda, 14.48 water. :,

Before the blowpipe it acts like Stilbite and Heulandite. Localities
are Iceland and the Ferroe Islands in the cavities of an amygdaloid.

Notices Translated and Extracted by Prof. Griscom.
NECROLOGY.

Baron de Zach.—Science has just sustained a considerable loss
in the person of Francois Xavier, Baron de Zach, the actual dean

Miscellanies. 195

of astronomers, and whose reputation was truly European. Born
at Pesth, in Hungary, the 15th of June, 1754, he discovered at the
age of fifteen, a decided taste for astronomy, on the occasion of the
comet of 1769, and of the transit of Venus of the same year.
After having travelled through various countries of Europe, on
objects of science, he was appointed, in 1786, by the Duke of Saxe
Gotha, to construct the beautiful observatory of Sceberg, near Go-
tha, which he superintended himself during several years. He pub-
lished at Gotha, in 1792, tables of the sun, with a catalogue of three
hundred and eighty one stars, and at a later period he brought out
other astronomical tables. In 1798, he commenced, at Weimar, the
publication of his Geographical Ephemerides. They were followed
by his monthly German correspondence published at Gotha since
1800. This is one. of the most valuable collections of memoirs,
documents and astronomical notices. Having afterwards left Ger-
many, with the Dutchess of Saxe Gotha, to reside in a more south-
ern climate, he took up his abode for some years in the vicinity of
Marseilles, where he continued to make observations, and astronom-
ical and geodesical calculations, and published in French, in 1814,
his interesting work on the attraction of mountains. He afterwards
established himself at Genoa, and commenced there, in 1818, the
publication in French of a new astronomical Recueil, entitled Cor-
respondence astronomique, geographique, hydrographique et statis-
tique, with this epigraph: Sans franc penser en Vexercise des lettres,
ad n’y a ni lettres, ni science, ni esprit, nt rien. He issued fourteen
large volumes in 8vo. of this journal, prior to 1826. They. contain
a great number of very interesting materials, on all parts of astrono-
my and the sciences connected with it. A severe disease, at that
time, assailed his robust constitution and compelled him to discontinue
this new work. He had recourse to the skill of Dr. Civiale, who
consented, at the request of Plana and Arago, to repair to Genoa,
to perform on the Baron the operation of trituration. The latter
came afterwards to Paris, that the process might be renewed as oc-
casion required. The latter years of his life were passed in great
suffering, but in pogsession of his usual activity of mind, interesting
himself constantly with astronomy, maintaining his extensive corres-
pondence, and working while his strength lasted. He died on the
2d of September last, at Paris, by an attack of Asiatic cholera, after
twenty four hours illness. Endowed with rare faculties, he devoted
to astronomy all the energy of his mind and character ; and he was

196 Miscellanies.

no less remarkable as a writer, and in his social capacity, by the brill-
iancy and keenness of his remarks, by a memory which never failed,
by long expérience of men and things, favored by his social posi-
tions and his numerous journeys. He encouraged, by every means
in his power, a zeal for astronomy, wherever he found it; he formed ©
several distinguished astronomers, and greatly contributed by his
works and influence to that development which astronomy has un-
dergone in Germany. Baron de Zach had, jn various parts of Swit-
zerland, as in the rest of Europe, devoted friends, who are deeply
sensible of bis loss. May this feeble homage of gratitude and re-
gret, bestowed upon his memory, alleviate in some measure their
reasonable sorrow.—A. Gautier. Bib. Univ. Aout, 1832.

CHEMISTRY AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

1. Electro-Magnetism.*—M., Hachette announced to the French
Academy of Sciences, on the 3d of September, that Pixii had con-
structed an electro-magnetic apparatus, which produces sparks at a
distance. It was known, that if an unmagnetized horse shoe, around
which is wound a connecting wire covered with silk thread, is made
to approach a horse shoe magnet, with their extremities opposite to
each other, a spark is perceived at the moment of their separation 5
but that the experiment will not succeed, unless the contact is imme-
diate and the magnet very strong. With the new apparatus, a force
of five or six kilogrammes is sufficient to produce sparks at the dis-
tance of several millemetres. | “

A horse shoe magnet is placed vertically, with the ends upwards.
Through the center of the curved part passes a vertical axis, 0”
which it may turn horizontally by means of a pinion and wheel on
which the motion is impressed. Above, and in a fixed position, is
an unmagnetized horse shoe, whose ends are adjacent to those of
the magnet without touching them. It is enveloped with a wire,
whose extremities rest in a capsule of mercury, one of them dipping
into it and the other just bordering upon the surface. When the
magnet is made to revolve, every time its poles pass under the ends
of the iron, so as to be in the same vertical plané with them, a spark
is manifest at the surface of the mercury, and if the motion be rapid

We preserve this notice of a discovery already announced in this No., because’
it contains some additional particulars.— Ed.

Miscellanies. 197

the series of sparks produce a continued sensation of light. By
means of this apparatus, sparks may be obtained as strong as with
an electrical machine.—Rev. Tincye: Sept. 1832.

2. On the chemical action of samecieolectiie currents; by G. D.
Borro, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Turin
Among the qualities of the magneto-electric currents discovered by
Faraday, which it is important to ascertain, is that of their chemical
action. The results which I have recently obtained appear to be
decisive, but | shall, at present, confine myself to a simple announce-
ment of them, as they constitute a part of other labors relative to a
series of experimental researches, which I intend hereafter to pub-
lish, the object of which is to clear up some points of the doctrine
of electro-magnetism.

The apparatus which I employed in studying the chemical effica-
cy of the currents of Faraday, is composed essentially of an artificial
horse shoe magnet; and a bar of soft iron, surrounded, in the middle,
with an electro-magnetic spiral. The extremities of this bar, by
means of a simple contrivance, may be detached from the poles of
the magnet, and reunited with them, as rapidly as may be desired.

The apparatus is enclosed in a wooden box, and moved by a
handle without. The box is also surmounted by two rods, connect-
ed, at pleasure, with the interior mechanism, so as to establish or in-
terrupt the circuit at the moments favorable to the production of the
spark. Hence, when the spark is to be produced, the extremities of
the spiral are suitably connected with the rods; but when the instru-
ment is to be used for decompositions, those extremities are so dis-
posed that the substance to be decomposed may be introduced into
the circuit.

I have experimented in this manner upon water, acetate of lead,
and other saline solutions, using at first very small doses, on account
of the feebleness of the instrument, (the magnet sustained scarcely
six pounds or 2966 grammes,) but I soon discovered that the energy
of the current was sufficient to act successfully upon larger quantities.

I attached to a small bell glass two platina wires, to serve as con-
ductors. They were fastened, by lac wax, into two holes perforated
in the sides. The glass was filled with water, rendered more con-
ductible by a few drops of a solution of soda, and inverted din ae
filled with the same fluid. Having connected the platina ¥
the electro-magnetic spiral, I put the apparatus in motion. _ "Senreely

198 Miscellanies.

had the play of junction and separation commenced, before the de-
composing force of the platina poles was evident, in the form of two
columns of smoke, consisting of an infinite number of small gaseous
bubbles, which, uniting at the top of the receiver, yielded, in a short
time, a dose of oxygen and hydrogen sufficient to produce a sensi-
ble detonation.

- The phenomenon is still more interesting, when the development
of gas is viewed through a lens. The bubbles are more abundant,
as the motions of the electromotor are the more prompt. .

I shall not, at present, describe the results obtained from various
saline metallic solutions; the analogy between these effects and those
of hydro-electric currents appears to be complete, regard being had
to the intermission and fugacity of the ene, and the continued action
of the other.

‘Tt is not easy to foresee to what extent the means of exening and
increasing the chemical power of the magneto-electro-motive faculty
may be carried ; but that a character so highly interesting to the doc-
trine of imponderable fluids ought to claim the attention of men of
science, is very certain.— Bib. Univ. Sept. 1832.

3. 4 water barometer.—At the suggestion of J. F. Daniell, Esq.
professor of chemistry in Kings College, London, a water barometer
was ordered to be constructed under his direction by the president
and council of the Royal Society, and an account of its operation
was read by him to the society on the 21st of June last. The tube
was skilfully made by Pellatt & Co., at the Falcon glass-house. It

was forty feet long and one inch in diameter, and so nearly cylindrical
throughout its whole extent as to diminish only two tenths of an inch
at the upperend. It was securely lodged in a square case, by means
of proper supports, and placed in the winding staircase leading to the
apartments of the Royal Society. _ A small thermometer, with a pla-
tina scale, was introduced into the upper end of the tube. An ex-
ternal collar of glass was united to that end, by — it, to give it |
additional support and prevent it from slipping.

This end of the tube was then drawn out into a ve tube, ready
for sealing with the blowpipe, and a small stop cock was fitted to it.
The cistern of the barometer was formed by a small copper steam
boiler, eighteen inches long, eleven wide, and ten deep, capable of
being closed by a cock, and having at the bottom a small receptacle
for holding the lower end of the tube, so as to allow of the water in

Miscellanies. — 199

the tistern being asics without disturbing that contained in the
tube.

The boiler was set in brick work, ina proper position, over a small
fire-place. It was nearly filled with distilled water, which was made
to boil thoroughly, soas to free it from air; and the cock being then
closed, the water was raised in the tube, by the pressure of the steam
collected in the upper part of the cistern. The tube, when filled,
was hermetically closed at the top: a proper scale, constructed by
Newman, was applied to it, great care being taken to determine its
height, and to ensure the accuracy of the adjustments and the pre-
cision of its measurements, by an exact mode of reading; and also
to provide proper corrections for temperature. The water in the
cistern was protected from contact with the air, by being covered
with pure castor oil to the depth of half aninch. ‘The mercurial ba-
rometer, employed as a standard of comparison, was of a portable
construction, and was provided with a platina guard.

The register of observations of this instrument, given by the author,
and taken at least once a day, extend from October, 1830, to March,
1832. They afford some curious results. In windy weather, the
column of water is found to be in perpetual motion, not unlike that’
from the breathing of an animal. Many considerable fluctuations on
the pressure of the atmosphere are rendered sensible, which would
totally escape detection by the mercurial barometer. ‘The rise and
falt of the water precedes, by one hour, the similar motions of the
mercury. The most striking result of the comparison between the
two, is the very near coincidence of the elasticity of the aqueous
vapor as deduced from the experiments, with its amount as deter-
mined by calculation, in a range of temperature from 58° te 74°.
But a gradually increasing difference was .at length perceptible,
showing that gaseous matter had, by some means, insinuated itself
into the tube. When this became no longer doubtful, the boiler was
opened, and it was found that a portion of the liquid oil had escaped ;
and that the remainder had become covered with large flakes of a
mucilaginoug substance, by means of which it is probable that a
communication had been established between the air and the water.
The water had, however, retained its purity, and no indication was
afforded of the metal having been any where acted upon. |
author recommends, that if these researches are
water should be covered with a stratum of oil of four or five les
in depth, which he has reason to think will form an effectual barrier
to all atmospheric influence.—Lond. Phil. Mag. Nov. 1832.

200 : Miscellanies.

4. Vegetable matter in Carnelian—In consequence of somé re-
marks contained in a memoir of Dufay, published in 1732, relative
to the decoloration of carnelian, Gaultier de Claubry heated in‘a
porcelain retort some fragments of carnelian with deutoxide‘of cop-

per. There was a sensible emission of gas, which appeared to be
carbonic acid, and the fragments were deprived of their color at the
surface. In another experiment with pulverized carnelian, the de-
velopment of gas was much greater, viz. twenty nine cubic centime-
tres from one hundred grammes of carnelian. . This appears to leave
no doubt of the existence of organic matter in carnelian quartz, and
to the presence of which it owes its color.

At the recommendation of Thénard, the experimenter calcined
alone one hundred grammes of carnelian, which lost in the operation

1.169 grammes, and furnished carbonic acid and some inflamma-
ble gas, besides an actid liquor which strongly reddened tournsol : no
ammonia was disengaged from the liquid when treated with lime :
the residue was of a greyish white. It follows that the color of car-
nelian is owing to vegetable matter. A portion of the loss may
be occasioned se the escape of water contained in the stone.—Rev.
Encye. Sept. 1

5. Clay for sculptors. —Sculptors who prepare their models in clay,
have frequently occasion to leave their work for a long time unfinish-
ed, and in such cases often experience much difficulty from the dry-
ing and shrinking of the material. It is well to know that by the
addition of ten to fifteen per cent. of muriate of lime, well worked
or kneaded into the clay, it will be preserved for almost any length
of time in a moist state, and fit for a renewal of the work without any
preparation.— Jour. des Connais. Usuelles. Nov. 1832.

6. Depuration of all sorts of oil and of butter, by Curaupav.—
This process is unquestionably the best which has been hitherto
published.

Add to one hundred parts of oil ten parts of water, into which one
part of flour has been stirred. Shake the mixture well together, and
then heat it until all the water is evaporated, or rather until the oil
ceases to remain in a state of intimate mixture with the substances
which it held in suspension. It is then purified. In the course of
twenty four hours it come out clear, and differs in no respect in qual-
ity from that which has been prepared by the best trier. : it has
lost all its mucilage.

. Miscellantes. 201

In performing this process, care must be taken to heat the mixture
gradually, and not to raise the temperature above 80° of Reaumur
(=212° Fahr.) This heat is sufficient to ‘effect the coction of the
flour and of the muco-extractive portion of the oil,—a stronger heat
would color the oil, and thus injure the sale of it.

I was led to this process, observes Curaudau, by an observation
which every body may have made; viz. that a clear white sauce,
when overdone, separates into two parts; the one thick, occupying
the bottom of the vessel, the other clear, and swimming on the de-
posit ; the first substance is the caseous part of the butter united to
- the flour, which is added to the sauce and which the coction has sepa-
rated from the oil; the second is the butter deprived of all foreign
ingredients. In this state it may be called depurated or clarified
butter. These remark are altogether applicable to oil and fat.

To this simple observation I owe the idea of purifying oils by flour
and water, which affords great advantages.

Lamp oil needs purification to render it fit for combustion. This
is no other than depriving it of a muco-extractive substance, which
united to the heterogeneous matters that are mingled with it, hinders
it from giving, during combustion, a pure light. Since the introduc-
tion of the argand lamp, more attention has been given to the purifi-
cation of oil.

Another method.—The process of M. Taexarp, somewhat mod-
ified, is to add one part of sulphuric acid of commerce, diluted with
ten times its weight of water, to one hundred parts of oil of Colza:
agitate well the mixture as soon as the materials are well incorpora-
ted, let it rest until the oil becomes clear. An acid liquid collects at
the bottom, a little colored. The acid is separated from it, and to
ensure its freedom from acid, a few ounces of pulverized chalk, or
white marble, are well shaken up with it, and it is again left to become
clear by repose, and then decanted.

_ The effect of the acid, although so much diluted, is to deprive the
oil of all its moisture, and of its muco-extractive portion, which
diminishes the energy of the combustion, carbonizes the wick, and
occasions smoke.—Jour de Con. Usuel. tom. 13, p. 21.

NATURAL HISTORY.

a Thermal s spring in the. bed of the Rhone.—M. De Canren-

TIER, director of the salt works at Bex, in Switzerland, describes a

new thermal spring in the bed of the river, about ten thousand feet
Vout. XXIV.—No. 1. 26

202 Miscellanies. .

or nearly two miles above the bridge of St. Maurice. The place
whence it issues is open to view only where the water is at its lowest
point, that is, during the severest cold of winter. In summer, it is
covered to the depth of fourteen feet by the water. The river is
here two hundred and fifty feet wide, and the spring is twenty five
feet from the right bank. It was discovered by accident in a place
where trout fishing is practised, on the 27th of February, 1831. The
next day, the Rhone having suddenly risen, it. was covered to the
depth of two feet by the water, but on plunging the foot into the
water, its warmth was very sensibly felt above that of the river water
which was only 2° above zero. When the water subsided, a small -
stream was discovered i issuing from under a rock, having the tempe-
rature of 106° F., and lien the rock was removed several other
filimentary streams were discovered issuing from the bed of the river,
which is formed of sand and gravel buncoages with ares rolled
blocks of stone.

_ An excavation being made eight ase square and: six = fost deep, the
warm water flowed in at the rate of eighty cubic feet per hour, and
it was plainly perceived that the water issued vertically from below,
and was by no means connected with any lateral opening from the
adjoining mountains.

At the depth of twelve feet it was found that the principal stream
occupied a space of five feet and a half, by four, and as it would be
impossible, from the structure of the valley of the Rhone, to sink the
opening to a rock, it was cased up with a strong wooden frame,
around which a clay cement was rammed, and the casement was car-
ried in a pyramidal form to the height of eight feet.

Into the.top of the pyramid a tube.was inserted, sixty nine milli-
metres in diameter, and in this pyramid and tube the thermal water
rose to the height of seven feet above the then level of the river, but
on attempting to carry it higher, it issued through the sand and gravel
at the bottom of the encasement.

A lateral conduit, formed of bored larch logs, was then dentinciied
with the tube at the top of the pyramid, and conducted to the distance
of one thousand seven hundred and.eleven feet, being more than half
of its distance sunk into the bed of the river, as it was found necessary
in order to preserve the proper descent, to dig a trench from six to
fifteen feet in depth. The thermal water was thus conveyed to place _
convenient for the erection of baths.

. Miscellanies. 203

The encasement was protected from the ravages of the torrent by
a very strong erection of heavy timber in the form of a cage, filled in
with large stones, and the conduit tubes were also defended by suit-
able structures. In the course of ten weeks the works were com-
pleted, and the tepid water was introduced into the baths on the 10th
of March. It lost, notwithstanding, its long course of one thousand
seven hundred and eleven feet, surrounded also by the cold water of
the Rhone only 5° of 1 a6 so that it maintained a temperature of

30° Reaumur = 994° F

Admitting with pra that the temperature of the earth in-
creases 1° Reaumur, (24° Fahr.,) for every one hundred and twenty
feet of depth, and supposing, (which is very probable, ) that this spring
is fed by the Rhone itself, the mean temperature of the river being
5° Reaumur, (434° Fahr.,) the warm water must reach the surface
from a depth of three thousand two hundred and forty feet.

According to all appearance it rises vertically, and as its issue is
situated precisely in the direction of the superposition of the lime-
stone upon the gneiss or schistose protogyne, it is very probable that
it comes directly from that rock. It contains, in fact, very little sul-
phate and carbonate of lime ; much less than the moron waters that
issue from the limestone.

It is very probable that it acquires the little sulphate and carbonate
of Lime, which analysis proves it to contain, only by traversing the
alluvium of the valley, in which is found much limestone gravel as
well as larger masses.

The smell and taste of this water is sensibly sulphurous. Bepides
sulphuretted hydrogen and azote, its principal ingredients are sul-
phate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, and chloride of sodium. There
were in July about fifty bathers, and judging from the effect of the
waters, thus far used as a bath and asa drink, it is very efficacious in —
cutaneous diseases, glandular swellings, rheumatism and ens af-
fections.—Bib. Univ. Aout, 1832.

2. Geology.—M. de Seckendorf has found in the Hartz, in the
midst of a quarry situated near the causeway which leads to Hartz-
burg, fragments of grauwacke containing petrifactions, imbedded
(empates) in granite. M. Hartmann, the translator of Lyell’s Geol-
ogy, confirms this statement.—Rev. Encyc. Sept. 1832.

; . . rs
204 Miscellanigs.
ASTRONOMY.

1. First sbiaivistion of spots on the sun.—An account was read
to the Royal Society of London, on’ the 24th of May last, of a
pumber of unpublished astronomical papers of Thomas Harriot,
found in the library of the Earl of Egremont, by which it appeats
‘that Harriot observed the spots on the sun, and the satellites of Ju-
piter, in the same year (1610) in which they were first observed by
Galileo. Hiarriot’s observations on the spots fill seventy four half
sheets of foolscap, the first being dated 1610. The writing is clear
and the drawings well defined. His first observations on the satel-
lites of Jupiter are dated 17th of October, 1610; they are clearly
written on thirteen half sheets of foolscap.

Baron de Zach had access to these papers in 1784, and inferred
from the examination of them, that Harriot observed these phenom-
eva before Galileo; but Professor Rigaud of the university of Ox-
ford, who furnishes the present statement to the Royal Society, con-
cludes that there is no proof whatever of such a priority, even on
Baron de Zach’s own showing, for he admits that Galileo discovered
the satellites on the 7th of January, 1610, nearly eight months before
the date of Harriot’s paper. Harriot made no pretensions to priority
in the discoveries in question.— Lond. Phil. Mag. Nov. 1832.

2. Rotation of the planet Venus.—According to Bianchini, this
planet revolves on its axis in twenty three days, eight hours, or very
nearly. Cassini makes it twenty three hours, fifteen minutes; and
Schroeter twenty three hours, twenty one minutes. Sir W. Herschel
considered the time of rotation to be doubtful, but thought it could
not be so-much as twenty four days. A paper was read before the
Astronomical Society of London, March 9th, by the Rev. Mr. Hus-
sey, in which the arguments of these observers are carefully exam-
ined, and in which the author concludes that we are justified in pla-
cing confidence in the observations of Bianchini, from the favorable
circumstances in which they were made, the minuteness with which
they were detailed, from their correctness having been ascertained
by several bystanders, from the superior nature of the instruments
employed by him, from the measurements being micrometrical, and
from the character of the observer.—Jdem,

Miscellanies. 205
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURE.

1. Destruction of rats—M. Thenard indicates a new method of
clearing houses of rats and mice. Insert the neck of a glass tubu-
lated retort into the principal hole, lute it round carefully so as to
stop the opening, then, having well closed all the other openings of
these animals, put into the retort a quantity of sulphuret of iron, and
add to it a portion of dilute sulphuric acid. The sulphuretted hy-
drogen thus disengaged will penetrate the recesses and almost infalli-
bly stifle the animals.—Rev. Encyc. Mars, 1832.

This must also annoy the persons who may be in the — whose —
cavities are never tight.—Ed.

2. Lute for bottling wine, §c.—One part rosin, one fourth part
yellow wax, one sixteenth. part tallow; add one half part yellow
ochre, or red or black ochre or coal. Keep these ingredients melt-
ed over a chafing-dish, and when. the bottle is well corked, dip the
neck into the melted mass.—Jour. de Con. Us.

3. Artificial granite —Take two ounces of very pure white glass,
an ounce of glass of antimony, a grain of the powder of Cassius, and
a grain of manganese ; reduce the whole to powder, mix intimately,
and melt ina ‘traible. The product has such a resemblance to
granite that many persons mistake it for that substance.—Jdem.

4. Method of cleansing wool from its grease, and economizing the
residue.—M. Darcet, who has long been consulted by manufacturers,
advised the following method, which was tried with complete success.
Immerse the wool, well washed from dirt, in a vessel containing spir-
its of turpentine, and let it remain from thirty six to forty eight hours.
Withdraw and immerse a fresh quantity. By means of a press, force
out all the adhering spirit, spread the wool out to dry, and when it is
to be used wash it in warm water containing a little alkali.

When the spirits of turpentine’ will no longer act upon or remove
the grease, distil it for fresh use, and the matter remaining in the a
treated with soda, will make good soap.—Idem.

5. To prevent vines from bleeding when trimmed or cut.—Stick ©
a potato, the skin of which is perfectly sound, on the end of the cut
vine, and the bleeding will stop. If the skin of the potato be defec-
tive, the sap will flow through it.—Idem.

This mode of treating vines is familiar in this country.—Ed.

206 Miscellanies.

6. Valuable material for walks and alleys.—A soap maker, not
knowing what to do with the black sulphurous residuum of his ley
tubs, spread it in a wet state along the alleys of his garden. It soon
became stiff and almost impervious to rain; the alleys were always
dry; no grass or weeds appeared on it, but the plants within a few
inches of it all died. He was delighted with this discovery of the
means of enjoying clean and dry walks without any trouble, having
only to put a covering of clean sand over the refuse. Having occa-
sion some time after to repave his yard, he used the soft refuse in-
stead of mortar. It soon hardened and cemented the stones so well,
that the heaviest carriages occasioned no disadjustment.—Jdem.

7. Stucco for walls.—In Italy, great use is made of a stucco which
gives to walls the brilliancy, the cleanliness, and almost the hardness,
of marblé.- It may be variously colored,to suit the taste of the em-
ployer. This stucco is made very easily, by mixing lime and pul-
verized marble, in nearly equal proportions, according to the meager-
ness or richness of the marble. A paste or mortar is made of this
mixture, and applied to the wall in the thickness of a five franc piece,
with a trowel wet with soap suds, and in such a way that the whole
of the wall may be finished in the same day. None but mineral
colors should be mixed with the stucco, as the lime would destroy
those derived from the vegetable kingdom. To obtain the greatest
brilliancy, the mortar should be applied with a cold trowel. Work- .
men, for the sake of ease and expedition, usually employ it warm.
Chips and fragments of marble may be advantageously employed for
this purpose. In cases where the appearance of a marbled wall
would be objectionable on account of its coldness, any portion of it
may be covered with paper.—Jdem.

8. Method of cutting glass vessels uniformly without cracking —
In a great variety of circumstances, it is useful to lessen the capacity
of a glass vessel; or otherwise, to turn to a good purpose a large
broken bottle or demijohn. The following method it may be useful
to add to others well known.

Fill the vessel with oil to the place where it is intended to be cut.
Immerse a red hot iron into the oil to an inch below this line ; the
heat will produce combustion, with evaporation, which will cut the
vessel around at the surface of the oil. Otherwise—mark with 4
file the glass around the place to be divided, dip a string in spirits of

Miscellanies. 207

turpentine, tie it round this mark, and then set it on fire, and the ot
will crack along the line marked.—I
This is more neatly done by applying a red hot iron.—Ed.

9. Rice paper.—The fine and beautiful tissue brought from China
“and Calcutta, and employed under the name of rice paper, is far
from being an artificial substance fabricated from rice or any other
farinaceous material. By holding a specimen of it between the eye
and a clear light, it will be seen to consist of a vegetable tissue, com-
posed of cellules so exactly similar and so perfect, that no preneans
tion of a paper could possibly be made to acquire,

It is now known to be made of the internal part of the (Eschyno-
mene paludosa, Roxburg,—a leguminous plant which grows abun-
dantly on the marshy plains of Bengal, and onthe borders of vast
lakes between Calcutta and Hurdwart. It is a hardy plant, requir-
ing much moisture for its perfect growth and duration. The stem
rarely exceeds two inches in diameter, spreading extensively, but
not rising to any great height. ;

The stems of this plant are brought in great quantities, in Chinese
junks, from the island of Formosa and other places, to China and.
Calcutta. These stems are cut into the lengths intended for the
leaves or sheets, and then, by means of a very sharp and well tem-
pered knife, about ten inches long and three inches wide, the pith is
divided into thin circular plates, which, being pressed, furnish the
leaves sold under the name of rice paper. The operation of cut-
ting the leaves is very similar to that of cutting corks. ‘The leaves
are generally seven or eight inches long and five wide; some are
even a foot long. Those which are not fit for drawing, are colored
for other purposes. Rice paper absorbs water and swells so as to
present an elevation, which continues after it becomes dry, and gives
to the drawing a velvety appearance and a relief, which no other kind
of paper produces.

Rice paper may, with care, be written upon, as the ink dons not
spread. ‘The writing is glossy, shewing some metallic surfaces.

Examined chemically, it seems to be analogous to the substance
which Dr. John called medulline. Treated with nitric acid, ie
oxalic acid. © A

The white and pure specimens are far used for drawings the
inferior are variously colored, and now extensively used in forming
artificial flowers. In India, a pasteboard is made by cementing many

208 Mistellanies.

leaves together, and of this hats are fabricated, which, covered with
‘silk or other stuff, are firm and extremely light.

Rice paper was introduced into Europe about thirty years ago.
The flowers which were first made of it sold at an exorbitant price.
A single bouquet cost the Princess Charlotte of Wales £70 sterling.

- From the quality of this paper, it may be most successfully em-—
ployed in painting butterflies, flowers, birds, plants and animals.
For this purpose, the object is first sketched on common paper,
which is then to be pasted on a card. The sketch must be of a
deep black. On this the rice paper is fastened, and the painting
effected with a pencil and fine colors. When executed in this way,
by the most skillful hands, the pictures of butterflies, insects, &c.
have been often mistaken for the animal itself pasted on the paper.
Rice paper has also been employed in lithography,- with the most

It is desirable, for the purposes of art, that some aquatic plant
should be found in our own climate, whose pith is analogous to that
of the Gischynomene. Is it not possible, also, to fabricate a paper,
the tissue of which may absorb water, and furnish the relief which
gives to rice paper its greatest value.—Jour. de Connois. Usuelles,

1832.
_ HORTICULTURE.

Notes relative to Garden Dahlias, in a letter from Mr. Wann to
M. De Canpotte.—It is very probable that the Garden Dahlias are
hybrids of D. superflua and D. frustanea, for plants are obtained every
year by seed from plants which belong to one or the other of these
species. I am in the habit of sowing, in separate pots, the grains of
each plant and sometimes those of a single fruit. It appears to me
that the color of the flowers of the plant which furnishes the seed,
has little to do with the color of its products.

The form and disposition of the stems vary without end; they
are compact, spreading, branching, smooth, glaucous, polished, pairy,
and of: all colors. One of my correspondents of Hesse-Cassel, Mr.
Weller, sent me some leaves of Dahlia much darker than those of
Fagus atropurpurea.. The flowers so large, full, beautiful, of so
great a variety of Dahlias, seem to me to be the product of many
flowers united in a common calyx and cemented together. They
are often seen in every stage of union, and sometimes the peduncles
are found in bundles from two to five, so as to be very easily counted.

The full dwarf Dablias rarely yield seed; but I collected last au-
tumn a few which did.

Miscellanies. 209

It is very difficult to ascertain the causes of the color of flowers ;
for it often happens that the same stem and the same branch give
different colors. The same plant entirely changes its color some-
times from one year to another; but this takes place only with the
purple, brown and amaranthine colors; they have a tendency to clear-
er shades, that it is to say, to return to their primitive color, the pur-
ple violet.

What horticulturists eal] degradation i is only an effort of nature to
bring back the oe to its primitive type.-Bid. sis pte 1832.

MEDICINE.
Use oe milk in dropsy.—A memoir on the use of milk in ascites,
by Dr. Chrestien, of Montpelier, was presented to the Academy of
Sciences, by M. Legrand, on the first of October. Its diuretic
qualities, when used unboiled, as the only drink and aliment, have
been established by the author. Since the publication of the me-
‘moir, M. Legrand has prescribed milk in two cases of hydropsy-
ascites, symptomatic of an affection of the heart, one of which was
a complication of hydrothorax and hydropericardium. It succeeded
in emptying entirely, by the urine, both the breast and the abdomen,
and in dissipating the general edema, when all the imaginable diu-
retics had been administered in vain. M. Legrand has been equally
successful in curing a general cedema in two individuals, which super-
vened, during their convalescence from a serious attack of cholera,
by prescribing several cups of unboiled milk in the morning, fasting.
Doctor Kapeler, physician in chief of the hospital St. Antoine, has
also completely dissipated, by the same means, the dropsy of a pa-
tient resulting from chronic inflammation of the intestines, who, in
this pathological condition, was ere to support any known diuretic
medicament.—Rev. sis Oct. 183

STATISTICS.

1. The Savings Bank of Geneva had, on the 31st of December,
1831, a deposit of 1,940,000 francs in the name of 5,583 deposit-
ors. The population of the town is 23,000, hence it appears that
one fourth of the inhabitants were contributors to this fund. The
city of Lyons, with a population of 150,000 had received in its Bank
of Savings from 1823 to 1830, only 1,872,822 francs, and of this
there remained on the 31st of mete ogo but. Soil francs

Vor. XXIV.—No. 1. 27

210 Miscellanies.

oe to 813 depositors, of whom 418 — were of the laboring
sence Rev. Encye. Mars, 1832.

ai ‘ afic seheniuie:—The Societé Hollandaise des Sciences,
at Harlem, offer their gold medal for the best memoirs on the fol-
lowing subjects for 1834.

1. The cause of the formation of those sandy downs which rise
on different portions of the maritime coasts of Europe, and which
furnish a defence to a part of Holland against the sea.

2. The nature of those soils which are called sour in —: ;
and the best modes of improving them

3. precast — of the valanive value of various vegetables
used as food for ca

4. A critical examination of ab trials or experiments relative to

ressive increase of temperature in descending from the sur-
face of the earth. The connection of this increased temperature
with the warm springs found in various places.

5. The efficacy of fumigations by means of chlorine and other
gases and their compounds, as preventives or correctives in conta-
gious or other diseases.

6. Experimental results of the en of heat in destroying
contagious matters, in conformity to the views of Dr. Henry; of Man-
chester.

7. More exact development of the éithsaty or otherwise of vacci-
peas as @ preventive of small pox, or of its modified forms.

- On the causes of the motion of the leaves of certain plants,
aa ‘diurnally or more rapidly, as in — gyrans, ‘or from
direct contact as in sensitive plants,

9. On the duration of vegetable life in grains or seeds, ‘and the
best modes of preserving it.

10. As the intoxicating qualities of vinous liquors do not Seped
entirely on the relative quantities of alcohol they contain, but also on
the presence of a volatile, essential and acrid oil, what are the liquids
which contain the most of this oil,—ean it be separated from them,—
is it the same or different in different vegetables,—what are the qual-
ities of this oil,—its antidotes, &c. The gold medal is of the value
of one hundred and fifty Dutch florins, and when the memoir is
deemed worthy, an addition is made of one hundred and fifiy florins.
‘The memoirs may be in Dutch, French, English, Latin or German,
and must be addressed to Dr. Van Marum, Perpetual Secretary of
ithe Society, at Harlem.— Bib. Univ. Aout, 1832.

Miscellanies. 2K

3. Population of England and Scotland.—Agreeably to the re-
turns made to parliament, the following is an’ exhibition ofthe pop-/
ulation of England, Wales and oie with the rates of increasé
during the last thirty years.

Iner. ~ | iner. : Incr. | 1831
1801. 18li. | per | 1821. per 1831. a ei
cent. cent. Males. |Females.
|Eng. & Wales, | 8,872,980) 10,163,676]i4 1-2}11,978,075|17 3-4 on 6,769,465 ae 105
Scotland, 1,599,668] 1,805,688]13 | 2.093,.456]16° | 2.365,807|13 poy lh
Bit, eae, 10,472,045) if 9.96414 TS ed Wat i512 2116, 260,381 15 1- ot 6 8,375,730
10 iceaneis ape; 864'T4 Na 3016: al 15 14 ne ance 3'8,375,780
Cities and towns. é 1921. » 1831, jars :
|London, within the walls, 56,174, 57,695
London, without the walls, (in- } city,
cluding the Inns of Court,) 69,260, 67,878
Southwark, borough, 85,905} 91,501; 7
Westminster, ci city, 182,085; 202,080) 11
Par. within the bills of mortality, 616,628) 761,348) 23
Adj. Par. not — the bills, 215,642} 293,567) 36
aida 1,225,694'1,474,069} 20
Edinburgh, cit 138,235) 162,403, 18 }
Manchester, Salford and suburbs, 161,635) 237,832) 47
lasgow, (and suburbs,) city,. 147,043) 202,426, 38 —
ipa gst (and suburbs,) 106,721, 142,251) 33
Norwich, city, 50,288 61,116 22
Paisley, with the geet Parish, 47,003, 57,466, 22
Nottingham, tow 40,415' 50,680, 25
Liverpool with Foxe park, 131,801) 189,244) 44-
Bristol, (with suburbs,) , 87,799, 103,886; 18
Ab erdzen, New and Old, 44,796). 58,019} 30
New Casile upon Tyne, with Gateshead,| 46,948, 57,937, 23
Hull, (with Sculcoates,) 41,874 49,461) 18
Duddes. 30,575, 45,3551 48
Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse,) 61,212} 75,534; 23°
Portsmouth, Porsea and. Gosport, 56,620 63,026 4

Lande thie total number of inbabitants of all the parishes,
whose churches ‘are situated within eight English miles, measured
~ directly from St. Paul’s Cathedral, amounted in 1801 to 1,031,500;
in 1811 to 1,220,200; in 182) to 1,481,500; and 1831 to 1,776,556
‘or to more than one million and three quarters.

To compare London with Paris, the population of the department
of the Seine was taken, as included in a district nearly circular, six-
teen miles in diameter. This amounted, in 1818, to 637,000; in
1520, to 742,000; in 1829, to 1,013,000; exclusive of the resi-

212 Miscellanies.

dent foreigners and inhabitants of the provinces resident in Paris,
who, by comparison with a non-official return from the Bureau des
Longitudes, (14th December, 1818,) appear to have amounted to
149,000 persons.

The population of the whole metropolis, (London,) at the com-
mencement of the last century, was 674,000; in 1831, it was up-
wards of 1,500,000, which gives an increase of 222 per cent.
The population of the whole of Great Britain, has been augmented,
in the same time, from 5,475,000 to 13,888,000, or 254 per cent.,
so that the whole population has increased with still greater celerity
than that of the metropolis.—Phil. Mag. Nov. 1832.

New works in England.

A letter dated Feb. 28, 1833, just received from Gideon Mantell,
Esq., of Lewes, Sussex, England, mentions that the following works
are about to appear.

1. The third volume of Mr. Lyell’s Principles of Geology, com-
pleting that work ; it is expected in April.

2. A new edition of Mr. Bakewell’s admirable Introduction to
Geology—in April.

-8. The Geology of the South East of England, with figures and
descriptions of the extraordinary newly discovered fossil reptiles of
Tilgate forest, (by Mr. Mantell,) Svo.

4. Dr. Fitton’s Geology of Hastings, just published, price 4s.: a
very excellent little epitome of the geology of that neighborhood.

5. A memoir on the Plesiosauri and Ichthyosauri, discovered by
Thomas Hawkins, Esq., of Glastonbury ; 1 vol. 4to., with beautiful
plates. Mr. Hawkins has succeeded, by sparing neither money nor
trouble, in obtaining the finest remains of Plesiosauri and Ichthyosauri
in the world; one specimen of the latter is twenty five feet long, and
perfect from snout to tail.

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Art. I.—On the principles involved in the Reduction of Iron and
Silver Ores, with a supplementary notice of some of the principal
Silver Mines of Mexico and South America; by Lt. W. W.
Marner, Instructor of Mineralogy and Geology at the U.S.
Military Academy, West Point.

I. Iron.
1. Roasting of Iron Ores.

Tue roasting of iron ores, is almost constantly found to result in
the production of a purer iron than would be obtained by smelting
without previous roasting. Another advantage is, that if the roasting
be properly performed, less combustible matter is required for both
the smelting and roasting, than would be for the smelting alone, with-
out the roasting.

There are three principal objects in roasting iron ores, viz.

1. To vaporize injurious substances, or change their states of com-
bination.

2. To increase the porosity of the ore.

3. To diminish the cohesion, and render it more easily broken.

The iron ores, during the roasting process, increase in volume, and
with one or two exceptions, diminish in weight. The increase of
volume causes a considerable degree of porosity in the ore, and this
is of great advantage during the smelting. It allows the carburetted
gases to penetrate every part of the fragments of ore, and thus to
deoxidize it, and to carbonize the iron, far more rapidly, than if the
action was confined to the surface alone.

The ores generally contain sulphur, in greater or less proportion,
and, during the roasting, they are converted either into oxides, sul-
phates, or so of a lower degree of combination. The latter
class of sulphurets, by — to the ——— are converted into

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2.

214 On the Principles Involved in the

‘

sulphates, and these are removed by throwing the ore into a stream
of water, or by leaving it, some time, exposed to the weather. Some
iron ores are ina proper state for smelting, immediately after the
roasting process; some require long exposure to the weather, and
others to be quenched in water, while still hot. Many ores that with
the above treatment, make iron of the best quality, would, without
. preparation, make iron of little value. It may be laid down asa
general rule, that iron ores are more easily smelted, and make a purer
and better iron, by being long exposed to the action of the weather.

2, Fluzes.

Fluxes are substances added to the ores to facilitate their fusion,
and to separate the impurities. There is another all important object
in having a proper flux for the iron ores, and it is one which is gen-
erally overlooked.

It is, to form a coating of glass over the melted globules of iron,
as they fall in their passage by the tuyere, (blast pipe,) to the cru-
cible of the furnace. If they be not coated, so as to protect them
from the air, that rushes through the blast pipe, they take fire as they
pass by it, and are again oxidized. Hence, it is not only necessary
to have ee but to have one of such a degree of fusidility, as shall
fulfil the peeeditionis required. Jt should not hang: ean
else,

1. It ‘sual melt before the metal, exit run “through in Saiusce
without coating the iron.

2. The melted flux would dissolve the ore hicks was not then
deoxidized, and thus create a great loss.

3. Any iron that might be reduced and fused, would pass naked
before the blast and be reoxidized.

4. The flux would exert a powerful solvent action upon the boshes
and crucible of the furnace, so as soon to wear it out.

Again, the flux should not be very difficult of fusion, mabe

1. The iron would be fused first, and pass naked before the blast,
and thus be reoxidized and then dissolved by the glass or cinder in
the crucible of the furnace.

2. The flux, when melted, would form a tenacious mass, in the
crucible, through which the globules of melted iron could not sink.

3. It would clog and choke the furnace so as to stop its operation,
in a short time, unless remedied.

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 215

It requires much care, and practical knowledge, so to arrange the

fusibility of the flux, as to obtain the greatest quantity and best qual-
ity of iron.
_ Whatever earths may be mixed, or combined in the ores, they may
always be rendered fusible by adding two others. It is necessary,
however, to observe, that lime, alumina, and magnesia will not fuse
together, but any two of these, with silex, or metallic oxides, will form
a glass. Magnesia tends to diminish the fusibility of the substances
with which it is mixed.

The usual fluxes are marl, limestone, and clay. Limestone is
often used when it ought not to be, and the same may be said of
marl. In Sweden, mica and mica slate, hornblende, garnet, basalt,
actynolite, argillite, &c. are used as fluxes, and, in many parts of this
country, these materials might be employed, with advantage.

Manganese fluxes most readily with silex, and this is what should
be used in ores containing that metal, unless they already contain an
excess of silex, and then, limestone should be used.

The fluxes to be used will be determined,

1. By the nature of the earths ints combined, or + mixed i in ethe
ore or ores;

2. By their quantity ;

3. By the nature of the signeel substances in the vicinity.

It is often advantageous to mix aint ores, so that the impuri-
ties may flux with each other.

The cinder (laitiér) formed by the fusion of the flux and the im-
purities of the ore, to be of the best quality, should not begin to melt
until the iron is deoxidized, or nearly so, and sufficiently carburetted.
It should have such a degree of viscidity as to remain adhering to,
and enveloping the mineral in which the earthy matter is mixed, or
combined, so as to prevent the oxidation of the iron, as it melts and
falls into the crucible of the furnace; but the viscidity should not be
so great as to prevent the globules of iron from sinking through the
semi-fluid cinder which floats over the melted iron in the erucible.

The cinder, when the iron is of good quality, is often of a light
gray, or of a whitish color. The French call the cinder Jaitier, from
its color.

fa Cast Tron.

Of these, there are three principal varieties, sis. paromati
and white. ie a eee oaths sane tion. _Hassen-

216 -——sOn the Principles Involved in the

fratz (Siderotechnie i, p. 57,) supposes the color of these irons to be
owing to a greater or less separation of the carburet of iron during
the cooling. He supposes the particles of gray iron, and also those
of the dark parts of the mottled irons, to be enveloped by a coating of
_ plumbago. On cooling the gray and mottled irons rapidly, a white
iron is produced, and by slow cooling, plumbago in plates, or kish, as
it is called by the workmen, collects upon its surface. Irons that by
refining, would make hotshort, or coldshort malleable irons, are best
employed in common castings.

Gray irons requiring much labor to refine them, if they make
good iron, are well adapted for making steel, or when the iron is very
tough, it is employed in the casting of cannon and machinery. White
iron is rarely used for castings, except for anvils and heavy hammers,
but it is much used for refining to make bar iron.

: 4. Ductile Iron.

Of these, there are four principal varieties, viz. soft iron, coldshort,
hotshort, and brittle iron.

The soft iron is ductile, malleable under the hammer, capable of
being bent back and forth without breaking, and without being elastic,
is difficult to melt, does not acquire hardness by tempering, is of a
clear gray color when filed, leaves no black spot when an acid is
touched to a bright surface, rusts slowly and uniformly by exposure
to air and water, burns easily when exposed in a heated state to the
air, becomes strongly magnetic under the influence of a magnet, and
loses its magnetism when removed from magnetic influence. Its
structure is fine grained or fibrous.

Coldshort iron is distinguished by its brittleness, when cold. Its
fracture developes a granular and laminated structure, and the iron
is more defective, as this structure becomes more evident. It forges
very easily when hot, and for this reason is much employed in forg-
ing small articles.

Hotshort irons are those that crack, break, or fly in pieces when
forged hot. There are two kinds of defects in these irons.

1. Some of these irons fly in pieces when forged at a particular
temperature, but forge well enough at a higher or lower heat.

2. Some of them break in bending, but otherwise forge well.

Little hotshort iron is found in commerce, because it is difficult to
get it into the form of bars, and the cracks and flaws upon the edges
would betray it. ‘This iron is applicable to such purposes as require
great strength, when it can be wrought cold into the forms required.

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 217
5. Means of remedying the defects of coldshort and hotshort irons.

The characteristic property of coldshort iron can be given to any
soft iron, by exposing it for some time to heat. Its fracture be-
comes granular and Jusniciatod, but when the iron was originally good,
its softness and toughness may be restored by simply heating and
forging.

Many of the bog and argillaceous iron ores give coldshort iron,
notwithstanding the care of the workmen. The cause why iron is
in one case hotshort, and in another coldshort, is not yet fully under-
stood, but the hotshort iron is generally found to contain sulphur, and
the coldshort, phosphorus. Pyrites, in the ores, almost uniformly
make the iron hotshort, and copper, lead, and arsenic are thought to
produce the same effect.

When the ores of iron do not make the metal hotshort or coldshort
in a very high degree, the morte may generally be remedied oy careful-
fully roasting them, and the for the weath
er. In smelting the ores, a “difference i in the quality of the iron is often
effected by giving a different inclination to the tuyere (blast pipe. ).

Coldshort iron is generally brought to the state of soft iron, by vit-
rifying lime with the scorie, and using this new cinder to cover the
iron im the finery furnace, or even by throwing a little lime upon the
mass of iron in the finery furnace, a short time before removing it
to pass between the rollers. Potassa, or ashes (of wood) will pro-
duce the same effect. ;

Hotshort iron is more difficult to improve in quality, but where
coldshort iron is at hand, the difficulty may be remedied by melting
together, in proportions to be determined by experiment, the differ-
ent kinds of cast iron that would produce the two sorts. ‘The oppo-
site defects remedy each other. The same result is obtained by
mixing the ores that would make’ hotshort and coldshort irons, in
proper proportions, in the smelting furnace, when a cast iron is ob-
tained which may be made directly into good soft iron. —

There is another method, depending upon the same principle, by
which the defect of coldshort iron may be removed. It is by using
bituminous coal with the charcoal in the process of refining, but if
too much of the coal be used, the iron becomes hotshort. .
ous coal always contains some pyrites, and the sulphur contained in
these, is supposed to enter into combination with the phosphorus in
the coldshort, and thus both these substances become so volatile as
to escape from the melted iron.

218 On the Principles Involved in the

For details upon all the methods of working iron oer the reader
is referred to Hassenfratz’s Siderotechnie.

Il. Ow THE EXTRACTION OF SILVER FROM ITS ORES.
Processes.

- Silver is separated from its ores, either by smelting, or by amalga-
mation. The most important points, in determining to which of these
processes they shall be subjected, are,

1. The nature of the ore. :

2. The comparative facilities for obtaining lead and mercury.

3. The abundance of fuel.

4. The abundance of water.

Generally speaking, it is most advantageous to amalgamate ores in
which the silver is in a metallic state, or when it is combined with
substances of little value,

When the ores are very much disseminated in their gangue, so as
to render stamping necessary, it is more advantageous to amalgamate.
Pyrites are generally contained in abundance in such ores, and sul-
phur is necessary to the success of the amalgamation process,

When silver ores are rich in lead or copper, it is advisable to
smelt them.

Ores, of difficult fusion, may also be amalgamated with advantage,
for the nature of the accompanying materials is not important in the |
amalgamation process.

Ores containing from seventy to eighty ounces of silver to a ton,
have been found best adapted for amalgamation, but when they con-
tain more than eighty ounces to the ton, it is difficult to extract all
the silver, by this method. It is generally most economical to smelt
ores containing less than sixty ounces of silver to a ton of ore. Rich
ores of silver are always smelted.*

1. Smelting of Silver Ores.

The silver smelting processes are very simple, and the ultimate
separation of the silver from the materials, combined or mixed in the
ore, depends upon the strong affinity of lead for the precious metals.

* For minute details of the vari ti ft Ws

ores, the reader is referred to Clemson’ Ss memoir in the ‘American Joarost ‘of Sci-
ence, vol. xix, p. 105; Taylor’s Records of Mining, vol. i; Annales des Mines,
tomes xxix and xxxi; Humboldt’s Essai sur le Nouvelle Espagne, tomes <cteond and iy.

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 219

In the European and some of the South American silver smelting
works, limestone, and the slags of former operations, are used as a
flux. In the Mexican smelting houses, carbonate of soda is gener-
ally employed, as the flux. Carbonate of soda occurs in such abun-
dance over extensive districts of country in Mexico, as to be consid-
ered of little value. The price, at the smelting works, is only about
thirty cents per quintal. It is well adapted to the smelting of muri-
ate of silver, and this is an abundant ore in the Mexican mines.

The poorest ores are first smelted, with one of the fluxes above
described, in the common high furnace. The sulphurets contained
in the ore, and perhaps some metals in a reguline state with the silver,
collect in the crucible of the furnace. This mass of mixed sulphu-
rets and metals is called “ matt.”

When the crucible is full of the fluid matt, the latter is drawn off
into a cavity adapted to receive it. As the matt cools, so as to have
a crust form over its surface, the crust is taken off in successive plates,
until all the matt is in this form, the object of which is, to have as much
surface exposed as possible in the subsequent roasting. _

The matt, in plates, is then roasted slowly, the objects of which are,
to volatilize the sulphur, arsenic, &c., and to oxidize the iron, and oth-
er metals, so that in the succeeding fusion, the metallic oxides may
be dissolved by the earthy glasses.

In the second fusion, the roasted matts of the first fusion are smelt-
ed with richer ores, and with slags of a previous third fusion. ‘The
resulting matts are roasted as before, and for the same purposes.

In the third fusion, the roasted matts of the second fusion are
smelted with the richest ores.

The matt, resulting from this fusion, is drawn off into a cavity on

the outside of the furnace containing melted lead. The fluid matt,

having a less specific gravity than the lead, floats upon its surface, so
that it is necessary to stir them well together, that the lead may dis-
solve all the silver. ‘The matt, as it cools, is taken off in plates as be-
fore, and roasted and smelted with the poorest ores of a new batch.

The silver is afterwards separated from the lead by cupellation.
The argentiferous lead is kept in a state of fusion in a cupelling fur-
nace, with a constant current of air passing across its surface. The

lead is converted into an oxide, (the litharge of parm ae vad
silver finally remains, nearly in a state of purity.

The reason that the slags are used as a flux ss, hhecstayiateicat
tain a small portion.of silver, which is obtained, chiefly, by successive

220 On the Principles Involved in the

re-smeltings. . The slags of the first fusion are usually thrown away,
while those of the other two operations contain silver enough to render
them worth re-smelting.

2. Amalgamation of Silver Ores.

There are two principal methods of amalgamation employed to ex-
tract silver from its ores.

1. The Saxon method, or amalgamation cold, by means of iron.

2. The Mexican method, or amalgamation cold, by means of a
mixture of salts,

There is another method in use in Mexico, but not extensively, it
is the amalgamation hot, by means of copper.

The Saxon method, as it is called, was first discovered by a Pe-
ruvian miner, Corsa de Leca in 1586, but it was not much employed
in Europe until about 1790. The two most important considera-
tions in this method are,

1. To detach the silver from its various combinations in the ore,
and bring it to the state of a chloride.

2. To reduce this chloride to the metallic state by means of me-
tallic iron in contact with mercury, so that the silver in its nascent
state may combine with the mercury.

The first operation, after the ore has been properly picked and
sorted, is, to form a suitable mixture of the ores, with reference to
- the quantity of silver and sulphurets contained in them. The amal-
gamation succeeds best, when the silver is at the rate of about seventy
five ounces to the ton of ore, and the sulphurets amount to about
thirty five per cent. The ores after having been assayed, can be
mixed 80 a8.to give the above proportions. The ore is now powder-
ed, 1 operations with screens, sieves,
hohe: &e. until reduced: toa very minute state of division. It is now
mixed with about ten per cent. of common salt, and roasted in a re-
verberatory furnace. The object of the roasting is to change the
states of combination of the various substances. Some of the sul-
phur of the pyrites burns off, and some combines with the sodium of
the common salt. The metals set free by the combination of the
sulphur with sodium, combine with the chlorine of the decomposed
salt, and form chlorides. Some of the sulphurets are also, perhaps,
converted into sulphates and oxides, but the silver, if the operation
has been properly performed, is entirely converted to a chloride.
During the roasting, the ore must be frequently stirred, and the heat

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 221

so managed, that it shall not become in the least agglutinated or pasty.
The ore now goes again through various mechanical operations, to
be sure that it may be in a state of minute’ division.

It is now ready for the actual process of amalgamation. This
is performed in barrels, revolving on an axis by means of machinery.
The mixture or charge in each barrel, consists of finely divided
roasted ore, mercury, and plates of metallic iron, with ener water
to make it into semi-fluid paste. —

It is a chemical principle, that when one metal precipitates another,
the precipitated one is always in the metallic state, and also, that gold
or silver and some other metals, in their nascent state, readily unite
with mercury, and form what is called an amalgam. After the bar-
rels have received their charges, and are put in motion, chemical
changes begin to be effected. ‘The revolution of the barrels tends
to bring all the parts of the charge, successively, into contact with
each other and with the iron plates. The iron having a strong aftin-
ity for the chlorine of the chloride of silver, decomposes it, and forms
a chloride of iron, which, by solution in the water, becomes a mu-
riate. The silver, thus set free, immediately unites with the mercury
in contact with it, and forms an amalgam. The mercury, during the
revolution of the barrels, is disseminated in small globules through
the whole mass, so that as soon as a particle of silver is reduced, it
is brought into contact with the mercury.. When the barrels have
revolved a few hours, with a proper charge of materials, and with a
proper velocity, the silver is found to have’ combined almost entirely
with the mercury. If the water be in too great or too small pro-
portion, or if the rotation be too rapid or slow, the mercury will not
disseminate itself through the mass, so as to effect the separation of
silver from the materials with which it is mingled and combined.
When the amalgamation is found to be complete, as it generally is at
the end of a few hours, the barrels are allowed to stand a short time,
that the amalgam may collect in the bottom. The amalgam and
mud are then both drawn off and washed, but the washing requires
care, lest a portion of the amalgam; which may be still disseminated
through the mud, should be washed away and lost. The redundant
mercury of the amalgam is removed by pressure applied to leathern
bags; the mercury passes through the pores of the leather, and the
solid amalgam, having about the consistence of butter, remains.
It is next subjected to distillation in proper vessels, by which the
mercury is first volatilized and then condensed again, while the silver

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2 ee

222 On the Principles Involved in the

remains. ‘The silver, thus obtained, is not always pure, but often
contains gold, lead, copper, bismuth, &c. which are — in the
— operations.

3. Mexican method "y foils oie

. The Mexican method, or the amalgamation cold, and in the open
air, by means of a mixture of salts, was discovered, in the year 1557,
by Bartholomew de Medina, a Mexican miner. This method does
not require, that the ores should be roasted, and the only necessary
machinery is a stone moving, in a circular trough,* and a vertical
spindle with arms, revolving in a vat. This method may be em-
ployed, where neither water or fuel are abundant.

The amalgamation shop, is a yard paved with flat flagging stones.
The moist schlich or powdered ore, coming from the stone rollers
_ before mentioned, is deposited in forty or fifty piles, ranged. circular-
ly near each other, so that the circle may be from sixty to ninety feet
in diameter. Each heap of schlich contains from fifteen to thirty
five quintals in weight, so that when the whole comes to be spread,
the mass may be from one and a half to two feet in thickness. Salt
is now mingled with the schlich, in a proportion varying from two
to twenty per cent. The mixture is left, for many days, that the salt
may dissolve and be equally distributed. If the pyrites are very
rapidly. decomposed and other chemical changes are evident, the
action is diminished by adding lime, or wood ashes, or if the decom-
position be very slow, it may be accelerated by adding a mixture of
the sulphates of iron and copper, formed by roasting eremenchorgie
and common pyrites, and exposing them.to the weather

After some days, mercury is added, in quantities aatintticned to
the silver in the ore, ‘generally six or eight parts of mercury to one
of silver. After a little time, from one to seven per cent. of the mix-
ed sulphurets of iron and copper are added, and’when the chemical
_ changes begin to take place, which are recognized by the leaden
color of the mereury, then, to favor the decomposition and augment the
contact, the mass is stirred and moved by mules, oxen, or other ani+ —
mals, walking around in it in circles. This agitation of the mass is
continued daily, unless the decompositions should be too rapid, and
then the labors are suspended for ane or more days, as circumstances

* The recent superintendent of the mine Valenciana, Mr. John ston, tells
me, that the stones do not roll in the circular trough, but are dragged aro’

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 223

may require.* The labors are continued until the amalgamation is
found to be completed, and this often requires from two to five months,
unless the climate should be a very warm one. It may be doubted
whether this method of amalgamation would succeed in this climate
without artificial heat. *
mud, containing the amalgam, is now thrown into vats, in which

is placed a revolving vertical shaft, with arms. A stream of water.
runs into and from the vat, and the arms of the shaft, by their ‘motion,
keep the earthy particles in suspension, which gradually flow off with
the water, while the amalgam collects at the bottoni. The excess
of mercury is separated, by pressing the amalgam in leathern bags,
through the pores of which the mercury passes, leaving a semi-solid
amalgam.

The silver is obtained fois this amalgam, by the same operations
as in the Saxon method of amalgamation.

4, Amalgamation hot, by means of copper.

This consists in heating the powdered ores with mereury in cop-
per vessels. *It was first proposed in 1590 by Alonzo Barba. It is
employed principally for amalgamating the earthy ferruginous ores of
silver, called pacos and colorados, and for those ores — contain
much muriate of silver.

The ebullition favors the operation, the copper tends to gern
pose the muriate of silver, and the loss of mercury is very small.
Iron vessels would probably be as effectual as ee and would -
far more economical.

5. pete of Mercury.

In the Mexican method:of amalgamation, the loss of mercury is
from 1.4 to 1.7 parts of mercury for one part of silver obtained ;.in
the Saxon, not to exceed one of mercury to five of silver, so that by
the Mexican method, the loss of mercury is more than seven times
as great as when the Saxon method is employed. By the Mexican
method, the loss of mercury forms more than one fourth of the ein
expense of amalgamation.

7 loss of mercury may be eo for, Lie i

a ey a oe |

* Svkenttians, the mere cessation of labor is not sufficient t
action to a proper degree, and then lime or wood ashes ed. Sometimes, it
also necessary. to ne the chemical action, and then, | the = mina of Boress of
SVppee and iron wi a

224 On the Principles Involved in the

1. In consequence of the minute state of division in the immense
mass of schlich, by the washing process, many of the particles of
mercury may be carried off, in a state of suspension in the mud.
Even in the Saxon amalgamation works, where the process is con-
ducted with the greatest skill and care, a sensible portion of mercury
is carried off in this wa

2. The contact of the mercury with the various metallic and other
materials, moistened with saline solutions, forms an infinity of galvanic
arrangements, whose actions are slow indeed, but prolonged, and fa-
vor the oxidation of the mercury, and various other chemical affinities.

3. The heat of the mass, produced by the various chemical
changes, and increased by a tropical sun, might be sufficient to par-
tially oxidize the mercury, when in contact with the air.

The mines of Almaden, i in Spain, and of Idria, in Carniolia, have,
in general, furnished the mercury consumed in the Mexican mines.
The mine of Huan-cavelica, in Peru, has occasionally furnished some
mercury. ‘The Mexican mines consumed previous to 1804, an an-
nual average of: sixteen thousand quintals of mercury.

6. Chemical changes in the Mexican method.

M. Humboldt is of opinion, that the sulphates of iron and copper, in
the magistral, decompose the ‘“ muriate of soda,” (chloride of sodium,)
forming sulphate of soda and “ muriate of silver,” (chloride of silver,)
- and that the latter is, in part, decomposed by the oxide of iron set
free, and the other by the mercury. Two affinities are here brought
into action, viz. the affinity of iron, copper, &c. for chlorine, and the
affinity of mercury for silver, both tending to the decomposition of
the chloride of silver. He is also of opinion, that the reason of the
usefulness of lime or ashes, when added, under certain circumstances,
during the amalgamation, is, that they serve to prevent the excess of
sulphuric acid, formed by the decomposition of pyrites; from acting
on the mercury.

M. Humboldt and Gay Lussac, in mingling cold, the natural le
phuret of silver, sulphate of iron, muriate of soda, and lime, have
not been able to obtain muriate of silver at ordinary temperatures,
at the end of a fortnight, but when heated from 86° to 96° F.,
they obtained it at the end of a few hours. They eaaecends
that an amalgam was formed, when the materials were mixed cold,
but that it was formed much more abundantly, when iron filings
were mingled with the other materials, and they conceive that the

Reduction of Iron and Silver Ores. 225

iron serves not only to decompose the chloride of silver as in the
Saxon method, but also to separate the sulphur from the sulphuret
.of silver. When sulphuret of silver, alone, was mixed with iron filings,
it was, at the end of twenty four hours, so much reduced, that on
adding mercury, a large proportion of amalgam was obtained in a
few minutes

It is waren that the peroxide of iron in the pacos, in the a
and that mingled in the magistral, act in a similar manner to the iron
filings. It results from these experiments; that iron perfects in a sen-
sible degree, the process of amalgamation, and in consequence, it has
been recommended that the amalgamation yards should be paved with
iron plates, and that the (tourte) amalgamation mass should be plough-
ed by iron ploughs, but the tourte is composed of schlichs forming so
heavy and stiff a paste as to render ploughing it almost impracticable.

Lime seems to oppose itself to the combination of silver and mer-
cury, for an amalgam is very difficultly formed, by triturating mercury
and sulphuret of silver, and even after having formed a paste of the
ore, magistral, salt, and mercury, in which the globules-of mercury
are no longer visible, if lime be added, the mercury soon shows itself,
coalescing into globules, wherever the lime is in contact with the mix-
ture. It is on this account, that the workmen say the lime cools the
tourte, because it prevents its” working so rapidly. The-lime, then,
has another use than that of removing the excess of — wae
in the tourte.

The methods in use a few years since, in Mexico, were essentially
the same as has been mentioned, but it seems that by the proper mix-
ture of salt, magistral, and lime, the time requisite to perfect the opera-
tion is much lessened, as the proces now rarely requires more than
twenty days.*

In Chili, the amalgamation is performed as in Mexico, except that
salt, and horse or mule dung are the only materials added to the ore
to assist in the amalgamation: In ‘Chili, the heat of the sun, i vs in
general, sufficient, v itable attenti
in eight or ten days in ‘suatnnttiér, or three weeks’ in in winter rs but on
some of the high table lands of Peru, the amalgamation floor is built
upon arches, under which a fire is kept up to supply the —
temperature.

The foreman judges of the perfection of the amalgamation by
wasn a small portion of the ea mass. If the remaining

* Vide Jour. Royal Institution, No. 1, Oct., 1830, p. 142, et seq.

226 Principal Silver Mines of Mexico and South America.

amalgam be hard, more mercury is added, and the mass again knead-
ed. If, on pressing the amalgam under the thumb, globules of mer-
cury separate, the materials have not been sufficiently oreasemags
and the mass is again kneaded and left to ferment. _

. If the amalgam be dark colored, more salt and dung are added,
ond the mass being then well worked over, is allowed to ferment again.

If the amalgam, on being pressed under the thumb, form a plastic
mass, adhering to the skin, the amalgamation is judged to be com-
plete. ‘The amalgamation-mass is then washed as in the,Mexican or
Saxon operations, or sometimes without the aid of machinery, the
mud being kneaded in a hide, water being allowed to run into it ina
small stream. ‘The earthy and vegetable substances are carried off
in suspension, and to prevent a loss of mercury, the water runs off
in a small gutter, connected with small successive reservoirs, in which
the metallic particles subside, while the others flow off.*

In Chili, silver is obtained from its ores only by sicheeibiiie
Even galena, containing silver, is amalgamated, and this appears to
be more economical than by smelting and cupellation.t

Supplementary Notice of the principal Silver Mines of Mexico
and South America.

There are, in Mexico, about five hundred towns, or principal pla-
ces, celebrated for the explorations of silver that surround them.
These five hundred places of exploration, comprehend, together,
about three thousand mines, and there are between four and five
thousand veins and masses of silver in exploration. The ore is gen-
erally in veins, rarely in beds and masses. —_-

The vein of Guanaxuato is the greatest and most extensive one
known. It is from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty
feet thick, and is explored in different places, over a length of about
nine miles.

The silver veins of Mexico are, generally, in pein aid: tran-
sition rocks, rarely in secondary. The veins of Zimapan are in
a greenstone porphyry. Among the transition rocks, limestone
abounds most in silver ores, Grauwacke is also very rich in them,
and in this rock are found the rich mines of Zacatecas. In the sec-
ondary rocks, are found a few rich mines. The mines of Real Ca-

* Mier’s Travels, ii, p. 393, et seq. t Mier’s Travels, ii, p. 406.

Principal Silver Mimes of Mexico and South America. 227

torce, and many others near Zimapan, are in the alpine limestone,
as well as those of Tasco and Tehuilotepec, and the veins are rich-
er in this limestone than in the argillaceous slate, which serves as a
basis for it.

The three most productive mining districts have their veins situa-
ted in different rocks, viz. those of Guanaxuato in primitive argillite,
(*schiste argileux primitif,”) those of Zacatecas in grauwacke, and
those of Catorce in alpine limestone, (‘‘calcaire alpin.”) The mines
of Pasco and Hualgayoc, i in Peru, are also in the alpine poner
but that of Potosi is in primitive slate, (‘*schiste primitif.”) i

M. Humboldt remarks, that the more we study the geological con
struction of the globe, the more are we led to observe, that there
hardly exists any rock, which, in certain countries, ei not been
found eminently metalliferous.

The most common ores of silver, in Mexico, are the sulphuret,
the antimonial sulphuret, the prismatic black ore, the chloride, and
gray copper. It is rare not to find native silver, in small quantity, in
connection with the sulphuret of silver, and one mass of native silver
was found at Batopilas, weighing ‘more than four hundred pounds,
Red silver ore and chloride of silver, which are rare in Europe, are
abundant ores’ in Mexico and South America. There are some
earthy ores of silver, called colorados, and in Peru pacos, which con-
tain imperceptible particles of silver ores, disseminated in a basis,
which is mostly oxide of iron. This ore is generally found where
a vein of silver ore approaches the surface of the earth. Among
the other ores explored for the silver they contain, are the argentil-
erous sulphurets of ia and copper...

The quantity of silveF in the ae arora from three to Sot
ounces to the quintal, or from ;}; to ;1, of the weight of the ore.
The annual produce of silver, during the last years of the eighteenth
century, by Mexico, was 537,512 kilogrammes, or 1,134,424 Ibs., a
kilogramme being 2 Ibs. 3 oz. 5 dr.; but 42 of the mines do not
produce ,'; of this amount. Thus we see iM of the mines, being
the most productive, give more than 13 of the whole amount.

Most of the mines. of Mexico are situated either upon the back
or sides of the Cordilleras, and particularly on the west side, and
they are the most abundant betweenrthe eighteenth and wnat —
degrees of north latitude.

* Annales des Mines, t. xxix, p. 113.

228 Principal Silver Mines of Mexico and South America.

I, Mines of Guanazuato.

There is one circumstance in the situation of the immense silver
vein, called “la veta madre,” which is very remarkable, viz. that it
is parallel to the strata containing it.* This vein has been recog-
nized over a length of fourteen thousand yards, or about nine miles,
and has a breadth of about forty five yards. Most’of the nineteen
mines wrought on this vein, are very productive.

The materials composing it, are native silver, sulphuret of silver,
red silver ore, native gold, sulphurets of lead, zinc, iron and copper,
‘carbonates of iron and lead, and some gray copper. ‘The stony ma-
terials are quartz, calcareous spar, pearl spar, feldspar, chalcedony
and fluor spar. ‘The vein of Guanaxuato passes through argillace-
ous slate, and also through porphyry. ‘The argillaceous slate ap-
pears to be the most ancient rock of the district. It sometimes
passes into talcose and chloritic slates, and beyond, it is seen re-
- posing upon the granites of Zacatecas and Penon Blanco. This
slate contains subordinate beds of sienite, hornblende slate, serpen-
tine, and greenstone, and it is observed that the sienite contains veins
of greenstone, and the greenstone veins of sienite.

Upon the argillaceous slates repose two different formations, viz.
porphyry and “grés ancien,”+ the former constituting the elevated
peaks, while the latter fills the ravines and low grounds. :

The porphyry presents gigantic masses, like ruins, and precipitous
escarpments, of from one thousand to one thousand five hundred feet
in height. This porphyry is, in general, of a greenish color; its
paste is variable, being in the oldest, c ct feldspar or petro-
silex—in others, it approximates to jade, Pre iosactits

‘The newer porphyries contain glassy feldspar, and much resem-
ble the porphyritie’ slate (porphyrschiéfer) of Bohemia. Enormous
concentric balls of these porphyries are sometimes seen reposing
upon isolated rocks.’ The aggregate of the characters of these
rocks, indicates that they belong to the class of trap rocks, except
that rich gold mines have been found in them at Villalpando.

* For aviteneds of its being a vein, and not a bed, see Hetabosacs Essai sur la
Nouvelle Espagne, t. iii, p. 395, and Ann. des Mines, t. xxxi, p- 323.
t Annales des Mines, t. xxxi, p. 325.

Principal Silver Mines in Mexico and South America. 229

These porphyries have the same direction and dip as the argilla-
ceous slate, the line of bearing being from north west to south east,
_ and the dip from ee to 50° to the south west.

The “grés ancien” is an aggregate of angular fragments of quartz,
lydian stone, sienite, hornstone and porphyry, cemented by an argillo-
ferruginous cement. This rock rests upon the argillaceous slate, but
has an opposite inclination. There is also another grauwacke, (grés,)
which differs much from the last. It is composed of fragments of
quartz and slate, and particularly of uninjured crystals of feldspar,
which might cause it to be mistaken for a porphyry. M. Humboldt
calls it “gres,” or “agglomérat feldspathique.” The cement is ar-
gillo-ferruginous, and thin layers of shale (“schieferthon”) alternate
with the rock. It is an excellent building material, easily dressed, and
is called in the country “‘lozero.” A limestone, analogous to the Jura
limestone, overlies all these grauwackes. There are also local, cal-
careous breccias, transition limestone, and various trappean rocks.

Upon the vein of Guanaxuato, which is the only one of the whole
district, there are nineteen explorations. They furnish one fourth of
all the silver of Mexico. The richest of these mines, and in fact
the richest of all Mexico, is that of Valenciana. ‘This mine was
opened in the sixteenth century, and afterwards abandoned. In
1760, it was opened again, and wrought for several years, under
very discouraging circumstances, by M. Obregon, since Count de
Valenciana. He arrived, finally, at a rich part of the vein, and soon
replaced all his former losses, and many fold more. During some
years, the net profit of the mine was $1,200,000 per annum.
The three old shafis.of the mine cost the Count de Valenciana
$1,200,000. In 1792, it was judged expedient to construct a new
shaft for the extraction of the ore. It was commenced, at that time,
with a diameter of thirty feet, with the expectation of being able to
reach the vein in 1815, at the depth of one thousand six hundred
and fifty feet. The shaft is well executed ; the stone lining is per-
fect of its kind, and Humboldt considers it a model worthy of ex-
amination. The objects of this shaft were not only, as usual, to fa-
cilitate the extraction of the mineral, but also to diminish the num-
ber of ees

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. ee)

230 Principal Silver Mines in Mexico and South America.

Comparison A the expense and profit of the mine of Valenciana,
fexico, and Himmelsfurst, in Saxony.

Mine of Valenciana. Mine of { Himmelefurst.

Quantity of silver, - - 360,000 marcs. 10,000 marcs.
Total produce, - = $1,600,000 $66,000
Expenditures, - - -. $1,000,000 $48,000
Net profit, - - - $600,000 $18,000
Quantity of silver, per quintal, 4 ounces. 6to7 ounces,
Number of workmen, - 3100

Do. . do. in the mine, 1800 550
Value of one day’s labor, _ $1 to $1.20 ae US E|
Expense of powder, $80,000 $5,400

uintals of ore sent to the :
ot ie REE , 720,000 14,000
Depth of the mine, _ 1650 feet. 1050 feet.

The proprietors of Valenciana receive, then, a profit of 37% per
cent. on the gross receipts of the mine, while at Himmelsfurst the
profit is only 27 per cent.

IL. Zacatecas, Fresnillo, Sombrerete, and Catorce.

The district of Zacatecas is situated to the north west of Guan-
axuato, to which, in its geological constitution, it is, in many respects,
analogous. The veins are explored in the grauwacke, and are found
to be richer upon the highest and most barren summits, than =e
the declivities, or in the ravines and valleys.

The principal ores are sulphuret of silver, native silver, red silver,
black silver, chloride of silver, argentiferous galena, carbonate of lead,
sulphuret of zine, pyrites, pyritous copper, carbonate of copper, sul-
phuret of antimony, and native gold. ‘The principal secondary rocks
of Zacatecas are compact limestone, siliceous slate, “ gres ancien,”
containing fragments of granite, and an argillaceous feldspathic con-
glomerate. Both these last are different from agile ” Argil-
Jaceous slate and porphyry are also observed.

The district of Fresnillo bounds that of Tscsnvens on the north
west, and its mines are also situated in grauwacke. ‘The veins of
chloride of silver are ee numerous. ‘The ore is generally of a green
or gray color. :

* «Tous deux differens de la grauwacke.” Ann. des Mines, t. xxxi, p. 331.

Principal Silver Mines in Mexico aud South America. 231

The mines of the district of Sombrerete, which approaches that
of Fresnillo on the north west, are in a compact limestone, which
contains siliceous slate and lydian stone. ‘There are some veins of
from three to four feet in thickness, whose entire mass is formed of
antimonial sulphuret of silver. One of these veins gave, in six
months, seven bundred thousand marcs* of silver. The limestone,
in this vicinity, is much more elevated than the porphyry.

The district of Catorce is situated about 24° N. latitude, one hun-
dred miles east of Sombrerete, and about three hundred miles north
of Mexico. A great number of small and very variable veins have
been explored. ‘The masses of the veins are disintegrated, so that
the ores are earthy, and most of them are colorados, or earthy fer-
ruginous ores. The veins traverse a compact secondary limestone,
which covers argillaceous slate, (schiste argileux de transition.)
Masses of basalt and cellular amygdaloid, which contain olivine,

zeolite and obsidian, are protruded above the limestone.

+ EL Pachtica Real del’ Monte, ond Moran 2:

These. mining districts are very near each other. Four great
veins, viz. la Biscaina, le Rosario, la Cabrera and )’Encino, traverse
all these districts, to great distances, without changing their direc-
tion, and almost without being crossed or deranged by any other
vein.

The veins traverse a decomposed porphyry, whose basis is some-
times a scaly hornstone, and sometimes an earthy mass. Common
and glassy feldspar, and some spots of green hornblende, are ob-
served, but no quartz. In the vicinity of these rocks, on the high-
est summits, are other porphyritic rocks, with a om of pearl stone,
mingled with beds and nodules of obsidian.

Upon the first or metalliferous porphyry, reposes the alpine sade
stone, (calcaire alpin,) which contains some veins of galena. This
is covered by Jura limestone, which, in its turn, is covered by slaty
sandstone, and finally, gypsum, mingled with clay, completes the
series observed. From the vein Biscaina, in the district of Real del
Monte, the Count de Regla, in twelve years, cleared $5,000,000.

These mining districts have enjoyed great — both on ac-
count of their great wealth’ and their vicinity to sho: qapigty The

‘ese 3 dwt. 14 gr. troy-—Mier’s Travels, II, 405.

232 Principal Silver Mines in Mexico and South America.

minerals, in the veins near the surface, ar are in a state of decomposi-
tion, and mingled with much oxide of iron, like the pacos of Peru.

IV. Pasco mines.

These mines are situated south west of the city of Maidens The
most ancient rock.is argillaceous slate, and this is covered by a for-
mation of porphyry, which contains common and vitreous feldspar,
and beds of blackish brown pitchstone; and again, the porphyry is
covered by a bluish gray compact alpine limestone, which is often
porous, and contains subordinate beds of gypsum and argillaceous
slate, and also univalve shells. The limestone is overlaid by a sand-
stone, with a calcareous cement.

The veins traverse both the limestone and argillaceous slate, but
they are richest in the limestone. Some of the veins. have a breadth
of thirteen feet, but the ores are not uniformly disseminated in pate
gangue, and in general their produce is very variable.

These mines must not be confounded with the Pasco mines of
Peru, which are situated about thirty or forty leagues north of Lima.
For an account of these, the reader is referred to the American
Journal of Science, Vol. XVII, p. 43, and Mier’s Travels in Chili,
II, p. 432, et seq.

The principal mining districts of Peru, are those of Pasco, Cho-

and .Huantajaya. The veins of silver ore are very numerous,
but nearly all the silver produced is from afew mines. The Pasco
or Yauricocha mines have been meee referred to, in the Arperican
Journal of Science, Vol. XVII, p

The mines of Chota are aa on — holes at about 7° S. lati-
tude. The principal ones are those of Gualgayoc and Micuipampa,
and their discovery dates from 1771, but the ancient Peruvians had
explored silver veins in the vicinity. The veins, composed of sul-
phuret of silver, red silver, and native silver, traverse sometimes al-
pine limestone, and sometimes hornstone, which forms subordinate
beds. ‘The upper part of the veins is a red earthy ferruginous mass,
containing silver, and called pacos. In some places, large quantities
of ore are found on the surface of the earth. In a small plain, call-
ed la Pampa de Navar, wherever they have removed the turf, they
have found sulphuret of silver and native silver, adhering to the roots
of the grass, and often the silver is in irregular masses, as if the melt-
ed metal had been poured upon soft clay.

. Peruvian method of Smelting. : 933

The mines of Huantajaya, are situated in the southern part of
Peru, near the Port of Yquique, in a low desert plain, entirely de-
prived of water. The ore is a decomposed mass, mingled with na-
tive silver, chloride and sulphuret of silver, and galena. It is ac-
companied by quartz and carbonate of lime. These mines are cel-
ebrated for the large masses of native silver found in them. One
mass weighed more than eight quintals. Rock salt occurs in abun-
dance i in the vicinity of the mines.

V. Mines of Potosi.

These minés are situated in about 20° S. Lat. upon the eastern de-
clivity of the Andes, near the most elevated sources of the La Plata.
They were discovered in 1545, and had furnished, up to 1804, more
than $1,100,000,000. ‘The first eleven years were most productive,
the annual produce during that ae ens 1,300,000 pounds weight.
Many of the ores then gave from ,*,°; to ;4,5, of metallic silver. In
1574, the ores preiaved from 4 to 44 per cent ; in 1607, 1,, ounce
per baer or 73%°553 at the beginning of the eighteenth century, ;4,°5
to ;°4, of an ounce per quintal of ore. Thus, it seems that these
mines have lost in richness, as the excavations have been carried
deeper, but as the entire product of silver is not greatly diminished,
the quantity of ore, compensates for its poverty. In 1804, Potosi
reported an annual product of 400,000 pounds weight of silver.

The veins of ore, at the Potosi mines, traverse an argillaceous
slate, which forms the mass of the mountain, but the summit is
crowned by a bed of argillaceous porphyry, containing garnets. . The
veins are very numerous, and some of them are elevated in the form
of a crest ; the rocks of the floor and roof having been more rapidly
decomposed than the vein. These crests were composed almost
entirely of red silver, sulphuret of silver, and native silver. One of
the veins, viz. del estano, presented for its crest, and even fora
great depth, only the sulphuret of tin, below which is found the chlo-
ride of silver. This is an example of two mineral formations in one
vein, similar to what has been observed in the. Freyburg mines in
Saxony, and in the tin and copper mines in —— Eng.

Peruvian method of smelting.

The Peruvian method of reducing the silver ores, was to git
them with galena, in broad circular clay furnaces, pierced with a great
number of holes, so that the free access of the exterior wind, might

OM #§& Mining System.

produce an intense ignition of the charcoal, contained in them, and
to increase the effect, the furnaces were placed upon the summits of
the hills, where, of course, the wind was most powerful. The result
of this operation, was an argentiferous matt, which was remelted in
similar furnaces in the Indian cabins, the blast being supplied by ten
or twelve men with long copper tubes, having small orifices. This
method was followed up by the Spaniards in the Peruvian mines,
until 1571, when the Mexican method of amalgamation was adlopied
at Potosi.

Mining system.

The exploration of the Mexican mines, up to the time, when
Humboldt examined them, was very defective, although mining had
been, for more than three hundred years, a constant source of em-
ployment to many of the inhabitants. The only improvement that
had been introduced, was that of blasting with gunpowder.

Some of the defects of the system of mining employed in Mexico are,

Ast. They have no plan of the works, so that two galleries may
be very near each other, without their knowing it; they have no sure
rule, either for forming a communication, or for directing the excava-
tion of new galleries, upon a point found to be very rich. Two
hundred and fifty miners perished in 1780, at Guanaxuato, because
they had, without knowing it, imprudently advanced near some old.
inundated peeesatiove, Sa which they thought themselves at a con-
siderable distan

2d. In most a the communications a sett the different parts
are circuitous. This is one of the great faults of their explorations,
which are, in this respect, like a badly constructed edifice, in which, to _
pass from one room to an adjoining one, you must travel through the
whole house. Some of the mines, consisting of several small works,
each of which has only one opening, without any lateral communica-
tions, are still more defective.

3d. The shafts and galleries are much too large. There are gal-
leries of research, from twenty-five to thirty feet in height! The
miners were under the impression, that the great height facilitated
the ventilation. They also entertained the prejudice, that the galle-
ries should be broad, instead of cutting transverse ones at short dis-
tances between the others, or towards the walls of the vein. ‘The
galleries, when large, are so expensive, that they cannot multiply
them, as much as the ventilation of the mine demands.

Mining System. 235

- There are some shafts, thirty or forty feet in diameter, and they
were made so large, on account of the clumsiness and multiplicity of
the machines used in extracting the ore and water. A better choice
of machinery, would enable them to diminish the diameter of the
shafts, and consequently the expense of new excavations.

4th. The lining of the shafts, when of wood, is little attended to,
but those of stone, are in general well executed.

5th. In blasting, more powder is used than is necessary, and they
do not lay bare that part of the rock which is to yield to the ex-
plosion.

6th. The interior transportation is upon men’s backs, beit;:4 in some
mines, mules are employed. Rail-ways were not known, and on ac-
count of the bad arrangement of the internal communications, it
would be difficult to introduce them. The porters or tenateros carry
for a load, from two hundred and twenty-five to three hundred
and fifty pounds, and in some mines, they have to ascend thousands
of steps, at an angle of 45°. The labor is so severe, that it injures
their health, but the appetite for gain retains them. ‘They can earn
$1,25 in six hours. In the mine of Valenciana, there are three por-
ters to each miner, and their wages, alone, amount to $10,000 per
month. ‘Two thirds of this expense might be saved, by having well
arranged internal communications, rail-ways and machines for rai-
sing the ore and water.

7th. The method of draining the mines, is very defective. The
water is either drawn up in leathern sacks, which are expensive, and
from their constant friction against the sides of the shaft, last but a few
days, or, it is carried up on men’s shoulders. In some mines, the
water which comes.in far above the bottom, instead of being stopped
out, or conducted off, is allowed to collect in the lower parts of the
mine, whence it must be removed with great labor and expense.

8th. The mechanical preparation of the ores, consists in picking,
stamping, and pulverizing, under the stone rollers, which were men-
tioned in the Mexican method of amalgamation. The different wash-
ing tables, do not appear to be known. Mier, in his travels, mentions,
that the roasting of silver ores is common, for the purpose merely of
rendering them capable of being more easily pulverized.*

The methods of mining, and working the ores, have undergone
little variation, since Humboldt’s visit to the mining districts. It has

* Mier’s Travels, Vol. ii, p. 401.

236 _ Mining System.

been found almost i ible, to introduce the improved methods and
machines of Europe. Some of the obstacles are,

1. The difficulty and expense of transportation of all the materials.
for‘labor and subsistence, which have often to be brought from great
distances.

2. The frequent deficiency of water for machinery, of timber for
supports, &c. in the mine, and of combustibles for roasting and smelt-
ing the ores, and for supplying steam engines.

3. The difficulty of employing large capital, advantageously, i in mi-
ning operations, for its employment in those sparsely populated coun-
tries, creates such a demand for Jabor, materials, and subsistence, as
to raise them far above their ordinary value, and thus to absorb all
the profits.

4. The prejudice of the persons concerned and employed, against
any change from the ordinary routine, is not the least obstacle to the
introduction of improved methods. While the mines of South Amer-
ica were still under the utr of Spats, efforts were mee 2s nee
duce improvements, b t
of Europe, but even royal authority, was insufficient to make any j im-
portant change in the metallurgic operations.

The principle upon which the mining system is conducted, is the
same in all countries, where the government has no direct control,
viz. to draw the greatest present benefit, without regarding the future.

_ The metals are of national importance, and a mine once exhaust-
ed, is not renewed; therefore, it is desirable, that the ores should be
so wrought, that there may be no waste, that the shafts and galleries
should be properly secured, and all parts of the work conducted on
the most approved principles

To effect these objects, to afford all the necessary information to in-
dividuals working mines, and to make known to the government, the
mineral resources of the country, France tis her corps of Mining
Engineers.

Many other governments, exercise such.a control over mining op-
erations, as to render them permanently useful to the country.

Where the conducting of mines, is left altogether to individual en-
terprise, only those ores of any particular metal found in a mine,
which will yield a handsome profit, are wrought, and all the others
are thrown away as useless. A proper mixture of the rich with the
poorer ores, although the profit will be less than with the rich ores
alone, will yield a moderate and long continued one, by which the

Miscellaneous Notices. 237

mine may continue to be wrought for centuries. If the rich ores
alone be wrought, and should they diminish, the mine is abandoned
and is regarded as being no longer valuable.

Again, when left to individual enterprise, the shafts and galleries
are so lined and supported, as only to answer for the present purposes,
without regarding the permanent stability of the works.

The mineral resources of the United States, are known to be very
great, but of how small a portion of its territory, have we accurate
information, as to its mineral products, or geological constitution.
The United States are in want of a corps of engineers of mines,
whose duties should be, to develope the mineral resources and geolo-
gical structure of the country; to give advice and information, in re-
lation to all the operations of working mines and ores of all kinds, and
minute statistical information, as s far as relates to mines and the mar-
ketable a of mines.

Arr. 1—Miscellaneous Notices, in a letter to the Editor, dated
from an American National Ship, off Cape de Gatt, in Spain,
August 11, 1832.

Dear Sir—We are at length upon the blue waters of the Medi-
" terranean, its surface just ruffled by a gentle breeze—a dozen of the
light and graceful vessels of this sea are gliding around us, while
close on our left, rise the grand and picturesque mountains of Grena-
da, now dressed in most splendid coloring by the declining sun. I
suppose you will imagine us now all gay of heart, rejoicing in the
beautiful scenery, and our thoughts full of Italy, Athens, Ionia, Syria,
and Egypt. The case is far different. We are all out of humor,
and our conversation is all about health officers, lazarettos and qt

tine. It will be well for us if we are allowed to set foot in any of the
countries around us for many a week tocome. We are, in short, in
a singular dilemma. We dropped anchor in Gibraltar bay, last Fri-
day, after a passage of forty three days, via the Azores, Madeira
and Lisbon, and were in high spirits at the idea of getting once more
among old friends and familiar scenes. But a sad disappointment
awaited us. They had heard of the Cholera in New York, and were
disposed to be rigid: the health bost came 2€ along side, and in answer
to their questions, out

sion, ee to their alarmed — é idea that we had that dis-

u. XXIV.—No. 2

238 Notice of Madeira.

ease on board. ‘The board of health sat on our case,—we explain-
ed, urged and made every effort, but nothing would do. They re-
fused to admit us even to quarantine. Now, our ship has not lost a
man since we left the N. River: for one of its class, it is remarkably
healthy and as to Asiatic Cholera, we have nothing bearing any re-
semblance to it on board. So we were forced to heave anchor and
be off, and now find ourselves a little like the spectre ship of Cape
Horn, flying about on the waters without a resting place, every where
feared and shunned ; what will be the result we cannot tell. Gibral-
tar is usually considered quite lax in its sanitary regulations; it may
be that we shall succeed in Mahon, to which we are now bound,
but the court at Madrid, has just sent them word at Gibraltar, that
unless they became more rigid there, they shall be cut off from all inter-
course with Spain. This seems but poor comfort as regards Mahon,
but we have no better resource. |

Notice of Madeira.

I mentioned that we stopped at the island of Madeira. Few things can
be imagined more beautiful than this gem of the ocean, (as it is called)
as it disengaged itself from the darkness, one fair morning, toward the
close of last month, and its lofty, picturesque mountains, its ravines
with their cascades, and its numberless vineyards, became rapidly de-
veloped: “The island is sixty miles long and about twenty in breadth.
Its general appearance, will be best understood from a few simple re-
marks as respects its geology. It appears to have been originally a
small and rather low island, composed principally or entirely of trans-
ition limestone. It seems at some remote period of time, to have
been suddenly torn asunder by volcanic action, and an immense mass
of mountains ejected, in a double ridge, with a vast chasm between,
running nearly the whole length of the island. The chasm is called
by the natives Corral. Simultaneous with this, appears to have been
the ejection of a great quantity of liquid matter, which fowing from
the sides of the ridge, has formed a smoother surface down to the
sea, in some places leaving the basalt exposed, sometimes tearing ‘it
up, and at others covering it to a great depth with tufas, various in
color and consistence. A short time before our arrival, part of a
bank close by the usual landing place of Funchal, and nearly a mile
west from the city, having been undermined by the constant action
of the water, had fallen down. I clambered over the huge pieces of
rocks barely to examine it, and found the upper twenty feet of the

Notice of Madeira. 239

bluff to consist of firm and compact basalt, while below were numer-
ous strata of tufa, red, yellowish, and dark, and of various degrees of
compactness. Near the water, was astratum five or six feet in thick-
ness, of a dark blue color, and so loose as to fall to pieces in my
hand, as soon asit was wet.

Soil, Vines and Grapes.

-The soil of the island is formed from these tufas, and to them, to-
gether with the uniform mildness of the climate, the peculiar char-
acter of Madeira wine is owing. The soil, as Hes be supposed
from all this, is by no means uniform. In a ride to the Corral,
along a road which led us for some miles sas half way between
the mountainous district and the beach, we passed, one while, among
vineyards whose richness and beauty could not be any where ex-
celled ; at another, among naked, red hills, with here and there a
stunted pine; then, across deep ravines, with walls of naked basalt,
and here and there below, a little field of yams or cane, and then we
suddenly emerged again into districts, where for miles were seen
only the rich clusters of the grape. The fruit was then beginning to
ripen, and hung in great profusion, from the cane trellis work, usu-
ally at a height of hiss or five feet from the ground. The vintage,
however, is not expected to be as productive this season as usual.
The crop had promised to be larger than customary, until about a
week before our arrival, when a hot wind from Africa, called the
Leste, to which this island is exposed, had blown upon it with great
violence for a few days, and a large portion of the grapes imme-
diately withered and dropped from the vines. The soil is naturally
very dry, but the numerous rapid streams from the mountains afford
the greatest facilities for irrigation : they accompanied us in the
course of our ride, usually in paved channels, formed along the
side of the road,. and added much to the freshness and beauty
of the landscape. Great pains seem to be taken, not only to im-
part a proper degree of moisture, but where this is possible, to pro-
duce also a proper mixture of the soil. Three kinds are chiefly in
use—the Saibro,* the Pedra Molle (red and yellow Tufa) and a

*The saibro was carefully analyzed in 1823, by an English traveller, the late
T. E. Bowdich, and was found to consist of silex 46.8 parts; alumine 9.1; oxide
of iron 27.3; soda 2.7; water 3.8; the loss, principally vegetable matter 10.3.

i Jess iron than

the
Specific gravity, Saibro 1.75; Pedra Molle 1.95; Massepas 1.99; Casealta 2.1.

240 Notice of Madeira.

clayed earth called Massepas. A mixture of all three, in equal por-
tions, is preferred in very dry situations; but in general the sazbro,
or equal portions of the saibro and pedra molle, are considered the
best. The Caslaelpa, a decomposed, basaltic conglomerate, is valued
next to these : next comes the Massapas, and next and last in value,
the barros and marracota, both a coarse and impure species of clay.
These clays are sometimes mixed with a volcanic cinder, called ara-
ga, and although the mixture is less ane: the vine in it will last
longer than in any other kind of soi
Wines.

The best wine is produced on the southern side of the island, that
of the northern side called Verdelho, being in no respect superior to
the wine from other places. It is a singular circumstance however,
that in forming a vineyard, cuttings from the Verdelho are always
‘preferred. The richer soil and milder temperature act so as to pro-
duce from this the most valuable fruit, while cuttings from the south-
ern side, are always found to give wine of an inferior quality. The
grape usually met with is white with a light tinge of yellow; it is
oval and of a delicious flavor: the blue grape is also frequently seen,
and I could not ascertain that the color made any difference in the
wine. The different varieties of grape produced on the island, are
ranged under the heads of the Verdelho, the semaniggd the Negro
Molle, the Bual, and the Tinta. The “ Madeira wine” is general-
ly a mixture of all these, in greater or less proportions, but the flavor
is chiefly owing to the bual and tinta. The tinta is often kept sepa-
rate, and being left to ferment with the husks remaining in the cask,
takes from them a deep red color like that of Burgundy, which —
however, leaves it as it grows older. In flavor, it has a close resem-
blance to good port, except that it is not so rough: it costs on the
island about one half more than the ‘ Madeira.” Considerable
quantities are exported to England, but in our country it is almost
unknown, except, I believe, at Washington. It is the only red
wine produced on the island. The Malmsey, at least the best of it,
is from a vine said to have been imported from Candia about four
centuries ago. Its fermentation is checked sooner than that of other
wines, in order to increase its sweetness.

Much of the wine which in the United States, passes by the name
of Madeira, has probably never been near the island whose name it
bears, and indeed unless the consumer imports it himself, or has it

Notice of Madeira. 241

imported by some trusty person, he will run great risk of being de-
ceived. Even in importing for private consumption, particular pains
are necessary, as ‘the merchant in Madeira, I believe, in answering
orders, always distinguishes between that intended for individual use,
and the market. ‘The best houses or “ brands,” as they are tech-
nically called, are that of Marsh, (the U. S. Consul,) Gordon, &
Co. (English,) Lacock, (English,) Wallis, Barr, (English,) and Oli-
vera, (Portuguese.) We purchased a pipe of eight years old wine
there, for private use, for $180, which I belive may be considered a
fair price. The consul had some of the same age, kept in the gar-
ret, and valued at $220 the pipe: owing to evaporation, he consid-
ered it less profitable to himself at this, than the other at $180.

An acre, under the most favorable circumstances, will produce
as much as four pipes of good wine; but one pipe to the acre, is
the usual average. From one to three acres are considered as
much as one family can well attend to. In the richest parts of the
island, the cottages are scattered so thickly as, to a vessel sailing along
the coast, to appear like an endless succession of villages. ‘Their
houses are thatched, and are generally nothing more than miserable
hovels of basalt, cemented with mud, and without a chimney ; but I
have never, any where, been treated with greater respect than among
this simple, and I believe, industrious peasantry. A drunken man I
did not see during all my stay in the island. One half of the wine
goes to the landholder, as rent: the remainder is usually purchased
by the wine merchants, a considerable time before the vintage, one
third of the money being paid at the time of purchase, and the remain-
dér on delivery. The price given by the latter, for the best * Ma-
deira,” is $70 a pipe. The wine is racked once a month, during
the first year, and once every fourth month, during the second, the
loss at each racking, being about a gallon: from one to two —_
of brandy are put into each pipe during the fermentation.

My stay was too short to enable me to gather much information on
the mode of cultivating the vine, and I take the liberty of quoting ©
from the book of Mr. Bowdich, a work bearing in itself evidence
of close observation, and which is spoken of as a production of great
correctness and excellence. It is said that the vines will last sixty
years, if planted wide enough apart. The ground being turned up,
the trenches are dug from four to seven feet deep, according to the
nature of the soil. And a quantity of loose or strong earth is placed
at the bottom to prevent the roots from reaching the stiff, clayey soil

242 Notice of Madeira.

beneath, which would oppose their growth. They water the ground
three times, if the summer has been dry, leaving the sluices open
until the ground is pretty well soaked ; the less the ground is water-
ed, the stronger the wine, but the quantity is diminished in propor-
tion. Some cultivators lay cow-dung at the roots of the vines when
they plant them, and when the wine becomes poor, mix a fresh
quantity with the soil at the surface. Others believe that animal
manure injures the flavor of the grape, and instead, sow the Lupinus
perennis among the vines ; this they do in the January of every sec-
ond year, cutting it down and burying it, by turning over the surface
of the soil after the small rains, which prevail for about ten days, at
the end of April. On the cutting of the Verdelho, (or northern vine,)
they engraft any other variety they may wish: the grapes yield no
wine until the fourth year. The stalks of the Arundo Sagitta are
used in making frames for supporting the vines in the southern parts
of the island, and the Salix rubra, for tying them to this trellis work.
In the northern parts of the island, the vines are trained around the
chesnut trees, this firmer support being necessary, it is said, on ac-
count of the higher winds prevailing there. The vines in Madeira,
give fruit as high as 2700 feet but no wine can be made from it: the
greatest height at which they are now cultivated for this purpose, is in
the valley of the Corral das Frieres, which is 2080 feet above the
the sea. There is much dispute as to the best month for pruning
the vines. Some prefer February, others the middle of March: it
depends principally however, on their foresight as to the weather,
when the flowing takes place, which is six weeks or two months af-
ter the pruning. As to the treatment of the wines, I have observed
that the produce of a particular season, must frequently be treated
one year, very differently from that of another. When the. grapes
are green, the fermentation must be checked ; when they are wet
from unseasonable rains, it must be assisted ; generally speaking, the
riper the fruit, the more difficult the fermentation. A very agreea-
ble liqueur is made in the island, from the second pressure of the
grape, (the first being made with the feet,) into which, an equal
quantity of brandy is immediately thrown, to stop the fermentation
and produce sweetness. Gypsum is pretty generally used to clarify
and mellow me wines while working, unless they happen to be of a
' green vintage.”

From all this, I think it must be apparent, that the attempt to pro-
duce Madeira wine in our country, from cuttings from the vines of

Notice of Vesuvius. 243

that island, must be entirely hopeless. Even on the island of Ma-
deira itself, it can be produced only on the southern side. Its flavor
is owing chiefly to two causes, the peculiar nature of the soil, and
the remarkably uniform temperature of the climate*: here too, the
vineyards unless supplied with cuttings from another part of the isl-
and, would be in danger of speedily deteriorating. Indeed, in our
cold climate, and with our soil, every effort to produce more than
grapes for our table must produce disappointment, unless we can do
something with our own hardier grape. And such, I believe has
already been the experience both in Pennsylvania, and in the States
further west.
Naples, October 5, 1832.
Vesuvius, &c.

Ihave visited all the places of interest here, among them the
Grotto del Cane and Mt. Vesuvius, and cannot tell you how much
Ihave been gratified. Vesuvius is quite different from what I ex-
pected to find it. I ascended it in company with our friend Johnson,
and while we were on the lip of the crater, we had several explo-
sions of ashes and red hot stones—a sight which visiters now have
not often the pleasure oftseeing. The stones were thrown to a height
of two hundred feet, and came rattling around us in a manner that,
at the moment, was any thing but agreeable. ‘There was an eruption
in August, and the crater and sides of the mountain still presented
the appearance that they do on such an occasion, with the exception
that the lava was cold and black. There are now strong indications
of another approaching eruption; the mountain frequently trembles,
it sends up quantities of white smoke, and the springs around it are
dried up. At night we have lately had some brilliant sights; but it
is scarcely probable that we shall be here long enough to see the
conclusion.

Monday morning, Oct. 15.—I mentioned on my last sheet, that I
had just been up the mountain, a second time, with the Commodore

_ * Dr. Gourley, a resident at Madeira, after eighteen years’ observations, gives the
g as the mean wage ure :

January, . 64°.18 | July, ee a
i, ER eee 64.03 | August, +t i =n
March, ‘i - ‘ ‘ 65.08 | September, . i Pe ee ad
— ‘ é Galley 65.05 | October, j , See ee

ay, : : bs ; 66.53 | November, . : ee 69.08

June, pete 69.74 | December, . + - - 65.00
: Average or mean of the year, 68°.90. ;

244 Notice of the Grotto del Cane.

and his family. Several changes had taken place since my last visit,
indicative of increasing violence in the volcano. The guide came
on board yesterday with information that on the evening after our
visit, six streams of lava had burst out from the spot in the crater
where we had taken our breakfast. It has not yet overflowed, and
will discharge itself down the other side of the mountain. I have
_ some thoughts of going up this evening to see it. We sail to-mor-
row—the Concord, with our letters, is to leave this to-day.

‘Grotto del Cane.

I believe I did not tell you, in my last, that I made a visit to the
famous Grotto del Cane, a visit to me so full of interest, that I can-
not help giving you some account of it, notwithstanding the numerous
descriptions we already have of that singular place. I was enticed
onward, one bright morning, by the numberless curious objects that
present themselves about N spies till I found myself at the entrance
of the Grotto of Posilipo, then at its further extremity, then in the
beautiful valley beyond; and being now not far from the Grotto del
Cane, set out in earnest for a treat that 1 had, from the first, been
promising myself. A guide was quickly selected from a set of rag-
ged urchins, who offered themselves along the road. ‘Thus escort-
ed, I soon reached the house of the Custode, or show-man, and a
rapid knock and short dialogue having settled the preliminaries, I
pushed on towards the Grotto, leaving him to hunt up his dog ard
follow at his leisure. ‘The road, which had hitherto obliquely cross-
ed the valley noticed above, now approached its edge, and led us
among rough, abrupt hills, until suddenly turning to the right, and
entering a deep, natural chasm, it brought us in a few minutes to the
edge of the Lago d’Agnaro. ‘This lake is about four miles in circuit,
and evidently occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. My little
Cicerone led me along the border of the lake, for about a hundred
yards, when pointing to a small door against the side of the crater, a
short distance above us, he told me that there was the object of my
search. The name Grotto had misled me, and my disappointment
was great, when, on the door being unlocked and thrown open, an
excavation, of not more than twelve feet in length, and seven or eight
in height, made its appearance. To the right, it was the rudest
thing possible. ‘The bottom, sides, and top, were of the bare earth,
very uneven, and, as the cave was shaped much like an egg, it was

Notice of the Grotto del Cane. 245

only at the centre or near it, that a person could stand upright. The.
floor, and sides to a well-defined horizontal line eight or nine inches
above it, appeared moist, and on stepping in, I immediately became
sensible of a small degree of warmth up to the same height, although
the atmosphere down to the ground was perfectly transparent. ‘The
custode first directed me to get on my hands and knees, and to
bring my face within the influence of the gas. I took the posture
desired, and asI had lowered my head to within a short distance of
the ground, and found myself breathing a pure air, was beginning to
think the wonders of the grotto far overrated, when I suddenly found
myself bolt upright, and on my feet, having been brought there by a
sensation as if a thousand needles had been at once thrust into my
nostrils. The feeling was like that often experienced after drinking
strong soda water, only to an almost overpowering degree.

The next experiment was a cruel one, but I hope pardonable, in
as much as the cruelty was far from being of a wanton kind. e
man looked for a dog which he had brought with him, and tied to
some bushes near the door, and taking the struggling animal in his
arms laid him down in the deepest part of the cave. The dog laid
quiet for a moment, and then, with a sudden start, nearly escaped
from the custode’s hands, but was brought back, and once more held
down within the full power of the gas. His struggles were violent,
and his eyes, turned upward toward his master, showed a high de-
gree of suffering ; but presently, his muscles began to relax, and
his struggles ceased, his open and beseeching eye only showing life.
His master now took him up, and laid him in the pure air, outside
the cave. Here he remained motionless for nearly two minutes,
when he was seized with violent spasms, gasped for breath, at length
got on his feet, staggered about, and then recovering himself fully,
darted away into the bushes. A whistle brought him back, and he
came up, wagging his tail, to receive the customary crust of bread.
The man now lighted a couple of torches, and placing one in my
hand, allowed me to amuse myself with such experiments as are fre-
quently practised in our Larboratories with this gas, and others of a
similar character. The flame began to separate from the torch as
soon as it was lowered to the line noticed above, showing a smooth
uniform surface to the gas. When moved along the sill of the door,
it burnt with disdifsttishied brightness, except where a small
was made by an inequality in the wood ; when it sunk into this, the
light was immediately ea casiae ia the same ‘manner, I could

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2 32

246 Miscellaneous Communications.

discern the gas flowing down the hollows leading from this to the
lake. When I had satisfied myself with these experiments, the cus-
tode took both the torches, and rubbing them against the sides of the
cave, filled the bottom of it with smoke ; the hitherto invisible spirit
of the eave took form and substance ; and I was warned by a gentle
hint, for half a dollar, that the exhibition was at an end.

Art. [I.—Miseellaneous Communications, from Dr. Hane.

Tuene is scarcely any one of the phenomena produced by a pow-
erful voltaic series, which creates greater surprise in the beholders,
than the intense ignition which ensues, when a platina wire of about
No. 24, connected with the negative pole, is brought into contact
with the surface of a concentrated solution of muriate of lime. The
end of the wire quickly fuses and falls to the bottom of the glass in
successive drops, which are so perfectly globular as to indicate that a
high degree of fluidity must have preceded their congelation. The
communication of the liquid with the positive pole, which is of
course indispensable to this experiment, is effected by the employ-
ment of a platina wire much stouter than that which is above descri-
bed in connexion with the negative pole. This brings me to the
most inexplicable feature in the case, which is, that if the arrange-
ment be reversed, so that with the smaller wire in communication
with the positive pole, and in contact with the surface of the liquid,
the series be brought into action, the ignition is comparatively feeble,
and will not effect the fusion of the wire.

Ihave a magnet made essentially after the plan of Prof. Henry,
excepting the use of paper and shell lac, in lieu of silk as an insula-
tor, which method I devised and mentioned to you more than two .
years ago.

This magnet weighs seventeen pounds. It is surrounded by four-
teen coils of copper wire, No, 15, each sixty feet in length. Its
maximum of cohesive power is equal to seven hundred and eighty
pounds.

I was curious to see if there would be any re-action between this
magnet and the jet of igneous matter between the poles of a de-
flagrator, of seven hundred pairs of plates of four inches by three.
The only remarkable result was, that the conducting power of the
iron of the magnet was much reduced when subject to the induc-
tive influence of the coils.

Apparatus and Processes. 247

This was demonstrated by attaching one pole of the series of sev-
en hundred pairs to one leg of the magnet, while the other pole was
made first to touch the end of the other leg, and then retracted so
as to produce the vivid discharge of igneous matter, well known
to ensue under such circumstances. The discharge being thus es-
tablished, it was arrested, as soon as a calorimotor was made to act
upon the coils. ‘The experiment was reiterated again, and again, with
the same result.

About two years ago, I stated that taking the iron of an electro-
magnet into the circuit of a calorimotor fifty times larger than that
used for the coils, the attractive power, though enfeebled, was not
destroyed. I have lately ascertained that a knitting needle may be
magnetized and have its poles reversed while subjected to a direct
current from the same large instrument, the inductive magnetic power
being meanwhile due to a calorimotor of not more than a fiftieth of
the size.

I avail myself of this opportunity of asian that fused caout-
chouc inflames in concentrated nitric aci

This result was unexpected by me, never having met with any ac-
count of this habitude, and which I presume had not been before no-
ticed.

Art. IV.—Apparatus and Processes; by Ropert Hare, M. D.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania.

Communicated by the author.
1. Apparatus for evolving Silicon from Fluo-silicic Acid Gas.

Inro a stout mahogany block as a basis, two iron rods A, A, are
so planted as to extend perpendicularly, and of course parallel to
each other, about two feet in height. Upon these rods two iron bars
are supported horizontally, one, B, near their upper extremities, the
other at the height of about six inches from the wooden basis. In the
centre of the lower bar, there is a screw, D, having a handle below
the bar, and supporting above it a circular wooden block. Into a
hole in the upper iron bar, equidistant from the rods, is inserted a
hollow brass cylinder C, which at the lower end screws into an aper-
ture in a circular plate of brass, E, which is thus supported horizon-
tally a few inches below the bar. By these means room is i.allowed

248 Apparatus and Processes.

for the insertion into the cylinder of four valve cocks, each furnished
with a gallows screw. The cylinder is surmounted by a stuffing box,
through which a copper sliding rod, G, passes air tight. ‘The brass
plate is turned and ground to fit a bell glass of about five inches in
diameter, and eight inches in height, which is pressed up when neces-
sary between the plate and the block by the screw D, supporting the
block. Within the space comprised by the bell glass, and on one
side of the centre of the plate, two stout brass wires are inserted,
one of them insulated by a collet of leathers, so as to admit of the
ignition, by a galvanic discharge, of a small arch of platina wire, which
terminates them. The sliding rod above-mentioned as occupying
the stuffing box, terminates below the plate in an elbow which sup-
ports a cap at right angles to the rod, at the same distance from the
rod as the platina wire, and on the opposite side of it, there is a brass
cover, H, for the cap, supported from the plate. The arrangement
is such that by a suitable movement in the sliding rod, made by
grasping it by the handle G, in which it terminates externally, the
cup may be made either to receive into its cavity the platina wire, or
to adjust itself to its cover

The bell being removed, shoes sixty grains of potassium in pieces
not containing more than fifteen grains each, are to be introduced
into the cup, which is then to be adjusted to the cover, and the bell
secured. In the next place, by means of the flexible lead tubes,
P, P, P, P, and the gallows screws attached to the valve cocks, es-
tablish a communication severally with an air pump, a self-regula-
ting reservoir of hydrogen, a barometer gage, and a jar over the mer-
curial cistern containing fluo-silicic acid gas. First by means of the
air pump exhaust the bell, and in order to wash out all remains of
atmospheric air, adinit hydrogen from the reservoir. Again exhaust,
and again admit hydrogen. Lastly exhaust the bell of hydrogen
and admit the fluo-silicie acid gas. By means of the gage, the ex-
haustion is indicated and measured, and by the same means it will be
seen when the pressure of the gas within the bell, approaches that of
the atmosphere. When this takes place, the cocks being all closed,
by means of a calorimotor, the platina wire is to be ignited, and the
potassium brought into contact with it.

A peculiar deep red combustion ensues, sicining copiously choco-
late colored fumes, which condensing i into flocks of the same hue,
subside throughout the receiver, (excepting the color,) like snow in
miniature. On removing the bell after the potassium is consumed,

Apparatus and Processes. 249

the cup which held it, will be found to contain, silicon mixed with the
fluoride of potassium, and with this indeed the whole of the powder
deposited j is contaminated. Silicuret of potassium is likewise formed
in the cup, since on the affussion of water, a fetid evolution of sili-
curetted hydrogen ensues. By repeated infusions, first in cold, and
afterwards in boiling water, aggreeably to the directions of Berzelius,
the silicon is left in the state of a brownish ash colored powder.

Thus obtained, silicon does not appear to be acted on either
by sulphuric, nitric, fluoric, or muriatic acids; nor when exposed to
nitrate of potash liquified by heat. It’seems to be soluble for the
most part in a mixture of nitric and fluoric acid, which by analogy we
may call nitro-fluoric acid; but after exposure for eighteen hours to
this solvent, a small proportion of a black matter remained undissoly-
ed. This is, in all probability, carbon derived from the potassium,
which, according to Berzelius, when obtained by Brunner’s process,
is liable to be combined with carbon. ‘The solution of nitro-fluoric
acid, decanted from the residual black powder into a solution of
pearlash, gave a copious, white, gelatinous precipitate like silex,
which, when thrown into a large quantity of water, subsided undis-
solved. When on subjecting the silicon to red hot nitrate of potash,
anhydrous carbonate of the same alkali was added, so as to cooperate
with the nitre, an explosive effervescence took place. All the sili-
con disappeared, and a compound resembling the silicate of potash
was produced. ‘This anomalous reaction may be considered as char-
acteristic of silicon.

The impression that the black matter speahulle: in the nitro-fluoric
acid, was carbon, is confirmed by the fact, that after the silicon had
been digested for some hours in strong nitric acid, and finally boiled
in it to dryness, it dissolved in _nitro- acai acid without any such
residuum.

2. Improved process for the evolution of Boron.

By means of an apparatus represented by the annexed engraving,
I have succeeded in evolving boron by the reaction of potassium with
vitrified boracic acid, in vacuo, without encountering the evil of any
explosive action, to which the process, as heretofore conducted, in
pleno, has been found liable.

A circular brass plate, is prepared, like the plate of an air pump,
so as to produce with any suitable receivers properly ground, an air-
tight juncture. It is supported on the upper end of a nr brass

. 250 Apparatus and Processes.

cylinder, B, with the bore of which it has a corresponding aperture.
The brass’cylinder is about three inches in diameter, and six inches
in height, being inserted at its lower end into a block of wood asa
basis. This cylinder receives below, a screw, which supports a cop-
per tube, C, of about two inches in diameter, so as to have its axis
eoncentric with that of the cylinder, and to extend about four inches
above the plate. The copper tube, thus supported, is closed at the
Upper termination by a cup of copper, of a shape nearly hemispher-
ical, and soldered at the upper edge, to the edge of the tube; so
that the whole of the cavity of the cup, is within that of the tube.
Hence the bottom of the cup is accessible to any body, not larger
than the bore of the tube, without any communication arising be-
tween the cavity of the tube, and that of any receiver ite upon
the plate, over the cup and tube, as in the figure.

Into the side of the cylinder supporting the plate, a valve cock is
screwed, by means of which, and a flexible leaden tube, a communi-
cation with an air-pump is opened, or discontinued, at pleasure.

The cup being first covered with a portion of the vitrified boracic
acid, as anhydrous as possible, and finely pulverized, the potassium is
introduced, and afterwards covered with a further portion of the
same acid, two parts of the potassium being used for one of the acid.
A large glass receiver is now to be placed on the plate, secured by
rods A, A, concentric with the tube and cup; from the heat of which
the glass is to be protected by a bright cylinder of sheet brass, S,
placed around it so as to be concentrical with the receiver and tube.

The apparatus being so prepared, and the receiver exhausted of air
by means of the air pump, an incandescent iron is introduced
through the bore of the tube, so as to touch the bottom of the cop-
per cup. Ina short time a reaction commences, which aiding the
influence of the hot iron, renders the cup and its contents red hot.
A deep red flame appears throughout the mass, after which the reac-
tion lessens, and the heat declines.

When the cup has become cold, the air is admitted into the receiv-
er, and the contents are washed with water. If any of the acid has
escaped decomposition, it may be removed by boiling the mass with
a solution of potash or soda. After this treatment and due desicca-
tion a powder will remain, having the characteristic color and ogg
ties of boron.

Apparatus and Processes. 251

The additional valve cock, represented in the figure, gives the op-
tion of introducing dry hydrogen for the purpose of washing out at-
mospheric air, as described in the process for silicon.

3. Description of the Valve Cock, a perfectly air-tight substitute for
the common Cock, alluded to in the preceding articles.

This figure is intended to illustrate the construction of a substitute
for a common cock, which I have been aceustomed to call a valve
cock. It was devised by me about twenty years ago, amonga num-
ber of other analogous contrivances, and seems upon the whole less
liable to fail than any other which I have tried. The engraving
represents a longitudinal section of the valve-cock. At a is a pistow
with a collar enclosed in the staffing box 6, so as to be rendered air-
tight by means of oiled leather. Hence the piston may be turned
or made to revolve on its axis, while incapable of other motion.
Upon the end of the piston a thread for a screw is cut which fits into
a female screw in the brass prism c, so as to cause this prism to
approach to, or retreat from a bearing, covered by leather, in the
centre of which there is a perforation 0 0 communicating with one
of the orifices of the instrument. This orifice is surrounded by the
male screw d, so that by means of this screw, the valve-cock may
be fastened into an appropriate aperture, properly fitted to receive it,
subjecting an interposed leather to such pressure, as to create with
it an air-tight juncture. The prism c, has two of its four edges cut
off (see fig. 2,) so as to allow a free passage by it, reaching to the
lateral perforation terminating in another orifice, over which there
is a gallows screw, g. By means of this gallows screw, when requi-
site, a brass knob, such as that represented by a fig. 3, soldered to 2
leaden pipe, may be fastened to the valve cock. ‘The juncture is ren-
dered air-tight by the pressure of the screw in the gallows, upon @
leather which is kept in its place, by means of the nipple n.

The method last mentioned, of producing an air-tight juncture,
was contrived by me about seven years ago, and proves to be of very
great utility. There is no other mode with which I am acquainted,
of making a perfectly air-tight communication, between the cavities:

previously separate, at all comparable to this. in facility.

252 Apparatus and Processes.

4. Apparatus for separating Carbonic Oxide from Carbonic Acid,
by means of Lime Water.

Lime water being introduced in sufficient quantity, into the inver-
ted bell glass, another smaller bell glass, C, is supported within it as
represented in this figure. Both of the bells have perforated necks.
The inverted bell is furnished with a brass cap having a stuffing box
attached to it, through which the tube D of copper slides air-tight.
About the lower end of this tube, the neck of the gum elastic bag is
tied. The neck of the other bell is furnished with a cap and cock,
- surmounted by a gallows screw, by means of which a lead pipe P P,
with brass knob at the end suitably perforated, may be fastened to it,
or removed at any moment. Suppose this pipe, by aid of another
brass knob at the other extremity, to be attached to the perforated
neck of a very tall bell glass filled with water upon the shelf of a
pneumatic cistern: on opening a communication between the bells,
the water will subside in the tall bell glass, over the cistern, and the
air of the bell glass C being drawn into it, the lime water will rise
into and occupy the whole of the space within the latter. As soon
as this is effected, the cocks must be closed and the tall bell glass re-
placed by a small one filled with water, and furnished with a gallows
screw and cock. ‘This bell being attached to the knob of the lead
pipe to which the tall bell had been fastened before, the apparatus is
ready for use. I have employed it in the new process for obtaining
carbonic oxide from oxalic acid, by distillation with sulphuric acid in
a glass retort. The gaseous product: consists of equal volumes of
oxide and carbonic acid, which, being received in a bell glass com-
municating as above described by a pipe with the bell glass C, may
be transferred into the latter, through the pipe, by opening the cocks.
As the gaseous mixture enters the bell C, the lime water subsides.
As soon as a sufficient quantity of the gas has entered, the gaseous
mixture may, by means of the gum elastic bag and the hand, be sub-
jected to repeated jets of lime water, and thus depurated of all the
carbonic acid. By raising the water in the outer bell A, the purified
carbonic oxide may be propelled, through the cock and lead pipe,
into any vessel to which it may be desirable to have it transferred.

' APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING CARBONIC ACID FROM CARBONIC
OXIDE, BY MEANS OF LIME WATER. :

APPARATUS FOR THE EVOLUTION OF SILICON FROM FLUO-
SILICIG ACID GAS, BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM AND A WIRE
IGNITED BY A CALORIMOTOR.

——— gs >

AN

[SS
f i
4 ey ji

THE VALVE COCK, *

A PERFECTLY AIR TIGHT SUBSTITUE FOR THE COMMON COCK.

APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING CARBONIC AGID FROM CARBONIC
OXIDE, BY MEANS OF LIME WATER.

Electrical Machines. 253

Art. V.—Remarks on the error of supposing that a communication
with the Earth, is necessary to the efficacy of Electrical Machines ;
by R. Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Pennsylvania. Communicated by the author.

Sometime since, in looking over a volume of Cavallo’s Electricity,
I was surprised to observe that in order to give the greater efficacy
to an electric machine, he advises that the cushion, or negative pole,
should be made to communicate advantageously with the earth. As
the means of accomplishing this object he suggests a conducting com-
munication ** with moist ground, with a piece of water, or with the
iron work of the water pump.”

It appears from the following passage in Turner’s Chemistry, a
work generally of great merit, that the erroneous impression which
gave rise to these suggestions, has been adopted by a more modern
author. We find, page 77, American edition, the following See:
tion.

“The electricity which is so | dd of
a good electrical machine, is derived from the rest reservoir of dicearletty, the
This is obvious from the fact that if the whole apparatus is insulated, the

plete insulation, the glass and prime spre are ceaitlinn as usual, and the rub-

_ lost, and thus continues to supply the glass with an uninterrupted current. If

ee is insulated, and the prime conductor communicates with the ground,
a electricity of the former, and of all conductors Poaneet ted with it, is carried away
into the earth, and they are negatively electrified

I conceive that the earth has never, of necessity, any association
with the phenomena of the electric machine ; of which the power is
evidently dependent on the efficacy of the electric, in transferring the
fluid from the negative to the positive conductor. en the conduc-
tors are both insulated , by the revolution of the electric they are brought
into states of excitement as opposite, as the power of the machine is at
the time competent to produce. If, under these — with
one end of a metallic rod, (terminating in
ble enlargement, and held by means an an insulating handle,) we Gack

XXIV.—

Vou. ‘2

254 Electrical Machines.

the negative conductor, while the ball is approximated to the posi-
tive conductor, sparks at least as long, and as frequent, will be ob-
tained, as when the negative conductor, or cushion, has the best pos-
sible communication with the earth. I conceive that any metallic
surface or surfaces, duly connected with either conductor, must be-
come virtually a part of that conductor, and partake of its excite-
ment. In this predicament, whilst receiving a charge, are the coat-
ings of a Leyden jar, or an association of such jars in a battery.
The effect of the machine is merely to transfer the fluid from one
surface to another. After the conductors, and any jar, or battery,
associated with them are charged, there is no more electricity in
the surfaces than before; since whatever one has gained, the other
has lost. :

If the impression of the learned professor, were correct, how could
a battery or a jar be charged, where both it, and the machine are
insulated from the earth? Yet experience shows that it is under
these circumstances that a charge is most easily imparted. When
the conductors are in a state of excitement, and both insulated, the
one will of course be as much below that of the surrounding neutral
medium, and of the great reservoir, as the other is above that stand-
ard. When we connect either conductor with the earth, it returns of
course to the neutral state of the earth; but the difference between
the excitement of the conductors is sustained by the power of the
machine to the same extent as before; hence the length and frequen-
cy of the sparks will not be found to be sensibly altered. It follows
that when either of the conductors is made neutral by connexion with
the earth, the other will have its excitement as much above or below
neutrality, as the sum of the differences between each of the two con-
ductors and the terrestrial neutrality when both are insulated. Thus
supposing that when insulated, the one conductor is relatively to ter-
restrial electricity minus ten, and that the positive conductor is plus
ten; when the negative conductor alone is uninsulated, the positive
will be plus twenty, when the latter is alone uninsulated the former
will be minus twenty.

It seems to be a common, though as I believe an erroneous idea,
that a spark changes its character with the conductor from which it
appears to be taken; so that when produced by presenting a body to
the positive conductor, it is considered as positive, and as negative
when produced with the negative conductor in like manner.

Electrical Machines. 255

I have already observed that any conducting surface in connexion
with either conductor, must act as a part of that conductor. Ap-
proximating to the negative conductor, a body (a ball, for instance,)
while in communication with the positive conductor, is really enlarg-
ing on elongating the surface of the latter, so that when the spark
passes, it must still be from the positive to the negative pole: and
vice versa, elongating the surfaces associated with the negative con-
ductor, till sufficiently near the positive conductor to receive a spark,
does not alter the character of the phenomenon. In each case, ac-
cording to the theory of one fluid, a current passes from the positive
to the negative pole, and according to oe doctrine of two fluids, two
currents pass each other.

The cause of the difference observed in fs sparks in the two cases
is, that they are usually received from a small knob upon a big ball,
or the hand ; or some other body comparatively large.

Whenever the fluid is contracted into a small jet on the positive
side, its projectile power is increased ; while under the opposite cir-
cumstances, its projectile force is lessened. ‘This is the sole cause
of the long forked erratic form, of what is called the positive spark ; >
and the soe stubbed appearance of what is called the negative
spark. The whole difference may be effected in whatever situation
the sparks may be taken, by causing a large and a small ball to ex-
change sides. When the surface on the positive side is so small as

to condense the electric matter before it jumps, the projectile force is

greater, and as in the case of the jet pipe in hydraulics, there is a me-
dium size, at which the greatest projectile power is obtained. When
the emitting surface is too large, the projectile force is lessened, and
the spark consequently made shorter.

The following passage in Cavallo’s Electricity is that alluded to
above. See vol. Ist, page 184: London, 1786.

** Sometimes the machine will not work well because the rubber is not sufficient-
the

means of a long wire, with some moist ground, a piece of water, or with the iron
ork of the water pump, by which means the rubber will be supplied with as much
pies fluid as is required.”

The learned author was, I think, altogether wrong in imagining that
the dryness of adjacent bodies could have any ill effect. In common

256 Electrical Machines.

with the great mass of electricians of this time, as well as his contem-
poraries, he has overlooked a real cause of deterioration. I allude to
the imperfect conducting power of cushions, made as they are usu-
ally, of silk, or leather stuffed with hair, or other nonconducting sub-
stances. ‘The desiccation of the cushion and other parts of the rub-
ber, may counteract the benefit otherwise produced by any increase
of aridity in the surrounding medium.

By stuffing the cushions with the elastic iron shreds scraped off
from weaver’s reeds in manufacturing them, and making a commu-
nication between the shreds and the steel spring supporting the cush-
ion and attached to the negative conductor, I have seen the sparks
yielded by a machine moré than trebled in length, and frequency.

As a coating for the cushion upon the whole I find the aurum mu-
sivum, more efficacious than the amalgam usually employed, which
is apt to adhere to the glass, and promote the passage of sparks from
collecting points of the positive conductor to the cushion. I ques-
tion if the amalgam does not owe its efficacy to its conducting pow-
er, which tends to compensate the absence of this property in the
cushion.

In speaking of experiments performed by means of electrical ma-
chines, the poles and conductors may in general be treated as synon-
ymous; yet strictly the poles are those parts of the conductors, or
conducting surfaces in connexion with them, between which the dis-
charge takes place; so that when insulated metallic rods, however -
long, are each at one end in contact with the conductors of the ma-
chine, the poles may be at the other ends of the rods. This view
of the subject is generally recognized in the case of Voltaic series,
which not being terminated by conductors, in the technical sense
used in speaking of the machine, gives rise, in this respect, to less
cause of misapprehension.

I conceive it an error to suppose that the association of a large
conductor with a machine, contributes to the intensity of the sparks.

It appears to me to render the sparks shorter, and less frequent,
though otherwise larger.

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Architecture. 257

Arr. V1.—Architecture.*

Introductory Remarks.—The following observations appeared to
me happily adapted to convey to young people some elementary.
ideas of architecture, about which, especially as regards the orders,
their views are often confused andimperfect. The author has kindly
yielded to my request in permitting these notices to appear in this
Journal, in which the fine arts might advantageously occupy a more
considerable space, than they have hitherto done.—Editor.

-

Hartford, February, 1833. ©

To Mr. B——, of Seminary.

Dear Sir.—If in compliance with your wishes, I can furnish a
few useful hints on Architecture, I shall be gratified; but my knowl-
edge is limited and accidental#. I presume that your object is, to give
the Young Laie (Your. pupils) nck general information on the sub-
ject, istinc t, as to convey a knowledge of
the different orders, so far ¢ at ie that when hearing a fine building
somewhat technically described, or seeing it externally for the first
time, they may have it in their power to determine upon its style,
have a correct impression of it upon their minds, and be able to
understand, why its proportions and decorations,. make a pleasing, or
disagreeable impression.

The Grecian, orders are but three, the Doric, Ionic and the Corin-
thian. Itis common, however, to speak of the five orders, of archi-
tecture, because in Rome, five orders were in use. The Tuscan,
whose column is seven diameters in height, the Doric, eight, the Ionic,
nine, the Corinthian, ten, and the Composite, eleven; all of which col-
umns, have in Roman architecture, basestothem. I will not goonto
enumerate the divisions, proportions and decorations of the other
parts, included in the architrave, Frieze and Cornice making up the

Entablature, as you will find “a all in the book you took from me,

* To Prorzssor S1nuiman.—My Dear Sir. —According to your er t
send you a copy of some remarks on aeeneeche which a gentleman wished
prepare for him, by way of assistance, in a few lectures, intended to be given aid
him to his pupils, members of a very respectable female Seminary, of which he is
principal. He has however so much readiness in acquiring and communicating
knowledge, that he probably found my contributions, less important than he antic
ted. If on reading them deliberately, you do not change
ject you had in view, they are at your service, ; I may add also, at
you are disposed to give to the public, what intended for private u:

Your Friend and Servant, :
Hartford, April 23, 1833. yk Sok “Danie WADsworrH.

+

Ps #

258 : Architecture.

which I think gives as handsome specimens of measured drawings,
to work from, in Roman Architecture, as any one I know of. The
same will also be found in many other books, which you will probably
consult. The Roman Doric, is altered from the Grecian, by being
much lighter, and having a base added to the column. The Tuscan,
is wholly Roman, and the Composite, varies but little from the Corinth-
ian, principally in having the shaft of the column, one diameter long-
er. This is really a needless order, as for all light and ornamental
building, the Corinthian is the handsomest and there is no objection
to enriching its plain Frize, to any degree, although it is generally
left, without ornament. When these three Roman additions, or in-
novations were made, I do not know. The Tuscan is now almost
wholly dropped, for although heavier than the Roman Doric, it makes
none of the impression of grandeur, nor has it that look of repose
and even of simplicity, that characterizes the Grecian, although the
entablature of the Tuscan, is entirely plain, and its columns never
fluted. Notwithstanding the richness of the Grecidn Doric entabla-
ture, and its channeled columns, as they are without bases, and the
whole is somuch more massy, it has a more grave and severe aspect,
than the plain and simple Tuscan. The temple of Minerva at
Athens, and that on the promontory of Sunium, of which many correct
prints .may be found, are fine specimens of ancient Grecian Dorte.
The pedestals whose proportions are so accurately given in the book
mentioned above, and indeed in all other books intended for the use
of the practical builder, have been almost abandoned by modern Ar-
chitects. There are few occasions, when they are agreeable to the
eye, and as applied to columns, are, I have no doubt, entirely Roman.
To support statues or vases, was I believe their only use, amongst
the Greeks. In building they may sometimes become necessary,
to overcome, or obviate,’ some difficulty, but a judicious architect,
will be sparing of them. Your first impression, that the City Hall
in Hartford, was Tuscan, arose probably, from the absence of the
appropriate Doric ornaments of the entablature. If in addition to its
fluted columns, {those of the Tuscan are never fluted,) it had those
ornaments, it would in every ching be completely Grecian Doric, as
it is in its proportions.

The columns of the true Grecian Doric, are rarely if ever, more
than five diameters in height, and sometimes less, not diminished in a
gently curved line, from one third up, as in the other orders, but
from the foot to the capital, in a straight line, as in those of the
Hartford City Hall. The State House at New Haven, the col-

Architecture. 259

umns of whose tio noble porticos are more than eight feet diameter at
their base, and the new United States Bank in Philadelphia, are ex-
amples in this country; and in Europe, the famed temples of Pzs-
tum, of very remote antiquity, built by the Grecians in the south part
of Italy, are also examples. Of the United States Bank, I can fur-
nish you by way of illustration for your scholars, with a handsome
water colored drawing, and of the temples of Pestum, an accurate
colored copy, taken from an Italian drawing, which a gentleman to
whom it belonged and who had been on the spot, told me was per-
fect, and it corresponds exactly, with some fine cork models* I have
since had an opportunity of seeing in the Trumbull gallery of paint-
ings in New Haven. In most instances, if not in all, believe that in
the Grecian Ionic the volutes or scrolls which form the principal orna-
ment of the capital, have, as you will observe, but four faces, to eachcol-
umn, two presented to the eye in a line with the external architrave of
the portico, and two in a line with the interior architrave. ' The same
kind of capitals are found amongst the ruins of Palmyra. In the Ro-
man Ionic, the volutes are, almost without exception, like those in the
upper division of the Corinthian Capital, with eight faces to each col-
umn, presenting themselves obliquely to the eye, and having con-
sequently two faces, to each valute, instead of one, as in the early
Grecian Capital; probably this variety in the Capital is entirely a
Roman deviation, but if it is not, you will I believe find the truth
in the books you will consult, but 1 am not confident. ‘Those I
named to you, some of which I possess, and are at your service,
will probably explain this. They contain some valuable information
in aid of your present purpose. I have several very correct copies
of Roman ruins, many of which are still standing in the neighborhood
of Rome, although not grouped together there, exactly as they are in
the prints. These will furnish good illustrations to your pupils, of the
architecture of ancient, Rome. Perhaps I have some views of the
modern city, if I can find them in the house I will send them. I have
in a book intended for beginners in practical architecture, a very per-
fect though small print, of the Pennsylvania Bank, which is an ex-
ceedingly beautiful specimen of Grecian Jonic, executed in marble,
and also of the Old United States Bank, (lately Girards) of the
Corinthian. The latter is much handsomer in the original structure,
than in the print, although in front it is more like a richly decorated

* Presented to Yale College by a Scoteh gentleman, John MeAdam, Esq., ther
at Rome, and brought out by Mr. Wm, MeCraekan, of New Haven. _

260 Architecture.

nobleman’s house, than a public building. __Isend you also a small vol-
ume of Grecian Ruins as illustrations of Mr. Hobhouse’s Journey.

I believe that all the elements of the Grecian, Roman, Moorish,
Saxon, and Gothic architecture, are to be found in the Egyptian,
Syrian, and Indian. In Denon’s Travels, and in a colored drawing,
copied from Norden’s Travels of a temple at Combo in upper Egypt,
both of which I can furnish you with, you will I presume find ail the
great proportions, of the heavy Grecian, and even the foundations or
rather blocks, of many of its ornaments.* I have also noticed, in
views of the Ruins of Palmyra, beautiful specimens of the lighter
and more elegant columns, which we now call Greek and Roman.
In buildings in India, either remaining still perfect, or existing in
Ruins, are not only heavy Temples, much like those of Egypt, but
pointed or Gothic arches, some plain, and others richly ornamented,
supported on slender Pillars, and on arcades of these are raised
square columns, like what are called “ antais,” of the lighter Gre-
cian proportions, surmounted by a plain entablature, including its
flat projecting cornice, and a plain, closed Ballustrade, of the same
proportion, as those in modern use, but with no pediment. Pedi-
ments probably first arose in Greece, from the necessity of having
such a covering as would discharge the rain. There are also in In-
dia, Gothic pinnacles, and Turkish Domes, in abundance. And in
the Ruins of Dehli, especially, as well as in the more modern build-
ings, are many minute Gothic ornaments; of all these I can show
you instances in a book of Indian Views.

What is now called the Gothic, should, as an English v writer has
declared, be stiled “ English Architecture,” for he claims that the
pownted stile, if not invented in England, was carried to its greatest
degree of elegance, in that country, and arose long after the time of
the Goths. The same writer says, that if the word ‘ English” is
not allowed, it should be called Norman, as it was carried to cilons
tion, under the, Norman Dynasty, although introduced under the
Saxon, and that the circular arch, with its short columns, if riebly
decorated, may be called “Saxon Gothic,” and the pointed arch,
and slender Pillar, “Norman Gothic.” He asserts, that Gothic
“Architecture, is never spoken of by the earlier Historians, and prob-

* See Plate.—No. 1. Ruins of ancient Dehli—No. 2. Part of Melrose Abby.—
No. 3. Temple at Combo, Upper Egypt.—No. 4. Pestum.—No. 5. United States
Bank.—No. 6, Pennsylvania Bank.—No. 7. Old United States Bank.

Architecture. 261

ably the term was made use of to bring the pointed style into disre-
pute, at the time when it was intended to destroy simultaneously the
popish religion, and its beautiful architecture, and to introduce Gre-
cian buildings. Ido not know whether the above opinions are ex-
pressed exactly in the words of the writer, but they exhibit substantial-
ly his meaning. “That which is commonly called Gothic Architecture,
is characterized by pointed arches, slender pillars, often like clustered
shafts of pikes, or bundles of reeds, and almost every part, both flat
and projecting, is enriched to the highest degree, with the most deli-
cate tracery of flowers, and tendrils, and with an endless variety of
other minute ornaments, almost always beautiful, although, sometimes
intermixed with others extremely grotesque, and absurd.

There is nothing inthe mere forms, or embellishments of the
pointed style of architecture, in the least adapted to convey to the
mind the impression of * Gothic Gloom.” ‘The proportions and deco-
rations are light, graceful, and elegant, and I have thought even when
- very young, and in Henry the 7th’s Chapel which is one hundred feet
in length, although awed by its gloom, that but for the rich twilight
of its painted windows, and the dark color of its materials, rendered
still more dark by time, all its forms, and all its proportions, were
entirely appropriate to a splendid banqueting room, and it then
appeared to me that the different impressions, even in Westminster
Abbey, into which this chapel opens, were caused wholly by the ar-
tificial darkness, occasioned by shrouded windows, the gloomy color
of the stone and deeper colored oak, its venerable age, the vast ex-
tent of the buildings, and the countless monuments which seem to .
crowd around you, as if the magnificent pile were raised only to shel-
ter this great congregation of the dead, and as if the echo of each
footstep were a voice of reproof, to the living intruder. ‘There are

several Gothic churches now in this country, two handsome ones in
New Haven, and one built still later in Hartford, which I think a
finer specimen of the pointed style, than either, and indeed I believe
it is the handsomest, and most complete example of elegant Gothic,
both in proportion, and decoration, as far as that style is attempted,
which is to be found in the United States.

The interior of the first Gothic church built in New Haven, was
at the time it was finished, a good illustration of what I would wish
to express, as all those who saw it then, will I am sure, allow.

. though grave, and dark, without,—within, it was as white as snow,
and light as day, the ——— = all delicate, and slender, of

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2

262 3 Architecture.

lofty pointed Gothic, the windows tall, unshrouded, divided into
many tasteful compartments, and admitting a flood of light. 1 can
believe that even the interior of Yorkminster, a larger and more
beautiful cathedral, than Westminster Abbey, if white, with all the light
that its vast windows could admit, would hardly produce the slightest
impression of solemnity. But I have no doubt it does now produce
that impression, in the extreme, in consequence of its sombre color-
ing, great antiquity, and mysterious light, connected with religious
associations, and the impressive recollection of the ages that have
past, and of how many generations which have thronged as worshipers
beneath its roof, have gone down to the grave, whilst its walls have
stood, for hundreds of years, unchanged, in tranquil grandeur, and
may, to all appearance, if contending with no enemy but time, still
remain, till hundreds of generations more, have come into being and
returned to dust. :
Whatever may be the claims of the English, or other European
nations, to what is called Gothic Architecture, I think it must be con-
ceded, that there were pointed arches, and slender pillars, in the
East, even if the European pointed arch, arose from the accident,
as has been said, of an individual happening to see the round Saxon
arches, intersecting each other, in such a position, as to give to the
eye the impression of the pointed arch. An opinion has been en-
tertained that this style was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders,
or by the Moors. What the Crusaders had ‘to do with it I do not
know, but it is certain that the Moorish Alhambra at Granada, has
- the semicircular arch, and in some parts of that Palace, pointed arch-
es also are seen, and in its profusion of delicate tracery over a great
part of the walls, it may well compare, with the rich Norman Gothic,
of the Cathedrals of Spain, Italy, and the north of Europe. ‘That
the pointed style, was introduced into England, long after the Saxon,
I suppose there is no doubt, and it is beautifully noticed, by Scott, as.
I dare say you well recollect.
“Tn Saxon strength the Abbey stood
Like vet’ran worn, but unsubdued,
It rose alternate row—and row—
On pond’rous columns short and low,
** Built e’re the art was known
By pointed Isle, and shafted stalk
The arcade of an alley’d walk
To emulate in stone.”

Architecture. _ 263

I can furnish you with a colored drawing of Melrose Abbey, copied
from an old Book, printed long before Scott was born, which con+
tained as fine a description in. prose, of the ruins, as they then stood,
as the Poet gives of its earlier beauty, when supposed to be perfect.
The description is even more minute, than Scott’s, of the admirable
delicacy of the flowers, foliage and tendrils, “wrought in stone.”

ese are distinctly mentioned, and also many circumstances, and
peculiarities which I have forgotten, but all tending to impress upon
the reader, that the finest possible taste in this particular - was
then at its height.

The drawing will be a familiar illustration to your ladies,
and will I think, gratify them, particularly, as the very * East win-
dow,” in Scott’s description, through which the moon shone into the
* Oriel,” is seen in this drawing. You will recollect probably the fol-
lowing lines—

«©The moon on the East Oriel shone
_ Thro’ slender shafis of shapely stone
By foliaged tracery combined,
You would have thought some fairy hand
Thro’ poplars tall the Osier wand—
In many freakish knot had twined -
Then framed a spell when the work was done
And changed the ga wreaths to stone.”

.

I will also furnish you with a common pints although a correct
one, of the west front of “* Westminster Abbey,” and a common print,
of the fagade of the chamber of Deputies in Paris, probably the
handsomest modern Corinthian Portico in Europe. That of the Pan-
theon at Rome, is considered the handsomest ancient one of that or-
der. The last, you will see amongst the prints of Roman buildings,
in the Portfolio you will take from here, and also a colored drawing
of the Pyramids. It would perhaps be well to remark to the young
ladies, that the Pyramids are probably the oldest as well as the larg-
est structures, as to quantity of materials, now to be seen, raised
on the surface of the earth, possibly some of the tombs, and tem-
ples, cut out of the solid rock: both in Africa and Asia, may be of
greater antiquity, but I do not know that it has been absolutely prov-
ed. _ From the variety of books which you will have it in your power
to consult, in addition to the few volumes I can furnish, you will read-
ily obtain much more information than I can give; but if these short
notices, are found to aid you, it will give me much pleasure.

Your friend and servant,
‘Dante, Wapsworrts.

i

264 On the relation which subsists between a

Arr. VII.—A few remarks on the relation which subsists between
a Machine and its Model; by Enwarp Sane, Teacher of Math-
ematics, Edingburgh. Communicated by the Author.

From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

Ar first sight, a well constructed model presents a perfect repre-
sentation of the disposition and proportion of the parts of a machine,
and of their mode of action.

Misled by the alluring appearance, one is apt, without entering
minutely into the inquiry, also. to suppose that the performance of
a model is, in all cases, commensurate with that of the machine
which it is formed to represent. Ignorant of the inaccuracy of such
an idea, too many of our ablest mechanicians and best workmen,
waste their time and their abilities on contrivances which, though they
perform well on the small scale, must, from their very nature, fail
when enlarged. Were such people acquainted with the mode of
computing the effects, or had they a knowledge of natural philoso-
phy, sufficient to enable them to understand the basis on which such
calculations are founded, we should see fewer crude and impractica-
ble schemes prematurely thrust upon the attention of the public. This
knowlédge, however, they are too apt to regard as unimportant, or as
difficult of attainment. They are startled by the absurd distinction
which has been drawn between theory and practice, as if theory were
ite than: a digest of the sent - atpeieete oy * ney overcome

ey are
bewildered among names and signs, having begun the jest at the
wrong end. That the attainment of such knowledge is attended
with difficulty is certain, but it is with such difficulty only as can be
overcome by properly directed application. It would be, indeed,
preparing disappointment, to buoy them up with the idea, that knowl-
edge, even of the most trivial importance, can be acquired without
labor. Yet it may not be altogether unuseful, for the sake both of
those who are already, and of those who are not, acquainted with
these principles, to point out the more prominent causes, on account
of which the performance of no model can, on any occasion, be con-
sidered as representative of that of the machine. Such a notice will
have the effect of directing the attention, at least to this important
subject. In the present state of the arts, the expense of constructing

Machine and its Model. 7 265

a full sized instrument is, in almost every instance, beyond what its
projector would feel inclined, or even be able, to incur. ‘The forma-
tion of a model is thus universally resorted to, as a prelude to the
attempt on the large scale. An inquiry, then, into the relation which
a model bears to the perfect instrument, can hardly fail to carry along
with it the advantage of forming a tolerable guide, in estimating the
real benefit which a contrivance is likely to confer upon society.

In the following paper, I propose to examine the effect of a
change of scale on the strength and on the friction of machines, and
at the same time, to point out that adherence to the strictest princi-
ples which is apparent in all the works of nature, and of which I
mean to avail myself in fortifying my. argument.

Previous, however, to entering on the subject proper, it must be
remarked that, when we enlarge the scale according to which any in-
strument is constructed, its surface and its bulk are enlarged in much
higher ratios. If, for example, the linear dimensions of an instru-
ment be all doubled, its surface will be increased four, and its solidi- —
ty eight fold. Were the linear dimensions increased ten times, the
superficies would be enlarged one hundred, and the solidity one
thousand times. On these facts, the most important which geome-
try presents, my after remarks are mostly to be founded.

All machines consist of moveable parts, sliding or turning on others
which ate bound together by bands, or supported by props. ‘To the
frame work J shall first direct my attention.

In the case of a simple prop, destined to sustain the mere weight
of some part of the machine, the strength is estimated at so many
hundred weights per square inch of cross section. Suppose that, in
the model, the strength of the prop is sufficient for double the load
put on it, and let us examine the effect of an enlargement, ten fold,
of. the scale according to which the instrument is constructed. By
such an enlargement, the strength of the prop would be aug
one hundred times; it would be able to bear two hundred loads such
as that of the model, but then the weight to be put on it would be
one thousand times that of the small machine, so that the prop in the
large machine would be able to bear only the fifth part of the
load to be put upon it. The 9 then would fall to pieces | by
its own weight.

Here we have one example of the erroneous manner in wlll a
model represents the performance of a large instrument. The sup-
ports of small objects ought clearly to be smaller in proportion than

266 On the relation which subsists between a

the supports of large ones. Architects, to be sure, are accustomed
to enlarge and reducé in proportion; but nature, whose structures
possess infinitely more symmetry, beauty and variety, than those of
which art can boast, is content to change her proportions at each
change of size. Let us conceive an animal having the proportions
of an elephant and only the size of a mouse; not only would the
limbs of such an animal be too strong for it, they would also be so
unwieldy that it would have no chance among the more nimble and
better proportioned creatures of that size. Reverse the process,
and enlarge the mouse to the size of an elephant, and its limbs, totally
unable to sustain the weight of its immense body, would scarely
have strength to disturb its position even when recumbent.

The very same remarks apply to that case in which the weight,
instead of compressing, distends the support. The chains of Trin-
ity pier are computed to be able to bear nine times the load put on
them. But if a similar structure were formed, of ten times the lin-
ear dimensions, the strength of the new chain would be one hundred
times the strength of thatat Trinity, while the load put upon it would
be one thousand times greater; so that the new structure would pos-
sess only nine tenths of the strength necessary to support itself. Of
how little importance, then, in bridge building, whether a model con-
structed on a scale of perhaps one to a hundred support its own weight!
yet, on such grounds, a proposition for throwing a bridge of two
arches across the Forth at Queensferry was founded. Putting out
of view the roadway-.and passengers altogether, the weight of the
chain alone, would have torn it to pieces. The larger species of
spiders spin threads much thicker, in comparison with the thickness
of their own bodies, than those spun by the smaller ones. And, as
if sensible that the whole energies of their systems would be expen-
ded in the frequent reproduction of such massy webs, they choose
the most secluded spots; while the smaller species, dreading no in-
convenience from a frequent renewal of theirs, stretch them from
branch to branch, and often from tree totree. Ihave often been as-
tonished at the prodigious length of these-filaments, and have mused .
on the immense improvement which must take place in science, and
in the strength of material too, ere we could, individually, undertake
works of such comparative magnitude. ;

When a beam gives support laterally, its strength is proportional to
its breadth, and to the square of its depth conjointly. If, then, such
a beam were enlarged ten times in each of its linear dimensions, its

Machine and tts Model. 267

ability to sustain a weight placed at its extremity would, on account
of the increased distance from the point of insertion, be only one
hundred times augmented, but the load to be put upon it would be
one thousand times greater; and thus, although the parts of the
model be quite strong enough, we cannot thenee conclude that those
of the enlarged machine will be so

Tt may thus be stated as a Seniol principle, that, in similar ma-
chines, the strengths of the parts vary as the square, while the
weights Jaid on them vary as the cube of she corresponding linear
dimension.

This fact cannot be two firmly fixed in the minds of machine ma-
kers; it ought to be taken into consideration even on the smallest
change of scale, as it will always conduce either to the sufficiency or to
the economy ofa structure. To enlarge or diminish the parts of a ma-
chine all in the same proportion, is to commit a deliberate blunder.
Let us compare the wing of an insect with that of a bird: enlarge a
midge till its whole weight be equal to that of the sea-eagle, and, great
as that enlargement must be, its wing will scarcely have attained the
thickness of writing paper ;—the falcon would feel rather awkward with
wings of such tenuity. ‘The wings of a bird, even when idle, form
a conspicuous part of the whole animal; but there are insects which
unfold, from beneath two scarcely perceived covers, wings many
times more extensive than the whole surface of their bodies.

The larger animals are never supported laterally ; their limbs are
always in a position nearly vertical-:.as we descend in the scale of
size the lateral support becomes more frequent, till we find whole
tribes of insects resting on limbs laid almost horizontally. The:
slightest consideration will convince any one that lateral or horizon-
tal limbs would be quite inadequate to support the weight of the
larger animals, Conceive a spider to increase till his body weighed
as much as that of a man, and then fancy one of us exhibiting
feats of dexterity with such locomotive instruments as the spider
would then possess !

‘The objects which 1 have hitherto ceeaied have. bean. remote,
that the comparisons might be the more striking ; but the same princi-
ple may be exhibited by the contrast of species the most nearly al-
lied, or of individuals even of the same species. The larger species
of spiders, for instance, rarely have their legs so much extended as
the smaller ones; or, to take an example from the larger animals,
the form of the Shetland pony is very different from that of the
London dray-horse.

268 On the relation which subsists between a

How interesting it is to compare the different animals, and to trace
the gradual change of form which accompanies each increase of
size! In the smaller animals, the strength is, as it were, redundant,
and there is room for the display of the most elaborate ornament.
How. complex or how beautiful are the myriads of insects which
float in the air, or which cluster on the foliage! Gradually the lar-
ger of these become more simple in their structure, their ornaments
less profuse. The structure of the birds is simpler and more uniform,
that of the. quadrupeds still more so. As we approach the larger
quadrupeds, ornament, and then elegance, disappear. This is the
law in the works of Nature, and this ought to be the law among
the works of Art. —

Among one class of animals, indeed, it may be said that this law
is reversed. We have by no means a general classification of the
fishes ; but, among those with which we are acquainted, we do not
perceive such a prodigious change of form. Here, however, the
animal has not to support its own weight; and whatever increase
may take place in the size of the animal, a like increase takes place
in the buoyancy of the fluid in which it swims. Many of the smaller
aquatic animals exhibit the utmost simplicity of structure ; but we
know too little of the nature of their functions to draw any useful
conclusions from this fact.

Having said thus much on the relative strengths of a machine
and of its model when at rests, I proceed to compare their strengths
and actions when in m

This subject siecally duihen itself into two heads ; the one ‘relating
to the ability of the structure to resist the blows given by the moving
parts, either in their ordinary action, or when, by accident, they es-
_ cape from their usual course; the second treating on the changes
which take place on the fietion of the parts when these are enlarged
or diminished.

The ability of support to resist the i impetus of a moving body, is
estimated by combining the pressure which it is able to bear. with
the distance through which 3 it can yield ere disruption takes place.
Inthe case of a support which acts longitudinally, the strength is pro-
portional to the square of the linear dimension, while the distance
through which it can yield is as the linear dimension itself. Alto-—
gether, then, the ability to resist a blow is proportional to the cube
of the length; that is, to the weight of the body which is. destined
to act upon it. If, then, the linear velocity of the machine iseto be

,

Machine and. its Model. 269

the same with that of the model, these parts, so far as this action is
concerned, will be in keeping with each other.

In the case, however, of a lateral support, the distance through
which it can yield without breaking i is not augmented by an enlarge-
ment of the scale; so that, in these parts, the large engine is com-
paratively weak, even although the velocity of the motion be the
same on the large as on the small scale.

‘But those motions which are most likely to produce accidents
in this way, are generated by descents bearing a fixed proportion
to the dimension of the engine: the velocity, therefore, is generally
greater in the large engine than in the small one, so that large ma-
chines are more liable to accidents arising from the derangement of
any of their motions than small ones are: they possess, however,
more absolute strength, and are better able to resist any extraneous
force. We must carefully distinguish between the absolute strength
of any structure, or the power which it has of resisting impressions
from without, and the ability of that structure to withstand the effects
of derangement among its own parts.

‘Every one knows that a thermometer balb is broken by a very
slight blow, and that yet it may fall from a considerable height with-
out injury. Yet a large ball, of a proportionate thickness, though
able to resist a much severer blow, is dashed to pieces by a fall.

The insect is crushed by a touch; yet many species of insects pos-

sess the power of leaping to divnivess inconceivable, when esti
with the minuteness of the animal.

Whether we consider its ability to resist mere pressure, or its.
ability to resist an impulse, the performance of an engine is not at
all commensurate with that of its model. It remains for me to shew
that as great a disparity is perceived when we consider the friction
of the parts. As, perhaps I have been rather general in my previ-
ous statements, I shall, when speaking of the friction, confine “a
attention to that very important instrument the st
little consideration will enable any one to apply similar wie to
other machines.

The steam-engnie moves on account of the pressure of the steam
against the surface of the piston; which pressure may be estimated
at about ten pounds per circular inch. The friction which this prés-
sure has to overcome may be divided into three parts: the first in-
cluding all friction caused by the packing of the piston and stuffing-
boxes, and which is ppm to the linear dimension simply ;

Vout. XXIV.—No

270 On the relation which subsists between a

the second including that part of the friction on the gudgeons which
arises from the pressure of the steam upon the piston, and all other
friction proportional to the square of the linear dimension; and the
third including all that friction which arises from the weight of the
parts, and which is thus proportional to the cube of the dimension.

Suppose now, for the sake of an example, that, in an engine
whose cylinder is 20 inches across, and whose inciting pressure will
thus be 4000 Ib., the friction of each kind is 100 lb., the entire fric-
tion being thus 600 Jb. or about 1-13th part of the moving force.
And to make a handsome enlargement at once, let us propose one
of which this may be a mere model, on the scale of 20 to 1 ; the new
cylinder will be 4000 inches in diameter, and the pressure on the
piston 1,600,000 Ib. The friction of the first species would amount
to 2000, that of the second to 40,000, and that of the third to
800,000 Ib., so that the sum total of the friction, no less than
842,000 |b., would be fully more than half of the inciting pressure.

It is then clear that such an. enormous engine would be highly
disadvantageous as a mechanical agent, and that, if the enlargement
were pushed a little farther, the whole of the moving force would
be expended in overcoming the friction. There is, then, a greatest
size beyond which it is impossible to proceed in the construction of
the steam-engine. But there is also a least.

Let us, in fact, take an engine similar to our first, but with a cylin-
der of only 1 inch in diameter. In such an engine the pressure of —
the steam upon the piston’ would only be 10 1b. ; the three kinds of

. friction would amount respectively to 5 1b. 1gr. and 1-80th part of a
Ib., the first kind alone being equal to half the inciting force. Were
the diminution still farther continued, the friction of the packing of
the piston might equal the pressure of the steam.

From this it is apparent that, for each shape of the steam-engine,
there are two extreme limits as to size, at which the utility of the
engine ceases altogether, and between which there is placed a best
size, or one which is accompanied by the most complete develop-
ment of the powers of the instrument. A skilful arrangement of
the parts'may, indeed, extend the limits both ways, and may thus
change considerably the most advantageous size, yet, even with that
assistance, very small-or very large engines are less productive of
force, in proportion to the quantity of coal they cousume, than mod-
erately-sized ones are ; and, in many instances, it would have been
better to have employed two or three middle-sized engines than @
single one possesed of two or three times the nominal power.

Machine and its Model. 271

Every instrument, whether it be used for the generation or for
the transference of power, has a best size and a best form. The
pres of the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms teaches
this tru Each species of animal attains to a determinate size,
beyond hicks | it seldom proceeds, and short of which it seldoms
stops, unless man has interfered with the regular course of nature,
and deranged, as his contrivnaces too often do, that determinate,
succession of events which is conspicuous in the history of each tribe
of what we are pleased to call - ashes: aarEels- Each animal
and each vegetable, init y omaturity, assumes, at
each stage of that progress, ‘such a form as sa assorts with the con-
solidation of its parts, and with the mode of its living. The wisdom
and the benificence of this arrangement, and the skilfulness with
which it is made, become the more apparent when we carry our
contemplation beyond the globe which we inhabit to those other worlds
which circulate round the same sun. Were man, in his present state,
and with his present powers, planted on the surface of Jupiter, he
would be crushed beneath his own weight: and if, on the surface
of that planet, there do exist beings of the same structure and of
the ‘same material as man, one of us would be a Man-mountain

them. If, on the other hand, we were transported to the
surface of the Moon, or of one of the Asteroids, our strength would
fit us for progressing rather in the manner of the grasshopper than
of the man : bipeds, living and moving as we do, would there realize
the counter-vision of Gulliver.
- The sizes, then, of the objects which, on the surface of this earth,
surround us, are not fixed by chance, but determined by the im-
mutable laws of nature ; and, in every case, Nature has pushed het
exertions to the utmost. There is a limit, both ways, to the size
of quadrupeds; there is a limit, both ways, to the size of birds;
and, although myriads of insects may be as yet unknown, I hesiente
not to affirm that, among these also, we have the double limit.
These are not mere speculative truths ; they teach us this useful and
needful lesson, that there are bounds beyond which no ingenuity can
carry us, and toward which we can only hope to approach. How often
have men attempted to plume themselves with wings? How many
years were spent in search of the golden secret? How many for-
tunes have been wasted in the contrivance of perpetual motions!
And, to come nearer the present moment, how many have ruined
themselves with the locomotive engine! This last is the bubble of
the present day, and on it I shall make a few observations.

272 On the relation between a Machine and its Model.

At the surface of Jupiter a steam-engine of twenty horses’ power
would be unable to move: at the surface of our Earth, one of pre-
haps 1000 horses’ power might perform pretty well ; but at the sur-
face of the Moon they might be made of perhaps 20,000. horses’
power,—supposing the pressures of the atmosphere in the three cases
to be alike.» On Jupiter a steam-carriage would be an absolute
chimera; on the earth it is barely possible ; but on the moon nothing
would be more feasible. An intensity of gravitation slightly greater
than that which the earth exerts, would altogether preclude the
hope of obtaining a locomotive engine. As it is, on flat rail-roads
they perform well; as the road becomes inclined, they become less
practicable; and, on common roads, nothing but tl t t
skill in the selection and in the use of the material, as well as in the
contrivance of the parts, can ever be successful in their construction.
Security demands strength, strength requires weight, weight increases
friction, friction calls for additional power, and power ean be pro-
cured only by an increase of weight. To reconcile these con-
flicting claims is not the task for a beginner in mechanical contrivance,
but for one well versed alike in the theory and in the practice of the
arts. _ Models are of no use, for, although the model be able to climb
a considerable ascent, that fact is no guarentee that a full-sized in-
strument will be able to follow its prototype. Let those who specu-
late on this matter remember that the elephant inhabits the plains,
and leaves the mountains to be tenanted by the smaller tribes; and
Jet them also recollect, for the fact bears more upon the subject than
at first may appear, that the larger animals are most easily extermina-
ted; that we have the fox and the rat, though the wolf be long since
gone." eee ee —o

In the remarks which I have made, it has been my wish to place
the subject in such a light as might enable all to perceive the impor-
tance of its bearings; and I have refrained from being practical, lest
in making myself better understood by some, I had rendered my
meaning obscure to others. My intention throughout has been to
inculeate the important truth, that no machine ever can be enlarged
or diminished in. proportion.

Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables. 273

Anr. VIII.—Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables, etc. ;
by J. B. A. Guittemin, Doctor in Medicine, 4to. Paris, 1832.

Translated ‘for this Journal; by J. H. Griscom, M. D.

Mr. Guillemin is known among Botanists by many interesting
works, and especially by the part which he has had in the publica-
tion of the Classical Dictionary of Natural History, and of the Flora
of Senegambia. The dissertation which we here notice, shows that
he has carefully studied the connections between botany and medi-
cine, and tends to confirm the usefulness of that kind of study,
which, as it is intermediate to the two sciences, more rarely makes.a
part of the direct studies of those who devote themselves to both.
The work of Mr. Guillemin is founded entirely upon the general law
of analogy of the properties of plants which belong to the same fami-
ly, and becomes, consequently, a new confirmation of the principles
exposed in the Essay upon the medical properties of plants, com-
pared to their natural classification. (1 Vol. 8vo. Paris, 1816.)
The author divides the families endowed with bitterness, into several
groups, viz: 1, the families purely bitter; 2nd, the acrid and
bitter; 3rd, the astringent bitter; 4th, aromatic bitters; 5th, the
-eathartic bitters. He reviews the plants. which enter into these dif-
ferent divisions, and analyses their modes of action, in as clear and
_ precise a manner as our knowledge of them will permit. He enters
_ rarely, into some interesting details upon the Gentians, which

bitterness in a high degree of intensity and purity, and his
I on this subject, is the more interesting, as it is extracted
e work on this family, which the scion has for a long
intended, and we hope still intends, to make a botanical mono-
graph. — We might direct our attention, with great interest, to many of
the articles of this dissertation ; but we think, seeing the circumstan-
ces in which Europe is placed, it will be more suitable to give almost
textually that which relates to the properties of aloes, and especially
to its employment in the treatment of the Asiatic cholera. In in-
serting this article here, we shall give an idea of the wise and re+
flecting manner in which the author considers the subject, we:sball
show how general considerations may be reduced to particular appli-
cations, and perhaps we may suggest to some physicians of infected
districts, or which may be so, the idea of deeeesivis3 — to
humanity.

274 Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables.

The author remarks (page 51,) that the monocotyledones are
less abundantly provided with bitter juices than the dicotyledones,
. but that the juice extracted from the leaves of different species
of aloes makes a remarkable exception to this general observation.
After relating the facts known upon the chemical nature of the juice
of aloes, he analyses its properties as follows.

« Aloes is one of the most eminent substances employed in medi-
cine. It exercises its action upon the organs of digestion. In very
minute doses, (two or three grains,) i it slightly excites the stomach,
and facilitates digestion ; it is in this way that the health grains of
Dr. Frank, and the antecibum pills, etc., act. In a stronger dose
(eight grain$,) its action, according to most authors, extends to the
intestines, and is exerted especially upon the lower tract of the di-
gestive canal. It there increases the afflux of blood, the mucous
secretion, and occasions the expulsion of matter, amassed in the
large intestine. Finally, aloes when given in a stronger dose, and
its use continued, gives rise to colics ; the rectum becomes the seat
of a genuine flux, the hemorrhoidal vessels are distended, hemor-
rhoidal tumors become painful, and frequently gives place to an
abundant oozing of blood. We have profited by the stimulating ac-_
tion, especially, which aloes excrcises upon the rectum, and the de- —
termination which it produces to this part, in order to cure certain
megrims, caused by obstinate constipations. In prod kn a usef

“Such was the general opinion of phesieiagll upo
operandi of aloes ; but we have to oppose them with
and totally contradictory experiments.”

In a Memoir upon the employment of the aqueous extracts aot
aloes, and its manner of acting, published by Baron de Wedekind,
(Isis 1825 ; 11th No. p. 1227,) this physician promulgates the opin-
ion, after multiplied experiments, that the purgative effects of aloes
are not dependent upon, as is the case with other cathartics, an aug-
mentation of the intestinal secretion, and an immediate stimulation of
the contractile fibres of the intestines, but that this substance is first
absorbed, carried into the circulation, then secreted in great part by
the liver, whose activity it increases, and is finally ejected from the
body in consequence of a purgative effect which is only secondary.
In fact, the purgative action of aloes is only manifested several
hours after its injection, in whatever dose it may have been taken.

Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables. 275

Individuals of bilious habits are more strongly purged by aloes. The
introduction of aloes into the circulation by its external application to
ulcers, is sufficient to produce a purgation, and even to give rise to .
hemorrhoidal accidents or to hemorhages. Thus, the ointment of
Arthanita, which contains aloes, purges, when it is employed ex-
terna ue

m experiments made upon persons in health, and from ob-
servations collected from the sick, it appears that a purgative, as, for
example, a potion composed of the laxative infusion of Vienna three
ounces, and of sulphate of soda, one ounce, given at once, with two
or four grains of aloes, acts as it would if it were given alone; but
the aloes given two hours before this potion, does not begin to ope-
rate until the effect of the dose has ceased for some hours, and this
second purgation does not resemble the first in relation to the appear-
ance and odor of the matter evacuated. When on the contrary, the
aloes is given six or eight hours before this potion, the effects of the
two means coincide, and the evacuations become ordinarily very
- abundant.

*Icterus, which Baron de Wedekind has frequently shenrenled in
the military hospitals, has been treated with constant success by
- means of aloes. As long as the alvine evacuations continued white

or greyish, the medicine, even in very large doses, (as an ounce a
day,) did not purge. Its cathartic effect, on the contrary, was evin-
ced as | soon as the fecal matter began to show the presence of bile
‘in the intestinal canal, and this is one of the conditions necessary to
its | tive operation. On the other hand, we run the risk of in-
nt bilious diarrhea, if we give this substance in ——
: fecal matters are tinged with bile.” es
an ulterior fact, which proves that the ultimate action —
‘ised by aloes upon the large intestines is not primary, is, that
lavements of tepid water with from two drachms to half an ounce of
the extract of aloes, irritate no more than lavements of warm water;
and purge, when they are not returned too soon, after an interval of
seven or eight hours, consequently after the medicament has been
absorbed, and has traversed the circulation. Afterwards, secreted in
the liver with the bile, it augments the properties of this fluid, and it
is then that it manifests its particular action upon the lntge intes
tines.”
“The result of the preceding observations is, that the oitiinaty a ac-
tion of aloes is exerted upon the liver, that this organ is excited im

276 Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables.

the same manner as the salivary glands by mercury, and the kidneys
by cantharides.”

» “ The practical conclusions which we may therefore draw, are,
that aloes is principally indicated when the biliary secretion is insuffi-
cient, when there is a complete constipation, an atonic state of the
colon and rectum, in icterus, which we may attribute to atony of the
liver, and against ascarides which are found principally in the rec-
tum. It is necessary to exercise great precaution in the employment
of this remedy in persons of irritable habits, and those disposed to
an abundant biliary secretion, and in febrile conditions. It is deci-
dedly contra-indicated in cases of jaundice with a spasmodic condi-
tion or inflammation of the liver, in cases of biliary calculi, in ob-
structions of the liver with dropsy, and in cases of abdominal ple-
thora with a disposition to hemorrhoids.”

Tt is useless to give aloes with the neutral salts and other purga-
tives which act promptly, at least if we wish to excite the intestinal
and biliary secretions at the same time; but in that case it must be
given several hours before the other medicines. In order to increase
simultaneously the pancreatic and hepatic secretions, we ae admin-
ister a compound of aloes and calomel.”

“The reading of the memoir, a very concise summary of which I
have just exposed, had strongly interested me ; its important co |
sions were fresh in my memory, when the Asiniie choler:
was announced among us, about the end of March, 1
peared to me that aloes might be rationally employed
ment of this terrible disease. Indeed, the sup
secretion* coinciding with the abundance of whitish ¢ é
jections, is one of the most alarming symptoms. Whe
power of nature alone, ‘or by the effect of some therapeu
of whose properties we are ignorant, this suppression eae sid
the dejections begin to be colored, we have then an almost infallible
sign of amendment, and we may hope that the disease will not prove
mortal. Indeed, if it is admissible, if it is even urgent, to make use
of symptomatic medicine, it is certainly in cases like the present.

* We know that the principal physiological difference observed between ordinary .
cholera and Asiatic cholera is, that in the former there is an excess of the secretion
of bile, and in the latter a total suppression of this secretion. We may, and per-
haps we ought, to give the latter the name of Acholera, which, in avoiding the al-
ways embarrassing employment of compound terms, will have the advantage of
neatly expressing the character of the disease.

Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables. 277

To determine the intensity of a symptom whose results may be
happy, is then the end of the practitioner. But, whatever may be
the part which the affection of the liver acts in cholera, whether
relatively to hematosis or to the biliary secretion, it appears to me
very proper to employ aloes, either by the mouth in the form of
bolus, powder or tincture, or by the anus in the form of lavements.
The frightful rapidity with which the disease advances, would be
the only obstacle to its employment ; for according to what we have
said above, its action is slow and is not manifested until several hours
after its administration. But, may it not still be very useful to ex-
hibit aloes to the patient at the first onset of the disease, that is to
say, as soon as vomitings, dejections, coldness of the extremities, or
cramps, announce a choleric attack? I communicated these reflec-
tions, in the early part of April to the learned and unfortunate Dauce,
one of the first victims of the scourge, as well as to M. Rostan, who
objected that the inflammatory state of the intestines would not ad-
mit of the administration of so irritating a medicine as aloes. It is
clear that these celebrated physicians grounded their supposition
upon the general opinion that this medicament exerts a primary ac-
tion upon the intestinal canal, and that they had not given sufficient
attention to the researches of Baron Wedekind in this respect, 1
believe then that there is good reason, in regard to this subject, to
institute experiments which may have an important bearing upon the
interests of science and humanity.”

_ This view, which I expressed at the beginning of July, just as

e cholera was setae has since been set forth by one of our

hesitate to administer this substance to some cholerics,
obtained satisfactory results. ‘The following is. the note
which he has had the goodness to address to me upon this subject.”
“‘] have been very tardy, sir, in returning the manuscript which
you have been so obliging as to lend me. Your researches upon -
aloes presented a great deal of interest; you have summed up, with
great conciseness and clearness, all the feces which prove the proper-
ties of this substance, and you have been led to think that this medi-
cine might be advantageously employed in Asiatic cholera, The
objections of Dr. Rostan have great force; but in the actual state of
our knowledge, it is impossible to say that all i irritating substances are
injurious in the treatment of this terrible malady, since we observe it
Vou. XXIV.—No. 2. 3

278 Considerations on the Bitterness of Vegetables.

modified very often under the influence of very stimulating medi-
cines. Be this as it may, I have had recourse to aloes in three
cases of very serious blue cholera, and the success has surpassed my
expectations. ‘The first case was that of a man of fifty years of age ;
he was attacked in the night; the matter vomited and the dejections
were white and abundant; the skin cold and livid ; the tongue cool, and
the prostration extreme. ‘The aloes was prescribed in doses of two
grains every hour; its action was slow, but at the fifth hour, the
stools were colored, not with the golden yellow of aloes, but with
the greenish yellow of bile; the matter vomited presented the same
character. ‘The urine soon reappeared, as well as the heat of skin.
The livid tint was replaced by a lively red color. ‘This state con-
tinued to improve. The-aloes was continued for two days in the
dose of twelve grains; the amendment continued to advance. Cold
mucilaginous drinks were continued, and shortly after some slight
nourishment was allowed, by which means he was in a —— to
leave the ward five days after entering it.”

“Still more prompt and satisfactory results were obtained with the
two other patients. The one, named Gaudin, aged thirty years, en-
tered on the 18th of July, with the most serious and well marked
symptoms. The aloes, continued for two days in the ‘quantity of
nine grains, reinduced the biliary and urinary secretions, and the
heat, and finally caused the rapid and —— wien PS
all the symptoms.”

“The other, named Clement, a young man of twenty, was equally
blue, having vomitings and white dejections, with but few « A
The aloes, given at the rate of twelve ee a day,
same effects.”

This medicament has been’ administered only to fl
tients. Its action was noticed at the end of three or four ho
when once commenced, it was continued without interru rtic 0
prefer the gummy extract, the action of which appears, in- general,
less irritating. ‘These three patients did notvevince any trace of ir-
ritation, in their convalescence. The only well founded objection
which can be made, at present, to this medicinal substance, is the
slowness of its action. It has probably already been had recourse
to in India, for its presence is easily recognized in the bitter drug,
a composition which is often employed in India against cholera.”

The bitter drug, of which Mr. Biett speaks, is composed of the
following substances: loes Socotorine, one pound; Myrrh, Mas-
tich, Benzoin, each eight ounces; Rad. Colombe,—Gentiana ;—

On the Eupatorium Huaco. 279

Angelica, each four ounces ; Alcohol aquosi (common brandy,) thirty
six pounds; Tincture of Juniper, twelve pounds. Keep forty days,
and filter. This preparation is given in the dose of half an ounce
to an ounce, united with a camphorated portion. This drug is only
the supplement to a preceding one, which consists of eighty drops of
Laudanum, a wine glass full of brandy, and two spoons full of Cas-
tor oil; another dose of brandy to which are added forty drops of
Laudanum is sometimes given. (Medical Reposit. Feb. 1826, and
Bull. de Ferussac Sc. med. VIII, 149.)

The missionaries of Serampore assure. us that this medicament
cures in India almost all the sick when it is administered in time. I
do not doubt, that the action of this drug, which on all other ocea-
sions would be qualified as inflammatory, should be attributed entire-
ly to the aloes; which enters into its composition in scruple doses ;
the other substances, including even the myrrh, being but insignifi-
cant drugs. Jn the advice which I have given for the employment
of aloes against cholera, I had, by induction, another practical fact,
which I ought not to pass over in silence. Mr. Barberet, apotheca-
ry at Baume (Cote-d’Or) has assured me that the Polish refugees in
their passage through that city gave to their hosts the recipe of an
anticholeric liquid. . It was simply that of the elixir of long life or of
compound aloes, which they said had always been employed with
success, and which they believed even to be an excellent prophylac-
tic. I cannot neglect these notices, for popular remedies are not al-
ways the least efficacious; they are often it is true, the fruits of blind
empiricism 5 but those which really exert some action, have in their
favor a multiplied experience which physicians should not disdain to
while endeavoring to obtain a positive idea of their mode of
ses.— Bib. Univ., Aout, 1832.

Arr. IX.—On the Eupatorium Huaco ;* by W. R. Jounson sa ;
Philadelphia, May 10th, 1833.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir,—The appearance in a late number of the Americar

Journal of Science, of an account of certain singular cases of hydro-
phobia, will probably render acceptable to your reaslers, some infor-

* See a short notice of this plant, by Dr. L. Enghainindead Vol. xxi, p. 182.

280 On the Eupatorium Huaco.

mation concerning a remedy, professing to subdue that formidable
malady, even after the full development of its symptoms. Iam
satisfied from personal experience, as well as from an immediate
knowledge of six or eight cases among my acquaintance, and from
information received relative to more than fifty other patients, treated
under the direction of a single physician, that the bite of a mad dog
is as much under the control of medicine, if administered in due
season, as the bite of any venomous reptile; or, indeed, as any
acute disease whatever. The remedy to which I refer, does not,
however, rest its claim to notice exclusively, or even chiefly, on its
efficacy in curing hydrophobia. It is a well known specific, in the
countries in which it is indigenous, for the bite of venomous reptiles,
particularly of the rattlesnake ; and has recently, we are assured,
been applied with singular success, in the treatment of yellow fever.

The remedy in question, is the plant well known in several parts
of Mexico, and in some portions of Central and South America, un-
der the name of Huaco or Guaco. Having received from a friend,
a quantity of this plant in a dried state, embracing roots, stems and
leaves, I have enclosed aspecimen for your inspection. That it possess-
es powerful medicinal qualities, may readily be believed from its strong
aromatic properties, and from its intense bitter, almost acrid taste.

Without offering to vouch for the authenticity of all that has been
said concerning it, I will will give the substance of a communication,
published in a Mexican newspaper, (El Censor,) at Vera Cruz, on
the 31st of August, 1832. As it states facts which would easily be
refuted if untrue, (since they must be familiar to many persons in

Mexico,) and as it asserts cures, in which other members of the

sisedload faculty besides the author of the communication, must feel
some interest, we may perhaps, be justified in believing ‘that the .
author, at least, fully. confided in the truth of his own statements. It
will also be seen, that he refers to several names well — =e
the distinguished men of Mexico. ~

The paper, of which a translation is here subjoined, is ‘chiles,
** Observations on the Huaco, by J. L. Chabert, M. D., Consulting
Physician of the Military Medical Staff, at Vera Cruz, &c. §¢.”
“The Huaco or Guaco, a valuable plant which grows abundantly in
the forests of the warm districts of several states in the Mexican
Union, is a certain antidote against the bite of venomous serpents.
The learned Mutis affirms, that repeated experiments which he has
made have proved the truth of the above assertion, and that cele-

On the Eupatorium Huaco. 281

brated physician of New Grenada, consequently regards this plant
as the most beneficent gift bestowed by nature, on the regions which
aboand witli venpitions ropeilen. Cabanillas affirms, that the Huaco
isan dvermifuge. In the states of Chiapas and
Tabasco it is applied as a remedy for intermittents, diarrhza, and se-
vere bilious fevers. Several physicians in the’city of Mexico, (and
among them, my associate and friend Dr. Pedro del Villar,) have
employed it in cases of nervous affection accompanied with a de-
rangement of the nervous system or a diminution of its energy. In
the hospital of San Carlos at Vera Cruz, it has been used in inter-
mittents, which had withstood the power of all other known febri-
fuges. It has been frequently applied solely with a view to re-
move diseases or severe pains of the breast, to excite warmth of the |
skin, and create perspiration. The effects have always been favora- _
ble, and have never deceived the expectations of the practitioner.
Finally, according to the statement of Don Pedro Bolio, Commissa-
ry General of Tabasco, in a letter dated the 31st of July, 1832, the
Huaco is regarded in that state, as a sure antidote against the bite of
the mad dog, and even as a specific against confirmed hydrophobia.
This latter quality, it has recently been proved to possess, by the
testimony of a physician at Oajaca, who, by administering this plant,
has cured a patient suffering under hydrophobia with all the symp-
toms completely developed. Were the Huaco endued with no other
virtue than that of a specific against this dreadful disease, still should
that be indisputably established by new facts, its introduction into the
materia medica must doubtless be regarded as an inestimable bless-
ing to mankind.”

The Indians and Creoles of the districts of country in which it
cena to the Huaco properties almost miraculous; but

without overstepping the bounds of reason and observation, may we

not reasonably infer that a plant, which by a simple application to the
bite of a rattlesnake, or other venomous reptile, removes at once the
tremendous consequences of such an occurrence, must be endowed
with qualities extremely active, the analysis and developments of
which would afford numerous benefits to the human race ?
_ This reflexion, and the resemblance between the most striking phe-
nomena observed after inoculation with the rattlesnake poison, and
those violent symptoms which often transpire during the yellow fever,
had created in my mind a strong desire to ascertain by direct expe-
periment its efficacy in combating the later disease.” *

282 On the Eupatorium Huaco.

Having as long, ago as the year of 1828, been authorized by Gen-
eral Pedraza, then minister of war, to make all the investigations and
experiments which I should deem expedient, in regard to this ques-—
tion, and having received detailed communications on the Huaco,
from General Anaya on his return from Chiapas, where he had resi-
ded as chief commandant of that province, I determined to direct
my inquiries to the actual effects of this singular plant.

A quantity of it had been ordered from Tabasco, by General Pe-
draza, but arrived so late, that the fever of that season had ceased
before it came to hand, and the year 1828, passed away without an
opportunity for experiment.

Various circumstances conspired to scant the desired trials, until
near the close of 1831

But, seearuibeadicns the recent political condition of the country,
the General Government, as well as General Santa Anna, and Colo-
nel Juille, have taken measures to furnish me with the necessary sup-
ply of the plant ; and in the months of April and May, of the pres-
ent year, (1832) 1 have been able to make the application.

Four cases of yellow fever in the town, and seventeen in the mili-
tary hospital of Vera Cruz, came during that period, under my care.
In all four of the former, and in sixteen of the latter, the Huaco
was administered and all were cured.

_ Asingle patient, whose symptoms were so uncertain, as to pre-
weak a seasonable treatment for yellow fever, had become incapable ;
of relief and fell a victim to the disease. During the present month
of August, five additional cases of the fever have occured in my
practice, in all of which, the Huaco was prescribed, and in every
case effected acure. Though still not very numerous, the above
mentioned cases will doubtless be considered sufficient to strengthen
the opinion which [ had conceived, that if not an absolute remedy,
this medicine may at least be found a valuable auxiliary in the treat-
ment of yellow fever. The effects of its application have been de-
cided and remarkable. ‘The patients have in every case experienced
an immediate cessation of the anxiety and agitation previously exist-
ing, which indicates that the medicine acts an important part in modi-
fying the action of the nervous system. There has uniformly beena
sensible development of heat in the stomach, succeeded by a glow
over the whole surface of the body, and speedily followed by co-
pious perspiration.” ‘The mode of administering this medicine is
extremely. simple. A drachm of the leaves and twigs, or two

On the Eupatorium Huaco. 283

drachms of the woody part of the plant, are to be boiled in a quart
of pure water, until it is reduced to a pint anda half, of a pint and
three fourths. This decoction is to be sweetened with sugar and .a
-small tea-cup full administered, while warm, at every half hour until
the heat and moisture of the skin are restored,—which commonly
happens at the third dose. The repetition of the dose may then be
delayed for two or three hours.”

The paper from which the above extract is derived, sine in
the following number, a series of observations, made by a gentleman
of Oajaca in particular reference to the successful application of the
Huaco, to the cure of hydrophobia.

Besides the remarks already cited, Dr. Chabert bas exprtaiel his
confident belief that the same remedy would be found beneficial in
the treatment of malignant cholera, but as that part of his paper is
founded only on analogical reasoning, I have not deemed it necessa-
ry to translate it. Jt is not improbable that he may ere long have an
opportunity of testing by observation and experiment, the justness
of his deductions. He pointedly disclaims all pretence of offering
this plant as a panacea, but earnestly invites the notice of the atten-
tive cultivators of medical science, to its known and acknowledged

roperties, as likely in their hands, to become extremely beneficial
to ‘the public. With a similar view is it now offeréd to the readers
the the American Journal. Thefriend* who has obligingly furnished

*
for trial or use, and has ordered some specimens in a green
or the purpose of ascertaining whether it may not be success-

said to be entertained respecting the Huaco, in New

s I find corroborated by information from other parts of
Colombia. It appears to be there employed for obtaining, not mere-
ly relief from the consequences of a single bite of a venomous reptile
when actually received, but also an immunity from all danger that
may at any time occur from the same source. This immunity, is, it
should seem, procured by a species of inoculation with the snake
venom, and the Huaco, is employed to counteract its immediate
effects. The information alluded to is contained in extracts: from

* Stephen Sicard, Esq., merchant of Philadelphia, and late resident at Vera Cruz.
* - ct J tl <% va x
-

284 On the Eupatorium Huaco.

two letters from a resident near Caraccas, to a friend in German-
town, who has obligingly furnished me with copies. ‘The first is da-
ted at Tapatapa, near the lake of Valencia, Nov. 15, 1827, and
after describing the lake on, and near which, a party of ladies and
gentlemen were spending the day, it proceeds :

‘‘ During the day, a man named Martines, who has the care os
the cattle on the estate, came to the lake to see Mr. Alderson,” (a
gentleman well known in Philadelphia,) “and, to our amazement,
carried in his hand a large live rattlesnake, with eight rattles. He
thad caught it on the road not far from the house we were in. He
threw it down on the corridor, and as one of the men who were with
him produced its fangs, which Martines, had pulled out when he caught
it, we were not so very much afraid, though we all kept at a most
respectful distance. Martines is one of those persons who can charm
snakes; in other words he is inoculated with some of the venom of
the snakes, which effectually secures him from all danger and he
handles the most venomous kinds without the least apprehension.

“‘ Marvellous as this may appear to you, it is really true. He
never hesitates to catch hold of a snake, meet it when or where he
may. He seizes it just below the head, holds it dangling between
his finger and thumb, and after depriving it of its fangs, carries it —
about in the crown of his hat. He often takes it out, and placing i at
upon the ground, and retiring to some little distance places his hand
on the earth, and raps to attract its attention,—calls it to ca
him, and, believe it! the horrid reptile crawls to him,
hand and is instantly recaught in the manner I have describ
member this is not a “ hearsay story.” I have seen
yesterday, and know that Martines is not the only ont
such things, there are many people about Maracay who a e inocu-
lated as he is, and none of them fear to catch snakes.” :

Having been requested, on behalf of a physician in this vicinity to
obtain further particulars in regard to this interesting subject, the fol-
lowing statements were made in a letter dated Chacao, May 19,
1828

**] will now tell you all we have learned on the subject of
Snake-vaceination, while at Tapatapa, which I request you to com-
municate to Dr. and assure him from me, that I tell ‘the truth
and nothing but the truth? Our information is gained from a med-
ical man as well as from the unlearned. The doctor was questioned
by Mr. A. as he was anxious that there should be no mistake in what
we repeated to you.

On the Eupatorium Huaco. 285

“There are only two men who possess the secret,” (of inocula-
ting ;) “one lives at Turmero, (between Maracay and ‘San Mateo)
and the other at Victoria—The one at Turmero imparted it to the
other. The inoculation is performed by making an incision in the
flesh, with the tooth of the snake, into which place is rubbed some-
thing which is a profound secret. They also administer a kind of
medicine, made of an herb called ‘ Guaco’ (or Huaco) which grows
in the valleys, but how it is prepared and what is the quantity taken
are also mysterious, which they cannot be induced to reveal. In
the interior, it is customary to carry some of the Guaco about the
person, and it is affirmed that no snake will attack one who has it.
Mr. ——— knows this to be the custom, as he has repeatedly seen
it worn.”

The doctor said, that inoculation does not always secure peo-
ple from some of the bad effects of a snake’s venom; but it is nev-
er mortal, to those thus guarded, as in no instance bis any one who
had been inoculated, died of a wound inflicted by a snake however
venomous; and as to their handling them with perfect security, we
have all seen it too often to doubt the fact. Even after we all saw
the rattlesnake at Valencia deprived of its fangs by Martines, the
men who were with him drew back in terror from the terrific crea-
ture, while he took it up, caressed it, suffered it to coil itself around
his arms and body, and carried it away in his hand.”
~ From the remark of Dr. Chabert respecting the neutralizing of
snake venom, by a simple application of Huaco to the exterior wound,
it should seem likely that the South American remedy about which
so much mysterious secrecy is preserved, is no more than a portion

the same plant which is administered internally in the form of de-
coction. However this may be, there can be no doubt of the facts
above stated, as the source, whence the communications prerrc
is entitled to implicit reliance. »

Observation by the Editor —Since the preceding piece was put
into type, a friend has called our attertion to a paper by Dr. Honcock,
published in the English Quarterly Journal of Science, for July,

1830. The Somnpadictory statements of the two papers, ought to
elicit additional observations, in a case so interesting to mankind.
In the paper cited from the English Journal, the curative and anti-
poisonous properties of the Huaco are denied.

Vou. XXIV-—No. 2. © 37 :

286 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

-Art. X.—WMemoir on the elastic force of the vapor of Mercury, at
different temperatures ; by M. Avocapro.*

Translated for this Journal, by Prof. A. D. Bacue.}

The experiments of Dulong and Petit, give for the boiling point
of mercury, under the atmospheric pressure, 680° Ff estimated by
the mercurial thermometer, and 662° F.4 by the air thermometer,
corrected for the expansion of glass. At this temperature, then, the
maximum tension of mereurial vapor corresponds to a pressure of
about thirty inches of mercury. 1 am not aware that any experi-
ments have been made to ascertain the tension of this vapor at tem-
peratures either below or above its boiling point. Such a research
cannot fail to be -interesting, whether we consider its results as mere
additions to the list of properties of this valuable metal, or in their con-
nexion with the facts, already developed, in relation to the vapors
of other liquids. In this latter point of view, it may serve to test the
truth of existing opinions, in relation to the laws of vaporization.

The object of the memoir, of which this paper is an extract, is to
give the result of certain experiments, made with the views just sta-
ted, and their application to test the formule by which the tensions of
the vapors of other Raaicags in terms of the temperature, have heen,
represented.

My experiments were made at temperatures. below the boiling
point of mercury : near enough, however, to that point, and extend-
ing through a. sufficient range of temperature, to determine the law
of tension with some precision. In order to have applied the meth-
od by which Dalton determined the tension of the vapor of water
between 32° and 212° F., namely, the depression of the column of
mercury in a barometer tube by the tension of the vapor, I must have
heated the upper part of the tube, uniformly, and to a temperature
between 390° and 570°F.,|| by surrounding it with a liquid

* Extract communicated by the author to the Editors of the Annales de Chimie
et de Physique. The entire —— is contained in the thirty-sixth volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy of Tur

t In the original memoir, the, degrees of the C ] referred to, both
in the observatlaas and in the Cetacles. 1 hive 4 tai cued at the translation would
be rendered more acceptable, by converting the degrees of the Centigrade ther-
mometer into those of Fahrenheit’s scale, and by adapting the formule to the same
seale. The original temperatures and formule will be given at the bottom of the
page on which they pol occur.—[ Zranslator.]

$ 360°C. § 350°C. {| 200° to 300°C.

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 287

through which to communicate heat, a method which would have
been scarcely practicable. In the mode of experiment just referred
to, the only effect’of the vacuum is, that the vapor rises as soon as
formed. If air be present, the vapor will ultimately rise in the same
quantity as if not subjected to pressure, and its elasticity, added to
that of the air within, will depress the column of mercury ; the amount
of the depression being measured, and correction being made for the
expansion of the air by heat, the tension of the seen at the tem-
perature of observation, becomes known.

The apparatus which I used in determining the tension of mercu-
rial vapor, consisted of a glass siphon tube, the longer leg of whieh
was open, and the shorter terminated by a bulb. The shorter leg of
the siphon, and about two thirds of the bulb, were filled with mereu-
ry, which rose to nearly the same level in the two legs ; so that the
air confined in the bulb was nearly of atmospheric dewsity. When
most expanded by heat, and with the additional elasticity of the
mercurial vapor, the air hardly filled the whole of the bulb, and,
therefore, never reached the leg. The surface of mercury, on
which the air rested, was, therefore, that of a-section of the bulb,
and was always considerable; this arrangement insured the satura-
tion of the space, above the mercury, with mercurial vapor, at the
different temperatures. ‘To the longer leg of the siphon a metallic
scale was attached, the divisions being in twenty fifths (. 04) of an
inch. y this scale the increase of tension of the air in the bulb,
by heat, and by the tension of the mercurial vapor, was readily
measured. ‘Tod ascertain the bulk occupied by the air in the bulb,
the apparatus was plunged into boiling water, at the temperature of
which the tension of mercurial vapor is known not to be apprecia-
ble. From the rise of the mercury, as shown by the scale, and the
law of expansion of air by heat, after correcting for the expansion of
the mercury and for the pressure due to the difference of level of
the mercury in the two legs, the number of divisions on the scale
corresponding to the whole bulk of the air in the apparatus at a tem-
perature of 32° F. was found.+ This result was in accordance
with the approximate estimate, obtained by measurement of the bulb
and tube.

—— etres

A farther correction was necessary for the expansion of the glass, to render the
ies rigidly exact. The apparent expansion of air contained i ee is substituted
for its real expansion throughout the inquiry. Zyans.

288 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

The air was, previous to this experiment, and to the introduction
of the mercury, carefully dried, as well as the interior of the bulb
and tube, by placing the apparatus under a receiver with quick lime;
the mercury was then heated and introduced without allowing any
communication between the tube and the exterior air. Without
these precautions the vapor of water, mixing with the air and mer-
curial vapor, would have vitiated all the results.

To obtain the tension of mercurial vapor at temperatures above
212° F., the apparatus was placed in a vessel containing olive: oil ;
the liquid covered the bulb, near which was placed a thermometer,
graduated beyond 572° F.* The bath was now heated gradually,
to this temperature, and the height of the mercury in the longer leg
of the siphon, corresponding to different temperatures, noted at inter-
vals. When the temperature of 572° F’.} was attained, the apparatus
was allowed to cool slowly, noting the heights of the mereury, cor-
responding to the temperatures recorded in the ascending series of
observations. The errors produced by any difference in the tem-
perature of the mercurial vapor and the bath were thus eliminated,
by taking a mean of the observations corresponding to the same
temperature, in the ascending and descending series.

In order to determine from these observations the height of the —
column of mercury corresponding to the increase of tension derived
from the vapor of mercury in the bulb, it was necessary to correct
for the expansion of the air under the pressure to which the rise of
the mercury subjected it, and for the expansion of the mercury it~
self, in the longer leg of the siphon. The pressure,’ in addition to
that of the atmosphere, to which the contents of the bulb were ex-
posed, was the difference of level observed by the scale attached to
the longer leg added to the depression in the bulb, which latter could
be estimated with sufficient accuracy. This column was of course
to be reduced to the Jength which it would have measured at 32° F.

In the memoir of which this is an extract, I give all the details of
these corrections and calculations, as applied to the apparatus used,
under the circumstances of the experiments ; I propose giving in this
place merely the resulting formula, by which the observations were
reduced.

Call L the observed bulk of the air and vapor contained in the
bulb, at any temperature, — in divisions of the scale attached

“300° C. } 300° C.

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 289

to the longer Jeg; this bulk is equal to the sum of the original bulk
of the air, expressed in parts of the scale, and of the observed differ-
ence of level of the mercury, corrected for expansion. Further,
let 1 be the bulk, in parts of the same scale, which the air, alone,
would occupy, at the temperature and pressure of the experiment,
according to the laws of Gay-Lussac and Mariotte. The difference,
L—lI, between these two columns, will be the bulk of vapor, ex-
pressed in parts of the same scale, at the temperature and pressure
of the experiment. Let P represent the combined tensions of the
air and mercurial vapor, at the temperature of observation, and T
the tension of the mercurial vapor alone, then

L: L~—1::P: T, whence

L—l U

T=P——=P(i -7)

The quantities in the second member of this equation are all given
by the observations, or by calculation. This formula supposes that
the law of Mariotte applies to the vapor of mercury, as well as
to air. This may not be true for temperatures and pressures near
to the point at which the vapor is converted into a liquid; but we
have no means of correcting the small errors which may be thus
produced.

From the data furnished by my experiments, and by the method
just stated, I determined the following numbers for the tensions of
the vapor of mercury, for every eighteen degrees from 446° F. to
554° F.* The tensions are given in inches} of mercury at 32° F.
Temperatures, 446°, 464°, 482°, 500°, 518°, 536°, 554°F.
Seegeetes i 2.285, 3.152, 4.170, 5.268, 6.508, 8.177, 9.946.f

«The observation at 5720 F.,§ the highest temperature to which
the bath was carried, gave 12.187|| inches for the tension; but this
result having been obtained only from one observation, Be while
the temperature was rising, is not altogether comparable with the
others which result from two observations, one in each series.

* 230° and 290° C. t Mi illimetres.
} Temperatures, 230°, 240°, 250°, 2609, 270°, 280°, 290° €. Pressures, 58.01,
80.02, 105.88, 133.62, 165.22, 207.59, 252.51 millimetres. The numbers for the
_pressures have been reduced in the translation, at the rate of 39.39 inches to the
metre "rans. eis

§ 300° C. || 309.40 millimetres.

290 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

1 observed, also, the tensions at temperatures below 446° F., but
conceive that at those temperatures the tension is so small aad the
errors of observation so much increased, in reference to the tensions,
that the results are not to be relied upon.

Having thus obtained, from experiment, the tensions of mercurial
vapor, corresponding to a considerable range of temperature, I en-
deavored to represent the result by some empirical formula, by the
aid of which I might obtain the approximate values of the tensions
at other temperatures, between that at which the tension begins to
be sensible, and that at which it is equivalent to the pressure of the
atmosphere.

I tried first a formula which has been found to apply to the vapor
of water, namely, e=(1--at)”,* in which e represents the tension of
the vapor, taking atmospheric pressure, or 29.94 inches of mercury ~
as unity; ¢ the corresponding temperature, in degrees of the ther-
mometric scale, reckoned from the boiling point of the liquid, 100
degrees being taken as unity; a, a coéfficient, to be determined, as
well as the exponent m, from experiment. ‘This formula evidently
satisfies the condition, that at the boiling point of the liquid the ten-
sion is on to the pressure of the atmosphere, since for ¢=0, we
have e=1, whatever may be the values of a‘and m.

SD estrnining a and m, in the formula just given, by the tensions
corresponding to the two extremes of temperature 446° and 554°
F., taking for unity 100 degrees, I find m=2.875, a=0.2527,} so

that the formula becomes e=(1-++0.2527¢)?'°75. A comparison of
the tensions given by this formula, with those furnished by observa-
tion, shows that the formula may be considered as representing, very
nearly, the law of the tensions in terms of the temperature.

There is an experiment which seems to show that this formula
does not truly express the law of the tension of mercurial vapor ; at
all events, that it does not apply at tensions much lower than see
within the range of the experiments.

We know that mercury emits, even at ordinary temperatures, a
vapor which is recognized by its deleterious action on the animal
economy, its chemical action on certain metals, &c. ; and from the
experiments of Faraday it appears that the limit to this evaporation

* This formula, as applied to the vapor of water, was printed erroneously in Vol
XIX, p. 182 of this Journal. It should have been, e=(1-+-0.71 53t)° .—Trans
t For the Cent. thermometer ¢=-0.4548, and the formula is e—(14-0.4 1548/)?°° did

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 29%

is at or near the freezing point of water. It follows, that although
the tension at such temperatures would be too small to be detected
by the column of mercury supported by it, a formula representing,
precisely, the law of tensions, would indicate the zero of tension
somewhere about the limit of which we have just spoken. The for-
mula e=(1-+-0.2527¢)*"*75 does not satisfy this condition, for when
e=0, t= ~o5F = = —3.96 or 284° F.* It is thus evident that
the tensions decrease more rapidly, with the decrease of tempera-
ture, within the range of temperature embraced by my experiments,
than would be shown by any expression which should also corres-
pond to the observations of Faraday. It is easy to see that the er-
rors of the formula would be increased, if the tensions were referred
to the temperatures obtained by an air thermometer, corrected for
the expansion of the glass, since my experiments refer to the com-
mon mercurial thermometer, which, at high temperatures, is in ad-
vance of the air thermometer.

It is by no means strange that this formula should fail to express
the law of tensions, through the whole extent of 648° F.,
the boiling point of mercury and the melting point of ice. It con-
tains but two arbitrary constants, to be determined by observation,
and, therefore, its use as an empirical formula is limited to a certain
range of temperature. The agreement of a similar formula with ob-
servations on the tension of the vapor of water, would seem to be
accidental.

I have for the reasons developed in the preceding remarks, en-
deavored to represent my results by another formula, into which as
many arbitrary constants may be introduced, as are necessary to ex-
press the results of all observations. ‘The formula, to which I refer
was first used by Laplace, in the Mécanique Céleste, to represent
the observations of Dalton on the tension of watery vapor: he foun
it necessary to use but two terms of the formula. Three terms
were afterwards used by Biot, in his Traité de Physique, to express,
more accurately, the law of tensions of the vapor of water, between
32° and 212° F. This formula, calling A, the tension at the boiling,
point, under atmospheric pressure ; e, the tension corresponding 10»
the temperature ¢, reckoned from the boiling point of the ees and

: (=p Be—22 or 220° below the boiling point of ieee 140°C.

292 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

a, b,c, &c. coéfficients to be determined by experiment, is of the
form, log. e=log. A+-at+-6t? + ct? +&c.

Taking the terms containing the first three. powers of ¢ to deter-
mine the value of log. e, I have deduced a formula for the tension of
mercurial vapor, which gives results in accordance with the experi-
ments of Faraday.

I assume as before, an atmosphere of 29.94 inches of mercury,
as unity of tension, and 100° Fah. reckoned from the boiling point
of mercury, as unity of temperature, ¢ representing the number of
these units; but in order to avoid the changes of sign for the different
powers of ¢, I consider ¢ positive below the boiling point of mercu-
ry. The formula just given, neglecting the terms containing powers
of ¢ above the third, and observing that log. 1=0, becomes, log. e
=at+bt?+ct®. The seven observations already given, between
446° F. and 554° F.* would furnish seven equations of this form,
which combined by the method of least squares would give the most
probable values of the coéfficients determined from all the experi-
ments. I have not considered such a proceeding to be necessary,
but have taken the two extreme observations, and an intermediate
one, viz. that at 500° F’.+ to give three equations by which to de-
termine the ree: By the aid of logarithmic tables, I find
a=— 0.35909, 6=+0.023443, c= —0.03164.{ The formula,
therefore, is, i e=—0.35909¢+ 0.023443 12 —0.031642°.

The tensions calculated by this formula agree within one or two
twenty fifths of an inch (.04 to .08 in.) of those observed ; the differ-
ences being within the limits of errors of observation. The value
of e given by this formula does not become zero at any temperature ;
neither does the formula show any minimum of tension, for the equation
corresponding to that supposition would be—0.35909 +. 0.023443.2t
—0.03164.3¢2 =0, which has none but imaginary roots. The ten-
sions according to this formula, should decrease with the diminu-
tion of temperature, and, become insensible, though never mathe-
matically nothing. If, for example, we determine from the formu-
la the tension of mercurial vapor at the melting point of ice, we find
e =0.00000000011208 atmospheres, or 0.00000000335 inches, a
quantity altogether inappreciable. Faraday’s observation that mercury

is not vaporized at temperatures below 32° Fah. cannot be consider-

* 230° and 290° C. t 260° Cc.
t In the Centigrade thermometer, a = — 0.64637, b=-1-0.075956, e=— 0,18452.

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 293

ed as contradicting this result; for although the delicate methods
employed by that chemist, enabled him to detect vapor at tempera-
tures as low as 32°, it may readily be conceded, that below this the
exceeding tenuity of the vapor might have caused it to escape his re-
searches. But even if the limit determined by Faraday, be consid-
ered absolute, it may be attributed to a physical cause, entirely inde-

pendent of the tension of the vapor, and by which the formation of
" vapor is suddenly checked.

The formula gives for the tension of mercurial vapor at 212° F.
e=0.00003889 atm.=0.001 164 inches, or less than twelve ten thou-
sandths of an inch; an elasticity which may be considered as insen-
sible in experiments on the elasticity of its vapor.

The formula, therefore, although empirical, not only represents the
results of experiments between 446° I’. and the boiling point of mer-
cury, 680° F., but also the observations on its vapor at temperatures
as low as the freezing point of water. It may be used, therefore, to cal-
culate a table of tensions from the boiling point of water, up to that of
mercury, the temperature being estimated by the mercurial thermom-
eter. A table thus calculated will be found at the end of this extract,
and may be considered as a condensed expression of the results of
my experiments. Itis probable that the estimation of these tensions
may lead to the application of a correction in certain experiments, in
which no correction has been used, owing to uncertainty as to its
amount. This table can hardly be considered accurate beyond hun-
dredths of an inch, although I have carried out the figures given by
the formula.

In the table the temperatures are given in intervals of degrees,
while in the formula, a range of a 100 degrees was taken as unity.
The formula expressed for degrees of Fah. would be,* log. ¢
=—0.0035909¢-+ 0.0000023443¢? — 0.000000031 64°.

The os are reckoned from the boiling point of mercury,
(680° F . 3) that is, the value of ¢ will be found by subtracting the
given temperature from 680° F. One column of the table gives
the tensions in atmospheres, and a second in inches of mercury.
The numbers of the second column would be found from the formu-
la, by adding to log. e, which it gives, the logarithm of 29.94. 1
may remark that from the elasticity of mercurial vapor, at different

_ * Inthe Centigrade scale, log. e= — 0.0064637 Oise 0000075956 t2—
0.00000018452
Vou. XXIV. — No. 2. 38

294 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

temperatures, its density compared with that of air at 32° and at a
pressure of 29.94 inches may be found, if we know the ratio which
the two densities bear to each other, at any determined temperature
and pressure. For example, if we admit this ratio to be seven, as
it was given by the experiments of Dumas, the density of the vapor
of, mercury at 212° F., the elasticity being according to .the table
-0012 in., will be almost 0.0002 : that is, if the air were saturated with
the vapor of mercury at 212° this vapor would have a density 0.0002
of that of air at 32° and under a pressure of 29.94 inches ; and since
100 cubic inches of air weigh about $1 grains, there would be in
a space of 100 cubic inches about -.0062 of a grain of mercury.
Similar calculations for ordinary atmospheric temperatures, may give
an idea of the relative danger of an exposure to mercury, in cases
when the space may become saturated with its vapor, at the assumed
temperature.

The different forms of the expression for the elasticity of the
vapor of mercury, refer to the temperatures as given by the mercurial
thermometer ; they may readily be chahged into others which shall
have reference to the air thermometer, corrected for the expansion
of glass. ‘To make these changes, the approximate relation between
the temperatures shown by the two instruments, must first be ex-
pressed. This may be done by referring to the experiments of Du-
long and Petit on the subject of the comparative indication of the two
instruments. I find that if t denote the degrees of the mercurial ther-
mometer, and ¢ those of ‘the air thermometer, the relation, in degrees
of Fahrenheit’s scale, will be t=0.9845079r+0.000063492r? +

0.4307312,* or if the degrees be reckoned from the boiling point of
mercury downwards 1=1.06857147 — 0.00063492-? ;+ if each
interval of one hundred degrees be considered as unity, this for-
mula will become t=1.0685714; — 0.063492-2 -[ If, now, this
value of ¢ be substituted in the formula log. e=—0.35909¢
+0.0234431? —0.031642? it becomes, ncaa the powers of
« higher than the third,§ log. ¢ = —0.38372r-+-0.02905r? —
0.03893r*. From this formula a table might be constructed in
which the temperatures would refer to the air thermometer.

* For the Centigrade scale t== 0.98857147--0, 00011428672

{ ¢ == 1.06857141 — 0.000114285672 , for the Centigrade thermometer.
t t == 1.06857141 — 0.01142856r2,

& Log. ¢=— 0.690691-}-0.09411712 — 0.2270073.

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 295

The law of the tension of the vapor of mercury may now be dp-
plied to test certain principles and theoretical formule which have
been proposed to represent the elasticity of vapors in general, and
which have been applied to the vapors of water and of some other
liquids. - If the principles of these formule should prove applicable
to mercury, a liquid so different from water, they would receive a
striking confirmation, and if not, their conformity with the law of
elasticity in certain other liquids may be looked upon as entirely ac~
cidental.

First, it is evident that the elasticity of the vapor of mercury does .
not conform to the theory advanced by Dalton, that the tensions of
the vapor of all liquids, at temperatures equally distant from their re-
spective boiling points are equal. If this were true of the vapor of
mercury, as compared with that of water, the tension at 500° F.
or 180° below the boiling point ought to be about .2 of an inch,
whereas according to my experiments it is about 5.3 inches. ‘The
inaccuracy of this theory had already been remarked in relation to
liquids more volatile than water, and Dalton, himself, seems to have
abandoned it. M. August, of Berlin, in Poggendorff’s: Annals of
- Philosophy and Chemistry, No. 5, 1828, and Professor Roche, of
Toulon, in a memoir presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris,
during the same year, have both proposed formule to represent the
law of the tensions of the vapor of water, based, at least in part, upon
theoretical principles, and which, as I have shown in my memoir,
although different in form are really identical. ‘These formule are

At
essentially of the following form, log. e=Bip in which e is the

elasticity of the vapor, ¢ the number of degrees from its boiling point,
and A and B two constants to be determined by observation. Messrs.
August and Roche propose to determine the constant B by con-
sidering that the tension must be nought at —448° Fahr.,* which
they regard as the absolute zero of temperature. Calling n the
number of degrees from the boiling point of the liquid to this abso-

n
lute zero, we have e=0 when t= —n, whence log. e= —A* p> =

— , or B—n=0, and B=n. See the value just found for
B, the formula becomes log. e=A * > 8 and there remains only

the constant — to be found by observation.

* 2663C.

296 On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury.

The form of the expression just given, leaving out of considera- —
tion the determination made of B, is arbitrary ; it has been found ap- ~
plicable to the tension of watery vapor, and M. Roche endeavors to
derive it from an examination of the forces which may be supposed
to act, in the vaporization of liquids. Without discussing the reason-
ing, I purpose to test this formula by my experiments on the vapor of -
mereury. The boiling point of this liquid bemg at 680° Fahr.
n= 680-+448=1128.* My observation of the tension at 500° or
180° below the boiling point of mercury, or t= —180°, gives A=

6t »
— Tt Tf this formula

were applicable to the observations, it should when thus deduced
from the medium temperature, give very nearly the result obtained
by observation for the two extremes, or 446° Fahr. and 554° Fahr. ;
for the first it gives e=0.091 atmospheres, and for the second, e=
0.316 atmospheres. ‘The coéfficient of this formula, therefore, when
determined by an observation at a medium temperature, gives results
which are too high at low temperatures, and too low towards the
upper limit of the series; in other words the rate of increase of
elasticity, for an increase of temperature, is less than that shown by
my observations. The formula would vary still more from the truth
if the air thermometer were referred to as a standard. ‘The failure
of this formula is unfavorable to the theoretical views of M. Roche,
and it seems probable that the expression has no special advantage
over other empirical formule which have a single constant to be de-
duced from experiment.

I have further shown in my memoir that the form of the function
which I formerly supposed, from theoretical views, to express the —
laws of the tension of the vapor of water,{ namely, log. e=
a( Vth? —b,) in which e and t represent the same quantities as in
the formula last given, and a and b are two constants, to be deter-
mined by experiment, does not apply to the tension of the vapor of
mercury.

3.976 and the formula becomest} log. e=

* n= 360+-266. ies 626.67, for the Centigrade scale.

t Pavia Philosophical Journal, 1819

On the Elastic Force of the Vapor of Mercury. 297

‘ Table of the Elastic Foree of the Vapor of Mercury for every
eighteen degrees, from 212° F. to 680° F., the boiling point of
Mercury.

erature by Fah-
renheit’s scale.
y

p
inches of mercur

at 320 F,
Pressure in inches.

Temperature by the
Centigrade scale.

Tem

. 120 248 0.00022 0.00658
130 266 0.00047 0.01407
140 284 0.00096 0.02874
150 302 0.00188 0.05628
160 320 0.00343 0.10269
170 338 0.00603 0.18054

298 —— of the Fluxional Ratio, &c.

‘eet! X1.—On the nen of the Piaeidicat Ratio to particular
cases ; and the coincidence of the several orders of Fluxions, with
the binomial theorem; by Exizur Wricut, Esq.

Tur object of this essay is to develope more fully the nature of
the fluxional ratio; and to apply it to particular cases. ‘To do this
it will be necessary to bring into view certain particulars, familiar
probably to every one, who has paid any attention to the subject.
When the method, used in algebra, of determining unknown quan-
tities is extended, by considering the unknown quantity as capable o of
increase or“decrease, that is, of taking all possible values, from 0 to
«", itis called fluxions. If this principle be applied to quantities, in
which the rate of increase is uniform in all its parts, no advantage is
gained. But if it be applied to those, in which the rate is variable
according to some given law, it affects quantities, which require an
artful management, and involves problems, that are sometimes of
very difficult solution. It may therefore be understood, that fluxions
have respect to those quantities, which increase or decrease by de-
grees that are less than any assignable one; that is, in which the
alteration of magnitude is produced by one continued increment or
decrement, and in which the rate of increase is variable. The
laws, by which the rate of increase is regulated, result from the va-
rious dimensions of the variable, and are intimately connected with
the development of the binomial series. In the year 1772 La Grange
in the Berlin Memoirs proposed to show, that the theory of the de-
velopment of functions into series, contains the true principles of the
Differential Calculus (Fluxions) independently of the consideration
of infinitely small quantities; and he demonstrated by this theory
the theorem of Taylor, which he regarded as the fundamental princi-
ple of the Calculus, and which had been demonstrated only by the
help of the Calculus itself, or else by the consideration of infinitely little
quantities. La Grange, in my opinion, has hit upon the true method
- of explaining the theory of fluxions. He doubtless gave a just
view of the elements of a fluxion, when he said, that, in the devel-
opment of a binomial, the fluxion is expressed by the second term of
the series.* But notwithstanding all that La Grange has done, the

* Ryan’s Dif. and Int. Caleulus, Art. 19.

Application of the Fluatonal Ratio, &c. 299

principles of fluxions have not yet been so completely disclosed, as
to give entire satisfaction. That distinguished Mathematician, Carnot,
supposed that something is lost, when a fluxion is introduced into an
equation ; and that the error in this defective equation is compensated
by an error of equal magnitude, but opposite value, produced when
the fluentistaken.* In an essay, contained in Vol. XIV of the Journal
of Science, page 297, after mentioning some difficulties pont
the metaphysics of fluxions, the Author goes on to say; “ For an il-
lustration of our remarks, suppse e be an increment of a i cals
varying quantity x: then z+e will be the quantity varied by the in-
crement. This variation will be uniform in all values of z, but the
variation of the variables dependent on z+, or what is denominated
the functions of this new value of z, as (z-+e)", will not be uniform ;
but may be easily investigated by the development of (z-+-e)". For
greater simplicity suppose the function to be (x-+e)? =2?-+2ze+e’,
the increment, or variation of this from its first value, when it had no
increment, is 2ze-+-ee, which is to the uniform increment of 2,
as 2re-+-ee 3 e, or as 2x-+e: 1. Here the ratio of the increment of
the function to its base, or root, is ascertained very readily by its
algebraic development ; and if this were truly its differential or flux-
ion, there would be no ground of questioning the legitimacy of the
logic of this science ; but the objection to it rests entirely on casting
away the increment e from the expression 2x-+e of the ratio of the
whole increment of the function ; since e must ever constitute a part
of it, while it has any finite value. It may be said that the ratio
2z : 1, or what is called the differential coéfficient, is independent of e,
and has areal value, when e vanishes; which is true, but it is then at its
limit, and the ratio is that of the limzt, and not of the znerement, con-
sequently no new discovery is made by this mode of conception. If
the second term of the development be assumed as the true differen-
tial, this will be a petitio principit. In short we perceive no
principles in La Grange’s pomp demonstrations, which are not
common to the geometrical.”

It is true that, when rightly understood, the principles in the ana~
lytical method of La Grange coincide with those in the geometrical

thod. ‘The error lies, not in the contrariety of the methods, but
in taking it for granted, that the ratio between two fluxions is that of
the increments ; for instance, that of the increment of a fuogian: which

a

* Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol. 8, Art. iv.

4

300 Application of the Fluwional Ratio, &c.

is momently varying to the increment of its base or root, which 1s
considered as uniform. To render the results of any two flowing
“quantities analogous, their rates of increase must be similar. A
quantity, therefore, generated by a uniform motion, cannot be com-
pared with a quantity generated by an accelerated motion; for it
would involve the same absurdity as to say, that a certain given line
is three times greater than a certain given cube. Mathematicians
were aware of this, but instead of taking the limits according to Sir
Isaac Newton’s view of the subject, they have taken the increments,
for they say by way of objection: ‘but it is then at its limit, and
the ratio is that of the limit, and not of the increment.” Under the
influence of this view, they have sought for an analogous term by
making the increment small. Hence they have been deceived by
contemplating a quantity, in which the error is less than the imagin-
ation can reach, and have dignified it with the name _ infinitesimal.
Instead of laying hold of the finite quantity, they have sought for the
increment, and have attempted to overtake it at the end of an infi-
nite series!—a thing impossible. So far from its being correct that
an error is committed by casting away the increment e, it is true,
that if we introduce the quantity e at all, an error exists exactly pro-
portional to the magnitude of e. The petitio principu, then, lies on
the other side, for the ratio is not that of a whole to its part, but that
of a whole to the sum of its sources of increase, which consists of
the limits made analogous by combining them with the fluxional base.
These sources of increase are dependent on the dimensions of the
variable function, and in case of the first fluxions are expressed by
the second term in the development of the binomial series. That
this term is the true fluwion, and not a petitio principii is made evi-
dent, as will be shown hereafter, by the coincidence of the second
term with the first fluxion, of the third term with the second fluxion,
of the fourth term with the third fluxion, and so on, in expanding
any power of a binomial quantity. Fluxions, therefore, are the ele-
ments, that arise in the development of a binomial quantity. We
may, then, describe a fluxion to be an artificial finite quantity, aris-
ing from the sources of increase belonging to any power of a varia-
ble quantity ; which sources are exhibited, when that quantity is ex-
panded in the form of a binomial series. Quantities thus constitu-
ted may be analogous, and may admit of the existence of a ratio be-
tween them. ‘The fundamental principle of fluxions is, that while
the fluent is generated with an accelerated or retarded motion, and

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 301

consequently the rate of increase is momently varying, the fluxion
in all its parts is produced by a uniform motion. ‘This may be re-
garded asa true definition of fluxions. In algebra the flucion is ex-
pressed by a single term in the binomial x+-2’ raised to the given
power; while the increment is expressed by all the terms that re-
main, after the first is withdrawn. In as much as an abstruse prin-
ciple is best elucidated by an example, let us suppose that e+’ is
the variable root, and this root raised to the fourth power, or #*-+-
40°20’ +602 2'?-+420'9+-2'4 is a function of +2’. Now with-
draw 2‘, and the increment is expressed by all the remaining terms
4x%a'+6x°2'?-+4ae'*+2'4. But the first fluxion is expressed by
4x x’, the second term of the series, not because the following terms
6x72’? +4ax'?-+2x'4 are so exceedingly small as not to deserve no-
tice, but because by the definition of a fluxion, just given, they do
not enter into its expression. The doctrine of ultimate ratios and
limits, applied to fluxions, is only a particular way of arriving at the
second term of a binomial series, by which all the following terms
are exterminated. The consideration of infinity, however, has
spread over the theory a degree of obscurity and mystery, which is
altogether unnecessary. For although the method of exhaustions,
and of ultimate ratios, and the limits of variable quantities, are very
useful in the solution of certain problems; yet they are not essential
to the theory of fluxions. Without any scruples we may assume the
second term in the binomial series, as containing al] the elements,
which are necessary to form a relation between the unknown quanti-
ty sought, and a known quantity, by means of which the value of that
unknown quantity can be obtained.

The foregoing remarks regard the determination of the fluxion
itself. But the relation of the fluxion to its corresponding fluent is
quite a different thing. Since this, in my apprehension, depends on
a similar principle with the relation of the sides of two similar trian-
gles to each other in trigonometry, it may perhaps receive some elu-
cidation from a comparison. A ratio is the quotient of any number
or quantity divided by another, and is either that of the antecedent
divided by its consequent, or that of the consequent divided by its

antecedent. When the ratio between any two quantities is equal to
the ratio between any other two quantities, those four quantities are
said to be analogous or proportional; and the twe figures, which are
compared, are said to be similar. When three of these proportion-
al quantities are given; or when two are given, and one of them is

Vou. —No, 2

302 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &e.

the ratio, the fourth may be found. Figures are similar, when they
may be supposed to be placed in such a manner, that any right line
being drawn from a determined point to the terms that bound them,
the parts of the right line intercepted betwixt that point and those
terms, are always in one constant ratio to each other ; and when, if
all the parts, which the nature of the case admits of, are made to
coincide, all their homologous lines, that are rectilineal, either lie
one upon another, or are parallel.* ‘This similarity may be exem-
plified in the Parabola. Let Fig. 1.

BpCE, APDG, (Fig. 1.) be Dp ___@
two parabolas, that are simi-
lar. By the definition, if the
foci are both placed at F, and
the parameters Fp, FP, are
made to coincide, and any / ~ :
right lines FD, FG are drawn A B rT oe
from the point F to the terms C, E, and D, G, that bound them;
then the lines FC, FD, and FE, FG, are in the invariable ratio of
Fp : FP, thatis FC ; FD::FE : FG::Fp : FP, and FC ; FD::
HC ; ID, and FE: FG::KE:; LG. Here the lines FC, FE lie
upon the lines FD, FG; and although the curved lines BpCE,
APDG are not parallel, but continually approximate toward each
ye yet the homologous right lines HC, 1D; KE, LG, are par-

In trigonometry, let AC=a (Fig. Fig. 2.
2.) be the base, and CB=6 be the
perpendicular of a right angled trian-
gle, taken from a table of sines, tan-
gents, and secants. Also let DC be
the base, and CE be the perpendicu-
lar of a second triangle; FC the base,
and CG the perpendicular of a third F D A “é
triangle ; and suppose they are all similar. Suppose DC=Ba, CE

=Bb, FC=Da, and CG=Db. By the principles of trigonometry

Bb Db
Ba : Bb::Da: Dé. Hence Ba Da ees which is the ratio, and
BDab
Ba =Dbé the fourth term. It is most convenient to find this term,

*Maclaurin’s Flux. Vol. I. Art. 122,

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 303

by multiplying the second and third terms together, and dividing |
the product by the first term according to the rule of proportion in
common arithmetic. But it will lead to the same result, if we mul-

tiply the third term Da by the ratio=: Here a relation manifestly

exists between the quantities Ba, BB, and as quantities Da, Dd,
which is that of proportion.

Mathematicians, in explaining the nature of fluxions, have pro-
ceeded on the tacit acknowledgment, that a circle is a polygon of
an infinite number of sides, (Brewster’s Encyclopedia, Art. Flux-
ions) and have considered a fluxion to be an elementary part of its
fluent. But, if we proceed ever so far in making the fluxion small,
since it is a rectilineal quantity, a part, Coa (Fig. 1.) being the dif-
ference between the increment CHI6, and the corresponding fluxion
CHla, will still be left behind. In theory, therefore, something is
lost. ‘The rejection of this part renders the theory imperfect, and
unsatisfactory, and creates a suspicion, that it may lead to some er-
ror. But in the application of the method no such error is ever
found. This practical correctness depends on the fact, that fluxions
are not the elementary parts of their fluents, Fig. 3.
but merely proportional quantities. Let the “% .

lines EF, FG, (Fig. 3.) commence an existence A;— 8
at the corner C, and proceed with a uniform = | vA
motion generating the square ABDC. Nowitis gL ¥”
manifest, that, since the generating lines EF, pa

FG are continually i increasing, the superficies cl GD

EFGC increases in a ratio, which is momently varying. Sapo
that the lines MN, NO, (Fig. 4.) moving with a uniform velocity, gen-
erate the square HILK in the same time, Fig. 4.
that the lines EF, EG, generate the ”

square ABDC. We have now the two 4) Pe
fluents ABDC and HILK. Now ifthese aie a
fluentsare produced by the lines AC (Fig. oo
3.) and HK, (Fig. 4.) moving with such N/
velocity, that the area generated by AC “
is always equal to the area generated by pts ‘at
EF, FG, and the area generated by K¥ os;
HK is always equal to the area generated by MN, NO, it is”
evident that AC and HK must move with a velocity, which is
accelerated. Hence ABDC and HILK may be considered as

=

304 Application of the Flucional Ratio, &c.

being produced by lines moving with an accelerated velocity. Again
let the lines EF, FG and MN, NO, become invariable at the
moment when they arrive at the situations AB, BD, and HI, IL.
Proceeding with the same uniform velocity, which they before had,
they will then generate the quantities ABba, BDdc, and HIiA, ILIr,
whose increase is uniform, because equal areas are generated in
equaltimes. The quantities ABba+BDdc, and HIih+ILir are the
fluxions corresponding to ABDC, and HILK. From the manner
in which these quantities are produced, it results that,
ABba+BDde : ABDC: : Hich+IL/r : HILK.

We have now obtained the proportion between quantities generated
by an accelerated velocity, and quantities generated by a uniform ve-
locity, disclosing the relation between fluxions and their fluents.

This illustration may be rendered more general by assuming a prin-
. eiple,,: which bears a very near resemblance to motion. — It is this.
A variable quantity of any kind may be generated by assuming, suc-
cessively, and ina regular gradation, every possible value from 0 to
#@". This will embrace the whole range of fluxional quantities. Let
AB=AC be represented by Bx and HI=HK be represented by
Dz, then,

28% 22° t.B?2?,:2D*ax 3 D203.
If we take cubes, ihe prawatsion will be,
D2? (oD te 3 D°a*.
and generally,
nB*a"-'2- : Bra": inD*2"-'a : D'at
mB a nD'2"—'2 ne P58
hence p.e— =p = Z_ the general formula of the fluxion-

al ratio; hence Da” x ~~ =nD"z""'«" is the general equation, by
which the fluxion is derived from the fluent.

In this ratio, m represents the exponent of the power, and is ob-
tained by adding 1 to the exponent of the variable part of the flux-
ional expression ; x represents the root of the given power, and 2°
represents the fluxion of that root. The existence of this ratio re-
sults from the peculiar nature of algebra. The fluxion nB"x"-'z-

. ° . . nx
consists of the fluent B’x" combined with the ratio = In geome-

try, these two elements are blended together, and are expressed by
the parallelogram GacC. (Fig. 3.) But in algebra the ratio is pre-
served distinct during the process, and therefore, since nB"z"~' a" is

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 305°

equivalent to B'x" x—~» the fluxion.may be resolved into its con-

stituent parts. Let APBD, Fig. 3.
EpGC, be two similar para-
bolas, the parameter PF =a,
the parameter pF =), the
abscissa EC=z, the abscissa
AD=mza, then the ordinate

can and the ordinate
434

B=a-m*x*, the fluxional te
he Cc=zx', the fluxional A a CBE
base Dd=mz-. Since 2 and max are supposed to be generated
contemporaneously, and the ratio depends upon their relative, and
not upon their absolute magnitude, we may assign to v* any magni-
tude at pleasure. Conceive the two parabolas to be generated by
the lines CG, DB moving uniformly from the points A, E, toward
c,d. The parabolic spaces EGC, ABD increase with an accelera-
ted motion, but the increments are continually diminishing, and the
motion approximates toward a uniform motion. Suppose the two
fluents to be taken when the generating lines arrive at the points
C,D. By the definition of a fluxion before given, the increments -
are annihilated at the moment the generating lines arrive at C, D,
and the parabolic spaces are left to increase uniformly. Pies the
fluxions are represented by the rectilineal parallelograms BndD=
atmtate, and ivi ae Then according to the foregoing
proposition,

dutch; : APBD: :02222° : EpGC.

Here, although an expression for the first and third terms are ob-
tained, yet the second term is not given, hence the fourth term can-
not be obtained by the common rule, as is the case in trigonometry.
But the ratio of the second term to the first can be had. As in trigo-

nometry the ratio is > so in fluxions, the general formula of the ra-

‘tio is a - The great advantage of this ratio consists in this, that by
scbhipfying the third term in the proportion by it, we arrive at the
same result as by multiplying the second term by the third, and di-
viding the product by the first term. Now, in this example, the third

306 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, §c.

term is the fluxion git and the ratio is ae aa hence bate wa
. 2

23
ae = =EpGC, the area of the parabola.
2
In the circles ALH, Fig. 4.
DNG, (Fig. 4.) let the a
diameter AH=m, the di-
ameter DG=a, DE=z,

mx :
AF ——-> the fluxional base
a

Ed=z-, the fluxional base

Pty
mx eee Eg 2
Fe=— E0=(ar-z2)?, kr PDeKa Cc G I
m — 4 F $ ——
=" (at—2x)°, then the fluxion OadE=(ax—zx)"z°, and the

2
fluxion BboF =—~(an=21)*r-. It has just been stated, that the
fluxion multiplied by the ratio will give the correspondent fluent
sought. But the analysis requires some fluent, out of which the
given fluxion has arisen, which by a contrary process is again made
to appear. To this end it is necessary, that the ratio — should be

contained in the fluxional quantity, that the quantities represented by
it may be eliminated by the multiplication of its reciprocal. But

there is no oe which will produce (az—zz)*z° for its fluxion
hence the ratio — is not contained in it, and its fluent under its

present form cannot be found. We are, therefore, under the ne-

cessity of transforming it into an infinite series. It will then be
y

3 5 a bees
272°. 27m: beta:

2a

(ox — 2x)* “iglatie -S i
Qa" 8a? 16a? 198a7

It is manifest, that this series presents as — distinct problems,

requring different modifications of the ratio — nae? 38 there are terms.

for

a
For the first term, oe ; for the second term, mae ;

the third term, —= &c. If the several terms are multiplied —

xe
je’

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 307

ee
. . . . . 2ate* a?
by their respective ratios, the series will become -—-
3. 5a?

at at 5a?
28a? 72a* 04a"
fluent ABF be represented by A, B, C, D, &c.
Ee

— &c. Let the terms which compose the

then BbeF : A*:OadE: =

2?
BocF : —B::OadE: 2... -—
5a?
z
BicF t —C::O0E: ...... ——
28a?
3
Bb: ~ Ds iOetht cy 5 —
72a?

| 3
hence (E.12.5.) BbeF A~B-C—D :: OadE : 2a%w! -— —
‘ . 5a
nll fi
3 5
28a? 72a?
If it is required to find
the length of the are DO,
(Fig. 5.) called the rec-
tification of the curve, let
CO be represented by a, |
DE by z, EO by y, and
the are DObyz. While.
the point generating the
line DE is supposed to
move with a uniform motion, the points which generate the line EO
and the are DO move with a retarded motion ; but at the instant in
which they arrive at O, the decrements cease to exist, and the gen-
erating points are left to proceed on with a uniform motion. A
necessary consequence of this change is, that a right lined. triangle
Ond is generated, in which On represents the flexi of z, nd the |
fluxion of y, and Od, which is the tangent of the circle, represents

&c.=DOE.

Fig. 5.
L

F G H

308 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c.

the fluxion of the arc z. CE: CO::nd: Od::(a?—y*)? ta:
ay" ms 1 a oy oe"
y ii (a? — y*) (ae a ise +
a? — y*)? a 2a* 8a5 _
Bby* G3y'* QBly!2 —429y"4
Bee seat + ioatat* tr a0aears + &-) oy =y + 53+
syty 5Sy®y Bby%yr G3y" yr B[ly'2y 429yi4y°
8a? 4 160° 128a° + 256a! ® ones tae
—y yy y WY
Now y: Xratio PE Qa? Xratlo 5. Eqt) Bae Sq! ratio =
Sy* 5y°y" foe pg ee ST
400°? 16a°* "0 74. Tyoq63 Jopae XF8H oy. T159q5 Ne
Let the several terms of the fluent AB be represented by A, B,

+&c.

C, D, &c.
then Ba; A::Od; y
a
Ba: B::Od: ..

6a? e
Ba; C::0d; Se
oe. 2 > Ot a as at
Ba: A+B4+C+W&e.::Od: .... sh Sartor tiga

35y? 63y! 1 93] 13 429 15
11520'+3e16aret T99120"3 +307a0qr + ke=areDO. When
=1, and DO=are of 30°, then the series becomes DO=(.5)'-+ |
41(.5)2 +75(-5)§ +745(. 5)? -y2he .5)° + &c.=.5235985 which is
equal to the arc of 30° when the diameter is 2; therefore the diam-
eter of a circle is to the periphery as 1 ; 3.14159-+-.
The general equation for the fluxion .of any power is D"z" x

= =nDz"~'2", which will be applied in a few examples.

I. To find the fluxion of (zz)*, which is termed the direct method
: ; nx

of fluxions. In this example D"z"=(zz)*, and in the ratio 7"

represents the exponent 8, 2° represents 2zz*, the fluxion of the root,

. nz

and x represents xz, the root of the given power ; hence | answers

8 X 2xzx
tL

: =o ae 2rx*
; therefore D"2” T=)" x == 162142,

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c.. 309

bd

Il. To find the fluxion of (z*+-z*)*; in this example D"z"=

Rz* _ a Gne Pete 31 eD"z bifid +2
(2+ *)‘yand = = ( - aaa ; y cul. jade S ( 2 ate
4 2 . - .
x ( oa ve a") =4( 2 +-2%)38 X (222"+32z*2").

Til. To find the fuckin of (ar—a2); here D*x "(az —nz)*, and
pe ie = 2(ae* —2e2') —e 5 hence D*z ox = (az — a Fo aa

x ax

ax —2xx"
ae

2(ax— 22)

IV. To find the fluxion of ay —y?) 3; here D"z"=

= ; es

a(a? —y?) $ and = tw 3 ni , hence D’;" = =a(a?-y?) * x
~$X —2yy ayy

Ce (a? —y?)?

: ae i Fay 4
The fluxion © Sele olla is a(a?—y5)2 x fais al — 5y*y"
(a? —ys)2 a ee

5ay*y

2(a? ys)?
1 ° .
The fluxion of = is z~? X ratio — a= —
; or ox*
The fluxion of = is 5 he ee
“The fluxion of 3(a2 — a?)? is 3(az — a? Ng X< fatic —=

a(az —a? Px,

es
The fluxion of (e+ 2, is avi? +2)

(n-+1)m2™"! i ae oY *
r+o (2"-+-a*)" X mz""! 2°.
ie, (rey) ere Ph ooh sa
The fluxion of n(n epi. is m(n+1) X ra i

==(a"-+-2")" X2"— "2°.
When the fluent is the product of two or more flowing quantities,
as zyz, the fluxion of each is to be res seriatim, the other remain-
Vou. XXIV

310 Application of the Fluxonal Ratio, &c.
ing quantities being considered as a coéfficient ; then the several
quantities thus arising will be the fluxion sought.

[°.,
Ex. to find the fluxion of xyz. ‘Taking z, the ratio is [-=7
z° . ‘ : :
and z X="; which is the fluxion of z; hence yzz* is one part of

. . * . nx ,
the fluxion. ‘Taking y, the ratio is sy and yxy ay the flux-
ion of y; hence zzy’ is another part of the fluxion. Taking z, the
Jo = : ;
ratio is ~~= > and zX>=z*, the fluxion of z; hence zyz* is

another part. Therefore, yzz*-+-zzy'+zyz is the whole fluxion of

rz.
a to find the fluxion of +*y5. The quantity x* x the ratio
3)
=32?2"; the fluxion of «*; and the quantity y° x the ratio 7 =
by! y, the fluxion of y°. Hence 3y°x?z-+52%y*y: is the fluxion
ol z*y°.

To find the fluxion of the fraction yay . Taking z, the ratio

nr va zx = " 2° i
is —~=—> and xX—=z2", the fluxion of z; hence y~!z*=— is one
t x y

part of the fluxion. Taking y~', the ratio i ==") and y 1X

= —y?y= = the fluxion of y~!; hence aa isthe othe
part of the fluxion ; therefore sr aoe y —*Y ig the fluxion of the

fraction ~.
y
3
To find the fluxion of the fraction prey Taking x? the
gg ee 2° : :
ratio is — = oe 2? X —-=2zx" the fluxion of x? ; hence 2y- *2a-
is one part of the fuxion. Taking y~? the ratio is —= =, and
3
yt x= pay ty" the —— of y~*, hence — Baty ty is the
other part of the fluxion. Therefore 2y-*2x*—3x*y-*y° ae ~~

322y° —_ Qyzz* — 3x79 : 2
= 2 wat = ; © is the fluiion of the fraction

Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 311

Since a fluxion always implies a fluent from whence it is derived,
the only way of obtaining a fluent from its fluxion is by an opposite
process ; this is called the inverse method of fluxions. Hence when
the fluxion is derived from any power of a variable quantity, its fluent

; oo a
is found by multiplying the fluxion by ny the reciprocal of =a
The general equation is nD*z"~'z- x— =D" oe

I. To find the fluent of 27x?°2-, we first find the value of n in

oF ‘ .
the ratio --, and because x? °2" is aaa in the general formula by

a"~'y*, therefore 26+-1=27=n, and > hence nD"z"~'-

=o ;
=27z? *x Xam. =2?7 the fluent required.
IL To find the fluent of 5(z? +2)* x ie tee here 4+-1=5=

nm, and =5(Gee pr) hence nD*z le X= <= 5(z°-+2)* x

zea. AG:
a nt sc sate
—2
Hil. To find the: fluent: of ———— ya Her—ey * x (az* -
2(ar—z?)*
ar—z?

zw
2rz"); here —}-+1=2=n, and na dan — 200) hence

nD" 2x"-'2° to =4(ar _ 223 X(az* — 2rz°)> X Far See

(ax—22)2, the fluent required.

are Pet
IV. To find the fluent of =(a?—y") ayy"; here

see Pd |
2
—3+1=—4=n, and pepe OLE hence n cae
3 ary"
een) or =a(a? ~y#) #= 2
—$xX —2yy: —y?)

fluent required.

V. The fluent of (2—n)r'~"z- is (2—n)x!-"z- x ratio @=9

=7r2-",

312 Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium.

: m+n = . mtn = ; od
—— a I ge ——— a ae ———-=
Vi. The fluent of ——2"z" is ~~ z?2"X ratio 7 =
m+n "
z ‘

When the fluxion arises from the product of two or more variable
quantities its fluent is found in the following manner. Suppose the
fluxion to be 3y'zx?2°+5zr%y*y’. Taking the term 3y*z?z-, the

. t - = 39,5
value of n is 2+-1=3, hence —"=3—, and 3y?2?a" Xz =ariy

3r
the fluent of 3y*z*2-. Taking the term 5z*y*y-, the value of 7 is
4+1=5, hence = 35 and 5r3yty = =a y5 the fluent of

5z*yty. The sum 2xr*y* divided by 2 a number of parts, is
; Qyxr ch

z*y® the fluent required. To find the fluent of
Boa id Taking ae the value of n is etiad

hence —=55 and 2y~*xz° a s the fluent of a

Taking —3z7y-*y- the value of 2 is=—4+1= — 3, hence =

ran and ~802y-ty X= ge aty9 the fluent of —3zr?y~*y-.
The sum 2r2y~° ieee by the number of parts, which i is 2, be-
comes I? y7 =o the fluent required.

To be continued.

Arr. XII—On some improvements on Brunner’s process for Po-
tassium, and in the means of preserving that metal; by R. Hare,
M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pony

Wuen I first went through Brunner’s process for potessinns, as
modified and described by Berzelius, I conceived the idea of sub-
stituting, for the piece of a gun barrel between the iron bottle and
réceiver, an iron cylinder much larger in bore, and using an iron
vessel without naphtha, instead of that recommended by the great
chemist last mentioned. From the employment of this, much in-
convenience was experienced ; as in consequence of reiterated ex-
plosions, every one present was more or less bespattered with naph-
tha. Subsequently I found that in both of my conceptions I had

Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. 313

been anticipated by Dr. Gale of New York. Agreeably to my la-
ter experiments, I find that the receiver may be dispensed with ad-
vantageously on every account. I have successfully employed a
hollow iron cylinder of about two inches in bore, and fifteen inches
in length; which is at one end fastened into the generating bottle by
screwing, and at the other end receives a piece of a gun barrel to
which a lead pipe is adapted, so as to be air tight. This pipe is re-
curved in such a manner, as to convey the gas and fumes into the ash
hole of the furnace employed.

By means of a keg supplied with water, from which proceeds a
lead pipe furnished with a cock, a stream of water is directed up-
on the iron cylinder sufficient to keep it cool. The water as it runs
off from the cylinder, is caught in a flat dish, from which it is con-
veyed by another lead pipe. Thus refrigerated, the cylinder retains
nearly all the condensible potassium. The receiver should not,
however, be allowed at a minimum, to be below a boiling heat in
the coldest part, as in that case aqueous matter is detained in it, and,
I believe, re-oxidizes more or less of the potassium. Towards the
close of the process to prevent the condensible matter from obstruct-
ing the narrow part of the receiver next the bottle, it must be kept
in a state of incandescence.

Operating with the proceeds of seven pounds of bitartrate of pot-
ash, properly carbonized, I have obtained of the metal in question,
seventeen hundred grains in pieces large enough to be conveniently
lifted by forceps. But as in boring the metal out of the tube in-
flammation is liable to ensue, unless naphtha be applied, the potassi-
um thus extricated is much imbued with this liquid, with which it
always has a reaction productive of some loss. Besides, a consid-
erable proportion of it, is always deposited in a state of mixture or
combination, with a carbonaceous matter, from which it can be com-
pletely separated only by intense heat. Hence I deem it prefera-
ble, after removing the cylinder from the bottle, to close one end by
screwing on an iron cap provided for that purpose, to adapt to the
other a piece of a gun barrel duly recurved, and proceed to distilla-
tion. I have tried distillation per descensum, which has the advant-
age of allowing a portion of the metal to be extricated by simple fu-
sion. The last portions however can only be obtamed ata white
heat. I must confess that I have not as yet been enabled to make
up my mind as to the method, which may be upon the whole prefer-
able in this part of the process. From actual trials it appears that
it is possible to receive the potassium, as it comes over by distillation,

314 Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium.

in a bottle, replete with hydrogen desiccated by chloride of calcium.
I have constructed an apparatus, by which I expect this method of
operating will be rendered more easy and effectual, but I have not as
yet put it into operation.

» Notwithstanding its unusually large calibre the cylinder became re-
peatedly so clogged by the metal, and the carbonaceous deposit, as
to occasion some difficulty in keeping the passage clear; and like-
wise some loss of potassium, of which a considerable quantity always
accompanied the rod used for the purpose when retracted. In or-
der to remedy these evils, as a substitute for the iron cylinder above
mentioned, I have had another equally long receiver forged, of which
the bore at each orifice is two inches in diameter but enlarges at a
little distance from either end to two and a half inches. I hope that
the cavity of this receiver will be adequate to receive all the conden-
sible products without being obstructed.

I intend hereafter to furnish a more onl dederigted of my
process for potassium, illustrated by a cut.

I have made an improvement in the art of luting. It consists in
using the shreds of iron, which are shaved off in making weavers’
reeds of that material. ‘These shreds are entangled together like the
fibres of wool and constitute a mass which, by analogy, we have call-
ed iron wool. With these shreds fire clay blended with as much
sand as is consistent with the necessary plasticity is intimately inter-
mingled and stamped into a flat cake of a size sufficient to envelope
the bottle completely. Being applied to the bottle, it is afterwards
secured by a wire wound about it in a spiral, of which the rounds
are not more than a half inch asunder, and the ends are duly secured
by twisting them together.

The effect of this intermixture of iron fibres is surprising. The
lute hardens on exposure to the fire without previous desiccation.

I rolled up two equal balls, one, consisting of fire clay alone, the
other of the same clay intermingled with the iron wool. Both were
thrown into an intensely heated part of an anthracite fire. The ball
which pasisted of clay alone; soon flew - piscany ee the other re-

edi

ft brick.

The plan proposed by Dr. Gale of keepi ping potassium in glass
without naphtha, is one which I have pursued since 1818. I have
been accustomed to seal a tube at one end, then to heat it at a con-
venient distance from the end, and reduce the diameter by drawing
it down to about a quarter of an inch. Into the tube thus prepared,
hydrogen is made to enter, so as to exclude the air. The potassi-

Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium. 315

um being then introduced, and the open end of the tube, closed by
means of a spirit lamp, the metal may be fused, and with a little
dexterity may be transferred in pure globules to that part of the cay-
ity of the tube which is between the sealed end and the narrow part.
This object being effected, the tube is divided at that part, and seal-
ed by fusion.

In this case the potassium usually falls v upon the glass and adheres
to it, presenting a perfectly brilliant metallic coating, and preserves
this appearance without diminution for years.

It is however liable to inflammation from slight causes when kept
without naphtha. I had an ounce of it in a small phial for eighteen
months which took fire on my venturing to divide the phial by means
of a file.

An account of an explosive compound produced by the reaction of
naphtha with potassium, by the author of the preceding article.

I avail myself of this opportunity of mentioning a circumstance
which occurred in January, 1831, and which I should have mention-
ed before, had I not hoped to have had leisure to ascertain the cause
of the phenomenon.

Having some globules of potassium of a size so small, as s to be
separated with difficulty from the naphtha with which they had been
intermingled. I endeavored to get rid of the naphtha by heat. With
this view I heated the whole mass in a sealed tube, properly recurv-
ed to act asaretort. The glass, when heated to the boiling point of
the naphtha, became quite black so as to lose its transparency. When
all the naphtha had been expelled, I inverted the tube in another of a
larger size filled with hydrogen, and otherwise prepared as above
mentioned. A few globules of the metal ran into the tube thus pre-
pared, and were secured there; so that to this day their brillianey is
unimpaired, and they still have in some points, a striking degree of
brightness. They are accompanied by a few drops of colorless naph-
tha, which is still unchanged.

Being dissatisfied with the quantity of potassium thus procured, I
proceeded to examine the caput mortuum left in the tube used asa
retort. With this view striking it with a hammer, I was startled by
a violent detonation. From the circumstance that this result was the
consequence of the rection of potassium, naphtha, and flint-glass,
it seems to be distinguished from the explosions which are well
known to occur in the process above alluded to, by which potassium
is obtained from carbonate of potash, according to Brunner.

316 Improvements on Brunner’s process for Potassium.

I have already mentioned that in the first operation which I made
after that plan, I used the copper vessels recommended by Berze-
lius. The inner vessel having been allowed to remain in connection
with the gun barrel, which formed the means of communication be-
tween it and the iron bottle, for thirty six hours after the process was
terminated, my assistant attempting to effect a separation, struck
the neck of the receiver with a hard body. Immediately a detona-
tion ensued, as violent as if a musket had been fired, and the receiv-
er though open at one end, was bulged from a square nearly into a
cylindrical form. In this case it might be imagined that naphtha had
some agency, yet it could have had but little access to the part of the
apparatus from which the explosion proceeded. Besides, Dr. Gale
mentions that he met with explosions in removing potassium and its
accompaniments from the interior of the tube, when no naphtha had
been used, and he recommends the affusion of that = an 3 pe
ventive of explosion.

The rod employed to keep the passage through the iron oflinler
free as above mentioned, coming out coated with potassium, I
strove to detach it by scraping, and to save it by receiving it in naph-
tha. I succeeded in amassing in this way a quantity worthy of the
trouble. In scraping the rod for this purpose by the edge of a square
bar, explosions constantly took place as the latter came in contact
with a bluish matter, the nature of which I could not ascertain.
Berzelius ascribes these explosions to moisture ; but they have occur-
red, as in the instance above mentioned of devabhing the meer
where moisture could not have contributed tothe result.

Of a method of filling os with potassium, by the author of the
eceding articles.

Ihave succeeded in = glass tubes with potassium in the follow- —
ing manner. One end of a tube is luted to one of the orifices of a
cock ; to the other orifice, the neck of a gum elastic bag of a suitable
size is attached. The open end of the tube is reduced in diameter
by means of a flame excited by the blow-pipe, so-as to have an
orifice about large enough to receive a knitting needle. The gum
elastic bag is filled with hydrogen, and the cock closed. Mean-
while the potassium is heated in naphtha, in a larger tube, till it lies
at the bottom in a liquid state.

In the next place, the bag is grasped with one hand and ‘okie
to pressure, at the same time introducing the small orifice of the tube

Lnproved Syphons. 317

into the naphtha, the cock is opened till the hydrogen begins to es-
cape in bubbles, The escape of the bubbles is kept up to prevent
the naphtha from entering the tube, and to evacuate the bag. Before
this is quite accomplished, the orifice of the tube is to be approxima-
ted to the surface of the potassium as nearly as possible without en-
tering it, and just as the last of the gas is expelled, is to be merged
in the metal. ‘The cock is at the same time to be closed, and the
pressure of the hand on the bag discontinued. ‘The cock being in
the next place very cautiously opened, the elasticity of the bag coun-
teracts the pressure of the atmosphere within the tube; and the li-
quid potassium is forced to rise into it. This effect may be controll-
ed by the cock, which is to be closed when the column of the metal
has attained a satisfactory height. After being removed, cooled and
separated from the cock, the tube may be closed bya covering of
sheet gum-elastic, such as is procured by the inflation of bags soften-
ed by ether. Any portion of the contents thus preserved may be
extricated by cutting off and fracturing a portion of the tube, aee-
quate to yield the requisite quantity.

In order to guard against accidents the operas was heated in
this process by a bath of naptha; ina bath of hot water. For the
object last mentioned, the vessels ordinarily used for the solution of
glue were employed, the naphtha being placed in the inner vessel usu-
ally occupied by the glue.

I have long been in the praetice of filling tubes with phosphorus by
a similar process.

Arr. XIU.—Jmproved Syphons; by R. Harz, M. D. Professor of
hemistry in the University of Pennsylvania.

SuBso1nep are engravings of two Syphons, which I have found use-
ful in my laboratory, Of these, one represents the more complete
method of execution; the other, that which can be more easily
resorted to by Chemists in general, who have not easy access to skil-
ful workmen.

The construction last alluded to, is represented by fig. 1. A cork

rforated in two places parallel to the axis. Through one of the
Seedtcos, the longer leg of the syphon passes: into the other, one
end of a small lead tube is inserted. In order. to support | this tube, it
is wound about the renee until it pproMns the summit, where a
Vout. XXIV.—No. 2.

318 Improved Syphons.

portion of about three or four inches in length, is left free, so that
advantage may be taken of its flexibility, to bend it into a situation
convenient for applying the lips to the orifice. About the cork, the
neck of a stout gum elastic bag is tied air tight. The joinings of the
tubes with the cork, must also be air tight. ‘The lower half of the
gum elastic bag is removed, as represented.

ee os

In order to put this syphon into operation, a bottle must be used,
having a neck and a mouth of such dimensions as to form an air tight
juncture with the bag when pressed into it. This object being ac-
complished, the air must be inhaled from the bottle, until the dimi-
nution of pressure causes the liquid to come over, and fill the syphon,
After this, on releasing the neck of the bottle, the current continues,
as when established in any other way.

Fig. 2, represents the more complete construction. In this are
two metal tubes, passing through perforations made for them in 2

Stereotype Printing. 319

brass disk, turned quite true. Through one of these tubes, which
is by much the larger, the syphon passes, and is cemented air tight.

The other answers the purpose of the leaden tube described in the
preceding article. The brass disk is covered by a piece of gum
elastic, which may be obtained by dividing a bag of proper dimen-
sions. The covering thus procured, is kept in its place by a brass
band or clasp, made to embrace both it, and the circumference of the
plate, and to fasten by means of a screw.

Before applying the caoutchouc, it was softened by soaking it in
ether, and a hole, obviously necessary, was made in the centre, by
a hollow punch. ;

There is no difference between operating with this syphon, and
that described in the preceding article, excepting that the juncture
of the syphon with the bottle, is effected by pressing the orifice of the
latter against the disk covered with gum elastic.

Arr. XIV.—Stereotype Printing.—.n original paper of the late
Lieut. Gov. Colden, on a new method of printing discovered
by him; together with an original letter from the late Dr. Franklin,
on the same subject; and some account of stereotyping, as now
_ practised in Europe, &c. by the Editors of the Register.

We republish from the American Med. and Philos. Register, Vol.
I, 1814, p. 439; edited by Profrs. Hosack and Francis an inte-
resting paper on the origin of Stereotype printing. We are obliged
to a friend for pointing out to us this curious document.—Ed.

of Am. Jour. of Science, &c.
New Method of Printing.

“¢ As the art of printing has, without question, been of very great
use in advancing learning and knowledge, the abuse of it, as of all
other good things, has likewise ‘produced many ‘inconveniences.
The number of books printed on the same subject, most of which
are nothing but unskilful and erroneous copies of good works, written
only for ostentation of learning, or for sordid profit, renders the path
to knowledge very intricate and tedious. The reader, who has no
guide, and the greatest number have none, is lost in the wilderness of
numberless books. He is most commonly led astray by the glaring

320 Stereotype Printing.

appearances of title pages, and other artifices of ~ mystery of book-
selling.

“It is likewise a common complaint, that a poor author makes

nothing near the profit that the bookseller does of his labor; and
probably, the more pains the author has taken, the more difficult the
performance, and the more masterly it is done, the less profit to him ;
for the good books, like jewels, never lose their intrinsic value ; yet
they have fewer purchasers than Bristol stones, and the sale of them
is slow.

“As the lessening or removing of some of these inconveniences,
_ may be of use to the republic of letters, I hope to be excused in ma-
king the following attempt for that purpose, by proposing a new
method of printing.

** Let there be made of some hard metal, such as copper or brass
a number of types, or rather matrices, on the face of each of which

one letter of the alphabet is to be printed en creuse, by a stamp, or

such other method by which matrices for founding of types are
commonly made. They must be all of the same dimension, as to
breadth and thickness, with that of types, but half their length seems
sufficient. ‘Their sides must be so equal and smooth as to Jeave no
vacuity between them when joined. ‘There must likewise be a sufli-
cient number of each letter or character, to compose at least one
page in octavo, of any book.

“These matrices, I suppose, may be cast in a mould, or a plate
of copper may be divided exactly into squares, and the letter or cha-
racter be stamped into the middle of each square, and the squares af-
terwards cut asunder by a proper saw. ‘The best method of ma-
king these will be easily discovered by those whose business it is to
make founts for printing types.

‘When a sufficient number of each letter and character is obtain-
ed, they are to be placed in the same manner that types are, when
composed for printing, only that they must all stand directly as ee
are read, and as they will appear afterwards on paper.

“The composure of one page after it is carefully corrected, is to
be placed in a case or mould, fitted to it, of the length and breadth
of the page, and of such depth as to cast a plate a quarter of an
inch thick, which will perfectly represent a page composed in the
common manner for printing.

“As to the art of casting the plate perfect, founders and type ma-
kers must be consulted; for the composition 6f the metal, and for

Stereotype Printing. 321

the flux for running it clean and clear, so that no vacuities be left ;
for which purpose, I am told, that the funnel, by which the melted
metal is poured in, being made large and the filling it with the melted
metal after the mould is full, is of use to make the letter every where
full and complete. For, by the weight of the metal in the funnel,
the liquid metal in the mould is pressed into every crevice. The
funnel’s extending the whole length of one of the sides, gives like-
wise free vent to the air. | eo

“Or, after a page shall be composed, as before mentioned, and’
the types and matrices well secured in a frame upon a strong plate,
they may, by a screw, be pressed upon a sheet of melted lead, and
thereby a plate of lead be procured, representing as the former a
page composed of types for printing. Which of the methods are
most practicable artists can best determine.

“ After the page shall be thus formed the matrices may be loosen-
ed and dispersed in their proper boxes, and may serve for as many
other pages as types in common printing do.

“When a number of pages, sufficient for a sheet are thus made,
they may be carried to any printing press, and such a number of
sheets as shall be thought proper be cast off, and then be laid by till
more copies be wanted.

“T choose an octavo page, because, if the page title and page
number be left out, as likewise the directions and signatures at the
foot of the page, by joining two pages together, it may be made a
quarto, or by joining four a folio. ‘Thus several editions in octavo,
quarto and folio, may at once be made, to suit every buyer’s humor.

“The page titles, number and bottom signatures may be cast in
smal] moulds apart, and joined, as may be proper.

*‘ The most convenient size of a page is that of small paper, so
as to fill it up, and to leave very little margin ; then by adding the page
titles, or marginal notes, or notes at the bottom, all cast in irvine
separately, the large paper may be sufficiently filled.

“T believe that this method of printing, every thing sealed,
will not be more chargeable than the common method. A thousand,
or some thousands sometimes, of copies, are cast off at once in the.
common method, and the paper and pressman’s labor of what is not
speedily sold may, or must lie dead for some years, whereas in this
method, no more need be cast off at a time than may well be sup-
posed to sell speedily. If I be not mistaken, the metal necessary
for one sheet will not exceed the value of four hundred sheets of pa-

322 Stereotype Printing.

per, and in the common method, several hundred sheets lie useless
for sometimes, many years. If the book should not answer, there
is a great loss in the paper, whereas the metal used in this method
retains its intrinsic value.

_ T shall instance some of the advantages in this method which in-
duce me to communicate my thoughts to others.

*©1. An author by this means can secure the property of his own
labor.

“2. A correct edition is at all times secured, and therefore may
be useful in the classics, trigonometrical tables, &c.

*©3, A weak and ignorant attempt on the same subject will be dis-
couraged, for as a new edition of a valuable book is continually se-
-eured, without any new expense, booksellers will not readily hazard

the publishing of books of the same nature.

«4, But what I chiefly value this method of printing for, is from
the advantages it gives an author in making his work perfect, and in

‘freeing it from mistakes; for, by printing off a few copies of any
sheet, and sending them among his friends, and by suffering them to
fall into the hands of a malevolent critic, he may have an opportunity
of correcting his mistakes, before they appear to the world. By
ithe same means he may make his work more complete than he other-
wise could, by the assistance which his friends may give him in seve-
ral partsof it. It is for these reasons chiefly, that I propose the plates
not to exceed an octavo page, and to have no signatures ; for in case
of a mistake, the loss of one page may correct the error, and where
improvements or additions are necessary, as many pages may be in- _
termixed as shall be necessary, without any inconvenience, and small
explications may be made by the marginal notes.

“Lastly. The greatest advantage I conceive will be in the learned
sciences; for they often require a long time to bring these to per-
fection, and require the assistance of others in many particulars.
Many a valuable piece has been lost to the world by the author’s dying
before he could bring his work to the perfection he designed. Now
by the assistance which he may have by this method from others,
this time may be much shortened, and the progress he has made
may be preserved for others to continue in case of his death. An
author may publish his work in parts, and shall continue, in many ca-
ses, to complete and make them more perfect, without any loss of
what was done before. By this method likewise, a man of learning,
when poor, may leave some parts of his estate in his own way for a
child, as mechanics often do for theirs.

Stereotype Printing. 323

‘Whether the method I propose will answer the end designed, or
whether it be practicable, I cannot with sufficient assurance say ;
because we have no artists in this country who can make the experi-
ment, neither can they have encouragement sufficient to tempt them
to make the trial. However, I hope to be excused, by the use of the
design, and as it may chance to give some hint to a skilful person to
perform effectually what J only aim at in vain.

“If the charge of lead or metal plates be thought too great, I.
know not but that the impression may be made on thin planes of
some kinds of wood, such as lime tree or poplar, which have a soft
smooth grain when green, and are hard and smooth when dry.

“‘ Ever since I had the pleasure of a conversation with you, though
very short, by our accidental meeting on the road, I have been very
desirous to engage you in a correspondence. You was pleased to
take some notice of a method of printing which I mentioned to you
at that time, and to think it practicable. I have no further concern
for it than as it may be useful to the public; my reasons for thinking
so, you will find in the inclosed copy of a paper which I last year
sent to Mr. Collinson in London. Perhaps my fondness for my own
conceptions may make me think more of it than it deserves, and ma
make me jealous that the common printers are willing to discourage
out of private interest, any discovery of this sort. But as you have
given me reason to think you zealous in promoting every useful at-
tempt, you will be able absolutely to determine my opinion of it.
I long very much to hear what you have done in your scheme of
erecting a society at Philadelphia, for promoting useful arts and scien-
ces in America. If you think of any thing in my power whereby k
can promote so useful an undertaking, I will with much pleasure re-
ceive your instructions for that end. As my son Cadwallader, bears
this, I thereby —_ myself secured of the pleasure of a line from
you by him.”

Philadelphia, November 4, 1743.

R, ;
I received the favor of yours, with the proposal for a new meth-
od of printing, which I am much pleased with ; and since you ex-
press some confidence in my opinion, I shall conmiiee it very atten-
tively and particularly, and in a post or two, send you some observa-
tions on every article.
My long absence from home in the summer, put my — business so

much behind hand, that I have been in a continual oe ever since

324 Stereotype Printing.

my return, and had no leisure to forward the scheme of the society.
But that hurry being now near over, I purpose to proceed in the
affair very soon, your approbation being no small encouragement to
me. '

I cannot but be fond of engaging in a correspondence so advanta-
geous to me as yours must be. I shall always receive your favors as
such, and with great pleasure. ’

I wish I could by any means, have made your son’s longer stay
here as agreeable to him, as it would have been to those who began
to be acquainted with him.

Iam, Sir, with much respect,
Your most humble servant,

Dr. CoLpEn. B. FRANKLIN.

—_

The mode of printing above described is now known by the term
Stereotype ; and it isa curious fact that the stereotype process, said
to have been invented by M. Herhan, in Paris, and now practised by
him in that city, under letters patent of Napoleon, is precisely the
same as that spoken of by Dr. Colden more than sixty years ago.

It is more than probable that when Dr. Franklin went to France,
he communicated Dr. Colden’s “new method of printing” to some
artists there, and that it lay dormant till about sixteen years since;
when Herhan, a German, who had _ been an assistant to M. Didot,
the printer and type founder of Paris, but then separated from him, .
took it up in opposition to M. Didot. We han: conversed with gen-
tlemen who have seen M. FE typing, and they
describe it to be exactly what Governor. one invented. This fact
established, there can be no doubt that M. Herhan, is indebted to
America for the celebrity he has obtained in France.

Since the above papers fell into our hands, we have endeavored |
to obtain information respecting the different methods of stereotyping
- nowin use. The following is the result of our inquiries.

By a book published in Paris, about ten years since, by M. Camus

of the French National Institute, we find that a Bible was printed
_in Strasburgh, by one Gillet, more than a hundred years ago, with
plates similar to those now used by Didot and Herhan, but not by
any means so perfect. Gillet’s moulds were made of a fine clay and
a particular kind of sand found only inthe neighborhood of Paris.
ft is also stated that a number of other ingenious men had at various

Stereotype Printing. 325

ti 1 plates tolerably perfect, by different processes, but we
may safely inf from the art having made no great progress until
the time of Didot the elder, that their endeavors had not been
crowned with much success.

At the beginning of the French revolution great quantities of pa-

per money becoming necessary to supply the deficieney of specie
either concealed or sent out of the kingdom by the rich, Didot was
applied to by the National Assembly to invent some kind of assignat
or bank bill, which should not easily be imitated ; and at this period
it was that M. Didot first directed his attention to the means of pro-
ducing, in relief, a set of plates, to print on a common printing-press
which were exactly fac-similes, and could not without much difficul-
ty be falsified. ‘This process was termed Polytyping ;* as the mould
in which the plates were cast was durable, and would produce any
number of copies; the usual mode of stereotyping being, as the
French term it, &@ moule perdu; it being necessary to make a new
mould for every plate.
’ But as M. Didot’s views were by degrees extended to the casting
of pages for book printing, he found it unnecessary to use durable
moulds, and therefore, after a year’s experiment invented a compo-
sition, which, like the sand used by brass-founders, might be wrought
over again for different casts. The elegant editions produced by M.
Didot and sons, are the best proof of his suceess. °

When the fame of M. Didot’s invention reached England, Lord
Stanhope, an ingenious and wealthy nobleman, whose time and for-
tune are principally devoted to the advancement of the arts, made
propositions to Mr. Andrew Wilson, of Wild Court, Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, proprietor of the Oriental press, to assist him in such experi-
ments as might bring to perfection a new mode of stereotyping, of
which his lordship had obtained some ideas. Mr. Wilson, embraced
the proposal ; and after four or five years of incessant labor, they at-
tained nearly all the advantages they had contemplated. Mr. Wil-
son, in the year 1802, built his foundry in Duke street, Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, and in the following year disposed of the secret for six thou-
sand pounds sterling, and some future advantages to Mr. Richard
ve, for the use of the University of Cambridge. In the year

* We have seen a Leaaew — of this art produced by Mr. John:
Watts, of this city ; g Pp
Vou. Saar es 42

326 The most simple means of employing dead Animals.
following he disposed of it on similar terms to the University of Ox-
ford.* ee ee

About two years ago a brother of Mr. Watts of Cambridge, began
a course of experiments in this city for a more cheap and easy man-
ner of stereotyping, than any hitherto discovered ; and in spite of in-
numerable disadvantages has succeeded beyond his utmost expecta-
tion. We have seen plates of his casting of the greatest perfection
and beauty. The chief difficulty he has experienced arose from the
jealousy and illiberality of the common type founders, who refused
to lend the little aid he required ofthem. It is agreeable to us, howev-
er, from our own observation to be able to state that by uncommon per-
severance through accumulated obstacles, Mr. Watts, has invented a
method of casting the common types much more perfect than those
made in the usual way; and now will posed with his plate without —
the assistance of other artists. : ocesdaaaae .

The principal defects in M. Didot and Les Senbope'ss pl -
es, arise from the softness of the moulds they employ, which are =
composed of plaster of Paris and some other ingredients. In taking
them from the page, of which they are intended to cast a perfect
copy, some part of the composition will always remain in the type,
and leave the mould imperfect. After the plates are cast, thereis
consequently much work for an engraver, to make them fit for use.
Mr. Watts’s mould, ae of solid neers no aalts ee
can arise. =

Arr. XV.—WNotice of the most ition areas dead
animals ; by M. Paven, Manufacturer, Professor of Chemistry.

Remarks.—The translation from the French, of the following me- -
moir, on the use of dead animals, was sent to us by a valued cor-
respondent. Our hesitation (created by some of its revolting details,
as to the propriety of publishing it was at length, overcome not only by
the consideration that it presents facts, some of which may be useful in
this country, but also by the very remarkable exhibition which it pre-—
sents, of a state of society, (so foreign from any thing existing here,) :

* The two Universities of England, have the exclusive right of printing Bibles

and Prayer Books. Twenty or thirty presses are generally employed in that
ness alone; the classic departments requiring many others.

The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 327

in which such employments can be regarded as desirable. The
physiological facts are also very surprising, and such as we should
very little expect. Who, without decisive evidence, would believe,
that the flesh of an animal which can communicate a fatal infection
by mere contact, can be safely eaten by man! Those of our readers,
whose nerves are delicate, may as well pass over this memoir without
perusing it, while to those who appreciate curious and useful results,
without regarding the pleasantness of the path by which they arrive

at them, it will prove a valuable acquisition to their stock of informa-
tion.— Editor.

In many places, the laborious inhabitants of the country carefully
gather different remains of little value, such as stubble, leaves and
twigs of wood, which they collect in forests for their fuel; the ma-
nure of horses, which they scrape up from the roads to increase
their scanty store. They often deprive themselves of part of
their own food to raise dogs and cats; while they allow the greater
part of their dead animals to be lost, which they might without much
trouble turn to great advantage, either by applying them to their
own wants, or selling them to manufactures, who, almost every where
in France, are in want of animal materials necessary for their opera-
tions. The value of these dead animals, according to the uses to
which they may be applied will be much greater than that of many
objects which they are accustomed as we have said, to glean with
trouble.

When an animal dies in the country either from disease or accident,
they generally hasten to bury it very deeply, thus throwing away all
the profit which they might obtain from it. ‘They cherish an ayer-
sion to their dead carcasses, from the idea, universally prevalent, that
they are unwholesome; that there is danger in approaching and
handling them, if they had been ever so little affected with disease,
or the flesh has commenced giving out a little bad odor. Before we
- point out all the uses to which dead animals may be applied it will
be necessary to destroy these false ideas; we shall doubtless effect
ahi me by informing them aie none of the numerous individuals em-
large cities, where are slaughter-
ed all diseased animals, where are cut up all animals that have died of
diseases of any kind (one only excepted, which we shall clearly make
known ;) that none of the laborers in work houses where they ma-
nipulate with animal matters experience any particular indisposition,

328 The most simple means of employing dead Animals.

or are subject to any disease which can be attributed to these sub-

neds = .
It is therefore a great error to regard these professions as unwhole-
some. Numerous reports of learned men; of physicians, and ad-
ministrative authorities, have proved that the most infected establish-'
ments, where are employed animal matters often in a state of putre-
faction, and especially catgut manufactories, slaughter houses for
horses, and the shops of glue makers, are in general not at all unwhole-
some. But we are to understand that it is entirely different with re-
gard to vegetable matters (remains of plants) in fermentation, alone,
or mixed with animal matter ; thus the pits in which hemp is steep-
ed; muddy marshes ; deposits of soap suds; clearings of ponds,
gutters, or canals, may give rise to disease even at considerable
distances. :
We have said that one distemper nloui after bids caused ae
death of animals may be dangerous to those who flay their carcasses,
independently of the accidents which happen by a puncture or
wound aiding the communication of the disease. The distemper of
which we speak is known by the name of Carbuncle because it often
gives rise to tumors, which when they are accompanied with sores
are covered ordinarily with blackish crusts. Animals attacked with
carbuncle evince a deep sadness, their sides are greatly agitated;
we observe in different parts of their bodies, especially on the breast
and near the sides, swellings or tumors, which cause them a great
deal of pain, and which sometimes when they are touched sound —
= dry skin 5 aici sometimes ensues in twenty four hourss The
blood and flesh very brown. Finally, for.
fet that there phowid be any uncertainty, even when we think that
carbuncle could not be recognized by the preceding indications, it
will be proper always to consult a veterinary surgeon, and in case there
should remain any doubts concerning the nature of the distemper,
we should abstain from cutting up the animal. In the latter case,
and if the contagious nature of the disease should be apparent we
should bury the dead animal two feet under ground. In order to
convey it to the grave, a hurdle or an old door should be used, and
a hook fixed in the end of a long handle in order to prevent the
blood and exuvie from being scattered over the soil during the
passage, and to avoid touching the carcase. ‘The place of inter-
ment, should be marked in some particular manner. Grain may be
conveniently sown over it in order to profit by its powerful subterranean

The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 329

vapor. At the end of two years the grave may be opened, the
bones will be found completely denuded of flesh, and fit for the
uses which we shall point out hereafter.

In the same manner may be employed animals which have “ai
come more or less softened by incipient putrefaction; in the lat-
_ ter case, they may be made to serve a more useful purpose as ma-
nure, by tearing off the flesh with long handled instruments as hedg-
ing bills, pitch-forks, &c. then, mixing it with dry earth it is spread,
alter having extracted the bones, in thin layers upon ground to be
cultivated, or in small heaps among the feet or tufts of different plants
at a distance from each other, such as corn, potatoes, tobacco, vines,
olive trees, &c. All this manure should be covered with earth which
absorbs and retains the products of the fermentation and gradually
transmits them to the plants.

- Animals which have been bled and sold to the butchers soon after
the invasion of non contagious diseases, have-never caused any acci-
dents either to those who have flayed them or cut them up, nor to
those persons who have eaten them. We may cite as examples the
oxen and cows slaughtered in great numbers during an epizootia,
sheep affected with the rot (a kind of small pox,) all those animals
which die rapidly after having been attacked with swellings in mead-
ows of wet clover, or in consequence of excessive fatigue : this lat-
ter case is besides very analogous to what happens so frequently to
those animals which are driven hard in the chase. Animals killed
by lightning like those destroyed by disease or fatigue should be very
soon skinned and dissected; the former particularly are subject to
putrefaction much more rapidly than those whose deaths may be ow-
ing to other causes.

As to those animals which are not commonly subservient eithet
to the nourishment of man, or other animals; such as horses, dogs,
cats, rats and even polecats, their flesh is not in any manner un-
wholesome; we have often seen workmen feeding upon it, merely
adding to it a little more pepper and other spices, in order to dis-
guise the peculiar taste of some one of these animals. Polecats in
particular have so strong an odor that few persons could be induced
to taste them, whatever the seasoning ; but we can bear witness that
they may be eaten, without the least danger.

- The greater number of animals should be skinned and dissected

in the same manner ; commencing by dividing the skin of the abdo-
“mien throughout its whole length and thickness, from the lower jav,

330 The most simple means of employing dead Animals.

along the neck, the breast and the belly, as far as the tail; a cross
cut is then made along each leg as far as the foot: the skin is cut
all around the limb, and is then detached from all parts of the ani-
mal, by pulling it with one hand, at first in the middle of the belly,
and making with the other hand a great number of strokes with a
knife, the edge of the blade being directed more towards the flesh, _
for fear of cutting the skin.

An acquaintance with this operation may be obtained by imitating

the manner of the butcher boys, and skinners by profession. It
would be better to apply to one of these, if he is to be found in the
neighborhood. In places near manufactories where they work in
skins (tanneries, taweries, &c.) the skins can be sent to these estab-
lishments quite fresh, after which.the ears, flesh and bones contain-
ed in the tail are removed; skins are sold by weight. If on the
contrary the skins are to be sent to some distance, or kept some
time until there is occasion to transport them, it will be necessary to
remove carefully all the remaining flesh, and which may cause them
to spoil: it will be proper even in this case to remove the tail.

When the skin has been separated from the animal in the manner —
just related, all the bowels and other viscera are to be drawn from
the abdomen and chest, the whole placed in a pit dug in a mound
of earth as dry as possible 5 all the soft parts must be torn apart by
two persons pulling in contrary directions by means of pitchforks a
_ strong rakes, then to be mixed with a sufficient quantity of | earth to
form, not a paste, but a moist powder; the manure thus" obtained
may be employed immediately by being spread over the earth under
culture, by being divided in small portions between the hillocks of
different plants as we have before stated; or finally by being spread
in furrows dug between rows of plants eed in lines and covered
with earth.

If the animal is pipeble of serving as nourishment for. man or an- —
imals, as itis in the greatest number of cases, the most advan-
tageous use it can be put to, it will be proper to cook it that it
may be consumed before it spoils, or to salt it that it may be pre-
served during the time necessary for a prolonged consumption. To
this effect, we are to put up in one vessel or more, large stone pots
for example, all the parts which spoil the soonest ; these are the liv-
er, the heart, and the spleen ; if they cannot be. consumed at once, they
are to be put in a pot, by placing at the bottom a litle salt at first,
then adding successively all the pieces after rolling them over a ta-

©
.

The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 331

ble covered with salt. We then set aside, and salt in the same
manner, in order to be consumed, the head cut in two, the neck di-
vided into five or six pieces, and the end of the sides; all the rest
of the animal is to be divided into portions that may be easily intro-
duced into the stone pots, where they are to be placed in layers, be-
tween which is to be strewn a bed of salt; care is to be used to cov-
er the pots as tightly as possible, either with parchments, slates, or
stone plates and mortar of loam mixed with cows’ hair, and to keep
them in a cool place.

The raw flesh of anisticls may likewise be easily preserved by
cutting it in very small slices, and keeping it immersed for an hour
in a ley of soda rendered more caustic by lime mixed with salt and
a little saltpetre ; it will be sufficient to expose these slices to the air
- to dry them, or to keep them in a dry place. If, in killing the ani-
mal, a certain quantity of blood should be collected, it may be em-
ployed directly for the eens of hogs ;* it will suffice then to
dilute it with water, and to mix it with the aliments commonly ane
them ; there is even no inconvenience in making it serve for
a a of man, as is done in Sweden, by kneading it ih

ough, or adding it to fat hashed up and seasoning it properly to

make a sort of black pudding.

~ We know that there need be no fear of any of the affections of
which the animals may have died to those who feed upon the flesh
of them; we may be assured of this from very numerous examples,
both in the provisioning of armies, and in the sales made by the
keepers of cattle to the butchers, during the prevalence of very fatal
affections among animals. These different facts prove that the food
from animals dead of diseases has never occasioned the least evil to
- persons who have eaten of it. The fact has even been proved, that
the flesh of animals dying of contagious diseases, and which we have
before advised to inter without skinning them, has done no injury to
those who have been nourished by it, although these animals had

* It is chap be that hogs, when they have been some time fed upon blood or
flesh, become prone to run after children, chickens, &c.; but there need be little
fear of these accidents, since hogs should always be separated from other animals
of the farm yard, and, for a stronger reason, from children: besides, the anima

fear of these results, it will be easy to boil the blood with water, before mixing it
all with bran, » &e.

332 The most simple means of employing dead Animals.

communicated a mortal affection to people who had dissected them.*
Thus, then, we should never renounce the use of the flesh of those
animals which have died from accident or disease, for the nourish-
ment of man, from the fear of being injured by it; but it often hap-
pens that the flesh will be at once tough, soft and distasteful; in this
case, it should still be preserved in the manner stated above, for the
nourishment of dogs, hogs, and even poultry; if stewed a sufficient
length of time, and in a quantity of water nearly equal to that used
in boiling, it may be very easily cut up or hashed, and mixed with
five or six times the quantity of potatoes, bran, &c. This mixture
produces much more profitable nutriment to the domestic animals of
which we have just spoken, than if there had been no mixture; it
may be as good for them and more nourishing than the best wheat
bread :"we cannot, therefore, too earnestly advise the inhabitants of
the country to avail themselves of their dead animals, excepting
only, we repeat, those whose contagious diseases, before described,
should be dangerous to the persons engaged in skinning them, and

: d, ina memoir published in the year VIII, by M. Huzard, canine of

the Hiaitie: a great number of facts, conielusive on this head, and from among
ich we will cite the mss

During the contagious disease among cattle of 1770, and of the year VI, which

amuch more dangerous dicicier than the preceding, the number of beasts

gold to the butchers was very great, yet without — of the diseases having been

oe among the people
‘The physicians charged with the care of visiting the selina (who would have
been more exposed, if there ca been any real danger from the use of these base

viands,) being catia have only been able to cite examples tending to prove the
harmlessness of this food.
The opening a animals killed. in the es presents the same pathological phe-
as th av of carbuncle. This disease is sometimes,
indeed, occasioned by forced and violent marches.
se of game, partly putrefied, does not occasion any distemper

The chief physicians of the French armies of Sombre and Meuse, Rhine and Mo-
selle, of Italy, have witnessed, as M. Huzard has, a great part of their armies nour-
ished for along time on the flesh of beeves and cows, which had died of the distemper
which prevailed in the year IV, without any disease resulting to the numerous con-
sumers of it.

Many observations, like those related of the two butchers of the Invalides, cited
by M. Huzard, prove that diseases have been contracted, and even that death has
supervened, among persons who had skinned animals affected with contagious dis-
eases, while none of those who had been fed upon the flesh of these animals had
been indisposed

The almost general use, among the poor inhabitants of Paris, of the flesh of horses,
md died during the famine of the year VII, was not followed by any special af-

*

The most simple means of employing dead Animals. 333

those which, already in a state of putrefaction, would be useful only
for manuring the earth. In whatever way the flesh of animals is
employed for nourishment, it will be proper to separate the bones,
to be used as we shall point out further on.

Recipe for converting dead animals to a useful purpose.

The following means will permit the employment of dead animals
as nourishment, in places even where there may be no person capa-
ble of skinning them.

Commence by opening the abdomen of the animal, and drawing
out all the viscera, which may be used for manure, in the way before
described ; the animal is then .to be cut into pieces of such a size
that each may be put into a pot or kettle, which is to be half filled
with water and then heated until the water begins to boil; one of
the pieces is then placed in it, and allowed to boil until the skin can
easily be removed ; this scalded piece is then taken out, care being
taken promptly to remove the skin by seizing it between the blade
of the knife and the thumb, afterwards scraping off the hair with the
same knife. * Each time that a piece is removed, it will be necessary
to add a little water, to replace that which has evaporated, and to keep
it boiling for the reception of another part. When all the portions
have been scalded in this manner, they may be salted for preserva-
tion, or stewed, in order to be employed in feeding dogs, hogs or
fowls. ‘The water in which all the parts of the animal have been
boiled, should be passed through thin linen, to separate the hair, and
mixed afterward with bran, &c. for feeding hogs.

When the skin of an animal may have been damaged, or cannot
be sold to the tanners, either on account of the distance or any other
reason, we may make use of it by scalding it in the manner just re-
lated, in order to separate the hair, cutting it afterward into very small
portions, and cooking it by a small fire, in about six times its volume
of water, (two quarts of water to a pound of skin, thus di vided 4)
after seven or eight hours cooking, salt and seasoning may be added;
the liquor is then to be strained through a cloth; when cooled, it
forms a very nutritious and agreeable jelly.

We may likewise easily preserve the meat drened for food ; to
this effect, place beforehand some stone pots in a good. position;
these are.to be rinsed out, the moment before being used, with boil-
ing water, and then are to be filled with the stewed meat, hot, and
seasoned with salt, thyme, le Bes ; then reduce rapidly, over

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2

334 The most simple means of employng dead Animals.

the fire, to one quarter of its volume, the liquor or broth in which
the food has been cooked, and turn it upon each of the pots filled
withthe meat, well heaped up.

If the cooked meat should be too lean to form a bed of fat i in
each pot, it will be well to add any other fat matter which may be at
hand ; pot grease or any old fried meat, for example, which may be
melted for this purpose.

The pots thus filled must be closed with their covers, or with
plates, bound around with strips of old linen, covered with a paste of
flour and water. These pots are to be kept in a cellar or any other
cool place, and when one of them is commenced upon it is to be
consumed as quickly as possible, to avoid its being spoiled, especially
if in the summer.

An excellent method of preserving either the gelatinous liquor ob-
tained from cooking the meat or skin, or the flesh cooked and hashed
up, or finally the blood, consists in mixing these substances, sufficient-

ly salted, with the dough of bread; the day following the baking, the —

bread is to be cut into slices of from six lines to an yo thickness,
these slices to be returned into the oven whence bread has just been
taken, the door of which is to be left open to facilitate the drying.
These slices, thus well dried, will keep many years, when put up in

dry barrels, and stowed ina granary. We may thus form very good —

provisioning, either for men or animals; it is useless to add, that for
these latter, we may employ, in making the dough, the chea|

and even bran. In order to make use of this bread, it may be treat~
ed with water, in the manner of obtaining a soup of ordinary con-

sistence.

As it is probable that, notwithstanding the preceding directions, it
will not be at once determined in the country, to use the flesh of
dead animals for nourishment, and besides all the parts not being ap-
plicable thereto, we point out the other most sini means of —
advantage from their remains.

Skins.

When the skin cannot be sent to a tanner ‘while fresh, it will be
easy to preserve it for some time by scraping off with a knife all the
flesh remaining upon it, then exposing it to the air, stretched upon a
line or nailed against the wall. If it be necessary to wait some
months for opportunity to send them to the tanners, it will be neces-
sary to soak them two or three days in water, to which has been

On the most simple means of employing dead animals, 335

added about a quarter of a pound of slacked lime for every pailfull
of water, to turn them several times a day in this liquid and stretch
them afterwards in order to dry them. This simple operation will
answer equally well for the preservation of the tendons, (vulgarly
called nerves,) the clippings of the skin, &e. which may be kept
to sell to the glue makers.

The skins of horses, oxen, cows and pis may be treated thus ;
as to those whose hair is valuable, the skins of sheep, hares and rab-
bits, they may be preserved by salting; for this purpose, take as
much water as will suffice to soak them in, to which is added com-
mon salt in the proportion of a large handfull to a pint of water;
soak the skins in this mixture, turning them occasionally, for seven
or eight days in winter, and two days in summer; at the end of
this time, stretch them in the air to dry.

Bristles, Hair, Wool and Feathers.

To whatever use we may wish to put these substances, it will be
necessary to dry them, that they may not spoil; for this purpose we
spread them in an oven after baking bread, when it has been well
swept out and we are assured that the heatis sufficiently abated that
no risk will be run of burning them. In order to be still more cer-
tain of preserving these matters a long time, it will be well, before ta-
king them from the oven, to place in the midst of them, after separa-
ting them a little, a flower pot supported between two pieces of brick,
in order that the air may have access at the hole in the bottom, in
which the half or quarter of a sulphur match should be burned ;
while the match is burning the door of the oven should be shut,
and a quarter of an hour after we may remove the materials from
the oven, and pack them up in boxes, cases, barrels, or any other
vessel, in which they can be well closed. Horse hair may be pre-
served without any preparation; the longest is usefully employed in
making cords for spreading linen upon, which last a long time, and
are not apt to produce spots in wet weather, as cords of hemp or
raw flax. ‘The short hairs will serve to stuff furniture, saddles, &c.
With respect to the short hair and the fur, by mixing them with
an equal volume of moist earth they form an excellent manure,
which acts mildly and for a long time; their mixture with a sandy
earth or with good garden mould is perfectly suitable for shrubberies
as I have proved by many trials, they smoke and air the soil, and
on this account, are proper for all vegetables. Feathers mixed with

336 On the most simple means’ of employing: dead Animals.

moist earth form likewise a good manure, and they may be used i
this purpose, when they can be used for no other. %
Shoes and Nails. |
When oxen, horses, asses or mules die or are killed, their feet
often remain shod with shoes and nails; these should be torn off
with strong pinchers; the nails are useful to masons, to fasten stucco ~
plasterand mortar spread upon wood. In many provinces, and es-
pecially in Auvergne, these nails are kept to put in wooden shoes,
which render them more durable; they are likewise useful to pale up
fruit-trees along walls, by fastening their branches, with the aid of lit-
tle strips of linen which support them.
Horns, Hoofs, Spurs, &c.
In order to separate these parts of the animal from the onde
which fill them, it will suffice to allow them to soak in the same wa- —
ter, until they can be easily detached by passing —— — -
blade of a knife.
Spurs, horns and hoofs are formed of the same elastin ‘leas S

which are sufficiently large, without defects, and of a light shade,

can be sold to the toymen ; as to their value, the countrymen who
live in the environs of large cities, may inform themselves by apply .
ing to the persons who exercise these professions ; it varies in differ:
ent localities. The price of those which are of a clear color, and
have defects, or may not be sufficiently large, may be increased b -
reducing them by rasping, before sending them to the toymakers
Those which cannot be disposed of thus, as well as those which « are
very brown, and which have very prominent defects may Be sold to
the establishments for making prussian blue—they are worth from ten —
to fifteen franks for one hundred kil., or they will serve to form ex-
cellent manure; but for this purpose it is necessary to divide them
very fine, the best means being to rasp them with a coarse rasp; the —
powder thus obtained may be spread over meadows, or beds of veg-
etables over all the earth under culture, or at the feet of different
plants. ‘This manure is so powerful, that the quantity obtained from
four hoofs of a horse, ordinarily produces almost as much effect as
a small load of dung, and indemnifies sufficiently for a labor, very —
hard it is trae, but which may be performed by women or children,
often but little occupied i in the country. ‘This powder sold as ma- —
nure for the colonies, is valued at about twenty francs the hundred
kil. For want of a rasp, the horns may be eut in small pieces by

On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. 337

means of a knife well sharpened after softening them in boiling water ;
horns, thus cut are less: effective than when reduced by rasping, but
their action lasts longer.
issanpil te
When an animal which cannot serve as aliment, is cut up, we
should carefully collect, and set aside all the fat which we can find;
itis to be cut up in small portions and melted, by heating it slowly
over the fire, when it is entirely liquid, and does not froth any more
it is to be left some minutes away from the fire, passed through a cloth
which is to be strongly twisted, and then poured into very dry pots, to
_ be kept cool and well covered. The fat thus prepared is very useful
—~for greasing the axletrees of wheels, the harness of carriages, leather
of shoes, &c.
F Bones.
- In localities at a distance of five leagues or more (unless at greater
distances these transportations can be cheaply effected by return
loads) from factories of ivory black and of toys, bones, collected in
sufficiently large quantities, may be transported and sold advanta-
geously, in these establishments ; as in many places we may be de-
prived of this resource, and even of that of a mill to reduce them to
acoarse powder, it will be necessary to divide them as well as pos-
sible, by cutting with a hatchet on a block, all the flat bones, and the
softer parts, such as the bones of the head, neck, shoulders, sides and
the round ends of the large bones ; as to the large bones themselves
they may be broken by means of a marline, When they have been
thus all broken in pieces, as small as possible, they may be made to
serve as manure, particularly on moist meadows; their good effects
will be came five or six years afterwards. It will be necessa-
ry to be careful not to spread these bones upon a sandy or very dry
soil, for if they should not be sufficiently divided to be entirely de-
composed in fifteen or twenty years, their effect would scarcely be
| _—,
a Blood and Flesh.
es ‘When it should be decided not to employ by the means which we
have before pointed out, these two substances for the nourishment of
“men and animals, an excellent manure may very easily be obtained
from them. As to blood, it will be necessary to heat it in a kettle,
oriron pot, stirring it incessantly with a wooden ladle, or better, with
- birmaach iron until it is reduced to a sort of a humid
‘Then it is taken from the fire and allowed to cool Miki iis to be
divided by rubbing it between the hands and mixed with two or three

338 On the most simple means of employing dead Animals.

times its volume of dry earth; this mixture produces an excellent ma-
nure very easy to be spread very thinly upon cultivated earth, or be-
tween the tufts of different plants. Relatively to flesh, it may be
stewed up, without taking out the bones, in large kettles or pots in
which it should be completely immersed in water and closed com-
pletely with a cover well pressed down upon the edge of the pot or
kettle, by means of three or four large stones. (In order to close it
‘still better, it will be well to put between the edge and the cover
some old pieces of linen.) After having thus, slowly, boiled the whole
for seven or eight hours we may try whether the meat has be-
come very tender by thrusting into it the blade of a knife. If it still
remains tough, we should continue to heat for an hour or two; then
removing the meat from the pot we can extract all the bones from it,
to be employed as before said, and the meat is to be hashed up as
fine as possible ; it is to be mixed with dry mould, when it will an-
swer for manuring the earth, as we have just said of the blood.

We,may employ the raw meat as manure, by placing it near the
hillocks of plants; but in this case it will be necessary, in order to
spread it in small quantity at a time, to hash it or cut it up in small
portions—a rather tedious operation—and it will be proper to cover
it with earth, that it may not be too easily perceived and devoured
by rats and other little field animals. This latter precaution will be
proper in all cases; especially as it is easily accomplished. Raw
meat is however ‘we advantageous for manuring the earth than when
it is cooked, because, in the former state, it is too quickly decompo-
sed, and a great quantity of the gas which it produces is lost. This
observation applies equally to blood which is employed without cook-
ing. The flesh, as well as all interior parts, the blood, and empty
bowels, may likewise be used in summer to produce maggots or little
white worms; those are employed with much advantage, and sell
sufficiently dear in pheasant walks, because they form a substitute
for the eggs of ants, for the nourishment of young pheasants. In
Paris; a bushel (the eighth part of a hectolitre) of maggots sells for
from four to six francs, for the royal and private pheasant walks. The
production of these little worms is so lucrative, that in order to obtain
them, there is employed during the favorable seasons almost all the
flesh and intestines of three or four thousand horses, which are killed
at Montfaucon during this space of time.

The following is the manner of obtaining the maggots. A bed of
flesh and entrails, five or six inches thick, is to be spread upon the

On the most simple means of employing dead Animals. 339

ground and lightly covered with eight or ten inches of straw or litter.
Soon a great number of flies pass throngh the straw and deposit their
eggs upon the animal matter. Some days after, the worms, hatched
and developed, replace almost all the animal matter which they have
devoured ; we find them mixed with a sort of mould and some mor-
sels of flesh or tendons; these are to be separated with the hand, and
all the mass of white worms and the mould with which they are mix-
ed, collected with a shovel and put into sacks, to be sent either to the
pheasantries or to the yards where they are employed.

In the great heats of summer, it is useful to protect the bed of re-
mains, where the maggots are forming, from the warmth of the sun,
by means of straw matting or litter supported upon sticks a few feet
above the beds.

Maggots take the place very advantageously of the eggs of ants,
not only for young pheasants, but likewise for raising turkies, little
chickens, and divers other domestic birds.*

With these little worms may be raised nightingales, linnets, and
other birds which are fed upon insects.

Fishers with the line consume great numbers of them in ‘certain
localities, and often pay very high for them. One of the most use-
ful employments to which these maggots may be put, is to throw
them into fish ponds, where they are quickly devoured, and the fish
fatten very quickly upon them. With this aliment, two or three times
the number of fishes can be kept in the same pond, and eight or ten
times the produce obtained, for the want of nourishment alone di-
minishes the number of fishes, when amongst them there are not
found any voracious ones, and they are besides protected from the
different animals which eat them.

In order better to show the profit which the inhabitants of the
country may obtain from dead animals, we will give, as example,
the total value of a horse, by the easy operations which we have
pointed out. We have placed in the same table the indication of
the value of the same parts of a horse of rather large size, and in
good condition, as is often found in the country, which has perished
by accident. ‘The weights of these dead bodies, result from a suffi-
cient number of experiments which we have had occasion to make
upon horses killed by the horse killers of Paris.

* It is not proper to feed hens exclusively with them, as the eggs may contract a
bad taste. This inconvenience need not be feared, if we are careful to mix them
with grains or other vegetable aliment.

340 On the most simple means of employing dead Animals.

The value which we have placed upon the different products
which maybe obtained from them, is what they yield some leagues
from Paris, consumed on the spot or sold in commerce; in a great
number of places in France, which are indeed within reach of cities
or sea-ports, the same prices may be obtained, and in almost all other
places, the agriculturists collect from them as much and more profit
for their own consuming.

The dissection of these two sorts of horses, has given, in fresh
materials, the following mean quantities.

Horse of medium size. Horse of good ditio
@ kil. gr. kil. gr.
Skin, - - - - - 34 37
Blood, - - - 18 500 20 810
Short and long hair, - % 100 220
Shoes and aul - . - 450 800
Hoofs, - 1 500 1 860
Viscera and Gaasmee a
liver, brains, 36 39
Tendons, - - - - g 2 100
‘i 4 150 31 500
Muscular flesh, (viande,) - 164 203
Bones, completely cleared after
coun, - - =. =. 46 48 500
Total weight of the dead bodies, 306 700 384 «790

e preparation of these matters costs but little more than the
combustibles (wood, fagots, turf, &c.) which is used, in winter for
heating, cooking &c. The other expense is nothing but the labor
and in the country there is so much time lost by children and young
people during the winter evenings, and at times when there is nothing
to be done in the fields, that these new occupations would not often
disturb other work and would lessen the danger of idleness.

The cutting up of dead animals would be more profitable than
we have supposed i in the preceeding table, if we were to employ the
blood and flesh in feeding hogs ; indeed we should obtain still more
profit by employing them for the nourishment of man.

Country people may then obtain at least the value of 60 francs
from the use of the dead body of a horse of medium size. How
often are they ignorant that with so little expense they may obtain
amuch greater price from an ox or a cow, whose weight often
amounts to more than 450 kilogrammes.

The most stmple means of employing dead Animals. | 341

No animal, however small, should be neglected ; for even though
they would not be of any other use, we may in a few minutes cut
them up into small portions upon a log, with the aid of a hedging
bill, run a furrow between the ranges of different plants, and deposit
these portions in it at 15 or 18 inches apart, and cover them with
earth; the increase of the product of the surrounding plants, which
may be remarked often many years afterwards, will indemnify very
amply, for the little trouble we may have had to obtain it.

Many times, at the gates of Paris, where work is very dear, the
horse killers have found it advantageous to skin rats and dry the skins
in the air to sell to the furriers at 3 francs, 75 cts. a hundred. Mole
skins are sold as high as 10 francs the hundred.

In the horse yards, the skins of cats and dogs are used in the
same manner ; the fat of these animals is melted, as we have said,
and sold very dear; and finally the flesh of horses, dogs and cats,
when it is of a fine red color, and presents no brown or livid spots,
is destined, secretly, for the nourishment of men.

] the industrious people who are occupied in curing these
animal substances, are in want of the former materials in France, or
procure them at great expence from foreign nations; in scarcely
any place are these substances sufficient for manuring the earth, and
every where, without exception, they may be very advantageously
employed.

£4 d

ected in
places where there is a dense population; are totally Tost i in most small
towns, villages, and hamlets.

Let us hope that in future it will not be so; country people who
know so well how to employ objects of the least value for the wants
of their families, should not neglect these useful substances, the least
advantage of which is to fertilize the earth, increasing thus the pro-
duct of the harvest which, contributing to the supply of their particular
necessites, concurs at the same time to promote the general good.

- Since such important results were worthy of the attention bestowed
by the royal and central society of agriculture, they will doubtless
excite the solicitude of the enlightened administrators of our depart-
ments, who know how to encourage all the means of obtaining them.*

* The memoir from which this notice is extracted points out a great number of
means of a more elevated order for the employment of animal matters in various
arts ; it will form a part of the Memoirs of the royal and central Socrety of Agri-

1830.
Vou. AXIV.—No. 2. 44

342 An Essay on Gypsies.

Arr. XVI.—An 5 his on Gypsies ; abridged fon the Revue En-
pelepesiges, Nov. 1832 ; by J. Griscom.

Tuere are few questions in Anthropology or Ethnography which
have more closely engaged the attention of philologists, geographers
and historians than that of the origin and character of this singular
people. A race of men which presents the most extraordinary phe-
nomenon in social life, has existed nearly four centuries in Europe ;
and yet remains almost unknown. Neither time, climate, polities
nor example have produced any change in their institutions, their
manners, their language or their religious ideas. The Israelites are
the only people, who have preserved, like them, their primitive char-
acter in foreign lands, but with far less distinctness and discrimi-
nation.

Names by which a are known in the different countries in which
they reside—The Arabs and Moors call them Harami (robbers) ;
the Hungarians, Cinganys and Pharaoh Nepek (people of Phara-
oh). The latter name is also given them in Transylvania; the Eng-
lish have adopted the name of Gipsies, an alteration of the word
Egyptians ; the Scotch, that of Caird ; the Spanish call them Gita-
nos; the Portuguese, Ciganos; the Dutch, Heidenen (idolaters) ;
the Russians, T'zengani; the Italians, Zingari; the Swedes, Spa-
karing ; the Danish and Norwegians, Tatars; the Wallachians,
Bessarabians, Moldavians, Servians and Sclavonians, Cigani ; ; the
Germans, Zigeuner; in France they received at first the name of

and more recently that of Bohemiens, because the earli-
est of the tribe came into France from Bohemia. Historians of the
middle ages, designate them by the name of 2zinghans ; the mod-
ern Greeks, under that of Jinghans; in Adzerbaidjan, they are
called Hindou Karach, (black Hindoos); in Persia, Louri; the
Bucharians and inhabitants of Turkistan, call them Tziaghi which
appears to be the root of Tchingeni the term given by the Turks to
this wandering race. I have been acquainted in Europe with three
of their Rabers or chiefs, who assure me that they call themselves
Roumna-Chal. These two words belong to the Mahratta language,
and signify men who wander in the plains. 1 consider T'zengaris
as their primitive name and which is still preserved in their mother
country.

Jn Essay on Gypsies. 343

Different writers have assigned to these people a very different
origin—one from the eastern part of Tunis,—another from Zan-
guebar—one from Mount Caucasus ;—one considers them as Ger-
man Jews—and others bring them from Egypt, a the Uk-
raine, &c.

We know of but three writers who have placed hie question in a

_ true point of view. ‘The two first, whose opinion is admitted by the
learned generally are Grellmann and David Richardson who consider.
India as the cradle of the Tzengaris; the Abbe Dubois places them
among the Kouravers of Mahissoun, but in our opinion the country
of the Mahrattas is their original position, and there they are still
found united in tribes.

The primitive tribes of the Tzengaris is a subdivision of different
tribes of Parias or men out of caste. The origin of Parias is very
ancient. ‘This sub-caste is formed by the union of individuals driven
from different castes for offences committed against the religion and
laws and includes a great number of tribes, among whom may be
reckoned the Vallouvers, the Chakilis, the Moutchiers, &c. and
lastly the T'zengaris the primitive tribe of our Bohemians and Egyp-
tians or the Zingari of the nations which term still resembles the ori-

- The tribe of Tzengaris, called also Vangaris on the coast of
Concan and of Malabar is nomadic. I have met them often in whole
bands near the ancient and magnificent city of Visapour and in the
vincinity of Bangalore and Mahissour, which we call Mysore, from a
habit of disfiguring eastern names. ‘They are in general of a dark
complexion which justifies the Persian appellation of black Hindoos.
Their religion, institutions, manners, and language, differ from those
of other tribes of Hindoos. During a war they are addicted to pil-
lage, carry provisions for the armies, and fill them with spies and
dancers. During peace they make coarse stuffs, and deal in rice,
butter, salt, opium, &c. Their women are as handsome and agree-
able as the generality of Hindoos, but are very lascivious. ‘They
often carry off young girls whom they sell to natives and Euro-
peans. They are accused of immolating human victims to their
- Demons and of eating human flesh. They every where follow the
trade of errand runners and procurers; the women are fortune tel-
: lers, 4 business which they practice by striking on a drum in order
to invoke the Demon, then pronouncing with the air of a siby] and
with rare volubility a string of mystical words, and after having ga-

344 An Essay on Gypsies.

zed at the sky and examined the lineaments of the hand of the per-
son who consults them, they gravely predict the good or evil which
is to be his destiny. The women also practice tatooing, and the fig-
ures of stars, flowers, animals, &c. which they imprint upon the skin
by puncturation and vegetable juices, are ineffaceable. ‘They live
in families, and it is not rare to see father and daughter, uncle and
- niece, brother and sister living like beasts together. They are sus-
picious, liers, gamblers, drunkards, cowards, poltroons and altogeth-
er illiterate ; they despise religion and have no other creed than the
fear of evil genii and of fatality. They originated in the province of |
Mahrat among the eastern Gauts.

The celebrated Cherif Eddin, assures us that Timur sullied his
conquests by the massacre of 100,000 prisoners, Persians and Hin-
doos. The Moaguls: apread such terror in all parts of India, that great

b ppycountry. ‘The Hindoos of the three

. first castes indeed, remained firm to their country ;—their religion _

made it a duty; but no place could retain the Soudras and Parias.
They are such vagabonds that I have myself seen them in Abyssinia, in
Arabia, at Tzouakem in the Persian Gulf, at Penang, at Singapore,
at Malacca, at Manilla, at Celebes, at Anyer and even in China.

Is it not natural to believe that the Tzengaris, who are so accus-
tomed to a camp life, and excluded from Hindoo communion, should
practice or feign to practice religion which offered them so many ad-
vantages, that they should act as spies and purveyors to the Mongul
armies, and that a portion of them should accompany Timur i in his
long. traverse through Kandahar, Persia and Bukabra; and after
—_ through the Caspian and Caucasian regions and leaving be-

hind them a train of detached families, they should have come to a
stand, some in Russia, others in Asia Minor; that a second column
should have passed from Kandahar into Mekran, and Irak-Arabia, and
a third strayed into Syria, Palestine, and Arabia-Petrea and should
have reached Egypt by the Isthmus of Suéz and thence should have
passed into Mauritania. :

Is it not probable that these rude travellers landed from the Black
Sea and Asia Minor in Europe by the intervention of the Turks during
their wars with the Greek empire ; and it is equally probable that the
first of them who came to Europe, sojourned in European Turkey as
Aventine informs us and proceeded thence to Wallachia and Moldavia.
In 1417, they were found in Hungary and at the conclusion of that

ear they were seen in Germany and Bohemia, the next year in
Switzerland, and in 1422 in Italy. Pasquier carries their origin in

ee

An Essay on Gypsies. 345

France to 1417 and says that they styled themselves Christians from
Lower Egypt, expelled thence by the Saracens, but that in reality
they came from Bohemia. From France, they passed into Spain
and Portugal, and afterwards under Henry VIII, into England.
Their hordes commonly consist of two or three hundred persons of
both sexes.

Although it is difficult to explain how they acquired the name of
Gypsies or Egyptians, it is certain they neither have an Egyptian ori-
gin, nor came from Egypt to Europe, as Crantz and Munster have
proved.

Countries in which the Tzengaris are now found.

These people constitute a part of the population of all the coun-
tries of Europe and of a large portion of Asia. In Africa, they ©
are found only in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Soudan and Barbary.
They have never appeared in America.

They are most numerous in Spain, Scotland, Ireland, Turkey, and
Hungary, but especially in Transylvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, Scla-

vonia, Courland, Lithuania and the Caucasian provinces.

hb England they are still pretty numerous, but are found only in
dis tant places, seldom coming into the towns excepting in small com-
panies of two or three persons. In Germany, Sweden and Den-
mark, they have become rare, as also in Switzerland.and the Low

: - Countries. In Italy, their numbers are diminished. In Spain, it is

said that there are fifty or sixty thousand of them, and in Hungary,
according to the best information, about fifty thousand. In Tran-
sylvania, they are the most numerous, for in a population of 1,720,000
souls there are reckoned 104,000 Tzengaris. I have no fear of ex-
aggeration in estimating the Tzengarian population of Europe at
nearly a million, in Africa, at 400,000; in India, at 1,500,000 and
about 2,000,000 in all the rest of Asia, ‘on except in Asiatic Russia,

China, Siam, Annan and Japan, they are every where to be found.

Hence we may deem the total population of these people to be five
millions

_ What a painful subject of reflection is it to think of so large a por-
tion of the human race, thrown as it were beyond the common rights
of nations; so many men wandering about without any claims which
can attach them to the soil, encamping in places remote from civiliza-

‘tion: living by theft and deception, and every where diffused, notwith-

standing the persecutions and contempt which are heaped upon them.
—G. Louis Domeny DeRienzi.

346 On the Collision of two Comets.

Art. XVIl.—On the Collision of two Comets, and the Comet of
July, 1831; by J. J. Lirrrow. (Zeitschrift fiir Physik.)

Or.all the comets which are known to astronomers, that of Biela
is the only one whose orbit is such as to admit of its ever coming in
contact with the Earth. This is a circumstance which renders that
body an object of deep and peculiar interest to the inhabitants of our
globe. Another very remarkable fact, in relation to Biela’s comet,
is, that its orbit passes very near to that of Encke’s comet, so that in
course of time, it will not only make its appearance in the vicinity of
our Earth, but will also pass very near, perhaps even come in con-
tact with the comet of Encke. This possibility of a collision be-
tween two of the bodies of the solar system does not appear to have
engaged the attention of astronomers hitherto, and is, so far as our
knowledge extends, an anomaly in the celestial motions.

The point of space at which it is possible for this encounter to
happen, is situated at a distance from the nearest point of the terres-
trial orbit of little more than half the semi-diameter of this orbit: it
is then by no means impossible that it may fall to our Jot to witness
the interesting spectacle of the conflict of these two comets in the
heavens, and at a distance which is inconsiderable when compared
to that of some other bodies in the solar system. Should such an
event not result in the destruction of the two comets, it would at least
occasion a great derangement in their motions, indeed a total change
in their orbits ; so that we should perhaps have little cause to fear,
for the future, the long dreaded encounter of Biela’s comet with the
The following calculation, founded on the elements given by Encke
and Damoiseau for the year 1832, will serve to show the possibility
of the event alluded to: the elements are as follows :-—

Encke’s comet.

Biela’s.
Longitude of the ascending node, 334° 32’ 5.2” 248° 12/24”

Inclination to the ecliptic, 13° 29/ 12:3" 13° 13013’
Semi-transverse axis, 2.222212 . ‘
Angle of eccentricity, 57° 43/ 6.3 48° 44’ 30.4”

From these data we find, by the well known formule of spherical
trigonometry, that the common intersection of the planes of the two
orbits, makes with the line of the nodes of Encke’s comet on the
ecliptic an angle of 47° 15’ 52.4”, and with that of Biela’s comet

On the Collision of two Comets. 347

an angle of 132° 2’ 27.2”, and “f eg two planes are inclined to
each other at an angle of 18° 6’ 1

It now remains to ascertain me: wc in ndaok the line of inter-
section of the two planes is cut by each of the orbits respectively.
For this purpose we will take for the aphelion longitude of Encke’s
comet 337° 21’ 2.4”, the value determined by Encke himself, with
great accuracy. The aphelion longitude of Biela’s comet is not
known with so great a degree of precision. Olbers gives 292° 39,
Clausen 296° 38’, Damoiseau 289° 56’. Great exactness is not
, hecessary in this element, which is subject to considerable perturba-
tions, particularly from the action of the planet Jupiter. We will
take then for the aphelion longitude 293° 4’ 20”, the mean of the
three values given above, and we shall then have, for the instant in
which the comets pass the common intersection of the planes of their
orbits, the true anomaly reckoned from the aphelion,

44° 26’ 55.2” for Encke’s comet,
87° 10/ 31.2” for Biela’s,
and according to known poe the distances from the sun’s cen-
ter are
1.59881 for Encke’s comet,
1.59868 for Biela’s.

Thus, it appears that the distance of the two comets, at the instant
of their passing the common intersection of the planes of their orbits,
is only 0.00013 of the semi-diameter of the terrestrial orbit, or about
12350 miles.

A slight change in the sletiieuts which, especially those of Biela’s
comet, are subject to great disturbances, may greatly diminish, and
even totally annihilate, this distance, in which case the collision of
the two comets teem take pe in the direction of the line of the

centers.

Tt follows from the preceding investigation, that the point of space
in which this collision might occur is determined by the _— co-

ordinates, referred to the center of the sun.
Heliocentric longitude, 7=21° 0’ 50”

Latitude north, b=9° 49’ 46”
Distance, r= 1.5087

The distance of this point from the nearest point of the terrestrial
orbit, is readily found to be equal to V1+r? —2r cos. 6, or 0.6349
of the semi-diameter of this orbit. Consequently, if at the moment
of contact, the earth should be in the vicinity of this part of its orbit,

348 Comet of July, 1832.

in other words, if this remarkable event should occur about the mid-
dle of October, it would take place within such a distance as to ad-
mit of its being observed by the unassisted sight.

Comet of July, 1832.—Eugene Bouvard has recently calculated,
at the observatory of Paris, the following elements of the parabolic
orbit of this little comet, from the observations of M. Gambart at
Marseilles, continued from July 19, when he discovered it, to the
27th of August.

Instant of the comet’s passage of the perihelion—1832, September
26.028058—mean time reckoned from midnight at Paris.

Perihelion distance, 1.183603
Longitude of the perihelion, 227° 55° 35.9”
Longitude of the ascending node, 72° 26/ 41.9”
Inclination of the orbit, 43°:186 Si”
Heliocentric motion, retrograde.

These elements, which have been communicated to us by Eugene
Bouvard, will be inserted in the Connoissance des Temps for 1835.
‘They are interesting as the first advances of this young astronomer,
in a career so usefully and honorably marked out by his uncle. The
subjoined comparison of the positions observed by M. Gambart with
those resulting from the elements of M. Bouvard, appear, in our view,
by their very small differences, to justify the aghast confidence in ae
exactness of their elements.

Longitude. Latitude. 9, Longitude. Latitude
July 20, +0.1” 0.0” Aug. 13, —17.9% —7.5”
22, +e tet at F< See 16, —5.9 —2.6
35, 400. ae. tee
29, +2.4 —9.4 21, —83 (|-19.9
Aug.-1, .—S.@. =90,0 . $6, Es +t
8, 0.0 —0.4 27, 0.1

a 0.2
Bib. Univ. Oct. 1839,

Description of the Bare Hills. 349

Anr. XVII.—Description of the Bare Hills near Baltimore; by
H. H. Haypen, M.D.

In the year.1810 and at the particular request of the Editor of a
Periodical Journal (“ the Baltimore Medical and Philosophical Ly-
ceum”) J undertook to give a Mineralogical and Geological descrip-
tion of the country surrounding Baltimore, to the extent of about
nine miles. This, although an imperfect sketch, embraced that in-
teresting region, commonly and very appropriately called, the Bare
Hills, the description of which was subsequently republished in Dr.
Bruce’s Journal.

As my knowledge of this region was, at that time, superficial,
and as I have since repeatedly visited, and carefully examined al-
most every part of it and have discovered some interesting minerals,
not before known to exist there; and moreover, as this district, on
account of the variety and character of its minerals, has excited no
small degree of interest among American mineralogists, I have ven-
tured to offer you another, and I trust a much more perfect descrip-
tion; in the hope, that those who may hereafter visit this district,
we with this aid, find the several localities, without fatigue and

n With this view I send you a sketch of the district, as correct, I
believe, as could well be made without an actual survey. Upon this
sketch I have endeavored to designate all the interesting points, and
should you deem it in any degree valuable, it is at your disposal.

The district which I propose to describe, has, I believe, long been
known as the Barrens, or Barren Fields; but, for many years past,
it has been called the “Bare Hills.”

Until the year 1808 or 1810, little was known of the mineralo-
gical character of these hills, and little else. was obvious to the tray-

-_eler besides their repulsive aspect. About this time, the chromate of
iron, in small irregular or rolled masses, was discovered in one of the
deep ravines, by Mr. Henfrey, a gentleman who it is believed, was —
the discoverer of chrome, titanium, and several other interesting min-
erals, in this part of the country. Subsequently, and particularly
since the commencement of regular operations for obtaining chro-

_ mate of iron, this district has excited, especially among mineralo-

gists, a degree of interest not surpassed, perhaps, in the case of any

locality in the United a
Vou. XXIV.—No. 45

350 Desciption of the Bare Hills.

The district in question, lies upon the northern slope of a range of
regular hills, running a little north of east, and south of west. ‘This
northern slope is composed, principally, of serpentine rocks, and is in
extent from east to west, about one mile, and from north to south, or
from the summit to the base of the hills, nearly half a mile. ;

The Falls turnpike road, running north from Baltimore; passes
directly over the ridge, dividing the district into two oe equal
parts.

The approach to the Bare Hills, from Baltimore, i is bya gentle
ascent up the southern slope of the hill, which commences a few rods —
north of the passage of the Susquehannah rail road across the. Falls
turnpike road, six miles from Baltimore. In ascending the hill, the
_ surface presents but little to interest the mineralogist or geologist,
beside the view of the surrounding country ; this, with the exception
of the narrow inter-vale upon the borders of Jones’s falls, is composed
chiefly of high, bold, and picturesque hills, which, at certain seasons
are covered with a luxuriant vegetation. The hill under consideration,
is not, however, without interest to the mineralogist. The first ap-
pearance of a rock-formation is on the left hand, in rising the hill, and
this was first exposed to view in making the turnpike road. Itisof |
mica slate (or what some would call gneissoid) runing in a N. W.
direction (contrary to most of the leading ridges) and having a dip to
the south west. The extent of this formation to the north west is
not exactly known; it has, however, been traced several miles, ale
though it seldom appears above the surface. ie aS |

The grounds, on the right hand, descend iatoecallenss in} hich -
Tuns a small stream of water, supplied by springs which flow at the
head of the valley. At, and in the neighborhood of this point, and
on the slope of the hill upon the east side of the valley, we ob-
serve the first appearances of the magnesian formation, viz. steatite
variously modified. Arriving at the summit, we see on the right
hand, the commencement of the serpentine formation, which extends
northwardly to the base of the hills. On the descent, whichis grad-
ual, the entire district opens to view, both to the right and to the
left, presenting to the eye, a series of hills of regular and pretty uni-
form surfaces, but upon which sterility seems to have established its
uniform and unyielding sway ; for, with the exception of a few stint-
ed shrub oaks, which have taken root and derive a scanty nourish-
ment from a thinly scattered soil, that in time has been formed in a
few of the low depressed places, scarcely a shrub or bush of any

~

Description of the Bare Hills. 351

kind is seen to interrupt the view, or change the barren “per of
this solitary waste.

About midway from the summit to the base of the hills, on the
north, an excavation was commenced in the rocks, in making the
turnpike road, and which, as we descend the hill, deepens and
exposes the rocks upon the right hand, to a considerable depth,
thereby affording an excellent opportunity of examining their struc~

_ ture and composition, which is, perhaps, as interesting as that of any

other place, that has hitherto been exposed to view in this district.
At the base of the hill, where the serpentine formation terminates,
the'road passes over a small stone bridge of one arch, and under
which runs a brook or small stream of water that comes from the
hills to the west, constituting an auxiliary branch of Jones’s Falls,
with which it unites at a short distance east of the bridge. Thence

_the stream pursues an easterly direction, at the base of Bare Hills,

and so passes around the eastern slope in a semi-circular course, un-
til it crosses the turnpike road at the base of the southern mapas
near the point at which the rail road intersects the turnpike.

I have remarked, that on arriving at the summit of the hill,
we observe the commencement of the serpentine formation. As
such, it has hitherto been considered, and is uniformly well un-
derstood. But, in order to avoid exceptions which may hereafter
be made to the character given to these rocks, it seems necessary
that I should be a little more explicit as to their true character. With
this view, I venture the opinion that the aggregate formation of the
rocks of Bare Hills is not strictly serpentine. It is true, that real
serpentine exists in this district, and that even noble serpentine, in
small specimens has been found here; but, the aggregate mass of
the rocks of these hills, according to the classification of Brongniart,
to which I know of no one that is preferable, falls under the denomina-
tion of ophiolite, which he describes as being “a paste of serpentine

enveloping oxidulous iron and other accessory minerals dissemina-

ted :’—Hence Brongniart describes as “ principal varieties,” ferrife-

Tous ophiolite, chromiferous ophiolite, diallagic ophiolite and garnetic

ophiolite—all of which, with the exception of garnetic ophiolite, are
found, at nearly every point of the Bare Hills. The chromiferous vari-
ety seems most abundant ; for the rocks, in nearly the entire district, on
being broken, present the granular chromate. of iron, as a component
part.

352 Description of the Bare Hills.

Besides, there are several other kinds of ‘ accessory minerals”
entering, as will appear hereafter, as constituents, into the composi-
tion of almost the entire mass of these rocks, and which may we
seen by a superficial observer.

Having noted the general features of the Bare Hills, I shall pro-
ceed to designate and point out, upon the accompanying sketch, the
localities of all the different minerals which, as far as I know, have
been found in this district. To effect this object, and to determine |
their relative distances, it becomes necessary to establish a certain
fixed point or points of departure, from which the sathincs simian
urements were taken, in yards or paces.

My first point of departure is at the southern extremity of the vil
of the bridge on the east side at A. From this point south at the
distance of twenty yards, a small foot path leads from the road down
the hill in an easterly direction. At the distance of ninety yards
from the turnpike road, and at the base of the hill by the side of the
path mentioned, the rocks jut out of the hill, and present a remarka-
ble instance of the. admixture of “ accessory minerals,” which con-
stitute ophiolite. It is composed, principally of mp and _
ular felspar.

At B, twenty four yards south from A, an excavation was sil
at the base of the rocks, as they break out of the hill, —
away the water that descends from the hill ina trench cut by the
road side. At the point where the water turns from the road to pass

off down the hill, and at the bottom and sides of the excavation, we
find, on removing the debris and sand that have been deposited | by.
heavy rains, an interesting locality of the schistic ophiolite. It is
composed of interrupted layers of serpentine felspar and magnesia.’
On removing carefully the laminz of serpentine, the surfaces both of
the felspar and serpentine exhibit, upon a white ground, a _—
beautiful arborescence, probably of manganese..

Some of these specimens are not surpassed in delicacy, sib
beauty of delineation, by any thing of the kind that has been found
in this State. ‘These arborescent appearances sro: ites
the rocks of Bare Hills ; but this ] locality furnishes t
of beautiful specimens. Still ascending the hill to the south, on the
east, or left hand side of the road at C, and distant from A, sixty
two yards, we discover running into the hill, a vein, or almost a dyke,
of beautiful white acicular asbestos, four or five feet in thickness.
This locality is rendered the more interesting, as in breaking open a

Description of the Bare Hills. 853

mass of the mineral, we discover occasional cavities or depressions,
filled with small dendritic formations, discolored, and sometimes,
rendered almost black, by manganese, and having the appearance of
minute shrubbery.

Pursuing the same course, upon the margin of the trench or
ditch by the road side, at D, and distant ninety two yards from A,
and so onward to E one hundred and twenty six yards, we meet
with another striking example of “ accessory minerals dissemina-
ted” in serpentine and constituting ophiolite. The rocks between
these two points, appear, on a close examination, to have been
perforated with innumerable holes of an acute rhombic form. At
the surface of the rocks, I have never discovered any appear-
ance of the mineral that once occupied these holes. But on break-

_ing the rock, and obtaining a fresh fracture, we observe numer-
ous crystals of the above form, enveloped in the mass, and from
} to ,3, of an inch in width. It is this substance that has by ex-
posure, been decomposed, and has left the cavities open. What
it is, I have not been able, satisfactorily, to determine. The crys-
tals‘are often well defined, and of a pale greenish color; it resembles
in a degree, some of the varieties of actynolite and epidote. But
I am not aware that either of those minerals is so liable, on expo-
sure, to decomposition and total disappearance from its gangue.

Proceeding south in the same line to F’, two hundred and twenty
seven yards from the point of departure A, we discover in the rocks |
upon the left hand, a vein of semi-opal, running in a S. E. direction.
This mineral is often found upon the surface, in various other places
in this district. But in no one have I found it so pure and trans-
parent as at this place.

- Ascending the hill still farther to G, distant two hundred and forty

ards from A, and near the point where the road-makers commenc-
ed excavating the rocks upon the side of the hill, we find a small
vein of very fine “ quartz rezinite” or Pitch stone, inclining to the
N. E. This locality is the only one I believe, that has been dis-
* covered, in this district. It is highly probable, however, that the
same mineral may be found at other points of the same formation.
The above vein has yielded, at different times, very fine specimens, ~
seldom however, of a greater thiekness than } or 2 of an inch.
The mineral is enveloped in a greenish talc chlorite, and is, in its pres-
ent state, quite thin, and appears as if running out; consequently
it is not easily found. It is more than probable, however, that by

354 Description of the Bare Hills.

breaking up the rocks, it would reappear, and afford finer and better
specimens than have yet been foun

Besides the minerals which 1 ean oninel out on this line, there
is scarcely one yard of the whole distance, in which something does —
not occur to interest an admirer of mineralogy. :

Returning from this locality to the bridge, we assume the second
point of departure or admeasurement from the foot or foundation of
the wall, at the N. W. corner at H. The measurements from this
point, were traced upon the margin of the Brook, on the north side,
the grounds on the south side (its course being W. S. W.
broken. At the point I, distant from H one hundred and twenty yards,
on the south or opposite side of the brook, near the edge of the —
water, the white Lithomarge may be found in a vein under a small
ledge of rocks projecting South Westerly. At this place a little
search may be requisite, as the vein is sometimes buried by
debris, that is deposited over it during the swollen state of the stream,
occasioned ‘by heavy rains.

This mineral, it is well known, absorbs a re quantity = water,
and in the situation in which it is found at this point, it is usually
saturated. In order to preserve the specimens entire, it is neces-
sary to wrap them in several folds of wet, or moistened paper, and,
as soon as possible, to lay them in the shade, that the water may
qeaporaic slowly—otherwise they fall into numerous small angtles

neces.*

At the distance of one hundred and thirty two yards from Sham
are opposite to the gorge or opening of a deep ravine that comes in
from the south, and at the head of which flows a small spring
of water. The commencement of this ravine is on the west side
of the Turnpike road, near, and opposite to the locality of the
pitch stone. The descent from this point to the bottom is precip-
itous, but is, nevertheless, rendered interesting by the fact that
the rocks are completely exposed to view, and contain a variety of |
the magnesian substances lying in situ. In descending this ravine
still farther, we observe in the side of the hill on the right hand,
numerous veins of the semi-opal cropping out upon the surface,
but much weathered and fragile. The cacholong is same
found upon the sides of this hillyand in the ravine.

2 2... at r — sae £43

For | mineral, See Bergman, Vol. ii, page 161.

™

Description of the Bare Hills. 355

Returning again to the point H and tracing off, upon the margin
of the brook as before, the distance of one hundred and eighty
seven yards from H to J, we discover immediately opposite, or across
the brook, and under a shelving projection of rocks near the water’s
edge, a thick vein of the red Lithomarge, of a pure and beautiful
quality." In obtaining specimens from this locality, the same pre-
cautions are necessary as in the former instance.

At the distance of two hundred and thirty yards from the point
H, we come to the opening of another deep ravine that stretch-
es away to the south. Between the bridge and this point, we ob-
serve a remarkable instance of “ accessory minerals disseminated”
through the entire mass of the rocks; for, independently of the gran-
ular chrome, oxidulous iron, &c. there are numerous crystals or spic-
ule, of a substance resembly hornblende intermixed with, and run-
ning in all directions through the rocks.

Of the gisement or geological situation of the rocks of this dis-
trict I have hitherto said nothing, by reason of the ambiguity, or dif-
ficulties that exist at almost every point. In general, they seem to
be promiscuously thrown together in utter confusion. In some pla-
ces, something more like order is manifested im their relative position,
aah at this place they appear to incline to the North West.

Resuming again our position at the opening of the ravine, and
trucion it upon the margin of the small run of water that flows from
its head, we find much to interest the mineralogist, in the variously
modified substances that are presented to view, as the rocks are,
in many places, exposed in situ. As the particular localities upor
the sides of this ravine and those to be hereafter mentioned are so
readily found, and easy of access, it is considered unnecessary to
make “ot further references, to actual admeasurements or points of

eee slope of the hill on the east side of the ravine just men-

tioned, and but a few rods from the brook at K, extensive operations

have been carried on for the purpose of obtaining chrome, of which

~ large quantities, of an excellent quality, were raised. ‘The works, I

lieve, were carried to the depth of about eighty feet, but have, for

some. time, been abandoned. In the prosecution of these works,

many interesting specimens of minerals were thrown upon the sur-
face, such as the red and white lithomarge, green foliated tale, stea-
tite, silicate of magnesia, and other magnesian substances. A little
farther up the ravine on the west side at L, are extensive excava-

356 Description of the Bare Hills.

tions, the result of the first attempts to obtain the chromate of iron,
and the quantity here obtained was considerable. ‘The course of
the vein of chrome, at this point, seemed to correspond with the slope
of the hill, and was at the depth of about ten feet. ‘The greater part
of it lay between the rocks, in a gangue of indurated talc steatite,
mixed with talc, and variously colored by the oxide of chrome, or,
perhaps the chromic acid, as some parts were of a pale, others
of a beautiful deep green, others still of a pink, or deep crim-
son, variegated by, or invested, on one or more sides, with the sili-
cate of magnesia. It was, from specimens obtained at this locality,
that I ascertained, some years since, the existence of what has been
called vermicular talc. This curious substance is not easily detect-
ed in the examination of a specimen, although, I have reason to be-
lieve, it is very prevalent in the rocks of Bare Hills. Yet it was on-
ly by directing the flame of the blow pipe upon the deep pink col-
ored talc, that it was observed, by a kind of intumescence, similar to
that of borate of soda under the blow pipe; with this difference,
however, that the talc is thrown off in the form and with the mo-
tions of small worms. Hence, probably, the name given it, and
which appears by no means, inappropriate. =

Passing now over the hill to the west, or returning down the rav-
ine to the brook, and ascending it forty or fifty rods, we come to a
third ravine stretching away to the south, to the skirt of a wood where
it Commences.

Upon the brow of the hills, both upon the right and left basis in
ascending the ravine, excavations have been made at MN, and O,
in search of chrome, but the prospect being unfavorable, they were
abandoned. ‘There may be obtained, however, at these points, in
abundance, beautiful specimens of the granular chromate of iron, in
a compact indurated tale steatite, of a whitish or straw color, which,
contrasted with the black grains of chrome, gives the specimen an
agreeable aspect. Several interesting minerals, as red and white
lithomarge, white and green foliated talc steatite, silicate of magnesia,
&c. were here thrown out.

This ravine, in particular, has been rendered interesting, (and is
no less so at present) in other respects. In traversing up the stream
from the bridge, a number of years since, and at the point at which
the little run of water in the ravine forms a junction with the brooks,
I found a singular piece of granite, composed of white quartz, white
and flesh colored feldspar, handsome spicule of green hornblende,

=

Deseription of the Bare Hills. 357

rhombic tables of pearly mica (the mica binaire, of Haity, See fig.
206) and well defined crystals of titan silico caleaire. On breaking
open the mass, I discovered a fine piece of the aventurine feldspar.
As this piece of granite was evidently out of place, being surround-
ed, on every, side, by a magnesian formation, I thought it possible that
it might have been brought down the ravine from the heights to the
south. With this view I commenced a search up the ravine, and
upon the sides, and in the small run of water that winds its way
down the hill, I found several pieces of the same granite, in some of
which small specks of aventurine were apparent. Near the head
of the ravine, at T, where the ground was less broken or but slightly
excavated by the rains, I found several pieces more, one of which
seven or eight inches long, and two inches thick, contained numer-
ous well defined crystals of titan silico calcaire. Another of the
same kind of granite contained a substance resembling the phosphate
of manganese, but which is still undetermined. Encouraged by
these specimens, I pursued my course higher i into the skirt of the
forest trees, where I found, exposed to view by the heavy rains, the
northern border or out cropping of the mica slate ridge (or gneissoid
formation) before mentioned. Between the strata of these rocks, I
observed small beds or veins of the same granite, from which the pie-
ces, found near that point, and along the ravine, had been detached and
carried by the currents of water. I have been thus particular in de-
scribing this locality, which in my estimation p l interest,
in hopes that should any excavations be made hereafter at this point,
the attention of some mineralogist may be directed to it. Inde-
pendently of the other minerals found in this granite, the aventurine
feldspar alone (one of the most beautiful and interesting substances
in the mineral kingdom, and found at no other place in America, ex-
cept by Dr. Bigsby, on the borders of Lake St. Joseph,) is a suffi-
cient inducement to undertake a vigorous search, where there is a
prospect of obtaining it in such perfection.
Passing from this ravine to the west, on the margin of the brook,
and distant forty or fifty rods, we come to the opening of another
ravine that stretches, like the others, tothe south. At the head
of this in the skirt of the wood, fine specimens of the ligniform
steatite have been found, and perhaps may still be discovered upon
the surface. On the brow of the hill, on the west side of the ra-

_ wine’ at P, also at 2 R and S, other excavations have been made in

search of chrome, but | believe ere success.
Vou. XXIV.—No. 2

358 Description of the ——

A little to the west of this point, tl formati Se
In this neighborhood are several springs, which are ees the
sources of the small stream so often mentioned.

Several interesting minerals have been found, both in and on the
margin of this brook ; e. g. the beryl] crystallized, and in fragments
of crystals without facets; masses of quartz, containing well de-
fined and large crystals of black tourmaline, and masses of rolled, or
waterworn steatite, in which is a beautiful display of the asbestiform
steatite running through them. The masses of rocks and stones
that have been hurried downwards by the swollen current of the
stream, and deposited in its bed and on its banks, almost from its
source to the bridge, are well worthy of an examination by those
persons who are not familiar with formations of this

On the north side of the stream is a hill, or ridge, extending
to the east and terminating almost in a point, at the turnpike road, a
few rods north of the bridge, which is of the same formation as those
already described. But as there are in it no excavations or ravines,
by which the minerals which it contains might be exposed to view,
nothing definite is known of them.

Having pointed out the most interesting localities known upon the
road, and upon the hills to the west, our attention will next be directed
to the eastern section of the district.

From the southern extremity of the stone bridge, we descend the
hill, from the road side by the foot path already mentioned, and con-
tinue along eastwardly at the foot of the hills: By this route, an op-
portunity is afforded of examining the rocks as they are presented
to view in the side of the hill facing the north. Arriving at the bend
of the hill we ascend and pass over it into the valley at U.

This valley or ravine (for there is usually no water in it) extends
to the south and south west nearly half a mile, and has several late-
ral branches that fall into it from the hills at different points. These
several ravines receive the water that falls upon the neighboring hills,
and which passes off through the principal one to the north, where it
is discharged into Jones’s Falls.

The bottom of these ravines does not differ materially in appearance
from that of the ravines in the western sections of the district, as
they pass through a formation essentially the same. They are,

nevertheless, sufficiently i interesting to pay for the trouble of tracing
the principal ravines from their sources to their termination. The
granular and crystallized ehromate of iron may be obtained in all

Description of the Bare Hills. 359

these ravines, but more especially above and below, or north of U,
where it is deposited in abundance in the crevices, and depressions in
the rocks in the bottom of the ravine. In the ravine that extends to the
south west, severa! fruitless excavations have been made for chrome.
Chrome was found.at the several excavations at V W X Y Z, and
in the hills on the right and left of the ravine, but not in quantities
sufficient to justify a prosecution of the works. The veins of chrome
are so intimately peaiet wit, a Napeaas ( most of which is a
very compact indurated t ) th ible to se
arate the one from the other, and hence oe specimens, , obtained fctko
the surface about the pits, are traversed by veins of chrome of a green-
ish color, from one half of an inch to two inches thick, which gives
them a pleasing aspect. Ascending the hill on the south, to its sum-
mit, we find an unfrequented road (running down the eastern slope
of the Bare Hills, to the gun-powder works, and to the turnpike road)
which may be said to be nearly the dividing line between the serpen-
tine and steatite formation.

_ Jn deseribing, thus far, the prominent features of the Bare Hills,
I have embraced but a part, of the many points or objects that are
interesting to the Mineralogist. My design has been to give a cor-
rect sketch of the district, with such a description of the principal jo-
- ealities as would enable a transient visitor to avail himself of its ad-
vantages, without the fatigue and trouble of what might otherwise
_prove, an unprofitable search.

I might have extended my views to the varied features of the
‘districts that lie contiguous to the Bare Hills, a few of which it may
not be amiss to mention viz.—the two small houses on the west
side of the road, are situated in a narrow valley, formed on one side
by the abrupt slope of the serpentine ridge already mentioned, and
on which one of the houses stands; through this valley flows a
small stream of water supplied by a copious spring, or springs, that
rise a short distance in the skirt of the woods. From this, onward,
there is, at certain seasons, a very copious deposit of ferruginous
and other substances, indicating a mineral impregnation of the wa-

—

; ioamediately on the north side of this run, the hills rise abruptly.
The firs rock formation that appears, and that too by the road side,
js a coarse granite, in which the mica, that occurs in large plates, i is
of a beautiful emerald green. The rock, that succeeds next, is a
"very much contorted mica schist. A few rods further north, the rocks

360 Description of the Bare Hills.
present a bold front of mica schist in which small crystals of stauro-
tide and garnet are abundant. Indeed, the entire distance of one

mile and a half north of the bridge presents more or less of inter-

est, both in a geological and mineralogical point of view.

A Sketch of the Bare Hills near Baltimore.
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—2, Road leading to the qcapewine works on Jones’s Falls.—3,
‘oad.—4, Baltimore and Susquehanna Rail road.—

vs Sphere —1, Foot p
n the words 5 the side of the r

Small hi

5, Ease ie of Bare

—From the mae edie to the Rail road one mile.

Meteorological Observations.

-

Arr. XIX.—Meteorological Table ; by Gen. Martin Frei.

Extracts from a Meteorological Journal of Observations, made at Fayetteville, (Vt.) from the 30th day of April, 1882, to the Ist day of May, 1833,
in lat, 42° 58! N. and Jon. 4° 20! E. from Washington. :

*

THERMOMETER. WEATHER. WINDS. MISCELLANEOUS,
a j8 |? |e.) Maximum of | Minimum of | + |No.ofdaysof] , | | (ec oa 2 am 3 —

3 Ssiss 38 temperature. | temperature. | & diffwariation. 5 Fe FS z 8 Bi 2

s 2 ue eee 2 ress a8 gla! 8 Solfee
1992 |e | SR [aile 2 b 3 16 ) Fl lal lal lel-le ERSIEBS | 25 | 2s [oulee
and |5 2 22\82/ 08 a Sls} || lelel4lcle|ElelctsBSisee | os | SE [Bskis

a oe 7 +74 “ n nae ce oo] “oa

we lg (ge lgzleels| & els| ¢ ES EBISIEER "Westigeg | bs | 2 (let lbs
2 © |Seleocieacial S&S (IS & 6 ffalsr on.8 3 3 3 3 "we (5S
Mths. 15 <2Q| = fm jal te pe fee Oo feiet | Tt lk = < S 33\<4_
May | 41. | 60.5)48.5] 50. |13/3 p. »2.\84° | 65 a.m.) 349/509) 17| 14) 6| 2] 2! 5) 3) 1) 2| 4) 5) 6 | 3 43 S| 2a
une | 50.5) 73.5/61. |61.7/15/2 . (88 14. 34 19) 11) 5 2)—| 2) 1) 4 5) ¢ 3 5 yf 8. — 3 1
uly | 57.8) 78. |63. | 66.316 {3 93 [28/4 . At 21) 10)10\—} 1) 2|—| 1) 6 G § 6 6 3.2 — | 10} —
hug. | 55.8) '75.5)68.5)64.7/14/3 . (90 |265 . 37 19} 12)10\—}—| 4) 1)—| 5]10) 4) * 2.9 3. 59 —| 6 2
ept. | 51.5) 65.7/54.2157.1/19/2 . (84 [14/6 . 30 21; 9} G—{ 1} 1} 1; 2} 4 4) 1 2.1 by f 2.8 a 1|}—
det. 41.7) 56,5) 46.3) 48.2}21/2 . |70 j27/6 . 22 18], 13) 8) |—| 2| 2): 2) 1 2.1 a 4.6 ~— 1 2
Nov. | 30.3) 42. |34.4/ 35.6] 2/3 . (60 |16)7 10 17| 13] 5| 2} 1} 2) 1] 1| ¢ 8| § 5 2 4, 8 |}—| 2
Jec. 117.8] 28.5) 22.5, 22.8i81\2 . |46 {30/7 . j|-14 18) 13) 2) 3} 1) 71—|— 3) 1 2.5 16 AL 20. | — | —
an, 12. | 29.4| 22.3] 20.2) 412 . [50 j197 . /-18 19} 12} 2) 3} 1) 3} 1j— 5 2.8 4.3 14.)—]1
"eb. 9.2) 26. |13. |16.1]1813 . [48 26\7 .. 16 17 Uj 2) 4} 2) 4) 1j—)| 3; 6 2; 16 2.6 1.8 4.4 16. }—|—
March | 18.5) 35. | 26.5} 26.6/31)4 . |60 36 . {20 21| 10) 2) 3} 1) 1—|-| " 14 ° 1 2.7 20, 1 ee com
April | 35. | 58.3) 45.4 46.2)30/3 . (80 Pt ea 23 E 8} 4) 1j—} 2) 2) 1 7 Ay 5 1.7 2.2 IR 2\;—
Agtem! 35.5 52.4/41.7| 43.21 Recapitulation. ~ [329 '736/62|18112'31|14 9'52'78/50'1191 22.2 | 238 46.5 m1. } 3/0

Remarks.—The foregoing table exhibits nothing, which is very unusual in the seasons during the twelve months past.
The mean temperature of the year was 43.2°, which was a few degrees below that which is usual in Vermont. — he
temperature of the summer months was 64.2°, that of the winter months was 19.79, difference 44.5°. The highest
temperature within the year was on the 6th of July and was 93°; the lowest was on the 3rd of March and was 20°, be-

362 Meteorological Observations.

which the thermometer exhibited the temperature to be below zero
during the winter, was 168°.* We had seventy one inches of snow
and hail during the year, which was forty five inches less than that which
fell within the year preceding. The quantity of water, which fell in
rain, hail and snow was 45.5 inches, of which 22.2 inches fell in
day time, and 23.3 at night. February was the coldest month within
the year. The temperature of the first fifteen days of the month of
March was 6° below that of December, 3° below that of January,
and about the same as that of February. The Aurora Borealis was
seen only on eleven nights during the year, which was forty five less
than within the twelve months preceding the 1st of May, 1831.—
Why such a vast difference of this phenomenon should thus occur
within the term of three years, is truly inexplicable. Sudden changes
and extreme temperature of the atmosphere have occurred more
frequently than usual during the last year. On the low lands we
had frosts every month, during the year. There were frosts on the
28th of June, on the 28th of July, on the 26th of August, and on
the 14th of September, the latter of which was very injurious to the
late crops. Insects, of all kinds, were rarely ever more numerous,
or more injurious to the crops, especially on the highlands in Ver-
mont. The season was unfavorable for fruit of any kind—plumbs
and peaches we had none; and most of the trees of the latter were
destroyed by the severity of the winter of 1831-2.

On the 18th day of August we had a celestial exhibition of Mush-
room clouds, which was $0 tere to a, at the “~ that I will
briéfly notice it.

On that day I was on high land, in Cacia where I hed a full
view of the western horizon. The morning was unusually clear and
pleasant. About 10 o’clock A. M. bright cumulous clouds of a very
slender form, arose from north west to south west. When these
clouds had risen to the height of about 20° above the horizon, nearly
at the same time, strata clouds were formed, which lay horizontally
upon, and capped the cumulous, and they immediately assumed
ihe forms of Mushrooms. At one time, there were to be seen more
than twenty of these Mushroom clouds, which were nearly of the
same height and form. As soon as these aérial mushrooms were
completely formed, they appeared to become stationary, in their

* As the number of days, over which these ti are peta is not ene:
we cannot know the average daily depression below ze

Hybernation. 363

progress upwards, and their stems lost their bright and cumulous ap-
pearance. But their caps still continued to approach each other, till
at length, they all became united in one, uninterrupted stratum, ex-
tending from north to south, and reposing on about twenty -beautiful
columns, which appeared to stand on the horizon. From appear-
ances those clouds produced no rain. At the time the mushrooms
- were formed, their appearance was beautiful, but the closing scene
was grand and sublime beyond description. ‘The cloud remained in
the situation above described, and nearly stationary, for about thirty
minutes, when it gradually disappeared.

Mushroom clouds are of frequent occurrence, in calm seat in
the latter part of summer, and the fore part of autumn, and mnst have
been observed by most people; but I have never seen them when
they were so numerous and extensive, as on the day above mention-
ed. There was no wind at the time; and the thermometer stood
at 70°. On the night and day icles we had a storm of rain, in
which there fe about three inches of water.

—-

Ane. xX. Lin ee and other _ of Natural Haig
y Judge SaMUEL Wooprurr

Windsor, March 6, 1833.

To Proressor hacia —Dear Sir—Under the general head’
Zoology, | know of no subject more engaging to the student of na~
ture, than what relates to the hybernation of various animals in our
latitude,

I have lately read, with very great pleasure, a short but excellent
treatise on this branch of zoology, by Mr. Lea, of Philadelphia, in-
serted in your Journal of Science, Vol. ix, p. 75. He quotes Dr.
Reeve’s description of hybernation, “a continuance of life under
the appearance of death, a loss of sensibility, and of voluntary mo-
tion, a suspension of those functions most essential to the preserva-
tion of the animal economy.”—Without attempting to enter upon a
discussion of this most interesting and somewhat intricate subject, T
shall content myself with stating some facts connected with it, hoping,
if you should think them deuepvien of publication, they may elicit
from others, more able and better qualified than myself, such remarks
and reasoning as may serve to extend the science of natural history.

*

364 Hybernation.

About the year 1756, some mining operations were commenced
and carried on to a small extent, in Meriden, on a farm. then be-
longing to Mr. Hough. The miners began their excavation at the
foot of a high ridge formed by a ledge of rocks, rising fifty or sixty
feet above the level of the land in its vicinity, and covered with a
superstratum of earth two or three feet in depth. ‘The miners, dis-
appointed in their expectations as to the products of the ore, dis-
continued their labors within a few months after their commencement,
leaving an aperture, at the place where they began digging, of about
six feet in breadth and the same in depth. In this situation, the ex-
cavation, including the aperture, continued, according to the recollec-
tion of Mr. Hough, from whom this information is derived, till March,
1760 or 1761, when, by the agency of a thaw, attended by a copi-
ous, warm rain, an extensive avalanche of earth and loose stones
shot down from the brow of the ridge, which completely filled and
choked up the aperture. For about thirty years from this period,
every thing about the mine had continued apparently in statu quo.

Having some business at the house of Mr. Hough, about the mid-
dle of January, 1791, I there met Capt. J. Shaylor, of Meriden, a
gentleman with whom I was intimately acquainted. He informed
me that two or three days previously to that time, curiosity had led
him to explore the old mine ;—that knowing it had been closed for
many years by earth, &c. he furnished himself with an iron crow
and other implements suitable for the purpose, and after half a day’s
labor in removing earth and stones to the depth of five or six feet, he
had succeeded in making an entrance into the cavern left by the
miners; and invited me, without giving any description of it, to go
with him and take a view of it. readily complied. Upon our en-
trance we lighted candles. The length of the room we found to be
about fifty feet, the breadth varying from eleven to fifteen, and the
height from seven to nine; the lateral walls and ceiling of solid rock.

Hybernation of the Bat—(Vespertilio.)

My attention was attracted, principally, by the many hundreds of
bats which we found suspended from the ceiling with their heads
downward. No part of them was in contact with the rock except
the soles of their hind feet, which appeared as if glued to the sur-
face of the rock. No others were found either upon the mural rocks
nor in any other part of the cavern. They were all covered with a
sort of white mould, appearing like frost. Far from being emaciated,

Hybernation. 3 . 365

they all appeared to be embonpoint. Each one was furnished with
a large drop of clear water suspended at the nose and covering both
nostrils. I placed a lighted candle nnder one of them, at such a
distance, that the fume of the candle enveloped the whole head. |
This produced no visible effect. I then raised the candle and let the
flame act upon the head. This soon effected a cringing and other
indications of sensation. I took one of them between my thumb
and fingers, but could perceive no motion, either of respiration or
pulsation. I presume, however, that although the action of their di-
gestive and respiratory organs was suspended, yet that a feeble and
languid circulation of the blood must have been carried on through
and about the heart, to prevent a total extinction of animal life. No
excrementitious matter could be found either about their bodies, or
on the ground under which they hung. I felt desirous to ascertain,
whether after their long repose, they could be resuscitated. For this
purpose, I placed one of them in the palm of my hand under my
glove. Within about fifteen minutes I felt a sensible motion of the
bat, and within half an hour he appeared to be restored to his full
strength and activity. After returning with Capt. S. to the house of
Mr. H., I placed the bat on a table in a warm room where the fam-
ily and several visitors were sitting. In about ten minutes the bat
began to stretch and shake its wings, and, after making a few efforts,
took wing and flew about the room. [Business detained me at the
house of Mr. H., till eight or nine o’clock in the evening; and when
I returned, I regretted that my bat could not be found, as I intended
to have him placed in my cellar for the remainder of the winter, with
a view to learn what his condition would be at the approach of the
following summer. Having business again in Meriden about the last
of the February following, I called at the house of Mr. H. to inquire
about my bat. Mrs. H. stated to me, that the next day after I left
it there, about the middle of the day, the room being warm, the bat
came out from behind the clock case, very aetively flew about
the room for several minutes, and then retired to the same place,
and that this exercise had been repeated, almost daily, in clear
weather, when the room was warm. We searched for it but it could
not then be found.—If, from the length of time these bats are sup-
| to have continved in this uninterrupted state of torpor, any
doubt should be entertained, whether after the close of the aperture
as before stated, they might not have found some other place through
which they had i — and — . can only say that, from the in-
Vou. XXIV.—No.

366 Hybernation.

formation I received from Capt. Shaylor, and from my own careful
examination of the cavern and all attending circumstances, I was
fully satisfied of the impossibilly of any such ingress or egress, after.
-the closing of their domicil by the avalanche. Is it to be supposed
that the frog, immersed in water, and snugly lodged in his bed of
mud at the bono of a pond, or other body of stagnant water, ex-
periences any less inconvenience or inquietude during the continu-
ance of our winter months, than he would do, provided the same
temperature of atmosphere and state of the weather should be pro-
tracted for fifty or.a hundred years?
Moulting of Birds and casting of Horns.

Mr. Lea, after speaking of the hybernation of various and differ-
ent kinds of animals, says, page 80, “tne moulting of birds, as well
as their migration, is a species of hybernation. The first is a pre-
paration for winter, and their change of color, adapting itself to the
season, frequently perplexes the ornithologist and causes spurious
species ,

In addition to this I would mention another species of retirement,
which might be called hybernation, if it were’ not performed in the
summer. I allude to the annual casting off, or, as it is vulgarly call-
ed, the shedding of the horns of the male elk, and of the buck, which
has some analogy with moulting. It is well known by all huntsmen,
and other woodsmen in the western part of our country, that these
animals, about the first of June, instinctively retire alone to some sol-
itary, close thicket by the side of a spring or small stream of water,
environed by low brushwood and brakes. In this retreat, they con-
tinue their abode till sometime in July, during which time they take
little, if any other nourishment, than what the water affords them.
This is known from their emaciated state, at the time they leave
their retreats. After casting off the old horn, the new immediately
sprouts out, the first appearance of which is, (of the buck,) about
three fingers in breadth and about two in thickness, consisting of a_
soft, spongy, flexible substance filled with blood vessels, and covered
by a cuticle, clothed with a thick velvet coating. During the ten
or fifteen days of the first growth of the greenhorn, which is very
rapid, the animal moves but little, as though sensible of the danger
of rupturing the blood vessels should they be brought into contact
with a tree or other hard substance. As the new growth becomes
‘more indurated, the cuticle or scarf skin cracks, and by degrees

Incubation and Hybernation. 367

cleaves off. This is called, by hunters, “ the velvet state.” During

this period, and to the time the horn attains its full growth, being

about two months, the induration increases with surprising rapidity.
Incubation, &c.

There seems to be, in the animal economy, a son deeh adapta-
tion of the animal itself to its exigencies; and also a coincidence,
equally surprising, in all the attending circumstances necessary to the
main design.—The turkey hen, toward the close of her incubation,
has frequently been known to continue on her eggs, without intermis-
sion, for seven days, and in some instances nine, without food or
nourishment of any kind. She becomes greatly emaciated indeed,
but animal life is not extinct, whereas had she been confined, under
any other circumstances, and without nourishment, but for five or six
days, she must have perished by starvation. No excrementitious
matter is ever found either in or by her nest. Hence, it is evident,
that during the term of her incubation, the action of the digestive
organs, if it be not nearly or wholly suspended, must be, in a great
measure under the control of the bird. It is also a fact, observed

by many, that the turkey cock, when his hen commences her incu-
bation, often leaves her society and retires to an obscure and lonely
station, usually in the corner of a fence, surrounded by a thick growth
‘of weeds, and there sits on the ground three or four weeks, taking
no other food than what he can reach in his sitting posture. ‘The
- moulting season with turkies, is about the usual time of incubation ;
’ and perhaps this may have some influence in his retirement.
Hybernation of the Racoon, (Procyon Lotor, L.,) and Woodchuck,
3 : (Arctomys Monax, Gmel.)

In our latitude, the racoon and woodchuck who lay up no food
for their winter stock, hybernate in dens among rocks, and in deep
burrows, below frost. The former, it is true, sometimes in February,
taking advantage of a thaw and short term of warm weather, sallies
forth from his winter quarters for a night or two, although never in
pursuit of food: but the latter is awakened from his repose on]
the return of confirmed warm weather.—lI am credibly informed that
the late Col. Jeremiah Wadsworth, of Hartford, with a view to ex-.
periment, procured a young woodchuck to be petted at his house.
Upon the approach of winter, the animal, impelled by instinct, took

‘up his abode for hybernation behind a row of casks in the cellar,—
not by burrowing in the ground, but by making for himself a small

368 Hybernation.

excavation on the surface, in which he placed himself in a circular
form, a position the most accommodating to his condition. Many
times during the winter, Col. W., to gratify the curiosity of his visit-
ing friends, directed the woodchuck to be brought up. The torpid
animal, after lying fifteen or twenty minutes on the carpet, before a
cheering fire in the keeping room, would begin to yawn, then stretch
out one limb afier another, open his eyes, slowly raise himself on
his feet, and walk rather awkwardly from the immediate influence
of the fire, appearing uneasy till returned to his bed in the cellar,
uniformly refusing nourishment, of any kind, during the time of his
hybernation.

Hybernation of the Swallow, (Hirundo.)

Respecting the question so long agitated, and with conflicting opin-
ions of eo whither the common swallow (Hirundo Ameri-
cana, W.,) hybernates in our country by immersion in water and mud,
or migrates to more southern latitudes, Mr. Lea expresses his opin-
ion, decidedly, in the following sentence, page 83, “ On reviewing the
subject, 1 think we may safely conclude, that a torpid swallow
never yet has had an existence.” In support of this opinion he ad- ~
duces, among other things, the following authorities. ‘Capt. Hen-
derson, of the British army, relates that he saw myriads in Honduras
where they remain from October to February,” and in a note at the
bottom of p. 83, “ My friend, Mr. Ord informs me, he has seen the
swallow in the south of France in December, and was assured they
remain there all the winter. It is strange = fact should not have
been observed by the naturalists of Eur

To this it might be replied, that in the mae of Ponsdarns there
could be no necessity for. hybernation either by immersion or migra-
tion; for in that warm climate, there would be a constant supply of
food by insects which continue, through the winter months, in an ac-
tive state. Respecting the statement of Mr. Ord, the correctness of
which I feel no disposition to question, I will only say, that, I fully
agree with Mr. Lea, “it is strange this fact should not have been ob-
served by the naturalists of Europe.”

I have now only to add, that in the year 1828, during the months
of July, August and September, I saw many of the same species of
the swallow in Greece, and from the 4th to the 11th of October at
Smyrna and Clazomenz, and on the 21st about the Goletta, at Car-
thage, and the bay of Tunis, but at Port Mahon, from the 23rd of

Mode of drawing Ellipses. 869

October to the 19th of November, and at Malaga, from:the 23rd of
November to the 2nd of January, I saw none.

From my limited reading on this subject, and my own observation
for many years, I felt inclined to a different opinion from that ex-
pressed by Mr. Lea, and I cannot but consider all the statements of
facts here exhibited, as inconclusive, especially as relative to the high-
er latitudes.

Arr. XXI.—WMode of drawing Ellipses; by S. DeWirr.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Some years ago, having occasion to draw elliptical figures, I de-
vised, for that purpose, the following method, which I believe is not
described in any book. As I have found much convenience from it,
and as it may be useful to others, the publication of it may contrib-
ute an item, though small, to our stock of useful knowledge. The
rule is founded on this proposition ; as the semi-diameter of a circle
is to the semi-conjugate diameter of an ellipse, inscribed in the circle,
so is any semi-ordinate of the circle to the semi-ordinate, (rightly
applied,) of the ellipse, at the same place: which is thus proved.

In the annexed figure, AC XCB : CG*::AEXEB : EH’, from
the properties of the ellipse; but AC XCB=CD? and AE xEB=
EF’, from the properties of the circle; then, by substituting CD*
for ACXCB and EF? for AEXEB, we have CD? : CG*::
EF’ ; EH’ and CD: CG: ‘EF : EH.

Let AB and GI be the
transverse and conjugate di-
ameters of the ellipse tobe
drawn. On AB describe —
the circle ADBO; continue -
the conjugate diameter to D,
and, parallel to it, on each
side of the centre, draw
equidistant lines across the
circle. From the center C,
with the distance Cl, draw
the arc IN, and from B,
draw BK, a tangent to it:

370 ‘Miscellanies.

then will CK, drawn perpendicular to BK be equal to CG. Make
BM=EF and draw ML at right angles to BK ; then from the prop-
erties of similar triangles, ee (= CD): CK(=CG): -BM(=EF) :

LM(=EH).
To find the points on the ordinates drawn across the circle, theauale
which the periphery of the ellipse will pass, the simple operation is this,

Take EF between the points of the compasses and set off that dis-
tance from B to M; then, keeping one point of the compasses on
M, close them until the other point sweeps the tangent BK, and set
off that distance from E to H; H will then be a point through which
the periphery of the ellipse will pass. Do the like on all the lines
drawn for ordinates across the circle; and through the points, thus
found, draw, by the eye, the periphery of the ellipse. This opera-
tion is expeditious, and saves the labor of calculating the ordinates of ©
the ellipse arithmetically, and then plotting them; besides it is less
liable to error, excepting whén an ellipse is to be projected on a large
extent of ground, as for the enclosures of court yards, &c. in such
cases an accurate calculation of the lengths of the ordinates is advisa-
ble; but for projections on paper, the rule above given is preferable.
Albany, April 10, 1833. S

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. _ ie re
_ Extracted and translated by Prof. J. Griscom.

“CHEMISTRY.

1. Preparation of pure nitrate of silver ; by M. Bradenburgh.—
Dissolve in nitric acid the common alloy of stows and copper. . Evap-
orate to dryness, and heat the salt in an iron spoon till it ceases to
boil. Dissolve, then, a very small portion in water, and try it with
ammonia to see if any copper remains. If there is, heat it again a
few seconds, and make a new trial: as soon as the nitrate of copper
is decomposed, pour it on an oiled plate, or dilute the mass in water,
and filter it to separate the deutoxide of copper set free by the de-
composition of the nitrate.

2. Decomposition of the chloride of silver in the moist way.—
Take a small zinc or cast iron pot ; put the chloride into it, in pieces,
and cover it about an inch with water. Jf the zinc, or iron be per-

/Wiscellanies. 37h

fectly clean, the decomposition goes on pretty rapidly of itself, but if
not entirely clean and fresh, it may be slow, and in that case, a little
mouriatic or sulphuric acid must be added. | This addition is, besides,
necessary for washing the silver and having it pure. 'The operation
is rapid and curious to observe. The reduction penetrates from the
surface to the center. The temperature rises, if the mass be con-
siderable, and contributes to accelerate the operation. It may, if too
weak, be aided by artificial heat.
The chloride of silver may be reduced also by heating it with a

mixture of lime and charcoal in the ne iia

Chloride of silver, 100.

Dry quick lime, - - - 19.8

- Charcoal, - - 42
But to prevent loss the chloride must be in aman

3. Action of ether on sulphate of indigo ; by M. Cassola.—If
one part of indigo be dissolved in four parts of sulphuric acid and
diluted with twenty parts of water and an equal quantity of sulphu=
ric ether be added, the liquid becomes discolored in about half an
hour, if i it is kept constantly at a temperature of 100° F. in a welt

bottle. The blue color cannot be restored by oxygen, or
metallic oxides.—Kartsner, Arch. t. 16, p. 126.

4. Memoir on starch; by M. Gursourt.—We are indebted to
M. Raspail for the interesting discovery that starch is not a homoge-
neous substance,—that each granule is a real organ, consisting, Ist
_ of ashining envelope or tegument, inattackable by water and acids
at common temperatures, susceptible of being highly colored by
iodine ; 2nd, of an interior substance, soluble in cold water, liquid,
even in its natural state, and when evaporated loses the property
being colored by iodine, and whi
_ He further states, that the coloring. of starch blue by indicts is owing
— to avolatile ee but my own experiments are any to this
assertion.

- Potatoe sine is quite insoluble in cold water. When rubbed in
a s-dry state on a stone, it loses its white shining appearance, and if it
be moistened with water it forms a tenacious paste which becomes
very: hard, when dry. _ Pounded in a mortar, it produces a mucilage
analogous: to gum tragacanth. Starch, in mass, acquires'a sky blue
color with iodine, but slowly, without losing its transparency. _When

S372 Miscellanies.

rubbed and diluted with cold water, it forms a solution which holds in
suspension the teguments which served as a covering to the grains
of fecula. Iodine colors the fluid a sky blue, and the integuments a
deep blue, almost black. ‘The portion soluble in cold water, sub-
jected to a protracted ebullition, does not lose the property of being
colored by iodine. Evaporated rapidly, so as to form gelatinous
pellicles and a gummy liquid, it is no longer entirely soluble in cold
water; but neither the gelatinous matter nor the transparent liquid,
loses the power of being strongly colored by iodine.

Soluble starch, en when dry is not a gum, as M. Raspail
imagined.

On the whole, we
the soluble substance differ more in form than i in their chemical qual-
ities, and that they constitute an immediate principle of vegetable
matter.

The amidine of De Saussure is nothing but the tegumentary part
of starch rendered soluble by long boiling.—J. de Ch. Med. t. 5,
p. 97

ee ae clu ne Py See: = |

5. Action of potash on organic matters; by Gay-Lussac.—A
great number of vegetable and animal substances, treated with caus-
tic potash or soda, at a temperature much below redness, are trans-.
formed into oxalic acid, and at a higher heat, into carbonic acid.
Such are saw dust, cotton, sugar, starch, gum, the tartaric, citric and
malic acids, silk, uric acid, &c. Many vegetable substances yield
hydrogen and carbonic acid at the same time, and animal substances,
in addition to these two, give ammonia and cyanogen. It is remark-
able and extraordinary, that with tartaric acid, scarcely any hydro-
gen is disengaged, and the material does not blacken.

Tartar may be transformed into oxalate of potash by a very ele-
gant process, which consists in dissolving tartar in water, with a suita-
ble quantity of potash or soda, and forting the solution, by means of
a pump, into a thick tube of iron or brass heated to about 400° F.
The pressure would be but about twenty five atmospheres, as no
gas is disengaged.—Ann. de Ch. t. 41, p. 398.

6. To test the purity of chromate of potash, by S. Zuper.—Add
to a solution of the chromate, a great excess of tartaric acid. The
fluid acquires, in about ten minutes, a deep amethystine color, and
gives no precipitate, either by nitrate of barytes or nitrate of silver,

Miscellanies. 373

when pure; but, however small the quantity of sulphate or muriate,
it may contain, it is rendered turbid by the addition of barytic or
silver salts—Bul. we Mulh. No. 6; p. 58.

7. Use of mica in MOAN, analyses on a enall scale.—As mica
is not fragile, and does not change in the flame of a taper, it may
be employed with much advantage, as a support to substances which
we wish to expose simply to the flame of a lamp or candle; take a
thin plate of mica, which may be easily separated from the mass by
a knife, and after each experiment, wipe it with a moist cloth. Arch.
de Brandes.

8. Changes of volume on a mixture of alcohol and water, by F.
Roupsere.—The maximum of contraction is 3.775 per cent, of the
mixture, and this takes place in a mixture containing 0.53929 of ab-
solute alcohol—the rest water; and it is composed of 3 atoms of
water and 1 atom of alcohol. The lower the temperature, the
greater the contraction.—Ann. de Chim. t, 48, p. 33

9. Indelible coloring.—In impregnating, in an evea manner, the
surface of cloth with a solution of nitrate of silver, and after drying
it, immersing the cloth in a solution of hydrochlorate, or of chloride
of lime, chloride of silver is formed, which adheres strongly to the
fibre, and if afterwards the cloth is exposed to the light, it immedi-
ately acquires a bluish gray tint, very clear and agreeable, which re-
sists the action of chlorine, ammonia, &c. In order that it may be
perfectly uniform, the whole piece must receive the action of the
sun's rays at the same time.—M. Robiquet, Jour. de Pharm.

10. Artificial ultramarine at a moderate price.—Since M. Tas-
saert made the curious observation of the blue color of soda furna-
‘ces, and Vauquelin proved the identity of this coloring matter with
that of lapis lazuli, the hope has been cherished that, sooner or Tater,
ultramarine would be manufactured in sufficient abundance. The
Society of Encouragement having offered a premium on this subject,
M. Guimet presented a beautiful blue of an azure reflection, and the
premium was adjudged tohim. M. Robiquet, who had also engaged
in this research, thought it right to publish the process which had suc-
ceeded best with him, and which, without giving so beautiful a blue
as that of Guimet, will nevertheless furnish the color at a lower price,
and applicable to _ —

Vou. XXIV.—N 48

374 Miscellanies.

Take one part of kaolin, one and a half of sulphur, and one and a
half of pure and dry sub-carbonate of soda; mix them carefully and
introduce the whole into a coated earthen ware retort, and heat the
mixture gradually until the vapor has entirely ceased. On cooling,
it forms a spongy mass, which reflects, at first, a green tint, but on
exposure to the air, it becomes more and more blue. Leach this
mass: the excess of sulphur is dissolved, and there remains a pow-
der of a good blue. It is to be washed by decantation, dried, and
calcined to a cherry red, to drive off the excess of sulphur.

The greatest defect of the color thus obtained is want of intensity. -

The purple shade, which the natural ultramarine does not possess,
at least in so marked a.degree, may well owe its distinctness to sub-

stances employed in refining it. It is certain that when the Guimet .

blue is heated, it loses in a great degree its azure tint, and if the ex-
periment is made in a tube, oily streaks issue from it, which must ne-
cessarily proceed from organic substances.—Rev. Encye. Aree: 1832.

ii. OpinaicM, Pelletier has just discovered (announced to the
Academy on the 24th of December,) in this very complex material,
a new erystalline substance, analogous (isomére) to morphine, (para-
morphine,) which had escaped his first researches. _It differs, essen-
tially, from morphine in its chemical properties, although its element-
ary composition appears the same. It cannot be confounded, either
with the Codéine of Robiquet, or with other substances found in opi-
um. Its savor is like that of pyrétre ; its solubility in alcohol and ether

is infinitely greater than that of narcotine, from which it differs also in

crystalline form and fusibility. From an experiment made by Ma-

on

gendie, it has a powerful action on the animal economy—a very fee- —

ble dose killed a dog in a few minutes ; it acts on the brain and pro-
duces convulsions. —Idem. ;

12. Conbuaniions of azote——M. Despretz. announced to the
Academy, at its session on the 5th of November, that he has ascer-
tained that azote combines directly with iron and copper. The pro-
ducts are analogous to those on which he read a memoir two years
ago. ‘The azote which he employed, came either from the decom-
position of ammonia by chlorine, or from that of the deutoxide of
azote by iron or copper. In both eases, the gas, in reaching the
metal, was dry and deprived of foreign matters which might have
influenced it. It is, as he thinks, the first example of azotic combi-

Miscellanies. 375

nation, formed directly,—that is to say, determined by the power
alone of the elements which compose it~—Rev. Encyc. Nov. 1832.

13. New Febrifuge—Among the vegetable bitters found in
France, Verdé-Delisle and Cottereau have discovered that the
leaves of the Ypréau or White Dutch Poplar hold the first rank.
The fresh leaves of this tree are endowed with a bitterness which
approaches to that of the Cinchonas. They have been ascertained
to possess, in a high degree, both in infusion and_ in Ree the
property of counteracting the periodicity of fevers.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

‘1. Analyses of Fer Titané of Baltimore, Maryland; by M. P.
Berruier.—This mineral is found in very considerable quantities
in gneiss. Attempts have been made, unsuccessfully, to melt it in
high furnaces. _ It is sometimes in pure masses, and at others inti-
mately mixed with gneiss. ‘The pure mineral is compact, fracture
unequal, shining, and. has magnetic polarity. Specific gravity 4.9.
Powder grey, but very often has a decided tinge of red, owing to an
obvious mixture of peroxide of iron. The mixed mineral often has
a schistose texture. Its gangue exhibits shades of red and green.

This mineral is acted upon slowly by aqua regia. When re-
duced to an impalpable powder by porphyrisation, it dissolves readi-
ly in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid. By adding tartaric acid to
this solution, (perhaps diluted,) the iron and titanium are separated
by following the process of H. Rose. Concentrated sulphuric acid
dissolves nearly all minerals composed of oxide of iron and tite

when the latter is not in too great proportion.

- As the Baltimore mineral does not contain the least trace of man-
ganese, it is possible to dose the two elements of which it is com-
posed, with much exactitude, by means of a simple apes in the
dy way
‘20 gr. of the mineral, - EAS REALS OO

10 calcined argil, - . ~ - 10.00
=> <Tmarble,=lime, - - - - 3.94
ene: 33.94 gave

376 Miscellanies.

Cast iron, hie mpc 4x AOD :
Scoria, i Se a = 17.62 Total, 29.62
Fluxesadded, - -~ - 13.74 Oxygen, 4.32

Foreign matters with the iron, § 3.68=0.184.

These 0.184 of foreign matters are oxide of titanium and quartz.
The proportion of quartz having been found to be 0.020 by the wet
process, there remain .164 of oxide of titanium; by sulphuric acid,
the quantity was .166: thus, the two methods agree remarkably well,
especially as we know that by contact with charcoal, oxide of tita-
nium loses a certain quantity, very small, it is true, of its oxygen.

The iron was white, and a little crystalline, but very tenacious,
flattening under the hammer ‘before it broke. The scoria was vitre-
ous, of a shining black, and opake, with a copper colored surface. ”

12 gr. of iron would take 3.54 gr. of oxygen to convert it into
_ protoxide, 4.70 gr. to change it into magnetic oxide, and 5.31 gr.
to peroxide. The loss in the assay having been 4.32 gr. it follows
that the iron, in the mineral, is partly protoxide and partly magnetic
oxide. This mineral is therefore composed, like other varieties of
titaniferous iron, of titanate and ferrate of protoxide of iron; it
eGntains,

Metallic iron, - . - ~ - .600
Oxygen, - - oS Se - “214
Titanic acid, - : - - - .166

artZ, - - - ee - -020

- A specimen which produced a red powder, gave on trial .23 oxy-
gen to -556 metallic iron, shewing that in this fer titané was mixed
with peroxide of iron.

It would be interesting to science to have fresh trials of this min-
eral made ina smelting furnace, to ascertain what proportion of tita-
nium would remain in a state of protoxide in the scoria and of that
which might be reduced to the metallic state,—Annales des Mines,
tom. 3, P- 39. .

2. Mines of Freyberg in Savony.—The mines of Beschertgliick
and Himmelfiirst, which have been for a long time, among the most
important resources of Saxony, are now greatly reduced; but, on

‘the other hand, new mines have become flourishing.

Miscellanies. 377

The execation of a great project of drainage is at present de-
pending on the determination of the states, now in session.

There has been discovered, a league from Freyberg, a bed.of al-
luvium of rutile or titanic oxide, so abundant that preparations are
making to obtain it by washing, (Seisenwerck.) It is intended to
employ this titanium in the dyeing of cotton fabrics.

There is now obtained, near Schwarzemberg, very fine emery,
(corundum) the quality of which is as good as that of Naxos. It
is now worked to a considerable extent.

Note on the Emery of Saxony.—The emery of Ochsenkopf and
Morgenleithe, near Schwarzemberg, is found in grains, or small,
bluish, kidney-form agglomerations, mixed with blende and other
ndgicdl in a yellowish, talcose or jade rock, constituting a bank in
a stratum of micaceous schist passing into slate. Formerly this rock
was employed in mending roads; in 1714, it was found to be useful
in sawing and polishing hard stones.—Jdem.

3. Water spout on the Lake of Geneva.—M. Mayor, who resides
Molard place, Geneva, in looking through his window, which faces
the lake, saw, to his astonishment, on the 3rd of December last,
about a quarter before eight in the morning, in the direction of Pa-
quis and Sécheron, a vertical column of water, at least sixty or eighty
feet high, and several feet in diameter, larger at its base than its
summit, of a grey color and appearing animated with a gyratory
motion. ‘The column rested on the lake below, and was bent towards
the top in the form of a bow. It remained nearly two minutes with-
out any sensible change of place; and then sunk, by degrees, from
above by diffusing itself in a shower of rain. At this juncture a
south west wind ruffled the surface of the lake; the sky was entirely
covered with thick vapors, which occupied the upper regions, while
there were, properly speaking, no clouds in the horizon.

This not the first spout seen on Lake Leman. One, which oc-
curred in 1741, was described. in the French Academy. It lasted
several minutes. Another was seen in 1764, in the month of August
~ which continued nearly an hour.

In the spout witnessed by M. Mayor, the top of the column had
no communication with thick clouds, as is sometimes the case, no
trace of any such cloud was to be seen, neither above the column
nor in its neighborhood,—hence there were no: indications of elec-
trical attraction to which the effect could be attributed, and there

378 Miscellanies.

seems no means of accounting for the prodigious force then exerted
to sustain a column of water of such height except that which as-
cribes it to a current or whirlwind of excessive intensity—Bub.
Univ. 1833.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. —

1. Description of a Photometer, designed for comparing the splen-
dor of the stars; by Count Xavier De Maistre.—This instrument
is composed of two cuneiform prisms, one of blue and the other of
white glass, which, when placed one on the other, form a parallelo-

iped. The aperture of the angle of the prisms is 11°, and their
length nine English inches. These dimensions admit of variation.

e

TT TTT MT
LEHI) iit) ij MH
fi ZN Y)

WT)
LN)

}
Ut

i)

a : b a

The beak of the blue prism is so thin that it transmits the light of
the smallest stars, whilst its other extremity, which is eight lines thick,
is not permeable to their light. In moving it along, by degrees,
the different stars will disappear at different distances from the point,
according to their splendor. ‘The refractions of the oblique surfaces
of the compound prism compensate each other, which affords the
means of looking for the star by a finder in making use of large tel-
escopes, the narrow end only of the blue prism being adjusted before
the eye glass, and the blue prism moveable on the line ed.

By increasing the angle of the prism or the intensity of its color,
it may be applied to more luminous objects.

This photometer has an advantage rarely possessed by instruments
used for this purpose; it is perfectly comparable. In taking the
light of some one star of the first magnitude for a maximum, the
point on the prism where it disappears must be marked, and the dis-
tance between this point and the beak divided into an hundred equal
parts, which would of course always be proportional to each other
in every prism, (as are the degrees on the scales of different ther-
mometers,) and thus the exact relation of the light of any star to
that of another may be determined.

This instrument may be substituted for smoked glass in solar ob-
servations by the facility of altering at pleasure the intensity of the

Miscellanies. 379

light, and taking the most favorable point; thus, for example, it af-
fords the degree of light most advantageous for seeing at the same
time the borders of the sun and the threads of the micrometer which
are not yet on his disk,—an advantage not always had with uniform
dark glasses, in variable states of the atmosphere, unless we have a
great number of them, and even then much valuable time must be lost
in the adjustment of them to the instrument.—Bib. Univ. Nov. 1832.

2. Optical properties of saccharine juices—M. Brot read, on
-the 10th of December, a memoir on an optical character by which
those vegetable juices which produce sugar analogous to that of the
sugar cane, may be immediately distinguished from those which only

- yield sugar similar to that of grapes.

This character consist in the direction in which a polarized ray is
turned, on the one hand, by the juice of grapes, pears, apples, goose-
berries, and other fruits which furnish sugar that will not crystallize ;
and on the other, by the juice of cane, beets, parsnips, turnips, car-
rots, &c. Liquids of the first class, turn the light to the left in every
degree of concentration, until solidification takes place. It is at this
point: only that by a sudden change they may turn it to the right.
Juices of the second class, on the contrary, always give it the latter

direction. The phenomena observed by M. Biot in the juice of
beets, induce him to think that ten per cent. of sugar may be obtain-
ed from it, as M. Pelouze has already stated. He thinks also that
it would be advantageous to cultivate parsnips to a greater extent,
which, on account of the great quantity of sugar they contain, would
make excellent food for cattle. He has observed certain characters
which, he thinks, may serve, in a general point of view, to determine
whether a substance, obtained by a chemical operation, existed prior
to that operation, or whether it results from it. Finally, the sudden
changes which he has remarked in the direction, by solidification, :
induce him to refer these phenomena, to molecular and dissymmet-
“sical forces. —Jdem.

3. New air pump—M. Tarorter has invented an air pump,
without any valves or stop cocks to interrupt or complicate its action.
The air of the receiver passes into a Torricellian vacuum, and by
the motion of the machine, the Torricellian tube is reversed—the air
escapes into the atmosphere,—a new vacuum is formed into which
an additional portion of air passes from the receiver, and so on until

380 Miscellanies.

the exhaustion is complete. A premium of three hundred franes
was awarded to the inventor.—Rev. Encyc. Nov. 1832.

DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS:
1.: sllaapatelanes on coloring matter for the purpose of dyeing or
printing.—M. Persoz, manipulator to the chemical courses in the
College of France, announced to the Academy that he had discovered
in a great number of coloring substances, such as indigo, ver coch-
ineal, lac, quercitron, Brazil wood, &c e know
edge of which, enables him to extract, by the same process, the color-
ing portion of these substances. ‘Thénard, D’Arcet, and Chevreul, ap-
pointed by the Academy to judge of the effect in dyeing, of the color-
ing matter prepared by M. Persoz, subjected them to the following
experiments. M. Persoz having taken two pieces of cotton cloth, on
which designs had been impressed by a mordant, for red, rose and violet
from madder, colored them for a comparative trial by his preparation
and common madder. The cloth, when taken from the bath, was
passed through hot soap suds. The specimen colored with the new
preparation was incontestibly of a purer rose red color than that
by the usual process. Besides this, the ground of the first specimen
was almost white, while that of the second was tinctured with the
reddish color which the madder had given to the portion of the cloth
which had not received the mordant. M. Persoz also showed the
commissioners a blue preparation from indigo, which he applied to
cotton, and which sustained the action of a boiling solution of potash.
Having thus proved the solidity of the colors of these specimens, the
committee did not hesitate, although ignorant of the process of M.
Persoz, to propose to the Academy to encourage this chemist to
pursue ee which may be of ne importance to manufaetur-
ing industry —Rev. Encye., Nov., ack

2. Blowing of glass—The effort of the lungs requisite to this
process is incompatible with a weak state of those organs, and the
exercise is sometimes attended with injurious consequences. A
workman whose name is Ismael Robinet has invented what he calls
an air pump, an instrument by which air is forced through the tube
with greater power than that of the lungs. This has been found to
be very advantageous, especially in moulding, the workmen being
enabled to force the glass more perfectly into the crevices and devices
of the mould, and thus not only to blow larger pieces and employ

K

Miscellanies. 381

larger moulds, but a _ in perfection, the beauty of cut glass.—
Rev. Encyc. Nov.,

3. Pasteboard roofs.—Roofs of out buildings in Holland have
been covered with pasteboard cut into squares, and dipped repeated-
ly in boiling tar, until thoroughly covered and impregnated with it
and then dried in the sun. The pieces are then placed smoothly on
the roof, lapping at the edges, and fastened with nails. It is stated
that these roofs are a great security against dampness, and that they
last longer than shingles.— Bub. Univ. Nov., 1832.

4. On saponaceous vegetables.—A report was made, by M. Bus-
sy, on a root long employed in Persia and the East for cleaning cash-
mere shawls and other stuffs. Several French manufacturers have
also used it for years with much advantage. They call it Saponaire
@ Egypte. Yt probably belongs to the genus Gypsophila, very analo-
gous to Gypsophila Struthium. This root, when reduced to pow-
der, occasions violent sneezing, like Euphorbia and certain acrid
resins.

It communicates to water, by decoction or even by. mixture, a
particular softness and unctuosity, and the property of frothing like
soap without occasioning too great viscosity. This quality is ascer-
tianed to reside in various degrees in several plants. It depends on
the presence of a peculiar substance, which causes water to lather
by agitation.

The bark of Quillaia saponaria which is sold in the public markets
in Peru, as a substitute for soap, is remarkable for this property.

When soap is added to water; there is, in addition to the solvent
power of the water, the chemical action of the alkali of the soap,
but this is much less important than is generally supposed, for in soap
the alkaline properties of potash and soda are almost entirely neutral-

_ ized, by the acids of the fat. Simple alkaline solutions, either caustic

or carbonated, we know will not well answer as a substitute for soap.
The action of alkalies or of soap, in common washing, is not there-
fore, simply to saponify the greasy or resinous matters with which the
cloth is impregnated, but only to render them miscible in water, not
soluble, but miscible, that is, to bring them into such a state of divis-
jon as to occasion their easy and free suspension in the water as oil
is suspended in milk of almonds, or butter in milk. Every substance

. which increases the viscosity of water, produces this effect, such as
9

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2.

382 — Miscellanies.
soap, gum, and mucilage of all kinds, and of course plants which
contain them.

- In the washing of woollens, shawls, and other animal matters,
which become stiff and hard by the action of alkalies, mucilaginous
matters are preferable to soap. In dyeing, also, miucilages have the
' property of preventing the precipitation of calcareous salt and ter-
rene matters, so important often to the shade, beauty and splendor of
colors. —Bull. D’ Encour. Nov. 1832.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Montyon premiums for discoveries in physiology.—The committee
appointed by the hese Academy to adjudge the premiums, having
received this year, no work which appears to have merited the prize,
and considering also that there are other works, not addressed to
them, but which have come to their knowledge, which comprehend
discoveries either in anatomy or microscopic researches on intimate
structure, and the development of organs, that cannot fail, indepen-
dently of their particular objects, to enlighten physiology by their re-
sults, concluded it right, by way of encouragement, to grant a gold
medal of the value of three hundred francs to the following persons :

1. M. Carus, for his work on the motion of the blood in the larve
of certain species of neuropterous insects.

2. M. Mutter, for his researches on the structure of secretory
glands.

3. M. Eurensenre, for his work on the eisoeom and ———
atic and geographic distribution of infusory anima

4, MM. Detrecn and one for te 1 hes on
the evolution of embryos. por

5. M. Lavra, for his —, the Scena testicle.

6. M. Martiw Satnt-Avae, for his researches on the circulation
of blood in the embryo and fcetus of man.

The line of conduct pursued by the committee, was approved by
the Academy, although the sum necessary for the medals is double
that mentioned in the aes bani ade: Encye. Nov. 1832.

DOMESTIC.

1. Extract from the MS. of an unpublished narrative of travels
and observations in South America, furnished by the author, at the
Editor’s request. —Galloping over the arid and dusty plain of Guachi,
we suddenly arrived at the edge of the almost perpendicular hill

Miscellanies. 383

which overlooks the valley of Hambato. The view of the valley from °
this elevation, (about seven hundred feet,) is extremely beautiful,
and the eye, fatigued and half blinded by the glare and heat thrown
from the parched soil, rests with pleasure on the fresh and luxuriant
green of this beautiful spot; the valley is narrow and shut in on all
sides by dark, barren hills; it is not dependent on the clouds for
the water that nourishes the eternal verdure in which it is clothed,
for it scarcely ever rains here; a considerable stream runs through
it, the water of which is carried in numberless channels to irrigate
the fields; these fields are divided by rows of a very graceful kind
of willow, whose feathery branches and light green foliage are strongly
contrasted with the rich carpet of “alfalfa,” or lucern, with which a
large portion of the valley is covered. The climate of Hambato is
said to be finer than any other in Ecuador, notwithstanding the al-
most endless variety to be found at different elevations from the sea;
it is an eternal spring, no frost nips, and in the hottest season the air
is tempered by cool breezes from the mountains. No very severe
uakes are recorded to have happened ; the same convulsions,
which have laid in ruins the towns in the vicinity on every side, have
been slightly felt at Hambato, and have passed without doing any
‘serious injury ; possibly this may arise from some peculiar formation
of the valley. The variety-of the productions of this extraordinary
spot is such as might be expected from its climate and situation ;
elevated about six thousand feet above the level of the sea, enjoying
almost continual sunshine, and supplied with abundance of water,
tropical and temperate climes seem to have united in giving it the
fruits peculiar to each; wheat, barley, pease, potatoes, maize, sugar
cane, and coffee growing side by side, while apples, pears, plums,
peaches, cherries, grapes, figs, olives, oranges and lemons are pro-
duced in the same garden. The climate is so healthy, that invalids
from all parts of the country come to profit by its salubrity. I have
mentioned that it scarcely ever rains at Hambato; at Mocha, where
-we slept the night before, about five leagues to the southward, it rains
more or less almost every day in the year; and at La Tacunga,
somewhat more than that distance to the northward, there is a stated
“rainy season, as in most parts of the Ecuador ; such a total diversity
of climate, in places so near each other, and not differing materially
in elevation, is a very curious meteorological phenomenon; can it
have any connection with the fact of the non-occurrence of severe
earthquakes at Hambato? A very intelligent gentleman, a native of

384 Miscellames.

Guayaquil, informed me that a heavy shower, incidentally occurring
during the dry season, was almost invariably followed by an earth-
quake at that place.

We were detained in Hambato until noon of the next day, (July
13, 1832,) by the rise of the river of the same name which had carried
away all the bridges ; the river is a mountain torrent, subject to very
rapid swelling from the melting of the snows of the Cordilleras ; it as
rapidly subsides when cold and dry weather diminishes its supplies.
’ At noon we received information that the bridges had been repaired
so that we might cross, and we hastily mounted our horses, anxious
to arrive at La Tacunga before nightfall. On arriving at the river,
we found the only bridge to consist of three or four trunks of trees not
squared, elevated about forty feet above the river, on the abutments
of the bridge which had been carried away ; these were laid paral-
lel to each other, but at sufficient distances, one from another, for a

easily to slip between them into the river which was roaring
and foaming below. A number of people, with their horses and mules,
were collected on each bank, disappointed, as I supposed, in the ex-
pectation of finding a bridge. Where is the new bridge? said I to our
muleteer ; there, sir, said he, pointing to the precarious footing af-
forded by the the trunks of trees; but how are our horses to cross?
they cannot walk over on those round logs 5 no, sir, they cross by
swimming ; 3 swimming! exclaimed I, in astonishment, they may
swim but it will be down the stream to be dashed to pieces among
the rocks ; “ verémos,” we shall see, was the only reply. We now
dismounted, and our muleteer, with the assistance of some Indians,
unloaded our beasts, took the saddles and bridles from our horses
and carried all across the bridge; we next followed and crossed
safely, notwithstanding the narrowness of the path, and the slight
nervousness occasioned by seeing the deep and rapid stream below.
Our horses and mules were next to be got over, which was accom-
plished in the following manner; the river is about twenty yards wide
very deep, and darts along with inconceivable rapidity; a long rope
of twisted hide was tied round the neck of the beast to be conveyed
across, and carried to the opposite side by the bridge, two men then pull
at it and others drive the animal into the water and by the help of
the rope, itis enabled to stem the current and reach the other bank.
A number of people were waiting to get across their beasts by this
singular ferry ; the horses and mules generally went boldly into the
water, and arrived, without much difficulty, at the other side, but the

/Miscellanies. 385

poor asses made all the resistance in their power, holding back, lying
down, and roaring most piteously, and when at last forced into the
water, they were seeiningly incapacitated by fear from making any
exertion, rolling over and over, and arriving at the bank half drown-
ed; however, no accident happened and we recommenced our jour-
ney through a country formed of the materials thrown from Cotopaxi,
toward which mountain we were now travelling ; the quantity of lava
thrown from the burning bosom of this terrific mountain is almost be-
yond belief; as far as the eye can reach, the whole country appears
to be a mass of lava and volcanic sand, and although in some places
there are patches of cultivation it has a sickly hue, and the whole
bears the appearance of a spot on which a withering curse has fallen.
A short time before sunset, we arrived at La Tacunga, after a fa-
tiguing ride through fine sand which every wind raised in blinding
clouds, and over bare hills of lava, heated almost to scorching by the
rays of a nearly vertical sun.. La Tacunga is the very picture of
desolation and ruin, being a sad monument of the effects occa-
sioned by the terrible convulsions of nature to which this country is
subject; it has, perhaps, suffered more frequenly than any town in
South America ; in the year 1698, it was almost totally destroyed by
an earthquake ; 3 in the year 1743 and 1744 it was much injured by
eruptions of Cotopaxi; in 1756, another earthquake happened which
destroyed the Jesuits’ church, an enormous stone building, at the time,
full of people; five thousand persons are said to have perished in it;*
many other houses were ruined and many people lost their lives, beside
those who were in the church. The last earthquake, which caused
much injury, happened in 1800 and although it destroyed the church of
San Francisco and many houses; comparatively few persons lost their
lives. Ia Tacunga is built wholly of the dark colored spongy lava
of Cotopaxi, which is easily worked and forms very handsome walls;
whole streets are in ruins, but the most curious and appalling proof
of the tremendous and irresistible force of the earth’s throes, is pre-
sented by the ruined church of the Jesuits; its arched roof of solid
stone has fallen in, burying thousands in its ruins; its walls, six feet in
thickness, are cracked in every direction, and huge masses are torn
off as if by the agency of some violent explosion; one mass, of

* For the accuracy of this, sit rte statement, I cannot vouch: &
had it from different persons in La Tacun Ze

386 Miscellanies.

many tons weight, appears to have been twisted round after it was
detached from the wall, and now rests on one corner, its upper end
leaning against the wall; the strength of fifty men, unaided by ma-
chinery, would not serve to move it from its present position. On
parts of the walls are fragments of fresco paintings, the colors of
which are still quite fresh. We also visited the convent belonging
to the same order, of which all except the lower story is destroyed ;

the “ patio,” or courtyard, is surrounded by a very handsome set of
ornamented arches built of the same spongy lava of which the town is
composed. The church of San Francisco, which was partially de-
stroyed in 1800, has been rebuilt, or rather repaired ; evident traces
remain in it of the effects of the earthquake. Scarcely a month
passes at La Tacunga without the shock of an earthquake. E.

2. Details of a chemical analysis of Danaite, a new ore of tron
_ and cobalt ; by Aveusrus A. Hayves.—The ore which was the sub-
ject of this analysis, was discovered some years since at Franconia,
N. H.* and from its crystallographic and pyrognostic characters, it was
considered as a new variety of arsenical cobalt; but as these would
not enable us to determine whether the cobalt was present in an
atomic or variable quantity, an analysis was attempted. It was,
however, found difficult to effect so complete a separation of the
constituents, as to give a true statement of its composition. The
specimen examined was in the form of ini and estes Summon
having a specific gravity of 6.214.

L.A portion which had been crushed in pep; tieweabiel; uiried,
and reduced to a fine powder i in a mortar of porcelain 5 3 the fine pow-
der was exposed in warm air, and then cooled in a desiccated atmos-
phere.

Il. 1000 pee the powder were introduced into a flask, hav- .
ing a curved neck, with 6000 parts of strong muriatic acid. A few
drops of nitric acid were added, and the flask connected with a large
receiver, contaming nitrous acid; as the action became less active,
more nitric acid was added, and heat applied to the flask; the sul-
phurous acid being converted into sulphuric, and the hyposulpburous
depositing sulphur in the receiver ; by the cautious addition of nitric
acid, the whole of the arsenic was taken up by the muriatic acid,
leaving a portion of —s undissolved. ‘The fluid was decanted

* Am. Jour, Vol. VII, p. 302.

Miscellanies. 387

and boiled in another flask, the contents of the receiver were added
to the sulphur and a portion of the acid distilled from it, till ‘its solu-
tion and entire conversion into sulphuric acid was insured. ‘There
remains a white insoluble powder, which, after ignition, weighed 10.1
and was composed of silica and alumina, derived from the mortar.

III. The fluid and washings from the powder in II. were evapora-
ted, with a slight excess of muriate of baryta; when much reduced,
water was added, and the precipitated sulphate collected on a double
prepared filter, was washed in muriatic acid, and then with water,
until all traces of foreign matter were removed; dried and calcined
with the upper filter, there were 1294.1 parts, containing .8 ashes,
leaving 1293.3 sulphate of baryta, equal to 178.4 of sulphur. It
was white, and contained no arsenic.

IV. When the washings were mixed with the fluid from the sul-
phate of baryta of III. an acid, pale yellow liquid resulted; this
was divided into two equal parts by weight, one being used fa the
analysis, the other as a check on the results by different processes.
The quantity of fluid equal to 500 parts of the mineral, being, in
the usual way, decomposed by an excess of ny decals acid

sulphuret of arsenic, when dry, weighed 488.8; by
nd muriate of baryta, it was decomposed into 281.6
ulphur an 907.2 arsenic, or 414.4 for 1000 parts.

Va Afer. eparating the sulphuret of arsenic, the liquor of IV. was
of a pale pink ite it was evaporated at 120° in dry air; when
much reduced, nitric acid was boiled with it to render the oxides
peroxides; while warm, it was rendered brown and neutral, by pure
ammonia, the last drop slightly impairing its transparency; the ox-
' ides were then precipitated by pure ammonia, and lastly by hydro-
sulphate of ammonia, collected as before, dried and ignited. It was
found, from repeated trials, that the weight of the mixture suffered
no alteration by exposure to heat, for a longer or shorter time; its
true weight was 278.6. It was a soft, cinnamon brown powder..

VI. The dry oxides were dissolved in muriatic acid; by adding
ammonia, the solution was neutralized, and succinate of amnionia
separated the iron, without precipitating a trace of cobalt; after cal-
cination, it weighed 237.6, equivalent to 164.7 of iron, or 329.4 in
1000 parts. The difference between 237.6 and 278.6 is 41. which
is the weight of the protoxide of cobalt, representing 32.25 cobalt,
or 64.5 in 1000: it was free from nickel.

388 Miscellanies.

Thus determined, the quantities of the constituents of this ore me,
Ill.

Sulphur, —- - - - 178.4
Aaa - « AVE. - - 414.4
Iron, - vent ee - - 329.4
Cobalt, — - Viesaes =e bee 64.5
Derived from mortar, II. - - - 10.1

996.8
Loss, partly iron, - - - - 3.2

1000.

As arsenic, when sulphur is present, combines, in preference, with
iron to form a binarseniuret, we therefore conclude that such a com-
pound exists in this ore, and this opinion derives some support from
the fact, that muriatic acid dissolves iron from the mineral, without
a trace of arsenic being thrown out of combination. :

By dividing the loss among all the constituents, its composition
may be thus expressed, in accordance with definite proportions.

Binarseniuret of iron, - - - - 571.3
Sulphuret of iron, - - -~— = 10.
-Bisulphuret of cobalt, - == - = - - 136.5

The employment of short trivial names: in miner
ceived the sanction of the most eminent naturalis
name of Danaite for this mineral, in honor of th
James F’. Dana, to whose skill in minute chemical 1
indebted for our knowledge of the existence ~ cobalt sarthis 1 Ginerd:

Roxbury Laboratory, May 27, 1833. :

3. Note to vena on the _ SE a the remarks address-
ed to the Editor on this subject, the notice of the writer has been
directed, by him, to a paper in the Journal of the Royal Institution,
(for 1830,) touching the same plant; but it appears obvious that the
writer, (Dr. Hancock,) does not, in that paper, understand by the
name guaco, the same plant which has been sent from Mexico to
Philadelphia and of which a specimen was forwarded to Professor
Silliman. :

* This note came too late to be inserted in connexion with Prof. Johnson’s com-
munication on the Guaco.—Ep

-

Miscellanies. 889

The following observation of Dr. H. is, perhaps, sufficient to es-
tablish the supposition above made.

‘*On the subject of Alexipharmics, I may observe, that those plants
which are regarded as antidotes or counterpoisons, are chiefly those
eminently bitter, as and piquant,—being the most powerful
warm sudorifics.’

* We know that the Corypibiters afford many examples of this
sort; but the Guaco, although of this natura] order, is almost entirely
slantionte of the forenamed sensible properties!!” If any one could
take into his mouth a portion, however small, of the Mexican Guaco
sent hither, and especially could swallow a teacupful of the infusion,
he would be impelled to give a different account of its sensible prop-
erties. Dr. H., moreover, cites some cases in which the Guaco, or
what he understood to be such, was tried ineffectually in the case of
rattlesnake bite. This may be very possible, without derogating in the
least degree from the credibility of Mutis, Chabert, his Mexican au-
thorities and correspondents, or the statements from, Venezuela, al-
-_ ses ae in this number. W. RAJ.

c —A treatise on splice: by Sir David Brewster, has been

publishe: y & Lea. It is from the “hand of a master,” and
Bas beirvadeptod to the use of colleges in this country, by an appen-
dix from Professor Bache, of Philadelphia.

_ «The work presents the results of experiment and theory, applied

to the investigation of different branches of optical science.

The phenomena of double refraction, and the polarization of light
are’ treated of, and explained much at lengths The author suggests
new views on some points which had received the sanction of Sir
Isaac Newton, particularly his theory of the colors of natural bodies,
one of the most interesting branches of natural science. It is Sir
D. Brewster's opinion, that although Sir Isaac sipeigkttei proved

teas yet, the rules by which he supposes the combinuesiew tf light
produce transparency, opacity, and the varied tints which embellish
the different forms of matter are insufficient and unfounded. He
deems the “‘ Newtonian theory of colors, applicable only to a small
class of phenomena, such as the colors of the wings of inseets, the
plumage of birds, the oxidized films on metal and glass, and certain
opalescencies ; while it leaves unexplained, the colors of fluids and
— solids, and ~ the ee es of the vegetable king-

Vou. XXIV.—No.

390 Miscellanies. |

dom, which cannot be produced by the mere vibrations of an etherial
medium.” He thinks, that certain rays are absorbed by material
bodies, and that by entering into combination with their particles,
chemical and physical results are produced, establishing specific colors;
although the manner in which the combination takes effect is unknown.
This theory is ably sustained, but the limits of this notice, do not
permit any details of the reasoning. _

A satisfactory explanation of the cause of erect vision, is among
the most interesting solutions of the Phenenies of “that master piece
of divine mechanism, the human eye.” “It has long been a problem
with the learned,” how objects could appear erect to the observer,
when the images of those objects were inverted on the retina. It has
been supposed by some that “infants, literally, see every thing up-
side down,” and that, by subsequent experience, comparing the ac-
curate information acquired by touch, with the erroneous impressions
made upon the retina, they gradually learn to see objects in an erect
position. In explanation, Sir D. Brewster says, that the lines of vis-
ible direction are always perpendicular to the retina; and all pass
through one single point in the centre of its spherical surface; that
they cross each other at this centre, so that those from the lower part
of the image go to the upper part of the object, and those from the up-
per part of the image to the lower part of the object. Hence, the ob-
ject is seen in an erect posifias in ves of the ao = Lens! —
tion bei ing i in all

This small volume is tte with exhibi tions of the beautiful and
surprising laws of light, which extends its in
spire of grass, to the remotest orb in the heavens. It is a work in
which theory rests, in almost ss ig on the sure basis of math-
ematical demonstration.

The appendix of Professor Bache has added seriously to its value.

5. .Vote on certain experiments on the inflammation of phospho-
rus ina rarefied medium; communicated by Prof. A. D. Bache,
of the University of Pennsylvania, in a letter to the Editor dated
Philadelphia, March 25, 1833.—An error of the printer in the note
of my experiments on the inflammation of phosphorus in a rarefied
medium* having procured for me a rough remark from Professor

" American Journal of Science, Vol. xviii, p. 372.

Misulianiéd: 391

Moll, of Utrecht, I wish you would call bis attention to the list of
errata in No. 1 of the subsequent volume to that just referred to, in
_ which the line beginning “Its inflammation occurs when phosphorus
alone is placed,” &c. is directed to be changed to “ Vo inflamma-
tion occurs,” &c. The word “Its” was substituted by the printer
for “ No,” which was in my MS. I was so much struck with the
influence that this typographical error would have in throwing the
experiments into disrepute, should they be noticed and their repetition
attempted, that on finding the note copied into Brewster’s Edinburgh
Journal of Science, I wrote to request a formal correction of the
mistake. ‘The letter, perhaps, did not reach him, or his known cour-
tesy would have prevented the neglect of the request, and the subse-
quent insertion of a stricture upon the very passage, in which Prof.
Moll supposes me to contradict the Holland experimenters.
I have not published the entire results of those experiments, from
a wish to see how far they might have been anticipated, in a memoir
contained in the transactions of the Zealand Society of Arts; the
existence of which was made known to me by Prof. Moll’s commu-
nication. ‘These transactions I have in vain attempted to procure,
and euiess no desire to reproduce any experiments already made
abroad, I have thought it most prudent, for the present, to withhold
my paper.
6. On the growth of tinber.—Extract of a letter li Mr. Alexan-
der C. Twining, to the Editor, dated Albany, April 9, 1833.
Dear Sir—I take this opportunity to mention a fact, which I once
observed, and which may, perhaps, prove interesting to the readers
of your Journal and lovers of natural science. In the year 1827,
a large lot of hemlock timber was cut from the north eastern slope
of East Rock, near New Haven, for the purpose of forming a founda-
tion for the wharf which bounds the basin of the Farmington Canal
on the East. While inspecting and measuring that timber, at the time
of its delivery, I took particular notice of the successive layers, each
of which constitutes a year’s growth of the tree; and which, in
that kind of wood, are very distinct. These layers were of various
breadth, indicating a growth five or six times as full in some years
as in others, preceding or following. ‘Thus, every tree had preserv-
ed arecord of the seasons, for the whole period of its growth, wheth-
er thirty years or two hundred,—and what is worthy of observation,
every tree told the same story. sees if you began at the outer layer

392 Miscellanres.

of two trees, one young and the other old, and counted back twenty
years, if the young tree indicated, by a full layer, a growing season
for that kind of timber, the older tree indicated the same.

My next observation was, that the growing seasons clustered to-

" gether, and also the meagre seasons came in companies. Thus, it
was rare to find a meagre season immediately preceding or following
a season of full growth,—but, if you commenced in a cluster of thin
and meagre layers, and proceeded on, it gradually enlarged and
swelled to the maximum, after which a decrease nie and went on,
until it terminated in a minimum.

A third observation was, that there appeared ae like pertodi-
eity in the return of the full years or the meagre, but the clusters
alternated at irregular intervals; neither could there be observed, in
comparing the clusters, any law by which the number of years was
regulated.

I had then before me, therefore, two or three hundred mefeoro-
logical tables, all of them as unerring as nature; and by selecting
one tree from the oldest, and sawing out a thin section from its trunk, .
I might have preserved one of the number to be referred to after-
wards. It might have been smoothed on one side by the plane, so
as to exhibit its record, to the eye, with all the distinctness and neat-
ness of a drawing. On the opposite side, might have been minuted in
indelible writing, the locality of the tree, the kind of timber, the
year and the month when cut, the soil where it grew, the side and
point which faced the north, and every other circumstance —_—
can possibly be supposed ever to have the most rem ition to”
the value of the table in hand. The lover of scieenhewlt not -
backward to. incur such trouble, for he knows how often, in the

ress of human knowledge, an observation or an experiment has
lost its value by the disregard of some circumstance connected with it,
which, at the time, was not thought worthy of notice. Lastly, there
might be attached to the same section, a written meteorological ta-
ble compiled from the observations of some scientific person, if such
observations had been made in the vicinity. This being done, why,
in the eye of science, might not this natural, unerring, graphical
record of seasons past, deserve as careful preservation as a curious
mineral or a new form of crystals?

If you should think fit to make such a suggestion, it might lead, in
fact, to the preservation of sections from aged trees in different parts
of the country, and a comparison of their lines of growth with the

Miscellanies. 393

_history of the weather as far back as our knowledge extends. If
the observations just related, with respect to a particular lot of timber
should be found to hold true of trees, in general, drawings of these
sections, on a reduced scale, would soon find their way to the pages
of scientific journals. It would be interesting, then, to make com-
parisons of one with another,—to compare the sections of one kind
of tree with that of another kind from the same locality,—or to com-
pare sections of the same kind of tree from different parts of the
country. Such a comparison would elicit a mass of facts, both with
respect to the progress of the seasons, and their relation to the growth
of timber, and might prove, hereafter, the means of carrying back
our knowledge of the seasons, through a period coeval with the age
of the oldest forest trees, and in regions of country where scientific
observation has never yet penetrated, nor a civilized population dwelt.

7. Barometer.—We have lately received from Mr. Hudson, Sec-
retary and Librarian of the Royal Society, a series of “ Experimen-
tal investigations on the Barometer,” made by him, in order to de-
termine, if possible, the laws which regulate its periodical changes,
and to furnish data for explaining the anomalies of its daily and hour-
ly oscillations.. The observations, amounting to three thousand in
- number, were made during the months of April, May, June and
_ July, 1831, and January and February, 1832. To insure the great-
est accuracy, the experiments were conducted with the most perfect
instruments, and with unexampled perseverance. For sixty days,
the observations were consecutive, through day and night, fifteen
times in each hour; and the remainder were made for sixteen or’
eighteen hours each day.

well known, that the periodical rise and fall of the barometer
‘geal with great regularity in tropical climates, but the law which
prescribes and regulates those changes, has not been ascertained.
As we recede from the equator, to our own: extra-tropical regions,
no constant law is apparent; and the movements of the mercurial
column become irregular and violent. By examining, however, the
variations for several days, and classing the observations made at the
same hours on each successive day,.and thus deriving from their uniow
the hours of one mean day, Mr. Hudson found that these accidental
variations neutralize each other—thus allowing the constant or equa-
torial oscillation to become appreciable.

The following are some of the results of Mr. Hudson’s experi-
ments and observations.

394 Miscellanies.
‘That there is a striking connection between the barometrical

changes, and the variations of temperature.
“That a relation appears to subsist between the variations before

_ noon, and those before midnight ; a great amount of variation before

noon being followed, in the same mean day, by a corresponding
small variation before midnight, and the contrary.

_ That the season of the year, or the temperature of such season,
appears to exercise an influence over the hours of maximum and
minimum, and over the amount of mean variations. The minimum
and maximum of the morning are earlier, and of the evening later,
in summer than in winter. The variations in summer are small at
noon, and great about midnight; those in winter, the reverse.

“The greatest mean variation occurs in the afternoon, minimum
height of the barometer at four o’clock; and the next eens in
the forenoon, maximum at ten o’clock.

“That the general relation between the barometrical onme and
the variations of temperature, appears to be direct, during the morn-
ing hours, and inverse, during the day and evening.”

These observations have been made with a thermometer attached,
and the variations of temperature simultaneously registered with those
of the barometrical changes. Mr. Hudson considers the variations
of atmospheric pressure to be dependent on temperature, but has not
stated any precise ratio by which the changes are regulated; nor
has he explained any of those circumstances which accelerate o or

retard the uniform operation of the laws which cause its

oscillations.

The changes of temperature. alone appear to be ipanilliefent to ac-
count for the phenomena of the barometer.

There can be no doubt that, comprehending the whole atmos-
phere, there is a constant rise and fall, or a great semi-diurnal mo-
tion of the air, whereby it is subject to a regular elevation and de-
pression twice in twenty four hours, analogous to the tides of the
ocean; and it is well ascertained, that its movements are uniform at
the equator, and-nearly so through the tropics, while it is subject to
great variations and irregularities within the temperate regions.
These changes might be ascribed to the extremes of temperature in
extra-tropical climates, were it not that barometers, which have been
simultaneously observed in various and distant countries, rise and fall
together; and it is seen, by Mr. Hudson’s observations, that temper-
ature cannot be the only disturbing influence, because the barometri-

Miscellanies. : 395
cal changes do not precisely coincide with the thermometer. If the
effect of heat and cold were alone the cause of the greater or less —
density of the air, the effect should be strikingly obvious and uniform
near the Pole, where the mercury of the barometer should be much
higher than at any other place. But that is not the case. The
maximum at 66° and 74° N. lat. has never been seen, many lines
higher than thirty inches, which is the barometrical indication esti-
mated by Kirwan as the natural state of the atmosphere at the level
of the sea, over the whole globe.

Mr. Hudson intends to pursue his researches into collateral branch-
es of the subject, and a much more full development may be expect-
ed from his additional investigations. He professes to be guided by
the results alone, without reference to any previous theory or opinion.
Among other points, he will endeavor to ascertain whether any con-
nexion exists between the variations of the barometer and those of
the magnetic needle, which will of course lead to an examination of
electrical influences; and he will also make a further and complete
estimate of the effect of temperature on the barometrical changes.
In aid of his views, Mr. Henderson, Astronomer Royal at the Cape
of Good Hope, Mr. Dunlop, Astronomer Royal at Paramatta, and
Mr. Forbes, now on a scientific tour through Italy and Greece, have
promised to undertake a series of observations, to be made simulta-
sot with those of Mr. Hudson in London.

8. Drabitind, stated by Isaac Oui
TO THE EDITOR.

Dear Sir—Will you do me the favor to publish, j in your Journal,
the three following propositions, addressed to the mathematicians of
this country, and also, through your work, *to the leading ones in
Europe.

To the mathematicians of the United States and of Europe.

All mathematicians are respectfully invited to answer or demon-
strate the following propositions.

1. Supposing the attractive power of the particles Belonging to
the material universe, to be, inversely as the square of the distance
from their centres; and their repulsive power, or rather the excess
of the ratio of the repulsive power, over the attractive, to be, as
Newton has made it, inversely as the distance from their centres ;
and supposing both powers to be limited by and to the actual sur-

396 : Miscellanies.

faces of the particles ; then, a solid body, in free space, will arrange

the particles of an elastic homogeneous atmosphere about it, so that

they will be in regular columns, having their centres in right lines,
drawn from the centre of the solid body; they will be all of the
same form; the distances between their centres will be as their dis- -
tances from the centre of the solid body; their magnitudes will be
as the cubes of those distances; and their acting attractive forces,
will be inversely as the squares of those distances. And. if two such
solid bodies, with similar elastic atmospheres, are made to approach
each other, in free space, they will gravitate,toward each other, by
means of their elastic atmospheres alone, with forces inversely as
the squares of the distances between their centres. What is the
proof?

2. With the same elements, bide’ is a condition, by which the
particles may be easily movable among themselves, and around their
centres, in any required degree, so that the resistance which they
will present to a solid body moving among them, may be reduced to
any required degree of smallness. How is this demonstrated ?

3. Supposing the two powers of the particles to be limited by and
to their own actual surfaces, and their repulsive power to be such as
Newton has made it, then there is a condition, or rather a supposed
property of the particles, entirely consistent with all their known
properties, which will give to them all the attributes of ubiquity,
which they really possess in nature, although their own powers are
confined to and within their own actual surfaces. Mines is i
property, and how is the proposition demonstrated ? =

To all these propositions, I already have inswers or ietionstra-
tions, which “appear to me = erhaps “some other persons
may furnish better. @ = =9”

Washington, Mareh 15, 1833.

(Editors friendly to science, are respectfully requested to re-
publish the above.

Ls

9. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology of Massachusetts.—
The first part of this report, with a geological map, was published in
Vol. XXII of this Journal. We understand that the MS. of the re-
mainder is now nearly prepared, and that it will be published in the
autumn, by the aoe of —— with a eprint of the
first part.

Miscellanies. 397

It is understood that it will make a volume of from six to seven
hundred pages, 8vo. illustrated by quarto maps and drawings, and
numerous wood cuts. From the ability displayed in the first part,
as well as from the well known character of Professor Hitchcock, it
cannot be doubted that this volume will be one of great interest and -
importance, and will do credit, not only to se es but to the en-
lightened government of Massachusetts.

Prof. Hitchcock has recently discovered chromate of iron, in con-
siderable quantity, in serpentine, in Blanford; also finely crystallized
sphene, in augitic gneiss, in Lee; and rotten stone, in connection with
fetid limestone, in West Springfield. Native alum also occurs in the
gneiss of Barre, as well as in that of Leominster. ‘

10. Manual of Mineralogy and Geology; by Esennzer Emmons;
M.D., Lecturer on Chemistry and Natural History in Williams me
lege. Second edition. Albany, Webster and Skinners: 1832. 12m
pp. 299.—(Communicéted.)——A manual, short, comprehensive, sim-
ple and accurate, and neither cumbrous nor expensive, has long been
a desideratum. ‘The work of Professor Cleaveland, although invalu-
able for reference or study in the cabinet, is much too large for a
pocket companion in mineralogical rambles, and is moreover too cost-
ly for many who wish to engage in the study of mineralogy. Under
these circumstances the work in question has been published ; and it
appears happily adapted to the object proposed. Dr. Ex has adopted
the classification of Mohs, but owing to the abstruseness of Mohs’s sys-
tem of crystallography, he has substituted, in its stead, that of Brooke.
The introduction is clear, full and comprehensive, while the notes, in
the form of an appendix, containing articles on the use of the blow-
pipe, &c. will in practice be found highly useful. The characters
are copious and judiciously selected, and what is most interesting int
the localities of minerals and their uses in the arts, is condensed into
a small compass. Mohs’s system of nomenclature is likewise adopted,
but the trivial (or common) names are subjoined in a smaller type,
thus obviating the necessity of committing a new system to memory,
in the case of those already acquainted with the one generally in use.
On the whole, we think this work creditable both to the author and
the publishers,’ although the typographical execution is hardly what
might have been desired; and we doubt not that he who examines

it will coincide with us in the opinion, that it will prove a valuable
acquisition to the mineralogical student.

1

Vou. XXIV.—No. 2

398 Miscellanies.

11. Manual of Botany for North America; by Prof. Amos Ea-
von. Sixth edition, Albany, 1833. 12mo.—It is surely a happy
token of the wide spread taste for the scientific study of plants, that
six editions of Mr. Eaton’s Register of American and common gar-
den plants have been called for in this country ; in addition to seve-
ral other works of the same nature. The plan of his work is too
well known to require any remark; it is only necessary to allude to
the alterations made in the present edition. ‘To quote from the pre-
face, “* Nothing new is presented either in the text, or in the cata-
logue, excepting what ought to have been discovered in this pro-
gressive science, since the fifth edition of this manual was printed ;
and not so much of real improvement, has been added, as between
the fourth and fifth editions.” A few terms of modern invention ©
have been adopted, some genera have been modified, and the natural
orders of Jussieu have been farther subdivided, in accordance with
the best authorities for these innovations. ‘The new generic names.
of DeCandolle are given as synonyms. ‘Te author professes to
have engrafted upon this edition, all the improvements relative to
American Botany to be derived from the recent writings of Lindley,
Hooker, Loudon, and the four published volumes of DeCandolle.
The etymologies of the genera are also given, apparently, with con-
siderable attention, and will undoubtedly enhance the value of the
work; but the copious glossary of terms published in the last edition,
we are sorry to see, has been reduced within very unsatisfactory
limits and confounded with the general index. This, surely, is to be
regretted, as the student will still have to provide himself with a sep-
arate work for obtaining terminological. in formation. ‘This edition
presents a North A t state of the sci-
ence willadmit. It not only includes all the well defined plants of the
United States; but those of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, &c. The
number of genera descrided is 1228, the number of species is 5267.”

12. Botany of the Northern and Middle States; by Lewis C.
Becx. Albany, 1833. pp. 471, 12mo.—This is the first descrip-
_tive catalogue of our plants, arranged according to the natural system.
The attempt certainly will not fail of being received with approbation
by all botanical students; and the more especially as the treatise
embraces a synopsis of the genera, after the analytical.system of
Linnzeus, by means of which. the advantages of both systems are
placed together in the hands of the learner. The orders are arrang-

Miscellanies. | 399

ed according to Jussieu, as modified by DeCandolle; and the author,
has followed, with few exceptions, the arrangement and characters
given in the article Botany, in the new edition of the Encyclopedia
Brittannica. The work contains a sketch of the rudiments of Bot-
any, a glossary of terms, anda table of the Linnean classes and
orders. It is confined to the description of indigenous plants growing
north of Virginia; and describes 641 genera and 2105 species. -

13. Notices of text-books of the Rensselaer School, for Institute, |
in Troy, New York.—We have received copies of four of the text-
books of Rensselaer School. As they are composed upon the pe-
culiarly practical plan of that school, a few = notices of them
may be acceptable.

1. Art wirHout Science; second edition.—This book is made
up entirely of practical directions for the Surveyor and Engineer.
As Prof. Eaton, the author, was, for a long time, a practical surveyor ;
and held a land agency of between two and three hundred thousand
acres of land for ten years, the surveying part is necessarily a prac-.
tical system. The engineering part furnishes elementary and prac-
tical views of minor value. Cost 75 cts.

2. Cuemicat Instructor; fourth edition. This is truly a sim-
ple and practical little treatise. It contains 324 pages, 12mo., and
is made up almost wholly of directions for experiments, short ration-
ale, and applications. ‘The experiments are the result of Prof.
Eaton’s own trials, performed with the most cheap and simple appa-
ratus. He has given minute directions, and the cost, for procuring
every thing required for a course of experiments (which he brings
under one hundred dollars) sufficient to illustrate the general outlines
of the science experimentally. He refers to other. books for the
reading part, as he calls it. Cost $1. “aside

3. Grotoeicat Text-Boox ; second edition. This work may
be considered as more nearly veil than any other work of the
author, (Prof. Eaton.) It consists of a general summary of all his
discoveries and observations, made at the expense of that distinguished
patrom of science, the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany,
with the synonyms, and most important theories of foreign geologists.
It contains sixty eight lithographic figures of organic remains, exam-
ined in place by the author; and a geological map of the State of
New York, and of the proximate parts of the aoe States. Cost
$1 25.

400 ’ Miscellantes.

We understand that a small work is promised by a female pupil of
Prof. Eaton, (which is to be under his supervision,) entitled Boran-
tcau Teacuer; which may be of great use, especially in French
Seminaries. It is almost ready for the press. It will contain short
descriptions of every genus in North America, and descriptions of
all the species by a set of figures; also the natural and artificial
methods, physiology, and vegetable chemistry, combined in the same
series of arrangement. Cost 75 cts.

Chester County Cabinet of Natural History.—We observe with
pleasure, that this Institution, under the patronage of zealous and en-
lightened men,.is proceeding with diligence and perseverance, in the
promotion of its objects; the details of its progress are contained
in the sixth report, published in the present year, 1833.

_ Hezexian Howse & Co., New Haven, have in press, to be pub-
lished in August next, Narurau Puitospny ror Hieu Scuoous
anp Acapemizs, designed to hold an intermediate place between the
smaller elementary works, and the larger treatises used in Colleges ;
in one volume, 8vo., of about 300 pages. By Dentson Otmstep,
A.M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosopby in Yale
College.

H. H. & Co. have in preparation, and will shortly publish, under
the revision of Prof. Silliman, An Intropuction To Grooey, | in-
tended to convey a practical knowledge of the science, and com-

; the most important discoveries, with explanations of the Facts
and Phenomena, which serve to — or invalidate. various Geo-
logical Theories; by Ropert Baxew The second American
from the fourth London edition, eet Perersed, with new plates,
and numerous cuts.

New Haven, June, 1833.

{= Various communications for this No. came too late for inser-
tion, and others are under consideration, most, or all of which will
appear in a future number.

INDEX TO VOLUME XXIV.

A.

Address of Mr. Schoolcraft on the condition!
of the No ie 1 Bree dians, 190.
———— Prof. E. Wright on Tobecs,
190
Olives on Temperance,
.

1
Air pump, new,
Amalgamation se est ores, 2

ae ope of Am. spathic iron a "ies
Ca

anai oe
Fer Titané, 37
e water of "Rio Vinagte,

149.
— shiney
Anthracite, reecable o als of, 172.

Apparatus, erie we! Dr. Hare, 247.

ole 5. }
Pete by “Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.|

“Art without science,” notice of, 399.
Atmospheric pressure, 174.
Azote, its combina ations,

B.
Babbage’s Econom my of eye ies and

anufactures, analysis of, 105
Bare Hills, description of, by Dr. Hayden,

Barometer, a ee investigations||Crotalus durissus, J. Pe ck o
soe —

n, by Mr.

——__——- 198.

Bellows, oaeaes of, by inflammable gas
Bismuth, sulphurets of, 189.

Blind, New En st Asylum for the, 175,
Blowing o

’ Bonnycastle, Capi on the transition rocks||D:

. of the Catara
Boron, process “4
Botany of the Masters and Middle States,

a C. Beck, M.D., Ist a 398.
a Amoaties, Eaton’
uel, pn edition

Boussi
of Rio Vinagre, 149.

an- Depuration of oils and butte

DeW
ault, M., snaijild of the water Dispensatory

\ token, 3 analy of, 170

goer J.M., on eesti diigia of An-
t
ireceag Nepusatins of, 200,

c;
Canal surveys in the State of New York,

Carbonic prpne oes of, from car-
nic aci

rburetted oc po

arnelian, vegetable saree in, 200.

Casting of horns, 366.

Cast iron

Chemical action by electrical induction,
142.

of magneto-clectrie cur-
rents, 197.
apparatus and operations of. Dr.
Hare, 7

tuctor; by Prof. Eaton, 399.
[Chloride ot iter. decomposition of, 370.
Chromate of potash, test of, 372,

Clay i alain: 200.

Clemens, J. Ws notice of Wheeling, Va.

Colden, Lieut Goy., on stereotype print-
ing,

Coleeiog matter oe Ngtye &e., 380.

Comet of July 18

Comets, collision Pie are

n, 176.

urves for arches, mode of describing,

73.

i

Dahlias, 208.

tang analysis of, 386.

8, use

Decomposition of water by electrical in-
duction

Delaware Academy of Natural Science,
I

r, 200.
tt, S., on drawing ellipses, 3
of the Un ited States, notice

Brewster’s, Dr., treatise on Optics, 389. Secce” milk a , remedy i in, 209

402
Dunglison’s Human Physiology, notice
of, 165. 5

_E.

Eaton’ he Prof., Art without Science, 2nd
edition,

si clue liaentcal Instructor, 4th
* edition, 399.
—_——__—— Geological Text-Book, 2nd

edition, 399.
nual of rey for North
America, 6th edition, 39
Economy o eet and geet: |

tures, Babbage’s
Electrical machines, "se.
—— fires rake apparatus | of M. Pixi
experiments. with, 142, 144, 146,

Electro-niagnetic currents by the rotation

of a magnet, 14
—______———_ disc of ie. Arag

se = ace in Titec Col-

rof.
veloping m
Emmons, Dr.
Ge

e palvininin

agnetic ¢
qT.

ology,
gland and Scotland, eo of, 211.
Laggan from Elba, 1

1 of atcorigy: a

INDEX.

ical notices oo Greene Co., Ala.,
r sowie By
iety of % rance, notice of,

192.

——_—_—— Text-book, Prof. Eaton’s, 2nd
edition, 399.

Geology, 203.

Emmon’s sista of mineralogy,

and, 397.
Prof. Hitch-

of Massachusetts,

Georgia gold min
ee eee ais
Gibbe. Prof, J.W 5 on’ aie miele of
Hebrew words, 87.

Gold mines sof Geers, A:

ranite, i = BOs

rotto de

79, 388

Guanaxato aed mines, 228.
Guillemin, >on he “lnetncen of vege-
“tables, 373.
S ieee 342.

H.
e Dr., new chemical apparatus and

“process Aes 247, 3
electrical machines, 253.

er, action on sige of indigo, 371. thy vaes,: Dr. ie yee 2 :
Eupatorium Huaco, by Prof. W. R. John-|)Hayes, A. A., analysis of “Danaite by, 386.
; Hebrew wor, orthography of, by Prof.
iigpleuiod of bellows by inflammable gas,||_ Gibbs, 8
182. Henry, Dr. on the osm gees charac-
¥. ter of Dr. Pries tle

Hildreth, Dr. S. Ps, mete ee obser-

Family Cabinet Atlas, notice of, 191. vations for 1832, at fee bee 132.
Febrifuge, 375. on the s rock
re sand formation of the United formation in the valley of » 46.
« || Hitchcock’s, wise Geclogy

lysis of, 375.
Feros’ Baron, new work on n shells,

of Massachuse’
Hyberna ration of t be pat,

Field, Gen. M.,
obearration’ iam April 30, Bnet to
ay 1,1 361.
Flight of pigeons,
Flint’s History and ‘Googe ire the Val-
ley of the re Missipp &e., notice of, 179.
Flood in the valley of the “Ohio in 1832,

es, 214
Fluxiona ratio, Pe ap of, by E.
Wright
Freyberg, mines = 316.
G.

Geo y and History of the valley

le and

mae “and wood-
aitck. 367.
——_—_——_—_—— —— swallow, 368.

k.
Incubation, 367.
Indelible colorin ng, 37.
ndiana Historical tied
Indigo, ‘salpha te of, ac
371.

J.

a of ether on,

Jackson, Dr. C 1¥ -, on the — ic.
tric magnet of M. Pixii
ohnson, E. on the pe surveys in
ork, 19.

graph
the Mississippi, by Rev. T. Flint, no-
tice of, 179.

— . W. R., on Eupatorium
Huaca, 279, 388.

INDEX. 403

L. Prfgst “properties of saccharine juices,
pepham, D., plan of the locks at Cincin- satay notice of Dr, Brewster’s treatise
hy Us 389.

Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, Organic remains of the ferruginous sand
173. formation of the United States, 128.
Liberia, seminary for education in, 177. ||Orr, <3 ape mathematical proposi itions by,

Locks at Cin asp Se of, 71.
Lute for bottling
+
M.

' ag: tir mines, 231.
“Maehi o silver mines, 232
Sicshinery aa vPonias Cay Babbage’s Pasha roo 3, 381.
my of, 105 Payen n, Prof., a ‘the means of eenoying
Madeira, notice of, 238. dead animals, 326,

agnetic ee ee Prof: Emmet on, 78.)| Pet:

: — 0 — Hitcheockes ar Philips, Willa, on the Georgia gold

f, 397.
Mathematical propositions, 395. ma vata 175.
on the reduction of iron eto ation of, in a rarefied
and iter c ores, ape the silver mines of] medium,
Mexico and South America, 213. Photomet: “t De Maat hs 378.
on the iphurets of bis- Physiology a —

muth, 189. ceaiiens s ‘human, notice of,
Mercury, on the ‘elastic force of the va-
por of, 286. Ipslptechnic Society of Paris, 191
rd, (Population of England and Scot, 211.
Potash acting on organic m:
aera m, new process for, by D Bei eg
31

--—— ike and reser at|_——— and naptha, explosive com-
rettey Vt. from April 30, 1832,)| pound of, 315.
filling tubes with, 316.

1, 1833, 361.
ee. experiments, Potosi silve

oe aoe Cc. 2 Tig notice of a rocking stone

“Milk in dropsy, 209. y, h

Minera _ soa Dr. Emmons’ Prem miums, scientific, 210,

anual of, 39 Pressure, atmospheric, 17
Mines of Freyberg Pricetey, | Dr., philosopbica) character

old in ore yi

—— aver, i in Movi and South Amer- “
cea, ‘Dr. on the organic r
the rruginous s sand sme ‘of the Rats, destruction of, me

‘United States, 128 Rattlesnake, Crotalus d urissus, 176,
_gsvwersieg a eyetom of bodies, by Prof.||Reduction of iron and silver ores, 213.
Strong, 40. Rice ries 207.
_ Moulting of birds, 366 Right a od triangles, expressions for
sides 0
N. Roasting of iron ores, 213.

es ng stone, notice of, ala _E, Potter,
Ne oo les ag de Zac
New nd asylum for ae blind, 175. Roofs of pasteboard,
New Universal Gazetteer » by E. Williams,||Rotation of the planet anes, 204.
Nitrate of silver, pure, preparation of, 370. 8. ae
oO. | gown rock formation in the valley of

uskingum, 50, "r

Oils, depuration of, 200. - ‘llsalt region on the Big Kenhawa
Opium, ag ast M

404

Salt water, strength analysis of > 65.
Sang, Edward, on the relation between a

Siliceous glass, from the burning of a

Si licon, shag for 247.
Silver m of Mexico and South Amer-
213

———- Polytechnic, of Paris, 191.
South America, extract t from travels in,

Spathic i iron, analysis of, 170.
p sun, 204,
ting, 319.
Strong, Pr “e on the motions of a —
of bodies, 40.
rime for "wall cael

spots on the,
uate; canal, in New — -

Soe a J

INDEX.

(Transition rocks of the Cataraqui, 97.
Twining, A. C., on the growth of timber,
391.
U:
Ultramarine, artificial, 373.
vt
Vegetables, — of, 273.
Venus, rotation “of, ‘204 :
‘Sho uvius,
ines, to pr event their bleeding, 205.
Ww. *
ig ext ete Daniel, Esq., on architec-
walls ‘and alleys, valuable material for,

ase a m the lake of el 377.
of, 1

sedans _ ot
Wilkie, Rev. expresins for sides
wit vars angled tclanglel
s of Madeira,

Withers, Dr., geologiea notices sat Greene
County, Alabama, 1
udge §., on ae &e.

Syphons, improved, 3
us
Temperance, Prof. Oliver’s address on,

Thermal spring in the bed of the Rhone,

Wool, "cleansing of,
Wr ig ht, a mr hace ., on n the fluxional ra-

Prof E., on temperance, 190.

x.

Thomo, J., on describing curves for Xavier, Frangois, necrology of, 194.
rches,

Tinber, A.C. Twining on the growth of,

Zz:

Totes Prof. Wright’ 3 lecture on, 190. Zacatecas, mines a, 230.

ase